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 LIBRARY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Deceived AUG 161892 
 ^Accessions No.-^/ ^^^>^ Class No. 
 
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PROSPERITY or PAUPERISM ? 
 
PRINTED BY 
 
 SPOTTISWOODK AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE 
 IONDOX 
 
PROSPERITY or PAUPERISM ? 
 
 PHYSICAL, INDUSTRIAL, AND 
 TECHNICAL TRAINING. 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 THE EAEL OF MEATH, 
 
 *- 
 
 (LORD BRABAZON.) 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 LONGMANS, GEEEN, AND CO. 
 
 AND NEW YORK : 15 EAST 16 th .STREET. 
 1888. 
 
 All riyhte reserved. 
 
MV 
 
PBEFACE 
 
 As I believe that many of our social evils would, in a great 
 measure, be removed, if an improvement were to be effected in 
 our national system of education by the inclusion in the Govern- 
 ment Code of physical, technical, and industrial training, I have 
 thought that I might, perhaps, in some small degree hasten 
 this much-to-be-desired reform by republishing in a cheap and 
 popular shape some of the more recent expressions of opinion 
 in support of this view. Hence the appearance of this book. 
 I trust it may somewhat assist towards the formation of a 
 public opinion which, within no distant period, shall insist 
 upon alterations being made in the national code of education, 
 so that our young men and maidens may start in life with 
 healthy bodies, with a knowledge of things as well as of books, 
 with the power of using their hands as well as their heads, 
 and of making the most of small resources. 
 
 If some such reforms, as are advocated in these pages, were 
 effected, the future generation, furnished with the means of 
 leading industrious, prosperous, and happy lives, would find 
 itself in a much superior position to the present, which, being 
 nourished mainly on intellectual food, finds its body starved 
 
 and its hands paralysed. 
 
 MEATH. 
 
 83 LANCASTER GATE. W : January, 1888. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 I. PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 HEALTH AND PHYSIQUE OP OUR CITY POPULATIONS. By the Earl 
 
 of Meath . . . . 1 
 
 OPEN SPACES AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION. By the Earl of Meath . 13 
 
 THE HALF-TIME SYSTEM OF PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING. 
 
 By Edwin Chadwich . . . 23 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. By Charles F. 
 
 Bearsley ..'... 27 
 
 GYMNASTIC INSTRUCTION IN BOARD SCHOOL PLAYGROUNDS. By 
 
 W. Bousfield . '. .... . . .... . 32 
 
 .^-""MANUAL INSTRUCTION. By Sir John Lubboch . .' . . .35 
 
 NOTES ON THE COST OF MANUAL TRAINING IN THE PUBLIC ELE- 
 MENTARY SCHOOLS OF LONDON. By Edric Bayley . . .47 
 
 ARE WE DECAYING 1 Article from tlie ' Scotsman ' . . ; . . 52 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING. Address by the Earl of Meath . . . .56 
 
 II. INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING. 
 
 THE INDUSTRIAL TRAINING OF DESTITUTE CHILDREN. By Samuel 
 
 Smith, M.P. 63 
 
 VrHE NEED OF TRADE SCHOOLS. By Richard T. Auchmuty . 78 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING IN SCHOOL EDUCATION. By Sir Philip Magnus . 92 
 
vii CONTENTS 
 
 PAGK 
 
 _ TECHNICAL EDUCATION. By H. Cunynghame . . . . .105 
 EDUCATIONAL REFORMS. Article from t/te ' Times ' . . - . 116 
 
 EDUCATION AS IT is AND AS IT OUGHT TO BE. W. Fowler's Letter 
 
 to 'Times' 12 
 
 ^ TECHNICAL AND TRADE INSTRUCTION. Speech by the Marquis of Har- 
 
 tlngton 121 
 
 THE ORGANISATION OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. By Professor 
 
 Huxley 125 
 
 TECHNICAL AND COMMERCIAL EDUCATION. DEPUTATION TO GOVERN- 
 MENT ON 128 
 
 SLOJD. By Evelyn Chapman 131 
 
 INDUSTRIAL TRAINING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. Letter to ' Times ' 
 
 (Earl of Meath) '. , . 143 
 
 FOR LACK OF KNOWLEDGE. Letter to ' Daily News ' (Lady Leigli). 147 
 
 \A PLEA FOR INDUSTRIAL TRAINING FOR GIRLS. By R. L. . . 149 
 
 INDUSTRIAL TRAINING FOR GIRLS. By Miss Headdon . . .157 
 
 COOKERY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. By Miss F. L. Colder . .161 
 
 TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION. By Samuel Smith 171 
 
 A NATIONAL NECESSITY. By Edward J. Watherston . . . .179 
 
 -- TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS: THE FORM IT 
 
 SHOULD TAKE. By Edward J. Watherston 198 
 
 TECHNICAL EDUCATION (REPORT OF ROYAL COMMISSION). By F. C. 
 
 Montague, with Preface by Sir Bernhard Samuelson, Bart., M.P. . 210 
 
 INDUSTRIAL ART IN SCHOOLS. By Charles G. Leland . . . .277 
 EDUCATION, EMIGRATION, AND COLONISATION. By John Bellows . 318 
 EDUCATION IN GERMANY. Letter to < Times ' (Samuel Smith) , . 328 
 
 EVENING SCHOOLS UNDER HEALTHY CONDITIONS. By the Rev. J. B. 
 
 Paton, D.D. . . 333 
 
PHYSICAL, INDUSTRIAL, AND TECHNICAL 
 TRAINING. 
 
 I. PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING. 
 
 HEALTH AND PHYSIQUE OF OUR CITY POPULATIONS* 
 BY THE EARL OP MEATH. 
 
 THE self-complacency of John Bull is proverbial ; it is ex- 
 tremely difficult to persuade him that there is any quality in 
 which he is inferior to those born on other soils than that of 
 Britain, and if there is one quality more than another upon 
 which he prides himself, it is his physical superiority to the 
 men of other nations. Has he not over and over again, it is 
 said, given proofs of such superior excellence, from Cressy and 
 Agincourt to Waterloo and Inkermann ? Did not the strong 
 right arms and unerring aim of British bowmen scatter the 
 chivalry of France in those victories of the fourteenth and fif- 
 tee'nth centuries? and has not the same story been repeated 
 under different forms throughout successive ages ? Were not 
 the finest cuirassiers of France driven like chaff before the 
 wind when they came in contact with the superior weight and 
 strength of the Life Guards at Waterloo ? and is it not acknow- 
 ledged that at Inkermann our little handful of men, overwhelmed 
 by numbers, must have been swept into the sea had it not been 
 for the individual dogged courage and physical strength of the 
 British soldiery, who, with their usual obstinacy, knew not 
 when they were beaten, and snatched a victory, when by all the 
 recognised rules of war they ought to have been annihilated ? 
 
 1 Reprinted, by permission, from the MneteentJt Century, July 1881. 
 
 B 
 
2 PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 National pride within certain limits is useful. It produces 
 self-confidence, which is as indispensable to a nation as it is to 
 an army. A people which has lost faith in itself is doomed, but 
 wise men, whilst fostering a healthy national self-respect, will 
 see that it is founded on solid foundations ; that the reputed 
 superiority is real ; that it is not a dream of the past, nor the 
 vain imaginings of dwellers in a fool's paradise. It is well that 
 all matters should be brought to the test of truth, the question 
 of ' physique ' not less than others of apparently greater import- 
 ance, and indeed this is a question not unworthy of serious 
 consideration. Let it not be thought that it is a matter of 
 indifference whether the average breadth of chest or height of 
 Englishmen varies an inch or so one way or the other. National 
 physique depends upon national health, and health is as neces- 
 sary to the happiness and prosperity of a nation as it is to an 
 individual. Mens sana in cor pore sano may be said of the 
 aggregate as of the unit. 
 
 Is it then a fact that we English are physically stronger 
 than our neighbours"? and if so, are the conditions of life of the 
 mass of our population such as will conduce to the maintenance 
 of this superiority ? 
 
 Injured patriotism will assuredly ask whether the records of 
 athletic sports do not plainly show that not only is the Anglo- 
 Saxon race pre-eminent in the achievement of feats of agility 
 and strength, but that even our own ancestors were unable to 
 reach the pitch of perfection in athletic sports which has been 
 since attained by their sons. It will be asked whether it was 
 not left to the men and even to the women of the nineteenth 
 century, and mainly to those of English race, to overcome the 
 difficulties of ice and snow, crag and precipice, and to scale 
 those virgin mountain heights previously untrodden by the foot 
 of man. We shall be told that to raise such a question when a 
 Whymper has but just returned from his victorious campaigns 
 amongst the giants of the Andes, a man to whom it was but an 
 ordinary morning's task ' to wipe off,' as he himself most un- 
 reverentially expresses it, some mountain Titan which never 
 before, since the foundation of the world, had been forced to 
 acknowledge the supremacy of man ; at such a moment of all 
 others to come forward and express a doubt on the physical 
 
HEALTH OF OUR CITY POPULATIONS 3 
 
 capabilities of Englishmen, argues an ignorance of facts which, 
 to say the least, is unpardonable. The sailor might with justice 
 take up the parable and point to the glorious victories of British 
 pluck and endurance in the icy regions of the North, where 
 cold, darkness, hunger, and disease are the daily portions of 
 those adventurous spirits who, for the sake of carrying the 
 British flag further north than that of any other nation, have 
 cheerfully undergone these hardships, and consider it an honour 
 to be allowed the privilege of partaking in them. Are these 
 men, it may be argued, in any way inferior to their predeces- 
 sors ? Would not Drake, Anson, or Nelson be proud to com- 
 mand such men ? and would they not consider them quite equal, 
 if not superior, to those brave sea-dogs who, in their days, caused 
 the name of England to be feared throughout the four quarters 
 of the globe ? Nor need the traveller be silent. The names of 
 Livingstone, Burton, Speke, Cameron, Stuart, War burton, and 
 many others, speak to the enterprise and daring of men of 
 English blood. They have performed feats of endurance under 
 tropical skies which ofttimes have proved beyond the physical 
 powers of their native followers, men born and bred in the 
 countries they traversed, inured to their climates, and who had 
 never been exposed to the alleged deleterious influences of civi- 
 lisation and of city life. All this is indeed true, and many 
 more instances of strength of body and of undaunted courage 
 may be brought forward to controvert any rash theory of 
 national physical deterioration. Almost all Englishmen are 
 naturally fond of country pursuits and of athletic sports. The 
 number of the well-to-do has vastly increased since the com- 
 mencement of this century ; means of rapid locomotion permit 
 of large classes living in the country which formerly were forced 
 to reside permanently in towns; and thus it happens that 
 athletic pursuits engage the attention of a much larger number 
 of well-to-do persons amongst tfce mercantile and commercial 
 classes than used formerly to be the case. Never were there so 
 many packs of hounds and so well attended as there are at 
 present. So much so is this the case, that the railway com- 
 panies find it worth their while to run, for the convenience of 
 members of the mercantile and professional classes residing in 
 our largest towns, special trains during the hunting season, to 
 
 B 2 
 
4 PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 and from the principal meets of foxhounds. It is hardly possible 
 to take a stroll of a Saturday afternoon in the well-to-do out- 
 skirts of a populous town without seeing a game, and it may be 
 several games, of football in winter, and of cricket in summer, 
 being engaged in by a large number of young men who, during 
 the rest of the week, have been occupied in business pursuits. 
 Our rivers are crowded with craft manned by the young men of 
 our commercial classes. During the autumn the mountainous 
 parts of our own island and that country which is called ' the 
 playground of Europe ' teem with visitors whose means wo aid 
 formerly not have permitted them to enjoy this healthy exercise 
 and relaxation of mind. These greater facilities for getting 
 into the country have certainly improved the physique of our 
 better-class townsmen. The effeminate shop-clerk, against 
 whom Punch, at the time of the Crimean war, used never to be 
 weary of levelling the shafts of his ridicule, has developed into 
 the stalwart volunteer, the oarsman, or the bicyclist. It is, in- 
 deed, unnecessary to multiply instances to prove the presence 
 amongst us of large numbers endowed with physical powers, and 
 inspired by a lion-hearted courage, worthy of the best days of 
 our ancestors. Perhaps it would be impossible for any country 
 to produce as fine a body of young athletes belonging to the 
 well-to-do classes as are to be found at our Public Schools and 
 Universities. Nay, more; taking into consideration the increase 
 of comfort and of population, the England of to-day could pro- 
 bably, under a system of universal military conscription, produce 
 a greater number of fine regiments as regards height and 
 breadth of chest than the England of 1800. But does this ad- 
 mission, or do-all these instances of a high standard of physical 
 strength and courage amongst certain classes of the population,, 
 prove that other classes, even now the most numerous, and 
 which under the present order of civilisation must inevitably 
 increase, and that at no slight rate ; do these instances, I say, in 
 any way prove that these less favoured classes are even now not 
 degenerating in health and strength ? As cities increase, will 
 not the physical powers of their inhabitants assuredly decrease > 
 unless steps are taken, and that soon, to counteract the evil 
 effects of the crowding together of masses of human beings 
 within extremely limited areas ? Is it not a fact that the popu- 
 
HEALTH OF OUR CITY POPULATIONS 5 
 
 lation of these islands is annually becoming more and more a 
 town one, crowded together without light, without air, without 
 the means of obtaining proper exercise, and in the case of many 
 without wholesome, or even necessary food, warmth, and 
 clothing ? If we do not as yet discover signs of national 
 deterioration in health, may it not be because the average is 
 maintained by the high state of the physical condition of more 
 favoured portions of the community? Do our athletes, our 
 sportsmen, our travellers, our mountaineers, issue from the 
 crowded lanes of overgrown cities ? Are not their homes to be 
 found rather amongst the pleasant places of the earth, in rural 
 manor-houses, in retired parsonages, in country villas, or in the 
 healthy portions of well-to-do towns, in the midst of comfort 
 and of plenty, with every means of exercising the healthy bodies 
 which they have inherited from healthy and well-to-do pro- 
 genitors ? Are not our navvies, our merchant seamen, our iron- 
 workers, our gamekeepers, our gillies, and all who require 
 physical strength in the exercise of their employment, obtained 
 -as a rule from the country and small town population ? It may 
 be said that our soldiers are recruited in towns. Although it is 
 true that the mass of our recruits are enlisted in towns, it does 
 not follow that they have been brought up in them, though no 
 doubt many and perhaps the majority are. Many a country- 
 bred lad walks into the neighbouring large town for the 
 purpose of enlisting. We have no record of the number of 
 town-bred recruits rejected by the inspecting surgeon for 
 physical defects. None but those likely to develop under the 
 influences of good food and healthy exercise are accepted. Even 
 these we do not see in the ranks until they have been withdrawn 
 for some months from hurtful influences, and have been carefully 
 trained with a view to the increase of their physical powers 
 under conditions of life most favourable to their development. 
 
 What are the conclusions to which we are naturally led by 
 the above considerations? That the robust and athletic are 
 to be found amongst the well-fed, the well-clothed, the well- 
 housed ; that good food and clothing, fresh air and exercise, are 
 necessary to the healthy development of the human frame ; and 
 that, where these health-requirements are wanting, physical 
 qualities may be expected to degenerate. 
 
6 PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 The police records attest that the finest men physically and 
 intellectually come as a rule from the small country towns, and 
 it is precisely in the small country towns that life amongst the 
 lower class presents its easiest aspect. 
 
 Now that almost all who have any pretension to the name of 
 well-to-do can get away, for at all events some short portion of 
 the year, from the smoky and grimy city, there is a real danger 
 lest the health-requirements of those left behind, and they the 
 least influential of the community, should be neglected. For- 
 merly it was the interest of the rich as well as of the poor citizen 
 to secure open spaces and means of recreation, but if even the 
 superior artisan can now afford to live away in a healthy suburb, 
 who is left whose interest will induce him to raise his voice on 
 behalf of the poor against the constant invasions of brick and 
 mortar ? Let the reader walk through the wretched streets of 
 one of our large manufacturing towns, or through those of the 
 eastern and southern districts of London. If he returns satis- 
 fied with the results of his investigations, he must indeed be 
 gifted with a very sanguine temperament. Should he be of 
 average height, he will find himself a head taller than those 
 around him ; he will see on all sides pale faces, stunted figures, 
 debilitated forms, narrow chests, and all the outward signs of a 
 low vital powder. Surely this ought not to be. We are not 
 Turks, to cry out ' Kismet ! ' and then turn on the other side, 
 satisfied that what is is good, and cannot be avoided. If the 
 exigencies of civilisation and the limited size of our island home 
 require that millions shall pass their lives under the unnatural 
 conditions consequent on city life, it is surely incumbent on the 
 nation to see that every assistance is given these unfortunates 
 to enable them to bring up their children in as high a degree 
 of health as the unfavourable circumstances of their lives will 
 admit. Cities must exist, and will continue to increase. We 
 should therefore turn our attention seriously to the question 
 how to bring health within the reach of our poorer city popula- 
 tions. Had Victor Hugo passed his life within reach of the 
 noxious vapours of a Widnes, in the heart of a Newcastle, on the 
 banks of the odoriferous Clyde, or within the purlieus of a 
 Whitechapel court, it may be doubted whether, as on a certain 
 recent occasion, he would have been eloquent in the praise of 
 
HEALTH OF OUR CITY POPULATIONS 7 
 
 cities, and have styled them 'divine.' Places which at the 
 beginning of this century were small hamlets are now large 
 manufacturing towns, teeming with people huddled together 
 under conditions adverse to health and to the development of a 
 robust population. What similarity to their present appearance 
 did Glasgow, Dundee, Newcastle, Liverpool, Manchester, Bir- 
 mingham, Leeds, Sheffield, Bradford, and a hundred other 
 places, present at the commencement of this century? How 
 long will it take before the manufacturing towns and villages 
 with which Lancashire is studded shall have joined one another, 
 and that county become one vast hive of human industry? 
 When will the modern Babylon cease to add town to town, and 
 what will be the limit of its extension ? Can we look with com- 
 placency on the fact that the population of these islands is 
 annually becoming more and more a town one ; that annually 
 more and more human beings are engulfed by the advancing 
 tide of buildings, and become absorbed in endless streets and 
 courts and alleys ; that fresh air and the means of wholesome 
 exercise are daily being withdrawn from larger and larger num- 
 bers of people ; that crowded streets and ill-ventilated dwellings 
 produce vitiated air ; that the want of a proper supply of 
 oxygen and of means of obtaining healthy exercise weakens the 
 human system ; and that daily and hourly a larger number of 
 men and women, conscious of impaired vitality, resort to the 
 spendthrift habit of drawing upon capital to replace income by 
 permanently injuring their constitutions for the sake of the 
 transitory stimulus which is obtained through the use of 
 alcoholic liquors ? Vain are the efforts of temperance societies 
 and reformers as long as they leave untouched the condition of 
 things which engenders the mad craving for drink. Are men 
 and women brought up under such circumstances likely to be 
 the parents of healthy children ? Nature is stern she has no 
 compassion as men sow, in like manner shall they reap. 
 Certain well-known laws have been laid down by Providence for 
 the guidance of man, and if he in his obstinate blindness de- 
 liberately chooses to violate them, he must abide the conse- 
 quences. Wholesome and sufficient food, warm clothing, fresh 
 air and exercise, are necessary, at all events in childhood, to the 
 healthy development of the human frame How many of these 
 
.8 PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 requisites ordinarily fall to the lot of the children of the poorer 
 lasses in our large towns? Let those who go in and out 
 amongst them answer. Ask the Board school teachers in the 
 poorer districts of London whether children are not sometimes 
 sent to school without having tasted food ; whether they do not 
 occasionally fall off the benches from sheer physical exhaustion ; 
 whether the teachers, from motives of humanity which do them 
 credit, do not often supply out of their own slender resources 
 the more pressing necessities of these wretched starvelings. Let 
 the district visitors answer whether the children, with just suffi- 
 cient clothing on their half-starved frames to satisfy the demands 
 of decency, but not sufficient to promote warmth, do not often 
 in the depth of winter return to homes where it is the excep- 
 tion rather than the rule to find a fire burning on the hearth. 
 Ask the medical officer what is the sanitary condition of these 
 houses, and whether it is possible for these children ever to 
 breathe air which is not more or less contaminated. Ask the 
 police constable how far off is the nearest public park or open 
 space where the children now rolling in the neighbouring gutter 
 might enjoy their games free from the dirt and contamination 
 of the present scene of their sports. It is much to be feared he 
 would stare in astonishment at the remark, and would answer 
 that such a paradise was not within the reach of such as these. 
 The truth is that our eyes are blinded to the evil effects of over- 
 crowding by reason of the continued stream of fresh blood which 
 is ever flowing from the more healthy districts into our towns, 
 thus hindering and delaying the natural physical decay of the 
 constitutions of the inhabitants of the latter, which would other- 
 wise be more rapid and consequently more apparent. If we 
 could establish a "thoroughly efficient blockade of our large cities, 
 and allow no further immigration into them from the country, it 
 would not be many years before the mortality in our centres of 
 population, as compared with that in healthier districts, would 
 be so marked, and the physical deterioration in our city popula- 
 tions would become so apparent, that we should be forced to 
 take immediate steps to prevent their utter annihilation. But 
 it may be said, ' This is an old story, and may have been true 
 before public attention had been called to the overcrowded state 
 of the back slums of our large cities, but since the passing of 
 
HEALTH OF OUR CITY POPULATIONS 9 
 
 the Artisans' Dwellings Act, and the establishment of working 
 men's dwellings companies, all this has been altered, and the 
 working classes are now housed as well as their incomes will 
 permit.' Would that this were the case ! Alas ! the efforts of 
 these companies, great as they have been, are but as a drop in 
 the ocean, and the difficulties which are met with in working 
 Mr. (now Lord) Cross's Act have sadly limited its operation. 
 What then can be done ? If Acts of Parliament and com- 
 panies whose capital is counted by millions avail but little, what 
 hope is there of a better future? Probably neither private 
 efforts nor indeed public measures, unless of a much more arbi- 
 trary character than in the present state of public opinion are 
 likely to be adopted, would altogether avert the deleterious 
 influences of prolonged existence for several generations in 
 crowded cities ; but surely something might be done, if not for 
 the adults, at all events for the children, of our city populations, 
 to strengthen their growing frames, and thus give them some 
 chance of contending with success against the hurtful influences 
 which surround them. We said that wholesome and sufficient 
 food, warm clothing, fresh air and exercise, were necessary to 
 the healthy development of the human body in time of youth. 
 Is it quite impossible for this rich country to see that the 
 children educated at its Board schools shall be provided at all 
 events with some of these requisites ? Amongst not the least 
 of the benefits which the children of the poor have derived from 
 the Education Act of 1870, there are two not to be overlooked : 
 firstly, that if a child be ill-clad or starved, the fact must in 
 time be known to the teachers, and through them to the outside 
 world ; and, secondly, that during a considerable portion of the 
 day, that child, instead of shivering in a cold garret, must of 
 necessity be seated in a warm room. Here we have, therefore, 
 warmth provided by the School Board, not a bad substitute for 
 warm clothing. Would it greatly shock the nerves of our 
 political economists if we were to suggest that the School Board, 
 having provided warmth for the children attending their schools, 
 might still further benefit them by furnishing two classes of 
 dinners, to be cooked, if possible, by the scholars themselves 
 the first composed of the cheapest food which could be provided, 
 such dinners to be supplied gratis to the most destitute children 
 
io PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 attending the school; the second, a more attractive and sub- 
 stantial meal, to be sold to the more well-to-do scholars, and 
 consumed by them on the spot ? By good management it might 
 be possible to make the latter class of dinners pay for the 
 former ; and if the dinners were well cooked, it is probable that 
 the parents might find it worth their while to purchase for 
 themselves the meals which their own children had cooked. A 
 profit might thus accrue to the school, whilst the children would 
 have practical experience in the class of cookery which would 
 be of most use to them in after life. We have already said that 
 many School Board teachers are in the habit of providing meals 
 for the more destitute scholars at their own expense. It is not 
 right that a class who as a rule are not too highly paid, or over- 
 favoured by fortune, should be called upon either to shut their eyes 
 and harden their hearts, if they can, against the sight of children 
 suffering from the effects of hunger, or else to draw upon their 
 own scanty incomes for the means of affording them relief. If 
 the pill above suggested should be too large a one for the con- 
 tracted gullets of our economists (though it may, en passant, be 
 mentioned that dinners at nominal prices are provided for the chil- 
 dren in the national schools of Germany) , philanthropists might 
 surely be invited to look upon the subject as one not unworthy 
 of their consideration. Money might be worse spent than in 
 providing cheap dinners, at all events during the winter months, 
 for the destitute children attending our Board schools. If this 
 were done, not only would the School Board officers find the list 
 of truant children rapidly diminish, and the school gain favour 
 with the most obdurate of parents, but we should be sure that 
 every child in a Board school (which ought to mean every child 
 in a large city) was provided with at all events one good meal 
 a day, and that its body was warmed for a certain number of 
 hours during the twenty-four. Now as to fresh air and exercise, 
 the other requisites for health. The Eev. S. A. Barnett, Vicar 
 of Whitechapel, has for some time been in the habit of boarding 
 out during the summer months the children of his poorer parish- 
 ioners in the country and at the seaside. The Leicester Charity 
 Organisation Society has also been instrumental in carrying out 
 a similar scheme, and the London Charity Organisation Society, 
 encouraged by the success which has attended these efforts, has 
 
HEALTH OF OUR CITY POPULATIONS 
 
 referred the question of boarding out to a special committee, 
 which has reported favourably on the subject. It is to be hoped, 
 therefore, that before long some general organisation will be 
 established, by means of which city-bred children, whether con- 
 valescent or not, may from time to time be enabled to breathe 
 true country air, refresh their minds and eyes and ears by the 
 sights and sounds of country life, and lay in a stock of health 
 against the hour of their return to town. Most Board schools 
 possess a small yard attached to the school, within which the 
 children are allowed to amuse themselves, and sometimes have 
 the opportunity given them of exercising their limbs in running 
 round a ' giant's stride.' This is good as far as it goe's, but it is 
 a poor substitute for the games which country children enjoy. 
 Would it not be possible, in the absence of a park or open space, 
 to encourage children to do something better than loiter about, 
 or bully one another, or ' talk bad,' as it is called, when congre- 
 gated in knots ? Might not the ' giant's stride ' be supple- 
 mented by a couple of fives courts, a cat's gallows, or a circular 
 running path ? Prizes might be given to successful competitors 
 in these healthy exercises in the open air, and provision might 
 be made for proper exercise on wet days by suspending a few 
 ropes, rope-ladders, and a trapeze or two to the ceiling of the 
 schoolroom. These might be so arranged as to be drawn up to 
 the ceiling by means of a pulley during the lesson hours, and 
 thus not interfere with the ordinary work of tuition. The above 
 plan, in the absence of a proper gymnasium, has been most suc- 
 cessfully carried out in a school with which the writer is ac- 
 quainted. In Germany and Switzerland gymnastics are made 
 as much a part of the system of education as reading and writing. 
 If Germans and Swiss, who mostly live in country districts or in 
 small towns, where ample means of exercise are to be found, 
 consider it essential for the maintenance of national health that 
 their children should be taught gymnastics, surely it is of some 
 importance that our city- bred English children, who never have 
 any opportunity of using their limbs, should be supplied with 
 these artificial means of strengthening their bodies and of forti- 
 fying their nerves. There is no reason why a certain knowledge 
 of gymnastics should not be required of every School Board 
 master, so that he might be able to superintend these exercises. 
 
12 PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 during the hours which are now nominally given up to play, but 
 which are really often passed in a manner neither conducive to 
 morality nor to health. The teachers, who perhaps suffer from 
 want of exercise more than the scholars, would welcome the 
 establishment of good gymnasia and fives courts, and would find 
 themselves clearer in head and brighter in mind after an hour's 
 bout at the one or the other, whilst their scholars might possibly 
 perceive in them a greater equanimity of temper. Each School 
 Board district in London is provided with a spacious room, now 
 used for meetings of managers, and for other similar purposes 
 connected with the business of the schools. These might with 
 very small expense be easily fitted up as gymnasia, without in 
 the least interfering with the objects for which they were built, 
 and here might be held advanced classes in gymnastics under 
 properly qualified instructors. In addition to these classes, is 
 there any reason why these rooms should not be thrown open, 
 under proper supervision, on week-day evenings, subject to a 
 small annual payment or entrance fee, to former School Board 
 scholars, or, indeed, to any young lads between the ages of 
 thirteen and twenty, who chose to spend their evenings in 
 healthy exercise, rather than in the dissipation of the gin palace, 
 the music hall, or the cheap gaff? Prison statistics inform us 
 that men rarely take to a life of crime after twenty-one years of 
 age, and that the criminal classes are as a rule recruited from 
 young men between the ages of fifteen and twenty, who not in- 
 frequently are induced to desert honest industry, and to enter 
 upon a life of crime, by associating of an evening with bad cha- 
 racters in low places of resort. A young man after hard work 
 or close confinement all day must have society and recreation of 
 some sort. Where at present can he find this out of the gin 
 palace or music hall ? English towns, as compared with Conti- 
 nental ones, are lamentably deficient in places where of an even- 
 ing a young man can find innocent and wholesome recreation. 
 Surely the establishment of gymnasia for the use of the youth 
 of our towns would not be foreign to the educational purposes 
 for which School Boards exist. Physical and intellectual educa- 
 tion should go hand in hand. The London School Board has 
 so far acknowledged this principle as to allow prizes to be given 
 to their scholars for swimming and drilling, and have encouraged 
 
HEALTH OF OUR CITY POPULATIONS 13 
 
 them to become proficients in both exercises. If gymnasia were 
 fitted up, and occasionally thrown open, as suggested, and 
 made attractive to the young men of the neighbourhood, no 
 doubt these establishments would shortly become a source of 
 income to the Board. 
 
 The object of this paper will have been fulfilled if it induces 
 some School Board authorities to devote greater attention to the 
 question of improving and of promoting the physique of the 
 city-bred children assigned to their care. The ideas thrown out 
 do not profess to meet all the difficulties of the question of the 
 health of our city populations. The writer is well aware that 
 he has but touched the fringe of the subject ; that a radical 
 reform can never be effected until much bolder and more impor- 
 tant measures than he has proposed, or would venture to suggest, 
 have approved themselves to our parliamentary and municipal 
 authorities. He has therefore confined himself to considering 
 the best means of improving the health of our city children, 
 leaving to abler hands the wider question of how to deal with 
 the adults. If some improvement, even though slight, may 
 reasonably be expected to accrue to the health of the rising 
 generation in cities by the adoption of the above suggestions, 
 surely it would be worth an effort to endeavour to bring them 
 into practice. Solus populi supremo, est lex. 
 
 OPEN SPACES AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION.^ 
 BY THE EAEL OP MEATH. 
 
 OF late years a marked increase has taken place in the number 
 of urban parks, gardens, and playgrounds of the United Kingdom 
 which are accessible to the public. This activity on the part of 
 municipal authorities, and of philanthropic societies and indivi- 
 duals, is largely owing to the growth of a public opinion favour- 
 able to the creation of pleasant oases, refreshing to the mind and 
 body, wherever the undue extension of bricks and mortar has 
 banished man from the humanising influences of nature, and has. 
 
 1 Reprinted, by permission, from the National Review, December 1886. 
 
I 4 PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 turned the soil into a stony wilderness. The credit of giving the 
 impulse which s"et this public opinion in motion is due, in a great 
 measure, to Miss Octavia Hill. She it was who, in season and 
 out of season, was never weary of preaching, often to deaf ears, 
 the importance of preserving open spaces for the benefit of the 
 poor, and especially of their children. She it was who first put 
 into practice the principles she preached, and turned a fetid 
 London court into an c open-air drawing-room.' Her example has 
 been largely followed. Within the short space of three years the 
 Metropolitan Public Gardens Association, through the generosity 
 of the public, has alone been enabled to throw open to the people 
 of London four playgrounds and seventeen gardens, and, of these, 
 one of the former and one of the latter have been permanently 
 transferred to the care of the local municipal authorities. This 
 transference of open spaces from the care of an association 
 supported by voluntary subscriptions to that of a public body like 
 a local vestry or district board, means, of course, an increase 
 (though an infinitesimal increase) of the rates, and there are those 
 who, from not thoroughly appreciating the important issues in- 
 volved in the matter, question the justice or the propriety of a 
 public authority increasing the burdens of the people, for what 
 they consider to be a luxury rather than a necessity. Such a 
 doctrine will find no support at my hands, even supposing these 
 open spaces could be regarded as luxuries. I believe that there 
 are luxuries of a public character, such as museums, art galleries, 
 &c., which the Government of a rich and prosperous nation is 
 justified in providing for the benefit, refinement, and enjoyment 
 of the people committed to its charge ; but the question will 
 arise, Can parks, gardens, and playgrounds, means for the pre- 
 servation of the public health, be considered luxuries ? Should 
 they not much more justly be ranked amongst public necessities ? 
 Health is one of the first of these, and in my opinion no expense 
 should be spared, and no opportunity neglected, to increase the 
 average standard of the nation's health and strength. If a 
 people's average standard of vitality be lowered, that people will 
 assuredly be handicapped in the race of nations by .as much as 
 that standard has been lessened. The health of the mind is 
 largely dependent on the health of the body, and although, occa- 
 sionally, a powerful and healthy brain may be found in a dis- 
 
OPEN SPACES AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 15 
 
 eased body, as a rule the mind and the body act and react one 
 upon the other, so that a nation (and it should be remembered 
 that a nation is nothing more than the aggregate of the men and 
 women composing it) will only have as much muscular power 
 and brain force as may be the sum total of these qualities pos- 
 sessed by the men and women of which it is formed. A simple 
 reference to the last census returns will show that this country 
 is increasing at the rate of 340,000 a year, and that these 
 340,000 are not added to the country population, but are 
 absorbed by the large overgrown cities of Great Britain and 
 Ireland. Now it is a well-known and universally recognised 
 axiom of hygienic science, that, other things being equal, the 
 health of a population is in inverse ratio to its density ; in other 
 words, that the more the people are congregated together, the 
 more unhealthy do they become. This being the case, it will be 
 readily seen that unless steps are taken to counteract tlie operation 
 of this natural law, the inhabitants of our towns must degenerate 
 in health, which is as much as to say that this is the destined 
 fate of two-thirds of our population ; for at this moment there 
 .are in Great Britain two men living in towns for every one living 
 in the country. 
 
 Now what are the most obvious steps to be taken to counter- 
 .act this natural tendency of disease to dog the steps of men when 
 crowded together ? Why, to open out the population as much as 
 possible, or, if this cannot be done, at all events to break up these 
 dense masses of humanity by intersecting them, wherever and 
 whenever possible, with open spaces. If this be the first remedy, 
 then surely it is the duty of those who are the guardians of the 
 public health to provide such open spaces ; for individuals cannot 
 be expected to buy them for the general good, and in no way, 
 in my opinion, could public money be more legitimately spent 
 than in thus preserving and improving the health of the 
 community. I trust that I have clearly shown that the 
 providing of public gardens and open spaces in large towns is 
 no question of ornamental luxury, but one very closely con- 
 nected with the health of the people, and as such should be con- 
 sidered a most legitimate object for the expenditure of public 
 money. 
 
 If it be right that the people inhabiting our large towns 
 
16 PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 should be provided at the public expense with parks, gardens, 
 and playgrounds, for similar reasons I think many will agree 
 with me that, where possible, gymnasia should be attached to 
 elementary schools, and that systematic instruction should be 
 given to the children in gymnastics and calisthenics. The body 
 should be trained as well as the brain. At present our system 
 is entirely a one-sided one. We starve the body and overwork 
 the brain, and the former takes its revenge on us by refusing to 
 nourish the latter; the brain, unable to bear a strain, which 
 would be no strain if the body were properly cared for, frequently 
 breaks down, and broken health ensues, followed sometimes by 
 insanity, and even death. Germany, Switzerland, as well as 
 Norway and Sweden, have for long been alive to the necessity of 
 caring for the body in order to get the best work out of the 
 brain : and although the inhabitants of these states, being 
 mostly country bred, are not in such urgent need of physical 
 training as are the populations of our crowded towns, the sums 
 expended by the Governments of these nations on the compul- 
 sory gymnastic training of the young would appear incredible 
 to the educational authorities of this country. Whilst I have 
 been writing, the physical aspect of the education of women 
 has occupied the attention of the British Medical Association, 
 and its President, Dr. Withers Moore, has been giving the 
 following strong expression to a belief that women are suffer- 
 ing through over-pressure in brain-work whilst at school and 
 college : 
 
 ' From the eagerness of woman's nature,' says Dr. Withers 
 Moore, ' competitive brain-work among gifted girls can hardly 
 but be excessive, especially if the competition be against the 
 superior brain-weight and brain-strength of man. They require,' 
 he asserts, ' to be protected from their own willingness to study/ 
 And how, we may add, can they be better protected than by 
 being encouraged to turn some of their energies towards the 
 improvement of their physical natures by means of calisthenic 
 and gymnastic exercises, or by healthy open-air games suitable 
 to their sex ? In a pamphlet which has lately appeared, Mr. 
 Alexander, Director of the Liverpool Gymnasium, discusses the 
 provision in England for physical education, points out its in- 
 adequacy in every respect, and states what are the nature and 
 
OPEN SPACES AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 17 
 
 extent of the required reforms. He maintains that there are 
 many teachers in charge of existing gymnasia who would be 
 glad to have their services utilised in the daytime ; that the 
 obstacle to physical training is the eagerness with which result 
 fees are looked after, so that the teachers cannot spare the 
 school children during the day. Surely the remedy for this is 
 to include gymnastics in the school course, and to grant fees for 
 successful physical as well as mental training, say, in accordance 
 with the school-average width of chest. 
 
 Mr. Alexander says : 
 
 Let there be a central training-school where certificates 
 will be granted to those who pass an examination of proficiency ; 
 let there be a code of exercises decided upon of a light, recrea- 
 tive, and popular character, with plenty of mental stimulus 
 about them, as there should be about all exercises. Let the 
 exercises be useful, such as swimming drill, by which children 
 can be thoroughly practised in the movements before they enter 
 the water, thus facilitating their swimming lesson. If the Edu- 
 cation Department will not give the necessary half-hour per diem 
 for this, then at least give it directly after school hours, and 
 watch the beneficial result that will surely take place. One or 
 two professional instructors could visit the schools in each town 
 in order to keep up the standard of efficiency, and inspections 
 could take place at convenient periods. The experiment, to have 
 a fair chance, should share in the result fees. 7 
 
 To show that it would be an easy matter to calculate the 
 result fees to be given for average increase in circumference of 
 chest in consequence of gymnastic training, I annex a form pre- 
 pared by Dr. W. P. Brookes, of Much Wenlock, who for many 
 years has taken a deep interest in the question of physical 
 training, and by which it will be seen that from statistics taken 
 in the Much Wenlock National school for six months, from 
 August 21, 1871, to February 21, 1872, in the case of six 
 boys who went through a course of drill and gymnastic training 
 consisting of the use of Indian clubs, the vaulting-horse, horizon- 
 tal and parallel bars, the average increase in chest circumference 
 was If inch ; whilst in the case of six other boys who went 
 through a course of instruction in drill alone, it was but -J-J- of 
 an inch. I shall produce one more witness to the necessity for 
 
 C 
 
i8 PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 physical training, namely, Dr. George Fletcher, who has had 
 large experience as a medical officer. In a paper on c The Man- 
 agement of Athletics in Public Schools,'' read before the medical 
 officers of schools in January last, Dr. Fletcher insists that a large 
 amount of exercise in pure air is required to keep lads in bodily 
 health, and he contends that all games and physical exercises in 
 schools should be regulated, and be under supervision. The ex- 
 perience I have gained as Chairman of the Metropolitan Public 
 Gardens Association has shown me the wisdom of this remark. 
 Ordinary town lads are unacquainted with the games in which 
 English school-boys of a higher social grade delight. Their ways 
 are rough, they are unaccustomed to discipline, and, if turned 
 loose into a playground without supervision, are unable to avail 
 themselves of the advantages offered them. Their sport degen- 
 erates into bullying or horseplay, with no good physical result. 
 Gymnastic apparatus, under these circumstances, becomes a posi- 
 tive danger, and broken heads, arms, and legs are certain to be 
 the result if the lads are allowed to use them without supervision 
 or instruction ; but under a good teacher they soon learn disci- 
 pline, enjoy themselves, and become as keen followers of organ- 
 ised games as any school-boy at Eton or Harrow. Dr. Fletcher's 
 words are : 
 
 ' It should be remembered that, as regards compulsion in 
 games, bodily exercise should be as carefully supervised by the 
 masters as mental exercise ; for it is not wise that boys should 
 be left to manage these physical matters entirely by themselves, 
 thinking that you can trust nature, and all will come right, and 
 that the boy for whom exercise is desirable will be prompted by 
 nature to take just the amount required for his health. No such 
 thing. In the general routine of lessons a boy is compelled to 
 conform to certain rules for the education of his mind ; this is 
 not here left to nature nor to the boy's disposition, for, if it were, 
 there would, in most instances, be a miserable deficiency of brain 
 exercises, or, in a few rare cases, a mischievous excess. If a boy 
 does not like his Virgil or his Euclid his masters do not leave 
 him to take what he likes of those subjects ; he is compelled 
 to enter into them, and to get through a certain amount, and 
 often will soon excel in some branch of study from judicious com- 
 pulsion ; so with games do not allow the boy to play only when 
 
OPEN SPACES AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 19 
 
 lie chooses ; at any rate, you are improving his bodily vigour, 
 and he has had every chance of excelling in some branch of 
 athletics. Let it be fairly instilled into the minds of parents by 
 masters, that the education of the body is not far behind the 
 education of the mind in importance, and the amount and kind 
 of exercise both of mind and body should be always considered 
 together.' 
 
 Englishmen, as a rule, do not look to the Government to 
 introduce reforms unless these reforms are first demanded by 
 a large section of the community. This characteristic of the 
 national temperament has its strong and also its weak side. If, 
 on the one hand, it makes the people self-reliant, on the other 
 it is a distinct discouragement to the spirit of amendment in 
 governing bodies, who, instead of being continually on the 
 alert to discover and put into practice improvements in the 
 management of their different departments, as a rule consider it 
 rather the duty of an official to throw cold water on all suggested 
 innovations which threaten to alter the orthodox routine of 
 work. The result of this customary apathy on the part of our 
 officials makes it necessary for reformers to acquire popular 
 support before bringing the question of any reform to the notice 
 of governing bodies, and in order to obtain this support the 
 public must be educated, and urged to action, by the subject 
 requiring reform being constantly presented to their attention. 
 Bearing these facts in mind, those of us who believe that in order 
 to preserve the national health and physique at the proper 
 standard, reforms in our system of education and in the manage- 
 ment of our towns are imperatively demanded, should not be 
 disheartened because so little apparent progress would appear to 
 be made in the popularisation of national hygiene and of phy- 
 sical training, but should lose no opportunity of promulgating 
 their views, on the platform, through the press, and by all 
 those means of spreading information and of influencing public 
 opinion which modern civilisation affords. Action has already 
 been taken in this direction by the Manchester Open Spaces 
 Committee and by the Metropolitan Public Gardens Association. 
 The former has obtained the signatures of the following influ- 
 ential and eminent persons to a petition urging the appoint- 
 ment of a Royal Commission to consider the question of physical 
 
 c 2 
 
20 PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 training: H.R.H. the Princess Louise, H.R.H. the Duke of 
 Cambridge, His Grace the Lord Archbishop of York, His Grace 
 the Duke of Westminster, the Rt. Rev. Bishop of Bedford, 
 Bishop Suffragan for East London, the Very Rev. the Dean of 
 St. Paul's, London, the Very Rev. the Dean of Manchester, the- 
 Ven. Archdeacon Farrar, the Rt. Hon. the Earl of Carnarvon, 
 the Rt. Hon. the Earl of Meath, the Rt. Hon. Lord Wolseley,. 
 the Rt. Hon. Lord Aberdare, the Rt. Hon. Lord Tennyson, His 
 Honour Judge Hughes, Maj.-Gen. E. G. Bulwer, C.B., Edwin 
 Chadwick, C.B., Sir Andrew Clark, Bart.,M.D., SirT. S. Wells, 
 Bart., F.R.C.S., Sir James Paget, Bart., Sir Henry E. Roscoe, 
 LL.D., M.P., Sir William Roberts, M.D., Sir Henry Thompson, 
 F.R.C.S., Rev. E. A. Abbott, D.D., City of London School, Rev. 
 E. C. Wickham, M.A., Head Master of Wellington College, Rev. 
 J. M. Wilson, M.A., Head Master of Clifton College, Bristol, 
 Rev. Samuel A. Barnett, St. Jude's, Whitechapel, Rev. 
 C. H. Spurgeon, Matthew Arnold, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., 
 Robert Browning, D.C.L., Professor Tyndall, Professor Huxley, 
 Professor J. G. Greenwood, Principal of Owens College, Man- 
 chester, Rt. Hon. A. J. Balfour, M.P., William Abraham, M.P., 
 Joseph Arch, M.P., Thomas Burt, M.P., E. N. Buxton, M.P., 
 William Crawford, M.P., B. W. Foster, M.P., Albert Grey, M.P., 
 W. H. Houldsworth, M.P., George Howell, M.P., S. Morley, M.P., 
 John Wilson, M.P., J. E. Morgan, M.D., Professor of Medicine, 
 Victoria University, Manchester, Jno. Tatham, B.A., M.B., 
 Medical Officer of Health, Salford, Ernest Hart, Esq., F.R.C.S., 
 Charles Roberts, Esq., F.R.C.S., Walter Besant, Esq., John 
 Ruskin, Esq. Sympathy and general approval, without signa- 
 ture of the form sent, have been expressed by : The Rt. Hon. the 
 Earl of Derby, the Rt. Hon. G. J. Goschen, M.P., Sir John Lub- 
 bock, Bart., John Tomlinson Hibbert, M.P. 
 
 The Metropolitan Public Gardens Association has sent the 
 following Memorial on the subject to the Education Commission,, 
 and a somewhat similar one to the School Board of London : 
 
OPEN SPACES AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 21 
 
 To the Rt. Hon. Sir RICHARD ASSHETON CROSS, M.P., G.C.B. 
 (Chairman), and the Members of the Royal Commission on 
 Education. 
 
 The Memorial of the members of the Metropolitan Public 
 Garden Association, respectfully showeth, 
 
 That your memorialists are of opinion that increased facilities 
 for the physical training of the young of both sexes, and further 
 provision for their wholesome recreation, are much needed in all the 
 larger towns of the United Kingdom ; and feeling that this is a 
 subject which is within the lawful scope of the inquiry of the 
 members of the Royal Commission on Education, they humbly beg 
 to urge its consideration. 
 
 They base their belief upon the following grounds : 
 
 1. That physical training is not at present one of the obligatory 
 subjects for the ensurance of a Government grant in elementary 
 schools. 
 
 2. That several teachers in Board or Voluntary schools are unable 
 to give instruction in gymnastics or calisthenics either in the play- 
 grounds or the rooms of the schools. 
 
 3. That there is a want of some fund from which the maintenance, 
 out of school hours, of existing playgrounds can be defrayed. 
 
 4. That there is great difficulty in obtaining, in densely populated 
 districts, adequate open spaces for public recreation. 
 
 5. That there is a marked difference in bodily health and vigour, 
 and in a predisposition to disease and immorality between the 
 young in the country and those in towns. 
 
 They believe that these difficulties might be overcome in the 
 following ways : 
 
 1. By the alteration of the Code of Education, so that physical 
 training should be included among the obligatory subjects, and in 
 this way necessarily introduced into each department of every 
 elementary school. 
 
 2. By assistance given towards the introduction of instruction 
 in physical training into the curriculum of all training colleges. 
 
 3. By the enforcement of a regulation that all playgrounds in 
 connection with public elementary schools should be kept open, under 
 supervision, for the use of the children and young people of the 
 neighbourhood between and after school hours. 
 
 4. By a grant of further powers to local public bodies for the 
 
22 PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 purchase of land for opened or covered gymnasia, and for suitable 
 recreation grounds for the use of the general public. 
 
 They believe that if these suggestions were carried out, the 
 following results would ensue to the rising generation : 
 
 1. A decrease in juvenile mortality, a better physical develop- 
 ment, and a greater amount of bodily health. 
 
 2. An increase in the mental powers. 
 
 3. A decrease in crime, drunkenness, and immorality. 
 
 It is therefore the earnest desire of your memorialists that the 
 members of the Royal Commission on Education should take this 
 matter into their serious consideration, and consent to hear evidence 
 upon the need of better means for physical training and increased 
 facilities for wholesome recreation in all towns. 
 
 And your memorialists will ever pray, &c. 
 
 A National Physical Recreation Society has lately been esta- 
 blished for the promotion of the physical education of the working 
 classes, under the presidency of Mr. Herbert Gladstone, M.P., 
 supported by the Hon. A. F. Kinnaird, Colonel G. M. Onslow 
 (Inspector of Military Gymnasia), Lord Charles Beresford, M.P., 
 the Hon. T. H. W. Pelham, and Mr. T. C. Edwardes-Moss, M.P., 
 of athletic fame, with Mr. A. Alexander, F.R.G.S. (Director of 
 the Liverpool Gymnasium), as Honorary Secretary. An associa- 
 tion with such influential leaders should be able to work wonders 
 in the improvement of the physical education of the people, and 
 in the confident hope that at no distant period the bodies of the 
 poorer children of this country will be as well cared for as their 
 brains, I ask those who read this paper to assist in forming 
 a public opinion favourable to the maintenance, by municipal 
 authorities, of open spaces, playgrounds, and gymnasia in towns, 
 and to such alterations in the Education Code as will bring up 
 a generation of English men and women, physically capable of 
 bearing the burden of the high civilisation and extended em- 
 pire they have inherited from their forefathers. Civium vires, 
 civitatis vis. 
 
OPEN SPACES AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 23 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Statistics of the Drill and Gymnastic Training given to Twelve Boys in the 
 Much Wenlock National School, from Aug. 21, 1871, to Feb. 21, 1872. 
 
 DRILL AND GYMNASTICS. 
 Increase, after Six months, in the Circumference 
 
 Boy 
 
 Of Chest 
 
 1 
 
 f Upper 
 Arm 
 
 Of Fore 
 Arm 
 
 
 Inches Inches 
 
 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 From 27^ to 28f - 1 inch 
 28" , 29=1 
 
 - inch 
 ,, 
 
 Nil 
 3: inch 
 
 3 
 
 30 , 31* = 1$ 
 
 M 
 
 Nil 
 
 4 
 
 27| , 29 =li 
 
 M 
 
 Nil 
 
 5 
 
 28|- , 30^ = 2 inches 
 
 
 
 Nil 
 
 6 
 
 27| , 30| = 2f | j 
 
 H 
 
 2 inch 
 
 Average increase in circumference of chest = If inch, i.e. nearly 2 inches. 
 Exercises : Indian Club, Vaulting Horse, Horizontal and Parallel Bars. 
 
 DRILL ALONE. 
 Increase, after Six Months, in the Circumference 
 
 Boy 
 
 Of Chest 
 
 Of Upper 
 Arm 
 
 Of Fore 
 Arm 
 
 
 Inches Inches 
 
 
 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 
 From 24| to 24| = inch 
 , 27 27 = i 
 , 29^ 30 =i 
 
 |- inch 
 
 ! ;: 
 
 Nil 
 \ inch 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 26- 2H- = 
 
 i 
 
 Nil 
 
 11 
 
 , 25| 26 =i 
 
 t 
 
 1 inch 
 
 12 
 
 , 25^ 25f^| 
 
 " 
 
 Nil 
 
 Average increase in circumference of chest = ^|- inch, i.e. nearly ^ inch. 
 
 W. P. BROOKES, Trustee. 
 EDWARD STROUD, Schoolmaster. 
 
 National Revieiv, December, 1886. 
 
 THE HALF-TIME SYSTEM OF PHYSICAL AND 
 
 INDUSTRIAL TRAINING. 
 
 BY EDWIN CHADWICK, ESQ., C.B. 
 
 Eeprinted by permission. 
 
 SIR PHILIP MAGNUS, in an article on manual training in school 
 education in the Contemporary Review for October, quotes Mr. 
 Swire Smith, a member of the late Commission on Technical 
 Instruction, who states that ' the half-time children of the town of 
 
24 PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 Keighley, numbering from 1,500 to 2,000, although they receive 
 less than fourteen hours of instruction per week, and are required 
 to attend the factory for twenty-eight hours. in addition, yet 
 obtain at the examinations a higher percentage of passes than 
 the average of children throughout the whole country receiving 
 double the amount of schooling.' Similar experiences may be 
 cited from Ireland. In the district schools, where they receive 
 orphans who have been trained in the Board schools, they 
 always find their mental training below that of the half-time 
 children. Sir Philip presents the experience as new as it 
 doubtless is to him but he might have found that the like 
 experiences had been developed at the Central District school 
 of the City of London itself a quarter of a century ago, and was 
 displayed in evidence before the Commission of Elementary 
 Education in 1861, and in repeated demonstrations that the 
 long-time system and the omission of physical training are in 
 violation of the laws of physiology. The recently awakened 
 attention to the subject may, however, be welcomed. 1 
 
 1 Complaints are made, by head teachers of the half-time schools, that the 
 subject of physical and industrial training and the interests of the poor in it 
 have been excluded from the recently appointed Commission of Inquiry into 
 elementary teaching, and that this has been done apparently in the interests 
 of the Educational Department, in the maintenance of its Code, and of its 
 long-time system. The question of the extension of physical and industrial 
 training upon the half-time system will, however, require very distinct ex- 
 amination and treatment, especially in its economical aspect. As to the 
 long-time system under the Code, the great body of the school teachers are 
 very unanimous in its condemnation. Mr. W. J. Pope, President of the 
 Metropolitan Board Teachers' Association, at a crowded meeting of that body 
 held the other day, said : ' I contend that not one-half the real educational 
 work is being done that might be done. I contend that, as one of your former 
 presidents said, we- ought not to be engaged for 75 per cent, of our time in 
 urging on, worrying, and overpressing 10 per cent, of our scholars. I contend 
 that teachers are not happy in their work, and I make bold to say that the 
 British taxpayer does not get full value, nor anything like it, for his money. 
 . , . Summing up against our present system, I charge against the Education 
 Code that it cramps in fact, prevents education. I charge against it that 
 it is responsible for the fact that only 4 per cent, of those who leave our 
 schools continue their education in night schools. I charge against it that in 
 crushing out the individuality of the teacher it is responsible for one-half the 
 truancy which goes on. I charge against it that owing to it one-half of the 
 education vote is practically wasted ; and, far above all, I charge against it that 
 it tempts the teacher to do wrong. To some of us it is known that, under its 
 percentage and reporting influence, many of our weaker brethren often fall. 
 
THE HALF-TIME SYSTEM 25 
 
 This system was introduced by myself and my colleagues 
 under our Commission of 1833 on the Employment of Young 
 Persons in Factories, to prevent over-work and also to prevent 
 under-education, by requiring three hours' attendance in school. 
 It was devised chiefly for the protection of children against over 
 bodily work, and also to serve for protection against over, as 
 well as under, mental work, in which it has been, when properly 
 administered, eminently successful, as well as in maintaining 
 juvenile earnings. It is now made the basis of the education in 
 the Army and Navy schools, and in district poor-law schools, 
 and industrial and reformatory schools, comprising upwards of 
 fifty thousand schools in which there is physical training. It 
 is in the course of extension in France and in Germany. In 
 his recent report on the elementary education on the Continent, 
 Mr. Matthew Arnold states that ' there are now 2,989 half-day 
 schools in Prussia in which all the children have but half a day's 
 schooling.' ' It is found that the rural population greatly pre- 
 ferred the half-day school, as it is called, for all the children, 
 because they had thus the elder children at their disposal for 
 half the day,' i.e. for remunerative employments. But Mr. 
 Arnold appears not to have been informed that, notwithstanding 
 the excellence of the long-time elementary teaching there, it fails 
 to reduce the amount of crime, which is much greater in Ger- 
 many and Berlin than in this country, and the same fails also 
 here ; but that the physical and industrial training here, which 
 augments the capability of the immediate earning of good 
 
 The Code makes it to their advantage to refuse admission to the backward, to 
 work out those who become backward, and to do a hundred and one other 
 things which the uninitiated know not of. The Code, in fact, is a temptation 
 to do evil, and through it the honest teacher is placed at a great disadvantage.' 
 Turning to the subject of discipline, Mr. Pope remarked : ' To such a pass was 
 juvenile rowdyism then come four years ago that, as your President, I felt 
 compelled to say that the time was fast coming when the discipline of schools 
 would concern other than teachers. . . . Since then, the London rough has 
 had his amusement with the West-end shops and clubs, and the " Board 
 Teacher "has shown that the majority of the rowdies had been brought up 
 under the sentimental influence of the Code and School Boards. Obedience 
 to the law,' continued Mr. Pope, ' lies at the foundation of all good character 
 and all true prosperity, and if it be not required in the schoolroom we cannot 
 expect our children to become good citizens. I am of opinion that the 
 majority of our scholars may be guided by love and reason.' This address 
 was received by the meeting with loud acclamations of approval. 
 
26 PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 wages, reduces crime everywhere effectively, and is the only 
 system of elementary training of which I have heard that does 
 so. An arrangement may be made for the same method of teach- 
 ing for the Roman Catholic children of Ireland as they have in 
 England. The results obtained in the reformatory and indus- 
 trial schools in Ireland, as reported by Sir John Lentaigne, are 
 in satisfactory analogy with those obtained in some institutions 
 in England. The educational change required may be admired 
 solely on the grounds of the economy of the work. In the 
 organisation of schools on a large scale there is a gain of educa- 
 tional power from better classification for some simultaneous 
 class teaching, with a better paid and more highly qualified 
 staff, and more speedy results at a lower cost. In the average 
 small school of 100, with a master and mistress at 1001. per 
 annum, the instruction can only be given at an annual cost of 
 II. 10s. per head, or at a total cost for six years of 91. per head ; 
 whilst in a larger school of 700, with a staff of teachers and a 
 female teacher at 240Z., the cost of the teaching power is reduced 
 to II. per head, and the work is accomplished in from three to 
 four years at a total cost of 4. per head. In the large half-time 
 schools the same buildings, with the same staff, may be made to 
 accommodate double sets of half-timers on the same day. In 
 the larger district schools the cost of the physical and industrial 
 training, as well as the mental training power, is from II. 5s. 
 to II. 10s. per head of the pupils as against 2Z. 5s. per head of 
 the common long-time Board schools. It is the opinion of the 
 most experienced of the teachers in these schools that the half- 
 time principle must become generally prevalent. Sir John 
 Lentaigne, in his report for 1842, declares that the statistics for 
 those of Ireland^ ' show how completely the character of a nation 
 can be changed by judicious legislation applied to the proper 
 training and treatment of the young.' This independent opinion 
 is in accordance with my conclusions enunciated some years ago 
 from the independent experience of England of the power of 
 mixed physical and mental training for early changing the 
 character of a nation. 
 
PHYSICAL TRAINING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 1 
 BY CHARLES F. BEARSLEY, M.A. 
 
 No one wlio has visited one of the newest and most efficient of 
 our Board schools can fail to have been impressed by the 
 thoroughness of the arrangements and the completeness of the 
 educational machinery, so far as it goes. At the same time, it 
 would not be strange if one came away with the feeling that 
 there is a onesidedness about the whole system. This imposing 
 building, with its ingenious apparatus and skilled staff, is 
 devoted entirely to the training of the mental faculties. As a 
 rule, the physical development of the scholars is left to take 
 care of itself. Reading, writing, arithmetic, history, geography, 
 grammar, in some cases the elements of science, even languages, 
 as well as drawing, sewing, and cookery, are taught after the 
 most approved methods. In nearly every time-table systematic 
 physical training is conspicuous only by its absence. 
 
 But the high pressure caused by this multitude of subjects, 
 while it increases the danger of physical education being neg- 
 lected, at the same time makes it all the more necessary. 
 
 In higher class schools the need is not so clamant. Taking 
 as their model the two great English Universities, which the 
 Frenchman with unconscious satire described as great schools 
 where the English youth resort to learn rowing, our secondary 
 schools cannot be broadly accused of neglecting physical ex- 
 ercise. Even in such schools, however, the boys who most need 
 developing on the physical side often derive least benefit from 
 athletics. Usually it is the naturally robust who are the 
 greatest devotees of cricket, football, and boating. During 
 some years' experience in a better-class boarding-school, I 
 noticed some cases of boys who, though constitutionally weak 
 and awkward, braved the ridicule of their schoolfellows, and 
 became more or less of experts ; but in too many cases the 
 weakly or diffident avoided altogether the exercises in which 
 they were unable to excel. So that something more than the 
 mere opportunity is required. And what of our girls' schools ? 
 How few of them make adequate provision for regular exercise ! 
 : Reprinted, by permission, from the Sanitary Record, December 15, 1886. 
 
28 PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 It is in elementary schools, though, that the need is greatest. 
 In large towns the children of the Board school have little 
 chance of indulging in the invigorating games in which their 
 more fortunate fellows revel. The playground is necessarily of 
 very limited area, generally enclosed by buildings, and frequently 
 paved or asphalted. Though serving well enough as a drill-ground, 
 it is neither large enough nor suitable otherwise for miscellaneous 
 games. In some schools with playgrounds of this sort the boys 
 learn military drill, and the girls are taught calisthenics, with 
 very good results. This is in the right direction ; but what is 
 wanted is something more general and, if possible, more syste- 
 matic. Instead of being regarded as an extra, physical train- 
 ing should have a place in the ordinary daily routine. 
 
 It has little chance of becoming more general and systematic 
 till it is officially recognised in grant-earning schools as a part 
 of the curriculum, and is paid for as such. I have no desire to 
 see a further extension of the payment-by-results system, and 
 I certainly do not advocate individual examination in athletics. 
 I should regret if the annual inspection were to add to the 
 doubts and fears that already beset our youngsters as the annual 
 ordeal approaches. Ought little Polly, who is queen of her class 
 in arithmetic, to have her days made dismal by the thought that, 
 after all, she is rather a poor hand with the ( stirrups ' ? Or 
 should poor Tommy, whose reading is good and whose spelling 
 is faultless, be disturbed in his slumbers by dreaming that he 
 has ( failed ' on the trapeze ? By no means. But, if physical 
 exercise is really of importance, why not teach it and pay for it 
 as a ' class subject ' ? The recognised class subjects in the 
 English Code are English, drawing, geography, elementary 
 science, history, and (for girls) needlework. Each of these may 
 earn a grant of two shillings for every scholar in average atten- 
 dance ; and, important as these are, it is surely not too much 
 to seek to place physical training on the same level. It is 
 useless to ignore the fact that, under our present commercial 
 system of national education, which assesses a half-knowledge 
 of arithmetic at three shillings, and rewards a passable smat- 
 tering of French with four, the likelihood of a subject being 
 taught depends almost entirely on how much money can be 
 earned in a given amount of time devoted to it per day or per 
 
PHYSICAL TRAINING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 29 
 
 week. The subject that brings in no money, or that is unfairly 
 handicapped in the race for grants, will be nowhere. At present 
 the only encouragement given by the Code to physical training 
 is the permission to teach military drill during school hours ; 
 but, although this usually entails extra expense for an instructor, 
 not a halfpenny of grant is paid for the time so spent. If 
 physical exercise is to be generally introduced into our ele- 
 mentary schools, it must be put on an equal footing with other 
 subjects. Then teachers may devote a fair amount of time and 
 attention to it without being harassed by the thought that for 
 the time thus employed they will be able to show no pecuniary 
 result. 
 
 If physical training were to be thus endowed as a source 
 of school revenue, it might be considered necessary to have, as 
 a guarantee that some definite work would be done therefor, 
 a syllabus of exercises for each year. A suitable scheme could 
 easily be arranged. Probably much might be learned from a 
 study of the German and Swedish systems of gymnastics. It 
 might, however, be better at first to leave the scheme of exercises 
 to be arranged by the teachers, subject to the approval of the 
 school inspector. I do not at present propose to offer many 
 detailed suggestions, but shall confine myself to a few general 
 principles that should be kept in view. 
 
 In the first place the exercises, while tending to the healthy 
 development of all the bodily organs, should be, as much as 
 possible, of a recreative character. In the younger classes they 
 must be very largely so, just as the Kindergarten system seeks 
 to educate the senses and the intellect by attractive exercises 
 in form, colour, and number. Some actual pastimes might be 
 occasionally introduced, and the charm of combined rhythmic 
 movement should not be forgotten. It is generally understood 
 that exercise taken for its own sake is not so beneficial as when 
 it is incidental to some pleasant occupation or the attainment of 
 some engaging end. Of course there must be a good deal of 
 routine work in any practicable scheme. Even though it were 
 found unavoidable that the course should consist entirely of 
 gymnastic drill, it might still be expected to be attended with 
 solid benefit. A great part of the intellectual training of 
 children has to be conducted on the ' drill ' principle. Drill 
 
30 PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 there must be ; but the regular change from mental to physical, 
 drill would do much to refresh the jaded powers of both scholar 
 and teacher. I say i teacher ' advisedly, for the teachers should 
 share in all the exercises and in all the sports of the children. 
 It is in fact almost as much in the interests of the teachers as of 
 the scholars that I desire to see physical training made a regular 
 part of our school system. 
 
 On this account I would strongly recommend that the ex- 
 ercises be taught not by visiting teachers but by the ordinary 
 staff. There is another reason for this, well known to practical 
 educationists. Visiting teachers are generally regarded as a 
 kind of necessary evil. They have not the same hold of the 
 children as those who have them constantly in hand ; often, 
 though perhaps eminent specialists, they are unskilful in teach- 
 ing and dealing with children ; and the arrangements necessary 
 for them to meet the scholars in suitable detachments often in- 
 terfere seriously with the organisation of a school. A system of 
 physical training which necessitates such aid is bound to break 
 down. To insure its success it must be workable by the ordinary 
 staff. Gymnastics and calisthenics, which are not at present 
 entirely neglected in our training colleges, would then become 
 subjects in which proficiency would be desirable ; and there is 
 no question that in a short time teachers thoroughly qualified 
 for the work would be turned out. 
 
 In the next place, when a new subject is introduced into a 
 curriculum, the standard set up should not be too high. The 
 new drawing schedule for elementary schools is a case in point. 
 Instead of giving a stimulus throughout the country to the 
 teaching of drawing, this schedule, through its being pitched 
 rather above the present capabilities of elementary schools, is 
 likely, in many districts, to fairly stamp out art-teaching in 
 school. Too ambitious a programme of physical training would 
 be equally unsuccessful. In fact, the grant should be paid rather 
 for the time spent in the exercises, and for the hearty enjoy- 
 ment and smooth discipline with which the children go through 
 them, than for the performance of actual gymnastic feats. Some 
 aptitude for the latter may fairly be looked for ; but, if the in- 
 spector is satisfied that reasonable time is devoted to physical 
 training, that it is taught in accordance with sound physiological 
 
PHYSICAL TRAINING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 31 
 
 and hygienic principles, and that it is benefiting the children, 
 payment of the grant should be recommended. There should, 
 moreover, be only one scale of payment. Were there, as in the 
 case of the present class subjects, a higher and a lower grant, 
 according to the degree of excellence, a loophole might be left 
 for ' over-pressure ' to creep in. For the same reason physical 
 exercise should not be additional to the three class subjects 
 which are at present allowable in any one school, but alternative 
 to them. Would it be too much to make it an imperative 
 subject ? 
 
 With respect to time, some minimum, perhaps two hours 
 per week, as in the case of drawing, should be required to be 
 devoted to physical training. This time should be judiciously 
 distributed between the lessons. This is very important. An 
 hour a day would not seem too much ; but that would necessitate 
 a higher grant. About \l. per head is a good annual school 
 grant ; and about twenty-five hours is the average school week, 
 exclusive of religious teaching, which earns no grant. We may, 
 therefore, say roughly that every two hours and a half per week 
 should earn about two shillings per head of annual grant. 
 This is the full grant for a class subject. If, therefore, five 
 hours a week were required, it would probably be necessary to 
 pay a grant of four shillings. This might be too much to hope 
 for. Merely to make physical training an alternative to the 
 present class subjects would not, it should be observed, entail 
 any addition to the education estimates. On the other hand, 
 to demand for it much more time than for the other class sub- 
 jects, and at the same time to pay no higher grant, would be to 
 kill the scheme at its birth. 
 
 Lastly, as to apparatus, rooms, &c. A good many invigor- 
 ating exercises require no apparatus. For a good many others 
 apparatus could easily be fitted up in the ordinary class-rooms. 
 Many exercises on the parallel and horizontal bars, as well as 
 vaulting and leaping, could be performed by a class in rapid 
 succession. On a row of rings or stirrups, suspended along the 
 free space of a class-room, the pupils could exercise themselves 
 in detachments. Any additional outlay on appliances of this 
 sort should be regarded as a part of educational expenditure as 
 necessary as the .cost of a desk and seat for each scholar. A 
 
32 PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 regular gymnasium would, no doubt, be a great acquisition to 
 every school ; but it is by no means indispensable. Even where 
 there is one, part of the exercises should be performed in the 
 class-rooms ; and it would be desirable to have a considerable 
 portion of the training given in the open air. 
 
 Of the feasibility of the scheme suggested I have, as a 
 practical teacher, no doubt whatever. It is quite as workable 
 as the present elaborate sewing schedule, and much more so than 
 the teaching of cookery in elementary schools. The essential 
 feature of the plan is its inclusion in the Code as a grant- 
 earning subject, and this, I have shown, need cause no extra 
 demand on the national purse. Combined with the general 
 adoption of school dinners, it would go far to eradicate over- 
 pressure, and to make our educational system complete. Besides 
 the importance of mere muscular superiority as a factor of 
 national greatness, how much does the power of excelling, both 
 in intellectual effort and in industrial work, depend on sound 
 physical stamina ? It is admitted, too, that a tendency to in- 
 temperance is fostered by the depression due to a weakly organ- 
 ism ; and thus physical education would be one practical remedy 
 against our greatest national curse. In a word, if physical 
 training were made general, our people would be more robust, 
 society would be the gainer, Britain would be the stronger. 
 
 GYMNASTIC INSTRUCTION IN BOARD SCHOOL 
 PLAYGROUNDS.^ 
 
 To THE EDITOR OF THE 'DAILY CHRONICLE.' 
 
 SIR, The Metropolitan Public Gardens Association, of which 
 I have the honour to be chairman,, recently petitioned the School 
 Board of London and the Eoyal Commission on Education to 
 take into their most serious consideration the low physical con- 
 dition of the children attending the Board schools of our large 
 towns, and urged upon these bodies the necessity of paying 
 attention to the improvement of the health and strength of the 
 rising generation. 
 
 In most civilised countries the physical education of children 
 1 From the Daily Chronicle of December 30, 1886. 
 
GYMNASTIC INSTRUCTION 33 
 
 is now as carefully considered as the mental. England stands 
 almost alone in its neglect. In order to gauge the opinions of 
 the school managers in London 1,142 letters have been addressed 
 to them, asking them for suggestions in regard to the best way 
 of utilising the playgrounds with a view to the increased health 
 of the children. Amongst the numerous suggestions given, 
 some have replied advocating the systematic instruction of the 
 children in gymnastics, and lamenting that a Government grant 
 is not given for training in gymnastics and calisthenics. The 
 enclosed letter from Mr. W. Bousfield, the chairman of the 
 Works Committee of the School Board of London, is, you will 
 perceive, in support of this view, and I trust that its publication 
 may lead not only to attention being paid to the important sug- 
 gestions contained in his letter, but to the inclusion of physical 
 and technical training in the list of subjects in the Education 
 Code for which a Government grant can be obtained. 
 I am, Sir, yours faithfully, 
 
 BRABAZON, 
 
 Cliairman of tJie Metropolitan Public 
 December 29. Gardens Association. 
 
 [COPY.] 
 
 33 Stanhope Gardens, Queen's Gate, W. : December 11. 
 
 DEAR LORD BRABAZON, I have read the packet of letters from 
 London School Board local managers on the use of playgrounds which 
 you kindly lent me. I now return them, and am glad to see that 
 nearly all of the writers are impressed with the importance of pro- 
 viding physical instruction for the children, and are willing to give 
 such help as they can to promote it in their schools. 
 
 The School Board has already placed certain gymnastic appli- 
 ances in its playgrounds, but there is at present no systematic 
 instruction in their use, and the teachers do not generally take an 
 interest in teaching their boys to take advantage of them, although 
 there are exceptions to this rule. Some such instruction and even 
 organisation of games of play appears necessary, as the poor children 
 attending the schools have not the hereditary habit of amusing them- 
 selves healthily out of doors possessed by English boys of a higher 
 class. 
 
 While I think the School Board would be glad to give facilities 
 for physical training in the playgrounds, I believe there would be 
 objections felt to incurring additional expense in providing teachers. 
 
34 PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 If, however, the Association of which you are chairman were able 
 in certain schools to give gymnastic instruction, and made an appli- 
 cation to the Board with that object, I believe the playgrounds 
 would be put at your disposal on certain fixed times, such as 
 Saturdays and on summer evenings, on the understanding that your 
 Association would be completely responsible for providirg proper 
 supervision of the children during the time of their use. 1 The 
 school-keepers, who are now responsible for this supervision, have 
 their time so much engaged, that it would be undesirable to add to 
 their labours in this matter, even if they were additionally paid for 
 it. Probably the Board would be more willing to agree to such an 
 arrangement if a trial were made first in a few schools only. I will 
 send you a list of some playgrounds, which seem specially adapted 
 to your purpose, when I have talked the matter over with the Board's 
 architect. Very likely many teachers and managers would give their 
 help to your Association in this work ; but it would be unadvisable to 
 rely entirely on voluntary supervision of the children, as any break- 
 down in the essential maintenance of order would necessarily lead to 
 the discontinuance of the arrangement. 
 
 Since my conversation with you on Friday, I have read with 
 much interest your article in the ' National Review ' of this month, 
 and entirely agree with the views you there express. To carry 
 them out, public opinion must be educated and brought to bear on 
 the action of the Education Department and of the Government. 
 There can be no doubt that a recognition in the Educational Code of 
 physical training, and a small additional payment of Government 
 grant to schools where due attention is paid to the physical im- 
 provement of the children, would do more to make such training 
 universal than anything else. I believe that in the first European 
 war in which England is engaged our lamentable experience of the 
 staying powers of many of our urban recruits will, of a certainty, 
 oblige the nation to insist, as a simple matter of safety, on more 
 careful attention being paid to the physical strength of the mass of 
 the population. Why should we wait for bitter experience to force 
 us to do what reason and public spirit sufficiently show now to be 
 
 This is a cognate subject, also vital to the interests of the 
 
 1 The Metropolitan Public Gardens Association, of 83 Lancaster Gate, has 
 undertaken to give gymnastic instruction and to maintain o v der on Saturdays 
 in five Board School playgrounds, individual members having made them- 
 selves responsible for the annual cost of a playground, viz. 14Z. Offers to 
 maintain additional playgrounds, open for instruction on Saturdays, will be 
 thankfully received. 
 
GYMNASTIC INSTRUCTION 
 
 35 
 
 country, on which it is urgently necessary that pressure should be 
 put on the Education Department. A small tentative beginning of 
 teaching the use of tools to boys in order to give them a liking for 
 handicraft work, and to modify to some extent the unpractical and 
 purely literary education given them and the consequent impulse 
 towards sedentary and clerklike occupation, has recently been made 
 by the School Board ; but I regret to say that the Government 
 auditor has surcharged the expenditure incurred, and the Board will 
 therefore be prohibited in future, unless the Government veto be 
 withdrawn in consequence of its remonstrances, from any further 
 essays of the kind. You will feel what a blow this action is to those 
 who are anxious that vast sums of public money now spent on our 
 elementary education should be made fruitful to the nation to the 
 utmost extent. 
 
 If your Association should think fit to approach the Government 
 and urge recognition of the national importance of physical and 
 technical training in our elementary schools, I would suggest that 
 the School Board should be asked by deputation to concur in your 
 petition. 
 
 I cannot, of course, say with any certainty what course the 
 Board would take, but I believe it would sympathise with and 
 support your efforts to increase our national strength by helping our 
 London children to lead useful, happy, and healthy lives. 
 I am, dear Lord Brabazon, very truly yours, 
 
 (Signed) WILLIAM BOUSFIELD. 
 
 MANUAL INSTRUCTION. 
 BY SIR JOHN LUBBOCK, BART., M.P. 
 
 MR. MUNDELLA, in an interesting address which he delivered at 
 the Polytechnic last year, took us Londoners somewhat severely 
 to task because more is not done in the metropolis to provide 
 for the intellectual wants of our people. Certainly, I must admit, 
 as a Londoner, that we are far from being as advanced as we 
 could wish. I would, however, point out two reasons. In the 
 first place, the areas of government in London are for many 
 purposes too small. I have no desire to speak disrespectfully 
 of vestries or vestrymen. But take the case of free libraries : 
 London is reproached for having so few, but would Birmingham 
 
 D 2 
 
36 PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 have had its magnificent library if it was governed by the vestries 
 of the separate parishes ? One reason which has defeated the 
 efforts to establish free libraries in London has been that the 
 parishioners have been told that, while the expense would fall on 
 them, readers could come in from other parishes. A bill should 
 be proposed next session to remedy this by amending the Free 
 Libraries Act in the metropolitan district by making the area that 
 of the union instead of the parish. Again, why have we in our 
 educational institutions so few members and students belonging 
 to the great shopkeeping community ? It is on account of the 
 excessively long hours in London shops. This again is to a 
 great extent owing to the difficulty in such immense communities 
 of obtaining and securing common action. I hope that next 
 session we may do something to mitigate this great evil. Free 
 libraries and shorter hours in shops are two of the most pressing 
 wants in London. Still, I cannot help thinking that Mr. 
 Mundella was rather too severe on us. Can any provincial city 
 show a nobler work than that carried on by Mr. Quentin Hogg 
 at the old Polytechnic Institution ? The members and students 
 now, I understand, number nearly ten thousand, and not only 
 does Mr. Quentin Hogg devote an immense amount of time to 
 the work, but the annual cost to him cannot be much below 
 10,0001. a year. If it had been in one of our provincial cities 
 we should probably have heard more of it. Londoners are, 
 perhaps, too modest. Our London School Board has done its 
 work efficiently, and is generally blamed for spending too much 
 rather than too little. Again, the stimulus which has been 
 recently given to the cause of technical education in England 
 has no doubt been very greatly due to the City and Guilds of 
 London Technical Institute, so ably directed by Sir Philip 
 Magnus. The Commissioners on Technical Instruction, in their 
 interesting report on technical education, have given endless- 
 cases showing the great importance of technical instruction, and 
 I cannot help thinking that much more technical education 
 might be introduced even into -elementary schools. Something 
 of the kind indeed is done in the case of girls by the instruction in 
 needlework and cookery, which latter, I am happy to see, is 
 showing satisfactory results. Why should not something of 
 the same kind be done in the case of boys ? There are some 
 
MANUAL INSTRUCTION 37 
 
 indeed who seem to think that our educational system is as 
 good as possible, and that the only remaining points of import- 
 ance are the number of schools and scholars, the question of 
 fees, the relation of Voluntary and Board schools, &c. 'No 
 doubt,' says Mr. Symonds, in his * Sketches in Italy and Greece,' 
 * there are many who think that when we not only advocate 
 education but discuss the best system, we are simply beating the 
 air ; that our population is as happy and cultivated as can be, 
 and that no substantial advance is really possible. Mr. Galton, 
 however, has expressed the opinion, and most of those who have 
 written on the social condition of Athens seem to agree with 
 him, that the population of Athens, taken as a whole, was as 
 superior to us as we are to Australian savages.' 
 
 That there is some truth in this probably no student of 
 Greek history will deny. Why, then, should this be so ? I 
 cannot but think that our system of education is partly respon- 
 sible. 
 
 Technical teaching need not in any way interfere with in- 
 struction in other subjects. Though so much has been said 
 about the importance of science and the value of technical 
 instruction, or of hand-training, as I should prefer to call it, it 
 is unfortunately true that in our system of education, from the 
 highest school downwards, both of them are sadly neglected, and 
 the study of language reigns supreme. 
 
 This is no new complaint. Ascham, in l The Schoolmaster,' 
 long ago lamented it, and Milton, in his letter to Mr. Samuel 
 Hartlib, complained ' that our children are forced to stick 
 unreasonably in these grammatick flats and shallows ; ' and 
 observes that, ' Though a linguist should pride himself to have 
 all the tongues Babel cleft the world into, yet, if he have not 
 studied the solid things in them as well as the words and 
 lexicons, he were nothing so much to be esteemed a learned 
 man as any yeoman or tradesman competently wise in his 
 mother dialect only ; ' and Locke said that ' Schools fit us for the 
 university rather than for the world/ Commission after commis- 
 sion, committee after committee, have reiterated the same com- 
 plaint. How then do we stand now ? 
 
 I see it indeed constantly stated that, even if the improvement 
 is not so rapid as could be desired, still we are making considerable 
 
38 PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 progress in this direction. But what are the facts ? Are we 
 really making progress ? 
 
 On the contrary, the present rules made by the Education 
 Department are crushing out elementary science. There are 
 two heads Elementary Science may be taken under, which are 
 known as class subjects ' or specific subjects.' Under the 
 Code there are four so-called class subjects, only two of which 
 may be taken. One of them must be English, which I am afraid 
 in a great many cases practically means grammar. Consequently, 
 if either history or geography were selected for the second, 
 elementary science must be omitted. It has been pointed out 
 over and over again that the tendency must be to shut out 
 elementary science, because the great bulk of the schools are 
 sure to take history or geography. The last report shows how 
 grievously this has proved to be the case. The President and 
 Vice-President of the Council, in the report just issued, say 
 that elementary science c does not appear to be taken advantage 
 of to any great extent at present.' This is a very mild way of 
 putting it. Mr. Colt Williams says, more correctly, that ' specific 
 subjects are virtually dead.' Mr. Balmer observes that ' specific 
 subjects have been knocked on the head.' In fact, out of the 
 4,500,000 children in our schools, less than 25,000 were examined 
 last year in any branch of science as a specific subject. Take, 
 for instance, the laws of health and animal physiology. Only 
 ] 4,000 children were presented in this subject. Yet how im- 
 portant to our happiness and utility. Neither Mr. Bright nor 
 Mr. Gladstone, I believe, ever learnt any English grammar, and 
 as regards the latter it has been recently stated, by one who 
 knows him intimately, that the splendid health he enjoys is 
 greatly due to his having early learnt one simple physiological 
 lesson. 
 
 Turning again to the class subjects, last year elementary 
 science was only taken in 45 schools out of 20,000. This, how- 
 ever, was not because it was unpopular, but simply on account 
 of the rules laid down in the Code. According to Mr. Williams, 
 grammar which, under compulsion, was taken in over 19,000 
 schools was not a popular subject, and if only the Code per- 
 mitted it, it would be dropped in half his schools. One of her 
 Majesty's inspectors, in the last report, seemed to regard it as 
 
MANUAL INSTRUCTION 39 
 
 an advantage of grammar that ' its processes require no instru- 
 ments, no museums, no laboratories/ This, on the contrary, 
 is one of its drawbacks. It fails to bring the children into any 
 contact with nature. Indeed, Helmholtz is probably correct in 
 his view that the rules of grammar, followed as they are by long 
 strings of exceptions, weaken the power of realising natural laws. 
 Again, it is surely undesirable to attach so much importance to 
 the minutias of spelling, Dr. Gladstone has shown that the 
 irregularities of English spelling cause, on an average, the loss 
 of more than one thousand hours in the school life of each child. 
 < A thousand hours in the most precious seed-time of life of 
 millions of children spent in learning that i must follow e in 
 " conceive " and precede it in " believe " ; that two es must, no 
 one knew why, come together in " proceed '' and " exceed," and be 
 separated in " precede " and " accede " ; that " uncle " must be 
 spelt with a c but "ankle" with a&, and numberless other and 
 equally profitless conventions ! And this while lessons in health 
 and thrift, sewing and cooking, which should make the life of the 
 poor tolerable, and elementary singing and drawing, which 
 should make it pleasant and push out lower and degrading amuse- 
 ments, are in many cases almost vainly trying to obtain admission.' 
 At present we really seem to follow the example of Democritus, 
 who is said to have put out his eyes in order that he might 
 reason better. It was a truer instinct which identified the 
 c seer ' and the ' prophet.' It seems very undesirable that our 
 rules should be so stringent as to lay down ' a flattening iron ' 
 over schools, but if the choice of subjects were dictated at all, 
 why, of all subjects in the world, should grammar, with its dry 
 and bewildering technicalities, be especially favoured ? I do 
 not, however, wish to disparage grammar ; all I desire is that 
 it should not block the way ; that elementary science should 
 have a fair chance. The three objections which are sometimes 
 heard, especially at School Board elections, are over-pressure, 
 over-expense, and over-education. That there is really no 
 general over-pressure Mr. Fitch and Mr. Sydney Buxton have 
 satisfied most impartial judges. Still the relief afforded by a 
 change from literature to science, from books to nature, from 
 taxes on memory to the stimulus of observation, is no doubt of 
 the most grateful character. 
 
