M.y/'/^>^'S^yf/e /■i^ '.(/lit ir:j//i/ V" '/',ftMir/nti THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. A PERSIAN ASTROLABE (the FRONTJ. ^'«^4-5'ii»j|f9ia§ a persian astrolabe (the back). THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. A JOURNEY FROM THE MEDITERRANEAN TO BOMBAY BY THE EUPHRATES AND TIGRIS VALLEYS AND THE PERSIAN GULF. H. SWAINSON COWPER, F.S.A. This shadowy desert, unfrequented woods, I better brook than flourishing peopled towns." — Two Gentlemen of Verona, LONDON : W. H. ALLEN & CO., LIMITED. 13, WATERLOO PLACE, S.W. ry 1894. WYMAN AND SON.S, LIMITKD, PEINTKRS, LONDON AND RKDHILL. HCNRV MORSt. alEPHEN* o^ TO MY HOST, SAYYID HASSAN HAKIM ZADA, KERBELA •^ PREFACE. This volume is the plain record of a solitary journey from the Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf, by the valleys of the Euphrates and Tigris, the two great rivers of Western Asia. As such it must be taken up by the reader, whom I forewarn to expect neither a narrative of scientific exploration, nor to look for the flights of fancy which embellish the book of the globe-trotting bookmaker. Therefore I humbly de- precate the criticisms of those who would fall foul of me for want of systematic observation, or absence of style. As far as 1 am aware, the so-called Euphrates caravan route from Aleppo to Bagdad has been described but once in a modern book of English travels, namely, in Lady Anne Blunt's delightful " Bedouin Tribes of the Euphrates." Of the great valley itself, we have of course the scientific and Vlll PREFACE. statistical works wliicli wore the outcome of the Euphrates Valley Expedition of 1836. But these, as the expedition was by river, do not bear upon the road, and have not, as was not indeed to be expected^ had any effect in opening up the valley to the travel- ling Englishman ; so that to this day the Euphrates and its surroundings remain practically a terra incoy- nita, and, with the one exception above mentioned, without any popular descriptive literature. The reasons for this are obvious. The traveller wishing to make his way from the Mediterranean to Bagdad or the Persian Gulf, finds that an easier and more entertaining route lies by Urfa, Diarbekr or Mardin, and Mosul. True, these routes are not, as the Euphrates road is, except at midwinter, all sun- shine, but as a set-off against this disadvantage, are the stories in circulation about the perils from maraud- ing tribal Arabs of the Northern Arabian desert, which suffice to deter many a cautious wayfarer from the road. As a matter of fact such danger appears much exaggerated, but this is not universally known: and the supposed difficulty cannot be avoided by travelling by water, as over the greater part of the river between Meskineh and Feluja there is no navi- gation of any sort. Another substantial objection to trefacp:. IX the road is the scarcity of provisions, which is such, that the Euphrates road is practically a desert journey, except that it has an ample supply of water. Again, the dare-devil who snaps his fingers at "ghazus," Arab thieves, and small rations, makes the straight rush from Damascus by the old post route, or by Palmyra, and if he be " stuck up " by the Anazeh, or others on the road, he cares but little, as his baggage is scanty or nil, and the adventure, on his return to civilization none the worse, will surround him with romance, and a reputation (amongst some) of an Oriental traveller. For these reasons I have ventured to reproduce, perhaps in rather tedious detail, that portion of my journal which relates to this part of my journey. It must be remembered that the valley has before it an important future, if not as an Indo-European railroad line, at any rate as a route of steamboat traffic. Thousrh well aware that, in these days of scientific travel, a book of this character cannot claim more than a certain amount of attention, I trust that some of the matter will be found of practical use to others. Such, I venture to think, will be the itineraries of the roads between Aleppo and Bagdad, and between the latter town and Babylon and Kerbela. Next to scientific geographical observations, careful itineraries, kept in X PREFACE. hours, are of the most value for wayfarers on the old Eastern caravan roads. My fellow-traveller on the last mentioned of these routes (Mr. H. J. Coningham, of the Leinster Regi- ment), is now unfortunately in India, after eighteen months' journeying in Persia and Central Asia, so that I am unable to submit to him before publication, as I should have wished, those pages which treat of the short but interesting journey Avhich we undertook in company. The journey from Bagdad to Bombay is of course civilised, and sufficiently well known, but I hope that the reader will find in the part relating to it some matter of interest. In the spelling of place names I have conformed as well as I could to the code recommended by the Royal Geographical Society. In the name Bagdad, however, I have not adopted the " gh," which is generally used to represent the Arabic " gliain " c as in the pronunciation of this name there is none of the roughness which usually accompanies the letter, as for instance in ^j^c " ghazu " — a raid ; where, however, the English " gr " would more truly represent the sound. With regard to the title of the volume, I hold wiili PREFACE. XI Mr. Wilfred Blunt and others that the imaginary line drawn from the Gulf of Akaba to the mouth of the Shat el Arab is not the true boundary of Arabia to the north. On the contrary all the desert east and west of the Euphrates, which is inhabited by Arabic- speaking nomads, is as purely Ai*abian as Hadramaut or Yemen. The Euphrates is indeed held by the Turks, and Bagdad and Busrah are Turkish towns ; but the surroundings are none the less Arabian, and the journey from the gates of Aleppo to where the brown stream of water rolls out to the sea at the head of the Persian Gulf, is step for step " through Turkish Arabia." More than a due amount of ill-health sapped my energy and compelled me to abandon plans which, if carried out, would have materially added to the interest of the journey. Such were the routes to Meshed Ali, and that of the newly opened river Karun. May it be my lot to traverse them some day in future. H. S. COWPER. Hawkshead, October, 1893. CONTENTS. CHAPTEK I. FROM LONDON TO SCANDERUN. My Plans — Preparations — The Levinge Bed — Cholera and Influenza — Departure on the Orient — In the Mediter- ranean — Cairo — The Khedive's Tomb — Moolid of Sitti Zeyneb — Leave for Syria — Yafa — Beirut — Approach Scanderun ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 CHAPTER II. SCANDERUN TO ALEPPO. Scanderun — A Syrian Hotel — Bad Weather — My Carriage and Four — Beilan — Jaleel^ — Kara Khan — The Plain of Antioch — Syrian Ladies — El Amk — Hammam — Khan Afrin — The Greek Consul and my Bedroom Companions — A Chilly Start — Reach Aleppo... ... 24 CHAPTER III. IN ALEPPO. The Azizia Hotel — An Earthquake in Bed — Jaleel — Turkish Cookery and Arak-drinking — The British Consulate— Routes to Bagdad — Servants in Aleppo —The Story of a Student — Decide on Euphrates Route — The Takht-i-rawan — Delays and "Vexations — Preparations and Provisions — More Troubles — I Buy a Bishop's Coach — Teskerehs and Passports ... ... 47 CHAPTER IV. SOMETHING ABOUT ALEPPO. History — The English Factory — Description — Dimensions — Walls and Gates — Interior of the City — Streets and XIV CONTENTS. Houses — Bazaars— Mosques — The Citadel — My Visit to it — Khan al Wezir — Herahhy — Suburbs — Ceme- teries — Wells — Sheikhu Bekr — Mixed Population in Aleppo — Politeness in Aleppo — Slumbering Fanaticism — Costume — Climate — The Aleppo Button — Street Life 68 CHAPTER V. ON THE KOAD. Make a Start — Bakhshish — Jebrin, a Beehive Village — Cruelty to Caravan Animals — Sabbakh, a Salt Lake — Arrive at Deir Hafr — The Khan— My Zabtieh's Yarns — Fleas — My Takht-i-rawan — Order of March — My Attendants — A Ferocious Lizard — Bedawi Sheep Stealers — First Sight of the Euphrates — The Anazeh Camp — Meskineh — Balis — Skeikli Ghana — Abu Hureira and Kalah Jaber — We Meet my Men's Uncle — Turkish Police — Leben Butter and Dates ... 115 CHAPTER VI. CONTINUATION OF .JOUKNBY. Anazeh Arabs on the March — The Haudaj — Costume and Arms — We Sight Rakka — Arabs on Inflated Skins — A Mudir Effendi — -A Howling Durwish — Unwelcome Visitors — Bathe in a Backwater of the River with bad Results — Camp in Robber Infested District — Reach Deir — The Khan — Description of the Town — Its Poverty — Its Agriculture — " Cherrids " — Arab Popu- lation — Its Political Importance — An " Englishman " Turns vip— His Account of Himself, and his Pecu- liarities — Woodf uel Fishing — Altone again — The Tei-rible Desert — Visitoi's — Airival of the Pasha — Haji Mohammed's " stift' Stomach " — Hardihood of Muleteers ... ... ... ... ... ... 147 CHAPTER VII. DEIK, TO ANAH. Leave Deir — Mirage — The Castle of Rahaba — " Rehoboth on the River " — Mayedin — More Cats — Pass Salahieh —A Sand Storm— The Mules Cry— Cold Weather — Wanderinsr Durwishes — A Bedawi Escort — Abu CONTKNTS. XV Kemal — An Ingenious Beetle — An Extensive Ruin — El Geim — An Anazeh Gliazu — I am Asked if I would like my Throat Cut — Danger on the Road — Fall 111 — Desert Wadys — Wild Pig — Pass Rhowa — And Reach Anah 177 CHAPTER VIII. FROM ANAH TO BAGDAD. Anah, an Arabian Sydenham — Illness — Wady Fahmin — A Dispute — Haditha — Wady Bagdadi — A Thunderstorm — -Arrive at Hit — A Dirty Town — The Bitumen Springs — Ramazan — My Men Catch Two Thieves — Kalah Ramadi — In Touch with Civilisation — Get Among Marshes — A Mule Sticks Fast — An Accident to the Takht— The Euphrates Ferry — Kofa Boats— Feluja — A Night March — Lose our Way — -The Babylonian Canals — Akar Kuf — Sight Bagdad — More Bogs and Difficulties — Arrive at Basrdad ... ... ... ... 206 CHAPTER IX. Situation of the City — Advantages of the Site — Its Walls and Gates now Destroyed — Old Guns at the Barracks — The Streets — Houses — Architecture of the British Resi- dency — Serdabs — Coffee-houses — Bazaars — Shopping in Bagdad — Money — Mosques — The Tomb of Lady Zubeidah... ... ... ... ... ... ... 241 CHAPTER X. MORE ABOUT BAGDAD. Kazemein — A Bagdad Tramway — The Mosque of Iinam Musa el Kazem — Its Gilded Domes and Minarets — Population of Bagdad — The Plague — The Arabs — The Jews — Benjamin of Tudela's Account of the Jews — The Armenians — Christian Churches — Climate — Ex- ports — Present Condition — Ramazan — A Bagdad Hotel— The Date Mnrk— Yusuf Antika— Prepara- tions for a Journey to Babylon and Kei-bela ... ... 263 XVI CONTENTS. PAGK CHAPTER XI. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF BAAI>. Foundation — The Early Caliphs — Tlie Buyides — Degrada- tion of the Caliphate — Fii'st appearance of the Turks — Removal of Bagdad to the East Bank of the Tigris ■ — Ghenghis Khan — A\ Mostanser — Hnlagvi — End of the Abbasides — Persecution of the Christians — Tamer- lane — Shah Ismael — Capture of the City by Amnrath 286 CHAPTER XII. BAGDAD TO BABYLON AND HILLAH. Leave Bagdad — KhanEzZad — Khan Mahinudieh — Pilgrim Caravan — The Kajaweh — KhanBirunus — Reach Khan Haswa — Architecture of Persian Khans- — Sleep in a Coffee-house and are "Worried by Fleas — Leave Khan Haswa — Sight the Ruins of Babylon — Meet Two Americans — Reach the Ruins — Babel — The Mujelibe and Kasr— Amran ibn Ali — Leave for Hillah — Knock Down an Old Woman ... ... ... ... ... 301 CHAPTER XIIL HILLAH AND BIKRIS NIMRUD. Arrive at Hillah — Sayyid Hassan- — Hillah — Start for Birris Mmrud — Remarkable Appeai'ance — We meet Russian Travellers— The Birris — Description of the Ruin — View from the Top^Benjamin of Tudela's Account — Theories about its Origin — Borsippa — Nebbi Ibrahim and Aiab Traditions — Disappearance of my Umbrella —The Power of the British Name^ — Return to Hillah — Visitors — Yusuf's Horse Makes some Pressed Beef — Road to Musseyib — Owlad Muslim — Arrive at Musseyib 329 CHAPTER XIV. THE PILGRIM ROAD. Musseyib — The Pilgrim Traffic — A Storm in the Night — Meshed Husein — Kerbela Stones — Fanaticism — The Martyrdom of Husein — Corpse Caravans — Kerbela — We Visit a Nawab — Martyrdom from Mosquitos — (J0NTI<:NT8. XVll PAGE An Awkward Incident — We pai-t with our Host — Leave Kerbela — Musseyib again— A Hot Ride — Khan Iscnnderieh — Reach Bagdad — Rumours of an Arab Revolt on the Tigris — The Barber of Bagdad — The Hunchback of El Busrah — Go on Board a Tigris Steamer ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 357 CHAPTER XV. BAGDAD TO BUSRAH. Steam Traffic on the Tigris — A River Steamer — Chaldsean Sailors — Itinerary — Leave Bagdad — Ctesiphon — Arab Tribes — -Paucity of Traffic — Flooded-out Arabs — Amara — -Sabseans — ^Deck Scenes — The Revolt of Sheikh Saud ibn Munshid — Ezx-a's Tomb — A Scare — Kornah — The Shat el Arab — The Port of Busrah — Visit the Town — ^Escape of Prisoners — Historical Notes— Health of Busrah 385 CHAPTER XVI. THE PERSIAN GULF. .Mohammerah — Native Craft — Fisheries — Shusteris — History — Fow — Crossing the Bar — The Persian Gulf — -Piracy — Climate — Winds — Health — Bushire — A Persian Whiteley — Description of the Town—" Killi " — Reach Bahrein — Submarine Fresh Water — The Pearl Fishery 420 CHAPTER XVII. THE PERSIAN GULF. Mountains round Lingah — Lingah — Water Supply — The Straits of Hormuz — Situation of Bunder Abbas — The Town — Tremendous Heat — The Island of Hormuz — Its History — Old Accounts — Beautiful Scenery — Fly- ing-fish and Sea-snakes — Tin-tles and Black-fish— Bombay — Leave for England — Wild Weather in the Red Sea ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 441 XVIU CONTENTS. APPENDIX. 1. — Itinenuy of the road between iScaiulerun and Bagdad. II. — Khans on the pilgrim road to Kerbela, and on the road to Hillah, with the distances from Bagdad in hours. III. — Abu Nawas, the jester of Harun al Rashid. IV. — An Astrolabe purchased at Bagdad. V. — -Chaotic weights and measures. VI, — Balbi's journey from Bagdad to Bnsrah. VII. — Hamilton's account of Busrah. VIII. — Romance of the Persian Gulf. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. A Persian Astrolabe (two views) ... PAC4E . Froyitisinece- Cairo ... 11 Itinerant Musicians on road to Alep[>o ... 24 Palms and Pyramids ... Sheikhu Bekr... ... 48 ... 68 Anazeh Camels at Meskineh ... 115 Beilan ... 139 Anazeh Arabs on the March ... 147 The Haudaj My Camp Khan at Deir ... 148 ... 158 ... 162 Anazeh Horseman ... 177 Arab Ghazu ... ... 196 My Takht-i-rawan ... 206 Nahura at Anah .. 207 Mosque of Zacharias, Aleppo Gateway of Citadel, Aleppo ... A Bagdadi ... 229 ... 243 271 Bagdad and the Bridge of Boats, from the West Bank ... 299 Khan Ez Zad 301 XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. On the Waters of Babylon . . . Persian Pilgrims at Musseyib My Host anil his Son A Street in Bagdad ... A Ballum of Biisrah ... A Tower of Silence, Bombay... I' AH K 321 357 365 386 414 458 MAPS. The Author's route from Scanderun to the Persian Gulf At end. The Persian Gulf To face p. 428 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. CHAPTER I. FROM LOXDON TO SCANDERUN. My Plans — Routes — Preparations — The Levinge Bed— Cholera and Influenza — Departure on Ihe Orient — In the Mediterranean — Cairo — The Khedive's Tomb — MooHd of Sitti Zeyneb — Leave for Syria — Yafa — Beirut — Approach Scanderun. After spending a most delightful winter in 1889- 90 on the Nile and at Cairo, I formed, on returning home, a resolution to visit the other great Arabic- speaking town of the East, namely Bagdad, the romantic Baldac of the early writers, for I conceived, until some study of books had undeceived me, that there should be much of interest to see, and many things to be learnt from a visit to a city which formerly played so great a part in the Eastern world. On coming to examine the w-ritings of modern travellers, 1 found I was mistaken; I gathered that '2' ^^ [ 'y 'through TURKISH ARABIA. the interest of Bagdad lay only in its historical past, and in its romantic connection with the " Alf Lailali wa Lailah " ; I found also that access to it was not easy, unless the journey was made all the way by sea, a voyage of about five weeks. The more instructive, though infinitely more difficult route was to land at one of the Syrian ports and make one's way overland to Bagdad, a form of travelling of which I had had hitherto no experience, and which my study of books of travel showed me is beset, to say the least of it, by difficulties to the inexperienced. However, I had made my resolution, and I decided to abide by it. I had no idea of going out by sea to Busrah, as of all forms of travelling, that by sea is the most conducive of several evils, of -which I Avill adduce but three, biliousness, fat, and ignorance. It remained, therefore, for me to consider the overland routes ; of these several presented themselves, of which it is necessary at this stage to specify only two, namely, that by Beirut and Damascus, and that by Scanderun or Alexandretta, and Aleppo. The first of these routes did not engage my atten- tion long. Although approach to Bagdad this way might be made to embrace the celebrated ruins of Palmyra, it entailed a weary camel ride of a dozen FROM LONDON TO SCANDERUN. O davs at least across the desert from that place to the Euphrates, an experience I had no stomach for, although as events turned out, I bettered myself but slightly by adopting another line. I decided accordingly to make my way in the first instance to Aleppo, and to leave it to fate to decide there, whether I should proceed by the direct Euphrates road or make my way to Mosul and the Tigris. My preparations and outfit were not extensive. I bought a small tent, 8ft. by 6ft., from Messrs. Piggott ; in shape it is square, having two upright poles and a ridge pole ; when packed the whole weighs only sixty-five pounds, and the three poles being socketed take up but little room. I also invested in a strange appliance known to the initiated as a Levinge bed. This consists of a linen sack, to the open end of which is attached a long mosquito curtain, which is ingeniously contrived, so that it can be expanded into quite a respectable little room by means of bent canes. The entrance into the sack is by means of a neck of linen, the mouth of which can be closed by tapes. It is best for the user to pull this neck into the sack after him, and to lie upon it, and then toler- able security against all things creeping and flying is b2 4 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. obtained. The top of the muslin curtain is attached to a nail or rafter. Although this is a most admir- able invention for use in the khans and caravanseras of the East, Avhere all kinds of vermin swarm, and one to which I must confess that I am indebted for many a night's sound sleep, which would have been otherwise unattainable ; it must be allowed, that when sleeping in the khan of a wild, and perhaps fanatical Arab village, with no lock to your door, it is anything but a pleasant sensation to feel yourself so carefully tied up in a bag that extrication in an emer- gency would be almost impossible in less than a minute or two. In times of peace it requires the greatest presence of mind, foresight, and clear- headedness, to get safely out of a Levinge bed with- out tearing it. Under the influence of "alarums and excursions" I tremble to think what would be the fate of the luckless occupant. A roll of bedding, a waterproof sheet, two big leather bags containing my personal effects, and a " Gladstone " completed my baggage. When all things were ready, I went down to the country to spend Christmas, hoping to leave England on "/ January 14th, on the Orient liner, Orizaba. The cholera, which, during the summer, had been pretty FROM LONDON TO SCANDKKUN. O bad at Damascus and Aleppo, and had more than once threatened to overturn my plans, seemed, according to the papers, to have so materially de- creased, as to form no obstacle to the expedition. But the " best laid schemes o' mice an' men gang- aft agley," and I managed at a Christmas ball to contract a bad attack of the epidemic of influenza, which was then at its worst. In consequence of this, I was compelled to transfer my passage to the ss. Orient, sailing on the 29th of the same month, I had decided to go in the first place to Cairo, where I hoped to ascertain which Syrian ports were in quarantine, and also to get definite information about the various lines of steamers plying along the Syrian coast. Accordingly, on the 29th January, I found myself installed in a cabin on board the good ship, Orient. The influenza was raging as bad as ever, and each passenger looked nervously at his or her cabin com- panions to ascertain if they showed any symptoms of that fell disease. My mates were a young Irish solicitor, and an aged naval bo'sun, the latter being in a state of utter collapse due to drink, grief on parting with his family, and a recent attack of the " blight." He seemed to be only half through the 6 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. latter, or, indeed, any of his ailments, and passed the whole of the first afternoon, between sleeping on the sofa, drinking, and begging my pardon. When not thus engaged, he was in floods of tears. As he kept the port closed, and had all his meals in the cabin, we did not find him an edifying companion. To our relief he moved elsewhere on the following day. The steamers of the Orient line, are, as every one knows, among the finest that run between England and Australia, and although a comparatively new line, are in no way inferior to the P. and O. liners in accommodation and fittings. The Orient herself was built in accordance with the requirements of the Admiralty for ships, which, in case of war, may be turned into armed cruisers, and is, in fact, the oldest of the eight Orient liners, which are over 5,000 tons burden. Her horse-power is 6,000, and her re- gistered tonnage 5,400. She carries four masts, and two funnels, and draws 27 feet. And her saloon, music, smoking, rooms and boudoir, though, perhaps, not quite so gorgeous as those on some of the later ships of the same line, are the acme of comfort. The upper or hurricane deck forms a charming promenade, and is the arena of many a well-fought match of ship's cricket. FROM LONDON TO SCANDERUN. 7 The Bay of Biscay behaved itself better than we expected. A slight roll and an hour's fog being the sum total of its offences ; and by the time we were across, we found ourselves in such a genial climate, although it was the beginning of February, that we were enabled to sit on deck till ten or eleven at night without any inconvenience from cold. Capes St. Vincent and Sagres had the effect of massing all the amateur photographers whom we had on board to obtain pictures of these fine headlands, the last of which especially looks very well from the sea, with its bold cliff" and caves, and the white signalling station perched on the top. The Orient passed within half-a-mile. In front a beautiful lateen- rigged fishing boat, with a big eye painted on its bows, danced gaily on the green waves. The Portuguese fishermen held up for us to see an enormous fish, apparently a big eel. A glorious breezy day was it at Gibraltar ; so I went ashore and visited the Spanish town, the dirt of which one pardons for the sake of its picturesqueness. On leaving we had a gale astern, which was very pleasant in that quarter, but would have been uncomfortable in the extreme had it been ahead. On February 7th we woke to find ourselves steam- 8 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. ing slowly into Naples Bay. Above the town hung a thick haze, for the weather was warm, and over Vesuvius lay heavy white clouds. At half-past seven the anchor was down, and our olfactory nerves were immediately assailed by a stench fit to wake the dead. At Naples we lost a lot of our nicest passengers. This is the rule at sea. Warm friendships rapidly formed are of necessity put an end to, perhaps for ever. Yet at sea there are, I think, perhaps, more lasting friendships made (in proportion) than on land. I and a party of three had a long day ashore, visiting and renewing our acquaintance with the wonders of Pompeii, the Museum and the Opera. Stromboli proved clear. In the Straits of Messina the Italian coast was bathed in sunshine, while the Sicilian side lay in haze and gloom. Of Etna we caught but a fleeting glimpse at sunset, as most of the mountain was buried in dense black clouds. On February 11th we were at Port Said, and the following morning at three a.m. we got to Ismailia, where, at the hotel, I found my old Nile cook actiug ns servant. On the evening of the 12th I was installed at the Hotel du Nil, at Cairo. As soon as I had arrived, I commenced making FROM LOXDOX TO SCANDERUN. 9 inquiries at the tourist and steamer agencies as to the condition of cholera in Syria, and to ascertain what ports were in quarantine. The replies I got were most conflicting. No one seemed to know anything. I was told that neither the Khedivial nor the Austrian Lloyd steamers were touching at Alexandretta, and with reo-ard to the Messageries line, Messrs. Cook & Sons assured me they did so, wdiile on the opposite side of the road Messrs. Gaze informed me they did not. In despair I wired to my friend, Mr. R. J. Moss, of Alexandria, whose in- formation on such subjects I knew by experience to be only equalled in excellence by his courtesy and hospitality, and promptly received a reply that the Messageries steamers were touching at Alexandretta. Accordingly I booked my passage by the Senegal, leaving Alexandria on the 21st. Of cholera I could ascertain nothing. Tourist agencies, officials, and everyone professed profound ignorance on the sub- ject. It was still supposed to linger, but probably in very diminished form, and at this time of year w^as not likely to increase. It was useless to attempt to gain any decisive information on the matter, so I dismissed it from my head, resolving to take matters as they came. 10 THROUGH TUIIKISH ARABIA. Whilst I was at Cairo, I was fortunate enough to witness a very curious and characteristic ceremony. Mohammed Tewfik Pasha, Khedive of Egypt, had died on January 7th, and, in accordance with the custom of the country, it was necessary to distribute to the poor a meal of bread and meat for a period of forty days. I heard that this ceremony was only to take place for one or two days more, and accordingly, on February 14th, I set off on foot in the direction of the tombs of the Caliphs, where his late Highness was interred. A small but persistent donkey-boy attached himself to me, and I retained him as a guide. After struggling over the mounds un the east of the city to the tombs of the Caliphs, we arrived at a point behind the beautiful tomb mosque of Kait Bey. As we approached, we were joined by knots of very poor people, who were making their way to the rendezvous to receive the accustomed bounty. A few carriages also passed, carrying Europeans, or well-to-do natives, who were on their way to visit the tomb. On arriving, 1 found a tawdry structure, of great ugliness, to the door of Avhich my boy led me. About this doorway, which was draped witli curtains, stood several soldiers, who with great solemnity bowed me within. Entering, I t znm^i f"i.jj^ 12 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. found myself in a covered passage, hung above with cloth, and on the right-hand side of which were chairs, occupied by several individuals, mostly Eng- lish. On the left-hand side of the passage, opposite the chairs, was a door, which was the entrance to the late Khedive's tomb. An official courteously handed me to one of the chairs, and I was immediately served with an excellent cigarette and a cup of Turkish coffee. After a short pause, I was requested to sign my name in a book kept for that purpose, and having had large slippers placed over my boots, I was ushered into the building, in which was situated the tomb itself This consisted of two chambers ; in the centre of the first, plain and ugly, was a large tomb-like structure, covered with flowers, near which sat some men, engaged in a dolorous chant — I presume from the Koran. From this room I passed to the left into the second room, in which was the usual sort of royal tomb, floridly painted in the Turkish style, and this I was permitted to pass round and inspect. The few ornaments in the room were vulgar and commonplace, and there were hung about a few glass chandeliers. In this room there were also three men chanting. After seeing this, I passed out, and having gone PROM LONDON TO SCANDERUN. 13 round the building I came to the door of a hirge court, in which the food was being given away. Tlie proceedings here were under the charge of soldiers and several effendis. Entering, an extraordinary spectacle met my view. Filling the large yard sat, in messes of about ten each, an enormous crowd of expectant Arabs. I reckoned them up and calcu- lated there must have been about a thousand. The left-hand side was occupied entirely by men, while on the right were only women. Many children were also present, and all were evidently, from their wretched clothing, of a very poor class. To begin with, bread and vegetables were served in large metal dishes, one to each mess, and these rapidly disap- peared. In many cases a second ration was served, and then the meat (mutton and buffalo beef) was dispensed in like manner. The meat was cut into rough chunks, one for each person, and it was almost affecting to see the way the thin brown hands of the children clutched at their allotted shares. Yet all was orderly, and there was no gluttony, no thieving or pilfering from one's neighbour's trencher, nor squabbling of any kind ; although a good deal of noise naturally accompanied the proceedings. A good many English people witnessed the dole, as 14 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. this was the last but two of the prescribed forty days. ' I finished my day by a walk to the top of Gebel Mokattam, accompanied by my boy, whose impor- tunity that I should go the next day on his donkey to what he called the " buttonified " forest (petrified forest), I resisted. Another characteristic sight during my few days in Cairo was the festival or moolid of the Seyyideh or Sitti Zeyneb the daughter of Ali and Fatmeh. and granddaughter of Mohammed. The mosque is in the south-west quarter of the city near the Khaleeg, and at the end of the Derb el Gamameez. I rode there after dinner on the same day I had visited the Khedive's tomb. As we approached the quar- ter, the streets, which near the Mousky were dark and empty, began to assume a more lively aspect, being lit up and hung across with little red flags. Shops were open, especially those at which extra- ordinary coloured sweetmeats were exhibited. Although sold at a religious festival, these sweets are mostly in the shape of human figures, thus break- ing the Koranic edict about depicting life : and the desia:ns of some are even coarse in the extreme. At the mosque itself the crowd was fairly intense, FROM LONDON TO SCANDERUN. 15 and the slight glimpse we could get through the door revealed nothing but a glare of light. Inside, however, zikrs Avere being performed. In the streets in the immediate vicinity the illuminations were extra bright, and besides the flags, the streets were hung with festoons of immense glass coloured balls, and quantities of glass chandeliers. Follow- ing the road from here, we passed through the Bab Sitti Zeyneb, and just outside, the scene was more merry if not more brilliant than that near the mosque. On each side of the road, which is here among the mounds, were numerous booths and tents erected. First there were swings and roundabouts of various construction, exactly similar to those seen at English fairs. Next on a mastabah (or raised platform) sat two musicians, twanging their rude string instruments as they chanted an Arab romance. Beyond this was a large booth like a circus, which, indeed, as far as we could make out from the backs of our donkeys, it was. On the opposite side of the road stood a tent, in which we could see a dancing girl performing, and close to it another in which there was a male dancer. A little below on the left we came on a man habited in a Roman helmet and with a sword in his hand, whose Ifi THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. coarse buffoonery and antics had attracted a large crowd, and was creating much merriment. Beyond this again were numerous small booths and tents, each with some sort of amusement or spectacle. Before every one of these shows stood a throng of people (among whom were many Copts), and the road was so crowded that we had difficulty in forcing our way back. The swings and roundabouts were all going, and although the noise here was considerable, the utmost good temper and order prevailed. As we returned home we passed a house where a zikr was being performed, and stopping to watch it through the open window, the owner of the house came out and presented us with little cups of a hot spiced beverage of which I do not know the name. On the 20th I went on board the Messageries ss. Senegal at Alexandria, where I was given to under- stand I was the only saloon passenger. It was accord- ingly anything but a pleasant surprise to find my cabin occupied by two or three dozen other saloon passen- gers in the shape of Alexandria mosquitos, who w^or- ried me so abominably the first two nights, that my forehead assumed the appearance of a phrenological bust. After this I erected my Levinge bed over my berth, and so avoided the bites of these little pests. FROM LONDON TO SCANDERUN. 17 The Senegal, though advertised to leave on the 20th, did not leave till the following moruiug, and in the forenoon we were ofi" the Rosetta lighthouse. The water here, off the " Bouches du Nil^" is turbid and brown ; and Egypt, as seen from the sea here, is but a streak of yellow sand devoid of beauty, picturesque- ness, or interest. It turned out that there were a few passengers, none of whom, however, were English. Among them, though, there was an Italian, who in- formed me he was also bound for Scanderun and Aleppo. He also assured me that there was a diligence running between those places, a thing I had never heard of before. As besides our national tongues we both spoke only a little French and Arabic, our con- versation, carried on in a mixture of those languages, was very limited. At Port Said we remained ten hours coaling and lading, and when we got away, we had on board a pack of American tourists bound for Yafa and Jerusalem. We arrived at Yafa early on the morning of the 23rd, and after breakfast I went ashore with my Italian fellow-traveller, who, however, got into a scare as soon as he was ashore, and fearing the sea would get rough and difficulties arise about re-embarking, at once returned on board. It must be allowed that tlie 18 THROUGH TUEKISH ARABIA. entrance to the celebrated harbour is sufficiently alarming in calm weather. A semi-circular breakwater of natural rock projects in front of the quay, and the entrance to the calm water is made through a passage about twice the width of a broad rowing-boat. In rough weather, it is easy to see, that it must be very dangerous. Although my companion had impressed upon me that the town was " mauvais pays " and not worth seeing, I found it extremely interesting. The first thing coming from Egypt that strikes you is the difference in costume. Very much less of European dress is seen than at the Egyptian ports ; although, to my horror, I noticed that one of my boatmen had his nether extremities encased in Highlander's trews. These and a kaffieh formed a most fetching costume. This last head-dress with the camel's hair band is seen on many of the inhabitants, for it is not, as is so commonly supposed, peculiar to the desert Arabs, but is extremely common among all classes both in Syria and Turkish Arabia. The very tall and exceedingly ugly tarbush is also very much seen at the Syrian ports and Aleppo ; it is chiefly confined to native Christians. With one of my boatmen I took a stroll through the town, and to the orange groves behind. The FROM LONDON TO SCANDERUN. 19 streets are narrow, crowded, and chiefly vaulted over ; above the vaults are dwelling houses. Most of the streets, especially those near the harbour, are extremely steep ; and the little " suks," or markets, are full of characteristic Syrian scenes. A charming walk in an orange grove behind the town and a peep into tlie plain of Sharon completed my excursion. In one of the streets I met an Englishman, who, I was delighted to find, was coming on to the Senegal^ en route for Constantinople. Both Messrs. Cook and Gaze have agencies and hotels here, as this is the starting point for the Holy Land trip. That of Gaze is pleasantly situated near the orange groves at the back of the town, and seems a comfortable and clean little establishment. Here I first became acquainted with the Turkish currency, mostly of base metal. I have no idea how many de- nominations there are, and I should think no foreigner has ever mastered the subject ; I was in i urkey altogether three months, and I doubt if I ever made any transaction in which I was not, in a greater or less degree, fleeced. Even the native shop-keepers, when purchases are made, often find it necessary to work out a little sum on paper, and then it is generally found impossible, in spite of the great number of de- c2 20 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. nominations, to make up the exact sum, or to give the right amount of change. Yafa from the sea is something like a small bit of Malta. All round it lies yellow sand, but in the dis- tance, a range of blue mountains adds beauty to the landscape. In consequence of the final removal of quarantine, notice of which we only received at Yafa, we found ourselves early on the following morning (the 24th) at Beirut. The Bay of Beirut is in some ways as beautiful as the Bay of Naples, which it immediately brings to memory. From the sea, the mighty Lebanon towers in rear of the town, with noble snow-clad Sanin as its lord. In front, and to the right upon the sea, lies the busy and commercial (although Eastern) town. For the inhabitants of Beirut are, for some reason, far more go ahead than most Orientals, and only a small portion of the town retains its old Eastern character. This is, of course, chiefly due to its being the port of Palestine, in constant touch with Mediterranean commerce and civilisation, and situated at the end of the Damascus road. There is a very good little hotel kept by a native, at which I obtained an excellent lunch. Close by this I sat down in a little rocky bay to FROM LONDON TO SCANDERUN. 21 smoke a pipe, and hardly had I done so, when two native women passed me, and having squatted down on the rocks close in front, proceeded to gesticulate to me wildly. At first I could not make out what they were after, until one came up to me, and, as far as I could understand, gave me notice to quit, as they wished to bathe. Upon this I prudently arose and decamped. After my lunch, I passed through the narrow and crowded bazaars, and emerged into the open space on the east side, known as Canon Place, Just here at a street corner I came on a man lying in the road on his back, clad only in a pau* of patchwork breeches and a ragged waistcoat, which was thrown back, exposing his chest and abdomen. Just below his ribs there were several deep incisions in his flesh, through which were secured pieces of thread or wool. From his eyes, nose, mouth, and ears quantities of blood were emerging, and his head lay in a pool of clotted blood. At short intervals he groaned and struggled, throwing about his arms and legs as if he were dying, or at least in great suffering. A small crowd had collected, and were placidlv gazing at this unpleasant spectacle, but the shop- keepers in the immediate vicinity and the majority of bystanders took absolutely no notice. A youno- 22 TIIEOUGH TURKISH ARABIA. man was walking about among the people round, a::d collecting alms in a tarbush, in which, when he came to me, I noticed there were a few small coins. I put a small alms in, and then enquired of a bystander what was wrong ; but my knowledge of Arabic was insufficient to understand his reply. In answer to another query, I was told he was not a durwish, The spectacle was most disgusting and painful, and I do not know now whether the man was in some fearful sort of fit, or if the whole affair was some humbugging durwish trick. At any rate it was a queer sight in civilised Beirut. I left the place and passed up the Damascus road, which, close to the town, has weavers' shops on either side ; and getting clear of the houses, I had a delightful walk out to the Pines, at the back of the town, whence I got a charming view of the Lebanon range, and the bay between the town and the Nahr el kelb. On my return he of the fits had disappeared. Beirut is full of missionary institutions and schools, which, if they have not improved Muslim morals, are successfully elbowing from the town the final traces of picturesque Eastern life. A staple trade at the present day seems to be woodwork, and shops are seen full of locally made furniture of French style. FROM LONDON TO SCANDERUN. 23 We were at Tripoli early the following morning, and at Latakia the same afternoon ; but our stay at these ports was too short to allow of my landing. We were informed that we should be at Scanderun early the next day. Beside myself, there were for this port the daughter of a late English Consul at Aleppo, a French family, and two native Christian ladies, all bound for Aleppo. The Italian before mentioned, for some unknown reason, changed his mind at the last minute, and instead of landing at Scanderun, remained on board and proceeded to Constantinople. ITIXERANT MUSICIANS ON ROAD TO ALEPPO. CHAPTER II. SCANDERUN TO ALEPPO. Scanderun — A Syrian Hotel — Bad Weather — My Carriage and Four — Beilan — Jaleel — Kara Khan — The Plain of Antioch — Syrian Ladies — El Amk — Hammam— Khan Afrin — The Greek Consul and my Bedroom Companions — A Chilly Start — Reach Aleppo. WiLLEBRAND OF Oldenburg, who travelled in the thirteenth century, states that Alexandretta, now called by the inhabitants of the country Iscanderun or Scanderun, was founded by Alexander the Mace- donian for his steed Bucephalus. Legend or fact as this may be, there is no doubt that this Alexandria the Little owes its origin in some way to Alexander the Great. Rochette, in his " Hist, des Colonies Grecques," tells us also that the place was fortified by the kings of Armenia, but no fortifications exist at the present day.* The town is situated within an extensive bay, the gulf of modern Scanderun and Ainsworth : " Personal Narrative of the Euphrates Expedition," SCANDERUN TO ALEPPO. 25 ancient Issus, and upon a marshy and unhealthy plain, to the east of which rise the noble Amanus hills and other mountains, the modern names of which are given so differently in maps that it would be only confusing to reproduce them. Another traveller, Moryson. who journeyed here in 1596, describes Scanderun "a poor village built all of straw and dirt, excepting the houses of some Christian factors, built of timber and clay. . .The pestilent air of this place is the cause that they [the factors] dare not make any stay there. For this village is compassed on three sides with a fenny plain, and the fourth side lies upon the sea. On the east side beyond the fen is a most high mountain, which keeps the sight of the sun from Scanderoon ; and, being full of bogs, infects the fenny plain with ill vapours. On the other side towards the north (as I remember) in the way leading to Constantinople, the like fenny plain lies, and the mountains, though more remote, do bare the sight of the sun, and the boggie earth yielding ill vapours makes Scanderun infamous for the death of Christians."* Van Egmont, who travelled in 1759, tells us that there are scarcely sixty houses * See "Natural History of Aleppo," bj- Alex. Russell, M.D., 1794 {2 vols.). 26 TPIROUGII TURKISH ARABIA. at this place, but that the English house makes a " handsome appearance, and adjoining to it are some stately Avarehouses built by the Turkey company." Also, " most of the inhabitants of Alexandretta are Greeks ; it is likewise the residence of a Greek bishop ; the fathers of the Holy Land have also a convent here."* On the mornino' of the 26th we found ourselves lying in the beautiful bay of Scanderun. There had been heavy rains in the night, and over the mighty Taurus range to the north hung black and angry clouds. Beneath these, high up on the slopes, the glistening snow told us that summer was not yet come, and that on the journey to Aleppo we might look out for a taste of winter. From the sea this noble amphitheatre of hills, with the little town standing out on the plain in the foreground, forms a very beautiful picture. About ten o'clock we made oar way ashore, and after a little judicious bakh- shishing to get our baggage through the customs, I found myself at the tail of a long line of red-booted porters, making my way down a road, ankle deep in * "Travels through part of Europe, Asia Minor, etc.," by the Hon. Mr. Van Egmont, Envoy Extraordinary from the United Provinces to the Court of Naples ; and Mr. John Heyman, Professor of the Oriental Languages in the University of Leyden. Lond., 1759. SCANDERUN TO ALEPPO. 27 inire and water, to the office of Messrs. Belfante & Catoni, the latter of which gentlemen acts as British Vice-Consul. He was, how^ever away, but ^Ir. Bel- fante sho^vecl me every courtesy in helping me with arrangements for the trip to Aleppo. I found it was true that a good carriage road now existed, and although I had wished to ride, the almost incessant deluges of cold rain at last decided me to engage a covered carriage, which was to be ready early the following morning for me, with four horses. After lunch with Mr. Belfante, I proceeded to engage a room for the night at a wretched place called a hotel, kept by a Levantine. In so far as the rooms contained bed, chairs, and furniture, and that the worthy host would undertake to cater for you, it might deserve this name. But the approach to it was through a quagmire of filth, the bedroom was dirty and anything but sweet, and the bed had evidently been occupied for no inconsiderable time without any change of linen being considered necessary. Fortunately I had my own bedding with me. The old man in charge, on being interrogated, told me his extortionate charges, but as I could not make my bed in the foul puddles outside, and as Mr. Belfante, being in bachelor quarters, had no accommodation to offer me, I was 28 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. compelled to submit after giving the old gentleman my mind. Luckily, Mr. Belfante's hospitality saved me from having to eat my meals in this " hostelry," for which I was truly thankful. The afternoon was spent rambling about in the wet, buying provisions for the journey, and seeing the sights. Truly, Scan- derun does not seem to have improved since the days of Moryson and honest Van Egmont. I failed to see a solitary building which had a "handsome appear- ance," while the unpaved or half-paved roads, swim- ming in 'water and mud, made locomotion among the dirty bazaars and shops anything but pleasant. I found, however, one or two fairly good Greek shops, and in company with my landlord, I laid in for the journey a couple of chickens, half an oke of biscuits, a tin of kippered herrings, and cheese, bread, and oranges. The red embroidered cloaks and legging- boots of the peasants, and the strings of shaggy Turcoman camels, which are continually entering the town from Aleppo, are certainly of some interest to the newly-arrived stranger ; but apart from this, there is nothing to relieve the absolute dead-aliveness of Scanderun. Mr. Belfante is, however, of opinion that it is much more healthy now than formerly. After dining with that gentleman, I wandered back to the SCANDERUN TO ALEITO. 29 "hotel," picking my way through puddles by the illumination of incessant lightning, and to the music caused by the croaking of millions of frogs in the surrounding marsh. I was already so heartily sick of Scanderun that I longed to be out of it. After a fearfully wet night, I w^as all ready for a start at nine o'clock, the hour appointed for the car- riage to be ready. It was, however, still drenching with rain at intervals, and although I sent word to the proprietor of the posting establishment that I was ready, no carriage turned up. At last, in despair, I sallied forth to find the stables and hurry up the people myself. The proprietor was a stout, well-to-do Armenian, dressed more or less in European clothes, who the day previously had been particularly anxious that I should engage his carriage, not only to Aleppo, but through to Bagdad, a proposal at which 1 natur- ally stared, as 1 knew there was no regular road. He stated, however, that he had done it before, and Mr. Belfante corroborated him. This person I at length found, and having accompanied him to his stables, I made them get the carriage out and put to the horses before my eyes. The carriage was a " ramshackle " old coupe brougham which had seen better days at Beirut or Alexandria. The wheels oO THROUGH TUKKlSll AliABlA. and otlier portions had been renewed in unpainted wood, probably at Aleppo, and most of the paint had been knc^cked off the original portions. It had no appearance of having been cleaned for several years, and presented such a shaky appearance that I felt great apprehensions whether it would ever get through the journey. The nags, four Avilling- looking little chestnuts, were then brought out and harnessed in abreast, like a Roman quadriga, in which operation the rotten harness had to be supplemented by a great deal of rope and string ; and lastly, my baggage, consisting of three big bags, a tent, and roll of bedding, was brought forth and secured as best it might, behind, in front, and inside the vehicle. At ten o'clock all was in readiness, and liaving settled my account with my host and bidden farewell to Mr. Belfanie, I took my seat inside and was whisked off in a halo of mud towards the moun- tains. And now I felt fairly started upon my journey ; Scanderun, a Mediterranean port, filthy and un- civilised as it seemed, Avas the connecting-link between "Western civilisation and the semi-barbarism of modern Asia. Behind me lay the blue Mediter- ranean, with steamers and smiling coast ; before me SCANDERUN TO ALEPPO. 31 Asiatic Turkey, with its caravan tracks and its squalid cities. I confess that, as I pulled up the rickety window against an icy shower, and, coiling myself up in the corner, lit my faithful pipe, some doubts entered my mind as to the rationality of thus nndertaking alone an overland journey of a month's duration with all its troubles and vexations, with no more definite object in view than that of seeing the country. The road first wound over a wide expanse of marsh, from whence arose a most foul miasmatic odour, which made me close the other window and puff" my pipe with redoubled energy. Fortunately, the weather was improving, and although it was damp and chilly, the sun was struggling through the clouds and warming in some small degree the moist air of the plain. Still, on the mountains before us lay the heavy clouds and the snow. Over the plain the road is in very good order ; it is about six yards wide, and as one ascends the moun- tain, it is cut out of the rock — here apparently a sort of mudstone. Evidently the caravan traffic over it is very heavy, and there is plenty in this way to see, for as many as sixty or seventy camels are often passed in ten minutes. Besides the camels, caravans 32 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. of mules and asses, jangling with bells, and flocks of sheep with wild-looking shepherds, came trudging down the steep road, many evidently suffering from the biting cold of the wind. Amongst them I noticed one man with a long spear. After winding about on the mountain side, we reached a curious village called Beilan. This place, which is used as a sort of health resort by the inhabitants of Scanderun, and even of Aleppo in the hot season, is placed near the top of the pass, at an elevation of 1,580 feet above sea level. It is built on the hill-side on both sides of a steep ravine, and the houses being situated one above the other, the village looks like a sort of big wasps' nest. Coming from Egypt or Palestine, one is struck by the fact that all the houses are roofed with tiles, showing, as I had akeady experienced, that there is here a heavy rainfall. It is said to be the modern representative of the Pinara of Pliny and Ptolemy, and the Erana of Cicero.* At Beilan we halted to give the horses a rest, and my Jehu took the opportunity of refreshing himself with coffee and bread at the shop of a friend. I went to see if I could obtain a drink of milk, as I *Ainsworth : '' Personal Narrative of the Euphrates Expedition." SCANDERUN TO ALEPPO. 33 had foolishly forgotten to bring with me any form of drink ; but the people seemed sulky and unsociable, and not inclined to get anything for me. After the pleasant politeness of the Egyptians, this was a change for the worse, bnt the people of Beilan are probably a mixed lot, of half Turcoman, half Syrian blood, with few of the good qualities of the civil and intelligent Arab. There is said to be a fairly good khan here, but I did not see it. In the gorge over which the town is built, are to be seen the remains of what are considered Roman aqueducts and forti- fications. While we were in Beilan another carriage from Scanderun drove in, containing the French family. On the box was a quaint-looking native boy in a tarbush, and as his thin clothes formed but a poor protection against the piercing cold, I made room for him in my coupe. He was delighted at this turn matters had taken, and proceeded with the utmost sang froid to interrogate me in French as to my name, occupation, and the object of my journey. Having satisfied his curiosity, I ascertained from him that his name was Jaleel, his age fourteen, that he was of Syrian Catholic family, but that his mother's father was a Frenchman. He had been at D 34 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. Beirut for some time, partly for health, and partly for education, and was now returning to Aleppo to his family. Being unable to hire a carriage for him- self, he had arranged to pay three mejidies and to occupy a spare seat on one of the carriages. Jaleel ■could talk French, Italian, Arabic and a good deal of Turkish and Armenian, and was well able to take care of himself. He also told me that he had two brothers in Egypt, one a soldier at Aswan. As he sat opposite me sucking an orange, and blinking at me with his great round dark eyes, he looked the very incarnation of Oriental happy-go-luckiness. I in- structed him to address me only in Arabic, and we soon settled down to be very good travelling com- panions. Soon after, we reached the summit of the pass, over 2,000 feet above sea level, and just as we were commencing the descent, a wild storm of hail burst over the mountain. The road on this side is less steep than on the Beilan side, and we made our way down at a fair speed. The slopes are in places beautifully wooded. At three o'clock we were clear of the mountains and on a level with the plain of Antioch. An hour and a quarter later we drove throu2:h a funnv little villasre built of log and stone SCANDERUX TO ALEPPO. ot) huts, and situated ou the edge of a brawling stream. There were two khans, from which the village takes its name of Kara Khan, situated about one hundred and fifty yards apart. The French carriage drove into the first, and we went on and entered the further. Kara Khan is situated at the base of the mountains which we had just passed over, and which were still wrapped in clouds. In front lies the plain (El Amk) and the marsh, which extends north- east from the lake of Antioch. Away to the north and north-east beyond the plain I could discern a low range of purple mountains. The khan to which I went consisted of a square courtyard, surrounded by a low wall, with a dirty stable on one side and a wooden building of two stories on the side facing the road. The lower part of this edifice consisted of two rooms, inhabited by the khanji, between which was a passage through for caravans to enter the khan from the road. Above, approached by an external stair, were two or three rooms for the reception of travellers. The one I was shown into was, of course, entirely without furniture, but it was clean and comfortable. A piece of matting to spread my bed upon and a charcoal brazier to warm the room were brought by D 1^ 36 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. the khanji. At my request he also produced some excellent " leberi," a preparation of milk somewhat like buttermilk. A chair and a little table standing on a sort of balcony outside my room were brought in, and I ate my first dinner in comparative comfort. This khan, and that at Afrin, where I stopped the ensuing night, are the ones at which, since the carriage road has been formed, carriages always stop, both going and coming ; and in consequence they have been somewhat improved, and are better in accommodation than the khan on the ordinary caravan route. While I Avas lighting my solitary pipe after my early dinner, a man came to tell me that the carriage containing Miss B and the two native ladies had arrived and that they were installed at the other khan. Miss B had stayed with Mrs. Catoni at Scanderun, and in consequence of the stormy morn ing had left a couple of hours later than myself. I walked up the road to pay my respects and to enquire how the ladies had stood the fatigues of the day ; after passing through a large dark room, where a crowd of muleteers and carriage drivers were sitting over a brazier, I was shown into a room very inferior CO mine where the three ladies were. All (Miss B SCANDERUN TO ALEPPO. o7 included, iu the absence of chairs), were seated on cushions, taking theii' after-dinner coffee. I was in- troduced to the two Syrian ladies, and to the best of my ability entered into conversation with them. The elder was rather a striking-looking old woman, whose face was a mass of wrinkles, and who, during the whole of my call, puifed fervently at a big narji- leh. The younger (I believe her married daughter) was a line-looking young woman, who, as far as the face went, might have been English : her features were regular and pleasant, and her eyes large and expressive ; her figure, however, was somewhat stout and clumsy. Both ladies were dressed in a sort of mongrel European costume, which probably at Aleppo was considered the height of European fashion among the Syrian Christians. The husbands of both were at Bagdad, or Busrah, and they were returning from a journey to those places, having both gone and re- turned by sea. They were much astonished to hear that I intended to make my way to Bagdad by land, and could not understand why I should choose the overland route instead of the long but comfortable journey by sea ; it only puzzled them more when I told them, through Miss B , that I wished to " farraj " (see the country), and they decided that I 38 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. must be very rich, and also, no doubt, though they were too polite to say so, very mad to undertake such a journey for pleasure. According to their account Bagdad and Busrah w^ere paradises, where there were dates " Keteer, keteer, keteer " (very abundant), and where English was the chief language, and river steamers, manned by English tars, were as plentiful as on the Thames at Charing Cross. Being in the East I was permitted to light my pipe, and with a cup of excellent coffee I spent quite a pleasant hour in chat. When I turned out to return to my khan I found it had got about among all the muleteers below that I was the Englishman for Bagdad, and a dead set was made on me by one or two to engage their services for the route. One of these ac- companied me down the road, and was particularly vehement in his demands that he and I should perform the journey " Sawa sawa " (together), at the same time placing his two fore-fingers side by side to represent master and servant, a very common sign used by Arabs when they wish to be engaged. After a fair night's sleep, I was making my toilet preparatory to a start, when I saw from the window the carriage with the French family pass, and immediately after Jaleel burst in upon me, with a SCANDERUN TO ALEPPO. 