Ill I ■11 Pi I i "''t[l''.i''f' M-i 6NtO\ THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES ^\J ^. ^\yh f p . ,- \Jyy H I S T O li Y OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF MIND, I-ONDON : r. r. noDusoN, printkr, 1 gough squark, flret street. '^HISTORY or THE PHILOSOPHY OF MIND : KMBRACI.Vt; THK OPINIONS OF ALL WRITERS ON ]\IENTAL SCIENCE FROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD TO THE PRESENT TIME. ) By Robert! BLAKE y, a.m. AUTHOR OF HISTORY OF MORAL SCIENCE, ESSAY OX MORAL GOOD AND EVIL, ESSAY' ON LOGIC, &C. A'OLUME 1 LONDON: LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS, PATEKNOSTER ROW. 1850. TO y. I HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS PE.INCE ALBEET, CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVERSITV OF CAMBRIDGE, &C. &C. &.C. THESE VOLUMES A RE (s'y permission) MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED, BY II IS ROYAL HIGH NESS'S VERY OBEDIENT, HUMBLE SERVANT, THE AUTHOR. > ^«:;m<>/l(> PREFACE, It is upAvards of twenty years since I first formed the intention of writing' a work of this description. Having been an ardent cultivator of metaphysical literature from early youth, I often experienced the want of some guide to a knowledge of authors, and their several publications on this species of philo- sophy ; and it occurred to me that a work, which simply brought into one focus the multifarious and scattered elements of speculation Avhich every civi- lized country possessed, could not fail to prove highly useful, not only to the mere scholar like myself, but even to those more advanced in philo- sophical knowledge and acquirements. To form a plan, however, is one thing ; but to execute it, another. I soon found the great difficulties which lay in my path. In England it is more arduous to write a history of philosophy, than in any other country in Europe ; chiefly from the deficiency of works on the literature of tlie Middle Ages. Nearly all Continental lil;raries, even those of Vi PREFACE. small towns and villages, have more or less of this species of literature; but in England the best libraries in our provincial cities are almost entirely without works of this description. The time required for reading was another obstacle in my way ; for more urgent and pressing pursuits engrossed almost every hour I had to spare. In consequence of these and other impediments which it is not necessary to particularize, I have some- times been compelled to suspend the work for three or four years together ; and many a time and oft have I altogether despaired of ever being able to complete it. Circumstances however have at length enabled me to do so ; and after a good deal of anxiety, I now present it to the philosophical world, with a firm persuasion that they will act justly towards it, and award me that portion of com- mendation to which I may be entitled, however small it may be ; and to more I have no right to aspire. There are two modes of writing a history of philosophy. The one is to classify authors under general heads, in conformity with a prin- ciple of resemblance or affinity subsisting among their respective speculative opinions. This is called philosophical history. The other is, to follow the order of time, and give a distinct and personal outline of every philosopher's views, in PREPACE. Vll the precise order in which chronoloi^y develops them. Both plans have their respective advan- tages and disadvantages ; and it is a nice point to determine which to prefer. To me, in all tlie purely historical works of a classified kind that I have seen, there has appeared no small degree of confusion ; and this I helieve is commonly felt as a great inconvenience by young students, when they enter upon tlie study of mental science. Generalization on the philosophy of mind ought not to precede observation and instruction, but to follow them. For these and other reasons, I have adopted the order of time, as nearly as the nature of the subject would admit; leaving the reader, except in some few special cases, to select and classify wa-iters according to his own opinions and judgment. The historical or classified arrange- ment is certainly more dignified and imposing ; but I conceive the chronological is better fitted to im- part elementary and correct information, and to preserve the mind from many false notions which an arbitrary or imperfect classification is apt to create, in reference to particular authors and their respective systems. This work is arranged upon a plan somewhat particular. It is almost exclusively confined to mental science. I am not acquainted with any publication precisely of the same kind, with the Vlll PREFACE, exception of Stewart's Dissertation, prefixed to the Encyclopedia Britannica. Every reader knows that, on the Continent, religion, morals, and po- litics, as well as metaphysics, are comprehended under the general term Philosophy. In England, however, we have commonly kept these topics apart from each other ; allowing each to rest upon its own basis ; and this I consider a better plan upon the whole. It is obvious, notwith- standing, that by adopting it, I have, in a corresponding degree, contracted the sphere of discussion and observation ; and, therefore, there must necessarily be less variety in my statements and reasonings than if I had launched freely, on every occasion that presented itself, into mat- ters intimately connected with the fundamental principles of religion, morals, and politics. Not that I have altogether refrained from touching upon these respective branches of knowledge ; this it would have been impossible for me to do, had I wished ; but on those occasions where a direct reference is made to any of them, it is only in order to illustrate more clearly and pointedly the precise nature and bearing of some particular me- taphysical principle or system. My aim has con- stantly been to furnish a history of Iletaphysical Philosophy^ and nothing more. I ha AC been desirous of combining some portion PREFACE. IX of elementary instruction on the science of mind, in conjunction with the historical sketches and details I have given. This will account for some short chapters or dissertations in several parts of the work, apparently unconnected with the course of simple chronological narration. I trust that, though this method may be considered in some measure novel, it will not be without corresponding benefit, particularly to young students and general readers. I once purposed to make these elemen- tary essays more numerous ; but the increasing pressure of purely historical matter did not allow me to follow this course to a greater extent than I have done. A considerable portion of the benefit and pleasure to be derived from a historical sketch of any branch of knowledge, arises from our know- ing something of its leading and fundamental principles ; and this applies to the science of mind more, perhaps, than to any other. The same cause which limited those elementary statements and reflexions, operated in curtailing the development and discussion of several systems of metaphysical speculation treated of in the work. It has often been to me a matter of deep regret, that my limits did not allow me to illustrate many inte- resting and important principles to the extent I de- sired, in order that they might be comprehensively and accurately understood. This will account, in X PREFACE. many instances, for the imperfect and circum- scribed notice of several theories, and their col- lateral branches; and for the abrupt discontinu- ance of my remarks, when perhaps a discussion had just reached that precise point at which it be- came most interesting to the inquirer. Consider- ing the extent of the ground over which I had to travel, and the numerous historical notices required, these imperfections, however much to be lamented, were unavoidable. I^ifty, instead of four volumes, would scarcely have sufficed to give any thing approaching to a full view of the different systems enumerated, and to point out all their bearings on each other, and on other departments of human knowledge. One of the chief designs of this work has been to impart to it a universal character and interest; to make it, in some measure, as interesting to the philosopher of Paris as of London. With this vievf, a copious account of English and Foreign philo- sophical publications is given ; in order that those who feel an interest in mental pursuits may have as accurate and comprehensive a view of all that has been written on the philosophy of mind, as it was practicable in such a limited publication to afford. To remedy in some degree the imperfection of more extended elucidations and comments, on many foreign authors in particular, lists of their PREFACE. XI names and respective various publications will be found in the Notes appended to the work. I feel myself under great obligations to many philosophical historians, both in my own country and abroad. I cannot, however, enumerate all from w^hom I have received assistance. Among English treatises, I have consulted Stanley, Cud- worth, and Enfield, with some slight advantages. To Dugald Stewart's Dissertation, prefixed to the last edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, I lie under considerable obligations. I am also much indebted to Mr. Ilallam ; and in perusing his " Literature of the Middle Ages," I have often experienced regret that he has not treated some mental speculations of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries at greater length. Every thing he says is so excellent, both in matter and in stvle, that on many occasions his brevity has been felt as a painful infliction. I tender my acknowledgments to Mr. Lewes for his recent able and useful "Biographi- cal History of Philosophy," though I must add that I cannot concur with the general aim and spirit of his speculative opinions. In examining the systems of philosophy of the present age, Mr. Morell's historical work, which is well entitled to the patronage and commendations it has received, has often been of service to me; and I have felt a peculiar pleasure in the perusal of his writings, Xll PREFACE. from the circumstance that his opinions and my own have so many points of resemhlance. To the Erench historians I owe much ; especially to De Gerando, Cousin, and Damiron ; and likewise to the lahours of Brucker, Emitter, Michelet, and other distinguished German authors. Erom the wide range of inquiry I have taken, the varied topics on which I have commented, their innate complexity and diversified aspects, and, ahove all, from my own imperfections and shortcomings for such an important task, it is probable I may have fallen into errors, both as to matters of fact and of opinion. To candid and dispassionate criticism I cheerfully commit my labours with all their faults ; having every reason to believe, that, as the love of truth has ever been my polar star in their prosecution, the same feeling animates the spirit of criticism of modern times ; and that if correction be needed, it will only pro- ceed from generous and honourable motives ; and prove as beneficial to the receiver, as commendable to the giver. London, Oc/. 1818. CONTENTS. P A O K . Introduction xvii CHAPTER T. On the Histories of Philosophy, Ancient and Modern 1 CHAPTER II. Mental Philosophy of Grefce. — The Ionic School: Thales — Anaximandcr — Anaxinieues — Ilermotinius of Cla- zoniene — Diogenes of Apollonia — Anaxagoras 5 CHAPTER III. Mental Philosophy of Greece. — The Italian School of Metaphysics : Pythagoras 1 7 CHAPTER IV. Mental Philosophy of Greece. — The Eleatic School of Metaphysics : Xenophanes — Parmenides — Melissus — Zeno of Elea — Ileraclitus 21 CHAPTER V. Mental Philosophy of Greece. — Second Eleatic School of Philosophy : Empedocles — Leucippus — Democritus .... 35 CHAPTER VI. Mental Philosophy of Greece. — The Greek Sophists: Protagoras — Gorgias 42 CHAPTER VII. Mental Philosophy of Greece. — Socrates Jl CHAPTER VIII. Mental Philosophy of Greece. — The Cyrenic and Cy- nical Schools 5y CHAPTER IX. Mental Philosophy of Greece. — The Schools of Megara, Elis, and Eretria : Euchd -V XIV CONTENTS. PAOK. CHAPTER X. Mental Philosophy of Greece. — Plato 59 CHAPTER XI. Mental Philosophy of Greece. — Aristotle 72 CHAPTER XII. Mental Philosophy of Greece. — Analysis, Synthesis, and Analogy, considered in relation to Greek Philosophy . . 100 CHAPTER XIII. Mental Philosophy of Greece. — The Sceptical School of Metaphysics : Pyrrho 121 CHAPTER XIV. Mental Philosophy of Greece. — Epicurus 126 CHAPTER XV. Mental Philosophy of Greece. — The Stoical School of Metaphysics : Zeno — Chrysippus 130 CHAPTER XVI. Mental Philosophy of Greece. — On the Notions com- monly adopted by the Ancients, up to the Period of the Stoics, on the Origin of our Knowledge and the Nature of Truth 136 CHAPTER XVII. Mental Philosophy of Greece. — The Second Academy : Arcesilaus — Carneades — Philo — Antiochus — Clitomachus — Posidonius — Panoetius 143 CHAPTER XVIII. The Alexandrian School of Metaphysics ' 153 CHAPTER XIX. On the Notions entertained by the different Schools of Philo- sophy on the Nature of General Principles and Propositions, up to the time of the Foundation of the Alexandrian School 158 CHAPTER XX. The Roman School of Mental Philosophy. — Lucre- tius — Cicero — Alcinous — Maximus of Tyre — Alexander of A])hrodisias — Galen 166 CONTENTS. XV CHAPTER XXI. TriE Latkr School of Metaphysical Scepticism. — .I'Enesiclemus — Agrippa — Phavorinus — Se.xtas Empiricus . . 182 CHAPTER XXII. On the Opinions of Ancient Philosophers, up to this period of History, on a Deity and the Human Soul 1 1) I CHAPTER XXIII. Mental Philosophy of India. — Sankhva and Yo2;a — . Bhagavad-Gliita — Nyaya and Vaisechika — Vedanta 207 CHAPTER XXIV. The Union of Eastern Doctrines with those or Greece and Rome. — Aristobulus — Philo — ApoUonius of Tyana — Plutarch — Lucius Apuleius — Xumenius 219 CHAPTER XXV, The Gnostic Metaphysicians 228 CHAPTER XXVI. The Metaphysical Principles of the New Plato- NiSTS. — Ammonius Saccas — Longinns — Plotinus — Por- phyry — Jamblicus — Proclus — Marinus — Isidore of Gaza . . 229 CHAPTER XXVII. On the Metaphysical DisQi;isrrioNS of the Ancient Fathers of the Church. — Justin Martyr — Tatian — St. Athenagoras — St. Theophilus — St. Pantsenus — Origen — St. Clement — Herm#s — TertuUian — Arnobius — Irenseus — Lactantius — Anatolius — St. Augustine — Nemesius — St, Gregory — Synesius — Claudianus ^lamertus — Boethius — ^lartin Capella — Cassiodorus — St. John Damascenus .... 244 CHAPTER XXVIII. Observations and Reflections, from Ascetic Wri- ters, on Matters connected with Reasoning and General Knowledge, — St. Peter the Anchorite — St. Alonzo de Vega — Pelagius 2/7 CHAPTER XXIX. On the Principle of Authority, in Matters of Philosophy and Theology, maintained by the Fathers of the Church 300 / / / xvi CONTENTS. PAOK. CHAPTER XXX. On Moral Evidence, after the Full Establishment of Christianity 3 1 1 CHAPTER XXXI. On the Opinions of the Fathers of the Church, on THE Liberty and Necessity of Human Actions. — Isnatius — Justin Martyr — Tatian — Ireneeus — Clement of Alexandria — Tertullian — Origen — Cyprian — Eusebius — Athanasius — Cyril of Jerusalem — Hilary — Epiphanius — Basil — Gregory Nazianzen — Gregory of Nyssa — -Ambrose — Jerome — Augustine — Chrysostom — Theodoret 317 CHAPTER XXXII. On the Metaphysical Notions of the Arabians. — Alkendi — Alfarabi — Avicenna — Algazeli — Avicebron — Averroes — Theophilus 340 CHAPTER XXXIII. The Persian Sophists. — Avenpace 3(i4 CHAPTER XXXIV. The Cabalistic Metaphysics 364 CHAPTER XXXV. On the Philosophy of the Jews. — Eben Ezra — Moses Maimonides 3G9 CHAPTER XXXVI. On Distinct Faculties of the Mind, as recognised by Philo- sophers up to the Ninth Century . . • 3/5 CHAPTER XXXVII. General Remarks on Faculties of the Mind, and of what may be urged against their individual Existence, Nature, and Operation 383 CHAPTER XXXVIII. On Saxon Metaphysics. — Alfred the Great — Alcuinus, or Albinus Flaccus — Bede ,411 Concluding Remarks 433 Notes and Illustrations 439 INTRODUCTION Phi'losopiiy is a conipreliensivo term, and, in its fullest extent, embraces evorv tliinj? which a man can know and feel. Philosopliers are however, like otlier humbler workmen, obliged to divide their labours in order to ensure more successful and efTicient execution ; and accord- ingly we find that, from the first dawn ol' any thing like science and literature, all knowledge has been classified under three leading divisions ; namely, a knowledge of external bodies, of mental faculties or powers, and of moral duties or obliga- tions. In no possible state of human existence can • these three branches of thousrht be conceived in a state of complete isolation or independent opera- tion. There is a bond, an indissoluble union, con- necting them ; and the precise limits where one ends and another commences, it is impossible to point out Avith any thing like fractional nicety. But still this consideration does not prevent men from making useful and practical divisions, or from designating them by general terms. It has accordingly been almost universally proclaimed in all ages, that pliilosopliy may be substan- * b Xviii INTHODUCTION. tially divided into three leading parts ;— what can be known of nature, of God, and of man. It has commonly been affirmed, that the consi- deration