40 PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 Mr. Matthew Arnold, in his recent c Report on certain Points 
 connected with Elementary Education in Germany, Switzerland, 
 and France,' points out that in German elementary schools 
 there is a ' fuller programme ' and a ' higher state of instruction ' 
 than in ours. He takes Hamburg as a good typical case, and 
 he tells us that i the weekly number of hours for a Hamburg child 
 between the ages often and fourteen is, as I have said, 32 ; with 
 us, under the Code, for a child of that age, it is 20.' And 
 then, or I should rather say, i but then,' ' the Hamburg children 
 have as the obligatory matters of their instruction, Religion, 
 German, English, History, Geography, Natural History, Natural 
 Philosophy, Arithmetic and Algebra, Geometry, Writing, Draw- 
 ing, Singing, and Gymnastics, thirteen matters in all.' In one 
 of our schools under the Code the obligatory subjects are ' three 
 English, Writing, and Arithmetic. Of the optional matters 
 they generally take, in fact, four, Singing and Geography . . . 
 and as specific subjects, say, Algebra and Physiology, or French 
 and Physiology. This makes in all, for their school week of 
 twenty hours, seven matters of instruction.' As a matter of 
 fact I have shown that comparatively few children are presented 
 in any specific subject. But even if two are taken, this would 
 only bring up the subjects to half those included in the ordinary 
 German course. Mr. Arnold 'often asked himself ' why, with 
 such long hours and so many subjects, the children had c so little 
 look of exhaustion or fatigue, and the answer I could not help 
 making to myself was, that the cause lay in the children being 
 taught less mechanically and more naturally than with us, and 
 being more interested.' 
 
 I feel sure there is a great deal in this ; variety in mental 
 food is as important as in bodily food, and our children are often 
 tired simply because they are bored. 
 
 As to expense, it is really ignorance and not education which 
 is expensive. 
 
 But then we hear a great deal about over-education. We 
 need not fear over-education ; but I do think we suffer much 
 from misdirected education. Our schoolmasters too. often seem 
 to act as if all children were going to be schoolmasters them- 
 selves. 
 
 It is true that more attention is now given to drawing in 
 
MANUAL INSTRUCTION 41 
 
 some schools ; and this is certainly a matter of very great im- 
 portance, but some changes must be made in the Code before 
 that development can be made which we should all wish to see. 
 Manual work in boys' schools seems to be exactly parallel with, 
 and in every way analogous to, that of needlework in girls' 
 schools, and I am inclined to agree with Sir P. Magnus that 
 the value of the one kind of teaching should be as fully recog- 
 nised and assisted by the State as that of the other. Why 
 could they not introduce carpentering or something of that sort 
 which would exercise the hands of the boys as well as their 
 heads ? I have myself tried an experiment in a small way in 
 the matter of cobblery, and although the boys did not make 
 such progress as to be able to make their own boots, they no 
 doubt learned enough to be able to mend them. 
 
 The introduction of manual work into our schools is impor- 
 tant, not merely from the advantage which would result to health, 
 not merely from the training of the hand as an instrument, but 
 also from its effect on the mind itself. 
 
 I do not indeed suppose that, except in some special districts, 
 we can introduce what is known as the ' half-time ' system, in 
 the sense that the children will do ordinary work for wages, 
 though Mr. Arnold tells us in his < Eeport on certain Points 
 connected with Elementary Education in Germany, Switzerland, 
 and France,' that in Prussia ' the rural population greatly prefer 
 the half-day school, as it is called, for all the children, because 
 they have the elder children at their disposal for half the day.' 
 
 I do not, I confess, see why a system so popular in Germany 
 should be impossible in England ; but what seems more imme- 
 diately feasible is that our boys should be trained to use their 
 hands as well as their heads. The absence of any such instruc- 
 tion is one of the great defects in our present system. 
 
 Such teaching need not in any way interfere with instruction 
 in other subjects. Mr. Chadwick has given strong reasons for 
 his opinion, i That the general result of the combined mental 
 and bodily training on the half-school time principle is to give 
 to two of such children the efficiency of the three on the long 
 school time principle for productive occupations.' 
 
 Again, the Commissioners on Technical Instruction, speaking 
 of schools in the Keighley district, say, c The most remarkable 
 
42 PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 fact connected with these schools is the success of the half- 
 timers. The Keighley district is essentially a factory district, 
 there being a thousand factory half-timers attending the schools. 
 Although these children receive less than fourteen hours of 
 instruction per week, and are required to attend the factory for 
 twenty-eight hours in addition, their percentage of passes at the 
 examination is higher than the average of passes of children 
 receiving double the amount of schooling throughout the country/ 
 
 In our infant schools we have generally object lessons or 
 some more or less imperfect substitute of that kind for the very 
 young children. But after this, with some rare exceptions, our 
 teaching is all book-learning, the boy has no ' handwork ' what- 
 ever. He sits some hours at a desk, his muscles have insufficient 
 exercise, he loses the love and habit of work. Hence to some 
 extent our school system really tends to unfit boys for the occu- 
 pations of after life, instead of training the hand and the eye to 
 work together ; far from invigorating the child in what M. Sluys 
 well terms, ' le bain refraichissant du travail manuel,' it tends to 
 tear his associations from all industrial occupations, which, on 
 the other hand, subsequently revenge themselves, when their 
 turn comes, by finally distracting the man from all the associa- 
 tions and interests of school life. 
 
 This principle of manual instruction has been elaborately 
 worked out in Sweden, where it is known as the ' Slqjd ' system, 
 by Mr. Abrahamson and Mr. Solomon, and has been already 
 adopted in over six hundred schools. It has recently been the 
 subject of a very interesting memoir by M. Sluys, 1 who was 
 deputed by the Belgian Minister of Education to visit Mr. 
 Abrahamson and report upon it. The importance of manual 
 practice as an integral part of all education was long ago realised 
 by the genius of Rousseau, and first worked out practically and 
 as regards young children by Froebel. Basedon indeed, in 1774, 
 introduced manual instruction as a counterpoise to mental work ; 
 but Finland seems to be the country where the value of manual 
 instruction as an integral part of education was first realised, 
 when, thanks to the efforts of Uno Cygnseus, the- Government 
 
 1 I? Enseignement des Travaux Manuels dans les Ecoles pr imalres de garqons 
 en Suede. Kapport pres. a M. Le Min. de 1'Inst. Publique par M. A Sluys, et 
 conclusion de MM. A. Sluys et H. Vankalken. Bruxelles, 1884. 
 
MANUAL INSTRUCTION 
 
 43 
 
 enacted in 1866 that it should be an obligatory subject in all 
 primary and normal schools. The system of Basedon appears 
 to have been less successful than might have been expected, 
 probably in great measure because the instruction was confided 
 to artisans, whereas it seems to be of great importance not to 
 separate the direction of the manual from that of the mental 
 training. 
 
 There have been indeed two very different points of view from 
 which manual instruction has been recommended. The first 
 looks at the problem from a specially economical point of view. 
 The school is arranged so as to elicit the special aptitudes of 
 the pupils ; to prepare and develop the children as quickly and 
 as completely as possible for some definite trade or handicraft, 
 so as to, if possible, assure them, when leaving school, the 
 material requisite of existence. In this way it is maintained 
 that the wealth and comfort of the nation can be best promoted. 
 
 The second theory regards the manual instruction as a form 
 of education ; the object is to give to the hand, not so much a 
 special as a general aptitude, suitable to the varied circum- 
 V stances of practical life, and calculated to develop a healthy love 
 of labour, to exercise the faculties of attention, perception, and 
 intuition. The one treats the school as subordinate to the work- 
 shop, the other takes the workshop and makes it a part of the 
 school. The one seeks to make a workman, the other to train 
 up a man. In short, the Swedish system is no preparation for 
 a particular occupation, but is intended as a means of general 
 development. The time devoted to manual instruction is there 
 from four to six hours a week. 
 
 Of all handiworks carpentering has been found most suitable. 
 The work of the smith strengthens the arm, but it does not train 
 the hand tends rather indeed to make it too heavy. Moreover, 
 the work is rather hard for children. In basket-work the fingers 
 alone are exercised ; few tools are required or mastered, the 
 younger children cannot finish off a basket, and it is an addi- 
 tional disadvantage that the work is done sitting. Bookbinding 
 is too limited and too difficult, moreover it does not afford suffi- 
 cient opportunities of progressive difficulty. Work with card- 
 board is in many respects very suitable, but it trains the fingers 
 rather than the hand, and does not sufficiently develop the 
 
44 PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 bodily vigour. On the whole, then, working in wood is re- 
 commended, and it is remarkable that it was long ago suggested 
 by Rousseau. 
 
 Tout bien considere, le metier que j'aimerais le mieux qui fut du 
 gout de mon eleve est celui de menuisier. II est propre, il est utile, 
 il peut s'exercer dans la maison, il tient suffisaniment le corps en 
 haleine ; il exige dans 1'ouvrier de Tadresse et de I'industrie, et dans 
 la forme des ouvrages que 1'utilite determine, I'elegance et le gout ne 
 sont pas exclus. 
 
 Abrahamson has prepared a hundred models, which the 
 children are successively taught to make, commencing with a 
 very easy form, and passing on to others more and more difficult. 
 The series begins with a simple wooden peg, and the series 
 includes a paper-knife, spoon, shovel, axe-handle, flower-stand, 
 mallet, bootjack, a cubic decimetre, a mason's level, chair, butter- 
 mould, and ends with a milkpail. 
 
 When the model is finished it is inspected. If unsatisfactory, 
 it is destroyed ; yet if it passes muster the child is allowed to 
 take it home. It is all his own work ; no one has helped. It 
 is indeed found important that the children should make some- 
 thing which they can carry away, and much stress is laid on the 
 condition that they should make it entirely themselves, from 
 the beginning to the end. If one does one part and one another, 
 if one begins and another finishes it, neither practically takes 
 much interest in it. 
 
 The objects made are all useful. At first some were selected 
 which were playthings, or merely ornamental, but the parents 
 took little interest in articles of this character ; they were re- 
 garded as mere waste of time, and have gradually been discarded. 
 
 The different objects must be gradually more difficult. When 
 the child is able to make any model satisfactorily he passes on to 
 the next. He must never be kept doing the same thing over 
 and over again. Useless repetition is almost sure to disgust. 
 The man has to do the same thing over and over again, but the 
 child works to learn, not to live. 
 
 Lastly I may mention that the objects selected- are such as 
 not to require any expensive outlay in the matter of tools. 
 
 The result, we are assured, gives much satisfaction to the 
 parents and great pleasure to the children. 
 
MANUAL INSTRUCTION 45- 
 
 A weak point in our present educational system is that 
 it does not awaken interest sufficiently to enable children 
 generally to continue their education after leaving school. Yet 
 in addition to all other advantages a wise education ought 
 greatly to brighten life. Browning speaks of the wild joy 
 of living ; but that is not the sense in which life is ordinarily 
 spoken of by the poets. They generally allude to it in a very 
 different sense, as when Pope spoke of it as ' Life's poor play/ 
 observing in another passage 
 
 These build as fast as knowledge can destroy, 
 In folly's cup still laughs the bubble joy ; 
 
 while Lytton said 
 
 With each year's decay, 
 Fades, year by year, the heart's young bloom away. 
 
 A well-known hymn lays it down as an incontrovertible pro- 
 position 
 
 Brief life is here our portion, 
 
 Brief sorrow, short-lived care. 
 
 But this is to a great extent our own fault. Too often we fritter 
 away life, and La Bruyere truly observes that many men employ 
 much of their time in making the rest miserable. Few of us^ 
 feel this as we ought, some not at all. We see so clearly, feel 
 so keenly the misery and wretchedness around us that we fail 
 to realise the blessings lavished upon us. Yet the path of life 
 is paved with enjoyments. There is room for all at the great 
 table of Nature. She provides without stint the main requisites 
 of human happiness. To watch the corn grow, or the blossoms 
 set ; to draw hard breath over the ploughshare ; or to read, to 
 think, to love, to hope, to pray : these,' said Kuskin, ' were the 
 things that made men happy.' 
 
 Some years ago I paid a visit to the principal lake villages 
 of Switzerland in company with a distinguished archaeologist, 
 M. Morlot. To my surprise I found that his whole income was 
 .100 a year, part of which, moreover, he spent in making a 
 small museum. I asked him whether he contemplated accepting 
 any post or office, but he said, Certainly not. He valued his 
 leisure and opportunities as priceless possessions far more than 
 
46 PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 silver or gold, and would not waste any of his time in making 
 money. Just think of our advantage here in London. We 
 have access to the whole literature of the world ; we may see in 
 our National Gallery the most beautiful productions of former 
 generations, and in the Royal Academy and other galleries the 
 works of the greatest living artists. Perhaps there is no one 
 who has ever found time to see the British Museum thoroughly. 
 Yet consider what it contains ; or rather, what does it not 
 contain ? The most gigantic of living and extinct animals, the 
 marvellous monsters of geological ages, the most beautiful birds, 
 and shells, and minerals, the most interesting antiquities, curious 
 and fantastic specimens illustrating different races of men ; 
 exquisite gems, coins, glass, and china ; the Elgin marbles, the 
 remains of the mausoleum of the temple of Diana of Ephesus ; 
 ancient monuments of Egypt and Assyria ; the rude implements 
 of our predecessors in England who were coeval with the 
 hippopotamus and rhinoceros, the musk-ox, and the mammoth ; 
 and the most beautiful specimens of Greek and Roman art. In 
 London we may unavoidably suffer, but no one has any excuse 
 for being dull. And yet some people are dull. They talk of a 
 better world to come, while whatever dullness there may be 
 here is all their own. Sir Arthur Helps has well said, ' What ! 
 dull, when you do not know what gives its loveliness of form to 
 "the lily, its depth of colour to a the violet, its fragrance to the rose ; 
 when you do not know in what consists the venom of the adder, 
 any more than you can imitate the glad movements of the dove. 
 What ! dull, when earth, air, and water are all alike mysterious 
 to you, and when as you stretch out your hand you do not touch 
 anything the properties of which you have mastered ; while all 
 the time Nature is inviting you to talk earnestly with her, to 
 understand her, to subdue her, and to be blessed by her ! Go 
 away, man ; learn something, do something, understand some- 
 thing, and let me hear no more of your dullness.' 
 
 Not, of course, that happiness is the highest object of life, 
 but if we endeavour to keep our bodies in health, our minds in 
 use and in peace, and to promote the happiness of those around 
 us, our own happiness will generally follow. 
 
47 
 
 NOTES ON THE COST OF MANUAL TRAINING IN THE 
 PUBLIC ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS OF LONDON. 
 
 BY EDKIC BAYLEY. 
 
 THERE were, for the nine months ended Lady Day, 1887, on the 
 rolls of efficient elementary schools in London, 615,335 children. 1 
 Of this number, 405,972 were in the Board Schools, and of 
 these, 95,922, or rather less than one-fourth, (23'6) were above 
 the age of eleven years, and about the same proportion (2 4 '8) 
 were in, or above the fourth standard. 2 
 
 It is desirable that some manual training should be given to 
 children in the elementary schools, and probably the age of 
 eleven, or the fourth standard, would be a proper time for its 
 commencement. 
 
 The appropriate training, for boys alone, might be working 
 in wood ; for boys and girls, modelling in clay ; and for girls 
 alone, cookery and laundry work. 
 
 Fixing the age of eleven years, or the fourth standard, as the 
 time for the commencement of manual training, we arrive at the 
 number of 150,000 children to be provided for. 
 
 We have to consider the cost of accommodation, tools, 
 materials, and teachers. 
 
 In very few cases could accommodation be found in existing 
 buildings; sufficient sheds might probably be erected in the 
 larger playgrounds at no great expense, but to justify a loan for 
 the cost of erection, the workshops must be substantially built. 
 The cost of erection may be put at 256, the average building 
 cost of the present cookery centres. 
 
 Mr. Henry H. S. Cunynghame estimates that a workshop to 
 accommodate thirty pupils could be fitted up with the requisite 
 benches and tools at a cost of 70. He states that the wear 
 and tear of tools would be small, and that a standard of deal of 
 good quality, costing about 12, would probably be sufficient 
 
 1 Keport of Bye Laws Committee of the School Board for London for the 
 nine months ended Lady Day, 1887. 
 
 2 Report of School Management Committee for the year ended March 26, 
 1887 
 
48 PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 for 300 boys for a year, and he puts the salary of a competent 
 instructor at 2 a week, and of an assistant at 1 a week. 1 
 
 Putting the yearly cost of repairs and painting of buildings 
 at 5, the depreciation in benches and tools at 14, (or twenty 
 per cent, on 70), the cost of materials at 9, and the cost of 
 teachers at 3 a week for forty weeks, we arrive at a yearly cost 
 of 148 for each workshop. 
 
 The cost of materials would probably be decreased by the 
 sale to the boys of some of their own work. 
 
 Mr. Cunynghame estimates that the fitting up of a work- 
 shop of similar accommodation for modelling in clay would not 
 cost more than 24. The yearly cost would be about 134. 16s. 
 
 The cost of fitting up a cookery centre is about 53. The 
 cost of materials is more than recouped by the sale of cooked 
 food. The average price of teaching for each centre is 72. 
 This added to 15.12s., for repairs, painting, and depreciation, 
 comes to 87. 12s. as the yearly cost. 
 
 The cost of fitting up a laundry centre ought not to be 
 more than 50. The cost of material would be recouped by the 
 price paid for articles washed. The teaching should not exceed 
 60 a year. The yearly cost may be put at 75. 
 
 The lessons in manual training should be of two hours' 
 duration, and be given twice a week. To allow of the intro- 
 duction of manual training, the school hours might properly be 
 extended from twenty-seven and a half hours a week, as at 
 present, to thirty hours a week. This would allow three classes 
 a day, or fifteen classes a week of thirty each, or 450 a week ; 
 but as the lesson must be repeated during the week, each class- 
 room would only suffice for 225 children. 
 
 The present rateable value of the metropolis is 30,715,485. 
 A rate of a penny in the pound, after an allowance of ten per 
 cent, for loss on collection, will give 115,000. 
 
 To provide accommodation for 150,000 children, 664 centres 
 would be required ; but, as sixty-six cookery centres already exist, 
 
 1 Technical Education. Paper read before the International Congress 
 at Bordeaux, Henry H. S. Cunynghame, Assistant Charity Commissioner. 
 Uses, Objects, and Methods of Technical Education in Elementary Schools. 
 H. S. Cunynghame, Journal oftlie Society of Arts, Feb. 18, 1887. Evidence of 
 Mr. Cunynghame before the Special Committee of the School Board for 
 London on the subjects and models of instruction in their schools. 
 
COST OF MANUAL TRAINING 49 
 
 only 598 new workshops need be erected, at a cost of 256 
 each, or 153,088, which would be equal to 1^ (1-330) of a 
 penny in the pound. This sum of 153,088 could be borrowed 
 from the Metropolitan Board of Works in the usual way, and 
 payment of principal and interest be spread over a term of fifty 
 years. The yearly payments on this account would be about 
 6,506, which, added to the estimated yearly cost of maintenance, 
 78,023, would bring the total yearly cost to 84,529, or 
 rather over two-thirds (0"725) of a penny in the pound. 
 
 A Government grant of 4s. a head on 149,400 children 
 would be 29,880. The yearly cost of the existing cookery 
 centres after allowing for the Government grant is estimated at 
 2,650. 
 
 These sums of 29,880, and 2,650, together 32,530, taken 
 from 84,529, leave 51,999, or less than a halfpenny (0-452) 
 in the pound as the increased yearly charge to the metropolis 
 for the maintenance of the centres. 
 
 The initial cost of establishment would be 153,088 for 
 building, and 32,396 for fittings and tools, together 185,484, 
 or rather less than Ifrds (1*612) of a penny in the pound ; but 
 as the first of these sums would be raised on loan, the actual 
 payment in the first instance for these centres would be only 
 32,396, or less than a third (0-282) of a penny in the pound. 
 
 It must further be remembered that the supply of class- 
 rooms for manual instruction will ease the pressure on the 
 existing class-rooms, which could only have been relieved by 
 more building ; and that the additional teachers required for 
 manual training will only be equivalent to the addition which 
 would have been required to meet increased population. 
 
 The number of class-rooms, children under instruction, 
 initial cost of buildings, fittings, and tools, and yearly cost of 
 maintenance would be somewhat as follows : 
 
PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 o5 O O O O O 
 
 EH 
 
 CQ sj >o * 05 o o 
 
 O _ 05 MH 
 
 o o o 
 
 fl ' 
 
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 '" o il H 
 
 O O 
 
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 % S 
 
 s 
 
 00 
 
 
 00 
 
 F 
 
 r 
 
 
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 55 CQ 
 
 SJ s s 
 
 g O fa fe 
 
 o ^ 
 
 pq 
 
COST OF MANUAL TRAINING 
 
 O O us 
 
 -H CO b. 
 
 ^ 
 
 P *" 
 
 o o 
 
 ' '-g^a, 
 
 '3 w c3 SH 
 
 1 1 1 1 1 
 *1J| 
 
 Q S H 
 
 
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 * * 
 
 
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 OS 
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 <M* 
 
 CO 
 
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 i-T 
 
 
 
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 T3 
 
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 (3 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 4^) i 1 
 
 >> 
 
 
 
 CQ 
 
 03 2 
 
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 ^ 
 
 
 
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 88 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 5 -^ 
 
 CfJ 
 
 
 
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 OS 
 
 
 
 
 
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 1+3 ^3 
 
 
 
 
 ^ >-3 
 
 
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 S o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 4^ 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 ^ ^2 
 
 
 
 
 
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 8 'g 
 
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 00 
 
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 PQ 
 
52 PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING, 
 
 ARE WE DECAYING? 
 
 From The Scotsman of September 24, 1887. 
 
 SOME years ago so runs the tale a party of Englishmen set 
 to work to try on the old armour which formed part of the 
 decorations of a nobleman's hall. The result was very striking. 
 Not a man of them could get a suit of the armour on. Modern 
 bone and muscle had evidently come to the front in the inevi- 
 table struggle for existence in which, the scientists tell us, high 
 and low life alike engages. On some such groundwork as is 
 formed by the incident just related, people have come to credit 
 the belief that we of this nineteenth century are bigger and 
 finer men than our forefathers of the twelfth or thirteenth. We 
 shake hands with ourselves, and are contented to regard our race 
 foremost in physique, as well as in science, art, and all the other 
 things which make up the wondrously complex existence we live 
 out to-day. Recently, however, those of us who read the medical 
 and scientific journals have found reason to modify this sweep- 
 ing assertion. Very plain hints have been given that our national 
 physique is by no means all that could be desired. Scientists 
 have been comparing figures, and statisticians have compiled 
 tables ; while social reformers, in their turn, have been bewailing 
 the fact that, as regards the masses, their lives are tending to- 
 wards degeneration and wholesale decay of the race. These are 
 alarming statements enough. Let us see if the case of those 
 who assert that we are degenerating as a race is built upon 
 stable ground, and if, in the event of the tale proving true, there 
 remains for us any hope of recovering the way we -have lost in 
 the healthy course of life's development. It was Mr. Cantlie, a 
 London surgeon, who first sounded the note of alarm. The 
 average Londoner, he told us, rarely exists for a generation- 
 time. He comes of a short-lived stock to begin with ; and the 
 conditions under which he exists all tend towards shortening 
 his days, by weakening his energies and enfeebling Jiis physique. 
 Man, it must be noted, is not exempt from the laws which pro- 
 claim the dependence of living things upon their surroundings. 
 Want of fresh air and light, overcrowding, excess of work and 
 
ARE WE DECAYING? 53 
 
 worry, lack of proper food as regards quantity or quality, or 
 both, are conditions which as surely affect men as they mould 
 and conform lower animals and plants. Then comes into play 
 the great law of heredity the infallible axiom of life, that 
 * like begets like.' A race of feeble folk in one generation beget 
 the opposite of giants in the next. Mr. Simon long ago re- 
 marked how the gain of even a little extra health in one decade 
 is multiplied trebly for all decades to come. So is it with 
 disease and weakness. The effects of lowered physique now 
 mean not only feebleness in the next generation, but perpetuated 
 weakness ; and this last leads to that degeneration of body 
 which is the prelude to early death and to race decay. Looking 
 at the masses of our city populations, ' cabin'd, cribb'd, and 
 confined ' as they are, it was not wonderful that Mr. Cantlie 
 should have followed the ordinary lines of scientific logic in his 
 declaration that Londoners are a short-lived race, and that they 
 tend to die out rather than to run onwards towards the making 
 of old families, and of persistent stocks. Lord Brabazon for 
 years back has been reiterating the same opinion as a strong 
 and practical argument in favour of open spaces for the recrea- 
 tion of the masses. London increases by nearly 350,000 souls 
 each year. Large numbers of well-built country units are 
 added annually to the city population ; but this healthy stock, 
 subjected to the unhealthy conditions of city life, soon goes the 
 way of all the rest. Lord Brabazon uttered only a truth 
 ghastly enough in its way, but all-familiar to physiologists 
 when he said that if the city could be isolated and all inter- 
 marriage with the country prevented, the deterioration of the 
 physique which would ensue would be such as c to horrify the 
 public,' and l arouse a sense of national danger.' It is high 
 time, therefore, that as a nation we awoke to the real mean- 
 ings of the Cassandra-like warnings which science and socio- 
 logy are dinning into our ears. The whole question is one of 
 health, of better conditions of physical life, of extended oppor- 
 tunities for a more wholesome existence, as represented chiefly 
 by pure air, good food, temperance, cleanliness, and means 
 of healthful recreation. Not by any magical process can we 
 grow in strength. The means are of the simplest character. 
 Unfortunately, in the crush and crowd of modern life, it is 
 
54 PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 exactly these simple means of health which are hardest to pro- 
 cure. 
 
 The latest of the warnings which have reached the public 
 ear comes from no less notable a source than the Director- 
 General of the Army Medical Department himself. It recently 
 fell to the lot of Sir Thomas Crawford, M.D., to deliver an address 
 before the British Medical Association in conclave assembled in 
 the Irish capital. In the course of that address the lecturer 
 adduced certain very pertinent facts concerning the question of 
 race decay. His figures were drawn from the records of army 
 enlistment, and as these records originate in the skilled medical 
 examination of recruits, the statistics he offers are of high value 
 from their undoubted accuracy. In the period from 1860 to 
 1864 inclusive no fewer than 32,324 examinations of recruits 
 were made by army surgeons. The number of men required 
 averaged 6,465, this being a small one, and the fact therefore 
 telling in favour of rigid tests being applied to ensure the 
 efficiency of the material offered in the shape of fighting men. 
 The rejections, from all causes, numbered 37T67 per 1,000. 
 The next period, from 1882 to 1886, presents us with 132,563 
 men who offered themselves for enlistment. The rejections here 
 amounted to 415*58 per 1,000. The increase in rejections was, 
 therefore, of a most marked character. Sir Thomas Crawford 
 can explain it in one way only. The masses from whom the 
 army recruits are chiefly taken, he tells us, c are of an inferior 
 physique to what they were twenty-five years ago.' That is the 
 plain unvarnished truth, and as such it is by no means of a 
 palatable kind to those who regard the national welfare as a 
 thing to be conserved and prized. Examined more closely, it is 
 found that these statistics reveal certain additional facts of 
 interest. Lord Brabazon and Sir Thomas Crawford are in com- 
 plete agreement regarding the deteriorating effects of town life 
 on the masses. Among city-bred lads the proportion of rejec- 
 tions is highest ; while the exact causes of their dismissal are 
 such as point to a plain inferiority of body in some of the most 
 vital characters of the healthy man. The town-bred recruit is 
 thus of lighter weight than his country neighbour. He has, 'in 
 other words, not attained a full development of frame. Again, 
 his chest is narrowed beyond natural limits, and with this item 
 
ARE WE DECAYING? 55 
 
 we must associate a diminished lung capacity and an inferior 
 breathing power. Why is it, for instance, that consumption, 
 as a rule, attacks the apices or tops of the lungs first of all, and 
 why does that fell disorder find a natural starting-point in the 
 upper region of the breathing organs ? The answer is simple 
 enough. Because these are the parts of the lungs which even 
 in the ordinary chest are least used, and, according to the great 
 law of use and disuse, disease always attacks inert organs before 
 those which are naturally and healthily employed. Applying 
 this fact to the narrow-chested person, we see how much more 
 susceptible to the inroads of chest disease the lungs of such a 
 person must be. The weakly chest, in truth, implies a body 
 which is handicapped in the race for life, and which has lost its 
 staying power in the contest for existence. Again, the town- 
 bred recruit is undersized, just as he is light-weighted, when 
 compared with the man from the fresh air and the fields. His 
 teeth, too, are found to share the process of physical degeneracy ; 
 and this condition, in turn, militates against healthy digestion, 
 which is the foundation of all physical strength and bodily weal. 
 The eyesight suffers, too, among other phases of degenerate life. 
 Overcrowding, bad air, and impure food affect the vision in a 
 remarkable way. The rejections for defective sight and eye 
 diseases amounted in Sir Thomas Crawford's experience to 
 nearly 42 per 1,000 ; and this estimate does not include those 
 cases whose defects of vision were of such obvious kind as to 
 exclude them even from the recruiting sergeant's list. A 
 peculiar form of ophthalmia or eye inflammation is found, as 
 Sir Thomas Crawford remarks, wherever we discover bad venti- 
 lation and impure air. It is seen in the bazaars of Cairo ; you 
 meet with it in the cabins of Connemara ; and it crops up in 
 school and prison alike, where the fresh air of heaven is not 
 made a free gift to man. Even animals exhibit this form of 
 eye disease when their stables or pens are not properly venti- 
 lated. At the beginning of the century soldiers were witnessed, 
 invalided on this account, groping their way, stick in hand, 
 through the streets. Nowadays, with improved ventilation, 
 this disease is unknown in the army. Yet in our courts and 
 slums it is ever present, telling its own mournful story of the 
 lack of at least one necessity of healthy life. The warnings 
 
56 PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 which are thus being showered upon us from one quarter or 
 another should surely fall upon ears ready to hear and to obey 
 the dictates of the science which teaches men how to attain to 
 length of days. If as a race we have started on the way of 
 physical backsliding, it is not too late to apply the break to the 
 vehicle, and to arrest its rapidly cumulative progress on the 
 downward path. There are plenty of agencies already at work 
 in the interests of national health, which means national wealth 
 and prosperity both. But we require these agencies to be 
 increased in number and in power a thousandfold before we 
 may congratulate ourselves that the tide has turned towards 
 better days and longer life for us all. The opening of free 
 recreation-grounds and breathing spaces for the people; the 
 encouragement of physical exercises in the schools, especially 
 the teaching of the plain laws of health, frugality, and temper- 
 ance; the abolition of slums and the better housing of the 
 masses these are the principal means of reforming the 
 tendency to race decay. The great statesman whose cry was 
 omnia sanitas perchance saw with prophetic vision the pro- 
 spect of better things in the way of health for the people than 
 had been attained in his day. It remains for his successors 
 to carry out a policy of national health-aid which shall make 
 the people healthy, and because healthy, prosperous and happy. 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING. 
 
 (ADDRESS GIVEN BY THE EARL OP MEATH AT THE LIVERPOOL GYMNASIUM, 
 OCTOBER 12, 1887.) 
 
 IT may not be out of place on an occasion like this to point 
 out how gymnastic training has confessedly exercised a not 
 unimportant influence in the making of a nation ; and I hope 
 that I may be able to show, before I have finished my story, that 
 it contains a moral which this country would do well in all 
 seriousness to consider. The crushing defeat which the Prus- 
 sians sustained in the battle of Jena at the hands of Napoleon 
 in 1806 forced them to look to the causes of that defeat, and to 
 take steps to re-establish their position in Europe. The world 
 
PHYSICAL TRAINING 57 
 
 is aware how, under the leadership of Prince Bismarck, Germany 
 has risen to the very first rank amongst the nations of the 
 world, but it is not so well known that the soldiers who won 
 the battles of Sadowa and Sedan owe their success not merely 
 to the skill of their officers or to their own bravery, but to the 
 ability, forethought, and patriotism of men, many of whom had 
 been in their graves for years when these battles were fought. 
 Amongst these may be mentioned Johann Jahn and Adolph 
 Spiess. Jahn recognised that the defeat of Jena could be traced 
 to more causes than that of superior generalship. He was dis- 
 satisfied with the material of which the Prussian army was then 
 composed. He detected in it moral and physical defects, and 
 he thought he saw in it a flabbiness both of muscle and of moral 
 fibre. The young men who filled the regiments of his country 
 were, to his mind, wanting in hardihood, in physical strength, 
 in activity, and in love of country, and he determined to devote 
 his life to the improvement of the raw material from which the 
 armies of his dear Fatherland would have to be recruited. It 
 was not long before his idea assumed a practical shape. In 
 1811 he began to form the ' Turner- Vereine,' or gymnastic 
 associations, which have played such an important part in the 
 development of the German race. These associations gradually 
 grew in number until there was hardly a village which could 
 not boast of its gymnastic corps and of its open-air practising- 
 ground. As it was Jahn's desire to foster a spirit of patriotism 
 among the youth of his country, as well as to develop their 
 bodies, he framed a code of rules to be observed by the members 
 of the association when assembled in the field of exercise, some 
 of which did not escape criticism, and which brought him into 
 no little trouble. The benefits conferred by these associations 
 on the German youth, however, gradually became apparent 
 to the nation, and in 1840 Adolph Spiess was instrumental in 
 introducing into German elementary schools a system of com- 
 pulsory physical training. In Jahn's voluntary gymnastic asso- 
 ciations only those youths who had a taste for active exercise 
 were brought under physical training, whilst the weaklings and 
 those who in all probability most needed physical development 
 were neglected ; but when every German lad had to pass through 
 a compulsory course of gymnastic training, the march to Paris 
 
5 8 PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 may already be said to have commenced. Germany is not the 
 only nation which has recognised the importance of training the 
 body as well as the mind. Sweden and Switzerland have for 
 some years laid great stress on gymnastic training, and France 
 has lately followed in their footsteps. Although Sweden is a 
 poor country, she spends large sums annually on the physical 
 training of children of both sexes in- her national schools. The 
 German thinks that gymnastics makes a child 'frisch, frei, 
 frohlich, und fromm,' which may be freely translated as ' lively, 
 lissom, light-hearted, and leal.' We do not seem to care much 
 what the child is like in character or in body as long as we can 
 stuff into its poor little brain a recognised quantity of mental 
 food, which it does not assimilate, which is forgotten in a year 
 or two after leaving school, and which from its unpractical 
 character, even if remembered, is of little real advantage to it 
 in after life. 
 
 It is of the first importance to every one to be possessed of 
 a healthy and vigorous body. Why then do we neglect the 
 training of the bodies of our children, as if it were a matter to 
 be left to chance ? If the mass of the children in Great Britain 
 were country-bred there might be some excuse for such couduct, 
 but the exact reverse is the case. There are two town-bred to 
 every country-bred child in this country, and the proportion is 
 annually growing in favour of the former. This is a very serious 
 fact, for it means the certain degeneration of the race unless 
 steps are taken to counteract the downward tendency. 
 
 From time to time notes of warning have been sounded in our 
 ears. A quarter of a century ago Dr. Hayles Walsh delivered 
 a lecture upon the degeneracy of town populations. Mr. Cantlie, 
 a London surgeon, was one of the first to point out that the 
 average Londoner rarely exists for a generation-time. From 
 inquiries made at the London Hospital, out of 800 cockneys only 
 four were to be found of the fourth generation. Sir Thomas 
 Crawford, M.D., the Director-General of the Army Medical 
 Department, lately told the British Medical Association that 
 in twenty-five years the number of rejections for the- army have 
 increased from 371*67 per thousand for the years 1860-64 to 
 415-58 for the years 1882-86, showing an excess of 43-91 per 
 thousand in favour of 1860-64. He says, ' There is evidence of 
 
PHYSICAL TRAINING 59 
 
 perceptible deterioration or degeneration of type in the lower 
 order of the people. ... In seeking for an explanation of this 
 apparent deterioration I have been forcibly impressed with the 
 fact that the recruits drawn from town-bred populations give 
 by far the largest proportion of rejections, while the causes of 
 rejections usually indicate a decidedly inferior physique. The 
 inferiority is shown by the difference in weight between town 
 and country recruits, as well as by the greater frequency of re- 
 jections for want of sufficient capacity of chest, loss and decay 
 of teeth, and diminutive stature.' 
 
 Dr. Fothergill, in a paper read before the Anthropological 
 Section of the British Association at Manchester 011 September 
 last, and which has been republished in this month's ( National 
 Review,' says, i It has long been recognised that town populations 
 have a tendency to deteriorate ; . . . the facts have long been re- 
 cognised and are notorious. Compare the people seen on market 
 day at Carlisle, Wetherby, or Peterborough, with the population 
 encountered at Shoreditch, Hammersmith Broadway, Marsh 
 Lane, Leeds, and the towns of the great industrial hives of Lan- 
 cashire and Yorkshire generally.' 
 
 Similar evidence has been given by Sir Crichton Brown in 
 his report on the condition of children in some of the London 
 Board schools. Mr. Charles Roberts, F.R.C.S., in an article 
 published in this month's ' Fortnightly Review,' says that an exa- 
 mination of the statistics published by Sir Thomas Crawford in 
 the report to which I have already alluded leads him (Mr. 
 Roberts) to an exactly opposite conclusion to that arrived at by 
 Sir Thomas. But Mr. Roberts himself acknowledges that the 
 average stature of a native of London (a city which recruits its 
 inhabitants from all parts of Great Britain and Ireland) is half 
 an inch short of that of the whole kingdom ; that * Bristol, with 
 a fairly mixed but local population, shows similar relation to 
 the counties of Somerset and Gloucester ; ' and that at Sheffield, 
 where the industrial class is much in excess of other classes, the 
 stature is about an inch less and the weight about 10 Ibs. less 
 than that of the West Riding of Yorkshire. Mr. Roberts, though 
 sanguine as to the future of our national physique, is not so ena- 
 moured of the present condition of things as not to desire that 
 it should be improved. He says ' physique . . . and its variations 
 
60 PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 are dependent on and controlled by food, exercise, and sanitary 
 surroundings. . . The taste for athletic exercises, gymnastics, 
 boating, skating, and cycling, so enthusiastically practised by the 
 educated classes, is extending to the masses ; while the agitation 
 for the introduction of physical training, technical education, and 
 handicrafts into elementary schools promises well for the future 
 of their children. Much, very much remains to be done to 
 rescue our still underfed and overcrowded town population from 
 the insanitary conditions that environ them ; but beyond what 
 is already being done, the chief thing to do now is to impress on 
 all persons having charge of the education and management of 
 children, from the Vice-President of the Council to the youngest 
 pupil-teacher, that physical activity is the law which regulates 
 the growth and development of the body, and lays the founda- 
 tion of both a good physique and an active, intelligent, and teach- 
 able mind; and to secure this more time and more skill in 
 teaching physical exercises in schools, and more open spaces and 
 playgrounds, are absolutely necessary.' As one who has worked 
 for several years to obtain these objects, I welcome the expression 
 of this opinion ; and its force is enhanced when we remember 
 that the above words are from the pen of no pessimist, but are 
 those of one who views the physical condition of the masses from 
 an optimistic point of view. Dr. Roberts seems to be of opinion 
 that some time and some skill are expended in our national 
 schools in the teaching of physical exercises. I fear that the 
 amount of time and skill thus expended is infinitesimal in 
 quantity. 
 
 In London, owing to the generosity of private individuals, 
 and of the Metropolitan Public Garden Association, Swedish drill 
 is taught to the girls in a few of the schools ; but although 
 the chairman and majority of the Board are favourably inclined 
 to the introduction of physical exercises into the school curricu- 
 lum for both sexes, they are unable to carry out their desires, as 
 school boards are not permitted by law to expend money for 
 this purpose, nor is any Government grant given for proficiency 
 in physical exercises. Until such exercises are made compulsory 
 in all national schools, until the Board schools are empowered 
 to build gymnasia and expend money in the payment of teachers, 
 and until Government grants are given for improved physique, it 
 
PHYSICAL TRAINING 61 
 
 will be useless to expect any change in the health and strength 
 of the children of our large towns. 
 
 Dr. Brookes, of Much Wenlock, who for years has advocated 
 the introduction of physical exercises as a grant-bearing com- 
 pulsory subject into the educational curriculum of our Board and 
 national schools, has practically shown that by a system of 
 chest and limb measurement it is possible to gauge progress in 
 physical development made by a class of children, and to esti- 
 mate the grant which should be given in accordance with a fixed 
 scale of payment. The Government has promised to introduce 
 next session into Parliament a Technical Education Bill. The 
 friends of national physical education should endeavour to incor- 
 porate in that Bill a clause authorising Board schools to expend 
 money on physical training, making it compulsory (except in 
 cases where a medical certificate of exemption can be produced), 
 and instructing the Education Department to include the sub- 
 ject amongst those mentioned in the code as capable of earning 
 a Government grant. If this were done, and if Board school 
 authorities were seriously to consider whether they could not 
 with advantage follow the example set by some of the German 
 and French national schools, where food is supplied to the 
 scholars once a day at an exceedingly cheap rate, we should, I 
 believe, within a few years notice a marked improvement in the 
 physique of our city-bred young men and women. There are 
 some persons who appear to think that strength of constitution 
 and nerve are qualities of very little use in the nineteenth cen- 
 tury. The very reverse is the case. Our ancestors lived quiet, 
 peaceful, humdrum lives compared with ours. Time was of little 
 consequence to them. It is the high pressure of life which tells 
 upon the vital force of the present generation. We are always 
 working against time. It is the man of strong constitution and 
 of cast-iron digestive powers who will win in the long run. Look 
 at our Parliamentary leaders ; are they not all men with marvel- 
 lous powers of withstanding fatigue ? What sort of chance in 
 the competition of life does a weakly barrister, solicitor, news- 
 paper editor, physician, or a city clergyman possess ? If in his 
 youth he has not laid in a stock of health, and if from time to time 
 he does not take care to replenish his store, he will be sure to 
 break down, and be passed in the race by more physically capable 
 
62 PHYSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 competitors who may be mentally his inferiors. It is the same 
 in the lower ranks of life. The compositor, the printer, the 
 engine-driver, the railway porter, the omnibus conductor, the 
 factory hand, both male and female, the dressmaker, the seam- 
 stress, and indeed all workers of both sexes in the social hive, 
 require for success to be possessed of strong and healthy bodies. 
 Health and strength are priceless possessions to the individual, 
 and no less so to the nation. Woe to that country whose sons 
 and daughters are incapable of bearing fatigue! she will be 
 successful neither in peace nor in war. In peace she will be 
 driven by stronger nations out of the markets of the world, and 
 in war neither money nor science will avail to replace the sturdy 
 arms and the steady nerves which should have been forthcoming 
 to defend her. 
 
II. INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING. 
 
 THE INDUSTRIAL TRAINING OF DESTITUTE 
 CHILDREN.^ 
 
 BY SAMUEL SMITH, ESQ., M.P. 
 
 I HAVE tried on various occasions to bring before the country 
 the pressing need of Social Reform. I have urged that the 
 great danger to our country lay in the growth of a poor, 
 miserable, and degraded proletariat, living in close proximity 
 to the wealthiest aristocracy the world has ever seen. I have 
 tried to sketch the horrible condition in which vast numbers of 
 our countrymen lived, especially in London and the great sea- 
 port towns, and have attempted to show that the real hope of 
 the future lay in rescuing the young from the wretched career 
 to which their parents too often consigned them. 
 
 Since that time a flood of lurid light has been thrown upon 
 the condition of i outcast London.' The evidence taken on the 
 dwellings of the poor, the disclosures of the supineness of the 
 London Vestries, the half-starved condition of the children in 
 many of our Board Schools these and many other revelations 
 have produced a painful impression of the rottenness of our 
 social fabric. 
 
 It is no doubt quite possible to exaggerate the magnitude 
 of the evil. I gladly admit that the bulk of the nation has 
 made wonderful progress both morally and materially in the 
 last forty years. Yet I fear it must also be granted that there 
 remains a large deposit of human misery in our midst, wholly 
 untouched by the progress of the nation just as poor, as 
 corrupt, and as hopeless of improvement as at any previous 
 period of our history. I do not feel at all sure that this deposit 
 
 1 Keprinted, by permission, from the Contemporary Review of January 1885. 
 
64 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 has not been increasing of late years : at all events, the difficulty 
 of earning a living has been growing in the metropolis. I 
 believe that a larger proportion of its population is now on the 
 verge of starvation than was the case ten years ago. The trade 
 of this country has for several years lost its former elasticity, and 
 the rapid increase of population adds to the strain of life, and 
 renders it more difficult for the poor unskilled labourer to hold 
 up his head. 
 
 Admitting all that is proved in Mr. Giffen's valuable paper 
 on the progress of the working classes during the past fifty 
 years, I contend that this improvement does not touch the great 
 floating element of casual unskilled labour which abounds in our 
 large towns, and especially in the metropolis. Indeed, the very 
 improvement in other sections of society makes it more intoler- 
 able that immense numbers of families should live in single 
 rooms, as foul as pigsties, without the decencies or comforts of 
 life, barely eking out a wretched subsistence on two or three 
 days' casual labour per week, nearly half of which goes for the 
 rent of the filthy dens they inhabit. Yet this is the condition 
 in which multitudes of the people in London live, and the same 
 holds good of Liverpool, Glasgow, and most of our large towns. 
 
 I am deeply convinced that the time is approaching when 
 this seething mass of human misery will shake the social fabric, 
 unless we grapple more earnestly with it than we have yet done, 
 and my object in these remarks is to point out a new field in 
 which the richest fruits may be reaped if we enter upon it with 
 adequate courage. 
 
 In an article which I contributed to the c Nineteenth Century * 
 in 1883, I dealt with the care of the children by the State, and 
 pointed out how inadequate were our safeguards against parental 
 neglect, and how much more drastic was the legislation of America 
 and other countries on this subject. I also advocated the emi- 
 gration of pauper children to the Colonies, under proper gua- 
 rantees, and showed how we might thereby drain away much of 
 the hereditary pauperism of this country. I now wish to advo- 
 cate a system of industrial training for the children of our destitute 
 classes conducted in night schools up to the age of sixteen. 
 
 I am aware that at first sight this will appear to some a 
 startling proposition, but I believe that a decade will not elapse 
 
TRAINING OF DESTITUTE CHILDREN 65 
 
 before it is as commonly admitted to be wise and politic as 
 national elementary education is now. 
 
 In order to bring this vividly before the reader, let me 
 depict the life of a London schoolboy in the low parts of the 
 city. He is compelled to attend school from five to twelve or 
 thirteen years of age for five hours a day. Careful inquiry 
 proves that in these poor districts 25 per cent, of the children 
 come to school without breakfast, and have only a piece of dry 
 bread, perhaps with some tea, for their dinner ; their physical 
 stamina is unequal to even a moderate intellectual effort, and 
 probably half the school-time is passed in a sort of comatose 
 state, in which they can learn absolutely nothing. They then 
 go home to their miserable dens, where too often a drunken 
 father or a profligate mother makes all happiness or morality 
 impossible. They herd together in a single room, where all 
 ages and both sexes sleep, eat, and dwell together. Hard as 
 the school-life of such children is, it is much better than living 
 entirely l at home,' if such words can be used of their domestic 
 surroundings, and it is no doubt true, as Sir Lyon Playfair has 
 shown, that the mortality of children of school-going age has 
 much decreased, owing to their being less constantly in the 
 foul atmosphere of their foetid slums. I thankfully admit that 
 compulsory elementary education is the greatest factor yet known 
 or tried for civilising the youth of ' outcast London.' 
 
 But it is a very imperfect agency ; it comes far short of 
 securing a fair prospect of a respectable after-life. Let me 
 sketch still farther the process of youthful development. No 
 children will stay in such filthy dwellings a minute longer than 
 they possibly can ; and so they spend their evenings on the 
 streets, hearing and seeing all that is vile and debasing. Fancy 
 what a picture of human life must be formed in the mind of a 
 child who is familiar with the harlot and the drunkard from 
 infancy upwards, and looks on these as the normal development 
 of humanity ! Yet so it is in many parts of our great cities. 
 How little chance is there that short Bible lessons excellent 
 as these are will counteract the ( object lessons ' of human 
 wickedness ever floating before their eyes ! But the moment 
 of supreme danger comes after leaving school. The little half- 
 grown child of twelve or thirteen, stunted in all but its precocious 
 
 F 
 
66 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 knowledge of vice, is left free to wander at will by day and 
 night on the streets. The parents of this class as a rule follow 
 no regular trade ; they pick up an uncertain livelihood from the 
 innumerable precarious employments of a large city ; they have 
 no power to apprentice their children to an honest trade ; many 
 of them have no ambition ; they have never known anything 
 better than the uncertain livings of the streets, and they are 
 contented that their children should be as themselves. A great 
 proportion of them spend every farthing they can spare on drink, 
 and have less concern for their offspring than the brute creation. 
 Need one wonder that the children of this class and it is a very 
 large one should reproduce the likeness of their parents ? A 
 few years spent on the streets in what is called ' hob-jobbing,' 
 virtually settles their future lot ; it stamps upon them indelibly 
 the features of the tramp, the pauper, and the criminal ; it feeds 
 the horrible stream of fallen women which makes the streets of 
 London hideous beyond those of any capital in Europe, and it 
 prepares the way for a fresh crop of this baneful harvest in the 
 next generation. 1 
 
 For one of the gloomiest elements in the whole case is the 
 extraordinary rapidity with which this degraded population 
 multiplies ; the birth-rate is far higher in these low slums than 
 in the respectable neighbourhoods. Little girls frequently be- 
 come mothers, and I am told that it is not uncommon for women 
 of twenty to have three or four children. 2 The responsibility of 
 bringing human beings into existence seems not to cross the 
 minds of these sunken creatures ; that they cannot feed or 
 clothe their children is no hindrance to matrimonial or other 
 alliances ; and , were it not for the vast infantile mortality, the 
 numbers of the destitute classes would double or treble every 
 
 1 ' Year by year, from seventy to eighty thousand London children pass out 
 of elementary schools ; of these, possibly the half obtain bond-Jide occupation ; 
 as for the rest the poorer part, inhabiting, too, the more densely populated 
 quarters there is nothing for them but the streets, and the almost certain 
 life of a knave or a fool. It is probable that, every day, not less than seventy 
 thousand boys and girls are actually " hob- jobbing about," utterly helpless, 
 until they hob- job into gaols, penitentiaries, reformatories.' Extract from 
 The Gaol Cradle, tvlw rocks it ? By the Eev. Benjamin Waugh. 
 
 2 The birth-rate in the prosperous district of Hampstead for the ten years 
 1871-80 was 24 per 1,000 annually; whereas in the poor and miserable district 
 of Whitechapel it was 36 per 1,000, or just 50 per cent, higher. 
 
TRAINING OF DESTITUTE CHILDREN 67 
 
 twenty-five years. It may be truly said that nothing but star- 
 vation prevents this portentous increase. 
 
 Now, the sad thing is that no charitable outlay, however 
 vast, could cure this terrible evil. Were we to suppose, as 
 some socialists seem to think, that the thrifty and industrious 
 classes should be made responsible for keeping the thriftless in 
 comfort, this class would multiply far faster than has ever been 
 kncwn before. Parents relieved of all responsibility would 
 neglect their offspring more than ever, and the millions of 
 pauperised wretches would multiply into tens of millions in the 
 not distant future. No wealth could long stand such a drain : 
 the nation would sink into a Serbonian bog, in which all virtue 
 and manliness would perish. No relief is to be found in any 
 remedy which does not aim at producing individual virtue and 
 independence : the proletariat may strangle us unless we teach 
 it the same virtues which have elevated the other classes of 
 society. 
 
 This leads me to describe more fully the scheme of reform 
 I propose. It is, in short, an extension to all the destitute 
 children of the land of the excellent system of industrial train- 
 ing which already obtains in the best of our district schools, in 
 the Reformatory and Industrial schools, and in very many 
 private institutions, such as Barnardo's admirable Homes in the 
 east of London. It is to give to the thousands what is now 
 given to the tens and twenties of our youthful population to 
 give it them, not as a reward for juvenile crime, nor as a badge 
 of pauperism, but as a necessary part of education, quite as 
 necessary as ' the three R's.' It is to make the training of the 
 hands no less than the training of the head a part of national 
 education ; it is to conceive of e education ' as the fitting of a 
 child for the duties of after-life, and, above all, for earning an 
 honest livelihood. 
 
 Of course the laissez-faire school will say this is not the 
 business of the State, just as they said fifty years ago that 
 elementary education lay outside its province : but, if I am not 
 mistaken, this objection will soon be brushed aside when the 
 nation comes to see that we must either undertake this duty or 
 risk anarchy in the future. 
 
 It is intolerable that millions of people should exist in our 
 
 F 2 
 
68 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 midst unable to live except on charity, because they have been 
 taught in youth no means of livelihood. The little smattering 
 of education got in our national schools by the children of this 
 class is almost rubbed off them in the critical years that succeed 
 school life ; it only enables them to read the ' Police News/ the 
 ' Newgate Calendar,' and such like rubbish, which is the chief 
 literature that circulates in the slums. One sometimes wonders 
 whether this so-called i education' does not, in the case of many, 
 only multiply their power for evil : the real education they most 
 of all need is not given, viz. the habit of steady useful industry, 
 the ability to turn their hands readily to any useful calling, and 
 the power to fit themselves for a decent life, either at home or 
 in the colonies. The critical period of child-life is from twelve 
 to sixteen ; it is then that the habits are formed which deter- 
 mine its future ; at that vital stage the child-population of the 
 slums are prowling about the streets, getting initiated into the 
 arts of vice and crime. 
 
 The best career that is open to the boys afterwards is casual 
 labour at the docks or warehouses a field that is always glutted 
 with hungry applicants ; the best to which they can look forward 
 in after-life is three days' work per week, affording on an average 
 about 15s. per week of income, of which 5s. goes for rent, with 
 a squalid, dirty wife and family usually on the brink of starva- 
 tion. The career of the artisan, with his 35s. or 40s. per week, 
 is forbidden to the common labourer, for .he .can get no early 
 training ; the great colonial field is closed against him, for he 
 has no money to emigrate with, and, if despatched by charity 
 to the shores of Canada or Australia, he is looked upon as a 
 nuisance by the -colonists ; he cannot handle tools, he knows 
 nothing of farm labour, he has no foresight, self-control, or 
 independence ; the life of the streets and slums of ' outcast 
 London,' or ' squalid Liverpool,' has washed out of him every 
 element that goes to make a successful colonist. 
 
 And so it happens that, while the flower of our population 
 emigrate and build up prosperous fortunes at the Antipodes or 
 across the Atlantic, the residuum remains behind," corrupting 
 and being corrupted, like the sewage of the metropolis which 
 remained floating at the mouth of the Thames last summer 
 because there was not scour sufficient to propel it into the sea. 
 
TRAINING OF DESTITUTE CHILDREN 69 
 
 I can see no end to this vicious circle, unless the State 
 provide for ' labour education ' as well as mental education in 
 our public school system. 1 
 
 These ideas are rapidly being carried into effect on the 
 Continent, under the name of technical training; prodigious 
 efforts are being made, especially by France, Germany, and 
 Switzerland, to cultivate the taste and talent of artisans, and 
 they are extending them to a lower grade of schools, and in 
 some places are requiring children to attend so-called ' Con- 
 tinuation Schools' at night up to the age of sixteen. But 
 none of these countries needs the precise thing that we require 
 in Great Britain ; they have not nearly so many neglected 
 children, nor so large a residuum of drunken and depraved 
 parents. With us the case is far more urgent : we have terrible 
 arrears of neglect; to overtake ; we were the last of the civilised 
 States to enforce national compulsory education, and we shall 
 have to do double work for many years to get abreast of the 
 more advanced nations. 
 
 What I should like to see were it possible of attainment 
 would be the adoption of manual training as a part of all school 
 education in this country. I should recommend that Eton as well 
 as Seven Dials should have industrial education. No country 
 in the world produces so many helpless people among the middle 
 
 1 ' A compulsory labour law, however undesirable in itself, is rendered ab- 
 solutely necessary by varied and complicated causes, but by one chiefly viz. 
 the worthless character of many parents necessary as a protection to the 
 State. What do the selfish, animalised parents know of parental responsi- 
 bilities, or care for the use or abuse of youth, the solemn duties of citizens, 
 the basis of society, the weal of the State ? Yet all these things are involved 
 in their action towards their children. Themselves living from hand to mouth, 
 they feel that it is right to turn out their children, regardless of all future 
 consequences, on the chance of their somehow picking up a copper or two, 
 and it is amazing to see how many a family can, and do, live thus on nothing 
 to do. Did not their parents act thus ? Were not they themselves turned 
 out, and have not tliey got along ? To the possibility of his children growing 
 up to be sleepy labourers, beer-house loungers, idle paupers, what sleepy 
 labourer, beer-house lounger, idle pauper, ever gives a thought ? And if it 
 could arise on his stolid imagination, why should he be shocked at the vision ? 
 Everything depends on the medium through which the prospect is seen His 
 opinion if opinion he has at all is that everybody husband, wife, and 
 children must " fend " for themselves, and take their chance.' Extract from 
 The Gaol Cradle, mho rocks it? By the liev. Benjamin Waugh. 
 
70 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 and upper classes as England does. An unwholesome contempt 
 for hand labour runs through all c good society/ as it is falsely 
 called ; and so it is that when families are left destitute, as 
 frequently happens among our improvident gentlefolk, it is 
 found that none of them can earn their bread ; neither sons nor 
 daughters can emigrate, for there is nothing they can do that is 
 of any use in the busy and practical communities of the New 
 World. I believe that in far more cases than is generally 
 supposed ' decayed ' families in the upper and middle classes 
 are supported by charity. 
 
 I much doubt, if an accurate census were taken of the self- 
 supporting part of the population, whether it would not be 
 found that as large a proportion of the people who wear broad- 
 cloth are in reality paupers as of those who wear fustian. There 
 could not be a greater social boon conferred on this country than 
 by engrafting on the educational system universally the teaching 
 of some manual trade. 
 
 I am aware, however, that so sweeping a change as this is 
 not within the scope of practical politics, and so I confine my 
 suggestion to the children of what may be roughly called the 
 destitute or semi-pauper class. It will at once occur as a diffi- 
 culty, that the State cannot undertake the invidious task of dis- 
 criminating them. Destitution has many shades : the deserving 
 poor sink by imperceptible gradations into the profligate poor ; 
 the skilled artisan often falls through intemperance into the 
 lower stratum ; many members of the educated professions sink 
 through their own vices into the slums ; where are we to draw 
 the line ? I admit that a reply must be given to this objection. 
 I propose that the general rule be to require all children, after 
 leaving elementary schools (which is usually at twelve or 
 thirteen), to attend night schools in the evening to receive 
 manual training, unless their parents or guardians can satisfy 
 the inspector that they are usefully employed. I would not pro- 
 pose that a child who is apprenticed to a trade, or even employed 
 as an errand-boy in a shop, should be compelled to attend, and 
 girls who were urgently needed for household work at home 
 could also be excused, or only required to attend on one or two 
 nights a week. The real object should be to make the meshes 
 of the net fine enough to catch ' the street children,' those 
 
TRAINING OF DESTITUTE CHILDREN 71 
 
 swarms of neglected juveniles whose parents can give no good 
 account of them. It is impossible to estimate th,e number of 
 this class, but I should not wonder if half a million, or one-tenth 
 of the total number of school children, would be qualified for this 
 wholesome discipline. And further, I have no doubt that as the 
 immense advantages of this industrial training began to show 
 themselves, many parents of a better class would be thankful to 
 let their children share the benefit. It would only be needful 
 to make provision in the first instance in considerable towns, 
 say of over 10,000 population : the rural children do not need 
 much training of this kind; they learn farm work in most cases, 
 which is- the best of all training. There would also be much less 
 need of it in manufacturing towns, where children enter the 
 mills as half-timers : the scheme would mainly apply to London 
 and the great seaport towns, and need not impose a heavy 
 burden on the State. We have a magnificent supply of Board 
 Schools ready prepared, where most of the training could 
 be cheaply given in the evening. 
 
 I would suggest that the boys should be taught carpentry, 
 tailoring, shoemaking, printing, &c. ; the girls sewing, cooking, 
 washing, and domestic economy as far as possible. Some of 
 these branches could easily be carried on in the existing school- 
 rooms without injuring the furniture ; others might require a 
 shed or some cheap structure to be added for the coarse work. 
 It would not be needful to occupy every school ; certain centres 
 might be fixed upon within easy reach of the children. The 
 teaching of the boys might be given by skilled artisans, whose 
 wages for two or three hours per evening would not be very 
 high. I do not believe that the whole cost of training half a 
 million children in this way need exceed half a million sterling 
 per annum say 11. per head ; whereas pauperism and crime 
 cost the State fifteen millions a year, and mostly spring from 
 the neglected children of this class. 
 
 I predict that within a generation, if we adopt these recom- 
 mendations, we shall have reduced this heavy tax by one-half. 
 A few years of such training would change the character of a 
 boy's life. Physical labour, well directed and not overdone, is 
 the truest recreation ; there is nothing that boys are fonder of 
 than learning handicrafts. When the taste is once formed, and 
 
72 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 the habit fixed, they may be left to take care of themselves. 
 They will not often relapse into the indolent, hopeless life 
 common to their class. A thousand avenues of useful employ- 
 ment will open up to them which are at present closed. They 
 will find that they are welcome emigrants to every new country 
 in the world. 
 
 Let those who doubt this pay a visit to Dr. Barnardo's 
 Homes, where 700 boys, rescued from the worst of the slums, 
 are trained to a cheerful, industrious life. He will see there a 
 series of workshops, full of busy young life, and a diffused 
 element of health and happiness which is wonderful, con- 
 sidering the horrible condition from which the boys were taken. 
 The half-time system prevails there, as in the best pauper and 
 industrial schools. It is found that children can do just as 
 much head-work in the forenoon as if the whole of the day 
 were so occupied ; and the time given to manual work makes 
 them far more healthy and happy. 
 
 I have no manner of doubt that in the poorer schools of the 
 country the half-time system would answer far better than the 
 existing one. The children of this class have but small mental 
 capacity : three hours in the morning exhaust their little stock 
 of nervous power, and the afternoon lessons are wearisome 
 drudgery. The alternation of brisk physical work would make 
 them far brighter and happier. I have carefully followed the 
 discussion on over-pressure, and am convinced that great suffer- 
 ing is caused to a large class of ill-fed and weak children by the 
 ridiculous attempt to force them into the same Procrustean bed 
 with children of double their capacity. All this would disappear 
 with the alternation of mental and physical exercise, and the 
 school days of multitudes of children would become the happiest 
 period of their lives. 
 
 I am aware that this suggestion goes beyond the scope of 
 my previous remarks. My main object is to advocate night 
 labour schools, after the period of school age is passed ; and I 
 do not suppose that the Government would so far change our 
 present system as to adopt the half-time or alternative principle 
 in existing schools. Yet I cannot forbear stating my opinion, 
 that it would be much better for many of our poor children to 
 have a couple of hours daily of simple manual instruction in our 
 
TRAINING OF DESTITUTE CHILDREN 73 
 
 day schools. It would be capital preparation for the night 
 labour schools which are to follow them. 
 
 The main point I wish to enforce is that the State should not 
 let go its grasp of the child population without reasonable security 
 against a relapse into pauperism, and indeed I may say in some 
 cases into barbarism. I can imagine that on the part of many the 
 objection will be raised that we shall create a great over-supply 
 of skilled labour, that we shall flood the market with artisans 
 and lower their wages. A similar objection was urged against 
 the education of the masses fifteen years ago. It was said that 
 the children of the poor would supplant the children of the 
 gentlefolks in the educated professions. We did not listen to 
 that ignoble argument ; we did not close the portals of know- 
 ledge on the million, in order to keep a .monopoly of the .learned 
 pursuits in the hands of a privileged class ; and I am convinced 
 we shall act in the same broad liberal spirit when it becomes a 
 question of raising the lowest tier of our population. We wish 
 to open to them the portals of industry, as we have already 
 opened the portals of knowledge, and no selfish fears of other 
 classes must stand in the way of it. At one time there was a 
 great outcry against industrial training in prisons and reform- 
 atories, because it was expected to interfere with the labour 
 market outside ; but that has now passed away, and so in time 
 will the dread that Society will suffer because all the members 
 of which it is composed are more capable of earning their 
 bread. 
 
 It is more than probable that work may not be found at 
 home for all this population that we propose to train ; but as 
 Greater Britain contains sixty times the area of Great Britain, 
 and only one-third of its population, there is ample room for them 
 there, and this leads me to another branch of my argument. 
 
 The economical position of our country makes it imperative 
 that we train our future citizens so that the surplus population 
 may find homes in the thinly-peopled regions of the New World. 
 
 Lord Brabazon's article in the ' Nineteenth Century ' on State- 
 directed colonisation brought out this view most forcibly. He 
 quoted from various writers, myself included, to show the 
 tremendous problems we have to face owing to the rapid increase 
 of our population. Permit me to recapitulate, in a few words, 
 
74 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 what I have written elsewhere on this subject, for it is at the 
 root of the whole question. 
 
 This country, like all the settled and prosperous States of 
 the world (France excepted), is confronted by a rapidly gro wing- 
 population ; it has increased from 5J millions in the year 1700 
 to 10^ millions in the year 1800, and is now (1884) 31 millions 
 in Great Britain alone, and will apparently be 36 or 37 millions 
 by the end of this century, and over 120 millions by the end of 
 next, if the same rate of increase is maintained. It is also to 
 be noted that the rate of increase is steadily becoming more 
 rapid, owing to the great saving of life caused by iniproved 
 sanitary arrangements, superior medical science, and abundant 
 provision for nursing the sick and poor. Up to the beginning 
 of the eighteenth century the rate of increase was extremely 
 slow in all European countries, ours included. War, pestilence, 
 and famine carried off a great portion of the people, and it is 
 computed that the population of England only increased three 
 millions in the 600 years after the Norman Conquest, or just 
 about the increase of the last ten years. It has further to be 
 added, that emigration was very small until the present century, 
 and that the huge increase of this century, which will be three- 
 to four-fold in Great Britain, is in spite of an emigration of 
 several millions of our people. I see no reason why this process 
 should be stayed in the next century, unless some national 
 catastrophe occur. The death-rate is always falling, the birth- 
 rate keeps up. Agencies for saving life are always increasing, 
 and we ought, as prudent people, to provide against contin- 
 gencies which are patent to the most careless observer. 
 
 We have, further, to face the fact that all this increase goes 
 into our cities the rural population is steadily decreasing: 
 possibly this may be checked by changes in our land laws, but 
 no changes in them can hinder arable land being turned into 
 pasture where it pays better, nor can hinder labour-saving 
 machinery being introduced. I believe that any relief that can 
 be got from a more minute cultivation of the soil of this little 
 island will not do much to change the course of events I have 
 described. Our cities will keep growing larger and larger, and, 
 I may add, more and more unmanageable. London has grown 
 within this century from 1 to 5 millions of inhabitants, if we 
 
TRAINING OF DESTITUTE CHILDREN 75 
 
 include the suburban area, and at the same rate of increase will 
 reach twenty to thirty-five millions at the close of the next 
 century. Let us remember that the world has never seen a 
 city of more than two or three millions of people, except this 
 gigantic metropolis of ours. Ancient Babylon and Rome never 
 contained such multitudes as London already contains ; and its 
 growth is faster now than ever before in its history. In ten 
 years another million will be added to c Greater London ' ; and 
 when or how is this process to stop ? 
 
 Again, let me point out that the whole increase of our 
 population for many years past has been fed with foreign food : 
 we grow less than we did twenty or thirty years ago. One-half 
 the population of Great Britain is now fed with foreign food ; 
 soon it will be three-fourths ; possibly, by the end of next 
 century, seven-eighths. This is not a cheerful prospect; the 
 world is without any previous example of such a case : there 
 have been great cities living by commerce, such as Tyre, 
 Carthage, and Venice, but never a great nation except our- 
 selves. It is hard to believe that we shall escape some fatal 
 catastrophe unless we are wise in time and spread our popu- 
 lation over the unoccupied parts of the globe. It may be said 
 that, as long as we can manufacture for the world and import 
 our food in exchange, we are as well off as if we grew it our- 
 selves ; but every man of business knows that it is becoming 
 increasingly difficult to enlarge the outlets for our goods, as 
 foreigners with one consent struggle to shut them out by high 
 tariffs, while our colonies fast copy their example. I cannot 
 believe that it is within the range of possibility that population 
 can grow in this island as I have indicated without a desperate 
 struggle for existence arising, in which our institutions and even 
 civilisation itself might perish. 
 
 We ought to do as a captain does when he sees a storm 
 approaching reef our sails : we should prepare by fitting our 
 people to use the wonderful safety-valve we possess in our vast 
 colonial empire. We are indebted to Lord Brabazon for bring- 
 ing before the public the question of State-directed colonisation ; 
 but I confess I see great difficulties in the way of its adoption. 
 Granted that by an arrangement with the colonies we might 
 secure farms at an outlay including passage-money and tern- 
 
76 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 porary maintenance of 100L per family, and that we shall 
 have good security for repayment ; it would require a million 
 sterling to transplant 10,000 families of 50,000 souls. This 
 would give no perceptible relief. We should need to operate 
 on a far larger scale. These islands could comfortably part 
 with ten times that number of people annually, and most of 
 them would depend upon the Government if it once undertook 
 this duty. We might be called upon to spend ten millions a 
 year in this way, and, as several years would elapse before repay- 
 ment could be made, the State would soon incur an enormous 
 pecuniary liability. But a greater difficulty remains. The 
 demand for emigration would be made by the most useful and 
 productive part of the population ; at such time as this, when 
 severe distress prevails, immense numbers of our best artisans 
 would leave the country if tempted by such inviting proposals. 
 We should encounter a scarcity of labour whenever trade 
 revived, and the country would view with disfavour a depletion 
 of its resources to be borne by those who remain behind. 
 Besides, the Government would have to accept all able-bodied 
 emigrants or reject all alike, for discrimination would be in- 
 vidious and almost impossible. There would be a great risk, 
 besides, of attracting immigrants from the Continent, in the 
 hope of sharing these splendid facilities for settling abroad. 
 The very class we wish to get rid of would remain behind, 
 like the sediment at the bottom of a well. The wretched 
 pauperised masses that swarm in our large towns are unfit 
 for emigration. If the Government tried to shunt them off on 
 America or Canada, they would meet with the same reception 
 they did last year, when some Irish paupers were sent out. 
 The unfortunate creatures would be returned on our hands, and 
 we should only have raised a prejudice against all schemes of 
 emigration. I do not wish to say that this plan may not have 
 to be tried in some exceptional crisis possibly we may be 
 driven by dire necessity to adopt it ; but I do say that it fails 
 to relieve us of the crucial difficulty how to rid ourselves of 
 the useless and corrupting element in our cities. 
 
 Now, the plan I propose goes to the root of the matter ; it 
 undertakes to deodorise, so to speak, this foul humanity ; it aims 
 at turning into a productive and valuable commodity that which 
 
TRAINING OF DESTITUTE CHILDREN 77 
 
 is now a wasteful and poisonous element in our social system. 
 It does so at a very small cost, and by simply extending the 
 educational lines we have already laid down. These boys and 
 girls, well trained in industrial arts, would find their way with- 
 out much difficulty into the colonies or the United States ; or, 
 if State aid had to be given, a very small amount would suffice ; 
 many of them would follow town occupations, and would not 
 care to become farmers. 
 
 In conclusion, I wish to say a word or two about girls. 
 Undoubtedly the difficulty is greater with them than with boys ; 
 they cannot be taught the numerous trades that boys naturally 
 take up. It is not easy in night schools to find appliances for 
 household work which girls most need to learn ; besides, they 
 are required from a very early age to help their mothers 
 at home. 
 
 But the fact remains, that while a mass of girlhood is going 
 to ruin in London and our large towns from absence of training 
 and want of honest occupation, there is extreme difficulty in 
 finding a supply of properly trained servants. Multitudes of 
 poor women are pinching themselves to live on 5s. a week at 
 slopwork, while mistresses cannot get cooks and housemaids 
 at 201. or 301. per annum, with their food ! It is a strange 
 anomaly, yet so it is. I can only account for it by the want 
 of any system for transforming the slatternly girl of the slums 
 into the neat and tidy domestic servant. There is no way of 
 bringing supply and demand together save a few benevolent 
 institutions, which do not meet a tithe of the demand. Could 
 not these night training schools do something to bridge over 
 the chasm ? Why could not cookery and housework form an 
 essential part of a school girl's education ? How much more 
 important for the starving girlhood in the London slums to be 
 fitted for domestic service than to know the heights of the 
 Himalayas or the names of the Plantagenets ! Surely there 
 was some truth in the remark of the then Robert Lowe, when 
 Rector of Edinburgh University, that British education was the 
 worship of inutility ! When shall we learn that the first neces- 
 sity of a human being is to live, and only the second to have 
 book-knowledge ? 
 
 But another point remains to be noticed in respect of girls. 
 
78 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 There is a great preponderance of females in this country; 
 marriage is impossible for many of them on this account ; while 
 in the colonies and the Western States of America there is an 
 equal preponderance of men, and no colonists are so welcomed 
 as respectable women accustomed to household work. Surely 
 this is an additional reason for trying to qualify these poor girls 
 for a useful life in the colonies, in place of the wretched exist- 
 ence to which they are too often doomed at home. 
 
 Finally, I would say that our whole conception of education 
 must be more practical than it has hitherto been. It is all very 
 well to aim at high attainments, but there is such a thing as 
 1 propter vitain vivendi perdere causas.' We may buy even gold 
 too dear. There are large classes of our population to whom 
 the prime necessity of life is to learn to work, and so to live. 
 This is well expressed in a letter I have from one who thoroughly 
 understands this question : ' At present the unused manipu- 
 lative power of the poor people is much what the unused brain- 
 power was before the Education Act. Education was once 
 voluntary, now labour is. Brains were once useless, now hands 
 are.' What we want is to liberate that hand power which is 
 going to waste, just as we have set free the brain power. 
 There is a mine of potential wealth which lies beneath the sur- 
 face. We must sink a shaft which will reach it; or, to change 
 the metaphor, we must transmute this- base metal into pure ore 
 by the alchemy of wise and Christian statesmanship. 
 
 THE NEED OF TRADE SCHOOLS. 1 
 
 BY KlCHARD T. AUCHMUTY. 
 
 EDUCATION is in a transition state. Systems that have come down 
 to us from past ages are found incapable of meeting the wants of 
 the latter part of the nineteenth century. Especially is this the 
 case in the way in which the young are taught how to work. Si- 
 lently the old plan has passed away, and as yet no definite scheme 
 has taken its place. Neither in this country (United States) 
 nor in Europe can the apprenticeship system be said to exist. 
 It became the custom in the Middle Ages to bind a lad who 
 1 Keprinted, by permission, from The Century of November 1886. 
 
THE NEED OF TRADE SCHOOLS 79 
 
 wished to learn a trade by a written agreement to some master 
 mechanic, for a specified number of years. In consideration of 
 the lad's labour, the master was to care for him and teach him 
 a handicraft. This custom continued until modern times. 
 During the reign of Queen Elizabeth a law was passed forbidding 
 any person to work at a trade without having first served an 
 apprenticeship of seven years. Although this law was denounced 
 by Adam Smith as tending to form labour monopolies, and the 
 courts had decided it did not apply to any trade not practised 
 at the time of its enactment, it was not repealed until the year 
 1814. The English and American apprentice laws still provide 
 for indenturing a lad to a master mechanic, but such indentures 
 are seldom made except by the overseers of the poor for pauper 
 lads. An indenture between a master plumber of New York 
 and three of his 'helpers' was recently published in trade 
 journals as a curiosity. The old apprenticeship system perished, 
 not because the indenture was looked upon as a species of 
 slavery, nor because its results were unsatisfactory. It perished 
 because the conditions of society under which it was possible no 
 longer exist. The apprentice in former times lived with his 
 master, sat at his table, and worked under his eye. For his 
 conduct during his term of service and his skill when he became 
 a journeyman his master was responsible. The modern appren- 
 tice is merely a hired boy, who, while making himself useful 
 about a workshop, learns what he can by observation and prac- 
 tice. If he sees the interior of his master's house, it is to do 
 some work in no way connected with his trade, arid which may 
 not increase the idea of the dignity of labour in the minds of 
 such of his associates as are employed in stores or offices. In 
 old times skill more than capital made the journeyman into a 
 master. The master worked with his men. The more appren- 
 tices he could employ and the more thoroughly he could teach 
 them, the greater his profit.! The Act of Elizabeth was intended 
 to secure the lad's labour to the employer, not to be a law, as it 
 afterwards became, to limit the number of workers. The master 
 now rarely works at his trade. His time is more profitably 
 spent in seeking for customers, purchasing material, or managing 
 his finances. The workshop is put in charge of a foreman, whose 
 reputation and wages depend on the amount of satisfactory work 
 
8o INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 that can be produced at the least cost. The foreman has no 
 time to teach lads, and, as there is but little profit in their 
 untrained labour, does not usually want them. There still sur- 
 vives from the old apprentice system of former days the idea 
 that a lad employed in a workshop shall, when he becomes a 
 man, be a skilled workman and capable of earning a journey- 
 man's wages. This theory fixes a certain amount of responsi- 
 bility upon an employer, which he is not always willing to incur. 
 Business may increase or diminish. At one time many work- 
 men may be wanted ; at other times few or none. If lads are 
 employed with the understanding that at the expiration of a 
 certain time they are to be converted into skilled workmen, 
 there may be times during the customary four years of service 
 when there will be nothing for them to do. If retained, they 
 will be a burden on the employer ; if discharged, the lad will 
 not unreasonably feel that an agreement has been broken. It 
 is not, however, with the employer that all the difficulty of 
 learning how to work is to be found. The different trades are 
 organised into trades-unions, and one of the accepted theories 
 of the unions is the advantage to be derived from limiting the 
 number of workers. Instead of the fact that work makes work, 
 that one busy class gives employment to other classes, it is 
 assumed that there is a certain amount of work to be done, and 
 the fewer there are to do it the higher wages will be. It is, 
 therefore, sought to make each trade into a monopoly, and 
 although these efforts have been uniformly unsuccessful, they 
 have marred the lives of thousands of young men, and still con- 
 tinue to do so. Such monopolies are not possible, because 
 foreign mechanics, attracted by wages several times greater 
 than they could "earn at home, with living but little, if any, 
 dearer, cannot be prevented from crossing the ocean to better 
 their condition in life; neither can mechanics be prevented 
 from coming to the cities from country towns, and as the strength 
 of a union depends upon the enrolment of nearly all the work- 
 men in the trade the union represents, these mechanics are not 
 only invited to join, but pressure is used to force them to do so. 
 Thus, as the exclusive policy of the unions is powerless against 
 the stranger, its force is directed against city-born young men. 
 This term is used because in country towns there are no unions, 
 
THE NEED OF TRADE SCHOOLS 81 
 
 and consequently no opposition is made to a lad's learning a 
 trade, if he can find some master workman who is willing to 
 employ him. In the country, however, the standard of work- 
 manship is not so high as it is in cities, and country mechanics 
 cannot usually compete on even terms with city workmen. 
 Under union rules the employer is usually allowed from two to 
 four lads, the term of service being from four to five years. 
 This does not allow an employer to graduate under the most 
 favourable circumstances more than one skilled workman each 
 year. As there are not many employers even in the largest 
 cities in any one trade, and, as already stated, some do not want 
 young men, it becomes a matter of no small difficulty to learn 
 how to work. So it often happens that although a lad may be 
 willing to work, and may have strong predilections for certain 
 kinds of work, he is more likely to meet with rebuff than 
 encouragement. His first lesson in life teaches him that he has 
 been born into a world where there is nothing for him to do. 
 This lesson as he grows older he will unlearn. He will discover 
 he was standing in a busy market-place, importuning the crowds 
 to buy when he had nothing to sell. He was willing to do any- 
 thing ; there was nothing he knew how to do. 
 
 The old apprentice system is not likely to be revived. The 
 life of the system was the personal supervision of the master, 
 which the lad cannot have again. It may be for the interest of 
 the master mechanic to train good workmen, but it is not his 
 duty. The attempt to teach any large number of lads would 
 be troublesome, even if permission could be obtained from the 
 unions. The workmen of the future must learn how to work 
 before they seek employment. All professional men do this. 
 What scientific schools are to the engineer and architect, what 
 the law school and the medical college are to the lawyer and the 
 physician, or what the 'business college is to the clerk, the trade 
 school must be to the future mechanic. 
 
 Manual instruction in schools especially designed for the 
 purpose is not a new thing. Its rapid development in modern 
 times is due less to the decay of the apprenticeship system than 
 to the discovery that without such instruction the trades them- 
 selves were deteriorating. Transmitting a handicraft from man 
 to boy carries with it wrong as well as right ideas. The practice 
 
 G 
 
82 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 of a trade may be taught ; the theory on which that practice is 
 based may be forgotten. The tendency of all shops is to sub- 
 divide work. A boy learns how to do one thing, and is kept at 
 it. He has no chance to learn his trade. Trade schools first 
 came to be regarded as important to the welfare of the State on 
 the continent of Europe about the middle of the last century. 
 In England, as in this country, they are of more recent origin. 
 The report of the Royal Commissioners on Technical Instruction, 
 London, 1884, shows not only the extent of technical instruction 
 in European countries, but the value that is placed upon it by 
 the people. This report gives descriptions of schools for the 
 building trades, for weaving in wool and silk, for iron-work, 
 furniture, clock and watch making, pottery, for the making of 
 beer and sugar, indeed for almost every industry in which men 
 and women are engaged. Many of these European schools, both 
 those for general instruction in the mechanic arts and for special 
 trades, are on a magnificent scale. At the Imperial Technical 
 School at Moscow the annual expenses are 140,000 dollars per 
 annum. The Technical School at Verviers, in Belgium, chiefly 
 a school for weaving and dyeing, was built at a cost of 100,000 
 dollars, the annual expenses being upwards of 13,000 dollars. 
 The Chamber of Commerce of Crefeld, in Prussia, a town of 
 83,000 inhabitants, having reported that the silk industry was 
 languishing because of the superiority of the French training- 
 schools, an establishment costing 210,000 dollars was begun, to 
 which the State contributed 137,000 dollars, and the municipality 
 60,000 dollars, the remainder being raised by subscription. 
 This town exports upwards of twenty millions of dollars of silk 
 products, nearly all of which goes to England and the United 
 States. At Chemnitz, in Saxony, now the rival of Nottingham 
 in the hosiery business, and also the centre of an iron industry, 
 is a technical school which costs 400,000 dollars. The report 
 referred to says there is not a manufacturer in Chemnitz whose 
 son, assistant, or foreman has not attended this school. At 
 Hartman's locomotive works in the same town, employing nearly 
 three thousand men, all the boys between fourteen and sixteen 
 years of age are obliged to attend the technical school. To 
 allow sufficient time to do so their hours of labour terminate at 
 four o'clock in the afternoon twice each week. 
 
THE NEED OF TRADE SCHOOLS 83 
 
 At Arco, in the Austrian Tyrol, the founding of a small 
 school with one teacher to give instruction in the manufacture 
 of those articles in olive-wood which find so ready a sale to 
 travellers, developed an important industry, orders being now 
 filled from all parts of Northern Italy and from America. The 
 city of Paris maintains a school on the Boulevard de la Villette 
 for workers in wood and iron. Full wages are obtained, it is 
 claimed, by the graduates from this school. A similar school is 
 maintained in Paris by the Koman Catholic Church, with the 
 idea of combating the irreligious sentiments of Parisian work- 
 men. Besides the technical schools in various parts of France, 
 free evening lectures are given in the large towns on scientific 
 subjects connected with the trades. In Sweden, according to a 
 report made by Professor Ordway to the Massachusetts State 
 Board of Education, there are about three hundred schools where 
 manual instruction in the use of tools for wood and iron work is 
 given. As a curiosity of technical education, it may be mentioned 
 that in Ireland the Royal Agricultural Society maintains a model 
 perambulating dairy, which, mounted on wheels, is drawn from 
 village to village, the inhabitants being invited to witness the 
 most approved methods of making butter and managing a dairy. 
 In England the subject of technical education is now attracting 
 much attention. A very fine school for apprentices has recently 
 been completed by the city and guilds of London, and these 
 guilds also encourage technical education by subsidies to schools 
 in different parts of the kingdom. 
 