39 lump of bread in his hand, and breathlessly informed me that it was time to start. Although I had not invited him into ray carriage for this day, he knew what was comfortable, and had evidently made up his mind to accompany me. I paid my bill for the night, two francs, and after a tiny cup of coffee, off we went at seven, munching bread and hard-boiled eggs by way of breakfast. It was a beautilul morning, and in the sunlight the plain of Antioch looked extremely beautiful ; it seemed by a rough calculation to be about eight miles wide, and perhaps twelve long. At half-past eight we stopped at a village among the marshes, which are here crossed by a causeway and several long and carefully con- structed bridges, close to which were big mounds, apparently old sites. Concerning this. Van Egmont in 1759 writes: " It is called Amurafs bridge, in honour of a grand vizier of that name, who built it. This causeway begins with a bridge of three arches, and is continued to the length of half an hour in a series of low small arches, very difficult for horses, being originally ill built, and kept in no repair." This causeway, built by Amurath, or Murad, crossed the Kara Su or Black Water, which here flowed through the marsh. Ainsworth in 1835 navigated this 40 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. river up to this point in a boat. The mound close by he notices by the name of Gul Bashi. At present the bridges seem to cross nothing but the swampy plain, owing, no doubt, to the river having changed its course, and also to its being much lost in the marsh. It is said that these works replace similar ones of Roman date, and probably part of this earlier con- struction still remains. Great quantities of water fowl could be seen on the surroundhig plain, amongst which the lubberly pelicans were to be distinguished by their size.* At this halt all the carriages which had left Scanderun the previous day, were together, no less than four in number. There was a carriage containing the Greek Consul at Aleppo, somebody Effendi, and a cawass ; the carriage of Miss B and the Syrian ladies ; that of the French family, and my own. Each carriage had also its driver and an attendant sprite, who * " Tavernier mentions two rivers between Alexandretta and Aleppo; over the first of which, he says, is a bridge very long and strongly built (Book II., Cap. I.). But in this he is mistaken, the bridge and causeway being laid over the bog above mentioned. The other he calls Afrora, and says, that upon rains it is not fordable : this is the Efrin, the fording of which does frequently so much damage to the bales of goods, that our Tm-key merchants, some years ago, proposed to build a bridge over it at their own expense ; but the Turk would not consent, and so the design was dropped." — From the Geographic dissertation in Edward Spelman's " Expedition of Cyrus," 1740. SCAx\DERUN TO ALEPrO. 41 acted as groom, so that we were (|iiite a formidable caravan. Soon after leaving, we got clear of the plain, and ascended gentle grassy elevations on its eastern side. At half-past ten we arrived at Hammam Khan, where we all stopped to rest the horses for an hour, and to have a substantial meal. While pre- parations for this were in progress, and a small table and a variety of boxes to sit on being brought ont, I ran to the top of an adjacent hill of very con- siderable size. Close to the khan is a curious hot sulphur spring, where I obtained for the first time that day a refreshing (though steamy and odorifer- ous) wash. After this I joined the very merry luncheon party, representing the English, French, Syrian, Greek, and Turkish nations. Roast fowls, keubbes (a sort of hard sausage in shape like an egg), bread, butter, cheese, oranges, and dates were dispatched like lightning. The party had about three knives and forks among them. From Hammam we had a long and weary ride over a tableland ; at half-past three we came to a small stream, probably an affluent of the river Afrin. After another hour and a half the road became very bad ; in fact, for some time we w^ere 42 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. simply driving through a ploughed field, although a good road was being constructed. The plain still continued on our left, but away to the right was a low range of limestone hills. At six o'clock we drove into the courtyard of the Khan Afrin, situated on the right bank of the small river of that name.* The khan was much like Kara Khan, but much dirtier. At the top of a rickety wooden stair were three rooms for the accommodation of travellers. One was taken by the French family, the next by Miss B and the Syrian ladies, and I found myself in No. 3 with the Greek (consul, the Effendi, the cawass, and an aged and very dirty Turk, whom we liad seen several times in the day jogging along on an old white pony, equipped with blue goggles and a big umbrella. The Consul and his friend had, with true Oriental politeness, spread their beds upon the raised platform for that purpose, which was provided with matting, leaving me to " pig " on the dirty floor alongside. At the kind invitation of the ladies, my hosts of Kara Khan, I joined them at dinner, and hearing that an early start would be made, I returned to my room to turn in. The appearance of my room did not look favourable to * Ancient Arceuthus — Ainsworth. SCANDERUN TO ALEPPO. 43 slumber. The Effendi indeed had retired, but upon the edge of the platform, in front of tlie brazier, sat the Greek Consul in his big fur coat, with a wild and excited eye, and hair upstanding, " like quills upon the fretful porcu- pine." He had evidently been dining not wisely but too w^ell, and the room savoured of arak. He greeted me with three words of English, which he launched at me in a husky roar the moment I ^entered : "Are you sleepy?" He then told me in French that we had to start at two in the morning, and suggested that as it was not worth while to go to bed, I should accompany him to a neighbouring- apartment where he had refreshments. He then retired, followed by the cawass, and I sat over the brazier smoking my pipe. Soon after, one of the carriage attendants entered, and beckoned me to follow him, at the same time making signs that there was plenty to drink close by. I, however, turned in, and after various interruptions caused by the noise of the revellers, and a cat which persisted in forcing open the door and letting in an icy blast, I got to sleep. I did not seem to have been asleep ten minutes when I was aroused bj the Consul and his friend making preparations to depart, and 44 THEOUGII TURKISH ARABIA. the cawass shaking my foot gently to awake me. It was only two o'clock, and I regarded this as a practical joke on the part of the revellers, and turning over, snored lustily. Immediately after, however, the sprite who attended my horses as groom, came, and having also pulled my toe, began to remove my baggage. This brought me out of bed in a "jiffy," and I found that in very truth everyone was making preparations to start. Although aroused thus early, the start was not made till a quarter past four, and all the intermediate time we had to wait about watching the baggage packed leisurely on to the carriages, in a most bitterly cold wind. At last we were oft' in the darkness, and when the day dawned about six, I found myself so numbed with cold that I got out and walked up a long hill to get warm. Although I ran up this hill in a great ulster, I found it difficult to restore circulation. The grass was covered with hoarfrost, and the pools of water were solid ice. T'he road passes on the left of Jebel Simon, and from the high ground a beautiful view was obtained of the snow-covered hills we had passed on our first day's journey. The road now led on to a high desolate SCANDERUN TO ALEPPO. 45 desert-like tract of country. At half-past nine we stopped at a wayside khan for coffee, where three wild-looking- wandering minstrels gave us a per- formance. This so wrought upon the feelings of the carriage attendants, who owing to last night's arak had been skylarking and bear-fighting at every stoppage, that they formed a ring and hopped about wildly to the music. Leaving this, we passed a conical mound, perhaps eighty feet high ; and in less than an hour the village of Tel-el-Padr, with a large cemetery. The character of this place is very like an Egyptian village. From here the appearance of the country became more truly desert, and at a quarter to two we caught sight of the citadel and minarets of Aleppo, lying in a hollow. Close to the road at the entrance to the town are two or three well-built houses in European style. The traveller arriving is deluded by these into the belief that he is entering a town into which the light of European civilisation has come, but in this he is mistaken, as with the exception of these the whole town is purely Oriental. These houses were built by one or two enterprising pashas, and are now empty or tenanted only by workmen. 46 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. Soon after passing these we rattled over a bridge, over the Kuweik Su or Aleppo river, and winding round to the left entered the suburb of Azizia, where I took up mine inn at the hostelry called, somewhat pretentiously, the Azizia Hotel. CHAPTER III. IX ALEPPO. The Azizia Hotel — An Earthquake in Bed — Jaleel — Turkish Cookery and Arak-drinking — The British Consulate — Routes to Bagdad — Servants in Aleppo — -The Story of a Student ^Decide on Euphrates Route — -The Takht-i-rawan — Delays and Vexations — Preparations and Pro\dsions — More Troubles — I Buy a Bishop's Coach — Teskerehs and Passports. Owing to all sorts of unseen delays, it was eleven days before I left Aleppo, and during that time I was able to ramble about the town. I therefore postpone such descriptive notes of the place as I was enabled to make, to a later chapter, and devote a page or two to my own proceedings during my stay, as it will afford intending travellers in the East some idea of the difficulties that beset one's path when once off the tourist track in Syria. The so-called Azizia Hotel, at which I took up my quarters, is situated in a new suburb of that name on the west of the town. It was kept by an Armenian, and, although it hardly merited the European name of hotel, was very comfortable. From the street one entered straight into a little courtyard, in which was IN ALEl'PO. 49 a well, and having to the right and left a building of two stories. The upper stories, which had only just been added, were occupied by about four bedrooms each, all of which opened straight on to a balcony which ran in front of them, and to which access was gained by a staircase from the courtyard. Beneath were the offices of the house, and the only public room, the dining apartment. When I arrived the rooms were all occupied but one, very clean and nice, but which had not yet been furnished ; and on my arrival the landlord at once sent to the town and obtained a neat iron bedstead and other requisites to make me comfortable. The bed was erected while I was busy in the town, and I retired early, tired with my long journey, and anticipating a good night in the comfortable-looking little bed and clean bedding. Unfortunately, Carabet, the Armenian handy-man of the house, had in his haste or in his ignorance, omitted to secure at their ends the iron laths which sustain both the bedding and the sleeper ; so that I awoke some time in the night feeling very uncomfort- able, and curled up like a prawn, with my feet and my head at their proper elevation, but with the rest of my body deposited on the floor ; the centre of the bed, owing to the giving way of the laths, and to the 50 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. force known as the attraction of gravity, having softly and silently subsided. When I ascertained the real cause, pleased at finding that 1 had not just arrived in time for a repetition of the 1822 Aleppo earthquake, 1 strengthened my situation to the best of my ability, and passed a fairly comfortable night. The other occupants of the Azizia were mostly Turks ; there were two army doctors (one a Greek), and several tarbushed Effendis, one or two of whom were in business in Aleppo. Lunch and dinner I took with these gentlemen downstairs. Breakfast was a move- able feast, partaken in the bedroom. When Carabet asked me what I would have for breakfast, I replied, *' Coffee, bread, butter and eggs." Now boiled eggs are a dish unknown in the Armenian " cuisine," so that the five eggs which were brought, I discovered, when I scalped them, were still in their interiors in that liquid form in which they had first seen the light of day. I remonstrated afterwards with the worthy Carabet, but he had never before boiled an egg, and my remonstrances were ineffective. The Arabs have a peculiar term for smoking ; they talk of drinking their pipe (shrub narjileh), or tobacco : so, although 1 object strongly to cold liquid eggs, I drank my five eggs to breakfast every morning in Aleppo. I could IN ALEPPO. 51 not possibly have altered Carabet's cooking, unless I had stood over him and his brazier in the courtyard, with a watch in one hand and a drawn sword in the other. Although I had picked up odds and ends of Arabic two years previously in Egypt, and had taken lessons in colloquial Arabic from a Syrian in London, I found the Aleppo dialect so different, that my slight knowledge of the language was even of less use than I expected. The people in the hotel also, talked almost entirely Turkish and Armenian, so that I was glad when little Jaleel turned up, wishing to engage himself to me as servant to Bagdad. Of course it was out of the question to take a little delicate boy like him for an eight or nine hundred mile journey overland, but I found him very useful during my stay in tlie town. He was an amusing, bright little chap, full of larkiness and fun, but troublesome on account of his insatiable curiosity and avarice. He would carefully examine my Norfolk jacket and knicker- bockers — a garb, perhaps, never seen before in Aleppo, and then ask, " How much did these cost, Mr. Cowper "? " a question which would be imme- diately follow^ed by, "Will you give me somethiny E 2 52 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. to reniemher you hij, when you go to Bagdad, Mr. Cowper ■? " The idea of Jaleel, with his great black eyes and shrewd Eastern face, in knickerbockers and Norfolk jacket and red tarbush was so scream- ingly funny that, had there been an English tailor in the town, I should almost have been inclined to have fitted him out. Jaleel could also lie — lie with the grace and facility which can only be found in ingenuous Eastern boyhood. Once I asked him if he could read an inscription in ancient Arabic on an old Saracenic well. Without a rnoment's hesitation he scrutinised the writing with an earnest gaze; writing which was about four hundred years old ; and then gravely informed me that it contained the name of Sultan Abdul Hamid Khan, the reigning monarch. Lunch and dinner at the Azizia were respectivelv at six and twelve o'clock, Turkish time — a muddling arrangement for a European, as Turkish time starts from sunrise, and therefore the meals were a little earlier every day. The cookery was Turkish, and very good of its kind, the chief dishes being pilaf, kubabs, and yoghurt.* Wine was, of course, not * Pilaf, rice with small portions of meat ; kubabs, or kabobs, meat prepared on skewers ; yoghurt, a preparation of sour milk, called by the Arabs, leben. IN ALEPPO. 53 druuk at the table, except by myself and the Greek doctor, but the Effendis often had a little arak party together just before dmner, at which meal they would then appear strangely jovial and elated. It is a question whether their custom of coming "jolly" to table is not preferable to ours of getting up "jolly" from it. One young Turk asked me if I drank arak. I replied, " No ; is it not a sort of wine ? " At this he was piously horrified, and solemnly informed me that it was a bitter, or rather what we call in England a digestive or stomachic. The house, being used by Turks of the new school, boasted table, chairs, knives, forks, and spoons, though these latter were somewhat scarce. The table-cloth was the worst feature in the entertain- ment, as each guest reached across and helped him- self indiscriminately from the dish, in doing which a portion of the helping generally fell on the cloth, which, as far as I could ascertain, had never been washed since the opening of the house. I found the Beys and Effendis courtesy itself, always pressing me to help myself to each dish first. One or two of them could speak French. I made no arrangement as to charges when I went to the Azizia, and my bill was eight francs a day, 54 THKOUGH TURKISH ARABIA. board and lodging. No doubt if I had made an arrangement it would have been less. One of the first things I did on arrival was to call on our Consul, Mr. Jago, and to the hospitality and kindness of him and Mrs. Jago I owe much. Mr. Jago, indeed, put me in the way of making m} arrangements, and during several pleasant walks we had together, in and about the town, gave me much interesting information concerning the district. The Consulate is a pleasant bungalow-built house close to the Azizia quarter, and standing in a pleasant garden of its own, and there were few da\s of the eleven I remained in Aleppo when I did not spend a pleasant hour at the Consulate.* T was pleased to tind on my arrival that the cholera, which had been bad at Aleppo, was now at an end. The previous year there had been nine hundred deaths from this cause, and the year before about fourteen hundred. The influenza, which was devas- tating England when I left, was still lingering in a milder form at Aleppo, and was funnily termed by natives, " Abu Rakab," i.e., the father of the knees, because after an attack the patient feels so weak in * At the Consulate there is a memento of the Euphrates Valley Expedition, in the shape of some old guns dated 1817. IN ALEPPO. 55 those members. Mr. Jago told me that I was the first European traveller who had arrived in Aleppo for about six months, which shows how completely off the track the town is.* Although there are families of most of the European nationalities resident in Aleppo, England is only represented by the Consul and his family, and the widow and daughter of a late Consul. Most of the Europeans reside in the Azizia suburb, though there is no distinct Prankish quarter. Mr. Jago took me the first day to call upon an Italian gentleman named Stano, now employed in the Government tobacco regie. Mr. Stano knew well most of the routes between Aleppo and Bagdad, and at once entered into my plans, in the kindest way. He informed me there were three ways of approach- ing Bao'dad : 1. The Euphrates valley route, which is to travel caravan to the river, and then follow the course of the valley down to a point opposite Bagdad, whence that place is reached by a short cut across Al-Jezirah. This route would occupy nineteen to twenty-five days. 2. The route by Birejik, Urfa, Mardin, to Mosul, and thence by kellek (raft) to Bagdad on the Tigris. * In this I do not think he meant to inchide Europeans connected with Aleppo or the district, such as consuls, merchants, or missionaries. 56 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. 3. By Birejik to Diarbekr, and tlience by kcillek to Mosul and Bagdad. The objections to the two latter routes were, that I should probably experience considerable cold, and in the case of iS'o. 3 there was a mountain pass which might still be snow blocked. This was a serious objection in my case, as I had hardly regained my strength from my severe attack of influenza. There was also the fact that Turkish and Armenian is a good deal spoken on these routes, of neither of which language I knew a word ; and it seemed highly improbable a trustworthy interpreter could be ob- tained in Aleppo. Route No. 1 would be sunshine all the way, and lay chiefly through the desert on the edge of the Euphrates. There would be of course less of interest on this road, and provisions were not too plentiful. There would be some risk of being plundered by the desert Arabs, but neither Mr. Jago nor Mr. Stano had ever heard of an English traveller being meddled with here. It would, however, be necessary to take one or two mounted police (zabtiehs) with me. Armed with this preliminary information, I proceeded to make enquiries for a servant, and, if possible, for one who could speak English. The first IN ALEPPO. 57 individual who presented himself was a dark, sharp- looking Greek, dressed in European clothes, and speaking English fluently. He told me that he had been one of Cook's dragomans at Damascus, and knew all the strings of Oriental travel. Asked if he had any references, he said they were all at Damascus. He complained of not having anything to do here, but could not explain why he did not return to the do- minions of "Cook-ery." He informed me that Mr. and Mrs. Jago both knew him well, which I discovered afterwards was a barefaced lie. He also said that the Greek Consul would be willing to recommend him. He said further that he would wire to Cook's ao-ent at Damascus to send him a recommendation, and would call on me the following day. He did not keep his appointment, and I learned that he had arrived at Aleppo some time previously without any papers, and had been thrown into prison by the authorities. Of course, this might mean nothing in Turkey, and indeed from this " durance vile " the Greek Consul had rescued him. But the man could not show a solitary reference, and in fact report was against him. So that it seemed better to travel servantless than with such an uncertain personage. The next applicant was a young Armenian named 58 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. Boghos, with deep-set, cunning eyes. He acknow- ledged he could not cook at all (the only thing which I really required a servant for), but could speak a few words (about a dozen) of English, which he had picked up in some American mission station. He said " If you please, take me with you." Asked how much he wanted for three weeks' journey, he answered, " One napoleon." The Greek had named ten pounds, which I had considered too much ; but one napoleon staggered me. I afterwards learnt that he was a very bad character, and in fact it -would hardly be safe to travel with him. After him came a professional cook who spoke Arabic and Turkish only, and whose countenance was so forbidding that I sent him away without questioning him. After this the Greek military doctor stopping at the hotel told me he knew of an excellent man, who could talk English perfectly, and had an excellent character. He turned up on the 6th, and although not particularly clever-looking, he had an honest face, lie knew a good smattering of English, and said he could cook a little. I offered him a pound a week for the journey, and two pounds for his ex- penses home from Bagdad, if he wished to return. liV ALEPPO. 59 He seemed quite inclined to accept this offer ; but unfortunately liis patron entered the court at this minute, and called him to speak to him. After this he told me he could not take less than ten pounds, saying that his present occupation would be lost. I ascertained afterwards that this same occupation was about thirty shillings a month. At the same time it seemed there was a story to this young man. It appeared he was brought up in Constantinople as a student, and then this medical EfFendi, being hard up, offered, in consideration for a bakhshish of about fifteen pounds, to obtain for him some good position. The young man then sold all his worldly possessions for this purpose, and his patron, for some reason, failed in his promise. The EfFendi could not, or would not. pay back to him the money, and was therefore much in his debt. This story, if true, might have inclined me to offer him a better w^age, but on the other hand, he did not know much about cooking, and in fact was not a servant at all. As it seemed hopeless to obtain a reliable man, I after- wards sent word to him that I would increase my offer ; and received a reply that his present em- ployer had advanced his wages to three pounds a CO THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. montli, and he had decided not to go with me ; so that, at any rate, 1 was the means of bettering the unfortunate youth's position somewhat. Later on, after I had decided upon the Euphrates route, and was making active preparations for a start, I was one day making my way into the town, when I was accosted by a tall, handsome, good- natured-looking man, wdio said he wished to be my servant. He spoke very little French, and no English, but I felt sure from his face that he was an excellent man. I told him to accompany me to the Consulate, and on our way we met Mr. Jago, avIio, it turned out, knew the man well, and gave him an excellent character. He had, it seems, been cook at > the French Consulate. It transpired that his idea was that I would take him to England with me, and he would become an English soldier. I am bound to confess that he w^ould not have disgraced the uniform of a guardsman, but I had to inform him that I could not possibly retain his services after I left Bagdad. I offered him, however, a pound a week for so long as I retained him, and I promised to give him whatever was necessary for his return to Aleppo, the sum to be settled at the Consulate at Bagdad. Although much chopfallen at the fall of IN ALErro. 61 Jiis " castle in the air," he expressed his willingness to come at these terms, and arranged to meet me at the Consulate to sign a contract the next day. I felt pleased at the turn matters had taken, as I felt that the man's physique and transparent honesty were worth more than all the English of the others. I was, however, doomed to disappoint- ment. George, for such was his name, turned up punctually next day, and after the contract was read to him, he hummed and hawed, and began to make difficulties. When asked to sign, he said that the sum offered was insufficient. He, like the others, wanted ten pounds. This was intolerable. It was evident, as is often the case, that a ring had been formed against me, and no one was to go under this sum. George, honest as he was, had been got at, and so refused my offer, which was a very good wage — servants in these parts being very cheap. I was not going to be done in this way, so George was dismissed. The fact was, that it had got all over the town that the Englishman who had arrived, and was going to Bagdad, was not travelling for business, but for pleasure. I was accordingly set down as " im- mensely wealthy." If I had given out that I was an English merchant it would no doubt have been dif- ferent. Live and learn. ()2 THEOUGH TURKISH ARABIA. One other individual turned up just before I left, and offered to go for six pounds. I had, however, by that time decided to travel without servants, and I refused to negotiate with him. I have mentioned that 1 had decided upon the Euphrates route; many things led me to this decision. The finer climate, the fact that on this road Arabic, of which 1 knew a]^smattering, was the only language required, whereas, travelling without an interpreter as I was, I should find considerable difficulty among the Turkish and Armenian speaking peoples on the other roads. There was also the consideration that this was the quickest route, and a week or so delay might let me in for a dose of the monsoon in the Gulf and Indian Ocean on my way back to Europe. Lastly, I developed a painful boil on my side, which threatened to overthrow my plans alto- gether, as it rendered me quite unfit to undertake a long and arduous ride. In this difficulty Mr. Jago came to my rescue, by suggesting that I should travel in a takht-i-rawan, a sort of litter, chiefly used by Persians, which consists of a square wooden box with doors and windows on each side, and a pair of shafts before and behind, by means of which the " takht " is carried by two strong mules or horses. I could sit IN ALEPPO. 06 or lie in this, on a bed or mattress, at my ease, and I need feel fear neither of wet nor heat of the sun. Mr. Stano had kindly undertaken to inquire for me about mules and muleteers for the road. The rate of hire of caravan animals depends on the current price of fodder in the country. Through Mr. Stano's agency I eventually hired six mules and a takht-i- rawan from Aleppo to Bagdad for ninety mejidies or Turkish dollars. The caravan was to have three attendants, the muleteer (Turkish, katterji ; Arabic, mukari) and two grooms or akams. I eventually purchased the takht, and the hire was five mejidies less. On the 4th Mr. Stano informed me of these arrangements, and introduced me to a Greek, a doctor in the army who had been waiting some time at Aleppo in order to get mules for Bagdad ; he in- formed me that a caravan, or caravans, were pre- paring to start on the 7th, 8th, or 9th, and suggested we should start together on that date. On the 7th I heard that a Pasha had arrived at the hotel from Con- stantinople, and the doctor sent me word that we should all start together on the 9th. I saw no signs of Pashas at the hotel, except a tent folded in the court, and the addition at our festive board of a strange gaunt young man in uniform (in appearance exactly 01 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. like Barniim's skeleton dude), who, report said, -was the Paslia's son-in-law and aide-de-camp. The fol- lowini>- day I went into the bazaar with a Mr. Yusuf, a Chaldaean Christian merchant of Aleppo, who had been resident in Bagdad, and having been at one time employed in one of the houses of the English merchants there, knew a smattering of English. He had a great deal to do with the Bagdad caravan trade, and was of great use to me in my preparations. He was a fine-looking man, dressed in European fashion; and was singularly un-Oriental in appearance. He took me to various shops, and I purchased a large stock of necessaries for the journey, such as candles, tinned meats, chocolate and coffee, rice, a sackful of hard biscuits in the shape of rings called " kak," ghee or clarified butter, sugar, biscuits, brandy (in case of illness), and a large stock of figs and dates ; in addi- tion to these I bought a lot of pots and pans for cooking, a large leathern water-bottle called a "matt- ara," and an enormous saddle-bag for carrying all the provisions. This last, which was furnished with lock and key, I purchased from Mr. Yusuf himself. When all these articles were piled in a stack in my room I felt quite a man of property, and I realised for the first time that I was goini^ into the desert. IN ALEPro. 05 The same afternoon Jaleel came to me and said that tlie Pasha did not start till Saturday, the 12th. On hearing this I was at first inclined to order my mules to make a start the following day, but on the advice of Mr. Jago and Mr. Stano, I decided to ascertain if they would really start on that date, and if so to wait. I felt that in some ways it would be better travelling alone, but, on the other hand, the escort of a Pasha was not to be despised. The next day my mukari and akams came and asked for a present, as they were not starting on the appointed day. This was simply a try on, and when I refused they departed quite happy. On the 10th my difficulties again increased, and things assumed yet another phase. First I ascer- tained that the Pasha was really not starting that week, so I at once sent word to my men to be ready the following day. Immediately after arose a trouble about my takht ; I had seen and approved one, a strongly-made and roomy construction, that I had ascertained by experiment I could lie at full length in. It now transpired that the one they were going to send me in was a different one. I instantly demanded to see it, and was shown into a yard, where, leaning against a wall, was a wretched. 66 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. rickety old contrivance, with windows and doors loose, and much smaller than the one I had seen. I immediately denounced the affair as a swindle, and told Yusuf that unless they were prepared to send me with the one originally agreed on, I would not go at all, and the money I had paid in advance must be at once returned. The explanation seemed to be this. The good takht I had seen belonged to the Patriarch of one of the native Christian churches at Mosul. The worthy prelate had travelled in it to Aleppo, and it was left there for sale. When I had entered into negotiations with Yusuf he had found a muleteer who was willing to buy it, and when he had taken me to Bagdad, to try to dispose of it there, where he would probably make a profit, as they are much used on the pilgrim road to Kerbela. This muleteer, however. Yusuf knew to be a disreputable character, so he went to another man who owned the inferior takht, and omitted to inform me of the change. I then enquired if I could not buy the better one, and Yusuf succeeded in purchasing it for me for the sum of four napoleons, which the reader must admit was a cheap price to pay for a bishop's private carriage. Through Mr. Ja2:o I had obtained various docu- IN ALEPPO. &7 ments necessary for travel. First the teskereh,* or Turkish passport, a formidable-looking paper, setting forth the route I proposed taking, and sealed with six different seals. Secondly, a buyuruldi, or general introduction, which no doubt would have been very useful in travelling through a thickly- populated country, but which down the Euphrates wasted its " sweetness on the desert air," as there was hardly anyone but the Anazeh Bedawis to be introduced to, and these sons of the desert neither cared about letters of introduction, nor indeed could have read them if produced ; and lastly a teskereh of smaller dimensions than the other, permitting me to carry a revolver. Armed with these I was ready for a start. '^ Properly, •' tetlikireh." P 2 SKEIKHU BEKR. CHAPTER IV. SOMETHINa ABOUT ALEPPO. History — The English Factory — Description — Dimensions — Walls and Gates — Interior of the City — Streets and Houses — Bazaars — Mosques — The Citadel— My visit to It — Khan el Wezir — Heraldry — Suburbs — Cemeteries — Wells — Sheikhu Bekr — Mixed Population of Aleppo — Politeness in Aleppo — Slumber- ing Fanaticism — Costume — Climate — The Aleppo Button — Street Life. The Aleppines have a tradition of their own abont the origin of the name of their town. The story runs that Abraham on his way to Canaan remained some time at the hill, which is now their citadel. Within its walls still stand the fragments of a mosque sacred to his memory. It is said that at certain hours of the day the patriarch distributed milk to the assembled villagers of the neighbouring country. These people collected at the foot of the hill, and the word was passed about " Ibrahim halab," " Abraham has milked : " or " Ibrahim halab S0J[ETII1NG ABOUT ALEPPO. GO as shahba," " Abraham has milked his dappled cow." Hence came, they say, the name Haleb, which we have long Anglicised into Aleppo. Aleppo has been identified with ancient Berani, supposed to have been originated by Seleucus Nicator, the founder of Antioch, and Seleucia near Babylon. The apostate Emperor Julian in his fatal campaign against the Persians in the fourth century halted here on his way from Antioch. In 611 the Sassanian Khosru II., marching from Hierapolis, seized and burnt the town, although he failed to reduce the citadel. In 636 the town was be- sieged by the Mohammedans under Abu Obeidah, and Khalid " the sword of God." By some accounts the resistance was brief. According to others the garrison sustained a loss of three thousand men, but still held out. At last, after a siege of several months, it was taken by a curious stratagem. An Arab giant called Dames supported several of his comrades on his shoulders, and by this means an entrance was forced into the citadel, the guard slain, and the gates opened to the besiegers. It afterwards became a capital of Hamdanide Sultans. In the tenth century it fell into the hands of the Byzantines, but it again showed its 70 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. strength, and was not taken. In 1114 it was destroyed by one of those fearful earthquakes which have repeatedly laid it in ruins. Ten years later it was besieged by the crusaders under Baldwin, but a sudden rise in the river flooded the investing camp, and the besiegers had to retreat to Antioch, In 1139 and 1170 it was devastated by other terrible earthquakes, after the last of which it was rebuilt by Nur-ed-din. In 1183 it was captured by the enterprising Salah-ed-din (Saladin), who upon his death bequeathed it to his third son, Malik-ad-daher. In 1260 and 1280 the town was destroyed by the Mongols, and in the first case most of the inhabi- tants were massacred by their bloodthirsty leader, Hulagu. The first year of the fifteenth century saw the city ransacked by the troops of the victorious Tamerlane- In 1427 the fortifications were re-erected, and in 1516 Selim, Sultan of Turkey, became master of Aleppo and finally over- threw the Mamluk supremacy. Van Egmont, who travelled in the middle of last century, says : ''The city is likewise celebrated for being the birthplace of Tzevi, a poulterer's son, who in the last century pretended to be the true * Messiah.' " SOMETHING ABOUT ALEPPO. 71 About the end of the sixteenth century the Levant Company of Turkey merchants opened a factory at Aleppo to trade overland with Persia and India. The French and Venetians had estab- lished similar houses at an earlier date. An English consul was then appointed and recognised by the Sultan, and the name of the first consul, who was appointed soon after 1583, was Barret. During the existence of this factory there was of course a small resident English community at Aleppo. In 1605 they numbered three English families, including the consul, who was at that time a merchant. In 1738 Pococke informs us that the number of houses of English merchants was six or seven, and he remarks that the factory was by that time much decayed, owing to the cheapness and perfection of French manufactures. About 1740 the factory consisted of a consul, ten merchants, a chaplain, chancellor, and physician ; and in 1753 the number of houses is given as eight, exclusive of that of the consul. Van Egmont (1759) says : " The English merchants have twenty houses. The consul's salary is £4,000, but he must not carry on any trade." He is probably very wrong as to the number of houses, as in 1772 they were 1'2, THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. reduced to four. The opening of the Cape of Good Hope route for trade gave the factory its death- blow. The officers of the factory in E-ussell's time were consul, chaplain, chancellor, and physician, and an officer named the " chause," * who walked before the consul, carrying a staff" tipped with silver. There were also two dragomans and two janissaries. " In going to audience, or in similar processions of form, the honorary druggomans walk two and two immediately behind the janizaries, who are preceded by the chause. The officiating druggomans walk next ; and after them the consul, followed by all the gentlemen under British protection." Russell also states that in his own time the Europeans resident in Aleppo consisted of English, French, Venetians, and Dutch. Italian was then the Frank language. In 1605 there were five * Apropos of this title, I subjoin a cutting from the column which the omniscient Mr. Sala contributes every week to the ^Sunday Times : " ' Chouse ' has a very curious origin, of which the writer in the Daily News does not seem to be aware. It was formerly sjDelled ' cliiaus,' ' cliiauz,' and 'chaous' ; various corruptions of the Turkish word for a messenger, agent, or interpreter. It happend that a Turkish commercial in London, in the reign of James I., swindled some of the merchants tracUng with Turkey out of large sums of money ; and from the notoriety of the circumstance the word came to mean a cheat, and so gave rise to the verb ' to chouse.' Ben Jonson mentions a ' chiaus ' in the ' Alchemist.'" SOMETHING ABOUT ALEPrO. 73 French families and fonrteen Venetian families, besides that of tiie consul. In 1753 the number of French houses in trade was nine, and in 1772 they were reduced to six or seven.* Van Egmont (who is probably not very reliable) tells a story which is anything but creditable to the English, if it is true. A drunken janissary had murdered the Armenian servant of an English merchant. Van Egmont says the English bribed the judges with 1,000 sequins to hasten his execution, which was eventually carried out by his being strangled by the hand before the castle. " This affair cost the English some thousands of piasters." Van Egmont may or may not have believed this story, and not improbably a ceitain amount of national jealousy may have induced him to include it in his book ; but my own experience has taught me that about one- third of the stories heard at Aleppo are true : and it is highly probable this story is perverted. In 1822 Aleppo was again visited by a calamitous earthquake, which destroyed part of the city and buried thousands of inhabitants beneath the debris. It is said that one-third of the entire population * Even as late as 1850 an English traveller reported that there were a few English merchants here. 74 THROUGH TURKISH ARARIA. and two-thirds of the houses were destroyed. Another, but less severe, visitation happened in 1830. In the ensuing year Ibrahim Pasha conquered Syria, and Aleppo remained under Egyptian rule till 1839, when by intervention of England, Syria again became part of the Ottoman Empire, and Aleppo a Turkish town. Aleppo is placed in the middle of a sterile wilderness, which is, in fact, the northern corner of the great Syrian desert. The town itself is built on a number of small eminences which Russell gives as eight. To the west rise a series of stony undulating hills, through which the traveller from the coast passes before he descends to the town. At their base meanders the river of Aleppo, the Kuweik Su, which is identified with the Chalus of Xenophon, a some- what sluggish stream wandering through orchards of ash, maple, poplar, and other trees. This stream is never very full, and is at the dry season of the year almost empty, as most of the water is taken for irriga- tion. Curiously enough, it has no outlet either to the sea or a larger river, but eventually loses itself in a morass some two hours south of Aleppo. The river, and certain small spongy marshes near it in the vicinity of Aleppo, abound with frogs, which in the evenings cause a din almost incredible for such small SOMETHING ABOUT ALEPPO. 75 creatures. On the approach of anyone they cease croaking, and it is difficult to get a view of any of them. Such as I managed to get a sight of did not appear to be larger than the English species. From this noise Russell says the river is reported to have got its name of Kuweik, that word being similar to the frogs' cry. To support this he cites the chorus from " The Frogs " of Aristophanes. The river abounds in fish, and there is one species, which the Europeans at Aleppo told me is the lamprey, to which the natives give the name of " Sammak Inglize," or the English lish. Russell makes mention of this fact, and identi- fies the fish as Oyhidium mastacemhelus^ which is a hsh of the order Ajiodes, and quite distinct from the lamprey. Russell was so good a naturalist, and being physician at the English hospital there, had so many opportunities of verifying his -work, that I have small doubt he is correct. The native name is very curious, and was no doubt given because the members of the English factory held it in particular esteem. Now, when our country is only represented by the British Consul, it strikes the traveller as curious to hear of a fish bearing such a name.* * Since writing the above a Syrian resident in London has assured me that "Al hankhz " is good Arabic for eel, and does not refer to the EngHsh nation. The Aleppines shu- their words, which has given lise to the error. 76 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. On the north and south lies the valley of the little river, clothed in its orchards. But on the east side lie a series of somewhat gentle undulations and up- lands, which stretch far away, even to the Euphrates. A good deal of this has been brought, in compara- tively late years, into cultivation ; and, in fact, from Aleppo to Meskineh the traveller passes through patchy cultivation almost the whole way. Emerging into full sight of the city, the stranger coming from the coast must be struck at once — if he is accus- tomed to Oriental cities — by the extraordinary absence of minarets, that featiu'e which lends such beauty and dignity to most Mohammedan towns of importance. If Aleppo showed but a proportion of such beautiful structures as Cairo can boast, a bird's eye view would have no inconsiderable beauty, in spite of the barren and plain surroundings. As it is, one solitary feature gives it nobility, and recalls to the stranger that he is gazing on one of the historical cities of the East. This is the precipitous hill which rises in its midst, bearing the shattered and crumbling fragments of the fortified citadel. But these, seen at a distance even, can be recog- nised as ruins, a condition due to the repeated and disastrous earthquakes, which have, of course, de- SOMETHING ABOUT ALEPPO. 77 stroyed the minarets, and by their frequency im- pressed upon the inhabitants the futility of building many such structures. To the same cause may be attributed the poverty of structural remains of all ages in Aleppo ; and, taking into consideration the persistency and destructive character of these visita- tions, it seems almost a wonder that in Aleppo we find so flourishing and well-to-do a town as it is at the present day. All authors "agree to differ," both in their accounts of the dimensions of Aleppo and in their statistics as to its population. Dr. Pococke, in 1738, states that, with the suburbs, the circuit cannot be much less than five miles. Dr. Russell declares that the same is about seven miles in circumference, but that the city {i.e., the walled quarters) is only three and a half. Tan Egmont, a little earlier, gives the com- plete circuit as three hours. " Murray's Guide " makes it a little less than Russell. As Van Egmont's three hours can hardly represent less than nine or ten miles, the town must be decreasing if that traveller's statistics are at all correct. But as he states that the population was then generally com- puted at 300,000, a figure which it probably never reached — and certainly not in his time — it is likelv iQ THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. that his statistics of dimciisioiis are also exaggerated. With a town that has often been overthrown by earthquakes and as often rebuilt, it is very difficult (as there are no ancient plans to consult) to know what its dimensions may have been at different periods. The plan given in Dr. Russell's book shows a considerably smaller place than it is at the present day, as the suburbs of Azizia, Kittab, and those on the south had apparently no existence. Azizia is, indeed, quite new. The plan in B^deker's " Syria " shows two suburbs on the south, which seem to me to be considerably exaggerated. As, however, I only visited that side of the town once I may easily be in error here ; but I should be inclined to think that some of the mounds on this side of the walls represent suburbs destroyed by some earthquake and never rebuilt. Although I made a complete circuit of the town myself on foot, I omitted to note down the exact time it took me ; but my behef is that the walk was accomplished in less than three hours. We are told that the fortifications were re-erected in 1427, after the destruction of the city by Tamerlane, and the present walls are probably partly of this date. Being now both utterly ruinous and in a great measure built up among the increasing suburbs, they SOMETHING ABOUT ALEPPO. 79 are not easy to trace; and it is consequently difficult to see the method of their construction. The con- dition they are in is doubtless due to the destructive earthquakes which have at various times devastated the city. Van Egmont records that in his time they were in a ruinous condition. The wall is strengthened at frequent intervals by towers, and outside has been protected with a ditch of consider- able width. The following- is a list of the gates mentioned by Russell: Bab Kinasreen,* sometimes called the prison gate, supposed to have been built by Saif ed Daulah Ebn Hamdan about the end of the tenth century ; rebuilt 1244 by Malik an Nasr. This gate is situated at the south-west corner of the walls, and takes its name from leading to the road to Kinisrin, sometimes called Old Aleppo. Kinisrin occupied the site of ancient Chalcis. The remains of this gate can still be examined, and, like the only two others I had an opportunity of seeing, consists of two strong towers with a recess between them, the peculiar feature being that the entrance does not pass through the centre of the building, but opens in the side of the right-hand tower. * Russell's spelling of the gate names is preserved. so THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. Bab al Makam, called the Damascus gate, begun by Malik Ad Daher and finished by his son Al Aziz. This is the southernmost gate of Aleppo, being a short distance east of the Kinisrin gate, and the wall being thrown forward between them. It is on the same plan as the last. Opposite this gate are large mounds, which seem to be, at any rate partly, artificial debris. On these stands a sheikh's tomb. Sheikh Ali, on which are several curious coats of arms, which will be re- verted to. These mounds block a singular natural ravine that leads directly towards the gate. If it was not for these mounds, which can hardly be all arti- ficial, it would seem that this ravine contained the road of approach, and dictated the position of this gnte. It is possible they represent some extramural buildings destroyed by an earthquake. Within this ravine are numerous extraordinary limestone caverns or grottos, some of great length. Many of them are now occupied by silk- weavers. It is very difficult to guess their origin, as they are probably all more or less artificial; they may have been ancient quarries. Bab al Nereeb and Bab al Ah mar, both on the east side ; Bab al Hadeed at the north east-corner ; Bab al Naser, or the Victorious gate, on the north, re-built by Ad Daher. SOMETHING ABOUT ALEITO. 81 Bab al Fiirrug-e (Faraj), also called Pharadeese or Al Abara, originally built by Ad Uaher. This is on the north-west side, and the present building is a wretched construction. And on the west side the sates called Babs, Jinein (the gardens), and Antaki (or Antioch). On this side of the town there is the best section of wall remaining. There are some seven or eight strong square towers, the third or fourth of which from the north I noticed was sculptured with two lions passant. All the towers seen here have apparently been much higher, and most of them have heavy machicolations. About the fifth, as far as I could see, for the wall is so built in with modern buildings that it is difficult to trace it, is the Bab Antaki of the same plan as Kin- isrin, and having some sculpture and inscriptions. Against the front is built a bazaar, which makes it impossible to examine it in detail. Further south towards Bab Kinisrin the towers are weak and small. Russell also mentions two gates into the northern suburb, by the names of Al Jideida and Al Urbain. The plan of the city within the walls is almost a square, but the suburbs which surround it give it a very irregular shape. Before proceeding to give some description, 1 reproduce an extract of Van Kgmont's 82 TIIRUUGII TURKISH ARABIA. statistics, which, like his other statements, are pro- bahly much exaggerated. lie states "that the city is divided into seventy-two wards, twenty-two in the city and fifty in the suburbs. The whole is computed to contain two hundred and seventy-two mosques, sixty-eight khans, sixty-four bagnios, thirty-seven mills turned by mules, two convents of durweeshes, eight schools, three madhouses, a prison, four soap- houses, eight slaughter-houses, six dyeing-houses, five churches, seventy-seven bazaars, and above five thousand houses." The general aspect of the interior of the town is extremely substantial for an Oriental city. The streets are built of excellent freestone, well fashioned, and the masonry fairly well put together. They are, however, with the exception of some of the bazaars, crooked, and of course narrow, although there are one or two by which a carriage can enter the bazaar. The roads are mostly fairly well paved, and on the whole moderately clean. The private houses, of course, present, except in some of the non-Muslim quarters, a plain and uninteresting expanse of wall to the road. A great proportion of them are only one-storied buildings, experience having taught the inhabitants the danaer of tall edifices in a town where earth- SOMETIIIXG ABOUT ALEPPO. 83 quakes seem to be " laid on."' Some of them, how- ever, have two stories. As a rule they surround a somewhat pretty little courtyard, into which the win- dows of the establishment look. In the case of some of the older houses, pretty little panels of arabesque are to be seen over these windows, and over the entrance- door. Sometimes windows themselves are cut into geometrical or other tracery in stone, which has a good effect. In the courtyard there is almost invari- ably a well. The roofs are, of course, flat, and upon them the inhabitants pass a great deal of their time. It is said that a great part of the town can be passed over without entering the street, by passing over the roofs. To the stranger making a call at a native house, Muslim or Christian, the mode of procedure is some- what embarrassing. The door is generally furnished with a knocker, in many cases now a French impor- tation in the shape of a lady's hand in iron or bronze. Upon this being applied no one opens the door, as Euro- peans would expect, but instead a squeaky voice is heard somewhere in the distance saying " Min (Who) — a somewhat awkward query to the traveller whose Arabic is not of the best. g2 84 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. Therc^ is no European quarter in Aleppo, and con- sequently there are no European shops. There is, however, one street which is particularly occupied by shops selling Frankish wares, and these are mostly kept by Levantines. There is among them one sho}) where a good many useful things for a journey, such as tinned provisions, biscuits, and similar things can be obtained. The bazaars themselves are extensive, and though, compared with Cairo, in every way inferior, yet they are superior to those seen at the present day at the more famous Bagdad. They are as a rule fairly wide, arched or covered over, and the shops (square niches in the wall, in which sits the merchant among his merchandise) are often larger, though less character- istic, than those of Cairo. Manchester cotton and prints are seen everywhere, which ugly, but cheap and serviceable, manufactures are cutting out the beautiful old silks of native make. Of course the silk manufacture is still carried on in Syria, at Aleppo and elsewhere, and beautiful things can be bought ; but the industry is sadly on the wane. Separate bazaars or markets are devoted to separate wares ; and the curious traveller can inspect markets teeming with wool, cotton, or hides, or tramp through long SOMETHlNCi ABOUT ALEPPO. 85 alleys hung with festoons of red slippers or silk kaffiehs. Under the friendly guidance of Mr. Jago, I had many rambles through these picturesque scenes. The size of the bazaars is shown by the fact that I was as much at sea as to my whereabouts in them at my last ramble as at my first ; but whether Van Egmont's seventy-seven bazaars exist now, or ever did, I have no means of knowing. A barber's shop in Aleppo is very characteristic. A square room is surrounded by a wooden bench, which is divided by arms into separate seats. This bench is very high, so that the individual to be oper- ated on has his feet about twelve inches above the floor. His face is thus brought out the correct level for operations. In the centre of the apartment is a tank, from which the water is taken, which after use is thrown on to the stone floor. The attendants of the barber are boys, who are fltted with tall pattens varying according to their own stature. A small boy has pattens a foot high, so as to bring him on to the right level. Of the mosques of Aleppo I saw nothing but the exteriors, as it is not customary to allow Europeans to enter. The great mosque, situated in the west part of the town, is called the Jamah Zakari, or Amawi, 86 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. and is supposed to contain the tomb of Zacharias,* and to replace a Christian church. Its chief feature is a handsome square minaret, divided externally into five stages by string courses ; the upper two being enriched with cusped arcades. The remainder of the building is a square court surrounded by colonnades. The mosque is said to have been twice burned down and rebuilt, so that between this and earthquakes it is improbable that much early work remains. The tower, however, which is said to bear the date of 1290, is in fair preservation. Some travellers assert that it is the belfry of St. Zacharias' church itself, which has been incorporated with the Muslim mosque. The church is said to have been built by the Empress Helena. (See Plate.) There is rather a pretty, though small, mosque on the south side of the citadel opposite the great gateway. It is called Sultanieh, or sometimes by Levantines and Franks, the Cruch or Crouche Mosque. It is now unused, and the doors are blocked up, so that I could not get inside. The front has a very tall pointed arch, in the recess of which is the doorway. To the spectator's left of the door are three tall square recesses, with stalactite work at the top. They are * Father to John tlie Baptist. SOMETHING ABOUT ALEPPO. 87 nlmost as tall as the great arch, which is in fact the height of the building as it is at present. These recesses each contain a square opening near the ground, and a small pointed window above. On the right of the door are three other similar recesses, which are not, however, close together, like those to the left. An octagonal minaret and two small domes rise above the building. Both upon the doorway described, and upon one on the north side of the building are coats of arms, which may be blazoned — On a fess a goblet, another in base. The citadel is by far the most interesting and remarkable place in the town. It is placed rather towards the east of the centre of the walled city, upon the highest ground within the walls. The great mound upon which the ancient fortifications stand is roughly circular, and surrounded by a wide and deep ditch. The circumference, taken at the edge of the ditch, must be close on three-quarters of a mile. The hill or mound itself is about two hun- dred feet in height, and although continually stated to be artificial, is in all probability only partly so, as Kussell states that live rock has been found near the summit. It is not improbable that the citadel occu- 88 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. pies part, possibly the whole, of the site of ancient Bercea, and it may be compared to some of the large mounds which stud the great plains of Northern Syria and Mesopotamia. The old Arab authors record a tradition that the hill is supported by two thousand columns, which may be but Oriental romance, or possibly have its origin from the dis- covery of ancient columns and buildings at the time when it was fortified by the Mohammedan con- querors. Indeed, Dr. Pococke states that he was informed that marble columns were frequently found deep ni the earth to the north-east of the citadel. Mr. Jago kindly obtained an order for me to view the place, and accompanied me himself on the occasion of my visit. We made our way to the great entrance on the south, which is by far the finest feature of the Avhole structure. I noticed that the slope of the mound was strongly faced with masonry, which proves that even if the hill is partly natural, it has been much improved and fashioned by art, as this masonry is no doubt meant to keep loose made earth from slipping down. The arrangement of the entrance is this : A massive square gate-house of great size has been built on the summit and slope of the hill, from wliich a stone bridge of six pointed SOMETHING ABOUT ALEPPO. 