of visible nature is prior to every other inquiry. Whether this be correct or not, is of little moment to our present purpose. Man is evidently placed in an immense arena, and sees himself surrounded by a universe of infinite extent and variety. He feels the influence of external objects, and in turn exercises his power over them. What is the order and result of this reciprocity of action, is a matter of vital moment to him ; and he therefore institutes inquiries into the laws which regulate the movements and properties of external thm2:s. To these he ffives the name of Natural or JPhysical FMlosojjhy. This science has matter, and its various modifications, for its basis. This inquiry into material bodies can scarcely be conceived in operation apart from some considera- tion of the thinking and active principle which conducts and guides it. Here the origin of mental science is placed. It has often been defined, but it is one of those branches of knowledge not suscep - tible of a formal and concise definition. Speaking generally, it has mind, both human and Divine, for its object. Aristotle terms it the first philo- sophy, not only on account of its superiority to all other branches of human w isdom, but also as being prior, in the order of time, to the whole of the arts and sciences. We cannot, however, lay much stress on the theories which attempt to account for the origin of speculative philosophy ; because INTRODUCTION. XIX it is quite obvious that speculations as to tlie beginning of things, their nature, and the laws which govern and regulate their existence, must have been coeval with the very first rudiments of human thought. Man is never able to refer to any- period in the liistory of his species, in which there was not some system of philosophy recognised. Every child, and every savage, is a philosopher in his way ; and the only difference between tlie scholar and the boor is, as to the relative degree in which each is able to investigate and arrang<^ the phenomena of existence. Both are, in their respective spheres, placed under the same govern- ment, and influenced by the same circumstances and events. But whatever opinion may be adopted on this point, certain it is, that mental science forms one of the three great divisions of human inquiry. Another division of human thought, containing many important subdivisions, and which is clearly defined, arises from the very first wants and duties of human life. This department of knowledge relates to morals, or the conduct of mankind. In no situation of life can we conceive a total suspen- sion of the principles of morality. The obligations and bonds of connection which subsist between man and those around him, must form the first elements of his knowledge. These, like the physi- cal laws of the universe, are of a fixed, determined, and eternal character. They form the ground- work of Moral Philosophij . The philosophy which springs out of and com- prehends a knowledge of mental systems, may be 62 XX INTRODUCTION. viewed under several aspects. If we look at it merely through its naked or abstract principles, it is one thing ; if exclusively through its practical influence on the condition of human thought in a state of society, it is another thing ; and if both these be amalgamated with other branches of physical knowledge, it presents again altogether different features. Yet all possess a solid sub- stratum of truth ; and the propriety or obligation of taking any particular view of the philosophy of mind, can only be defended upon comprehensive considerations of what is in accordance with the general interest, judgment, and happiness of man- kind. That it is a condition of human existence that some system of mental speculation should be cul- tivated, and be made to serve as a ground-work for other necessary and interesting studies, is a position as irrefragably true as important. It is a law of human thought that every thing shall centre in mind ; in a knowledge of its faculties or powers ; and in a thorough acquaintance with all those ge- neral conceptions which are incorporated in every intellectual manifestation or state of being. We cannot exile ourselves beyond the sphere of this influence ; for if we could, impenetrable darkness and ignorance would be our portion. It is not a matter of choice whether a man shall be ignorant of mental philosophy or not ; it is imperative that lie should cultivate it, if he is ever to attain a complete knowledge of other sciences. It is tlie portal through which he must pass to the inner INTRODUCTION. XXI temple of intellectual treasures. Mental pliilo- sopliy is not itself the sum of all knowledge, but the necessary instrument in the successful pro- secution of all other branches of human wisdom. Without it, every man is a child, an intellectual imbecile, and can have nothing valuable or abiding in him. To illustrate this point a little more fully, we shall make a fe^ observations on the indis- soluble and dependent connection between certain kinds of knowledge and the philosophy of mind. We shall not dwell upon the obligations which even physical science lies under to metaphysical pursuits. We may, however, barely remark, in reply to the enthusiastic admirers of the positive philosophy, that they are not in a position to mould their own facts, nor to illustrate or me- thodise their views, even in reference to the sim- plest phenomena of the external world, nor can tlieir opinions and conclusions be enforced upon the attention of others, without the virtual recog- nition of principles which have an exclusive re- lationship with mental science. It is only by stepping beyond the strict limits of their own sphere, as mere .collectors of facts and observations, that they can be understood, either by themselves or by others. A system professing to be founded ou facts, and facts alone, is an inconceivable thing to the mind of man. The truth of this may be readily tested by the most superficial consideration of the subject. Leaving, however, for the present, this part of the subject, we shall direct especial attention to three great divisions of human knowledge ; namely, mo- XXll INTRODUCTION. rality, religion, and politics. A profound acquaint- ance with all or any of these, must be obtained through the channels of mental science. The science of morals is of a comprehensive character, and of universal interest. It affects all classes of mankind, from the king to the beggar. All its principles and facts, however, relate to mind ; they belong tb man's internal con- stitution ; they proceed from certain a priori sug- gestions or conditions of the human conscious- ness, and are not matters which come under the cognizance of the senses, or can be measured or weighed. What is involved in the terms moral freedom, morcd duty, moral ^responsibility , moral obligation, moral feelings, moral princip)les, emo- tions, passions, desires, reioards, and punishments ? Something, undoubtedly, of a purely mental cha- racter ; which, in order to be effectively analyzed, and brought to open day for the satisfaction of man's reason and interest, requires an intellectual process of the most subtile and refined kind. Here nature cannot be interrogated by material instruments ; we must deal with her solely through the means of our internal consciousness, and those liabits of inward analysis and deduction which can only be detected and efiiciently wielded by the mental philosopher. Eor a man to write pro- foundly and correctly on the principles of morals, without a respectable portion of metaphysical learning, would be as impossible as for a man born blind to write intelligibly and philosophically on light and colours. Theology stands in nearlv the same relation as INTRODUCTION. XXUl morality to mental philosophy. The former has to deal with those principles of the mind which constitute the foundation of natural and revealed religion. Here cause and effect, existence, intel- ligence, wisdom, final causes, and an immense variety of other abstract conceptions of the human understanding, form the ground-work of theolo- gical science, and create and support its entire principle of vitality. We have the existence of the Supreme Being, His moral government, the naind's immateriality and immortality, the whole science of morality as contrasted and compared with the morality of the Scriptures, the doctrines of revealed religion considered in relation to the course of nature and the inward suggestions of the human soul ; and a thousand other matters, any one of which is sufficient to occupy the active mind of man during a whole life time, in order to fully illus- trate and enforce it in all its bearings and rami- fications. But in this extensive field of speculation and interest, nothing can be done without a know- ledge of mental subjects. Divines may, and in fact do, regulate their acquirements in metaphysical lore according to their individual circumstances, tastes, and mental capabilities ; but the theologian is not to be envied who can enter a pulpit, or commit his theological thoughts to the public through the press, totally unacquainted with the general out- lines of mental speculations. Indeed this fact is so well understood, that among nearly every class of Christian teachers, it is now an established part of theological tuition, that the candidates for XXiv INTRODUCTION. the office of the ministry shall possess a competent knowledge of metaphysical science, before they can be qualified for holy orders. Politics as a science, not viewed through the medium of party, are essentially founded on men- tal knowledge, and their general principles are of a spmtual or abstract cast. They have also an in- timate and necessary relationship with morality and theology. All declarations of personal rights and freedom, allegiance, civil and criminal codes of laws and jurisprudence, or the law of nations, are severally founded on abstract principles of thought, and have their seat in the deep and inward recesses of the soul. We have only to look at the constitu- tional charters of any state or kingdom, to be con- vinced of the refined and mental abstractions of which they are composed. The science of juris- prudence, for example, is chiefly constituted of a multitude of recondite maxims, of which, unless a man has some knowledge of metaphysical subjects, and is well acquainted with the rules and principles of abstract reasoning, he can never be able fully to comprehend the justice and soundness, nor their applicability to the state of human affairs. If such, then, be the intimate connection between these three most important departments of human knowledge, and the philosophy of mind, how ne- cessary and obligatory is it that we should assi- duously cultivate it, and should form to ourselves comprehensive views of its nature, limits, purposes, and ends. It ought to constitute an important branch of every young man's education, particularly INTRODUCTION. XXV if he be destined to pursue any professional occupa- tion. Unless habits of inward reflection are formed and cultivated in earlv life, and the rules of mental analysis and deduction are familiarised to the mind, it is impossible to rear any great or respectable superstructure of philosophical expertness upon the best and most enlightened systems of public or private tuition. Such systems may make ^full, but not a clever man. Of late years a lively interest has been awakened in regard to the history of speculative opinions. The European mind has been aroused from a state of comparative apathy, and is now bent on testing every principle and every fact, both by historical evidence and by logical deduction. We are called upon to trace opinions from the most remote pe- riods of time, and to view them in conjunction with institutions and modes of thinking of the pre- sent day. This extensive inquiry is considered by various classes of men in different lights, and with different feelings; some mth aversion, and some with approval; some with an anxious desire to effect social improvements, and promote know- ledge ; and some, unhappily, to throw impediments and doubts in the path of human progress. Still, however, powerful sympathies have been awakened ; and we may rationally hope that it only requires time, and suitable seasons of calm and dispas- sionate reflection, to realize important benefits from their exercise. In Germany the spirit of speculative inquiry XXVI INTRODUCTION. has, for nearly a century, displayed remarkable activity. It lias formed one of the leading branches of public education, and conducted its cultiva- tors to distinction and renown. It has been made subservient to the elucidation of every other de- partment of the philosophy of human nature, and thrown a steady light on many problems which had previously been enshrouded in almost impene- trable darkness. In Prance the same activity has prevailed for nearly the same period. Here, too, speculative philosophy has imparted a higher tone to the general current of literature and scientific investigations, and has been eminently successful in adding to the general stock of rational and en- lightened inquiry. Italy has likewise partaken in some measure of the prevailing enthusiasm, and has relaxed the hitherto inflexible severity of aus- tere injunctions against novel doctrines and opi- nions ; and has, consequently, extended the bless- ings of intellectual liberty among her people. And the same may be remarked of several other conti- nental nations. In proportion as mental philo- sophy has broken in upon the dull and stupifying routine of antiquated and worn-out systems of edu- cation and academical instruction, in the same pro- portion do we trace a favourable change in the general current of the public mind. The spirit of man feels the salutary influences of unrestricted freedom, and enters upon that state which is most conducive to the full and cfi'ective exercise of all its loftier and more ennobling powers and energies. True it is, that these advantages from the INTRODUCTION. XXVll ardent cultivation of speculative topics, are not invariably obtained without some serious draw- backs and inconveniences. In Germany and Erance, in particular, there has unquestionably been manifested at intervals a philosophical spirit but little in harmony with the progress of rational knowledge, and the best and most sacred interests of man. The unfettered liberty of thought has in these countries occasionally run into licentiousness. The philosophic mind has degraded itself, and out- raged common sense and common feeling. But still Ave must hold the balance with a steady and even hand. It seems to be one of the necessary conditions of human progress, that no great ad- vances shall be made in the intellectual acquire- ments of nations, nor in the firm and complete consolidation of those important abstract principles which lie at the root of their civilization, pros- perity, and freedom, without some corresponding disadvantages, though of an evanescent or tran- sitory nature. The public mind, long pent up within a narrow sphere, often rebounds beyond its wholesome and natural limits, when its fetters are taken off and all forcible restrictions removed. It revels in the wild and frantic enjoyment of its liberty, and feels but little inclination for the moment to listen to the dictates of soberness and truth. But this feverish state passes over, and seasons of solid thought and reflection succeed, bearing the fruits of real wisdom and matured experience. And an appeal can safely be made to all who have any thing like a competent know^ledge XXVlll INTRODUCTION. of the general literature of Germany and Prance, that, amid much speculative inquiry of a question- able kind, and not a little positively unsound and injurious, there is still a very striking improvement manifested in every branch of general informa- sion in these countries within the last century, in which abstract reasoning is especially required, and where the human mind is called forth to ex- ercise all its higher powers of rationalistic dex- terity. And this advancement in the loftier walks of literature and science, may be fairly attributed to the impetus given to the general intellect, by the ardent study of the principles of mental phi- losophy. Mental studies have not been much cultivated in Great Britain for the last three quarters of a century. In Scotland, however, they have main- tained a respectable footing ; and almost all per- sons intended for the church, the bar, or public offices of any description, make it a point to go through a regular course of study in metaphysical science. In England it is otherwise. Here it can be scarcely said to form any portion of acade- mical instruction. This may be attributed to many causes. The preponderance of mechanical and commercial pursuits among ns, naturally in- disposes the great masses of even intelligent and reflecting people to view speculative or purely in- tellectual investigations with a friendly and en- couraging eye. What is material, palpable, and immediately profitable, becomes the grand and engrossing object of interest. The external sources INTRODUCTION. XXIX of enjoyment and happiness prevail over the men- tal or spiritual ; and this sentiment pervades the whole mass of the people, impartini^; to the national mind a strong material tendency. Again, those who, from inclination