 Some idea of the need of instruction in the mechanic arts in 
 the United States was probably present in the minds of the 
 Senators and Representatives when the Land Grant Act of 1862 
 was passed. A clause in this Act reads as follows : ' The leading 
 object shall be, without excluding scientific and classical studies, 
 and including military tactics, to teach such branches of learn- 
 ing as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts in such 
 manner as the States may respectively prescribe, in order to 
 promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial 
 classes in the several pursuits and professions of life.' The 
 report of the Secretary of the Interior, on Industrial Education, 
 1882, gives a list of forty-two different schools and colleges in 
 various parts of the union which owe their existence to this land 
 
 o 2 
 
84 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 grant. Most of these are agricultural and engineering colleges. 
 The words in the Act in regard to teaching such branches of 
 learning as are related to the mechanic arts being usually inter- 
 preted to mean instruction in the use of carpenter's and 
 machinist's tools. Of these land grant schools, the best known 
 are the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Boston, and 
 the Hampton Institute at Hampton, Virginia. Each of these 
 illustrates an interesting experiment in industrial education. 
 The Massachusetts Institute of Technology might properly be 
 called a school for foremen, as its graduates can be found super- 
 intending industrial establishments all over the United States. 
 The pupil in weaving, for instance, is required to design or copy 
 a pattern, and then work it out on the loom. In moulding he 
 makes a drawing, models the wooden pattern from it, and casts 
 the pattern in the metal. The course of instruction is four years 
 mathematics, chemistry, history, and the modern languages 
 forming a part of the educational scheme. Hampton Institute 
 was founded by General S. C. Armstrong as a normal school for 
 coloured teachers. General Armstrong, while serving as a staff- 
 officer at Fort Monroe, during the war, was brought in contact 
 with the fugitive slaves who took refuge at the fort. When 
 slavery was abolished, and four millions of men, women, and 
 children became the wards of the nation, General Armstrong 
 conceived the idea that they could best be educated and civilised 
 by the aid of their own people. It was as necessary to teach 
 this vast multitude who had never been beyond the sound of a 
 master's voice how to work for themselves, and how to care for 
 themselves, as it was to teach them to read and write. Manual 
 instruction was therefore a necessity at the Hampton Institute. 
 The male graduates were to be leaders on the farm or in the 
 workshop as well as teachers. The female graduates were to be 
 capable of cooking, sewing, or caring for the sick. How 
 thoroughly and successfully this scheme has been carried out 
 need not be stated here. Another type of the industrial school 
 is to be found in the Worcester (Mass.) Free Institute. At this 
 institution three and a half years of general education is com- 
 bined with instruction in mechanical engineering, in carpenter- 
 ing, and in machinist's work. This school more nearly approaches 
 the trade school, as many of its graduates are returned as 
 
THE NEED OF TRADE SCHOOLS 85 
 
 * journeymen mechanics.' The Worcester school was founded 
 by private liberality. Without such aid, it may be added, 
 neither the Massachusetts Institute of Technology nor Hampton 
 Institute could have reached its present usefulness. In the 
 European technical schools provision is made for instructing 
 young men already in the trades by a course specially adapted 
 to their wants. In this country this important branch of 
 industrial education has received but little attention. The 
 Carriage Makers' Association in this city maintain a school in 
 designing and construction for the young men in their trade. 
 The Master Plumbers of Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Chicago 
 have plumbing schools for their ' helpers.' The Cambria Iron 
 Works in Pennsylvania, and several private firms like K. Hoe 
 & Co. of this city, give scientific instruction to their lads ; while 
 two railroad companies, the Pennsylvania and the Baltimore 
 and Ohio, have shown not only what it is possible to do, but 
 how much can be done at a trifling cost for the young men in 
 the employ of great corporations. Beyond this short list, little 
 has been done to supplement shop-work with systematic instruc- 
 tion. In the Baltimore and Ohio R. R. Company's shops at 
 Baltimore* five hundred young men are employed. They are 
 placed in charge of a graduate of the Stevens Institute, whose 
 duty it is to see that they are not employed too long at one 
 kind of work. He can change their work as often as it may 
 seem desirable for their future interests. He can also take 
 parties of them from their work at any time to explain to them 
 the machinery they may be engaged upon or may see around 
 them. A neat building has been erected for their use, which 
 contains a library and class-rooms for instruction in mechanics 
 and drawing. The lads are required to wear a uniform, which, 
 besides giving them a jaunty appearance, tends to habits of 
 personal neatness. What is done by the Baltimore and Ohio 
 'R. R. Co. could be done in any manufacturing town by the 
 union of a few large employers. 
 
 The difference between manual instruction and trade in- 
 struction is not always clear in the public mind. By manual 
 instruction is meant teaching a lad how to handle certain tools, 
 usually carpenter's and blacksmith's tools, for the purpose of 
 developing his hands and arms, precisely as other lessons are 
 
86 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 given to develop his observation or his memory. This is not 
 teaching a trade, although it would render the work of the 
 trade school much easier. A lad who has gone through a course 
 of manual instruction at a school would be more likely to be a 
 better mechanic than one who had reached seventeen or eighteen 
 years of age without ever having held a tool in his hand. 
 Manual training-schools are meant to make a lad handy ; trade 
 schools to make him proficient in some one art by whicb he can 
 earn a living. Manual instruction has already been incorporated 
 in the public school systems of Boston and Philadelphia. The 
 New York Board of Education has maintained for several years 
 a workshop at the Free College. It now proposes to open 
 schools all over the city where boys and girls will be taught to 
 use their hands. A great impression was made last spring by 
 the exhibition, held by the Industrial Education Association of 
 New York, of children's handiwork, and of the different methods 
 of teaching them how to work. Not only was it shown what 
 varied and excellent work little fingers could do, but school- 
 teachers and superintendents came to testify that the brain-work 
 was benefited by the hand-work. 
 
 Admitting that trade education is practicable, and that it is 
 advisable both for the purpose of giving young men an oppor- 
 tunity to learn how to work and to keep the trades from dete- 
 riorating, it may be well to consider how such education can best 
 be adapted to the wants of the American people. 
 
 In most of the foreign trade schools the technical instruc- 
 tion is combined with a general education, the course extending 
 over several years. This system is also followed at the Hampton 
 Institute, at the Indian school at Carlisle Barracks, at the 
 Worcester Free Institute, and at the reformatories and asylums 
 in this country where trades are taught. Except in special 
 cases there seems no need of combining instruction in the trades 
 with a general education. It is duplicating the work of the 
 public schools, and adding greatly to the cost of industrial 
 education. A lad can hardly be taught and boarded, even at a 
 school or college which is liberally endowed, for less than 250 
 dollars per annum. For a four-years' course this would be 
 1,000 dollars, and to this sum must be added the cost of cloth- 
 ing, travelling expenses, &c. Such schools would be beyond 
 
THE NEED OF TRADE SCHOOLS 87 
 
 the reach of those who are likely to lay brick, cut stone, or work 
 at any of the mechanic arts. A simpler, shorter, more econo- 
 mical course of instruction is wanted for the future mechanic. 
 It must be remembered that, although the law requires the 
 parent to support the child, it is an established custom that 
 after a certain age the child shall in some way contribute to the 
 family support. No system of trade instruction will be success- 
 ful that does not recognise this fact. From eighteen to twenty 
 years would seem to be the best age to enter a trade school. 
 The lad is then old enough to know what sort of work he likes, 
 and for what his strength is adapted. As regards the amount 
 of instruction given, it would be wisest not to attempt to 
 graduate first-class journeymen. That it is possible to do so in 
 many trades there need be no doubt, but it would appear to be 
 better to ground a young man thoroughly in the science and 
 practice of the trade he has chosen, and leave the speed and 
 experience that comes from long practice to be acquired at real 
 work after leaving the school. Such a system would be more 
 economical, as by it the cost of teaching and the waste of 
 material would be greatly lessened. This probation course, as 
 the time spent between leaving the trade school and becom- 
 ing a skilled workman may be called, need not be long. 
 Six months will suffice in most trades. Young men who 
 begin work in this way are likely to get on better with 
 their fellow-workmen than if taught entirely at a school, 
 and they will understand better how to accommodate them- 
 selves to different situations. Trade schools should not be 
 free. They will be best appreciated when an entrance fee 
 is required. Lawyers, physicians, engineers, architects, and 
 clerks are expected to pay for their instruction, and there is no 
 need to treat mechanics as objects of charity ; neither do they 
 desire it. 
 
 At the Hampton and Worcester schools the work of the 
 pupil yields a revenue. At Hampton, contrary to the usual 
 experience, a student's labour has been found to be of sufficient 
 value to .pay for his board and tuition. When the course of 
 instruction at a trade school is short, it is best not to seek for 
 any return from the pupil's work. The same temptation, other- 
 wise, will exist as in the shop, of putting a lad at what he can 
 
88 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 do best instead of teaching him what he knows least about. 
 The pupil's future is of more consequence than the material that 
 may be wasted. In a well-organised trade school the waste is 
 not a serious item, as the same material can be used many 
 times. 
 
 In the belief that the most practical system was a combina- 
 tion of the trade school and the shop, of grounding young men 
 thoroughly in the science arid practice of a trade at the school, 
 and leaving them to acquire speed of workmanship and expe- 
 rience at real work after their course of instruction was finished, 
 the New York Trade Schools on First Avenue, between Sixty- 
 seventh and Sixty-eighth Streets, were opened in the autumn of 
 1881. The schools were designed to aid those who were in the 
 trades by affording them facilities to become skilled workmen not 
 possible in the average workshop, and to enable young men not 
 in the trades to make their labour of sufficient value to secure 
 work, and to become skilled workmen in a short period after 
 leaving the schools. The instruction was given on three even- 
 ings each week from November until April. Skilled mechanics 
 were employed as teachers. How much it would be possible to 
 teach during that limited time was unknown, neither were there 
 any means to ascertain what effect the instruction received at 
 the schools would have on the young man's success in life. 
 Instruction was given the first season in two trades, plumbing 
 and fresco-painting. The charge for instruction was made 
 nominal to induce attendance. Twenty young men joined the 
 plumbing class, about two-thirds of whom were in the trade as 
 plumbers' ' helpers,' and thirteen joined the fresco class. Of 
 this number one-third dropped off during the winter. The 
 schools have now completed their fifth season. The attendance 
 has increased from 33 the first season to 304 the fifth season. 
 The charges have been increased to a sum which it is hoped 
 will ultimately meet the expenses of the schools. Instruction is 
 now given in plumbing, fresco-painting, bricklaying, stone- 
 cutting, plastering, carpentry, wood-carving, and gas-fitting. 
 A class in pattern-making Was abandoned for lack of support. 
 Those who came to the schools from workshops surprised their 
 employers and comrades by their suddenly acquired skill. 
 Those who came to learn a trade have usuallv found work. 
 
THE NEED OF TRADE SCHOOLS 89 
 
 There is a record at the schools of many of this latter class, 
 who, to use the expression of more than one of them, owe their 
 success in life to having joined the schools. Serious difficulties 
 have to be encountered in obtaining work on account of trades- 
 union rules, but these difficulties have not been found to be 
 in sur mou nt able . 
 
 As the time spent at the schools is short, the instruction is 
 given on a prescribed course. Each pupil is required to begin 
 at the beginning, and is advanced as rapidly as his proficiency 
 will allow. Although the classes are kept as much as possible 
 on the same work, no one is allowed to leave his work until he 
 can do it well. Progress is necessarily rapid. A skilled work- 
 man is constantly on hand to show how the work should be done, 
 and explain why one method is right and another wrong. 
 Attention is also given to the way a lad stands and how he 
 holds his tools. An awkward habit once contracted is not 
 easily overcome. On two* occasions additions were made to the 
 schools by the bricklaying class. The work was done at the 
 termination of the regular course of instruction, the young men 
 being paid in proportion to the number of bricks laid. This 
 practice was found to be of so much value, that the evening 
 instruction for the bricklayers is now supplemented by two 
 weeks' day work. The brick-work of three stores and a large 
 apartment-house has also been almost entirely done by trade 
 school young men. Better or more conscientious work it would 
 be difficult to find. Those young men who are old enough to 
 do a full day's work usually get from one-third to one-half a 
 day's wages on leaving the schools, and full wages in from six 
 to eighteen months afterwards. Thus it seems to be proved 
 that a course of carefully arranged instruction on three evenings 
 each week for a term of not quite six months puts it in the 
 power of any young man to learn how to work. He no longer 
 need beg the employer to teach him. He stands in the labour 
 market with something to sell. 
 
 Although the system followed at the New York Trade 
 Schools could perhaps be improved, it has the me^rit of giving 
 those who are likely to attend such schools what they want. 
 Many well-meant schemes have failed because this point was 
 overlooked. A longer course would be better; indeed, some 
 
90 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 young men lengthen their term of instruction by labouring two 
 seasons, but to many, and often to the best, even a single season 
 is a heavy tax on their strength. To work all day for a present 
 living, and then to begin again and work during the evening 
 to acquire the skill necessary to obtain a living in the future, 
 requires no small amount of energy and self-denial. Work in 
 the shop ceases at six o'clock. Work at the school can hardly 
 begin later than seven. This leaves one hour only for food, for 
 rest, and for travel. The young men in the New York Trade 
 Schools come from all parts of New York, from Brooklyn, 
 Hoboken, and Jersey City. Some have come from Staten 
 Island, Newark, and Orange. Between two and three hundred 
 young men thus assembled to learn how to work, and who have 
 paid their hard-earned money for the privilege, may almost be 
 said to form an impressive sight. These young men are 
 employed in offices and stores, in mills and workshops, and at 
 the various occupations for which fooy labour is needed, but 
 which have no future for the man. During the five winters the 
 schools have been open, no rude or profane word has been heard 
 within their walls. The young men are attentive to their 
 instructors, and although often inconveniently crowded are cour- 
 teous to each other. Costly tools are scattered about, but they are 
 cared for as if they belonged to those who used them. If they 
 are fair specimens of a class which comprises fully two-thirds of 
 the young men of this city, New York has reason to be proud 
 of her sons. 
 
 It is often said that American parents are not desirous of 
 having their children learn trades. The mothers, perhaps, may 
 be responsible for this idea. The present custom of requiring a 
 lad to work for four or five years before becoming a journeyman 
 necessitates his beginning at an early age. Placing boys during 
 ten hours a day with men of whose antecedents nothing is 
 known is undoubtedly objectionable. Although less evil comes 
 from it than is usually supposed, still injury may be done which 
 a careful parent would guard against. A trade school not only 
 avoids any danger of this kind, but it gives the -parent an 
 opportunity to ascertain for what sort of work the boy is suited. 
 As it is now, the lad may work for several years at a trade and 
 then find he has no taste for it. New places are not easily 
 
THE NEED OF TRADE SCHOOLS 9 j 
 
 found ; to change his trade may be impossible. He becomes a 
 poor workman, without interest or heart in his work. Six 
 months at a trade school would be time well spent if it only 
 taught the lad for what work he is fitted. 
 
 Could the opposition of the trades-unions to young men 
 learning trades be overcome, a great source of wealth would be 
 opened to those now approaching manhood. This opposition 
 comes almost entirely from foreign-born workmen. The effect 
 of their policy is a matter of indifference to them. Unlike the 
 American, the foreigner cares but little for the future. He 
 looks only to the number of dollars it is possible to extract for 
 a day's work. He willingly surrenders his liberty and his 
 judgment to his union officers. To keep their places, these 
 officers must be able to force the employers to obey the union 
 rules. They not only believe in the advantages to be derived 
 from limiting the number of workers, but they fear that, if many 
 lads are allowed to work, the employer, with the aid of his 
 apprentices, can withstand a strike. This fear is as groundless 
 as the theory of the benefit of trade monopolies is mistaken. 
 Skilled work can only be done economically by skilled workmen. 
 The master mechanics put but a small value on boy labour. 
 Even the Chicago Master Plumbers, in their effort to educate 
 their ' helpers,' do not make it easier to enter the trade. The 
 Journeymen Stone-cutters' Union is the only union in New 
 York which has shown any interest in the welfare of young 
 men. The Journeymen Plumbers' Union lately passed a reso- 
 lution which, if acquiesced in by the Master Plumbers' Associa- 
 tion, will prevent three out of every four of the young men now 
 learning the plumbing trade in this city from becoming mecha- 
 nics. Until lately, the right of a man to follow any honest 
 calling he may see fit, provided he does not violate the laws, 
 has not been questioned. This right is now being reasserted. 
 It is not the province of any body of men, certainly not of any 
 self-constituted organisation, to decide who or how many shall 
 be allowed to work. No legislature is intrusted with such 
 power. If a trade needs protection, it can be obtained in a 
 legal manner. Lawyers and physicians seek to guard their 
 professions and the public from incompetent men by legal 
 enactments. The law requiring the examination and licensing 
 
92 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 of journeymen plumbers in the cities of New York and Brooklyn 
 was intended to protect the public from ignorant workmen. 
 Its provisions, with slight alterations, could be made to apply 
 to any trade. The higher the standard of workmanship is made 
 by which admission to a trade could be procured, the better for 
 the trade and the public. Such a system would be better than 
 c cards of protection ' obtained by favour or by purchase. ' An 
 equal chance and no favour ' are not idle words to the American 
 mind. Mechanics did not invent their trades, they have no 
 proprietary rights in them. Some trades have been handed 
 down from remote antiquity. Some have deteriorated instead 
 of improving. Roman masonry was better than our own. In 
 metal-work we do not excel the mechanics of the Middle Ages. 
 Furniture of the time of Louis XVI. is preserved in art collec- 
 tions for its elegance and the beauty of its workmanship. The 
 demand for skilled labour all over the United States far exceeds 
 the supply. To such work city- born young men are admirably 
 adapted. They are handy, quick, and generally well educated. 
 They should not only supply the home demand, but the demand 
 which comes from villages that are becoming towns, and towns 
 that in a few years will be cities. A thorough knowledge of a 
 trade often yields its possessor, if he works but two hundred 
 days in the year, an income equal to that received from twenty 
 thousand dollars invested in Government bonds. Is this harvest 
 to be reaped by the stranger and the foreigner, or are our own 
 people to have a share ? 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING IN SCHOOL EDUCATION. 1 
 
 BY SIR PHILIP MAGNUS. 
 * Manual labour is the study of the external world.' EMERSON. 
 
 THE first object of education being to bring the mind of man into 
 direct relation with its surroundings, and as this communion is 
 only possible through the senses, the importance of the cultiva- 
 tion of the senses is duly insisted upon by all educational autho- 
 rities. Now, of the several organs through which we obtain a 
 knowledge of the external world, the sense of touch and the 
 
 1 Reprinted, by permission, from the Contemporary Review of November 1886. 
 
MANUAL TRAINING IN SCHOOL EDUCATION 93 
 
 muscular sense have a certain prominence as giving us per- 
 ceptions which are mainly intellectual. For this reason we should 
 expect that the training of the muscular arid tactile sensibility 
 of the hand, and the training of the muscular sense generally, as 
 exercised in the determination of size, shape, and resistance, 
 would form an essential factor of education. But so little has 
 this been the case that, until comparatively recent times, the 
 training of the faculties by which we obtain, at first hand, our know- 
 ledge of the things about us has been sadly neglected, and educa- 
 tion has consisted mainly in storing the memory with words, with 
 the statements and opinions of others, and with inferences there- 
 from. Apart altogether from the value of the constructive power 
 which manual skill affords, the knowledge of the properties of 
 matter which is obtained in the acquisition of that skill is con- 
 siderable, and cannot be equally well acquired in any other way. 
 It is this which gives to manual training its value as an educa- 
 tional discipline, and it is mainly for this reason that it is coming 
 to be regarded as an important part of the educational system of 
 nearly every country. ' The introduction of manual work into our 
 schools is important,' says Sir John Lubbock, ' not merely from 
 the advantage which would result to health, not merely from the 
 training of the hand as an instrument, but also from its effect on 
 the mind itself.' l And it is to this effect on the mind that I 
 desire to call especial attention in this article. 
 
 By manual training one commonly means exercises in the 
 use of the tools employed in working wood and iron. 
 
 It cannot be too often repeated that the object of workshop 
 practice, as a part of general education, is not to teach a boy a 
 trade, but to develop his faculties and to give him manual skill ; 
 that although the carpenter's bench and the turner's lathe are 
 employed as instruments of such training, the object of the in- 
 struction is not to create carpenters or joiners, but to familiarise 
 the pupil with the properties of such common substances as wood 
 and iron, to teach the hand and eye to work in unison, to ac- 
 custom the pupil to exact measurements, and to enable him by 
 the use of tools to produce actual things from drawings that 
 represent them. The discipline of workshop instruction may 
 be regarded as supplementary to that of drawing, with which,. 
 1 Fortnightly Review, October, p. 467. 
 
94 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 however, it should always be associated, as teaching a knowledge 
 of substance in addition to that of form. Moreover, under com- 
 petent instructors, it may be made an instrument of education 
 similar, in many respects, to practical science. In the workshop, 
 the operations to be performed are less delicate, the measure- 
 ments are not required to be so exact, the instruments are more 
 easily understood, the substances employed are more ordinary, 
 but the training is very similar, and in so far as the faculties 
 exercised are those of observation rather than of inference, the 
 training, educationally considered, is a fitting introduction to 
 laboratory practice. At the same time, the skill acquired in the 
 workshop is particularly serviceable to the laboratory student in 
 enabling him to make and fit apparatus, and in giving him that 
 adroitness on which progress in scientific work so much depends. 
 But whilst a certain amount of manual training is valuable in 
 the education of all classes of persons a fact which is already 
 recognised by the head-masters of several of our best secondary 
 schools the usefulness of this kind of training is much greater 
 in the case of children of the working classes, whose education 
 is too limited and often too hurried to admit of any practical 
 science teaching, such as older children obtain, and to whom the 
 skill acquired is of real advantage in inducing in them an apti- 
 tude and taste for handicrafts, in facilitating the acquisition of a 
 trade, and possibly in shortening the period of apprenticeship, or 
 of that preliminary training which in so many occupations takes 
 the place of it. 
 
 An objection is sometimes raised to the introduction of manual 
 training into elementary schools on the ground that, as the 
 -children of the working classes necessarily leave school at an 
 early age, and spend their lives for the most part in manual 
 work, such time as they can give to study should be occupied in 
 other pursuits in cultivating a taste for reading, and in the ac- 
 quisition of book knowledge. This objection is due to a miscon- 
 ception of the true objects and aims of education, and to an 
 imperfect knowledge of what is meant by workshop instruction. 
 To assume that the best education can be given through the 
 medium of books only, and cannot be equally well obtained from 
 the study of things, is a survival of the Mediasvalism against 
 which nearly all modern educational authorities protest. But 
 
MANUAL TRAINING IN SCHOOL EDUCATION 95 
 
 there is another and more deeply rooted error in this argument. 
 People often talk and write as if school-time should be utilised for 
 teaching those things which a child is not likely to care to learn 
 in after life ; whereas the real aim of school education should be 
 to create a desire to continue in after life the pursuit of the 
 knowledge and the skill acquired in school. In other words, the 
 school should be made, as far as possible, a preparation for the 
 whole work of life, and should naturally lead up to it. The 
 endeavour of all educators should be to establish such a 
 relation between school instruction and the occupations of life 
 as to prevent any break of continuity in passing from one to the 
 other. The methods by which we gain information and expe- 
 rience in the busy world should be identical with those adopted 
 in schools. 
 
 It is because the opposite theory has so long prevailed, that 
 our school training has proved so inadequate a preparation for 
 the real work of life. This was not the case in former times ; 
 and the demand for technical instruction, both in our ele- 
 mentary and in our secondary schools, is a protest against the 
 contrast which has so long existed between the subjects and 
 methods of school teaching and the practical work of every- 
 day life. 
 
 We are always justly complaining that in this country 
 children leave school at too young an age, before they can have 
 had time to properly assimilate the knowledge they have 
 acquired, with the result that they soon forget a great part of the 
 little they have learnt. At the age of fifteen or sixteen, when 
 they begin to feel the want of technical instruction, they are 
 wholly unprepared to avail themselves of the opportunities for 
 obtaining it now brought within their reach. It is to remedy 
 this state of things that Continuation Schools and Recreative 
 Classes are much needed. But there can be little doubt, if 
 elementary education were made more practical, that parents 
 would be more willing, even at some sacrifice, to let their 
 children benefit by it. They are often led to take their children 
 away from school, because they do not see much use in the 
 1 schooling.' Of course, the desire to secure the child's early 
 earnings operates in very many cases; but I am convinced that 
 it would be easier to persuade parents to forego these earnings if 
 
96 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 the school teaching had more direct reference to the work in 
 which the children are likely to be subsequently occupied. 
 
 Now, in order that manual training may serve the purpose 
 of an intellectual discipline, the methods of instruction must 
 be carefully considered. That the training of the hand and eye, 
 and the development of the mental faculties, are the true objects 
 of the instruction should never be lost sight of. In many respects, 
 the instruction should partake of the character of an ordinary 
 object-lesson. Before the pupil commences to apply his tools to 
 the material in hand he should learn something of its nature and 
 properties. The teacher, in a few words introductory to each 
 lesson, should explain to his pupils the distinguishing character- 
 istics of different kinds of wood, as met with in the shop and as 
 found in Nature, and also the differences in the structure and 
 properties of wood according to its sections, treatment, &c. And 
 he should illustrate his lessons by reference to specimens and 
 examples, a collection of which should be found in every school 
 workshop. Something should be said of the countries from 
 which timber is imported, and the conditions under which it is 
 bought and sold, and in this way the material to be manipu- 
 lated should be made the centre of a series of scientific object- 
 lessons. 
 
 Concurrently with the practice in the use of any tool, the 
 pupil should learn its' construction, the reason of its shape, and 
 the history of its development from other similar forms. The 
 saw, the plane, the chisel, and the callipers should each be made 
 the subject of an object-lesson to the pupils. In the same way, 
 the teacher should explain the purposes of the different parts of 
 constructive work, and should have models of tennon, mortice, 
 dovetailing and. other joints to illustrate his explanations. 1 
 Fifteen or twenty minutes thus spent might be made the means 
 of stimulating the intelligence and of exercising the observing 
 and reasoning faculties of the children, and of enabling them to 
 fully understand the work they are doing and the instruments 
 they are using. 
 
 Further, the children should be taught, from the very first,. 
 to work from correct scale drawings, made by themselves from 
 
 1 Collections of these models for school purposes are sold by Messrs, 
 Schroder, of Darmstadt. 
 
MANUAL TRAINING IN SCHOOL EDUCATION 97 
 
 their own rough sketches. How simple soever the object may be 
 which the pupil is to construct, it should exactly correspond with* 
 his own drawings. In this way the workshop instruction sup- 
 plements and gives a meaning to the drawing lesson, and the 
 school teaching is made to have a direct bearing upon the sub- 
 sequent work of the artisan. Dr. Woodward, the instructor of 
 the St. Louis Manual Training School, who has had considerable 
 experience in organising and superintending workshop instruc- 
 tion, tells us that ; the habit of working from drawings and to 
 nice measurements gives to students confidence in themselves 
 altogether new ; ' and he justly claims i that it is the birthright of 
 every child to be taught the three methods of expression 1st, 
 by the written, printed, or spoken word ; 2nd, by the pencil and 
 brush, using the various kinds of graphic art ; 3rd, through the 
 instrumentality of tools and materials, which enable one to ex- 
 press thought in the concrete.' l The Committee of Council on 
 Education, in their recent report, speaking of the teaching of 
 cooking to girls, say : ' After the three elementary subjects and 
 sewing, no subject is of such importance for the class of girls who 
 attend public elementary schools ; and lessons in it, if properly 
 given, will be found to be not only of practical use, but to have 
 the effect of awakening the interest and intelligence of the 
 children.' Surely, what is true of sewing and cooking in the 
 case of girls, is true to a greater extent of drawing and handi- 
 crafts in the case of boys. 
 
 In many parts of the Continent, manual training has now for 
 some years been associated with elementary instruction. In 
 France, Belgium, Austria, Holland, and Sweden the workshop 
 is a part of the school-building ; and in the United States the 
 number of manual training schools of higher grade, somewhat 
 similar to the well-known apprenticeship schools of France, is 
 steadily increasing. Indeed, judging from the published accounts 
 of these schools, and from the writings of some of the most 
 prominent educationists in the United States, an enthusiasm is 
 spreading among Americans in favour of workshop instruction, 
 which is likely to have an important influence on the indus- 
 trial progress of this eminently practical and inventive people. 
 
 1 Proceedings of International Conference on Education, London, 1884, 
 vol. ii. p. 58. 
 
 H 
 
98 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 In the Report of the Commissioners on Technical Instruction, 
 notices will be found of some of the principal Continental schools 
 which are now fitted with workshops. Sir John Lubbock, in the 
 article above quoted, has supplemented this information by refer- 
 ence to the ' Slqjd ' system of manual instruction which is adopted 
 in Sweden. An interesting account of this system has been 
 written by M. Sluys, who is well known to educationists from his 
 connection with the Ecole Modele of Brussels. Since the Report 
 of the Commissioners was published, the movement in favour of 
 workshop teaching in schools has advanced rapidly in France. 
 Nearly every large town has now its higher elementary school (a 
 type of school as yet scarcely to be found in this country), fitted 
 with workshops for wood and iron ; and out of 174 primary 
 schools supported by the city of Paris, 95 are now provided with 
 workshops, 90 for instruction in carpentry and wood-turning, 
 and 5 for metal- work. In these schools the manual teaching 
 has hitherto been given either before or after the ordinary school 
 hours ; but the Municipal Council of Paris attach such import- 
 ance to this training that it is proposed to make the workshop 
 instruction a part of the regular school curriculum. This 
 change will necessitate a re-arrangement of the school hours and 
 the provision of workshops in the remaining 79 schools in which 
 they have not yet been fitted. But it is confidently expected 
 that the Municipality of Paris, which has done so much for the 
 technical education of its artisans, will not hesitate to incur this 
 additional expense. The action of the city of Paris gives addi- 
 tional weight to the recommendation of the English Commis- 
 sioners on this subject. 
 
 Experiments of introducing workshops into elementary 
 schools have been tried in this country, with results sufficiently 
 encouraging to justify the extension of the system. In Sheffield, 
 Birmingham, and Glasgow the. results have been eminently 
 satisfactory. In London, the experiment has recently been 
 tried on a small scale, and under not the most favourable cir- 
 cumstances, in the Beethoven Street Schools ; but the report 
 of Mr. Tate, the energetic head-master, is so encouraging 
 that the School Board of London is very desirous of extend- 
 ing the system of instruction to a large number of the schools 
 under its control. In his report to the Board, Mr. Tate says : 
 
MANUAL TRAINING IN SCHOOL EDUCATION 99 
 
 ' This class was started on September 28, 1885, in a shed 
 or workshop built by the Board in a recess in the playground, 
 and the instruction is given by the school-keeper, a carpenter 
 fay trade, under the direct supervision of the head-master. 
 
 1 The boys are chosen mainly from the Seventh Standard, and 
 attendance at the workshop is considered a privilege, and a 
 reward of merit in ordinary school subjects. It is therefore a 
 stimulus and incentive to industry and thoroughness of work. 
 This plan has been so effective that a boy once chosen values 
 the teaching and practice so much that he continues to be 
 chosen each week, and the instruction is therefore continuous, 
 for the class has been virtually the same since it started. 
 
 ' Boys who have been trained in a good school, and have 
 acquired soundly the rudiments of education, too often when 
 they leave school think that their proper career is a City 
 counting-house, and that to wear black clothes and appear as a 
 gentleman is a fair summit of their ambition. I certainly 
 think that this workshop for upper standard boys will help to 
 dissipate this idea, as it will show boys that, after we have given 
 them the best education which the school offers, we then lead 
 them into the workshop, and so practically show them that the 
 end and aim of our training is to enable them to learn some useful 
 trade and so become good workmen. 
 
 ' The workshop, I believe, is a valuable training to enable 
 the eye and hand to work in harmony. It is intended to make 
 the school drawing, especially the scale drawing and geometry, 
 apply as much as possible to the work done in the workshop. 
 It is certainly a pleasant relief to ordinary school work. 
 Should a boy not follow a trade when he leaves school, he 
 will at least be able to make his home work comfortable by 
 using the skill and facility which he has acquired in this 
 workshop.' 
 
 At the expense of the Rev. S. Barnett and a few of his 
 friends, a workshop has recently been fitted in the school 
 attached to St. Jude's Church, Whitechapel. Arrangements 
 have been made for giving instruction in carpentry and turnery 
 to boys, and in modelling and wood-carving to girls of the 
 upper standards, and the results of the lessons have fully 
 justified the most sanguine expectations of the advocates of this 
 
 H 2 
 
ioo INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 kind of instruction. Those who have visited these schools have- 
 been struck with the cheerful interest shown by the children 
 in their work, and by the effect of the teaching in quickening 
 their perceptive faculties and in stimulating their intelligence. 
 The contrast between the listless and often inattentive attitude 
 of children, occupied with some ordinary class lesson, and the 
 eager eyes and nimble fingers of the same children at the 
 carpenter's or modelling bench is most instructive ; and no one 
 who has seen it can have any doubt of the educational value of 
 this kind of training. These results, it must be remembered, 
 have been attained by teachers most of whom have themselves 
 been trying experiments, and have been working by the light of 
 Nature without any well-considered methods. Under properly 
 trained instructors, the results would doubtless have been far 
 more satisfactory. 
 
 There is good reason to believe that the stimulating effect 
 of workshop instruction on the intelligence of children will be 
 such that, notwithstanding the loss of the time spent in the 
 shop, their progress in their ordinary studies will be in no way 
 retarded. 
 
 Mr. Swire Smith, a member of the late Commission on 
 Technical Instruction, states that < the half-time children of the 
 town of Keighley, numbering from 1,500 to 2,000, although 
 they receive less than fourteen hours of instruction per week, 
 and are required to attend the factory for twenty-eight hours 
 per week in addition, yet obtain at the examinations a higher 
 percentage of passes than the average of children throughout 
 the whole country receiving double the amount of schooling.' 
 This answers the objection so often raised, that the curriculum 
 of elementary schools is already overcrowded. Possibly it may 
 be with literary studies, but not with practical work, and the 
 combination of the two will go far to correct the tendency to^ 
 over- pressure inherent in our system of payment by results. 
 
 As a general rule, children should be required to have 
 passed the Fifth Standard before being admitted into the shop. 
 They should receive two lessons a week, and each lesson should 
 be of about two hours' duration. No fixed rule can at present 
 be given as to the number of children who can be taught by 
 one instructor. For convenience of supervision the shop should 
 
MANUAL TRAINING IN SCHOOL EDUCATION 101 
 
 be fitted for the accommodation of not more than twenty-five 
 children. On starting a class, each pupil requires more individual 
 attention than later on. A class of beginners, therefore, should 
 not consist of the full complement of children. Where the same 
 shop is used for bench work and lathe work, it will be found 
 that a double lathe will occupy four pupils, that eighteen can be 
 accommodated at three carpenters' benches, each of not less than 
 14 feet 6 inches in length, whilst two may be engaged in sawing. 
 Besides the benches and lathes, the school should contain a large 
 blackboard, a cupboard, which is better than boxes for holding 
 tools, arid a grindstone. 
 
 In estimating the expense of adding this subject to our ele- 
 mentary school course, we have to consider the cost first, of 
 equipping the workshops ; second, of the material used ; third, 
 of the teaching. 
 
 Supposing a shed or some other room to be found, which 
 can be used as a workshop, the cost of equipping the shop with 
 benches and with the necessary tools need not exceed thirty 
 shillings for each pupil's place, and the workshop can be used 
 by different sets of pupils at different times. Moreover, a shop 
 need not be fitted at once with the full complement of benches ; 
 for, after a time, the more advanced pupils may be employed in 
 making some of the additional fittings required. 
 
 The cost of material is inconsiderable. The children soon 
 learn to construct the various articles for their own homes, 
 which, on payment of the cost of the material consumed, 
 become the property of their parents. Some, too, might be 
 employed in making models and other objects, including certain 
 workshop fittings, which might be purchased for the use of other 
 schools. At the same time, care must be taken that the work 
 is always subordinated to the educational purpose of the in- 
 struction. 
 
 Of the actual cost of the teaching no very exact estimate 
 can as yet be formed. Much depends on the system adopted. 
 If the instruction were given during school hours, it would take 
 the place of some other lesson, and, by a proper arrangement 
 of time-tables, might be given at very little additional expense. 
 In some of the schools in which the experiment has been already 
 tried, special teachers have been appointed, who have received 
 
102 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 a certain fee for each lesson. But if several schools in the same 
 district combined, one teacher might be engaged, and either the 
 children might be brought to a common centre, as in the case 
 of the cookery classes, or the teacher might go from school to 
 school, as in the case of the science teaching in Birmingham 
 and Liverpool. The latter plan might be more convenient for 
 the schools ; but the former plan would be more economical, as 
 enabling one shop and certain tools to be used by several sets 
 of children. 
 
 It would be necessary under any circumstances that the 
 instruction should be encouraged by a system of grants, or by 
 some equivalent external aid. A system might be organised of 
 paying grants on the results of the individual work of each 
 pupil ; but all the disadvantages of the method of ' payment 
 by results ' would be emphasised in the case of workshop in- 
 struction, and the teaching would lose much of its disciplinary 
 value. The amount of the grant should depend mainly on the 
 average number of children in attendance. A grant of four 
 shillings, as in the case of cookery lessons, and the recognition 
 of the subject by the Education Department, would afford 
 sufficient encouragement to induce certain School Boards and 
 School Managers to make manual training a part of the curri- 
 culum of the schools under their control. The total amount of 
 these grants would be but a slight addition to our education 
 expenses. According to the last report, the whole number of 
 children presented for examination in the Sixth and Seventh 
 Standards was 112,445. Of these, we may assume that about 
 60,000 are boys. Supposing half this number to elect to receive 
 workshop instruction, the grant would amount to 6,OOOZ. a year. 
 Bu t even this estimate is excessive as an addition to our present 
 expenditure. For many of the children might take handicrafts 
 in lieu of one of the specific subjects on which grants are now 
 paid. 1 It may therefore, I think, be asserted that, the workshops 
 
 1 It may be well here incidentally to call attention to the relatively small 
 amount of grants earned for specific subjects. Out of 352,860 children who 
 last year were examined in elementary subjects in the Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh 
 Standards, only 64,376 presented themselves in specific subjects, the total 
 amount of grant paid being 14,662Z. 11s. 8^. Of the children on account of 
 whom these grants were earned, Sir John Lubbock tells us that less than 
 25,000 were examined in any branch of science. 
 
MANUAL TRAINING IN SCHOOL EDUCATION 103 
 
 being once equipped, the additional cost in grants of introducing 
 handicraft teaching into the curriculum of our elementary schools 
 would not exceed 5,000. a year ; and for this comparatively small 
 expenditure about 30,000 boys might be annually sent out into 
 the world from our elementary schools endowed with practical 
 skill at their fingers' ends, imbued with a taste and aptitude for 
 the real work of their life, and so educated as to be able to 
 apply to that work the results of scientific teaching and scientific 
 methods. 
 
 In organising a scheme of technical teaching in connection 
 with our elementary schools, the difficulty has to be met of 
 obtaining good teachers and competent inspectors. The arti- 
 san, who is a skilful workman and nothing more, may succeed 
 in teaching the elements of carpentry and joinery ; but he is 
 not the kind of teacher needed. It is of the utmost importance 
 that the instructor should be a good draughtsman, should have 
 some knowledge of physical science, should be an expert work- 
 man, and should have studied the art of teaching. To obtain 
 at first such ideal instructors would be impossible ; but there is 
 no reason why, gradually, they should not be trained. Two 
 processes suggest themselves. We might take a well-trained 
 elementary teacher, having an aptitude for mechanical arts, 
 and give him a course of instruction in the use of tools, either 
 in a technical school or in an ordinary workshop ; or, we might 
 take an intelligent artisan, who had studied science and drawing 
 in some of the excellent evening classes which are now found in 
 almost every town, and give him a short course of lessons on 
 method in relation to workshop instruction. Good teachers 
 might be obtained by either of these processes. Perhaps the 
 latter is preferable, as it is most important that the teacher who 
 is to inspire confidence should be a good workman to start with 
 and thoroughly familiar with the practice of his trade. For 
 such intelligent and educated artisans there is, 1 hope, a future 
 of profitable employment. It would be well, however, that in 
 all our technical colleges opportunities should be afforded to 
 teachers in elementary schools of acquiring practice in the use of 
 tools ; and that special training classes should be formed for 
 artisans in the organisation of workshops and in the best methods 
 of workshop teaching. 
 
104 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 Nearly all educationists have pointed out the many advan- 
 tages of enabling children at an early age to realise the connec- 
 tion between knowing and doing. Commenius has well said : 
 'Let those things that have to be done be learnt by doing 
 them.' Kousseau has pithily expressed a similar idea in saying : 
 c Souvenez-vous qu'en toute chose vos lecons doivent etre plus 
 en actions qu'en discours ; car les enfants oublient aisement ce 
 qu'on leur a dit, niais non pas ce qu'ils ont fait et ce qu'on leur 
 a fait.' Locke, speaking of the education of a gentleman 
 for in his day the education of the poorer classes was scarcely 
 thought of says : ' I would have him learn a trade, a manual 
 trade ; ' and Emerson, in the choice words, < Manual labour is 
 the study of the external world,' tersely states the whole aim 
 and purpose of my remarks. Rabelais, Montaigne, Pestalozzi, 
 Frobel, Combe, Spencer, and others have urged the importance 
 of practical teaching, of studying things before words, of 
 proceeding from the concrete to the abstract. But, as yet, 
 such has been the inertia of school authorities and teachers, 
 and such the force of tradition, that we are only now be- 
 ginning to employ the methods of instruction that have 
 been advocated for years by the most eminent educational re- 
 formers. 
 
 In what I have said, I have endeavoured to show that 
 workshop instruction may be made a part of a liberal educa- 
 tion ; that, as an educational discipline, it serves to train the 
 faculties of observation, to exercise the hand and eye in the 
 estimation of form and size, and the physical properties of 
 common things ; that the skill acquired is useful in every 
 occupation of life, and is especially serviceable to those who 
 are likely to become artisans, by inducing taste and aptitude 
 for manual work, by tending to shorten the period of appren- 
 ticeship, by enabling the learner to apply to the practice of 
 his trade the correct methods of inquiry which he has learnt at 
 school, and by affording the necessary basis for higher technical 
 education. 
 
 Possibly, the latest authoritative expression of crpinion on 
 the importance of manual training was a resolution, unanimously 
 agreed to at the International Congress on Commercial and 
 Technical Education, recently held at Bordeaux, to the effect 
 
MANUAL TRAINING IN SCHOOL EDUCATION 105 
 
 that it is desirable that manual work should be rendered obliga- 
 tory in primary schools of all grades. 
 
 It is satisfactory to know from a circular 1 that has recently 
 been sent to school managers, that this important subject is 
 engaging the serious attention of the Royal Commission on 
 Education now sitting, whose labours, it is to be hoped, may 
 result in making our elementary teaching more practical, less 
 mechanical, and better adapted to the future requirements of 
 the working classes. 
 
 1 The circular, as published by Lord Brabazon in a letter to the Times of 
 October 11, contains the following questions : 
 
 1. Is the course of teaching prescribed by the Code suited to the children 
 of your school ? 
 
 2. What changes, if any, would you desire in the (Education Acts) ? in 
 the Code ? in the administration ? 
 
 3. Would you recommend the introduction into your school of practical 
 instruction ? A. In any of the industries of the district ? or in the use of 
 tools for working in wood or iron ? B. (for girls) in the domestic duties 
 of home? 
 
 TECHNICAL EDUCATION? 
 
 (TRANSLATION OF A PAPER READ BEFORE THE INTERNATIONAL 
 CONGRESS AT BORDEAUX, BY H. CUNYNGHAME.) 
 
 BEFORE making my contribution to the labours of this Congress, 
 I must explain the circumstances under which I am present 
 here. I am employed by the Charity Commissioners, by whom 
 the charities of England and Wales are regulated and controlled, 
 and I am here by their direction, with a view of acquiring any 
 information that may be of value to them. 
 
 But, so far as I am aware, the Commission has no particular 
 educational opinions, nor, if it had, should I be the person to 
 expound them. You will therefore please understand that any 
 remarks I make are simply my own opinions, formed during 
 several years of experience, but which I hope to correct and 
 modify in proportion as I learn more of the subject. I may, 
 however, remark that I am greatly strengthened in them by 
 the fact that they coincide in principle with the report of the 
 
 2 Keprinted, by permission, from Eastward Ho ! of January, 1887. 
 
io6 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 important Commission on Technical Education which has lately 
 been presented to the English Parliament. 
 
 The present system under which an artisan is prepared for 
 his calling must be considered very defective. As a rule, the 
 sons of workmen in England, from the age of eight to thirteen 
 years, attend the primary or Board schools established under the 
 Education Acts. After this they usually obtain some light form 
 of employment for a year or so ; they are then put to their 
 trades, commencing usually at about five shillings a week, and 
 gradually rising during seven years to about eighteen shillings 
 a week, after which they obtain full workmen's wages. 
 
 The model of our school education throughout England has 
 undoubtedly been taken from our great public schools, which 
 are justly regarded by us with pride and affection. 
 
 These public schools are highly successful in forming prin- 
 ciples of generosity and honour ; habits of self-reliance, and the 
 art of living amongst others. Added to this is a fair amount of 
 Latin, a little Greek, and mathematics ; and boys destined for 
 public examinations are allowed to acquire a smattering of 
 languages, chemistry, and physical science. 
 
 This system of instruction has come down by an almost un- 
 broken tradition from the Middle Ages, and has set the example 
 to schools throughout the kingdom. It still preserves some 
 characteristics of its origin. Knowledge is imparted more from 
 books than from things facts are made to depend rather on the 
 dicta of authority than upon experiment. Sciences are taught 
 without apparatus ; geometry without models ; trigonometry 
 without scales and protractors. To these schools it is almost as 
 though Lord Bacon bad never lived. 
 
 For boys who are to become divines or lawyers or statesmen, 
 or to enter the public service of the country, a purely literary 
 education may, perhaps, be the best. But, considering that the 
 majority of the boys will become soldiers, doctors, engineers, 
 manufacturers, merchants, or colonists, it may well be doubted, 
 not only whether the subjects taught at our public schools are 
 sufficient, but whether the method of learning only -from books 
 is not pushed too far. 
 
 The English are a people with minds of a concrete order ; 
 that is to say, they learn better from things than from books, and 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 107 
 
 dislike abstractions. This tendency finds utterance in the con- 
 tempt for theory which we find commonly expressed, especially 
 by the working classes. It is a mistaken contempt, but one 
 which has arisen, to some extent, from an observation of the 
 defects of the merely book-system of instruction. 
 
 Almost all our great men have learned rather from expe- 
 rience than from precept, and, so far as the sciences are concerned, 
 nearly all our great discoverers have been handlers of matter 
 from their childhood. 
 
 A careful examination of their biographies shows this. It is 
 customary, for instance, to regard Sir Isaac Newton as a mathe- 
 matician, locked in his study and immersed in papers, and 
 making no more experiments than to observe the fall of an 
 apple in fact, studying mathematics according to our present 
 school-method, by means of unrealised abstractions. But if his 
 works and life are consulted, we find that the story of the apple 
 is a myth, and that he made his own apparatus and ground his 
 own optic-glasses, like any optician. If I speak only of our 
 own great men of Priestley, Wollaston, Sir Humphry Davy, 
 Hooke, Wren, Watts, Faraday, or Wheatstone, all of whom 
 were ardent experimenters think not that I have forgotten the 
 illustrious mathematician Fresnel, who discovered the true laws 
 of light, which even the great intellect of Newton had failed to 
 grasp, with the aid of some apparatus made by his own hands, 
 out of thread and wire, and with only the occasional help of the 
 village blacksmith. It is, in fact, not too much to say that, 
 from the time of Bacon and Descartes, no mathematician or 
 physicist or philosopher has ever or will ever again be able to 
 dispense with constant experiments, and it will therefore be 
 necessary to effect, in our educational system, a change corre- 
 sponding to the change which has taken place in our mode of 
 thought and discovery. It is, however, not my intention to 
 dwell further upon the merits and defects of our school teaching 
 than to show that if that system be of questionable utility for 
 many boys of the upper classes, it will almost certainly be im- 
 perfect when applied to the children of artisans. Of course, in 
 the first place, the greatest object of all in the national schools, 
 is to imprint on the children sound principles, so as to make 
 them good men and good citizens. In the next place, writing 
 
io8 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 and arithmetic, which are the avenues to knowledge, should be 
 thoroughly taught. But when on<3e it is resolved to go beyond 
 this, how absurd it becomes to try and teach these children, 
 from books, things which even a very clever man could hardly 
 learn, except from observation. This method only widens the 
 gulf between theory and practice, which it should be our aim to 
 unite, and under it the boys soon learn to look on all book- 
 learning as something of a metaphysical nature, not applicable 
 in any practical manner. And no wonder, if physiology, 
 physics, and botany are attempted to be taught without models 
 or apparatus, by men who never made an experiment. Not only, 
 however, is the method of the elementary schools insufficient, 
 but the training of the artisan after leaving school is also very 
 defective. 
 
 In ancient time the education of the artisan was provided 
 for by the apprenticeship system. But this has now broken 
 down a result which may be attributed to the operation of 
 several causes. 
 
 In the first place, the spread of printing is tending rapidly 
 to make public all arts, so that the ancient trade mysteries are 
 almost things of the past. 
 
 In the next place, the recent advances of science have so 
 revolutionised industries that most of the old methods and secrets 
 are obsolete ; so that the mysteries, for which formerly a good 
 premium was payable by an Apprentice, are now either well 
 known or else useless. 
 
 Again, the factory system, and the modern application of 
 machinery and capital to manufactures on a large scale, has so 
 divided labour that small manufacturers have, almost ceased to 
 exist, and, consequently, the personal supervision of the master 
 over his apprentices has disappeared. 
 
 Facilities of locomotion have also mixed up the populations 
 of town and country, so that an apprentice can easily run away 
 and find work in a new position, whereas, in old times, he would 
 have had great difficulty in leaving his master and embarking 
 in a new career. 
 
 As a result, good workmen are becoming scarce, for few get 
 a proper training. The number of men who are mere factory- 
 hands, possessing no general knowledge or power of adaptation, 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 109 
 
 is increasing, and most of the boys who have served a few years 
 in a workshop, instead of remaining to complete their training, 
 are only anxious to gain an immediate increase of wages. 
 
 This picture, therefore, of the education of the workman is 
 unsatisfactory. The boys leave the primary schools with a cer- 
 tain amouRt of mere book-learning, but without any practice in 
 the art of learning from things; they become apprentices in 
 shops or factories where it is no one's business to teach them 
 their trades ; they often leave before their education is com- 
 pleted, and, during their apprenticeship years they find neither 
 encouragement nor opportunity for self-improvement. 
 
 These . defects are being widely felt in England. Manufac- 
 turers complain that good workmen are daily growing more 
 scarce, and the keenness of foreign competition is beginning to 
 make English workmen feel their deficiencies. 
 
 Hence has arisen the call for technical education. Much 
 has already been done in England in this direction. The 
 Charity Commission, for many years past, has devised every 
 year schemes for technical education ; the City Guilds Institute 
 has founded several schools, and encouraged others ; and private 
 beneficence has established some excellent institutes in our 
 large towns. But more still remains to be accomplished. In 
 France and Germany attempts at technical education have been 
 made on a wider scale than in England. The direction which 
 such attempts have usually taken is in the establishment of 
 technical day-schools for teaching various trades. But these 
 day-schools have, in general, laid themselves open to three 
 objections. 
 
 In the first place, the expense has been very large, as com- 
 pared with the results. Schools for teaching handicrafts cost 
 upwards of 20Z. per head per annum to establish and to subsi- 
 dise an amount which it is clearly impossible to provide on a 
 large scale in any country. Moreover, even at this cost, they 
 are not thoroughly effective. For trades are so numerous and 
 varied that a properly-fitted technical school for every trade in 
 each town would be an impossibility. Moreover, such a school 
 could, even if founded, never be able to afford to introduce, 
 from time to time, all the newest machinery ; and, therefore, it 
 would soon, as an educational establishment, fall behind the 
 
no INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 best factories. Added to this, there must be, in all technical 
 schools, a want of reality in the work done. The work is not 
 for sale or use ; it is of a more or less experimental character. 
 So that there is a tendency for the boys to develop into amateurs, 
 unaccustomed to the ways of workmen, and unfitted for work on 
 a serious commercial scale. 
 
 In a few instances it has been attempted to remedy these 
 evils by establishing a system of payment of the boys for their 
 work. This, however, has only the effect of turning the school 
 into a small and imperfect factory ; the amount earned from the 
 sale of work is insignificant, and the evils of the factory system 
 at once become apparent. 
 
 But, although apprenticeship schools are open to these dis- 
 advantages, it would be wrong to condemn them wholesale : 
 there are some instances in which they may be beneficially esta- 
 blished. First, when the plant required is exceedingly simple 
 and cheap, the objection on the score of expense disappears. 
 Thus, bootmaking, tailoring, and wood-carving can be taught 
 without much plant, and at a small expense. 
 
 Again, cases may arise in which a valuable trade is in danger 
 of disappearing from a country, owing to some temporary de- 
 pression. Thus the watch-making trade is suffering greatly in 
 England, owing to the keen competition of Switzerland and 
 America, and will never revive until the system of machine 
 watch-making on a large scale is introduced. 
 
 In the meantime, the trade is in a state of such depression 
 and confusion that it is hard for an apprentice to learn it. To 
 meet this difficulty a small but excellent school of watch-making 
 has been established in London, to which boys come from all 
 parts of the country. 
 
 Moreover, technical schools have occasionally been the means 
 of introducing new arts and manufactures. The Royal factories 
 at Sevres and Dresden, in which china-painting was taught, had 
 a considerable effect upon the art of the surrounding districts ; 
 and the needlework and wood-carving schools established at 
 South Kensington, and the schools of design throughout the 
 country, have already exercised a considerable influence on 
 English art. 
 
 The above are, however, exceptions ; in general the fact re- 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION m 
 
 mains that day technical schools are an impossibility, on the 
 score of their expense, as well as being imperfect as a training 
 for the artisan. 
 
 Even, however, if these objections could be surmounted, a 
 third remains, which alone would be fatal. During the stay of 
 a boy at a technical school he must be lodged, boarded, and 
 clothed by his parents, and few working men are willing and 
 fewer still are able to forego the weekly wages earned by the 
 boy during his apprenticeship years. And therefore it usually 
 happens that even the few apprenticeship schools, for the esta- 
 blishment of which money can be found, naturally gravitate away 
 from the children of the working classes and become frequented 
 by the sons of men in a better station of life. They become 
 schools not for workmen, but for foremen and captains of in- 
 dustry. I believe that I am correct in saying that in the Ecole 
 Diderot in Paris, which is largely supported by the State, and 
 in which even bourses a dejeuner are given gratuitously to the 
 scholars, one-half the boys are the sons of well-to-do persons, 
 entirely above the artisan class. If this be so, it shows that 
 this school, established originally for artisans, is fast drifting 
 away from the class for which it was provided. 
 
 Here, then, we have two defects to remedy in the education 
 of our workmen. We must provide them with some additional 
 instruction in the Board schools more suited to their wants, and 
 we must devise some system which, while it cannot replace 
 workshop education, shall, nevertheless, supplement it and rec- 
 tify its shortcomings. 
 
 This is to be accomplished firstly, by the introduction of 
 manual work into the Board schools ; and, secondly, by the 
 establishment of evening schools for apprentices and artisans ; 
 and I believe that it can be shown not only that these remedies 
 are the best to meet the evils which I above exposed, but also 
 that they can be established at a cost so moderate as need in no 
 way alarm the taxpayer. 
 
 The manual work to be introduced into elementary schools 
 should, I think, be most strictly limited to two subjects, and 
 two only namely, elementary carpentry and elementary model- 
 ling in clay. 
 . It must be remembered that the boys here rarely exceed the 
 
ii2 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 age of thirteen years, and for such youths a more extended 
 course would be a mere waste of money. 
 
 But it is of the very highest importance that these subjects 
 should be properly taught. Simply to allow the boys to trifle 
 with the saw and hammer, or to learn, in amateur fashion, to 
 make elegant trifles with the chisel and plane, is to waste their 
 time and to impair their capacity for labour ; or, again, to en- 
 deavour to teach them the tricks and little secrets of some par- 
 ticular branch of the carpentry trade would be impossible and 
 futile. What is proposed is not to turn out ready-made carpen- 
 ters, but to train the mind. Hence, therefore, the acquisition 
 of mere manual dexterity is not what is aimed at. What is 
 desired is to teach the application of geometrical form to matter, 
 and wood is selected as the matter to be dealt with, because it 
 is the cheapest and easiest for the purpose. To carry this into 
 effect it is needful that instruction should be given in elemen- 
 tary geometry working as far as possible with the rule and 
 compass not aiming at too extended a course, but endeavour- 
 ing to be thorough. If the elementary principles of the line 
 and circle could be mastered it would be amply sufficient for 
 boys up to fourteen years of age. The geometry class, having 
 first learned a few properties of the straight line, should next be 
 exercised in drawing simple wooden forms, such as a halved 
 joint, or mitred joint. These drawings, having been inspected 
 and found correct, would next be taken into the carpentry class, 
 where the abstract form, represented on paper, would be realised 
 in substance. The carpentry class would commence with a few 
 easy lessons on the nature of wood and of steel tools, and then 
 the boys would be allowed to use them. The instruction should 
 be progressive first beginning with the use of the saw, then 
 passing on to the hammer, chisel, and plane. And as these 
 tools were successively introduced their nature and properties 
 should be expounded. Thus, the hammer would familiarise the 
 boys with the idea of potential and kinetic energy ; the chisel 
 would introduce them to the wedge and lever ; the screw would 
 teach them the properties of the spiral inclined plane, and so on 
 all these not being called by hard names, but made simple and 
 easy to be understood. But in this work certain rules should 
 be inflexibly observed. Such, for instance, as the following : 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 
 
 "3 
 
 1. No boy should be allowed to make any article whatever, 
 
 unless he had first drawn it to scale on paper, and 
 understood the geometrical principles involved in it. 
 Most simple articles, such as boxes, trays, and even 
 ladders and tables, only involve a knowledge of the 
 properties of the line and right angle. 
 
 2. No boy should ever be allowed to work, except to 
 
 measurement, exactly as if he were in an engineer's 
 fitting and model-making shop. 
 
 3. Every piece of wood should be truly marked out with 
 
 the pencil before being cut or planed. 
 
 4. No work, however good, should be allowed to pass unless 
 
 it was made correctly to the drawing. 
 
 By this means the carpentry class and the geometry class would 
 re-act upon one another. Geometry would give direction and 
 aim to the carpentry studies, carpentry would give reality to 
 the geometrical teaching, and all the while, from their early 
 years, the boys would be learning that in which the work- 
 man is so deficient, namely, the application of theory to 
 practice. 
 
 A system like this would be amply sufficient for all practical 
 purposes. To extend it to turning or wood-carving, or to follow 
 out carpentry into all its branches, would not only lead the boys 
 away from their true course of study, but would introduce endless 
 difficulty and expense. If a boy of fourteen could use his hammer, 
 saw, chisel, and plane really effectively, he would have learnt 
 more than many adult journeymen now can do. So restricted, 
 the system would not be expensive. In a school of 300 boys a 
 room fitted up to accommodate thirty pupils would be sufficient, 
 and the total prime outlay on tools and benches would not exceed 
 60L The instructor's salary would not exceed 21. per week, the 
 wear and tear of tools would be exceedingly small, and that part 
 of the wood which the boys took away in the shape of manufac- 
 tured articles would be paid for by them, the rest serving for 
 fuel. A standard of deal, of good quality, costs about 12L, and 
 would probably last for a year. , 
 
 The teacher selected should be a carpenter, or, better still, a 
 pattern-maker, bat should have gone through a course of in- 
 struction in geometrical drawing, so as to be able to teach 
 
ii 4 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 geometry as well as carpentering. Or else, on the other hand, 
 a school teacher might qualify himself in carpentry. But it is 
 of course clear that, to carry out the system properly on a wide 
 scale, some training establishment for the teachers would have 
 to be organised. In all this there is nothing that need alarm 
 the taxpayer. 
 
 Instruction so organised need cost no more than Board 
 school instruction costs at present. 
 
 In observing a school of boys no one can fail to notice that 
 a portion of them seem to develop literary ability, another por- 
 tion mechanical ability, and a third portion the artistic powers. 
 In our elementary schools we already provide for the first of 
 these ; I have tried to show how, at a moderate cost, we might 
 provide for the second, and I now pass to the third or artistic 
 side. Here, fortunately, expense stands even less in our way 
 than on the mechanical side. All that is needed is some clay, 
 some wooden boards and cloths, and a few simple wooden tools. 
 With these you have sufficient for even a Michael Angelo to 
 realise his conceptions, and for a class of thirty children the whole 
 apparatus would not cost 15?. 
 
 Just as the carpentry class hangs on the geometry class, so 
 here should the modelling class be associated with the free-hand 
 drawing classes. The children will be made to draw a few 
 simple forms, such as a cone, or a cylinder, or a pyramid, and 
 will then make them to scale in clay. Then they can go on to 
 ornament, drawing some simple form from a cast, or from nature, 
 and then modelling it in clay from the original and the drawing. 
 But similar rules will here be observed to those in the carpentry 
 class, so as to secure that the work shall be both useful and 
 thorough, and elegant trifling with the matter must be sternly 
 repressed. 
 
 And I venture to assert that, if the system is properly pur- 
 sued, the children so trained will be better fitted to become 
 mechanics and artisans than those educated in a purely literary 
 manner. It is interesting to compare the earnest delight of a 
 child in seeing even the most simple little model grow up under 
 its hands with the bored attention of a class during a lesson on 
 grammar or syntax. But, unfortunately, all the mechanical 
 energies of our poor children are at present directed to the 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 115 
 
 making of tip-cats and catapults, and all their artistic powers 
 to the construction of mud-pies and oyster-shell grottoes. 
 
 The literary side of their education ought not, of course, to 
 be neglected ; but for those who are to become artisans, the 
 mechanical and artistic ought not to be ignored. 
 
 I have mentioned the exceedingly unsatisfactory state of the 
 apprenticeship system, and the impossibility of curing it effec- 
 tually by means of apprenticeship schools, or in fact by any sort 
 of school which shall supersede the workshop. It remains, 
 therefore, to inquire whether evening schools are sufficient to 
 supplement workshop instruction. This has been already proved 
 to be the case. Such schools already exist in England. An 
 excellent one at Finsbury, in London, has been established by 
 Sir Philip Magnus; another has been established by Mr. 
 Quintin Hogg, in Regent Street, and there are several more in 
 various parts of London. In the Midlands of England, and in 
 Scotland, others also exist, and especially in Manchester the 
 evening school system is developing into very large propor- 
 tions. Such schools, not being designed to teach trades, but 
 rather the principles and modes of applying science to trades, 
 do not need expensive apparatus, and therefore need not be 
 ostly. Some excellent classes at Finsbury, on the application 
 of geometry to working in tin, are carried on with the simplest 
 possible plant ; and Professor Guthrie has shown that science 
 can be taught with apparatus which can be manufactured for a 
 few pounds. But it is necessary that these schools should be 
 true to their principles, being rigidly restrained within certain 
 limits, and not being allowed to waste their funds in costly 
 attempts to teach trade details that are better learned in the 
 workshop. 
 
 And, lastly, it is needful that every effort should be made to 
 induce both masters and parents to permit and stipulate for 
 time for the children to attend these evening schools. It is 
 not enough to devote to study the fag-end of an exhausting 
 day's work. During youth some of the best and freshest hours 
 must be given to it, and it will amply repay both employers and 
 employed. 
 
 Hitherto, however, but little has been done to give appren- 
 tices leisure to study. Masters have been too anxious to secure 
 
 i 2 
 
no INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 a full day's work, and too neglectful to teach their apprentices ; 
 while trades-unions, instead of being desirous of helping the 
 apprentices to learn, too often throw every difficulty in their 
 way by restricting the number of apprentices employed in trades,, 
 and by raising every barrier to the rise of men from labourers to 
 be mechanics ; thus, by a short-sighted policy, impairing the 
 trade of their country and promoting competition from abroad. 
 
 I have thus endeavoured to point out the defects in our 
 present educational system, and to show how they may be re- 
 medied, not by attempting to give State teaching in trades, or to 
 found technical apprenticeship schools, except to a very limited 
 extent, but by some improvement in institutions already exist- 
 ing ; not by endeavouring to teach details, but rather to impart 
 methods and principles, and to prove that this can be done 
 cheaply and effectively, thus offering, at all events, one solution 
 of the difficult problem of technical education. 
 
 It is by no means sought here to underrate the many excel- 
 lent technical schools which already exist, but rather to show 
 that they have not as yet reached the working classes, who 
 require an education which, while not being on the one hand 
 purely literary, shall on the other not attempt to be too tech- 
 nical, and shall aim at imparting to the workmen what Sir 
 Lyon Play fair has happily called the ' Rationale of Empiricism.' 
 
 EDUCATIONAL REFORMS. 
 
 ' THE TIMES,' DECEMBER 28, 1886. 
 
 THE New South .Wales working man, who, according to Mr. 
 Stephen Thompson, reckons himself in poverty unless he has 
 three ' square meals ' a day and plenty of time and money 
 to enjoy himself, is evidently a person who fully accepts the 
 philosophic advice to take short views. He is providing himself 
 with a lazy kind of comfort, but he is not going to work in the 
 right way to make his country great or to raise himself and his 
 children in the scale of being. He is clearly much" in want of 
 information and education. Here at home the efforts of the 
 benevolent are hampered by the same want among those whom 
 they seek to help. Miss Davenport-Hill, in a letter which we 
 
EDUCATIONAL REFORMS 117 
 
 print this morning, gives striking illustrations on this point, 
 and goes to the root of the matter with the practical suggestion 
 that we should make knowledge of our colonies, their climates, 
 resources, and modes of life, essential subjects of instruction in 
 our schools. We are not aware of any reason why that instruc- 
 tion should not be made at least as efficient an instrument of 
 education as any of the subjects for which grants are now paid. 
 It is true to a far greater extent than most people have any idea 
 of that ' the people perish for lack of knowledge.' We have 
 that fatal want in evidence both here and in our colonies. 
 Would it not be well in organising our Imperial Institute to 
 keep that fact much more constantly before our minds than we 
 have hitherto done ? Knowledge of the world they are born 
 into is the crying need of the people on both sides of the ocean, 
 and what need is there to which an Imperial Institute could 
 more fittingly minister ? It is not fossil knowledge that ' is 
 wanted. Mere museums will not supply the need of the day. 
 We require living knowledge, and vivid teaching, using museums 
 merely as its tools. 
 
 There is even a good deal to be done in the way of edu- 
 cating those who direct education. In this country our higher 
 education has for generations been exclusively literary, and 
 under an aristocratic constitution it served its purpose fairly well. 
 It does not suit a democratic constitution, and is being slowly 
 and reluctantly modified. But the literary training of the 
 upper classes is a positive hindrance to due appreciation of the 
 fact that what the lower classes imperatively require, if they are 
 to hold their own in the world, is an education in things, not in 
 books. Mr. Stephen Thompson tells us to-day what are the 
 classes that can emigrate with advantage and what classes are 
 useless. We have been told the same thing thousands of times 
 by everybody who knows the colonies, but the lesson has never 
 been practically applied. The colonies do not want e educated 
 men without capital,' and they want none of that class which 
 has attained such enormous dimensions here the class vaguely 
 denominated clerks. This country absolutely swarms with men 
 who are not ' educated ' in any true sense whatever, and who at 
 the same time are totally destitute of the practical knowledge 
 and aptitudes of the artisan. Their youth has been spent in 
 
n8 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 fumbling with an education which they never attain, and which 
 is only fitted for men possessed either of exceptional abilities 
 or of the means of living without their aid. If we are going to 
 contemplate State emigration, % the first thing to do obviously is 
 to fit our people for that end. What we call education is brought 
 to the hard test of the question Does the world want [this 
 kind of thing ? We do not want it here ; we are glutted with 
 it. The colonies will have nothing to do with it. They want 
 men who can lay bricks or paint houses or make chairs, men 
 who in some way or other are conversant with things, not with 
 what ancient and modern writers have said about things. We 
 are already inconveniently crowded in this country, and we have 
 three hundred thousand new inhabitants added every year. We 
 are driven to contemplate their exportation upon a large scale 
 by the State, and it is surely high time to begin manufacturing 
 them into an article for which there is a demand. We have to 
 face the fact that there is no community on the globe that is 
 willing to take what is of no use to us merely to oblige English- 
 men. If we are to carry out emigration on any large scale, we 
 must make it our business to train our people in such a way as 
 to meet the needs of our colonies. The article they want may 
 seem a very inferior one to persons nourished upon literature 
 and conversant with books. But the colonies will not take any 
 other, and unless we meet their views we shall have to keep our 
 redundant population at home. 
 
 COLONIAL TRAINING. 
 
 To THE EDITOE OF THE TIMES.' l 
 
 I have read your wise leading article in the Times of 
 to-day with great interest. Having come lately from a two 
 years' experience in Canada and the North-West, I can truly 
 endorse your sentence, ' the people perish from lack of know- 
 ledge,' by which I mean that clerks and artisans, finding the 
 labour market overcrowded in the cities, are helpless on farms 
 and ranches because they have never learnt to plough, harness 
 a horse, or milk a cow. On my advice Professor Wilson has 
 added ploughing with oxen and horses to the colonial course of 
 1 Times, December 29, 1886. 
 
COLONIAL TRAINING 119 
 
 his college at the Crystal Palace, and other colonial training 
 farms are doing the same. 
 
 The field for agricultural labourers is practically unlimited 
 in our great colonies ; it is therefore necessary to extend the 
 simple instruction now being given to young gentlemen to the 
 clerks, artisans, and labouring men wishing to emigrate, so that 
 they could at once find employment on farms if the labour 
 markets of the cities were overstocked. 
 
 The question is How is this simple instruction to be given ? 
 I wrote to the secretary of the committee of the Imperial 
 Institute to the effect that, should the Institute undertake such 
 instruction on small plots of land near our large cities, it would 
 be advisable to have colonial instructors. These would turn the 
 minds of would-be emigrants from the United States to our 
 colonies. I further point out that, having carefully inquired on 
 the spot, I found a good Canadian instructor could be obtained 
 for 100?. a year and his food, and he would live on the plot in 
 his log hut. I have now two instructors ready to come on these 
 terms. The course should be ploughing with oxen, milking 
 cows, harnessing horses, and, if possible, a little riding. I 
 received an answer from the secretary of the committee that 
 the subject would be considered. 
 
 Having succeeded with the schools for young gentlemen I 
 hope yet to succeed for our working men. I maintain it is the 
 duty of the State to place such simple instruction within reach 
 of the people, if the Imperial Institute cannot do so, and thus 
 save the hardships I have witnessed. After going through the 
 course the working man should have a certificate given him, show- 
 ing his conduct during instruction and his acquirements. Armed 
 with his certificate, the emigrant would have nothing to fear. 
 
 Last week Mr. Kennaway, Assistant Agent-General for New 
 Zealand, told me that when selecting emigrants he limited him- 
 self to two questions, i Can you plough ? ' and ' Can you milk 
 cows ? ' Having great experience in New Zealand farming, he 
 considered satisfactory answers to those questions sufficient, and 
 found it to be so. 
 
 I predict the time is approaching when the ploughman 
 instructor will begin to elbow the schoolmaster. The thin edge 
 of the wedge has been got in with the upper classes, and 
 
120 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 working men will shortly discover that an education that admits 
 of some of their sons becoming possessors of freehold property 
 in the colonies is better adapted to the future welfare of their 
 families than Euclid and algebra, though they themselves may 
 prefer to remain at home following their occupations. 
 Your obedient servant, 
 
 EDWARD PALLISER. 
 
 Army and Navy Club, Pall Mall : December 27. 
 
 EDUCATION AS IT IS AND AS IT OUGHT TO BE. 1 
 
 To THE EDITOR OF THE TIMES.' 
 
 SIR, Permit me to add a word in confirmation of your argu- 
 ment to-day on education as it is and as it ought to be. 
 
 Some years ago, as treasurer of Barnardo's Homes at Stepney, 
 I was much struck by the fact that the waifs and strays edu- 
 cated there are better prepared for the battle of life than are the 
 children who attend our Board schools. No child, as a rule, 
 leaves the Homes without having learnt some handiwork as well 
 as the three R's. 
 
 But, under present arrangements, any training of the hands 
 (except as to the needle) is impossible at a Board school. It 
 has always seemed to me that children who spend part of the day 
 in an active employment, where their hands as well as heads are 
 occupied, lead a far more pleasant life, and, therefore, learn 
 more effectually, than those who always pore over books or 
 writing, however skilfully varied and illustrated. And the 
 result to an emigrant child must be invaluable. Such a child 
 need not compete as a clerk, but can earn his living at some 
 trade, and can learn another trade far more easily than a child 
 whose hands have never been trained. 
 
 It is needless to dwell on this. What I desire to insist on 
 is the necessity of a change in our system, so that our Board 
 schools may do better work, and may teach both boys and girls 
 more of what is really useful. 
 
 I know well that any change involves a vast expense, but it 
 is better to amend our system, even at a heavy cost, than to 
 persist in what we admit tc be defective in a most important 
 1 From the Times of December 29, 1886. 
 
EDUCATION AS IT IS AND AS IT OUGHT TO BE 121 
 
 sense. It is no doubt aggravating to confess a failure in what 
 has cost so much time and money and thought, but nothing is 
 gained by closing our eyes to facts. 
 
 I remain, yours faithfully, 
 Grosvenor Square : December 27. WlLLIAM FOWLER. 
 
 SPEECH ON TECHNICAL AND TRADE INSTRUCTIONS 
 
 BY THE MAKQUIS OP HARTINGTON, AT THE POLYTECHNIC, 
 LONDON, MARCH 16, 1887. 
 
 THE Marquis of Hartington, presiding at the distribution of 
 medals, prizes, and certificates to the successful students of the 
 Polytechnic Science, Art, Technical, and Commercial Classes 
 for the Session 1885-86, and to the successful exhibitors at 
 the Annual Exhibition of 1886, said: The division of labour 
 amongst us at the present time was so marked, that it was very 
 difficult for anyone to travel only for his own business, and his 
 trade was almost entirely that of a politician. He did not 
 profess to be one of those with knowledge so various, and grasp 
 of mind so far-reaching, as to be able to devote himself to 
 politics and also to the other questions which were being dis- 
 cussed, such as the progress of Science and Art, and the bearing 
 of that progress upon the industry, trade, and commerce of our 
 country. His first duty was to congratulate the members of 
 this Institute and their numerous friends present upon the work 
 in which they were engaged. The work of the Institution he 
 understood to be classes for science, art, and technical educa- 
 tion. Through their classes there had now passed 21,000 
 individual students, and the numbers were continually in- 
 creasing. Alluding to their having gained nineteen medals 
 given by the City and Guilds of London in competition with the 
 whole of the United Kingdom, he said the fact of having gained 
 these prizes in such subjects as electric lighting, photography, 
 plumbing, painting, watch and clock making, metal-plate work- 
 ing, carriage building, and boot and shoe making, showed the 
 success which had been achieved amongst students drawn prin- 
 cipally from the mechanic classes, many of them being apprentices. 
 The average age of the students was from eighteen to twenty- 
 three, and the average fees from 2s. to 10s. 6d. per session, so 
 1 From the Standard of March 17, 1887. 
 
122 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 that the advantages of the classes were fully accessible to those 
 for whose benefit they were founded viz. the working artisan 
 classes of London. The Science and Art Classes could not show 
 numbers equal, but their numbers were not unsatisfactory, there 
 being 850 students in Science and 350 in Art, of whom 73 per cent, 
 had obtained passes. There was great necessity for such work as 
 this, and for the further extension of technical education in this 
 country. Professor Huxley, speaking at the Mansion House the 
 other day in support of the Imperial Institute, made a very 
 remarkable statement on this subject. Comparing the organisa- 
 tion of the industrial forces of the countries of Europe with the 
 organisation of their great armies, he declared that the conditions 
 of industrial competition at the present time amounted to a state 
 of war. If that was true, and there was little doubt on that 
 point, what were the consequences resulting from it ? The 
 operation of economic laws was so certain and so swift, that it 
 was matter of absolute certainty that a nation which ceased to 
 produce, or produced less of what the world wanted, or produced 
 it of inferior quality, was being defeated in the industrial com- 
 petition, and would soon feel the consequences of that defeat. 
 What would be the consequences of such defeat to us nationally 
 and individually ? To the nation the consequence would be a 
 diminution of the wealth and influence which we had acquired 
 from our pre-eminence in industrial position. We might still 
 have our material resources, our coal, our iron, and the muscular 
 energy of what would then be the vastly superabundant popu- 
 lation ; but, instead of being what we are now, we should be 
 hewers of wood and drawers of water, the slaves and the servants 
 of the rest of the world, instead of being the leaders and masters 
 of the world. If any there were indifferent to the prospect of 
 this national industrial defeat, this national decadence, he would 
 ask them to consider what would be the consequences individu- 
 ally. It would mean the loss of wealth of those who were now 
 rich, the poverty of those who were now prosperous, and to the 
 masses of the country it would be famine, indigence, and starva- 
 tion. It became, therefore, a very urgent question how indus- 
 trial defeat was to be warded off. Just as we could not in 
 preparations for actual warfare afford to disregard the teachings 
 and experience of the rest of the world, and allow ourselves to 
 be behindhand in the possession of the necessary scientific know- 
 
SPEECH ON TECHNICAL AND TRADE INSTRUCTION 123 
 
 ledge and appliances which modern warfare required, still less 
 could we afford to be behindhand in the preparations for the 
 industrial warfare of which he had spoken. Success in that 
 industrial warfare was not now a mere matter of the possession 
 of great material resources, great industry, and perseverance 
 and energy on the part of our people ; it could only be gained 
 by the most diligent application of the most scientific instruc- 
 tion to the masses of our people. How were we at present 
 equipped for this industrial competition ? We knew what other 
 countries were doing. Germany and France were making 
 enormous efforts to provide for the technical instruction of their 
 people, and the smaller nations were following their example. 
 Mr. Mundella had told them that a year ago he saw in Berlin 
 a Technical Institute which had cost the public upwards of 
 400,000?., while in every industrial centre in Germany vast 
 palaces were devoted to the practical work of science teaching. 
 In France all the class subjects of her Institute were taught at 
 the public expense in nearly every arrondissement of Paris. It 
 was a striking fact that Paris, heavily taxed beyond the con- 
 ception of Englishmen, should adopt such a course. It showed 
 how powerful the motive must be which produced such a result ; 
 and he cited the fact that Switzerland, though without natural 
 resources, had by a system of graded schools and the Technical 
 College at Zurich become a prosperous manufacturing country. 
 Here the subject had been a good deal inquired into of late, and 
 the results were some of them encouraging and others less en- 
 couraging. The report of the Commission on Technical Edu- 
 cation stated that though we were behindhand, as compared 
 with other nations, in the adoption of a national system, of 
 technical education, it was not yet too late for us to maintain 
 the position which up to the present time we had held unques- 
 tioned in the industrial world, if we only made adequate exer- 
 tions. But there was an opinion of a somewhat different and 
 less encouraging kind from the Royal Commission on the Depres- 
 sion of Trade, who said that the foreign competition with this 
 country was a matter deserving more serious attention than it had 
 yet received, and pointing out that not only our technical but our 
 ordinary commercial education was not sufficient to enable us 
 successfully to continue industrial competition with foreigners. 
 
124 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 It was clearly, therefore, the opinion of all who had studied the 
 subject that greater and more improved technical education 
 must be provided for our people ; and the only question remain- 
 ing was, how was it to be provided ? No doubt it would be 
 satisfactory if it could be provided by voluntary effort. But he 
 was afraid we had not everywhere, we had not even in London, 
 a sufficient supply of men like those to whom their Institute 
 owed so much. They could hardly rely upon an unlimited supply 
 of men who were content to devote a large portion of their 
 income, and almost the whole of their time, to the promotion of 
 the welfare of their fellow-citizens in the way Mr. Quintin Hogg 
 had done. No terms could be too high in which to speak of 
 the valuable services to his country which were conferred by 
 such a man, and, if he might be allowed to say so, the only 
 unsatisfactory feature in their prosperous and useful Institution 
 appeared to be the extent to which it relied upon the efforts 
 and self-sacrifice of one man. It seemed to him that the em- 
 ployers of labour and the trades-unions were hardly yet alive to 
 the urgency of the question how this additional technical in- 
 struction ought to be provided, though much had been done by 
 the former, especially in the provincial towns, in the way of 
 providing technical colleges and schools for educating the future 
 masters, managers, and foremen of our great industries ; but 
 what was still deficient was adequate technical and trade instruc- 
 tion for the workers, such as their Institute was intended to 
 supply. If they could not look to voluntary effort to supply all 
 that was needed, assuredly they could not look to the State to 
 supply everything. The State already helped to a considerable 
 extent in Science and Art instruction ; but it might do more in 
 technical instruction. The State, however, could not do all that 
 was needed ; what it could best do would be to assist local effort 
 and promote the direction and organisation which was required. 
 If they could not look to voluntary effort to do the rest, then it 
 seemed to him they must look to the municipal institutions we 
 possessed to initiate the local efforts which were necessary to 
 promote this object. He hoped the time was not far distant 
 when, through our Town Councils, our Local Government Boards, 
 and our School Boards, we should have established in every 
 considerable industrial centre technical schools suitable to the 
 
SPEECH ON TECHNICAL AND TRADE INSTRUCTION 12$ 
 
 wants of the district, supported out of local funds, but aided to 
 a considerable extent by national funds. Their Institution, and 
 others like it, had done, and were doing, very good and useful 
 work in playing the same part in relation to technical and trade 
 education that had been played by voluntary schools in regard 
 to elementary education. Congratulating the managers of the 
 Institute on having established an intermediate school, with 
 divisions for professional, commercial, and technical education, 
 to prepare for well-paid trades many who up to the present had 
 gone to swell the overstocked class of clerks, and also on the 
 sound physical training in gymnastics, swimming, and athletics 
 which the Institute provided, the noble lord concluded by con- 
 gratulating the students, both the successful and the unsuccess- 
 ful, on the benefits they had derived from an Institution which 
 he hoped would meet with continued and increased success. 
 
 THE ORGANISATION OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATIONS 
 To THE EDITOK OF THE 'TIMES.' 
 
 SIR, When a statesman of Lord Hartington's authority con- 
 curs with and enforces the opinions I ventured to express 
 some little time ago, I have every reason for private and per- 
 sonal satisfaction. But the circumstance has a public importance 
 as evidence that our political chiefs and leaders are giving their 
 serious attention to those social questions which lie far above the 
 region of party strife, and are of infinitely greater moment than 
 the topics which ordinarily absorb the attention of politicians. 
 
 The organisation of industrial and commercial education is 
 not the least of these great problems. That it has to be solved, 
 under penalty of national ruin, proves to be no mere alarmist 
 fancy, but the belief of an experienced man of affairs, whose 
 imperturbable coolness and strong common-sense are proverbial. 
 
 It is an interesting question for us all, therefore. How do 
 we stand prepared for the task thus imperatively set us ? My 
 conviction is that we are in some respects better off than most 
 people imagine, in others worse. I conceive that two things 
 are needful on the one hand, a machinery for providing in- 
 1 Keprinted from the Times, March 21, 1887. 
 
126 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 struction and gathering information ; on the other hand, a 
 machinery for catching capable men wherever they are to be 
 found, and turning them to account. Now, I apprehend that 
 both these kinds of machinery are to be found, though in a 
 fragmentary and disconnected condition, in several organisations 
 which, though independent, supplement one another. 
 
 The first of these is that of the School Boards, which provide 
 elementary education, and sometimes, though too rarely, have 
 at their disposal scholarships by which capable scholars can 
 attain a higher training. The second is the organisation of the 
 Department of Science and Art. The classes, now established 
 all over the country in connection with the Department, not only 
 provide elementary instruction, accessible to all, but offer the 
 means whereby the pick of the capable students may obtain in 
 the schools at South Kensington as good a higher education in 
 science and art as is to be had in the country. It is from this 
 source that the supply of science and art teachers, who in turn 
 raise the standard of elementary instruction, is derived. The 
 third organisation is that of the technical classes connected 
 with the City and Guilds Institute, or with the Society of Arts, 
 or with provincial universities and colleges, which provide special 
 technical instruction for those who have, or ought to have, already 
 acquired the elements of scientific and artistic knowledge in the 
 science and art classes. 
 
 A fourth organisation for the advancement of the interests 
 of industry and commerce, of the nature of that which I 
 imagined it was the intention of the founders of the Imperial 
 Institute to create, and such as is, I believe, now actually in 
 course of creation in the City of London, will complete the drill - 
 grounds of the army of industry, and, so far as I can judge, 
 omit nothing of primary importance. But, leaving the last 
 aside as still in the embryonic condition, these excellent organi- 
 sations are all mere torsos, fine but fragmentary. 
 
 The ladder from the School Boards to the Universities, about 
 which I dreamed dreams many years ago, has not yet acquired 
 much more substantiality than the ladder of Jacob's vision. 
 
 The Science and Art Department has done, and is doing, 
 admirable work, which I regret to see more often made the sub- 
 ject of small and carping criticism than of the praise which is 
 
THE ORGANISATION OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 127 
 
 its due. I trust it may not be diverted from efficiently con- 
 tinuing that work by having duties for which it is unfit forced 
 upon it. That which the Department needs, in my judgment, 
 is nothing but the means of doing that which Commission after 
 Commission, Royal and Departmental, have declared to be its 
 proper business. 
 