80 arches crosses the moat to a smaller gate-house, or barbican, placed within, but near the outer edge of the ditch. From this, again, a half-arch is tlirown into the counterscarp, completing the connexion across. (See Plate of the gate-house.) The barbican is a handsome construction, square in plan, with the angles rounded. The doorway is plain, with a fiat segmental arch, and on either side is a small window. Straight above is a triple machicolation for the purposes of defence. The summit is battlemented. The great gate-house is a noble structure thrown out nearly a square from the enceinte wall of the citadel. The entrance is through a lofty pointed arch, above which, rising to the present summit of the building, is a tall, right- an2:led recess, ornate with variegated masonry, and finished at the top with pendant or stalactite work. On either side of the entrance, at the spring of the arch, which is about half the total height of the building, are three sets of machicolations, those at the angles being sextuple and the others triple. Below these is a long inscription in the Kufy character, which is said to bear the name of Malik ad Dahir, a.h. 605. On either side of the tall square recess are small windows, and on the face of 90 THROUGH TUKKJSH ARABIA. the building are various circular medallions, some of which are inscribed. The citadel is at present unoccupied, except by a few soldiers, as the interior is quite ruinous. The Pasha of Aleppo, however, is a man who is particularly anxious to present a smart and soldier-like appearance in things military to any Europeans, and especially Englishmen, who visit the town, and whose curiosity leads them to examine or inquire in any way into such matters. The conse- quence of this was, that on our arrival at the great gate we were received by a guard of four men under the command of a junior officer, or captain over ten, who all came smartly to the " present " as we approached. The consular dragoman was in attend- ance, and the officer first drew our attention to a great number of holes in the outer wall, which he informed us were made by arrows and bolts, the heads of many of which, he stated, were still im- bedded in the stone. The holes are certainly there, but it is difficult to believe that an arrow launched from an ordinary hand-bow would have sufficient strength and penetration to force its way two inches or more into hard freestone. They are more probably formed by buJlets, but if, as is stated, the arrow-heads are still within the holes, some very SOMETHING ABOUT ALIii'rO. 91 powerful engine must have been used to launch them at the walls. Passing under the great arch we found ourselves within a lofty recess, all three sides of which were defended by machicolations, whicli were carried on at the same level, and were, in fact, the continuation of the line of machicolations observed outside. The approach to the interior of the castle from here is by a long winding staircase of great breadth, and vaulted above at a great height. This stair turns first to the right, out of the arched recess, and afterwards makes several turns in either direction, before the level of the enceinte is reached. It is defended at intervals by strong iron doors. I be- lieve, though here I speak from memory, that these are three in number. The outer one is plain, but the inner ones are decorated in a somewhat curious fashion, the surface of the metal being divided into small squares, each of which has in the centre a horse-shoe of wrought iron. On one of the gates there is also an inscription in the same metal. At the last turn before the eiiceiate is reached there are on the right the tombs of two holy men, whose names I was not able to ascertain. These are decorated with tattered Hags. 92 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. Just inside the gate, a grating close to the ground, and giving light apparently to an underground chamber, was pointed out to us as a window of the old castle prison ; * and close by, our attention was gravely drawn to a large tank of water, which tradition said was the identical vessel in which Abraham kept the milk of the self-same dappled cow who had the honour to giving a name to Aleppo. From here we were conducted through desolate ruins to the north side of the hill, where there still stands a square minaret, the solitary remnant of the citadel mosque. Here chairs were brought for us to sit, and another officer, of superior grade, appeared to point out the beauties of the scene, while coffee and glasses of the citadel water were brought us. The latter was drawn from a well, said to be one hundred and fifty yards deep, at the bottom of which is a roaring torrent, an assertion which we received with the utmost gravity, and tried to look as if we swallowed it with the same facility with which we swallowed the water. The view from the summit of the minaret is extremely fine. At one's feet lies the town, which in itself, however, is somewhat * Described by Tyrvvitt Drake in " Unexplored Syria" as an immense rock cut column-supported vault, probably originally a cistern. SOMETHING ABOUT ALEPPO. 93 uninteresting, as little besides the courts of the mosques and the roof-tops is to be seen. One notices but half-a-dozen minarets and a few domes. How different from the gorgeous spectacle that unrolls itself at the feet when one gazes from the citadel of Cairo. At the same time one realises for the Hrst time the great size of Aleppo, and the buzz rising from the city apprises one of the great popu- lation thronging it. To the north-west lay in the distance the mountains about Beilan, which I had but a few days before crossed ; due north at a great distance another low blue mountain, which must be somewhere close to Aintab ; in the same direction at our feet was the Serai, while just outside the city the domes of Skeikhu Bekr, a monastery of durwishes, formed a striking object ; and close to it an ugly range of barracks. East, lay miles of moory desert, stretching away towards the Euphrates ; south-east could be discerned the depression in which lies the great salt lake of Jibul ; while on the west and south-west we saw the blue plain through which the river winds in its orchards of fruit trees. Due west rose against the sky the snow peaks about Antioch. Leaving the minaret, we were conducted to the 94 TliKOUGlI TUKKISII AEABIA. castle well, where the water is raised by means of a horse and windlass. From the sound caused by dropping- a stone into it, it appears to be of very great depth. All the while we were moving about, soldiers rushed hither and thither with chairs, to stick them down before us whenever we paused. Having now seen the sights, a third officer, still more mighty than his predecessors, appeared, having apparently been kept hidden to the last as a special treat and mark of honour. With him we proceeded to a small room in the walls, which was furnished with divans and was apparently used for the I'ecep- tion of superior offi.cers when they visited the citadel. We were no sooner seated than coffee was again served, followed immediately by enormous glasses of orange sherbet. Etiquette demanded that we should drink them, which we did, all swelling visibly under the operation. Some desultory conversation followed, and we then departed with much bowing, salaming, hat removing, and bakhshishing ; the latter, of course, being conveyed to the guard of honour of four men, commanded by the captain of ten, who in their exuberance came to the " present " with redoubled violence as we left the building. Mr. Jago informed me that such a display of fan- SOiMETllIAG .^BOUT ALEITO. 05 tasiii was quite unusual ou the occasion of the citadel being visited by Europeans. As a rule a solitary soldier conducts the stranger over the place. The wall enclosing- the citadel is strengthened at frequent intervals, but the whole is now in a state of utter ruin. There are also one or two outworks in the shape of towers, built out into the ditch, and connected with the main fortification by walls. The citadel, of course, played an important part iu the various vicissitudes which Aleppo passed through, and of which mention has already been made. In 1630 the Sultan Amurath IV. stripped it of such artillery as it then possessed, to make use of in besieging Bagdad. Van Egmont informs us that in his time the castle contained about two hundred and fifty houses ; its inhabitants were usually twelve thousand, and its garrison three hundred and fifty ; that the janissaries in garrison never took the field in any emergency, but when once in the castle lived and died in that service, and that it did " not seem to be answerably provided with cannon and other military stores." Some of the vaults are now said to contain a quantity of ancient bows, arrows, and other weapons. Being now upon things military, I may mention 96 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. that the only troops 1 had an opportunity of seeing at Aleppo on parade were live batteries of artillery that passed one morning through the Azizia quarter, on their way to the plain outside the town, where they were going to exercise. The guns were Krupps in good order, and some of the horses excellent. But the men were dirty, and the harness and trap- pings very rotten-looking and not clean. The latter Avas, as I learnt afterwards, a job lot, bought cheap after the American Civil War. There are many khans in Aleppo, in which, indeed, even at this day, much of the trade of Oriental towns is transacted, and the great courtyards of which are generally stored with vast piles of merchandise. Some among them are handsome structures, vividly recalling the romances of the " Thousand and One Nights." One, probably the finest in Aleppo, is called the Khan el Wezir, and is situated in the west of the town. It is entered by a fine gateway, the masonry of which on the side facing the street is in courses of black and white laid alternately. On the front are carved panels and bosses sculptured with lions. The inner side of the entrance has a pointed arch supported on columns, with stalactite Passing- throu2;h this S'ate I found myself in SOMETHING ABOUT ALEPl'O. 97 a large square, in the centre of which was a foun- tain, so that the whole building had very much the appearance of an early mosque. The quadrangle buildings were of two stories, the lower plain, with doorways entering from the court, while the front of the upper was an open arcade on all sides, except that on which was the entrance. This colonnade was mostly of plain character, being simple arches supported on square columns ; but in two places — namely, at the left end of the side to the left on entering, and a section at the same end of the side opposite the entrance — there was arcade work of more ornate character, having slightly ogee arches supported by Saracenic columns with stalactite, or otherwise ornamented capitals. At first I was inclined to think that this indicated a difference of date, but as, where the two styles joined, there was a bastard column consisting of a square support, with a demi-column built to its side, it is possible the whole building is of one date, and may, perhai)s, have been built a hundred and fifty years ago. Many of the windows looking into the court had very pretty arabesques over them. The fountain was also supported by columns of the same char- acter as the ornate part of the arcade. H 98 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. I have mentioned that curious coats of arms occur on various ancient buildings. Such as I noticed were all verv similar. The followino; is a list : — ■!-> 1. On a fess a goblet or cup, in base another. On Jamah Sultanieh. 2. On a fess between two cornucopias (mouth downwards) a ofoblet, in chief a lozenge, in base another goblet. On a pretty old Saracenic fountain or watering place, on the north side of the town, close to Sheikhu Bekr. The arms, as usual, are on medallions. There is also in the centre a devotional inscription, and there are other medallions with inscriptions. 3. Arms as No. 2. These again occur on a tomb called Sheikh Ali, oTitside the Bab el Makam. 4. On a fess between a hieroglyphic formula i^ on dexter, and — -=c] in sinister, a goblet, in chief a lozenge, in base another goblet. — This curious variety I observed on a piece of wall, in the west side of the town. Similar coats of arms to these occur on Egyptian mosques, and sometimes on small objects, such as glass lamps for mosques, in Cairene work of the four- teenth and fifteenth centuries, under the Mamluk dynasties. A memoir on this subject was written by the late E. T. Rogers Bey, and is published in the "Bulletin d I'lnstitut Egyptien," 1880. This I have not had an opportunity of consulting, but there are some interesting remarks on the same subject in the South Kensington Art handbook on Saracenic Art SOMETHING ABOUT ALEPPO. 99 in Egypt, by Mr. Stanley Lane Poole. From this I learn that the coat No. 1 was a common combination, and that No. 2 was actually used by Sultan Kait Bey in Egypt, and also by one of his officers. Amir Jan- balat, who afterwards became Sultan. It is con- jectured that the use of the goblet indicated that the bearer had held the office of cup-bearer to the Sultan, and in Cairo other charges of a similar nature are found, such as a pair of polo sticks, indicating the office of "jokendar" or polo master, and keys, that of chamberlain. No. 4 is a remarkable coat, as the hieroglyphic formula \ , p.^ — [ is also found, though in different combinations, upon shields of Egyptian Mamluk rulers of the fourteenth century. The hierogly- phic formula in question is a common one on ancient Egyptian monuments, and signifies "Lord of the Upper and Lower Country." It is the opinion of Rogers Bey that the Mamluks using this charge must have understood its meaning ; but Mr. Lane Poole suggests that this particular title may have been preserved by the Copts ; or that the Mamluks, without understanding it, may have inferred, from its frequency, that it was a title of honour. The occurr- ence of it in Northern Syria is still more remarkable. h2 100 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. There are few miscellaneous antiquities to be seen in Aleppo. The wall at the Antioch gate is built as a sort of revetment, the level within being at a much higher level than outside. At a point here inside, but on a level with the top of the wall, I noticed a curious building, with many fragments of ancient basalt and granite columns. There is also built into its wall a curious stone, sculptured with what may be an inscription. It is much worn, and appears to be upside down. The work is divided into two rows, and appears to consist of human figures and trees. I should doubt if it could be de- ciphered.* The suburbs of Aleppo consist of Jedeida on the north, Azizia on the west, Kittab on the south- west, and Ferdus on the south. There are also con- siderable suburbs on the east, to which I could not ascertain that any special name was given. They are probably the oldest extramural portions of Aleppo. Jedeida and Azizia are principally inhabited by Christians. The former suburb existed in Russell's day, but is increasing in size at the present day. Azizia is quite new, and is separated from the town * I fancy this stone must be the subject of the engraving in Burton and Drake's " Unexplored Syria," Vol. II., p. 185. SOMETHING ABOUT ALEtl^O.' <'■'''-''' ''^ I'G i by the belt of cemeteries which surround the town. It is built of excellent masonry, with wide streets. The houses are all built in two stories, and are in no case European in style. Like the town houses, they surround a court, but being nearly all built for Christians they have also large windows facing on to the streets. These are generally large projections, like the mushrahiehs of Cairo, but of course without the elegance. Many of the windows have a good deal of rather pretty wrought-iron work about them. This is all done in Aleppo. The doors are generally studded with iron nails, many, indeed, being plated with sheets of that metal. Although so much of the bazaars and streets in the town is covered over, this mode of building has now been made illegal. Close to the hotel was a new street, all of which belonged to one owner. He, wishing to vault it over in the old style, bakhshished the authorities handsomely, and having got every- thing in readiness, ran up the scaffolding in a night, and when morning broke two hundred men were just getting to work to set the arches. Unfortu- nately for the enterprise, it came to the ears of some superior authority, I think the Waly, who dropped on the proceedings in a trice, and put an end to 102 TIlKOL^GII TURKISH AEABIA. them. The walls all stand unfinished, with the corbels fixed, on which the arches were to rest. Aleppo, as I have said, is completely surrounded by cemeteries. The majority are of course Moslem, but on the north are to be found the European, Armen- ian, and Jewish burying-grounds. The former is close to the Azizia quarter, and contains many in- scriptions in remembrance of English and other European merchants, who were members of the factories during the last two hundred years. I should have liked, if I had had time, to have trans- scribed the English ones. They are mostly very simple as, Charles Robert Thompson, Esq., of Whitehaven, in England Died at Aleppo on the 20th of December, 1865. Some, probably foreign, are embellished with florid coats of arms, and nearly all are unfortunately in a sad state of disrepair. Mention has already been made of the river, and the pretty orchards on its edge. Aleppo is, of course, too far north for date palms, although one or two stunted specimens exist in private gardens as curiosities. Neither are oranges to be seen here, as the climate is too cold. Ashes, poplars, and walnuts, however, grow well, and there are a variety SOMETHING ABOUT ALEITO. iOo of fruit trees. Considerable fig and olive groves are also to be seen, but these are mostly found on slopes south-west of the city. To the east of Aleppo there are also large plantations of pistachio trees. Indeed, the Aleppo pistachio nuts are said to be the best in the world. The irrigation is chiefly by the Persian water-wheel or nahura, which is in use on the Euphrates down to its junction with the Tigris. There is also an ancient aqueduct bringing water from near a place called Heilan some distance to the north. Russell states that this conduit was supposed to be as old as the city, and to have been repaired by the Empress Helena. There are in places on the outskirts of Aleppo little wells and sanctuaries, which have no doubt been charitable foundations of princes or other wealthy individuals. One of these has already been mentioned, situated north of the town, near the durwish monastery of Sheikhu Bekr, as having a sculptured heraldic device upon it. Another I noticed near the river in the same direction. It consisted only of a small building with two arched recesses, one containing a well or tank for ablution, and the other a mihrah or niche for prayer in the direction of Mecca. It thus formed a well for the weary traveller to halt by, and a 104 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. complete masjid, or place of worship, for the devout. The durwish monastery on the north of Aleppo, called Sheikhu Bekr, forms a somewhat striking feature, as it is situated on high ground. It has externally but few architectural features of beauty, bat its five domes and one minaret have a very pleasing, and truly Oriental effect. Some very tall trees growing about it also add to its appearance. The durwishes are not, I believe, of the whirling or dancing kind. One of the pleasantest walks I took in the vicinity was across the river and on to the summit of high ground lying to the south-west. The road lay part of the way through beautiful olive orchards, after which we passed two large build- ings situated under a cliff to the right. These I was variously informed were mosques and durwish monasteries, the former account being, I believe, correct, although the places seemed almost unused. From here we wound out into the high ground, where a very fine distant view of Aleppo was obtained. The population of Aleppo are a very mixed breed : the chief proportion are of course Syrians, but there are many Armenians, Jews, and Turks, and SOMETHING ABOUT ALEPPO. 105 a considerable smattering of semi-settled Bedawis, who reside on the south side of the town, partly in wretclied hovels and partly in huts and tents. There is also the European element, consisting chiefly of Greeks and Italians, with a few French, Russians, and English, some of which nations are, however, represented chiefly by the consular representatives ; these latter mostly reside in the Azizia quarter. The languages in use are Arabic, Turkish, and Armenian, the former being used not only by the Syrian Mohammedans, but also by the Syrian Christians ; Turkish is a good deal spoken in the bazaars. The number of the population has been, and still is, given in very various figures ; the old Arab authors computed it at 250,000 ; M. DArvieux in 1683 at 205,000 ; Van Egmont in 1759 says it was generally computed at 300,000 ; 13r. Russell in 1794 tells us 235,000, out of which 35,000 were Christians and 5,000 Jews ; the Editor of " Murray's Guide to Palestine " remarks that all these are probably exaggerated, and that the population probably never exceeded 150,000. There is no census now to go by, but the present population is variously computed at 70,000 to 90,000, of whom 16,000 or 18,000 may be Christians, and 3,500 or 106 THllOUGH TURKISH AllABlA. 4,500 Jews;* and it is improbable that the city ever covered more space of ground, if, indeed, as much as it does at the present day. Van Egmont, who gives some curious statistics about the number of houses, which are reproduced elsewhere, remarks : " It is said that six hundred sheep are killed for meat every day." The Halebis, or inhabitants of Aleppo, have always prided themselves on their courtesy of demeanour and good breeding. Among the upper classes of Mohammedans this may be so, but it is hard to believe it to be more than skin-deep where society is in such a corrupt condition as it is said to be in all classes throughout Aleppo. Among the lower classes met with in the bazaars and streets, the ordinary traveller may be excused from entirely agreeing with this adage. The native people of all races in Aleppo appeared to me, as far as from my passing experience I could judge, rude, ill-mannered, and false. Coming out of Egypt one misses the smiling civility of the fellahin. In both places, indeed, one may be followed about and stared at, but in Aleppo there is an oft'ensiveness in the way of doing it which is never met with in Egypt. Of course the explanation * In the time of Benjamin of Tudela (twelfth century), there were 1,500 Jews. SOMETHING ABOUT ALEPl'O. 107 of this is partly, that the sight of a European is so much more unusual. But there is undoubtedly still a slumbering fanaticism left, a hatred of Frankish dress and customs, which, although not much shown, is nevertheless there, xln Englishman cannot pass through many of the Eastern streets of Aleppo with- out being assailed with the cry of " Frenghi " from the children ; and on one occasion when I had sat down on the north side of the town among some tombs to make a sketch, I w^as suddenly pelted with stones by a lot of boys who had noticed my arrival, and now assailed me from an ambush of tombstones ; of course the minute I sallied out with a good oak stick they dispersed : but these small matters show the latent disposition of the people. The Mohammedans of Aleppo have always borne a character for fanaticism and intolerance ; even at the present day it is commonly said that a European cannot enter the mosques with impunity. But this is of course a common state of things in most Turkish towns which are off the track of the tourist.* * Of course nothingmore than annoyance might result from entering many of the ordinary mosques, if the traveller was careful. Mr. Tyrwitt Drake walked into the great mosque and some others at Alei^po, rather, it would seem, because he was told Christians could not enter ; but it does not follow that a less experienced traveller could have done so without trouble. 108 TIIUOUGII TURKISH ARABIA. It is equally impossible in Bagdad, where I was even liindered from ascending a solitary minaret, the mosque of which had disappeared. Van Egmont, on the subject of intolerance in Aleppo, tells the follow- ing: " There is a story current here that a Turk of considerable fortune having read something in the Alcoran which he could not well understand, and being desirous of information, went to the Cadi to ask the meaning of it, to which the Cadi answered, ' Follow me, and I will explain it to you,' and leading him into another chamber, he suddenly drew his sabre and struck off his head." Again: "That two Turks playing at chess, the one pausing a long time at a move, the other said, ' Do play, for Abubekr's sake.' The former musing on his game, and not willing to be interrupted in his thought, dropt seme hasty abusive word on Abubekr, which the latter, being on the losing side, reported to the Cadi ; and on this bare deposition the antagonist was sentenced to lose his head, and was accordingly executed the next day." The native Christians of all sects impress one with the general idea that they are "too sharp to be honest." Among the Armenians, however, of SOMETHING ABOUT ALEPPO. 109 whom there are some 2,000, some good faces are to be seen. The majority of the Christians are Greeks, but there are also a good many Maronites and some Syrian Catholics. The American missionaries have managed to form a small Protestant community. Costume as seen in Aleppo is very various. Among the townspeople, the tarbush (or fez) is perhaps the most usual. These are made a variety of shapes. The stiff felt sort is sometimes an absurd height, giving the wearer a ridiculous appearance. Sometimes, instead of the usual red, they are made in black. The soft tarbush, fitting more close to the head, has generally wrapped round it a small pocket- handkerchief, thus making an attempt at a turban. The proper and more dignified turban is also seen, but it has greatly given way to the tarbush. The Arabs of the desert, and indeed the villagers and country people throughout Northern Syria, wear the kaffieh, not the gorgeous silk kafheh, resplendent with gold thread, but a Manchester pocket-handkerchief of a simple but not ugly pattern, which never deviates from the Syrian coast to the Persian Gulf. It is worn thrown loosely over the head (on which and under the handkerchief is worn a white skull- cap), and is secured by a double band of camel's 110 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. hair or wool. These bands vary greatly. Some are a stiff thick roll, like a German sausage, three feet long; others are made of loose yarn, neatly gathered in with gay coloured silks at intervals. I bought a variety in the bazaar at Bagdad at various prices and of various patterns. The colours are black, brown, and white, the latter being very effective. A great many Aleppines now disfigure the dignified Oriental costume by wearing a long, ugly black coat, cut in European style instead of the juhheli or abhah which ought to form the outer garment of the Turk or Arab. This, together with the tall tarbush, a combination one continually sees at Aleppo among the townspeople, is a sad falling off from the dignified turban and jubbeh of the Turk of the old school. Some of the Effendis who lodged at the Azizia wore Frankish dress altogether, excepting only the tarbush. The Aleppo climate is fine, dry and bracing. The summer heat is said to be never excessive, and the winter, although fairly rigorous, is not trying ; snow is known, but does not remain long. The European residents have, of course, stoves and fire-places, but I believe the natives entirely de- pend on the charcoal brazier for warmth. Like most SOMETHING ABOUT ALEPPO. Ill of the towns in this part of Asia, it has its occasional bad turns of cholera, as, in spite of its appearini^: cleaner than other towns in this part of Turkey, the sanitation is probably equally ineffective. The Aleppo button or boil, the " Hebbet es Sinah," or " botch of a year " of the residents, is no doubt one of the causes why so few tourists visit the capital of Northern Syria. This disease is, however, not confined to Aleppo: it is found all down the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates, and is very prevalent at Bagdad, where it is called the "date mark." A great deal has been written on the subject, but no one understands either the cause or nature of the complaint, which is certainly a scourge on the country. It consists of one or more painful and disfiguring sores, which at Aleppo make their ap- pearance in the winter months, and remain for a full year. Nothing will heal it, although some doctors have made the truly useful discovery that it can be driven from one part of the body to another. In the case of children, who are most liable to it, it generally appears on the face and legs. I have seen European children of six or seven, with three or four disfiguring scars on the face and a similar number on the calves of the less. I do not think 112 TIIEOUGH TUEKISII ARABIA. it is too much to say that half of the children of five to ten in the streets of Aleppo show scabs or scars on the faces. European adults who come to Aleppo may escape or live years without it, but if it attacks them it is more generally on the forearm. There is no rule for this, however, and I have seen English ladies, who have resided but a compara- tively short time near the Persian Gulf, with bad " date marks " on their faces. Travellers passing through this district may develop it on their return to Europe. Various conjectures have of course been made as to the origin. The idea that it is due to bad water might have merited consideration had the ailment been confined to Aleppo ; but as it is equally prevalent in the valleys of the sweet-watered Tigris and Euphrates, the theory may be dismissed. More credit may be given to the supposition that it is caused by a fly. Mr. Jago, indeed, informed me that there was a certain insect which appeared, I think in December, and that the cases generally ap- peared a short time later. The disease is neither infectious nor dangerous, but it is of a sufficiently troublesome nature to deserve a careful investig-a- tion. SOMETHING ABOUT ALEPPO. 113 Van Egmout says : " It is a common saying that if anyone comes to Aleppo in a state of health, he will not soon fall sick ; on the other hand, if he have any latent illness, it will soon declare itself." The characteristic but not always pleasant traits of Oriental custom and life are perhaps not as common in Aleppo as in some other Oriental towns. Yet in this nineteenth century, in this populous city but seventy miles from the Mediterranean, I saw a mad dursvish standing shivering stark naked against the w^all of a mosque, in the heart of the bazaar, in the full light of day, and unnoticed by the enlightened Turk- ish authorities. Long black locks hung dishevelled on his shoulders, and he demanded, in a quavering voice, alms from the passers by. There are, or were till recently, several individuals of this character to be seen in the bazaars. Curiously enough, one of the gala days in Aleppo seems to be Sunday. It is, of course, the Christians' holiday, and Muslims take the opportunity to meet their Christian friends for a chat. On Sunday the coifee-houses near the entrance to tlie town are crowded with naijileh smokers, and the roads are crowded with all sorts of people. Amongst the medley crowd, one is sorry to notice how few Turks 114 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. of the old school are to be seen. EfFenclis, Greeks, Armenians, and Jews, all jostle each other in confusion, and in the side-roads young men are galloping about furiously on horseback, their only idea of good horse- manship. Here and there a showy Arab is to be seen, but most are fearful screws. w^^ ANAZEH CAMKLS AT MBSKINEH. CHAPTER V ON THE ROAD. Make a Start — Bakhshish — Jebrin, a Beehive Village — Cruelty to Caravan Animals — Sabbakh, a Salt Lake — Arrive at Deir Hafr — The Khan — ^My Zabtieh's Yarns — Fleas — My Takht-i-rawan — Order of March — My Attendants — ^A Ferocious Lizard — Bedawi Sheep-stealers — First Sight of the Euphrates — The Anazeh Camp — Mesldneh — Balis — Sheikh Ghana — Abu Hureira and Kalah Jaber — We meet my Men's Uncle — Turkish Police — Leben Butter and Dates. On the morning of the 11th of March I rose with the lark, hoping to make an early start. As it was Friday, I had told the muleteers, in response to a request that I would not start till after the morning prayer, that I had no wish to interfere with their religious arrangements, and should be quite satisfied if every- thing was in readiness at noon. Haji Mohammed, the chief akam, wit^h whom I had arranged that he should do the little cooking I should require, turned up early and informed me that all would be in readi- l2 110 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. ness at that time. But immediately after my lunch, the katterji appeared and professed complete ignor- ance as to my intention to start that day at all. One of the consular cawasses, however, having come to inquire when I started, volunteered to go with the katterji and see that the takht and mules were instantly forthcoming. I then walked down to the Consulate, and at about two o'clock word was sent down that all was ready. Mr. Jago walked up to the hotel to see me start, where we found the narrow street filled with my mules and baggage. At a little distance stood my " takht," gorgeous in blue and red paint, and mounted on the backs of two strong and active looking mules. At half-past two my traps were all secured, somehow or other, on the backs of the animals, and as they filed down to where the takht was, the clanging of the great mule bells brotight everyone to the street-doors to see the Englishman's caravan take its departure. My zabtieh, who had sat under a wall opposite the hotel since eight o'clock, smoking cigarettes and talking to his fat little horse, climbed laboriously, rifle, jackboots, and revolver, on to his animal, and moved to the front : a chair was brought and put for me to climb into my conveyance, and after a hearty handshake with the kind Consul, I ON THE KOAD. 117 scrambled in and was off. A few townspeople joined the procession till we got to the suburbs, and then returned to their homes. No sooner were we quite clear of the houses before the muleteers appeared at the door and demanded bakhshish for the " katterji bashi," or head muleteer. I did not understand at first that this was for the head muleman, who was resident in Aleppo, and after, so to speak, seeing us off' the premises, was now about to return. Probably it is a custom to give this individual something on this occasion, but of this I knew nothing, and ab- solutely refused, saying that not a penny of bakhshish would be forthcoming until we arrived at Bagdad. Thereupon the katterji bashi departed in great dud- geon, and looking out of the window, I perceived Haji Mohammed produce a shilling from his pocket and offer it him ; the katterji bashi on his part onlv cursed, and knocked the shilling into the mud. Where- upon Mohammed picked it up, and we resumed the even tenor of our ways. It was a glorious breezy day, and the route lay over a similar wide plain to that over which we ap- proached Aleppo from the west. Here, however, it was much less stony, and was partly under cultiva- tion. In an hour's time we passed on the right u 118 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. village called Deir, which being built of conical huts, looked at a distance like a collection of beehives. In another hour we came to an exactly similar village, which was to be our resting-place, the first stage on journeys of this description being always a nominal one. In this village, which my men called Jebrin, I was glad to find that there was no oda nor khan, so that we encamped in a square covered with green turf in the centre of the village. This square was surrounded on three sides with conical huts, and the fourth side was open except for a small building with a courtyard and a bell, which had the appearance of a khan, but which Haji Mohammed said was a mosque. Although there were, I should think, several hundred of these huts, hardly a soul was to be seen, and no one evinced the slightest interest in my arrival. A little well in the square afforded water for the use of caravans. A line was pegged to the earth forming three sides of a square, and to this my mules were tethered for the night, having their huge pack-saddles left on them. This ignorant and cruel custom is rendered worse by the fact that all caravan animals in the East suffer grievously from sore backs consequent, of course, on the heavy loads and hard work, and ON THE ROAD. 119 especially on these villainously heavy saddles, which are invariably badly stuffed. It is impossible to make a muleteer remove these at night, as, from time im- memorial, it has been the custom to leave them on, and it is impossible to convince him that any other arrangement is preferable. The answer is that the animals have sore backs, and will catch cold. So they have ; but it is due to the saddles, and if, at the commencement of a journey, these were removed every night, the backs would get harder, and the sores slower in forming. Towards the end of the journey some of my unfortunate mules' backs were so sore that I felt like a demon of cruelty to use them. But there was no help for it. There were no new animals to be obtained, and I could not camp for a fortnight in the desert till they got well. The caravan-men themselves think nothins: of it. They are so accustomed to the sight that I believe if they saw a mule or ass without a sore back, they would think it a new species of animal. My tent was then pitched near the mules, and after my frugal meal of cold fowl, bread and dates, I went to bed, and, in spite of the ceaseless clanging of the mule bells, and the barkinsf of the villao-e do^s, I obtained some sleep. 120 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. At half-past five o'clock the next morning, just as 1 was preparing to make myself a brew of coffee, I heard a hoarse voice outside my tent door saying, " Yallah, sahib." This was Haji Mohammed's signal for departure, and immediately after I heard them loosing the lines preparatory to striking the tent. I accordingly rolled up my bed, while the men struck and packed the tent, and then swallowed my coffee while the men packed the animals and lifted the heavy takht on to the mules. At half-past six all Avas ready, and off we went. There had been a heavy shower of rain in the night, and the morning was overcast and cloudy, but everything smelt sweet and pleasant as we got out into the plain. The country we first passed over was similar to that of the pre- ceding day, and in the distance we discerned low brown hills. Artificial tells or hillocks, marking- ancient sites here and there, villages of similar character to Jebrin, some with a herd of cows or flock of piebald sheep, an occasional caravan of camels wending its way to Aleppo, and a few big birds which looked like gigantic herons, were the only objects that broke the monotony of the road. One of the tells of very considerable size, apparently not much inferior to that of the citadel hill at ON THE ROAD. 121 Alejipo, we passed close to the base of, about ten o'clock, and at eleven and half-past twelve we crossed two small streams running south. A few miles to our right lay a depression, in which lies the salt lake (or malih), called Sabbakh, or Subkhet el Jebool of Russell, Jebool or Jebul being the name of a village on the edge of it. This curious place Henry Maun- drell, who was chaplain of the Aleppo factory at the end of the seventeenth century, gives an account, of, in an appendix to one of his books of travel. He states that " it is of two or three hours' extent . . and is of an exact level, and appears at a distance like a lake of water. ... In the heat of summer the water is dried off; and when the sun has scorched the ground, there is found remaining the crust of salt, which they gather and separate into several heaps, according to the degrees of fineness, some being exquisitely white, others alloyed witli dirt. . . Along on one side of the valley, viz., that towards Gibul, there is a small precipice, about two men's lengths, occasioned by the continuous taking away of the salt. ... At Gibul are kept the magazines of salt, where you find great mountains, as I may say, of that mineral ready for sale. The valley is farmed of the Grand Sisfnor at twelve hundred 122 THROUGH TURKISH AHARIA. dollars per annum." From Jebul [ believe all the salt for Aleppo comes at the present day. At a quarter past two we arrived at Deir Hafr, a village situated at the foot of an ancient tell, and in the midst of a plain covered with soft green turf. A little west of the village is a good-looking house with a few willow-like trees near it. This is the residence of some rich inhabitant of Aleppo. Half-a-dozen colts were grazing in front of the village. We put up at a miserable-looking khan, where a room — certainly with a lock and key, but in other respects much inferior to an English cow-house — was allotted to me. There were spaces for windows, but all the fittings were gone, and the filthy and ruinous ceiling was tenanted by a large colony of swallows. The people about, however, seemed civil and obliging, and when I inquired for some milk, a pleasant-faced young villager brought me a refresh- ing draught, for which he refused to accept any payment. I then, with an eye to the next day's breakfast, purchased for a piastre (twopence) nine eggs, which I made Mohammed boil hard in my presence, in a little liovel, which acted for kitchen to the khan. After I had eaten. I set out for a short stroll with ON THE EOA.D. 123 my zabtieh, with whom I had yet had little conver- sation. He was a funny fuzzy-faced man, more in features like a Cossack than an Arab, and was dressed, as most of these men are, half in shabby uniform and half in mufti. On his head, of course, the everlasting kaffieh. I found him a simple, goodnatured sort of chap, but could make little of his Arabic, which shattered all my preconceived notions of that tongue. He pronounced keteer (big) " chiteer," and kelb (dog) " chellib." I found him, however, very handy at making himself understood by signs. He told me that he had accompanied an l^nglishman and his dragoman over this country several years ago. The Englishman was of course a sportsman, and a wonderful one, for he bagged four wild pig with one shot, the bullet passing- clean through the head of each animal. The zabtieh added that he had a dog — a black retriever, who immediately retrieved the lot. To make this story intelligible, he illustrated it by placing four little stones in line, to represent the pigs, and knocking them all over with his stick suddenly to represent their simultaneous death at the hands of the sports- man. On my return, as there was nothing more to be 124 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. done, I sat with my pipe, watching the proceedings in the khan courtyard. My six mules were busy in tether at their chopped fodder, and rough-looking peasants were engaged in grooming their sorry sore- backed nags. From the hovel kitchen, where the simple fare of my men was preparing, poured a thick black smoke, which made the air in the court even more unpleasant, though I was in hopes that it would act as a soporific on some of the insects which I expected were in my room. When I turned in for the night I found that my conjectures on the subject were correct, and I had not lain down for more than ten minutes, when I had to rise and distribute Keating's insect powder wholesale. I did not find it very efficacious, and had a lively night. As a matter of fact, I did not get my bedding clear of these pests for about a week, and excepting two nights at the town of Deir, I slept in my tent all the remainder of the route to Bagdad. Before continuing the narrative of my journey, it may be of some interest to give some description of my takht-i-rawan, and the order of travelling I observed. The takht-i-rawan is a square-built box about six feet long by three feet nine inches wide. It is painted blue, except the roof, which is red. ON THE ROAD. 125 There are glass windows all round, protected on the outside by thin iron bars, very necessary in making one's way through the tamarisk scrub on the edge of the river, and a pair of doors on each side. Inside, at the end next to the leading mule, is a shelf, on which tobacco, refreshments, and a book or two could be placed ; and below this was suffi- cient space for a bag or basket. At each end, outside, are a pair of shafts, terminated by big rings. The mules to carry the takht are provided with immense saddles, on each side of which is a big hook. To place it upon the animals, the takht is raised by two men, and the animals being placed between the shafts, the rings are caught on the hooks, and it is so suspended. It is further steadied by a rope attached to one of the shafts, which is passed over the saddle, and secured to the opposite shaft. The takht is very strongly built, of ridiculous solidity, and cruel weight for the poor mules. The plan is not bad, but a similar and strong enough conveyance might be made of half the weight. The order of the day was this. At the first glimmer of dawn Haji Mohammed roused me, and while I brewed my coffee or cocoa, the tent was 126 THROUGH TURKISH AI.'ABIA. struck, bedding rolled, and everything was packed on to the mules. The takht was then slung, Haji gave nie a ''knee," I scrambled in, and off we went, generally just as the sun rose. Inside I settled myself for the day as comfortably as possible. A quilt Avas placed on the floor to be more easy, and at my back was my roll of bedding, I had my Glad- stone bag in alongside of me with notebooks and some literature. It was of course necessary to trim the takht, so that it did not bear unevenly on one side of the animals. Settled down, I finished my breakfast with bread, hard-boiled eggs, and perhaps dates, and then I snuggled down at nearly full length, with my pipe and my notebook, and between reading, writing, and perhaps a doze, I got on very Avell till ten or eleven o'clock, when I got out for a couple of hours' walk. When I returned I opened my basket and made my lunch of bread, cold chicken (if I possessed any), and more dates. Some time in the afternoon, generally about one or two, we arrived at our camping place, " outspanned," the tent was pitched, and after I had had a luxurious wash in the turbid Euphrates, I set off for a walk before my dinner, which I had about five o'clock. My dinner, cooked by my trusty Haji, consisted of rice or vermi- ON THE ROAD. 127 celli, bread, dates, and, when I had it, chicken. The last hixury could only be obtained some five or six times during the journey, on which occasions I generally bought two or three, and had them all cooked at once. After dinner 1 had one pipe, and then to bed about half-past seven or eight. The motion of the takht is not so bad. as might be imagined. It certainly rolled a great deal (Europeans first trying them are sometimes sea-sick), but except on rough ground there was none of the jolt of a wheeled conveyance, and as one can sit or lie at full length, it is much easier. In spite of its weight the mules never fell, but crossing streams or ascending- steep inclines the jolting was very bad. If the weather was hot, I opened the doors and windows and drew the curtains ; if cold, as it sometimes was in the early mornings, I pulled a rug over me and shut up. The order of march was as follows : The four mules not in the takht, and carrying my heavy baggage and sacks of provender, led the way, their headstalls gaily decked with cowrie shells sewn on in patterns. There was one game little grey mule who during the first week would always be a hundred yards in front of everyone. If the others passed liim, he broke into a trot to regain his precedence. Poor 128 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. little grey : lie soon found out the folly of these pro- ceedings, and in ten days' time he was as sober as the rest of them. These baggage mules kept no sort of order, and would often stray oft" some distance to the right or left, when they saw a nice bit of grass to pick at. It w^as then the business of the muleteer to stir them up. This worthy is generally seated on a diminutive donkey, the speed and direction of which he regulates by means of a large packing needle, which he carries slung to his belt. This packing needle goad is very usual among muleteers and others in Turkey, and its use for this purpose may seem somewhat barbarous to us at first sight. It certainly is not more so than the spur, and I can- not say that I have ever seen it used to excess. Something of the sort is undoubtedly necessary to keep tired animals up to caravan pace. After tile mules and muleteer came my " state coach " in all its dignity, the two akams or grooms walking by the mules' heads, and finishing up the procession was generally my zabtieh, puffing a cigarette, and muffled up in cloaks and shawls, as if he was in the Arctic regions. The character and costume of my men may be of some interest. Bukhit, the muleteer, was a wiry, ON THE ROAD. 129 handsome man of pure Arab type, whose ancestors had probably not abandoned the nomadic life of the desert for long. On the whole, he was a very good man, and well up to his profession of caravan katterji ; but, as is often the case in travelling with Arab attendants, he, the head man, was the one who gave all the trouble. He wore a kaffieh formed of a pink and white Manchester handkerchief, secured to the head by a dark brown akal or band. A blue shirt, open in front at the bosom, was girded at the waist, from which hung a knife and the packing- needle. The shirt had sleeves extending to the wrist, and beneath it was worn a brown undershirt. Over the blue shirt Bukhit had a handsome red coat, open full length in front, and reaching to the knees. The sleeves of this garment were short, coming only to the elbow, and embroidered handsomely in yellow, white, blue, and green, in stripes. On the under side, next to the body, they were white. Similar embroidery was on the back of this garment, coming down to a point ; also on the bosom, and in stripes down the front. A pair of wide red shoes completed this very effective costume. The name Bukhit or Bukheit is a diminutive of " bakht," and therefore means " little luck." I can e: 130 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. hardly say that I consider the sobriquet quite applicable to my muleteer. Haji Mohammed, chief akam, and my special attendant, was an excellent fellow. He had a great open, child-like countenance which bespoke honesty, i.e., the honesty of an Oriental, in every line. He had the courage of a lion, and the endurance of one of his own mules. He was very proud of having been to Mecca, and was indeed a great traveller, knowing well all the caravan routes in Turkey in Asia. He served me faithfully all the three weeks, and never swindled me more than by mixing my rice of best quality with their own of worst quality, into a great pilaf, and giving me my portion out of the proceeds. The acts of Haji Mohammed and all that he did, will they not be written in the ensuing chap- ters, telling of my journey to Bagdad X The dress of Haji Mohammed consisted of under garments similar to those of Bukhit. His coat was brown with embroidered sleeves, having white stripes and red trimmings. The embroidery was more profuse than on the muleteer's. In front of each shoulder were three small red, yellow, and blue rosettes, and there were three more very similar lower down. He wore also long blue drawers, tucked into embroidered blue ON THE ROAD. lc)l stockings, over which were the usual red slippers. Kaffieh blue, and a white akal. Hamadi, the under akam, was a simple, inoffensive young Arab, whose merit, if merit it was, was his continuous light-heartedness, which caused him everlastingly to " burst into voluntary song." This voluntary song, inspiring as it doubtless was to all who understood its deep and tender pathos, was sometimes rather annoying to myself, as it was equally distributed over the hours of day and night. Hamadi would think nothing of walking in the blazing sun through the desert for eight or nine hours, and then of sitting up all night in front of the camp fire and amusing his companions by joyous and tremulous melodies, which seemed to me to last from sunset till sunrise. His coat was dark brown, lined green at the collar, and with a strip of blue down the seam at the shoulder. There were also white stripes down the front, in front of the shoulders, and under the arms. He wore a black shirt, white drawers, and kaffieh like that of Bukhit. The morning I left Deir Hafr was perfect. The plain was bright with buttercups, larks were singing, and lively lizards were darting in all directions over k2 132 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. the turf. As soon as we cleared the village we crossed a small stream, and after two hours emerged oil to the plain, which here has cultivation only in small patches. Shortly after this we passed close to considerable mounds, which my zabtieh called Madum. Cultivation got scarcer and scarcer, until we left it altogether, and were passing over a gently undulating turfy plain, which is in reality the northern corner of what is generally called the Syrian Desert. While I was taking my morning's walk I prodded with my stick a small grey reptile, which from its attitude I thought was dead. It was a small lizard about six inches in length, with a rat-like tail, rather long legs, and a mouth of great width for the size of the animal.* To my astonishment, instead of running into its hole it turned and attacked my walking- stick with the utmost fury. It took flying jumps of six inches, eacli time snapping at the ferrule, and pausing hardly a second between the jumps. If I held the ferrule too far for it to reach it, it would crouch, glaring vindictively, waiting until I advanced the stick nearer, in order to spring. Finding it made no impression on the stick, it went for my boots. The * Apparently a species of Gecko. ON THE ROAD. 133 pluck of the little animal was really remarkable, and I made an attempt to photograph it witli a hand camera I had with me. The result, however, was a failure. Later on three Bedawis suddenly appeared over the top of a hill, running as hard as they could and in a great state of excitement. They said something to my men and passed on. Immediately after we saw a black object lying on the plain, and Haji Mohammed, running up to it, soon returned with a fine lamb, whose throat had just been cut. The men who had just passed us were sheep-stealers surprised in the act. My zabtieh and muleteer immediately went in pursuit, and shortly after re- turned, bringing with them the culprit who had done the deed. He was a handsome young Arab of about eighteen, whose ragged white shirt and plaited locks showed that he was a member of some small plun- dering Bedawi tribe. His face, hands, and clothes were bespattered with the blood of the lamb. When brought to my takht he burst into a flood of tears, apparently thinking I should order his instant execu- tion. Further on we came on the peasant whose flock had thus been raided, and delivered the culprit and his booty into his hands. Tliis was tlie first 184 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. example 1 saw of the manners and customs of the desert. Exactly at noon we caught our first glimpse of the great Euphrates, and after rising and passing over some downs, we came, half an hour later, in full sight of the great valley. The line of demarcation here between the desert we had been crossing and the river-valley we approached was marked by a line of chalk cliffs, which are not, however, generally pre- cipitous. The plain which lay at our feet seemed from two to two and a half miles broad from the cliffs to the river, and as far as the eye could reach it was covered with the black tents and the herds of sheep, camels, and horses of the great Anazeh tribe of Arabs, who were just arriving from their winter quarters in Arabia, to take up their summer pastures in the desert south and east of Aleppo. The scene was certainly very impressive, and calculated to recall vividly scenes and passages from the Old Testament. After descending into the plain, we skirted along it, keeping rather near the cliffs, and close to the great xlnazeh camp. The zabtieh galloped off to one of the tents, and soon after returned with an enormous bowl of new milk, a refreshing drink for all my party. This was my welcome to the "great river" by the ON THE KOAD. 135 Arabs. Of course no payment was asked, and if offered it would not have been taken by the Anazeh, who are by far the most powerful tribe between Mesopotamia and Syria, and very hospitable.* Many of them were galloping about on their mares, with lances of bamboo fifteen feet long : swarthy, wiry looking fellows, with black plaited locks. I noticed some large birds flying about, which seemed to me seagulls. Whether they came from the Medi- terranean or up the river from *' the gulf" is a curious question. Soon after this, we turned a corner of the cliff, and found ourselves in sight of a few buildings, to which my men gave the name of Meskineh, and where, they said, there was a khan, and a small fort with a few soldiers or police. Meskineh is fairly close to the river, and is the proposed port for Aleppo, if ever a steamer line is put on the river. The old fort of Balis is a short distance further down stream. My men said I could either go to this khan, or camp close to the river. I chose the latter, and soon after * For much interesting information about the Anazeh Arabs, and the other tribes of Turkish Arabia and Mesopotamia, see "The Bedouin Tribes of the Euphrates Valley," bj- Lad}- Anne Blunt. Mr. Blunt reckons the number of the Anazeh at thirty thousand tents, or one hundred and twenty thousand souls. 13G THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. the tent was pitched within a quarter of a mile of the Euphrates and near a couple of Arab tents, belong- ing to some pastoral tribe. After a brew of coffee and a wash, I walked down the river bank. The stream here seemed to me not more than half a mile in width, the current very rapid, and the water ex- tremely turbid. This is the case with both the Tigris and Euphrates throughout their course over the great plain. 1 found the water very sweet, but to get it clear it was necessary to allow it to stand for some time before use. A tumblerful will deposit, I should think, close on an eighth of an inch of fine brown mud. A little below where I stood, a spit of land reduced the breadth of the river to about half. The Mesopotamian side at this point has no cliffs, but is fiat near the river, and undulating further back. A long way due north a range of hills were discernible. While I was standing gazing at the river, a young shepherd came down to water his fiock. He had no dog, but walked in front of his charges, summoning them to follow him, and directing their movements by different cries which they seemed to understand. I tried to engage him in conversation, and found him inquisitive to know what nation I belonged to, and where I was bound for. He also told me, as far as I ox THE ROAD. 1^ Ol could understand, that he belonged to a fellah tribe called Shohr, a name I do not find in Mr. Blunt's lisi. I had bought some eggs and milk from a man be- longing to one of the adjacent tents. In the evening I was suddenly aroused by a tremendous row just out- side my tent between my people and the man, his wife, and boy. I rushed out and found Bukhit sitting astride of the unfortunate youth, hammering him like steam, while the man and woman gesticulated and screamed and appealed to me for justice. Battle, murder, and sudden death seemed imminent, and I accordingly interfered. The dispute was about the price of eggs, but I could not make head or tail of it, and w^as glad when it slowly subsided, and the Arabs took their departure. The following day we passed, about half an hour after starting, the ruins of Balis, or Kalah Balis, standing out clear on the top of the cliff. A lofty castle, and a noble octagonal Saracenic minaret were all I could discern, as we were nearly a mile distant. This Balis (the Barbarissus of Ptolemy and Barba- lissus of the Theodosian tablets) was formerly a place of importance and the port of Syria. The plain near it is also said to have been the paradise or park of the Persian Satrap Belesis, destroyed by Cyrus the I'iS THKOUGH TUKKISII ARABIA. Younger.