and their position in society, were fitted to take a leading part in the discussion and propagation of the prin- ciples of mental philosophy, have for more than half a century entertained doubts as to its benefits, chiefly from the circumstance that the mystical and idealistic notions so rankly prevalent in some parts of the continent, might be possibly trans- planted into England, and corrupt the mind of the nation, and withdraw it from those important ob- jects on which it ought invariably to rest. That there is something plausible in these apprehensions, must be conceded. But a little further inquiry into the nature of all speculative doctrines, and into the modes and degrees in which they influence the current thought of a people, would cer- tainly have the effect of greatly mitigating, if it did not entirely remove, any such anticipated sources of danger. For how stands the real position of the question ? There is no stopping, successfully, the progress of inquiry of a whole na- tion ; if you close any particular avenue of thought, another must be opened in its stead. It becomes, therefore, purely a question as to the choice of evils. If we have eschewed the dangers from mystical and idealistic theories, we have un- questionably encouraged the growth of a cold and lifeless materialism, which operates, in a thousand XXX INTRODUCTION. unperceived modes, to banish all lofty moral and religious feelings from the minds of men. By an undue encouragement of physical science, with a view to make it supply the whole of the mental wants of the nation, we insensibly, though power- fully, and from the very nature of things, throw the mind of man entirely upon a species of know- ledge calculated, when it fully and exclusively engrosses his affections and energies, to limit the powers of his intellect, and to strip them of their most ennobling and glorious attril^utes. By con- sequently dwelling on material phenomena, and making mere secondary causes objects of the mind's attention, we gradually descend from the lofty and improving regions of thought, and consider the Supreme Being, and all the wonders of intellec- tual nature, as only results and modifications of tlie visible things around us. This is neither a natural nor advantageous mode of procedure. The practical and the theoretical should invariably bo conjoined in the intellectual culture of all men ; inasmuch as this is the only mode which nature has appointed for steadily preserving a hold on their affections, and preventing them from lapsing into any irremediable state of apathetic indifference, or sordid, unqualified selfishness. When we come to look narrowly at the influence of physical science on tlie minds of the masses of the people, we are struck with its limited range, and its cold and evanescent impressions. The laws of the material world seldom occupy more than a INTRODUCTION. XXxi passing moment's reflection; and the improve- ments which mechanical science may bring to tl\e workman's fire-side, he accepts and uses as a mere matter of course, but never makes them anxious objects of his thoughts or contemplations. He is under an almost instinctive conviction, that it is an affair which does not particularly concern him. And the same thing is true of every other class of society. The elements of thought and reflection are of another cast. They relate to other objects apart from the laws and qualities of mate- rial bodies. Does the intelligent mechanic dwell any length of time upon the principles of his art ; upon the formulas of the screw, the lever, or the inclined plane ? Docs he make them the con- stant objects of his thought and solicitude ? By no means. His mind is elsewhere. He lives with his wife, his family, his relations, his countrymen ; and, it is hoped, with his God. It is the l)onds, the connections, the sympathies, the feelings, the hopes, the fears, the cares, and anxieties, which arise out of the relationship he stands in as a son, a parent, a member of society, and an immor- tal spirit, which fill the measure of his thoughts, and give life and interest to his existence. What a slender hold have all material agents upon him ? What to him the number or nature of the laws which regulate their movements ; the great law of gravitation, or the atomic theory of chemical affinities ? Scarcely any thing. They touch but very lightly indeed the vital and stirring principles XXXU INTRODUCTION. of his being. They are not the staple articles of his intellectual sustenance and strength. The social, the moral, the political, the domestic ties of life, are the objects of his constant interest and unceasing solicitude. He rests upon intellectual and moral manifestations ; and always allows the phenomena of the material world, numerous and wonderful though they be, to hang loosely about him, and never for a moment suffers them to be placed in competition with the claims, obligations, and duties of humanity. It is not the natural philosopher ; it is not the Newtons, the Laplaces, the Davys, however vene- rable their names may in the abstract be, who most excite the sympathies of mankind, and engross their undivided attention. These are not the house- hold gods which universal humanity sympathe- tically worships. It is men who develop the prin- ciples of mind ; who make human nature their study ; who unfold the latent thoughts, purposes, and principles of human feeling and action ; who distinguish themselves as lawgivers, statesmen, historians, theologians, poets, painters, and writers on the every-day movements and phases of human life. These find kindred spirits in all ages and countries ; and enjoy a reputation and fame, founded on infinitely more noble and interesting objects, than those on which rest the cold and formal approbations conferred on the physical philosopher, or the zealous disciple of positive science. INTRODUCTION. XXXlll "VVe contend, therefore, that the decided pre- dilection for physical science manifested in Eng- land, and for the rules and principles of reasoning necessarily involved in and derived from it, is not grounded upon an enlarged conception of the na- ture and purposes of human knowledge, nor of the advantages to be realised by the national mind from its extended cultivation. We readily admit, as a true and general maxim, that all knowledge is more or less improving ; but it by no means follows that when we unduly confine the public mind within certain prescribed limits, and only call into exercise one set or class of its faculties or powers, we are doing our best to advance the cause of popular instruction, and to elevate the sentiments of the nation to their loftiest point of general improvement. On the contrary, we liumbly conceive that we are, by sketching out and ado[)t- ing such a narrow and contracted system, milita- ting against one of the plainest and most impera- tive dictates or laws of our nature ; and if we ol)- stinately persist in pursuing such a course, we must fully expect to reap those bitter fruits which are the inevitable result of violating one of the estabKshed canons of nature's decrees. To effect the intellectual refinement of a people, there must be a judicious combination of all the different elements of knowledge and thought ; and among the chief and most influential of these, is the sci- ence of human nature. It must not, however, be inferred from these remarks, that, in order to comprehend other c XXxiv INTRODUCTION. branches of knowledge and science, it is absolutely requisite that we should be intimately acquainted with mental philosophy, and be able to trace its his- tory with accuracyand minuteness. In the pursuitof information we are frequently obliged to take many principles for granted, without being able to prove their truth. All that we contend for is, that the science of mind is more or less a necessary ingre- dient in all human investigations, and that we cannot hope to take a conspicuous part in any department of general knowledge, without either tacitly or experimentally adopting many of the most essential axioms on which the fundamental movements of the intellect depend. The active principles of intelligence must be either theore- tically or practically recognised and understood, before we can successfully apply them to any purpose whatever. Nosystem of education can be considered more mea- gre and imperfect, than that which entirely excludes the philosophy of mind from its range of inquiry. One of the chief benefits of instruction is entirely lost ; that which enables us to cultivate both the active and reasoning powers of the mind, and to strengthen and mature them to that degree of excellence which is indispensably requisite to secure us against adopting the most erroneous opinions, and the most glaring and palpal)le absurdities. One of the most powerful causes, perhaps, which have operated to clieck the general cultivation of speculative philosophy among a certain class of in- INTRODUCTION. XXXV telligent people, not only in England but in other countries, is the conception that its history pre- sents nothing but a wild chaos of abstruse systems, of conflicting opinions, and unshapely chimeras ; the natural tendency of which is to lead men into error, to fill their minds with shadows and de- lusions, and to excite false hopes and expectations, l^his is the popular accusation brought against the philosophy of mind, and on which rest the apathy and scepticism commonly felt and expressed as to its nature and benefits. But a moment's calm reflection will immediately dissipate this rash conclusion and vulgar prejudice. That there are various and con- flicting opinions relative to some of the funda- mental principles of the science, and to their in- fluence upon, and applicability to, other branches of human investigation, is an indisputable truth ; but this admission does not compromise the va- lidity and importance of mind, considered as an independent and legitimate branch of philosophical inquiry. We find the same spirit of disputation and contention prevailing among those who culti- vate every kind of knowledge. The abstract prin- ciples on which they all rest, are more or less matters of discussion, and are subjected to a va riety of judgments and opinions. But this state of things proves nothing. It is the very nature, essence, and province of knowledge, to separate the true from the false, the hypothetical and con- jectural from the certain and conclusive, the good from the bad, and the expedient from the inexpe- c2 XXXvi TNTRODUCTIOX. dient. How great is the importance of morality both to individuals and to whole nations ; it is the very life blood of their social and confederated existence. But where shall we find a theory of morality Avhich is not open to a difference of opi- nion, or which is fully adequate to account for all the moral manifestations, rules, principles, obliga- tions, and ideas of merit and demerit, which dis- play themselves in the wide arena of the moral universe ? Again, the science of politics is of the highest possible interest to man ; but to what con- tentions, varieties of sentiment and opinion, and bitter conflicts, does it not give rise ? Where is the writer who has ever penned a political system or theory which has been universally, or even ge- nerally, received ? Why the very abstract maxims or principles on which all societies of men rest, are at the present moment, in spite of all the learning and scientific investigations of three thousand years, speculative objects of the most opposite and conflicting nature, among the able and intelligent legislative philosophers and politicians of all coun- tries. If, again, we cast an eye to religion, we find the primary principles of both natural and re- vealed theology matters of every-day and eager discussion, and susceptible of being viewed through various mediums ; and the same is applicable to legal science. Where shall we find a greater dis- similarity of judgment than that to which the laws and customs of various people give rise ? Nay, we shall advance a step further, and maintain that even physical science, which prides itself on INTRODUCTION. XXXVll its 2)osUive results, is not removed beyond the pale of differences of opinion, and conflicting judgments, relative to many of its theories, principles, and conclusions. Now, taking all these matters into consideration, would a man act wisely or con- sistently, were he to conclude, that, because in morals, politics, religion, law, and physical science, we find opposite theories and conflicting judg- ments supported by those who cultivate these respective departments of knowledge, he is war- ranted in afiirming that they are all delusions, and that there is not the slightest substratum of truth or logical validity for them to rest upon ? Certainly not. A man who should entertain an opinion of this sort, and endeavour to act upon it, would be deemed unfit to be reasoned with on any subject whatever. What we claim therefore from ordinary candour and consistency is, that mental science be placed upon the same footing as other branches of know- ledge. That there are differences of opinion about its fundamental truths, we readily admit ; but they are neither greater in number, nor more discordant in their nature, than what appertain to almost every other topic of philosophical investigation. And it certainly appears the height of incon- sistency for us to assume that there is no truth whatever in that particular science the principles of which are absolutely necessary to ascertain and to adjudge the amount and nature of truth to be found in every other subject. Of all perverse modes of reasoning, this must appear to be the XXXVlll INTllODUCTION. most self-contradictory and unsatisfactory to every well-regulated and candid mind. As it is with mental science alone that we have immediately to do, we shall just briefly notice some of those general maxims or elementary principles, which seem to have been either logically demon- strated or tacitly assumed, in almost every system of speculation alluded to in this history of philo- sophy. A voluminous record of this kind, extend- ing over more than two thousand years, offers, at first sight, a somewhat perplexing aspect to even scientific minds ; but a little examination into the matter, and an ordinary degree of exercise of the power of generalization, will soon enable the intel- ligent and attentive reader to detect, amid the crowd of objects which present themselves, some distinctive land-marks which will serve to lead him out of the apparent labyrinth of endless specula- tion, and impart to his mind some steadiness of jiurpose. The diversity of systems and theories is, strictly speaking, more in appearance than in reality ; for we often find, that though their ex- ternal dress be very diversified, yet when we look narrowly at them, we soon recognise an affinity or sameness among the principles which form the nucleus of a great variety of speculative fabrics. The importance of these varied illustrations of the same fundamental positions, cannot, on many occasions, be too highly estimated ; but still it is always valuable to observe the philosophic rule of looking at the elementary propositions on which different views of the human mind profess to rest. INTRODUCTION. XXXIX It is this susceptibility of the principles of mental science to be viewed throug-h various mediums, and to be Illustrated by materials drawn even from opposite quarters, that imparts so much real interest to tliis branch of knowledge, and makes it such a necessary and useful instrument for the testing of truths in other departments of human inquiry. And here it may be remarked, that the illustra- tions of principles connected with the human mind in all its grand aspects and divisions, stand so prominently distinct, — possess such an indivi- duality of character, in their susceptil)ility of being varied, to an almost infinite extent, in every thing belonging to the mere physical investigations of the universe, — that we perceive at a glance the ra- dical distinction between the truths of natural phi- losophy and those of human nature. A treatise on Astronomv, Ilvdrostatics, or Chemistrv, is always the same, with the exception of recent dis- coveries, which are simply stated as matters of fact, and are linked to the general mass already accumulated. Writers in any of these depart- ments of knowledge, follow each other in a beaten track, and have no latitude whatever for invention. There is no want of inclination to impart novelty and interest to physical science ; but its cultivators have no room to effect any such thing. They travel in a path bounded by a lofty wall on each side, which shut out nine-tenths of nature from their view ; and, consequently, they have liberty neither to turn to the right hand nor to the left. But xl INTRODUCTION. wliat different circumstances accompany the illus- trations of truths springing' out of the deep re- cesses of the human lieart and understanding. How susceptible are they of infinite variation, and of becoming inexhaustible sources of interest. Conviction and mental pleasure rush at once into the soul from a thousand channels ; and yet the perfect identity between the leading principles of human thought and action is never weakened or destroyed. The grand outlines of humanity are always visible. The truths of mind, of religion, of morals, of