 As Dean of the Normal School I may be permitted to de- 
 clare that it is impossible for us to perform the functions allotted 
 to us unless the recommendations made by impartial and in- 
 dependent authority are carried into effect. 
 
 The school exists ; and common-sense surely suggests, either 
 make it efficient or abolish it. The alternative of abolition is 
 not likely to be adopted, as that step would be equivalent to 
 striking the keystone out of the edifice of scientific instruction 
 for the masses of the people which it has taken a quarter of a 
 century to raise, and which is the essential foundation for any 
 sound system of technical education. The alternative of effi- 
 ciency means spending a few thousand pounds on additional 
 buildings ; but the guardians of the national purse do not seem 
 to feel the force of the adage about ' spoiling a ship for a half- 
 pennyworth of tar.' 
 
 The state of affairs in regard to that which ought to be the 
 centre of our system of technical education is nearly the same. 
 The central Institute is undoubtedly a splendid monument of the 
 munificence of the City. But munificence without method may 
 arrive at results indistinguishably similar to those of stinginess. 
 I have been blamed for saying that the central Institution is 
 1 starved.' Yet a man who has only half as much food as he 
 needs is indubitably starved, even though his short rations con- 
 sist of ortolans and are served up on gold plate. And I have 
 excellent authority for saying that little more than one-half of 
 the plan of operations of the Institute, drawn up by the com- 
 mittee of which I was a member, has been carried out, or can 
 be carried out, if the funds allotted for the maintenance of the 
 Institute are not largely increased. At the same time, the In- 
 stitute is doing all that could be rationally expected of it. Some 
 of the guilds and many provincial towns are making admirable 
 provision for elementary technical education. Such work, in 
 my judgment, ought to be left to local administrators, whatever 
 
128 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 aid it may be thought desirable to give them. But the local 
 schools should be brought into relation with the central Institute, 
 and this should be put upon such a footing as to subserve its 
 proper purpose of training teachers and giving higher technical 
 instruction. 
 
 Economy does not lie in sparing money, but in spending it> 
 wisely. And it is, to my mind, highly necessary that some man 
 or body of men, whom their countrymen trust, should consider 
 these various organisations as a whole and determine the manner 
 in which they should be correlated and in which it is desirable 
 that the resources, public and private, which are available should 
 be distributed among them. 
 
 Lord Hartington has many claims on the gratitude and 
 respect of his countrymen. I venture to express the wish that 
 he would add to them by taking up tkis great work of organising 
 industrial education and bringing it to a happy issue. 
 I am, Sir, your obedient servant, 
 
 T. H. HUXLEY. 
 
 March 18. 
 
 TECHNICAL AND COMMERCIAL EDUCATION. 1 
 
 ON March 21 a large and influential deputation waited upon 
 Lord Cranbrook and Sir William Hart Dyke at the Education 
 Department to urge the necessity of Government action with 
 regard to technical and commercial education. The proposition 
 of the deputation was that School Boards and local authorities 
 should be empowered to found or give aid to schools fitted to 
 promote technical and commercial education, both in day and in 
 night schools. Among the members of the deputation were the 
 Eight Hon. A. J. Mundella, M.P., Sir Lyon Playfair, M.P., Sir 
 Eichard Temple, M.P., Sir B. Samuelson, M.P., Sir Henry 
 Eoscoe, M.P., Sir U. Kay-Shuttleworth, M.P., Professor Stuart, 
 M.P., Mr. Samuel Smith, M.P., Mr. Houldsworth, M.P., Mr. G. 
 T. C. Bartley, M.P., Mr. Wayman, M.P., Mr. F. A. Channing r 
 M.P., Mr. George Dixon, M.P., Sir John Lubbock,.M.P., Mr. 
 Isaac Hoyle, M.P., Sir J. P. Corry, M.P., Mr. Sydney Buxtoii, 
 M.P., Mr. Broadhurst, M.P., Mr. J. Dodds, M.P., Mr. Maclean, 
 1 Reprinted from the Times, March 22, 1887. 
 
TECHNICAL AND COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 129 
 
 M.P., Sir Charles Palmer, M.P., Mr. George Howell, M.P., Mr. 
 Stevenson, M.P., Mr. P. Stanhope, M.P., Mr. Howard Vincent, 
 M.P., and others. 
 
 Mr. Mundella, in introducing the deputation, said their 
 object was to ask the Government to take a very modest step in 
 the direction of the organisation of industrial and commercial 
 education. If he could put in the admirable letter of Professor 
 Huxley, in the Times of Monday, he would probably make the 
 best possible statement of their case. The education of the 
 4,600,000 on the books of the elementary schools was confined to 
 education of a purely elementary character, and anything in the 
 shape of manual or industrial education was treated in a way 
 very disheartening to those interested in the question. At 
 present our industrial classes were like badly drilled soldiers 
 fighting a battle with antiquated weapons it was like sending 
 our soldiers into the field, armed with* Brown Bess, to meet the 
 best armed soldiers of Europe. Dr. Konrad, in a report on the 
 Prussian system in its bearing on the national economy, said the 
 superiority of the Western to the Eastern workman and of the 
 German to the Englishman was well established ; and he added 
 that no doubt the Englishman, by his enormous perseverance 
 and his wonted diligence, got through considerably more work 
 in the sphere to which he had been long accustomed, but he was 
 far behind the German in capacity for adapting himself to new 
 circumstances. This was the result of the better and more 
 general training which the Germans got in their schools. There 
 had been repeated attempts to do something in England to im- 
 prove the condition of things, but where public bodies had in- 
 terfered they had acted beyond their powers and been punished 
 accordingly. It was from the restrictions under which these 
 authorities laboured that they now asked to be freed. They 
 asked for increased powers to promote industrial, scientific, and 
 technical training, and that for this purpose they should be put 
 in connection with the Science and Art Department. The cost 
 of executing what they proposed would be trifling. 
 
 Sir Lyon Playfair, Sir B. Samuelson, Sir E. Temple, Mr. 
 George Howell, Mr. George Dixon, Sir Henry Eoscoe, Professor 
 Stuart, Mr. Samuel Smith, Mr. Howard Vincent, Sir U. Kay- 
 Shuttleworth, and others, also spoke. 
 
130 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 Lord Cranbrook, in reply, said : I am quite with you upon 
 this that one of the great wants in this country is an adequate 
 technical instruction to be got somehow or other. There 
 are two classes of education the one which may be called 
 elementary, and the other secondary, to which it is impossible 
 not to see that the greater number of speakers have adverted. 
 It is quite clear that in an administrative capacity I cannot 
 reach the objects you wish to obtain. Whatever is to be done 
 must be done by legislation ; and whatever is done must cost 
 somebody a good deal. Mr. Mundella called it a trifle ; but when 
 you add up these unconsidered trifles and give them to the 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer, he looks at them in the aggregate, 
 and not as separate trifles. You will not expect me to make a 
 declaration of policy on this occasion. I can see no objection to 
 localities rating themselves for the purpose of bringing about a 
 better system of technical education, which naturally would be 
 more suited to the locality than a general scheme. Nor do I 
 see any general objection connecting the science and art training 
 to a certain extent with the Science and Art Department which 
 exists at present in connection with this office. As to the con- 
 nection between the School Boards and the local authorities, I 
 should not like to pronounce on that subject without consulting 
 my colleagues who have a voice in the matter. When I speak 
 of local authorities I mean that some authority of the locality 
 should be able to find the means for a good industrial training, 
 beginning at a low point and going to that real secondary educa- 
 tion which can never be reached by the elementary department 
 over which I have control. It is not in the large towns only 
 that we have to deal with the population : we have to deal with 
 them in villages and small country towns and other places. I 
 have always thought that, with regard to country schools, 
 recreation might take a form of preparation for the work of their 
 life. But all this requires money, and all this requires Parlia- 
 mentary sanction. Parliament has not really pronounced an 
 opinion upon it. The only real debate which I can find is the 
 one which took place before the Commission was issued, and at 
 that time Mr. Mundella struck a note rather of fear and timidity. 
 He said at that time that the idea of giving technical education 
 to the whole of the working classes was an entire mistake, and 
 
TECHNICAL AND COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 131 
 
 he asked how could any one place technical training in the 
 reach of those who had not the talent to use and apply it. 
 Since that argument on the proposal for an inquiry there has 
 been no debate on the subject, and I confess that I should be 
 glad to know what the House of Commons thinks. As to night 
 schools, I agree that they might be more used. We have ven- 
 tured to open up cookery classes for girls, and I trust that the 
 night schools may be made advantageous for some kinds of in- 
 dustrial training for boys. It has been pointed out that there 
 are many instances in this country in which not only are the 
 poorest classes somewhat better oft' in the way of training than 
 those a little above them, but in some cases the criminal 
 classes get the advantage of an industrial training. My object 
 is to meet you as far as I can, by advising with others and en- 
 deavouring to obtain the means of doing so. I agree that the 
 local authorities, whatever they may be, should have the power 
 of dealing with the question to a great extent. But the whole 
 matter is a subject for legislation and not for my decision. 
 What you have said will receive the utmost consideration at my 
 hands. 
 
 The deputation thanked his lordship and withdrew. 
 
 SLOJD. 1 
 
 BY EVELYN CHAPMAN. 
 
 I HAVE been asked to give some account of the Slojd system, as 
 practised in Sweden, having lately visited that country in order 
 to study the system both practically and theoretically. This 
 visit convinced me of its excellence, of its claim to be regarded 
 as an important factor in education, and the need there is for 
 something of the kind in our own schools. 
 
 The word Slojd is essentially Scandinavian, and an equiva- 
 lent for it is not to be found in any other European language. 
 Its original meaning is ' cunning,' ' clever,' ' handy ' (compare 
 ' sleight of hand'), but, as at present used, it means rather the 
 different kinds of hand- work used in schools for educational 
 
 1 A paper read before the Teachers' Guild, Brighton, Nov. 25, 1886. 
 Keprinted, by permission, from the Journal of Education of Feb. 1, 1887. 
 
 K 2 
 
132 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 purposes. Slojd is such a convenient word and embraces so 
 much, that I think we shall have to naturalise it in England, 
 and call it Sloyd. It has already been adopted in France and 
 Germany, and I believe in Belgium, Austria, and Russia. 
 
 There are many different kinds of Slojd, or hand- work, 
 practised in the schools in Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Finland, 
 Germany, and other countries : simple metal- work, smith- work, 
 basket-making, painting (trade), fret-work, bookbinding, papier- 
 mache, needle-work, and finally wood-slojd, which consists 
 mainly of carpentry, but in which carving and turning may 
 play a subordinate part. 
 
 Herr Otto Salomon, the Director of the Seminary at Naas, 
 has drawn up a table in which the above occupations are com- 
 pared, under the following heads : 
 
 (1) The children's interest gained ; (2) work which can be 
 used; (3) order and precision; (4) cleanliness and neatness; 
 (5) development of sense of form ; (6) accordance with chil- 
 dren's capacity ; (7) strengthening and developing of the phy- 
 sical powers; (8) counterpoise to sitting; (9) capability of 
 methodical exposition ; (10) general dexterity. 
 
 It appears, from a careful comparison of the results obtained 
 by means of these various occupations, that, while several of 
 them answer to the above tests in certain particulars, yet only 
 the wood slojd can answer all. 
 
 I will endeavour to give a brief outline of the chief principles 
 of the method for the teaching of manual work which is followed 
 at Naas, and which has thence been largely disseminated all over 
 Scandinavia and Finland, and is taught even within the Arctic 
 Circle. In Sweden alone, wood-slojd is practised in 800 national 
 schools, has been introduced into the secondary schools for boys, 
 and is now being adapted even in the upper schools for girls. 
 
 It has also been introduced into France, Belgium, Germany, 
 Austria, Russia, and the United States. It will probably be taken 
 up in Abyssinia, through the instrumentality of the Swedish mis - 
 sionaries ; and even far-distant Japan is showing an interest in 
 the subject. Are we English to be left hopelessly behind in the 
 adoption of hand-work as an important factor in education ? 
 We have already accepted it in a very limited way, it is true 
 in the adoption of the Kindergarten system, the very soul of 
 
SLOJD 133 
 
 which is its response to the child's need of activity and produc- 
 tion ; and Slojd is the same principle at work, only in a form 
 suited to the growing powers of our boys and girls. 
 
 Herr Salomon himself has treated of the results aimed at 
 by Slojd, the choice and classification of models, and the ques- 
 tion who is to be the Slojd teacher, in a work which has already 
 been translated into French and German, and will soon, I hope, 
 appear in English. 
 
 Slojd aims at the following Results : 
 
 (1) To implant respect and love for work in general ; (2) to 
 implant respect and love even for the coarser forms of honest 
 manual work ; (3) to develop activity ; (4) to foster order, 
 accuracy, cleanliness, and neatness ; (5) to encourage attention, 
 industry, and perseverance ; (6) to develop the physical powers ; 
 (7) to train the eye and the sense of form. 
 
 The joining of the Slojd course should be voluntary on the 
 part of the pupil ; consequently, the work should fulfil the fol- 
 lowing conditions : 
 
 (1) It should be useful ; (2) the preparatory exercises should 
 not be too fatiguing ; (3) they should offer variety ; (4) they 
 should be executed without help ; (5) they should be real work, 
 not play ; (6) they should not be knicknacks, or so-called 
 fancy work; (7) they should belong to the worker; (8) they 
 should be in harmony with his power and physical strength ; 
 (9) they should be of such a nature that they can be finished 
 with exactness; (10) they should allow of cleanliness and neat- 
 ness; (11) they should demand thoughtfulness, and thus be 
 more than a purely mechanical work ; (12) they should 
 strengthen and develop the physique; (13) they should help 
 to exercise the sense of form ; (14) lastly, as many tools and 
 manipulations as possible should be employed. ... 
 
 Such are the results aimed at ; but here a very important 
 question arises, Who is to be the Slojd teacher? Teachers 
 are already so overburdened with work, that it seems too much 
 to expect them to undertake another subject. But for them, 
 too, a subject so novel, and necessarily so differently taught 
 from the ordinary school subjects, would doubtless have its 
 attractions, and would illustrate the saying, ' Change of work 's 
 as good as play.' 
 
134 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 Whether this be so or not, the Slojd instruction must be 
 undertaken, NOT by an artisan, who would naturally regard it 
 merely from its mechanical side, whereas the main object of 
 Slojd is not the teaching of any trade, but the development of 
 the faculties and the acquiring of general dexterity. It must, 
 therefore, be given by a trained teacher, who understands the 
 nature of the material on which he has to work, viz. child-nature, 
 and, if possible, by the same teacher who takes the other school 
 subjects. 
 
 I may mention that by means of Slojd, which necessitates 
 individual supervision and instruction, the teacher has an op- 
 portunity of obtaining an insight into the character, and of 
 establishing a personal relation between himself and his pupils, 
 which it is almost impossible to obtain by means of class in- 
 struction. Numbers of teachers can bear witness to the truth 
 of this statement. The teacher should lead, direct, and control 
 the work, but should be careful not to put his hand directly to 
 it. In order to be able to follow with advantage the course 
 of instruction, the pupil ought to have reached a point of de- 
 velopment usually attained about the age of eleven. 
 
 One word as to the main differences between wood-slojd and 
 ordinary carpentering, with which it is very apt to be confused. 
 These lie (1) In the character of the objects made, which are 
 usually smaller than those made in the trade ; (2) in the tools 
 used the knife, for instance, the most important of all in Slojd, 
 is little used in ordinary carpentry ; (3) in the manner of work- 
 ing the division of labour employed in the trade is not allowed 
 in Slojd, where each article is begun, carried on, and finished 
 by the same pupil ; (4) but the fundamental difference is in 
 the object of Slojd, which is, not to turn out full-blown, or half- 
 blown, or even quarter-blown young carpenters, but to develop 
 the faculties, and especially to give general dexterity, which 
 will be useful whatever line of life the pupil may afterwards 
 follow. 
 
 As individual instruction is generally required, and as this 
 manual work cannot be taught in class, the same teacher can 
 only superintend a limited number of pupils at the same time. 
 Generally speaking, there should not be more than twelve. 
 
 As to the Choice of Models. (1) All articles of luxury are 
 
SLOJD ,35 
 
 to be excluded ; (2) the objects made are to be of use at home ; 
 (3) the children should be able to finish them entirely without 
 help; (4) the articles should be made of wood only; (5) no 
 polish should be used ; (6) as little material as possible should 
 be employed ; (7) the children should learn to work both in the 
 harder and softer woods ; (8) turning and carving should only 
 be sparingly employed ; (9) the models should develop the 
 children's sense of form and beauty, and for these ends the 
 series should include a certain number of modelled objects for 
 instance, spoons, ladles, and other curved articles which are 
 to be executed with a free hand, and chiefly by eye ; (10) by 
 means of going through the whole series, the pupils should 
 learn the use of all the more important tools. In the choice 
 of models, care should be taken that each one prepare for the 
 next. 
 
 Classification of Models. (1) The series ought to progress 
 without a break from the easy to the difficult, from the simple 
 to the complex ; (2) there must be a sufficient variety ; (3) each 
 model must be so placed in the series that the pupil shall be 
 able to carry it out entirely without the direct help of the 
 teacher, by means of what he has already made ; (4) the models 
 should constitute such a series that at each step the pupil may 
 be able to make, not a passable, but a correct work ; (5) in mak- 
 ing the first models only a few tools are to be employed, but as 
 the series is carried out new tools and new manipulations are to 
 be employed ; (6) the knife, as the fundamental tool, is to be 
 the most used in the beginning of the course ; (7) for the first 
 models rather hard wood should be employed. 
 
 At the beginning of the series the models should be capable 
 of speedy execution, and objects which require a considerable 
 time should be gradually reached. 
 
 Let us now see whether Slojd, if the foregoing conditions be 
 carried out, may be regarded as a factor in education, whether 
 considered physically, mentally, or morally. 
 
 It is essentially a form of work which calls forth every 
 variety of movement, which brings all the muscles into play, 
 and which exercises both sides of the body. It is so arranged 
 that the children can work with the left hand as well as with 
 the right, in sawing, planing, &c. Thus all the muscles are 
 
136 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 strengthened, a more harmonious development attained, and 
 there is less fear of their growing crooked. There is no reason 
 to dread their becoming left-handed ; in more delicate manipu- 
 lations the right hand will always remain the better man of 
 the two. 
 
 Does Slojd help forward the menial development ? 
 
 Surely work which draws out and exercises energy, perse- 
 verance, order, accuracy, and the habit of attention, cannot be 
 said to fail in influencing the mental faculties ; and that it should 
 do so by cultivating the practical side of the intelligence, leading 
 the pupils to rely on themselves, to exercise foresight, to be 
 constantly putting two and two together, is specially needed in 
 these days of excessive examinations, when so many of us are 
 suffering from the adoption of ready-made opinions, and the 
 swallowing whole, in greater or smaller boluses, the results of 
 other men's labours. 
 
 We want whole men and women, the sum-total of whose 
 faculties is developed, who have learnt to apply their knowledge, 
 not only in the emergencies, but in the daily occurrences of life ; 
 and this readiness this steadiness of nerve, the ordered control 
 of that wonderful machine the body, the cultivation of the prac- 
 tical side of us can only come by exercise, and this is given by 
 means of Slojd. Let us also remember that all skilled work, how- 
 ever humble it may appear, is brain work too ; the hand is the 
 servant of the brain. If anyone doubt this, let him try to make, 
 from first to last, some complete object, however insignificant be 
 it the modelling of a leaf, cube, or even a ball, or the making of a 
 wooden spoon and, I answer for it, he will gain a new respect 
 for hand-work, not only from its usefulness, but the skill it 
 requires. 
 
 What does Slojd do for the moral training of the child ? It 
 implants respect and love for work in general, including the 
 coarser kinds of bodily work. In the fierce competition which 
 exists in all civilised countries and nowhere fiercer than in our 
 own which springs in so many cases from the desire to push on 
 to some fancied higher level of life, what a clearing of "the moral 
 atmosphere would be effected if the rising generation could be 
 imbued with the feeling, deepening as they grow up into convic- 
 tion, that it is the man who dignifies or degrades the work that 
 
SLOJD 137 
 
 all labour which proceeds from a worthy motive is of equal worth, 
 and that the right work for each one of us, and consequently the 
 noblest, is the work we can do best ! 
 
 But this is not all which Slojd effects in the way of moral 
 influence. It tightens and strengthens the bond between school 
 and home. Everything which the child makes is for home use, 
 is prized there as his own honest work, and as the product of 
 the skill which he is gaining at school. Among the working 
 classes, the actual use of the things made by the children (besides 
 the wholesome pleasure and pride they call forth) is found to do 
 much, in the countries where Slojd is practised, to reconcile the 
 parents to their children remaining at school even when they are 
 beginning to be of use at home, and to be able to earn something. 
 They have tangible proof, in the objects brought home, that 
 their children are learning something which makes them useful 
 and handy, and which will make them readier in future in learn- 
 ing a trade. 
 
 I will only mention one other point in which Slojd bears good 
 moral fruit. I mean, it implants in the child a sense of satis- 
 faction in honest work, begun, carried on, and completed by fair 
 means and by his own exertions. In these days of scamped 
 work, of dishonest tricks to be found in all trades and manu- 
 factures, what can we say too much in praise of a system which 
 will give our boys and girls a sense of the dignity of work a 
 scorn and contempt for what is slovenly or tricky ? The Slojd 
 system is completely opposed to the modern principle of division 
 of labour, which is no doubt a necessity in the present conditions 
 of life, but which would be disastrous in education, where the 
 aim must be the development of each individual, NOT the getting 
 through a given quantity of work in the shortest and cheapest 
 way. I feel sure that a boy or girl who, at a period when im- 
 pressions are most lasting, has had the solid satisfaction of carry- 
 ing out a piece of work from beginning to end, will not be 
 satisfied, in adult life, with becoming a mere machine for drilling 
 holes, putting on pins' heads, or turning out chair-legs by the 
 hundred, but will in his leisure hours vindicate his dignity and 
 skill by doing some work, whether practical or intellectual, 
 worthy of a human being. We must remember, too, that a large 
 part of the distress in bad times is due to the fact that, if the 
 
138 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 particular fragment of work which a person is capable of is 
 taken from him, he can do nothing else whereby to earn his 
 bread. 
 
 I can only speak in the briefest way of the crying need there 
 is for some such practical training as is given by Slojd. I am 
 not an enthusiast for the particular form of it which I have 
 studied myself at Naas, and which I have seen at work in the 
 Swedish schools, where I wish I could transport you, so that you 
 might see for yourselves the earnestness and energy of the young 
 workers, the dexterity with which they handle their tools, their 
 extreme carefulness (for no damaged or careless work is passed), 
 and the independent manner in which they work. But I do say, 
 that we want something of the kind, suited to our national needs 
 and character, and bearing the same fruit of trained intelligence 
 and skill which it is producing in the countries where it is 
 practised. A great deal is being done in England for technical 
 education, and a great deal is said as to its need, for there is 
 a very real danger of English workmen being driven out of the 
 field on account of the superior skill of foreigners and the great 
 advantages they enjoy in the way of technical education. We 
 can but rejoice that we are beginning to recognise this danger, 
 and that so much attention is being directed to the need of 
 technical education ; but, even supposing the country were 
 covered with technical schools, if our young people come to them 
 with eyes and hands untrained, with little or no sense of form 
 and beauty, with lack of perception and habits of observation, 
 with untrained and undeveloped muscles, how can they possibly 
 hold their own against the youth of other countries, coming 
 fresh from schools where eye and hand have been trained to 
 general dexterity which will stand them in good stead whatever 
 special branch of technical work they may take up, with trained 
 observation and perception, and with a love for work and an 
 interest in it which has been quickened and stimulated by many 
 a victory gained by perseverance, attention, and energy ? 
 
 Should this Slojd instruction be given to girls as well as 
 boys ? This question has already been answered practically in 
 the affirmative in Sweden, and with excellent results. It is just 
 as important for a woman to have the complete use of her hands 
 as for a man. It may be said that girls have needlework, which 
 
SLOJD 139 
 
 is more suited to their sex, and more useful to them in after life. 
 It would be a very sorry thing for our future wives and mothers 
 not to learn the use of their needle, but why should they not 
 learn needlework and Slojd too ? The use of the tools would 
 develop their muscles, and they would gain an added dexterity 
 which needlework alone cannot give. And, besides this general 
 development, which is of paramount importance, the positive 
 knowledge gained, and the power of doing little jobs about the 
 house, would be of great service to them when they grow up. 
 
 But, it will be objected, even granted that a universal hand- 
 education should be given, including both sexes, and granted 
 that teachers are forthcoming who are capable of giving it, how 
 is it possible to spare time for another subject ? I will only 
 reply, that the schools in Sweden are among the best in Europe, 
 and yet they find time for it. The Slojd classes which are 
 entirely voluntary are held in the evenings, so as not to inter- 
 fere with the ordinary school work. 
 
 For the girls of our higher schools it seems to me even more 
 important than for their sisters of the working classes. The 
 latter have to help their mothers at home in many active ways, 
 and get, at all events, plenty of movement and variety of occu- 
 pation ; but the former, who have not so many active games as 
 their brothers, and who are often unable to be much out of doors 
 in bad or severe weather, are lamentably in want of some interest- 
 ing active work as a counterpoise to the continual sitting and 
 poring over books and exercises. Slojd of some sort is the very 
 thing they need. I am persuaded that, if only we set our 
 shoulder to the wheel in this matter, we shall find in this hand- 
 education the true remedy for over-pressure of brain, which is 
 not an invention of the doctors. 
 
 You will, perhaps, wonder where all the teachers of Slojd, 
 so universally taught in the Scandinavian schools, are trained. 
 A Slojd Seminary has been founded by Herr Abrahamson, a 
 wealthy Gothenburg merchant, on his beautiful estate of Naas, 
 within easy reach of Floda station, on the main line between 
 Stockholm and Gothenburg, and about an hour by rail from the 
 latter. 
 
 This Seminary was founded in memory of Herr Abrahamson's 
 wife, in 1872, and he has spared neither time, money, nor effort 
 
140 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 in making it a worthy memorial. There is also a model school 
 for boys and girls in connection with it, so that those who are 
 in training may see the system actually at work among the 
 children. I may mention, in passing, that this school has a 
 great reputation, and that children are sent from considerable 
 distances to attend it. 
 
 The Seminary is directed by Herr Otto Salomon (Herr 
 Abrahamson's nephew), who is quite an enthusiast in the cause 
 of Slojd, and devotes his life to the spread of the system in other 
 countries as well as his own, and to the improvement of it in 
 practical details. 
 
 The Seminary, which is built very picturesquely of timber, 
 in the old Norwegian style, is situated in Herr Abrahamson's 
 park, close to the lovely lake of Savelangen. It consists of 
 large work-rooms fitted with double rows of carpenters' benches 
 and racks all round for the different tools, a large lecture-room, 
 a sitting-room for the gentlemen, a small one for the ladies, and 
 a room where the models and finished works are kept. Upstairs 
 is sleeping accommodation for 30 men. 
 
 In addition to the Seminary, there is a pretty little house 
 close by, called ' Vanhem ' (Friends' Home), where the lady stu- 
 dents live, who form a very small minority of those who attend 
 the course. There are also other cottages in the neighbourhood, 
 where the overflowing numbers attending the course are accom- 
 modated. 
 
 There are four Slojd courses given in the course of the year, 
 two summer and two winter courses. Each course lasts six weeks, 
 and, as the time is so short, the hours are somewhat long and 
 the work rather hard for those who are not accustomed to much 
 bodily exercise. The plan of the day is as follows : 
 
 Prayer, 6.45 A.M. ; lecture, 7 to 8 ; breakfast ; Slojd from 
 8.30 to 1, with a break of a quarter of an hour; dinner and rest, 
 1 to 3 ; Slojd, 3 to 5. Coffee, followed by discussions, either on 
 the Slojd models which are apt to be very lively or on ordi- 
 nary school subjects, for Herr Salomon is anxious to take ad- 
 vantage of the presence of so many teachers by giving them 
 frequent opportunities of hearing each other's views, and thus 
 rubbing each other up by means of a little wholesome friction. 
 
 The whole number of models, consisting of 100 articles, is 
 
SLOJD 141 
 
 divided into two series fifty in the first course, and fifty in the 
 second. Many of the teachers return in order to go through 
 the second course, and are sure of a hearty welcome. At the 
 end of the course each member receives a certificate, in the 
 presence of the whole body, stating that he or she has attended 
 the course and has made so many models. No special number 
 is required ; everyone is anxious to get on, but strength and 
 ability vary considerably, and those who come with a knowledge 
 of carpentering soon leave those who have had no such previous 
 practice hopelessly behind. But all gain much during the 
 course quite enough to begin a Slojd class on their return to 
 their respective schools in different parts of the world. 
 
 The difficulty of teaching together representatives of so many 
 different nations is not so great as it seems. As far as the prac- 
 tical work is concerned, the chief thing is to be shown how to 
 work, handle the tools, &c., and the primitive language of signs 
 goes a long way. The lectures are more difficult to manage, 
 and I can only say how they were given at the course I 
 attended. A daily lecture was given in Swedish and in German. 
 The former was attended, not only by the Swedes, but by the 
 Danes, Norwegians, and Finlanders, who understand Swedish 
 well. The latter was attended by the Austrians, Bohemians, 
 and English. If we had known no German at all, I believe we 
 should have received some private instruction. 
 
 A few words, in conclusion, as to the life at Naa's. I think 
 the thing which above all struck us was its complete novelty. 
 We felt as if we had dropped into another planet. The mixture 
 of nationalities and languages, the simplicity of the mode of life, 
 the early hours, the general kindliness, the absence of all class 
 distinctions, the childlike enjoyment of little pleasures, the good- 
 tempered rivalry in work made up a sort of hyperborean 
 Arcadia. On the other hand, it is only fair to say that the 
 general arrangements are so primitive, that no one should go 
 there who cannot put up with a certain amount of roughing it 
 and very simple fare. 
 
 I may mention here, in case any one should feel inclined to 
 spend the summer holidays in going through a course of Slojd 
 at Na'a's, that 10 would well cover the whole cost of the under- 
 taking. A first-class return ticket from London to Gothenburg is 
 
142 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 5 5s. (this does not include food) ; the journey to and from Naas 
 is short and inexpensive, and a very small sum, about Is. a day, 
 is charged for food. Application should be made some months 
 beforehand to Herr Otto Salomon, Naas, Floda Station, Sweden. 
 
 Another pleasure was the excellent singing, generally given 
 in the open air, specially during the long solemn evenings of the 
 North, when the air was alive with song. A choir was formed 
 of the best male voices, under an excellent conductor, a member 
 of the course, who took great pains with them. The quarter of 
 an hour's rest in the morning was often turned to good account 
 in the musical line. We used to sit about outside the Seminary, 
 while the choir would stand on a knoll and give us song after 
 song till the bell rang, summoning us to return to our labours. 
 Will you think it strange that this going to school again was 
 also a pleasure ? We quite enjoyed to be the pupil instead of 
 the teacher, and were amused to find how much our point of 
 view had changed since we were in statu pupittari. But, let me 
 whisper, we should probably not have enjoyed it had it been for 
 more than a very limited time. 
 
 We are proud, and justly proud, of our position as English- 
 men; but I think we can well afford to recognise more heartily 
 and generously the quota which each civilised nation brings to 
 the intellectual wealth of all. Even those who are small in 
 population, and not so well endowed as ourselves with natural ad- 
 vantages, do their part relatively perhaps better than we and 
 Swedish education, during this century, has advanced by leaps 
 and bounds. I will only remind you of these three facts it was 
 a Swede, Captain Nordenskjold, who, in the little Vega, first made 
 the North-East Passage ; it was a Swede, Herr Henrik Ling, 
 who has given to the world the most scientific and comprehen- 
 sive system of Gymnastics ; and it is Sweden which again comes 
 forward and offers us the hand-education which, if rightly used, 
 is to give our children a completeness in their training which is 
 at present lacking. 
 
 NOTE. Since the above article was written, a project has been formed by 
 Miss Chapman and her friend Miss Nystrom (late Directress of the Slojd 
 Seminary for Teachers at Naas, Gothenburg), to hold a holiday course for 
 teachers at some attractive place in England during the next summer vaca- 
 tion. Further particulars may be obtained from these ladies, 40 Lansdowne 
 Street, Brighton. 
 
143 
 
 INDUSTRIAL TRAINING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 1 
 To THE EDITOR OF THE ' TIMES.' 
 
 SIR, A paper containing the following questions has been sent 
 by the Koyal Commission on Education to the managers of 
 schools. 
 
 1. Is the course of teaching prescribed by the Code suited 
 to the children of your school ? 
 
 2. What changes, if any, would you desire in the (Educa- 
 tion) Acts ? in the Code ? in the administration ? 
 
 3. Would you recommend the introduction into your school 
 of practical instruction A. In any of the industries of the 
 district ? or in the use of tools for working in wood or iron ? 
 
 4. B. (for girls) in the domestic duties of home ? 
 
 I hope the answers to these questions will be that the course 
 of teaching prescribed by the Code is not calculated to effect 
 the object of education, namely, to enable boys and girls to earn 
 their own living when they grow up, and to perform efficiently 
 the duties to which they will be called when they reach the 
 estate of manhood and womanhood. 
 
 I trust that the managers will point out that all boys (no 
 matter what is their station in life) should be taught to use 
 their hands, and that girls should be educated so as to become 
 good housewives. 
 
 I feel confident that the majority of managers desire the 
 introduction of reforms into the Education Code, but I fear lest 
 some, knowing the difficulties which attend all reform, and 
 fearing that additional expense might fall on their own schools 
 by the adoption of extra subjects, may give a qualified or 
 unfavourable answer to these questions. 
 
 I would earnestly ask all managers to give these queries 
 their most serious consideration, and remind them that if indus- 
 trial, technical, and, I hope, physical training be introduced 
 into the Education Code, such reform would of necessity have 
 to be effected in a manner that would not increase the work of 
 the teachers or the expense of the institution, by substituting 
 these essential subjects for some which are now compulsory, but 
 less necessary. 
 
 1 From the Times, October 11, 1886. 
 
144 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 I hope the universal answer will be l Yes, if the practical 
 difficulties connected with their introduction can be overcome/ 
 Such an answer would throw the onus of overcoming these 
 difficulties on the proper department, namely, the Education 
 Office, and there can be no doubt that the difficulties could be 
 easily overcome by any head of the department desirous of 
 effecting this most necessary reform. The depression of trade, 
 the misery to be found in our large towns, the drunken habits 
 of some of our people, are in a measure owing to the want of 
 proper training in youth in industrial handicrafts and technical 
 arts on the part of the boys, and in household work on the part of 
 the girls, so that able-bodied men are unable to find work, and 
 women when they marry have no idea how to make a home 
 neat or happy, or to make the most of limited resources. 
 
 The above was given in evidence by a well-known represen- 
 tative of the working classes before the London Mansion House 
 Committee on the distress in London. 
 
 The children of our Board Schools are being taught many 
 subjects, such as French and even Italian, which they cannot 
 possibly retain, looking at the early age at which they leave 
 school and the necessity which drives most of them to earn 
 their living immediately on leaving school. A clever child who 
 had learnt some trade well enough to earn good wages, instead 
 of a miserable pittance, or none at all, could always learn these 
 extra subjects, with a much better chance of retaining them, a 
 little later in life at one of the numerous institutions where 
 evening classes are held. In our very laudable desire to obtain 
 for the nation a high standard of general culture and in omitting 
 to teach them the use of the tools by which the mass of them 
 will hereafter have to earn their living, we are unintentionally 
 leading them to believe that the bread which has been gained 
 by the sweat of the brow is less honourably earned than that 
 which is the result of mechanical quill-driving. Now I am sure 
 this was not the intention of the late Mr. Forster or of the 
 promoters of the Bill of 1870. They did not wish to cast a slur 
 upon labour or to make a difference in the honour attaching to 
 different kinds of work. ' All work is honourable,' says Carlyle. 
 
 The practical result of this one-sided training is that every 
 boy or girl on leaving school is desirous of engaging in work 
 
INDUSTRIAL TRAINING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 145 
 
 which is neither manual nor what is mis-termed menial. As 
 the demand for clerks is limited, the only result of this over- 
 stocking of the supply of writers or copyists is that those who 
 obtain employment are obliged to be content with wages which 
 the artisan would reject with scorn, and the remainder, who are 
 not fortunate enough to obtain the miserable pittance well, 
 they go to swell the ranks of the unemployed. They are use- 
 less at home, useless as emigrants, and, with bitterness and 
 despair in their hearts, they are ready to blame everyone 
 Providence, society, capitalists for the miserable condition of 
 their existence, the real culprit all the time being, in my 
 opinion, in a great measure the national system of education. 
 What I have said of the boys is, with a slight alteration, true 
 of the girls. These mainly desire to become governesses a 
 class notoriously overstocked and underpaid. Of the four 
 subjects a knowledge of which is most essential to women of all 
 classes hygiene (including an acquaintance with the rudiments 
 of the art of healing), cookery, household work, and needlework 
 only the latter is compulsorily taught at school, and that 
 imperfectly, according to Lady Leigh, who wrote a letter on the 
 subject to the Times. For the last fifteen years household 
 work has been taught to girls in America with very great 
 success by means of Miss Huntingdon's attractive ' kitchen 
 garden system,' with music and song. It is now being intro- 
 duced into England by Miss Headdon, Villa Bullo, Newnham- 
 on-Severn. 1 
 
 America has of late years discovered the necessity of intro- 
 ducing industrial and technical training into her schools. I 
 have lately returned from that country, where I visited several 
 Eastern cities, and was pleased to find that the municipal autho- 
 rities were aware that their otherwise excellent system of 
 education was deficient on the side of technical and industrial 
 training. In Philadelphia a central institution has been esta- 
 blished in connection with the common schools of the city, to 
 which three boys from each school are annually sent. These 
 lads are selected by competitive examination. The three suc- 
 cessful lads from each school are educated free of charge for five 
 years in the central institution, and one of the principal branches 
 
 1 See page 157. 
 
 L 
 
[46 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 of the education they receive during these years is a practical 
 workshop training in the use of tools in iron and wood. In 
 order to avoid the opposition of trades-unions, the boys are 
 not taught any particular trade ; but when a lad has passed 
 through the course, he has received such a thorough practical 
 training that he is fit to turn his hand to any trade he likes. 
 
 The advantage of this system of selection is that it is impos- 
 sible for any one to assert that these lads are working with their 
 hands because they are unable to work with their heads, for 
 they have proved themselves by competition to be the intellec- 
 tual elite of their respective schools. 
 
 It appears to me self-evident that, unless we are prepared 
 to be left behind in the competition of nations, we must follow 
 the example of America, Germany, France, Belgium, Austria, 
 Holland, Sweden, and Switzerland, and make technical and 
 industrial training a prominent and compulsory portion of our 
 educational system. 
 
 It may be said that the trades-unions would oppose technical 
 education. They do not oppose it in America, as care is taken 
 in the schools not to turn out any manufactured article, but 
 only to teach generally the use of tools in wood and iron. I do 
 not believe that they would oppose it in this country. 
 
 The leaders of the working classes are men of intelligence, 
 and it is not likely that they would seriously countenance 
 opposition to any scheme of education which would enable the 
 workmen of England to compete on more equal terms with 
 their fellow-craftsmen of the Continent. 
 
 Our population is increasing at the rate of 340,000 a year, 
 and we cannot feed that which is with us at present, and yet we 
 continue to educate our children as if the necessity for labour 
 had disappeared from among us. 
 
 The country wants handicraftsmen, and we produce scri- 
 veners. The colonists are crying out for men who can handle 
 a plough, shoe a horse, and mend a cart, and we send them out 
 clerks or would-be gentlemen. Our farmers and working men 
 want wives who can cook, bake, and wash, who Understand a 
 dairy and the management of poultry, and we supply them with 
 young women who are incapable of doing any of these things. 
 In view of the present distress and depression in trade and 
 
INDUSTRIAL TRAINING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 147 
 
 agriculture, when all classes must exercise the greatest economy 
 and thrift, it is imperative that our boys should be taught to 
 labour, and our girls to become good housewives. 
 I am your obedient servant, 
 
 BRABAZON. 
 
 FOR LACK OF KNOWLEDGES 
 
 To THE EDITOK OF 'THE DAILY NEWS.' 
 
 SIR, Will you allow me to trouble you with a few lines, as I 
 am eager to endorse all Lord Brabazon's premises in his letter 
 to you of Friday last ? Our people are perishing, drinking, 
 fighting, murdering, ' for lack of knowledge.' In thousands of 
 homes where there is lacking to the head of the family neither 
 work nor wages, the most abject discomfort prevails. I have no 
 wish to exaggerate. I am happy to think that there are thou- 
 sands of homes where peace and order and a wholesome plenty 
 make the home all that it should be ; but will any one assert 
 that this is universally the case, or that it is indeed the general 
 rule ? And yet, is there any necessary connection between 
 small means and dirt and disorder ? If a woman has but a 
 email house, has she not the less to look after ; and if she is the 
 wife of a working man, has she not at least nine working hours 
 in the day during which she can clean her house and make 
 every domestic arrangement ? Why, then, with so many daily 
 available hours, is the work of cleaning and of providing good 
 wholesome food never finished ? Simply because it is never 
 begun. Oh, what a welcome is that which many an honest 
 man receives after hours of hard work, and when he puts his 
 hardly-earned wages into his wife's hand a poor fire, a dull 
 light, a dirty room, cold, tasteless, unsatisfying food ! Where, 
 oh ! where is the pretty girl with whom, on a bright May 
 morning, he went to church not so long ago, with the clean fair 
 face, the spotless gown, the snowy riband ? What stands in 
 her place ? A careworn, frowsy woman, with careless hair, 
 gown coarsely patched, all the beauty and attraction of woman 
 lost, her voice rising to a fretful scream as she threatens the 
 children who should be the rosebuds of a family, but who, like 
 1 From the Daily News, November 1, 1886. 
 
 L 2 
 
148 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 pigs in every sense, and to every sense, quarrel on the dirty 
 floor. i Strange, indeed ! ' her old teachers would say ; ' she 
 was a good grammarian, and could repeat long pieces of poetry, 
 and could scramble very fairly through the needlework that had 
 been cut out for her without a thought, it is true, of the 
 purposes to which the work was to be adapted ; and she was in 
 Fractions in her sums.' And she was for a short all too short 
 a time in service, and then she was married ; and then very 
 soon she was called upon to become purveyor and cook and 
 laundress and dressmaker and needlewoman and nurse and 
 family doctor all in one ; and she had not had the smallest 
 training in any one of these important offices ! Then she failed 
 in health for want of the most ordinary knowledge of the rules 
 of hygiene ; and then her looks went, and her temper suffered, 
 and love flew out of a very dirty window, and she became the 
 unlovable object I have represented. Talk of Wellington and 
 Napoleon ! Why, they were very cowards to any men who can 
 endure such a state of things day after day through the long 
 winter and chilly spring evenings without flying to a bright, 
 clean, cheerful public-house away from the fretful face and 
 miserable entertainment which awaits them at home, where 
 their minds are neither cheered, nor their bodies refreshed, nor 
 any of their senses gratified, nor their hardly-earned wages put 
 to profit. Grammatical expressions and intellectual conversa- 
 tion are excellent concomitants of a good dinner, but in no rank 
 of life will they take the place of one. When the wit or scholar 
 asks his friends to breakfast, does he give them credit for being 
 satisfied with the feast of reason ? No, he knows much better ;. 
 he will provide the best of everything, and the hot coffee and 
 the abundant variety will unloosen the tongue. Is good varied 
 food less essential to the poor man who has to support his family 
 and be one of the mainstays of the nation than it is to the rich ?' 
 Leathery, half-cooked food presented day after day to the best- 
 tempered man in the world must try him sorely, and must fail 
 to supply that vigour which is so essential to himself and to his 
 family. Government has insisted upon having every child 
 given over to it for education. It is taken away altogether in 
 many instances from the training which a judicious mother 
 might have imparted. How infinitely responsible does Govern- 
 
FOR LACK OF KNOWLEDGE 
 
 149 
 
 ment now become for the judicious and reasonable training of 
 the young creatures entirely committed to its care, and unable 
 to procure any other teaching than what is provided at school, 
 and where they naturally conclude that the instruction given is 
 that of all others which the wit and wisdom of their betters has, 
 after weighty consideration, pronounced to be that which it is 
 most imperative for them to acquire ! I believe that every 
 afternoon in girls' schools should be yielded to the managers 
 with permission to occupy it on domestic economy, and that 
 unelastic and tyrannous thing, the time-table, should be alto- 
 gether banished ; then there would be time to teach cutting out, 
 and thorough needlework, and cooking, and everything that 
 bears upon the happiness and very existence of the home. 
 Many a child who now makes but an indifferent scholar might 
 prove a good, happy, sensible wife and mother if early taught 
 the beauty of cleanliness, methodical habits, and how to sew 
 and cook thoroughly. The heart of the nation responds when 
 ' Home, sweet home,' is sung. Let it be ours to see that the 
 association of the words never brings to any man the recollec- 
 tion of foul smells and heart-sickening disorder. 
 I remain, Sir, your obedient servant, 
 
 CAROLINE A. LEIGH. 
 
 Stoneleigh Abbey : October 30. 
 
 A PLEA FOR INDUSTRIAL TRAINING FOR GIRLS. 1 
 
 BY K. L. 
 
 THERE is an Italian proverb to the effect that, if one looks at 
 every side of a question, one will never decide upon anything. 
 It might be inferred from this that it is safer not to go too 
 deeply into any subject, nor to make too many inquiries, but, 
 taking up one side, to go loyally and enthusiastically forward 
 on one ground, leaving all the other aspects of the question 
 entirely out of account. The truth contained in the proverb 
 suggests itself to the writer rather in this way, that, as there is 
 nothing perfect in this world, we must not look for nor expect 
 perfection. In every law, from a nursery rule to an Act of 
 
 1 Reprinted, by permission, from Eastward Ho! December, 1886. 
 
150 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 Parliament, we must look for the defect, the weakness, the 
 blemish. The wisest measure reads hard for somebody. True 
 wisdom, however, should look at every side, hear every argu- 
 ment, and, neither carried away by beauties nor discouraged by 
 weak points, should aim at the greatest good of the greatest 
 number, and, looking a question fairly in the face, accept or 
 reject it on its true merits as affecting the majority, bringing in 
 the remedial or healing measure for the benefit of the minority. 
 
 There is a great question now before the country, perhaps 
 the greatest and most important that can exercise the minds of 
 statesmen. The question is education in other words, How 
 to elevate the masses ? 
 
 If, therefore, we keep in view, as our aim, the benefit of 
 the greatest number, we must admit, to start with, that the 
 majority of the nation are, and must continue to be, working 
 people. One head can direct many hands, and there is no state 
 of society conceivable in which manual labour could be dis- 
 pensed with ; therefore education, suitable for working people, 
 is what should be provided by the State, and, in collecting 
 evidence, none should be overlooked that might throw light 
 upon the wants of the working members of the community. 
 
 An uncomfortable feeling prevails, with regard to education, 
 that there is something wrong a screw loose somewhere, or a 
 little wheel a-wanting which is hampering the action of the 
 complicated machinery at work for the production of men and 
 women such as God meant them to be. 
 
 Many years ago, people woke up to realise the fact that 
 thousands of children roamed the streets, for whom no man 
 cared, who had never been brought under the sweet influence of 
 education ; who could not write their own names ; who could 
 not read the heavenly message, and whose voices had never 
 been trained to rise in praise to the Giver of All. Such things 
 ought not to be, was the unanimous voice ; we must educate the 
 children ; we will build schools nothing shall be spared our 
 land shall no longer be disgraced by a boy who cannot read or 
 a gir] who cannot sew. The Act of 1870 was passed, the rates 
 were cheerfully paid, money flowed in, and throughout the 
 length and breadth of the land buildings arose, equipped with all 
 the necessary paraphernalia, and the children were driven in. 
 
A PLEA FOR INDUSTRIAL TRAINING FOR GIRLS 151 
 
 The close of 1886 is approaching; let us look round the back 
 lanes and courts, and ask ourselves if things are any better than 
 they were in 1870 ? Are working people more thrifty and 
 intelligent ? Are our artisans more capable, or our domestic 
 servants more honest or efficient ? 
 
 The shivering girl, still in her teens, one encounters in 
 tramway-cars, drawing her poor rags closer round the infant, 
 whose light weight her feeble arms can scarcely support, has 
 passed through our schools. The wedding-ring that glitters on 
 her wasted finger tells us of the vows that bind her for life to 
 the lad of eighteen sitting by her, his head sunk on his breast 
 in drunken sleep. He, too, has passed through those schools. 
 Speak to the girl, she will tell you, 4 Jamie has been out of 
 W0 rk can get none.' Little wonder ; he is not very workman- 
 like ! And she ! What has she been taught; ? She can read 
 far better that she could not than waste her spare pennies on 
 the worse than trashy papers she buys. She is ignorant of 
 every art that might make her home comfortable when ' Jamie ' 
 is earning good wages, or that might augment them when low. 
 Alas, poor girl ! one shivers with pity and despair at the thought 
 of her future. 
 
 Times have been bad, it is true, and work very scarce, but 
 how much of this is due to the fact that work is being sent out 
 of the country because it can be better done elsewhere for less 
 money ? We are educating a race of male and female clerks 
 (whose work is as mechanical as any artisan's), when every day 
 there is less work requiring clerking being done in the country. 
 Let us fit our youths and maidens for the work of colonising our 
 tracts of untilled acres ' across the ferry,' and fire their ambi- 
 tion with the prospect of a life of comfort and prosperity in a 
 new -country which they might never hope to enjoy at home, 
 and they will flock there in thousands, sending home for sup- 
 plies which will set our now silent machinery in motion and 
 make our deserted shipbuilding-yards once more alive with the 
 sound of busy hammers. 
 
 I have before me now no less than three Blue-Books 
 Reports of the Committee of Council on Education, who have 
 been granted full power to call before them such persons c as 
 you shall judge likely to afford you any information upon the 
 
152 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 subject of this our Commission, and also to call for, have access 
 to, and examine all such books, documents, registers, and 
 records as may afford you the fullest information on the subject, 
 and to inquire of and concerning the premises by all other ways 
 and means whatsoever.' That the Royal Commissioners are 
 bent on doing their duty is apparent. They have already ex- 
 amined at great length many witnesses, whose evidence occupies 
 in print some 500 folio pages ; but there is evidence they will 
 never hear, there are registers they will never see. 
 
 There is evidence of an absolute want of suitable teaching 
 for the poor, in their ill-savoured, wretched dwellings, in the 
 dishonest, faithless work of every kind which has such a para- 
 lysing effect on trade, in the numbers of girls who cannot work, 
 who cannot starve ; who must live somehow, and who drift into 
 early marriage, in the hope of being provided for without exer- 
 tion on their own part too soon finding out their mistake. 
 There will be no evidence forthcoming on this question from 
 the thousands of mothers in the poorer middle class, who are 
 aging prematurely, or gliding into untimely graves ; broken- 
 down in the battle which has been too hard, the struggle which 
 has been too keen, not to keep their place in society they see 
 none but in the daily, hourly struggle to feed and clothe their 
 children; to permit them to enjoy the comforts of a clean 
 house, wholesome food, and daily outdoor exercise, with no 
 adequate domestic help to be found. 
 
 Little wonder that there is a leaning amongst all classes to 
 Communism in the home, and that many people are looking 
 forward with complacency to the probability of all classes, at no 
 very distant date, living in huge hotels or boarding-houses, 
 and to the sweet word ' home,' in all its significance, being 
 obliterated from our vocabulary. 
 
 There are still, however, many people who have enough of 
 feeling and poetry left, despite the worries of housekeeping, to 
 look forward with alarm to such a complete social reorganisation, 
 and who would see with sorrow the land swept clear of snug 
 cottages and comfortable suburban villas, where the* pride of 
 possession gives the owner as much pleasure, unaccompanied by 
 care, as the great lord's fine demesne. It is not the man who 
 toils for his daily bread in field or workshop, nor his wife, 
 
A PLEA FOR INDUSTRIAL TRAINING FOR GIRLS 153 
 
 wearied with a round of domestic duties, sitting down at night 
 to enjoy their well-earned leisure, who ask the pitiful question, 
 
 * Is life worth living ? ' 
 
 That problem has to be solved by the cultured man of 
 leisure, who has not the force of character to bind himself down 
 to some prescribed work or study, but dips into everything, till, 
 sated with art, science, religion (or theology rather), ethics, and 
 philosophy, he becomes confused and bewildered, and overlooks 
 the only Divine command that could settle his restless mind. 
 
 * Work while it is called to-day ; the night cometh.' True 
 philosophy is a reflection on completed work. They who have 
 not their work to seek, if they only knew it, are the truly 
 blessed. How few, not compelled by circumstances to confine 
 their energies within limits, can escape dilettantism ? Now is 
 the time for those who believe this blessed gospel of work to 
 come forward and declare it, and demand for the sons and 
 daughters of toil a suitable training for the callings they are 
 to follow in life. Were the same amount of money which is 
 now lavished by School Boards in training the children of the 
 well-to-do classes for so-called ' honourable callings ' spent on 
 technical and industrial training for boys and girls, the dawn 
 of a new century might see such a reformation in the social con- 
 dition of our dwellings, from the tenement-house in the crowded 
 city to the poor cottar's hut in the lonely Western isle, as would 
 eclipse, as far as the mass of the people are concerned, any re- 
 formation ever effected. Let manual labour no longer be con- 
 sidered degrading ; let us recognise the dignity of true work of 
 whatever kind, and, by providing in our Board Schools practical 
 and efficient instruction in all useful arts, remove the stigma 
 attached by so many to domestic work, and give it its true place 
 in a girl's education. 
 
 It would be well that no evidence which might throw light 
 on this education question should be wanting, and the evidence 
 of one who knows well many both well-to-do and very poor 
 working people, and who understands them sufficiently to know 
 what kind of education would benefit them as individuals 
 evidence drawn entirely from personal knowledge and observa- 
 tion may be not without value. 
 
 Passing along the streets of a respectable locality a few 
 
154 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 weeks ago, curiosity tempted me to inspect the stately buildings 
 recently erected for a Board School. One wishes to be a child 
 and at school again, so numerous and delightful are the appli- 
 ances of the various class-rooms. The bell has just sounded the 
 dinner-hour, the children come pouring out merry, bright, 
 happy not a bare-footed child, not a pinched, starved face 
 amongst them all comfortably clothed and well shod, and I 
 think, with a sigh of content, This is what the Board Schools 
 have done ! But wait a moment. Who is this pressing his 
 little wistful face through the iron railings beneath the stone 
 portico with ' Infants ' carved on it in large letters ? 
 
 i This child must come to school, too ; he must be more than 
 six years old ? ' I ask of the attentive janitor, who is directing 
 me on my way. 
 
 4 He'll be at the school in B Street; there's none of 
 
 that class here. There's a school in B Street, over there, 
 
 for the likes of him.' 
 
 Do you go to school ? ' I ask the little boy, speaking as 
 pleasantly as I could. 
 
 The child was sucking an empty lobster-tin ; he was very 
 dirty, and his feet were bare. Looking up into my face, he 
 shook his head ; he did not look exactly like a waif or stray 
 child ; his clothes were more grimy than ragged. 
 
 ' Do you not go to school ? ' I repeated. ' How old are 
 you ?' 
 
 ' Six months,' he replied, and ran off as fast as his little legs 
 would carry him. 
 
 1 Six years, he means,' said the janitor. ' For all the officers 
 and the Act, there's dozens o' children running wild about the 
 streets that never go near a school.' 
 
 Here was matter for reflection. After all, this fine build- 
 ing, with its busts, photographs, museum and modelling-room, 
 was not intended for the poor, but for the children of well-to-do 
 people. The classes for painting, dancing, high-class cookery ? 
 &c., are attended by fashionably-dressed girls, many of whom 
 would think themselves lowered in the social scale if obliged to 
 
 earn their own living; while from the B Street school, 
 
 where there is not even a cookery-class, little girls are turned 
 out a finished article at thirteen years old, and begin to main- 
 
A PLEA FOR INDUSTRIAL TRAINING FOR GIRLS 155 
 
 tain themselves running errands or at any other employment 
 which requires no skill. 
 
 Thus do we educate the working classes. 
 
 There is, indeed, something a-wanting in the machinery of 
 education. The screw that needs tightening the little wheel 
 a-wanting is Practical Industrial Training for girls. The 
 greed of the middle class has seized upon the rights of the poor. 
 The well-to-do ratepayers have coveted the schools for their own 
 children. 
 
 ' Why pay the rates,' they say, ' and not get the benefit ? ' 
 and two classes of schools are built within a stone's throw of 
 one another ; the high fees although not high enough to be 
 just payment for what is given excluding poor children from 
 the better class of school. 
 
 Could Lord Brabazon's admirable suggestions in his book, 
 ' Social Arrows,' just published, be carried out, and a dinner 
 provided every day in Board schools cooked and eaten by the 
 children themselves, the Board would not require to spend one 
 shilling on the recovery of a penny fee, and girls would gain 
 some insight into work which would really benefit them, and 
 for which there is an unfailing demand. Here are some social 
 knots for the political economist to untie ; some facts to prove 
 that, if in some departments of labour there is no work to be 
 had, in other fields the harvest is white and plentiful, but no 
 labourers to be found. A thousand men in this city (Glasgow) 
 are glad to carry sandwich-boards for one shilling a day. In 
 answer to an advertisement for a cook 201. and all found one 
 woman applies and will not take the place, for she prefers ' a 
 newly-married couple ' ! 
 
 One hundred and forty answers have been received this very 
 day to a single insertion of an advertisement for a governess 
 for two little girls. Their Board School education and certi- 
 ficates have not enabled most of the applicants to express 
 themselves in a way that one would wish one's children to be 
 taught. 
 
 To an advertisement for a woman to clean out a place of 
 business, eight hours daily, fifty applications are received ; some 
 offering to do the work for five shillings a week ; this without 
 food. 
 
156 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 To an advertisement, in the same paper, for a woman to do 
 washing and dressing (as clear-starching is called in Scotland), 
 four days weekly, at 2s. 6d. per day and all found, three appli- 
 cations are received, in answer to four insertions. Fine ironing 
 is a thing that almost any one, with a little practice and instruc- 
 tion, can do. Yet it is almost impossible, in country places, to 
 find any one who can undertake such work ; and when one does 
 meet with a woman who excels in this most useful branch, one 
 finds that she can employ several assistants, for washing, 
 mangling, &c., doing up the fine articles herself. 
 
 I know several women widows, with large families who 
 live in great comfort, are bringing up their families well, and 
 saving money, who earn their bread by taking in washing and 
 dressing. One woman, who lives at a fashionable coast-place, 
 makes as much in summer as allows her to enjoy quiet and 
 rest the whole winter. Out of her savings she has purchased 
 her cottage and the piece of ground attached. 
 
 I always reflect, with some sadness, in passing through 
 our poorer streets, and listening to the audible remarks made 
 by the idle women constantly standing about upon the personal 
 appearance of any one better dressed than themselves, that, had 
 those women many of them young enough to have passed 
 through the Board schools been taught while there to iron 
 collars and cotton dresses, they might be well dressed too, and 
 earning money as well, instead of sitting idle on doorsteps, 
 making remarks on passers-by. 
 
 The Royal Commissioners on Education have asked the 
 question of the managers of Board and other National schools, 
 4 Would you recommend the introduction into your school of 
 Practical Instruction (for girls) in the domestic duties of 
 home ? ' 
 
 What is the answer to be ? 
 
157 
 
 INDUSTRIAL TRAINING FOR GIRLS. 
 BY Miss HEADDON. 
 
 AMONGST the many questions perplexing our nation at present, 
 surely few are more important than the one which touches upon 
 the training of the children ; truly it was a wise man who said 
 he would begin the training of a child c twenty-five years before 
 he was born ' that is, he would begin with the mother, and teach 
 
 her to train the child. Whatever the nation is begins in the 
 family, and what hope can there be for a nation when there is 
 thriftless ignorance on the part of the mothers and thorough 
 inefficiency on the part of the greater number of domestic ser- 
 vants, with the result of extravagance and discomfort in the 
 homes ? 
 
 This, we are assured, is partly owing to the fact that the 
 natural womanly taste for domestic work and household manage- 
 ment is neglected and its cultivation left out of the girls' education. 
 
158 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 One cannot but notice how happy little girls are if allowed to 
 dust mother's chairs or to iron the stockings and handkerchiefs ; 
 how deftly they manage the sweeping-broom with a handle 
 about twice as tall as themselves ; how delighted to have a small 
 piece of dough and make grimy little editions of mother's tarts. 
 And one cannot but be struck, too, by the fact that as these 
 same little girls grow older they lose this taste and come to 
 look upon domestic work as drudgery, preferring when they 
 leave school any occupation but housework. 
 
 Remedy this neglect, give the girl a continuous course of 
 instruction in this branch the most essential of a woman's edu- 
 cation lead them to look upon dirt as a disgrace and waste as 
 a sin, inoculate into them a love of cleanliness and order (a 
 habit if once acquired is seldom lost) ; and we may hope in the 
 future that, with knowledge and method to guide them, we shall 
 have a race of thrifty, energetic women good wives and 
 mothers, who know how to make home real homes where the 
 husbands and sons will prefer to be instead of seeking what 
 they cannot find there at the public-houses or clubs ; helpful 
 daughters who will consider the making of a pie and the clean- 
 liness of their rooms, persons, and wardrobes of equal importance 
 with their drawing, music, or fancy work ; conscientious servants 
 who will scorn to leave the corners and sweep round a mat. 
 
 To meet this crying need of our times we have 
 
 THE HOUSEWIFERY ASSOCIATION, 
 
 OR 
 
 NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR GIVING INSTRUCTION IN THE 
 PRINCIPLES 'AND PRACTICE OF HOUSEWIFERY. 
 
 FOUNDRESS MISS HEADDON. 
 
 THIS association is the result of a strong desire to raise the tone of household 
 work by promoting a wide and correct knowledge of, frst, the domestic 
 kindergarten, teaching in the first step methodical daily work, taking the 
 girls through the day's work ; in the second teaching weekly duties, or wash- 
 ing, ironing, and house- cleaning ; and in the third supplementary duties, such 
 as marketing, cooking, clothing, &c. ; all taught by means of small models of 
 requisites, and accompanied by suitable drill and songs. Secondly, a junior 
 course, or advanced practical lessons upon the same system for older girls. 
 
INDUSTRIAL TRAINING FOR GIRLS 159 
 
 Thirdly, a senior course, for imparting a scientific knowledge of housewifery, 
 hygiene, and sanitary subjects to young women. 
 
 President. THE LADY LOUISA EGERTON. 
 
 Council. 
 
 THE COUNTESS OF MEATH 
 
 LADY KNIGHTLEY 
 
 MRS. FRANCES LUPTON 
 *Miss HEADDON 
 *MRS. EDMUND HELPS 
 
 Miss MORLEY 
 
 *L. M. H. (Editor of 'Work and 
 
 Leisure ') 
 
 THE EARL FORTESCUE 
 JOHN RUSKIN, ESQ., LL.D. 
 EDWIN CHADWICK, ESQ., C.B. 
 
 *DR. ROTH 
 
 * These form the Executive Committee. 
 
 Office and Class-rcom. 41 Wigmore Street, London, W. Hours, 11 till 4. 
 
 Hon. Auditor. J. 0. CHADWICK, ESQ., F.C.A. 
 
 Hankers. LONDON AND WESTMINSTER BANK, St. James's Square, 
 London, S.W. 
 
 TRAINING COLLEGE. 
 
 Gloucestershire: RIVERDALE, Newnham-on- Severn. 
 
 Visitor. THE REV. T. J. WEIGHT (Vicar). 
 
 Hon. Medical Adviser. DR. SHAW CARLETON. 
 
 Bankers. THE CAPITAL AND COUNTIES BANK, Newnham-on- Severn. 
 
 Hon. Sec., Treasurer, and Demonstrator. Miss HEADDON, Riverdale, 
 Newnham-on- Severn, to whom all communications must be addressed. 
 
 Cheques and postal orders to be made payable to M. E. Headdon. 
 
 Arrangements can be made for teachers to attend classes, and for a lady 
 {trainer of teachers) to visit any town throughout England, Scotland, and 
 Ireland to give a course of lessons to teachers in the neighbourhood. Certifi- 
 cates of attendance may be gained by such teachers, but the higher grade 
 certificates of merit can only be obtained by a course of training at the 
 training college. 
 
 ORGANISING ASSOCIATES. 
 
 For Ireland. THE REV. ANTHONY L. ELLIOTT, 39 Great George Street, Dublin. 
 
 For Scotland. MR. LAURIE, Paternoster Row, London (pro tern.'). 
 
 For the G.F.S. MRS. MERCIER, Kemerton Rectory, Tewkesbury. 
 
 For the Y.W.C.A. THE HON. EMILY KINNAIRD, 2 Pall Mall East (pro tern.). 
 
 for Bedfordshire,- \ f f YouNG > ^Cottage, | Be(Jfor(J 
 ( A. RANSOM, ESQ., 1 St. Loyes, } 
 
 For Wiltshire. MRS. HENSLOW, Zeals Rectory, Bath. 
 For Yorkshire. MRS. PEAKE, 13 Cromer Terrace, Leeds. 
 For Hallamshire. MRS. JARVIS BARBER, Abbeydale, Sheffield. 
 For Shropshire. Miss SMITH, Aston House, Newport, Salop. 
 
160 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 BOOKS AND APPARATUS REQUIRED FOR THE INTRODUCTION 
 OF THE DOMESTIC KINDERGARTEN CLASSES INTO SCHOOL 
 ROUTINE. 
 
 To l)e obtained at the London office, and at the Training House, 
 Newnham-on- Severn. 
 
 HOUSEHOLD OBJECT LESSONS : First Manual, with music and directions 
 for drill, &c., 1*. The songs : On cards, 4s. the 100 ; as leaflets, 2s. Further 
 lessons will come out in the monthly paper, Little Women. 
 
 TOY MODELS FOR THE FIRST STEP, 13s. 6d. the single set. They consist 
 of a table-setting box, 5s. 6d. ; table-board, 6d. ; bedstead (folds flat), 4s. ;. 
 bedding, 3s. ; two chairs for bed-making, Qd. Particulars of models for the 
 second and third steps to be obtained of Miss Headdon. 
 
 Three sets will suffice for small schools, and in poor districts it has been 
 suggested that the managers might combine to purchase three complete sets, 
 and arrange for their monthly circulation and exchange. 
 
 For large schools and infant galleries six, eight, or twelve sets are desirable, 
 that number of children being allowed to handle them in rotation, while 
 the rest watch and join in the songs and actions. 
 
 It has been proved that one set manipulated before a class of fifty whose 
 ages varied from nine to fourteen is very successful. In this case much 
 depends upon the cleverness of the teacher. 
 
 Little Women, the organ of the Association, says : 
 
 ' Miss Headdon gave evidence on June 8 before the Royal 
 Commission on Education ; and a short time before she described 
 her system to the Special Committee to inquire into the subjects and 
 modes of instruction appointed by the London School Board. She 
 pleaded that her system of domestic kindergarten might be recognised 
 as a " varied occupation " for the infant school, and as such take a 
 part of the Government grant ; that it might be introduced into the 
 first, second, and third standards in its first, second, and third steps, 
 once a week, as object lessons ; but with regard to the advanced 
 practical lessons upon the same plan, she was obliged to admit that 
 she could say nothing until legislation made it practicable, by mul- 
 tiplying kitchens and giving the girls more time to spend in them r 
 which she thought might well be taken partly from the advanced 
 arithmetic. Given more kitchens and more time, the girls might be 
 taught cooking on Mondays, and one other clay ; washing on Tues- 
 days ; ironing one day, and on Friday house- cleaning ; ending 
 up with a thorough cleaning of the schoolroom ready for the next 
 week's work. The whole thing is in a nutshell, if put in this way : 
 " If the bulk of our girls leave school when they have passed the 
 fourth standard, then it is to the elementary schools that we must 
 
INDUSTRIAL TRAINING FOR GIRLS 161 
 
 look ; and I cannot but think more than ever that this plan, which 
 provides in a methodical way rudimentary household teaching for the 
 first three standards, and twelve months' practical training while they 
 are in the fourth, must be the system which is most calculated to 
 meet the need of some training for the majority of our girls, in order 
 that in the future we shall have better wives, better mothers, and 
 better servants." ' 
 
 Not only does this question touch upon us in England, but it 
 must be considered by those who advocate emigration for women. 
 A knowledge of house-work and household management is 
 specially needed by them. Beyond this comes the wish that 
 Government could in some way supervise young girls in situa- 
 tions, as some protection to the girls, and also some guarantee 
 that they rendered their mistresses assistance and remained 
 with them long enough to compensate them for the trouble of 
 supplementing the teaching they had received at school. 
 
 Much has been done ; several of the schools of the London 
 Board are at work on the domestic kindergarten. So are schools 
 at Leeds, Dublin, &c., and many private classes are being started. 
 Advanced classes for practical cookery and house-work are begun 
 at the People's Palace, &c., and, what is more to the purpose, 
 great satisfaction is expressed by the girls and young women 
 themselves. 
 
 We have only to beg that Government will recognise the 
 movement and give us its support. 
 
 COOKERY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 
 
 BY Miss FANNY L. CALDER, 
 
 Hon. Sec. of the Liverpool Training School of Cookery, and Hon. Sec. Northern 
 Union of Schools of Cookery. 
 
 Now that instruction in practical cookery in elementary schools 
 takes so settled a place in the Education Code, any paper on the 
 subject that is to be of general utility needs to be one of expla- 
 nations and experiences rather than that of recommendation. 
 Still, a few words on behalf of this twin-sister of needlework will 
 not be out of place before we proceed to discuss plans and 
 methods, and report success already attained. 
 
 M 
 
1 62 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 One could almost wonder that ' house-thrift,' which is really 
 the equivalent of the term ' practical cookery,' should not have 
 been considered necessary for the girls of the working class, even 
 before sewing. For, while ready-made clothing can be bought 
 one way or another, and, in fact, is bought to a very large extent 
 by the poorest of our people, no amount of money can purchase 
 the well-ordered home, the comfortable, wholesome meal by the 
 clean fireside, outrivalling even the most attractive public-house, 
 which only a thrifty housewife can produce, and which closes the 
 vista drawn out in the mental vision of the promoters of Schools 
 of Cookery. 
 
 The lamentable ignorance displayed by such numbers of 
 women of any true domestic management results in miserable 
 homes, waste of hard-earned wages, loss to the country of many 
 useful articles of food, and the too often degraded condition of 
 the poorer districts. It is calculated that sixty per cent, of a 
 workman's wages goes in food ; therefore anything that promotes 
 reformation in that line of expenditure will aid most in bettering 
 his general condition. Knowledge and capacity in this depart- 
 ment mean health, thrift, comfort, and saving ; so that efficient 
 instruction in this branch of education seems likely to have a 
 more direct effect upon the welfare of the people than any other 
 subject in the time-table of our girls' schools. 
 
 As a handmaid to temperance, cookery takes also a foremost 
 place. When this movement was first started, one of the oldest 
 magistrates in Liverpool, who is also a leading educationist, 
 stated in support of this cause that most of the cases that were 
 brought before him arose from quarrels about food either that 
 it was not provided at all, or so badly cooked as to be uneatable. 
 Of course the natural resource was the public-house, for it needs 
 no deeply scientific knowledge of the laws of life or physiology 
 to understand that, if nourishment is not provided in a wholesome 
 way, it can be temporarily obtained from stimulant, though 
 probably at the cost of the health of both brain and body. An 
 excellent, perhaps the best, antidote to the public-house is a 
 wholesome, appetising meal at home. Moreover," if the wife 
 finds her interest and occupation in thrifty housekeeping, there 
 will be neither time nor inclination for the very objectionable 
 afternoon occupation of gossiping on the doorstep or forming 
 
COOKERY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 163 
 
 drinking parties indoors. It is frequently remarked of the 
 people in poor neighbourhoods that they have 'nothing to 
 cook ; ' but any acquaintance with life in those parts reveals 
 the truth that tihose who cook least, spend the most, in propor- 
 tion, in drink, and that ignorance more than poverty brings 
 degradation. 
 
 In the hope of trying to reform some of these social evils, the 
 first efforts of most of the Cookery Committees were directed to 
 teaching the mothers. Many of these really valued and made 
 good use of the instruction given in lectures, but by far the greater 
 number were too prejudiced or too idle to benefit by them. The 
 prejudice of the people against any article of food that is new 
 or cheap is as strong as the national prejudice against eating 
 frogs or dogs, and the slower processes of cookery, always 
 recommended as the most economical and wholesome, will never 
 be acceptable to women long confirmed in feckless, idle habits. 
 
 It was soon decided that, to effect any permanent result, 
 instruction in cookery must be given to the girls while at school. 
 From that time the attention of the Committee of the Liverpool 
 School of Cookery, of whose work and plans I specially speak, 
 was chiefly directed to the one object of getting practical cooking 
 introduced into the elementary schools as a regular subject with 
 a Government grant. Appeals to this end were made in different 
 ways, but it appeared that no grant was likely to be given unless 
 definite plans were brought forward, showing the exact cost, and 
 the means by which such instruction could be placed within the 
 reach of all elementary schools both in town and country. Pre- 
 pared with such plans, which had been developed by experience 
 in various elementary schools, a deputation of ladies and gentle- 
 men from Liverpool waited upon the Lords of the Privy Council 
 on Education in December 1881, praying that practical cookery 
 might be made a recognised subject with a grant of 4s. a head. 
 Supported by petitions from other societies, this request was 
 granted, and the Code of 1882 made a grant of 4s. for every 
 girl of twelve years of age and upwards who had received forty 
 hours' practical cookery instruction. In 1883 this came into 
 force. But it was found that the fixed age of twelve years pre- 
 vented many of those girls who might most need such lessons 
 from obtaining them as the poorer children frequently leave 
 
 M 2 
 
164 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 school as soon as they have passed Standard IV., generally at 
 eleven, sometimes even at ten years of age. This difficulty was 
 at once laid before the Education Department, and received 
 prompt consideration. In the Code of 1884 the^fixed age was 
 changed to any age in the Fourth Standard and upwards, thus 
 leaving it to the discretion of managers and teachers to place in 
 the cookery classes such young girls as were likely to leave school 
 before reaching a higher standard. During that year of 1884 
 the subject was adopted in many more schools in various parts 
 of the country, but in some with this drawback, that for the sake 
 of obtaining large grants classes were formed far too large for 
 any of the children to receive a fair amount of such practical 
 experience as would justify the term practical cookery, for which 
 the grant was given. The Liverpool Committee, therefore, sent 
 a petition to Mr. Mundella on behalf of small classes for 
 practice work, the response to which petition appeared in the 
 Code laid on the table of the House of Commons in March 
 1885. There the grant is made conditional on each separate 
 class not exceeding twenty-four in number, and every girl 
 having spent not less than twenty hours in cooking with her 
 own hands. 
 
 Another condition added to the Code of 1885 requires that 
 the teacher of cookery shall have been trained for the work in 
 one of the Training Schools of Cookery. 
 
 These are the steps of rapid and encouraging progress with 
 which the Education Department has marked its approval of a 
 subject of which Mr. Mundella says that, c after the three ele- 
 mentary subjects and sewing, no subject is of such importance 
 as cookery for the class of girls who attend public elementary 
 schools.' 
 
 And now the subject of practical cookery stands thus. 1 It is 
 a recognised subject, with a grant of 4s. a head for any girl in 
 the Fourth Standard and upwards who has had forty hours' 
 instruction, twenty of which at least have been spent in cooking 
 with her own hands in a class of not more than twenty-four 
 scholars ; on condition that the Inspector reports that special 
 and appropriate provision is made for the practical teaching of 
 
 1 In the Code of March, 1887, a grant is made for cookery in the evening 
 schools also. 
 
COOKERY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 165 
 
 cookery by a teacher who has been trained in some Training 
 School of Cookery. 1 
 
 From many schools whose managers are anxious to make 
 their girls useful women as well as clever scholars, and who 
 therefore adopted cookery as soon as possible, reports of a most 
 satisfactory nature are constantly reaching the Committee. One 
 says : ' As to our cookery classes, I can only record continual 
 success and appreciation. The whole country speaks well of 
 them, and I believe I shall make them support themselves. 
 
 Miss L is an excellent teacher ; I cannot speak too well of 
 
 her.' Another : ' The parents have given frequent testimony of 
 their appreciation of this cookery teaching for their girls. The 
 people of the neighbourhood say that nothing so successful has 
 been attempted in the way of education, and at several meetings 
 lately, gentlemen have praised the effort and given expression 
 to the general approval of the cookery classes.' And yet 
 another : ' The cookery classes have been an enormous success.' 
 The head -mistresses have also written in cordial support of 
 these lessons, and their opinion is extremely valuable, because 
 on them devolves the only real trouble connected with the 
 matter, the arrangement of the classes. They say the girls 
 stay longer at school to obtain this instruction, often even wait- 
 ing for a second course ; they are more regular in attendance, 
 and are perceptibly more intelligent and capable in their other 
 work. After having taken cookery lessons they take great 
 pleasure in the work, and (a point much to be noted) bring for 
 their school dinners meat pasties, rice puddings, and such 
 
 1 The Code of March, 1887, offers a grant of 4s. a, head for cookery in even- 
 ing schools, and now cookery can be taken as the first subject after the three 
 E's. Unfortunately the grant is made on the same condition of time as in the 
 day schools, viz., forty hours. In the evening schools of large towns this con- 
 dition is an impossible one, as the pupils are girls in various employments who 
 can never be so perfectly regular in attendance during the twenty-two weeks 
 that these schools are usually open so as never to miss a cooking lesson. And 
 even if regular the hour and a half lessons would not make up forty hours. 
 It is therefore much to be desired that all who are interested in the recreative 
 evening classes, or other night schools, should combine in appealing to the 
 Education Department before February, 1888, to alter this condition of time 
 to, perhaps, twenty hours, with a smaller grant even. Cooking is now much 
 in request in some of the recreative evening schools, and such a concession 
 would greatly aid the managers in responding to such a sensible demand. 
 
166 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 dishes, instead of their usual scanty provision ; and one writer 
 adds : ' Instead of teaching girls the higher branches of arith- 
 metic, let them devote more attention to those subjects which 
 form the basis of domestic comfort and happiness.' Here we 
 are evidently working in the right direction, and domestic skill, 
 glorified as an educational subject with a Government grant, 
 seems on the eve of regaining its proper place in the eyes of 
 schoolgirls, who had begun to think home-work quite beneath 
 their attention, and to be left to those who had not enjoyed 
 the same intellectual opportunities as themselves. Hence the 
 number of unemployed and too often incapable young women 
 that abound now. 
 
 The importance to girls of such preparatory training is real- 
 ised when we consider how much emigration schemes are being 
 pressed upon the public as a necessity for the country, schemes 
 in which, of course, the women largely share ; and all reports 
 from the Colonies urge the value of manual skill even above the 
 much-desired intellectual attainments. Any woman who can 
 cook or wash is sure to make a competency, if not a fortune ; 
 while those who offer only brainwork are often compelled to 
 return to England. 
 
 The plan of lessons adopted, and recommended by the Liver- 
 pool School of Cookery, and which has been in successful opera- 
 tion for some years now, has been drawn up in conformity with 
 the required forty hoars of the Code. These are divided into 
 twenty lessons of two hours each, these two hours giving time 
 for the dishes to cook, and for the girls to clean and put away 
 everything before they finish. No assistant-maid is needed, as 
 the children are required to do all themselves. The twenty 
 lessons comprise the elementary knowledge of the nature, use, 
 and preparation of the various classes of food, as meat, vege- 
 tables, fish, soups, puddings, bread, and invalid cookery, with 
 practice in the best and most economical methods of cooking 
 them. There are a great variety of ways of cooking both fish 
 and vegetables, and to these much attention is now being 
 directed. The lessons are alternately demonstration and prac- 
 tice, that the faculty of imitation generally large in children 
 may be called into exercise. At one lesson the children are 
 shown how, nicely and neatly, to prepare and cook certain 
 
COOKERY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 167 
 
 dishes ; at the same time explanation is given of the nature and 
 use of the food then being dealt with, and they are questioned 
 as to cost, time, and quantities. At the next lesson the girls 
 cook these same dishes themselves under the direction of the 
 teacher. They work together in sets, and take it in turns to do 
 the cleaning, which is as important as the cooking itself, clean- 
 liness being essential to comfort. 
 
 On two points the Liverpool School lays great stress. First, 
 the size of the practice class, which should not exceed fifteen 
 girls, but twelve is the best number. And next, the use of 
 plainly-printed recipes, with which each girl is supplied at the 
 beginning of the lesson, so that she can give her full attention 
 to the teacher's manner of working instead of wasting time and 
 attention in writing and spelling words which are often new 
 and strange to her. The classes are usually held once a week. 
 During the lessons the children receive marks for work and 
 conduct, and at the end of the course go through a verbal and 
 practical examination, for which certificates are awarded by the 
 Liverpool School of Cookery. A lady examiner is now officially 
 engaged for this work, and the certificates are greatly appre- 
 ciated by both parents and children. The last public speech of 
 H.R.H. the late Duke of Albany was on the occasion when, by 
 the kind consent of the Liverpool Council of Education, he pre- 
 sented these certificates to girls of the elementary schools, in 
 January 1884. He then strongly advocated the subject of 
 cookery, and expressed a hope it would extend even to the 
 poorest schools, a hope now accomplished, and lessons are being 
 given to the elder girls, and even to some boys, of the night 
 ragged schools. If through illness or other cause any girl 
 should miss one or more lessons of the course, and so have failed 
 to complete her forty hours, extra lessons can be given at 
 special times on the omitted subjects. When the girls remain 
 long enough at school to receive a second course of cookery 
 lessons, a quite different set of dishes is arranged for this second 
 course, so that their experience may vary as much as possible. 
 At the request of some managers a simple manual, price 2^d. y 
 has been compiled for the girls to use at home, as many of them 
 like to do. 
 
 There was but one point wanting to make the Liverpool 
 
168 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 cookery system complete, and that has recently been supplied 
 by the liberality of Mr. Samuel Smith, M.P., who has given the 
 Committee of the Liverpool School of Cookery some scholarships 
 to be awarded in the elementary schools to such girls as com- 
 bine proficiency in work with praiseworthy behaviour. A 
 Cookery Scholarship consists of a complete course of household 
 cookery lessons at the Central School of Cookery, such as are 
 given to ladies and cooks, and valuable to any girl either for 
 home life, or service, or emigration. 
 
 The cost of the food for the whole course of twenty lessons 
 is about II. 17s. This is easily repaid by the sale of the dishes 
 cooked, either to the teachers, to the children, to the parents, 
 or for the sick poor of the neighbourhood. There is rarely any 
 difficulty in disposing of the food at cost price, and some schools 
 make a profit by it. In one instance 10s. was made during one 
 course of lessons. The dishes to be cooked can always be 
 arranged suitably to the season of the year and the possibilities 
 of each locality. 
 
 The necessary requirements for carrying out this scheme are 
 far less formidable than the uninitiated seem to think. The list 
 of utensils needed for a practice class of fifteen girls, including 
 crockery, linen, and materials for cleaning, can be obtained for 
 5/., and are easily stowed away in an ordinary cupboard. This 
 is an expense that will not recur for some years. The tables can 
 be improvised of boards laid across the backs of desks or trestles, 
 and are easily put away, forming no hindrance in a class-room. 
 A moderate-sized class-room is quite sufficient, and if this is not 
 attainable the kitchen of a neighbouring house or cottage can 
 be employed instead. The scullery work can be accomplished 
 with ordinary washing-bowls, but it is, of course, neater and 
 more comfortable to have some scullery arrangement, which can 
 now be made at a small expense. - A sanitary sink costs from 
 10s. to 15s. The stove depends greatly upon existing local cir- 
 cumstances. If there is a small kitchen range, an extra gas 
 table-stove holding two or three pans will quite suffice. If 
 there is only a simple fire-place, a stove with an oven is essen- 
 tial, and can be supplied either by a small gas oven, or by a 
 small fuel stove with an oven, in addition to the fireplace. If 
 there is no fireplace at all, a small range with a boiler, for 
 
COOKERY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 169 
 
 about 31. 10s., is very suitable for the purpose. Should a 
 movable stove be preferred, a gas stove can be had for 5Z. 5s., 
 or a fuel stove for 4L 10s. The old fear of teaching with gas 
 has proved groundless ; no girl has ever found any difficulty in 
 working with the utensils she has at home because she learnt 
 on a gas stove. Laying aside any objection, there is difficulty in 
 some villages in obtaining gas. In that case an oil stove is a 
 good substitute, though, of course, not so cleanly to work with 
 as gas. Still, it has been found extremely convenient, and does 
 not need to be lighted long beforehand, like a fuel stoye. 
 Either of these stoves can be boarded over when the cooking is 
 not going on, and serve as a table instead of being an incon- 
 venience in a class-room. 
 
 These preliminary expenses are of course the difficulty in 
 poor schools, but in the present zeal for education and social 
 reform supporters of this movement will be found if school 
 managers are really anxious to take it up. For some years now 
 the Liverpool Council of Education has been making grants to 
 poor schools for the purchase of utensils, but of course in Liver- 
 pool only. 
 