* Benjamin of Tiidela identified it with tlie Petlior or Pthora of Numbers and Deuteronomy, and when he visited it (llGo), it contained ten Jews. The town was conquered by the Crusaders under Tancred in 1111. The ruins of the present day are a mixture of Saracenic and Roman work. The river now flows several miles distant from the cliffs on whicli the ruins are situated, but it is evident that at one time the base of this high ground was washed by the river, or more probably, as Ainsworth suggests, by a branch of it, which rejoined the main stream at a point further down. On this level ground I noticed the remains of several ancient canals. After passing Balis, we cruised along the plain, some- times close under the chalk cliffs, and sometimes at a considerable distance. At the summit of the cliffs I noticed a bed of indurated gravel or breccia, and in one or two places on the cliff face, excavations, which had somewhat the appearance of ancient tombs. Many birds — crows, big hawks, and one or two vul- tures — were fluttering about, or were perched high up near the summit. On the plain through which we were passing was a good deal of scrub, the green tamarisk jungle, of which I was to see so much * Ainsworth ; " Personal Narrative of Euphrates Valley Expedition." r=- it' ' ^"1 ' % 14(1 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. before I arrived at my destination. After about three and a half hours the cliffs disappeared, and \vere replaced by a gentle rise from the river plain to that of the desert. We here left the river, and, after crossing a piece of desert to save the bend of the river, we rejoined the valley and shortly after en- camped for the night at a charming place under an ancient tell, called Sheikh Ghana, and opposite a scrub-covered island which divided the stream. On the top of the tell was one of the mud forts erected by the Turkish Government to contain a few police or soldiers, but these worthies were occu- pying a tent near the base of it. An old man who looked after the place pointed out to me from the summit of the tell, Kalah Jabar, a castle and a minaret crowning a precipitous headland on the opposite side of the river. This lay some distance east from Sheikh Ghana, the river here flowing in that direction ; on the right bank, behind some cliffs, he told me lay Abu Hureira. From this old gentle- man I purchased a lamb, which I presented to my men, and Haji Mohammed turned me out a very respectable dinner of lamb's head (a tit-bit in the opinion of Arabs) and rice. The climate was already changing, and the day had been warm, and now the ox THE ROAD. 141 evening was lovely. The moon as it rose was of a deep orange tint, and appeared strangely distorted in shape. As it slowly ascended throwing deep shadows over the desert hills, and lighting up the placid river, the scene was strangely beautiful and solemn. The only sound was the melancholy wail of hundreds of jackals on the island and opposite bank, and occasional plash of a big tish in the river. We had long since left the Anazeh camp, and the only signs of human life in sight, besides my little en- campment, were the two tents near the foot of the tell. The next morning, after an excellent night's sleep, we were off about six o'clock, making our way over a plain, cultivated here and there in patches. After an hour's journey we were again at the cliffs, now gyp- sum and marl, on the summit of which is to be seen a round tower, probably the sole remains of a ruined mosque^ and a little higher up another ruin. This place is Abu Hureira, which I had seen the previous day from Sheikh Ghana. The cultivation I had seen was probably the work of the Wulda Arabs as men- tioned by Ainsworth, But Lady Anne Blunt saw here the ruins of mud huts, which she explains as the result of an enterprising Pasha to induce some of 142 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. the Aiiazeh to settle here as fellahin. An experi- ment which seems to have been a failure. In another half hour I was gratified by a good view of the fine castle called Kalah Jaber on the Mesopotamian side. This ruin has a very remarkable appearance, occupying as it does an isolated cliff, which, as far as I could see, was square, and the side facing the stream precipitous at the summit. The lofty minaret towered above the fortifications, and between the base of the cliff and the river lay a forest of scrub. Kalah Jaber is mentioned by both Benjamin of Tudela (1163) and Abulfeda in the fourteenth century. It also seems to have passed at various dates by the names of Dauser, Dausara (Stephen of Byzantium), Dauses, and Dabanas. Various historical events are connected with the place, and, as Ainsworth remarks, this district, containing Kalah Jaber, Abu Jaber a ruin close to, and Deir Mahariz (the Sela Mid Bara of Benjamin of Tudela, who describes it as containing in his time 2,000 Jews), and Abu Hureira, may at one time have been the centre of a large population. After winding about the base of these cliffs, we emerged into the desert, leaving the river by ascend- ox THE ROAD. 143 ing a Avide wacly, which was evidently at times the bed of a roaring torrent. Passing up here, I noticed many circular and semi-circular piles of stones, such as are to be met with on moorland countries in the North of England, and are supposed to be of high antiquity. Those near the Euphrates are not im- probably of Arab origin, but their use and antiquity are matters of speculation. We then passed across a corner of the desert, which here is very stony and rough, and having a slight scrub growing upon it ; and in an hour and a half we rejoined the river plain, where we were again hospitably treated to milk at an encampment of some people calling themselves " Raih " Arabs, There were a great many sheep about their tents, but I noticed no horses. During the day we passed a few peasants occasion- ally near the river. One man, accompanying a small party with a few mules, apparently travellers for Aleppo, was greeted warmly by my three attendants, who in turn fell upon his neck and kissed him on both cheeks, addressing him as uncle. He Avas, like them, a caravan Arab, belonging to Bagdad. Near this place I saw to the right upon some high ground two figures who looked by their costumes Europeans. 144 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. I was, unfortunately, at such a bad ]mrt of the road, that I was unable to alight, or even stop the takht, and we soon left them behind. I must, however, have been mistaken, as I met no caravan upon the road. The last part of this day's march lay over very rough and stony ground, the track leading over hummocks and hillocks which break up the desert platform at the edge of the river plain. Takht travelling on this sort of country is not pleasant, as at one minute the unfortunate occupant is jolted into the stern of the conveyance, only to toboggan wildly forward a minute later, as the mules top some little elevation, and descend a steep slope on the opposite side. Eating lunch inside a takht under these circumstances is not unlike the same perform- ance in the Bay of Biscay, with the exception that one cannot have the " fiddles on." At half-past one my tent was pitched at a charming place on the edge of the river, called Hammam {i.e., the bath), although neither tent nor building of any kind was in view. The desert here rises in a regular platform, the edge of which is a low cliff, at a short distance from the river. In a walk I found many rudely- worked flints (relics perhaps of that wonderful stone ON THE ROAD. 1 l-'j age which seems to have existed everywhere), and the ground was covered with a very pretty blue orchid-like flower. On my return, my zabtieh Jameel, who had accompanied me from Aleppo, came to say that he was going with me no further. He brought me his successor, and a sergeant from where I do not know, unless Turkish policemen make their appearance in the desert like manna, and 1 interested them all by showing them my maps and revolver. The police themselves carried good revolvers, all of which were, however, of American make. The new man was a handsome old grey- bearded Arab, without a vestige of uniform about him, and whose appearance, barring the revolver was much more suggestive of Abraham or Aaron than of a policeman. My larder was empty, but nothing in the way of chickens or meat was to be obtained here, so that I had to content myself with a tinned kipper for dinner. No comestible in the world is more truly beastly than a tinned kipper, but I ate what I could, and then washed the taste away with a draught of leben, a bowlful of which I had fortunately been able to buy. Leben is a most excellent and refreshing drink after a long and hot day's march. My plan was always to buy a L 146 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. bowlful when I could, and after putting aside enough for my immediate wants, to pour the remainder into a handkerchief, and to suspend it to a tent rope, to allow^ the water to drain off. The result was an excellent substitute for butter, which did much to render palatable stale dry bread that had been baked over a week before. Dates and leben butter made a rich confection fit for a king. ANAZKH ARABS ON THE MARCH. CHAPTER Vl. CONTINUATIOX OF JOURNEY. Anazeh Arabs on the March — The Haudaj — Costume and Arms — We Sight Rakka — Arabs on Inflated Skins — A Mudii- Effendi — A Howhng Durwish — Unwelcome Visitors — Bathe in a Backwater of the River, with bad Results — Camp in Robber-infested District — Reach Deir — The Khan — Description of the Town — Its Poverty — Its Agriculture — " Cherrids" — Arab Population — Its Political Importance — An "Englishman " turns up — His Account of Himself, and hisPeculiarities — Woodfuel Fishing — Altone Again - — The Terrible Desert — Visitors — Arrival of the Pasha — Haji Mohammed's " Stiff" Stomach " — Hardihood of Muleteers. As the next day's march was a long one, we struck camp, and started in the dark at half-past four. I attempted to make myself a cup of coffee, but being- half asleep, I upset it in the dark, all over my bed. As soon as we were off, I snuggled into my great coat and rug, and was soon fast asleep agam, and on waking an hour later I found that we were in a level and tufty part of the desert. We rejoined the valley again in another hour's time. For five hours we kept across a very wide and barren plain, having some distance away on our right the limestone cliffs. L 2 148 TilKOUGII TURKISH ARABIA. It was, however, anything but dull, as the whole plain was alive with the Anazeh on the march. Groups of horsemen mounted on their active Arab mares, many with their foals running- at their heels, carrying their lances on their shoulders, and driving in front of them THE HAUDAJ. great droves of unloaded camels, were continually passing us. Then would come two or three large camels carrying the " haudaj," a sortof howdah fitted with an enormous superstructure like the yards of a CONTINUATION OF JOURNEY. 149 ship, on which can be set an awning- in hot weather. In these handajes were the women and chikh-en, The women, some of whom are very pretty, wear nose- rings, and have their under lips painted a dark bhie or black. They are all unveiled, and I was much flattered by the great interest they seemed to take in my proceedings. They are under no restraint what- ever, and although they live a hard working life among the herds and flocks, they are happy, contented, and in almost all cases modest. The men are all built in a small mould, but are as active as cats, and have great powers of endurance. In colour they are some- times almost black, but their features are lit up by teeth of the most dazzling whiteness. As they use none of the dentifrices of civilisation, and their diet is largely farinaceous, it is hard to know how they are kept in such beautiful order. Many of them have long plaited locks hanging on either side of the face, and they all wear the Manchester kaflieh. Their costume is various. Many are dressed only in a few black rags, while others sport the striped Bag- dad abbah. Long flint lock guns, ornate silver- mounted pistols, and cross-handled swords are borne by many. Others carry a curious little axe with a hooked spike on the opposite side to the blade, or a 150 THROUGH TURKISH AKABIA. mace formed of a straight stick, with a heavy knob of bitumen attached to the " business " end. Either of these are formidable weapons. The lance is, how- ever, the attribute of the noble Arab tribe, and the gun is much less usual among them than among the smaller tribes on the banks of the Euphrates, Although I was unaware of it, I had passed some time this morning the ruins of Surieh, the ancient Thipsach or Thapsachus, "the fatal pass," as Ainsworth styles it. As my camping-place w^as twenty miles east of Kalah Jaber, I fancy that in consequence of our early start we must have got past them before it became light. There is said to be little left of the ancient tow-n, of the history of which Mr. AinsAvorth gives an admirable summary. A causeway marked in the Theodosian and Augustan tablets led from Auranitis, by Palmyra, to this place, and on the other side of the ford it Avas carried on to Edessa (Urfa) by Carrhae (Haran). Mr. Ainsworth points out the strange series of calamities that followed the crossing of this ford by various expeditions ; those, to wit, of Xerxes, of Cyrus the younger, of Darius Codoman, of the great Alexander himself, who founded Nice- phorium (the present Rakka) a short distance further down stream. Crassus, Julian, Galerius, and Gor- CONTINUATION OF JOURNEY. 151 dianus all followed in their wake, and in every case the passage of the ford was followed sooner or later by great disaster. It was a strange fatality that after the Euphrates Valley Expedition had passed this spot, the steamer Tigris was struck by a hurricane and sank, nineteen lives being lost in the disaster. At nine o'clock we got a sight of Rakka, on the Mesopotamian side of the river. It is situated near the mouth of the tributary of the Euphrates called the Nahr Balik, and was founded by Alexander the Great under the name of Nicephorium. It became Callinicus under the Romans, and Rakka " the illustrious " under the Mohammedans. It was a stronghold of Harun al Rashid, who erected there a citadel, palace, and other buildings. The place is a ruin now, and a few years since, the only inhabitants were a few Arabs dwelling in tents. There are, how- ever, a few fragments of Saracenic architecture still remaining. i^s we jogged along over the plain, I noticed the remains of an ancient canal, and shortly after seeing Rakka, we sighted straight in front of us a curious isolated hill, to which my men gave the name of Munkhir. This is the hill marked on Kiepert's map as " Tel el Menakhir," and is situated on the opposite 152 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. side of the stream. As it is quite isolated, and indeed has but little high ground in the vicinity, it forms a prominent landmark to travellers for miles. The general course of the Euphrates from some miles west of Kalah Jaber to Rakka is east, after which it takes a south-eastern course, which is preserved for about one hundred and fifty miles, measuring as the crow iiies, when it turns east again until it reaches tlie town of Anah. The afternoon was spent in passing rough, hummocky ground and numberless small wadies, similar to the latter part of the pre- ceding day's journey. I attempted to lunch oif tinned kippers, and succeeded in spilling the oil in the tin all over my clothes, creating a iishy and oily smell, which nearly made me sick. At three o'clock, after a long and tiring stage of ten-and-a-half hours, we stopped for the night at a place called Sabbakh, close to a police fort of larger dimensions than any I had yet seen. My men attempted to pitch the tent Avithout my supervision, and made a hopeless mess of it, putting down the pegs at the wrong place and bending the spikes at the tops of the poles. Arabs are extraordinarily clumsy at any sort of work new to them. The current of the river at this place is very rapid. CONTINUATION OF JOURNEY. 153 and for the first time I saw men paddling down stream on inflated sheep skins, in the same manner as represented on ancient Assyrian scnlptures. In con- sequence of the swift current, these navigators whirled down stream at a most astonishing speed, and it was difficult to see how, under these circumstances, they could retain much power of steering. The Mudir Effendi, or chief of the police here, called on me soon after I arrived ; he was a pleasant-looking old Turk. I found conversation with him anything but easy in consequence of my lack of knowledge of the language, but interested him by showing him some photographs of English steamers I had with me. After dinner I returned his call. His quarters were a wretched hovel in the mud fort, which we should consider not good enough for a favourite horse. But the old gentleman did the honours and entertained me with the well- bred courtesy of a Turk of the old school. He care- fully prepared coffee for me with his own hands, and when I departed he accompanied me back to the tent, and I found he had sent me a welcome present of half-a-dozen new laid eggs. His pleasant kindness was an exception among the Turkish police officials whom I came into contact with along the road. Just before dinner my attention was attracted by a 154 THROUGH TURKISH ARAIHA. curious uoiso a little distance behind my tent. On looking out to ascertain the reason, I found two men kneeling in the direction of Mecca. One of them, a wretched, ragged scarecrow, was a howling or barking durwish, and with his whole body swaying wildly from side to side, he w\as repeating the name of Allah in a sort of hoarse gasp with every swing of his body. He had wrought himself to such a pitch, that at every repetition the violence convulsed his whole frame. The gasp gradually rose to a sound like the barking of a dog, and then slowly declined into a sort of agonised grunt, when, apparently utterly exhausted, he staggered to his feet, and, though now scarcely able to stand, disappeared, sup- ported by his companion and still gasping the sacred name, into the darkness of the desert. In the night I had several unwelcome visitors in tlie form of cats. The first awoke me by perambu- lating my recumbent form in order to inspect my basket, which contained some cold chicken, ray lunch for the following day. On seeing me rise in my bed, it prudently departed. The second, a very large one, immediately it entered gave vent to a loud *' yaou" of pleasure on perceiving the smell of food. I immediately seized my stick, which was fortunately CONTINUATION OF JOUKXEY. 155 handy, and smote it a shrewd blow on the head ; whereupon it left hurriedly, apologising- for having called at such an inopportune moment. No. 3 I suddenly discovered standing on its hind legs, with its head in another basket, licking the handkerchief which contained my leben butter. I strongly pro- tested, and though the force of my arguments did not strike home with the same accuracy as in the last instance, yet the marauder left, to appear no more. There had been one or two heavy showers in the night, and w^hen we got away at a quarter to six the morning w^as cloudy. My men were for some un- known reason very larky, and continued bear-fighting and singing and playing tricks on each other like a party of great babies. The road throughout the day was exceedingly monotonous, being all the time in the plain, the part passed through in the early morning being scrubby, and that later on, clear. In the former we encountered more large parties of xlnazeh on the march. When I was walking, three wild Bedawi girls came from some tents we were passing, and inquisitively peeped through the window of the takht, whence they were pushed giggling away by Mohammed, They thought that there was a European lady within. These desert 156 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. damsels had not the least shyness, nor any of the mock modesty of the townswomen. They were as free, or freer, than English girls. We stopped at one o'clock, near what I thought was the Euphrates, but which I afterwards found to be a backwater. I had a row with the men, who insisted on pitching the tent on the top of a hill, near a mud fort. The place was dirty Avith the refuse of other caravans, and when I ordered the men to move the camp to the edge of the water they refused, and with good reason, as the water being stagnant, to sleep on the edge of it would incur risk of malaria ; but this I did not then know, and accordingly swore at the men for their disobedience. I then, still thinking it was a slow part of the river, went and bathed in the water. This brought on, the ensuing morning, a preliminary attack of dysentery, from which I was destined to suffer seriously before reaching Bagdad. After the bath I walked on to an eminence on the hummocky desert behind. Here I noticed im- mediately that the water was not part of the Euphrates, but a large semi-circular backwater un- connected at that time with the river, but probably, when the latter was at its greatest height, CONTINUATION OF JOURNEY. 157 joined to it. It is, I fancy, marked in Kiepert as Lake Mogla, and would seem to be artificial in origin. In my walk I saw for the first time close, a brace of beautiful sandgrouse. I regretted not having a gun with me, as in spite of the assertions that plenty of provisions were obtainable on the road, I had been able to purchase but one solitary- chicken in the first six days. Looking exactly north-west from here, Jebel Munkhir still formed a conspicuous object ; and to the left of it I saw heavy smoke rising from the plain, which I could not imagine the cause of. During the night I had to rise to get Mohammed to remove the bells from the mules, as their incessant noise prevented my obtaining any rest. When we left our camp at daybreak I found myself anything but well, with great internal pain, and totally unable to eat. My men attributed it to bathing, which I did not then believe, as they maintained it was good water to drink. As the very serious and prolonged attack, which seized me a few days later, also fol- lowed a bath in the Euphrates, I am inclined to believe that it may have been so, and would caution travellers against bathing in the cold waters of the Euphrates before nightfall and after a long and hot 158 TIIKOUGII TUEKISIT AKABIA. day's journey. About nine o'clock I got out to attempt a short walk, and found that we were in a sterile but pretty part of the desert, with some higher hills than I had yet seen to the left, and broken ground with low cliffs to the right. iVmongst the very scanty vegetation were many beautiful red poppies, which had a charming effect on the desert. Soon after we were again on the scrubby plain, with low sandstone cliffs on our right. The sandstone here CONTINUATION OF JOURNEY. 15'J rests on a sort of gravelly mudstoue, and is itself in places very soft. Feeling a little better in the afternoon, I ventured on another little walk. While I was out the plucky little grey mule, overcome by the heat and its heavy load, came heavily down, and we had to unload him before he could again be got on his legs. I again flushed a lot of sandgrouse, but having no gun was unable to replenish my now absolutely empty larder. At about one we arrived at our camping ground, a most romantic place on a bend in the river, and close under a headland of grey desert cliffs. Through these cliffs to the river ran several rocky scrub-grown wadies, one openiug out close to my tent. There was no sign of any sort of human habitation in sight, but the district was full of Arabs ; and my men would not allow me to go for a short walk on to the cliffs behind until I had promised not to go far and had shown them that I carried my revolver. From the summit I found there was a beautiful prospect. The portion of the river which I aazed over has a oeneral direction of due south, but in its course makes several huge bends; in one almost completing a circle, so that the curves at the commencement and end of the loop nearly join. Far beyond the river, in noble white clouds, 160 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. lay a range of Mesopotaraian mountains, over which, as the night drew on, flickered ahnost incessant lightning. Behind me, on the Arabian side, lay another range at some distance. The whole scene was desolate and rugged in the extreme. On my return I found several wild-looking and fully-armed Arabs questioning my men, who, however, were very anxious to get rid of them. Haji Mohammed also told me next day that he had not dared to sleep, but had prowled round the encampment all night on the look-out — a statement I received cum grano. They also said that as Deir was to be reached next day it was absolutely necessary to make a very early start. As I had no idea of the distance, and they told me it was a ten hours' stage, I of course acquiesced ; and after about four hours' sleep the tent was struck, and we left soon after midnight. I found out, however, that it was really only six hours, and that this was simply a trick to get the full day in Deir. This was a lesson to me to refuse all ridiculously early starts in the future. This is, of course, the great drawback to getting a muleteer to contract to take you from one place to another in the East. Unless he is bound down by an agreement he considers that he can dictate the hours and pace CONTINUATION OF JOURXEY. 101 of travelling, aud in fact is rather apt to treat his " fare " as a bale of merchandise. By actinu- with decision and determination he will certainly " knuckle under " to some extent ; but by buying or hiring animals by the day or week the traveller will find himself much more his own master, and free to choose his own hours and pace, and to stay when, where, and how long he pleases. The journey to Deir was, therefore, chiefly made in the dark, but by the rough ground that I felt we were passing over I knew we were most of the while in the desert. When it became light I found that one of my poor mules was dead lame, and was going without any other load than the khurj or saddle-bag. About six o'clock we entered the nar- row, wretched-looking streets of Deir, and I " took up my inn " in a khan near the centre of the town, a respectable enough looking little place of two stories surrounding a courtyard. In this khan there was no accommodation for animals, and my mules and men went to another establishment on the opposite side of the way. Great curiosity was evinced at my arrival, and the courtyard was full of people to see the Englishman. The khanji gave me the best room in the building, but it was so 162 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. filthy that I had a good sweep up done before 1 went into residence. This, however, did not dispel the ants which swarmed on the floor, nor the flies which infested my room in myriads. Under these circumstances, one of the first things I did was to KHAN AT DEIE. rig up my " Levinge " bed in order to secure a good night's sleep. The other two features about the khan were the immense size of the sparrows on the house-top, and the primiti^^e character of its sanitary CONTINUATION OF JOURNEY. 163 arrangements, the " adab khanah " or privy being the flat roof of the building, which, if it had not been put to this purpose, would have been a pleasant evening lounge. Deir is built on a slight eminence, said to be the debris of an earlier edition of the same town. Why a " later edition " should have ever been produced is hard to understand, as a more wretched hole it has never been my ill-luck to see. It is built on the edge of the Euphates, here divided by an island, and in the middle of a desolate clay waste, upon which there is not a solitary feature of beauty. No tamarisk jungle, no cliffs near the river, and this last, not the noble Euphrates, but a poor insignificant branch of it. The town itself consists of a long street running parallel with the river, from which numerous side streets lead either to the water on the east side, or to the cemeteries which enclose the town to the west. The houses are built of mud, and are mean in the extreme. The bazaars are also squalid and ill supplied. To give an idea of the wretchedness of this town of 2,500 inhabitants, on the banks of a noble river, I may state that I was unable to Change a napoleon, M 2 164 Tll ROUGH TURXISH ARABIA. Buy tish of any sort, Buy a basket or small tin box. Nor could I obtain any sort of tinned or preserved provisions. Perhaps the latter ought not to be expected, but that the other articles were unob- tainable certainly seems absurd. Dates and oranges can, however, be bought here, the former coming from Bagdad, the latter from Birejik. For the first time, however, since leaving Aleppo, I found myself again in the midst of agricultural industry. A few date palms are to be seen, but they are wretched, stunted specimens. The island, which is connected with the town by a shaky wooden bridge, is in a high state of cultivation. Maize, rice, and other grain are produced here, and there is a sprinkling of fruit trees, chiefly apple and pome- granate. The method of irrigation used on the island is entirely the " cherrid," a rude apparatus much used also at Bagdad. It consists of an over- hanging framework of wood on the river edge. In this framework are two rollers, and working on these are ropes, to which are hung two big water skins, with leathern tubes or hose attached. An inclined plain is dug sloping down from the bank, and in this work two horses or mules. Bv CONTINUATION OF JOURNEY. 165 walking down the slope, the animals set the gear to work which raises the skins from the water. When they get to a certain height, the water runs from the skins down the tubes into a dyke or watercourse, which carries it on to the land. The animals are then turned round, walk up hill, and the skins return to the water for a new supply. The cherrid is perhaps more primitive than the shadoof of Egypt, as it re- quires a horse and man to do the same work that is performed in that country by a man alone ; a somewhat greater quantity of water is, however, raised each time. The population of Deir is not, like most towns in Asiatic Turkey, a medley. The residents are almost entirely Arab. The Syrian costume is hardly ever seen here, and the katfieh of the men, and nose-riugs and painted underlips of the women, show the travel- ler that the people of the town are in reality but Arabs of tlie desert, who have been induced, by the advantages of commerce, to settle down to a more sedentary existence. There are besides, a few Chris- tians, and of course the Turkish officials at the Serai, and a few Turkish troops. Deir has been well called the centre of desert politics. It is in fact the point on the Upper Euphrates which the Turkish Govern- ment has chosen to kee[) in hand the tribal Arabs 166 THKOUGH TURKISH ARABIA. on both sides of the river. The method by which their policy is carried on has been well described in Lady Anne Blunt's charming " Bedouin Tribes of the Euphrates," and although the morality of governing these? wild spirits by incessantly setting them at loggerheads, and thus breaking their power, may well be questioned, it cannot be denied that it has been in a great measure successful. The comparative safety of the Euphrates valley road is a proof of this. It was only in 1862 that Deir was taken into military possession by the Turkish Government, and the Upper Euphrates again became part of the Ottoman Empire : and before that time it is more than doubtful if a solitary European could have passed, as 1 did, undis- guised and practically unescorted, from Aleppo to Bagdad. That the road, considerably after that date, was not, however, safe for Europeans, and that the desert Arabs were not the only people to be feared, is proved by the fact that as late as 1874 two Germans were actually murdered for the sake of their horses, by the inhabitants of Deir themselves, and within two days' march of the town.* What the Ottoman authorities did on this occasion to punish the mur- derers I am unaware. * " Bedouin Tribes of the Euphrates," vol. i., p. 102. CONTINUATION OF JOURNEY. 1G7 Of the history of Deir nothing much seems to be known. The usual meaning of the name is " convent" or " monastery," and accordingly it is chronicled by Idrisi that it was so called from Deir Abuna, the name of a monastery which formerly stood here; and that Noah (the Mih al Nabi, or Sheikh al Mur ilin of the Mussulmans) resided here after leaving the Ark, and here was buried.* As soon as I had taken possession of my quarters, someone among the crowd who w^ere busily engaged in watching my proceedings, told me that there was a man in the town who spoke English. Thinking he might be of use, I sent word to him to come to see me. In about ten minutes a blear - eyed fellow dressed in tarbush, English coat and boots, appeared, and greeted me warmly with " My dear fellow, how do yon do "? " There was a debauched look about the man which at once made me suspect he was a drunkard, and although he interlarded his bad English with frequent callings upon the mercy of the Almighty, and denounced all his fellow-townsmen as Arab robbers, I saw that he was a shady character, with whom it would be advisable to have little to do. He told me his name was Altone ; that he was a * Ainsworth : " Personal Narrative of Eujjhrates Expedition." 168 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. Christian, and that he had sewed in some capacity in the engine-room on board an English steamer. He also said that he had brothers at Bombay, Bagdad, and Liverpool. He had been to the latter place, hut not to Eii/jland, and wanted to know what was the distance between them. He was particularly anxious to go with me to Bombay or Suez as dragoman and general protector, asserting that the country through which I was about to travel was dangerous, and in fact impossible to an Englishman without the pro- tection of an honest man like himself. He also hos- pitably invited me to share his board at his house, or at least to allow his wife to cook and send me my dinner. These offers I refused, and for my humble dinner sent Mohammed to the bazaar to buy me kabobs. I, however, toldthe man if he cared to accom- pany me into the town in the capacity of interpreter I should be glad of his services. In the afternoon I visited this worthy at his home, in order to get him to explain to Mohammed certain things, which, through my imperfect knowledge of the language, I had been unable to do. I found him seated in a small room in the bosom of his family. To these he introduced me, waving his hand airily at his wife, whom he termed variously "my woman" or " my lady"; an CONTINUATION OF JOURNEY. 169 ancient crone squatting in the corner was his mother- in-law, or, as he delicately ]nit it, " the old woman." There were several children, fat, black-eyed little bodies, who, to do him justice, he seemed very fond of. His son-in-law, who seemed a very respectable young man, was also in the room. Altone verified my suspicions about his character by immediately producing a bottle of arak and glasses, and begging me, "his dear brother," to partake. I refused, telling him I never drank intoxicating liquors on a journey, which indeed was in my present case a fact, as I carried nothing but a bottle of brandy with me, which I kept in case of illness. Mr. Altone, how- ever, seemed to take my refusal very much to heart. I got him to tell Mohammed that in future I would permit no starts before daybreak, except in cases of absolute necessity, as the ridiculous early start of the preceding night was only a trick to get more time in Deir.* Haji Mohammed swore that the place we had encamped in was infested by robbers, and that be did not sleep at all, but was walking round my tent all night guarding me. According to him it * The Prophet, hovvevei-, said, "Choose early darkness for your wayfarings. The calamities of the earth appear not at night."' — Burton, Mecca and Medinah, Chap. X. 170 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. was unwise to stop there for more time than was absolutely necessary for a rest. Although sounding very plausible, the desire to get among their gossips was doubtless the true cause. When I left Altone, tlie son-in-law offered to accompany me for a walk onto the island. We passed over tlie rickety bridge, which my guide informed me would, later on in the month, be carried away by the river, which, as the snows in Armenia melt, rises some thirty feet. The bridge was crowded with boys, engaged in catching floating frag-ments of wood, which are brouoht down the river from the jungle on the banks, as the river rises. To do this they have a long line, and an instrument formed of a piece of wood with four barbs, or prongs of wood projecting backwards from the point. When a piece of wood comes floating down, this hook is thrown in front of it with great dexterity, and being drawn back, catches it in the barb, and is drawn up. This is, I fancy, the only fuel tiie Deirites have, and boys seem to be continually at work. Passing through fields of waving corn, a welcome sight after the barren country I had been travelling in, I came to a place where several cherrids were CONTINUATION OF JOURNEY. 171 at work, which I watched with much interest. My companion was an intelligent young Christian of Mosul, but I found he hated the Arabs and the town of Deir, which he styled " beled khanzir," a swinish village. Unfortunately for my pleasure, Altone himself had followed us, and now appeared armed with his bottle of arak and glass, and accompanied by his little girl. He immediately began a long anecdote about his brother, " the Eng- lish sea captain," and yarned in such an idiotic and offensive manner that I left him, forbidding him or his son-in-law to accompany me, and refusing his repeated invitation to supper. On my return I found that it was impossible to start the next day, as the animals were tired and the unfortunate mule still dead lame. I was not sorry to have another day's rest myself. The pleasure of being able to nndress and have an extra night in comfort between the (comparatively) clean sheets of my Levinge bed, was a luxury not to be disdained. These were the only two nights during the three weeks' journey that I did not sleep in my clothes. In spite of the dis- comfort, it is always unadvisable to undress at night in an overland journey in Turkey, as at any moment (me may have to leave the tent, either to see to the 172 TIIKOUGII TURKISH ARABIA. tent ropes, frig-hten away dogs, or possibly even to interview the wily Bedawi. The nights are also, in spring, cold enough to render every precaution against catching a chill a matter of necessity. The dread with which the "berrieh" or desert round the town is regarded by the townsfolk and authori- ties denotes either that the tribes in this part are peculiarly predatory and unmanageable, which (con- sidering that I travelled altogether three weeks on the banks of the Euphrates, Avithout experiencing any trouble worth mentioning from the Arabs) I see no reason to believe, or else bespeaks an amount of cowardice on their part which is remarkable. The second morning of my stay at Deir I went out for a short walk on the desert side of the town, and about a mile distant from the town I sat down. Scarcely had I done so, when a soldier or policeman who had followed me, came fussing up to tell me it was unsafe for me to stop there, and that I must return at once to the town or river side. I laughed at him, but he insisted he had orders from tiie authorities that I should return, and there was no alternative for me. If there was really any danger so close to a populous town, in which a garrison is maintained, it does not say much for the good CONTINUATION OF JOURNKY. 173 government of the place. The dread, however, with which all settled Arabs, and even Turkish officials, regard the desert, is well known and seems utterly absurd, considering how iu Turkish Arabia they are continually face to face with it. A short desert route seems to be regarded by the town Arab with absolute horror. And such as live in unhealthy and crowded towns like Deir, or Hillah, never think of taking a walk into the sweet and bracing air of the desert which comes up to their very walls. Their idea of pleasure would be to make " kaif " (or have an outing) by repairing to some damp orchard on the river edge, 10 spend eight or ten hours in smoking, drinking coffee, and sleeping. On my return, I found the trusty Mohammed in a great state of apprehension lest I should have been kidnapped. ''El hamdu lillah," said he; "You are safe : what made you go walking out into the desert like that, without a guard 1 " I saw nothing more of my friend Altone, but I was honoured by a visit from his son-in-law. An Armenian doctor who spoke English fairly well, and had spent some time in America, came next. He had heard that an Englishman had arrived at Deir : there were two reports, one, that I was the " Baiios " 174 TIIKOUGII TURKISH ARABIA. or English Consul, on his way to Bagdad ; the other, that I was a doctor. The Armenian wished to know which was the case, and if the latter, if I had any works with me on " diseases of the eyes." I gently broke it to him that I was only an " or'nery " tourist, and wielded neither the consular baton nor the staff of ^sculapius. He told me that now and then an Anglo-Indian would return to Europe by the Euphrates route, but English travellers were very rare. The advent of one was indeed an event that set the tongues of all the town wagging for some time to come. After him came the head of the Christians in Deir, a dignified Chaldeean who spoke French. These calls of ceremony over, I heard a clatter of horses and jangling of bells in the street below, and looking out of the window I saw a large caravan filing down the street. It was that of the Pasha and Greek doctor with whom I had partly arranged to leave Aleppo. The Pasha, a fine-looking man, came clanking up the stairs spurs and all, and while the rooms were being dusted out for the reception of the new comers, I ushered them into my room. The Pasha, however, spoke nothing but Turkish. From the Greek doctor I ascertained that they had left two days after me, so that they had taken about CONTJNUATION OF JOURNEY. 175 the same time en route. Their caravan was accom- panied by a considerable military escort, and Pasha, his son-in-law, and doctor were all crammed as full as they could stick with swords and pistols, as if it was a military expedition into a hostile land, instead of a peaceable journey through their own dominions. On the whole I felt glad I was travelling alone instead of with this formidable cavalcade. Haji Mohammed came to me in the evening, his face wearing a smile of satisfaction, and, patting his abdomen, informed me that for the first time since he had left Aleppo his stomach was " mashdud " (i.e.., stiff). I congratulated him on this state of things, as I could well believe his statement. It is astonishing how the muleteers perform the amount of work they do on such poor fare. As a matter of fact, they hardly ever seemed to require food. They had never anything to eat before starting, but on an empty stomach would " shrub " vigorously in turn the great water pipe they carried with them. About ten o'clock Bukhit would produce three dirty crusts of bread, which formed their breakfast and lunch. And in the evening they had a small mess of rice among them. In spite of this ridiculous diet they walked most of the route, having only one donkey 176 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. among them, and never went to sleep till after I did. If I woke ill the night they were generally busy doing something among the mules, and they were nearly always up before me. I had been eating heartily (i.e., as heartily as my larder would admit) three times a day, and yet felt three-quarters starved. I conclude the British stomach exceeds in magnitude that of the Arab. AXAZEH HORSEMAX. CHAPTER VII. DEIR TO ANAH. Leave Deir — Mirage — The Castle of Rahaba — " Rehoboth on the River " — Mayedin — More Cats^Pass Salahieh — A Sand Storm — The Mules Cry — Cold AVeather — Wandering Durwishes — A Bedawi Escort — Abu Kemal — An Ingenious Beetle — An Exten- sive Ruin — El Geim — An Anazeh Ghazu — I am Askedif I would like my Throat Cut — Danger on the Road — Fall ill — Desert Wadys— Wild Pig — Pass Rhowa — ^And reach Anah. I LEFT Deir early on the morning of the 21st, much refreshed by the two days' rest. The poor lame mule was as bad as ever, and it seemed to me extremely doubtful if it would ever reach Bagdad. Bukhit had refused to replace it in Deir by another ; I had to get to Bagdad, and could not sit down in the desert to wait till it recovered. Our caravan num- bered about twenty animals, as several individuals had taken the opportunity to start at the same time. Among these were three " sharifs," or descendants of the Prophet, with bright green turbans ; and a 178 THROUGH TUKKISH ARABIA. c(Hiple of mounted Arabs with their long spears closed the procession. Immediately south of Deir, just beyond the houses, are large mounds, which are apparently the remains of an ancient canal. Beyond this we got clear of cultivation altogether, and entered upon a very wide plain of light clay with very little vegetation. The hills of the desert proper lay several miles away to the right. Although the morning was cloudy, and by no means hot, there was a good deal of mirage, known as " sarab " to the Arabs; this strange phenome- non has been considered by some to be due to the slats in the earth. As a rule it is best seen in the middle of the day when the sun is high, but that it is not dependent on sunlight is shown by the fact that on this, a cloudy morning, it was unusually plentiful. The appearance of wide stagnant lakes near the hori- zon is the most usual. At other times a hillock or ancient mound is completely cut off from the rest of the desert, and appears above the horizon completely detached. Again a caravan of camels in the distance are so dwarfed that they look like sheep, while further on a flock of sheep are stretched into camels. A low line of dwarfish scrub in an arid plain will present the appearance of a forest on the edge of a DEIR TO ANAH. 179 big lake, every tree being distinctly reflected in the apparent water. A mound or building will some- times be so raised up and magnified as to appear quite close, when really at a great distance. On one occasion, riding to Bagdad from Babylon, a ruined well, about two hundred yards distant, was so dis- torted in appearance that both I and a native of Bagdad who was with me, simultaneously pointed it out as the great ruin Akarkuf, near Bagdad, which is about one hundred and thirty feet high, and distant, from where we then were, some twenty or more miles. From three to four hours south of Deir we passed over quantities of broken pottery ; blue, green, and a rough red ware like ourflower pots were the commonest, and there were also fragments of common glass. These potsherds covered a great area, but there were no mounds, and I have no idea to what date the site mioht belong. Worked flints were also lying about in the vicinity. I noticed also that the lizards here, though grey and spotty over the legs, head, and body, like those seen further north, had a red tinge about the body which I had not previously seen. A beautiful white falcon was also observed. No Anazeh were seen, but a camel caravan was passed in the morning, n2 180 THROUGH TUKKISH ARABIA. and shortly after a large one of mules and horses, which with two takht-i-rawans, was conveying some Pasha, his harem, and effects to Aleppo. One of the takhts contained two, if not three, fair fat forms. After I had lunched I espied in the distance a black object, which, as we approached, we found to be a dead black mule, which had probably dropped out of the Pasha's caravan. My animals inspected the car- case with an indifference which proved that they had received a proper Muslim fatalistic education, seeing that almost certainly their own ultimate fate would be identical sooner or later. It is at this point of the river, on the opposite side, that the river Khabur joins the Euphrates. At noon we were well in sight of a fine castle, called by my men Rahaba, and as the village of Mayedin, where we were to sleep, lay some distance away to the left, I sent my people straight on, while I with my policeman walked on to the castle. After about an hour's walk across a level and grassy plain covered with flocks of sheep with their shepherds, we found ourselves close to the base of the remarkable rock on which the castle is placed. This rock is quite close to the cliff of the desert platform, from which, however, it is quite separated DEIR TO ANAII. 181 by a deep chasm. Near the base were ruined bits of wall, and lying about were fragments of bricks that were apparently older than the castle itself, which is of Saracenic date. The plan of the castle is an irregular oblong square, running north and south, and consists of strong outer walls, built on the edge of the rock, which surround a large internal keep of the same shape. The northern outer wall, which is one of the short sides of the oblong, faces the plain, and is of poor masonry, probably a restoration of somewhat later date than some of the other portions. At the north- west corner there are remains of a tower. The west wall is of massive square stones, and is partly ruinous. Some portions are, however, fairly well preserved. It is pierced with loop-holes, and above there are small arched windows. The lower half of the wall here is partly brick built, and there is a pattern formed of bricks set in a sort of key pattern. The south end is strengthened by two towers, that at the south-west corner being set diagonally to the angle, and the other one square. Below this wall the rock face has been streng- thened by a revetment of masonry, of which there are also traces on the other sides. The east side 182 THEOUGII TUEKISH ARABIA. is iiTogular and very ruinous, and appears to have had a double wall. As 1 could find no signs of a proper entrance into the castle, I scrambled up the rock, and through an aperture in this side, and succeeded in making my way into the keep. This I found to be an oblong parallelogram with one corner (the north-east) cut off, thus making it a pentagon, and the walls of which were pierced by curious little circular apertures, apparently for light. On the east side was a w^ell lined with brick. The interior of this keep, as well as the spaces between it and the outer walls, were filled with the remains of brick-built chambers in a very ruinous condition. Outside the keep near the north-west angle were the remains of vaults. A fragment of the north outer wall w^as somewhat peculiar in construction. It showed three tiers of windows. The uppermost small, with pointed arches set close together. Below these were similar win- dows of greater size, and set much farther apart; and under these were wide pointed arches, with comparatively small pointed apertures Avithin them. From the ruins there is a fine view of the green plain, with the river and village of Mayedin in the distcuice. The bricks of which the castle is partly DEIR TO ANAH. 183 built, and perhaps the stones also, seem to have been gathered from a more ancient site. The Arabs attribute its construction, like other ruins on the Lower Euphrates, to Nimrod. Ainsworth identifies it with " Rehoboth" on the river (Genesis xxxvi. 37), and calls attention to the fact that it must not be confused with Rehoboth Ir or Ur, which is on the Tigris. Tliere is also, at a short distance further down the Euphrates, Rahaba Al Malik ben Tank, now called Salahieh. The Elizabethan traveller Rauwolf describes it as a "pretty large town"; but Balbi. a Venetian, in 1579 only found the vestiges of an ancient town, having but a few inhabitants dispersed among the ruins. It was also at one time a Christian episcopacy ; but at the present day the site is quite deserted. A smart walk of three-quarters of an hour brought me to the small town of Mayedin. There is a good large tract of cultivation round this place, the general style of which is very similar to a Nile village. Although not big enough for a bazaar, Mayedin boasts several shops, a mosque, with slightly leaning mina- ret, and a large police-station, opposite which I found my tent already pitched. The cats at this place were a great nuisance, as 184 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. they were ct)iitiniially climbing over me iu bed to get at my provision-basket ; at last, in despair, I slung it to the ridge-pole of the tent. Even this did not quite stop the nuisance, as they then came in to look at it, and other adventurous spirits tried to swarm the outside of the tent. On account of this, and the mule-bells, which Bukhit refused to remove, I put in a very poor night's sleep. We left about sunrise, and a bitterly cold morning it was. The river, close to which we were, soon after leaving, runs here under a dry bank, like the Nile. In about three hours we ])assed mounds to the left, which my men called Ii"shareh, said to be an old uninhabited village. It was, perhaps, an hour distant from the road. This is probably identical with El Ashar mentioned by Ainsworth, about this place. About an hour before noon, after having been for some time in an unfertile plain similar to that we had passed over the previous morning, we found ourselves close to the cliffs, — in this place of considerable height and formed of limestone, with thick beds of a sort of spar.* 1 calculated they w^ere about 200 feet in height. Num- bers of birds were to be seen on the cliff-face, chiefly * Ainsworth (" Researches in Assyria, Babylonia, and Chaldpea," ) gives the formations here as gypsum and marls, capped by red clay and hmestone breccia. DEIR TO ANAII. 185 blue pigeons, crows, and different sorts of hawks. Soon after, we left the river, and struck into the open desert behind the cliffs. The desert here is a stony plain, covered with a tufty plant of a peculiar frosty- green colour. For about three and a half hours we pursued our course over this stony wilderness, the last part of the time being under the somewhat questionable escort of four mounted Anazeh, with their long spears. I tried to talk with these fellows, and they seemed to me extremely simple and child- like. At the same time we passed on the left an extensive ruin, which looked like the walls of a town, with a tower or gateway in the centre opposite us. This was Salahieh, a ruined town and stronghold of Salah-ed-din, kno^vn also at one time as E-ahaba al Malik ben Tank. I much regret that I did not visit this place, as my men, who, like all Orientals, con- tinually told lies from the mere pleasure of doing so, told me that our camping-ground was several hours off, and it would not do to stay. As a matter of fact, it was only about an hour distant, and I might very well have gone to the ruins and followed later on foot to the camp. Soon after, we descended by a steep road into a 18G THEOUGH TURKISH ARABIA. wady of considerable size, and were shortly again on the plain, dotted about on which were numerous tents. Here we turned back to reach our camping- place, also called Salahieh, where was a police fort. Happening to look out at the cliffs we had just left, I was astonished to see that they were hidden in a dense blackness. Where we were at that time it was a dead calm, but in a minute the storm was on us. A fearful squall of wind and rain, carrying before it an enormous cloud of dust, caught us up, blinded all the party (except myself, who, dry and comfort- able, smoked placidly within my takht), and passed on, completely hiding from my sight the front mules about eighty yards ahead, before it cleared them. The wind when it caught our party was of sufficient strenorth to make the takht rock so that I dreaded the mules being carried off their legs. Other squalls of similar character succeeded, but none of the same violence, and looking out I could count four or five separate sandstorms passing over the plain. "SMien we arrived at our camping- place, having made a stage of over nine hours, it was blowing and raining hard, although, as soon as my tent was with difficulty pitched, it was briglit and sunny. DEIR TO ANAH. 187 Other squalls recurred during the night, but for- tunately the rain had laid the dust.* I insisted on having my tent pitched at a distance from the mules, and by this means succeeded in obtaining a good night's rest, in spite of the jackals, Avhich were yelling on both sides of the river, and of the mules, which seemed to be made restive and exceptionally noisy by the storm. The cry of the mule, by-the-bye, is very peculiar. It is a mixture between the horse's neigh and the ass's bray. As a rule it commences with a shrill scream — an attempt at the former, anything but pleasant. This is sometimes followed by grunts similar to those with which a horse ends his neigh. And then follows an abortive hee-haw. The effect of this combination is uncanny and disagreeable in the extreme. The next morning, the 2ord of March, was bitterly cold, as we struck the tent to start. I could not help congratulating myself on having abandoned the Diarbekr route, for if this cold wave included the high country on that road, it would have been a return to the vigour of an English winter. As * It is only a day's march south of this place where the steamer Ticiris was sunk by an exceptionally bad storm of this character, in the Euphrates expedition in 1836. 188 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. it was, here on the Euphrates, and nearly half way to Bagdad, a heavy riding coat was indispensable for the early hours of the morning. After an hour's journey we came to a small stream flowing through the scrub towards the river. We did not cross it, but turned west, and as we saw it no more, I conclude it ran out of some small marsh. It was the only stream I saw, however, on the whole route running over the plain towards the Euphrates. Many tents were scattered about in this jungle, but to what tribe they belonged 1 could not ascertain. About ten o'clock we passed, about a mile away to the right, a remarkable hillock or " tell," in shape like a volcanic cone. From its absolutely isolated position, I suspected that it was artificial, although, at the distance, it had a great appearance of being a natural formation. Soon after, we met a strange group of about twelve ragged-looking devils, with wild elf-locks, and a general scarecrow " devil-may-care " look, that w^as totally different from the appearance either of tlie hauo-htv Bedawi or the caravan Arabs we had met on the road. Travel-stained and ragged, they tramped along, with no pack animals of any sort ; their only luggage a few pots and pans hung over DEIR TO ANAH. 189 their shoulders, or round their necks. They were a party of wandering durwishes, making their way from Bagdad to Aleppo. Turkish Arabia and Persia abounds with these singular vagabonds. They are something between our tramps and gipsies, and in many cases are half daft. Often they are mere liumbugs, trading on the charity or folly of their betters in fortune ; yet I cannot help feeling a sort of sneaking kindness towards the wandering dur- wish, for, whether humbug, fool, or fanatic, his wretched, homeless mode of existence is about as hard a lot as can be imagined. Four of our long-speared friends were again accompanying us, this time mounted on camels instead of mares. One lithe ra,scal, with teeth like pearls, asked me for some tobacco, which I immediately gave him. A few minutes later he appeared by my side with an apron full of dates. Of course I accepted, and munched them with a great show of satisfaction, which, in fact, I did not feel, as they had just come out of a greasy old camel saddle-bag, and were, in fact, anything but clean. 