politics, of matters of intellectual taste, of the every- day movements of life, passion, and desire, are each of them the never-failing fountains from which the streams of human wis- dom and genius perennially flow, to gladden and cheer the heart of man, and to impart to him that necessary mental sustenance, the ceaseless cravings for which constitute one of the striking character- istics of his being. The scientific classifications of the natural philosopher die almost the moment they are born ; but not so the speculations of the mental philosopher, the moralist, the divine, the dramatic writer, or the poet ; these enjoy a per- petual youth, and time itself stamps upon their respective eflPusions the seal of immortality. We may now observe, in the first place, that one of the leading positions which seem to be esta- blished by the historical statements and details of philosophy in all countries and ages, is, that mind and matter are two separate and distinct things. The whole current of speculation scarcely fur- INTRODUCTION. xli nishes us Avitli any thiug approaching to a single comjilete theory, which in all its aspects, and in all its logical deductions, points to an opposite principle. The mind of man, in every state of ex- istence of which we have any authentic record, has always been struggling to give utterance to this fundamental truth, or manifestation of its inward consciousness. It assumes, it is true, a variety of appearances, but it constantly retains the unity of its character intact. Erom the banks of the Thames to the banks of the Ganges ; from the first mutterino's of science in the East, to the finished philosophical productions of the present hour ; this truth has never ceased its influence over the minds of countless millions of our race, who have passed through life under external circum- stances and with speculative theories infinitely varied. Here there is a solemn unity of universal assent, which no hardihood of assertion can deny, nor captious sophistry gainsay. In the second place, it may be observed, that we clearly perceive, from the whole range of ancient philosophy, that the religious spirit was more or less incorporated Avith it ; that man was considered as of a heavenly origin, and as possessing a more refined and elevated nature than the mere animals around him. It was also clearly taught, from the same authority, that all investigations into the structure of his intellect, could only be successfidly pro- secuted by constantly keeping in view this double relationship or dependence. Whenever, therefore, we set out in our philosophical inquiries into the Xlii INTRODUCTION. nature of mental phenomena upon an opposite tack, and contemplate man with the sole view of referring them to the same laws, and subjecting them to the same logical ordeal, which govern and influence other creatures around us, we do, in fact, not only run counter to the universal experience and testimony of mankind, most indisputably and unequivocally expressed ; but we also find that all doctrines, founded on such a mode of investigation, are not only lamentably defective in point of logical merit, but, when reduced to practice, bear fruits inimical to the moral and intellectual im- provement and well-being of man. And do we not witness the verification of this truth in every stage of the history of speculative principles ? The whole course of human progress, since the first dawn of letters, bears testimony to the fact, that mankind have received incalcuable be- nefits from the belief in the existence of the theolo- gical principle. Man is thus viewed as fitted for a higher destiny than other terrestrial and animated beings ; and we feel assured also, that in proportion as he keeps this opinion steadily before him in all his philosophical researches, the universe around him and the general course of events inspire him with a firm persuasion that he is endowed with faculties and powers expressly fitted for exercise, and to be eminently productive of benefit to mankind, and glory to the Creator of his existence. This con- clusion does not rest upon a mere theoretical con- jecture ; it is susceptible of incontrovertible de- monstration, from the records of history, as well as iNTiiODUCTioN. xliii from the overpowering feelings and convictions of the human heart. Every form which the great theological principle assumes in the history of philosophy, rests upon the position of mind, connected with a creative and y over ning power. The notions of mental operations, and those of a Deity, are purely elemental, and seem to be co-existent in the inward consciousness of man. Whether this primary truth can be fully demonstrated, either psychologically or ontologi- cally, we need not stop here to determine ; but certain it is, that the history of men's opinions strikingly proves that it lies at the root of every form of speculation, and seems to be one of those necessary and fundamental axioms, without which all reasoning is nugatory, all mental conviction impossible, and human life a dream. And we further feel confident, that a candid and accurate consideration of theories of philosophy will lead the mind to perceive, that there is nothing in the general constitution of them hostile to the leading features and doctrines of the Christian sys- tem. In fact, there exists a surprising harmony between all speculative theories which have any degree of truth or solidity in them, and the ele- mentary principles of revealed theology ; and phi- losophic truth and theological truth will be found, in almost all cases, to act and re-act on each other, to the mutual elucidation and advantage of both. What may be termed the metaphysics of the Bible, if such an expression may be allowed, are in strict keeping with every thing which has been ob- Xliv INTRODUCTION. served and recorded, by the universal assent of mankind, relative to intellectual plienomena. There is no radical or constitutional discrepancy between them. The authoritative declarations of Scripture are intelligible only because they rest on the general perceptions and judgments of men; and the high purposes and hopes with which Reve- lation is conversant, are, in every case, powerfully and universally responded to by the most charac- teristic feelings and impulses of human nature. The religious principle is, therefore, a necessary and wholesome ingredient in every system of speculative thought or inquiry. Nothing is in- telligible without it. It speaks with a thousand tongues ; and like the universal ether, to which it has often been made to claim affinity, pervades all nature, and is ever present to the mind of man. Its manifestations are sometimes faintly traceable in his mental physiology, and even oftimes they become the sport of the wildest vagaries and most fantastical caprice ; but we think not, we act not, without their co-operation, or beyond the pale of their influence. In the third place, the existence and certainty of a number of a priori mental principles or conceptions, are decidedly recognised in every system of philoso- phy of which there are any full or regularly classified details. These original ideas become the life-spring of thought, and the steady guides of the under- standmg. They depend upon nothing capricious, variable, evanescent, or transitory ; they form the primitive foundations of all human observation, INTRODUCTION. xlv experience, and reasoning. From whence they are derived, and how regulated and guided, it is not our province here to inquire ; it is sufficient to state that there will not be found, in all the historical sketches of systems of which we have any account, a single instance where their existence is not tacitly or expressly acknowledged. In the fourth place, we shall find, from an accurate study of history, that philosopliy is of a progressive character. Though its principles are abstract, and of ana piHori description, yet their full and complete development rests with time. We find this depicted on the lineaments of philosophi- cal speculation, from the remotest ages to the present hour. Unquestionably there have been very great vicissitudes in the progress of mental knowledge. Sometimes it would seem to have been almost sta- tionary ; then to have made a sudden bound in a forward direction ; and again to lia^e relapsed into a state of quietude and apatliy. But still, on the whole, a decided and permanent progress was in- variably secured. This onward course was not, however, characterised by the discovery and de- velopment of neto truths or principles of human nature, but in illustrating the individual operations of those already known, and in more accurately tracing out their respective bearings on other important and collateral branches of human investigation. There is not, in fact, a principle of the human mind in our most approved modern treatises on its nature and faculties, which may not be found among the speculations of the Grecian philosophers : but still we have greatly the ad- Xlvi INTRODUCTION. vantage over the ancients, in the copiousness of illustrations ; the nicer processes of analytical and deductive reasoning ; in displaying the power and influence ofmental science over other subjects; and, above all, in those refined yet solid distinctions, which we can now make on almost every topic connected with man, as a thinking, moral, religious, and social being. It is this expansiveness or am- plification of the primary elements of mind, which constitutes the progressive character of philoso- phical speculations on its powers or faculties ; inasmuch as it more completely opens out to our view the whole arcana of thought, in many of those sudden and rapid operations which were inade- quately comprehended by antiquity, and ap- peared in the eyes of some of the ancient sages as partaking of the character of individual and instinctive imj)ulses. Besides this, there is a progressive character stamped upon every thing we behold. The Avhole economy of human nature proclaims it. We instinctively follow it from the cradle to the grave. There is no human being without a regularly formed system of speculative or theoretical know- ledge, relative to his own nature and to that of the beings around him, however crude or limited it may be ; and when we come to analyse this theory, we find it made up of varied materials, some illustrative of this principle, and some of that. Order, method, selection, revisal, are conspicuous everywhere; and the sum total of an ordinary man's views of himself, and of human life generally, is a perfect epitome of the more elaborate and sja- INTRODUCTION. xlvii tematic treatises of the philosopher. We recognise in both the progressive character of the mind ; one truth is made predominant here, and another there ; one subject is considered in this light, and another in that ; weeding out the errors of yester- day by the fuller experience of to-day ; and, in fact, invariably labouring towards a state of ideal har- mony and perfection, and always making a decided step towards its attainment. This is the condition of humanity, and the whole body of human know- ledge, and particularly mental philosophy, is marvellously confirmatory of the fact. Indeed, to plead for the eclectic, or progressive, philosophy, is but a very trite and common-place affair; since it is nothing more nor less than to argue for that wholesome equilibrium among the leading branches of man's knowledge and springs of action, which all ages of the world, and all sects of philosophers, have more or less recog- nised as one of the indispensable conditions of human thought, power, and happiness. To be convinced of the utility of this, we have only to conceive for a moment, man, as now constituted, under the exclusive control of any one of the three grand divisions of human investigation, nature, mind, and God. Were he merely incessantly look- ing at the material changes and operations of things around him, he would be nothing more than a mere statue or vegetable excrescence ; he might be said to exist, but not to live. Again, were men entirely engrossed by the feelings and movements of their minds, and to take no heed of external things, Xlviii INTRODUCTION. they could liot exist a single day. And, finally, were we continually making the nature, attril)utes, and mode of government of the Deity, exclusive objects of our perpetual contemplation, we should only he attempting to do what is impossible. So that every thing depends upon a due and propor- tional sul3ordination of one thing to another ; and this is the reason why the progressive character is imposed upon human knowledge, in order that it might be reared up into an immense and splendid temple, by the aggregate and universal thought of mankind. Let us just cast a glance over the speculative opinions of mankind, and we shall instantly perceive the progressive character of mental philosophy. In Greece there was a system of great intellectual excellence, embracing within its range nearly all the primary principles of a comprehensive and matured body of thought. These were discussed by the Greeks in a manner and with a tact peculiarly their own ; but towards the latter years of their political glory and inde- pendence, their speculations seemed to have been nearly worn out, and to have become decidedly tame and insipid. The Christian dispensation gave new life to human speculation. The Greek philosophybecame amalgamated with it ; and novel and highly interesting philosophical combinations were the result. New light was thrown on a thou- sand important questions connected with the na- ture of man, with which the Greek mind was unable to grapple alone. The philosophy of the Chris- INTRODUCTION. xllX tian Fatliers was followed by that of the School- men ; and, as far as the science of human nature was concerned, there was another step gained in a forward direction, Por though we are apt to talk glibly, and with no small degree of self-compla- cency, of the dark ages ; yet no one who is even tolerably acquainted with the nature and history of the philosophy of this period, can be ignorant that, independently of mere abstract investigations on mind, and of the principles of doctrinal theo- logy, all the most important laws and institutions of European society were dug out of the mines of this ponderous and inexhaustible mass of human speculation. And we need scarcely add, that since the days of the Scholastic inquiries, we have made considerable progress, particularly in all our phi- losophical methods of investigation and reasoning, in shewing the mental dependencies, bearings, and relationships which subsist among all branches of knowledge ; and in what way, and to what degree, they can be advantageously cultivated and applied. It must be interesting to all cultivators of the science of intellect to have some general idea of the present state of speculation, both at home and abroad ; and to observe those philosophical ten- dencies which the mental investigations of parti- cular countries decidedly manifest. There never was, however, a period in the history of mankind, when it was more difficult to predict, with any thing approaching to certainty or probability, the turn which the speculative ideas of nations may d 1 INTRODUCTION. take, than at the present moment.