 Efficient teaching is the vital point, and the one that needs 
 co-operative arrangements in order to secure first-rate instruc- 
 tion at the smallest cost. Managers and head teachers see at 
 once the impossibility (as a rule) of adding this to the duties of 
 school-mistresses, whose time and strength are already fully 
 taxed, and who by no means desire to take up an additional 
 burden. The teaching of cookery is not simply the preparation 
 of certain dishes, which might be shown by any good cook, but 
 includes much instruction in the difficult art of choosing suit- 
 able, nourishing, and at the same time economical, articles of 
 food, in order that the smallest incomes may stretch to meet 
 the needs of even the largest families such instruction as 
 gives the children an intelligent interest in the matter, so 
 that, understanding the true purpose of eating, and what 
 things serve that purpose best, they may eventually become 
 thoughtful, thrifty women, not mechanical or unintelligent 
 drudges. 
 
 Teachers trained in the Liverpool School of Cookery are 
 sent forth to all parts of the country. Many of these go from 
 
170 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 the Liverpool Committee for a term of weeks or months, and 
 under local arrangement have a circuit of schools placed in 
 their charge for the required course of twenty lessons. A 
 teacher can give two lessons a day for five days a week through- 
 out the school year, so that she can take ten classes in ten dif- 
 ferent schools, or several classes in one school during that time. 
 And the managers of the different schools combine to share the 
 salary according to the number of classes each school has had. 
 By neighbouring places combining in this way the expense is 
 reduced to a minimum for each. The usual plan is one lesson a 
 week, but, of course, this is settled by the managers and head- 
 mistress. Several neighbourhoods are being worked in this 
 way. To secure to the public a supply of duly qualified teachers, 
 thoroughly trained for elementary school work by experience in 
 teaching children, the Northern Union of Schools of Cookery, of 
 which the late Duke of Albany was patron, 1 was formed in 1876. 
 When it was ascertained that there was no probability of one 
 good general standard of marks and requirements for diplomas 
 being arranged for the whole country, leading Schools of Cookery 
 agreed to unite in a scheme for adopting a uniform method of 
 training teachers, and to offer diplomas on a basis of such 
 thoroughly efficient instruction and examination that the public 
 might always feel secure of good work when engaging a teacher 
 holding one of them. 
 
 The result of this Union has been to create a supply of 
 teachers who, beyond the usual training in cookery, are well 
 informed in methods and plans of conducting elementary school 
 classes, and have already done much good work in this de- 
 partment. 2 
 
 1 H.R.H. the Duchess of Albany has now kindly consented to become 
 patroness of the Northern Union. 
 
 2 The Training Schools which are connected with the Northern Union are 
 Liverpool, Leeds, and Glasgow. These, with the National Training School of 
 Cookery, South Kensington, may be said to be the chief centres from which 
 trained teachers are supplied for the whole country. 
 
TECHNICAL INSTRUCTIONS 
 
 SIR, The Technical Instruction Bill has passed the second 
 reading, but its scope is so limited that unless public attention 
 is called to its defects it will be powerless to influence for good 
 the very classes of our population who need it most. 
 
 I have put down an amendment on the committee stage, 
 the object of which is to provide evening schools, as in Germany, 
 for the mass of our children who leave elementary schools at the 
 age of twelve or thirteen, and often younger ; and I trust to 
 have your powerful support in advocating this most necessary 
 change. 
 
 Speaking broadly, the advocates of technical education may 
 be divided into two classes first, those who expect to regain our 
 former commercial and manufacturing supremacy by giving a 
 higher scientific education to those who shall direct the future 
 trade of the country; and, secondly, those who desire to see 
 the great mass of the people of this country better equipped for 
 the battle of life, in consequence of better education in youth. 
 
 There is no necessary antagonism between these two objects ; 
 each is excellent in its own way ; but my sympathies and 
 knowledge of the requirements of the poor, derived from many 
 years' practical experience, leads me to attach more importance 
 to the latter. 
 
 Now the bill before Parliament mainly contemplates the first 
 object. It provides for the establishment of technical schools by 
 such local bodies as voluntarily adopt the Act, the cost of which 
 is to be thrown on the rates. If successfully carried out, it will 
 lead to the foundation of technical schools in our large towns 
 similar to those created by the City Guilds, which will be 
 attended by a limited number of clever boys, such as now attend 
 the science and art classes. Mr. Goschen anticipates that only 
 some 12,000 children will be attracted to these schools, while 
 some 5,000,000 attend the elementary schools, of whom some 
 600,000 leave annually, at the age of twelve or thirteen on an 
 average. 
 
 There is no distinct provision in the bill for a scheme of 
 
 1 Reprinted by permission from the Liverpool Daily Post. 
 
172 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 evening schools to meet the wants of this great class, though I 
 am told that it is possible under it to institute such schools ; but, 
 what is still more fatal to its usefulness, there is no compulsory 
 ^ower to secure the attendance of children at those schools. 
 
 Now I conceive that the time has fully come to graft a 
 system of evening continuation schools on our national system of 
 education ; and I should like to see the attempt made under cover 
 of this bill. To show the necessity of this is the object of my 
 letter. 
 
 It is perfectly well known now to all educationists that 
 primary education in Germany, Switzerland, and indeed in most 
 of the advanced countries of Europe, is far ahead of ours. The 
 children are infinitely better taught, and, above all, they are kept 
 at school to a much later period of life. The usual age of leaving 
 school in Germany is thirteen and a half to fourteen, with two 
 years' compulsory attendance at evening continuation schools ; 
 so that the State enforces continuous education till about the 
 age of sixteen. Need we wonder that in all walks of life the 
 Germans are beating us ? Their people are vastly better edu- 
 cated in all ranks of life, and in none is the comparison more 
 against us than in the children of the working classes. Can 
 we be surprised that German clerks, artisans, and merchants are 
 supplanting ours wherever they come into equal competition ? 
 
 What is the usual history of an English child of the working 
 class ? It leaves the elementary school as soon as the exemption 
 standard is passed that is to say, at an age which is always 
 becoming earlier as the children are more quickly passed through 
 the standards. I notice that last year, in the town of Wolver- 
 hampton, 97 per cent, of the children left school at the age of 
 eleven ! In many~of our towns the average age of leaving is as 
 low as twelve ; in a few like London, where the sixth standard 
 is the exemption one, the age varies from twelve to thirteen ; 
 in very few cases are children kept after thirteen. 
 
 Moreover, night schools have steadily declined since the Act 
 of 1870 ; and last year, I believe, only 26,000 children attended 
 such schools in all England. The movement in favour.of c recrea- 
 tive evening schools ' is somewhat improving the attendance this 
 year ; but, speaking broadly, it may be asserted that the education 
 of the English working-man's child comes to an end at about 
 
TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 173 
 
 twelve ; and so slight a hold has it taken of the intelligence of 
 the child that in very many cases hardly a trace remains at 
 sixteen, except the power of reading the wretched trash which 
 is the chief pabulum of the children of the poor in our large 
 towns. 
 
 Nothing, to my thinking, is more deplorable than the deterio- 
 ration of the children that takes place after leaving our element- 
 ary schools ; their chief educators are the street, the low nasty 
 serial, and the music-hall. At that crucial time of life, when 
 the character is being formed, the environment of multitudes of 
 children is such as to ensure a poor stunted existence hereafter. 
 When the child in Germany is having its intelligence expanded by 
 elementary science and literature, and when the eye and hand 
 are being trained in drawing, modelling, wood-carving &c., the 
 English child in too many instances is becoming a proficient in 
 the low vice of the streets and slums, or else is cruelly over- 
 worked in stuffy workrooms and factories. We allow parents, 
 to our shame be it said, to work their children ten hours a day 
 when they reach thirteen years of age, if they have then passed 
 the exemption standard. Need anyone wonder that the pauper 
 and semi-pauper population of England is vastly greater than in 
 Germany, France, Switzerland, Holland, or the Scandinavian 
 countries ; or need we wonder that we have a larger layer of 
 population utterly incompetent to look after themselves than any 
 other civilised country in the world ? I speak of what I know 
 from long personal contact with these classes, and lest I should be 
 thought to exaggerate, let me quote from that accurate observer 
 of city life, Mr. Walter Besant : 
 
 From thirteen to seventeen. Boys and girls at thirteen have no 
 inclination to read newspapers ; after their day's work and confine- 
 ment in the hot rooms they are tired ; they want fresh air and 
 exercise. To sum up : There are no existing inducements for the 
 children to read and study ; most of them are sluggish of intellect ; 
 outside the evening schools there are no facilities for them at all ;. 
 they have no books ; when evening comes they are tired ; they do 
 not understand their own interests ; after a day's work they like an 
 evening's rest. The street is always open to them. Here they find 
 their companions of the workroom ; here they feel the strong swift 
 current of life ; here something is always happening ; here there 
 
174 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 are always new pleasures ; here they can talk and play unrestrained 
 left entirely to themselves, taking for pattern those who are a little 
 older than themselves. As for their favourite amusements and 
 their pleasures, they grow yearly coarser ; as for their conversation, 
 it grows continually viler, until Zola himself would be ashamed to 
 reproduce the talk of these young people. The Contemporary 
 Review, March, 1886. 
 
 These are the facts, vividly stated, which make many 
 philanthropists so anxious to graft a system of night schools on 
 our elementary course, and to make attendance on them obliga- 
 tory, at least to the age of fourteen or fifteen. 
 
 I confess that the moral advantage outweighs in my eyes even 
 the intellectual. It is simply a question of life or death for 
 multitudes to be kept under wholesome restraint at that age. 
 The mind then quickly takes the colour of its surroundings. If 
 those surroundings are bright attractive classes, where musical 
 drill and gymnastics play a part, where the hand and eye are 
 trained by the pencil, the compass, and the magic-lantern, where 
 the teaching is a real recreation, as it is quite possible to make 
 it, and where the silent influence of refined teachers creates a 
 true ideal of life, I say we should change the character of the 
 next generation, we should do more to kill intemperance, the 
 social evil, and pauperism than by all the legislation in the 
 world. 
 
 No country spends so much effort as ours in attempting to 
 cure evils after they have become incurable, none spends so little 
 in preventing their growth. If you wish to cope with the horrid 
 life of the slums, you must begin with the children ; if you want 
 to stop the squalid pauper marriages which take place in London 
 often at seventeen or eighteen years of age, if you want to 
 transform our beery casual labourer into an intelligent self- 
 respecting artisan, if you wish to fit our superabounding popula- 
 tion to be good emigrants and colonists, you must begin with the 
 children. Keep them at school till habits of industry and applica- 
 tion are formed, till they get a higher ideal of life, and till they are 
 filled with a divine discontent with the animal life in. the slums. 
 
 Till you do this commissions on the dwellings of the poor will 
 report in vain, the United Kingdom Alliance will preach to un- 
 willing ears, social purity societies will yield scant results, and 
 
TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 175 
 
 England will remain cursed with a degraded proletariat till 
 doomsday. 
 
 In conclusion, I would say there must be some further 
 restriction on child labour to make it possible for the mass of 
 our working children to attend evening schools. It is high time 
 that the Factory Acts should be revised in the interests of 
 children. Ten years of age is too young to begin working even 
 half time, and thirteen is too young to begin working full time. 
 No wonder our factory population is physically stunted. How 
 is it possible that the soft tender frame of a child can stand 
 such grinding toil ? We should aim at raising the half time age 
 to twelve and the full time age to fifteen, and then it will be 
 easy to get attendance at evening continuation schools till the 
 latter age. 
 
 The effect of this would be to increase the demand for adult 
 labour, and somewhat relieve the excessive over-supply we have 
 at present ; and it would prevent a low class of parents from 
 trading on the earnings of their children. 
 
 I have only roughly sketched out a plan which needs much 
 filling in ; but I fear I have already encroached unduly on your 
 space. I will conclude with another quotation (from Dr. Paton, 
 of Nottingham), which aptly describes our present wasteful 
 system ; and I invoke your kindly aid to bring this waste to a 
 speedy end. 
 
 First we build up at immense expense a colossal system of pri- 
 mary education, and then see and allow the results of it to be very 
 largely wasted and lost. Teachers speak dismally of the havoc of 
 the fruit of their labour in the first two years after school is left. 
 The garden which by daily culture has been brought into such an 
 admirable and promising condition is given over to utter neglect; 
 the money, the time, the labour bestowed upon it are lost. We 
 cease to educate at the most important, most plastic, most receptive 
 period of life. 
 
 Yours, &c., 
 
 SAMUEL SMITH. 
 
 Westminster, S.W., August 13, 1887. 
 
 P.S. The above letter was published in several newspapers, 
 and was sent to every member of Parliament. It is now re- 
 published in order to be sent to every School Board in the 
 
1 76 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 kingdom, in the hope that it may aid the movement now 
 started in favour of a general system of evening schools. 
 
 The Technical Instruction Bill has been withdrawn fur this 
 session, but it is promised to be re-introduced at the beginning 
 of next session, and our aim must be to widen its scope, so as 
 to bring it within the reach of the mass of our elementary 
 scholars. 
 
 I should wish to add to what I have said above some further 
 remarks on the subject of compulsion. I am aware that many 
 persons feel great repugnance to a further extension of this 
 principle, and I would call attention to the plan proposed by 
 Dr. Paton, which avoids all new methods of procedure, but 
 simply expands the old ones. It is well known that at present 
 a large body of children leave school after passing the fourth 
 standard, and another large body after passing the fifth, and a 
 smaller number after passing the sixth. I am informed, indeed, 
 that in rural districts it is not uncommon to exempt children 
 from school attendance after passing the third standard, at the 
 age of ten ! 
 
 Dr. Paton's proposal is to raise the exemption standard to 
 the seventh, but allow children to leave the day school after 
 passing the sixth, and work out the last standard in the evening 
 school. Possibly that would be too sudden a change, but I 
 would suggest that the exemption standard in the day schools, 
 when it is now the sixth as in London should be raised to 
 the seventh, and in all other schools should be made the sixth ; 
 and I would allow children to be excused passing the last 
 standard in a day school, on condition that they attended an 
 evening school for two years in lieu of it. 
 
 There can be no doubt that the great bulk of the children 
 would be withdrawn from the day school as soon as possible, 
 and sent to the evening school in preference ; and so, without 
 direct compulsion to attend evening schools, we should secure 
 that nearly all the children would pass through them, and so 
 the school age would be extended to fourteen or fifteen on the 
 average. Those evening schools would, of course, be carried on 
 in existing buildings, and the hours would probably be from 
 seven to nine for five evenings in the week, and for eight or 
 nine months in the year. There should be a long summer 
 
TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION 177 
 
 holiday, and in. rural districts it should cover the time when 
 children are engaged in field work. There can be no objection 
 to children early beginning to learn agricultural work, if it does 
 not seriously interfere with their lessons. In Prussia a large 
 number of the schools in rural districts are on the half-time 
 principle. 
 
 But my plan is more suitable for urban than for rural 
 districts, and if insuperable difficulty should be experienced in 
 applying it to the latter, it might in the first instance be con- 
 fined to towns. It should be borne in mind that two-thirds of 
 the population of Great Britain now live in towns, and it is in 
 them that the demoralisation of the children is so lamentable, 
 from the absence of healthy occupation in the evening. 
 
 The difficulty of the Factory Act may be got over by pro- 
 viding that no permission to work full time be given till the two 
 years' course of evening education be completed, or the maximum 
 standard of the day school be passed, if that be preferred by the 
 parents. 
 
 Most of the children, however, are engaged in small work* 
 shops or trades not coming under the Factory Acts, and it might 
 be necessary to limit the hours of child-labour in those miscel- 
 laneous trades till the exemption standard was passed. Nothing 
 but good would accrue from moderate restrictions on child- 
 labour up to fourteen or fifteen years of age. 
 
 Some discretion must also be left with the school authorities 
 for granting excuses in special cases of necessity, such as elder 
 girls nursing younger children, &c. The scheme at its inception 
 should not be worked with overmuch rigidity, and the attrac- 
 tiveness of schools should be relied upon to draw the children 
 quite as much as the visits of the attendance officer. 
 
 I see no reason to doubt that in a few years we might have 
 a million of children in attendance at these night schools ; and 
 when the beneficial effect was felt, people would marvel that we 
 were so long in adopting this common-sense method. 
 
 In conclusion, I will only add that these night schools should 
 be free of charge to the children. "We cannot expect our 
 labouring classes to assume a new burden when the project of 
 gratuitous primary education is coming so fast to the front. I 
 would further suggest that the cost should be put upon the 
 
 N 
 
1 78 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 Consolidated Fund, and not on the rates, which are already 
 over-burthened. By doing this I believe we should make the 
 scheme far more popular. 
 
 SAMUEL SMITH. 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 The wretched character of the literature which is so widely 
 circulated and read among young persons of the lower orders is 
 vividly presented in an interesting and instructive article in the 
 Edinburgh Review of January last, entitled ' The Literature of the 
 Streets,' which may be advantageously studied by all who are in- 
 terested in the baneful influence exercised by such writings on young 
 and impressionable minds. The writer concludes : ' The indisput- 
 able fact remains, that the worst of modern novels are too often 
 among the most popular. Pure, healthy fiction is indeed to be had, 
 and in fair abundance, but public taste seems to devour unhealthy 
 trash, of every kind, with a higher relish than it can find for the 
 good gifts of the most gifted artists. There is no possible lack of 
 good work, and they who choose trash do so of their own free will 
 and choice. But the case of those for whom this article pleads is 
 wholly different. To them no choice whatever is allowed. They 
 must be content with the garbage of the ' penny dreadfuls,' or no 
 thing. Yet the fancy and the imagination, the innate thirst for 
 novelty and excitement, for a touch of mystery or of tender passion, 
 are as potent and as true in the heart of the street Arab or the shop 
 girl as in the fiercest devourer of romance on Mudie's list. But this 
 desire can be gratified in one way alone. The feast spread for them 
 is ready and abundant, but every dish is a false one, every condi 
 ment vile. Every morsel of food is doctored, every draught of wine 
 is drugged ; no true hunger is satisfied, no true thirst quenched ; 
 and the hapless guests depart with a depraved appetite, and a palate 
 more than ever dead to every pure taste, and every perception of 
 what is good and true. Thus entertained and equipped, the wide 
 army of the children of the poor are sent on their way, to take part 
 in the great battle of life, with false views, false impressions, and 
 foul aims. The pictures of men and women to whom they have been 
 introduced are unreal and untrue. The whole drama of life, as they 
 see it, is a lie from beginning to end, and in it they can play none 
 but a vicious and unhappy part.' 
 
179 
 
 A NATIONAL NECESSITY. 
 BY EDWARD J. WATHERSTON. 
 
 WE have experienced for many years past, and, I fear, we may 
 yet for several years to come experience, a very great depression 
 in trade and manufactures, and side by side with this great 
 depression (which has caused so much loss and suffering to 
 individuals, and profound anxiety to our statesmen), it is found 
 that there is an increasing competition on the part of foreign 
 countries for the trade which, some years back, Englishmen 
 were inclined to regard as absolutely and peculiarly their own. 
 
 Our ribbon and silk industries, our weaving and spinning 
 manufactures, our brass and cutlery, our iron and steel trades, 
 and many others, are meeting with formidable rivals in France, 
 Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and Germany, and, if we wish 
 to maintain, in wealth and power, the mighty Empire which the 
 valour, intelligence, and enterprise of our forefathers have built 
 up, it is time that we inquired diligently into the causes 
 militating against us. 
 
 For good or for ill, we have staked our existence, as a great 
 nation, upon our manufacturing and commercial supremacy. 
 Singularly deficient in raw materials, we cannot even raise food 
 enough to maintain ourselves, and. if our foreign competitors 
 beat us in the field we have deliberately self-chosen, the begin- 
 ning of our decadence will have set in. The handwriting on 
 the wall has been written so plainly that it requires no Daniel 
 to interpret it. 
 
 If, then, it be agreed that, whatever other qualities may be 
 needed for the permanence of our national greatness and 
 prosperity, it is of the first moment that we should call to our 
 aid all that science can dictate or art suggest in our various arts 
 and industries, I shall have made out a primd-facie case for the 
 importance of the subject on which I have the honour to address 
 you this evening viz., the Technical Education of the children 
 of our working classes. By the term ' Technical Education,' I 
 mean special instruction in some scientific, artistic, or mechanical 
 process or handicraft, as distinguished from purely literary 
 
 N 2 
 
i8o INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 instruction. It has been elsewhere described as ' Special Train- 
 ing for an Industrial pursuit, as distinguished from a general 
 preparation for any calling hereafter to be chosen.' 
 
 In dealing with this subject, I propose to show what is the 
 nature of the instruction at present encouraged by the State in 
 our public elementary schools, and how mistaken, in my 
 humble opinion, much of it is, considered as a preparation for 
 the child's future career. I shall also venture to show how it 
 might be improved, in the direction of technical education, to 
 the benefit of the children and the nation. 
 
 I may preface my remarks by reminding you that this matter 
 had assumed so much importance that, in Mr. Gladstone's second 
 Administration (August 1881), a Koyal Commission, with Sir 
 Bernhard Samuelson, M.P., at its head, was formed 'to inquire 
 into the instruction of the industrial classes of certain foreign 
 countries in technical subjects, for the purpose of comparison 
 with that of the corresponding classes in this country,' and it 
 is to the voluminous and valuable reports of that Commission 
 that I am mainly indebted for the facts I shall lay before you. 
 The conclusions and recommendations in this paper are my own ; 
 though I may add that they do not differ very widely from 
 those of the Commission, which are much too lengthy for 
 quotation here. 
 
 Now, you are all aware that, in consequence of the Educa- 
 tion Act of 1870, which will never be dissociated from the name 
 of the remarkable man but lately departed from us, William 
 Edward Forster, there is school accommodation in England and 
 Wales for every child of school age. Last year I quote from 
 the report of the Education Department there was accommo- 
 dation in State-aided, or public elementary schools, as they 
 are technically called, for five millions of children ; and, by the 
 action of the law of compulsory attendance, there were four 
 and a half million names on the registers. The annual income 
 of these schools, from all sources, was six and three-quarter 
 millions sterling, of which sum the State contributed from the 
 Imperial Exchequer two million seven hundred thousand pounds, 
 the remainder being made up of school fees, voluntary contribu- 
 tions, endowments, and rates. I do not desire to underrate the 
 significance of these figures. They are an eloquent proof that. 
 
A NATIONAL NECESSITY 181 
 
 the people are desirous for the spread of light and learning. 
 Well, having got the children into school, and spending this 
 immense sum annually upon them, what use do we make of this 
 great opportunity ? Are we on the right lines ? Are we getting 
 the best thing possible for our labour and outlay ? It is here 
 that I regret not to be able to speak with satisfaction. My 
 complaint is that the education of the children in our elementary 
 schools is almost solely literary, and that, instead of raising a 
 body of skilled artisans and mechanics, we are manufacturing 
 only clerks, male and female. For, of what do the subjects of 
 instruction consist ? The following : 
 
 Compulsory Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, and Needle- 
 work. 
 
 Optional Singing, English, Drawing, Geography, Elemen- 
 tary Science and History. 
 
 These subjects are called class subjects. The more advanced 
 .scholars are allowed to be presented for individual examination 
 in the following subjects, viz. : 
 
 Latin, French, Animal Physiology, Botany, Physics, Che- 
 mistry, Algebra, Euclid and Mensuration, Mechanics, 
 and the Principles of Agriculture. 
 
 ' Surely,' you will exclaim, ' you do not desire to add other 
 subjects to this vast programme ? ' No, indeed, I do not. I 
 wish rather to reduce them ; not, be it understood, from any 
 jealous or grudging motive. While I wish to see all clever boys 
 and 'girls have every chance of fostering and developing their 
 talents, I do think that we should look broadly and practically 
 at the needs of the population as a whole. For one clever and 
 lucky youth who rises from the national school to the univer- 
 sity, a thousand, aye more, will, and must, remain at the bench, 
 the anvil, the loom, the engine, the plough. 
 
 This being so, I contend that, after the child has learnt to 
 read, write, and cypher well, he should at once be inducted into 
 at least the rudiments of some branch of technical industry that 
 would be of use to him immediately upon his leaving school, 
 thus enabling him to master, far more accurately than now, the 
 handicraft he adopts. For it must be remembered that the 
 great mass of the children leave school before they reach the 
 age of thirteen. Out of the four million five hundred thousand \ 
 
182 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 children on the school registers last year, not one-tenth had 
 reached twelve years. This being so, I desire to ask how much 
 Latin, French, or physiology could be taught to, or be retained 
 by, a child of twelve, in a school for children of the working 
 classes ? Very little, indeed, beyond the merest elements of 
 the subject ; yet for every scholar who passes in such a specific 
 subject the State pays 4s. annually. I venture to think that this 
 money might be far better laid out. I submit that the moment 
 a child has reached a fair standard of proficiency in the three 
 E's- (by which I mean good legible writing, distinct reading, of 
 a pleasurable character to himself and his auditors, and arith- 
 metic, which should include proportional and fractional calcula- 
 tions) such child should become a half-time scholar, spending 
 one half of his time in the literary department, where instruc- 
 tion in drawing and mathematics should be the main features, 
 and the other half in a workshop school, to which it might be 
 affiliated. Of course, in country districts, a dozen of the 
 elementary schools could contribute towards the maintenance 
 of one central workshop school. 
 
 In the workshop school, which a boy might reasonably be 
 expected to enter at the age of ten, I should give instruction of 
 two kinds : first, theoretical teaching, including geometrical 
 drawing, machine drawing and construction, mechanics, and 
 chemistry ; secondly, practical workshop teaching, which should 
 aim at the most careful and accurate workmanship. This latter 
 would include the production of simple geometrical forms in 
 metal or wood, such as the cube or prism. Wood joints, dove- 
 tailing, and other simple work might be added. 
 
 If the child's school education terminated at this curriculum, 
 we should have achieved very valuable results; but I should 
 propose to offer exhibitions from these schools to higher grade 
 technical schools, for the most promising of the workshop 
 scholars. Into these higher grade schools, which on the Conti- 
 nent are called ' Apprenticeship Schools,' might be gathered the 
 more skilful boys from the lower school. 
 
 What should be the curriculum in these apprenticeship 
 schools ? Well, these would vary according to the social and 
 economical conditions of the district. In an agricultural district,. 
 
 
A NATIONAL NECESSITY 183 
 
 the pupils should be taught the principles of agriculture and 
 horticulture. The nature and properties of soils and crops and 
 their rotation would, of course, come in. In a manufacturing 
 district the technical teaching should aim at the inculcation of 
 the scientific principles which underlie the particular processes 
 of production. In a district, for example, such as Kidder- 
 minster, the scholars would, besides being taught the processes 
 of weaving, have special instruction in design and the artistic 
 grouping of colours. In this way our great centres of agricul- 
 ture, of manufacture, and commerce could easily establish 
 central technical schools, dealing especially with the productions 
 of their own districts. As another example, Clerkenwell would 
 have an eye to the watch, jewellery, silver plate, and furniture 
 trades. 
 
 Now, this programme sounds very well, but two questions 
 arise : First, is it practicable ? Secondly, by what means can 
 it be carried out ? Well, as to practicability, not merely is 
 every nation in Europe alive to its importance, but in some, 
 notably France, Belgium, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, and 
 even Holland, some splendid and successful schools of this sort 
 have already been established. Take France instruction in 
 manual work has of late been introduced into a considerable 
 number of primary schools in Paris, and school museums are 
 extending rapidly throughout the country. This instruction 
 consists in teaching the rudiments of a trade or art concurrently 
 with the ordinary school instruction, or in accustoming the 
 children to the use of tools commonly employed in working 
 wood and iron. But the greatest success in this direction has 
 been achieved in the technical schools of the Society of Chris- 
 tian Brothers ; and their example is being followed by the great 
 municipalities. This Society of Christian Brothers (whose 
 educational section at the Health Exhibition was, perhaps, the 
 finest in the building), besides having superior elementary 
 schools for a quarter of a million children, has technical schools 
 for some three thousand scholars. They have produced greater 
 educational results than any other institution in Europe. At 
 Beauvais, they have an agricultural school ; at Lyons, a silk 
 school ; at Paris, a technical school for delicate handicrafts ; at 
 
184 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 Havre, a great commercial school, in which everything is taught 
 that goes to make a first-rate man of business, such as com- 
 mercial arithmetic, foreign exchanges, bookkeeping, statistics, 
 &c. In the Lyons silk school the scholars are instructed 
 literally c ab ovo ' ; the rearing and nurture of the silkworm, its 
 food, its ailments, are carefully taught, as well as everything 
 relating to the preparation, dyeing, and weaving of silk. Botany 
 and chemistry are most carefully taught. But it is to the 
 Ecole St. Nicholas, in the Rue de Vaurigard, that I desire to 
 draw particular attention. It contains 720 scholars, besides 
 250 apprentice scholars. The pupils of the ordinary schools 
 are not received until they can read, write, and cypher. 
 Admitted with these acquirements, they are immediately put 
 to a course of algebra and geometry, surveying, linear and 
 ornamental drawing, modelling, and, among other things, the 
 elements of chemistry. 
 
 They pass on from this preparatory school to the apprentice- 
 ship school. Here a select body of workmen, chosen for their 
 special skill in their craft, joined with capacity to teach it, take 
 the boys under their care, the Brothers themselves exercising 
 supreme control. The Royal Commissioners say that the follow- 
 ing trades are taught : 
 
 Bookbinding, optical and mathematical instrument making, 
 type-setting, printing, working and chasing in bronze, 
 brass instrument making, gilding, joiners' work, saddle 
 making, wood carving, wood engraving, map engraving, 
 and engine fitting. 
 
 They add that the apprentices are well taught, and find 
 employment readily after they leave the workshops. 
 
 As I observed -just now, the great success of this, arid the 
 other technical schools of the Christian Brothers has stimulated 
 the public spirit of the municipalities, and Paris can boast of 
 a highly successful school fur workers in wood and iron in the 
 Boulevard de la Yillette. The boys are admitted after they 
 have left the ordinary primary school, on presenting the certifi- 
 cate of primary studies, or on passing an equivalent examination. 
 The instruction is gratuitous, and is divided into general and 
 technical; the general instruction, besides comprising those 
 subjects which are obligatory in primary schools, includes some 
 
A NATIONAL NECESSITY 185 
 
 which are optional in those schools, such as the elements of 
 mathematics, physics, mechanics, and chemistry, in their rela- 
 tion to industry. The trade instruction in the workshops is 
 subdivided into two courses. In the first, the pupils are taught 
 the nature and conversion pf materials. In the second, they 
 pass on to actual construction. The first or preparatory course 
 is the same for all pupils, all in rotation passing through the 
 workshops for both wood and iron. One of the reporters on 
 the school says that ' This is done in order to give suppleness 
 and certainty to the hand, and to enable the scholars, when they 
 have become workmen, to take up, in case of need, at any rate 
 for a time, a trade different from their ordinary one, and thus to 
 gain a living in bad times.' 
 
 The choice of a trade takes place at the commencement of 
 the second course, which coincides with that of the second 
 year, and it is only then that they begin to execute actual con- 
 structive work. No apprentice is allowed to commence any 
 work, whether complete in itself or a part of a machine, without 
 having made a sketch or a drawing of it to scale, so that the 
 pupil must necessarily acquaint himself with its proportions 
 and connections, and fully understand the nature of what he is 
 doing. The entire course occupies three years. The boys enter 
 the school at 7 A.M., and leave at 7 P.M. During the first two 
 years, six hours daily are spent in the workshop and four in 
 the school ; in the third year, eight hours in the workshop and 
 two in the school, leaving, in each case, two hours for meals and 
 recreation, the latter including three hours of gymnastic exercises 
 per week. 
 
 And let us not forget the numerous ' Ecoles Profession nelles 
 pour Jeunes Filles ' to be found upon the Continent. In nearly 
 every country Her Majesty's Commissioners found schools 
 established for the industrial training of girls. In France, 
 Germany, Austria, Holland, and Italy girls share equally with 
 boys the advantages of manual and technical instruction. One 
 at Brussels deserves mention the Professional School for Girls. 
 The basis of instruction in this school is drawing, which under- 
 lies all the special trade work which the pupils are taught. The 
 teaching comprises a general course, which is obligatory on all 
 pupils, and subsequently special courses in preparation for various 
 
1 86 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 trades. The general course is intended to carry forward the 
 education received at the primary schools; the trade courses 
 comprise lessons in bookkeeping, the application of arithmetic 
 to commercial occupations, English or German language and 
 correspondence, botany, applied art, dressmaking, embroidery,, 
 artificial flower-making, china-painting, and lace-making and 
 designing. It is most important to note the extent to which 
 drawing is made the basis of instruction in such subjects as 
 dressmaking. The success of the school in the department of 
 artificial flower-making mainly depends upon the admirable 
 instruction in botany and drawing. There are six schools on 
 this model in Belgium. It may be remarked, en passant, that 
 we import into this country artificial flowers to the amount of 
 half a million sterling per annum. Here I am reminded of the 
 philosophic remark of Mademoiselle Marchef-Gerard, in reply to 
 a pointed question put to her by the Minister of Commerce, as 
 to the necessity of technical education for women. She said, 
 f C'est de rendre les femmes a la fois plus intelligentes et plus 
 speciales.' There can be no doubt of the truth of this dictum. 
 At all events, its truth has been recognised abroad. 
 
 But the Communal School, in the Rue Tournefort, is one I 
 should like to see largely copied here in England. This primary 
 school is one in which rudimentary trade teaching is combined 
 with ordinary elementary instruction. It was established on 
 its present footing in 1873. Until the beginning of last year 
 trade instruction was commenced at the age of ten years. 
 During the first two years every child was taught drawing, 
 modelling, carving, joiners' work, smith and fitters' work. 
 
 In the third year the work was specialised, some of the 
 children being taught modelling and carving, others joiners' 
 work and cabinetmaking, &c. Since the beginning of last 
 year the same plan has been continued, but, in addition, the 
 children in the lowest classes, beginning even at six years of 
 age, have three lessons, of one hour each per week, in handi- 
 crafts. Subjoined is the time-table, showing the distribution of 
 the lessons on one day : i" 
 
NATIONAL NECESSITY 
 
 187 
 
 M 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 .1 & 
 
 <*- 2 
 
 y ^ 
 
 r* 5! 
 
 <! S 
 
 puu sis^qduia TC;IM 
 
 S 
 
 
 II 
 
 o a > 
 
 ' 
 
 Memo 
 Exerci 
 
 
i88 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 Permit me here to quote the remarks of the Royal Com- 
 missioners on the apprenticeship schools in France. Their 
 remarks are in every way highly suggestive. They say : 
 
 'The authorities of the City of Paris have deemed the 
 experiment of apprenticeship teaching in the school of La 
 Villette sufficiently successful to induce them to decide upon 
 the erection of a number of other similar schools in various 
 parts of the metropolis. 1 The whole subject was referred to a 
 commission, and its president, M, Tolain, in a report to the 
 Prefet of the Seine, says, " that in consequence of the virtual 
 abolition of apprenticeship in most trades, and owing to the 
 specialisation and subdivision of manufactures resulting from 
 the introduction of machinery, the number of skilful and intelli- 
 gent workmen in all branches of industry and art manufacture 
 has decreased, and that the standard of technical knowledge 
 has been lowered." 
 
 1 This, he considers, has been especially prejudicial to French 
 manufactures, the distinguishing merit of which he believes to 
 have consisted in originality of design. The vulgarisation of 
 manufactures has, in his opinion, given great facilities for piracy, 
 especially on the part of foreigners. He believes that a remedy 
 for these evils will be found in the establishment of apprentice- 
 ship schools, the object of which should be mainly, not the 
 creation of foremen, but the theoretical and practical education 
 of workmen proper. In determining what should be the trades 
 taught in schools founded and carried on at the cost of the 
 municipality, he calls attention to the fact that apprenticeship 
 still exists in those branches of industry which are concerned 
 with the making up of materials into clothing, and he proposes, 
 therefore, that these arts should not be taught in the municipal 
 schools. He would confine them to what he calls "parent 
 industries " ; that is to say, those in which the processes to be 
 taught are applicable to a large number of allied trades. He 
 recommends, accordingly, that for the present three apprentice- 
 ship schools should be established, one in the Faubourg St. 
 Antoine for the furniture trades, to form workers in. wood, who 
 would become chiefly cabinetmakers and upholsterers, but also 
 
 1 We are informed that they have within the last few days voted 80,OOOZ. 
 for the erection of these schools. 
 
A NATIONAL NECESSITY 189 
 
 carpenters, joiners, and wood-carvers ; and workers in iron in- 
 tending to become general smiths and workers in metal for the 
 same trades and for decorative purposes. The second school 
 should be for the south of Paris, on the model of that of La 
 Villette, intended, however, to train not only mechanics, but 
 also iron-founders, carpenters, stonecutters and masons, iron 
 and tin-plate workers, slaters and plumbers, so as to be a com- 
 plete school of apprenticeship for the building trades. A third 
 school in the heart of Paris should comprise the following 
 trades, viz., instruments of precision, telegraphic apparatus, 
 clock-making, surgical instrument-making, and small machinery 
 in general. In addition to these three schools for boys he 
 recommends that a school should be established for girls, which 
 should be not only an apprenticeship school, but also one of 
 domestic economy; the latter division would include general 
 house-work, laundry-work, sewing, and, in addition, the obliga- 
 tory parts of primary instruction, together with linear drawing, 
 gymnastics, singing, and some special notions of technology 
 having reference to the duties of housekeeping, and to the 
 materials to be used in the workshops. The trades to be taught 
 would be millinery, embroidering, lace-making, dressmaking, 
 artificial flower and feather making, and with these latter there 
 would be compulsory courses of drawing from flowers and nature, 
 and of modelling. 1 
 
 ' The estimate for the girls' school, intended to receive 300 
 outdoor pupils, is for buildings alone, exclusive of the ground, 
 21,GOOZ., and for fittings, 1,6002. 
 
 ' The instruction in all of these schools will be gratuitous, 
 and the pupils, in order to be admitted, will have to present the 
 certificat d etudes of the primary school. 
 
 { A few provincial municipalities have established apprentice- 
 ship schools of the same type as that of the Boulevard de la 
 Villette, that is to say, schools to form workmen and not fore- 
 men. There is one at Havre, which has undergone various 
 
 1 A girls' school, corresponding in some particulars to the above, and 
 maintained by the Municipality of Rouen, the ecole professionnelle des jeunes 
 files, was visited by the Commissioners. There are in Paris establishments 
 conducted by nuns, containing a large number of children, who work at 
 artificial flower-making, millinery, and other trades, but these cannot be con- 
 sidered as apprenticeship schools. 
 
190 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 transformations, and is now one of the most complete of its kind 
 in regard to building and fittings. The course, like that of the 
 Villette school, occupies three years. The time spent in the 
 workshops is six hours daily throughout the whole course. The 
 book work begins at a much more elementary stage than in the 
 Paris school, and appears not to be carried so far ; no c&rtificat 
 d'etudes is required on entrance. Even absolutely illiterate 
 children have been admitted, if they have shown some manual 
 dexterity. The admission or rejection of applicants is, in fact, 
 left to the discretion of the head-master. With the object of 
 inducing the apprentices to remain at school during the third 
 year, the pecuniary rewards are much higher than in the Paris 
 school. A boy here may receive as much as 61. in his third 
 year. Notwithstanding this, the number of boys who completed 
 their third year diminished steadily from 1876-77 to 1878-79; 
 it was 26 in the former, and only 17 in the latter year; 16 of 
 these entered private workshops, and one went to sea as an 
 engineer. The cost of maintaining the school, exclusive of 
 materials used in the workshops, was, in 1880, 1,120. for 160 
 boys, a small portion of which was recovered by payments for 
 work done by the boys. 1 
 
 ' We were told that several of the Paris syndicats (guilds) 
 of employers had established apprenticeship schools, but we 
 found on inquiry that nearly all of these were simply drawing 
 schools for evening instruction. The jewellers have founded 
 prizes of considerable value for original goldsmith's work, to be 
 competed for by their apprentices. The only apprenticeship 
 school proper, founded by a guild, that we met with, was that 
 of the clockmakers in the Faubourg du Temple. The trade of 
 clockmaking is carried on in Paris in the house of the work- 
 people, to whom the parts are given out in the rough, and the 
 masters have therefore no control over the instruction or training 
 of the apprentices. Under these circumstances they established 
 the school in February 1881. It contains twenty-five pupils, 
 the course lasting four years. The present premises are only 
 
 1 Since this report was written, we learn that the municipal authorities 
 of Boulogne-sur-Mer are establishing an apprenticeship school on the model 
 of that of La Villette, which it is expected will be opened before the end of 
 the present year. 
 
A NATIONAL NECESSITY 191 
 
 provisional, and are about to be extended. The expenses are mainly 
 borne by the Chambre Syndicate de UHorlogerie, which contributes 
 560. The Government has granted the school a subvention of 
 SQL and the City of Paris 40. The pupils pay 12. per annum, 
 and provide the small tools needed in their work. The larger 
 tools (machinery) are furnished by the school authorities. The 
 pupils receive complete instruction in watch and clock-making ; 
 and the teaching is both theoretical and practical. The practical 
 course for the first class * is, the use of tools and roughing-out 
 work. For the second class, finishing ; for the third class, 
 escapements, and for the fourth, regulating and repairs. The 
 course of theoretical instruction for the first three years includes 
 French, the elements of mathematics, geometry, and machine 
 construction applied to watch and clock making, the theory of 
 the construction of watches, bookkeeping, and linear drawing. 
 In the fourth year they are taught algebra, trigonometry, the 
 elements of physics and chemistry, cosmography, and industrial 
 drawing. Examinations take place at the end of each school 
 year. Students are admitted at fourteen years of age, but not 
 earlier, except in special cases. The working hours, during the 
 winter months (from October to April), are from 8 A.M. to 7 P.M., 
 with an interval of one and a half hours, from 12 to 1.30, for 
 meals and relaxation. During the remainder of the year the 
 hours are from 7 A.M. to 7 P.M., with the same interval as before. 
 Arrangements have been made for boarding the pupils, at a 
 fixed inclusive charge of 32. per annum. Even when machinery 
 shall to a great extent have superseded manual labour in the 
 wholesale manufacture of watches and clocks, a number of 
 skilled operatives will always be required in this trade, so that 
 the school will not cease to be useful. 
 
 ' The Government has founded, and sustains, certain ap- 
 prenticeship schools for manufactures; one of them is the 
 watchmaking school at Cluses, under the Ministry of Agri- 
 culture and Commerce. It is taking the place of a municipal 
 school for the same trade at Besancon, which has been frequently 
 reported on, but which we were told by a competent authority 
 is now declining. Another is the school of porcelain decoration 
 at the manufactory of Sevres, founded within the last two years 
 1 Each class represents a year's work. 
 
192 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 by the director, M. Lauth, of which, as well as of the recently 
 remodelled school of a similar character at Limoges, we shall 
 speak when we come to deal with art schools. There is also 
 an apprenticeship school attached to the manufacture des 
 Gobelins.' 
 
 These cases suffice to show what is being done in all the 
 great industrial centres of France, where the greatest activity 
 prevails in the foundation and perfection of these schools. 
 
 Time does not permit me to tell you, in detail, what is going 
 on in this direction in Belgium, Italy, Holland, and Germany, 
 but anyone who visited the magnificent educational display of 
 the Belgian Government in the Health Exhibition, two years ago, 
 must be convinced that our Flemish rivals are keenly alive to 
 the importance of the subject. During the last few years it has 
 been my good fortune to visit Holland on many occasions, and 
 use was made of the opportunity to inspect the Amlachts 
 (artisans) schools, the best of which are at Amsterdam, Rotter- 
 dam, The Hague, and Arnheim. The first school of this type, 
 in Holland, was founded at Amsterdam, by the Working Men's 
 Association, in 1860. It has now been subsidised by the town, 
 and has excellent workshops, with every modern appliance for 
 teaching carpentry, joiners' work, smiths' work, painting, plumb- 
 ing, &c. Rotterdam soon followed, and in 1873-4 The Hague 
 and Arnheim opened similarly subsidised workshop schools. 
 Again, I found that, at Amsterdam and The Hague, girls share 
 equally with boys in the advantages of industrial training. 
 
 The school at Rotterdam was established in 1869 by the 
 Rotterdam branch of the Netherlands Architectural Society, in 
 order to train skilled artisans, and thus to" remedy the acknow- 
 ledged defects jn the system of apprenticeship. It receives an 
 annual grant from the Town Council, on condition that the 
 programme includes all the branches of theoretical instruction 
 recognised in the three years' course of public middle-class 
 schools. The funds necessary for the foundation of the school 
 were subscribed voluntarily ; a building was purchased, and the 
 institution was inaugurated on April 1, 1869. The main 
 building contains the various class rooms ; the director's residence 
 and the workshops have been constructed round a small open 
 court in the rear. As the object is to train workmen well versed 
 
A NATIONAL NECESSITY 193 
 
 in the practice of the various trades, the boys are as far as 
 possible engaged on useful work, capable of being sold or em- 
 ployed in the school. 
 
 As soon as the boys have learnt the use of the various tools, 
 they begin to make small articles which have a marketable 
 value, and thus realise that they are working with a view to the 
 commercial results of their labour. It has been found, from 
 experience, that his being engaged on a bona-fide piece of 
 workmanship serves as a powerful stimulus to the pupil. The 
 workshops are as far as possible kept up to the level of modern 
 requirements, and have frequently been extended to accommo- 
 date the increasing number of students. They comprise shops 
 for carpenters, blacksmiths, metal-workers, fitters and turners, 
 cabinetmakers, masons, and stone-carvers. 
 
 The articles made in the school are sold to dealers, and 
 orders are also executed for the municipal authorities. Many 
 doors, window-frames, and fittings are made for builders. The 
 metal-workers make locks, hinges, shovels, hooks, smiths' tongs ; 
 also stoves and coalscuttles. The lads in the shops work under 
 the direction of practical foremen. The school hours in summer 
 are from 8 A.M. to 7 P.M., or till 6 on Saturdays, and in winter 
 (September 1 to March 31) from 8 A.M. to 5.30 P.M. The 
 mornings are spent in the class-rooms, and the afternoons in 
 the shops. The general instruction is in continuation of the 
 ordinary teaching of the elementary schools ; the teachers bear 
 in mind that the boys are to become artisans, and the examples 
 are therefore taken as much as possible from their future pro- 
 fession. Drawing is carefully taught, and is made thoroughly 
 practical. The boys begin with copying rectilinear and curved 
 figures and simple ornament from casts. In the architectural 
 course, as soon as they have acquired sufficient skill, they draw 
 details of construction, and make measured drawings from 
 actual work. In the advanced class they learn mechanical 
 projection and simple perspective, as applied to architectural 
 details and parts of houses. The staff comprises Mr. D. de 
 Vries and twenty masters and assistants. There are over 280 
 boys, who pay 8s. 4^. per annum for instruction, and the fees 
 are readily remitted to poor parents. The full course lasts three 
 years. Boys from twelve to fifteen years of age, who have com- 
 
 o 
 
194 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 pleted their education at the primary school, are eligible for 
 admission, and when they have completed their full course of 
 three years they are under the patronage of the school committee, 
 who find them situations for five years longer. It has been 
 found that these lads, on leaving the school, readily earn good 
 wages, and are paid more than apprentices who have been 
 trained in the usual way. 
 
 I wish I could pass on to other countries, but time fails me. 
 It is but right to add that we in England have also made a 
 commencement, and that we have already a great central 
 organisation in the Science and Art Department, which, if 
 Parliament would enable them to do so, could rapidly develop 
 a system of technical schools. Meantime, our great School 
 Boards are waking up. The Sheffield Board have maintained 
 a workshop school for two or three years with excellent results. 
 The Manchester Board have a Central Science school under one 
 of the ablest teachers in England, Mr. Scotson, though, I 
 believe, the school at present lacks the essential adjunct of a 
 workshop. The Brighton Board are just following in their 
 wake. There is also a first-rate school at Glasgow, called the 
 Allan Glen's Institute. The object of this institution is to 
 prepare boys to learn trades, the mastery of which requires a 
 considerable amount of scientific knowledge. In London, too, 
 we can boast of the Finsbury Technical School, supported by the 
 City and Guilds of London, which, under my distinguished 
 friend, Professor Silvanus Thompson, D.Sc., promises to many 
 hundreds of students instruction of the best kind in mechanical 
 engineering, electrical engineering, and industries involving the 
 application of chemistry and art applied to industry. 
 
 But, my desire is to see what is being done only here and 
 there extended generally throughout the country. No district, 
 or group of smaller districts, with a school population of five 
 hundred, ought to be out of reach of a workshop school. At 
 present, the purely literary instruction in our elementary schools 
 costs, on an average, 21. per scholar, of which the State contri- 
 butes 17s. 6d. Now what ought, in my humble judgment, to 
 be done is this. Divide the 21. between the two classes of 
 schools, and let the literary and the workshop school each have 
 a pound per head. The Science and Art Department at 
 
A NATIONAL NECESSITY 195 
 
 ISouth Kensington should distribute the workshop grant upon 
 results produced, and the admirably equipped institution of the 
 City and Guilds of London might have the training of the 
 teachers. Indeed, it is but very little known what is now 
 being done by the City and Guilds of London Institute for the 
 promotion of technical education. Already a quarter of a 
 million has been spent by* the Corporation and thirty-six out of 
 the seventy-nine Livery Companies, the Institution at present 
 having an assured income of at least 33,OOOL per annum. This 
 is supplementary to what has been done, individually, by the 
 Clothworkers', Turners', Carpenters', and probably other Com- 
 panies. The two former Companies, indeed, led the way, and 
 to the excellent school of the Clothworkers' Company at 
 Bradford that town owes the revival of trade commented upon 
 by its Mayor, a few months ago. The Textile Industries side 
 of the Yorkshire College, Leeds, erected at a cost of 30,OOOZ., 
 supplemented by an annual grant of 1,500L for maintenance, 
 and a technical college at Huddersfield, are also practical 
 examples of the liberality and far-sightedness of this Company. 
 This reminds me of Mr. Owen Roberts, M.A., Clerk of the 
 Clothworkers' Company, to whom tKe cause of technical edu- 
 cation owes so much. Speaking lately, at the Onslow College 
 of Science and Art, he said : i For my own part, I am as much 
 convinced as ever of the paramount importance of the Central 
 Institution of the City Guilds at South Kensington for advanced 
 instruction in science and art, specially adapted for the teachers 
 of technical schools and colleges in the centres of localised 
 manufactures, and also for those inheriting or otherwise succeed- 
 ing to the position of masters and managers of industrial under- 
 takings. It could not have been expected that a scientific 
 institution, such as that, framed on entirely new lines, and in- 
 tended for a class of advanced students in science and technology, 
 should emerge from the earth like Minerva armed cap-a-pie 
 with a full quota of the precise character of students for whom 
 it was designed. Nevertheless there are between sixty and 
 seventy matriculated students there already, who will in two or 
 three years doubtless increase to the full number of 300, for 
 whom the building was planned. But, in addition thereto, some 
 hundreds of students, including teachers in elementary schools 
 
 o 2 
 
196 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 and teachers of technological classes, have availed themselves of 
 the special courses of instruction provided for them, and more of 
 these special courses will be developed and organised to meet 
 the wants and opportunities of the times, which our organising 
 director and secretary is so well qualified to gauge. The seed 
 sown must be allowed to grow to the harvest, and we must not, 
 as children in their little gardens of mustard and cress, keep 
 digging up the newly sown ground to find out whether the seed 
 is germinating, or else our harvest will be delayed, if not spoiled 
 altogether.' 
 
 The Royal Commissioners themselves refer to the great work 
 of the Institute : ' Nowhere in Europe,' they say, ' does there 
 exist a system of evening instruction similar to that which is 
 carried on jointly by the Science and Art Department and the 
 City and Guilds of London Institute,' . . . and further it is 
 remarked that ' no organisation like it exists in any Continental 
 country whatever, and the absence of such organisation has been 
 lamented by many competent persons with whom we came in 
 contact.' 
 
 But recognising to its fullest extent the importance of the 
 work of the Institute, I cannot but endorse Lord Selborne's 
 lamentation (Report to Governors, March 31, 1886, p. 31) : 
 ' The Council again refer to the importance of encouraging 
 technical education in elementary schools, by the establish- 
 ment of workshops for instruction in the use of tools, and they 
 hope that the funds to be placed at their disposal may enable 
 them to extend their operations by assisting in the movement.' 
 I am fully convinced that this object should be kept well in 
 view. 
 
 But to return to the Science and Art Department. The 
 work already achieved by the Science and Art Department 
 has been of the most valuable character ; thousands of our best 
 art workmen, our designers in wood, metal, or textile fabrics, 
 owe their instruction and their success to the Department, 
 notably to the able and painstaking staff at South Kensington. 
 To my mind one of the most interesting portions .of the Health 
 Exhibition was the gallery set apart for objects which had been 
 designed or wrought by students of art and science schools. 
 
 The fact, then, that this Department has achieved so much 
 
A NATIONAL NECESSITY 
 
 197 
 
 argues that it could do much more if so permitted by Parlia- 
 ment, and a system of workshop schools would very quickly 
 spread throughout the country under their energetic manage- 
 ment. The immense building of the City and Guild of London 
 Institute, with its lecture rooms, laboratories, and professors, 
 amply suffices as a great central training school for technical 
 teachers. The teachers should be drawn from amongst the 
 skilled artisans of the country. I am certain that the public- 
 spirited and generous municipalities of this country will not 
 lag behind those of France and Belgium, and if encouraged to 
 do so would quickly raise funds to enable the skilled mechanics 
 of their respective districts to undergo a course of special 
 instruction at this great central institution, in order that, on 
 their return, they should become the teachers of the workshop 
 schools. I do not suggest that the already heavily burdened 
 taxpayers shall contribute a farthing more ; the vote for public 
 education, properly administered, and directed to right objects, 
 is quite sufficient, and it might and would be supplemented by 
 public-spirited individuals like Josiah Mason and others. And 
 I am quite certain that this casting of our bread upon the 
 waters would return to us after not many days. We should 
 raise up a body of scientific handicraftsmen who would quickly 
 regain our waning prestige in all the great manufactures in 
 metal and wood and textile fabrics ; thus should we be able to 
 defy the keenest competition of our foreign rivals. Our artisans 
 and designers would not be drudging along in the old grooves, 
 iising the same methods and achieving no better results than 
 their fathers before them ; but they would be alive to the 
 necessity for invention, for skilful adaptation of means to ends, 
 for labour-saving processes and appliances, for more artistic 
 production. With a population such as this, we shall be carried 
 through the bad time which a great commercial nation must 
 occasionally experience, and be ready and able to take instant 
 advantage of any rebound, when enterprise is active and op- 
 portunity holds out her hand. 
 
198 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS: 
 THE FORM IT SHOULD TAKE. 
 
 BY EDWARD J. WATHERSDON. 
 
 ON July 19 of this year, Sir William Hart-Dyke, Vice-President 
 of the Committee of Council on Education, introduced in the 
 House of Commons a ' Bill to facilitate the provision of Technical 
 Instruction,' and all those persons who, for several years past, 
 have been working and waiting for some national provision of 
 this kind congratulated each other on the step forward which 
 the Bill seemed to promise. It is true that many of us thought 
 it not quite adequate to the necessities of the country ; never- 
 theless it was a genuine advance, and hardly a dissentient or 
 opposing voice was raised against it in the press or on the 
 platform. Yet the Bill was too much for our overworked 
 Legislature, and, amongst the general slaughter, this, the most 
 spotless of the innocents, received its coup de grace. But there 
 is some balm in Gilead. The Bill will rise again next session 
 in a larger and better form, and its discussion during the recess 
 will tend towards that consummation. _ t 
 
 While most of us desire that the children in our elementary 
 schools shall have some really scientific instruction such as shall 
 tend to make them more skilful artisans, mechanics, or engineers, 
 and fit them to cope with the ever-increasing competition of 
 their foreign rivals, there is no shirking the fact that the problem 
 is of considerable difficulty. This paper is an humble attempt 
 to suggest the lines on which a system of national elementary 
 technical instruction might be laid down. 
 
 My propositions are : 
 
 (1.) That, side by side with the ordinary elementary in- 
 struction given at present, all children should be instructed in 
 drawing, and, after seven years of age, in elementary science. 
 
 (2.) That children between ten and thirteen years of age 
 should receive definite practical instruction in handicraft work, 
 if necessary, by the exclusion of some of the more purely literary 
 instruction at present given in our schools. 
 
 (3.) That children after thirteen years of age should, by 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION ! 99 
 
 means of scholarships or the payment of fees, have the oppor- 
 tunity of perfecting their earlier instruction in higher elementary 
 schools, or, as they are called abroad, 'Apprenticeship Schools.' 
 Allow me to quote the words of Sir Philip Magnus on this point. 
 They put the case for technical education with singular clear- 
 ness and force. He says : 
 
 I have suggested that drawing should be taught generally in our 
 public elementary schools ; that more attention should be devoted to 
 the teaching of science than at present is given to it ; that handicraft 
 instruction should be introduced after a certain standard ; further, 
 that higher elementary schools should be established, into which the 
 children who had passed the fifth standard may have an opportunity 
 of being drafted ; and that, where scholarships are available, they 
 should be placed at the service of School Boards and the managers 
 of public elementary schools, in order to encourage a better class of 
 pupils the more gifted pupils, I would say to avail themselves of 
 the opportunities of further instruction in the higher elementary 
 schools. Lastly, I think that further encouragement should be given 
 to instruction in evening schools, in order that the children may not 
 forget the knowledge and the skill which they have acquired in the 
 elementary schools, and which they will need to apply when they 
 come to take advantage of the excellent science, art, and technical 
 classes which are now organised in different parts of the country. 
 
 It is true that considerable difference of opinion exists as to 
 the age at which children should receive technical instruction. 
 In the Bill of Sir William Hart-Dyke, clause 3 ran thus : 
 ' (3.) Provided that no payment shall be made under this Act 
 out of the local rate in respect of a scholar unless or until he 
 has obtained a certificate from the Education Department that 
 lie has passed the examination in reading, writing, and arithmetic 
 prescribed by the standard set forth in the schedule to this 
 Act (being the sixth standard fixed by the minutes of the 
 Education Department in force at the passing of this Act), or an 
 examination equivalent thereto.' But this standard is, I firmly 
 believe, too high.- In the first instance it seems to argue that 
 only those children who have attained a high standard in the 
 purely literary subjects are likely to benefit by the handicraft 
 teaching, and it also appears to ignore the fact that only a small 
 percentage of our scholars reach the sixth standard at all. 
 
200 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 Let me give you the figures on this subject. Of scholars 
 presented last year in the various standards there were in the 
 
 First standard 482,673 
 
 Second . .' . . . 565,485 
 
 Third 549,363 
 
 Fourth '. 454,752 
 
 Total in first four standards . . . 2,052,273 
 
 Fifth standard M . , . . 265,138 
 Sixth . . .. . . ... 103,124 
 
 Seventh . . 25,027 
 
 Total in the three higher standards . 393,289 
 
 So that, if the Government proposal had been accepted, only 
 128,151 children, scattered throughout 19,173 schools, would 
 have been eligible for technical instruction, and as from this 
 number would have to be deducted about fifty thousand girls, 
 only about eighty thousand boys (in round numbers) would be 
 eligible for the proposed technical instruction. Surely, if any 
 standard of literary attainments is to be prescribed a prescrip- 
 tion which I think quite unnecessary the fourth would be 
 more appropriate. 
 
 It will be a terrible reductio ad absurdum if the School 
 Boards and local authorities are on the one hand to be encour- 
 aged to spend money on the schools and appliances necessary 
 for technical instruction, and on the other for the children to 
 find themselves barred by a too high standard from making use 
 of them. Another serious blot on the Government Bill may 
 here be remarked. As drafted by Sir W. Hart-Dyke, the only 
 bodies authorised to provide technical instruction by means of 
 the rates were School Boards, and where School Boards did not 
 exist, Town Councils. But there is a population in England 
 and Wales of no less than 8,007,587, not included either in 
 School Boards or Town Councils. Why should this large popu- 
 lation be excluded from the benefits offered to the urban popu- 
 lation ? 
 
 I have said that some technical handicraft instruction should 
 be given, if necessary, to the exclusion of some of the merely 
 literary teaching. This is said in no jealous or grudging spirit ; 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 201 
 
 but while it is eminently desirable that all clever boys and girls 
 should have every chance of fostering and developing their 
 talents, I do think that we should look broadly and practically 
 at the needs of the population as a whole. For one clever and 
 lucky youth who rises from the national school to the univer- 
 sity, a thousand aye, more will, and must, remain at the 
 bench, the anvil, the loom, the engine, the plough. 
 
 This being so, after the child has learnt to read, write, and 
 cypher well, he should at once be inducted into at least the rudi- 
 ments of some branch of technical industry that would enable 
 him to master, far more accurately than now, the handicraft he 
 adopts at a later period. For it must be remembered that the 
 great mass of the children leave school before they reach the age 
 of thirteen. Out of the four million five hundred thousand 
 children on the school registers last year, not one- tenth had 
 reached twelve years. This being so, I desire to ask how much 
 Latin, French, or physiology could be taught to, or be retained by, 
 a child of twelve, in a school for children of the working classes ? 
 Very little, indeed, beyond the merest elements of the subject ; 
 yet for every scholar who passes in such a specific subject the 
 State pays 4s. annually. I venture to think that this money 
 might be far better laid out. I submit that the moment a child 
 has reached a fair standard of proficiency in the three E-'s 
 (by which I mean good legible writing, distinct reading, of a 
 pleasurable character to himself and his auditors, and arithmetic, 
 which should include proportional and fractional calculations), 
 such child should become a half-time scholar, spending one half 
 of his time in the literary department, where instruction in 
 drawing and mathematics should be the main features, and the 
 other half in a workshop school, to which it might be affiliated. 
 
 In the workshop school, which a boy might reasonably be 
 expected to enter at the age of ten, I should give instruction of 
 two kinds. First, theoretical teaching, including geometrical 
 drawing, machine drawing and construction, mechanics and 
 chemistry. Secondly, practical workshop teaching, which 
 should aim at the most careful and accurate workmanship. This 
 latter would include the production of simple geometrical forms 
 in metal or wood, such as the cube or prism. Wood joints, 
 dovetailing, and other simple work might be added. 
 
202 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 If the child's school education terminated at this curriculum, 
 we should have achieved very valuable results ; but I should 
 propose to offer exhibitions from these schools to higher grade 
 technical schools, for the most promising of the workshop scholars. 
 Into these higher grade schools, which on the Continent are called 
 ' Apprenticeship Schools/ might be gathered the more skilful 
 boys from the lower school. 
 
 What should be the curriculum in these apprenticeship 
 schools ? Well, these would vary according to the social and 
 economical conditions of the district. In an agricultural district, 
 the pupils should be taught the principles of agriculture and 
 horticulture. The nature and properties of soils and crops and 
 their rotation would, of course, come in. In a manufacturing 
 district the technical teaching should aim at the inculcation of" 
 the scientific principles which underlie the particular processes 
 of production. In a district, for example, such as Kidder- 
 minster, the scholars would, besides being taught the processes 
 of weaving, have special instruction in design and the artistic 
 grouping of colours. In this way our great centres of agricul- 
 ture, of manufacture, and commerce could easily establish 
 central technical schools, dealing especially with the produc- 
 tions of their own districts. As another example, Clerkenwell 
 would have an eye to the watch, jewellery, silver plate, and 
 furniture trades. 
 
 Before drawing your attention to what is being done in this 
 direction on the Continent, I will first place before you the follow- 
 ing figures drawn from the latest Statistical Report of the Edu- 
 cation Department (House of Commons Paper, No. 5077, 1887). 
 
 On August 31, 1886 (the latest date up to which the figures 
 have been tabulated), there were 19,173 separate elementary 
 schools in England and Wales in receipt of annual grants from 
 the Education Department. There was accommodation for 
 5,200,685 children ; but the average attendance was 3,470,509 
 only. It is impossible not to be struck by the immense discrepancy 
 between the places provided and the scholars in average attend- 
 ance, and this in spite of the costly machinery for compulsory 
 attendance which now exists. Many of us think that the school 
 places will be much better filled when the parents see that the 
 character of the instruction is more likely to benefit their 
 
TECHNICAL ED b CAT ION 203 
 
 children when they leave school to earn their livelihood. Again, 
 of the total number of children on the register of inspected 
 schools viz., 4,553,751 there were 
 
 Under seven ./.-. . ; . * , 1,411,999 
 
 Between seven and ten . . 1,606,479 
 
 ten and fifteen . ... '. . 1,535,273 
 
 In other words, 66 per cent, of the children in our elementary 
 schools were under ten ; nearly 30 per cent, were between ten 
 and thirteen ; and 4 per cent, were over thirteen. 
 
 Table showing the number of children on the registers aged 
 from three to fifteen : 
 
 Under three . ... ...... 7,862 
 
 four . ...../. 130,947 
 
 five . . . . . . 298,056 
 
 six . . .-'.. . . 454,006 
 
 seven . . . . , , 521,128 
 
 Ml 1,999" 
 
 eight . . . . . . 530,272 
 
 nine . ".. . . . . 533,651 
 
 ten . . .'..... 542,556 
 
 1^606^479 
 
 eleven . . .. . . -j.-. 519,131 
 
 twelve . .... / . 470,805 
 
 thirteen ./ . . .... 354,964 
 
 fourteen ; . . . . . 149,858 
 
 fifteen . . . '. . . '. 40,515 
 
 1,535,273" 
 
 The reason why I give the figures in these groups is because 
 compulsory attendance is now general up to ten years of age, 
 and because, after ten, provision is made for the partial or total 
 exemption of children on their passing in a certain standard. 
 
 On this point of the standards for exemption, I may state 
 that the third standard of the Code is the almost universal one 
 for half-time exemption. In the great towns and populous 
 districts, the fifth generally obtains for total exemption, and in 
 the rural districts the fourth. A few more figures, and I shall 
 have given you all the statistics necessary to my case. The 
 
204 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 total income of all those elementary schools last year (ending 
 August 1886) was 6,827,188?. 15s. 5d, which was mainly made 
 up in this way : 
 
 s. d. 
 
 From rates .. '. . . . 1,169,14910 7 
 
 voluntary contributions . . . 742,597 9 5 
 
 fees of the scholars . . . . 1,763,189 9 2 
 
 grants from Imperial Exchequer . 2,866,699 9 10 
 
 These figures are an eloquent tribute to the anxiety of the 
 country to deal generously with the children of our industrial 
 population. But we must not merely be generous with our 
 money ; we must endeavour to spend it wisely, and I rejoice to 
 think that the purely literary education of our children is to be 
 curtailed. 
 
 Now, very nearly one- third of the children in our elementary 
 schools are under seven years of age (1,411,999). There is uni- 
 versal testimony to the great improvment which has taken place 
 in the methods of infant instruction. This improvement is due 
 in great measure to the development of the Kindergarten system, 
 and children, when they move up, at seven years of age, from 
 the infant schools, are now found to be infinitely better prepared 
 than formerly for the higher instruction of the senior school. 
 Not much change is needed in the infant schools, except that 
 more time should be given to elementary drawing and to object 
 lessons. Drawing cannot be taught at too early an age ; the 
 moment a child enters a school he should be taught how to use 
 his pencil. As to object lessons, in the hands of a skilful 
 teacher they may be the means of founding habits of clear ap- 
 prehension and clear expression, which prove of the utmost value 
 later on. 
 
 I pass to the children of between seven and ten years of age. 
 Here a certain amount of elementary disciplinary handicraft 
 teaching might well be introduced. Of the kind of handicraft 
 teaching for scholars up to this age, permit me to quote Sir 
 Philip Magnus. He says, in his evidence before the Royal 
 Commission : i If handicraft instruction is to be introduced on 
 any large scale into our elementary schools, the instruction 
 ought to be distinctly of a disciplinary, and not of a professional, 
 character ; that its object ought to be to train the senses, to 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 205 
 
 train the hand and eye to work together ; that it should have a 
 moral and intellectual purpose. Such training would be ex- 
 tremely advantageous if it became an integral part of the 
 elementary instruction, just in the same way as reading, arith- 
 metic, and writing, its object being distinctly disciplinary and 
 formative, as distinguished from professional.' 
 
 The evidence collected by the Royal Commission is clear on 
 this point, that our Continental rivals have demonstrated that 
 most valuable rudimentary handicraft teaching can be given in 
 the elementary and primary schools. In all the new elementary 
 schools which are being erected in the large towns in France, 
 instruction in handicraft teaching will find an important place. 
 
 The commercial school in the Rue Tournefort, Paris, may be 
 mentioned as a successful example of this kind of school. Hera 
 rudimentary handicraft teaching is combined with the ordinary 
 instruction. Up to the beginning of 1880, I think, the handi- 
 craft teaching commenced at the age of ten. During the first 
 two years, every child was taught drawing, modelling, carving, 
 joiners' work, smiths' and fitters' work. Now, however, the plan 
 has been extended in order that children in the lowest classes, 
 beginning even at six years of age, may have three lessons, of 
 one hour each per week, in handicraft. 
 
 It is greatly to be hoped that, under the improved Act of 
 next session, we shall see such schools as this largely prevailing 
 in the country. Every school of over 100 scholars might 
 provide, at no great expense, for this rudimentary handicraft 
 teaching, and the smaller schools might be grouped in convenient 
 areas, and contribute from their annual income towards the 
 maintenance of a common central handicraft school. 
 
 The taxpayers need not be called on for much more than 
 they pay now. The total school income is nearly seven millions, 
 or upwards of 2. per head; the State already contributes Vis. 
 per child, and what is called for is a judicious distribution of 
 this immense income between the two kinds of teaching rather 
 than a further large contribution from the State. 
 
 Let us pass on to the higher elementary school, or appren- 
 ticeship school. Into these schools the boys might be drafted at 
 the age of ten, eleven, twelve, according as they have reached a 
 certain standard of attainments in the elementary subjects, and in 
 
2o6 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 drawing, elementary science, and elementary handicraft work ; 
 but I should hope, in a few years, to find most boys of eleven 
 entering such schools. 
 
 It would not be well to have these higher elementary schools 
 all on the same pattern. They ought to spring out of the in- 
 dustries of their particular districts, and the courses of instruc- 
 tion should be carefully graduated the first and second year's 
 courses aiming at teaching the scientific basis of the various arts 
 and industries of the neighbourhood, and the third being more 
 distinctly professional in character. 
 
 I quote here the description given by Sir Philip Magnus of 
 the Ecole Professionale of Rheims : 
 
 " In this school, advanced instruction is given in the ordinary 
 subjects of an elementary education, and, in addition, instruction 
 is given in science, including mechanics, physics, and chemistry, 
 in art, and technology. The school is provided with ample and 
 well-filled laboratories. There are also rooms devoted to the 
 teaching of freehand and model drawing, containing a large 
 number of excellent models. The teaching of mechanical draw- 
 ing forms an essential part of the instruction, and the curriculum 
 includes instruction in the technology of those industries which 
 are carried on in the neighbourhood of Rheims. The course 
 lasts three years, and in the third year the boys are divided into 
 sections, according to the aptitude which they display in their 
 preliminary studies, and they are also classified according to the 
 different industrial and commercial pursuits which are carried on 
 in the neighbourhood, agriculture being one, general commerce 
 being another, mechanical industries being a third, and textile 
 industries a fourth. For the purpose of giving these boys some 
 preliminary instruction in the subject of textile industries, there 
 are weaving and spinning sheds attached to the school, all fitted 
 with a large amount of machinery. This school is by no means 
 an uncommon one ; there is an excellent school which is one 
 of the first of the sort that was established in Lyons, called 
 the ' Ecole Martiniere,' which was established by Major-General 
 Martin ; there is another one at Amiens ; there is gne at Rouen ; 
 and, in fact, I may say that there is a higher school of this kind 
 iu most of the manufacturing towns of France. One of the 
 most recent schools of this kind, which is now in course of 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 207 
 
 construction (at least it was last year whether it is completed 
 or not I cannot say), is one at Vierzon. Vierzon is situated in 
 the pottery district, and contains, in one set of buildings, a whole 
 series of graded schools, an infant school, a primary school, and 
 a higher elementary school, in which this superior instruction is 
 given. In both the elementary schools and the higher schools 
 the instruction is to a certain extent technical.' What has been 
 achieved in the technical schools of the Society of Christian 
 Brothers is too well known to make it necessary for me to dwell 
 on it here. A school of this kind exists at Sheffield, and is 
 under the School Board of Sheffield. It is a higher elementary 
 school, receiving children after they have passed the fourth 
 standard, and taking them on to the seventh, and giving them 
 an education of the kind which one would very much wish to 
 see in other towns. Sheffield is not the only town which has a 
 higher elementary school. There is a very good one at Man- 
 chester ; there is a a almost similar school at Nottingham ; there 
 is a school of a somewhat higher character, but still answering 
 the same purpose, at Glasgow ; and there are a few others. 
 What Sheffield has done I hope our other great centres of in- 
 dustry will shortly do. Towns like London, Birmingham, Leeds, 
 Bristol, Manchester, Hull, Cardiff, Swansea, all of large popula- 
 tions, and all provided with School Boards, might well establish 
 apprenticeship schools. 
 
 The total population on April 1 of this year under 
 School Boards was upwards of sixteen millions, eleven millions 
 of which were comprised in the great municipal boroughs under 
 School Boards. It is not too much to hope that there will not 
 be lacking in these places the funds and the public spirit re- 
 quired to establish these much-needed technical schools. On 
 the other hand, a judicious union or grouping of the smaller 
 towns would enable them to found common central schools, or 
 establish a fund to go towards exhibitions from their respective 
 districts. There are in England and Wales 14,916 parishes, of 
 which no less than 8,951 have a population of less than 500. It 
 is clear that some scheme will be necessary for grouping these 
 parishes for the purpose of maintaining a good common technical 
 school. It is most earnestly to be wished that they will not 
 remain out in the cold in the revised Act. By judicious 
 
208 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 management such schools might be nearly self-supporting. It 
 is true that on the Continent they are open gratuitously ; but 
 there is no kind of instruction for which English parents, with 
 their essentially practical instincts, would more willingly pay 
 than that to be found in the apprenticeship schools. With the 
 district rate and the school fee, not much more need be demanded 
 from the State. At present the Education Department pays 4s. 
 for each child passing in a specific subject of instruction. 
 The number of passes last year was as follows : 
 
 Algebra 16,702 
 
 Euclid 769 
 
 Mechanics 3,331 
 
 Latin 224 
 
 French 3,089 
 
 Animal Physiology 12,959 
 
 Botany 1,428 
 
 Principles of Agriculture . . . 1,022 
 
 Chemistry 812 
 
 Sound, Light and Heat, Magnetism and 
 
 Electricity 2,891 
 
 48,227 
 
 Assuming that handicraft teaching be treated as a specific 
 subject, and paid for at the same rate, it is scarcely likely to 
 cause a large addition to our educational expenditure. for some 
 years. Personally, I should be glad to see several of the subjects 
 I have named above superseded by handicraft teaching. 
 
 In this connection let me draw attention to the excellent 
 work which might be performed by our night schools, which at 
 present are lamentably deficient. Last year there were only 
 26,089 scholars in average attendance, and only 23,866 went up 
 for examination. I cannot but think, that if the young men 
 found that they could get skilful teaching of a scientific cha- 
 racter likely to be of use to them in their daily labour, these 
 numbers would increase ten, nay, fifty-fold, in a very short 
 period. .- 
 
 I would strongly impress on all the municipalities and 
 School Boards which provide apprenticeship schools the great 
 necessity for making night-school classes a leading feature in 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 209 
 
 their programme. Indeed, I think so highly of what might be 
 achieved in night schools, and deplore so deeply the little at 
 present done, that I should like to see a national league for the 
 advancement and extension of evening schools. 
 
 The question will be asked as to how I propose to obtain the 
 teaching power. I submit that every training college should 
 be at once called on to provide skilled handicraft teaching for 
 its students. Some of these colleges already have well-fitted 
 laboratories, but they are not so general as they might be, while 
 little or no provision for handicraft practice exists. A professor 
 of handicraft teaching at each college, and attendance at 
 special courses of instruction at the great Guilds Institute, would 
 soon provide the teaching power necessary for the elementary 
 schools. 
 
 For the higher elementary schools, if the necessary funds 
 are forthcoming, I do not doubt that the Science and Art 
 Department and the City and Guilds Institute will furnish an 
 abundant supply of teachers. The record of the Science and 
 Art Department is one of unqualified success. 
 
 The work already achieved by it has been of the most 
 valuable character; thousands of our best art workmen, our 
 designers in wood, metal, or textile fabrics, owe their instruction 
 and their success to the Department, notably to the able and 
 painstaking staff at South Kensington. To my mind, one of 
 the most interesting portions of the Health Exhibition was the 
 gallery set apart for objects which had been designed or wrought 
 by students of art and science schools. 
 
 The fact, then, that this Department has achieved so much, 
 argues that it could do much more if so permitted by Parlia- 
 ment ; and a system of workshop schools will very quickly spread 
 throughout the country under their energetic management. 
 The immense building of the City and Guild of London Insti- 
 tute, with its lecture rooms, laboratories, and professors, will 
 amply suffice as a great central training school for technical 
 teachers. The teachers should be drawn from amongst the 
 skilled artisans of the country. I am certain that our public- 
 spirited and generous municipalities will not lag behind those 
 of France or Belgium, and will quickly raise funds to enable the 
 skilled mechanics of their respective districts to undergo a course 
 
 p 
 
210 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 of special instruction at this great central institution, in order 
 that, on their return, they may become the teachers of the 
 workshop schools. I do not suggest that the already heavily 
 burdened taxpayers shall contribute much more \ the vote for 
 public education, properly administered, and directed to right 
 objects, is quite sufficient, and it might and will be supple- 
 mented by public-spirited individuals like Josiah Mason and 
 others. And I am quite certain that this casting of our bread 
 upon the waters will return to us after not many days. We 
 hall raise up a body of scientific handicraftsmen who will 
 quickly regain our former prestige in all the great manufactures 
 in metal, and wood, and textile fabrics ; thus shall we be able to 
 defy the keenest competition of our foreign rivals. Our artisans 
 and designers will not be drudging along in the old grooves, 
 using the same methods and achieving no better results than 
 their fathers before them ; but they will be alive to the necessity 
 for invention, for skilful adaptation of means to ends, for labour- 
 saving processes and appliances, for more artistic production. 
 With a population such as this, we shall be carried through the 
 bad times which a great commercial nation must occasionally 
 experience, and be ready and able to take instant advantage of 
 any rebound, when enterprise is active and opportunity holds 
 out her hand. 
 
 TECHNICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 (A SUMMARY OF THE REPORT OP THE ROYAL COMMISSION APPOINTED 
 TO INQUIRE INTO THE STATE OF TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION, BY 
 F. C. MONTAGUE, M.A.) 1 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 By SIR BERNHARD SAMUELSON, Bart, M.P., Chairman of the late Royal 
 Commission on Technical Instruction. 
 
 MY friend Mr. William Rathbone, at whose request the 
 following digest of the Report of the Technical Instruction 
 Commission has been prepared, has asked me to prefix to it, 
 by way of preface, such observations on the subject as may 
 
 1 Reprinted by permission of the Cobden Club. 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 211 
 
 appear to me to be useful at the present time. Perhaps I 
 cannot do better than to summarise the conclusions and 
 recommendations of the Commission in the fewest words ; to 
 state how far they have been complied with by the Government ; 
 and to add some information as to what has been done during 
 the progress and since the conclusion of our inquiry towards 
 remedying in various other ways the deficiencies which it dis- 
 closed. 
 
 Dividing the subject into the three heads of the technical 
 instructions of (1) the proprietors and principal managers of 
 industrial works, (2) the foremen, and (3) the workmen, we 
 found that the education of the first was provided for on the 
 Continent in a way beyond all comparison more complete and 
 effective than in this country, and that this applied as much 
 to their commercial as to what is usually understood by their 
 technical education. The defects of the latter in our case were 
 more conspicuous in the more refined chemical manufactures 
 than in mechanical engineering. In reference to the second 
 class we found that, whilst there are on the Continent, and 
 more especially in France, a limited number of establishments 
 designed for the systematic training of foremen in mechanical 
 engineering, and in some other branches of manufacturing, 
 and in Germany schools for instruction ia the principles of 
 textile manufactures and dyeing, on the other hand, the instruc- 
 tion afforded by classes in connection with the Science and Art 
 Department of South Kensington, supplemented by those of 
 the City Guilds, covers a wider area of elementary, and what 
 may be distinguished as lower secondary scientific and technical 
 instruction, in this than in any other country. To this pro- 
 vision, however, instruction in art, in view of its application to 
 industry, forms an exception. This latter we found, partly by 
 reason of its gratuity, far more widely diffused in France and 
 Belgium than amongst ourselves. Lastly, as to the instruction 
 of the artisans, we found that their defective elementary in- 
 struction in this country, as compared with that of the 
 corresponding class in Germany and Switzerland, and latterly 
 in the principal cities of France, prevented our people from 
 availing themselves of the opportunities which the science 
 classes already referred to would otherwise afford them. At 
 
212 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 the same time we ascertained that it was a fallacy to suppose 
 that the workpeople of foreign countries (again excepting as 
 to art) have received a better technical education than our 
 own. The contrary rather is the case, thanks to the training 
 which our people have received for several generations in our 
 workshops. 
 
 At the same time we found that the technical skill of 
 foreign artisans was rapidly increasing. We observed that 
 elementary instruction in the use of tools for working in wood 
 and iron was being introduced into the principal elementary 
 schools of France, and that, under the name of higher elemen- 
 tary schools, gratuitous technical schools rendered available by 
 bursaries to artisans for their more advanced technical instruc- 
 tion had been and were being set up in many French cities. 
 We did not approve of the French schools which profess to 
 give instructions to artisans in mechanical engineering and 
 the other more important handicrafts as a substitute for 
 apprenticeship in the workshop, but we recognised the advan- 
 tage of the schools in some poor and remote parts of the Conti- 
 nent, which afford instruction in such domestic employments as 
 wood-carving and lace-making as a means of procuring some 
 slight addition to the precarious and slender income of families 
 in those districts, and it appeared to us that the circumstances 
 of Ireland might render such instruction very useful in some 
 parts of that country. 
 
 As the result of our inquiries we were induced to make the 
 following, amongst other recommendations : As to elementary 
 schools, that drawing should be taught systematically in all of 
 them ; that no school should be considered efficient in which 
 proper appliances such as casts and models, &c. for this 
 purpose were not provided ; that the limits of age and acquire- 
 ments authorising the employment of the whole time of children 
 in labour should be raised in England and Ireland to the 
 standard of Scotland ; that proficiency in the use of tools for 
 working in wood and iron should be recognised as a ' specific 
 subject ; ' that in rural schools the principles and facts of 
 agriculture should be taught to the older children. 
 
 As to science and art schools, we recommended that local 
 authorities should have power to establish them and to contribute 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 213 
 
 to tlieir maintenance ; that the inspection exercised by this de- 
 partment should be more efficient ; that greater encouragement 
 should be given to industrial designing ; that the building grants 
 should be more liberal ; that grants should not be conditional on 
 the payment of fees by all the students in science and art classes, 
 but that artisans might be admitted to them gratuitously. 
 
 We desired that science should be more efficiently taught in 
 the training colleges for teachers, and that the students in these 
 colleges should be allowed to avail themselves fully of the in- 
 struction in art and science to be obtained in the Government 
 schools of South Kensington and Dublin. 
 
 We recommended the liberal application of ancient endow- 
 ments to secondary schools in which so-called modern subjects 
 should take the place of the classics ; that power should be given 
 to local authorities to establish schools of this kind ; and that 
 the existing restrictions with reference to the establishment of 
 free public libraries and museums should be removed. 
 
 These, and some special recommendations in regard to 
 Ireland, relating to instruction in home industries, to grants in 
 aid of agricultural schools, and to the functions of the Royal 
 College of Science in Dublin, were our chief demands, so far 
 as they depend on the action of the Government and of public 
 -authorities. 
 
 In addition, we considered ourselves justified in hoping that 
 there would be greater liberality than heretofore on the part of 
 private individuals in the provision of scholarships in technical 
 and other secondary schools for the more promising pupils of 
 elementary schools ; that employers and Trades Unions would 
 give greater encouragement to, and, if necessary, insist on, 
 young persons employed in manufactures and handicrafts availing 
 themselves of instruction in science and art classes ; that the 
 managers of such classes would encourage more systematic and 
 advanced instruction ; and that the great national agricultural 
 societies would promote the establishment of schools in which 
 agriculture is taught. 
 