1 would not have hurt my dusky friend's feelings for tlie world, and he nodded with pleasure and smiled, and showed his magnificent teeth, when I 190 THROUGH Turkish Arabia. told him that they were excellent, and that dates were my favourite diet. In spite of the transparent honesty of this man's face, and his evident friendliness, Haji Mohammed came soon afterwards to me with a yarn that he had been inquiring if I carried much gold with me ; and asserted that if an opportunity was given he would rob me. This was only part of the absurd cowardice and distrust with which every town Arab regards the Bedawi, and it is most improbable that, after the interchange of presents (small though they had been), any true Anazeli would have harboured thoughts of treachery. I told Mohammed he was a fool, but in spite of this, he kept a very careful look out for any further appearances of Arabs. About noon we arrived at a police fort, and a crowd of hurdle-built cottages called Abu Kemal. There is also here a considerable patch of waving corn, irrigated by numerous cherrids. My teskerehs were immediately demanded and carefully examined by an official, probably more with an idea of getting bakhshish out of me than anything else ; but if so, without any success. Heated with the blazing sun, which during the day was now becoming very powerful, I foolishly DEIK TO ANAH. 191 bathed again in the river. The water was icy, and the evening was also cold and blustery, and to this bath I am inclined to attribute the attack of dysen- tery that seized me two days later, and which was destined to enfeeble my health sufficiently to make the remainder of my journey an arduous toil instead of a pleasure. As I was dressing I noticed several troops of Anazeh riding past the village, and it then struck me that there was an air of excitement in the action of these groups that had not been noticeable in those we met nearer Aleppo, As a matter of fact, they were all making their way to a rendezvous for a " ghazu," or plundering expedition against their hereditary foes, the Shammar of Mesopotamia. Of this '• ii'hazu " I was destined to have a closer glimpse the ensuing day. Abu Kemal, my muleteers informed me, was the half-way house between Aleppo and Bagdad, a piece of news I was not altogether sorry to receive. Before I went to bed, my zabtieh, a Nubian from above the cataracts, came to me for his certificate and the usual bakhshish, stating that he had performed his duty properly. While I was writing it I asked him if he belonged to Misr (Egypt). " El hamdu Tillah," he replied, and every tooth in his sable countenance 192 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. gleamed as he thought of his home. " Do you know Aswan 1 " " Wallah." The night was very cold, and we were off the next morning at our usual time — sunrise. I was glad to notice as we left our resting place that the poor lame mule was really going stronger, and was evidently getting well. Soon after leaving I had a row with stupid Mohammed because he insisted on trimming the takht all wrong by hanging the heavy " mattara," or water-bottle, on the wrong side. When I pointed out we were all askew^ and bade him take it to the other side, he obeyed ; but about ten minutes later I caught him secretly replacing it. The reason of this nonsense was solely that the " mattara " on the near side interfered with the usual position of their great lumbering narjileh. In the morning, while out for my walk, I witnessed a curious [)erformance on the part of a big black beetle. This ingenious insect was engaged, for purposes only known to himself, in removing a piece of mule or horse dung to some place unknown. His method was as follows : he walked up to it backwards, and then, placing two pair of liis hind- most feet against it, he rolled it rapidly awa), pro- pelling himself backward by means of his fore legs, DEIR TO AXAH. 193 his head being thus on the ground. The performance was, therefore, precisely similar to the familiar one of the brewer and the beer-barrel, except that the position of the roller was reversed. The ball of dung was perfectly round, made so by the rotatory motion imparted to it by the beetle, as I ascertained by prodding it out of shape with my stick and letting him go to work again, when he had it round again in a "jiffy." The speed at which the little animal propelled it was remarkable. The country passed through in the morning had no mountain on the west bank, but on the Jezirali side there was a fine range in places close to the river. This was the first time I had seen high ground near to the river on the opposite side. The road crossed first a gravelly plain covered with flints, amongst which were many flakes, probably caused by the manufacture of flint weapons in early times. At about nine o'clock we came to and crossed a wide but shallow wady, evidently a water-course in wet seasons. This, a mullah of Bagdad who had been travelling with us since Ueir, called Wady Sheikh Jebur, from a big tell at the mouth of it, close to the river, which is Sheikh Jebur. Immediately after, we passed, at about three-quarters of a mile distant 194 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. on the left, some extensive ruins, to which my in- formant gave the name of Sur.* As far as 1 could see, there appeared to be rained masonry of six towers, and the ruins of a city wall on the desert side, and there seemed, also, to be considerable mounds. I had no opportunity of seeing these ruins without making a considerable detour and stopping the whole caravan, which was now nearly double my own party ; but I regret very much I did not do so, as I am quite unable to find the barest mention of this place in such books as I have access to. Ainsworth, usually so careful and complete on the subject of ancient sites, was, apparently, ignorant of its existence. He mentions, indeed, a village called Jabaryah (or Jaburieh), but this is on the opposite side of the river, and some distance further down. As it was close to this point that the unfor- tunate Tigris was sunk, it is easy to understand how the place escaped his observation. Shortly after this, another wady, and after about half an hour over a higher tract of desert 'we were again in the scrub of the valley ; and at about half-]:)ast eleven we halted at a mud fort close to a water-course, * " Sur " means in Arabic "walls," and in this sense only, the mullah may have used it. DIER TO ANAH. 195 known as El Geim or Keim, supposed by Ainsworth to be the site of Ptolemy's Agamna : and the first place where the old caravan routes from Southern and Central Syria struck the Euphrates. At this point the river, which for about one hundred and twenty miles has been maintaining a south-easterly course, turns east, or rather a point north of east, which general direction, although with many bends, it holds until the town of Anah is reached. As we passed the mud fort I became aware that something: extraordinary was in progress. About and in front of the " konak " stood several knots of police and soldiers, who, instead of their usual list- less air, carried their rifles, and were evidently in considerable excitement. On the top of the building stood a sentry, with bayonet fixed and his belt full of cartridges, while on the river bank below an exciting scene was in progress. A large crowd of gesticulating, shouting Anazeh were engaged in forcing struggling camels and horses into great barges, in order to ferry them across. Some naked, up to their waists in the river, were pulling, while others on the shore endeavoured to push or drag the frightened animals into the barges. The camels, terrified out of their minds, flung themselves down, o2 196 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. roaring and ourgling with fear ; while other boats, having been filled with horses, were shoved off to make the crossing, sometimes with the horses struggling and fighting, so as to make it appear that every moment a capsize would occur. Above and below were quantities of both animals tethered or hobbled, waiting for their turn. Besides the men engaged in the transport many other Anazeh were standing about, or were arriving or leaving on their mares, while ry^^' '/V ^-btJ AN AKAB " GHAZU." all about were their long lances stuck upright in the ground. At first I did not take in what this animated scene meant, and I walked down to the crowd and proceeded to "kodak" groups in the interesting spectacle in front of me. I then found out that a great ghazu was out against the Shammar of Mesopotamia, the hereditary foes of the Anazeh. 'The Arabs were all too excited to take much notice DEIK TO AN AH. 197 of me and my kodak, althoug-li, I suppose, if it had not been for the presence of the police my traps, kodak and all, woidd have been confiscated to grace the tent of some autocrat of the desert. As it was, I attempted to get into conversation with a handsome lad, who, from his dignified and authoritative air, 1 concluded to be a young sheikh. He evinced a good deal of interest as to my nationality and proceedings, wanted to know what arms I carried, and inspected with great curiosity my revolver ; and, lastly, asked me, with a somewhat defiant scowl, how I would like to have my throat cut on the following day. As he illustrated his query by drawing his finger across his weasand there was no mistaking his meaning. So I smiled — smiled, I say — as affably and serenely as T could, and said that my English education had always impressed upon me that the noble tribe of Anazeh never descended to such unpleasant and degrading behaviour, which was only fit for butchers, Kurds, and similar offal. This confiding trustfulness did not seem altogether to turn away his wrath, and when I left him he still scowled defiantly at me, although he returned my salutation fairly civilly. Things, however, seemed really somewhat un- pleasant, when, just as I was finishing my dinner a 198 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. deputation, consisting of my own men, the mullah, a green turban, and half-a-dozen soldiers, suddenly arrived outside my tent, to say that it would be totally unsafe to travel the following day, as the rcmd would be tilled with the ghazu, which, it seemed, was of large dimensions, and would be crossing tlie river for several miles. They said that even that day the soldiers had had a light with the Arabs, who, being on the war-path, were turbulent and un- governable ; and that several of their mules had been killed and two soldiers wounded. In proof of this they produced an unfortunate zabtieh bandaged and bleeding, suffering from a bad lance wound in the head, but puffing away at the sempiternal narjileh. They represented that if 1 stopped here a day all would have crossed the river, and the road be safe I asked for an escort. They replied that they could only spare two men, and a hundred would be power- less against the crowd of Arabs if they turned nasty. I then asked my fellow-travellers what they said. They answered that they had nothing to lose, and if I went they would go, but that I had a lot of baggage and should run a great risk of having it all plundered by the Arabs in their present excited state. Bukhit and Mohammed said the same, so DEIR TO ANAll. 109 that, although I had doubts whether the Auazeh would attack the caravan of an Englishman, as they are decidedly well-disposed towards our nation, yet I felt it would be folly to run the risk of losing all my things when all danger might be easily avoided. I therefore consented to stay one day. Not half-an-hour later Bukhit came to say that he had discovered that there was no fodder for the mules to be got there, and we should have to travel to-morrow as usual : to Avhich I at once gave my assent. In the night I was seized with excruciatiug pains in the abdomen, which I was quite unable to check, and when we left at five o'clock I was still suffering intensely, and completely exhausted by the terrible pain I had gone through in the night. Although the caravan numbered alto- gether about fourteen men, I and the solitary zabtieh were the only ones who carried arms, andif the ghazu had been troublesome, we should have been in sorry plight. The evening before, on arrival, two of the police had entered my tent, and in the coolest manner demanded drink. I at once sent them to the " right about," and told Mohammed not to allow any of the police to enter my tent. I have little doubt that it was in consequence of this that they refused to allow me more than one policeman as escort, 200 TIIEOUGII TURKISH AKABIA. although, according to their account, the road was about as dangerous as it well could be. I reflected, not altogether comfortably about this as we left, as nothing could be more easy for them, if they bore malice for their rebuff", than to pnt up a party of Arabs to attack me. We struck straight into the desert, probably because it would be the safest place if the Anazeh were all down at the river. We soon passed through two or three miniature passes, with great rocks and crags on either side, most handy places for an ambuscade. One of our party walked a long way ahead in order to keep a bright look out, but all was as silent as the grave. After crossing a wide shallow wady, we were pass- ing over the usual plain, when Haji Mohammed came to me to ask if my revolver was ready, as Arabs were behind. I was in such a state of drowsy ex- haustion, partly caused by pain and partly, I fancy, by the opium contained in Dover's powder, of which I had taken a somewhat large quantity in the en- deavour to alleviate my sufferings, that I could scarcely raise myself to look. When I did, I saw two solitary Arabs pricking over the plain after us, and our zabtieh, rifle unslung, firmly planted in their path. W^hat the parley consisted of, I do not know, DEIR TO ANAH. 201 but the Arabs retired. These, and another solitary individual we met later on, were the only Arabs we saw during the day, as the terrible ghazu had all passed over early. The desert we were now upon was very similar in character to that of northern Egypt. About nine o'clock we passed a spur of mountain projecting towards the river, terminated by two re- markable conical hillocks. At half-past eight, half- past nine, a quarter-past ten, and half-past ten, we crossed dry wadys, the last two being called re- spectively Wady Sofra and Wady Zella. The former is a very fine example, broken up into many channels, and bordered with jutting cliffs and rugged hillocks ; where it opens out into the river there are the re- mains of an old nahura, now unused and partly ruinous. These wadys are rather picturesque, although as a rule they are of no great depth. There is, in most, a good deal of scrub growing on either side, owing, no doubt, to the damp which remains in them after the wet season. In March they are all dry, although a few rptain stagnant pools. I fancy, however, there is no time of the year at w^hich they all contain water, either running or stagnant. They must there- fore be caused by local storms of great violence. The 202 TllKOUGH TURKISH ARABIA. nahura, or irrigation water-mill, was the first I had seen since Aleppo, although at Anah, and villages further south, they line the river. At a quarter to one we were close to Nahia, another konak, where we were to spend the night. The cliffs here were again limestone, capped with a bed of gravel. Several nahuras were to be seen here, but only one in work- ing order. Haji Mohammed informed me an early start was necessary the next day, as Anah was some eight hours distant, so I threw myself supperless, for I could not eat, and worn out, on my bed, on which, indeed, I hardly stirred till half-past two the follow ing morning. Soon after four we were again on the road, and as the sun had not risen it was very cold travelling. ^Ve sighted three wild pigs scuttling along the edge of the river ; and the zabtieh rode on in great ex- citement to get a shot. This he effected at about two hundred and fifty yards, without, of course, touching them. Except lizards, these were the first and only wild quadrupeds 1 saw on the Euphrates road. Gazelle, of course, exist, but I never sighted any ; and the Babylonian lion, which, until quite recently was found on both banks of the river, is seldom heard of now. I was pleased to find that DEIR TO ANAII. 20o the poor lame mule had got so much better that he could bear a heavier load. Soon after live we crossed another wady of con- siderable size, and about two hours more brought us to Jebel Kushga, a mountain of a different type to those which we had hitherto seen. Instead of the level table-land bordered by an abrupt clitf at the river plain, we saw a range of which the contour was not dissimilar to a bit of Scottish moor. From the higher ground it descended in easy slopes, points, and gullies till the plain was reached, A ravine running from it to the river is called Wady Khushga. In the many nahuras on the edge of the river we saw that we were approaching a more populous district, and in the same reach I first saw human beings navigating the river. Two kelleks, or rafts, borne on inflated skins, were slowly floating down stream, guided in their course by men with big oars or poles. Shortly after a party of men and women on donkeys was met ; almost the first life we had passed for two days. They were somewhat oddly dressed, and the akals, or bands with wliicJi the men's kaffiehs were secured, were of unusual width, and they were all armed with guns. 1 failed to ascertain who they were. A ruinous 204 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. sheikh's tomb was then passed, more caravans, in one a native lady riding on a donkey, and then " El hamdn lillah,"' the village of Rhowa, on the opposite side of the river, came into view, standing in a palm grove ; a truly refreshing sight to eyes of tile traveller from Aleppo, weary with gazing for days on dreary desert and stunted scrub. Above the village of Rhowa is an enormous fort, built by Midhat Pasha, the good governor of Bagdad, for the protection of this route. Rhowa is situated on a cliff side, round the end of which the river winds, forming a long reach at quite a different angle to that in which the river has been running. Passing over a wady we ascended slightly, and there at our feet we saw this reach, in which, embosomed in Avhat seemed an almost endless palm grove, lay the town of Anah. Ill as I was, I could not but feel pleasure at the sight. The mules tossed their heads and rattled their bells. Haji Mohammed stepped out with redoubled pace, and Hamadi, in the exuberance of his spirits, burst into an ode in praise of Anah. Certainly the scene was lovely, and as we scrambled down the hill the place looked like an emerald set in gold, so green does it lie among the yellow hills of the desert. We made our way along DEIR TO ANAH. 205 a narrow lane, with a low precipice on the right and beautiful gardens, unfortunately much shut out by mud walls, on the left. This road, the chief and only approach to the town, was very narrow, and more than once we came to a dead stop, blocked by camels coming out. We then passed through a mud street, at whose doors women and children swarmed to see the arrival; and at last "outspanned" at an open space on the river edge, specially intended for caravans ; for although Anah is a considerable place, it boasts no khan. MY TAKHT-I-RAWAN. CHAPTER VIII. FROM AN AH TO BAGDAD. Allah, an Arabian Sydenham — Ilhiess — Wady Fahmin — A Dispute — Haditlia — Wady Bagdadi — A Thunderstorm — Arrive at Hit — A Dirty Town — The Bitumen Springs — Ramazan — My Men Catch Two Thieves — Kalah Ramadi — In Touch with Civihsa- tion — Get Among Marshes — A Mule Sticks Fast — Accident to the Takht — Tlie Euphrates Ferry — Kofa Boats — Fehija — A Night March — Lose Our Way — The Babylonian Canals — Akar Kuf — Sight Bagdad — More Bt^gs and Difficvilties — Arrive at Bagdad. The town of Anah is quite unique among the Euplirates towns, and is in every way a curious and interesting spot. The river just above the town winds round a limestone clifF, on which is placed the village and castle of Rhowa, already mentioned, and then forms a long island broken reach, on the the west (or rather south, as the direction of the stream is here easterly) bank of which lies the town. The plan of Anah is remarkable ; it occupies a narrow strip of cultivatable ground, which must be at least six miles long. My men told me it takes two hours to pass through the town, and this I found to be true. In spite of this the population is not great, as the FROM AXAIl TO BAGAD. 207 town is exceedingly narrow, bordered on one sid(> by u low cliff and the desert, and on the other by the river. Unlike most Arab towns, the houses, instead of being crowded, are nearly all built in their own gardens of palms. It is, in fact, a sort of Arabian A NAIIURA AT ANAH. Sydenham. The one interminable street that runs the whole length of the town is crossed at frequent intervals by the channels carrying the water fi'om the nahuras to the gardens, and as each of these crosses at a much hia^her level than that of the road. 208 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. a passage through Aiiah either by takht or on horse- back is anything but pleasant, as one is continually climbing over humpy aqueducts. The people I noticed in Anah were remarkable for their healthy appearance and pleasant manners. The women and children mostly wear nose-rings in the desert fashion, and many have really rosy cheeks, a thing most unusual in Arabian countries. As at Deir, boys are to be seen all day long throwing for floating wood, which they do with great dexterity. Many of the Mussulmans of Anah claim descent from the Ommiade Caliphs, and in former times they were ruled by an independent^ sheikh of their own. Ibn Haukal states that in his time the name of this prince or emir was Abbas ben al Ummar al Ghani. Teixeira in the beginning of the seventeenth century found it governed by an emir called Abu Risha, " the father of feathers," whose power extended across the desert to Palmyra."* This name has been oddly corrupted by some travellers. Mr. Ralph Fitch, who travelled at the end of the six- teenth century, wrote : " In the river of Euphrates, from Birra to Felugia, there are places where you pay custom, .... which is for the sons of * Ainsworth. FROM ANAH TO BAGDAD. 209 Arborise, who is lord of the Arabians, and all that great desert, and hath some villages upon the river." Again, Gasparo Balbi, who traversed the river in 1579, says '• to Castle Anna, near to which in Diana, Arborise, an Arabian lord, liveth." From the amount of green turbans and robes seen it is evident that there are many of the inhabitants who claim descent from the Prophet ; but there are said to be also a considerable population of Christians and Jews. The fortress of Anatha, or Anatho, from which Anah took its name, and which was conquered by the Emperor Julian, was on one of the islands in the river. During the night I became very ill. Dysentery, consequent on my rashness in bathing in the Euphrates, had seized me, and the agony I endured was intense. Though racked with this, and fever, I was unable to get at my medicine, as the lock of the bag containing it had got out of order, and I had not been able to open it for two days. Some two hours before dawn my men, who, good fellows as they were, neither understood nor had any sympathy with my sufferings, came, and announcing it was time to start, proceeded to loosen the tent ropes. This I found was being done nnder the orders of Bukhit, :^10 TllltOUGlI TUIIKISH ARABIA. ■with whom I had had trouble before from the same cause, and who now thought I was too weak to resist his importunity, by which, as he was for some reason anxious to get to Bagdad very early, he hoped to make long stages. Prostrate as I was, I felt it would neither do for me to be travelling in the cold previous to sun- rise, nor to give way in such a matter ; I therefore rose, and it was not until I threatened the men with the tent mallet that they desisted. At sunrise we left the camp and went bumping down the narrow road over the raised water-courses that intersect it. It was a full, hour and a half before we really got clear of the last palm gardens and scattered houses. An hour later we came to a wady containing a long stagnant pool of water, to get round the head of which a considerable detour was necessary ; I was unable to ascertain the name of this, but it is about the same place where Lake Telbeis is marked in Kiepert's big map. At this place the mules w^ere all carefully watered, and the mattaia refilled, as we w^ere to have a long day in tlie desert. Curiously enough, the Arabs prefer to drink the clear but stagnant, and probably unwholesome, water of these backwaters rather than the sweet turbid river water ; if I had been in the habit of doing this I i^'ROM ANAH TO BAGDAD. 211 should have attributed ray ailment to it, but with the exception of once or twice tasting it, I was always careful to obtain the river water. For another hour we passed over the fertile plain, fur below Anah there is a great deal of cultivation, and we then struck up into the desert, a high and uninteresting plain, where we were for six hours. In the morning we sighted the tents of a few pastoral Arabs, but with this exception we saw no sign of life. At about noon we arrived on the edge of an exceed- ingly rough and dangerous wady called Fahmin. Although I had generally alighted at the rougher wadys to ease the mules in crossing, my men had always insisted that it was unnecessary : but here for the first time they came to request me to do so. The descent, when I looked down it, appeared to me about similar to the rocks and holes of the water- fall of Lodore in Cumberland, and it looked almost hopeless to attempt to bring the heavy litter with its mules over such a place ; however, they went pluckily at it, dropping themselves cleverly, in spite of the great weight they bore, off ledges of rock three feet high, and scrambling over and between im- mense rocks and boulders ; it was, however, fearful work for the poor things, as being braced together, so p 2 212 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. to speak, fore and aft with their heavy load, they could have no freedom of movement. At last they stood safe on the other side unhurt, though quivering in every muscle with the awful exertion and shaking they had had. The baggage mules managed very cleverly, picking their own way, and clambering about more like kittens than hoofed quadrupeds ; other wadys similar, but less severe, followed. Soon after a furious altercation arose between the zabtieh and Bukhit as to which village we were to go to : at the nearest, which the former wanted, Bukhit affirmed no fodder was available ; the other one, the zabtieh stated, was an unreasonably long distance from Anah, and he refused to go any further. Bukhit' s statement I felt was not improbably a lie, as I knew he was in a great hurry to get on, but on the other hand it was equally important for me, ill as I now was, to lessen as much as possible the distance to my destination ; I therefore gave the man the customary present and sent him about his business. I noticed on the hill-tops about here huge piles of stones, which had the appearance of ancient sepul- chral cairns ; I cannot imagine what else they can be, although the Arabs deny this. We had now got sufficiently far south to begin to feel we were getting FROM ANAH TO BAGDAD. 21 O to another climate, and the heat and drought in this plain were very oppressive ; the sun was, and had been for some days, so strong that my light felt hat was insufficient head covering, even when accom- panied by a pugaree, and I found it necessary to use an umbrella when walking. We descended into the river plain at about three o'clock, but it was nearly three hours more before we arrived at Haditha. As we approached this pretty place we saw numerous sheikhs' tombs, some of which have the curious spire-like covering which often replaces the dome about Bagdad, but which is never seen in Egyptian work. We also passed quarries where many fine blocks of limestone had been detached, and were waiting to be transported down the river to Bagdad. Haditha is built partly on an island, and is supposed to be an old site, though it does not seem to have been satisfactorily identified. As soon as my tent was pitched, I forced the lock of my bag to obtain medicine, as my illness showed no signs of abatement, and I was unable to eat anything except one or two eggs and a little rice, which I had almost to force down my throat, so nauseous were they to me. We had made a double stage, having probably covered between forty and fifty miles. The 214 THROUGH TURKISH ARA151A. medicine I took (a choleraic bolus) checked, but by no means stopped, my illness ; but in spite of this, and also of dogs fighting among my tent lines, and a visit from a cat which I suddenly became aware of in the night, with its head in a milk bowl, I obtained some sleep. Later on I felt something stirring beneath my pillow, and having lit a candle to see what it was, the sweetest little mouse popped out from beneath my bag and looked at me, with hardly any fear ; he was greyer and bigger than an English mouse, and had a pair of the most beautiful black eyes I ever beheld. He was exceedingly tame, and ran over me and darted under my bag, and behind my pillow and out again ; and would almost let me take him up in my hand ; he was a harmless little companion, so I let him stay, and blew out my candle ; immediately afterwards I heard him negotiating a bit of biscuit. In the morning, the 28th March, and the eighteenth day of my journey, we got away at about the usual time ; in an hour we entered the desert, and soon after crossed a wady with a backwater m it. Nearly two hours later we came to another, which the men called Wady Sagreidan ; and from that time till noon the road lay over a dull, monotonous plain, similar FROM ANAH TO BAGDAD. 215 to that passed the day before. The air was heavy and oppressive, aud there was some appearance of a storm brewing. A few showers were, however, all that we had during the day. About an hour later we were close to the river, under limestone cliffs, the outline of which was varied by a series of wadys, many of which were blocked by a sort of amphi- theatre of rock, which in wet times must be large waterfalls. The face of the clift" is here honeycombed with fissures, holes, and small caves, which seem to be due to the disintegration of the softer parts of the rock when the river was running at a higher level. Soon after we encamped at the mouth of a fine wady called Bagdadi, and, although not a house or tent of any description was in sight, I presume we were somewhere in the vicinity of the mosque and village of the same name, which Ainsworth mentions hereabouts. The place was lonely and desolate in the extreme, and had I been in health, and able to eat (which I was still quite unable to do), I should have fared badly, as I had nothing left except some rice and dates. I was so exhausted that I lay down and slept for nearly twelve hours on end, but on waking I found myself but little refreshed. At sun- rise we made our way a short distance up the wady, 216 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. and then climbed out of it on the southern side. There had been no rain in the night, but when we got out on to the plain we found the sky inky black to the south, where there was also much lightning. Shortly after it thickened in rapidly, and after several flashes, and peals of thunder, which seemed to roll from one end of the plain to the other, the rain suddenly came down in bucketfuls. It only lasted, however, for a few minutes, but it freshened up the air considerably, and lefc all the ruts in the track filled with water, like an English lane in December. Small streams came gurgling down the stony slopes, forming tiny wadys of their own. When a spring shower has this effect, it is easy to understand how great storms will fill up the big water-courses. The men did not seem to mind the wet at all. This struck me as curious, in a country where rain is so infrequent. I suppose, in a hot climate like Turkish Arabia, it is considered a great luxury to get wet through now and then. The desert, in gloomy weather, is about as ugly as anything can well be. In its normal state of glorious sunshine it has a beauty of its own ; but, without this, it is melancholy and uninteresting to a degree. Haji Mohammed came to me with a long face, saying FROM ANAH TO BAGDAD. 217 that he had now got a bad stomach. Fortunately, his case proved to be anything but serious, and after I had given him a dose of Carlsbad salts he professed himself all right again. After rejoining the river, we passed some cliffs, of which the strata was wavy or undulating, the first instance I had noticed since Aleppo, where the bedding of the rock was not horizontal. More wadys and backwaters were crossed, and we passed some curious examples of weathered limestones, where a layer of harder stone had protected the softer formation, and had left strange table-like excrescences dotted over the plain. We soon came in sight of Hit, situated about a mile from the mountain, and on a black, spons^y plain, the peculiar character of which is caused by the salt and bitnmen, for which this singular place is noted. On the right hand we passed several sheikhs' tombs, among which was a large one in ruinous condition, which Haji Mohammed called '• Mazarre." The town itself is considerably elevated above the plain, being built on a large ditched hill, which appears to be more or less artificial, and similar to the citadel of Aleppo. It boasts only one minaret 218 TII ROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. of any size, and there are, near the town, plantations of date palms, in which most of the trees are small and young. About one o'clock we filed into an open space on the south side of the town, and close to the usual guard-house. The ground everywhere is covered with hard bitumen, exactly like asphalt, which made it very difficult to pitch the tent. In addition to this, the place was littered with filth of other caravans, and stank most abominably, so that I was in doubt whether I should not go to the khan close by, on the hilltop. Of the two, the smelly camping ground seemed the least of two evils, and with great difficulty my tent was pitched, the holes for the pegs having to be first made by driving big iron spikes into the asphalt. The fact that the place was just outside the town made it doubly uncomfortable, as a great crowd of boys and men insisted in wandering about the tent, prying into it, and tumbling over the ropes. After a short time, however, the Mudir sent a zabtieh to keep the people away, and to watch the tent during the night. The town, which is of great antiquity, is, as already stated, built on what appears to be an FKOM ANAII TO BAGDAD. 219 ancient mound.* The streets are about five feet wide, with open sewers running down the centre, and reeking with smell and filth. The wretched hovels which compose the town are built of mud, and, as far as I could see, were as filthy as the streets. I took a walk through this paradise, and although the townspeople did not actually insult me, they appeared to resent my presence. South of the town are extensive heaps of ruins, apparently the remains of the ancient Is of Herodotus, to which the mound of Hit must have formed the citadel. On these are scattered about many beehive- built kilns, in which lime-burning goes on, and the lime from Avhich is exported to Bagdad. I afterwards walked to the bitumen springs situated on the level to the west of the town, from which they are distant about half a mile. It was this remarkable phenomenon which gained for Hit formerly the name of the " Mouth of hell." The naphtha boils from the earth, and after being ex- posed to the air, becomes bitumen and petroleum. The water is carried into pans or small square ponds, where a great quantity of salt is formed by evapora- tion. The water in these pans is tepid, and in some ■^' It was taken by Omar's gene,ral in 637. 220 THEOUGH TURKISH ARABIA. cases bright yellow. The salt in some is on the surface, in others beneath the water, or on the edges only. It has much the appearance of frosted ice ; the water is unpalatable to the taste, and the place itself emits an offensive sulphureous smell. These bitumen springs were celebrated in antiquity, and were seen by Alexander the Great, Trajan, Severus, and Julian. Herodotus says that the bitumen of Is was used as cement in the walls of Babylon. At the present day it is used as fuel, and to cover the kofas or circular coracles used on the river, as well as other sort of crafts, and even, it is said, to line the water-courses formed for irrigating arable land and gardens. Both it and petroleum are exported in considerable quantities to Bagdad, but neither this, nor the salt and lime trade, seem to have given the town any appearance of success or prosperity.* On the river at Hit I * Further information about the naphtha springs of Hit may be read in Ainsworth, "Researches in Assyria," &c., p. 85; "Personal Narrative of Euphrates Valley Expedition," vol. i., p. 143 ; Gratton Geary, " Through Asiatic Turkey," 1878, vol. ii., p. 17. The accounts of early travellers are always of interest. Gasparo Balbi says: "to Eit, near to which is a boiling fountain of pitch, wherewith the inhabitants build their houses, daubing it on boughs cut from trees, so that they may seem rather of pitch than wood, everyone taking what pleaseth him freely : and if the overflowing Euphrates should not carry away the pitch thrown into the field where it ariseth, they say there would be hills raised by it." Ralph Fitch, who travelled in 1583, writes: "By the river FROM ANAH TO BAGDAD. 221 saw several clumsy square-ended barges, constructed and used to transport cargos of bitumen to Busrali. The nahuras here are more elaborate than those I had already seen, some of them havmg three or four water wheels. The following day was the first of Ramazan, the great fast of Al-Islam ; and when I went to bed the people were firing off guns all over the town to celebrate the event. In consequence of this, my men thought fit to make rather a night of it ; Hamadi singing like a lark till goodness knows what small hour of the morning. Between these interruptions, and dog fights, and men driving- donkeys over my tent ropes, and my policeman hawking and spitting outside the doorway, and thunder and lightning and tempest, I made but a poor night's sleep. At about one o'clock I was out Euphrates, two clays' journey from Babilon, at a place called Ait, in a Held near unto it, is a strange thing to see : a mouth that doth continually throw forth against the air boihng pitch with a filthy smoke ; which pitch doth run abroad into a great field, which is always full thereof. The Moors say that it is the mouth of hell. By reason of the great quantity of it, the men of that country pitch their boats two or three inches tliick on the outside, so that no water doth enter into them. Their boats are called danec." it appears also from the Tarihh MirJcond (Teixeira) that pots full of burning naphtha and bitumen were used in the days of the Caliphate in battle ; an unsatisfactory weapon it was, for if the wind was in the wrong direction, the throwers instead of the enemy were burnt. 222 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. and saw the big mud brick minaret all lit up, and distinctly heard the chantins: chorus of the faith- ful, which in the silence of the night was singularly impressive and beautiful. We were off early, and for some time traversed low gravelly hills near the river. At one place we came to a recurrence of tamarisk scrub, a feature that for some days had been absent. After this we crossed a high piece of desert, covered with glisten- ing fragments of some sort of spar. There was no sort of herbage growing here. Soon after we descended into a dreary salt marsh, the ground dark and quite spongy to tread on, although not wet. Through part of this ran the embankments of an ancient canal, the first we had seen of the great Babylonian network of canals. It consisted solely of two great banks or ramparts running parallel across the plain. About eleven I was suddenly roused by the takht stopping, and, looking out, I beheld Bukhit, Haji Mohammed, and Hamadi, with their big sticks in their hands setting off at full speed across country after three flying figures. I had no idea at first what was up; but I saw them come up Avith the flying scarecrows, and strike at them FKO-M AXAII TO BAGDAD. 22o furiously. The scarecrows separated, but JVloham- med tackled one and threw him, and the others coming up, they set to and beat him lustily. As I ran towards what looked like becoming- a case of murder with violence, the men desisted, and Haji Mohammed fell on the unfortunate in a heap, and pummelled him to a jelly. They then secured and brought him back — a poor wretched-looking lad with a cunning face. It seems that the three scare- crows had suddenly appeared, and had attempted to steal something off one of the mules. The zabtieh, who was behind, went flying after one of the others when they separated, and he was now brought up as wretched a looking creature as number one. There was nothing- to be done with them ; in fact, the first fellow had already been punished very severely for his attempted theft, so I dismissed them with a caution, after having frightened them horribly by "kodaking" them. In consequence of this little delay, a party who Avas travelling behind us now came up. It consisted of a man with two wives and children, the whole being mounted on donkeys. The women, one of whom was very handsome, would get in front of my window, and have a good stare in. This, the man. 224: THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. who kept the whole party in front of him like a flock of sheep, soon noticed, and his big stick was immediately brought into use to keep his good ladies' mounts well to the front. By and bye we came to a "wali"* or sheikh's tomb, called Sheikh Waiss, which seems to be regarded with peculiar local sanctity. An old man who took care of the place came and requested a gift, a sort of toll, which is levied on all travellers. At about two o'clock we met a solitary Anazeh horseman, the iirst we had seen for some days. The plain here is in places richly cultivated, but in many places it is a dull salty mud flat, here and there relieved by sand hillocks. After a long stage of ten and a half hours we arrived at Ramadi, or Kalali Ramadi, a considerable place situated among palms. We encamped in a large square, having an enormous barrack on one side and an even more imposing edifice, which I believe was the Serai, on the other. Both of these were built by Midhat, when Pasha of Bagdad. The whole town as usual turned out to see my arrival, and the crowd were unpleasantly inquisitive, and *"Wali" really means the " beloved " or "favoured"' (of God), but is continually applied to the tombs of holy men. FROM ANATI TO BAGDAD. 225 some not altogether civil. I heard Hainacli explain- ing to these folks that I was a consul, which accounted for the rumour I had already found current to that effect. One individual asked me in French if I could speak that language, and although I replied in the affirmative, the ensuing conversation was not very brilliant, as those were the only words my questioner knew. A police official came and examined my papers and departed, having asked if my innocent basket of bottles, which only contained two bottles of purgative mineral water and one of brandy for medicinal use, were for my "kaif" or enjoyment. The inhabitants of Kalah Ramadi have the sallow complexions and' manner of townsmen, very different to the bold swagger of the Bedawi I had seen so long, or even to the manner of the folks of Deir and Anah. The tarbush, however, which was so common in Aleppo, is not usual here. Kalah Ramadi is not situated quite on the river bank, and the only water obtainable was at a well in a neighbouring garden, at a water-course in which I performed my usual ablution, much to the amazement of the worthy gardener. Although a considerable place, I was unable to obtain a drop of milk. Q 226 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. To show the cupidity of Arabs, I may mention that I presented my men with the little rice I had left (as we were but two days from Bagdad) and bought for them two chickens as a present. I had hardly done this, when Mohammed coolly came to my tent, and asked for money to buy fuel to cook with. I told him he ought to think shame of him- self, and he left me looking crestfallen. In the night, at the sixth hour, a gun was fired, and going out, I could see the white-robed form of the mueddin illuminated by torches or lamps, stand- ing on a small minaret or roof of a tall house ; and tlirough the still night air came again the sweet chant. The night-calls of this functionary during Ramazan differ from those at other times of the year. Next morning, as we left Ramadi, I felt w^e M^ere regaining civilisation, as we were following the line of telegraph-poles connecting this place with Bagdad. Mohammed came to me with a yarn that he had heard that tlie British Consul had left Bagdad, and that I should meet him that evening at Feluja. This report proved untrue. He also said that during the day we should have to pass through mud up to our chests, a pleasant prospect to look forward to in our day's march. FKOM ANAH TO BAGDAD. 227 The character of the country passed during the morning's march differed from what I had hitherto seen. The chief feature was mud-hills rising some- what abruptly from the plain. These had the ap- pearance of being alluvial, but of this I am not certain, as I noticed spar glistening on their slopes. About two hours after leaving, we passed the remains of another old canal, which must be that mentioned by xlinsworth as existing at Sura, four miles south of Ramadi, and which was known to the Romans as Nahr Sares, and called by Ptolemy the Maar Sares, After joining and leaving the river, we coursed along for some two hours between cultivated plain and more mud-hills, until at about ten, y^e again ap- proached the river, here bordered by mud swamps. In spite of the bad ground, we kept going at a much quicker pace than usual, a proceeding very hard on the mules after such a long journey. I was very disgusted with Bukhit's behaviour during the course of the morning. There was an old man following the caravan, who had with him a strong young unbroken mule colt. The poor old fellow had a heavy saddlebag with him, but his animal would not carry it, and indeed would hardly go itself. Every time he tried to place the saddlebas; Q 2 228 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. on its back, the beast plunged and threw it off, and it was piteous to see the old man with his load on his shoulder, dragging the unwilling mule, which hung back, thus adding tenfold to its master's work. I asked Bukhit to relieve him, by placing the saddle- bag on one of my animals for a bit, but the brute absolutely refused, saying that the man had his own animal, and that he (Bukhit) had only been hired to convey me and my appurtenances. A more churlish action I rarely witnessed amongst Arabs, w^ho are generally charitable and kind towards the old or infirm. About ten o'clock we entered a wretched quag- mire of swamp, mud, and dykes full of stagnant water ; and after floundering about for about half an hour in this slough of despond, we lost our way, which, however, we fortunately found again soon. The poor little grey mule came to grief in a pond, and had to be unloaded and pulled out, amidst much screaming and gesticulation. Getting quit of this in about half an hour, we entered a plain, partly under cultivation, and partly inhabited by pastoral Arabs, whose tents and herds of sheep and cows were to be seen in various directions. On the arable land I noticed in use a rude wooden plough, drawn [Seep. 8G.] MOSQUE OP ZACHAEIAS, ALEPPO. 2B0 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. by two horses. About noon, while crossing over a small earth bridge spanning an irrigation water- course, I felt a sudden jolt, and the takht began to roll over sideways. I scrambled out anyhow, and found the hinder mule deep in the water with its head just sticking out over the bridge. The poor animal had its leg crushed up under it, and it was necessary to unharness, and lift the takht clear before it could be extricated. The screams and yells of the katterji and akams at this juncture were awful. Fortunately, the mule was not hurt, and we resumed our journey, no worse for the accident. After this we got into more swamp, the green of which, after three w^eeks in the desert, was most refreshing to the eye. In one place we had to ford a big stagnant pond, the water almost coming into the takht. After wading about in more marsh of this sort, we arrived at the point where the ferry crossed the river to Feluja. A bridge of rotten boats crosses the river here when the stream is of moderate dimensions, but the floods, occasioned by the melting of the snows in Armenia, Avere rising, the bridge was cut, and its two halves secured to either side. We scrambled along a narrow dyke, formed apparently to keep back the Euphrates water (with what success may be FROM ANAH TO BAGDAD. 2ol judged by the swamps we had just emerged from), and halloo'd for the ferry-boat. While we were waiting, I found lying in the edge of the swamp an enormous dead turtle, or tortoise, about two-and-a- half feet in length, with a softish shell. I noticed here one or two of the curious kofa boats, which are so common at Bagdad on the Tigris. They are con- structed of strong wicker-work, and are thickly daubed on the outside with bitumen. In shape they are perfectly circular, and are from six to nine feet in diameter. A large kofa will hold ten or more passengers, and it is said they never upset. They are " manned " by a solitary individual with a paddle, who propels, or rather guides, them on the current down stream. The return journey is made by pulling them along the bank. They are only used for transport across the rivers, and the type, as has often been noticed, is of extreme antiquity, as they are represented on the ancient Assyrian reliefs.* After shouting for some time in vain, a square ferry- boat arrived, commanded by a fine, white-bearded, stout old Arab, who proved to be Mohammed's uncle. All the mules and myself were packed therein, the mules * Herodotus describes similar boats in use on the Euphrates. He says they were covered with skins, and built in Armenia. 232 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. taking their places with a steadiness of demeanour that argued they had made passages in ferry-boats often before. My baggage was all put in a kofa, and a safe crossing was effected. The stream here is so strong that the ferrymen have to pull hard up stream till more than half-way across, when they abandon the oars, and the boat drifts rapidly down stream to a point of the east bank opposite where we started. 1 noticed that the current here, which is very strong, forms at intervals of a few minutes a large whirlpool in midstream, the gurgling of which is plainly heard on both banks. The ferry-boat, crossing to the west bank, makes a similar course, but reversed, as she is pulled and floated to a place south of the ferry point, and then pulled up under shelter of the bank. After arrival the boat made a second trip for the takht, which arrived not as much broken as might have been expected. The total fare for the crossing of takht, six mules, donkey, three men and self, was one mejidie and a bakhshish of a half mejidie to the ferrymen. Feluja is a wretched place, and my tent was pitched in a small open place opposite a coffee- house. From Feluja on the Euphrates to Bagdad on the Tigris is a long stage. It is in reality two days' FROM ANAH TO BAGDAD. 23 O journey, but is very ofteu clone in one. As I was anxious to arrive at Bagdad, I consented to the double stage, and after four or five hours' sleep, we left soon after two o'clock. My men, although they had done nearly ten hours' journey the day before, a great part on foot, and with a fourteen hours' stage before them, seemed to consider sleep of no importance, and talked and sang most of the night. It was of course dark for several hours after we started, and I could not see much of the country we were traversing. When day broke I found we were in a beautiful grassy plain, totally free from the rough stony character of the Arabian side. To our left lay a lake or large morass, over the surface of which numerous flights of birds were wheeling. In fact, the plain was alive with birds, and far overhead were soaring large numbers of what appeared to be wild geese. The zabtieh called them " sakaklus." From the uncertain way we were proceeding, and the numerous stops we made, I felt sure that in the darkness w^e had missed the road. There was indeed no sign of a track on the grassy plain we were cross- ing. My men of course denied having lost their way, but I resolved to watch our course with map and compass. Fortunately we soon after met a man with ^34 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. a gun, who directed us into the road, which we shortly struck, close to the cultivated plain which now we were close to on the right, and which was at a lower level than the uncultivated plain we were crossing. There was also a little scrub here, and the track was in a marshy condition, due to the recent rains, which had apparently been heavy here. Shortly after we sighted the mounds of an ancient canal traversing the plain, and during the hour and a half succeeding, we crossed over no less than five of these great double embankments, which seemed here to intersect the plain in every direction, crossing each other at all sorts of angles. Near the second of these I also noticed low mounds and fragmentary pottery. Everything betokened that we had entered that great network of ancient irrigation by which the ancient Babylonians raised their land to such power and affluence. The mounds of these canals are at the present day of such size that our view was limited as a rule in each direction by the nearest canal on that side. About the same time that we came to the first canal, we sighted straight ahead a curious looking object, which reminded me of the Westminster clock-tower as seen from Harrow Hill. This was the great mass of brickwork situated in the plain, some six or seven FROM ANAH TO BAGDAD. 235 miles west of Bagdad, and known to the Arabs as Tell Nimrud, or Akar Kuf. This curious pile, which is quite solid, and over one hundred feet high, has been almost as great a crux to antiquaries and travel- lers as the Birris Nimrud. The earlier travellers often took it for the Tower of Babel itself. Balbi (1579) writes: "Before sunrise next day we traversed again among those ruins, leaving them on the left hand, seeing pieces of great walls ruined, and one piece of the great tower of Babel, till coming to Mascadon, they saw the towers of Bagdet or New Babylon. From Felugia thither the soil seems good, yet neither is there tree or green grass, house or castle : but mushrooms so good that the Moors eat them raw." And Ralph Fitch, who travelled over the same route, a few years later, says: "The tower of Babel is built on this side the river Tygris, towards Arabia from the town " {i.e., Bagdad, which he distinctly describes, although he calls it Babylon), " about seven or eight miles, which tower is ruinated on all sides, and with the fall thereof hath made, as it were, a little mountain, so tliat it hath no shape at all ; it was made of bricks dried in the sun, and certain canes and leaves of the palm tree laid betwixt the bricks. There is no entrance to be seen to so 236 THROUGH TUEKISH ARABIA. into it. It doth stand upon a great plain betwixt the rivers of Euphrates and Tygris." It is probably the sole remaining vestige of some Babylonian city (perhaps Accad), of which all other traces have now disappeared, probably destroyed by the Caliphs for the construction of Bagdad. Gratton Geary* notices that the name of Akar Kuf is rather applied to the site than to the structure, which the natives invari- ably call Nimrud. Authorities are divided as to what the structure has actually been. A theory accepted by many is that it forms part of a temple of Belus. Buckingham, a traveller of great intelli- gence, thought it must be part of a structure something akin to the Egyptian pyramids ; a likely enough idea, seeing that what remains is a vast solid mass of brickwork. The morning was breezy and sunny, but not hot, and the ground we passed over was alive with large hopping insects of the grasshopper sort. Big yellow^ locusts were also fluttering about, flying against anything that got in their way, and settling on the ground with the extraordinary suddenness which is peculiar to this insect. Between the insects and the birds, we seemed to have got into quite a new * " Through Asiatic Turkey," 1878. FROM ANAH TO BAGDAD. 237 country since we had crossed the Euphrates. The Tell Niinrud, which we were now nearing, seemed to alter continuously in outline, and several times it, and the mound it rests on, seemed completely severed from the ground, — the effect of mirage. The ruin had such a very strange appearance rising, as it does, in complete solitude out of the immense plain, that I should not be surprised if it is not the original of some of the very strange " efrits " or "jinns" we read of in the Thousand and One Nights. After passing this, and more canals, we came in sight, at about noon, of a shining ball with four needles standing round it. This was the gilded dome and minarets of Iman Musa el Kazem, com- monly called Kazemein, and ten minutes later rose on the horizon a long low line of palm trees, perfectly level and unbroken, but by a big smoky chimney, such as w^e see at Warrington. This was the first sight of Bagdad, the city of the Caliphs, and " the abode of peace," over the marvels of which, in Mr. Lane's " Alf Lailah," I had pored and wondered for many an hour in the sunless north. At these sights, the mules, who recognised the " abode of peace " as soon as their human companions, pricked up their ears, and put their best foot for- 238 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. ward. Hamadi tuned up, and we moved on with renewed energy towards the city, which still lay some four or live miles distant. But our difficulties were not yet quite ended ; in an hour's time we came to a big backwater of the river, surrounded by marshes, which it was no easy matter to cross. The first mule that attempted the crossing stuck fast in the middle, and had to be unloaded and led back to try again. The takht then went in search of a shallow and fairly hard place, which was at last found, and a crossing effected. I was then carried across about a hundred yards of boggy water, sitting on Hamadi's shoulders with my legs on each side of his neck, like an old man of the sea, but without the con- fidence of that mystic old gentleman, as I felt every moment I was going to fall into the mire. When we reached the far side, and Hamadi, like Sinbad, said, " Descend at thine ease," I did not pummel him with my heels, as poor Sinbad was served, but alighted promptly. Hamadi demanded "bakhshish" on the score that he wished to treat his spouse to a joint of mutton by way of a feast on his return. To this I replied "Bukra" (" to-morrow"), as it would not do to begin distributing presents before the journey's end. After this another unfortunate mule FROM ANAII TO BAGDAD. 289 strayed on to a iniid-bank and went in " up to its armpits," and had to be lightened and dug out Hke the other. All this was sufficiently annoying, within two miles of Kazemein, and it looked like getting to Babylon (or rather Bagdad) by candlelight, as the old rhyme has it. In addition to these discomforts, I had had no fresh water for some nine or ten hours, and dared not drink from the stagnant pools we passed. The palm groves increased in length, the chimney of the bread factory grew higher, and one or two long yellow buildings and a curious pointed structure, the tomb of Queen Zubeidah, came into view. Soon after we were at the outskirts of the western suburb of the town, and leaving the caravan, as my men said there w^ould be some delay at the bridge, I followed Mohammed through an inter- minable maze of bazaars, markets, small mosques, and by-streets, all densely thronged with strangely- dressed people, until 1 arrived at the end of a bridge of boats similar to that at Feluja. Here we got into a kofa, and gaily paddled down stream to the British Residency. Near the landing-place a tiny fair-haired girl rushed into Mohammed's arms, and the great rough pipe-smoking caravan Arab melted in a moment. When the paternal embraces were over. 240 THROUGH T'TRKISH ARABIA. the little thing kissed my hand and I bakhshished it. Colonel Mockler, the British Resident, received me kindly, and offered me his hospitality, and in a short time I was ensconced in a magnificent bedroom decorated in the Persian style, while Indian servants prepared my bath and unpacked my things. We had done no less than a fourteen hours' stage since our start that morning ; so no wonder I fell wearily into a chair, the first I had sat on for three weeks. 