* We see men's minds in every direction moved and agitated in a remarkable manner. The first principles of all human knowledge are called in question, and sub- jected to the most rigid logical ordeal. What was mere theory, thrown with off-hand indifference upon the surface of intellectual society but a few years ago, is now brought upon the arena of prac- tical life, and is attempted to be made the ground- work of sweeping legislative enactments and social innovations. The horizon of thought seems dark, overcharged, and threatening; and the prophetic power of the most comprehensive and penetrating sagacity is almost entirely paralyzed. At such a moment we instinctively fall back upon the eternal law of progressive improvement, and dwell upon the anticipations derived from a species of opti- mism, more or less vigorous in every human breast, that '* all things are for the best." Hopeless despair is never a justifiable sentiment either in nations or individuals. On the contrary, we are called upon to look at the cheering side of things, from many weighty considerations. We therefore place un- limited confidence in the imperishable nature of mind. All its movements have for their grand aim, the ultimate increase of man's real know- ledge, and the promotion of his happiness. There may be seasons of mental aberration ; of reckless and discontented movements of the inner man ; but these are but transitory, and last only for * September, 1848. INTRODUCTION. U a season. The intellectual apparatus of a nation soon rights itself. The influence of error is commonly prompt in its manifestations, and the progress of truth slow. Pifty or a hundred years are but as a hand's-breadth in the life of a whole people ; and on this account we are called upon to check impatience and cherish hope. In the men- tal commotion of kingdoms, " the darkest hour is nearest to the dawn;" and after a few convulsive throes and struggles, a brighter era arises ; and more refined, spiritual, and rational views occupy the mind of the nation. As we have already noticed, the philosophy of mind has been assiduously cultivated in many continental countries, within the last century. In Germany this has been particularly the case. But Germany is just one of those places where it is extremely difficult to draw general conclusions from the intellectual movements of its philo- sophers. Though speculation has there a decidedly national character, yet its details are so multifa- ftr rious and incongruous, that anything like accurate generalization becomes almost impossible; and anticipations of its future progress and prospects are difficult to realize. Philosophical inquirers have there taken unusual directions; have penetrated into every arcanum of the material and spiritual world ; have by turns doubted all things and de- fended all things; have moulded and theorised every aspect or phase of human thought and life into a thousand forms ; so that we have but a very feeble guarantee indeed for the fulfilment of any d2 Hi INTRODUCTION. prediction wliich may be hazarded ou the move- ments of spirits so bold, ambitious, and versatile. Looking, however, at the general features of German speculation within the last thirty years, we perceive a manifest change for the better. We see common sense and reason more generally re- cognised ; and a growing desire among all the leading minds of the country to weed out of the national philosophy whatever is wild, incompre- hensible, unsound, and irrational. The nation has become sick of speculation for the mere sake of speculating, and of doubt for the mere sake of doubting. Sober and thinking men sigh for something solid and satisfying; something more valuable than the fantastical absurdities of by-gone times. Every year we witness a decided move- ment towards a healthier state of things. The waters are subsiding to their natural level, leaving in every direction large portions of speculative debris behind them. Spiritualism is gradually becoming more material, and materialism more spiritual ; so that the absurdities from the ex- tremes of both sources of inquiry mil soon lie obliterated l3y doctrines of a more intermediate and reconcileable complexion. Idealism will be made subservient to lofty and interesting purposes, and will ultimately coerce empirical facts and principles into wholesome and fruitful channels of thought and action. On the other hand, the natural tendency of pure spiritualism to degenerate into rhapsodical and incomprehensible vagaries, will receive a wholesome check by the power of deduc- INTRODUCTION. liii tive reasoning and accurate observation. And thus do we hope, that ere many years pass away, sound and enlightened systems of mental philo- sophy will be everywhere prevalent in the high seats of intelligence throughout the whole of the Germanic empire. Perhaps we may take upon us to add, before closing our observations on Germany, that the con- flict in this country, at the present moment, lies between a rational spiritualism and an absolute and uncompromising materialism. The latter is the last enemy which the spirit of reform has to vanquish. The venerable and learned Baron Hum- boldt leads the way in the empirical philosophy of his country ; and we cannot but feel deep regret in witnessing a long and arduous life spent in the promotion of physical science, having nothing better to cheer it, or to leave as a legacy to man- kind, even at the grave's mouth, than a material and primordial necessity, and a deep *' sense of insecurity" in every philosophical system which professes to maintain that there is any thing in the universe save mere objective existences.* Splendid and influential, however, as the Baron's acquirements and reputation unquestionably are, we have no apprehension of anything like a general adoption of his opinions. They may cap- tivate or dazzle the unreflecting and superficial for a season, but they carry within themselves the seeds of a mortal dissolution. No man, be his spirit ever so " deeply mersed in matter," can * !?ee lluniboklt's Cosmos, Londou, 1845. liv INTRODUCTION. impress upon the minds of men, for any length of time, the idea that the universe is a Godless uni- verse. The bare attempt is a violent outrage on one of the most powerful and overwhelming con- victions of the human soul. Looking now at Erance, we clearly perceive that since the commencement of the present century, a great change for the better has been effected in the speculative philosophy of the country. Por some years in the latter part of the last, and the beginning of the present century, we find ultra- materialism everywhere prevalent, and the philo- sophical intellect of the nation sunk to a low ebb. But in due course of time, the principles and spirit of the Scotch philosophy began to gain ground, and to shake and supplant tlie low and grovelling views of the mechanical philosophers. This was one important step gained in a right direction. By slow degrees the idealism of Ger- many came to the rescue, and greatly aided, under the peculiar circumstances in which Prance was placed, the good work of mental spirituality and regeneration. Nor ought we to pass over, without special notice, the great benefits derived from the Paris translations of the Greek metaphysicians, which have had a direct and powerful tendency to induce the young and rising thinkers of Prance to consult authorities on matters of abstract specu- lation admirably calculated to elevate and imjirove the general tone of academical studies, and guide them into more refined, rational, and wholesome channels. INTRODUCTION. Iv In casting a retrospective eye on France for the last forty years, to the time when the speculations of Destutt-Tracy, Cahanis, and Volney constituted the staple elements of the national thought, what surprising strides she has made in mental inquiries. How varied and discursive, intelligent and able, have been the numerous publications which have issued from her press. The philosophical disquisitions of her able thinkers undoubtedly possess, like those of Germanv, a distinctive and national character, and have frequently been directed into questionable channels ; yet the Ereuchman has never wandered so far from real life, nor thrown around his lucu- brations such a halo of mysticism, as his German brethren. The Gaulic i)hilosopher has always been the more rational and unpretending of the two. And there is scarcely a modern French publication, of any note whatever, on the human mind, and on its various faculties and powers, which does not dis- play great ability, and a sincere and anxious desire to arrive at truth. The whole tenor of philosophical investigation and criticism has been changed for the better within these few years. Great truths on religion, morals, mind, politics, and human knowledge generally, have been discussed in a truly enlightened spirit ; and many valuable additions made to the common stock of sober and rational discussion. Numerous verifications of this truth might be adduced from her literature, and from her social and religious institutions. And though she be now under a cloud, there is no ground for dejection or despair as to the future advance- ment of the nation in mental philosophy, or the Ivi INTKODUCTION. soundness of many of its leading j)i'i^^ipl^^* Every thing betokens that she will steadily and firmly retain the great truths she has so ably and enthusiastically laboured to illustrate and pro- mulgate; and gradually leave behind that old leaven of materialism and folly, which the last century bequeathed, and which has been prolific of so many evils, both speculative and practical, to her character and institutions as a great nation. In Italy there is a bright and cheering prospect that this first regenerator of speculative philosophy in Europe will speedily occupy a conspicuous and honorable position in mental science among other continental countries. Within the last quarter of a century the numerous publications which have appeared in different states of the kingdom, are characterised by an enlightened spirit, and by great good sense and pliilosophical acumen. The predominance of a state and influential theology has, doubtless, given a formal and limited range to her philosophy ; but still there is so much real heart and pith in it, that it would betray a narrow spirit indeed to refuse our hearty commendations of its general merits. Speaking with some reser- vations, the ordinary bent of ItaKan metaphysics at the present moment is decidedly of an eclectic and common- sense complexion. Ontology and psychology go hand in hand ; and though a priori truths of the mind are highly valued and uni- versally recognised as necessary and important elements of all reasoning, yet they are not placed in opposition, to the actual exclusion of external and sensational sources of knowledge. The leading INTllODUCTION. Ivii Italian philosophers of the present day, among whom we place Gioberti, Mamiani, and Tomaseo, — now severally and actively engaged in achieving the social reformation and political independence of their country — are all influenced by lofty views of the nature of philosophic truth, and deeply convinced of its immense importance in regene- rating the institutions and improving the intel- lectual faculties of a nation, and in preserving it from error and mischievous delusions. In no part of the Euroj)ean continent do we find mental speculations impressed with a more subdued, sober, candid, and discriminating tone, and more in accordance with the highest purposes and best interests of man, than in the writings of the modern cultivators of philosophy in this interesting and intelligent country. The progress of mental philosophy in Belgium and Holland is at the present moment highly satisfactory and encouraging. The deep thinkers of these countries, especially the Belgian writers, have more or less looked up to France as a monitor and guide, without, however, making the least compromise of their own intellectual independence. Thesre has always been less philosophy of a mate- rialistic tendency in the Netherlands than in Prance ; and the present treatises on the human mind are seldom tinged, in any deep degree, with unsound or irreligious opinions in this part of the continent. Although great liberty of discussion is allowed and enjoyed, yet everything from the philosophic press of the two kingdoms is charac- terised by a sober and rational spii-it, becoming Iviii INTHODUCTION. reflective and intelligent communities. At no former period in the history of these European states, was mental philosophy more assiduously and profoundly cultivated than it is at the present time ; and by philosophers too, such as Van Meenen, Van Heusde, Van De Weyer, Gruyer, Ubaghs, E/ciffenberg, Tiberghien, Quetelet, and others, of vast literary attainments, and possessing a most accurate and comprehensive acquaintance with the whole speculative thinldng of Europe. Everything from their pens bespeaks the innate power to grapple with questions of the greatest magnitude and complexity ; and they have all besides manifested a strong desire to support and defend the cause of truth generally, by a course of discussion at once candid, enlightened, and for- bearing. In other northern nations, and in some of the southern, with whose respective literature we are in Great Britain but partially and imperfectly ac- quainted, we see much to encourage hope as to the future progress of the philosophy of mind. Every year affords some additional proof of its more general improvement and diffusion. In Sweden and Denmark, works are regularly issuing fiM)m the press which display an intimate knowledge of speculative systems, and great powers of abstract reasoning on topics connected with human nature. Even Russia is gradually extending encourage- ment and protection to subjects of speculation, which a very few years since were not admitted within the pale of her Universities. And the same may be remarked of Spain and Portugal ; INTRODUCTION. lix in both of which we perceive one bulwark after another against enlightened philosophical discus- sion slowly giving way, and the avenues to scien- tific and reflective investigations becoming daily less obstructed by narrow prejudices, intolerance, and bigotry. In the Western hemisphere, we find the active spirits of the United States cultivating a know- ledge of mental science in every direction. Their continent has become a vast emporium for the speculations of all the European kingdoms ; and there is scarcely a work of any note published in the Old World, on the science of human nature, which does not speedily find its way here, and which does not go tlirough a regular critical ordeal in the chief periodicals of the country. AVhere there is such a regular influx of novel opinions, it becomes hazardous to venture on general con- clusions as to the preponderance of particular me- taphysical views and systems ; but we may afiirm, without speaking dogmatically on the subject, that within the last twenty years, there has been more or less a visible increase in the spiritual notions of mind throughout all the more enlightened and in- tellectual portions of the States. In the Reviews and Magazines of the country we see this change daily verified ; and still more striking manifesta- tions of it may be found in the general tone of the lectures delivered on mental studies, in the several chief places of academical instruction throughout the whole Union. The theological spirit of the nation is actively roused to a deep sense of the utility and importance of metaphysical studies ; Ix INTllODUCTION, , and seems resolutely bent on clearing them from all the dross and mischievous elements which may be more or less incorporated with them when newly imported from every quarter of the world. It has become almost a common remark, that in Great Britain mental philosophy has been en- tirely stationary for nearly the last half century. There is unquestionably much truth in this ; but there have been latent signs of life in the study, of late years, which promise better things at no very distant day. Several publications have made their appearance which bespeak great ability and knowledge ; and though they do not treat us Avith elaborated systems, yet their general tendency is on the side of improvement ; and in many instances they are calculated to throw new and interesting- light on several individual sections of the science of universal mmd. The recent movements in theological literature and speculation have had no small degree of influence in imparting more spiritual views to some English treatises on meta- physical subjects. It is therefore cheering to those who feel a lively interest in such studies, and are deeply im- pressed Avith their absolute utility and importance, to witness so many indications of their progress and extension, in every direction to which Ave can direct the intellectual eye. We know that great ideas are never lost ; and Ave consequently feel an inward and firm conviction, that the advances Avhich Ave are, in this age, effecting in the first of aU branches of human knowledge, Avill never be efi'aced by any future retrograde movements Avhat- INTRODUCTION. Ixi ever, in the minds of individuals or of nations. The whole progress of human society speaks loudly against any such catastrophe. But whatever the unreflecting and superficial may think of mental philosophy, or of its future destination, we are firmly impressed with the belief that to those who are acquainted with its prin- ciples, and imbued with its spirit, it cannot fail to recommend itself, from the comprehensiveness of its range, the lofty aim of its disquisitions, and the firm and decided tone which it imparts to tlie intellect. It greatly quickens the reflective powers of man, and enables him to wield them with ease and energy. It gives an ever-living freshness to old truths, and reduces, by subtile and mysterious agencies, the most discordant thoughts and materials into a state of logical harmony, beauty, and order. It has the universe for its object — aU matter and all mind ; and its spirit is a universal presence. It is as sublime, boundless, and inexhaustible as the ocean. We can traverse by its means the whole region of human knowledge ; and no soil and no age is exempt from its pene- trating glance. The science of mind is, from its very nature and essence, universal and difi'usive. Its ramifications and connections are infinite; and these reveal to us the hidden and interesting analogies subsisting among all topics of investiga- tion, and shed a lustre over our path as we travel from one great truth of human nature to another. It exacts an intellectual tribute from every pro- vince of inquiry ; and expends its treasures in Iviii INTRODUCTION. rearing a splendid temple, more colossal and du- rable than tlie material universe itself. The philosophy of man is the sublimest of stu- dies, and its spirit is the most elevating and transcendental of all the gifts of God. The over- whelming grandeur of its themes — themes which have "thoughts that wander through eternity" for their object — fills the mind with holy and im- proving contemplations, and removes it from all that is tame, earthly, formal, and material. Its speculations are the sacred vehicles of the most important and vital truths ; and its reasonings relate to "things which speak not of earth." It deals with mighty passions, affections, and thoughts which stretch into