 Successive Ministers of Education have in various ways shown 
 that they concur, on the whole, with our demands ; but with the 
 exception of drawing having, under difficulties on the part of 
 the Treasury, been made a class subject in elementary schools, 
 
214 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 and of more stringent requirements on the part of the Science 
 and Art Department in reference to practical work in the science 
 classes, the Government did not feel itself sufficiently supported 
 by public opinion to give effect to our recommendations until 
 the present session. The Bill for the establishment of technical 
 schools, introduced a few nights ago by the Vice-President of 
 the Council, encourages those who have for so many years 
 laboured perse veringly in the promotion of technical instruction 
 to hope that some real progress will at length be made, not only 
 in a few favoured places, but throughout the length and breadth 
 of the land. The intention of its authors is to give effect to our 
 recommendations so far as they relate to elementary and second- 
 ary technical instruction. It is to be hoped that the power to 
 be granted by it to local authorities will not be hampered with 
 unnecessary restrictions. Those conferred on the Science and 
 Art Department are ample, and I believe it has every disposition 
 to exercise them liberally if it can rely on the support of the 
 country and of the House of Commons. A few of the City Guilds, 
 and notably the Clothworkers' Company, have shown great 
 liberality in the judicious provision of funds for the encourage- 
 ment of technical instruction ; and I see no reason why, in the 
 case of those companies who now devote their incomes to less 
 useful purposes, a fair contribution to what is properly their 
 work should not be insisted on, in aid of schools maintained 
 jointly by the localities in which they are situated, and by the 
 State through the agency of the Science and Art Department. 
 
 Several such schools are now in good working order. 
 Amongst these are the Technical Schools of the City Guilds in 
 Finsbury, the day and evening classes of which are full to over- 
 flowing. The Technical College at Bradford, assisted by the 
 Clothworkers' Company, is in full activity in all its departments. 
 The courses of the dyeing school, conducted by an energetic 
 young professor trained at Zurich, are followed both by middle 
 class and artisan students ; and the weaving department is at- 
 tracting students even from Germany. The Bristol Trade School, 
 erected and maintained by the liberality of the Merchant Adven- 
 turers' Guild of that city, intended chiefly for the instruction of 
 chemists, engineers, and miners, is well equipped, both as regards 
 its staff and its laboratories. The school at Keighley is a con- 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 215 
 
 spicuous example of a good science school. The Heriot-Watt 
 School of Edinburgh, the Glasgow and West of Scotland College, 
 and the Manchester Technical School are old schools amalga- 
 mated or otherwise reorganised. I name these as instances ol 
 the higher elementary and secondary technical schools which are 
 already in operation in various parts of the country. As yet 
 they are few ; but in Stockport, Blackburn, Wakefield, Preston, 
 Hull, and in several other towns, similar schools are either being 
 established, or the proposal to establish them has been warmly 
 taken up, and is likely to lead to practical results. 
 
 Elementary instruction in the use of tools has been introduced 
 tentatively in some of the London Board schools, successfully in 
 Sheffield and elsewhere. 
 
 The signs of progress in the highest technical instruction are 
 less hopeful. The Central Institute of the City Guilds, in the 
 Exhibition Road, has an ample provision of professors and of 
 laboratories and class-rooms ; but its students are not till now so 
 numerous as might have been wished and expected, even making 
 allowance for the short time that it has been opened ; and the 
 various local University Colleges are, with some few exceptions, 
 inadequately provided with funds and not very numerously fre- 
 quented. It will be seen from the digest of our Report how 
 munificently colleges of similar and of higher rank are supported 
 by the Governments of Continental countries. The highest 
 technical instruction is not and probably never will be self- 
 supporting in any country ; and if, in consideration of the 
 exceptionally liberal contributions of the State with us to ele- 
 mentary instruction which in Germany and Switzerland is de- 
 frayed almost exclusively from local funds we can scarcely 
 expect that as much will be done here as in those countries out 
 of imperial funds for this important perhaps the most important 
 grade of technical education, some assistance may be fairly 
 asked for from Government, and will not, I believe, be asked for 
 in vain when it shall appear that there is a genuine demand and 
 sufficient preparation for instruction of this advanced type. 
 
 A branch of the subject not less important, though, as I 
 have said elsewhere, it has not hitherto been regarded as strictly 
 within the lines of technical instruction, is that of commercial 
 education. Our youths are far behind those of Germany in the 
 
216 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 cultivation of modern languages, arithmetic, and geography. 
 The Oxford and Cambridge Local Examination Board has re- 
 cently devised and submitted to the Chambers of Commerce a 
 special scheme of examination in these subjects, which it is to 
 be hoped will act as a stimulus on the secondary schools. 
 
 Amongst the encouraging signs of the interest taken in tech- 
 nical instruction, I would mention the recent establishment of an 
 association for its promotion which owes its inception to Sir 
 Henry Koscoe and Mr. Arthur Ac! and, and of which Lord Har- 
 tington is the President. Its chief objects are to stimulate 
 public interest in the subject, to assist local bodies with its 
 advice, and to take Parliamentary action in the direction in 
 which legislation is required. 
 
 I will conclude this somewhat hasty review with an expres- 
 sion of the hearty wish that our people throughout the country 
 may at length arrive at a full sense of our educational defi- 
 ciencies, and at the determination that they shall cease to exist. 
 
 B. SAMUELSON. 
 
 July 20, 1887. 
 
 I. INTRODUCTION. 1 
 
 During the first half of this century we enjoyed an un- 
 challenged industrial supremacy, the result of many contributory 
 causes. Among them were physical causes, such as our mineral 
 wealth, our position, at once safe and accessible, our prolonged 
 sea-board, and our bracing climate ; moral and intellectual 
 causes, such as the natural energy and inventiveness of our 
 people ; political causes, such as the happy union of individual 
 liberty with public order ; economic causes, such as the gradual 
 accumulation of capital in earlier times ; and many other causes 
 too numerous to be specified. Full scope for the operation of all 
 
 1 The Commissioners and the Report referred to in these pages are invariably 
 the Commissioners appointed to inquire into technical instruction, and the 
 second Report prepared by them. The Report itself may be purchased either 
 directly or through any bookseller from any of the following agents : Messrs. 
 Hansard and Son, 13 Great Queen Street, W.C., and 32 Abingdon Street, 
 Westminster; Messrs. Eyre and Spottiswoode, East Harding Street, Fleet 
 Street, and Sale Office, House of Lords ; Messrs. Adam and Charles Black, 
 Edinburgh ; Messrs. Alexander Thorn and Co., or Messrs. Hodges, Figgis, and 
 Co., Dublin. 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 217 
 
 these causes was given by the long Napoleonic war which 
 devastated the Continent, whilst it left us in secure isolation to 
 perfect our manufactures, and to grasp the carrying trade of the 
 world. So conspicuous was the supremacy thus established 
 that some among us came to regard it almost as part of the 
 fixed order of nature. These good people took the same view 
 respecting their country which a Sheffield manufacturer ex- 
 pressed respecting his town : ' Sheffield was really a very fine 
 town, and he questioned whether any part of the world was 
 equal to it.' Although conceivably we might improve ourselves, 
 yet we were so superior to other nations that improvement was 
 hardly a thing of practical concern. Nay, there was some fear 
 of doing harm in the rash attempt to ameliorate that which was 
 already so excellent. In this frame of mind our industrial 
 classes were little disposed to vex their souls with problems of 
 technical education. 
 
 Our neighbours, however, saw things more clearly. The 
 industrial supremacy of Great Britain appeared to them the 
 effect of definite causes, not of an indefinite perfection in the 
 British. They were inferior to us in material resources and in 
 natural ingenuity ; but their inferiority in these respects forced 
 upon their attention the value of thrift and of education. Thrift 
 multiplied their capital, and education multiplied their industrial 
 efficiency. England served them as a model of organisation 
 and equipment ; but their trained intelligence enabled them to 
 improve upon this model. For some time past, whilst we have 
 advanced, they have advanced faster still ; they have driven us 
 from several of their domestic markets, and they are sharply 
 competing with us in the markets of other nations. We find 
 that our industrial empire is vigorously attacked all over the 
 world. We find that our most formidable assailants are the 
 best educated peoples. Upon this matter let us listen to the 
 testimony of an Englishman, for thirty years manager in a 
 Bavarian engineering works : 
 
 Germany thirty years ago, as compared with England, was simply 
 nowhere ; but placing English and German workshops side by side 
 now, we should find that the progress in the latter had been posi- 
 tively marvellous. During all these years the Germans had been 
 following the English step by step, importing their machinery and 
 
218 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 tools, engaging, when they could, the best men from the best shops, 
 copying their methods of work and the organisation of their indus- 
 tries ; but, besides this, they had devoted special attention to a 
 matter which England had almost ignored the scientific or technical 
 instruction of their own people. And what has been the result of 
 all this ? They have reached a point at which they have little to 
 learn from the English. Report, vol. i. p. 335. 
 
 This testimony was confirmed by the observation of the 
 Commissioners themselves. In their description of a visit to 
 the factories of Alsace, they tell us that 
 
 Our rivals have possessed themselves outwardly of all the ad- 
 vantages and excellences which have been the growth of English 
 inventiveness and enterprise during the last generation. To the 
 casual observer, strolling from room to room, and watching the 
 varying processes from the soft white sliver to the ' built-up ' cop of 
 yarn, there would not appear to be a very appreciable difference 
 between a German and a Lancashire factory. The raw material, 
 machinery, and appointments are equal in both cases. In general 
 appearance the operatives do not compare unfavourably with those 
 of Lancashire. Report, vol. i. p. 295. 
 
 We know to our cost that the equality of English and 
 German manufacturers is sometimes real as well as apparent. 
 Thus, weaving firms in the Saxon town of Chemnitz send their 
 fancy goods to London, Bradford, or Manchester, and sell them 
 in the very centres of competition. Similar instances could be 
 drawn from other industries. 
 
 The success of our rivals is not to be explained by reference 
 to the low wages and long hours of work general on the Conti- 
 nent. If labour is cheaper there, coal is dearer, machinery is 
 dearer, and imported raw material often pays a tax. Moreover, 
 the artisans abroad have not the energy of our own men, who 
 eat better and more abundant food, and have more rest. The 
 foreign employers questioned by the Commissioners allowed 
 that for strength and spirit the English operative was unrivalled. 
 Some of them thought that they should ultimately gain by such 
 a rise in wages and curtailment of work as would improve the 
 health and strength of their own hands. The Commissioners 
 expressly state that the foreign competition which presses us 
 most seriously is more frequently that in which the conditions 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 
 
 219 
 
 of hours and wages approach nearest to those prevailing here. 
 In so far as the competition between ourselves and foreign 
 nations depends on the workman, it is mainly the sobriety and 
 the intelligence of their workmen which give them the advantage. 
 But in that competition it is not only the intelligence of the 
 workman ; it is the intelligence of the foreman, the manager, 
 the master, nay, it is the intelligence of the whole people 
 which is of so much weight. 
 
 Let us dwell a little longer on this point, for it is one of 
 supreme consequence to ourselves. We have begun to see the 
 commercial value of elementary and of technical education. 
 But our perception of their commercial value will not help us 
 unless it is joined to a perception of their place and relations in 
 the whole scheme of enlightenment. We must again and 
 again repeat that neither elementary education nor technical 
 education can be perfected apart from education in general, or 
 could by themselves have made Germany so puissant a rival as 
 we now find her. The strength of Germany lies in the culture 
 of every class of Germans, in the real love of learning which 
 animates the people and their rulers, in the patient, inquiring, 
 and scientific spirit which has transformed almost every branch 
 of human activity from metaphysics to the art of war. This 
 culture, this love of learning, this scientific spirit, are not rare 
 among us, but neither are they diffused ; they are the property 
 of individuals and of small groups. In Germany the problem 
 how to educate the whole nation as well as possible has for 
 many years been constantly present to the minds of scholars and 
 statesmen. In England, and still more in Ireland, it is less the 
 education of the people than the advantage which parties can 
 draw from controlling education that has fascinated journalists 
 and members of Parliament. Education, however, is too grave 
 a concern to be dealt with by men who lack singleness of aim 
 and purity of purpose. In spite of the growth of a genuine 
 interest in the object, we are still far behind Germany in 
 primary, in secondary, in university education, and therefore in 
 technical education, which grows out of and always remains 
 entwined with all three. The education of a people is a whole, 
 and has a unity. Technical education, the education which 
 makes a man expert in his calling, has its allotted place in that 
 
220 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 wider education which makes him a worthy member of a 
 civilised commonwealth. The education which draws out all 
 the intelligence of the community is a necessary antecedent to 
 the education which draws out the capacity of this or that man 
 for this or that calling. 
 
 Technical education falls into two great divisions : the edu- 
 cation of those who will be engaged in manufactures, mining, 
 building, and similar occupations; and the education of those 
 who will be engaged in agriculture. Each of these principal 
 divisions may again be subdivided into three grades : the primary, 
 the intermediate, and the advanced. In each of these grades 
 the instruction must be varied according to the nature of the 
 particular branch of industry which is taught. From these 
 considerations we may see how vast and intricate is the subject 
 of technical education. Its full discussion would produce a 
 large library of monographs which only experts could under- 
 stand. But many persons beside experts are beginning to 
 concern themselves in technical education, and for them a 
 general survey of the field which it covers may be useful. Such 
 a survey, based upon the results of long aud laborious investiga- 
 tion, helps to show the ends at which we must aim, the results 
 which we have already achieved, and the principles which 
 should guide us in making good our deficiencies. In the hope 
 of rendering this assistance to the public the following abstract 
 has been written. 
 
 II. TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION IN MANUFACTURES, MINING, &c. 
 
 A. Primary Instruction. 
 
 By primary instruction is here understood such technical in- 
 struction as is required by the ordinary artisan. The education 
 of the artisan may be divided into the education given in the 
 public elementary schools and the education given in schools 
 purely technical. Accordingly, the Commissioners, in their 
 inquiries and recommendations, constantly kept in view the 
 state of elementary education. So much has recently been done 
 to improve the elementary schools of this country that we are 
 apt to think them even better than they are to suppose them 
 practically perfect. In truth, we have still many things to 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 221 
 
 learn from countries where the school system has been maturing 
 through a long course of years. If anybody questions this 
 statement, let him take a favourable specimen of our public 
 elementary schools, and compare it with the Swiss school of the 
 same class, described in the following passage of the Report : 
 
 One of the best elementary Swiss schools visited by the Com- 
 missioners is that on the Lindescher Platz, in Zurich. The cost of 
 building this school was 43,000. which amounts to QQL per head. 
 Irregularity of attendance is practically unknown ; all the children 
 learn one foreign language ; moreover, they are all taught drawing, 
 and have object lessons in natural history. In the higher classes 
 they are instructed in the rudiments of chemistry and physics, great 
 pains being taken to place before the children well-arranged speci- 
 mens, which are contained in a school museum. These museums 
 form very noteworthy objects in the Zurich schools. Among the 
 objects we found there were simple chemical and physical apparatus, 
 chemical specimens, geographical relief maps showing the Alps and 
 their glaciers, typical collections of commonly occurring and useful 
 rocks and minerals, excellent botanical models, as well as collections 
 of insects, carefully labelled, a complete herbarium, zoological and 
 anatomical specimens and models : the collection, in fact, serving as 
 a type of what such a school museum should be. Many of the 
 specimens were collected and arranged by the teachers. 
 
 All the school subjects were taught intelligently and well. We 
 were specially struck with the clean and tidy appearance of the 
 boys, and there was a difficulty in realising that the school consisted 
 mainly of children of the lower classes of the population. Report, 
 vol. i. p. 20. 
 
 The chief faults of our elementary school system are two 
 the average period of attendance at school is too short and the 
 programme of school teaching is too meagre. It is convenient 
 to examine these defects separately. In England a child can 
 be compelled to attend school when it is five years old ; but as 
 soon as it has passed the fourth standard it may be employed 
 for hire, and as soon as it has passed the fifth standard it is free 
 from any obligation of further attendance. 1 
 
 1 The age at which a child may be employed for hire is fixed by statute ; 
 the standard of total exemption from attendance at school is fixed by a by-law 
 of the School Board or School Attendance Committee, which has received the 
 approval of the Education Department. In such by-laws the fifth standard 
 is usually, but not always, selected as that of total exemption. 
 
222 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 The fourth standard is ridiculously low, and an intelligent 
 child, fairly well taught, can easily pass it at the age of ten 
 years. Consequently, in those districts which especially concern 
 us here, in the manufacturing districts, where the labour of 
 children is valuable, almost every child has passed the fourth 
 standard at that age, and thenceforward is employed half its 
 time in the factories. It is plain to the meanest capacity that 
 a child's education must be hindered by putting it to work as 
 soon as it has completed its tenth year. The child, even when 
 working half-time, can usually pass the fifth standard in another 
 year, and it is thus released from school when but eleven years 
 old ; that is to say, after a school life of six years. In Germany 
 and Switzerland they order these things very differently. They 
 act on the principle, admitted by everybody who knows or cares 
 anything about education, that the way to secure a good training 
 for the mind is not to end the school life as soon as the scholar 
 can pass an examination, but to insist that every scholar shall 
 spend a certain number of years under sound teaching. The 
 period of compulsory attendance at school begins later and lasts 
 longer there than here. In the city of Hamburg it commences 
 at the age of six and continues for seven years ; in the kingdom 
 of Saxony it is practically the same. In Baden, Bavaria, 
 Zurich, and elsewhere, young persons leaving the elementary 
 school at the age of twelve, thirteen, or fourteen years are 
 required by law to attend the Fortbildung, or continuation 
 schools, for two or three years more. 
 
 These evening schools (say the Commissioners) help to sustain 
 a boy's interest in study at a time when he is likely to forget what 
 he has acquired in the ordinary primary school. For the want of 
 them apprentices or young workmen frequently find themselves too 
 ignorant to avail themselves of the special technical instruction which 
 they have the opportunities of obtaining, and on this account, and 
 also because they serve to give the youth a taste for study at the 
 time when he begins to appreciate the value of instruction, these 
 schools have proved to be most serviceable to German and Swiss 
 artisans in quickening their intelligence, and in affording them 
 useful information bearing upon their trades. Report,' vol. i. p. 37. 
 
 In Germany and Switzerland there are not only more years 
 in the school life ; there are also more hours in the school day. 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 
 
 223 
 
 Having thus secured the necessary time, the law lays down a 
 more liberal programme of elementary instruction than the one 
 adopted here. Examinations, developed here to the great 
 detriment of primary as well as of advanced instruction^ are 
 there kept in their proper bounds. There is less i cramming,' 
 and the instruction is slower, more thorough, and more reasoned, 
 than it can be under our system of hurrying children to the 
 point where they may be rewarded by having their education 
 cut short. To lengthen the school life is, therefore, the first 
 reform needed in our school system. The Commissioners con- 
 tented themselves with recommending that no child should be 
 allowed to work half-time before it had passed the fifth standard 
 practically, before it was eleven years old. This is a step in 
 the right direction, perhaps as long a step as can be taken now ; 
 but we must not fancy that even this change puts us on an 
 equality with Switzerland or Germany. With us the period of 
 compulsory attendance at school would still average only six 
 years, and would still begin at an unusually early age. It is 
 desirable that children under twelve years should not be em- 
 ployed in factories, and should be compelled to attend school 
 without reference to the standard which they may have attained. 
 Continuation schools, open in the evening, should be established 
 throughout the country, and all persons under the age of four- 
 teen years who are not attending other schools should be 
 required to attend them. We have already seen the opinion of 
 the Commissioners as to the service done by the Fortbildung 
 schools in Germany and Switzerland. In this country they 
 would be still more useful, inasmuch as children leave school in 
 a less advanced stage of instruction. With us, the child who 
 has attended an elementary school too often leaves it at that 
 very period of life when the power of fixing the attention and 
 the taste for knowledge begin for the first time to show them- 
 selves ; he goes back to a home without intellectual interests, 
 where life is sacrificed to getting a livelihood ; he spends his 
 days in a narrow routine of mechanical labour and his evenings 
 in utter listlessness, and, on reaching manhood, finds that he 
 has lost, in great part, the rudiments which he so painfully 
 acquired : that he is, if not exactly illiterate, yet unfit to make 
 progress in any branch of knowledge which may relate to his 
 
224 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 calling. The true remedy is not to try to crowd much more 
 into the short period of compulsory attendance at school, but to 
 lengthen that period, whilst interfering with industry as little 
 as possible. This can be done only by establishing evening 
 schools to carry further the instruction given in the day schools. 
 
 In the second place and this is a fault which naturally 
 grows out of the fault first mentioned our public elementary 
 schools do not teach as much as the model artisan should know. 
 There are, at least, three weak points in their system of instruc- 
 tion, as tried by this humble and practical test. Drawing is 
 taught ill, the rudiments of natural science are taught slightly, 
 and the use of tools is taught rarely. Each of these points 
 demands separate consideration. 
 
 I. Drawing. All experts are agreed that practice in draw- 
 ing is valuable as a means both of general and of technical 
 education. It imparts steadiness and delicacy to the fingers, it 
 develops clear and exact perception, and it cultivates the sense 
 of elegance and beauty, which, however feeble in most people, 
 is wholly absent only from the lowest minds. A knowledge of 
 drawing is useful in every handicraft, and indispensable in many. 
 Yet it appeared, from the evidence given before the Commis- 
 sioners, that drawing is not taught in more than a fourth of the 
 elementary schools in England. Even in these schools it is not 
 taught to every pupil. The teaching is generally bad, because 
 the schoolmasters and schoolmistresses themselves have not been 
 properly taught to draw. When the Commissioners drew up 
 their report, the grant for drawing might be earned by a school 
 which did not allot to the subject more than one hour a week ; 
 but this miserable allowance has since been increased to one 
 hour and a half. Formerly the examination in drawing was of 
 the most futile character. A prodigious quantity of work was 
 sent up from every part of the kingdom to South Kensington, 
 and was there judged by the unhappy officials. It should be 
 noted that the drawing in public elementary schools is in the 
 charge, not of the Education Department, but of the Science 
 and Art Department. By the same Minute, which requires 
 more time to be given to drawing, it is provided "that the exa- 
 mination in drawing shall henceforward be held in the school 
 itself by a local inspector or by his assistant. These changes 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 225 
 
 are good, but they do not raise the instruction in drawing to 
 the standard attained in France or Germany, nor do they fulfil 
 the recommendations of the Commissioners. The Commissioners 
 recommended (i.) That rudimentary drawing should be in- 
 corporated with writing as a single elementary subject, and that 
 instruction in drawing should be continued through all the 
 standards ; (ii.) that a proper supply of casts and models for 
 drawing should be included in that ' apparatus of elementary 
 instruction ' which a school must possess before it can receive 
 public money ; (iii.) that modelling should be constituted a 
 subject on which grants could be earned ; (iv.) that art should 
 be properly taught in the training colleges to those who will 
 subsequently have to teach art to others ; (v.) that the inspectors 
 of the Education Department should be made responsible for 
 the instruction in drawing given in elementary schools. To 
 these recommendations maybe added another, which they involve ; 
 namely, that the time given to drawing in the school programmes 
 should be increased. Mr. Armstrong, the Director of Art for 
 the Science and Art Department, thought that four hours a 
 week should be allotted to drawing alone, before taking any 
 time for such a subject as modelling. This once done, he thought 
 that one hour a week for modelling would be time well spent. 
 Drawing is not a sort of work which harasses or exhausts the 
 mind, and, for its sake, the present school hours might, with 
 advantage, be lengthened. 
 
 II. Natural Science. In our infant schools the pupils have 
 object lessons in natural science, and in our elementary schools 
 certain sciences are class subjects, which may be taken up by 
 scholars who have passed the lowest standards. Geography 
 may, however, be regarded as a science, and geography may be 
 taken as a class subject in the lower division of elementary 
 schools. The Commissioners recommended that elementary 
 lessons in natural science, including geography, should take 
 the place now occupied by geography alone. The effect of this 
 change would be to continue the object lessons in elementary 
 science now given in the infant school up to the point at which 
 they would be succeeded by definite teaching of special sciences, 
 so that the impressions made upon very young children should 
 not be allowed to vanish before they are old enough to profit by 
 
 Q 
 
226 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 higher methods of instruction. But when we try to develop 
 the study of natural science in elementary schools, we are met 
 with the same difficulties as in the case of drawing the want of 
 time, the want of money, and the want of well-trained teachers. 
 Little science can be taught to backward children, whose school 
 hours are so few. The cost of apparatus wherewith to illustrate 
 lessons in natural science is more than most schools can afford. 
 The teachers from the training colleges have often been 
 ' crammed ' with science rather than disciplined in science. 
 These difficulties, perhaps insuperable in country places, have 
 been partially overcome in a few large towns by the employment 
 <>f itinerant demonstrators, or by the foundation of higher ele- 
 mentary schools. 
 
 At Liverpool and Birmingham the itinerant demonstrator 
 has proved useful. He works in unison with the teachers in 
 the various elementary schools, and his demonstrations rein- 
 force their lessons. The apparatus used in the demonstrations 
 is kept at a central laboratory, and is transferred from school 
 to school by means of a light hand-cart. The demonstrator 
 visits each school once a week, giving in the week eighteen or 
 twenty demonstrations. In the intervals between the demon- 
 strations the teachers of the respective classes, who have them- 
 selves been present, go over the subject of the last demonstration, 
 and frequently illustrate their lectures with simple experiments. 
 For the help of the teachers there has been prepared a simple 
 text-book, with reading lessons on the subjects of the demon- 
 strations, and exercises to be worked by the scholars. Schools 
 not under the control of the School Board may have the benefit 
 of the system on condition of contributing to the expense. At 
 Liverpool the cost of the apparatus used during five years did 
 not exceed 1201. These demonstrations have proved equally 
 beneficial to the teachers and to the scholars. The teachers 
 have been improved in their method of teaching natural science. 
 The scholars, when examined in the subjects of the demonstra- 
 tions, have shown a remarkable proficiency, and this without 
 any detriment to their other studies. -" 
 
 The foundation of higher elementary schools, sometimes 
 known as ' graded ' schools, has had good results in Manchester, 
 Sheffield, and other towns. These schools are recruited with 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 227 
 
 the most forward scholars from the common schools. In 
 Manchester all the children attending the graded schools have 
 passed in the fifth standard. They are taught French, drawing, 
 mathematics, physiology, chemistry, physics, and geography. 
 The school fee is only ninepence a week, and there are many 
 scholarships for children entering from the primary schools or 
 leaving for the Manchester Grammar School. The Com- 
 missioners stated that they had not seen on the Continent any 
 school which surpassed these in general efficiency or in the 
 tuition in any special subject, except drawing. In a school of 
 the same type, the Central School of Sheffield, all the pupils 
 take the ordinary subjects together with some of the special 
 subjects named in the code. Both boys and girls throughout 
 the school are taught German. All the girls learn needlework 
 and practise cookery ; those in the higher classes take chemistry. 
 Drawing is thoroughly taught, and is made the basis for prac- 
 tical work carried on in the school workshops. This work 
 comprises the production of simple but perfect surfaces and 
 solids in wood and iron, of models and of apparatus for the 
 experimental illustration of mechanical principles. It appeared 
 to the Commissioners that the manual work deserved to be en- 
 couraged by grant, and could not well be carried on without 
 such encouragement. 
 
 The Commissioners expressed in their report the warmest 
 approval of these ' graded ' schools, and a desire for their 
 establishment in all our large towns. 1 To these and to the 
 system of demonstrations above described they trusted for the 
 diffusion of such elementary scientific knowledge as must 
 form the basis of ordinary technical education. At the same 
 
 1 It is only right to say that some persons of great experience disapprove 
 of the institution of graded schools, and would prefer to see the higher instruc- 
 tion of advanced scholars given in the same school and by the same masters 
 in which and by whom their elementary training has been given. Their 
 arguments are briefly as follows: (1) Parents are more easily induced to 
 prolong the attendance of children at an old familiar school than to send them 
 to a new untried one. (2) A child's education is more likely to be systematic 
 and of a piece throughout if entirely given by the same teachers. (3) The 
 teachers are improved both in zeal and in intelligence by having occasionally 
 to give instruction which is not elementary. Considerable weight attaches to 
 these arguments, and it must be owned that the question is one of much 
 difficulty. 
 
 Q 2 
 
228 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 time they insisted on the imperfection of the teaching in science 
 given by the training colleges. They suggested that the 
 training colleges should send up every year to the Normal 
 School of Science at South Kensington, or to similar institutions 
 of established merit, the students who show scientific aptitude. 
 They further recommended that the great school boards should 
 be empowered to found training colleges for day students. 
 
 III. Instruction in the Use of Tools. Such instruction has 
 been introduced into many, and is to be introduced into all, the 
 primary schools in France. It has been successfully tried at 
 Manchester and at other places. At Manchester the lessons 
 are given by the school board carpenter before and during 
 school hours, in rooms separate from the rest of the school, and 
 fitted with joiner's benches and lathes. The boys work one 
 and a half hours a day. The Commissioners recommended that 
 manual work, like modelling, should be included among the 
 subjects on which grants may be earned. The instruction in 
 the use of tools which can be given in a primary school is, of 
 course, very limited. Children of less than ten or eleven years 
 are not strong enough to use tools properly, and older children 
 have scanty time to spare. The lessons cannot be profitable 
 unless the teachers are skilful and the appliances good, and the 
 expense of providing these for a variety of handicrafts is beyond 
 the means of any one school. All that can be done is to give 
 the scholars a chance of making themselves acquainted with 
 the common tools for working wood and iron. Such knowledge 
 is useful to them, even if they do not afterwards become 
 artisans. The work is agreeable as a relaxation from reading 
 and writing. It helps to foster a taste for active industry, and 
 to check the foolish prejudice that the life of a copying clerk is 
 finer and happier than the life of a skilled craftsman. 
 
 Seeing how short is the school life of most children, it 
 remains to consider the education given to the workman in 
 purely technical schools. We are not here concerned with 
 workmen who possess unusual talent, scientific, artistic, or 
 administrative workmen who will, in the natural course of 
 things, become inventors, designers, or organisers. They 
 should be encouraged and assisted to seek the fullest technical 
 instruction. But here we have to do with the common man r 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 229 
 
 and the problem is how to train him so that he shall be able to 
 execute in the best possible manner his common work. 
 Formerly this training was given by the system of apprentice- 
 ship; and now that apprenticeship has lost most of the 
 peculiarities which made it valuable as a means of education, 
 it is proposed to supplement the lessons of the workshop by 
 those of the school. To combine these so as to get the happiest 
 result is a task of extreme nicety. The apprenticeship schools 
 which abound in France, Germany, and the neighbouring 
 countries vary in efficiency and usefulness; but, as a rule, they 
 have not fully met the wants of the class for which they were 
 designed. A few examples taken from the report will give 
 a general idea of all. We shall then take a survey of the 
 means of primary technical instruction possessed by our 
 artisans, notice the recommendations made by the Commis- 
 sioners, and add a few observations upon the possibilities of 
 improvement. 
 
 The school of the Boulevard de la Villette, Paris, is intended 
 for workers in wood and iron. The instruction is gratuitous. 
 It comprises a general literary and scientific course, continuing 
 the course of the primary school, together with a special 
 -technical training. The technical training combines lessons 
 on the nature of tools, materials, and processes, with practical 
 manual exercises in the workshop. The manual work is 
 divided into two courses : in the first year the pupil spends six 
 hours in the shops daily, and is taught the nature and con- 
 version of materials ; in the second year he spends six, and in 
 the third year eight hours every day in the shop, and is busy 
 with actual construction appropriate to the trade which he 
 adopts. The school hours are from seven o'clock in the morning 
 to seven o'clock in the evening, with two hours of interval for 
 meals and recreation. The students pay visits to industrial 
 establishments, and write descriptions of that which they have 
 seen. A large proportion become engine-fitters or pattern- 
 makers, and are said to earn good wages immediately on leaving 
 the school. There are 250 pupils, and nearly 50,OOOZ. has been 
 expended on the buildings. 
 
 Another apprenticeship school visited by the Commissioners 
 the Koyal Trade School of Iserlohn, in Westphalia, the 
 
230 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 first school of the kind established in Prussia. The manu- 
 facturers of the district were moved to found it by the ignorance 
 of the pupils who entered their works. In this school industrial 
 art suitable to metal-work is combined with handicraft teaching. 
 The scholars go through a three years' course, and are trained as 
 designers, modellers, wood-carvers, moulders, founders, turners 
 and pressers, chasers, engravers, gilders, and etchers. The 
 theoretical instruction includes drawing in all its branches, 
 modelling in wax and clay, the elements of chemical and physical 
 science, mathematics, German, technology, and the history of 
 artistic work in metal. The practical instruction consists of 
 lessons in the different branches of industry which the pupils 
 are likely to follow, each pupil stating on entrance in which 
 craft he wishes to be trained. In this, as in other technical 
 schools, the hours are much longer than in schools where there 
 is little or no practical work, the alternation of mental and 
 bodily labour giving rest to the different faculties in turn. 
 
 Particularly interesting are the apprenticeship schools 
 which have been established in Southern Germany and in 
 Austria for the encouragement of petty manufactures carried 
 on by the peasants. At the present day such manufactures 
 are limited both in number and in extent by the development 
 of machinery, and the consequent development of factories. 
 But if they require the exercise of taste, and if they are carried 
 on by persons who depend largely upon some other calling, 
 such as agriculture, they may still minister to the well-being of 
 great numbers of people. Industries of this sort are wood- 
 carving, clock-making, straw-plaiting, and, under peculiar cir- 
 cumstances, some sorts of weaving and pottery. For all these 
 crafts elementary technical schools have been provided in 
 Baden, Bavaria, and Austria. At Furtwangen, in Baden, there 
 is a remarkable school for wood-carving, recruited among the 
 peasant lads of the neighbourhood. The scholars first draw 
 and then model the copy before carving it. They pay for the 
 wood, but become owners of everything which they execute. 
 The local authorities provide the building, and the ^ State pays 
 the teachers, besides supplying models, examples, and tools. 
 For literary and technical instruction the pupils all resort to 
 the neighbouring Trade School, and for lessons in cabinet 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 231 
 
 work they frequent a joiner's school. At Arco, in the Southern 
 Tyrol, a school much humbler than the one at Furtwangen 
 proved the germ of a flourishing industry. The people of 
 Arco, who had long regarded olive-wood as fit only to be 
 burned, noticed at last that at Bergamo and other places just 
 over the frontier it was manufactured into many pretty or useful 
 articles. Thereupon the authorities opened a school, with 
 workshops for turning and inlaying ; skilful teachers and good 
 examples were procured ; the scholars became first expert, and 
 then famous; orders poured in from every quarter, even from 
 America, and now many persons are employed in carving olive- 
 wood, either in the factory or in their own homes. 
 
 It is worth while to contrast the skill and ingenuity of the 
 wood-carving done in the districts where these schools have been 
 established with the lack of the same qualities in much of the 
 carving done in Ireland, where the artistic power of the 
 peasantry has not been called forth by instruction. And in this 
 context we may notice an instance of the revival of an old 
 peasant industry by timely artistic training. 
 
 In the Erz-Gebirge, far from manufacturing towns, the 
 women, to the number of 20,000, earn a livelihood by making 
 lace. At one time the lace made in this district was much ad- 
 mired, and fetched a good price. But fashion changed, and 
 foreign makers undersold the peasants, who could not understand 
 why their lace was no longer wanted, and went on making 
 what they could not sell, until many were at the point of starva- 
 tion. The Government then held an investigation, established 
 a lace department in the Industrial Art School of Vienna, caused 
 a number of girls to be annually brought up from the country 
 for a three months' course of lessons in designing and making 
 lace, and thus restored comparative prosperity to the unfortunate 
 lace-makers. Instances like these point to the establishment 
 of small technical schools as one of the best means of reducing 
 the poverty and idleness which prevail in some parts of Ireland. 
 People without capital, without knowledge, and without enter- 
 prise, must be taught like children. It is perverse pedantry to 
 apply to them maxims of letting well alone, which have only a 
 partial truth when applied even to rich, enlightened, and ener- 
 getic people. 
 
232 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 Compare with the Irish pictures which we know too well the 
 following picture from Thuringia : 
 
 If the neighbourhood through which we passed is fairly repre- 
 sentative of the forest country of Thuringia, it is impossible to overrate 
 the importance, in a material point of view, of these home industries. 
 The cottages were pretty and well kept ; most of the windows con- 
 tained flowers beautifully grown in pots, and many of the houses 
 had gardens attached to them. The people were well dressed, and 
 had the air of being well fed and contented. They are evident y a 
 most industrious race, and their success may depend as much upon 
 their natural disposition and temperament as on the fact that they 
 have been trained for generations in these various occupations. Still, 
 whatever may be the cause of their success in home industries, we 
 think it is impossible to doubt that the influence for good of such 
 work is of vast importance. We found populous and thriving villages, 
 filled with busy workers, in districts remote from railways, and where 
 carriage and transport must be matters of extreme difficulty, and in 
 parts of the country, moreover, where agricultural work would in 
 many cases be wholly insufficient to provide support for more than a 
 small proportion of the present population. It is in such cases as 
 these that the provision of suitable employment for the masses of the 
 people is so important, and the question of the mode in which such 
 industries are introduced, and the way in which they are fostered, is 
 surely one which deserves the most careful attention of the economist. 
 Report, vol. i. p. 549. 
 
 In Belgium the apprenticeship schools give gratuitous 
 teaching, and are supported chiefly by the State and the muni* 
 cipalities. They are open on every evening in the week, and 
 on Sunday mornings. But there is no uniformity in their pro- 
 grammes, which are adapted to the different industries of different 
 places. The general instruction takes in French or Flemish, 
 arithmetic, geometry, the elements of chemistry and physics, 
 technology, the laws of health, and industrial economy. Draw- 
 ing is the basis of all the technical teaching, and is regarded as 
 the universal language. The drawing lessons follow a graduated 
 course, from drawing lines in chalk on the black-board to the 
 study of projection and ornament, industrial drawirg for special 
 trades, and original designing. The course at these schools 
 lasts from three to five years, according to the circumstances of 
 each place. As a rule the pupils must be at least fourteen 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 233 
 
 years old at the time of admission, and most of those attending 
 at any one time are less than eighteen years of age. Many of 
 the pupils intend to become clerks or draughtsmen, but every 
 class of skilled artisan is represented among them. 
 
 Holland has some good apprentice schools, of which the 
 Ambachts School at llotterdam is a favourable specimen. The 
 general teaching continues that given in the primary school, 
 but extends to all the subjects recognised in the three years' 
 course of the Dutch middle-class schools. Drawing is well 
 taught, always with a view to practice. As regards technical 
 instruction, the boys, as soon as they have learnt the use of 
 tools, begin to make small articles, which can either be sold or 
 else used in the school itself. It is found that they become 
 more industrious by being employed upon work which has a 
 marketable value. The workshops, constantly improved and 
 enlarged, now include shops for carpenters, for blacksmiths, for 
 metal-workers, for fitters and turners, for cabinet-makers, for 
 masons, and for stone-carvers. Boys are admitted when twelve 
 years old, and the full course lasts three years. When a pupil 
 has finished his time the school committee finds him a situation. 
 The fees, which amount to Ss. 4<d. for the year, are readily re- 
 mitted to the sons of poor parents. It is unnecessary to say that 
 the school is maintained chiefly by the assistance of the Govern- 
 ment, the province, and the city. 
 
 The provision made in this country for the technical instruc- 
 tion of the artisan may be considered under four principal 
 lieads : 1. Schools maintained by private firms for the benefit of 
 those in their employment; II. Schools open to the general 
 public ; III. Classes organised by the City and Guilds of London 
 Institute for the Promotion of Technical Education ; IV. Science 
 classes organised by the Department of Science and Art. (The 
 Art Schools under the Department will be noticed in the next 
 chapter.) 
 
 I. Under this head are comprised such schools as that 
 established by Messrs. Armstrong at Elswick, or those established 
 by the London and North-Western Kailway Company at Crewe, 
 or the school attached to the works of Messrs. Mather and 
 Platt, at Manchester. The last-named school was inspected by 
 the Commissioners, under the guidance of Mr. Mather, who 
 
234 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 explained its intimate connection with the works. The draw- 
 ings made in the school are of work actually in progress in the 
 shops. One day the teacher gives the necessary explanations 
 and calculations, and the next day the scholars see, as it were, 
 on the anvil, the very thing which has been the subject of his 
 lecture. The teachers are also employed in the works, know 
 what each pupil is doing there, and readily adapt their lessons 
 to his wants. Thus every arrangement is based on the principle 
 that you must bring the school to the workshop, not the work- 
 shop to the school a thoroughly sound principle as applied to 
 certain industries like engineering. The school has well repaid 
 the firm for their pains in setting it up. Mr. Mather told the 
 Commissioners that the works had derived from the school an 
 incalculable advantage. 
 
 We desire to send out yearly one or two thoroughly competent 
 men, who shall not be simply mechanics in the ordinary sense of the 
 word, but who shall be able to turn their attention to anything 
 coining under their notice, whether they have done the thing before 
 or not. We had the greatest difficulty in finding such men until 
 we began to take them from the school ; and since the school has 
 been established we have been able to send boys of twenty to twenty- 
 one to long distances from England, and to place in their hands work 
 which they have not had much to do with before ; and by their own 
 intelligence they have made competent teachers of others, and given 
 the greatest satisfaction. Thus one was sent out only a few years ago 
 not quite out of his apprenticeship, and is now getting 4. per week. 
 Report, vol. i. p. 430. 
 
 We can the better understand the value of such a school to 
 a great engineering firm by comparing Mr. Mather's testimony 
 with that given by Professor Ayrton, of the Finsbury Technical 
 College. 
 
 The present workman, to a great extent, is nothing more than a 
 mere machine ; he exercises no more independent thought than the 
 chisel or the lathe, and the result is that he becomes deadened, 
 and he works in a careless way, scamping his work and wasting 
 material, the consequence of which is that the price of. articles has 
 very much risen. Report, vol. iii. p. 116. 
 
 But such schools as that maintained by Messrs. Mather and 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 235 
 
 Platt for the benefit of their own establishment can never meet 
 the wants of the country at large. 
 
 II. Schools available for apprentices generally are few in 
 this country. The Oldham School of Science and Art is one of 
 the best. The Commissioners described it as an excellent sample 
 of the kind of school which should exist in every industrial 
 town in the kingdom. It had its germ in certain evening 
 classes in science and art commenced in connection with the 
 Oldham Lyceum, and is in alliance with the City and Guilds of 
 London Institute for the advancement of technical education. 
 By the liberality of Messrs. Platt the school is now housed in 
 a large and handsome building, with chemical and physical 
 laboratories. It is an evening school, with nearly a thousand 
 pupils. The science course embraces practical geometry, machine 
 drawing, building construction, mathematics, mechanics, sound, 
 light, heat, magnetism, and electricity, inorganic chemistry, 
 geology, steam, freehand and model drawing, and technical in- 
 struction in tools, mechanical engineering, and the cotton 
 manufacture. The leading manufacturers of Oldham support the 
 school generously, and speak highly of its work. A member of 
 an important firm of engineers told the Commissioners that it 
 got all its foremen draughtsmen from the School of Science and 
 Art. Before the school existed the firm employed Swiss, French, 
 or German draughtsmen. Now there is hardly a foreigner in 
 the town. Another employer observed, 
 
 The working mechanics are much more intelligent. Now a man 
 can be sent out to work, and can transmit his views to the firm in 
 writing, give sketches, and reason about matters : formerly he man 
 would have had to return to the works, and get personal instructions 
 in all cases of difficulty. The suggestions they make to remedy defects 
 are more practical than before. Every man may now be equal in 
 intelligence to what the master was before the school was established. 
 Report, vol. i. p. 453. 
 
 III. The City and Guilds of London Institute has framed 
 a system of technical teaching in its outlines not unlike the 
 system of teaching science established by the Science and Art 
 Department. It enters into correspondence with local com- 
 mittees throughout the kingdom, helps them to organise classes, 
 finds examiners, holds examinations, and makes a capitation 
 
236 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 grant for successful candidates. The qualification needed for a 
 teacher of any of these classes is partly theoretical and partly 
 practical. He must hold a certificate of honours, granted either 
 by the Science and Art Department or by the Institute, and he 
 must have filled some place, such as that of foreman, in the 
 industry which he professes to expound. The Society of Arts 
 had conceived, and in part realised the idea of local examina- 
 tions in technical knowledge, but, as it did not pay for results, 
 the results were small. Few candidates offered themselves, 
 even in the few places where examinations were held. Since 
 the Institute took over the examinations, and made them the 
 basis of payment, the centres of examination and the candidates 
 at each centre have multiplied exceedingly. In some places 
 technical schools already existing have affiliated themselves to 
 the Institute, and prepare candidates for its examinations. In 
 other places the classes established with the help of the Institute 
 have grown, or promise to grow into technical schools. Some 
 disadvantages always attach to a control over education exerted 
 by a central examining body ; but these disadvantages are not 
 to be weighed against the advantages of a uniform standard and 
 a coherent organisation, which the Institute assures to the 
 technical teaching of so many localities, differing so greatly in 
 their knowledge of what constitutes a good technical training, 
 and in their means of providing it. There is some danger lest, 
 for want of skilled teachers, high standards, and adequate re- 
 sources, our small technical schools may discredit technical 
 instruction altogether. The Institute does what it can to avert 
 this danger. It is now becoming well known throughout the 
 kingdom ; but, oddly enough, when the Commissioners visited 
 Ireland it had not beeo heard of outside Belfast. 
 
 IV. The Science and Art Department does not profess to 
 give technical instruction in its science classes. But these 
 science classes do more than any other agency to spread among 
 our artisans that elementary knowledge of natural science which 
 is the only possible basis of technical knowledge. The Depart- 
 ment has been so long at work, and its methods .are so well 
 known to all who interest themselves in education, that any 
 lengthened criticism is needless here. We have only to note 
 the suggestions for increasing its usefulness which were made 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 237 
 
 in the Report. These suggestions, in so far as they related to 
 science, were briefly as follows : (i.) That School Boards, and, 
 in places where there are no School Boards, the local authority, 
 should have power to establish, conduct, and contribute to the 
 maintenance of classes for young persons and adult artisans 
 under the control of the Department, (ii.) That the Depart- 
 ment should, wherever possible, give a more practical character 
 to the teaching of science, especially in the ' honours ' stage ; 
 that in the ' advanced ' stages the payment on results should be 
 increased for all subjects, and that the grouping of subjects 
 should be encouraged, (iii.) That the subject of metallurgy 
 should be broken up into groups of kindred subjects, such as 
 (a) the precious metals, (b) metals extracted from metalliferous 
 mines, as copper, lead, tin, &c. ; (c) iron and steel ; and that the 
 subject of mining should likewise be broken up into (a) coal 
 mining, and (5) metalliferous mining, (iv.) That the Depart- 
 ment should make more effective its inspection of science classes, 
 with a view to ascertain the quality of the instruction and the 
 adequacy of the laboratories and apparatus. (v.) That the 
 Department should not insist on the payment of fees by artisans 
 attending the classes, (vi.) Thab the grants made by the 
 Department for the building of schools of art or of science 
 should no longer be limited to 500. in each case., and that the 
 conditions attached to these grants should be revised. 
 
 Upon a general view it must be owned that with regard to 
 technical instruction for artisans we still have much to learn 
 from our neigbours. At the same time we possess in the classes 
 of the City and Guilds Institute, and in those of the Science 
 and Art Department, two unique and valuable organisations, 
 which, if constantly extended and improved, may supply most 
 of our deficiencies. By undertaking this work later than other 
 nations we get the benefit of their experience. They have now 
 and then committed the mistake of trying to teach in the school 
 things which can be better taught in the workshop. They have 
 now and then offered to the artisan an instruction too elaborate 
 for his wants, or given at hours when his work has to be done. 
 Our people are of a practical bent ; they can distinguish the 
 knowledge which is useful to them, and if they can most con- 
 yeniently get it in the workshop they will seek it there. But 
 
238 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 in our first enthusiasm we may found technical schools for 
 workmen such that workmen will not attend them. The tech- 
 nical school for workmen must teach what workmen want to 
 know. It must adapt its hours and arrangements to their 
 leisure and to their convenience, and must, therefore, be an 
 evening school. A day school which keeps boys of fifteen or 
 sixteen years from their work lays a heavy burthen upon their 
 parents, and the pressure of this burthen provokes an agitation, 
 first of all for the remission of school fees, and secondly for the 
 Supply of food and clothing at the public expense. The Parisian 
 technical schools for workmen are, as a rule, open gratis, and in 
 one of them each pupil costs the community 75L a year. A 
 pupil leaving this school at the age of seventeen years would not 
 necessarily or probably be a better workman than a lad of the 
 same age who had spent two years in a good workshop, and had 
 attended evening classes at the Finsbury College or the Oldham 
 School of Science and Art. Even in Paris the schools thus 
 lavishly assisted are not filled solely by young artisans. 
 
 The evening school is liable to this objection, that it offers 
 instruction to persons already fatigued with a ioi)g day's labour, 
 who may be incapable of application, or at least may feel that 
 they have earned their rest. Yet there is abundant experience 
 to show that evening schools are crowded with pupils, and teach 
 their pupils a great deal. Employers should certainly assist 
 and encourage apprentices to attend these schools. Professor 
 Huxley says, with his accustomed shrewdness, 
 
 Of all the practical measures that could be taken for the ad- 
 vancement of technical education and scientific teaching the most 
 important would be that employers should show that they valued 
 it, and that they would do something for the young people who in 
 any way distinguished themselves. Report , vol. iii. p. 322. 
 
 B. Intermediate Instruction. 
 
 Technical education, we repeat, must always be considered 
 with reference to education as a whole. The establishment of a 
 complete system of public elementary schools haa made it 
 possible to organise primary technical instruction. Intermedi- 
 ate technical instruction cannot be put on a proper footing until 
 we have improved our secondary schools. In England we have 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 
 
 239 
 
 asserted the right and duty of the State to secure the efficiency 
 of primary schools by regulation and assistance. But we have 
 hitherto confined the action of the State in respect of secondary 
 schools to the business of ensuring that their ancient endow- 
 ments, if they have any, shall not be wasted. ' With this ex- 
 ception we have left our secondary education to the mercy of 
 chance. Any person, however ill-qualified, may set up a school 
 for boys of the middle class, and, having set it up, may con- 
 duct it as he pleases. No public body undertakes to provide 
 new schools of this order, or to enforce any standard of excel- 
 lence in those already existing. The consequences are such as 
 we might naturally expect. Test the instruction given in many 
 of the private adventure schools, whether in classics, in modern 
 languages, in natural science, or in drawing, and you will find it 
 thoroughly superficial and unserviceable. Yet these schools 
 exact fees which in France or Germany would be thought high ; 
 their masters are ill-paid ; their buildings, although not so bad 
 as everything else about them, are seldom satisfactory; and 
 altogether the proof is ample that they cannot afford to be 
 efficient, and would not pay if they were useful. Such schools 
 are no fit places of preparation for youths who are to carry on 
 the commerce and manufactures of a great people. 
 
 There are, no doubt, many schools whose celebrity offers a 
 guarantee of their quality ; but these schools do not aim at 
 preparing boys for intermediate technical education. They 
 educate boys for the universities, for the learned professions, for 
 public life, and for the pursuits of literature. There are many 
 schools inferior to these, yet richly endowed, which have been 
 re-modelled by the Charity Commissioners, and give the prepa- 
 ration here suggested. But the Charity Commissioners have 
 not proceeded in the re-organisation of endowed schools quite so 
 fast as we could wish. Besides, endowed schools are distributed 
 very unequally over the country. Whilst they are numerous in 
 a small town like Bedford, they are few in a huge city like 
 Manchester. They are naturally most plentiful in those places 
 which formerly were seats of industry and of wealth, places 
 almost without exception left to quiet and forgetfulness by the 
 industrial revolution. So that if all the endowed schools of 
 England could be re-organised in an instant, and with full 
 
240 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 consideration for those studies which naturally lead up to a 
 technical training, even this would not meet all the wants of 
 middle-class education. 
 
 In order to provide for our intermediate education, both as 
 a whole and in its technical branches, we must call in the help 
 of public bodies. Without this we cannot get a sufficient 
 supply of good secondary schools evenly distributed over the 
 whole kingdom. Such schools, experience has shown, cannot be 
 cheap if they have to defray all their expenses out of the fees. 
 paid by their scholars. In order that they may be open, not 
 merely to the children of prosperous men of business and pro- 
 fessional men, but to the children of the struggling middle class, 
 they must have help, if not from endowment, then from rates or 
 taxes. The local authorities of counties and boroughs must be 
 empowered to establish such schools, and to contribute to 
 their maintenance. There is nothing unreasonable in this 
 proposal. The rich man whose sons are at Eton or Harrow, 
 at Trinity or Christ Church, cannot well deny the. claim of the 
 shopkeeper to give his sons an education better than 'he could 
 provide out of his unaided means. The poor man, whose 
 children are educated largely at the cost of the middle class r 
 can scarcely grumble if the middle class receive public help 
 towards its own education. Nor will any wise patriot grudge 
 an expenditure so necessary, in order that the class which fills 
 all but the highest post in all our industries may hold its own 
 against the corresponding class in France or Germany, educated 
 to the highest point by means of profuse expenditure of public 
 money. 
 
 Secondary schools, built and equipped out of local funds, 
 maintained partly by local subsidies, but partly by the fees of 
 the scholars, and inspected by official experts, would differ 
 considerably from the private adventure schools to which the 
 middle class now entrusts its children. They would not 
 supersede the private adventure schools, but they would kill 
 out all that are hopelessly bad, and drive the rest to become 
 better. These public schools should, of course, .vary their 
 curriculum according to the needs of different places. Where 
 there already existed schools enough to satisfy all the demand 
 for a literary education, the new schools should chiefly devote 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 241 
 
 themselves to teaching natural science and modern languages. 
 In other places they might be double might have two c sides/ 
 as the phrase goes ; the one chiefly literary, the other chiefly 
 scientific. The majority of these public schools would correspond 
 with the real ' schools of Germany, and, besides discharging 
 other functions, would prepare lads for that intermediate 
 technical instruction which we have now to consider. 
 
 The term intermediate, as applied to technical education, is 
 necessarily vague. Technical education, which must always 
 drive at practice, and adapt itself to all the endless require- 
 ments of a thousand callings, does not admit of that clear and 
 simple distribution which may be used in explaining a scheme 
 of liberal education. The intermediate technical instruction 
 discussed in this chapter is an instruction for students of many 
 descriptions, for that minority of gifted workmen whose talent 
 claims more than elementary training, for managers of depart- 
 ments in large works, for heads of establishments who lack 
 time, means, or inclination for an elaborate culture, and for 
 merchants and distributors who find their advantage in having 
 some theoretical knowledge of the goods in which they traffic. 
 Schools meant for the use of such a variety of persons must 
 needs be very various in character. They may be roughly 
 classified as follows :- I. Schools giving general technical in- 
 struction. II. Schools giving the technical instruction needed 
 in particular industries. Among these schools we may distin- 
 guish building schools, mining and engineering schools, and 
 weaving schools. III. Schools of industrial art. A few remarks 
 respecting each of the above classes will show how rough is 
 the classification even as applied to schools on the Continent. 
 As applied to schools in our own country it is still rougher. 
 But the absence of concert in our technical education baffles 
 every attempt to classify our technical schools. 
 
 I. Schools giving a general technical education. The lower 
 grade school of this class ranks just above the apprentice- 
 ship school in fact, may be combined with it, as in several 
 English institutions ; the higher grade schools of this class 
 rank just below technical schools of the first rank, such as the 
 German Polytechnics or the Central Institution at South 
 Kensington. The pupils of the inferior technical school will 
 
 R 
 
242 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 come mostly from the public elementary schools ; whilst the 
 pupils of the advanced technical school will mostly come from 
 the secondary schools. Thus intermediate technical schools 
 may be classified according to the average age for admission in 
 each instance. There will be one set of technical schools for 
 those who wish to begin learning a trade at the age of thirteen 
 years, and another set of technical schools for those who can 
 defer learning a trade until they are sixteen years old. Inter- 
 mediate technical schools of the lower grade are few in England. 
 In France they are more plentiful. A French example will serve 
 to show what schools of this class ought to be. 
 
 The Ecole Professionnelle Municipale of Rheims was founded 
 in A.D. 1875, in order to help the youth of that city in getting 
 a practical knowledge of manufactures and commerce. The 
 pupils were to be drawn from such scholars at the primary 
 schools as had passed their examination with credit, but others 
 are admitted on passing an entrance examination in grammar, 
 dictation, and arithmetic. Boys enter the school at the age of 
 thirteen, and the course extends over three years. During the 
 first two years all receive the same theoretical and practical 
 instruction ; but in the third year they are distributed, accord- 
 ing to their aptitudes, between the sections of manufactures, 
 mechanics, commerce, and agriculture. In this year eighteen 
 hours a week are allotted to practical work in the shop. For 
 the practical work a complete plant has been supplied at a cost 
 of 20,000. In the weaving and spinning department the 
 student can apply his theoretical knowledge to the production 
 of the various textiles manufactured at Rheims. He can spin 
 and weave the wool which he has washed, carded, dyed, and 
 prepared, and can perform each operation in the school with 
 plant similar to that used in the factory. Drawing is taught on 
 a method which appears to produce accurate and rapid draughts- 
 men. The students in the first year spend three months in 
 drawing from sketches on the black-board ; they then proceed 
 to make freehand sketches of geometrical solids, tools, and parts 
 of machines. These sketches are afterwards carefully figured 
 for dimensions, and from them accurate drawings to scale are 
 prepared. Finally they produce in the same way freehand 
 sketches and finished drawings of the objects that they actually 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 243 
 
 make in the workshop. In the second year seven, and in the 
 third year six hours a week are devoted to drawing. The 
 chemical laboratories are well equipped, and the scheme of 
 instruction is so carefully arranged that the whole cost of 
 200 experiments performed by a student in his first and 
 second year does not exceed five francs. A special laboratory 
 is set apart for those students of the third year who intend 
 to enter chemical works, and in this the chemistry of dyeing is 
 taught. 
 
 The French schools of this class are highly recommended in 
 the Report. 
 
 In the whole system of French instruction your Commissioners 
 have found nothing, except as regards art teaching, which seems to 
 them so worthy of attention as these higher elementary technical 
 schools. Report, vol. i. p. 84. 
 
 In the grade just above that of the higher elementary 
 schools, the grade of secondary schools properly so called, 
 come institutions such as the technical department of Firth 
 College, Sheffield, or of University College, Nottingham, the 
 Ecole Centrale of Lyons, and the Higher Trade Institute of 
 Chemnitz. The Ecole Centrale of Lyons is a school for 
 mechanical engineers who wish to complete their education 
 at the age of nineteen or twenty years. The pupils usually 
 become managers and superior foremen. The Commissioners 
 thought that schools of this type might with advantage be 
 established in our large towns. The Higher Trade Institute 
 of Chemnitz in Saxony comprises four schools a higher 
 technical school for mechanists, chemists, and architects ; a fore- 
 men's school for foremen employed in various industries ; a 
 building school for those who wish to follow any branch of the 
 building trade; and a drawing school for everybody who cares 
 to attend it. The age of the pupils is much the same as at 
 the Ecole Centrale of Lyons. The outlay upon the school may 
 show the value which the Saxons attach to technical instruction. 
 The site and buildings cost nearly 82,OOOZ. The annual 
 expenses amount to upwards of 9,000^., of which the students' 
 fees hardly cover one-sixth part. The rest is made up by a large 
 subsidy from the State and a smaller subsidy from the town. 
 
244 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 The efficiency of this school called forth the admiration of th& 
 Commissioners. 
 
 II. We now pass to the consideration of schools giving 
 special instruction to persons preparing for some one industry. 
 Among the schools of this class the German building schools 
 form an important group. They are large and admirably 
 appointed, supplied with eminent professors, and so moderate 
 in their fees as to be readily accessible to the thrifty, industrious 
 workman. The Building Trade School of Stuttgart is a fine 
 specimen. It is housed in a magnificent building which cost 
 more than 50,000^., and its annual expenses are defrayed chiefly 
 by the State. Pupils are admitted at the age of fourteen years. 
 The instruction is organised in two preparatory mathematical 
 courses and three special scientific courses, designed respectively 
 for those employed in the building trade, for land surveyors and 
 land agents, and for mechanical engineers. The subjects taught 
 include mathematics, physics, general geometry and statics, 
 freehand and ornamental drawing, geometrical drawing, build- 
 ing construction, surveying, mensuration, machine construction,, 
 and special drawing for joiners. 
 
 Drawing in all its applications was most carefully taught, and 
 the studies of the pupils evinced a thorough acquaintance with the 
 subject. Report, vol. i. p. 104. 
 
 No practical work is attempted in the school, as the scholars 
 are presumed to be already working in the builder's trade. The 
 attendance is always best in the winter, when building has to 
 be suspended. It is instructive to compare this superb building 
 school, situated in a petty capital, with the starved Building 
 Trades Institute of the great city of Manchester. 
 
 The metallurgical school of Bochum, in Westphalia, is a 
 good specimen of another class of special technical schools. It 
 was established by the iron and steel manufacturers of the 
 district, who were desirous that their foremen and leading 
 hands should have some tincture of theory to help out the 
 experience gained in the workshop. Only worianen are ad- 
 mitted, and candidates must have been employed for at least 
 four years in iron-works or mechanical engineering works. 
 Certificates of good conduct, competence, and elementary 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 245 
 
 Tmowledge are also exacted. The whole time of the pupils is 
 spent in the school. The course occupies three half-years, the 
 first being devoted to general preparatory study, and the two 
 following either to metallurgy or to the construction of- machines, 
 according to the vocation of each student. In the preparatory 
 class the programme includes drawing, mathematics, physics, 
 experimental chemistry, the principles of the metallurgy of iron 
 and steel, the German language, and the keeping of accounts. 
 In the metallurgical division these subjects are continued, atid 
 the construction of furnaces, smelting, making steel, the analysis 
 of the raw material, and the testing of the finished product are 
 also studied in detail. The mechanical division includes 
 besides the general subjects instruction in theoretical and 
 applied mechanics, in the properties of materials ordinarily 
 used in machinery, in the construction of machines, and in the 
 economy of the workshop. 
 
 The German building schools are not likely to have any 
 direct result in making more severe the foreign competition 
 which we now experience. The German schools of mining and 
 metallurgy are quite recent ; but the German weaving schools 
 call for special notice, as having helped foreigners to rival us in 
 our greatest industries. These schools teach whatever the 
 master, the foreman, or the designer ought to know in reference 
 to his trade, and they also impart to merchants, agents, dis- 
 tributors, and shopkeepers a thorough knowledge of textiles 
 and the construction thereof. The schools are intended, not to 
 supersede apprenticeship in the factory, but to convey know- 
 ledge which is not to be obtained save in exceptional factories. 
 As a place in which to learn weaving, the factory is allowed to 
 possess considerable advantages over any school. It is worked 
 for profit idleness is not allowed everything is done under 
 the spur of competition, and the necessities of business forbid 
 anything conjectural, antiquated, or needlessly refined. On 
 the other hand, the instruction given in the factory is merely 
 instruction in routine. There is no time to explain the reason 
 of anything, and labour is so minutely subdivided that every 
 hand is limited to the incessant repetition of a single process. 
 In England especially this subdivision has been carried to a 
 -degree which forbids the general knowledge of textiles to be 
 
246 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 obtained in any one factory, we might almost say in any one 
 town. 
 
 Again, there are things not taught in any factory, and hardly to 
 be acquired by the man who is earning his daily bread, which may,, 
 nevertheless, be of vital importance to the man of business whose 
 personal aim it is not to execute more and more swiftly some con- 
 stantly repeated operation, but to find out what the world wants, 
 and how that want can best be met. . . . Fashions can be set or 
 they can be followed, and the student will find in his industrious 
 experience how capricious and changeable they are ; but experience 
 will also teach him that whoever can satisfy the prevailing taste is sure 
 of customers, and excellence in this respect stands on the same level 
 with good wearing quality and low price. Moreover, this is the variable 
 element, the quality with which calculation and experience of factory 
 management have least to do, the one in which force and versatility 
 carry all before them. 
 
 As is the case in other branches of industry in pottery and 
 porcelain, glass furniture and metal-work where the higher quali- 
 ties of design and artistic workmanship have developed trade and 
 brought wealth to the producers, so in textile industry it is the 
 design that sells the cloth. The quality of the fabric may be hard 
 to tell, but every customer forms his own estimate of the pattern 
 printed upon it or woven into it. The wool-comber, the spinner,, 
 the weaver may each do his part faultlessly, but if the design is un- 
 satisfactory or inappropriate, or the colour or finishing of the piece 
 ineffective, it will be cast aside by the purchaser as inferior the moment 
 it is displayed on the shop counter against more effective, even 
 though intrinsically less valuable work. False work, it is true, will 
 not be permanently tolerated, even under the disguise of fair seeming ; 
 but it is folly in a manufacturer to neglect excellence in that depart- 
 ment of his work where it tells most and costs least. Report, vol. i.. 
 pp. 120-121. 
 
 The weaving schools of the Continent aim at giving a 
 general acquaintance with various kinds of machinery and with 
 a number of processes seldom carried on altogether, but they 
 aim still more at giving familiarity with the arts of design. 
 Some students have a natural gift for mechanism ; others for 
 art ; but the mechanist learns a little art, and the artist comes 
 to know something about machinery. Among these schools 
 the German ones are pre-eminent ; and, in Germany, those of 
 Mulhausen, Crefeld, and Chemnitz take the foremost place. 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 247 
 
 As they are necessarily much alike, a brief description of the 
 school at Crefeld may convey an idea of all the rest. 
 
 Students are admitted to the school at the age of fourteen 
 if they can pass the entrance examination. The scale of fees is 
 graduated for Prussians, for other Germans, and for foreigners. 
 But the payments are low, a first year's course costing a 
 Prussian only 6L, and a second year's course only 9Z., with an 
 extra fee of 5L for the use of a private studio. There are 
 scholarships which enable the poor student to take the benefit 
 of the school without paying anything. The complete course 
 of instruction extends over two years, but shorter courses may 
 be arranged with the director. The course is divided into two 
 sections the theoretical and the practical : the first including 
 a thorough study of drawing ; the second including instruction 
 on the loom. Drawing and painting are taught from copies 
 and models, and from natural plants and flowers, with adapta- 
 tions to printing and other branches of the textile industry. 
 Due prominence is given to geometrical drawing and the draw- 
 ing of machines, particularly of those parts of the loom which 
 affect the pattern in the woven fabric. There are also lectures 
 on textile fibres, on the elements of weaving, and on machinery. 
 Fabrics are decomposed and explained, looms are arranged for 
 weaving plain goods or goods with simple designs, and technical 
 calculations and bookkeeping are carefully taught. In the 
 second year lectures are given on the principles which govern 
 the ornamentation of woven or printed fabrics, and the art 
 teaching is continued until the student is able to invent and 
 apply original designs. He is then admitted into one of the 
 studios, where, under the guidance of qualified designers, he is 
 encouraged to give play to his own imagination. At the same 
 time he continues his studies in the decomposition of patterns, 
 and in the composing and calculation of designed materials. 
 He attends lectures on the construction, erection, and action of 
 the looms and other machines used in weaving. He unmounts 
 the power-loom piece by piece, and builds it up again. He 
 works at the forge, and learns the use of the machine and 
 hand-tools in the workshop ; he cuts the cards in accordance 
 with his own designs on the paper prepared by his own hands ; 
 he fixes the cards in the jacquard machine ; and at length 
 
248 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 becomes thoroughly practised in weaving the most complex 
 patterns, both in hand and power looms. 
 
 The weaving school of Crefeld is particularly remarkable for 
 its museum of textile fabrics and patterns, perhaps the finest 
 of the class in Europe. Besides cases of raw material and 
 screens of modern silk and other textile designs, there is the 
 Krauth collection of historical patterns, containing a wonderful 
 variety of valuable specimens. The patterns are so arranged 
 as to assist reference by students and designers. Upwards of 
 5,000 specimens are kept in glazed frames, which protect them 
 from dust, yet can readily be removed when necessary. Others 
 are arranged in cabinets in their due order from the tenth cen- 
 tury to the present time. The school library contains more 
 than 1,200 volumes of well-chosen books on art and the manu- 
 facture of textiles. The patent records are supplied by the 
 Government, and the periodical literature includes the fashion 
 papers from Paris and elsewhere. A large sum has been set 
 aside for the purchase of books, and the library on certain days 
 is open, not to teachers or students from the school only, but 
 to the general public as well. 
 
 The dyeing and finishing department of the school is equally 
 complete. Its aim is twofold : to give to those who wish to 
 devote themselves to chemistry an education both in the science 
 and in its practical applications, and to instruct dyers, bleachers, 
 calico printers, and finishers in the manufacture of dyes and 
 mordants, in the methods of examining and testing the value 
 of dyes and other chemicals, and, lastly, to afford them the 
 means of applying their knowledge to the practice of dyeing, 
 bleaching, printing, and finishing. The buildings include, 
 besides class-room s, two chemical laboratories, a dyeing laboratory, 
 and a dyeing and finishing house, furnished with new and complete 
 machinery. Collections of specimens and a library are attached 
 to the school. The course, extending over two years, includes 
 the fullest instruction in machinery, drawing, textile fibres, 
 physics, and, above all, chemistry. 
 
 Manufacturers are the best judges of the training given in 
 a school of manufactures, and the leading citizens of Crefeld 
 entertain the highest opinion of these schools. They informed 
 the Commissioners that employers are always eager to secure 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 249 
 
 young men who have been pupils there, and that old pupils can 
 turn their knowledge to very good account. To the schools 
 these gentlemen ascribed the extraordinary growth of their silk 
 industry. When asked why the weaving school should pay so 
 much attention to the manufacture of other materials such as 
 jute, wool, and cotton they replied that they were anxious to 
 introduce new manufactures as a fresh resource in bad times, 
 and that in any case students who are to become designers or 
 distributors of textile fabrics gain by making themselves 
 familiar with every textile material. 
 
 In the Bradford Technical College and in the textile de- 
 partment of the Yorkshire College at Leeds we have schools 
 which may fairly be compared with the weaving schools of 
 Germany. But a general survey will show at once how few 
 and how ill-provided are our special technical schools. Our 
 general technical schools, although somewhat stronger, are still 
 inadequate. In many of our manufacturing towns the citizens 
 are now making vigorous efforts to amend this state of things. 
 The City and Guilds Institute has undertaken to supply London 
 with intermediate technical schools, and in the Finsbury 
 Technical College has given a good model for imitation. It is 
 to be feared, however, that English people do not understand 
 the greatness of the task before them. None but thoroughly 
 good technical schools are worth setting up in a country where 
 practical skill is even now plentiful. In order to set up and 
 maintain a good technical school we must have a well- considered 
 plan and a copious and regular revenue. The best technical 
 schools of France and Germany are at once grand in scale and 
 elaborately wrought in the parts. Every detail has been worked 
 out ; every appliance has been provided ; whilst a generous 
 ideal has inspired the whole. But these schools have been in 
 many instances founded, and are in all cases assisted, by the 
 State, or by municipal bodies, arid have, no less than the primary 
 schools and the universities, their place in a vast scheme of 
 national culture. There is some danger lest voluntary effort, 
 unaided and undirected by any national agency, may issue in 
 a crowd of incomplete and ill-organised schools. Another 
 clanger is that voluntary effort may not find a steady and abun- 
 dant revenue to carry on the work of the schools when founded. 
 
250 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 English people are methodic enough in business, but they are 
 not methodic in education. When they become excited about 
 their intellectual condition, they subscribe a large sum, erect a 
 large building, concoct a programme of lectures, and think the 
 matter ended. In truth the matter is only begun. For a seat 
 of learning a fine edifice, although most desirable, is not the 
 only thing needful. In the present state of knowledge a teach- 
 ing institution cannot be efficient unless it have a staff so 
 numerous as to allow of a minute subdivision of labour, and 
 unless every member of the staff be really master of his own 
 small province. But in England the demand for experts in 
 applied science to assist in various manufactures is so great, and 
 the salaries offered to them are so high, that they will always be 
 tempted to quit the lecture-room for the factory. If they are 
 to sit long in the professorial chair, it must be reasonably well 
 cushioned. The staff of a technical school must be numerous, 
 and it must be well paid ; and to this end an ample endow- 
 ment is necessary. The indispensable equipment of such 
 schools, the apparatus, the museums, and the libraries in cost 
 are second only to the staff. In short, a good technical -school 
 is an expensive thing. 
 
 For these reasons the assistance of the community will be 
 wanted to finish the work which individuals have begun. It 
 has been suggested that the School Boards should be empowered 
 to found apprenticeship schools. The local authorities who may 
 hereafter be judged fit to establish intermediate schools for 
 general instruction should also be empowered to establish tech- 
 nical schools of a corresponding rank. Town councils should 
 at once receive the power of making grants to technical schools 
 within their jurisdiction. We have seen how constantly this 
 power is exercised by municipal bodies on the Continent. At 
 a later day, perhaps, the State may assume the business of in- 
 specting and assisting technical schools. In the meantime the 
 London companies would do nobly in enabling the City and 
 Guilds Institute to increase the number and amount of its 
 subsidies to colleges which are giving sound technical instruc- 
 tion. To strengthen the schools we have is even more urgent 
 than to found new ones. 
 
 In founding intermediate technical schools we shall not 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 251 
 
 have much help from endowments under the control of the 
 Charity Commissioners. Some of these endowments may be 
 applicable to the provision of apprenticeship schools, but the 
 bulk of them is wanted for schools of a general character. It 
 is an illusion to think that we can have the charge of our tech- 
 nical education defrayed out of the bounty of our ancestors. 
 We must take the burthen upon ourselves, and, after all, it is 
 we, and not our ancestors, who will reap the advantage. 
 
 III. Schools of industrial art form a class distinct from all 
 the schools heretofore discussed. It is difficult, and perhaps 
 useless to draw a line between pure and applied art. It is 
 difficult even to say which is better worth teaching, with a view 
 to technical results. In this country the Science and Art 
 Department began with trying to teach the application of art 
 to manufactures, but now chiefly teaches pure art, and, through 
 its art teaching, exercises a happy influence on our industries. 
 The French have taken extraordinary pains to spread the know- 
 ledge of pure art, and find that industrial art takes care of 
 itself. In their art schools the instruction is conformed to the 
 principle that if only you can do enough for art, you are sure 
 to do enough for industry ; that if you can cultivate the work- 
 man's sense of beauty and power of rendering the beautiful, you 
 will have, done the best for his work and for the wealth of the 
 community. 
 
 Drawing is taught from the purely artistic point of view, as this 
 method is thought to be the only one by which the artistic power 
 of the pupils can be encouraged and developed. Report, vol. i. 
 p. 35. 
 
 The French schools of art, supported by the State and the 
 municipal bodies, are open free of charge ; the buildings are 
 spacious, well arranged, and well lighted ; casts and models are 
 lavishly supplied ; the masters are skilful and enthusiastic ; and 
 the classes are crowded with eager pupils. The course of in- 
 struction is extensive. Thus the programme of the Ecole 
 Nationale des Arts Decoratifs includes mathematics, architec- 
 tural construction, freehand drawing and ornament, modelling, 
 drawing from the antique, drawing from life, the history of 
 ornament and decoration. 
 
252 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 The School of Fine Arts at Toulouse is well known as one 
 in which a knowledge of drawing is rapidly acquired. The 
 plan of teaching is as follows : Classes of seven sit round a 
 black-board, on which the monitor makes a sketch, which is 
 copied on slates by the lads forming the class. There is a 
 special class for monitors seven or eight in number. From 
 this room the boys pass into the next class, in which they begin 
 to draw on sugar-paper with charcoal. Here they draw solid 
 forms (what we should call model drawing), only in lieu of 
 doing freehand work they are supplied with rulers, and encou- 
 raged to rule all the straight lines. The aim in this class is not 
 so much to teach drawing as to teach a correct appreciation of 
 form. The pupils begin with squares, cubes, prisms, and solid 
 rectilineal figures, advancing afterwards to spherical forms and 
 architectural details. When proficient in these exercises they 
 learn copying from the flat, and then pass into the ornament 
 room, where they make careful studies from lithographed copies 
 of ornament; but some go to the model drawing room, and 
 make shaded studies from solids. They can then commence 
 drawing from the cast, and after a course of fragments, hands, 
 and feet, they turn to the antique. Here the classes are divided, 
 those intending to become painters and those studying as 
 sculptors having each a separate course. 
 
 Elementary classes meet from six to eight o'clock on winter 
 evenings, and from six to eight o'clock on summer mornings. 
 These are attended chiefly by apprentices, and contain upwards 
 of 1,000 pupils. Classes in mechanical drawing and projection 
 are well attended. A good library is attached to the school. 
 
 In the Belgian art schools the boys begin by drawing geo- 
 metrical forms with chalk on black-boards, which surround the 
 walls of the room. When they can use the chalk with readiness 
 they pass on to drawing similar forms with charcoal on sugar- 
 paper. From outline drawing they advance to shading from the 
 cast, and in the third year to drawing from the life. This 
 method produces rapidity and boldness of work rather than 
 precision. The Commissioners thought the quality of the draw- 
 ing thus taught eminently suitable to artisans. The habit of 
 rapid practice imparts such power of drawing as they require in 
 a far shorter time than would suffice under the system adopted 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 253 
 
 in English schools of art. Which of the two systems is better 
 adapted to the needs of the artist may be a more doubtful 
 question. 
 
 The industrial art schools of Germany differ from the art 
 schools of France in laying more stress upon the application of 
 art to manufactures. The schools of Dresden and Vienna are 
 good examples of the class. That of Dresden has revived old 
 and established new industries. Its work is to be found in 
 every large shop in the city, and extends to every branch of 
 industrial art. It contains no workshops, but the designs made 
 by the pupils are sold to manufacturers. It is divided into the 
 departments of designing, architecture, decorative painting, 
 ornament, figure drawing, art modelling, and decorative paint- 
 ing from the figure. Besides the work done in the studios, there 
 are lectures on such subjects as anatomy and the history of art. 
 The school library contains 2,000 printed books and 16,000 
 mounted patterns and examples, together with 11,000 examples 
 of embroidery and lace. It is open to the public, and is visited 
 every year by thousands of persons. The school museum con- 
 tains 140,000 patterns of textile fabrics of all kinds and of all 
 ages. The director, at the time of the visit of the Commis- 
 sioners, had studied in the University, in the Polytechnic School, 
 and in the Berlin Academy of Arts. He was also a professional 
 designer in metal-work, porcelain, furniture, wall papers, and 
 textiles. He held that schools of this class should simply teach 
 design, without making the objects designed. In the Vienna 
 school a different plan is adopted. There carving, metal chasing, 
 and working in brass and bronze are largely practised. The 
 work done in wood-carving surpassed anything of the kind 
 which can be seen in English schools, and all the workers were 
 qualified to raise the standard of taste and execution in the 
 workshops which they might enter. 
 
 Many of the students attending the industrial art schools 
 maintain themselves by working elsewhere a certain number of 
 hours daily, and selling what they make. These students are 
 generally the most successful, because they have begun to attend 
 the school after two or three years spent in seeking a livelihood 
 have taught them their deficiences, and inspired them with a 
 wish to improve themselves. In South Germany the Fortbildung > 
 
254 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 or continuation schools, also serve as nurseries to the industrial 
 art schools, and in them are produced excellent examples of 
 modelling, carving, and smith's work. Thus in Germany, as in 
 France, there is a wide diffusion of artistic taste and skill. Al- 
 though the application of art to industry receives more attention 
 in the German than in the French schools, yet the experts in 
 both countries are thoroughly agreed upon the principles of 
 artistic education. The German professors declare, with the 
 French, that pure art is the groundwork of all good design, and 
 that a thorough discipline in drawing is the key to an under- 
 standing of art. 
 
 If the student has any talent or art-feeling within him, his 
 power of drawing will enable him to give it expression ; but with- 
 out thought and imagination there can be no originality in design. 
 Mere knowledge of drawing will not make a man a good artist any 
 more than knowledge of language will make him a poet ; but 
 designer and poet are helpless without the knowledge of the lan- 
 guage by which their art can be expressed to others. Report, vol. i. 
 p. 237 
 
 The Germans, like the French, attach more value than we 
 do to rapidity in drawing. One professor, with whom the 
 Commissioners conversed, thought that the free use of charcoal 
 and the stump, as practised in France, encouraged originality, 
 boldness, and dexterity at the expense of precision and finish ; 
 whilst the English methods, which laid so much stress on exact 
 outline and careful shading, fostered accuracy, but also timidity. 
 He disapproved of the incessant competitions instituted in the 
 French schools of art, considering that, although they might 
 stimulate the sluggish, they exhausted the finer intellects. 
 ' Genius in young men,' he said, ' needs offcener to be restrained 
 than to be pushed forward, and constant competitions encourage 
 ;some of the most prominent students to rush by leaps and 
 bounds to the higher realms of pictorial representation before 
 they have mastered the elementary rules of drawing and colour- 
 ing.' (Report, vol. i. p. 239.) 
 
 The Commissioners came to conclusions resembling those 
 cited above. They say that in England we do not lay enough 
 stress upon combining rapidity with accuracy of drawing, and 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 255 
 
 they insist repeatedly upon the necessity to the designer of a 
 discipline in pure art. To quote their own words, 
 
 Not until the student is thoroughly master of the various 
 materials and processes by which art is capable of expression, and 
 of the influence of style upon the development of fine arts, can the 
 student do any good by concerning himself with the varieties of 
 design, and the application of the same to industry. It is at this 
 later period of his training when the designer can be materially 
 benefited by placing before him well-selected illustrations of what 
 the best designers and art workers of previous periods have achieved ; 
 and it is here where the influence of industrial museums, collections 
 of patterns, and drawings and exhibitions of art workmanship may 
 exert a most powerful influence for good over the young designer. 
 If, at the same time, we can make his work valuable to him by the 
 actual use of what he is doing for the manufacturer or art workman, 
 and if we can show him, further, how much more valuable his work 
 may become to him in the future, by holding out to him the hope of 
 a profitable and honourable career, we shall present the most power- 
 ful stimulus to the creation of the future designer. . . . The dignity 
 of the designer's work and the importance of the position he occupies 
 are not sufficiently acknowledged in our own country. ... If the 
 value of his labours were only acknowledged, . . . the 'artist 
 designer ' would soon take his proper rank in the country. Report, 
 vol. i. p. 165. 
 
 One of the witnesses examined by the Commission, Mr. 
 Kawle, pointed out the good that the Royal Academy might do 
 by recognising the art of design. The City Livery Companies 
 might with advantage spend their wealth more freely than they 
 have yet done in encouraging designers of talent to produce the 
 highest possible work. 
 
 The evidence given before the Commission by several English 
 witnesses confirms and illustrates the doctrines above laid down. 
 Sir Edward Baines said that our paid professional designers 
 obtained the material for their designs by copying from each 
 other. He complained, and Mr. William Morris echoed the 
 complaint, that they lack originality; that they are poor in 
 thought. And Mr. Morris, no follower of outlandish fashions, 
 declared that the French, above all other people, are masters of 
 style in the arts of design. ' By mastery of style I mean,' he 
 said, c a kind of faculty which enables a man to take certain 
 
256 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 elements of form and work them into a congruous whole which 
 strikes the eye at once. In appreciation 'for beauty,' he con- 
 tinued, ' in love for beautiful lines and colours, the French can- 
 not be said to be superior to the English ; certainly they are 
 not superior in matters of colour.' If we may put the thing in 
 other words, the Englishman is perhaps the equal, possibly the 
 superior, of the Frenchman in artistic sensibility; but in the 
 logic of art, in the discipline of the creative faculty, he is far 
 inferior to him. Now, a good system of teaching in pure art is 
 just the influence needed to rescue our designers from the 
 bondage of imitation on the one hand, and from the anarchy 
 of their own artistic impulses on the other. Doubtless we have 
 made considerable progress in the arts of design. We are no 
 longer par excellence the makers of hideous things ; but we are 
 only beginning our career as artistic manufacturers. 
 
 It is said that a famous English firm obtained a prize at the 
 Paris Exhibition of 1878 for a cabinet entirely wrought by 
 foreign artists. A Frenchman had furnished the design, a 
 German had cut the marqueterie, and a German, assisted by a 
 Dane, had done the work of the cabinet-maker. 
 
 It is not solely upon the number and excellence of their 
 public schools of art that our neighbours rely for the mainte- 
 nance of their artistic industries. In almost every one of the 
 large towns of France, Belgium, and Germany may be found a 
 good picture-gallery and a museum, either industrial or anti- 
 quarian. These galleries and museums are of the utmost 
 service to the local schools of art and industry. The value of a 
 picture-gallery in connection with a school of art is obvious. 
 But the industrial museums are equally valuable to the technical 
 schools. Amongp all the institutions for technical training 
 which have made Mulhausen famous, none is more prized by 
 the citizens than the museum of textile fabrics. 
 
 Some went so far as to say that they could not see how the trade 
 could in any degree prosper without it. To the designer it is a con- 
 stant source of inspiration. The museum is to him what the well- 
 stored library is to the literary man, or a collection of the best 
 pictures to a painter. Report, vol. i. p. 354. 
 
 The usefulness of similar museums at Crefeld and Dresden 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 257 
 
 lias been noticed elsewhere in this summary. In France, 
 especially, the good done by galleries and museums has been 
 thoroughly understood. The municipal bodies and the State 
 work together with private munificence to multiply and enrich 
 them. The State assists with grants of money and of such 
 objects as can be spared from the national collection. Repro- 
 ductions of works of art are invariably supplied on any request 
 by local authorities. The control and management of the 
 museums and galleries is shared between the central authority,, 
 which appoints directors, and the local authority, which ap- 
 points a committee of management. 
 