241 CHAPTER IX. BAGDAD. Situation of the City — -Advantages of the Site — Its Walls and Gates now Destroyed — Old Guns at the Barracks — The Streets — Houses — Architecture of the British Residency — Sei-dabs — ■ Coffee-houses — Bazaars — Shopping in Bagdad — Money — Mos- ques — The Tomb of Lady Zubeidah. Although I arrived at Bagdad on April 2nd, and did not finally leave for the Persian Grulf until the 19tli, I was in Bagdad only ten days, as the trip to Babylon and Kerbela occupied seven. During the whole time I was in the town, my health remained so bad, and I was so exhausted, that I was quite unable to go about as I wished. On some days, in fact, I was so prostrate, that I remained in my room at the residency, totally unable to brace myself up to venture out among the scenes and sights of Bagdad as I desired. In consequence of this, the notes I was en- abled to take were anything but copious, and the reader must excuse the poverty of the following short account of the city. To myself it was the greatest possible disappointment to find myself thus incapaci- E 242 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. tated at the culminating point (as it were) of my whole journey. Bagdad, the Baldach of Marco Polo, and the Bagdat of other early travellers, is situated on the river Tigris, some five hundred and seventy miles from the Persian Gulf by the river, although a mucli shorter distance by direct measurement. The situa- tion has been well chosen, as it is placed on that part of the river where it approaches to within some thirty miles of the Euphrates, with which, indeed, it was connected by a navigable canal called the Saklawieh canal, the royal river of the Talmud. By means of this it commanded the commerce of the two great rivers of western Asia, which, although insignificant at the present day, must at any rate in early times have been very considerable, and the tradition of which must, at least, have survived at the time of the foun- dation of Bagdad. From this point downwards the rivers spread further apart, to close again at a point some hundred miles from the sea, to which they then flow in one undivided and magnificent stream. The site of Bagdad had also other advantages ; it rose indeed from among, and was built from, the re- mains of a batch of ancient cities, whose decay had made wav for, and demanded the existence of, new reat stone lion, described by Rich, Layard, and others, and which still lies half buried in the rubbish, a sorry memento of the ancient city. A more interesting relic is to be found in the remains of a brick buildincj, to which the name of " El kasr " seems more correctly applied, and which is the only piece of building which remains in anything like preservation throughout the ruins. This remarkable little ruin has been repeatedly described, but Layard's concise and accurate account I here reproduce : " Nearly in the centre, a solid mass of masonry, still entire, and even retaining remains of architectural ornament, protrudes from the confused heap of rubbish. Piers, buttresses, and pilasters may be traced ; but the work of destruction has been too complete to allow us to determine whether they belong to the interior or exterior of a palace. I sought in vain for some clue to the general plan of the edifice. The bricks are of a pale yellow colour, and are not exceeded in quality by any found in the ruins of Babylonia. They are firmly bound together by a fine lime cement, like those at the Birs Nimroud. BAGDAD TO BABYLON AND HILLAH. OZO Upon nearly every brick is clearly and deeply stamped the name and titles of Nebuchadnezzar, and the inscribed face is always placed downwards. This wonderful piece of masonry is so perfect, and so fresh in colour, that it seems but the work of yesterday, although it is undoubtedly part of a building which stood in the midst of old Babylon."* £t seems not improbable that this mound may, indeed, have been, as the name of " Kasr " signifies, the Palace of Nebuchadnezzar. It has been noticed that the bricks found throughout are of the finest quality, and for this reason it has been subjected to even worse treatment than the others, great por- tions of Hillah, and, indeed, even parts of Bagdad, having been constructed from the results of this unfortunate industry. Whether the terra Mujeliba "The Home of the Captives," or Mukallib," The Over- turned," be correct, it matters little, as nothing can be deduced from the name, applied as it seems to have been, to various parts of the whole series of mounds. Returning to the river's edge, we remounted and * "Nineveh and Babylon," 1882, p. 287. It may be remarked that the engraving which accompanies this account is thrown quite out of scale by a ridiculous little camel which is placed in the fore- ground, and which makes the ruin look several times the size it really is. Y 2 324 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. prepared to resume our journey. The road leads along a sort of hollow, closed in on the right by a long mound or embankment which borders the river, and on the left by another mound which leaves the south-west corner of the Kasr mound, and joins at about a quarter of a mile the great southerly mound, commonly called Amran ibn Ali, from a sheikh's tomb built upon it. This broad trackway, in some places a quarter of a mile wide, is continued round the south side of the Amran mounds, from the south-east corner of which another embankment can be traced round to close to the northern Babel, and is, perhaps, the remains of one of the three walls which are said to have encircled the palace and hanging gardens. There are interior lines of em- bankment, which may represent the others. The mound of Amran, sometimes called Jumjuma, from an Arab village situated to the south of it, is irregular in shape, and, according to Buckingham, 1,100 yards long, 800 wide, and between 60 and 70 feet high at its highest point. From its position and dimensions, it has been conjectured, with a fair amount of probability, that here stood the celebrated hanging gardens. Layard's excavations to some ex- tent appear to confirm this, as he found no sort of BAGDAD TO BABYLON AND IIILLAIl. o'2b masonry in its ruins. It had, however, been used for burial and other purposes long after its destruction, and among the objects found were relics of the occu- pation of the SeleucidaB, and Greeks. Besides these great main mounds, there are others of considerable extent, but probably of less importance. To one of these, a rambling mound of considerably less eleva- tion, situated between Babel and the Kasr, Ainsworth has applied the hardworn term of Mujaliba, or Mukallib, the fate of which seems to be tacked on to, and afterwards discarded by, every mound in the ruins. The total dimensions, as given by Rich, of the enclosed space is two miles, six hundred yards in breadth, and two miles and a thousand yards from north to south. It is, therefore, plain on the face of it, that this enclosure is but a small, if important, quarter of the great city, which Herodotus describes as sixty miles in circuit, and the walls of which, he tells us, were three hundred and fifty feet high, eighty-seven thick, and that six chariots could go abreast upon them. Allowing for error and Oriental exaggeration, there is no doubt Babylon covered an enormous space of country, and that the walls were of immense size. 326 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. The traveller Buckingham went in search of these, a long and arduous ride in the heat of July, and after riding from ten to twelve miles eastward, he found a curious mound three to four hundred feet in circum- ference, and about seventy feet high. On the top he found a mass of solid wall, broken and ruined, but still of great size, which had the appearance of being indeed the remains of a great wall, and not of any chambered building. From the great central group to this point the country was covered with the re- mains of ancient works, but from the summit, looking east as far as could be seen, no vestige of canal or mounds could be discerned. From this he drew the theory that this mound, Al Heiniar, or " the red," as it is called, was indeed a portion of the great city wall. It is remarkable, however, if, as appears to be the case, there are no continuations to be traced north or south, or in other words, that if this is indeed a portion of the wall, the line cannot be traced from it in either direction. But those who Avould argue against this identification must allow that it is even more extraordinary if no trace of the wall at all is to be found. The question is one of very great interest, but, until some further evidence is forthcomiuii-, it must remain in abevance. BAGDAD TO BABYLON AND HILLAII. 327 As we rode out of the ruins a stream of poor Arab women and children followed us with strings of beads and small relics which they had found in the ruins. It was now very hot, as it had indeed been when we were among- the mounds. Putting spur to our horses, we set off for a gallop towards the welcome palm groves of Hillah. I was pounding along in the rear, attempting to keep up with C , whose animal had a much better stride than mine, when a woman ^valking with a party of poor Arabs on the road suddenly stepped, as I was about to pass, right in front of my horse, and next minute was of course head over heels in the dust. I immediately pulled up and haloo'd to Yusuf to return ; the woman was only shaken, and picked herself up, weeping dismally, though seemingly more with fright than anything. I told Yusuf to tell the men that I was sorry for the accident and hoped the woman was not hurt, but that it was her own fault. Yusuf was inclined to pooh-pooh the whole matter, and I fancy his version of my speech was to ask what an old Arab peasant- woman meant by getting in an English Sahib's way. The men, however, were far more concerned at a Christian's pulling up and staring at a Muslim woman (albeit the stare was one of compassion), than at any 3!^ 8 TimOUGH TURKISH ARABIA. damage she might have received. Accordingly they shoved her behind them and entreated me to depart, which I did, having presented them v^^ith a bakhshish to cover damages, w^hich of course the lady vs^as not allovi^ed to receive in person. CHAPTER XIII. HILLAH AXD BIRRIS NIMRUD. Arrive at Hillali — Sayyid Hassan — Hillah — Start for Birris Nimrud — Remarkable Appearance — We meet Russian Travellers — The Birris — Description of the Ruin — View from the Top — Benjamin of Tudela's Account — Theories about its Origin — Borsippa — Nebbi Ibrahim and Arab Traditions — Disappearance of my Umbrella — The Power of the British Name — Return to Hillah — Visitors — Leave for Kerbela — Yusuf's horse makes some Pressed Beef — Road to Musseyib — Owlad Mushm— Arrive at Musseyib. At the entrance to Hillah we were met by an Arab gentleman, a friend of Sayyid Hassan, whose hos- pitality we were going to partake of. This individual who was dressed in his best clothes for the occasion, proved to be one Ahmed Ebn Saad Hubba, a merchant of the town. In company with him we made our way through the palm groves and eastern portion of the town to a bridge of boats, which is even more rotten than that at Bagdad. Crossing the river, we passed through more bazaars, similar, but inferior to those of Bagdad, and turning into a narrow by- street, we alighted at the house where we were to rest for the night. The Sayyid soon appeared, and ODU through TURKISH ARABIA. greeted us with a cordiality which was certainly not feigned, in spite of the artificialness and formality of Persian manners in general. Sayyid Hassan is a Persian gentleman of means, whose own home is at Kerbela. I am not quite certain whether the house at which he entertained us at Hillah be- longed to him, or whether it was put at his disposal for this purpose by a friend or relation. At any rate he acted towards us here in the capacity of host and a kinder host we could not have found. The Sayyid is, as this title denotes, a descendant of the Prophet through Fatimah, his only daughter, and her husband Ali. The title is therefore equivalent to the " sharif " of the Sunni Muslims. His appearance and manner are noble and dignified to a degree. He has singularly refined and intelligent features, aquiline and aristocratic in cast, and a high forehead, upon which, well set back, he wears a large dark green turban. lu spite of his descent he is absolutely without any feelings of fanaticism towards Christians, and the great courtesy and hospitality he has shown to more than one English traveller shows the feelings he entertains towards our nation. He showed us with pride several letters he had received from the Hon. G. Curzon, M.P., author of " Persia and the Persian IIILLAH AND BIRRIS NIMRUD. OOi Question," Col. Tweedie, late resident at Bagdad, and other Englishmen. We were shown into a comfort- able room, fitted, of course, with divans at each end, and were much amused at the Sayyid's servants bring- ing in chair after chair, which, from their varied and antiquated appearance, I cannot help fancying had been rummaged up from different parts of Hillah as a concession to our English tastes. Some of the notables of Hillah then appeared to call on us. They were a very varied assortment — a dark individual who Yusuf said was a sort of native judge, and one or two Turkish officials. I had also asked Yusuf to in- quire of the Sayyid if there was anyone who had antiques from Babylon to sell, and accordingly there turned up a rich Jew with his pockets full of cylinders and Babylonian knick-knacks. He also produced a magnificently preserved aureus of one of the Roman Emperors — if I remember rightly, of Commodus — but we could not come to terms for the purchase of it. When these gentlemen departed we took the oppor- tunity to have a bath, C fortunately carrying witli him an india-rubber camp bath. While this was in progress Yusuf kept " cave " (as the old Harrow term has it) at the door, lest more notables should arrive suddenly, and break in upon this very un-Moham- OOA THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. inedau ablution. This over, the table was laid, (knives and forks in deference to C 's prejudice against eating with his fingers,) and an enormous dinner was placed before us. Our host, although kindness and hospitality itself, excused himself from eating with us, and even helped a little in the waiting, which we of course, through Yusuf, entreated him not to do. I cannot but suppose that his refusing to eat with us was in consequence of the Sheite prejudice against eating with Christians. Of course he pleaded as an excuse that it was Ramazan, and that he could not break his fast until after sunset, but only a short time before he had accepted cigarettes, on the score that he might smoke, as he was on a journey ; making his way, in fact, home from Bagdad to Kerbela. He then left us, and we could not resist getting out the bottle of good Kerkuk wine, which after the long day's journey was most acceptable, and which we had not liked to produce when we were partaking of his excellent fare, not wishing to irritate his Muslim pre- judices. Unfortunately he returned immediately after, and with much ado we smuggled it under the table. I felt exactly like a naughty schoolboy, caught in the act of smoking. Whether the Sayyid saw it or not I do not know, but he asked Yusuf why his guests IIILLAII AND niRKIS NIMRUD. OOO were not drinking wine. He of course could not offer it to them, but Englishmen he knew drank it, and carried it with them. He begged we would not refrain from doing just as we would at home. Eng- lishmen did not abuse the custom like swinish Turks. This made us feel more hypocritical than ever, but we acquiesced in the sanctified sobriety of the British nation, and Yusuf was made to perform a conjuring trick by producing a bottle of wine two feet high out of a saddlebag which did not contain it. This having been dexterously performed, we " had at " the pilaf, kabobs, and leben again, and all went as merry as a marriage bell. After dinner the Sayyid again made his appearance for a talk, which was chiefly carried on through the medium of Yusuf. Persian was, of course, his own language, which neither of us knew. He also knew Arabic, but my knowledge of it was insufficient to carry us very far. It afterwards turned out that he had some acquaintance with Hindustani, and after that C was enabled to converse with him. We found out from him that Turkish rule was anything but popular among the residents of Hillah. This is even more the case at Kerbela. There is no love lost between the Arab population of these towns and the Turks, and putting aside the inborn dislike between 334 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. Ifersians and Turks, the fact that the latter are in possession of the sacred Sheite shrmes of Meshed Ali and Meshed Husein, is a cruel thorn in the sides of the Persians. I had wanted to take a stroll in Hillah after my arrival, but the Sayyid would hardly hear of it. " Hillah," said he, " is a wretched place : there is nothing to see : the people are rude, and you cannot go without an escort: wait till you get 'to Kerbela. There, there is much to see." Hillah, it would seem, has never borne a very good character, and Buckingham has indeed made the statement, "that they" (the Hillahites) "murder their governors, and assassinate each other with impunity." Hillah, which may be called the present representa- tive of ancient Babylon, situated, as it almost certainly is, within the ancient boundaries, and built of bricks gathered from the ruins, is a place of considerable importance situated on both banks of the Euphrates, which is here less than two hundred yards wide, and of a gentle current. The town is prettily set in palm groves, and is surrounded by a mean brick or mud wall. 'J'here are bazaars on both sides of the river, but those on the right bank appear more extensive, and that part of the town is indeed the principal. The population seems to be increasing, as Layard HILLAII AND BIRRIS NIMRUD, 335 put it down at " about eight or nine thousand," and Gratton Geary, in 1878, 'states that it was then esti- mated at twenty thousand. I cannot but think, however, that the last is a high estimate. The popu- lation is chiefly Arab, but there is a considerable fraternity of Jews. It is indeed an interesting fact that ever since the Babylonian captivity this remark- able race has dwelt in considerable numbers in the vicinity of ancient Babylon. Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela, whose travels are greatly composed of statis- tics of Jewish population at the various places he visited, says " Twenty thousand Jews live within twenty miles from this place " [i.e., Babylon), " and perform their worship in the synagogue of Daniel, who rests in peace." A still more astonishing state- ment is " Hillah . . . contains about ten thousand Jews and four synagogues," a number probably equal to two-thirds of the entire present population. He also says that Bagdad contains one thousand Jews, and Buckingham notices that this was the exact reverse of the state of aftairs in his time, the Jews of Bagdad being estimated at ten thousand, and those of Hillah at one thousand ; so that, as he remarks, " there seems to have been only a change of place, without an aug- mentation or diminution of actual numbers in both." dob THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. The next morning we Avere np betinaes, and on our way to Birris Nimrud. I write it Birris, as that was the only pronunciation of the name I heard either at Hillah or at the place itself. No traveller or writer that I am acquainted with spells it otherwise than Birs, so that the curious question arises whether the local pronunciation has changed recently. The word Nimrud, which is, however, only occasionally applied, carries with it no more evidence than it does when applied to the singular ruin in the vicinity of Bagdad, called Nimrud, or Akar Kuf. Im- mediately after we got clear of the wall of Hillah, on the road or track which leads south-west, we saw, standing up on the desert plain, the remarkable pile to which we were bound. Its distance is between five and six miles from Hillah, and at this distance it presented the appearance of a ruined pyramid, or possibly of the debris of a tower of such dimensions, that it is easy to understand how so many travellers have mistaken it for the veritable Tower of Babel. As we cantered forward over the arid plain it seemed to slowly increase and expand before our eyes, form- ing a truly extraordinary feature in the landscape. We were not, however, destined to have good going far, as the ground became spongy and bog^y, and UILLAII AND BIRKIS NIMRL'D. 337 presently we had to make a great detour to avoid a big lake, caused by the overflowing of the Euphrates, or, speaking more correctly, of the branch of that river called the Hindieh canal, or river of Borsippa. These vast swampy lagoons, which in winter and spring are formed between Hillah and Birris, were presumably to some extent checked in olden times by the excellent system of canals, which carried superfluous water away and utilised it for the pro- duction of cereals, and agriculture : nowadays the Euphrates is unharnessed, and her waters invade the country and render traffic over the plain difficult and unpleasant. Working round this lake we at last turned due west, and made for our destination, from which we were now but a short distance. Here we were again baulked by several very awkward canals, which inter- sected our path, and which were deep enough to come up to our horses' bellies when we were fording. Here we met one or two poor Arabs who told us that Europeans, some said French, others English, were encamped in the ruin. Although we could not imagine who they were, this was pleasant news, and we pricked forward to make their acquaintance. Uiding round the base of the great mound which z 338 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. lies east of, and unconnected with, the Birris proper, we emerged into the wide open space that lies be- tween the two. Here we caught sight of a tent and a crowd of people, which was evidently the party of European travellers we had just heard of. Riding up to these, Ave found that, although it was then half past eight o'clock, the party was just preparing to make a start. Twenty mules stood about with their packs on, or being loaded up, and a perfect crowd of muleteers, servants, and interpreters were fussing and gesticulating in the manner that always accom- panies an Eastern start. In the midst of this throng, dressed in the daintiest of sun hats, the neatest of riding breeches, and most polished of smart boots, with odoriferous cigarettes between their lips, stood two Russians, looking exactly as if they had just stepped out of some tropical Rotten Row, instead of being in the ruins of an ancient Mesopotamian city, seventy miles from anywhere. Oh, how dirty and untidy I felt in my stained riding dress and un- polished boots, bestriding my sorry nag, in the presence of these beautiful Moscovs. We alighted to have a talk and found them both able to talk English, the elder, indeed. Baron something or the other, speaking it very fluently and accurately. My IIILLAII AXD BIRRIS NIMRUD. 339 friend C had met them but recently in India, so that an old acquaintance was renewed. They told us they had been there two days, and were now leaving for Bagdad, whence they were going to travel to Mosul, and via Sinjar to Deir and Damascus. It struck me rather forcibly that if they intended to take all these mule-loads of pretty clothes and cham- pagne across the Mesopotamian and Syrian deserts, there would be some nice picking for the Shammar and Anazeh Arabs. Also that if they intended to make nine o'clock starts on these same routes, during the time of year they would be there, they would get nicely toasted for their pains. We found them, however, pleasant and agreeable men, in spite of their peculiar ideas about Oriental travel. I after- wards heard that wlien they were hiring their animals at Bagdad for the journey, the muleteers of that city made a ring against them, their wealth being of coarse well known, and they had to pay a perfectly fabulous price for their caravan. When we had left them we saw them mount their valuable steeds, and the whole party disappeared in a cloud of dust, leaving us in undisturbed possession of the Birris. A big white object lying near we found to be the body of an immense pelican that they had z 2 840 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. shot, a wantonly cruel form of sport, as their bodies are perfectly useless for diet or anything else. We now approached the Birris from the south and proceeded to climb to the top. The appearance of the mound from this, and indeed from all other sides, is that of an irregular ruined mass of building material, in which it is not easy to see any definite plan or arrangement. Here and there among the hummocky heaps of debris of brick, pottery, and slag, may be seen faces of brick walling jutting out, showing that there is within at least portions of the structure left. The south, west, and north sides are all climbable, but somewhat steep ; on the east the hill trails off into a lower ruin which lies below but is attached to the main mass. On the summit of this cone, which is said to be about one hundred and sixty feet above the plain level, rises a ruined mass of brickwork, which I estimated at forty feet high, twenty feet thick, and about thirty feet broad,* which is rent in twain by an enormous fissure or crack. The facing of the bricks shows that it is a portion of a western wall, but it is only a fragment, being broken away both on summit * Layarcl gives thirty-seven feet high and twenty-eight feet broad. Buckingham, fifty feet high, thirty feet broad, and fifteen feet thick. HILLAII AND BIRRIS NlMllUD. 34.1 ji'id sides. Immediately west of, or behind this, lie several enormous masses of slag-like fused material, which have all the appearance of being portions of masonry vitrified or bound into a solid mass by the action of intense heat. In these the courses of brick- work can still be discerned. The extended portion of the mound lying at the eastern base is occupied bv a series of brick walled chambers, which are now ex- cavated. The Birris appears to have been built of kiln-burnt bricks, every one of which is inscribed with the name of Nebuchadnezzar. Standing beside the brick ruin on the summit, a wide and curious panorama unfolds itself before the traveller's eyes. Away to the north extends the wide green lake, formed by the spring floods coming down from Armenia. On the left or west runs, at no great distance, the Hindieh canal, which, full of water now, does not appear to the eye much less than the parent river itself. To the east lies the other enormous mound of rubbish, of much less elevation indeed than that on which we stood, but still of immense size. Due south, about seven miles away, there rises from the plain a group of palms, which shade the tomb of Ezekiel, called Kifft, a contraction, it would appear, of Kifl" el 342 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. Yahudeh, " The Tomb of the Jew."* Far as the eye can reach ou every side lies the plain, unbroken except by the gigantic efforts of ancient civilisation, and the puny works of modern cultivation. One or two scarecrows of Arabs were climbing about the ruins watching our movements, and a couple of fine jackals skulked away when I looked over the northern side, and except for this all was ruin and desolation. f From the remarkable character of this ruin, it was naturally enough supposed by early writers to be the Tower of Babel itself. The remarkable passage of Benjamin of Tudela, which has been quoted by nearly all who have written on the subject, is too interesting to omit. "Four miles from hence" (Hillah) "is the tower built by the dispersed generation. It is con- structed of bricks called al x\jurr. The base measures tw^o miles, the breadth two hundred and forty yards, and the height about one hundred canna. A spiral passage built into the tower (in stages of ten yards each), leads up to the summit, from which we have a prospect of twenty miles, the country being one * Buckingham gives among other bearings from the summit, Mujelhbe (Babel) N.E. by N., ten miles; Mesjid esh Shems, Hillah N.E. by E., five miles ; Kiff al Yahooda S., seven miles, etc. t Birds and animals seem common about the Birris. I noticed pelicans, wild geese, hares, and jackals, during a few hours. HILLAH AND BIKRIS NIMRUD. 343 wide plaiu, and quite level. The heavenly fire, which struck the tower, split it to its very foundation." llich and Buckingham formulated the theory, a theory which obtained largely, that in the Birris we have the remains of the Babylonian temple or tower of Belus. The tower of Belus had eight stages or turrets, one apparently behind the other like a gigantic staircase. Buckingham counted four at the Birris, and concluded the remainder had disappeared. Oppert and Rawlinson fell in with this theory, and Layard gives an imaginary restoration* of the Birris on the same lines, but without attempting to identify it. Lastly, Ainsworth suggested that it v/as not in Babylon at all, but the remains of the adjacent town of Borsippa, a theory which Sir Henry Rawliuson more or less corroborated by finding clay cylinders in the ruins, describing works at Borsippa. Of the name spelt variously Bursif, Borsiph, Barsita, and Byrsia, we may then probably trace the present representative in Birris. It is probable enough that the curious ruin we see is indeed the remains of a temple, possibly dedicated to Belus, and built on the same lines as that of Babylon. When Buckingham *" Nineveh and Babylon : A narrative of a Second Expedition to Assyria," by Sir Henry Layard. London, 1882. 344 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. visited the place, he enquired of the Arabs about a ruin called Brousa or Boursa, which he, believing the Birris to represent the Babylonian temple of Belus. expected to find a separate ruin. The Arabs examined, however, with one exception, maintained that Birris and Brousa were identical, "different ways of pro- nouncing the same word." One Arab however, not improbably in the hope of reward, maintained that another ruin existed about four hours away to the south-east. I cannot, however, learn anything of this site, so that the account was probably incorrect. It will be remembered that Byrsia or Borsippa was the town to which Alexander turned aside when warned by the Chaldsean magi not to enter Babylon from the east; he accordingly went across the Euphrates for the purpose of entering from the west, but was compelled to desist, as he found it an impass- able morass. This all corroborates the Borsippa theory, as north of Birris lie immense tracts of marshes formed by the Hindieh canal, and which extend to north-west of Hillah, along what may be presumed to be the western boundary of ancient Babylon. The remarkable condition of the fused masonry at the summit was, of course, sufficient to cause early HILLAII AND BIRRIS NIMRUD. 345 travellers to write down this ruin Babel. This certainly has the appearance, taken into consideration with the rent wall, of divine fire or lightning ; various theories have been lavished upon the subject, and it would be desirable that an accurate scientific examina- tion were made of this extraordinary mass. Havingprowled about on the Birris, and admonished the two Arab scarecrows, who followed us about like shadows, for attempting to wrench bricks out of the ruin to bakhshish us with, we descended to the base of the mound, and instructing Yusuf to convoy the lunch to some snug place near or on the other mound, we set ofi" to examine that ruin. While Yusuf was performing this duty we made our way across the bare space which divides the two mounds, and which may be (I speak from memory) a quarter of a mile wide. In shape the second heap resembles perhaps more the Babel, the northern ruin of Babylon, than anything else, being apparently a fairly symmetrical oblong.* The surface is uneven, rough, and stony, or rather bricky, in places, and covered with soft debris in others, that made travelling on it difficult. I rode all over it, but failed to see any sign of brick masonry in sight, although the ground was everywhere Buckingham says a quarter of a mile long, and one furlong wide. 346 THKOUGH TURKISH ARABIA. covered with broken potslierds and bricks. On the summit of it are two small Arab sanctuaries, the larger of which, a pretty little domed shrine, was crowded with Arabs when I arrived. I learnt on enquiry that this place, called by the Arabs Nebbi Ibrahim, is regarded with sanctity by the Arabs in these parts, who resort to it as a sort of place of pil- grimage all the year round. They have, indeed, tra- ditions with regard to it, of which the following are examples. One, which Sayyid Hassan told me on our return to Hillah, was to the effect that Nimrud who was the enemy of Ibrahim, or Abraham, at- tempted here to destroy him by fire. With this in view, an enormous pile was constructed, and Abraham was about to be immolated, when God interfered, and by a miracle transformed the all-devouring flames into budding flowers.* Less poetical than this was the other which Yusuf got from the Arabs in my presence on the spot. According to this, the king of the place (presumably the eternal Nimrud of local Arab tradition), actuated by an infernal lust for blood, gave orders that all women with child should be ripped open. * The story of Abraham being cast into the fire is found in Chapter XXI. of the Koran "The Prophets." This course was taken n gainst him for breaking the Idols. The commentators say the fire was turned into a pleasant meadow. See Sale's " Koran." UILLAH AND BIRRIS Nl.MRUD. 347 The mother of Abraham, in fear of this barbarous edict, fled to and concealed herself at the spot where this sanctuary now stands, and here the patriarch was born. Crude to a decree as these stories are, thev are worth noting, and other legends bearing on the same subject should be compared. The Arabs about here are of a tribe called Khafaja. At the tomb and within it were many of these people, both men and women, who seemed poor, and, indeed, of a degraded intellectual type generally. Within the little building were many praying and repeating from the Koran, and I noticed that the walls of the edifice itself were decorated with barbarous drawings and prints. Yusuf had spread our lunch beneath the west wall, but the driving dust, thrown up by a high wind which had now arisen, rendered our chicken, dates, and bread anything but a pleasant feast. Attracted by the spectacle, the poor Arabs, who did not in the least degree seem to mind our " devouring our food " under the shelter of their chapel wall, gathered round us in a fantastic and squalid group, an attention which my travelling companion did not appreciate, although I pointed out to him that if a couple of Zulus sat down to breakfast on the steps 348 TUKOUGII TURKISH ARABIA. of St. Paul's, he would, and perfectly justifiably, stop to have a stare if he was passing that way. Although I chivalrously championed these poor folks, I have my doubts if they were deserving of it, for when Ave rose to make our departure, my trusty umbrella, which to me, as I possessed no sun-helmet, was of the greatest value, was nowhere to be found. In vain I sat on my horse and scowded, and vented my wrath upon all knaves and traitors. In vain Yusuf and the cawass scoured about and poked under Arab cloaks and into ancient crannies. In vain was the sheikh of the tomb brought trembling before me to be questioned and threatened with instant annihi- lation. At last ray friend, with inspiration in his eye and command in his tone, rode to the front and in a voice of thunder told the recreant sheikh that unless the " gingham " was produced, the Pasha of Bagdad would, through the British Resident, be moved, and an armed force of Turkish soldiers would descend on the devoted Birris and its inhabitants and raze it, or rather Nebbi Ibrahim, to the ground and all that therein dwelt, so that no stone should stand upon another, and the place should be cursed from one generation to another. In an instant all was activity ; trembling forms hurried hither and HILLAll AND BIRRIS NIMRUD. oVJ thither, and the very abode of El-lslara itself was ransacked. Suddenly a scarecrow uttered a cry of triumph, and from beneath a heap of dirty straw was dragged my poor old Oxford Street umbrella, wliich had only been hidden there five minutes be- fore, and if it had not been for my friend's presence of mind and the might of the British name, might have remained to whiten its skeleton in the Babylonian desert like a worn-out caravan mule. But the prestige of Great Britain was upheld, and with triumph in our hearts and scorn at the in- fidelity of the Saracens on our brows, we departed for HiUah. The evening, which was partly wet, we spent at the Sayyid's house. Our dinner, which con- sisted of about twelve courses, including soup, keubbeh, pilaf, joint and vegetables, the Sayyid apologised for, saying he was sorry he could only give us so poor a dinner; when at Kerbela (his home), he Avould provide a more Avorthy entertain- ment. After dinner we had a long chat with him, and I could not but admire the facility with which, though sitting on an ordinary chair, he could place both his feet on the seat with no appearance of inconvenience or awkwardness. Our conversation. 350 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. chiefly carried on through Yusuf, was about the Turkish Government and the state of the country. We asked him why he did not travel and visit England, easy as it was at the present day, and C mentioning at the same time that in London there was an institution where distressed or outcast Orientals were always received, he unfortunately connected the question and remark, and gravely replied, " Thanks to God, he was rich enough, if he did visit that great country, to do it with a retinue of servants and retainers, and would be in no need of such help." We then astonished him by describing to him funicular railways, and C told him about ballooning, of which he had had some experience. Our host was considerably astonished at these things, and though I believe he did not credit much we said, he was much too well-bred to say so. Yusuf was much less well-bred, and we found it difficult to keep our countenances when, after translating some long Persian tradition or anecdote of our host's, he would finish up with a gloss of his own, " Dam nonsense," or " All lies, I think." Afterwards came " two gentlemen of Medina," clad in gorgeous costumes, and whose visit, which we first thought ceremonial, proved to be because HILLAH AND BIRRIS NIMRUD. 351 tliey wanted our advice as to the value of a certain shoddy-looking German watch that they meditated purchasing. 1 told them that the value of a watch depended upon its time-keeping qualities. A Euro- pean watch which would not go was as worthless as an Oriental one in the same condition. The most trying part about intercourse with a Persian of the better class is the formality, especially the high-flown compliments that it is necessary to receive and return with due gravity. Even with the Sayyid, whose kindness and hospitality left nothing to be desired, and which was, I have no hesitation in saying, completely genuine and unselfish, we fonnd conversation for any lengthened space of time some- what trying. The last item of the evening was a call from Ahmed and the judge, and the live of us kept up a sort of five-sided duel of exaggerated com- pliments for about an hour. C and I cudgelled our brains for fine speeches, but no matter how fine and polite they were, they were immediately " capped " by our Oriental friends, who were indeed much more skilled in this peculiar sort of fence than we poor dull Saxons were. Gradually, as the visit wore on, we collapsed, and feeling all the politeness thus sucked out of our natures in this fierce struggle of 352 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. manners, we would have given worlds to have been allowed to go out into the street, and to have grossly insulted by word and deed the first people we met. The true cause and meaning of this visit, however, we did not arrive at till about half-past nine, when it transpired that Ahmed and the judge were a sort of deputation to inform us that the Governor of Hillah was somewhat exercised as to the meaning of our presence. He could not understand, it seemed, why so many Europeans had visited Hillah of late years. It would seem, indeed, that his shallow brain sus- pected that under the guise of archgeology there lay a more sinister and hidden signiticdtion in the visits of Englishmen to the ruins of Babylon. The judge suggested we should call, but as it was so late, and an early start was necessary the following morning, we excused ourselves, and sent our cawass to him to present our respects, and explain who we were, and what was our reason for visiting Hillah. xlt six o'clock next morning we bade adieu to the Sayyid, who was going by a short cut across the canal and lake of Hindieh to Kerbela, and rode out of Hillah in the direction of the mounds of Babylon. At half-past nine, having passed in sight of these, we arrived at Khan Mahawil, where we were com- HILLAH AND BIRRIS NIMRUD. 353 pelled by heavy thuader rain to shelter for half aa hour. The raiu came down so heavily that I found my old volunteer great-coat of the greatest service. As soon as we got into the khan gate, and alighted for a smoke, Yusuf's horse, carrying the small saddle- bags containing our lunch, deliberately retired into a dark corner and proceeded to roll on that valuable institution, an act of malice which was perfectly un- called for. The people in charge of the khan collected round us, and gave us an account of the road we were now to enter upon that was anything but encouraging. It was, they said, a mire and morass the Avhole way ; unless we took a guide to show us the way through the snares and pitfalls that beset it, assuredly we should be bebogged, and eaten by the birds of the air and the fowls of the sea, or else we should, like Pharaoh and his host, be over- come and drowned by the might of the waters. In addition to this, the road was full of thieves, Arabs, veritable Arabs without conscience or mercy, with spears five yards long, and imbued w4th a bloody lust for rapine, which would stick at nothing. We ought to take a guard, they said, but as there was no guard to take, we overlooked the irony of the sug- gestion, and set out as soon as the rain stopped, with AA 354 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. a tall, lanky young Arab, who was to perform tlie double duty of piloting us through the maze of marshesj and of destroying the marauders who might venture to meddle with us. After leaving Mahawil, we struck off to the left, abandoning the Bagdad road, and making straight for Musseyib on the Euphrates, where we were to pass the night. A little before eleven o'clock we arrived at cultivated ground, muddy and even marshy in places, but over which the going was not on the whole bad. All about the track we were following, and indeed everywhere, were numbers of bodies of yellow locusts, killed, our guide told us, by crows and other birds. As the insects did not appear in most instances to be eaten, I am inclined to doubt if this explanation was the correct one. After lunching in a delightful green field, a most refreshing change after the dusty khans at which we had lunched on the Hillah road, we set out again, and reached, about one o'clock, an encamp- ment of Arabs, who, Yusuf said, were Shammar fellahin, who till the ground between Mahawil and the river. The huts which these people occupied were built of brushwood, and roofed with matting, v^hich is made near Busrah. I saw also for HILLAH AND BIRRIS NIMRUD. 3o5 the first time the humped cattle, similar, if not identical, with the Indian species. Close by this village was a sheikh's tomb called Mohammed ibn Hassan, and a little further on we passed over an ancient site consisting of low mounds, which the guide only knew by the name of " Kasr." Soon after we struck the river, and I galloped off to a matting encampment of Arabs in the hope of getting some milk. The Arabs turned out to be of the Nusirieh tribe, a nomadic people, and they willingly brought us excellent new milk, for which they refused any payment. Were these the terrible Arabs of which we liad heard? They had a hand- some chestnut mare, of the Seglawieh strain. The owner of this said he would sell it to me, where- upon Yusuf facetiously offered the sum of half-a- crown, an evil jape after the man's friendly gift of milk. Immediately after, we came in sight of a long- line of palm trees, in which lay Musseyib. On the extreme right of this line we noticed two blue domes side by side, without minaret of any sort near them. On inquiry I learned that these are called " Owlad muslim " or the " Mohammedan boys," I presume from their appearance, and not AA 2 356 THROUGH TLJKKISH ARABIA. from any legend or story. We were now close to Musseyib, and the country we had been riding across during the day was a clay plain intersected at intervals by large canals. There were mud marshes, but in spite of the account we had got at Mahawil, we had had no difficulty, which was due most probably to our having a guide with us. Entering Musseyib, we contrived to lose our way, and got among some brickfields, where we saw large flat bricks, similar to those of ancient Babylon, being made. The town is built of these, and it is said to be a considerable industry here, so that it is perhaps incorrect to say that all the towns and villages between Euphrates and Tigris are made up of materials stolen from ancient sites. After re- tracing our steps a little, we passed through the eastern part of the town, for, like Hillah, it is built on both sides of the river ; crossed the usual bridge of boats, and pitched our little tent opposite a small coffee-house, the owner of which undertook to carry on his business outside for a consideration, and to give up the building to us. PERSIAN PILGRIMS AT MUSSEYIB. CHAPTER XIV. THE PILGRIM ROAD. Musseyib — The Pilgrim Traffic — A Storm in the Night — Arrive at Kerbela — Meshed Hiisein — -Kerbela Stones — Fanaticism — The Martyrdom of Husein — Corpse Caravans — Kerbela — We Visit a Nawab — Martyrdom from Mosquitos — An Awkward Incident — We part mth our Host — Leave Kerbela — -Musseyib again — A Hot Ride — Khan Iscanderieh — Reach Bagdad — Rumours of an Arab Revolt on the Tigris — The Barber of Bagdad — The Hunch- back of El Busrah — Go on Board a Tigris Steamer. Musseyib seemed to me to be about the' fumiiest place I had ever seen. It is certainly, owing to its peculiar situation, a very interesting one. It is the List stage on the road to Kerbela, and the Arab in- habitants drive a roaring trade in fleecing the poor travel-stained Persian and Indian pilgrims, whose caravans are continually arriving or departing either on their way to or from Kerbela. The town itself, although built on either side of the river, is no great size, and its stationary population must be small ; but besides this, there is the fluctuating mass of pilgrims wlio are always present in greater or less numbers, and who, I should be inclined to think, sometimes 358 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. number between two and three thousand. This is only guesswork, but on the night I was there an immense khan was full, and a great open space before it was entirely occupied by caravans and encamp- ments of pilgrims. This pilgrim population has also the peculiarity of being only a nightly one. If you ride through Musseyib in mid-day, as we did on our return, the khan and town seem nearly empty. The caravans arrive in the afternoon or evening, "out- span " for the night, and depart at sunrise on their next stage. The busiest time seems from three to five in the afternoon, when the town is all alive with the music of the bells of incoming caravans. I have mentioned the great khan, near which we encamped on the Arabian side. After the tent was pitched I peeped into this, and found it absolutely thronged with people and animals. At the doors were stalls with bread and dates for sale ; at pretty high prices, too, for everything at Musseyib is as dear as it can be. I looked into one or two of the side streets and walked a little way along the bank of the river. The sanitary state of the town can be imagined when I state that both streets and river bank have abundant evidence of being used as places of public convenience by the pilgrims. As the evening advanced, fresh THE PILGEIM KOAD. 359 caravans were continually arriving, and as the khan was full, they encamped for the night around the open space in front. The unceasing noise of the neighing and braying of the animals, the jangling of the bells, as droves of mules were taken to the river-bank to water, and the hum of a hundred tongues in half-a- dozen different languages, all combined into an odd enough medley of sound. We brought out a bench and sat down to gaze at this extraordinary kaleidoscopic scene before us. Among the people we saw, Persians predominated. There was many a wild-looking fellow with black elf-locks, clad in his blue tunic reaching to the knees, and sometimes wearing big shoes and stockings. Here came a group wearing the Persian astrakhan cap, probably holders of some official position under the Persian Government. Not uncommon were men with their beards dyed a bright red, to conceal the fact that they were grey or white. A couple of kajawehs, each containing a couple of blue bundles, which, when they alight, prove to be white-veiled and trousered Persian dames. A party of Indians, some in white, or wearing black frock coats, and carrying umbrellas, a sort of European veneer which struck the eye oddly in this hotbed of Sheite Mahommedanism. Three 360 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. Persian beggars with long staffs, and hands out- stretched for abiis. Another wild and nearly naked form, with an orange in his hand, apparently his only luggage — a durwish who had begged his way from khan to caravansera, from far-distant Meshed near the Caspian to the Mesheds in the Arabian desert ; and a throng of houris from India, a glow of bright red drapery. Behind the coffee-house was a small mosque; and a mullah living in the adjacent house invited me on to the roof where he was sitting, to get a general view of the place. Little more was to be seen thence than from below, and as Yusuf was cooking the dinner, I was not capable of holding a very lengthened conversation, and soon descended. After dinner Yusuf insisted on re-packing everything before we turned in, as he said there were so many pro- fessional thieves in the place, something was sure to be lost. Remembering the last night we had spent in a coffee-house, we anticipated a better night in our tent, a hope which, however, was not very well realised as far as I went, for the noise of the party who had been turned out of the coffee-house for our benefit, and had ranged themselves on five or six THE PILGEIM ROAD. 361 long forms just in front of our tent door, combined with the shindy caused by a crowd of children who were holding a sort of Ramazan carol procession, kept me awake a long while. When these sounds subsided, which I think they did about midnight, I went to sleep, but about two hours later I was awakened by a storm of wind and rain, which threatened to flood us out, if indeed the tent escaped being blown down. I sprang to my feet, and hung on to a tent pole in case the tent pegs gave, and halloo'd to C to do the same by the other. That gentleman, who, I believe, would not wake if a Queen's birthday feu de joie were fired off in his room, calmly opened his eyes and told me not to fuss, and then reclosed his eyes, and slumbered once more. Much to my disgust, for I would then have given worlds for the soaking tent to have come Hop on his recumbent form, the storm stopped as suddenly as it began, and I had no alternative but to retire to bed growling. Yusuf, as confirmed a fib- ber as C was a snorer, stuck his ugly face in at tlie tent, and solaced me by repeating the everlasting story that he dare not sleep as there were thieves all round the coffee-house. So telling him to keep his 362 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. weather eye open, I once more fell asleep, only to be awakened at sunrise by the bustle of the departing caravans. At six o'clock we rode out of the town, and after crossing a very steep canal bridge, so steep and rough that we dismounted to effect the crossing, we found ourselves among more marshes, on which could be seen various sorts of waterfowl. The road traversed these on a causeway, on which we met a large party of Anazeh Arabs, with many camels and horses. As I had not seen any Anazeh for a long time, and imagined that by this time the whole tribe ought to be in the desert near Aleppo, I inquired what they were doing. The reply was that they were taking the animals to Bagdad for sale, and that they, the Anazeh, were to form part of the escort for the Bagdad caravan on the pil- grimage to Mecca. The sky cleared soon after we had started, and by half-past seven it was getting very warm. Just before ten we arrived at a sheikh's tomb, designated Nebbi On Ebn Jaffa, which by the quantity of pil- grims who were collected at the spot, seemed to be considered a place of some sanctity. Proceeding on, and passing continually iunumer- THE PILGKIM ROAD. 363 able caravans, we reached the pahii groves around Kerbela about eleven, and halted to lunch in a very beautiful place. Here we found a mounted servant of our host's, who had ridden out to meet us, and to escort us to the town. It was nearly one o'clock when we rode up to the Sayyid's house, which is situated in the more modern part of the town, and without the walled precinct which contains the sacred mosques and the bazaars. The house, built in the Persian style, is handsome and large, similar but not so ornate as the Residency at Bagdad, and surrounds a spacious courtyard. Our host greeted us kindly, and we were shown into a pretty room, furnished with divans, chairs, and a table, which groaned beneath an enormous load of different sorts of oranges. We were introduced to the Sayyid's little son, Sayyid Mahdi, a nice little boy with a pale but interesting face, who wore a big green turban wound over a bright-coloured kaffieh. This youngster amused us a good deal by his funny old-fashioned ways. He coiled himself up in a chair, and gazed at us and our proceedings with a sort of serious curiosity. Forgetting it was Ramazan, and wishing to make friends with him, we offered him an orange, which he refused by somewhat haughtily 364 THKOUGll TUKKlSIl ARABIA. waving it away, and making the peculiar little sound with the point of his tongue which English people generally do when slightly shocked. After a rest we were shown on to the roof of the house in order to get a view of the mosques and town. From here we saw the gilded dome and two minarets of Meshed Husein. It is similar, but hardly as fine as Kaze- mein, which has four great minarets, and, like that mosque, it has a hideous modern clock-to^ver. The domes of other mosques could also be seen, but only that of Imam Abbas, which is covered with fine tile work, is worthy of attention. We then photographed the Sayyid and little Malidi with our hand cameras, a proceeding that seemed to please our host much. I had been somewhat doubtful as to how he would take the suggestion, knowing the objection which good Mussulmans are commonly supposed to have to representations of life. But the fact of the matter is that this ordinance of the Prophet is almost a dead letter. The wise men of El-Islam, who by nature are as fond of pictures as anybody else, have, indeed, decided that photographs and paintings are not representations of people in the meaning of the Koranic law, as they show but one side of a person. How can that which represents but the face of a THE PILGRIM ROAD. ODO man and totally omits the back of his turban be called a true representation 1 A statue is different, and an abomination of abominations. But a photo- graph is a trivial, incomplete affair, which the Pro- phet evidently did not intend to include. We then, MY HOST AND HIS SON. accompanied by the Sayyid's brother and Yusuf, went to get such a peep as might be possible of the gates of the shrine. We passed through crowded streets and bazaars, and stopped at a money-changer's 366 THROUGH TUEKISH ARABIA. shop opposite the main gate, with the ostensible pur- pose of getting money and enquiring about coins or antiquities, but really in order to get a glance at the structure. While Yusuf was haggling, I turned round and took a good look. What I saw was a large tiled gateway, decorated with Persian or Arabic inscriptions. Within there was a blaze of blue and red tiles, and a row of people sitting at booths, with things for sale. That was all. The people did not appear to resent my looking, but our guide hurried us away through more bazaars, pointing out several other gates as we went, which, however, were chiefly down crowded streets, and being built up with other buildings, were not imposing. After we seemed to have made a circuit of the building we came opposite a large gate, the sixth, our guide said. Within this I saw a gold-plated " mihrab," or niche for prayer towards Mecca. We then passed through more bazaars, where I stopped at a shop and bought, for about iivepence, four pretty little baskets and three trays, all made out of palm fibre. At this shop were also exposed for sale, to the faithful only, the curious stamped earthenware tablets commonly called Kerbela stones, which the pilgrims to Ker- Lela buy and carr)^ home with them as souvenirs THE PILGEIM ROAD. 307 of the shrine. As these are supposed to be made of earth taken from within the shrine itself, they are regarded with a superstitions veneration that is absurd. Sheites are said, in praying, to place the forehead in the position of prostration upon these stones, and no one, of course, but a true believer is allowed to touch them. Those we saw in the shops we were told by the Sayyid's brother on no account to touch ; and he even advised us not to look at them too curiously. Our host, however, who, as I have said, was singularly free from bigotry, undertook to obtain us examples, and I now possess two. One is an octagon under four inches in diameter, the other a circle half as wide, both made of a light-coloured unbaked clay, and impressed with neatly stamped patterns. Other shapes are made, and a blank space is left at the centre, in which something is often written — I fancy the name of the pilgrim, and the date on which his visit to the shrine was made. During this walk, and, indeed, throughout the time I was in Kerbela, I saw little or no trace of the anti-Christian intolerance which the inhabitants are usually credited with. To this town, where, until quite lately, it was quite unadvisable for a 368 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. Christian traveller to enter, several Europeans probably come every year now. In consequence, the townspeople are getting more or less accus- tomed to the sight. The old prejudices are wearing off, and the presence of well-behaved travellers is not actively resented. An attempt on the part of a visitor to enter or sketch, or, perhaps, even to examine curiously, the mosque, would, however, pro- bably lead to very uncomfortable results even yet. Kerbela is the fourth most sacred shrine of Sheite Muslims, and many thousand pilgrims an- nually visit the site.* The origin of the pilgrimage may be briefly recounted as follows: — In the year of the Hijra 60, Ali the Caliph, son-in-law of the Prophet, having been murdered in the mosque at Kufa, the in- habitants of that place sent to Husein, his son, at Medina, an invitation to come and assume the reins of government. But in the meanwhile, Muavia, an enemy of Ali during his lifetime, had usurped the caliphate, and, dying, had been succeeded by * Mr. Curzon gives the following as the order of sanctity, from information he received from a Sayyid of Kerbela, who I believe to have been my friend Sayyid Hassan himself: — 1. Mecca. 2. Medina. 3. Nejef. 4. Kerbela. 5. Kazemein. 6. Meshed (in Persia). 7. Samara. 8. Kum. THE PILGRIM ROAD. 369 his son Yezid, who was now in power. Hnsein set out on the 8th day of the month of Zu-el-Hejeh, with his family, and accompanied by a body of armed retainers. When he arrived at the place where Kerbela now stands, he was met by an army of the treacherous Kufans, sent out in the absence of Yezid, who was at Damascus, by the governor Obeidallah, and commanded by his general, Atner ibn Said. After some parley, the hostile troops posted themselves between Husein's party and the river, and thus cut off from water a force already weakened and exhausted by a long and arduous march through the Arabian desert. Husein, in this fearful predicament, is said to have offered to return, or to have gone under escort to Yezid at Damascus ; but in answer to this the general only demanded an unconditional surrender. Tradition then relates that in the night Husein had visions and dreams which apprised him of his fate, and during the following day or days his little army, worn out with privations, and dying from thirst, dwindled away, chiefly by desertions, until it consisted of but seventy-two. Amongst these were several members of his family, including Ali Akbar, his eldest son, two younger sons, Ab- BB 370 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. dallah, and AH, afterwards known as Zain-al- Abudin. There were also his brother, Abbas Ali, his sister Zeinab, his daughter, his nephew Kazem, and his aunt. A series of skirmishes took place, but the prince's little party, though they fought well, had no chance, and. were at last surrounded and massacred. Ali Akbar, the first to die, was wounded with a lance, and then cut to pieces ; and a still more horrible tragedy followed, when Husein's infant son, Abdallah, was pierced by an arrow in his father's protecting arms. Zain al Abudin escaped, as he was lying ill. Wounded and bleeding, the unfortunate prince rushed on his enemies, and soon after fell, pierced, it is said, with over thirty wounds. His head was cut off, his body trampled into the dirt, and the tents in which his family were, were pillaged, and the women in- sulted. His head and the prisoners were sent to Damascus, but his body was interred at Kerbela ; and. on the site was afterwards erected the shrine which has for ages attracted concourses of the faithful Sheites.