futurity ; which have all mind and creative energy for their object ; and which give expression and thrilling interest to those lofty and refined aspirations which seek after something more pure and consoling than the ordi- nary movements and concerns of life aflTord. These aspirations are the germs of the inward man, which are bound up in the soul just as the living and fructifying principle is incrusted in the seed. They constitute the vivifying energy which makes all things new; which moulds the combinations of matter and mind into an endless variety of forms ; and develops them, by virtue of new afiinities and the immutable laws of intellect, into those splendid and beautiful creations of philosophical thought, which the mere matter-of-fact man can neither grasp nor comprehend, and without which the universe itself would be a chaos, and human life an incomprehensible enigma. PllOM THE EARLIEST PEKIOD OP MENTAL SPECULATION TO THE COMMENCEMENT OP THE SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY. HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY, ETC. ETC. CHAPTER I. ON THE HISTORIES OF PHILOSOPHY, ANCIENT AND MODERN. It is not intended to give in this chapter any thing lilve a lengtliened account of the numerous Histories of Philosophy, hut only to bring before the reader's attention a few of the principal of them, with a view of fixing in his mind some of the lead- ing periods of history when certain works were published. It must also be premised, that what is generally meant by Histories of Philosophy, is not limited to liistories of mental philosophy alone, but embraces morals, poUtics, rehgion, and even phy- sical science. Metaphysics are, m all histories of philosophy wliich have yet appeared, mixed up and blended with other subjects. On this account, if a person wishes to trace out for himself the history of opinions relative to the human mind, he will have to select them from amonj^st a vast varietv of other topics, with which they are historically classed. * B 2 HISTOKIES OF PHILOSOPHY, Three of the most distingiiished ancient histo- rians of philosophy are Plato, Aristotle, and Cicero. Though not professed chroniclers of previons opi- nions, yet their treasures are uncommonly valuable, as frequent allusion is made, in unfolding their in- di^ddual opinions, to the \dews and systems of other speculative men who had preceded them, but of whose labours we have little or no account direct from themselves. Plato, in his dialogues, brings contemporary writers on the stage, and paints their characters and systems in his otmi way. Aristotle, again, in lajdng down his own systems, furnishes us with the individual systems of other metaphysi- cians and philosophers. And Cicero, in his specu- lative traditions, has handed down many opinions exceedingly interesting to all speculative minds.* Hippocrates was an eminent Greek physician. He alludes to the great advantage of an accurate knowledge of the human faculties, relative to the history of opinions. Xenophon is well known as a A'aluable historian of philosophic opinions ; and Lucretius gives us an account of the metaphysical ideas of Democritus and Epiciuais. "We have the system of the Stoics expoimded by Seneca, and the Sceptical Philosophy by Sextus Empiricus. If Plutarch be the author of the book entitled De Tlacitis Fhilosopliorimi, he has added to the useful documents of ancient philosophy ; and to the book of Galen, TJie Philosophical History^ we are equally indebted. * Gedike has collected together all the passages of Cicero relative to Philosophy. Berhn, 17B2. ANCIENT AND MODERN. 3 Diofjenes Laertius is an historian of ffreat merit. In his work, "^ Lives of the Philosophers," we have many valuable extracts from the writings of the ancients, and many interesting facts respecting their lives and opinions. We find in several of the early Pathers of the Church, some valua1)le sketches of philosophical opinions and systems, par- ticularly in Eusehius, St. Clement of Alexandria, and Ejiiphanius. In the fourth century, we have the " Lives of the Philosophers and Sophists," by Eunapius, a general writer and a physician. He is zealously attached to the Eclectic philosophy, and displays great virulence against the Christians of his day. A little after liim we find John Stoba^us, who made large extracts from the philosophy of the ancients. Both these works are of great value to the historian.* In the middle of the sixth century, Hesychius, a grammarian of Alexandiia, composed an " Abridg- ment of the lAves of Fhllosophers,'" arranged in alphabetical order, f The work is cliiefly taken from Diogenes Laertius. A long intellectual niglit, of several centuries' duration, here intervenes, in which nothing was accomplished in philosophical history worthy of any especial notice. An Englishman, of the name of Burley, in the fifteenth century, published ^'Lices of the Philo- sophers,'" and the book is amongst the early speci- mens of printing in this country. In Italy, Pici- nus, under the patronage of Cosmo de Medicis, and * See an edition of Stobseus, by Ileeren. Gottingen, 1792. t Ilesych. Milet. interpvete Iladriano Juno. Anvers, 1572. 8vo. B 2 4 HISTORIES OF PHILOSOPHY. Pouiponius, otherwise styled Peter Calabria, re- vived a knowledge of the works of Plato and Aris- totle with great eclat. After the partial revival of learning in Europe, we have John Louis Yives, a Spaniard by birth, but educated at Paris and Lou- vain, who wrote a work " On the Origin of Sects, and the Merits of Philosophers. ^^ Daniel Chry- trius published his treatise, " A List of Philoso- phers, and their princijml Sects, from Thales to Cicero:'' nearly at the same time we have William Morel's " Table of the order of Succession, Doc- trines, and date of the Ancient Philosophers ;'' and also, the " Chronological Library of Classical Phi- losophers,'' by J. J. Pries. It would prove tedious, as well as unprofitable, to give an individual and detailed account, from this period, of all the writings which contain an account of philosophical opinions, down to our own day. It will sutficiently answer all the ends we have in view to furnish the reader with a bare enumeration of works, of such a character and ex- tent, as will prove amply useful for all ordinary purposes of reference or consultation, both as to the history of philosophy in general, and metaphy- sics in particular. This we shall do in a note at the end of this volume.* * See Note A. at the end of this Volume. THE IONIC SCHOOL. CHAPTER II. MENTAL PHILOSOPHY OF GREECE. THE TOXIC SCHOOL. The philosophy of Greece is full of interest to every iiiquiring mind. It has peculiar claims upon our attention ; for it exhibits the innate power of the mind of man to grapple with those interesting and abstruse questions which spring out of his existence, and which force themselves upon his notice by the powerful and irresistible law of his nature. Among the Grecian sages we perceive what has been accomplished by the speculative faculties, unaided and undirected by the genius of revelation ; and how far, and in what degree, the errors and shortcomings of these philosophers may be profitable to our 'instruction in more in- telligent and enlightened times. Mutilated and circumscribed as the Grecian philosophy has come down to us, still we perceive that, take it as a whole, it is a noble monument of thought ; and that its powerful influence has been felt and acknowledged in every stage of literature and civilization. Amidst a vast deal that is crude and 6 MENTAL PHILOSOPHY OF GREECE. fantastical, we can still recognise truths of great moment, and universal application ; and the man- ner in which they are often developed and illus- trated, affords the most indisputable evidence of the superior powers of the Grecian understanding. Many speculations might be hazarded on what some modern writers have considered the origin of the Greek philosophic spirit. But these would inevitably lead us into too wide a field of discussion and controversy for our present purpose. Suffice it to remark, that there seem to have been three leading influences operating on the general mass of their speculative notions of mind, and which communicated to them that peculiar feature by which they are distinguished ; namely, a religious feeKng or sentiment, a love of poetry, and those habits and customs which arose out of their popular civil and political institutions. The religious feeKng or sentiment has an in- separable affinity to the true philosophic spmt. Wliatever attempts are made to form conceptions of creative power, wisdom, and intelligence, dii'ectly lead to the formation and exercise of all those habits of mental culture and accurate analysis, on wliich true philosophy rests. In every department of Grecian speculation we find that mental in- quiries were viewed through the medium of theolo- gical principles ; and we also find that, in projoor- tiou as rational notions of natural religion were recognised, a corresponding degree of clearness and rationality pervaded the popular stream of philoso- phical discussion. This fact is illustrated in everv THE IONIC SCHOOL. 7 age of Grecian literature. "Wlienever low and grovelling ideas prevailed on the nature of deity and a presiding mind over the affairs of the Avorld, in an exact proportion do we find the system of mental speculation, fantastical, irrational, and untenahle. And this arises from the established laws of human thought. It is impossible to con- ceive an opposite state of things. The same powers which enable us to investigate the laws of human intelligence, and develop their mutual rela- tions and dependencies, are precisely those which, when judiciously used, direct to all those primary truths on which the religious feeHngs and senti- ments of mankind rest. The same thing may be remarked of the ima- ginative or poetic feeling. Tliis is closely allied to relii]^ion. There can be no true or sublime poetry apart from theological sentiment, though that sentiment may, occasionally, be grossly per- verted. Poetry has also the human mind for its domain and object. It treats of the ideal ; it lives in the reahns of thought. AYhatever, there- fore, is favourable to its successful cultivation, must necessarily prove conducive to the exercise of all those refined powers of analysis and inward reflection, which have the mind for their common centre of operation. The creative energies of the poet directly lead to those abstract and sublime topics, which belong exclusively to the province of the metaphysician. Social and political institutions have human nature for their basis, and they likewise greatly 8 MENTAL PHILOSOPHY OF GREECE. influence mental disquisitions. Where freedom is the ground-work of a commonwealth, and the people have elevated conceptions of their rights and duties, a sound mental philosophy will in- variably be found to flourish. The whole history of Greece is a striking confirmation of this position. Thales. 64i0 b. c. Thales was one of the most early sages of Greece who turned their attention to mental pur- suits. None of his discourses or writings have been transmitted du-ectly from himself, but only through the medium of Aristotle, Plutarch, and Strabo. Thales, even in his early day, soon seized upon a mental proposition which has subsequently, in divers shapes and forms, filled the world of phi- losophy with discussion; namely, the spontaneity of the mind of man. Aristotle tells us that Thales maintained that "the essence of the soul, or thinl^- ing principle of man, was motion ; a spontaneous motion, a self -moving power." Plutarch says that Thales' definition of mind was "that it was a thing possessing self-contained or perpetual motion." Strabo mentions the same thing ; " that mind, ac- cording to Thales, was that which contained self- will or motion."* This early fragment of metapyhsical philosophy is extremely valual)le, inasmuch as it indicates, that this distinguished man had deeply studied the * Arist. De Anima. 1. Plut. De PI. Ph. 4. 2. THALES. 9 nature of liis own inincl ; and that the same dif- ficulties presented themselves to him wliich have in all subsequent ages been so perplexing to spe- culators on the abstract natui'e of mind, and of its various powers and faculties. . Thales is considered one of what are called the Seven Sages of Greece; philosophers who wandered about from place to place, promulgating their doc- trines and opinions. All accounts of him agree that he was passionately fond of speculating into the origin of all things, and that he founded the theory, that loater was the primary principle of the world. Plutarch states the philosopher's reasons for tliis belief. Pirst, because natural seed, the principle of all Kving things, is humid ; whence it is highly probable that humidity or moistiu*e is also the principle of all other things. Secondly, because all kinds of plants are nourished by mois- ture, T\^thout which they wither and decay. And, thii'dlv, because fii'e, even the sun itself and the stars, are nourished and supported by vapours pro- ceeding from water, and consequently the Avhole world consists of the same.* There has been considerable dispute among the learned, whether this principle of water was a purely passive principle or agent, or an active and creative one. It must ever be a doubtful point to determine what Thales' real opinion was ; but it does seem probable that the philosopher only con- sidered his machinery of watery vapours to be the * Arist. Met. 1. 1 . Diog. Laert. 1. 1. Plut. PI. Ph. 1. 1. c. 7. 10 MENTAL PHILOSOPHY OF GREECE. instrmnents in the liand of a living and active power. Erom liis definition of what he considers the nature or essence of the mind of man, akeady staf ed, tliis probability is considerably strengthened. The same reasons, and the same trains of thoua^it, which brought him to the general conclusion, that mind, and creative or active power, were identical, would naturally force the conclusion on liis under- standing that the world and every thing he beheld in it were the result of an active and efficient agent. This process of reasoning seems natural and consistent. Anaximander. 610 b. c. This philosopher was a disciple and friend of Thales, and embraced and extended the general principles of his system. Anaximander cultivated physical inqumes to a considerable extent, as well as topics connected with human nature. It is said, that he was the first philosopher of antiquity who announced the famous axiom that " Out of notliing, nothing can be made." It is impossible, however, to ascertain in what sense he understood this gene- ral proposition ; whether as a sunple physical fact, or as a principle on which a comprehensive theory of philosophical speculation could be established. There can be no doubt but such an acute reasoner as x^naximander would readily perceive that this famous axiom of his cut, like a two-edged sword, both wavs ; that it had necessarilv two distinct meanings attached to it ; and that it might serve ANAXIMANDER. 11 both for rational and irrational speculations on the nature and constitution of all mental and physical phenomena. Anaximander considered the infinite as the first principle of things. All things are produced by, and immerge into it. Of course there have been many different notions of what is here meant by infinite. Aristotle and Plutarch materiahze the term, and make it stand for mcdter in general; and the learned Cudworth coincides with this in- terpretation. Others again think it highly pro- bable that a guiding and intelligent principle was still recognised by Anaximander, and that by infi- nite was merely meant that seemingly endless and concatenated series of phenomena, which a contem- plation of the world every way naturally suggests to most inquiring minds.* The historian Hitter observes, that Anaximander " is represented as arguing, that the primary sub- stance must have been infinite to be all-sufficient for the limitless variety of produced things with which we are encompassed. Now, although Aris- totle expressly characterises this infinite as a mix- ture, we must not think of it as a mere multiplicity of primary material elements ; for to the mind of Anaximander it was Unity immortal and imperish- able ; an ever-producing energy. This production of individual thins^s he derived from an eternal motion of the infinite y \ * Pint. 1. 1. Arist. Plivs 1 1. Cudworth, c. ."5. t Ritter, Hist. Phil. Oxford, 183!). 12 MENTAL PHILOSOPHY OF GREECE. This interpretation is very fanciful, but it is natural in E/itter. Such a term as infinite^ is too good a tiling for a German to let pass, without at- tempting to make something grand and mysterious out of it. The word enables him to revel in luxu- rious profundity.* Anaximenes. 556 b.c. Anaximenes was a companion and disciple of Anaximander, and a promulgator of his system of philosophy. The former indulged in speculations as to the origin of the world, and maintained the doctrine, that air is the vivifying principle of the universe, of which all things are engendered, and into which all things are resolved. Our soul or spirit is air ; for spirit and air are two names signi- fying the same tiling. Air he considers as the living Deity, because it is ever in motion. Some authors consider that air should not be taken in its common signification, but as a subtile ether, penetrating all material bodies, and communicating to them that motion and life necessary for their production and reproduction.! Hermotimus, op Clazomene. 