 In England only a few large towns have exerted themselves 
 to diffuse a knowledge of industrial art, whether by means of 
 schools or of galleries. Generally speaking, all that has been 
 done with this object has been done by the Science and Art 
 Department. In furtherance of the work of artistic instruction 
 the Commissioners recommended the following changes, (i.); 
 The abolition of the limit imposed by the Free Libraries Acts 
 on the expense which local bodies may incur for the establish- 
 ment of galleries and museums of art. One would suppose that 
 in this matter the ratepayers were very well able to defend their 
 own purses, (ii.) The abolition of the maximum of 500L for 
 the grant which the Science and Art Department may make in. 
 aid of the erection of local schools of art and museums in con- 
 nection with them. Not only is this maximum in itself absurdly 
 small, but it does harm by giving the public a mistaken idea of 
 the outlay needed to make these institutions useful. The con- 
 ditions accompanying even such grants as can now be made are 
 embarrassing, and ought to be revised, (iii.) That the Depart- 
 ment should not insist upon the payment of fees by artisans 
 attending the art classes, (iv.) That in the awards for indus- 
 trial design the Department should attend more than it does now 
 to the applicability of the design to the material in which it is 
 to be executed ; also that the Department should make special 
 grants for the execution of designs under such safeguards as 
 would defeat fraud. Although experts are not all agreed on 
 this point, it seems right, both on artistic and on commercial 
 principles, that the designer should be familiar with and master 
 of the material in which his design is to be executed, (v.) That 
 
 s 
 
258 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 the Department, which now supplies reproductions of works 
 of art at a reduced cost, and lends collections of the works them- 
 selves to provincial galleries and museums, should also grant to 
 them original examples of a nature to advance the industries of 
 the several districts in which they are situated, (vi.) The 
 opening of museums and galleries on Sunday. 
 
 These reforms, however, will not have their full effect with- 
 out the help of individual munificence. England is rich beyond 
 all other countries in private collections of art, and if the fashion 
 of giving were once confirmed, these would be so many reservoirs 
 to feed our public galleries. There is no better or safer mode 
 of bounty than to enrich the community with gifts of this sort. 
 They tend not merely to improve technical skill, but to civilise 
 the whole people, to give them a taste for humane pleasures and 
 a perception of the beautiful, and so, by degrees, to soften and 
 to brighten that dull, hard world which the nation, as a nation, 
 still inhabits. 
 
 C. Advanced Instruction. 
 
 The highest grade of technical education, what we may call 
 the University grade, differs widely in its circumstances from the 
 lower grades. The object of the highest technical instruction 
 is twofold : first, to supply the national industries with the need- 
 ful staff of experts in applied science ; and secondly, to supply 
 competent teachers to intermediate technical schools. As the 
 number of persons who can find employment as experts and 
 teachers is comparatively small, technical high schools need not 
 be many, as compared with technical schools of inferior rank ; 
 but, as everything depends on the quality of those teachers and 
 experts, the institutions in which they are trained cannot be too 
 complete or too efficient. The technical education of the common 
 workman should be brought to his door if it is to be of any use ; 
 the technical education of the student who has means and leisure 
 will be near enough if it is good enough. Therefore, in pro- 
 viding for advanced technical instruction, the essential thing is 
 to have a high standard of what such instruction- ought to be. 
 To try to make instruction altogether practical, to be too im- 
 patient for results, to exclude the spirit of research and the 
 love of science this is the certain means to make it poor, 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 
 
 259 
 
 shallow, unfruitful, and, in the strictest sense, useless. The 
 technical high school will do no good unless it is liberally 
 planned. The noblest type of such a school is to be found in 
 the Polytechnics of Germany and Switzerland. A very brief 
 description of one of the most celebrated the Polytechnic of 
 Zurich will serve to show what our intelligent neighbours 
 think necessary for a technical high school. We should re- 
 member that Switzerland in extent is equal to about half of 
 Scotland, in population is little superior to Yorkshire, does not 
 contain a single large city, and may be termed a poor country. 
 
 The Polytechnic is housed in a vast edifice, which forms one 
 of the most conspicuous features of Zurich. It includes seven 
 special schools of architecture, of civil engineering, of me- 
 chanical engineering, of chemical technology, of agriculture and 
 forestry, a normal school, and a school of philosophical and poli- 
 tical science. But the magnitude of the foundation will best be 
 understood from the subjoined list of the collections which have 
 been provided for the use of the students : 
 
 1. Several libraries belonging, some to the school, some to 
 the canton, and some to the city of Zurich. 
 
 2. Various collections belonging to the engineering and 
 architectural divisions, and consisting of models, instruments, &c. 
 
 3. A collection of plaster casts of architectural ornaments. 
 
 4. A collection of specimens of construction and of materials 
 used in building. 
 
 5. A collection of antique vases. 
 
 6. A collection of engravings, about 24,000 in number. 
 
 7. A collection of geometrical instruments. 
 
 8. A collection of models of machinery. 
 
 9. A collection of tools and models attached to the division 
 of applied mechanical technology. 
 
 10. A collection of models of raw and finished products at- 
 tached to the section of chemical technology. 
 
 11. A collection of mathematical and geometrical models. 
 
 12. A collection of interesting specimens, tools, &c., relating 
 to forestry. 
 
 13. A collection of models, implements, and produce in all 
 departments of agriculture. 
 
 14. A collection of specimens relating to natural history, 
 
 s 2 
 
260 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 zoology, botany, mineralogy, geology, palaeontology, and ento- 
 mology. 
 
 15. An archaeological collection. 
 
 16. A workshop for moulding and casting in clay and 
 plaster. 
 
 17. A workshop for metal- work. 
 
 18. Laboratories for instruction in theoretical and applied 
 chemistry. 
 
 19. A special laboratory for agricultural chemistry. 
 
 20. A cabinet of physical apparatus and a physical labora- 
 tory. 
 
 21. An institute of vegetable physiology, comprising a room 
 for microscopic researches, a physiological laboratory, botanical 
 collections, and hothouses. 
 
 22. A botanical garden with a museum for the general and 
 botanical collections. 
 
 The chemical laboratories having become too narrow for the 
 crowd of students resorting to them, the Federal Council 
 recently voted a sum of 50,OOOL for their extension. The staff 
 is immense, and at the time of the visit of the Commissioners 
 consisted of forty-five professors and thirteen assistants, exclusive 
 of the tutors and the curators of the museums. An establish- 
 ment of this magnitude is necessarily expensive. Modest as are 
 Swiss salaries and economic as is Swiss management, the ex- 
 penses amount to fully 20,000. a year, and of this sum not one- 
 fifth is recouped by fees received from the students. The fees 
 must be low indeed, since those paid by a student of chemistry,, 
 including his laboratory charges, do not exceed 12L a year. 
 
 A student must be at least eighteen years of age on admis- 
 sion. The length of the course of instruction varies in the 
 various departments of the Polytechnic, but on an average is 
 about three years. The instruction is scientific almost to a 
 fault ; thus there is no manual instruction in mechanical work. 
 To quote the words of the Commissioners, 
 
 This renowned school has from its very commencement en- 
 deavoured to impart the greatest possible extent of scientific instruc- 
 tion in each of its departments, and its efforts have been to direct 
 thought and research of the highest kind in their application to 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 261 
 
 industrial pursuits, and thus to bring about the necessary mutual 
 interchange of ideas between science and practice ; and it has been 
 so far successful that students have come to it from all parts of the 
 world. The Commissioners had the opportunity of judging of the 
 advantages which it has bestowed, not only upon Switzerland, but 
 also upon Germany, by the number of thoroughly trained scientific 
 men who have been educated within its walls, and who are now 
 holding important positions in various industrial establishments 
 which the Commissioners have visited. Report , vol. i. p. 191. 
 
 The German Polytechnics in all their essential features re- 
 semble the school at Zurich. The services which they have 
 rendered to German industry are unquestionable. Professor 
 Zeuner, rector of the Dresden Polytechnic, pointed out to the 
 Commissioners that in all the chief industrial centres of Germany 
 the Polytechnic students were filling the posts of managers and 
 directors. To their superior education he ascribed much of the 
 advance of Germany in mechanical industry, and said that 
 whereas Germans formerly purchased locomotives from abroad 
 they now use only those which they build themselves. Professor 
 Helmholtz very clearly explained not only the general advantage 
 but also the absolute economy of employing as heads of depart- 
 ments persons conversant with the theory of their work, able to 
 anticipate results and to calculate beforehand the quantity and 
 quality of material required. How could it be otherwise ? Here 
 in England Professor Huxley has told us that industry under its 
 present condition depends almost entirely on either 'the appli- 
 cation of science or the development of mechanical processes of 
 complexity, requiring a great deal of attention and intelligence 
 to carry them out.' But this intelligence and attention most 
 people can exercise only after long training. In those industries 
 which depend on chemistry for their first principles the advan- 
 tage of the education given in the Polytechnic Schools is most 
 apparent. In England, says Mr. Haeffely, there are very few 
 chemists in print-works, and generally the sampler is not a 
 chemist (' Report,' vol. iii. p. 2). Yet as a knowledge of art 
 forms the basis of instruction for the designer, so a knowledge 
 of chemistry is the true groundwork for the student of dyeing. 
 Chemical industries, we read in the Report, are assuming more- 
 
 more a scientific character, and a chemical works is nothing 
 
262 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 more than a large laboratory in which the victory remains to 
 those who have been most scientifically educated. Reasoning 
 from these facts, the commercial heads of colour-works in Swit- 
 zerland and Germany have been led to the necessity of placing 
 trained scientific chemists at the head not only of the whole 
 establishment, but also at the head of every department in which 
 a special manufacture is going on. 
 
 The extent to which the most successful Continental manu- 
 factures employ educated talent may be illustrated from the 
 account given by the Commissioners of the chemical works of 
 Messrs. Bindschedler and Busch, at Basle. 
 
 In the first place (they say) the scientific director, Dr. Bind- 
 schedler, is a thoroughly educated chemist, cognizant of and able to 
 make use of the discoveries emanating from the various scientific 
 laboratories of the world. Under him are three scientific chemists, 
 to each of whom is intrusted one of the three main departments 
 into which the works are divided. Each of these head chemists, 
 who have in this instance enjoyed a thorough training in the Zurich 
 Polytechnic, has several assistant chemists placed under him, and all 
 these are gentlemen who have had a theoretical education in either 
 a German university or in a Polytechnic school. Report^ vol. i. 
 p. 223. 
 
 No less than ten well-equipped experimental laboratories,, 
 perfectly distinct from the workshops, were available for the 
 researches of these highly trained chemists, who could also 
 refer to a complete scientific library. Who ever heard of 
 English chemical works so provided ? 
 
 The number of the Polytechnic schools of Germany is much 
 in excess of the actual demand for technical instruction. In the 
 early part of this century the Germans found themselves im- 
 measurably inferior in practical knowledge to countries like 
 England. They were obliged to learn in the schools, if any- 
 where, much that Englishmen could learn in the workshop. 
 Again, a generous emulation moved the states of Germany to 
 vie with one another in making liberal provision for every 
 branch of learning. Lastly, the old universities,, fearing lest 
 the spirit of disinterested inquiry which had hitherto animated 
 their studies might be depressed by the introduction of studies 
 pursued entirely for practical ends, were unwilling to make 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 263 
 
 provision for technical education, and so forced the authorities 
 to found for that purpose independent Polytechnic schools. 
 Some of these causes have ceased to operate in Germany, and 
 none have much influence in England. Although Oxford and 
 Cambridge will remain, and ought to remain, the seats of 
 liberal learning, cherished for its own sake, many ofcher insti- 
 tutions of university rank, such as the great colleges of the 
 capital, of Manchester, and Liverpool, have departments of 
 applied science, which, if the necessary funds were forthcoming, 
 might be expanded into Polytechnic schools. The Central 
 Institute at South Kensington might become a true Polytechnic. 
 In short, we have the nuclei of as many technical high schools 
 as we require. 
 
 It is true that advantages may be discovered in the total 
 separation of universities from Polytechnic schools. The mul- 
 tiplication of seats of learning is a good thing so long as it does 
 not lower the intellectual standard. The rivalry between insti- 
 tutions similar, yet diverse, may be a spur to improvement. 
 The exclusion of technical studies from the university course 
 may favour the disinterested love of knowledge. But the 
 separation of Polytechnic schools from universities involves a 
 considerable waste of money and of power. With the utmost 
 economy we shall barely have power and money enough to 
 put technical education on a good footing. Neither the Central 
 Institution in London, nor the colleges in such cities as Liver- 
 pool and Birmingham, are rich enough to increase their staff and 
 their appliances to that degree which is imperatively demanded 
 by the present state of knowledge. The money which we can 
 spare should be spent upon a few great schools, not frittered 
 away among a crowd of petty ones. Besides, we are so differently 
 situated from the Germans that their mode of giving advanced 
 technical instruction is not to be copied by us in every detail. 
 The following remarks by the Commissioners clearly show 
 where we may with advantage depart from German prece- 
 dents : 
 
 We should not wish every proprietor or manager of industrial 
 works to continue his theoretical studies till the age of twenty-two 
 or twenty-three years m a Polytechnic school, and so lose the ad- 
 vantage of a practical instruction in our workshops (which are really 
 
264 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 the best technical schools in the world) during the years from 
 eighteen or nineteen to twenty-one or twenty-two, when he is best 
 able to profit by it. 
 
 In determining what is the best preparation for the industrial 
 career of those who may expect to occupy the highest positions, it is 
 necessary to differentiate between capitalists who -will take the 
 general, as distinguished from the technical, direction of large 
 establishments, and those at the head of small undertakings, or the 
 persons more specially charged with the technical details of either. 
 For the education of the former ample time is available, and they 
 have the choice between several of our modernised grammar schools, 
 to be followed by attendance at the various colleges in which science 
 teaching is made an essential feature, or the great public schools and 
 universities ; provided that in these latter science and modern 
 languages should take a more prominent place. 
 
 Either of these methods may furnish an appropriate education 
 for those persons to whom such general cultivation as will prepare 
 them to deal with questions of administration is of greater value 
 than an intimate acquaintance with technical details. It is different 
 in regard to the smaller manufacturers and to the practical managers 
 of works. In their case sound knowledge of scientific principles 
 has to be combined with the practical training of the factory, and, 
 therefore, the time which can be appropriated to the former that 
 is, to theoretical instruction will generally be more limited. 
 
 How this combination is to be carried out will vary with the 
 trade and with the circumstances of the individual. In those cases in 
 which theoretical knowledge and scientific training are of pre-eminent 
 importance, as in the case of the manufacture of fine chemicals, or in 
 that of the metallurgical chemist or the electrical engineer, the higher 
 technical education may with advantage be extended to the age of 
 twenty-one or twenty-two. In the case, however, of those who are 
 to be, for example, managers of chemical works in which complex ma- 
 chinery is used, or managers of rolling mills, or mechanical engineers, 
 where early and prolonged workshop training is all-important, the 
 theoretical training should be completed at not later than nineteen 
 years of age, when the works must be entered and the scientific 
 education carried further by private study, or by such other means 
 as do not interfere with the practical work of their callings. Report, 
 vol. i. pp. 514516. 9 " 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 265 
 
 NOTE ON TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION FOR WOMEN. 
 
 The Commissioners found schools for the industrial and 
 professional training of girls in most of the large towns in the 
 countries visited by them. These schools closely resembled 
 each other. They are intended chiefly for the daughters of 
 small shopkeepers and well-to-do artisans. In most of them the 
 education given in the primary school is continued and supple- 
 mented by instruction in one foreign language and in drawing. 
 Drawing is particularly well taught in these schools. At the 
 same time the pupils are taught one or more trades. The 
 technical instruction varies with the habits and industries of the 
 various countries. In almost all the schools needlework and 
 dressmaking are subjects of the first importance. In many of 
 the French schools the girls learn bookkeeping, the elements 
 of law, and commercial correspondence. In the German and 
 Austrian schools the technical teaching is almost wholly re- 
 stricted to plain sewing, embroidery, dressmaking, millinery, 
 laundry work, and cooking. In Belgium, Holland, and Italy it 
 includes the making of artificial flowers, the designing of lace, 
 painting on fans, glass, or porcelain, typography, telegraphy, 
 and pharmacy. Many of the pupils pay substantial fees, but 
 some, hold exhibitions from the primary schools. Inquiry 
 showed that the education given in these schools was thoroughly 
 practical, and enabled many young women to find suitable em- 
 ployment without having to leave their homes. 
 
 The Koyal School of Art Embroidery at Vienna is entirely 
 technical. Girls seeking admission must be at least fourteen 
 years of age, and must have completed their education at the 
 primary school. They must be able to draw, and must have a 
 thorough knowledge of plain needlework. The course of in- 
 struction extends over five years. All the pupils are taught 
 freehand drawing. They have to prepare written accounts of 
 the lectures given by the professors. They are taught every 
 kind of fancy needlework and designing for needlework, and at 
 the end of each year they work samplers, to show their pro- 
 ficiency. Foreign students have to pay fees, but natives are 
 -admitted free of charge. Many of the girls become teachers 
 
266 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 in Austria and in other countries. The directress, at the time- 
 of the visit of the Commissioners, was a lady whose books on 
 the subject of embroidery are regarded as standard works. 
 The Commissioners thought the instruction given here the 
 highest which they had found given in any school of the same- 
 class. 
 
 The Embroidery School of Vienna is a special school devoted 
 to the cultivation of one art. But technical schools for women, 
 somewhat more general in character, might with advantage be 
 established in our large towns. In such schools the morning 
 hours wonld be devoted to the study of languages, drawing, and 
 elementary science, and the afternoons would be set aside for 
 practical instruction in some industry. At present the art 
 schools afford almost the only means which women have of 
 learning a craft whereby to support themselves; but the art 
 schools are overcrowded, and few women are meant by nature 
 to be artists. If it is urgent to open up new pursuits for men, 
 how much more urgent is it to open up new pursuits for women ! 
 Above all, women should have every means of becoming skilled 
 in industries which can be combined with domestic life. 
 
 III. TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION IN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Grave difficulties beset the improvement of agricultural edu- 
 cation. Agriculture is practised by men who believe much in 
 tradition and little in science. Country people, living apart 
 from one another, are less capable of concerted voluntary action 
 than are the inhabitants of cities. The administration of our 
 rural districts is certainly not framed so as to supply the lack 
 of spontaneous energy. Just now these districts are somewhat 
 impoverished and particularly averse to paying new rates. All 
 these considerations limit the range of practical proposals for 
 giving that technical instruction which has become more than 
 ever necessary to the prosperity of English agriculture. 
 
 Having quite enough to do in other branches of the inquiry 
 into technical education, the Commissioners assigned the agri- 
 cultural branch to their Sub-Commissioner, the late Mr. Jenkins, 
 Secretary to the Eoyal Agricultural Society of England. Mr, 
 Jenkins drew up a report, which will be found in the second 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 267 
 
 volume of the Report of'tlie Commission, and which gives a full 
 view of the methods of agricultural education adopted in France, 
 Germany, Denmark, Holland, and Belgium, as well as in the 
 United Kingdom. In this respect all these countries differ 
 extremely from one another. The agriculture, and therefore the 
 agricultural education of every country, varies with the varying 
 physical and economical conditions, so that foreign examples 
 are to be used more cautiously in this than in any other de- 
 partment of our inquiry. Here it will be enough to note what 
 has already been done in the United Kingdom to further 
 agricultural instruction, and what recommendations for its 
 advancement have been made by Mr. Jenkins and adopted by 
 the Commissioners. 
 
 What has already been done may be briefly summed up. 
 In England the State has recognised instruction in the principles 
 of agriculture as instruction in elementary science, which may 
 be taken up as a class subject in elementary schools. It has 
 established an agricultural department in the Normal School of 
 Science, has appointed a professor of agriculture, who lectures 
 at South Kensington, and has provided for the formation of an 
 agricultural class in any place which may desire to have one. 
 In Scotland the agricultural instruction given in elementary 
 schools is much the same as in England. The State pays a 
 small stipend to the Professor of Agriculture in the University 
 of Edinburgh. In Ireland the authorities have done more than 
 in England or in Scotland. The principles of agriculture are 
 taught in the elementary schools ; but they are better taught, 
 because the National Schools Board has a model farm at Glas- 
 nevin, near Dublin, where teachers in elementary schools receive 
 practical instruction in agriculture ; and many of the schools 
 under the Board have school gardens or small farms, where the 
 teachers can illustrate their agricultural lessons and accustom 
 the pupils to agricultural work. The Munster Dairy School is 
 also a Government institution. Other agricultural schools were 
 formerly maintained by the State, but were sacrificed to what 
 many consider a mistaken policy. 
 
 Something has been done, too, by agricultural associations and 
 by private enterprise. The agricultural colleges at Cirencester 
 and Downton give an excellent training to those who can afford 
 
268 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 to pay heavy fees. The Koyal Agricultural Society of England, 
 and similar societies in England and elsewhere, hold examina- 
 tions and give prizes to the candidates who distinguish them- 
 selves. By means of their journals, by exhibitions of live stock 
 and agricultural produce, and by various other expedients, these 
 societies do much to extend the farmer's professional knowledge 
 and to sustain his professional enthusiasm. The experimental 
 farm at Rothamstead, founded and endowed by Sir John Lawes, 
 is a unique and magnificent laboratory of agricultural research. 
 But, after taking account of all these agencies, it may be said 
 that the technical education of the ordinary farmer English, 
 Scotch, or Irish is almost wholly empirical, and his technical 
 skill the result of extreme subdivision of labour. 
 
 The recommendations made by Mr. Jenkins for the improve- 
 ment of technical instruction in agriculture may be summarised 
 under the heads of primary, intermediate, and advanced in- 
 struction. Primary instruction in agriculture is for the farm 
 labourer, farm bailiff, or small farmer. To some extent this 
 instruction could be given in the public elementary schools of 
 country parishes. Agriculture should be made one of the com- 
 pulsory subjects in rural schools. Each school should be pro- 
 vided with a garden proportioned to the number of scholars, 
 and in this garden they should be employed for a certain time 
 every day. Together with this practice they would have a 
 series of elementary lessons on the principles of agriculture. 
 Children in the first three standards would have lessons on the 
 common objects of rural life, the familiar animals and plants of 
 the country. In the higher standards they would study these 
 in particular reference to agriculture. They would also study 
 the construction of farm implements and simple agricultural 
 machinery, and of simple mechanical and physical apparatus, 
 such as the lever, pulley, wheel and axle, spirit level, barometer, 
 and thermometer. This obligatory course would take the place 
 of the optional course in the principles of agriculture which is 
 now comprised under the title of elementary science. On the 
 above scheme every child going to a country school \vould obtain 
 some insight into the principles of agriculture, and the common 
 labourer would cease to be merely a living tool. 
 
 But for the clever lads of the labouring class who might 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 269 
 
 hope to rise higher, and for the sons of the small farmer, a 
 further training would be necessary. For these Mr. Jenkins 
 proposed a new system of instruction, suggested by the French 
 farm schools. He stated his plan as follows : - 
 
 In each county there should be selected a good farm, the tenant 
 of which would agree under certain terms to take agricultural ap- 
 prentices for a term of, say, two or three years, according to the age 
 at which the apprenticeship commenced. On most grounds I should 
 prefer an agricultural district to a county as the definition of the 
 area, but as the county is the only local unit in country districts 
 which calls forth local energy, it is necessary to select it for my 
 present purpose. It would be a great advantage if to each farm 
 there could be attached a teacher capable of continuing the general 
 education of the apprentices by lessons given in the mornings and 
 evenings, but the remainder of whose time might be otherwise 
 employed, according to local circumstances for instance, as rate- 
 collector, bookkeeper, &c. or he might also be teacher during the 
 remainder of the day at some neighbouring school. He should be 
 capable of teaching the elements of chemistry, land-surveying, book- 
 keeping in a simple way, and the elementary principles of agricul- 
 ture. Most of this technical instruction could be given during the 
 winter evenings, and the apprentices should be entitled to pass the- 
 examinations of the Science and Art Department in the same way 
 as the pupils of science classes, if they desired to do so, and to earn 
 for themselves and their instructors all the distinctions and rewards 
 that are given to pupils and teachers in elementary schools and science 
 classes. 
 
 I am not inclined to follow the French system in requiring 
 that all the farm labour should be performed by the apprentices ; 
 on the contrary, in my opinion it would be better to limit their 
 number to a manageable one, according to the size of the farm, say 
 from three to six in each year. This number, with an apprenticeship 
 of three years, would make a maximum of from nine to eighteen on 
 the farm at any one time ; and of course the older apprentices would,, 
 or at least should, be worth more as workmen than the ordinary farm 
 labourers. 
 
 The apprentices should be selected from those who distinguish 
 themselves most in an examination held annually in connection 
 with that of the Science and Art Department ; and to a great 
 extent, or perhaps entirely, the same papers might suffice for both 
 examinations. ... If the number of elementary school scholarships, 
 and of science and art scholarships were increased with a view of 
 
270 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 encouraging such farm schools, by making a certain number of the 
 scholarships tenable at them, they would be more likely to be 
 established and to work successfully. . . . During their stay at the 
 farm school the apprentices should be compelled to pass an annual 
 examination in practical as well as theoretical subjects, and prizes 
 might be given for proficiency ; but in the event of any of the ap- 
 prentices being found deficient in knowledge up to a certain point, 
 their apprenticeship should cease. At the termination of their 
 apprenticeship they should receive a certificate of proficiency accord- 
 ing to merit. 
 
 In a somewhat similar manner girls not less than sixteen years 
 of age might be sent to learn dairying and household work at 
 selected dairy farms, such as those which abound in Germany and 
 Denmark. 
 
 I would suggest that a period of three months should be the mini- 
 mum, but that a complete season of from, say, the middle of March 
 to the middle of November would be much better. 
 
 My impression is that a sufficient number of good farmers would 
 be found to take farm apprentices and dairy apprentices from 
 public elementary schools in their own locality or county upon 
 terms that would fairly reimburse them for two accessory reasons : 
 (1) They would be contributing to remove the present ineffi- 
 ciency of the farm labourers and dairymaids in their districts ; 
 a-nd (2) they would be likely to receive as pupils sons of wealthy 
 people, at highly remunerative terms, in consequence of their farms 
 being recognised as * County Farm Schools.' Report^ vol. ii. 
 pp. 316-318. 
 
 In consequence of the recognition of agriculture by the 
 Science and Art Department, many agricultural classes have 
 been established in various parts of the United Kingdom. These 
 classes resemble in "their organisation the classes in science and 
 art so often mentioned in this summary. They are usually held 
 in market towns and in the evenings. Mr. Jenkins was of 
 opinion that ' very few indeed of these teachers can give in- 
 struction in objective agriculture. They may have learnt the 
 words of the language, and they can teach them, but they do 
 not know their signification in fact, they cannot translate them/ 
 But he allowed that ' some of the teachers are thoroughly well- 
 qualified men, and do really good work.' (< Report/ vol. ii. 
 p. 231.) 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 271 
 
 The education of the teachers themselves must determine 
 the usefulness of their teaching, and their education cannot be 
 complete until it includes a regular course of practical work on 
 a farm, for which apparently provision has not yet been made. 
 If the farm schools suggested by Mr. Jenkins were in operation 
 they would afford practical instruction to those who wished to 
 teach agriculture under the department, and the apprentices at 
 the farm schools could get scientific instruction by going to the 
 lectures of the teachers. In this way the lower and interme- 
 diate instruction of farmers would attain a fulness hitherto un- 
 known. But so long as a course of practical lessons is not 
 included in the qualification of a lecturer on agriculture he will 
 be of little use, and will inspire less confidence. The agricul- 
 tural course of the schools of science at South Kensington 
 might also be made more strictly professional than it is at pre- 
 sent ; but of this we shall have to speak a little later. 
 
 We next come to intermediate instruction in agriculture 
 suitable for the ordinary tenant farmer, farm steward, or land 
 agent. The obstacles to the spread of this instruction arise 
 partly from the nature of agricultural education itself, but still 
 more from the bad state of secondary education, and the absence 
 of any energetic administrative power in the counties. Those 
 who are to receive intermediate instruction in agriculture ought 
 to receive also a good general education. Whether they can do 
 this, at present depends on the accidental distribution of efficient 
 schools. In most districts such schools are scarce, and the 
 education of the tenant farmer is exceedingly defective. Any- 
 body who knows the rural parts of England can recall cases of 
 men who farm, say, three hundred acres each, and in general 
 culture are little, if at all, superior to an intelligent artisan. 
 The education of the middle class in the country, even more than 
 in towns, will never be put on a thoroughly sound footing with- 
 out help from local authorities, such as do not yet exist in the 
 counties. Given good middle-class schools, we have yet to find 
 the means of imparting agricultural together with general in- 
 struction. For men must begin to farm early in life if they are to 
 like farming or to become able farmers. Mr. Jenkins suggested 
 that in each of the chief middle-class schools in rural districts 
 there should be established a farming department, with a farm 
 
272 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 of perhaps one hundred acres attached. On this farm all 
 the principal kinds of agricultural produce would be raised, 
 and the boys would in turn share in all the branches of work. 
 Everything should be conducted in a practical manner, and a 
 skilled director of the farm would be necessary. 
 
 It is admitted that there would be some trouble in finding 
 the means needed to carry out this scheme. The school-farm 
 ought to pay its expenses and yield a profit, otherwise it would 
 not be a place in which to train practical farmers. But the 
 first outlay upon it would be considerable. 
 
 If we suppose that the school-farm has an area of one hundred 
 acres, it would be desirable to provide under all the circumstances a 
 working capital of 201. per acre, or say 2,0001. In some cases it 
 would be necessary to spend money in either a farm -steading or a 
 house for a farm manager, who should be the working bailiff ; but 
 it is impossible to give any estimate on this head. Extravagance, 
 however, should be distinctly prohibited, and a complete set of new 
 farm buildings should not be allowed to cost more than 101. per acre. 
 Additional annual expenditure would be required for the salaries of 
 the agricultural teacher and the farm bailiff, and for the maintenance 
 of the experimental field (for purposes of demonstration only) and 
 the botanic garden. An allowance of 5001. per annum would be amply 
 sufficient for these purposes, and would leave a margin to be spent in 
 gradually increasing the means of instruction, such as natural history 
 collections. 
 
 Scholarships and exhibitions would, of course, diminish the 
 amount of money available out of the profits of the farm towards 
 the payment of the items just mentioned. After a few years' 
 experience, and by keeping a reserve fund, any rewards drawn 
 from that source might be rendered tolerably equal. Report, vol. ii. 
 p. 314. 
 
 Mr. Jenkins suggested that the county in which such a 
 school was situated might raise by subscription the capital sum 
 necessary for its equipment, if the Government would contribute 
 to the building fund such a grant as it now makes for the erec- 
 tion of a school of science. Subscribers of not less than a certain 
 sum might be rewarded with the privilege of nominating a pupil 
 to be received for half the usual fees. The exhibitions granted 
 by the Crown in the existing science schools might be made 
 tenable at a farming school, and the Crown might annually 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 273 
 
 grant a scholarship tenable at the Normal School of Science, or 
 at the Agricultural College of Cirencester or Downton, to the 
 best pupil in each of the farming schools. 
 
 Agricultural education of the most advanced kind is more 
 flourishing than primary or intermediate agricultural education, 
 because the class which wants it can afford to pay a heavy price 
 for it. The agricultural colleges of Cirencester and Downton 
 are able to meet all their expenses, and are doing their work 
 well. They are attended chiefly by the sons of landowners and 
 of tenants of the largest farms. They charge fees, indeed, much 
 beyond the capacity of the ordinary farmer's purse. But ex- 
 perience has shown that the ordinary farmer, even when scholar- 
 ships are available to meet the expense, distrusts a technical 
 training continued to so late a time in life. He prefers to put 
 his sons to work before they have reached the age of twenty-one 
 or twenty-two years. His judgment is probably justified in the 
 majority of cases. For the minority, for the boys of unusual 
 talent, and for the fathers of unusual ambition, the suggested 
 Queen's Scholarships would provide. There would be no use in 
 taxing the public to multiply scholarships or reduce fees at the 
 agricultural colleges merely for the benefit of the sons of rich 
 men. 
 
 For a supply of teachers of agriculture we should be able to 
 look less to the agricultural colleges than to the agricultural 
 department of the School of Science at South Kensington. Mr. 
 Jenkins found several faults in the course of instruction given 
 there. He thinks it unduly prolonged, and would reduce it to 
 three years ; he thinks it too much burthened with non-profes- 
 sional subjects, and would omit some of these, imposing an 
 entrance examination to test the general knowledge possessed 
 by candidates for admission ; and, finally, he thinks that it is 
 not practical enough, that it embraces too many lectures and 
 too few demonstrations. 
 
 No scheme of technical instruction in agriculture would be 
 complete unless it made provision for teaching forestry. Great 
 Britain and Ireland contain large tracts of desolate land which 
 might be planted with valuable timber. Some of the common- 
 est trees are almost worthless, and might be replaced with more 
 useful species. Our older colonies already feel 
 
274 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 of the reckless destruction of forests. The Governments of 
 India and Cyprus have dedicated a branch of the public service 
 to the preservation and management of the forests. Every en- 
 lightened country of the Continent has one or more schools of 
 forestry ; but the whole subject of forestry, as it concerns the 
 United Kingdom, is now under the consideration of a Select 
 Committee of the House of Commons, and it seems better not 
 to anticipate the conclusions which they will be able to found 
 upon the fullest evidence. 
 
 IV". CONCLUSION. 
 
 We have now taken a rapid survey of the whole field of 
 technical education. It only remains to sum up, as briefly as 
 possible, the results of this survey. 
 
 In the first place, technical education, although a most im- 
 portant branch, is only one branch of national education. If 
 national education is bad, technical education cannot be good. 
 Neither the workman, nor the foreman, nor the designer, nor 
 the employer can profit by a technical training unless he has 
 first been trained to use his mind and to feel pleasure in using 
 it. Technical training merely directs into the channels of the 
 various industries that activity of intellect which is called forth 
 by a good general training in literature, science, or art. The 
 first step, therefore, in establishing a complete system of tech- 
 nical education is to supply as far as possible all deficiencies in 
 our system of general education ; and more especially to perfect 
 our elementary and intermediate schools. 
 
 In the second place, schools established to give special 
 technical instruction must be carefully suited to the wants of 
 the particular trades for which they are intended. They must 
 give really useful instruction, and give it in such places, at such 
 times, and generally in such a manner as to be available to all 
 who would like to profit by it. If the instruction is to be really 
 useful, it must be made as thorough and scientific as possible. 
 The indifferent technical school will soon be found 'out, despised, 
 and deserted. Our manufacturers and agriculturists already 
 know too much to take lessons of bad teachers. If we cover the 
 country with third-rate technical schools, we shall find, too late, 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 275 
 
 that we have spent our money and our pains merely in strength- 
 ening that distrust of theory which is already too strong in the 
 half-educated Englishman. We shall have wasted the season 
 of enthusiasm and destroyed the hopes of technical education. 
 At the same time the technical schools must accommodate them- 
 selves to the circumstances of industrial life. Especially the 
 primary technical school must be accessible, cheap, and practical, 
 or it will not attract the common workman, with his small 
 surplus of time, money, and energy. The higher technical 
 school is not bound by such strict conditions ; yet it must con- 
 stantly keep in view the needs of industry. It must so contrive 
 its courses of science and art that they shall not clash with the 
 empirical training which can be had only in the factory or the 
 workshop. Extremely difficult is the reconciliation of theoretical 
 with practical instruction; but upon this reconciliation the 
 whole usefulness of a technical school depends. And it must 
 be remembered that utility, as distinct from culture, is the aim 
 of every technical school . 
 
 Thirdly, we must remember that a good technical school 
 cannot be a good commercial speculation. Its buildings, its 
 equipment, its teaching staff, all are costly, and their cost 
 cannot be recouped out of fees paid by scholars, for high fees 
 would exclude those who must form the bulk of the scholars 
 at all but a few technical schools. Not only must the expense 
 of establishing a technical school be defrayed either out of 
 voluntary subscriptions, or out of rates and taxes, but the ex- 
 pense of maintaining it must, in a considerable degree, be 
 defrayed from the same sources. The income derived from fees 
 must be supplemented with a further income more permanent 
 and trustworthy. The wise founders of old time did not exhaust 
 their bounty in building ; they also provided for the sustenance 
 of the schools and colleges which they founded ; and each school 
 or college, having proved its worth, contrived subsequently to 
 supply what might at first have been wanting to the size or 
 splendour of its home. Modern founders, in their anxiety to 
 leave handsome monuments, too often forget to provide a fund 
 for maintenance, and leave an institution to feel the full severity 
 of a struggle which cripples its usefulness, or even shortens its 
 life. As the flow of subscriptions sinks or swells with the 
 
 T 2 
 
276 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 national prosperity, arid with the passing fancies of the public 
 mind, a technical school should always have an endowment, and 
 if it has no endowment, it should, on fulfilling reasonable con- 
 ditions, receive a subsidy from local or imperial funds. 
 
 Lastly, our technical schools must be brought into relation 
 with one another and with schools of other descriptions. If 
 they are left without co-ordination, some of the work will be 
 done twice over, and much of the work will not be done at all. 
 This co-ordination is almost impossible unless we establish a 
 centre of knowledge and of power in reference to technical, 
 such as we have already established in reference to elementary, 
 education. Voluntary effort can do much, and to it we must 
 chiefly trust. But if voluntary effort cannot guarantee to all 
 the technical schools in the kingdom a revenue adequate to 
 their needs, still less can voluntary effort assign to each of them 
 its right place and function in a scheme of technical training 
 adequate to the necessities of the greatest industrial society in 
 Europe. Soon or late the Government will be forced to inspect 
 and to assist technical schools. It is possible so to contrive 
 this inspection and assistance as not to dry up the stream of 
 private liberality. The experience of other countries, and of 
 our own, the public spirit shown by rich men in France and 
 Germany, the magnificent gifts made to such institutions as the 
 museum at South Kensington or the National Gallery, all tend 
 to show that private munificence can be led to flow copiously in 
 the channels provided by public authority. It is natural that 
 this should be so. The desire of connecting their names with 
 great and -durable institutions, of the assurance that their gifts 
 will be well employed, encourage men to acts of liberality which 
 they would not perform for a merely transient object, or under a 
 depressing uncertainty as to whether they could effect any good 
 at all. 
 
277 
 
 INDUSTRIAL ART IN SCHOOLS. 1 
 
 BY CHARLES G. LELAND, OF PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 LETTER. 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, 
 
 BUREAU OF EDUCATION, 
 Washington, D. C., November 20, 1882. 
 
 SIR, I have the honour to forward herewith the manuscript of 
 an article prepared by Charles Godfrey Leland, Esq., of Philadelphia, 
 on the subject of industrial art in schools. Mr. Leland's paper is a 
 presentation of the matter from his standpoint, and the result of his 
 own work and experience. No one can fail to see how valuable it 
 is as a contribution to the solution of existing problems in educa- 
 tion, art, and industry. 
 
 I recommend its publication as a circular of information, and 
 am, sir, very respectfully, your obedient servant, 
 
 JOHN EATON, Commissioner. 
 The Hon. the SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR. 
 
 Publication approved. 
 
 H. M. TELLER, Secretary. 
 
 I. INTRODUCTION. 
 Order of Development of Decorative and Industrial Art. 
 
 OONSTRUCTIVENESS, or the faculty of making 'things which are 
 useful or ornamental, is in man innate or instinctive. It might 
 be said that to produce useful objects is the result of the struggle 
 for life ; but the tendency to create that which is simply artistic 
 results from no such urgent need, yet it is found wherever the 
 former exists. In the rudest prehistoric times, in the earliest 
 stone age, men and women made ornaments, though they were 
 only strings of the commonest shells or beads of dried clay. 
 Before the mammoth and cave bear had disappeared primeval 
 men etched with great skill and taste their likenesses on their 
 own bones. Great stress may be laid on the fact that, as the 
 tiower precedes the fruit, decorative art is developed in a race 
 
 1 Circulars of Information oftlie Bureau of Education, No. IV., 1882. 
 
278 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 before it attains proficiency in the practical. Before men had 
 good axes or knives, ploughs or saws, they made jewellery and 
 embroidery far superior in many respects to anything now pro- 
 duced anywhere. We can imitate the shield described by 
 Homer, but the artist does not live who could design anything 
 so elegant and original. 
 
 This universal truth, that man develops the ornamental 
 during the infancy of every race before the useful, is illustrated 
 iii every individual. The child who cannot as yet make a shoe 
 or file metals or master a trade can, however, learn to design 
 decorative outline patterns, mould beautiful pottery, set mosaics, 
 carve panels, work sheet-leather and repousser or emboss sheet 
 brass. He or she can cut and apply stencils, model pa/pier-mdchS, 
 or carton-pierre (a mixture of composition and paper pulp), 
 inlay in wood, and make a great variety of elegant objects. 
 The child corresponds to the primitive man. It is not im- 
 probable that the brain of the boy of twelve of this age, if it 
 could be measured, would be found to be about the same as 
 that of the early man of thirty. It has been definitely ascer- 
 tained that the brains of the Parisian of the thirteenth century, 
 a period when Gothic art in all its luxuriance adorned every 
 object, were much smaller than they now are. 
 
 Educational Significance of this Order. 
 
 The deduction from this is that, as the child is capable of 
 executing works of simple or easy decorative art before it can 
 produce much that is useful, we should consider this fact in 
 education. Of late years, almost simultaneously, the men who 
 are interested in education have asked one another, ' How is it 
 that we have taught the young nothing but reading, writing, 
 and similar arts ? We have given what we call culture to 
 youth, and they leave school as little fitted to make a living as 
 on the day they entered it.' It was very natural indeed that 
 this complaint should rise from the growing republicanism of 
 the age, and it was o 1 uite as natural that those who inspired it 
 should demand that children should be taught to make a living 
 while learning to read, write, and cipher. Of course by 
 1 making a living ' working at a trade was understood, and the 
 first effort in consequence was to teach trades. And this for 
 
INDUSTRIAL ART IN SCHOOLS . 279 
 
 boys under fourteen years of age has not been a success. If it 
 had really been possible for little boys and girls to make shoes, 
 file iron and brass, and set type, capital would have long ago 
 employed them ; as it is, the fact is patent that to thus employ 
 them is cruelty. It is not really right that children should 
 ever be employed at uncongenial pursuits. 
 
 But as the Hebrews said of old that when the tale of bricks 
 is doubled Moses comes, so the question rose as to what children 
 could make at the time when there was simultaneously spreading 
 over the civilised world a demand for decorative and hand-made 
 art. The vast developments of capital, wealth, and science 
 during the present century have naturally led to luxury and 
 culture. With them scholarship and criticism are teaching 
 wealth how to employ itself. Culture has also awakened 
 humanity or benevolence. And it is gradually or rapidly being 
 realised that children can while at school profitably practise 
 decorative arts. It is also quite as true that this practice, far 
 from interfering with the ' regular studies,' actually aids and 
 stimulates them. While the minor arts, guided by a slight 
 knowledge of decorative design, are so easy as to be regarded 
 by all children as a recreation, they are at the same time of 
 practical value in training the eye and hand and awakening 
 quickness of perception. There have come under my observation 
 a great number of instances in which children who have been 
 regarded as dull in everything have shown great aptness and 
 ingenuity in designing, modelling, or carving. When this 
 skill is awakened, there comes with it far greater cleverness in 
 those studies or pursuits in which the pupil was previously 
 slow. I believe it to be a great truth, as yet too little studied, 
 that sluggish minds may be made active, even by merely 
 mechanical exercises. This holds good as regards the practice 
 of the minor arts by children. It is somewhat remarkable that 
 while every one is quick to observe mental ability or activity 
 when transmitted from progenitors, very few notice the in- 
 numerable instances in which it is developed by education or 
 circumstances. It is not a matter of theory, but of fact and 
 observation, that all children who practise decorative arts are 
 thereby improved both mentally and morally. The conscious- 
 ness of being able to make something well which will sell gives 
 
2 8o INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 them proper pride and confidence in their ability to master 
 other studies. It also conduces to quiet habits and content. 
 Every mother knows the value of a box of tools or of a small 
 printing-press, of paints, and clay. When the use of these is 
 properly taught in an artistic manner, children take unusual 
 interest in them, as I have had ample opportunity to observe in 
 the Public Industrial Art School of Philadelphia, which I have 
 directed since its beginning. A girl of twelve loves modelling 
 none the less for being taught how to make a vase which may 
 be worth ten dollars. 
 
 A much larger proportion of all the elegant art work of India, 
 Persia, Egypt, or indeed of the whole East, is made by mere 
 children than we of the West would imagine. Much of the 
 most elaborate wood-carving of Italy, the Tyrol, Bavaria, and 
 Switzerland is cut by little fingers. Art pottery in Spain em- 
 ploys very young girls and boys. Of late years it has been 
 definitely ascertained that very little children in the kinder- 
 garten organised on the plan of Frobel are capable of developing 
 much more artistic ability than has been supposed ; and this, 
 far from straining the mind, strengthens it. If a child can 
 learn to sew, read, sing, draw, and model in the kindergarten, 
 it can surely pursue higher branches, both literary and manual, 
 in higher schools. The system on which this industrial art work 
 should be taught is as follows : It does not merely consist of cer- 
 tain definite branches, such as modelling or carving according 
 to patterns ; it is the learning how to design the patterns, and then 
 ivorking them out in any material, such as wood, clay, brass, em- 
 broidery stuffs, or stencils. There are fifty or a hundred such 
 minor arts, and anybody who can draw or design can with very 
 little practice in a few days execute them fairly in any substance 
 which will retain impressions. It is a remarkable law of nature or 
 of humanity that all the minor arts, or such branches of industry 
 as are allied to ornament, are very easy, and can generally be 
 so far mastered in a day by anybody who can draw as to enable 
 the pupil to produce a perfectly encouraging result. But in- 
 dustrial art, to be taught in schools, need not and should not be 
 limited to ornamental work. This is to be at first followed 
 simply because it is the only work easy enough for children and 
 girls. Carpenter's work, or joinery, in its rudiments, or in fact 
 
INDUSTRIAL ART IN SCHOOLS 281 
 
 any branch of practical industry, may be taken up as soon as 
 the pupil is fitted for it. Industrial art in schools covers the 
 ground or fills the time intervening between the kindergarten 
 and the industrial school, but it blends with and includes the 
 latter. It is characteristic in this that the system, as I conceive 
 it, is capable of being introduced into every public or private 
 school in the country, or into any institution where there is a 
 preceptor who has some knowledge of drawing, with sense enough 
 to apply it according to certain elementary handbooks of art. 
 To aid all such teachers I have prepared a series of cheap art- 
 work manuals. 1 These consist of instructions in decorative de- 
 sign, ceramic or porcelain painting, tapestry or dye-painting, 
 outline and filled-in embroidery, decorative oil painting, wood- 
 carving, repousse or sheet brass- work, leather- work, papier-mdclie., 
 modelling in clay, with underglaze faience decoration, and 
 stencilling. The illustrations, working size, of one book are 
 generally applicable to all. As I know of no other cheap manuals 
 of the kind in any language which can be used for instruction, 
 I have been compelled to prepare these as an absolutely neces- 
 sary aid to those who cannot obtain teachers. 
 
 Outline Drawing and Design as a Preparation for Industrial 
 Art Work. 
 
 Before setting forth the practical details of industrial art 
 work for schools I would say something as to the method of 
 drawing on which it is all based. This consists of making the 
 pupil design original freehand patterns as soon as he or she 
 can draw a clear, light line with accuracy and confidence. The 
 boy or girl should be taught to draw such a line, like a spider's 
 web or hair, on rather smooth paper, with a sharp, long, hard 
 pencil. There should be no re-drawing on the line, no stumping, 
 rubbing, or scratching, or sketching in breaks. As soon as this 
 can be done let the pupil copy any simple leaf or ornament accu- 
 rately, and then repeat it, let us say, twelve or twenty times in 
 a circle, but in varying positions and of various sizes, so as to 
 make a garland. After this, various kinds of finials or orna- 
 ments, such as the spots on a pack of cards, buds, flowers, leaves, 
 
 1 Mailed for 35 cents each, by the Art Interchange Co., 140 Nassau Street, 
 New York. 
 
282 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 trefoils, fleurs-de-lis, &c., with stems added, may be made into 
 circles, singly, doubled, or alternated. The pupil should then be 
 taught the principles of construction lines. He is shown how 
 to change a circle into a spiral, and that a spiral or volute con- 
 sists approximatively of semicircles. Then he may learn that any 
 shoot or branching or spiral line thrown off anywhere from either 
 side of a circle, or spiral, or other curving figure so as to form 
 a long Y or , / ? or gradually departing curve, forms invariably the 
 skeleton of an elegant design, and that it is not possible that 
 it can be anything but graceful. This is an invariable law, 
 and on it all outline decorative design as to curves is based. 
 The next step is*to double these lines, either as parallels or to 
 form gradually diminishing ( vines' or cords, and then ornament 
 them. Ornamenting is chiefly effected by applying finials or 
 end ornaments, such as flowers, card spots, &c., and crochets, or 
 side ornaments, which are like thorns on a rose twig. He then 
 learns to double or quadruple the whole design. These prin- 
 ciples of they offshoot are next applied to the wave line, made 
 of combined semicircles for borders. After a little practice in 
 ' throwing off' freehand spirals or curves, and in examining a few 
 examples of the decorative art of different ages, even young 
 children begin to design with taste and skill, and when they 
 once begin their progress is rapid. It may be observed that in 
 all this there is no picture making, no shading, no very black 
 lines. The first designs should all be large. Anything like the 
 literal imitation of small leaves and petty flowers or any use of 
 heavy lines should be avoided. As a rule, nothing should be 
 drawn which cannot be perceived by the naked eye at the dis- 
 tance of fifteen feet. It is a rule, almost without exception,, 
 that all children in original design instinctively make pretty 
 figures. They will draw scores of diminutive buds and leaves 
 on a page. Just so in the infancy of a race ; it perfects the 
 pettiness of illuminating manuscripts before designing grandly. 
 Now, it is always easy for one who can draw c large ' to come 
 down to petty patterns, but it is impossible for the petty worker 
 to rise to great execution. 
 
 To learn to make designs the pupils may freely use not 
 only compasses and rule, but circles, curves, and ornaments cut 
 from tin or cardboard, to be used as stencils. The youngest 
 
INDUSTRIAL ART IN SCHOOLS 283, 
 
 soon learn how to repeat and combine these so as to form bor- 
 ders or centre ornaments. The art of invention is not only 
 rapidly developed by this short-hand method of drawing, but 
 there is also developed with it a greater interest and confidence 
 the feeling, in fact, of creativeness or being really an artist. 
 Now, if with these merely mechanical aids we combine constant 
 practice in freehand drawing from the shoulder, it will be found 
 that the pupil soon abandons the former and relies on the latter. 
 No one swims long with bladders after he can dispense with them. 
 This method is, therefore, a union of technological and freehand 
 drawing applied to that merely outline decorative design which 
 has a place between the two. 
 
 No person not familiar with the practice can have any idea of 
 the extraordinary rapidity with which children learn to draw 
 and design when they are confined to simple outline patterns 
 for decorative work under the stimulus of invention. It is be- 
 cause there is no shading, or ' effects,' or c picturesques ' mingled 
 with their drawing to bewilder their brains that they advance 
 so quickly. As soon as they have a few lines and finials by 
 heart, and know how to set the latter together to make circles, 
 &c., they begin to design and combine boldly. The extreme 
 degree of freehand sweep and the bold dash which result from 
 making branching curves give a character to this system of 
 drawing which is not found in any other with which I am ac- 
 quainted. As the pupil is step by step familiarised with a great 
 variety of curves and ornaments he finds that to combine and 
 vary them becomes easier and easier. As a rule, with very rare 
 exceptions, or in my experience with almost none, the child from 
 twelve to fourteen years of age who can draw a clean, light, 
 freehand line can be taught in a few weeks, at the utmost in a 
 few months, to design beautiful original patterns. By this I 
 mean patterns worth executing in art or patterns worth money. 
 When this is acquired all is acquired. Either technological or 
 artistic drawing may then be learned in half the time usually 
 demanded for their mastery. 
 
 First Instruction in Colour. 
 
 When the pupil can make a good design and is desirous of 
 advancing to simple decorative painting, he is taught to fill in 
 
284 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 the ground with India ink or any flat colour, and from this pro- 
 ceeds to varied monochrome or to large illumination. According 
 to the old methods, by which everything was taught at once, 
 such as drawing and shading, outline and blending, the mere 
 beginner painted flowers in all tones and hues. I believe, with 
 Turner, that it is through monochrome or single colours alone that 
 a true colourist can be made. If we take two children and teach 
 one to draw and shade together in the old style, and then to 
 'paint flowers' or to mix colours from the first, and then train 
 another through freehand, outline, and monochrome to blending, 
 it will be found that the latter will, at the end of the year, be 
 far in advance of the former in every respect. I have tested both 
 methods, and found the superiority of what may be called the 
 single method is incredible. Simple decorative art is the best 
 road to high art ; and it has this advantage, that those who stop 
 by the way at any stage have at least learned something by 
 which money can be made. 
 
 Utility of Outline Design in other Directions. 
 
 If the pupil does not take up colour, and prefers, let us say, 
 needlework, we find even here that a knowledge of outline de- 
 sign is more practically useful than would at first appear. The 
 world always declares that the first thing that all girls should 
 learn is plain sewing. But good plain sewing is a really difficult 
 art. Experience has fully shown that crewel work and outline 
 embroidery are very much easier. The child who begins with 
 easy work may be led to hard work in half the time in which 
 the latter, by itself, can be learned. This rule constitutes the 
 beginning and the end of the whole system of industrial art. 
 Now, the girl who can invent and draw her patterns always 
 ' outlines ' and ' crewels ' much better than the bungler who 
 has to rely on begged or bought designs. Few would believe 
 at what an early age little girls who try can make their patterns. 
 It does not take a child long to learn that with a teacup, a cent, 
 and a pencil, she can draw a semicircle stem with from one to 
 three grapes at the end, or that the stem may be -made double 
 or with two lines. It is no harder for her to learn to arrange 
 these sprigs in a circle or in a straight border. With a very 
 little practice in such stencilling she learns to draw. Those who 
 
INDUSTRIAL ART IN SCHOOLS 285 
 
 object to such a method as mechanical have never tried the ex- 
 periment of urging pupils to trace or use the compasses, rule, 
 and stencils. If they will do so, and teach them at the same 
 time to draw freehand lines, they will find that boys and girls 
 soon become impatient of using what are still in most schools 
 surreptitious and forbidden aids. Perhaps if man were given 
 all he wants in this world he would want much less than he does. 
 It is the same if the pupil prefers modelling in clay. Those 
 who begin by drawing well shape well. Their inventiveness has 
 been awakened. Nothing conduces to inventiveness so much 
 as design. I incline to believe that any man who can invent a 
 machine could have been an artist, and that every true artist is 
 only an inventor on another road. It is not theorising when I 
 say that the pupil who can design, immediately shows his supe- 
 riority in modelling in clay. All children in modelling follow a 
 leader or go in a crowd. If they are set to making petty balls 
 and blossoms and miniature fruit, and similar silly and mean 
 work, they will keep on making mean things. It is a mistake 
 even in the kindergarten to give children petty patterns. In 
 the modelling class, if one gets a new idea, such as making a 
 cat following a mouse, on a vase, or a giant frog, all the rest will 
 take to cats, mice, or frogs. If one make something great which 
 is admired, they must all do the same. And after the mere 
 rudiments of manipulation are mastered, it is better that the 
 pupils should work on a large scale in great variety of subjects 
 than be kept to petty devices. It is the fault of all current 
 systems of drawing that they limit the youthful mind to small 
 inventions. The boy or girl who can design has in a way learned 
 to invent, to seek for original devices, and what is learned in 
 the lead pencil expands in the clay. 
 
 II. PRACTICAL TEACHING. 
 Material required. 
 
 I will suppose that the reader is desirous of introducing 
 industrial art into an ordinary school. He has, I assume, care- 
 fully read what 1 ha-ve so far written on design, and the ease 
 with which children acquire it if properly taught. Drawing is 
 therefore the first step. For this will be required, of course, 
 
286 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 paper. Good, smooth, thin, hard drawing-paper is the best for 
 this purpose, but there is sold all over the country, at about two 
 cents for a very large sheet, a kind of firm, rather smooth wrap- 
 ping paper with a good body, which is quite as good for ordinary 
 work. It is generally used for design by many artists. It 
 should be smooth, but not so glossy but that an H or hard pencil 
 will make a good mark on it. Hard and medium pencils, with 
 fine sand-paper for sharpening points, compasses, india-rubber 
 in separate pieces not at the ends of pencils and a foot rule 
 are of course requisite. Pupils should never draw with short 
 pencils. Strange as it may seem, some like to do so, and will 
 even cut their pencils in half. Short pieces may be utilised in 
 tin holders, but long pencils are best. A collection of circles 
 and curves of hard rubber, wood, or tin (e.g. Devoe's curves) 
 will be found useful. Drawing-boards are not essential when 
 there is a good, smooth, flat table ; a black-board is, however. 
 
 Designing. 
 
 Design is the key to all arts. It is established that in nine 
 trades out of ten a knowledge of it is of use, and in about eight 
 of these it generally leads to foremanship. A very slight fa- 
 miliarity with modelling is also of great practical value. What 
 drawing-design is to modelling, such is modelling to all arts 
 where form is to be inspired with taste. Both can be learned 
 by girls, or by all children, of almost any age. There are still 
 in the world many people who do not see the ' practical advan- 
 tage ' of knowing how to read and write. Those who cannot see 
 the real use of drawing-design and of modelling in education 
 are quite as blind or narrow-minded. And those who would 
 make ' mother wit ' the main dependence of a boy are apt to 
 forget what a vast proportion there are of orphans in this re- 
 lation, and that when mother wit is wanting, what an admirable 
 substitute is provided by step-mother education. 
 
 It may be borne in mind that the principal can learn to 
 design, model, and carve with the aid of a manual, and teach 
 while learning. If his designs or patterns are on a "large scale 
 rand simple, they will be all the more elegant and saleable. 
 Petty work, such as cannot be seen across a room, is generally 
 worthless. To revert to design, I would here observe that one 
 
INDUSTRIAL ART IN SCHOOLS 287 
 
 reason why beginners are so prone to cover a pattern with petty 
 leaves and mean details is because they rest all the weight of 
 their body on the hand while drawing. In this position there is 
 not more than an inch of sweep for the point of the pencil, and 
 the whole arm must be moved to enlarge this compass. Besting 
 -on the wrist gives a sweep of perhaps two or three inches, though 
 not to all. When only the arm hardly touches the table the 
 wrist sweep is again doubled. But those who draw freehand 
 from the shoulder can with confidence cover a space of three feet 
 diameter. Turner, the great painter, could do this, as he always 
 painted without a maulstick, and every child can learn to do it. 
 It not only gives greater freedom of execution, but much more 
 accuracy. 
 
 Use of Copies. 
 
 If the teacher is capable, children may be taught design 
 frcm the black-board alone, without drawings or patterns. 
 None of the worn-out lithographs such as generally constitute 
 ' copies ' should ever be set before students. After a boy or girl 
 can once draw lines decently, there is no occasion to copy any- 
 thing. If < copies ' or pictures are then given out, it should be 
 for motives or suggestions. They may be doubled or varied or 
 used to supply finials or ornaments. Pupils should be en- 
 couraged to change and combine figures, devices, or decorations. 
 They should be taught to seek them in carpets or wall papers, 
 book covers, and the coverings of furniture. They will soon 
 discover that whenever there is in these a connected design, and 
 not a mere strewing or collocation of loose objects, it is extremely 
 easy to understand and equal it. Nineteen-twentieths of all the 
 most expensive carpets and wall papers sold are inferior in design 
 to what nineteen children out of twenty could produce in a few 
 months if properly trained. The general principles laid down in 
 the c Manual of Decorative Design ' will be found sufficient for any 
 teacher who can draw at all to instruct any class. 
 
 Early Choice of Subjects. 
 
 It may be here observed that the whole secret of learning to 
 draw consists of making an easy beginning in the simplest 
 rudiments, and in resolutely persevering. There is no ' gift ' or 
 
288 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 ' talent ' necessary. A lady once declared to me tliat there would 
 be no use of attempting to teach her how to draw, that she had 
 tried and failed. ' And what did you try to draw ? ' I inquired. ' I 
 tried to draw a horse,' was the reply. Her next remark was to 
 the effect that she supposed that ' a horse or a man ' constituted 
 as simple a figure as could be imagined. When educated people 
 are so ignorant, it is not strange that the art of drawing even 
 simple patterns is supposed to require a ' gift.' 
 
 As soon as the children produce anything well done, it should 
 be duly praised. When any design is executed let the pupil 
 copy it on a full scale on a sheet of superior paper, then fill in 
 the background with india ink and hang it up on the wall, 
 where it may serve as a model. The clever ones should be in- 
 duced to teach or aid the less advanced. Among the young, 
 the most disagreeable and hopeless scholars are the conceited 
 1 geniuses ' who have been c discovered ' or picked up, generally 
 by some one on the look-out for wonders, They are the least 
 inclined to follow a regular method of instruction, and aim from 
 the beginning at making ( pictures ' and astonishing their 
 admiring friends. All first efforts should be destroyed. It 
 cannot be too earnestly instilled into the minds of the young 
 that what is to be observed in school is not to make works of 
 art, but to learn how to make them. There is nothing so in- 
 artistic as impatience. Those who would execute a masterpiece 
 at the beginning seldom have one to show at the end. 
 
 Needlework. 
 
 The class of girls in needlework may begin with outline 
 embroidery or filled-in work or crewel as taught by manuals. 
 There is a very easy and effective kind of work made by stencil- 
 ling or painting flowers in flat or dead colour on brown holland, 
 light canvas, or any similar stuff. The colours may be either 
 dye-stuffs or water-colours. When the flowers or other patterns 
 are painted they may be surrounded with an outline in corre- 
 sponding colour of woollen or silk needlework. This is very 
 easy work, yet rich and effective. The benefieial result of 
 making even little girls in this class draw their own patterns 
 will show itself from the first in all. With very little manage- 
 ment, all that is made in this class can in most places be sold at 
 
INDUSTRIAL ART IN SCHOOLS 289 
 
 a profit ; if not on the spot, by sending it to ' depositories ' or 
 art stores in the cities. From ten to fifty dollars' worth of 
 materials will suffice to establish an ordinary school class in 
 needlework. 
 
 Modelling in Clay. 
 
 The next branch of industrial art study is modelling. If a 
 teacher can draw or design even a little, he or she may, with 
 the aid of a manual, confidently undertake to conduct such a 
 class successfully. Clay fit for the purpose is to be obtained in 
 most places at from three to five cents a pound. It should be 
 kept in a waterproof cask or box. A very large box with a lid 
 is best, as it serves not only to hold the clay, but also for a 
 depository for the work, which must be kept damp from day to 
 day. With this certain tools are requisite, the forms of which 
 are given in the ' Art Work Manual for Modelling.' A set costs 
 from 50 to 75 cents. Any boy with the ordinary American 
 gift for whittling can reproduce them in pine wood. The 
 fingers are, however, the principal tools. Some artists produce 
 very good work with such adventitious aid as old spoons and 
 any chance piece of stick cut into the form which the need of 
 the moment may suggest. A pair of carpenter's compasses are, 
 however, indispensable. As mud wasps occasionally make raids- 
 on sculptors for material, so in our school the youthful modellers 
 now and then appropriate the tools of the wood carvers for 
 certain mysterious purposes, a bent gouge being a favourite 
 implement wherewith to make scales on fishes. 
 
 Modelling is drawing in clay. Any child who can copy an 
 old shoe with a pencil can make it from a plastic material. 
 More than this, it is easier to model anything than to draw it. 
 A little boy can make a mud pie much better than he can copy 
 it on paper. An old shoe, or a plaster cast of a rabbit, life size,, 
 forms a perfect model for imitation. When jugs, jars, or vases 
 of green or wet clay can be obtained from a pottery it is easy 
 for the children, after a few days' practice, to ornament them 
 with flowers, lizards, fishes, crabs, leaves, or other figures. When 
 the jars cannot be obtained they may be made by hand ; thus, 
 cylindrical cups are easily formed around a broad pipe of paste- 
 board. Baskets of clay are often made in beautiful forms. A 
 
 u 
 
290 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 corrugated ground is produced by breaking a stick in two, and 
 pricking the clay with its jagged end. When finished and 
 dried articles may be sent to a pottery and fired. The process 
 of colouring and glazing such work is not more difficult than 
 rough water colouring. It is fully described in the ' Manual of 
 Modelling.' All the requisite materials for it may be had by 
 express on sending an order to any dealer in artists' materials 
 in any city. 
 
 Tangible Results of Industrial Training* 
 
 The practical results of a combined knowledge of decorative 
 design and modelling are these : The pupil learns to use the 
 eyes and fingers in a way which will render any work easier. 
 The boy or girl who can draw and model even tolerably well 
 can easily find a situation wherever casting or any other kind of 
 plastic work is executed. There is a great demand for boys 
 with such knowledge. I could, without exception, find paid 
 places in a great variety of manufactories for all the pupils in 
 the Public Industrial School who have had about twenty lessons 
 in design and modelling. 
 
 It may be well in this place to consider one or two of the 
 popular objections to industrial art in schools. One is of those 
 who, looking at vases with flowers or frogs, admit that they may 
 be all very pretty, but that they cannot see in such ' fancy work ' 
 any trustworthy means for getting a living. Of another class 
 are those who examine the work critically, ask its market value, 
 and then inquire if it could not be made more cheaply by 
 machinery, and, if so, whether it is worth while to set children 
 to making it. . Since this page was begun a distinguished re- 
 former, whose name is known to every reader of a newspaper, 
 and who professed great interest in art in schools, began with 
 me by saying, c I wish to see some of your children's work. I 
 want to know its market value, and how much money it will 
 bring. You see I am a practical person.' I did not see it, for 
 it seems to me to be most senseless and unpractical to expect 
 goods of average market value from mere children just begin- 
 ning to learn. There are people ' deeply interested in education ' 
 who inquire what is the current shop value of the work of a 
 child in its second or even first lesson. It is perfectly true that 
 
INDUSTRIAL ART IN SCHOOLS 291 
 
 in the hands of competent teachers and directors the average- 
 art industry school may be always made to meet its expenses ; 
 yet it is almost as unreasonable to reckon on this as to expect 
 that reading and writing will ' pay ' from the alphabet onwards. 
 In the words of William Gulager, of Philadelphia, ' whatever 
 is worth teaching is worth paying for.' Meanwhile it is worth 
 remembering that wherever ornamental castings in metal of any 
 kind are manufactured, or wood, plaster, terra-cotta, stone, or 
 any substance whatever is made to assume shape beyond size, 
 there the workman who can design and model even but a little 
 is wanted. 
 
 Wood Carving. 
 
 I consider that, as a general rule, the three branches of 
 design, embroidery, and modelling are the best to introduce 
 into an ordinary school. Yet in some places wood carving may 
 be preferred by pupils or parents to modelling, as I have known 
 it to be the case in England ; or it may in time be added to 
 the three branches already described. For wood carving a very 
 strong common table and about two dollars' worth of good tools 
 and fifty cents' worth of wood to each pupil may be called an 
 outfit. The steps in wood carving from mere drawing to cutting 
 are very gradual. It is to be desired that children in schools 
 should be confined to ' flat cutting,' which is easy and profitable, 
 and not be led at once, as they are in many schools, to ambitious 
 and difficult sculpture ' in the round.' 
 
 With design, embroidery, modelling, and wood carving a school 
 may be said to be fairly established as to industrial art. They 
 may all be learned in the rudiments by book. When well 
 established in these rudiments pupils can advance themselves 
 to the higher branches. What I have described may be made 
 a part of the course in every village or private school. When 
 design is acquired, every art is acquired for those who want it. 
 When these four branches are familiar to teacher or pupil all 
 other varieties of the minor arts are really trifles, so far as ac- 
 quisition is concerned. 
 
 u 2 
 
292 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 Stencilling. 
 
 The next branch may be stencilling. The advantages of 
 this art are but little understood. By means . of it every 
 whitewashed wall in the country might be made to look much 
 better than it would when covered with ordinary wall paper, 
 which paper, by the way, has been proved to be in innumerable 
 cases when damp a fruitful cause of malaria. A well-stencilled 
 wall is artistic, since only a good designer can draw the 
 pattern, and it requires artistic taste to combine the stencils in 
 more than one colour. This would give profitable employment 
 to thousands in every State. . It consists of nothing but drawing 
 designs, cutting them out of cardboard or sheet metal, and 
 then painting the patterns thus cut with a broad brush and 
 coloured washes or paint on walls or other surfaces. The art is 
 as yet in its infancy, and the vast majority of all the stencils 
 sold are of a very commonplace, old-fashioned character. The 
 expense requisite for stencilling would be about 50 cents a 
 square yard for best cardboard ; brushes, from 30 cents to 75 
 each ; washes, best quality, 25 cents a gallon ; paint at the 
 ordinary prices. 
 
 Papier-mache. 
 
 Papier-mache is a very cheap art, little known and capable 
 of wide application. It is closely allied to modelling in clay 
 and casting. By means of it all flat surfaces can be decorated 
 with permanent reliefs as durable as wood. Every kind of 
 merely ornamental architectural moulding can be made of 
 pressed and moulded paper. It is also worked by hand like 
 clay. It is capable of being combined with paste, glue, clay, 
 chalk, leather in fragments, pulp, pe'at, according to many 
 recipes which change it to as many different textures. The 
 number of practically useful as well as ornamental objects made 
 from these combinations is really incredible. I know of one man 
 who, by manufacturing a very simple object indeed from papier- 
 mache, has within a few years made a fortune. There is no 
 person who, able to design and somewhat familfar with model- 
 ling in clay, could not make saleable objects in this material. It 
 opens a wide field to inventiveness,. and can be practised by girls 
 and boys at home as well as made on a large scale in factories. 
 
INDUSTRIAL ART IN SCHOOLS 293 
 
 Sheet Leatlier-ivork: 
 
 .In common with stencil and papier-mdche, sheet leather- 
 work is very little understood or' practised. It consists of 
 pieces of "leather soaked in aluin water or plain water for a few 
 hours, on which patterns are then drawn by means of a toothed 
 wheel pricking through a design drawn on paper. This pattern 
 is outlined with a small hand- wheel or tooling instrument, and 
 the background put down and roughened with a common stamp 
 or punch. When dry the pattern may be painted or stained 
 with black or any other dye. Wet leather is capable of as much 
 modification as. clay or papier-mdche. Not only can sheets or 
 skins be utilised in its mamfold applications, but also all kinds 
 of bookbinders' and shoemakers' waste. It can be applied to 
 -any surface, such as chairs, tables, or cabinets. 
 
 Ceramic Painting. 
 
 Of ceramic or porcelain painting little need be said if it 
 meant no more than covering plaques or saucer plates with 
 feeble pictures of flowers and dogs' heads, as it generally does ; 
 but there is a vigorous style of purely decorative tile painting in 
 monochrome, or single colours, which is quite unknown to most 
 painters, and which will yet become popular and possibly ex- 
 tinguish the current debilitated imitations of ivory, drawing- 
 paper, and canvas pictures. The tile, as a wall ornament, should 
 as a rule be decorated in single colours, simply and boldly de- 
 signed, so as to be clearly visible at -a distance, in common with 
 the architectural details of a house. Were this kind of tile 
 painting commoner the art would be more legitimate than it 
 now is, and be more .respected not only by those who under- 
 stand art, but by the ignorant. Single-colour china or stone- 
 ware painting may be begun in stencil and carried on by hand. 
 Those who have gone on from design to filling in the ground 
 with colour will find it very easy. There is no certain sale or 
 regular demand for such fancy work as is generally found on 
 the plaques and tiles of art depositories and church fairs, but a 
 single-colour tile painter who can work rapidly from good designs 
 and also make them can always find, a market. Therefore this 
 form of industrial art may be introduced into schools, though it 
 
2c 4 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 is not to be desired that it should become a leading branch of 
 industry in them. 
 
 The teacher should beware of letting pupils choose too freely 
 what they will do. Left to themselves, all the silly ones, and 
 not a few of the wiser, would elect ' to paint,' probably to paint 
 pretty little posies in water-colour, oil, or china, which would be 
 the positive end of all practical or useful art industry with them. 
 If you would keep a girl from becoming an artist, set her at 
 flower-painting. There is, it is true, a natural appetite for 
 colour and flowers as there is for sugar, but this is no reason why 
 people should be fed on it. It should only be gratified after 
 being well nurtured on design and monochrome. 
 
 Repousse Work. 
 
 Embossing sheet metal, especially brass, though popular as 
 an amusement for amateurs, is less generally useful than any of 
 the branches already described. It requires a finished know- 
 ledge of design and a skill in tracing which few possess, if really 
 good work is to be done. By means of it sheet metal is ham- 
 mered into low relief by working it always cold on a piece of 
 board, or into much higher relief and more varied form by beat- 
 ing it on a bed of composition made of pitch, plaster of Paris, 
 and brick dust, and annealing it. The tools used are punches, 
 usually costing from 20 to 30 cents each. They are generally 
 either tracers for outlining patterns, or mats for grounding. The 
 sheet brass costs from 30 to 35 cents a pound in small quanti- 
 ties. The only full description of the art, both in cold hammer- 
 ing and by annealing, is, I believe, given in the ' Manual 
 of Repousse Work.' Annealing consists in warming the work 
 from time to time as it becomes hardened from hammering. It 
 is easily done with a heater and tube from a gaslight. It is all- 
 important in repousse that the pupil, before attempting to work 
 patterns, should learn to make lines, curves, &c., very accurately 
 with the tracer. Unless this is done no good work will ever 
 result. This work is, however, admirably useful as a prepara- 
 tion for all who intend at some future time to work in metal. 
 Familiarity with the hammer, the punch, and stamps leads to a 
 really practical knowledge of the properties of metal and how to 
 turn them to advantage. There is, too, a growing demand for 
 
INDUSTRIAL ART IN SCHOOLS 295 
 
 many hand-made objects of beaten brass. Facings for fire- 
 places, finger-plates for doors, bellows, panels for cabinets, 
 picture or mirror frames, and a hundred other objects may be 
 easily made by women and children. But let it be remembered 
 that neither sheet brass nor any other kind of work is worth 
 taking up unless it is preceded by a knowledge of design-draw- 
 ing and perfect skill in the use of the tracer. Without such 
 preparation it at once degenerates, as china painting has done, 
 into a frivolous fancy work. This work can also be elegantly 
 executed in sheet iron, tin, pewter, copper, or silver. 
 
 Painting. 
 
 Painting in oil or water colours, for the majority, requires 
 a special teacher. Yet when the inevitable design-drawing is 
 really mastered, monochrome or single colour presents no diffi- 
 culty whatever to a person of ordinary intelligence, even with- 
 out a master. And after monochrome, I see no reason why, 
 with a good manual, any one cannot gradually and carefully mix 
 colours and experiment and test and copy his way without any 
 real difficulty into skill. Those who write a letter to an editor 
 to know what colour would result from mixing blue with yellow 
 would perhaps be too impatient to travel the only true road, 
 which, seeming long, is yet the shortest. Painting, though the 
 most popular branch among all pupils, because producing such 
 pretty results, is the last to be thought of in an ordinary school. 
 In proportion to the time, trouble, and expense which it in- 
 volves, it is of less practical use than any of the minor arts. 
 Yet in one branch it is easy and commendable. I refer to mural 
 or purely decorative painting of walls and ceilings. Here 
 flowers have their place and may be appropriately introduced. 
 In a large experimental industrial art school, painting will of 
 course form a regular part of the branches. 
 
 Artists' Supplies. 
 
 In most cities there are dealers in artists' materials who will 
 supply or obtain anything needful. Where these cannot be 
 had, every bookseller will get for the applicant the art manuals 
 or similar works, and the publishers of these will always send 
 to order what is wanted or answer a letter containing a postage 
 
296 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 stamp. I presume that the editor of any newspaper will be 
 able to give the address of any advertising agent in New York 
 or Philadelphia or other large city, who will obtain what is 
 wanted or hand the order to a general agent. The latter will 
 always, being allowed a discount, obtain the article as cheaply 
 for the consumer as he himself could do. Finally, the directors 
 or teachers of the art schools or ladies' art clubs or associations 
 of any of our cities would reply to any questions from any 
 persons far inland. I myself have always made it a point to do 
 so in the interest of education, and will always give information 
 or counsel most willingly to all who wish to learn an art or to 
 introduce industrial pursuits into schools, and who in address- 
 ing me will inclose a stamp for return of postage. 
 
 Importance of Freehand. 
 
 It is much easier to learn to draw well than to write well, 
 and there is no child that would not do both admirably if 
 it were obliged from the first hour to use freehand ; that is to 
 say, to control the pen or pencil from the shoulder, allowing the 
 arm to rest on the table just enough to prevent fatigue. The 
 whole difficulty of drawing lies not, as is popularly and very 
 ignorantly supposed, in composing and inventing figures, but 
 in drawing simple lines. Now, let the teacher in every school, 
 however humble, bear in mind this great truth, that if a child 
 acquire true freehand in writing it can not only draw well, but 
 do almost anything well which requires perfect control of the 
 hand. This wonderful faculty enables the possessor to almost 
 at once feel, as it were, the chief difficulty of wood carving the 
 light artistic touch and to overcome it. So is it with all other 
 arts. With this power they can all be literally mastered. The 
 younger the pupil who acquires it, the sooner in life will he 
 make it his own, and the greater will be his manual skill in all 
 things when older grown. There are very few teachers who 
 fully realise this, few parents who ever think of it ; yet it is the 
 mainspring of all manual art. For the sake of this it would be 
 worth while to make industrial art a part of the education of all 
 children, the younger the better. Therefore all who propose to 
 teach or learn art in any form should seriously consider free- 
 hand as the true key to all its practice. It is a great stimulant 
 to quickness of perception. 
 
INDUSTRIAL ART IN SCHOOLS 297 
 
 Larger Schools. 
 
 I have, in what is previously written, considered the ex- 
 pediency of industrial art as a branch of education, and shown 
 how it may be introduced to village or private schools. I have 
 of course only considered the pupils ; but it is worth remarking 
 that the teachers themselves, ' learning while instructing,' will 
 also become accomplished, and in many instances fit themselves 
 for a more congenial career as artists or teachers of art. No 
 one can doubt that if every teacher in America could practise 
 one or more strictly industrial decorative arts of a more practical 
 nature than are now taught in schools, there would be an im- 
 mense impetus given to our national culture and industry. 
 There was very little really solid in old-fashioned drawing, water- 
 colour, theorems, wax flowers, and china flower plaques, but there 
 is a great deal of real value in freehand design, and in execut- 
 ing it in wood, metal, leather, and all other suitable substances. 
 Not only does the teacher find in decorative art a means of 
 making more money, but he is also provided with what to all is 
 an agreeable change from other duties ; for, while teaching, the 
 instructor, in common with the pupils, can produce something 
 saleable or valuable. 
 
 The Introduction of Art Training. 
 
 Where it is proposed to introduce industrial art work to 
 public schools in large cities or to whole communities, there will 
 be either much opposition or great indifference to the innovation 
 on the part of those who do not understand it. The best way 
 to begin in such cases is to establish on a small scale a single 
 primary school of from twenty to thirty pupils, to be taught 
 design, embroidery and plain sewing, modelling in clay, and 
 wood carving. This school may be supported by private con- 
 tributions and the aid of ladies and gentlemen who will give 
 time and teaching for nothing, as several have done in Phila- 
 delphia, or it may be entirely based on appropriations from 
 school boards, or the latter source may be eked out by the 
 former. When the school is established and well under way, 
 all that is necessary to convince any rational man of its utility 
 will be to have him inspect it while in session. If managed 
 
298 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 with any ability it will speak for itself. The sight of the girls 
 and boys proving to the most prejudiced their ability to make 
 a living on leaving school, is all that is needed to make con- 
 verts. The walls of the school may be decorated with specimens 
 of work, but I do not urge the appeal to these as the sole proof 
 of the expediency of teaching children to use their hands. As 
 a rule without exception, it is the unreasoning and ignorant 
 visitor who is amazed at plaques and panels made by children, 
 and who cries at every indication of what is or should be only 
 ordinary talent, ' How wonderful ! Is not that child a genius ? 
 Has she not extraordinary talent ? ' The children themselves 
 soon learn to laugh at this false estimate of their skill. They 
 know that they can all do these things with practice. And, as 
 I have previously said, the ignorant examiner, looking only at 
 the results and considering only market values, immediately 
 misunderstands the entire system. Thus newspapers have un- 
 thinkingly compared the results of the work done by little 
 children who had had, many of them, only a dozen lessons, or at 
 most twenty, and that once a week, with that effected by grown- 
 up young women who had been for years employed all day, and 
 every day, in higher art schools. Yet even these children 
 showed, in proportion to their age and opportunities, superiority 
 in every respect to all rivals. 
 
 Material required. 
 
 In an ordinary experimental school we first need a room. 
 The upper story of a city school, when not in use, is perfectly 
 adapted to the purpose. It should of course be well lighted. 
 Tables made of two-inch plank, placed on very strong, firm 
 trestles, are requisite, particularly if wood carving and brass- 
 work are contemplated. There must be abundant shelving for 
 many purposes. The pupils will every one require a place 
 whereon to put half-finished work. There must of course be 
 chairs and a black-board. An adjacent small store-room or large 
 closet will be a great convenience. If this be wanting a large 
 plain wooden cabinet must be provided. 
 
 It may happen that the director or principal of an experi- 
 mental school is capable of teaching not only drawing, but 
 modelling. In like manner the lady teacher of embroidery 
 
INDUSTRIAL ART IN SCHOOLS 299 
 
 may be qualified to teach something else. In the smaller schools 
 of course one teacher must supervise everything. In the 
 smallest it will soon be found necessary to convert the most 
 advanced pupils into assistants. Economies of teaching may 
 be carried out in many ways. But where it can be done the 
 director should have no direct teaching. There should be one 
 instructor for every branch. There should consequently be 
 teachers for drawing, carving, and modelling in clay. But in 
 different localities and in large schools well supported many 
 branches may be taught. I could easily enumerate fifty, large 
 and small, all worth learning and all very easy to learn if the 
 pupil can design. Thus leather-work may be divided into 
 several branches, all elegant and profitable. There is sewn 
 leather, in which fragments of bookbinders' and shoemakers' 
 waste are cut into shape and sewed together, as well as the two 
 great divisions of sheet leather stamped and leather moulded 
 into shapes. In Russia, Turkey, and Persia there are whole 
 villages or large communes devoted to sewn leather-work, and 
 if really artistic patterns were supplied there would be many 
 thousands of people in America doing the same. 
 
 With regard to what seems to be the only great and real 
 difficulty in popularising art and industrial art education, some- 
 thing may here be most appropriately said. This difficulty is 
 that of getting patterns to guide taste. I long since suggested 
 in published lectures that this might be met by either private 
 charity or municipal or Government aid. Sheets of patterns 
 for every branch of the minor arts, costing not more than two 
 cents a sheet, would be of incalculable value to every industry 
 in which taste is required. From art works already published, 
 from our museums, and from those abroad, inexhaustible material 
 could be taken. It should all be drawn from specimens illus- 
 trating and expressing some marked era of art. Very little 
 should be made or drawn to order for these sheets, not even by 
 the best artists. What is wanted is instruction and inspiration 
 for artists, not from men, but from eras of culture. When the 
 demand makes itself felt our Government will doubtless supply 
 it. It has been met in England in an inadequate way by pub- 
 lishing illustrated pamphlet summaries of the works in the 
 South Kensington Museum. But what is wanted is simply 
 
300 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 large sheets with large outline designs of different kinds of art 
 industry work. Let me illustrate this by a single instance. 
 In many parts of America, boards, even of oak, walnut, or more 
 valuable woods, are cheap enough, and men who can manage 
 saws and planes are not wanting. These people are often 
 without furniture, and pay extravagant prices for the flimsy, 
 worthless, ugly, glued together, and varnished trash of the 
 factories. Now, there is a type and style of very elegant solid 
 furniture, such as was made in South Germany for centuries, 
 which would cost no more than the glued and veneered trash. 
 It is made by simply sawing, boring, and pinning or bolting 
 planks or boards together. Any man of ordinary intelligence 
 having the design for a table or chair of this kind before him 
 can take the measurements and make it. A series of such 
 designs at a low price would be very welcome and very useful 
 all through the West. 
 
 As I shall explain in another place, there are several useful 
 industries which would soon be practised in thousands of 
 families were cheap illustrations devoted to them disseminated 
 everywhere. Such pictures would form a very important aid 
 to industry in schools. I have done what I could to help in this 
 respect by giving in the series of art manuals, which were 
 written for education, large working patterns, those in any one 
 of the works being adaptable to another. Thus a design for sheet 
 brass may also be used for flat carving. It is to be regretted 
 that in works of art half the engravings are executed not with 
 a view to making them practically useful to workmen, but to give 
 a general picturesque effect. There is a great deal of expensive 
 shading, but the details are scumbled. This is the case even in 
 many of the illustrations of the South Kensington works. 
 
 I will here recapitulate the possible or probable requirements 
 of an experimental school on a large scale for a city : 
 
 A large room, well lighted. 
 