* In the ninth century, the anti- * A detailed account will be found in Oekley's " History of the Saracens," and Muir's " The Caliphate." But authorities difiier as to details of the massacre. For the disputed point as to the ultimate place of bui'ial of the martyr's head, see a note in Bui-tou's '• Mecca and Medina," Memorial edition, vol. II., p. 40. THE PILGRIM ROAD. 371 Sheite Caliph, Motawakel, tried to stop the pil- grimage by letting the Euphrates into the country bet^veen Bagdad and Kerbela. It is also said that he attempted to destroy the mosque, but the Sheites were much too enthusiastic to allow such tyranny to have any lasting effect. Unlike the Mecca Hajj, the pilgrims arrive at all times of the year, but the months of Zu-el-Hejeh and Moharrem, in which the martyr's expedition and death took place, are most affected. Many pilgrims, however, coming as they do from the colder climate of Persia, time themselves to arrive on the Babylonian plains in the winter season in order to avoid the heat, and Yusuf also told me that Ramazan was a particu- larly busy month, which certainly seemed to be the case, although there seems no reason why this month should be a favourite. The pilgrims, who come mainly from Persia and India, are said to number some two hundred thousand annually ; and as to be buried in the sacred earth of Kerbela is considered to ensure admittance to Paradise, many hundreds of bodies are brought by caravan or steamer every year to be interred at the spot. During ray journey to and from Kerbela, I saw many of these ghastly processions. A rickety BB 2 372 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. wicker coffin fastened across a mule's back was the usual sight, and, as many of them have been brought hundreds of miles from Persia or India, it is commonly supposed that a very unsanitary- state of things exists in these corpse caravans. In many cases, however, the bodies have been long buried at the place they died, and the relations have been saving up until they could afford the pilgrimage and burial fees, which at Kerbela are very high. It is also not improbable that in other cases where death has been more recent, the heat and drought of the climate dries* up the corpse, without making it offensive in th(3 way it would become in a different climate. Some time ago, the Turkish authorities raised such difficulties in the way of the passage of corpses through Bagdad, that friction ensued, and the Shah stopped the Kerbela pilgrimage in a great measure. In con- sequence of this. Meshed, in Persia, Avas resorted to in place of Kerbela, and a great source of revenue to the Turks was for some time lost. The road has, however, again been opened, and as many pilgrims as formerly now come. The devotion with which all Kerbelais or pil- THE PILGRIM ROAD. 61 '6 gi-iins, and indeed all Sheites, regard the name of tlieir martyr, Husein, is truly remarkable. In the month of Moharrem, both in Persia and India, the painful tragedy of Shahid litisein is regularly enacted before crowds of people, and never fails to work up the observers to an agony of passionate grief.* I have myself witnessed on a Tigris steamer a recital of the tragedy by a Kerbelai to a group of fellow-pilgrims, which wrought them up to such au extent that they all were sobbing with unfeigned distress. The town of Kerbela, originated in such a strange way, is a thriving place. Formerly a waterless desert, it has been converted by the aid of a canal, called the Nahr Huseinieh, brought from the Euphrates, into an oasis, inhabited, according to some authorities, by some fifty or sixty thousand people. On this canal can be seen many boats, and a certain amount of trade is carried on by its means, but the pilgrim traffic keeps of course to the caravan track. The town experienced a serious reverse when in 1801 it * See Gratton Geai-y, "Through Asiatic Turkey," Appendix C, for an account by Sir Lewis Pelly of one of these plays at Bombay ; and " A tour from Bengal to Persia, 1786-7," by William Francklin ; (Pinkerton's "Collection of Travels," 1811, vol. IX., p. 274.) 374 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. was sacked, plundered, and many of the inhabitants massacred by Sand ibn Saud, the Wahabite general. The ancient part of the town, in which the shrine is situated, is comparatively small, and is contained within a brick wall with round towers at intervals. Outside this have grown up large suburbs, in which can be seen one or two fine and wide streets, almost worthy of some of the second-rate parts of Alexandria. In one of these is the Sayyid's house. As at Musseyib, yellow bricks are made at Kerbela. After we had been round the town, we visited an Indian Nawab, an agent of the British Residency at Bagdad. He received us politely, but struck us as being a very conceited and affected old thing, and although, no doubt, a person of importance, seemed a good deal of a bore. His idea of furnishing a house seemed to be to crowd every available space in each room with innumerable paraffin lamps, a scheme of decoration which does not recommend itself to all tastes. Our entertainment consisted of cigars, sherbet, and tea, all of which politeness demanded I should accept, although I was again suffering severely from a return of my illness. In the night a fearful storm of rain, accompanied by incessant thunder and lightning, broke over the THE PILGRIM ROAD. 875 town. Hour after hour the deluge descended, and so continuous and vivid was the lightning-, that through the windows of our room everything in the courtyard could be discerned as clearly as by day. In addition to this, which alone was enough to have scared away sleep, our room was absolutely filled with immense and very venomous mosquitoes, which attracted by our European blood, were intent on making a night of it. I do not think it an exaggera- tion to say that at no time of the night was I without several upon my face. In vain I rubbed my face with lemons, until I was a living lemon squash ; in vain I buried my head beneath some article of apparel, and wooed asphyxiating slumbers. Sleep would not come, and I lay for most of the night slapping my face and cursing C — — , who, with his head enveloped in one of somebody or other's patent mosquito nets, slept and snored in an irritatingly peaceful manner, for which I felt there was no excuse. Hour after hour the vile clock-tower of Meshed Husein tolled out the hours, making one think, if it had not been for the incessant " ping " of the innumerable and implacable mosquitoes, that one was rather in an English country town than in sacred Kerbela. 376 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. All awkward incident happened as we were about to leave next morning. Yusuf, to whom we had given some money to tip the Sayyid's servants, came to ns saying that it had been stolen from his pocket when he was asleep, and he accused a servant, who was certainly a hang-dog looking personage, of the theft. This man had, Yusuf said, repeatedly pestered him the previous day for bakhshish, and argued that he was an avaricious brute who would stick at nothing. We told Yusuf he had not the slightest proof of the man's guilt, and that as he had lost the money he must bear the loss himself, and ordered him to hand the man the present we had intended for him, in our presence. The servant, however, who no doubt had been blackguarded by Yusuf, refused to accept it until I handed it him in person. It was impossible to tell from such evidence as we had whether Yusuf was lying or the man was guilty. Much to our regret, and owing to Yusuf 's continual grumbling, the matter came to the ears of the Sayyid, who had made his appearance to see us off, and he wanted to refund the money and tips. All we could do was to assure him that we did not for a moment believe in the theft, and that it was either due to a mistake or dishonesty on the part of Yusuf himself. THE PILGRIM KOAD. B77 bat as almost everything' we said had to be translated by Yusuf, it is hard to say what the Sayyid under- stood. Yasuf, driven to desperation by our wrath, protested that he told our host that he himself was a " damn liar," and the money was really safe in his pocket. But we could see from the expression of the Sayyid's face that he was, and naturally, put out. However, there was nothing more to be done, and we all rode out of Kerbela in mud six inches deep. Turning a corner, C 's horse slipped and came a sprawling cropper, covering him with mud, but fortunately not hurting him. The Sayyid was off his horse in a minute, helping him up and brushing away the dirt. When we parted a short time after, I wanted to make a present to him of my sheath knife, the only object I had with me worth giving, but he would not hear of taking, as he said, anything from travellers who might want such things on the road. Anything I might like to send him from England he said he would gladly receive. I really felt truly sorry to leave this delightful man, whose kindness and courtesy to us had been absolutely unlimited. We exchanged addresses, shook hands warmly, and soon were out of sight. We were now fairly set out on our return journev. 378 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. Indeed, from this point I felt I was tnrning homewards. The desert country we had ridden over, dry and parched the previous day, was now covered with mud and large pools of water. The day, however, was fine, and, indeed, as the sun rose, became oppressively hot. We passed several caravans with corpses, and a small encampment of poor Arabs, and at about eleven we stopped to lunch close to a large tribe of Massaud Arabs, a tribe who cultivate the land a little and keep large flocks of sheep. Shortly after noon we reached Musseyib, at that time of day comparatively empty, and here we had a row with the old katterji, who wanted to stop for the night, and so make a three days' journey of the return to Bagdad. We insisted, however, on going on, and after about an hour's rest we ordered Yusuf to saddle the horses and rode out of the town. The heat had by now become very trying, and although we saw Khan Iscanderieh, where we were to sleep, apparently about half an hour distant, yet it took two and a quarter to reach it. So deceptive is the atmosphere on these vast level plains that the traveller is continually being taken in in matters of tliis kind. The broilins; rays of the sun poured down on us, and seemed to penetrate us like a knife, and our party moved slowly and wearily along the track. THE PILGRIM ROAD. 379 sitting or hanging on to our saddles too fatigued by the heat to speak, and more indeed like logs than human beings. The country between Musseyib and and Iscanderieh is chiefly the usual mud plain, but near the latter place it becomes gravelly. At about four we rode into the little village, and pitched our tent opposite a small coffee-house some little distance from the khan itself. We resumed our journey next morning at half-past five. After about half an hour's journey, we saw far away to the right a speck on the horizon, which Yusuf said was Ctesiphon. This was probably correct, but from that point the ruin must have been distant some seventeen or eighteen miles.* A party of Turkomans soon after appeared on the road, wearing strange- looking astrakhan caps. They said they were from near Tabriz. Next a volume of smoke far away to the left attracted our attention, which looked like a steamer on the Euphrates, but was probably made by lime burners. When we got near Bagdad we heard that the waters * Layard (" Nineveh and Babylon," 1882, p. 328) describes on riding between Iscanderieh and Bagdad, seeing Ctesiphon under the eflfect of mirage, and plainly discerning arcades, columns, and masses of masonry. Either he must have ridden a long way ofl" the caravan track to the east, or else the mirage had magnified the ruin strangely, for from the road the distant ruin is hardly perceptible, as above stated. 380 THROUGH TURKIPH AKABIA. of the river had risen so much during the last few days that the Tigris bridge was cut. Indeed, we were warned that unless we hastened the bridge at Khan Khirr would l)e also missed, as it would probably have to be cut very soon. We galloped forward, finding the watercourses of irrigation which we passed all bursting their banks and swamping the roads. At one place we met a woman wailing over a little dead girl who had been swept into a flooded canal and drowned. The agonised sobs and groans of the poor creature were most painful to hear, but we could give no help, and hastening forward crossed the bridge and arrived in Bagdad at two o'clock. My journey was now in a way over. I had seen Aleppo, Bagdad, and Babylon, — the three tasks I had set myself, and all that now remained was to make my way home as comfortably as possible. The long and fatiguing hours in the blazing sun had by no means improved my complaint, and on my return to Bagdad I felt incapable of facing another overland march to the Mediterranean. Besides this, I was anxious to see the lower Tigris and the Persian Gulf, and as both of these could be done on steamers, and amidst European comforts, I resolved to make my way home by Bombay. THE riLGRIM ROAD. 381 Our arrival in Bagdad was on the 12tli of May, and the same afternoon we summoned the old katterji to pay him off for the animals. He had throughout behaved so badly that Ave resolved to mark our dis- approbation by giving him no present, although, of course, the young muleteer who accompanied him would receive his accustomed bakhshish. When this was communicated to him the old rascal became extremely violent and abusive, and refusing to take the hire money for the animals, departed in a passion, making a great disturbance in the courtyard of the Residency as he went. We put the money aside, and next morning the young man came and the business was settled. Immediately on my return, I began making en- quiries about the next steamer to Busrah, where I hoped to get a steamer for England. One of these ought to have sailed about the 14th, but in consequence of its bein^ Ramazan, little was beino- done at the custom house and dock, and I was informed that she would not leave until some day in the following week, as she had to be unloaded, a slow process, like everything else in the fasting month. Under tliese circumstances, I should have liked to have filled up the time by an excursion to the ruin of o82 THUOUGH TURKISH ARABIA. Ctesiphon, and the mounds of Seleucia, but I felt too enfeebled by continued bad health to attempt it. Besides this, I was told that the river steamers passed close to the ruins, and very often time was allowed for passengers to visit the great arch of Ctesiphon, so that I hoped to be able to see it in that manner. The heat also had now become so great, that active exercise in the sun between ten and four was extremely fatiguing ; so that I resolved to spend the two or three days before the steamer left in peace and quiet. The river had now reached such a height that it threatened to flood the Residency garden. The long lane leadino- out of Basrdad to the south was occu- pied by great pools of stagnant water, which, under the heat, soon began to emit an effluvium which was anything but pleasant, and which, with the soaking gardens around would be very likely to breed fever and ague from its miasma. Evident signs were present that the increased heat was tell- ing upon the faithful fasters of Bagdad, and the ong lines of closed shops in the bazaars, and in- creased activity in the evenings, showed that Bagdad found business an arduous task under these circum- stances. THE PILGRIM ROAD. 383 One day, walking in the bazaar, I met one of my Aleppo friends, the Greek doctor, who followed close on my heels down the Euphrates to Bagdad. He informed me that an Arab tribe on the river between Bagdad and Busrah were in revolt, and were firing on steamers. Some of those of the Turkish company, he said, had been actually turned back, and steam traffic was now at a standstill. Although I did not believe much of this, I found on enquiring that it was in some degree true, although the English steamers had not so far been molested. My steamer, I finally learnt, would start on the 19 th, so I settled my things, gave away to Yusuf my pots and pans, and an old pair of riding breeches, which were not more than six inches too long for him ; and finally summoned a barber of Bagdad to cut my hair. This worthy, who appeared with the regulation basin and a bushel of scissors and razors, was, I presume, the descendant of the original of the " Thousand and one Nights " ; though I was greatly relieved to find that he did not dose me with idiotic anecdotes, and astrological problems. On the contrary, he cut my hair well and neatly, received his pay, and departed with a praiseworthy demureness, which shows that the breed of barber has improved 384 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. in Bagdad. The same day I saw, on the edge of Tigris, the Hunchback of El Busrah, whose aspect we are told in that delightful old yarn book, '• was such as to excite laughter in the angry and to dispel anxiety and grief." I cannot say that the poor little chap, who had apparently come up from his home on a day's outing, excited quite that sort of feeling in me. He was a stranofe little creature with his head in his chest, and short curved legs about a foot long, springing out of his body ; and from his dress was apparently a man of some position. On the night of the 19th we went on board, having previously sent on our heavy baggage with plenty of bakhshish to push it unmolested through the Customs. 385 CHAPTER XV. BAGDAD TO BUSRAH Steam Traffic on the Tigris — A River Steamer — Chaldsean Sailors- Itinerary — Leave Bagdad — Ctesiphon — Arab Tribes — Paucity of Traffic — Flooded-out Arabs — -Amara — Sabseans — Deck Scenes — The Revolt of Sheikh Saud ibn Munshid — Ezra's Tomb — A Scare — Kornah — The Shat el Arab — The Port of Busrah — Visit the Town — Escape of Prisoners — Historical Notes — Health of Busrah. The history of the steam traffic on the Tigris and Shat-el-Arab does not go, of course, far back. There are at the present day two lines of steamers navigat- ing the river between Busrah and Bagdad : they are respectively Turkish and English. The Turkish line has about seven steamers, and was started by Midhat Pasha. They are, of course, avoided by Europeans, as they are small, accommodation is bad, and you have to bring your own food. The English line was started thirty years ago, by the enterprising- firm of Lynch & Co., and is a very fair river service. Their steamers are three in number, the Mejidieh, the Calipha, and the Blosse Lynch, and are cc "" ■( Q a -^ ;:^ .' z t fi ' "/^| . ' '4 ;^ ' ''■ •'<:^ M BAGDAD TO BUSKAII. o8/ much larger, more powerful, and in every way superior to the Turkish steamers. These vessels are of a somewhat curious build, drawing, of course, but little water, but immensely wide. From the main deck, which is but little above the water level, rises a long series of deck houses, two-thirds of the length of the vessel, on the top of which is a large upper deck, which is generally occupied by the numerous deck passengers. The cabin accommodation is forward, and in the Mejidieh consists of several comfortable single-berthed cabins, and a snug little dining saloon. The Mejidieh could take over six hundred deck passengers, and the Blosse Lynch I believe, a greater number. These steamers are manned by Chaldasan Christians from villages near Mosul — tall, handsome men, who from their faces might be Europeans rather than Orientals. It was a pleasure to see these fellows at work. They worked like men, and had none of the sneaking and deceitful air that is usual among Oriental Christians. In spite of their fine, honest faces and manly forms, I was told by an officer of the steamer that they are soft, and are quite unaware of their strength. Left to themselves these indolent giants would probably be no good in a scrimmage, cc 2 00b TIIKOUGH TURKISH AEABIA. and would, perhaps, act on the adage, "He that fights and runs away." Their costume of blue tunics and white turbans hardly distinguishes them from Mussulmans, and their language is Arabic. The navigation of the river is anything but easy, and when the river is low the steamers sometimes stick on the mud banks. Some of the corners to be turned are also very sharp, and in going down stream at the flood-time very smart steering is necessary. Of course a native pilot is always carried. There is, naturally, a great difference in the time occupied in the up-stream and down-stream journeys. From Busrah to Bagdad occupies a minimum of about three and a half days, though it generally takes a good deal more, and sometimes, when the stream is strong, a full week. The minimum of the sea- ward journey is two days, though generally even in flood-time six to ten hours more are required. In the saloon of the Mejidieh, the following notice is posted : — Time of steaming interval. Names of places Average. Explanation and particulars of the on river. Up river. Down river. places on the River Tigris, hrs. mins. hrs. mins. Basreh 4 30 Lat. 30° 30' 9 " N Kuraeh 5 30 3 The junction of Rivers Euphrates and Tigris, and supposed Garden of Eden BAGDAD TO BUSRAH. 389 Ezra's Tomb 4 15 4 40 Abu Seclra 9 30 110 Amara 4 15 AirSheri^lii 6 15 4 Bughela 7 5 Azizieh 9 1 Baghdadieh 3 45 4 BostaniKesra 6 30 2 Diala River 5 1 Baghdad 3 15 Steaming hours up river, 47 10. AU Gherbi 5 45 3 10 Sheikh Saad 5 4 30 Kut el Amara 6 4 30 Ezra the Scribe, and a Jewish holy place of pilgrimage. A green dome on bank of river, west bank. A small grove of poplar close bo the bank, with a tomb inside a reed hut, of an Arab saint, west bank. A village founded in 1861. There is a coaling depot for the Company's steamers on east bank. High poplar grove on east bank, and tomb of Arab saint inside of it. A small village on west bank, called after the name of a tomb of an Arab saint below village. A small village on west bank, called so after the name of a former Arab sheikh. A village on east bank, is a coaling depot Company's steamers. Village on west bank, the property of the Sultan ; built in 1885. A small village, with mud houses on east bank. An old mud fort on a mound on west bank. It was built by a sheikh of the Zobeid tribe to levy blackmail on native boats. Ancient mounds, the ruins of a Parthian town of Ctesiphon. Emptying into the Tigris, it runs down from the Persian Hills of Lohristan. In Lat. 35° 20' 0" N. 78 45 ; Steaming hours down river, 45 30 50 There for the As a comparison with this it may be mentioned 390 THROUGH TUEKISII ARABIA. tliat sailing craft take from seven to fifteen days on the downward journey, and upwards, frequently above a month. Before leaving Bagdad the next morning we cast off from the quay on the east bank and crossed to the opposite side of the river. Here the bank pre- sented a somewhat lively appearance. One or two hulking buggalows* lay fast to the shore, and kofa boats and long snake-like canoes were paddling about. These buggalows are the largest native sailing craft in the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea. They are excellent seaworthy vessels, varying greatly in size, but all built on the same pattern. Both fore and aft they are very high out of the water, while amidships they are quite low. There is a cabin astern, generally painted in bright colours, and the one great mast rakes forward in a very odd way. These vessels sometimes come from Zanzibar to Bagdad. I believe they are not much good at tacking, and navigation is principally effected by coasting along in sight of land. We left at noon, and were soon clear of the palm groves and mud-brick coffee-houses of Bagdad. As I sat ensconsed in a comfortable chair on the lower * Buggaloiv — the Anglicized form of hagJdaJi, i.e., a female mule. BAGDAD TO BUSltAlI. 391 deck under a thick awning, I could not help think- ing of the immense difference between this style of travelling and that which I had been experiencing during the last month. How different was the luxury and speed of the comfortable English river steamer to the weary hours of jogging through the desert in the fierce sun on a sorry horse, or in the confined space of my takht-i-rawan. Past scrub, palm plantation, and reed-built village, past miraged plain and squalid Badawi encampments, we seemed to fly with the speed of lightning. Now close to the bank, against which our wash furiously rushed ; now dashing along in midstream ; now charging wildly round a bend in the river, churning up the turbid waters of the Tigris Avith our paddles into a brown froth. Soon after one o'clock we passed an open bridge, Jisr Gerarah, a place at which passen- gers Bagdadward bound sometimes alight and walk to the town, for, as there is a great bend between here and Bagdad and the steamer is steam- ing against a rapid current, the journey can thus be shortened. With the current, at this time of year, downward steamers make eleven knots to the hour. A few miles further we passed the mouth of the Diala river, spanned by a bridge of boats. 392 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. An hour later we were opposite Ctesiphon, and, greatly to my disappointment, the officer in com- mand of the steamer refused to allow u'< to land to walk across the bend, and thus get a close view of this wonderful ruin. As Ctesiphon is situated in a loop of the river, which after passing close to its west side makes an enormous bend and then passes about two miles from it on the east, this is con- tinually done ; as it takes the steamer an hour to get round on the downward journey, and a great deal more when travelling up stream. Unfortunately the captain of the vessel was ill in Bagdad, and the first officer, " clothed in a little brief authority," did not see his way to allowing us that gratification. Consequently we had to content ourselves with seeing all we could from the steamer's deck. TheTaki Kesra, or more correctly Takht-i-Khusrau, the throne of Khusrau, appears even from the river, and in its present dilapidated state, a wonderful ruin. The first view we had of it, from the west, appeared like a huge Norman keep, jammed up against a mammoth arch. Round this colossal palace of the Parthian empire we could see the pigmy encampments of the Arabs. Just before reaching this place we passed on the west bank a BAGDAD TO BUSKAH. 393 large mound or rampart of earth, sliced away by the action of the river. This is all that remains of Seleucia, the Macedonian city, which rose upon the ruins of Babylon, and which afterwards, with Ctesiphon, became known as " Al Modein," the two cities. An hour later we were opposite the eastern front of the Takht, and though much more distant, we could plainly discern the tiers of niches and pilasters which adorn the facade on this side. The other fa9ade, which balanced the building on the opposite side of the great arch, has fallen in the last few years, and it is said that the rest of the ruin may go at any time. One enlightened Bagdad Pasha, indeed, was only compelled to desist from its destruction by the representations of European consuls to the Ottoman Government ; and as the general pilfering of bricks from the lower portions of the walls is continually progressing, some anti- quarian traveller anxiously gazing from the steamer's deck may any day see, instead of the noble and majestic arch, nothing but a mound of debris like those on the opposite bank. The desolation of the country on either side of the Tigris, between Bagdad and Busrah, is almost as complete as upon the Euphrates above Deir. There 394 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. are occasionally villages or matting encampments of Arabs, but throughout the whole distance there is one place only (Amara) that could be called a town, and two or three other villages big enough for the steamer to stop at. There is patchy cultivation here and there ; but it is evident that the inhabitants of the district take no interest in it. Below Ctesiphon none of the thick scrub of the Euphrates is to be seen, and its absence is accounted for by its use as fuel for the steamers. Before these were put on, there were lions to be shot in the jungle, but now they seem to have entirely disappeared, though they are still to be found on some of the reaches of the Karun river. Wild pig and pelicans are numerous, and the former are sometimes shot from the steamer's deck. The Arabs inhabiting the banks of the Tigris belong either to the Zobeide and great Montefik* tribes on the right bank, or to the Beni Lam and Albu Mohammed tribes on the left. They are all pit'operly nomads, living a pastoral life, and the villages seen, wdth their patches of tilled land, belong to small sections of these tribes, who have been * The Montefiks, however, properly belong to the Euphrates Valley. BAGDAD TO BUSKAII. 395 induced to try an agricultural life. On the whole these experiments seem to have borne but little fruit, and it is probable that many of these Arabs relapse into their former state of existence. At the villages seen from the steamers, buffaloes, cattle, goats and sheep seem numerous, but camels are liardly ever seen. Some of the Albu Mohammed tribe, about whom I shall have more to say, inhabit the wilderness of marshes that extends for miles above Kornah. Another feature on this magnificent stream is the extraordinary paucity of traffic upon it. Occasionally we passed a clumsy lugger-rigged vessel, laden with fire-wood, being " tracked " along the bank by a crowd of singing naked xlrabs ; but for hour, I almost said days, together we would see no sort of craft. To be sure the river was at the time I passed along it, in an exceptional, but by no means unique, condition, owing to the revolt of Arabs lower down and the consequent suspension of traffic ; but in ordinary circumstances the traffic is ridiculously small. Mr. Geary, who narrates his experiences going over the same route in 1878, noticed that he met only two little steamers, and a score of bug- o-alows of no ffreat size. When one considers what 396 TimOUGH TURKISH ARABIA. this great waterway, extending as it does from the Persian Gulf to the mountains of Armenia, might be made, tlie absolute incompetence of Turkish rule is brought more clearly home to one than in any other way. The Zobeide or Zubeide tribe were formerly a powerful and numerous community, but now are in a broken up and weak condition. It was from this tribf^ that Harun-al-Rashid obtained his fair wife Zubeidah. In the evening of the first day we passed the modern mud village of Jezirah of these people and soon after an earthern fort called Bag- da dieh, built by one of their former sheikhs for the purpose of intercepting and levying blackmail on the river craft. The marshes are entered on the first afternoon after leaving Bagdad, and from the ceaseless noise of the frogs when we went to bed at ten o'clock, we seemed to be still in them. In these marshes mosquitoes are very troublesome, and I noticed that the ordinary fly inflicted a sharp and painful bite, although no swelling followed. In the night we stopped at Kut el Amara, and when we rose in the morning we were tearing along against a brisk head breeze, with a wide plain, BAGDAD TO BUSRAH. 397 grassy and green, on either side of us. Far away to the left we could now discern Jebel Hamrin, the mountain range dividing Persian Luristan from Turkish territory, and beyond which lay the town of Dizful. At about half-past ten we passed Ali Gherbi or " Ali of the West," a wretched mud village on the west bank. Both sides of the river swarm here- abouts with Arabs, those on the east being Beni Lam, whose village encampments are a mixture of matting, reed, and mud.* These people are said to be much intermarried with Kurds, and speak both languages. The children seen on the banks are often dressed in red, instead of the eternal Arab blue. At one place we came upon a large crowd of these people standing absolutely naked on a spit of land surrounded by water. They carried a green flag, and gesticulated and screamed to the steamer. I gathered from one of the crew that the poor creatures were in great distress on account of the river flood having broken a dam, flooded their village, and destroyed their crops. At another very large en- campment further on, it was quite easy to see that * Some of the matting encampments of the lower Tigris Valley- are built Avith great regularity, almost like a military camp. 898 TUKOUGII TURKISH ARABIA. the river was higher than the phiin on which it Ho wed, so that the wretched embankment had only to give way for the inhabitants to be served in like manner. In the evening we fonnd ourselves sailing between banks lined with orchards, and young palm groves contained between mud walls. Strange-looking canoes, extremely long and absurdly narrow, could be seen punting about and tacking up stream. These are called " ballums," and are the pleasure boats of the lower Tigris and the Shat-el-Arab. Soon after, we were at Amara, opposite which we swung round in midstream, so as to make fast to the quay, with the vessel's nose up stream. Although I could persuade none of my fellow passengers to accom- pany me, I immediately went ashore to stretch my legs and have a look at the place. Amara is a considerable town of about five thousand inhabitants, amongst whom there are a good many Jews, but very few Christians. It has a governor, and there are barracks in which one Turkish regiment is generally quartered. On the river front there are some very good and clean-looking houses. A bridge of boats, telegraph-office, and fairly roomy and well supplied bazaar complete its attractions. BAGDAD TO BUSRAH. 399 At Amara a river flows into the 'i'igris from the east, the identity of which appears to be somewhat doubtful. Kiepert marks it as the river Tib which takes its rise in Jebel Hamrin, and other maps are similar. Mr. Yusuf, however, the clerk of the Mejidieh, informs me that this was incorrect, and that it was the northern mouth of a canal or back-water running out of the great series of marshes called 8amida and Samargha which extend almost to Hawizeh over the Persian border. The stream is called the 8hat or Sid al Khud. Mr. Yusuf assured me that from here Hawizeh could be reached by boat from Amara, traversing en route these immense lagoons. The real truth of the matter seems to be that this is one of the mouths of the Persian river Kerkah, which after passing Hawizeh spreads over the country in a vast series of morasses, from which the Khud empties itself at Amara, another mouth further down at El Ozeir or the tomb of Ezra, and one or more some sixty miles south close to the junction of the Tigris and Euphrates. Into the Khud the Tib would appear also to flow, not close to the Tigris, but further east, in the vicinitv of the marshes. The ballums I have spoken of, v»^hich are seen here 400 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. and even more at Busrah, are built of teak from the Malabar coast ; the wood is riveted with iron nails, and the whole is covered with bitumen. A moderate sized one can be worked by one man sitting in the stern with a big-bladed paddle. In Amara, as indeed in many of the towns of the lower Tigris, there are considerable numbers of the people called Sabseans, who claim descent from the ancient Chaldaeans, and regard St. John the Baptist with peculiar reverence.* Their physical character- istics, at any rate in those I saw, differ from those of the Arabs and Persians, although there is nothing peculiar in their costume ; such as I saw had dark beards and fine eyes. Just as the Mejidieh was casting off, a Sabsean, apparently a person of import- ance, was standing on the lower deck ; on the quay a crowd of his friends had gathered to see him off, and each in turn hurled on board a cloak or abbah, in which a farewell gift of walnuts or dates was tied up ; as fast as they tumbled on board the tall Sabaean emptied the contents on the deck and threw back the cloak to the struggling crowd. At last the steamer was too far from the shore to throw any more, and * For an account of the Sabseans, their tenets and peculiarities, see Ainsworth, " Personal Narrative of the Euphrates Valley Expedition," 1888, vol. II., p. 243. BAGDAD TO BUSRAH. 401 the excited friends waved their companion a wild adieu. A. more curious scene than the upper deck of a Tigris steamer cannot well be depicted : hundreds of sittino- and recumbent forms of various nationalities and in multi-coloured raiment throng the space, and so thickly, that it is difficult to make one's way from one end to the other. Of these a large proportion are Persian pilgrims returning home from Kerbela and Nejef ; in the groups of skull-capped men and veiled women I saw but a repetition of the groups on the pilgrim road, saving only that here I saw them at their ease, lolling on their untidy and travel-stained beds, sipping their tea and puffing the eternal kalian ; also it was possible, by making a sudden sally into a quiet corner of the upper deck, to catch some of the houris of the Orient unveiled. I cannot say that I was much impressed by such as I saw, and as the ladies hastily donned the necessary apparel, it became necessary for me to become vastly interested in the mechanism of the paddle boxes. Besides these there were Arabs of Busrah, Mussulmans from Bombay, and one or two adventuresses from Bagdad on their way to Bombay, where they hoped to reap a fortune from their charms. A.11 this odd mixture lived, smoked, cooked, fed, and DD 402 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. slept on the deck, without discord. The place wliere a deck passenger deposited his bundle when he em- barked at Bagdad, that must he occupy until he landed at Busrah ; very seldom did any individual rise from his or her place, except to reach the tea-pot or pipe, and as for a walk, why, there simply was no room had anyone wished it. In one place the Tragedy of Husein was being enacted. Around a lamp (for it was dark) sat a ring of a dozen Persian pilgrims, among whom the teapot rapidly circulated ; at one end of the ring, sitting on a box so as to command the attention of his audience, was a noble old Sheite, narrating in a sort of nasal chant the story of their revered martyr. He began in a monotonous and prolonged monotone, and then suddenly his tone changed, and with rapid and sympathetic utterance he worked himself up into a graphic and theatrical exposition of his narrative. When he got to a certain point, I presume the murder of Husein, his voice faltered and sank into accents of unutterable grief, and at the same moment his audience, one and all, burst into the deepest sobs and groans. The narrator then paused, and Avith his right hand wiped from his eyes what seemed to be the tears of unfeigned grief, xlt certain parts of the BAGDAD TO 13USRAH. 403 narrative the Persians would raise their hauds, palm upwards, and piteously repeat the names Husein and Allah. We anchored for the night in mid-stream, and slept heartily to the croaking of the frogs. It now became evident that there was at least some possibility of trouble from the Arab tribe in revolt, whose country we were about to pass through. The officer in command of the steamer gave orders for the bridge of the vessel, on which the pilot, steersman, and officer on duty were stationed, to be defended with bales of wool, in view of possible hostilities. The history of the disturbance was this : Two sons of Sheikh Saud Ibn Munshid, the sheikh of the Madan Arabs, were seized and thrown into prison at Amara by the Turkish authorities for non-payment of taxes. The Madan Arabs are a sub-section of the great Albu Mohammed tribe, which occupy a great part of the country on both sides of the Tigris, between Amara and the ivarun river. The Madan Arabs are a buffalo- breeding tribe, and are said to number about forty thousand. The sheikh, with whom all who have any knowledge of the Turkish policy towards the Arab tribes must feel more sympathy than anything else, had gathered together a large body of armed men, DD 2 404 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. including some four hundred with Martini rifles, and was venting his wrath in intercepting, plundering, and often burning, the grain boats and other traffic upon the river. The infuriated chieftain, after the manner of his ancestors, did not stick at lopping off the heads of his prisoners, and even fired upon and turned back one of the Turkish steamers on her way to Busrah. As he had not yet interfered with the English boats, and had no reason for hostility towards our nation, it was probable we might pass unmolested. But in a similar affair some years back one of the commanders of a Lynch steamer was shot in the chest and severely wounded, so that precautions were very necessary. The Turkish authorities, of course, were attempting to repress these disturbances, and expedi- tions were sent against the turbulent ones : but the wily sheikh, who knew the ins and outs of the vast series of morasses and reedy fens which border the river, had only to retire with his forces like water rats to their fastnesses, and no troops in the world could follow them. In sore straits, therefore, were the Turks what to do, and although there was a price on Sand's head that would no doubt, sooner or later, bring him to account, there was at present no apparent likelihood BAGDAD TO BUSRAH. 405 of capturing the rebel, and thus restoring tran- quility.* Early the next morning we stopped at the village of Kalah Salah, on the left bank. Here a detach- ment of twenty Turkish soldiers came on board as an escort — a somewhat questionable sort of protection, as Saud would be more likely to fire on us with Turkish troops on board than if we were without. They brought with them accounts, which if they were at all true, looked as if the rebellion was assuming serious proportions. A party of Turkish soldiers (according to this account) had proceeded the previous day, in company with a friendly Arab sheikh, one Yesser, and some of his people, across the river, and had attacked Sand's party somewhere on the right bank. Fifty rebels were killed and fifteen Turks. How far this was true it is hard to say, and I have never learned what had really happened. Probably a skirmish, and a few lives lost. At any rate, it was evident we must not be napping till we were past * Mr. Geary, who ijassed up the river in April, 1878, found the same tribe engaged in a similar, but less malignant revolt. According to his account, the sheikh was a piratical ruffian, for whom there was no excuse. I am unaware if this man was Saud, or of the details of Baud's case, but as a general rule in disputes between the Turkish government and Arab tribes, the latter merit the sympathy, the former the opprobrium of right-minded people. 406 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. " Castle Dangerous." As we left Kalah Salah, I noticed no less than thirty-five buggalows made fast to the bank in a line. vSome of these had been the previous day at Amara, but on arrival here they were forbidden to proceed by the authorities. Below this place the banks were swarming with Madan Arabs, whose appearance was certainly not calculated to inspire terror into our hearts. Most of them were literally as naked as the day they were born, and others had simply a rag over the head or a cloth girt, not round the loins, but round the chest. Of the males, fully grown men only were fully dressed. The lads and hobble-de-hoys raced furiously along the shore for about a mile, the race continually augmented by newcomers, for few of course could keep up with the steamer for any time. At intervals, the passengers would throw towards them a cake of bread, and then the wildest scene would take place, half a dozen brown slippery forms would fly plump into the water together, like a school of porpoises, and have a rough-and-tumble together in the river for the spoil. I thought from their behaviour they must be in great want, but was told that the babies always behave like this when the steamer passes. Soon after, we came to the sanctuary called Abdallah ibn Ali^ a BAGDAD TO BUSRAII. 407 small tomb, close to which were what appeared to be ancient mounds. Round the tomb were to be seen a crowd of Arabs with flags. This place is held to be very sacred by the Arabs, who make pilgrimages to it, and bury here as at Kerbela, though what its history is I could not learn. Just past this we came to the sharpest turn in the river, where, as the stream is very narrow, very quick steering is necessary. The steamer seemed almost to swing on a pivot as we whirled twice in succession round corners, our stern so close to the bank that one might have jumped ashore. At a quarter past nine we were at Ezra's tomb, called El Ozeir by the Arabs, prettily situated on the right bank, among palm trees. A considerable time before reaching this place, we could see it away to the right, apparently in the open country, and far away from the river, which makes a huge bend, and passes close to it. This place, at which, according to Jewish tradition, Ezra the scribe died on his way from Jerusalem to Susa, is, and has for a very long time been, a great place of pilgrimage for the Jews. Benjamin of Tudela writes : " The sepulchre of Ezra the priest and scribe is in this place, where he died on his journey from Jerusalem to King Artaxerxes 408 THROUGH TUKKISH ARABIA. In front of the sepulchre a large synagogue and a Mohammedan mosque have been erected, the latter as a mark of the veneration in which Ezra is held by the Mohammedans, who are very friendly towards the Jews, and resort hither to pray." A pretty blue dome now exists, and there are two big modern houses facing the river for the reception of pilgrims, but there are no ancient remains now standing, and Layard has conjectured that the real site has been washed away by the river.* Jewish pilgrims visit this place in considerable numbers — four to five thousand annually ; but this year, in consequence of the disturbances amongst the Arabs, there were hardly any. As the steamer only stopped for about two minutes, I had no opportunity of landing, as I should have liked. A crowd of Turkish soldiers were standing in front of the building, and a small Turkish gun-boat lay in the river, having been sent up from Busrah to render any assistance possible. By breakfast time we were told we had passed the only place where any danger was to be apprehended. Immediately after, however, an absurd scare hap- pened. I was looking over some books in the cabin, * " Early Adventures in Persia," &c. vol. ii., p. 216. BAGDAD TO BUSRAH. 409 when I suddenly heard shots. Bang, bang, bang went rifle after rifle, and I rushed hurriedly on deck, fully believing that we were being fired upon, and that I was about to see a little active warfare. Much to my surprise, perhaps satisfaction, I found the Turkish soldiers engaged in the peaceful occupation of firing at a big wild pig, that was scrambling through the reeds on the western bank. Fortunately they were not very good shots, and piggy saved his bacon. The marshes through which we had been passing were filled with reeds, few of which seemed more than three feet high. Through my glass, however, I could see, further back from the river, a taller growth, something like bulrushes. Birds of many sorts abound, including hooded crows, snipe, kingfishers, and pelicans. Herons were plenteous, and there was a species of white bird I was unacquainted with. At mid-day we were at Kornah, where the Tigris and Euphrates, after their long course from the neigh- bourhood of Lake Van, at last join and flow together in one grand stream to the sea. The village of Kornah, for it is nothing else, is situated on a narrow point of land, amidst luxuriant palm groves. An interest attaches to the site from the local tradition that here 410 THROUGH TUKKISII ARABIA. was the Garden of Eden. It is certainly a charmino- place, and calculated to attract to itself a halo of romance. The water of the Euphrates where it joins the Tigris is not turbid, as I had always hitherto seen it, because a few miles above this place it is lost in marshes. Kornah is nearly fifty miles above Busrah as the crow flies, and twice that distance from the sea. A Turkish gun-boat was stationed there when we passed. The Shat-el-arab, between Kornah and Busrah, is a magnificent stream varying from two hundred and a fifty to three hundred yards in width, and with a depth of ten to fifteen fathoms. Throughout the distance are palm groves, some tall and stately, others but recently planted. The dates of this district are of most excellent quality, and the cultivation of the date palm is one of the standard industries. There are a great variety of species cultivated, the Arabs assert- ing that there are forty or even seventy distinct sorts ; great quantities are annually exported to Europe and America. Fish-traps, composed of semi-circular enclosures of upright reeds, are to be seen on the river's edge. Into these the fish rush at high-tide, and at the ebb are unable to escape. The tide, by- the-bye, is felt as high as Ezra's tomb. x\n occasional BAGDAD TO BUSRAII. 411 raft of reeds, built into the shape of a boat of immense size, can be seen floating clown to l^usrah. The reeds are chiefly used in the manufacture of the matting which I have already noticed as in use in Arab en- campments. We arrived at Busrah on the evenins: of the 22nd of April, and at this point my Turkish journey came to an end. I had some idea of accompanying C up the newly-opened Karun river as far as Shuster, but this proved not feasible, as Messrs. Lynch's steamer was temporarily taken off, and a wretched launch was running in its stead. As this vessel did not start till the middle of the following Aveek, and had no sort of passenger accommodation, I decided to go at once on board the British India steamer Simla, which was lying in the river, and which would sail early on the morning of the 24th. The port of Busrah, a modern growth (for the town itself is some distance away from the river, up a creek), is an odd mixture of East and West. The British Consulate, and one or two business premises of English companies ; the steamer Simla, and an opposition Persian liner ; a hulking- Turkish steamer all canted over to one side ; the smart English gunboat Brisk, and a dirty Turldsh one ; and several river steamers represent the civilisation of 412 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. the latter ; while the gesticulating crowd of Arabs, Persians, and negroes, the snake-like ballums, and the crowd of buggalows represent the old East. The ballums, which I have already noticed at Amara, are flitting about all over the river like gondolas, each manned by two boatmen, who use poles or paddles, as necessity dictates. There are so many near the shore that you cannot proceed in one a hundred yards without half-a-dozen collisions ; these neither boat- men nor passengers take any notice of, and the un- wary newcomer must look to himself, or he will get harpooned in the eye by a long bamboo pole. \yith C 1 called on the British Kesident, Major Jennings, at whose house I also met the agent of the British India Steamship Company. The latter said that the Arab rising was the most obstinate that had occurred for the last five years. Saud had a price on his head, and sooner or later would be killed. All traffic on the river was temporarily at an end, which meant great loss to the Company. He pointed out to me several wrecked and dis- mantled native boats, which had floated down from the scene of the disturbance. The following morning we rose early, and took a ballum to visit the town of Busrah itself, which BAGDAD TO BUSRAII. 413 lies some two miles from the river, at the head of a narrow creek or canal. At that early hour the air was fresh and delightful, and nothing more pleasant than this early morning trip could be imagined. We turned into the creek between houses, and having passed under a rickety wooden bridge, we entered a charming vista of palms. It was a sort of eastern Venice. To and fro on every side flitted the gay ballums, covered with gaudy awnings, and directed by dusky gondoliers. That one collided every other minute didn't matter one jot ; it ratlier added interest to the voyage. Throughout the whole distance the canal is shadowed by palms, and the banks are in places strengthened with palm logs or bricks, which swarm with minute crabs. In half an hour we reached the creek head, around which a few houses are situated ; and in company wdth one of our boatmen we walked through the town. A long, covered rope-walk, a second-rate bazaar stocked with English goods, and a telegraph-office, from which I attempted to telegraph, but couldn't, as everyone was asleep, and all was seen. I had imagined that in Bagdad I had seen almost the lowest pitch of degradation to which a great city 414 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. might come, but evidently I was mistaken. Where is the rich and magnificent Balsora of the Cali- phate ? Warfare, disease, and the alteration of trade routes have brought it to what it is, and yet A BALLUM OF BUSRAH. some writers assert that it is becoming prosperous. Among the dogs in the town I noticed some, quite different to the ordinarj" bazaar dogs, and resembling close-haired English sheep dogs. I lancy they are really Persian. What I noticed BAGDAD TO BUSUAIi. 415 most at Busrah was that, for the first time since 1 had landed at Scanderuii, Eiij^lish was a language ot" which nearly everyone knew a smattering. The ballum men touted at the steamer's side in pidgin English ; the telegraph clerk and the shopkeeper all knew a word or two. How was this ? Busra is not, like Alexandria or Beirut, invaded during certain seasons of the year by hordes of English- speaking tourists. The fact of the matter is that English is at Busrah and the Gulf ports what French is in northern Syria, and this is of course due, not to English, but to Anglo-Indian influence. Messrs. Lynch's river steamers, and the weekly British India boat from Bombay, as well as the xlngio-Indian mail service that is kept up between Bagdad and Bombay, all tend to keep English before the notice of the natives. Although on Turkish territory, Indian or Persian money is much preferred in the bazaar to Turkish, and a quantity of small piastres I had brought fr(;m Aleppo, and wliich were so much prized at Bagdad that I could have got rid of them with profit, I was told here were useless ; and would have been obliged to keep them, had not the British India agent obligingly taken them oft' my hands. 41 G THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. A serious incident, showing almost as clearly as the Arab revolt, the Turkish mismanagement in these parts, had taken place a day or two before my arrival at Busrah, Some occupants of the prison, numbering over twenty, and all either convicted of murder or murderous theft, had managed to break down their prison wall, and having tied their sentry and warder back to back, they forded or swam the creek in their heavy irons, and escaped into the open country. Three were shot by the police or soldiers, and the remainder were supposed to be at large, in the vicinity of Busrah when I was there. The present city was founded by the second Caliph, Omar, in the seventh century, and there- fore takes precedence of Bagdad as a Sara- cenic city. An earlier town, however, existed on the site of the present Zobeir,* or old Busrah, a few miles west, on a canal which is supposed to be the old mouth of the Euphrates, called the Palla- copas. From time immemorial, indeed, must there of necessity have been a port here, where all trade of the East would make its way to Babylon and Seleucia in the earlier days, and to Ctesiphon, Kufa, * Zobeir must be identical with OboUa. BAGDAD TO BUSRAH. 417 mid Bagdad in later times. It was this trade which raised the mediseval Balsora to such importance, and as Layard has remarked, it was the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope route which rained its trade. In the time of Rauwolf (1574) a pigeon post was maintained between Bagdad and Biisrah for commercial purposes. The East India Com- pany established their factory here in 1738. Like the cities of the Babylonian plain, it has always had its quota of Jews, of whom Rabbi Benjamin reported two thousand when he travelled. Though Busrah of old is moribund, it is not impossible that a new Busrah is springing into existence. The traveller Buckingham wrote : " It {i.e., trade) is said to have increased within the last ten years from two annual vessels to six under the British flag, besides those sailing under Arab colours." Layard describes how, fifty years ago, an English merchant- man with Manchester goods would occasionally anchor in the river, but had difficulty in finding a return cargo. About twenty years later there was a six-weekly steamer from Bombay, to which port there is at the present day a weekly service, and regular but less frequent sailings to Europe. There is also a Persian line between Busrah and India. EE 418 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. Tlie romantic journeys of " Es Sindibad of the Sea " are things of the past, and the merchant can now set forth from Busrah for Hind or Sarandib in a spacious and well-iitted British India steamer, in which he need have but little fear of the gigantic and revengeful " Rukh," or of the other perils that Es Sindibad faced and surpassed in such a wonderful manner.* Busrah has had its share of struggles and diffi- culties. Arab, Turk, Zanzibari, Persian, and Omani have in their turn captured and lost the place. In 1777 it held out eight months against the Persians, and though taken, the Turks repossessed it the following year. In 1787 it was actually seized and held from April to October by an Arab sheikh of the Montefik tribe, whose brief reign was sud- denly put a stop to by the Porte. A similar state of things existed at Busrah shortly before the Euphrates expedition, when the Sheikh of Zobeir managed temporarily to seize the reins of govern- ment. Westward of the Shat-el-Arab, from a point above Kornah on the Euphrates to south of Busrah, lie, at no great distance from the river, an elongated * See Appendix No. VIII. — Romance of the Persian Gulf. BAGDAD TO BUSRAH. 419 series of marshes which separate the river valley from the Arabiaa plain. These seem to be formed by the superfluous waters of the Euphrates, which, in spring-time, bursting its banks above Kornah, tries to make its way to the sea by another channel, the Nahr Salah (perhaps the Pallacopas), which flows past the town of Zobeir, or old Busrah. It is these marshes that give to Busrah the feverish and unhealthy reputation it not unjustly bears. At the same time, I was confidently assured that it is much more healthy than formerly, owing perhaps to the reclamation of some of the sur- rounding land. It is probable that formerly the Euphrates, tapped by innumerable canals, and also finding a second outlet to the sea by the Nahr Salah, (which probably does its work inefliciently at the present day),* did not inundate the country as now, and in consequence the country was much more salubrious. Besides the curse of marsh fever, the date mark is here as rife as at Bagdad. The natives also suffer grievously from stone, which may be due to drinking brackish water. * Ainsworth, who visited Zobeir, gives the width of the Nahr Saada, or Salah, as forty feet EE 2 420 CHAPTER XVI. THE PERSIAN GULF. Mohammerah — Native Craft — Fisheries — Sliusteris — History~Fow — Crossing the Bar — The Persian Gulf — Piracy — CHmate — Winds — Health — Busliire — A Persian Whiteley — Description of the Town — Killi — Reach Bahrein — Submarine Fresh Water— The Pearl Fishery. Soon after five o'clock on the 24th of April we were steaming down stream towards the sea. At about half-past seven we came opposite the outlet of the Karun river. On the north bank stands a large modern house, the residence of Sheikh Mizal, the so- called independent Sheikh of Mohammerah, who is a somewhat interesting person. As we passed this we fired a gun as a salute, which was somewhat tardily answered. Some years since, a British India steamer was attacked by Arabs, and this salute is always accorded by vessels of this line, in return for the Sheikh's timely interference. Opposite the mouth of the river, or rather canal, for this opening is arti- ficial, we stopped, and as the skipper said there was time, I lowered myself into a ballum and was rowed THE PERSIAN GULF. 421 up to Mohammerah, which is situated under a mile from the Shat el Arab on the right bank of the Karun. Some of the canoes I saw at the entrance to the canal are real " dug-outs," which come from Persia, or occasionally, it is said, coasting from Bombay. The ballums are carved with interlacing band patterns, exactly like the Celtic designs seen on the early crosses of Cumberland. Very odd patterns of sailing vessels are also to be seen, some with high poops like old English ships. At Mohammerah some of these native craft are built. There is a con- siderable fishery ; soles are common, and there is a fish known as '* sabur," — patience, a piece of Arabic irony, as the fish, though sweet, is extraordinarily full of bones. A large net is most usual, but the casting net is also in use. In summer, sharks are common at the entrance to the Karun, and accidents are frequent. These plagues, by-the-bye, are found up the Tigris, as far as Amara. Opposite the town I saw the skeleton of an old paddle steamer, which belonged to one of the late sheikhs. The appearance of this ruin, high, dry, and rusty, on the bank, was a strange contrast to the surroundings, and recalled to mind similar scenes on the mouth of the English Thames. 