520 b.c. Hermotimus of Clazomene was a distinguished early metaphysician. He entered deeply into all * See Note B. at the end of this Volume. t Simplicius ad Phy. lib. 1. Lactantius, lib. 1. HEKMOTIMUS — DIOGENES. 13 the mental speculations known in his day. He dis- played great original powers of thinking ; and if we are to believe Aristotle, Plutarch, Sextus Empiricus, ApoUonius, and several others, he was the original propounder of the system of Anaxagoras. Her- motimus clearly perceived the important distinction between mental subjects and physical inquiries ; and he seems to have kept this essential distinction per- petually before his eyes, in all liis abstract specu- lations. Pliny, in his Natural History, mentions, that Hermotimus entertained the idea that the soul often quits the l)ody, and wanders to a great distance from it, in order to obtain that knowledge which is denied to it whilst residing in its earthly tenement. It was from this singular notion that his enemies as- sassinated him, that his own soul might wing its way to that situation destined for its reception in a future state of existence. Diogenes, of Apollonia. 500 e.g. Diogenes was a follower and disciple of Anaxi- menes ; but gave a more spiritual interpretation to his master's doctrines on the origin of the universe. The subtile ether which Anaximenes employed to create and sustain the world, became, in the hands of his pupil, endowed with a species of wisdom and intelligence. It was not blindness and fatality; it operated by a settled plan or method. The wisdom and order displayed in every part of nature, seem to have made a deep impression upon the 14 MENTAL PHILOSOPHY OF GREECE. mind of Diogenes ; for he affirms tliey give evident testimonies for the existence of a ruling principle of REASON. Anaxagoras. 500 b. c. Anaxagoras was one of the most renowned phi- losophers of his day, and succeeded in unfolding more just and comprehensive principles of theism, and of the general government of the world, than any preceding speculator. His opinions on mental suhjects are hut few, and limited in their range, and are handed do^^Ti to us hy Aristotle and Sextus Empiricus. Anaxagoras clearly pointed out how the judgment may occasionally he led astray from the truth, hy the delusive appearances furnished hy the external senses. The judgment, or reasoning power, is the governing principle in man, and is in- tended to correct the errors which first impressions may create in his mind. In pointing out the im- perfections of our sensations as infallihle guides to truth, he has heen accused hy some ancient philo- sophers with manifesting a decided leaning to scep- ticism; hut this accusation is without any solid foundation. What he says may he conceded hy every right-thinking man. He only shows that, on many occasions, such sensations or notions as relate to colours, the appearances of ohjects seen through various mecUa hy the eye, may undergo a multitude of changes ; and yet the mind may de- duce the truth respecting them from a variety of different considerations suhmitted to the reasoning ANAXAGOllAS. 15 faculty. On this principle there cannot be two opinions. Anaxagoras, like his predecessors, had his theory as to the origin of the world. He held that the material principle of all things is one and many, of infinite parts, similar and contrary, continuous to the touch, sustaining themselves, not contained by any other. Every indi^ddual thing in nature is consti- tuted of particles peculiar to itself; and it is just this atomic construction which makes it what it really is. Bone, for example, is made from a certain spe- cific form of its particles ; gold and silver, and, in fact, everything else, from the same principle of individual adaptation. Lucretius describes this process in the following lines : " With Anaxagoras, great Nature's law Is similarity ; and every compound form Consists of parts minute, each like a whole ; And bone is made of bone, and flesh of flesh ; And blood, and fire, and earth, and massy gold. Are, in their smallest portions, still the same."* Anaxagoras is more decidedly theistical than any of his predecessors. His distinction between mind and matter, between the Creator and the thing created, is clearly annunciated. Plato affirms that he taught the existence of a regulating mind over all things ; and Aristotle declares that mind is the supreme and ruling element, and possesses within itseK all creative power and thought. Plutarch gives his testimony to the same effect. He says, * Plut. PL Ph. 1. Arist. Phys. 3, 4. 16 MENTAL PHILOSOPHY OF GREECE. " the Ionic philosophers who flourished before the days of Anaxagoras, made a blind fatality or destiny the first elemental principle in nature ; but Anax- agoras maintained that a pure mind, free from all material influences, governs the universe." Cicero says that the Grecian sage afiirmed the existence of an "infinite mind, not inclosed in any body ; " and Lactantius and Saint Augustine declare the same thing.* There were several distinguished disciples of Anaxagoras ; among the number may be mentioned, l?eriGles, son of Xantippus ; Archelcms, son of Apol- lodorus; Euripides , his biographer; Socrates, son of Sophroniscus ; and Metrodorus, of Lampsacum. Some few metaphysical opinions are ascribed to these persons, but they are not entitled to any par- ticular enumeration. *** Vide Heuman. Act. Phil. i. 16; iii. 165, 173. Burnet, Arch. 1- 10. Cudworth, Int. Sjst. c. 1. Cyril cont. Julian. 1. 1. Velesii Phil. Sac. c. 31. August. De Civit. Dei, 1. 8. Scaliger, Ep. 306. Themistii Orat.26. MorhofF. Polyh. t. 2. Lipsii Phys. 1. 2. Thomasii Obser. Hal. t. 2. MuUerus, De aqua principio rerum ex mente Thaletis. 1718. Bud- dseus de Phil. Mor. Thalet. § 10. Brucker Hist, de Ideis, sect. 1. Gro- tius de Verit. 1. 1. Dickenson Phy. c. 4. Thomas. Hist. Ath. c. 4. Le Clerc, Bibl. Choisie, t. 2. Schmidius de Vit. Anaximenis, p. 1. Plouc- quet. Diss. De Thalet. et Anaxag. 1.2. Bayle. Thalet. Ritter, Hist. Phil. Oxford, 1839. Tennemann. Hist. Phil. Renouvier, Mon. de la Phil, an- cienne. Cousin, Cours de Phil. Degerando, Hist. Comparee des Sys- t^mes. Enfield's Hist. Philosophy. * Arist. De Anima. 1. 1. Plut. 1. 1. Cicero de Nat. Deor. 1. 1. Au- gust, de Civ. Dei, 1. 8. Lact. 1. .'5. rrALIAN SCHOOL OF HklETAPHYSICS. 17 CHAPTER III. MENTAL PHILOSOPHY OF GREECE. THE ITALIAN SCHOOL OF METAPHYSICS. Among the leading philosophers on the science of the human mind in the Italian school, stands Pythagoras, a man of vast capacity, extensive infor- mation, indefatigable industry, and great original powers of thought. lie was born in the Isle of Samos, and received his early education there. P}i;hagoras was the founder of a school of specu- lative philosophy, and his principal followers and admirers were Ocellus, Timaeus, Archytas, Philo- laus, Ilipparchus, and Ptolemy. The Pythagoreans speculated deeply on the origin of the world, and on the principles of natural theism. On the human mind their inquiries seem not to have been directed with much judgment, nor sio^nalised bv much success. This sect of me- taphysicians maintained that man had some affi- nity not only witli the gods, but Tvdth the animal creation; and that the same principle of intelli- gence runs through the whole of living existence, * c 18 MENTAL PHILOSOPHY OP GTIEECE. and unites the different parts into one uniform compound. We are distinguished from the hrute creation by the possession of language. The hu- man soul is di\dded, by these Pythagoreans, into two parts, or rather two leading faculties"; i the one embraces all the physical wants of the body, and all the blind and impetuous passions or im- pulses ; and the other those controlling and modi- fying powers, which guide and propel mankind to wtuous and noble deeds, and which are commonly denominated wisdom, judgment, or reason. The soul is in an imperfect state. It has three elemental divisions : Heason, Intelligence, and Desire. The inferior creation possess the two last attributes, but are denied the first ; reason. The soul is a monad — one. It may have many aspects, but its essence or unity remains the same. In proportion as the rational, intelligent, or sensual principles predominate, so is the character of man proportionally affected. He may be a profound philosopher, a man of the world, or a low and i3eastly creature. " This soul, which can look be- fore and after, can shrink and shrivel itself into an incapacity of contemplating aught but the present moment. Of what depths of degeneracy it is capable ! What a beast it may become ! And, if something lower than itself, why not something higher ? And if something higher and lower, may there not be a law accurately determining its elevation and de- scent ? Each soul has its peculiar evil tastes, brinffinsT it to the likeness of different creatures be- neath itself; may it not be under the necessity of PYTHAGORAS. 19 abiding in the condition of that thing to which it has adapted and reduced itself?"* There has always existed considerable doubt as to what the real opinions of Pythagoras were. He was a public teacher of philosophy, but left no written records of his \dews. Conjecture has, therefore, to supply the place of positive informa- tion. His school was a school of mathematics also; and to his blending the two sciences together no small portion of his obscurity may be attributed. The essence of the universe was Nmnher ; but whether numbers were real things, or merely sym- bolieal representations, has been the great source of contention among the commentators and critics on the Pythagorean system. Some maintain that the philosopher considered numbers as the real 2wlnciples of things, or the cause of all material existences, or the final nature of things. Others again contend that these references to numbers were only a sort of mathematical formula, to be symbolieallij applied. It would be useless to enter into this controversy ; for the reasons and autho- rities on each side seem to be nearly balanced. For myself, I confess I am inclined to join with Emitter, and to think that the numbers of Pvtha- goras were purely s\axLbolical representations. The other hj^othesis appears to me so utterly incom- prehensible and absurd, that for the credit of the human intellect we should throw it aside. The doctrine of the Transmigration of Souls is invariably connected with the philosophy of the * Encv. Metrop. Art. Moral and Metaphy. Philos. c 2 20 MENTAL PHILOSOPHY OP GREECE. Pythagoreans. It was tliis notion wMcli induced them to abstain from animal food, and to exckide animal sacrifices from all their religious ceremo- nies. Ovid represents Pythagoras as speaking in the following strain, rendered into our vernacular tongue by the immortal Dryden. " What then is death^ but ancient matter drest In some new figure, and a varied vest ? Thus all things are but altered, nothing dies ; And here and there th' unbodied spirit flies. By time, or force, or sickness dispossessed. And lodges where it lights, in man or beast ; Or hunts without, till ready limbs it find, And actuates those according to theii- kind ; From tenement to tenement is tost. The soul is still the same, the figure only lost ; And as the softened wax new seals receives. Their face assumes, and that impression leaves ; Now called by one, now by another name. The form is only changed, the wax is still the same : So death, thus call'd, can but the form deface, Th^ immortal soul flies out in empty space. To seek her fortune in some other place." *** Vide Arist. Met. 1. 1. 6. Sextus Empiricus, folio, Paris, 1621. Meiners, Histoire des Sciences dans la Grece, t. 2. (French Translation). Justin. Hist. 20. 4. Dioge. Laert. 8. Leipsic. 1833. Kitter, Hist. Anc Phil. Oxford. Tenneraann, Manuel de I'Hist. de la Philosophic, by Cousin, Paris, 18.30. Schwartz, Manuel de 1' Histoire de la Philosophic Ancienne. Liege. 1842. Renouvicr, Manuel de Philosophic Ancienne. Paris, 1844. Tissot. Hist. Abregee de la Philosophie. Dijon. 1840. Hist. Abre'gce de la Philosophie, par Bouvier, Eveque de Mans; Paris, 1844. ELEATIC SCHOOL OF METAPHYSICS. 21 CHAPTEH IV. MENTAL PHILOSOPHY OF GREECE. THE ELEATIC SCHOOL OF METAPHYSICS. The Eleatic Scliool of metaphysicians took its rise from the Italian and Ionian speculations. It differed, however, essentially from both. It had more boldness, more originality, and more system. The Eleatics affected a more complete severance between mental objects and the rules of reasoning applicable to them, and to the ordinary principles of natural theology and morality, with which they had previously been associated. The philosophical predecessors of the Eleatics were not so ambitious as the latter. The former con- tented themselves with taking the constitution of things just as they found it, and modestly at- tempted only to ascertain the laws which regulated their action on one another, in all their mutual relationships. The Eleatics, however, took higher ground. They attempted to explain the origin of all things ; and, by arguments a priori, to deduce the whole complicated and multifarious phenomena of matter and mind, from certain abstract principles. 22 MENTAL PHILOSOPHY OF GREECE. Xenophanes. 456 b.c. Xenoplianes was tlie most distingidslied pliilo- sopher of this scliool. Considerable difference of opinion has existed, both in ancient and modern times, as to the precise notions he entertained on the mental laws of our constitution. By one class of historians he has been accused of complete scepticism; and by others, as a defender of the infallible certainty of human knowledge. The mass of evidence, and the general current of pro- bability, are in favour of the latter hypothesis. There is, unquestionably, a great deal of material necessity intermixed with all the mental specula- tions of Xenophanes. He affirms that nothing which exists can possibly change. Every thing is one being, and is not susceptible of diversities of form or essence. Thought, according to him, is the only real substance; permanent and immu- table in its nature and properties. The spirit of Xenophanes' mental jihilosophy bears a very close affinity to some modern systems, founded upon a particular apj)lication of the prin- ciple of necessary connexion. Those who will cast their eye over both, will instantly recognise the almost complete identity. The principle is the same in both the ancient and modern theories ; only the proofs and illustrations are somewhat chfferent. The reasoning of Xenojihanes was of an a priori description ; whereas the modern adopters of his peculiar views employ both a priori argu- XENOPHANES. 23 ments, and proof di'awn from every-day expe- rience. The Patliers of the Church, St. Clement oi Alexandria, and Eusebius, have preserved some verses of Xenophanes, in which he expresses him- self with great freedom on the superstitious notions which the generality of mankind entertain as to the natui'e of the gods. He seems, however, to have had just and elevated conceptions of the Pirst Great Cause, from other verses mentioned by Sextus Empiricus, where he says, " God sees all, hears all, knows all ; and His wisdom governs all things without effort." The Unity of the Divine nature is, then, de- cidedly affirmed by Xenophanes. Deity is self- existent, and consequently eternal; immoveable, unmoved, and without change. The peculiar expression that " God is a sphere," used by Xenophanes, is thus explamed by M. Cousin. " The word sphericcd is simply a Greek locution to pomt out the absolute equality and unity of the Deity, and of which the conception of a sphere may be an image. The at^ai^iKoq of the Greeks is the rotundus of the Latins. It is a metaphorical expression similar to that of square, meaning perfect and coniplete ; a mode of speak- ing which though now considered in some measure obsolete, had at the early age of mathematical science, something dignified and noble in it, and is found in most elevated poetical compositions. Simonides speaks of a 'man square to his feet, his hands, and his mind,' meaning a complete. 24 MENTAL PHILOSOPHY OF GREECE. perfect, or accomplished man; and the same me- taphorical expression is used by Aristotle. We cannot, therefore, be surprised that Xenophanes, who was a poet as well as a philosopher, writing in verse, and not being successful in fixing upon the metapliysical term which fully expressed liis ideas, should have borrowed from the language of imagination that word which would most fully denote his meanino'." Professor Pulleborn di-aws the following parallel between Xenophanes and Spinoza. " Though the system of Xenophanes does not display the same ability and profundity as that of Spinoza, yet we cannot fail to perceive that they both moved in the same direction, and adopted the same principles. The only difference which distinguishes them lies in the proofs they respectively employ. Xeno- phanes belonged to a period when philosophical studies were but as it were in their infancy, and the forms of language, as a medium of abstract reasoning, but imperfectly understood. After developing a general principle essential to his system, he clothed it with other attributes, and took a circuitous route. Spinoza, on the con- trary, always went direct to his object. The former dealt exclusively in reasonings a priori, and rejected exj)erience ; whilst the latter used the a priori instrument in conjunction with that of observation and experiment." " In Sj^inoza's day the ideas of unity, substance, and the like, were determined with some precision, particularly by the writings of Descartes ; and the XENOPHANES. 