 From 30 to 50 feet of common pine shelving. 
 
 One gas-burner to six pupils. 
 
 Water, soap, and towels. 
 
 One closet or cabinet (pine). 
 
 One waterproof barrel or large box, for clay. 
 
 Clay, from 30 to 100 pounds. 
 
INDUSTRIAL ART IN SCHOOLS 301 
 
 Modelling tools, one set. 
 
 Carpenter's compasses. 
 
 Chest of carpenter's tools. 
 
 Drawing-boards. 
 
 Drawing-paper. 
 
 Pencils. 
 
 Cups or small tumblers. 
 
 India-rubber. 
 
 Tiles, for colours. 
 
 Foot rules. 
 
 Compasses. 
 
 Water-colours. 
 
 Paint-brushes . 
 
 Black-board. 
 
 Wood-carving tools for each pupil. 
 
 Wood, half inch to inch, at from 4 to 10 cents a foot. 
 
 One set of Art Work Manuals or other handbooks. 
 
 Whetstones or hones. 
 
 One grindstone. 
 
 One bucket or pail. . 
 
 One fret-sawing apparatus. 
 
 Material for needlework for each pupil. 
 
 Leather, from 25 cents to $1 a skin, besides waste. 
 
 Tools for leather- work, each pupil. 
 
 Stencil- cutting, each pupil. 
 
 Brass-work, each pupil ; tools, $1 ; brass, $1. 
 
 Flour paste or dextrine. 
 
 Plaster for moulds. 
 
 It will be seen that it is very difficult to adjust the prices 
 for such a list, especially for all parts of the United States. 
 For a small school or club on the humblest scale, drawing 
 materials, two or three carving tools to each pupil, boards or 
 wood (such as can be generally had for a trifle), waste news- 
 papers, and common paste and clay for papier-mache, with a 
 little paint, bits of marble or stone of different kinds, and a 
 hammer and iron bar for mosaic making, with rags for artistic 
 rag carpet work, and manuals, will not, with management, cost 
 in all more than from $20 to $30. A clever teacher with 
 clever pupils could almost undertake to begin work on $10 and 
 increase the stock of implements by sales. If the teacher can 
 only design, all the rest will or may follow of itself. 
 
302 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 How to select Work for Practice. 
 
 It is extremely difficult to determine, beyond design-drawing, 
 modelling, embroidery, and wood carving, exactly what may or 
 may not be taken up. There are places about factories where 
 the material for rag carpeting is very cheap ; in others it is 
 dear. This, as I shall show, supplies material for a really 
 elegant and practically useful art. In others mosaic stones or 
 marble may be had for the taking, while in certain places such 
 material is not to be had. I have seen a bed of finest clay, 
 ranging from white to red, in Minnesota, several miles in 
 extent, not very far from Duluth. In the East such clay costs 
 from three to five cents a pound. It will be seen by this that 
 the prices of the materials and implements for industrial art 
 work are very variable ; but there is no place in which some of 
 them are not within the reach of the poorest. Sculpturing 
 brick is a beautiful and profitable art, not difficult to learn, and 
 bricks are to be had everywhere. 
 
 There is one rule by which all such schools may be safely 
 guided. Making money immediately should not be the main 
 object of any branch of education, but where schools are very 
 poor a sufficient income to pay for tools and materials may be 
 confidently relied on. Let the teacher, or those who are inte- 
 rested in the pupils, after they can design patterns, and not 
 till then, consider what industries in their neighbourhood will 
 pay. In the first place, a stencilled wall is really, if well exe- 
 cuted, better than a papered one. Elegant stencilling costs 
 little more than that which is ugly. It should be found in 
 every house in the country. Just at present it seems to be 
 confined to the Fifth Avenue or to the most expensive mansions. 
 If brass or sheet metal work is taken up, fronts for fireplaces 
 are easily made and can be sold, as also finger-plates for doors, 
 sconces, and frames. Leather-work will supply baskets, chair 
 seats, and coverings for the backs of chairs, table-covers, and 
 albums. Of sewn leather, cushions or pillows are extensively 
 made in Turkey, Russia, and Persia. These can be made from 
 bookbinder's waste. Elegant coverings for furniture, rugs, and 
 slippers are also made of this now wasted material, which may be 
 used for a great variety of purposes. Let it always be remembered 
 
INDUSTRIAL ART IN SCHOOLS 303 
 
 that if the teachers and pupils set themselves resolutely to make 
 certain objects well, according to what authority recommends 
 as good patterns, they can always find some agency in every 
 town where their work can be sold. But if they only produce 
 average church fair work of the common flower plaque and dog's- 
 head school, it will not sell. The writer is in the constant 
 receipt of letters from people in the country asking him where 
 their small art work can be sold, or even requesting him to 
 kindly exert himself to sell it for them. Now, there is always a 
 market for anything worth having, but the only way to sell it 
 is to find out by inquiry some honest agent or merchant in a 
 city or town who will deal in art work, and trust to him. The 
 ladies' decorative art associations in our large cities all sell 
 such work, with a discount in their favour of about ten per cent. 
 It is to be advised that, in all cases where the pupils produce 
 work of substantial merit, specimens adapted to house decoration 
 such as brass fronts and tiles for fireplaces, leather chair 
 covers, and carved panels with squares of mosaic be exhibited, 
 not for sale, but as samples of work which will be executed to 
 order. 
 
 I may here speak of a few minor arts which may be taken 
 up according to opportunity. I cannot urge too strongly the 
 fact that after design is learned every kind of material presents 
 a subject for art work, and that every artist should be continu- 
 ally discovering new varieties of it. From modelling vases 
 down to painting oyster-shells, or making wampum beads with 
 a drill, or turning the under shell of a terrapin into an old ivory 
 menu, there is but one art, and there is money to be made out 
 of it all, or at least skill to be acquired with amusement from its 
 practice. 
 
 Rag Carpets. Sort the rag strings for carpeting according 
 to colour, and let them be woven up singly. Thus you may 
 have one which is black or brown or blue. Take preferably a 
 black for a beginning, and work a pattern by running white 
 tape with a bodkin through the threads. Sew this where 
 needed. If Etruscan or Greek designs are followed, the result 
 will be a rug or portiere or hanging, cheap indeed, but if 
 properly made, elegant enough for the drawing-room of a 
 duchess. The simpler the colours the better, but a variety may 
 
304 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 be employed according to the subject. It is not generally 
 understood that weaving is by no means a very difficult art, and 
 that light and cheap looms can be made for ladies. In the East 
 at the present day the most exquisite weaving is done without 
 looms, the threads being simply arranged between pins and drawn 
 along, the pattern being worked or drawn in by hand. 
 
 Painted Embroidery. This is made by painting or stencilling 
 patterns in water-colour or dyes on any suitable stuff. The 
 flowers or arabesques are then simply outlined in woollen or 
 silk. A manual of this work, as well as one of rag carpet em- 
 broidery and other arts mentioned, is in course of preparation. 
 
 Mosaic. The stone cubes for this work are sold in New 
 York, but at a very high price. They may be made with a little 
 practice by anybody with a square hammer and an iron bar 
 from almost any kind of marble or stone. They are from a 
 fourth of an inch to a half-inch square, set so as to form patterns 
 in cement ; they make not only a durable and elegant pavement, 
 but also squares which may be used to cover walls or as panels 
 in cabinets. For summer, mosaic floors are preferable to wood. 
 They are specially suited to bath-rooms. Cubes of earthenware, 
 though far inferior to stone, may, however, be used for mosaic. 
 They are easily made in moulds, and may be baked or fired even 
 by amateurs at a trifling expense. 
 
 Sculptured Brick. Any brick and mortar wall may be sculp- 
 tured. It is a question whether after the relief is executed the 
 mortar should be stained red to match with the bricks, or whether 
 all should be left in primitive material. Brick sculpture may 
 be very elegantly executed on a small scale, from a single brick 
 up to half a dozen. There is really no artistic reason why these 
 should not be set in red mortar or cement. A single sculptured 
 square set under each window of a house, or between the stories 
 011 the front, will change the whole fapade and greatly improve 
 it. 
 
 Applicability and Value of Art Training. 
 
 It is a curious matter to reflect what may bt> done for an 
 ordinary country house by a family who will devote their even- 
 ings to its improvement, with a. few tools and cheap materials. 
 In the first place, good planed plank or boards can, by pattern 
 
INDUSTRIAL ART IN SCHOOLS 305 
 
 and measurement, be converted by most men or boys into solid 
 and even elegant furniture . It will cost less when finished than 
 is usually paid for machine-made varnished and veneered 
 rubbish. I have before me as I write two chairs, each 250 years 
 old, as good as new. The chair back fits by a socket into the 
 seat, and is bolted beneath ; the legs are simply stuck through 
 holes, as in a three-legged stool, into the seat. The backs are 
 carved, and the result is a very beautiful yet convenient piece 
 of furniture. Tables, settees, and all kinds of furniture may be 
 made on this plan. The floor of the cottage may be set in. 
 mosaic, at the expense of time, an iron bar, a hammer, and 
 stone of different colours ; or it may be inlaid in wood and covered 
 with rag carpets in Etruscan or Greek pattern all home-made. 
 The walls maybe covered with stencilled designs, or ornamented 
 with carved panels at intervals, or strips or panels of stamped 
 leather in old Spanish patterns, touched with gold. The doom 
 may be hung with rag carpet portieres, or cheap materials, such 
 as crash towelling, dye-painted and outlined with embroidery. 
 The ceiling may be stencilled or adorned with papier-mache 
 mouldings. 
 
 There are many people who say, as many have said to me,, 
 ' What is the use or sense of inducing a backwoods-dweller in 
 a log cabin or shanty to adorn his house in a manner which he 
 can neither understand nor enjoy ? ' There are others who con- 
 tinually cry that educating girls up to aesthetic tastes unfits 
 them for ' mechanics' wives.' This has been the old cry in one 
 form or another in all ages. It was heard everywhere a century 
 ago, as it may still be heard occasionally from a few ' aristo- 
 crats,' that reading and writing are the ruin of ' the lower 
 orders.' There is a gentleman in Philadelphia who has always 
 maintained that our civil war, which he regarded simply as a 
 needless nuisance because it inconvenienced him, ' all came from 
 educating the common people so that they could read the news- 
 papers.' Industrial art is rapidly becoming, in education and 
 in life, as essential as reading or writing. Thousands who are 
 absorbed in politics, whisky, or business, are as yet ignorant of 
 this ; even some editors seem to ignore it ; but the women, the 
 clergy, and the teachers are already generally aware of it. But 
 all the people in America do not live in backwoods-shanties. 
 
 x 
 
3 o6 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 and where they do, they are not on that account to be universally 
 set down as incapable of appreciating homes made beautiful. 
 There are millions of people in America, not so badly off, whose 
 homes, in which much money has been spent, are not really 
 creditable, good-looking, or comfortable. They would all have 
 tasteful or artistic and cheap adornment if they could get it. 
 The money which they pay for their present ornamentations 
 represents just so much labour. Now, this labour would be 
 better bestowed on making for themselves what they want, or, 
 in other words, in keeping the profits which at present simply 
 go to enrich the manufacturers of machinery-made and very 
 trashy and ugly objects. The problem of political economy lies 
 in the greatest possible distribution of wealth and industry. 
 
 There is another argument in favour of industrial art educa- 
 tion. It is the enormous and rapidly growing demand for 
 hand-made objects. As education and culture progress, people 
 begin to find out that in jewellery as in pictures, or even in fire- 
 irons, a thing to be truly artistic must be hand-made. It is not as 
 yet generally understood that machinery, though it may manu- 
 facture pretty things, cannot make anything artistic. There are 
 no such things as artistic works made in any way except by 
 hand. Only the vulgar and ignorant confuse or confound that 
 which is beautiful with what is artistic. The merchant is 
 guilty of an illiterate blunder who advertises as ( artistic ' goods 
 turned out by the million from moulds. It is more correct to 
 speak of a pair of well-made and handsome trousers as artistic 
 than of a chromo-lithograph as such. This demand for hand- 
 made art will ere long give employment to that very large class 
 whom it is at .present difficult to fit to anything. The day is 
 not distant when the public will be so well educated as to dis- 
 tinguish clearly between hand-made and machinery-made in 
 everything pertaining to ornament. When that time comes we 
 shall be a nation not only of artists, but of mutual purchasers of 
 art work. Meanwhile let it be distinctly understood that art 
 does not consist entirely in prettiness. Its best characteristic 
 is the impression of individual character. This disappears in 
 the machine. In fact, the more perfect machine work is, the 
 less is it artistic. The faultlessly finished piece of silver-work, 
 such as no mere smith could ever rival, shows indeed the result 
 
INDUSTRIAL ART IN SCHOOLS 307 
 
 of ingenuity, but not of art. A Soudan bracelet made with a 
 stone and a nail is far more artistic than a Connecticut mill- 
 manufactured dollar bangle, yet the latter is infinitely the more 
 ' finished ' of the two. 
 
 As for the argument that girls are unfitted for becoming 
 mechanics' wives by a knowledge of art, it is like the hackneyed 
 cry against the piano, and against all kinds of education or cul- 
 ture for the poor. The best arbiters in this question would be 
 the young mechanics themselves, especially those who have been 
 at art schools. Much as has been said against the piano, the 
 mechanic himself is generally the first to make his wife a present 
 of one, and I doubt if he would object to arts which are practised 
 at home and which bring money in. There is much cheap 
 ridicule of dados, and what is misrepresented as being the staple 
 of all decorative art work ; but the truth is and it is to be desired 
 that all newspaper wits would admit it that the fancy work of 
 the last generation is gradually assuming a substantial and valu- 
 able form. The l china craze,' as it is called, was at any rate 
 better than potichomanie or wax-fruit work. The arts of which 
 I have spoken deal with something more ' practical ' than 
 plaques. 
 
 Art Instruction in its Relations to the Trades. 
 
 I cannot set forth too strongly the fact that decorative art is 
 to be taught to children and girls simply because it is better 
 adapted to their age or nature than a trade or mechanical pur- 
 suits, and that whenever it is possible the pupils should be put 
 into practical work. Thus, when boys or even girls manifest an 
 aptness or a fitness for it, they may be taught simple carpentry 
 or joinery, turning, or any of the trades, if there be an oppor- 
 tunity to do so and they can learn. It requires many thousands 
 of dollars to establish an industrial school, but industrial art may 
 be taught from the infant school or kindergarten upward. 
 Let it, however, be borne in mind that industrial art, especially 
 .as regards boys, is really only a training for a trade, and that, 
 far from giving them a distaste for useful work, it only whets the 
 appetite. 
 
 I was one of the first, if not the first, to point out in a lecture 
 a fact which has since been re-echoed by others, that the decay 
 
 x 2 
 
3o8 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 of the apprentice system must very soon lead to industrial edu- 
 cation in schools. Machinery is making men into machines at 
 such a rate that humanity is becoming seriously alarmed at the 
 inevitable result. The old apprentice had a chance to rise, 
 since he learned a whole trade ; the modern workman, who is 
 kept at making the sixtieth part of a shoe, and at nothing else, 
 by a master whom he never sees, is becoming a mere serf to 
 capital. Even the industrial school with its ' practical ' work 
 can do nothing against this onward and terrible march of utili- 
 taria. It is in the teaching of art and of the superiority of hand- 
 work in all that constitutes taste that the remedy will be found. 
 By-and-by, when culture shall have advanced as it will there 
 will be an adjustment of interests. Machinery will supply mere 
 physical comforts. Man, and not machinery, will minister to 
 taste and refinement. 
 
 According to the method and means which I have indicated, 
 industrial art work may be acquired and taught by any one who 
 will first of all learn simple decorative design. From this point 
 I consider that the several minor arts, also described in the 
 works already referred to, may be easily comprehended, mastered, 
 and taught. But, in fact, the one who can design and model has 
 the capacity to master the rudiments of any of these arts, since 
 they all constitute substantially one art. I have also shown how 
 the system of instruction may be extended to large preparatory 
 schools in cities. 
 
 Admission to the Philadelphia School. 
 
 A word may here be said as to the method or system by 
 which the pupils are taken into the Philadelphia School. Every 
 teacher in the public schools selects one or two scholars. These 
 are divided into two classes, one attending on Tuesdays from three 
 to five, the other on Thursdays at the same hours. When the 
 pupils can make a fair original design they are advanced to 
 another class, either to paint, model, carve, or learn embroidery. 
 The pupils are, without exception, fond of their work, and would 
 willingly come oftener if possible. In some cases, as a reward, 
 proficients are permitted to attend twice a week. In a few 
 weeks all who advance beyond design produce work which has a 
 market value. 
 
INDUSTRIAL ART IN SCHOOLS 309 
 
 III. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 Equality of the Sexes in Artistic Capacity. 
 
 It may interest the reader to know that in design-drawing 
 there, is no difference as regards merit or capacity between the 
 sexes. In brass-ivork boys excel, not because it requires more 
 strength, for it does not, and the gentlest worker who makes 
 least exertion does best ; but because women and girls will not 
 take so much pains to learn to work a line well with a tracer 
 before proceeding to make what they are confident will be 
 saleable and beautiful productions. In wood carving the sexes 
 are more nearly equal, with an advantage, however, in favour of 
 the male. In modelling the equality is almost re-established. 
 'Teachers who have had much experience in Europe all declare 
 that American girls or grown women, while clever, are the most 
 difficult to teach, owing to their impatience. As a rule, when 
 not under restraint, they have not the patience to learn to design, 
 but are eager to take up at once one or several arts, hoping to 
 beg, buy, or borrow patterns, as luck may provide. Those 
 who do proceed by the right road of drawing learn rapidly and 
 -do well. 
 
 Misapprehension of ' Art ' an Obstacle to Industrial Education. 
 
 The most serious obstacle with which industrial art has to 
 contend is the extravagant and inflated ideas which are popularly 
 attached to the word art. It has been so long identified with 
 pictures and statues that in every newspaper, under the heading 
 of ' The Fine Arts,' nothing but news of pictures and statues is 
 expected. Now, as not one person in scores can accurately 
 distinguish a good picture from a bad one, and as the kind of art 
 knowledge which is current sets itself forth in a vast vocabulary 
 of cant, it is not remarkable that ' art ' has become a terror. 
 There are men in high places who profess to be authorities, who 
 declare that ' art ' is something for only the very few to rightly 
 understand, and that it requires a special inspiration and much 
 education to appreciate it. When every one, rich or poor, shall 
 know what design is, though it be only simply decorative, and has 
 
310 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 become familiar with a tastefully ornamented house, however 
 humble, then art in its highest, purest, and noblest sense will 
 have no mystery for any one. It is most unfortunately true that, 
 while taste, learning, and culture are spreading rapidly, there 
 has been, so far, no rational or common-sensible effort to really 
 teach the poor and ignorant anything of the kind. There is a 
 great deal of writing about the ennobling tendencies of art, but 
 there have been as yet very few efforts to really go down to the 
 basis and make a proper beginning. The dilettanti and cogno- 
 scenti, and of late years the aesthetes, have all preached in their 
 time and way the glory of Kaphael or Michael Angelo, and how 
 desirable it would be to bring a knowledge of them down to the 
 people. But they have never tried bringing the people up to 
 Raphael. Now, Raphael and Michael Angelo sprang from the 
 people in an age when every object was made with decorative 
 art. And when this shall be the case with us we shall have 
 Raphaels again, find not till then. There never was a real art in 
 the world that did not spring from the people, that was not fully 
 shared in by the people, and that did not belong to the people. 
 If there were to-day as much knowledge of and fondness for 
 design as there seems to have been among the prehistoric 
 savages of Europe, we should in a few years raise our manu- 
 factures of every kind to pre-eminence, and with them improve 
 ourselves personally, morally, and socially. 1 
 
 There is a great coming revival of culture and of art, but it 
 will not be with us until we teach its principles to every child in 
 every school. There is an instinct in mankind for decoration,, 
 for colour, for manifestations of what is beautiful. It has been 
 starved out temporarily by the practical developments of science 
 
 1 Mr. William Morris, the eminent poet and artist, speaks to the same 
 effect in his recent address at the opening of a fine art and industrial exhibition 
 at Manchester, England : ' In truth, these decorative arts, when they are 
 genuine, real from the root up, have one claim to be considered serious matters 
 which even the greater works do in a way lack, and this claim is that they are 
 the direct expression of the thoughts and aspirations of the mass of the people ; 
 and I assert that the higher class of artist, the individual artist he whose 
 work is, as it were, a work in itself cannot live healthily and" happily without 
 the lower kind of art if we must call it lower the kind which we may think 
 of as co-operative art, and which, when it is genuine, gives your great man, be 
 he never so great, the peaceful and beautiful surroundings and the sympathetic 
 audience which he justly thinks he has a right to.' 
 
INDUSTRIAL ART IN SCHOOLS 311 
 
 or by the useful. This was well ; but while comfort should be 
 paramount there is no need of suppressing taste. Those who 
 talk about the sunflower mania and ' art craze ' as something 
 temporary, and who mistake the sesthetes for the main army 
 yet to come, are like the ambassadors sent by an African king 
 to visit London, and who at the first small Arab village thought 
 themselves at the end of their journey. As yet the people have 
 not moved. A writer in a Cincinnati journal, I know not who, 
 has wisely said that ' because some people have blue jugs and 
 one gentleman an art gallery, therefore we are a great artistic 
 people. But where are the works of our united citizens? 
 What have the masses of our people done ? ' 
 
 What the masses of our people can do will be first shown 
 when every one of them shall have been taught, first decorative 
 design, and then one or more minor arts. This design will be 
 simple, and deal only with outline and mere ornament at first. 
 This is the only easy and proper preparation for more advanced 
 drawing, be it practical or technological, or for prospective 
 picture making. Hitherto all elementary drawing has been 
 misdirected, either in copying shaded pictures or, what is 
 little better, in stiff and formal ' systems.' When all can design, 
 and all know something about decorative art, the mystery will 
 depart, and the world feel less awed before old masters and 
 modern Gothic churches ; neither will it believe that a pile of 
 building is necessarily beautiful because it cost fifteen million 
 dollars. 
 
 Moral Effects of Art Instruction. 
 
 I cannot urge too earnestly or too often on clergymen as on 
 parents, the fact that an interesting industry is conducive to 
 moral culture. Boys who are really absorbed in some kind of 
 industrious amusement are kept out of much mischief. The 
 world, unfortunately, while it observes those who are always in 
 mischief, takes no note of those who are kept out of it. How 
 much the more, therefore, is art industry in schools to be com- 
 mended, since it not only keeps children busy as an amusement, 
 but aids them practically as to future callings ! Year by year 
 sees the old bugbear fading away, the demon of our childhood, 
 which taught that as all medicines to be effective must needs be 
 
312 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 nauseous, so all school study must needs be wearisome and pain- 
 ful. I am sure that industrial art will go far to make children 
 love school. In England rural clergymen and their wives soon 
 saw into this, and Mrs. Jebb, of Ellesmere, was the first to estab- 
 lish village art schools. But if it be advisable from moral 
 grounds to teach children some way to employ their leisure 
 pleasantly, what shall we say of the immense number of the 
 older grown who rush into vice, impelled by the sheer ennui of 
 idleness ? Here is an immense number of girls knowing nothing 
 but a little plain sewing, or, in the higher grades, a little piano- 
 playing. They cannot all get places in shops or factories, and it 
 they do, many of them break down. When a rainy day comes 
 there is suffering indeed. At such a time almost any fancy 
 work, however trifling, often intervenes to save them from rain. 
 There are now many thousands of young women in America who 
 owe the real comfort, or what constitutes the enjoyment, of life 
 to the teaching or making what is in itself almost worthless, to 
 feeble cards and washy plaques and wretched drawing and daub- 
 ing ; yet it saves them. How much better would it be if they 
 understood design and the decorative arts, which are not more 
 difficult, and which are far more" certain to command a market ! 
 There is another class of young people, mostly female, who, 
 having taken the first step in vice, linger awhile before the second, 
 and then are rapidly and utterly degraded. If we look through 
 the ranks of the uneducated, half-educated, or even so-called edu- 
 cated young women, how many are there who have any resources 
 to fill up their leisure ? Is it a wonder that they gossip, and 
 thereby develop the sociable evil, who makes even more mischief 
 than her humbler sister, the social evil ? I do not think that 
 among the best educated there is one in ten who has any hand- 
 work or resource, artistic or literary, in which she really delights. 
 It is the same with the men. , Hence ' politics,' gossip, and the 
 most frivolous waste of time. The clergy know this, and they 
 would welcome any remedy for it. When I recently published 
 in the ' Messenger ' an appeal to them to aid in introducing art 
 into schools on moral grounds, I began at once to receive, as I 
 still do, letters from clergymen all over the country in reference 
 to the subject. It is a fact that when a girl once masters an 
 art she generally remains true to it and makes the most of it. 
 
INDUSTRIAL ART IN SCHOOLS 313 
 
 Its practice gives a certain sense of superiority and of self-reli- 
 ance which goes far to strengthen morals in the truest sense of 
 the word. 
 
 Industrial Art as an Economic Factor. 
 
 There is not one person living, having the usual command of 
 brain and hands, who cannot learn to design well in simply 
 decorative drawing in a few weeks, or, in extremest cases, in a 
 few months, if he or she will try to acquire it. There is not one 
 person who can execute simple design who cannot also master 
 one or more minor arts. And finally, there is no youth of either 
 sex who understands one minor art who cannot make a living 
 by it or by teaching it. By mastering an art I do not mean the 
 ability to feebly copy a wreath of flowers on a china plate, or to 
 indifferently hammer on a brass plaque a borrowed pattern. As 
 it is within the power of all to learn design, so it is quite as easy 
 to perfect themselves in these arts, without a master. All that 
 they require is will and industrious application. This is not 
 mere theory. It has been proved in millions of instances. The 
 history of whole countries, nations, and eras has proved it. I 
 will give the examples. 
 
 In the East from remote times, during the days of Greece 
 and Rome, and through the European Middle Ages, the condi- 
 tions of life were such that but for hand-made minor art the 
 number of paupers would have been literally overpowering. 
 Nothing produces idlers and beggars so much as aristocracy or 
 an extravagant and wealthy court and nobility, and society was 
 then entirely aristocratic. Yet there were fewer paupers then 
 than there are now, if by paupers we mean the entirely depend- 
 ent. To-day in the United States they wear good clothes and 
 seem well off, but they depend on somebody. There have been 
 .states of society in which the producer was more cruelly taxed, 
 but none in which he supported so many. It is very creditable 
 to the average mechanic of the United States that he spends 
 twice or thrice as much on his family as does his British brother, 
 but it is very discreditable to his family that they take so much. 
 Now, if there was such a demand for hand-made decoration in 
 this country as there was, let us say, in Europe five hundred 
 jears ago ; if every home, however small, were properly adorned, 
 
3M INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 all in the country who are willing to work would find employ- 
 ment. It is a curious reflection that even in the time of Eliza- 
 beth the c sitting-room ' of Anne Hathaway's cottage was far 
 more beautiful than any drawing-room in modern Philadelphia, 
 for it was entirely lined with old carved oak. This was the 
 home of people who were then called poor. The demand for hand- 
 made decoration is coming very rapidly. When it comes, when 
 people learn the truth that a thing is not artistic because it is 
 beautiful, there will be a vast field thrown open not only to the 
 poor, but to the poor who are neither very clever nor strong. 
 In any case it is always worth while to have some art which one 
 can always teach for money, or by which one can live. How many 
 poor young people with spare time, spending all they earn for 
 living, would be really happy when holidays approach if they 
 had a few dollars more ! And how certainly they could depend 
 on earning them if they could embroider, model, and ornament, 
 or colour and glaze vases, carve panels, or work in leather ! It 
 is hardly possible to suppose that any one who could do all this 
 need be very poor. Yet all these arts, and many more, are 
 actually within the reach of all who choose to master them. 
 
 I have shown that the expenses of designing and modelling 
 amount to so little that they may be introduced to the poorest 
 country school. I find that embroidery is often made to cost 
 more than it should. The wool for crewel, at five cents a skein, 
 crash, or common grey stuff of several kinds, costs very little. 
 Scraps of velvet, cloth, and ribbon, for applique work, are ex- 
 pensive or the contrary, as people are careful in collecting. A 
 class may be well taught in design, chiefly with the black-board 
 alone; beyond this, good wrapping or shop paper and lead 
 pencils at a cent apiece are not hard to obtain. No rule can be 
 laid down as to selling work. The pupil should not try to sell 
 anything until it is really well made. Unfortunately the delight 
 of the amateur at his own work is always such that his first or 
 at least second or third attempt always seems to him to be very 
 valuable, and there are always ignorant friends who are of the 
 same opinion. What has degraded china painting is the enor- 
 mous production of it by women who knew nothing of design, 
 and who were accordingly destitute of the energy and character 
 which spring from originality. 
 
INDUSTRIAL ART IN SCHOOLS 315 
 
 Objections considered. 
 
 I have found that a great deal of the opposition or indiffer- 
 ence to art industry in schools comes from men who, because 
 they are themselves ignorant, do not like to have the whole 
 world trained to what they are too idle or stupid to master. 
 Others argue that as their children are not intended for pursuits 
 into which art knowledge enters, therefore no children need or 
 ought to learn anything of the kind. In the face of these and 
 many other equally wise objections, such as are generally urged 
 at meetings where the subject is discussed, the facts remain that 
 art industry can be taught without infringing on other branches 
 of education; that children while at school can learn to design 
 and model so well in a few months with one weekly lesson as 
 to readily obtain a place as under-designers in factories ; and that, 
 thirdly, they can even produce wares which will sell. They 
 can at the same time acquire more culture and intelligence than 
 the objectors to the system can appreciate, but which is appre- 
 ciated by all persons who are themselves really well informed or 
 intelligent. On this point I speak with knowledge from ex- 
 perience. I have observed that my pupils, from the time they 
 ceased to be mere copyists, began to observe many things to 
 which they were previously indifferent, and manifested the 
 awakening of a much higher intelligence. 
 
 But there is a final argument which cannot be resisted ; it 
 is that there is a tremendous demand among the manufacturers 
 of Europe and of this country for decorative artists and artisans. 
 It was thought in England that the great art-schools of South 
 Kensington and Manchester and such places would afford a 
 supply, but it has been as a drop in the bucket. The industrial 
 schools have been as inadequate. For it is not only a supply of 
 artistic goods that is needed, but also a taste for them, a manu- 
 factory and a market as well as a greater demand, and to meet 
 this double want there must be extensive radical art education 
 among the people. The highest statesmen in Europe know 
 this, and the saying of the Prince of Wales, cited in a late 
 article in the ' Nineteenth Century,' that ' learning and earning 
 should go together,' indicates the solution of a great problem by 
 
316 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 a brief rhyme. True, there are millions who do not see this. 
 The year before gas was introduced into Philadelphia, all her 
 most influential citizens signed a protest against lighting the 
 city in any such abominable way. The light which gas costs is 
 trifling compared to the enlightenment which would result from 
 the reform in education of which I speak, yet there are still 
 many in that very city who ridicule the idea of industrial art in 
 schools. 
 
 From time to time the world comes to a period when it dis- 
 covers all at once, like a hungry somnambulist awaking in a 
 room full of smoking charcoal, that it is both starving and 
 strangling. It cries now that in education we are starving for 
 fresh knowledge, and are being stifled with old methods. People 
 are beginning to think there must be some shorter and more 
 practical cut to drawing than all the old road, with its blocks, 
 perspective, diagrams, and geometry, ever indicated. These are 
 all good in their way, but there is no practical easy introduction 
 to the art. There is a growing belief that all study may be 
 made easier. There may be no ' royal road ' to mathematics, 
 but that is no reason why the way to everything should be over 
 corduroy planks and breakneck rocks. There must be work to 
 win art or learning, but work need not be offensive. 
 
 There is a final plea to be offered for the introduction of in- 
 dustrial art into all schools. It is that by making hand-work a 
 part of every child's education we shall destroy the vulgar pre- 
 judice against work as being itself vulgar. This we greatly 
 need, for there is no country in the world where manual work 
 is practically in so little respect, or where there are so many try- 
 ing to get above it, as in this American republic. We have had 
 those who proclaimed that work is only fit for negroes or mud- 
 sills. As it is, the native born citizen all too eagerly flies to 
 any occupation in which, by wearing a black coat all day and 
 keeping his hands soft, he makes one move nearer to being ' a 
 gentleman.' It is only in my native land that I ever heard a 
 man gravely boast, as a proof of his social superiority, that he 
 had never done c a day's work 'in his life. While there are a 
 few superior to this snobbishness, there are still millions who 
 are practically enslaved by it. It arises from the fact that 
 work hand- work is not as yet sufficiently identified with 
 
INDUSTRIAL ART IN SCHOOLS 317 
 
 education and culture. Now, industrial art in schools, based on 
 design and associated with, studies, will go very far to make 
 manual labour ' respectable ' in the eyes of those professing demo- 
 crats who pant for aristocracy as the hart for the water- brooks. 
 The minor arts are as much associated as the fine arts with all 
 that pertains to the very cream of culture. To know them at 
 all is to know in time the names and works of Benvenuto 
 Cellini, Albrecht Diirer in a word, of all the great men whose 
 names and works cast the highest splendour on splendid ages. 
 The boy or girl who has gone even but a little way into indus- 
 trial art visits the great museums and collections of this country 
 or of Europe with a hundred times more real knowledge and 
 appreciation of their magnificence than can the amateur who 
 has only read, though it be ' never so wisely/ No boy or girl 
 learns to design, model and carve, inlay and embroider, without 
 in time reading with keenest interest Owen Jones, Labarthe, 
 Fergusson, Whewell, and Dresser, with many more such writers. 
 And 'with such practical knowledge and reading every object of 
 taste and almost every book reveal beauties and awaken associa- 
 tions such as the many envy and the few possess ; for the one 
 who has worked in industrial art understands and feels decora- 
 tion and beauty as no mere reader can. I once read through 
 all that I could get on wood engraving, but two days' work at 
 a block taught me more than a library on the subject could 
 have done. For of all learning since books were invented there 
 was never aught like experience, and of all experience there is 
 none like one's own. 
 
 It should be remembered that industrial art may not only be 
 taught in schools, but also form the subject or principle of a 
 club, a society, or a private class, or be practised by a family or 
 an individual. There should be indeed a ladies' industrial art 
 association in every village. It will promote culture ; it will or 
 should lead to much reading of history and its social develop- 
 ments, and it will be a source of pecuniary profit. 
 
 It is to be supposed that in most instances these private 
 societies will aid the local schools by teaching and by joint sales. 
 Where even two or three unite for such a purpose they will find 
 that mutual aid and consultation are quite equivalent to a 
 teacher. Last, not least, I can assure them that the work is 
 
3i8 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 fascinating or agreeable to a degree which none can realise who 
 has not attempted it. When asked what was most remarkable 
 in the ladies' art club of which I am president, I replied, ' The 
 love of the students for their work.' 
 
 EDUCATION, EMIGRATION, AND COLONISATION. 
 
 To make colonisation by the State a success, two things are 
 necessary. First, it must at least form part of a system that 
 will benefit not merely a few thousands of individuals, but the 
 vast masses of the people of this country ; and second, it must 
 ensure the sending out of emigrants who will be of value to the 
 colonies themselves, and not of those whose chief qualification 
 is that they are unable to gain a livelihood in the mother 
 country. 
 
 As to the first, it is plain that with such numbers of working 
 men now unable to get employment, and with a population in- 
 creasing at a rate not far short of 1,000 a day, any plan which 
 would provide for the settlement, on farms, of one-twentieth of 
 this number, while it would be valuable as a help, would never 
 overtake this increase. 
 
 As to the second, if a colonist is to succeed in farming, he 
 must be trained with at least some view to cultivating the soil, 
 and to the self-help called for by an isolated position. 
 
 These are ends that are not to be attained in a day, or with- 
 out cost ; but I believe they may be reached in a few years by 
 making certain changes in our machinery of education, which 
 it is the object of this paper to explain, and which would not 
 only meet the needs of the colonies, and greatly strengthen 
 their connection with us, but would also remove some hardships 
 in our present system of Board Schools, and make them more 
 popular and more useful to the working classes than they now 
 are. 
 
 ' The system of compulsory education initiated by William 
 Edward Forster was in its day a step of incalculable importance ; 
 but we cannot stand still upon it, if the British Islands are to 
 
EDUCATION, EMIGRATION, AND COLONISATION 319 
 
 remain in the future what they have been in the past a prin- 
 cipal centre of commerce and industry, and a chief source of 
 colonisation for other parts of the world. 
 
 The truth is that as a nation we are in the position in which 
 almost every one of our manufacturers has been at some time 
 during the last few years that of finding that the advance of 
 the times has compelled him to change his machinery for newer 
 kinds, unless he would be shut out of competition or fall into an 
 altogether inferior position. 
 
 It is true that steps are now being taken for the furtherance 
 of technical education. The value of such training is unques- 
 tionable, since, without it, we are not likely to keep our ground 
 in some directions against foreign competition. But this scheme 
 deals with far too small a number of workmen probably only 
 some 12,000 or 14,000; while anything that is to keep pace 
 with the increasing population must reach at least five-and- 
 twenty times as many. It is impossible to make the whole 
 nation skilled artisans ; but it is perfectly practicable to make 
 the entire population ' handy ' men and women, and therefore 
 more ready to become either skilled artisans or better workers 
 in any other direction, no matter what. 
 
 The chief complaint against the present system is the length 
 of time during which parents, who are ill able to afford it, 
 are obliged to keep their children at school, thus preventing 
 boys or girls from earning wages until they are thirteen or 
 fourteen years of age. Of course the reply to this is that it is 
 done in the interest of the children themselves ; that is, some 
 portion of the comfort of the family is sacrificed in the present 
 in order to secure a larger measure of well-being to its younger 
 members later on. If, however, the same end could be attained 
 with a smaller present sacrifice of the child's wage-earning time, 
 it would remove a real hardship, and greatly lessen the dislike 
 that many have for the Board School system. 
 
 I believe that a far more useful education for the majority 
 could be given if the subjects taught in the earliest stage of 
 the compulsory system were confined to what are called the 
 three R's reading, writing, and arithmetic. Directly a child 
 could pass in these, no matter what his age might be, his parents 
 should have the option either of letting him continue in the 
 
320 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 day school, exactly as at present, or of his ceasing to attend the 
 day school on condition of his going to an evening class for one 
 hour six nights a week. While this would not interfere with 
 the present arrangement, unless at the wish of the parents, it 
 would, where the parents preferred it, release a boy who had 
 mastered the means of self-education from being compelled to 
 spend his mornings and afternoons over the desk, when he would 
 be better employed in the fields, or in such work in a town as is 
 suited to his age, and so by his earnings enable his father and 
 mother to feed and clothe him more comfortably. This aims at 
 no alteration in the Factory Acts ; for fourteen years is quite 
 young enough for a child to begin working among complicated 
 machinery, and to be subjected to the rigid and monotonous life 
 it entails. 
 
 The whole change turns upon the evening classes, which I 
 would suggest being constituted as follows : 
 
 On every alternate night that is, three nights a week, the 
 teaching to go on upon lines very similar to those of the present 
 day schools. The other three nights to be devoted to handicraft 
 training, not with the aim of teaching boys a trade, but certain 
 simple things connected with a trade. 
 
 In large towns this might be done on the Board School 
 premises ; in small towns and in the country, in a carpenter's or 
 wheelwright's shop, under the guidance of a journeyman of one 
 or other of these trades. He would teach the boys under him 
 simply the use of the saw and the chisel and auger, and the way 
 to sharpen and set them. When a lad could make a tenon and 
 mortise, and could dovetail and dowel, and fish a beam, all per- 
 fectly true and square, and could sharpen his tools properly, he 
 should receive a certificate, to which I will return presently. It 
 will be observed that I purposely omit the use of the plane ; 
 first, because so far as my boy is concerned, planing is an orna- 
 mental accomplishment, which he can acquire afterwards on his 
 own account, if he is going to be a carpenter ; while as a work- 
 man in any other line, or as a farm labourer, the occasional use 
 of the saw and chisel is a hundred times more likely to fall to 
 his lot than that of the plane ; and next, because the lessons, 
 whether in the school-room itself or anywhere else, would cause 
 much less litter and much smaller risk of fire if no shavings were 
 made. 
 
EDUCATION, EMIGRATION, AND COLONISATION 321 
 
 A simple mode of examination would suffice. In the first 
 place, let the journeyman or teacher in charge of each group of 
 boys be furnished with a time-sheet, with their names and 
 numbers, every lad writing his own initials, with the time of his 
 coming to the class. On a given day the teacher sends in to 
 the School Board two specimens of each of the subjects fitted 
 by each boy, these specimens marked with a pencilled number 
 corresponding to that he bears on the time-sheet. Only those 
 boys who have been punctual in their attendance should have 
 their work examined, failure in this point being in all cases 
 treated as disqualifying for advancement. 
 
 The members of the Board themselves, unless they were sadly 
 incapable, would be able to decide whether the pieces were well 
 or badly done ; or any joiner or coachbuilder or cabinet-maker 
 would do it in an hour or two for a very large number of 
 competitors. 
 
 Every lad who passed this test should receive a printed cer- 
 tificate, signed on behalf of the School Board ; this, for sim- 
 plicity, I will call his note of woodwork. The boy, on gaining 
 it, to have the choice of which class he will next enter. Let us 
 suppose he takes iron. He goes on the handicraft-class night 
 to a forge or smithy , appointed by the Board, and is there taught 
 to upset and weld iron of a given size, and to forge and cut the 
 thread in a bolt and nut, the sides of which he is to file perfectly 
 square and true. 1 For the examination, his pieces are stamped 
 with his number by the smith, and sent in with the time-sheet, 
 as already described, judged by some member of the Board, or 
 any firm of engineers in the town, and the best ones passed. 
 The successful lad now receives his iron-note, and, at his own 
 desire, passes on, we will suppose, to the machine class. This 
 is held in a shed, where he is taught to take to pieces, clean, 
 and put together again two steam-engines, by different makers, 
 and any other two machines approved by the School Board, say, 
 in a country village, two agricultural implements. In this class 
 
 1 Filing flat is a test of considerable skill. In talking over the item of 
 welding with a Birmingham engineer of great experience, he suggested that 
 it would add greatly to the value of the teaching, for a colonist, to include in 
 it the welding and tempering of steel, so much needed in tools and agricul- 
 tural implements. A further and special note' for steel would meet this. 
 
 Y 
 
322 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 the examination might either be made by some mechanic ap- 
 pointed by the Board, or before a committee of the local or 
 county Agricultural Society. 
 
 The fourth class might take the arrangement and lashing 
 of poles for scaffolding, bridging streams, hut-building, derrick 
 poles for lifting weights, and so on, including the making of 
 knots. Men of the Royal Engineers, or any A.B. seamen, 
 would make good teachers in this class. 
 
 The fifth class would be usefully devoted to basket-making, 
 straw-hurdle work, &c. I do not, of course, suggest restricting 
 the handicraft classes to these five kinds. It is enough if they 
 roughly indicate the lines on which a change of great practical 
 value might be made in the existing system of school teaching. 
 
 I now return to the three evenings per week which alternate 
 with the handicraft classes. These would be in the main what 
 the day school itself is ; but they should include occasional 
 ambulance lectures with practical lessons, and during the summer 
 months, in all places where there are facilities for it, the boys 
 should be taught swimming. Once a fortnight, or once a 
 month, simple lectures should be given, with help of the black- 
 board, on the proper management of the animals with which 
 we are most frequently brought into contact, especially in the 
 country or in the colonies. 1 
 
 The main subject taught should, however, be geography, to 
 which one evening should be allotted weekly. Instead of begin- 
 ning with a book I would take the blackboard or slate and let 
 the boys learn to draw a local plan ; say, in a town school, the 
 lie of some of the principal streets and squares, with the public 
 buildings, or, in a country school, making a sketch of some 
 
 1 I would not, for instance, have any lad so ignorant as two of our well- 
 known authors. Charles Dickens and his biographer Foster once drove some 
 miles to see a friend, who happened on their arrival to be absent from home. 
 As his man was also away, they tried to put up the horse themselves, but 
 found their whole strength unequal to dragging off his collar. At last, after 
 a suggestion by one of them that the animal's head must have got bigger 
 since they had started, they asked the servant if she could help them. The 
 girl came, called Dickens and his friend a pair of fools, Burned the collar 
 upside down and got it off. If Charles Dickens had become a state-aided 
 colonist, it is painful to think of the fate that would have awaited his 
 horses, never having their collars taken off, when once on, until they died in 
 harness 1 
 
EDUCATION, EMIGRATION, AND COLONISATION 323 
 
 X 
 
 portion of the parish, with a farm or two, and their fields and 
 roads. 1 .Rising from this to the outlines of general geography, 
 I would only use these so far as they are needful as a basis for 
 teaching the geography of the British Colonies. Into this 
 subject I would throw the chief force of the instruction, inas- 
 much as it would be the most important one for numbers of the 
 scholars, helping to determine the whole future of their lives. 
 'The greatest care should therefore be bestowed on the text-books 
 used in the teaching. They should be compiled under Govern- 
 ment supervision, and revised at least every five years by the 
 authorities of the colonies of which they treat. In this compila- 
 tion and revision everything should be considered from the point 
 of view of an intending emigrant : the nature and scope of the 
 farming ; the rates of wages in various trades ; the demand for 
 labour; the cost of living and amount of taxation, &c., as well 
 as the time and expense of the passage from Great Britain. 
 The effect of this teaching would be to familiarise the entire 
 population of this country with the subject of emigration, and 
 to substitute for the vague and often utterly erroneous notions 
 associated with the names of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, 
 or the Cape, an intelligent knowledge of what these countries 
 are and of what they have to offer a new comer. The colony 
 would no longer be to the masses of these isles a land that is 
 very far off, but a home, not so very distant, in which they would 
 find more comfort and greater prosperity than here. 
 
 The way in which I would bring the school training to lead 
 practically to emigration, and through emigration to colonisa- 
 tion, is this. Each of the certificates or notes for wood, for iron, 
 for machinery, &c., should carry with it a certain borroiving 
 value in case the lad who had won it should decide on going to 
 a British colony say, for example, 30-?., 40s., and 60s. respec- 
 tively. Suppose a youth holding three of these notes applies 
 to the Emigration Office, and asks to be sent to Manitoba. He 
 
 1 Professor Huxley says boys ought to learn to draw, if it were only a pint 
 pot. True : but the power gained in making the straight lines and curves that 
 rshow the position of a street or of a house in the street, and which grows into 
 the power to make a map of the British Isles, also carries with it the poten- 
 tiality of indicating pint pots, and of planning and designing of every kind. 
 We start with the most simple and most useful drawing, and work up, through 
 pint pots, if need be, to Portland vases. 
 
 Y 2 
 
324 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 is told that the passage will be, say, 8Z. 10s., and that he can 
 at once have 61. 10s. of this advanced to him if he will find the 
 remaining 40s. At the same time he is informed that, as labour 
 is more scarce in Assiniboia, a number of farmers there have no- 
 tified their willingness to advance the balance needed over and 
 above the Government grant to any lads holding three notes. 
 He goes accordingly, finding on his arrival assured work and 
 good wages. Meanwhile his certificates are retained in London 
 as security for the repayment of the loan, plus six per cent. 
 interest. 1 In twelve or eighteen months, or two years, he clears 
 himself, and the endorsement on his notes that he has repaid 
 now entitles him to precedence in getting one of the state-aided 
 farms, each note being good for a grant of 20 acres. He has to 
 wait, it may be, another year before his turn comes, and then 
 with the experience gained and the further wages saved in the 
 interval, he steps into a farm of 60 acres, of which in ten years 
 more he will have paid off the purchase- money, with interest, 
 and become the freeholder. I say with interest : for one good 
 turn deserves another : and every man who has risen by the 
 national help to a state of comfort and independence ought 
 in this form to contribute to the National Emigration and 
 Colonisation Fund, and so help others, and other generations, to 
 rise as he has risen. 2 
 
 But suppose a boy does not wish to emigrate : of what use 
 would his certificates be to him ? Of this use : that wherever 
 and whenever he sought for work, whether as an apprentice or 
 
 1 Six per cent, is a very reasonable interest in Western farms. Hundreds 
 of thousands of pounds have been borrowed on Farm Mortgages in Iowa, &c., 
 at six per cent, and even higher, and punctually repaid. 
 
 2 I should also endeavour to come to an arrangement with each colony to 
 make the production of handicraft notes from Great Britain the condition of 
 naturalisati n in such colony, inasmuch as it would be an effectual guarantee 
 against pauper immigration. 
 
 The forms should be non-transferable, except in case of death, or by special 
 permission of the local authority, to meet exceptional circumstances, until 
 after five years' actual occupation by the grantee. Five years in any one 
 situation, subject to clear record as to sentence from any court, whether for 
 debt, misdemeanour, or crime, might fitly entitle the note-hojder to the further 
 privilege of free citizenship of the whole Empire (as suggested by Goldwin 
 Smi'h); so that a Canadian, showing six months' residence in Bristol or Bir- 
 mingham, could claim to be put on the Kegister ; and the same with a Glasgow 
 or a Leeds or a Derby man in Melbourne or New Westminster or Natal. This 
 would be Imperialisation with a simple safeguard. 
 
EDUCATION, EMIGRATION, AND COLONISATION 325 
 
 otherwise, lie would be taken on in preference to any number of 
 boys who could bring no such guarantees of their industry and 
 ability. The idle boy, or the incompetent one, would by a 
 process of natural selection find his exact level ; the lads with 
 no certificates would break stones on the road or sweep the 
 streets, in the spare time between their professional duties of 
 breaking one another's heads and picking pockets ; those with 
 one certificate would fill lower places than those with two ; 
 while the twos would come below the threes and so on. 
 
 In the same way that I would make the possession of the 
 handicraft notes the means of getting a farm in Canada or 
 Australia, I would reward exceptional ability by giving any 
 holder of four notes, who asked for it, a free scholarship for 
 technical education of high grade. This would fit the cleverest 
 boys into the places for which they are best adapted. And as 
 the system got fully into work, after a given date no one should 
 be eligible for a place in the police force, or for any other official 
 employment unless he could show at least two notes. Under 
 any system of education whatever, after ample notice say, after 
 the year 1900 it would surely be reasonable that no man should 
 be allowed to record his vote at any election of any kind unless 
 he could read and write. 
 
 I have said little about country schools, because, as over two- 
 thirds of our population, unfortunately, live in towns, the educa- 
 tion in towns is the more urgent question. But in rural districts, 
 also, common sense should show that the training should be devoted 
 chiefly to the work which boys will have to do to gain a liveli- 
 hood ; and the more this is kept in view the better will they be 
 fitted, not only for life in a colony, but for farm life in England. 
 In addition, therefore, to handicraft classes in a country or village 
 school, there should be lessons, during the long light evenings, in 
 hedging, rick-thatching, planting, pruning and grafting of fruit 
 trees; the management of bees, poultry, and so on ; while at agri- 
 cultural meetings the competitions in ploughing, &c. might be 
 largely extended, and every prize won at them followed by the 
 grant of a handicraft note similar in character 1 o those already 
 described, though, in some cases, representing a smaller value. 
 
 A certain degree of elasticity should be allowed to meet the 
 wants of exceptional districts, say, such as the inclusion of sheep 
 
326 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 management in Radnorshire and of quarrymen's work in Car- 
 narvonshire ; of net-making in fishing villages, and so on. 
 
 The chances are that, when once the plan had got into w r ork- 
 ing order, the demand from Australia for lads holding ' shepherd 
 notes ' (certifying skill in shearing) would be always in excess of 
 the supply, and that the Australian farmers would offer a special 
 bounty on such notes, or at least advance liberally towards 
 passage-money for the holders. 
 
 As speed is of course an important element in work, I would 
 propose a moderate test applicable to nearly every kind of com- 
 petition. Suppose, for example, a class of 50 boys are set to dig 
 half a perch of ground each. They are placed in three or four 
 rows, and start at a signal. As soon as each lad has finished his 
 piece, he steps back from the rank, the teacher or trainer keep- 
 ing count until 25 have fallen back, when the names are called 
 over ; and, subject to the work not being ' scamped,' these 25- 
 would be passed and the others rejected, because they are below 
 the average, which is represented by the latest boy of the first 
 five-and-twenty. Of course the rejected ones might pass at a 
 future match, unless they are physically weak or lazy. 
 
 I have said nothing about the training of girls, because my 
 space will not admit of it; but the same broad principle will apply 
 to them that they ought to be taught to use their hands deftly 
 in the work most likely to fall to their lot in daily life. It is of 
 some consequence to a girl to be able to spell ' potatoes ; ' it 
 is of fifty times more consequence that she should know how to 
 boil them. It does not very much matter whether she knows 
 where Russia is ; she is not likely to go there : but it does 
 matter very much whether she can light a fire without using 
 half an apronful of sticks and half a box of matches, and 
 taking half an hour to make it burn ; or whether she can clean 
 a room as it ought to be cleaned. An evening school in the 
 summer, and an afternoon class in winter would enable girls in 
 rural districts to earn wages at farm work, and still get an 
 infinitely better education than under the present system of 
 teaching them things that are of some use, but not of the most 
 use, to them, and of leaving them, grossly and ruinously ignorant 
 of the A B C of housework. 
 
 To sum up : the plan I propose leaves it purely a voluntary 
 
EDUCATION, EMIGRATION, AND COLONISATION 327 
 
 matter for every parent whether his child should go on with his 
 schooling exactly as he does at present ; or whether he should 
 exchange part of that schooling for a class of work that will be 
 more useful to him, and at the same time enable him to earn 
 wages sooner. While somewhat less compulsory than the 
 present system, it gives more stimulus to self-help, and offers a 
 course which, to the infinite majority of boys, would be far more 
 interesting, and therefore more heartily co-operated with. 1 It 
 would train thoroughly for Emigration and for Colonisation the 
 great mass of those whom Emigration would most help, and it 
 would ensure a continual and healthy stream of Emigration of 
 our own people to our own colonies : not driven away from us 
 in the despair of poverty, but bound to the mother country by 
 ties closer than any of which we have hitherto had experience ; 
 and therefore tending towards that federation of the colonies 
 
 1 As to cost, it would be nearly, but probably not quite, self-supporting ; 
 because a small percentage of the boys, who turn out badly, would not re- 
 deem their ' notes.' But we must not forget what the cost of the present 
 system is likely to be ' of letting things take their chance ' which means 
 standing still, with our eyes open, and letting the house take fire from top to 
 bottom before getting the engines to work on it. A Manchester manufacturer 
 once told a visitor that he was losing a penny a day by every spindle he was 
 running. ' Then why don't you stop ? ' was the natural remark. ' Because by 
 stopping I should lose threehalfpence instead of a penny ! ' he replied. 
 
 It is a question, not of whether the State shall aid, but of which it shall 
 aid hopeless pauperism or self-reliant industry ; crime or thrift. 
 
 The migration of those who are deserving, and yet who can only get 
 partial employ, to other parts of the Empire, means, not only more room and 
 better chances of employ to those who are left behind, but the creation of a 
 vast body of new customers for our manufactures so that wages must rise. 
 I say, MIGRATION ; for should anything similar to this scheme be adopted, 
 this word might fitly be used in speaking of removal to any part of Greater 
 Britain ; and EMIGRATION, in reference to foreign lands. 
 
 By releasing children from the day school, say, on an average of one year 
 sooner than at present (continuing at evening schools, if needful, three or 
 even four years longer), some 1,000,000 more than at present would be free to 
 earn wages. The less of factory life for them the better ; and without factory 
 work the earnings would be lower but even an average of Is. 9d. per week 
 would give over 4 millions per year extra earnings among the working classes. 
 In addition to this must be taken into account the enormous increase in the 
 skill of the whole industrial population, which must result from the improved 
 training, and which means increase in power of earning mages. Besides this, 
 interesting occupation would lead to some diminution of low and debasing 
 amusements, and therefore .of crime, and the cost of repressing it. 
 
328 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 with the British Islands which may be the alternative to their 
 ceasing to form part of the Empire. 
 
 Since this scheme was drafted the admirable letters have 
 appeared in the 'Times' on Education, by Samuel Smith, which 
 in some points put the case better than I have done, though not 
 on the same lines. 
 
 JOHN BELLOWS. 
 
 Gloucester : November 28, 1887. 
 
 EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 
 
 To THE EDITOE OF THE ' TIMES.' 
 
 SIR, I should be glad if you could find space in your columns 
 for some remarks on the state of education in Germany. I 
 have just completed a short tour in this country mainly to 
 inquire into its educational system, especially with reference 
 to primary and technical schools. England has at last roused 
 herself to the necessity for technical education. 
 
 The Bill, which was unhappily crowded out last session, 
 will be reproduced next year, and, I trust, expanded to larger 
 dimensions. It will contain, I hope, a clause for the establish- 
 ment of evening continuation schools, for which object I gave 
 notice of an amendment last session. My trip to Germany 
 has been chiefly taken to learn what is doing here in this direc- 
 tion, and what is the drift of educated German opinion. With 
 your permission I will briefly summarise my impressions. I 
 premise by observing that each State of the German Empire 
 manages its own education, and that the laws and regulations 
 differ somewhat, so that general statements referring to all 
 Germany cannot be made without qualifications. I will not 
 weary your readers, however, by going into details respecting 
 each State, but place broadly before them the general features 
 of German education. 
 
 The salient fact which strikes all observers is the universality 
 of good education in this country. There is no such thing as 
 an uneducated class ; there are no such things, speaking broadly, 
 as neglected and uncared-for children. All classes of the com- 
 
EDUCATION IN GERMANY 329 
 
 munity are better educated than the corresponding ones in our 
 country; and this applies quite as much to primary as to 
 secondary education. Nothing struck me more than the general 
 intelligence of the humbler working classes. Waiters, porters, 
 guides, &c., have a knowledge of history, geography, and other 
 subjects far beyond that possessed by corresponding classes in 
 England ; and the reason is not far to seek. The whole population 
 has long been passed through a thorough and comprehensive 
 system of instruction, obligatory by law, and far more extended 
 than is given in our elementary schools. I went through seve- 
 ral of these schools and observed the method of teaching, which 
 was simply admirable. The children are not crammed, but are 
 taught to reason from the earliest stages. The first object of 
 the teacher is to make his pupils comprehend the meaning of 
 everything they learn, and to carry them from stage to stage so 
 as to keep up an eager interest. 
 
 I saw no signs of weariness or apathy among either teachers 
 or scholars. The teaching was all viva voce, the teacher 
 always standing beside the blackboard and illustrating his sub- 
 ject by object lessons. The instruction was through the eye and 
 the hand as well as the ear, and question and answer succeeded 
 so sharply as to keep the whole class on the qui vive. The 
 teachers are, as a body, much better trained than in England, 
 and seem to be enthusiasts in their calling, and the school holds 
 a far higher position in the social economy of the country than 
 it does with us. What I am saying here applies equally to 
 Switzerland as to Germany, and for educational progress Zurich 
 will compare with any part of this empire. The main advan- 
 tage, however, that primary education has in Germany over 
 England lies in the regularity of attendance and the longer 
 period of school life. There is none of the difficulty of getting 
 children to school that exists in England ; the laws are very 
 rigid, and permit no frivolous excuses ; and, what is even more 
 important, the people entirely acquiesce in the laws, and are in- 
 clined rather to increase than to relax their rigour. It is well 
 known that in London and all our great cities a large part of 
 the population seek to avoid school attendance by every means 
 in their power, and consequently the attendance is most irre- 
 gular. There is very little of this in Germany ; at least, I have 
 
330 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 not found it so. Then in our country a great portion of our children 
 are withdrawn altogether from school, after passing the fourth 
 or fifth standard, at the age of eleven or twelve, whereas in 
 Germany almost every attendance is compulsory until fourteen for 
 boys, though in some places girls are allowed to leave at thirteen. 
 
 This last point is the one I wish to emphasise. The great 
 defect I might almost call it the fatal defect of our system is 
 that it stops just at the time when real education should begin. 
 It allows a child to leave school at an age when its learning is 
 soon forgotten and its discipline effaced. It is hardly too much to 
 say that the two years' additional training the German child re- 
 ceives in the elementary school doubles its chance in life as 
 compared with the English child. 
 
 But this is not all. The Germans are rapidly developing a 
 system of evening continuation classes, which carry on education 
 for two or three years longer.. In Saxony the boys who leave 
 the primary school, if they do not go to the higher schools, 
 must attend for three years longer say until they are seventeen 
 continuation classes for at least five hours per week. But 
 teaching is provided for them, and they are encouraged to attend 
 twelve hours per week. So complete is this system that even 
 the waiters at the hotels up to the age of seventeen attend 
 afternoon classes, and are taught one or two foreign languages. 
 I take Saxony as one of the most advanced states ; but the law 
 is much the same in Wurtemburg and Baden, and the system 
 is found to work so well that it is in contemplation to extend it 
 to all the states in the German Empire, and Austria will probably 
 follow suit. This is confidently expected to happen in the course 
 of 1888. I may state, as an undoubted fact, that in Germany and 
 Switzerland, and I believe in some other Continental countries, 
 the opinion is ripening into a conviction that the education, 
 even of the poorest class, should be continued, in some form or 
 another, to the age of sixteen or seventeen. They find by ex- 
 perience that wherever this is adopted it gives an enormous 
 advantage to the people in the competition of life, and, above 
 all, trains them to habits of industry and mental application. 
 I believe it is owing to this system of thorough education that 
 Germany has almost extinguished the pauper and semi-pauper 
 class, which is the bane and disgrace of our country. 
 
EDUCATION IN GERMANY 331 
 
 Wherever I have gone I have inquired how they deal with 
 the ragged and squalid class of children, and I have been told in 
 every city I visited in Zurich, Stuttgart, Nuremburg, Chemnitz, 
 Dresden, and Berlin that such a class practically does not exist. 
 I do not mean that there is not poverty and plenty of it in 
 Germany. Wages are much lower than in England, and many 
 have a hard struggle to live. But there does not seem to exist to 
 any extent that mass of sunken degraded beings who with us 
 cast their children upon the streets, or throw them on the rates, 
 or leave them to charity. Some half a million of children in the 
 United Kingdom are dependent, more or less, on the alms or 
 the rates of the community, and probably another half-million 
 are miserably underfed and underclad. Nothing to correspond 
 with this exists in Germany. The poorest people here would 
 be ashamed to treat their children as multitudes do with us. 
 Indeed, I have not seen since I left home a single case of a 
 ragged or begging child. I repeat that the great cause of this, 
 both in Germany and Switzerland, is the far greater care they 
 have taken of the education of the children for at least two or three 
 generations, whereas we have only taken the matter up seriously 
 since 1870, when Mr. Forster's great Act was passed. 
 
 Let us contrast the general condition of our London chil- 
 dren, for instance, at the age of fifteen or sixteen, with that of 
 the same class in Berlin or Dresden or Chemnitz. With us 
 nine-tenths of the children have long since left school, and a 
 too large proportion of them are receiving no training but the 
 coarse and brutalising education of the streets. Most of them 
 retain little of what they have learnt at school, except the power to 
 read the c penny dreadful,' which stuffs their minds with every- 
 thing a child should not know. They are to a very large extent 
 adepts in profane and obscene language, and are frequenters of 
 the public-house, the ' penny gaff,' and such like amusements : 
 a great many of them are learning no useful trade or calling, 
 but are drifting helplessly into the class of wretched, ill-paid, 
 casual labourers. Very many of them marry before they are 
 twenty, and are soon the parents of a numerous progeny, half 
 starved and' stunted both in body and mind. Compare, or 
 rather contrast this with Germany. At fifteen or sixteen a 
 great part of the children are still under excellent instruction. 
 
332 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 Exceedingly few are to be found roaming about the streets. 
 They are prohibited, at least in some parts of Germany, from 
 entering the public-houses (except with their parents) until the 
 age of seventeen, and I am told are everywhere prohibited from 
 smoking until sixteen. In fact, there are, both by law and 
 public sentiment, barriers placed against the corruption of the 
 young which do not exist in England. 
 
 No country has ever suffered more from the abuse of the 
 idea of individual liberty than England has done. Owing to 
 this overstrained idea we did not get compulsory education until 
 long after the advanced nations of the Continent, and still we 
 are far behind them in the care we take of our children. It is 
 intolerable that this state of things should continue longer. 
 Democratic government everywhere insists upon good education, 
 and expects each citizen to fulfil his duties to the State. 
 
 Public opinion in our country will certainly insist, and that 
 before long, that we shall not be for ever disgraced with a resi- 
 duum of the most drunken, demoralised, and utterly incapable 
 population to be found in any modern state. It will insist that 
 some time be spared for the solution of this vital question from 
 the wrangles of party politics and the party recriminations of 
 party leaders. When one sees what a poor country like Ger- 
 many has done to raise its people in spite of the conscription 
 and three years' compulsory military service, in spite of frequent 
 and exhausting wars, from which our island home has been free, 
 one has grave doubts whether our system of party government 
 is not a failure. 
 
 Certainly we waste on barren conflicts and wordy strife far 
 more time than other nations do in the conduct of their affairs. 
 They direct their energies with business-like precision to supply 
 the exact needs of the people ; we fritter away our enormous 
 political energy in fruitless party contests, which every year 
 degrade Parliament lower and lower, and make it less and less 
 fit for the practical work of governing the nation. 
 
 One thing seems certain : unless we can give more atten- 
 tion to the vital questions which concern the welfare of the 
 masses, our country must go down in the scale of nations. No 
 honest observer can doubt that in many respects the Germans 
 are already ahead of us, and they are making far more rapid 
 
EDUCATION IN GERMANY 
 
 333 
 
 progress than we are. They are applying technical science to 
 every department of industry in a way that Englishmen have 
 little idea of. Their polytechnics and their practical technical 
 schools are far ahead of anything we possess in England, the 
 leaders of industry are far better trained, the workmen are better 
 educated and far more temperate and thrifty than ours are. 
 Wherever the Germans and English are coming into competi- 
 tion upon equal terms, the Germans are beating us. This is not 
 because the Germans have greater natural power. I believe the 
 British race is the more vigorous naturally. But they are organ- 
 ised, disciplined, and trained far better than we are. They 
 bring science to bear upon every -department of the national 
 life ; whereas we, up till lately, resented all State interference, 
 and so exaggerated the doctrines of freedom as almost to glory 
 in our abuses. 
 
 There is much more that I might say if space permitted, 
 but it will not do to trespass further on your indulgence. I 
 will only add in conclusion that England must wake up, and 
 that immediately, to the necessity of a far more thorough and 
 practical system of education, else she will lose the great place she 
 has hitherto held in the world's history. I am, sir, yours faith- 
 fully, 
 
 SAMUEL SMITH. 
 
 Berlin : Oct. 4. 
 
 EVENING SCHOOLS UNDER HEALTHY CONDITIONS. 
 BY THE REV. J. B. PATON, D.D. 
 
 EDUCATIONAL Agencies have been formed and are being widely 
 established in the country which, speaking generally, are 
 adapted to our youth from sixteen to eighteen years of age 
 and upwards. I refer particularly to the University Extension 
 and South Kensington classes. Thus the educational ladder has 
 been let down from above to this level. Meanwhile this ladder 
 has been set up from below, so that our children mount on it 
 till they are thirteen years old (the age at which the great pro- 
 portion of our children leave the elementary schools, having 
 passed the standard that gives exemption from school) ; or, if 
 
334 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 they are half-timers, till they are fourteen years old. Now, 
 there is a terrible gap here between the years of thirteen and 
 sixteen or seventeen, which it is of the utmost moment to fill up. 
 It will be seen that I have in my mind, in speaking thus, the 
 great mass of the children of our industrial classes, and not the 
 comparatively few who attend the higher-grade elementary 
 schools, or other secondary schools, which connect at once with 
 the South Kensington and popular University classes, and 
 other educational agencies. And speaking of that great mass, 
 it may be said that, so far as regards the intellectual, technical, 
 and humane interests which education promotes, they pass 
 from the school to the streets, where these interests are trodden 
 underfoot; they fall into a gulf, where, so far as regards the 
 higher good which education may bring to life, they are almost 
 irretrievably lost ; so few are able, by enormous exertions in 
 later years, to creep up from the abyss into which they had 
 fallen. That gulf must be bridged over. 
 
 I read in a very powerful letter, which appeared in a Man- 
 chester paper last September, these words : ' A foreman in a 
 large mill informs me that he makes it a point to ascertain how 
 far the boys and girls employed about him are keeping up their 
 school knowledge. He finds that only about 4 per cent, are 
 making any progress, these go to night schools ; the others, 96 
 per cent., are relapsing into their primitive ignorance, &c.' 
 This calculation, so far as my inquiries have gone, represents 
 fairly, I think, the average in our large towns ; and I cannot 
 speak of country districts. Dr. Percival sent questions to all 
 the head masters of elementary schools in Bristol last year, 
 asking them how many boys and girls had left their school, 
 after passing the fifth standard, or any higher standard, between 
 January 1st, 1883, and January 1st, 1884, and how many of 
 these continued their education by attending night schools and 
 otherwise. The following figures sum up the answers : 776 
 boys and 409 girls left school after passing the fifth or higher 
 standard, and of these 67 boys and 58 girls were continuing 
 their education somehow, more or less. Many of* these girls, 
 however, were pupil teachers, so that the proportion continuing 
 their education (even of this higher order of scholars who had 
 passed the fifth or higher standard) was not more than 1 in 10 
 
EVENING SCHOOLS UNDER HEALTHY CONDITIONS 335 
 
 or 11. But if we consider the number of children leaving 
 in the lower standards, probably the proportion even in Bristol, 
 which is a highly favoured town, will be very little higher than 
 the proportion of children working in the Manchester mill. 
 And the Educational Returns for last year startle us with the 
 lamentable fact that the number of our night schools and the 
 scholars attending them are rapidly decreasing. During the 
 year the number of schools had fallen from 932 to 847, and the 
 number of scholars qualified by attendance for examination 
 from 32,937 to 28,588. Doubtless this decrease is partly 
 explained by the change in the character of night schools. 
 They are not needed so much now to teach the first elements to 
 youths and adults, who had little or no schooling in their child- 
 hood. They must now be ' continuation ' schools, to continue 
 the instruction of children who have left the day school, so as 
 to conserve and increase the knowledge they learnt there, and 
 to help them in applying that knowledge to the manifold uses 
 of life. Still the statistics show that there is a falling off alike 
 in the older and younger scholars, and thus show that while 
 the old need and use of the night school are passing away, the 
 new and higher use of tlie night school, as a continuation 
 school, is not yet in vogue. 
 
 Now what a contrast to this state of things we find on the 
 Continent, especially in Germany, Switzerland, Belgium, and 
 Holland. In Germany, e.g., where the law enforces attendance 
 at the day school till the child is fourteen years of age, it also 
 enforces attendance, two evenings a week, two hours an evening, 
 in the c Fortbildungs-Schule,' or continuation school, till the 
 scholar is sixteen years of age. And in some towns this is not 
 held to be enough. In Chemnitz, e.g., a town of Saxony with 
 a population of 92,000 inhabitants, the Handwerker-Verein, or 
 Workmen's Union, have an evening continuation school, with a 
 far completer programme of subjects and classes than the State 
 continuation school, and it was attended last year by 2,066 
 scholars a fact which speaks volumes, and is full at once of 
 warning and exhortation to us. 
 
 For, think what is implied in the statement I have made. 
 First we build up at immense expense a colossal system of 
 primary education, and then see and allow the results of it to be 
 
336 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 very largely wasted and lost. Teachers speak dismally of the 
 havoc of the fruit of their labour in the first two years after 
 school is left. The Manchester correspondent, whom I have 
 already quoted, says justly : ' The garden which by daily culture 
 has been brought into such an admirable and promising con- 
 dition is given over to utter neglect ; the money, the time, the 
 labour bestowed upon it are lost. We cease to educate at the 
 most important, most plastic, most receptive period of life.' 
 Secondly, we have, I said, let down a ladder to the people for 
 their Higher Education, but at present for the great mass of 
 them it is left dangling in the air out of their reach. One fact 
 roused my attention to the urgency of this question nine years 
 ago. I was told by an intelligent mechanic that he had joined 
 the South Kensington class for mechanics with some twenty 
 young men like himself, but he was the only one who had 
 struggled through the winter and passed his examination at 
 the close of the session ; all the rest had dropped out of the 
 class, one by one, in sheer despair. They had lost the little 
 knowledge once acquired by which they might have learnt more. 
 And their mental faculties, coated with rust from long disuse, 
 so creaked and groaned when set to work again, that the poor 
 fellows gave up the too irksome toil. And so our noble schemes 
 for the elevation of our working people are, to a large extent, 
 abortive. Thirdly, technical education, if it is to avail this 
 country so as to enable her to keep her place at the head of the 
 industrial countries of the world, must reach the working classes 
 and inform their handiwork with the deftness and skill which 
 trained intelligence alone can give to labour. Much is being 
 done to extend technical education, and the necessity is urgent ; 
 but at present these efforts reach only a very few of the labour- 
 ing classes, for they demand knowledge and faculty on the 
 part of the pupil, which our children, at thirteen, when they 
 leave school, do not possess and how much less at fifteen, 
 after the lapse of two years towards (as our correspondent said) 
 primitive ignorance ! But, lastly, education is not for labour 
 only, but for life ; and the years between thirteen and seventeen 
 are the critical and formative years for every human being. Then 
 the'physical energies of the body, as in a spring tide, thrill out 
 into every limb and organ. Then the callow brood of instinctive 
 
EVENING SCHOOLS UNDER HEALTHY CONDITIONS 337 
 
 desires, both intellectual and social, are agape, and young native 
 faculties shoot out in rapid, random growth. Then, if ever, is 
 the need of education to guide, restrain, inspire. In these years 
 character is formed and destiny made, almost unalterably. And 
 in these years first the need and use of knowledge begin to be 
 seen, as it quickens and directs the mind for the wise enjoy- 
 ment, the true understanding, and the right conduct of life. 
 Yet it is just in these all-important years, during which other 
 classes of society know that education is most needed and 
 valuable, that the mass of our working children are robbed of 
 its blessing. Here, then, I say, is the paramount problem of 
 our time in relation to the education of the people. 
 
 And now that I may approach more nearly the subject of 
 my paper, let us examine and state precisely the problem we 
 have to solve. The large majority of children leave the ele- 
 mentary school at, or soon after, thirteen, or, if half-timers, at 
 fourteen ; they then begin to work for ten hours a day. Un- 
 fortunately great numbers of them leave school with little liking 
 for it, or interest in the subjects they have learnt there. They 
 are tired with their hard day's work, and revel in the freedom 
 of the evening hours when work is done and they can frolic 
 with companions. We have no compulsory law, as in Germany, 
 to drag them, however reluctant, to school, and for the present 
 let me say, by way of parenthesis, I hope we shall not have one. 
 Yet these children have begun the business of their life, and, in 
 a dim way, the sense of the realities of life comes upon them 
 thus early. They begin to see that their success in their trade 
 will depend upon their superior skill and their industry, and 
 they also scent from afar some of the high pleasures and re- 
 sponsibilities that lie before them in that manhood or woman- 
 hood which glimmers wondrously through a golden haze in 
 prospect. And their nature opens out with strange yearnings, 
 and sometimes fierce impulses and activities, of the true mean- 
 ing and measure of which they are ignorant. Now it is 
 for these children, under these circumstances, we wish to pro- 
 vide some helpful education. It is added, in the subject given 
 me, education under healthy conditions, which is -almost, to my 
 mind, tautological, for that alone is education which yields health 
 as its fruit, i.e., the vigorous, free, harmonious and happy use of 
 
 z 
 
338 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 all the faculties of our nature, which we rightly name health ; 
 and surely health cannot be attained save under healthy or 
 health-giving conditions. 
 
 Now how can any true education be given to children 
 circumstanced as we have seen in the evening hours of th& 
 day, which alone are available ? Plainly, in the first instance, 
 the education must be such as will attract, interest, and recreate 
 tired children. It has to compete with the social gambollings of 
 the street, or even with the gaudy, specious amusements which 
 too early allure them. Then, in the second place, the education 
 must touch and draw forth the opening nature of children of 
 that age, so that the instinctive impulses and growing powers 
 of their body and soul shall be rightly nourished and trained. 
 And, lastly, the education must bear directly upon the work of 
 their daily business, making it luminous with the light of in- 
 telligence, and making them, in the old sense of the word, 
 cunning craftsmen therein ; and also upon the pure enjoyments 
 of life that are possible to them, and the noble duties of life 
 that devolve on them. 
 
 It is in the light of these three principles that I suggest the 
 following scheme of an evening school, which is educational 
 throughout, but is two-sided, one side being recreative and the 
 other instructive. Thus, looking at the one side of the evening 
 school, the recreative, there should be (1) rhythmic or musical 
 drill, i.e., calisthenic exercises, and pleasant orderly movements,, 
 accompanied and inspired by music. The bodies of the children 
 need the refreshment of play, and the minds want the stimulus 
 of bright companionship. Let them have these in such exercises, 
 brighter and pleasanter than aught they can have in the 
 street ; whilst by means of them, at the same time, their bodies 
 are trained to graceful movement, and the grace wrought upon 
 rude bodies will work inwardly and subtly upon the rude minds 
 and manners ; and, in addition, the instinct of obedience and the 
 love of order will grow as moral habits to ennoble their future 
 life. There should be (2) much singing of good songs good 
 both in their music and in their words, this, not only because 
 of the inspiring influence of good music in itself, but because 
 of the power it has to make whatever truth it wings on its 
 pulsing harmonies to thrill and reverberate with a strange power 
 
EVENING SCHOOLS UNDER HEALTHY CONDITIONS -339 
 
 in the hidden places of the soul where are the springs of life. 
 And (3) there should be along with the recreation of harmonious 
 movement and sound, the refreshing stimulus of light, by the 
 constant use of the magic or projection lantern. Eyes wearied 
 with long labour in the day cannot endure the fatigue of much 
 book-work by night, but they are revived and charmed by the 
 splendour, of gay colour and brilliant light. This, which attracts 
 them like moths to places of amusement, may be used to attract 
 and refresh them in the evening school ; and whilst attracting 
 them, the magic lantern may also be made the most potent in- 
 strument of instruction, for we are only beginning to learn its 
 powers and uses as an educational agent. 
 
 And looking at the other side of the evening school the 
 instructive we must consider both the method and subjects of 
 instruction. 
 
 1 . If we think of the children and youths we teach we shall 
 agree that the teaching (1) should be largely oral teaching, and 
 such as will provoke the pupils to, or by, frequent questioning. 
 The eye of the youth is weary not the ear ; and the vivacity 
 of earnest colloquial instruction, reinforced by the use of the 
 blackboard and rapid interplay of question and answer, operates 
 like an electric current though a glass ; (2) it should be, as far 
 as possible, object teaching, so as to give it actuality, because 
 dealing with things which children see and which belong to the 
 world they live in ; and (3) it should be freely illustrated with 
 diagrams and pictures, or better still, simple experiments. All 
 of us remember the wondering delight and new revelation of 
 truth given to us when young by such experiments, and to the 
 youths we deal with they mean and do far more than for such 
 as my readers. 
 
 2. Now, as to the subjects cf our instruction, let it be re- 
 membered that we can use the ' three R's ' which the Govern- 
 ment demand in the schools which they support, so that they 
 may have an interest and give an education quite apart from 
 the mere technical knowledge of reading, writing, and counting. 
 The reading lessons can relate to the business of the boy him- 
 self, or of the town he lives in ; to birds, beasts, trees and flowers 
 of the country round about ; or to the duties and joys of the 
 life that is before him. Writing can be taught in the writing 
 
340 INDUSTRIAL AND TEC h NIC A L TRAINING 
 
 of a letter, the description of a piece of work, the portraiture of 
 a hero, the enforcement of a duty ; and arithmetic at every stage 
 can get its examples from the life-work of the scholars, so as 
 to fit them for it. In speaking of the two class subjects, I can- 
 not but express my gratitude to the Government for having this 
 year made drawing a class subject, so that the teaching of it 
 will now be amply rewarded in the night schools. This I con- 
 sider the greatest advance made of late years. On the Continent 
 they insist everywhere on Drawing as the very foundation of 
 technical instruction, because by it the eye and hand are trained 
 to act in concert, and are respectively trained to the correct per- 
 ception and production of form. Hitherto this essential element, 
 the necessary beginning of all skilled handicraft, which also at- 
 tracts a boy of the night-school age, whose life seems to be budding 
 out in his finger-tips, so that he wants to be doing something 
 with them, has been practically tabooed from our night school 
 a fatal mistake. Now it will be, I trust, universal and con- 
 spicuous. As to the other class, or specific, subject, which is 
 allowed in the night school, girls will find that which interests 
 them in itself, and will prepare their future life, in Domestic Eco- 
 nomy, with its continuation of Elementary Lessons in Cookery ; 
 and boys will probably find such a subject in some elemen- 
 tary science, whose principles are applied in the trade of their 
 daily occupation, and which will be capable of delightful ex- 
 perimental illustration. One more subject, however, which 
 Government does not at present encourage should find a place 
 in a night school, because of the healthy relief it affords to 
 other subjects, because of the pleasure it yields to boys of that 
 age, and especially because of the relation it bears to further 
 technical training in later years. I mean modelling, carving, 
 or design in form and colour. The working lad of fourteen and 
 fifteen is in, what I might not inaptly call, the Eed Indian stage 
 of mental development. His hands itch to cut and whittle out 
 things of rude form, and his fancy is fascinated by garish pea- 
 cock colours. Then let us take these eager instincts as they 
 rise in his mind, and use them for our purpose to lure him to 
 school and delight him in school, whilst we imbue and elevate 
 these instincts with the true sense of beauty, and thus at once 
 give him artistic skill in his trade, and a soul to enjoy the endless 
 beauty which shines in the world around him. 
 
EVENING SCHOOLS UNDER HEALTHY CONDITIONS 341 
 
 An evening school, thus arranged as to subjects, and in 
 which the more arduous teaching is thus mixed with recreative 
 enjoyments, is an evening school under healthy conditions, and 
 one that will solve the problem which is for me the pressing 
 educational problem of the present, so far as the people are 
 concerned. 
 
 Let me in a few words indicate how such schools can be 
 secured and made successful. First, the Government has done 
 much during the last three years, and especially in their last 
 concession. There are, however, three things we must still 
 solicit from them : (1) There should be a small, and it need be 
 very small, grant for singing, and for modelling, carving, or de- 
 signing. (2) It is preposterous to expect that with the weary 
 children whom we teach in night schools we can hope to do as 
 much in 60 attendances as is done in elementary schools with 
 400 attendances ; yet this is practically demanded now when 
 our night-school children must do the work of one standard in 
 five subjects. The London School Board have, with reason, in- 
 sisted and entreated that a half standard's work should alone be 
 required in a winter's session at the night school; in other 
 words, let the standards be divided for night schools. And (3) 
 seeing that by the very conditions of night-school work we can- 
 not cram the memory with book-lore, whilst we can and must 
 quicken the intelligence in other ways, through the ear and by 
 the eye, the examination should be conducted in view of this 
 necessity of the case should therefore be more elastic in its 
 method and more observant of the general intelligence that is 
 developed than of the multitude of facts accurately remembered. 
 Or, if the examination must be thus precise dooming an 
 evening school, perforce, to heavy failures in it let compensa- 
 tion be given by a merit grant, as in day schools, which shall be 
 given for those qualities of good order, quickness of mind, and 
 manifest interest of the children in their class subjects, which 
 can and should be pre-eminent in the night school. 
 
 But if our night schools are to be effective and successful, it 
 must be through the action of the School Boards, whose influ- 
 ence is immense in enlisting the right teachers for them, in 
 encouraging children leaving school to continue in them, and in 
 arousing the co-operation of all classes of the community to 
 work for their success. In this good work the London and 
 
342 INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
 
 Glasgow School Boards have set an example to be followed. 
 The Nottingham School Board also has rendered good service, 
 and in one respect has, I think, found the key to the solution 
 of many difficulties connected with night schools. They have 
 appointed seven working-men to be managers of each night 
 school, and the thirty-five men, who have thus been appointed 
 to our five schools, have so laboured during this year of their 
 service that the numbers in attendance have been doubled, and 
 next year will show far greater results. This is pre-eminently 
 a working-man's question. It is only in the night school that 
 his children can climb the educational ladder. Accordingly these 
 working-men have appealed to clergymen, Sunday-school teachers, 
 employers of labour, and to the leaders of trade-unions to use 
 their influence to induce the children to go to these schools. 
 And in ways which I cannot detail now they have added to the 
 attractions of the school, and safeguarded its healthy conditions. 
 To these seven working-men we shall ask the School Board 
 to add two lady managers in each school, who shall be associated 
 with them, and who will take special charge of the girls' school 
 and aid the working men in clerkly duties which are irksome to 
 them. Then we have formed an association in Nottingham for 
 the promotion of night schools in the town and county. This 
 association is composed of two classes of members, (1) those 
 contributing a little towards expenses which the Board cannot 
 pay, and (2) those assisting in the teaching and recreation of 
 the school. Some of the work done in the night school must 
 be done by volunteers or at least by those who are not remune- 
 rated by the Board, for the Board cannot pay for more than 
 Government sanctions. Yet more must be done, as I have 
 said, to give us Night Schools under Healthy Conditions. 
 
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