25 Jewish philosopher had a more definite idea of necessary connection^ than the ancients possessed. When they embraced a general principle or propo- sition, they pushed it to its utmost limits, without reservation or qualification ; and hence a host of absurd and iiTational deductions was the conse- quence. That mathematical form which Spinoza employed with so much effect in the exposition of his views, was not used by Xenophanes."* The scepticism wliich has been attributed to Xenophanes, and which certain expressions as- cribed to him apparently countenance, was certainly of a loose and indefinite character. It was not dogmatical. It evidently arose in the philo- sopher's mind from a deep conviction of the circumscribed and imperfect faculties of man to embrace the wide expanse of Creation. He was, as every man ever must be, no matter how sound and orthodox his theological opinions, overawed and confounded by the mere attempt to inquire into the great problem of existence. He essayed it again and again ; but at every fresh eff'ort a new host of insurmountable difficulties and perplexities presented themselves ; "Alps on Alps arose ;" which compelled him to fall back on his own puny littleness and insufficiency, and exclaim, when smarting under the bitter feelings of defeat, that ^^ error is spread over all things. ^^"X * Fulleborn, Dissertat. De Xenoplia. Halle, 1/89. t Vide Arist. De Xenopha. chap. I. Metapliy. Diogenes Laert. 9. Sextus Enipiricus, Pynhon. 1.22. Cicero. Academ. Qiisest. 2. 37- 26 mental philosophy of greece. Parmenedes. 430 b.c. Parmenides Avas a disciple and follower of Xe- noplianes, and considerably extended the range of his philosophical system. The former consolidated and arranged the thoughts of the latter, and, with great judgment, spii'it, and boldness, gave them a more complete and systematic form. Some recent historians have affirmed that Parmenides was the first pliilosopher who attempted to found a regular theory of human knowledge. This philosopher composed a Poem " On Nature^'' in the prologue to which he represents the goddess of wisdom directing the philosophical inquirer to truth and happiness. The goddess speaks nearly in these words : "I hail thee, O thou, whom the heralds of the goddess have conducted to my habi- tation. Rejoice, and count it not a misfortune that thou hast been conducted by a path un- known to mortals. Thou slialt discern the immu- table and eternal things which truth teaches ; and thou shall form just conclusions, both as to the phenomena of nature around thee, and the varied and conflicting elements of human opinions. Keep steadily in this path ; and never allow thyseK to become the slave of tliv outward senses ; of thine eye and thine ear. It is by shunning such guides, by the force of reason, that thou shalt be able to comprehend what I shall announce to thee. If we suifer ourselves to be directed bv mere senti- ment or feeling, we shall infallibly be misled from the true path." PAHMENIDES. 27 In the book " On Nature ,' we find mental speculations treated under tlie head of " The Intelligible,'' or " The Truth;' or the " JJnitij of Existence y The allegorical form is kept up, and the goddess " reveals what reason will discover in its researches. E-eason teaches that ichich exists. The existence of a nonentity. Speech, thought, and existence, are all positive realities. Men, blinded by their senses, confound them by turns ; and separate existence from creation. Eollow then the path, which points out the reality of things. Many reasons prove that that which has never begun, cannot cease to exist. Existence is a whole ; it is one ; it is immutable ; it is infinite. Eor does any one ask me from whence is this existence de- rived? Erom what source does its perpetual stream of creation flow ? Erom whence doth it proceed ? These are questions we cannot answer. Eor no person can conceive or tell why a thing exists, or what power is able to call it into being, or why it has appeared at a particular time, neither sooner nor later. It is necessary, then, that existence should always be, or never be ; for tliis maxim is eternally true, that a thing cannot by itself be created out of nothing. Existence is founded upon itself; it universally reposes on itself, and is in- vested with unmutability ; the chains of necessary power envelop it. Thought, and the object of thought, are one and the same. We cannot have the thought, with the object which is cognizant to the mind." This Poem ends with the following remark; 28 MENTAL PHILOSOPHY OF GREECE. "The unclerstanding is to man, wliat the bodily members are to his frame ; for the thinking prin- ciple possesses the same unity of nature and design, as the organs of the outward man ; all is filled by thought." The general features of the speculative system of Parmenides, have no small resemblance to those which have been designated, by some modern thinkers, by the term common sense. He was less addicted to paradox than his predecessors ; and seemed to seize those general principles of mind which display themselves in the every-day move- ments of the mass of mankind, and which form the ground-work of that universal sjrmpathy and harmony Avhich subsist throughout the whole region of thought.* Melissus. 424 B.C. Melissus of Samos expoimded the doctrines of Parmenides. On the real existence of thinjjs, he remarks, "We cannot determine the quantity of any thing without taking for granted its existence. But that which is real cannot be finite ; it must be infinite ; not in sjmce, but in time. It fills all time, and must always be the same in itself." Aristotle calls the unity of Parmenides a rational unity, but that of MeKssus a material one.f * Arist. Met. 1. 1. Sextus Empiricus 1. 9. Diogenes Laert. 1. !). Plato in Parmen. 1. 11. Plat. adv. Colut. 1. 6. Eusebius 1. 1. t Tissot, Ilist. Abre'gee de la Phil. p. 106. Dijon, 1840. ZENO. 29 The German historian Emitter makes the following remarks on Melissus. " As, however, the develop- ment given hy Melissns to his theory of being strongly resembles the method in which it was carried out by Parmenides, we may here pass over much, and only bring forward what is peculiarly his own, and what is requisite to indicate its re- lation to other philosophical doctrines. This con- sists chiefly in the manner in which, as an Ionian and living among lonians, he necessarily put most prominently forward those points which it was indispensable to establish against the Ionic phi- losophy. Melissus, in common with Parmenides, does not found his argument on the notion of the Deity, but on that of being. On the former point he recedes so far from Xenophanes, that he expressly declares, ' men must not speak of the gods, for of them we have absolutely no knoAvledge.'* Accord- ingly, the central point of the whole system — the notion of the perfect one — was even still more lost sight of by him than by Parmenides ; and the whole argumentation bears the appearance of an empty sophism. On this account he was much less esteemed by the ancients than Parmenides ; and Aristotle is of opinion that his principles present little or no difiiculty."t Zeno, of Elea. 450 b. c. Zeno was the able, bold, and successful defender * Diog. Laert. 1. 1. 9. 24. t Ritter, Hist. Phil. p. 481. 30 MENTAL PHILOSOPHY OF GREECE. of the Eleatic pliilosopliy. He possessed in a high degree all the mental requisites for an expert and formidable controversialist. He was remarkably acute, knew well how to handle general principles, so as to confound and annoy an adversary, and had, besides, a copious fund of information on all the current topics of the day. He may be con- sidered as the founder of that general system of philosophical discussion, so prevalent for many subsequent ages, in all the countries of the East. Among his controversial discussions we find the following, tending to invalidate the systems of those who founded all science on pure experience. " Every body constantly occupies a portion of space equal to itself; it is then constantly in repose. Now if it move itself, it should move in every instant ; it would then be both in motion and at rest at the same time." Zeno attempted to establish the doctrine of perfect and ahsolute unity. On the divisibility of matter, he observes, "When we arrive at the utmost boundaries of divisibility, we shall then only have a mathematical point; which is really nothing." On the successful cultivation of the art of reasoning, and investigating truth, and communi- cating it to others, he laid down many excellent principles and rules. He divided this art into three distinct branches ; the first, the art of draw- ing consequences or inferences from principles ; secondly, the art of dialectics ; and thirdly, tlie art of speaking. HERACLITLS. 31 Of the importance of the dialectics of Zeno, we have the testimony of M. Cousin, who says, " The polemical method entirely disconcerted the dis- ciples of the Ionic philosophy, and excited a lively curiosity and interest for the stability of the doctrines of the Italian school ; and thus was sowti in the capital of Greek civilization and refinement, the prolific germ of a more lofty development of philosophy." Hitter also observes, " On account of the readiness and scientific skill with which Zeno indicated the contraries of all things, he has been called bv Plato the Eleatic Palamedes. The dialogistic form of his composition was calculated to give rise to a sophistical tendency, as was shewn in latter times ; but even in his reasonings there is often so close a trenching upon subtile and falla- cious distinctions, that he has frequently been classed among the Sophists ; nevertheless, when we consider the serious end which he pursued, we cannot but suppose that he merely employed those fallacious artifices as a by-play and relief to his dialogue, or in mocking defiance of the want of skill and the helplessness of his opponents."* Heraclitus. 460 b. c. Heraclitus belonged to the school of the Eleatics, and signalised himself by his profound study of the general laws of the universe. On mental sub- jects he observes, "The human soul, such as is * Arist. Met. 1. 1. Pioge. Laert. 1. 3. Sext. Emp. Math. /. Plato, Parm p 127. Strabo 6. I. 32 MENTAL PHILOSOPHY OP GREECE. endowed with reason, is an emanation from the universal mind; but it is united to an animal nature, in common with the inferior orders of creation. Man breathes the universal soul or mind, and readily unites with creative intelligence, in a state of watching ; sleep l^eing an immediate and temporary suspension of this communication." This metaphysician established the maxim which exercised, in subsequent ages, a great influence over speculative minds, "that a thing can only be known by the same thing." " Conception is founded only upon the similitude between the agent and the object." This principle was con- sidered, when viewed in all its bearings and rami- fications, as destructive of the evidence of the senses ; and places the discovery of truth solely in the faculty of reason. But in opposition to this conclusion from his premises, Heraclitus maintained that the senses were the apertures through which we inhaled the divine reason. " Our sensations," says he, " do not appertain to external objects ; they reside only in ourselves ; for they vary amongst individuals, and even in the same individual, from the varied condition of the organs themselves. These senses cannot, then, communicate any certain knowledge of external things, since their operation is so unsteady and fluctuating. The understanding alone possesses the power of teaching us the absolute nature of objects; it alone can impart truth to us." , He argues however in another place for the testimony of the senses ; for he remarks, " The HERACLITUS. . 33 judgments wliich mankind in general form, possess the certain testimony of truth ; this common light wliich diffuses itself over all at once, is nothing else but the Divine E-eason, shed over all our under- standings by a direct and immediate effusion." On the nature of memory he observes, "the mind represents to itself the universe such as it has been preserved by the memory ; we arrive then at truth when we borrow from memory that true and veritable sketch which has been deposited and confided with it. Wisdom is then accessible to all men." His notions on the origin of the world did not ma- terially differ from those which had been promulgat- ed by many of his predecessors. Fire, or an ethereal exhalation, is the principle of existence and life. This agent consists of two indivisible portions or atoms, which are simple in their natures, and eternal, and indestructible. The particles of which this ethe- real exhalation consists, are in perpetual motion. From the various modes in which these two con- stituent elements are combined, we have the result of all the numerous and diversified forms of ma- terial existences. There is a rational or thinking principle incorporated with this primary fire, and this principle animates the whole, and preserves and changes the face of nature at its will. * This principle, in fact, is God, the maker of all things. There is a story told about the writings of He- racUtus, that they were deposited in the temple of * Clem. Alex. Prot. p. 42. Tertull. Contr. Marcion. * D 34 MENTAL PHILOSOPHY OF GREECE. Diana, at Ephesus, and remained tliere unknown for a considerable period. At length they were discovered and published ; and the poet Euripides made known their contents to a public audience in the same celebrated temple. This circumstance excited a lively feeling amongst the philosophers of the day, some of whom immediately declared themselves Heraclitus's disciples. Among the number was Hippocrates, the famous physician. We shall close tliis notice of Heraclitus with a few observations of Emitter's upon the system of the Grecian philosopher. " The notion of life implies that of alteration, which by the ancients was gene- rally conceived as motion. The Universal Life is therefore an eternal motion, and consequently tends, as every motion must, towards some end; even though this end, in the course of the evolution of life, presents itself to us a mere transition to some ulterior end. Heraclitus on this ground supposed a certain longing to be inherent in fire, to gratify which it constantly transformed itself into some determinate form of being, without, however, any wish to maintain it, but in the mere desire of trans- muting itself from one form, into another. There- fore to make worlds is Jove's pastime." EMPEDOCLES. 85 CHAPTEU V. MENTx\L PHILOSOPHY OF GREECE. THE SECOND ELEATIC SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY. This second scliool of Eleatics was distinguished by many important and subtile speculations on mental subjects ; but its general scope and tenor had a decided leaning to the most objectionable forms of materialism. They were devoted and zealous students of philosophy, but they adopted general principles ^\dtliout sufficient discrimination, and supported them by fictions and fallacies dis- creditable to discerning minds. EMPEDOCLES. 444 B. C. This philosopher was born at Agrigentmn, in Sicily, about the year 400. Erom his youth he devoted himself to medical pursuits with great zeal and success. He travelled also a great deal, and became, by his skill in medicine, and the boldness and singularity of his character, a well known per- sonage, even beyond the limits of his oami country. He prosecuted the science of mind with some D 2 36 MENTAL PHILOSOPHY OF GREECE. success. His theory of sensation is worthy of notice, principally from its singularity. He fol- lowed the general maxim of his predecessors, that the same thing could only he perceived by the same thing. He attached to each of the senses a particular element ; thus, the fire could only be perceived by the fire, that is, sight ; the air by the air, which is the ear. To the w^hole of the senses he joined other two — ^namely, discord, wliich is per- ceived by discord, and love, which is perceived by love. He explained the general phenomena of sensation by affirming that there was a complete identity between the object perceived and the sensation itself. The colours of objects, for example, were certain forms, proceeding from things external, and transmitted to us through the medium of the organ of sight.* Empedocles makes a distinction between divine and human knowledge, and yet he rather inconsis- tently attempts to resolve all kinds of knowledge into the Divine Mind. However, it would appear that, according to his idea, man has some portion of this divine intelKgence given him to balance his sensual knowledge. How it operates, what are its limits, what influences it exerts, or in what degree it counteracts material agents, we can form no conception, neither from the philosopher's own language, nor from any of his commentators. The system of the universe, as promulgated by Empedocles, is dimly shadowed forth. World- * Arist. De Sensu, cjip. -1. I'lut.