422 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. There are pretty gardens extending along the north bank until Mohammerah is reached, but the town itself is a miserable place. Built of mud and bricks, squalid, half ruined and dirty, with narrow bazaars which could almost be spanned with the arms, it does not seem to have one solitary redeeming feature. Although in Persian territory at present, the people are chiefly Arab. A good many negroes are also seen, and there are some Shusteris, uninteresting- looking people with big noses. Very different accounts are given of the character of these people. Layard found them kind and hospitable, but on the opening of the Karun river for traffic, the com- manders of Lynch's steamers had considerable trouble with them. They seem, anyhow, to have an exceed- ingly bad reputation on the Shat el Arab. The tradition is, that when everything was created, God found that more men were required. So he took the blood of a dog, and the blood of a Jew, and from this rich blend Avas formed the Shusteri. The old and natural outlet of the Karun river is the Bahmeshir channel, which runs parallel with the Shat el Arab from Mohammerah, and empties itself into the sea at a point east of Few on the latter. This outlet is still navigable, but the Haffar canal, THE PERSIAN GULF. 423 which connects the Karun with the Shat el Arab, carries away a good deal of the water. It is re- markable that the Karun water has often a red tinge. The history of Mohammerah is unique. On or near the site where it now stands, have existed in succession an Alexandria, an Antiochia, a Charax, and an Astrabad.* The present town, which is on the border line of Turkey and Persia, was erected in 1812 by a sheikh of the Muhaisen Arabs, a sub- division of the great Kaab tribe. The place proved, as Ainsworth has termed it, a " bone of contention " between the two powers, until it was decided by a boundary commission to belong to the Persians. The Turks sacked it in 1837, and in 1857 the Anglo- Indian expedition bombarded it with mortars placed on floating rafts, and the Persian garrison was soon routed. Various Arab sheikhs, under Turkish pro- tection, ruled the place, and the present governor, Sheikh Mizal Khan, of the Muhaisen tribe, and chief of the Kaab Arabs, is now in authority. This independent Arab chieftain, for independence he claims, has jurisdiction over a large region east of Mohammerah. He pays an annual tribute to the Government, and he himself levies taxes on his * Curzoii : " Persia and the Persian Question." 424 THROUGH TUEKISH ARABIA. subjects. Of the former he lives in bodily fear ; and they have, it is said, made more than one attempt to carry him off. His position seems somewhat anoma- lous, as, although holding the Governorship under the Persians, he at the same time asserts the inde- pendence of his tribe, who inhabit Mohammerah. And the Persians, who have appointed iiim governor, are anxious to get him quietly out of their way, although they are not in a position to supplant him at present by a new governor. He is probably the last of the independent Sheikhs of Mohammerah. A portrait of him in Mr. Curzon's "Persia and the Persian Question " shows a handsome and dignified Arab with a face full of intelligence and character. Mohammerah is notoriously unhealthy, though probably not so much so as the Persian Gulf ports. In the vicinity it is said to be swampy ; but the palm groves do not extend any distance up the Karun. Good sport, lion, fallow deer, and other game is to be got by a trip to Shuster. In spite of the misery of the present town, its site is of the greatest importance, commanding as it does the waters of the Euphrates, Tigris, and the Persian Karun, and it must have a great future before it. So much has recently been written about the Karun new THE PERSIAN GULF. 425 trade route, that it is unnecessary to go into the question here. It was opened to commerce in 1888, and Messrs. Lynch, and the Bombay and Persian Gulf S.S. Company soon placed steamers upon it. The latter soon gave up the matter as a bad job, and the former, although still maintaining some sort of service on the river, are doing so at what is probably a dead loss. One of their larger steamers was re- placed by a stern-wheeler from the Nile, and when I was there, connection with Ahwaz was only main- tained by a small steam launch. Persian pigheaded- ness will probably for some time stand in the way of the successful development of trade. The river between Busrah and the sea is uninterest- ing and unpicturesque. The banks are level and almost continuously planted with palm groves. It is, however, deep and wide, and capable of floating ships of any size when they have once passed the bar at the mouth. In the afternoon we arrived off" Fow, or Fao as it is generally spelt, consisting of a small barrack, a custom-house and quarantine, and the Indo- European, and Turkish telegraph stations. There is also a pole to carry a light, and a flag-staff'. One of our passengers, an English doctor, who was leaving Turkey for India, went ashore, and returned 426 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. with a trophy in the shape of a Turkish government flag, which he had deliberately hauled down under the veiy noses of the Turkish authorities, and pocketed as a memento of the country. An hour later we were out of sight of land and stuck on the great bar which closes the entrance to the river. Look- ing over the vessel's side, we seemed to be motionless, although the propeller was at full speed. We were, however, moving slowly, and in two hours we were clear, having forced our way through the soft mud. This has frequently to be done, as there is only some eighteen or twenty feet of water over the bar at high tide, and at low water only half that amount. The strong shemal (north west wind) was blowing, and perhaps helped us a little : but it made our initial experience of the Persian Gulf rather a surprise, for as soon as we were clear, it became so cool that we were not sorry for light overcoats. The Persian Gulf, situated between Lat. 30'^, iind Lat. 24'^ N., is perhaps, considering its historical interest, and future commercial importance, less known to the average Englishman than any otlier sea of equal size and equal accessibility. This is due of course to very good reasons. It possesses a climate almost unbearable to Europeans except during THE PERSIAN GULF. 427 certain seasons, and, although it can hardly be said to lead to nowhere, the places it does lead to are so unprovided with the comforts of European travel, that the ordinary tourist shuns them, and so wound up in the net of Eastern bigotry and backwardness, that as yet trade has not been able to make great ad- vances in the centres of population. In shape au irregular oblong, it stretches diagon- ally south-east from the Shat-el-Arab to the Strait of Orinuz, where the Ras Mussendom of the Arabian coast projects boldly northward, and forms the southern point of the Gulf. South of this the Gulf of Oman widens boldly to the Arabian Sea. The length of the Persian Gulf itself is only about five hundred and forty miles, but the total distance navigated by the British India Steamers from Bombay to Busrah is close on two thousand. The eastern littoral of this is occupied by Arabistan, Farsistan, and other Persian States as far as Gwetter, where Baluchistan comes in and extends to Anglo-Indian territory at Karachi. The eastern coast is entirely that of Arabia, portions of which are nominally under Turkish Government. As a matter of fact, such prosperity as the Gulf possesses is due to British in- fluence. 4*i8 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. Ill the fourth century B.C. Nearchus, Alexander's Admiral, navigated the Macedonian fleet from the Indus to the Tigris, supporting his master, who marched through Baluchistan and Southern Persia, after his Indian campaign. In the sixteenth century the Portuguese established a commercial supremacy, which remained unshaken for a hundred years. The piracy of the Persian Gulf is, thanks to British energy in the early part of this century, practically at an end. Inhabiting, as the pirates did, the western coast of the Gulf, no settled trade was possible so long as their depredations were suffered to continue. From 1805 till 1825 the work of paciflcation was carried on, but it was not until the treaties of 1835 and 1853 that the Gulf became really safe. The huge scale on which these buccaneers carried on their trade may be judged by the fact that in 1809 their fleet numbered sixty-three large, and eight hundred small vessels, the total of crew being nine- teen thousand. The native trade of the present day is carried on by buggalows, which ply between the Gulf, and the African coast. Red Sea, and India. These vessels vary from one to three hundred tons, and are rigged as a rule witli mainmast and lateen sail, and a small ^ UJ V) z < m < DC < Ui I ^- H Q Z « r < u. g _l -) -J o ^' z < — O- (0 s QC s UJ Q. «■ Ul THE PERSIAN GULF. 429 lateen mizzen. For their size they require a large crew, and, though excellent sailers in moderate winds, they are unable to tack or sail close to the wind. The following notes of the temperature and winds of the Gulf are abstracted from the " Persian Gulf Pilot," published by the direction of the Lords' Com- missioners of Admiralty, 1870, which the captain of the Simla kindly lent me. Table of Fahrenheit temperature taken on board ship, from observations extending over four years ; on shore the range would be more considerable. Average Average Average Average Max. 4 p.m. MiD, 4 a.m. Max. 4 p.m. Min. 4 a.m_ Jan. 69 65 July 91i 89 Feb. 67 63 Aug. 94 89 Mar. 75 691 Sept. 90 834 Apl. 801 75 Oct. 851 81 May 86 81 Nov. 804 76 June 894 85 Dec. 74 70 Although this shows a pretty warm condition of things at sea, the heat on the shore and in the stifling towns must be much more oppressive. The amusing account of the fifteenth century writer, Abdin Rezak, quoted by Mr. Curzon in his " Persia and the Persian Question," is so highly comic that it will bear re-quotation. This refers to the climate of Muscat : 430 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. " The heat was so intense that it burned the maiTow in the bones; the sword in its scabbard melted like wax, and the gems which adorned the handle of the dagger were reduced to coal. In the plains the chase became a matter of perfect ease, for the desert was filled with roasted gazelles." The Gulf has its winter rains like Europe, and in winter is sometimes very cold. The rainfall at Bushire is eight or nine inches, at Muscat but three and a half. The prevailing wind in the summer months is the north-west shemal, which follows the curves of the Gulf. Frequently this wind is loaded with minute particles of dust from Mesopotamia, and several times during the voyage we found cabin windows, deck, and rigging coated with a thick deposit of this. The south-east wind in winter is called the " koss," and blows from December to April. It is a stormy and wet wind. The north-east wind in winter is also wet and is called " hashi." The south-west " saheili " often follows a " koss," and generally blows but a few hours It is accompanied with thunder and lightning. A peculiarity in the Gulf is that the worst weather is sometimes unaccompanied with any change in the THE PERSIAN GULF. 431 barometer. During summer there is, however, a permanent depression. All the Gulf ports may be said to be very un- healthy ; to Europeans, indeed, almost fatal ; the ill supplies of water, absolute lack of sanitation, and great heat soon telling their tale on any who try residence. Gulf fever, a remittent and dangerous form of malaria, is prevalent, and restoration to health can only be obtained by seeking a new climate. The natives themselves suffer much from it. The fearful scourge of Guinea worm* is painfully common at Bunder Abbas and other of the ports, and is probably due to bad water. Elephantiasis is also often seen. Cholera is said to be never absent, but is worst at Bahrein. The next morning found the Simla under a strong northerly shemal, and a highish sea, heading towards Bushire. Instead of the placid sea and broiling- heat we expected, the general appearance was more like blowy summer weather in the Bay of Biscay. With a wind like this we might, of course, have made Bashire very much sooner, but the British India service in " the Gulf," is not, although carrying mails, noted for its speed, and a full fortnight is Filaria Medinensis, or Dracunculus. 432 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. consumed between Busrah and Bombay. About eight o'clock we sighted the island of Kharak, be- hind which we could discern snow-covered peaks of the Persian mainland. This Kharak, now in- habited by a few fishermen and Gulf pilots, was occupied in the early part of last century by a Dutch factory. The brief history of this settle- ment, from Baron Kniphausen, the first director, who was inducted by Sheikh Mir Naser, to Mr. Van Houting, the third and last, who was summarily kicked out by Mir Mahenna, the successor of Mir Naser, for meddling in Perso-Arabic politics, is told by Carsten Niebuhr in his " Travels in Arabia." As we approached Bushire at noon, a magnificent panorama of Persian mountains rose up behind the town. The principal point is Kuh Hormuj, a noble peak towering 6,500 feet above the sea level, and succeeded to the left by another fine range. These mountains are, they say, three days' journey from Bushire, and beyond them lies the town of Shiraz. The anchorage is two miles from the port, and is somewhat difficult of approach, a big detour hav- ing to be made to reach it. As we steamed up, I was struck by the extreme greenness of the sea ; more intense than any I had seen elsewhere. THE PERSIAN GULF. 433 The town occupies the northern edge of a long sand- stone ridge, some twelve miles in length, and raised, it would appear, above the sea in recent times. At high tides it is separated from the mainland by the sea, and at other times by a salt swamp. Bushire itself presents, from the sea, an appearance some- what like what Alexandria must have had, before it put on its present rather European aspect. As the whole of the following day was spent here, I de- ferred my visit to the next morning. Having gone ashore in the mail boat, I took a donkey, which can be hired as in Cairo, and proceeded round the town : and first, as I was informed that Bushire possessed a shop where European goods of all kinds might be purchased, I proceeded in search of a sun helmet, and civilised pipe tobacco, a luxury I had not smoked since leaving the Mediterranean. To my surprise, I was put down at a shop, well-stocked with English boots, tinned provisions, and sun hats ; in fact, a regular Persian Whiteley, where everything, it seemed, could be purchased, from a cigar case to a bottle of pain-killer. Mr. Goldsard, the proprietor, was politeness itself, and for a quarter of an hour I revelled in the luxury of European shopping. It certainly seemed strange, that here, in a wretched, FF 434 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. squalid Persian port, an enterprising trader can run a shop containing more civilised luxuries than the bazaars of Aleppo and Bagdad combined. I after- wards rode along the shore past the British Resi- dency, where a guard of Sepoys is maintained as at Bagdad, and then, crossing the spit of land to the other side, I returned through the bazaar. This was the narrowest and perhaps the dirtiest I bad yet seen : and although crowded wnth Persians and Persian-speaking Arabs, there was not much of interest in it. The usual amount of Manchester goods, sugar, and shops full of very elaborate sweets were the principal commodities. I purchased some rather pretty sherbet spoons, carved out of wood, for a trifle. My donkey boy spoke some English, and the people stared less at the sight of an Englishman than at Aleppo. Altogether, in spite of the smelly squalor, I felt nearer home in the bazaar of Bushire than I had done for many a day. The houses are chiefly built of mud and stone, and all of the better class have double verandahs. There are no serdabs, as the climate here is too damp, but many of the houses are supplied with peculiar towers to catch the wind and conduct it into the rooms. These are called " bajirs " : from July to October the heat is so THE PERSIAN GULF. 435 great that the inhabitants sleep on the fiat roofs. Tlie costume of the inliabitants being rather Aralnc tlian Persian, is not characteristic as that up country. Along the shore, near the sea wall, I noticed a line df well-built fishing vessels. The Bushire boats, by- the-bye, have their own colours, a red flag Avith the two-bladed sword of Ali depicted in white in the middle. I was hospitably entertained to lunch at the comfortable office of the company, where I was able to inspect a chart of Bushire and its surroundings. Reshire, about six miles down the peninsula, con- tains the telegTaph-station, and the summer resi- dence of the British Eesident lies beyond at a place called Subzabad. This part had recently no houses, and was reputed dangerous, but residences of the few Europeans and others have recently sprung up at this place. There are here, also, some ancient remains in the shape of mounds containing a quadrangle of three hundred yards in diameter. The mound, about thirty feet above ground level, is said to be strongly ditched towards the landward side. Other mounds are found in the vicinity, and cunei- form inscribed bricks and urns have been turned up. It is variously conjectured that these remains are of the Babylonian age, or the remains of a Portuguese FF 2 436 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. fort. In 1856 the site was occupied by the British forces.^ The curse of Bushire is its water supply. The ordinary quality, which is so ordinary (or " ornery," as a Yankee would have it), that the Europeans will not touch it, is two miles distant, and the best over five miles away towards Heshire. Standing on the verandah of the comfortable office, I saw in a neighbouring courtyard a lot of boys playing a game which seems to be one of the ciiief amusements of the " street arabs " of this place. It is called " Killi." A circle is marked on the ground, and one player, armed either with three sticks or a stick and a sack stands in front of it ; another boy, from about twenty paces distant, throws up a short stick, or a piece of bone, which it is his intention to get into the circle, while the stick and sack man has to keep it out ; the latter stops it as best he can with stick, sack, or his body, and then he takes it up and strikes it as far as he can away with one of his sticks. This he generally does so that it strikes the ground and rebounds off it with considerable force. From wherever it then falls the thrower has again to try to shy it into the circle, whether it is close to or far * See, " The Persian Gulf Pilot." THE PERSIAN GULF. 437 from it. When he succeeds in this, the stick and sack man is out. Horse sales in Bushire are conducted in a funny way. An English traveller had just ridden in from Persepolis, and his animal was to be disposed of. The auctioneer was sent for, and he proceeded to walk through the town leading the animal and con- tinually shouting out his merits, in order to get bids. He at last arrived under the windows of the B. I. office, where he had a bid or two, and after walking his animal up and down the street, yelling the price offered, it was at last disposed of. Although there was an earlier Mohammedan town upon the peninsula, the port of Bushire is modern, having been founded by Shah Nadir in the last century. Mr. Curzon has pointed out that the common derivation of the name — xlbu Shahir, "The Father of Cities," is incorrect, one of these words being Arabic and the other Persian. Soon after 1761 the East India Co. established their factory here. It soon rose to be the first port on this part of the Persian Gulf, and during this century has about doubled its population, which may now be 13,000. In the Persian war it was captured by the British troops on the 10th December, 1856, and was held till the 438 THEOUGH TURKISH ARABIA. termination of hostilities with Persia in the ensuing year. Like Mohammerah, it was held during the late part of last century and beginning of this, by Arab sheikhs, but the Persians have for some time appointed a regular governor, who at one time, and probably still, holds the special title of Darga Beg, or " Lord of the Sea." There is a small Armenian community, in whose church there are the graves of some English officers who lost their lives in the Persian campaign. The town was formerly streng- thened by a good wall and towers on the south or landward side, but very little now remains. We did not leave Bushire till five in the evening, as we were somewhat delayed by the mails. The north wind still held, and was very cool and refresh- ing, the thermometer on deck at nine p.m. showing the pleasant temperature of 75". We made a rapid passage across the Gulf and arrived at Bahrein just before noon the following day. The captain wished to leave soon, and, in consequence, I was not enabled to land, so all I saw was a long sandy waste, dotted in some places with palm groves, and the two towns of Maharak and Bahrein, which at high water are sepa- rated by the sea. The former is one of the chief head-quarters of the pearl fishery, but it goes on all THE PERSIAN GULF. 439 Along the Arab coast. The boats used in this indus- try could be seen piled up high and dry on the island, as no fishing is done before the end of May. The sea-water at the anchorage, which was a long way from the shore, is beautifully green, and when calm exceedingly clear. The remarkable phenomenon of fresh water springs at the bottom of the sea exists in many places near the islands, and the inhabitants dive for their water as they do for their pearls, and having filled leather bottles which they carry for the purpose, they are hauled to the surface. This re- markable water supply would probably never have been found if the pearl fishery had not enticed the Arabs to be always prowling about the bottom of the sea. Besides the harmless pearl oyster, the sea is also occupied by sharks and sawfishes, for which the poor diver has to be on the look-out. I noticed also very large jelly-fishes, and many water crows, a sort of cormorant. The pearl fishery is carried on from May to September, and at Bahrein there are sev^eral thou- sand boats from four to ten tons burden at work in the season. Two to three hundred thousand pounds' worth of pearls are said to be raised aunuallv at Bahrein alone. The diver, with liis 440 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. ears filled with wax, an instrument like a clothes peg on his nose, and his feet weighted, descends in water not deeper than thirteen fathoms. When he has collected his oysters, he is hauled up by a rope. The extreme time they can remain below water is one and a-half minutes. Most of the pearls make their way to Bombay. The horrible system by which the poor divers — who ruin their health and strength in this unnatural existence — are kept in poverty and dependence by scoundrel Indian and Arab merchants, is well known. Unfortun- ately, the " Truck Act " is unknown in the Persian Gulf; and the wretched Arabs, compelled to sell their pearls to their master at his own price, and to hire their boat and provisions from him at a hideously extortionate figure, are sometimes actually starving, while their labour is making others million- aires. A more vile form of slavery does not exist. Bahrein was, like other Gulf ports, occupied in the sixteenth century by the Portuguese, who were, how- ever, expelled in 1622 by the Persians. After that time, it was a continual source of dispute between the Persians and various Arab sheikhs (including the Sultan of Oman), who in turn possessed it. At the present day it is practically under British protection. 44J CHAPTER XVII. THE PEKSIAN GULF. Mountains I'ound Lingah — Lingah — Water Supply — The Straits of Horniuz — Situation of Bunder Abbas — The Town — Tremendous Heat — The Island of Hormuz — Its History — Old Accounts — Beautiful Scenery — Flying-fish and Sea-snakes — Turtles and Black-fish — Bombay — Leave for England — Wild Weather in the Red Sea. Feom Bahrein we steered almost due east across the Gulf for the Laristan port of Lingah, Captain Robertson told us the wind would drop, and heat would follow, and so it turned out. And the next day we lunched and dined with the flat- topped skylight of the Simla for a table (a de- lightful arrangement in tropical seas), and felt none too cool, although we had the punkah going in the open air. After lunch we had beautiful views of the desert coast of Laristan. First ap- peared a long range of red mountain far away to our left, behind which another and much higher range towered. At half-past two a small island, somewhat mountainous and apparently uninhabited. 442 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. was on our right. This is called Farur. Later on another noble chain, apparently volcanic, rose to the left, at the base of which, by means of my glass, I could discern a small town, with a wretched little date grove at one end. This range is Jebel Bustaneh, 1,750 feet in height, but the table-topped mountain seen shortly before, is Jebel Turanjeh, 5,150 feet. Over all the mountains lay a heavy haze, for the climate of this part of the Gulf, in spite of the desert-like appearance of the shores, is exceedingly damp, and soaking dews fall every night. Fogs are very common. Lingah, which we reached in about twelve hours from Bahrein, looks fair enough from the sea : it is situated on a plateau of the coast, behind which tlie mighty mountains rise as a background ; in the haze which hung over it as we steamed up to the anchorage, the white line of houses, the solitary minaret, and the fishing boats looked very pretty. At the anchorage lay two English full-rigged ships, some sixty years old, now the property of an enterprising Arab merchant. It occured to me that it would be interesting to examine the present condition of the once trim cabins of these old clippers. The anchorage is THE PERSIAN GULF. 443 about a quarter of a mile from the land. I went ashore with the mail officer, and we landed near a small walled dock where a lot of buggalows were lying up^ high and dry, for repairs : others, some of con- siderable size, were being built here, as there is a very active coasting trade carried on at Lingah. Sanitary considerations seem to have less attention here than even at other Gulf ports, and the moment we landed our noses were assailed by a stench arising from the shore which was, in fact, covered with filth of all sorts. It was perfectly pestilential. I walked through the town and bazaars. The latter are narrow and irregular in the extreme ; fish, grain, and sweet- meats seem to be the chief commodities. At one stall 1 saw a row of little Chinese pots, used for kohl ; these are probably brought overland with tea by the caravan routes. The people are mongrel Persian and Arab of the pirate Jowasmi tribe, and some wear a turban of native cloth which is large and pretty. Negro sailors and negro beggars loaf about the little harbour, adding not a little to the pic- turesqueness of the place. Women, in a totally different costume to anything I had seen, marched about, wearing a veil something like a mask, with 444 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. apertures for the eyes. The total population may be about ten thousand. The sights of Lingah are few and far between ; there is one small modern mosque built in the Bagdad style, with a little tile ornament- ation. Outside the town on one side, I was pointed out a lot of curious domed structures, scattered over the plain, which are tanks formed for the purpose of collecting the rain-water, the only supply Lingah boasts, for there are no springs ; the domes, some forty feet in height, are roughly constructed, and are intended to prevent evaporation. The rainfall at Lingah is rather heavy, and these " birkehs," as they are called, will contain an ample store for the pur- poses of the town. After this we went to the British post-office, quite a smart structure, like all in the Gulf, under the management of a native of India. The deliberation of this individual in making up the mail bags made it late before we got on board. Lingah is even now said to be a lawless and not altogether safe place to walk about in ; formerly it was a stronghold of the Persian Gulf pirates — many an East Indian Co. man-of-war was lost in following these phantoms among the perilous shoals and islands of the Gulf. The town was, till recently, governed by an independent Arab sheikh. It is said that a THE PERSIAN GULF. 445 foot messenger can go from here to Bushire in ten to fourteen clays, according to the season of the year.* Early on the following morning we rose to find ourselves within sight of Bunder Abbas, without doubt the most interesting part of the Persian Gulf. We had now got into real heat, and most of the passengers had elected to sleep on deck ; as I was yet far from well, and the dews in this part of the Gulf are so great as to render everything on deck wet through in a very short time, I preferred to remain in my cabin, although the heat there rendered sleep difficult enough. In a climate like this, however, one can hardly avoid, at sea, taking prolonged naps in one's deck chair in the heat of the day, so that sleep at night is not of the same importance that it is in Europe, where each day is a day of activity. Bunder Abbas, or Gombroon, as its old name is, lies in an immense bay cut out of the Persian coast. Opposite it from the Arabian side projects a peninsula, the extreme point of which is called Ras Mussendom, and the channel dividing the two coasts, the Strait of Hormuz. I do not know if I am correct, but a glance at a map or chart suggests to me that this channel, half crossed by the Arabian * The '' Persian Gulf Pilot." 446 THEOUGH TURKISH ARABIA. peninsula, and dotted as it is by islands and islets, is but a comparatively modern geographical develop- ment. At one time, surely, before some subsidence let in the water, these coasts were joined, and the islands now projecting off the Persian coast mark but eminences in the level of this Perso-Arabian land. If this is so, the gulf was then, like the Caspian, a land-locked sea; and as at that epocli, probably, there were neither Assyrians, Persians, nor Arabs to seek an outlet to the south for trade, no caravan route nor canal would cross this spit of land, which parted the inland sea from the great ocean which stretched away to the southern polar regions, and whose tides washed the shores of countries which were to become the richest, perhaps, in the world. The approach to Bunder Abbas is, in its strange way, absolutely lovely. The steamer, after passing the island of Kishm, which is perhaps seventy miles in length, turns north to make the harbour, which is placed at the most northerly point of the great bay. As she approaches vast desert mountains rise in rugged and sterile confusion on all sides. Right behind the town itself is Jebel Jinao (7,690 feet), peeping over whose shoulder to THE PERSIAN GULF. 447 the right can be descried the majestic Jebel Bakhur, which dominates the Gulf from a heigVit of 10,H60 feet. Further to the right lies Jebel Shimal (8,500 feet), while to the left of Jinao lies Khamir. Behind us are the cliffs of Kishm, once held by the Portu- guese, and still sustaining a population of ten or twelve thousand. In 1820 a British force was placed here to check the Jowasmi pirates, and as late as 1879 a force of Sepoys was still maintained."^ At the present day a coal depot only represents British influence. Out to sea and closing the harbour are the islands of Hormuz and Larak, the former, which played so important a part in the history of the East, showing from here a low crinkly outline and at its south end a spit of land terminated by the old Portuguese fort. On the left before entering the harbour are a few small and unimportant islands. * I have a curious memento of this EngHsh occupation in a fine old Koran in its original binding, on the fly-leaf of which is Avi'itten : " This book was found on board a pirate vessel destroyed in the Persian Gulph, near the Island of Kishme, by H.M.'s ship Eden, on the 10th of January, 1819. The thermometer was not lower than 64" though in the dead of winter." As the expedition did not leave Bombay till the end of 1819, the date is evidently a clerical error for 1820, a common enough mistake even in England in the new year, with newsjaapers and almanacs on all sides. Interesting details of the expedition are to be found in Mr Curzon's work on Persia. The date of the Koran is a.h. 1061. 448 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. At the anchorage, which is about a mile and three-quarters from the town, we found the steamer of the Persian line lying. The town is situated on a sandy plain, with a frontage of nearly a mile to the sea. At the east end of it lie mangrove swamps. In spite of its being a place of great trade (being the port of Kerman and Meshed, from which the trade routes pass to Teheran, and even Cabul and Herat) there is little to be seen in the town. There is a respectable little quay and sea-wall, on the former of which I found two old brass guns marked " Honi soit, &c., G.R." Of these relics I got different accounts. An Englishman, who had been resident in Bunder Abbas and who came on board the Simla, believed they had been brought from Bushire, and an Arab boy on the jetty said they had come from Muscat. Mr. Curzon notices that the Sultan of Muscat, towards the end of the last century, held the town by a firman from the Persian government, during which time he, by a treaty, gave the English leave to establish a factory and mount guns. He suggests that these old pieces are records either of an affirmative response, or that they were a present to the Sultan. The bazaars were mostly closed, as it was a THK PERSIAN GULF. 449 festival or "id," but many of the iuhabitants I saw were wild-looking creatures, with long locks trailing on their shoulders. Baluchis are also to be seen. Some of the houses fronting the sea have double verandahs, and many of the better class have bajirs on the roofs. Those in the town are wretched mud structures, and there are also reed huts built about in the open spaces. Altogether it is difficult to believe that Bunder Abbas was the greatest, and is still an important, commercial place on the Persian coast. I took a walk round the town with one of my Arab boatmen. The heat was terrific, and the perspiration puured off my face in torrents. The sand I walked on seemed to scorch my boots, and every few yards I was fain to sit down to rest The place seemed a veritable oven, and it is easy to believe that this is the hottest place in the Gulf. It is also extremely damp, and sea fogs are very common. Fever is very bad here, and Europeans cannot live long in the place. Guinea-worm and elephantiasis are also common. There are the remains of an old wall and towers, and my boatman, who spoke i^rabic, showed ine a gateway on the landward side of the town called " Bab el Balao."* * Query — Bab el Baluch — the Baluchistan gate. GG 450 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. Although some Arabic is spoken, Persian and Tlindn- stuni are more common. The chief exports from Bunder Abbas are fruit and grain to Muscat, carpets and asafcetida in large quantities to Bombay, and salt which is quarried and blasted in Hormuz. There is the usual import trade of piece-goods. The population has, it would seem, a very fluctuating figure, as many of the inhabitants retire to the country behind in the great heats, and as it also depends on the arrival and departure of caravans. The maximum in winter may be 10,000, and the minimum 5,000. Hamilton, in his account of the East Indies, says that in August the heat affects the sea so much, that " there comes a stink from it " that is " as detestable as the smell of dead animals on the land, and vast quantities of small shell-fisli are thrown on the shore by the surges of the sea ; ... It tarnishes gold and silver as bad as the bilge water of a tight ship." The wonderful island of Hormuz there was no chance of visiting, and I had to content myself with looking on its jagged outline and three white peaks from the steamer. From all accounts, although there is now but a fishing village of a hundred houses upon it, it is a most curious place. There is no sort of THE PERSIAN GULF. 4-31 vegetation, and no fresh watei-, but salt, sulpliur, and iron ore abound. Two of the white peaks seen from a distance are composed of sulphur, and the other of salt. It contains also many volcanic cones. The captain of the Simla, who had visited the place, said that in one part is the most extraordinary spectacle ; a broad stream of water can be seen flowing to the sea covered with a dazzling crust of salt, and in the centre, but not mixing with it, runs a blood-red streamlet tinged with iron ore. A Portuguese fort and lighthouse still exist, the former said to be a wonderful construction of dressed stone. Hormuz, or Ormuz, was originally founded in the third century by one of the Sassanian dynasty. This was succeeded by an Arab city founded by an Arab prince, Mohammed Dramku by name. These, how- ever, were both upon the mainland, and it was not until the beginning of the fourteenth century that the island city was established, in consequence of the in- roads of Turks on the mainland.* The Ormus of * I would refer the reader to the " History of Persia .... written hi Ai-abic by Mirkond. . . .that of Ormuz, hy Torunxa, king of that ish^nd, both of them translated into Spanish by Antony Teixeira, .... and now rendered into English by Captain John Stevens, MDCCXV." Hormuz was, accorchng to Torunxa, or Turou Shah, founded by Ayza Sefin, 1302. Turon Shah wrote in the 14th century, ttut in Teixeira's translation much of the matter is by himself. GG 2 452 THROUGU TURKISH ARA.BIA. Marco Polo, however, who travelled in the thirteenth century, would appear, by his description, to have existed both upon the coast and the island, as the last is specially mentioned, and may have been con- sidered a province. He describes summer houses built in the water, to which the inhabitants resorted in the heat ; and also mentions the trade in " spices, pearls, precious stones, cloth of gold and silver, and all other precious things from India." In Teixeira's translation, or rather edition of Torunxa's chroni- cle, there are many interesting descriptive notes. We are told of " three overflowing springs of pure clear water, but as salt as the sea : " also " at the end of the island there is a little fresh water made use of to water the king's . . . orchards ; " and again " the ishmd affords much game, as gazelles, creatures like wild goats ; adibes, which are a sort of foxes : turtle doves, and other sorts of fowls ; and it is wonderful, that the island affording no fresh water but what has been mentioned, it is not yet known what these creatures drink. Some pretend that, being exces- sively thirsty, they drink salt water, and others have invented no less unlikely fables." We also get a glimpse of the inhabitants : — " Most of the Hormuzians are fair and well THE PERSIAN GULF. 403 shaped ; the men poHte and <^enteel, the women beautiful, . . . and all Mahometans : some Schyays .... others Sunnays .... Besides these, are many Portuguese Christians, Armenians, Georgians, Jacobies, .... Nes- torians .... Baneans and Jews." In sum- mer, " the terrible heat consumes all peccant humours with excessive sweat." Early in the sixteenth century Don Mathias de Albuquerque took the city and founded a Portu- guese factory. The fort they built, and which is still to be seen from the anchorage at Bunder Abbas, was quadrangular in plan, well-built and strengthened by a moat. It is said to be the best preserved Portugese fort remaining in the Gulf: and there are, or were, a quantity of ancient guns remaining about the ruin. In 1583, Mr. Ralph Fitch, merchant of London, and three companions having travelled to the Persian Gulf by Tripoli, Aleppo, and Bagdad, were seized by Albuquerque, and after having some of their goods forfeited, were sent on to India. In the account of his travels, he has left us an interesting account of Hormuz at that time. He describes it as the " driest island in the world " ; and tells us that there is a Portuguese 454 THROUCill TURKl.SH ARABIA. castle, Avlierciii "there is a captain for the King of Portugal, liuving under him a convenient number of soldiers, whereof some part remain in the castle, and some in the town." There is also " a very great trade in all sorts of spices, drugs, silk, cloth of silk, tine tapestry of Persia, great store of pearls which come from the Isle of Baharim [sic), and many horses of Persia, which serve all India." He had an eye for female beauty, so that although the fair ones were no doubt closely veiled, our merchant adven- turer found time to jot down that " their women are very strangely attired, wearing on their noses, ears, necks, arms, and legs, many rings set with jewels, and locks of silver and gold in their ears, and a lono- bar of o;old on the side of their noses. Their ears, with the weight of their jewels, are worn so wide that a man may thrust three of his fingers into them."* In 1622, the English, allied with Shah Abbas, besieged Hormuz, and after a siege which lasted nearly three months, it capitulated, t and three years later the coast was handed over by treaty to the Persians, a treaty which the government of the * Pinkerton's " Collection of Voyages," Vol. IX, p. 408. t Hamilton says less than two months; and that the agree- ment Avas faithfully observed till 1680, when the English failed to keep the Gulf clear of insults. THE PERSIAN GULF. 45-3 nation made but little scruple of breaking. The same Shah soon after formed the port on the main- land, which before had been a fishing village of the name of Gombroon (said to mean, the shrimping village), and it was now named Bunder Abbas. About this time Hormuz seems to have been in the zenith of its magnificence, and Sir Thomas Herbert in 1627 describes, " houses furnished with gilded leather, and India and China rarities. Buzzar rich and beautiful, splendid churches, and castle regularly and strongly fortified."^ The remains of the reservoirs for water, fragments of mosques and the town, are still to be seen. The population, once forty thousand, is now reduced to a paltry three hundred, who migrate to the mainland during part of the year. Gombroon, now- Bunder Abbas, rose to take the place and trade of Hormuz, in which it only partly succeeded. English, French, and Dutch factories were established, and the remains of some or all are still to be seen. Towards the end of last century it w'as under the rule of the Sultan of Muscat, as before mentioned, and it w^as not until a quarter of a * See Curzon : " Persia and the Persian Question." 4.oQ THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. century ago that the Persians obtained- the full power over it. We left P)under Abbas on the evening of the 29th, and as we were not going to Muscat, it was a three days' voyage to Karachi. After that port the British India steamers, having regained British seas, resume British activity, and go a respectable speed to Bombay, which they reach in about fifty-six hours. As we steamed out of Bunder Abbas, I thought T had never seen such a lovely scene anywhere, Jinao, Shimal, and the islands lay wrapped in a purple haze, and behind them the sky was lit with the pale orange glow of departed day. To the ship stretched the placid sea, bright with the reflection of sunset. It looked a perfect fairyland, and nothing could be more inexpressibly beautiful. It was hard to believe that such a fair place could be anything but healthy. As the darkness fell, the sea was illuminated by innumerable phosphorescent gleams, each of which glowed for a second, and died. During the three days to Karachi, we got distant views of the Persian and Baluchistan coast. Some parts had the most astonishing outline, jagged and serrated like a saw's edge. In a few places the THE PERSIAN GULF. 457 shapes were strangely fantastic, peaks like light- houses sticking up side by side. Queer items of natural history were met. A sea-snake, about four feet in length, with a yellow body with dark bands and a fiat tail like a fish. Here I first made acquaintance with the flying-fish, which, when they were first pointed out to me fluttering away from the bows of the ship, I refused to believe were anything but small sea birds, until one of them accommodatingly flew on board and dispelled the illusion. One day we sighted a great many of these, an enormous black-fish, and a big turtle, all m a quarter of an hour. The latter was rolling about placidly^ fifty miles from land, and apparently quite unconcerned about his wife, who was no doubt keeping his tea warm on the shoals of the Balu- chistan coast. The heat and damp increased, and sleeping below deck became very trying, but the dews were so heavy and continuous, that it was difficult not to get soaked to the skin when sitting on deck in the evening. On the 3rd May we an- chored in the harbour of Karachi, and I was at last back to European civilisation. With this mv story must come to an end. In a few days more I reached Bombay, which, as the monsoon was 458 THEOUGH TURKISH ARABIA. brewing, I found too hot to be pleasant. The thermometer fluctuated between 91 degrees and 98 degrees in the hotel hall, which in the muggy climate of Bombay is an uncomfortably high tem- perature. A week later, having seen the principal A TOWER OF SILENCE AT BOJir.AY. sights of that city, I took my passage home, and arrived in London on June the 8th, the only remarkable thing about the voyage being the sin- gular weather we encountered in the Red Sea. The steamer Damascus, an " outsider," but well THE I'KIISIAN GULF. 450 found and most comfortably fitted in every respect, carried a full cargo, and was low in the water. We passed Bab el Mandeb on the 20th, and on the 21st a strong head wind which was blowing, increased to half a gale. On the following night the wind became stronger, and all the passengers (myself included), who were sleeping on deck, were, like Pharaoh, overwhelmed, and sent flying below in soaking pyjamas. In the morning it was blowing a full gale, and being so low in the water, we kept continually shipping heavy seas both fore and aft. Sheep-pens and boats were washed loose, and went thumping against the forecastle and bridge. A duck-pen was smashed in, and several birds were drowned, wdiile others came swimming down aft, and clamorously demanded accommodation in the saloon. The decks fore and aft were continually flooded, and everything was in an indescribable state of confusion. On the night of the 22nd everyone slept below, and as the cabins were still disagreeably hot, I occupied a choice position on the saloon table until I found myself rolling ofl", when I retired beneath. For several hours we were compelled to slow down to half-speed, so that when observations were taken on the following morning, 400 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. we found we had covered but one hundred and sixty-eight knots. The gale abated the following day. This was curious weather to experience in the Red Sea, the breezeless heat of whicli we had all feared. On the whole, however, I think drown- ing is an agreeable alternative to roasting. APPENDIX. I. — Itinerary of the road between Scanderun and Bagdad. II. — Khans on the pilgrim road to Kerbela, and on the road to Hillah, with the distances from Bagdad in hours. III. — Abu Nawas, the jester of Harun al Rashid. IV. — An Astrolabe purchased at Bagdad, V. — Chaotic weights and measures. VT. — Balbi's journey from Bagdad to Busrali. VII.— Hamilton's account of Busrah. VIII. — Romance of the Persian Gulf. APPENDIX. ITINEEAEY OF THE KOAD BET WEE X SCANDERUX AND BAGDAD. {The haltin'j places are printed in capitals.) Bight. On the lioaii. Left. First siifhtof Eaphrates. Mounds called Mad urn, oa a plain. friiiii each stcKje. SCANDEKUN. Beilan. n Plain and Lake KARAKFIAX. H •i)f Aatioch. Amurath's or Murad's causeway— Kara Su. 1* Hnmmam Khan, (sul- 3i phur spring-s.) A stream. 8i AFRIN Khirn and river. 11 Khan and tell H Tel el Fadr (5 (village). ALEPPO. 10} Deir (village). 1 JEI5RIN (village). 3 Villages and tells at intervals. Very lar»e tell. U Stream running south. 4 Salt lake called Ditto. 6 ■Sabbakh or Sub- khet el_ Jebul, DEIRHAFR(^allage). n some distance Small stream. a>vay. ^i APPENDIX. 463 Kujht. Khan and mud lort. Kalah lialis. (Old Meskineh) castle and inina- let. Half mile distant. On the L'oat/. ^lE.'^KINEE, camp ou rivtr ]);ink. SHEIKH GHANA, an ancient tell, from snm- iiiit of wliich Kiilah Jaber, and Abu Hureira are visible. Left. Hours from each stage. n Abu Hiireira, ruins of mosque, etc. Wady. HAMMAM onedseof Euphrates — no village. Kemains of an ancient canal : sight at snme time Tel el Munkhir (or Menakhir). Tell and Muslim ceme- tery. One liour later road cut up by wadies. SABBAKH. fort. Police MOGLA? Abackxyater of the river. Mud fort. CAMP at mouth of two desert wadies, on river bank. The river winds very much here. DEIi;, Town. Part I if the plain covered wiih pottery: no mounds. Kalah .Jaber inMesopotamin, ruins. liakka on the east bank of river. U 7i *4 4J m 7i 3-4 464 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. llight. Saracenic Castle of Raha- ba about three- quarters ot an hour oft' road. High cliffs. On the lioad. MAYE DIN, villas Left. Mound called Ushareli (El Ashar?)i3eihaps one hour distant. Ruins of Sala- liieh. Castle of Salah-ed-din. Jlotir.hes. FELUJA. Ferry and bridge over Euphrates. Vill:ige on east bank. Cultivated plain on right. The first Babylonian canal is reached, after which they are frequent. First sight of Bagdad and Kazemein. Marshes and swamps. BAGDAD. Shi ikhWaiss, a wall. Ruin called Nitiirud, or Akar Kuf. H H 4| «4 7 11 Ik m 12 14 40G THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. II. KHANS ON THE PILGRIM ROAD TO KERBELA, AND ON THE ROAD TO HILLAH, WITH THE DISTANCES FROM BAGDAD IN HOURS. Khan Khiir, 1 hour 10 minutes. Kiahya Khan, mentioned by Buckingham, 2 hours. Khan Ez Zad : Khan i Zad (Layard), and Assad Khan (Bucking- ham). Large bi-ick caravanserai. Dismantled and unused 189:^, but in use in time of Buckingham. 4 hours. Khan Mahmudieh, Uke Ez Zad, with Arab village : 5| hours. Khan Birumus, or Bir Yunus (Buckingham), called by Turks Orta Khan. Unused 1892. 7| hours. At about eight hours from Bagdad the road bifuixates, one track leading to Hillah, the other to Musseyib, and Kerbela. On the latter Khan Scanderieh, or Iscanderieh, with Arab village and coffee house. Buckingham, riding to Babylon, was misdirected and got to a khan called Mizrakjee Oghlou, east from here about thi-ee miles. He describes it as a well-built khan. Finding his mistake he retraced his steps to Scanderieh. Mizrakjee Oghlou Khan would seem to be also upon the Kerbela road, and possibly wms built to accommodate the overflow of pilgrims. I did not see it, bat being unaware of its existence I made no enquiries. 8| hours. Musseyib, town and khan, 11 hours. Kerbela, 17| hours. On the road to Hillah : — Khan Haswa, with a few huts and coffee house, within sight of Scanderieh, and same distance as it, from Bagdad, 9 hours. Khan Nusrieh, 10^ hours. Khan Haji Suleiman, mentioned by Buckingham, who describes it as an inferior establishment, lOA hours. Khan Mahawil, Mohawil (Buckingham), from which the ruins of Babylon are first sighted, 12 hours. From Mahawil to Hillah is about 3| hours riding by the luins of Babylon without stopping ; lo| hours. APPENDIX. 407 III. ABU NAWAS, THE JESTER OF HARUN aL RASHTD. Mantf stories are still in circulation in the East about this persona- }.£. Jii£ "L? Ui *^jIj ^z lJj-'^ ""^ ^ nil 2 468 THROUGH TURKISH ARABJA. " Does not poetry shine upon your door As the necklace glitters on Khabsa." The Caliph seeing tins, rebuked Klialisa for summoning him, as in the couplet there was nothing but what was flattering. Khalisa, whose power of punning, although her feelings weie hurt, seems to have been equal to the jester's, replied : — " Now that its eyes {^^r^ " ain" an eye) have been removed, it (the verse) can see " {i.e., can be understood). ABU NAWAS AND THE ASSES. Abu Nawas obtained leave from his master to seize, as a sort of tax, one ass from every man in the district who feared his wife. He accordingly went forth into the villages, and from every man who was known to be afraid of his spouse he demanded an ass, taking one here and one there until he had a large drove. One day the warders at the town gates saw a great cloud of dust rising from the plain, and they said to each other " Lo ! what is this ; " but when tlie multitude which caused the dust approached the town, they saw that it was not an enemy, as tliey feared, but Abu Nawas driving before him a great drove of asses, which he had seized from the hen-pecked husbands in the country round. Abu Nawas entered the city and approached the palace, and as he did so the dust floated up in a cloud, and entered the chamber where the Caliph was sitting, so that it made him sneeze. The Caliph demanded the meaning of this, and, on being told, sent word to his jester to attend in his presence, and tell him how he had fared. So Abu Nawas went to the Caliph, and pro- ceeded to describe to him his experiences, and " O, my master," said he, " there was at such and such a village, a lady so beautiful that you should send for her to the palace. Her hair is as the raven's wing, her eyes like the desert gazelle's, her lips like the seal of oi;r Lord Suleiman, and her whole form of willowy grace." And so he proceeded to describe in detail all the varied charms and beauties of the lady to his master. Unfortunately, however, as the jester continued his catalogue of charms, the Caliph glanced at the window opening into the ladies' apartments, and there he saw the round black eyes of the Lady Zubeidah, which were shining with a very unpleasant light, while her beautiful lips were pursed up in anything but the smile Harun was so fond of. He turned hastily APPENDIX. 469 to Abu Nawas and said " Hush ! hush ! do you not see the Lady Zubeidah listening to us. Speak another word at your peril." " Then, my Lord," said Abu Nawas, " you must give me two asses, for you are a king, and it is very evident that you also are afi'aid of your wife the Lady Zubeidah." IV. AN ASTROLABE PURCHASED AT BAGDAD. [See Frontisinece.) Examples of the instrument called the astrolabe are now by no means common, either European or Oriental, so that it may be of interest to describe as briefly as possible the small but beautiful specimen I purchased at Bagdad. It is of bronze, composed of t3n sepai-ate parts, which were known in English instruments by the names of the mother,* the plates or tables (four in number in mine), the net (rete or spider), the pin, the rule, and the horse, all of which have also their proper Eastern names. An astrolabe thus constructed is called in English " planispheric," in Arabic " musattah," i.e., superficial. The chief part, the " um " (mother), is a disc of bronze 3^ inches in diameter, one side of which has a cii'cular depression, into which fit the plates and spider. At one side (the south side) is the apparatus for suspending the instrument when in use. This is a projecting and ornamented portion, the " kursi," or throne, and attached to it by a pin are two rings called the •■ urwah " and " halqa." The " kursi" is beautifully engraved on both sides with a floral arabesque. I will now describe the various parts, and symbols engraved on them. Of these the back of the astrolabe ("zahr al usturlab "), which is the reverse of the disc containing the " um," is the most elaborate. It is divided by two cross lines into four quadi-ants ; that *One side of this portion only is, speaking correctly, the " mother," b it as no distinctive name seems to have been applied to the whole of this, the largest part of the iastruraent, it is i^robable '' mother " was used in this sense. 470 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. which falls perpendicularly from the " k^^r.si " is the north and south line (the " kursi" at the south), the other the east and west line. The S.E. quadrant contains on the edge the ninety degrees of altitude numbered. This is the ai'c of altitude ; within this the quadrant is divided by sines and cosines. The whole is called the quadrant of the canon, or of altitude. The S.W. quadrant has the arc of altitude as the last. Withiu, a smaller quadrant is marked off, wdiich is the arc of the obliquity of the ecliptic. In the S.W. quadrant, also, are the Zodiacal signs in Arabic, and tlie parallels of the sigus of the Zodiac. There are also, cutting these, the arcs of the azimuth of the kibleh, i.e., of the altitude of the sun when it passes over the azimuthal circle of the kibleh at Shiraz, Bagdad, Isfahan, and Tus, which arcs are marked with these names, and the meridians of the different latitudes. Two inscriptions are engraved in this quadrant for ex- planation. The two northern quadrants must be taken together. They are divided into seven semi-circular compartments and a rectan- gular one in the centre. The outevmost contains the shadow of feet and the shadow of fingers. The next is marked with the degrees of the shadows. Of the five remaining we will take the centre first. It is marked " al bui'uj," and contains the twelve Zodiacal signs in Arabic, beginning from the east. The third from the outer edge is marked " al kawakab," (the stars), and contains the five planets, arranged five to each sign. The fourth from the edge is " al hudud," (the limits), i.e., the number of degrees of each sign allotted as the limits of the planets. The sixth is "al wujuh" (the faces of the planets), each of which is the third of a sign, or 100 degrees. The last, or seventh, has " al manazil," or the twenty-eight lunar mansions. The square table is the square of the shadows inverted and level, showing the scales, the natures, and names of the signs of the triplicities, and the planets having dominion by day and night in the triplicities. Tlie use of the two quadrants just described was chiefly astrological. Beneath the square of the shadows is APPENDIX. 471 the name of the maker, H;iji Ali, and at the base, or noi-th end of the norbh-soath Hne, is the date, 112o (.\. h.) The front of the astrolabe is the " um " and the " hajrah," or rim. The latter is divided into the 3G0 degrees and twenty-four other compartments, containing symbols I have not been al)le to decipher.* The depressed space of the " um " is occupied by two tables of cities with their latitude, longitude, and " inhiraf." The longitude is measured in the same way as on the great astro- labe of Shah Husein and other Oriental instruments, and according to Mr. W. H. Morle}^ is reckoned from the old meridian of the Fortunate Islands. The " inhiraf," the same writer says, is an arc of the horizon intercepted between the meridian of any place, and a vertical circle passing through the zenith of such place, and that of Mecca, such circle being called the azimuth of the kibleh. The table commences at the top of the instrument and reads from right to left, in which it differs from most Oriental instruments, which read from left to right. The outer table contains twenty-three names, the inner eleven. For convenience sake the order is reversed in the table as shown on page 472 : — The plates "safaih" are made to fit into the " um." They are four in number, each engraved on both sides. Of these eight sides, seven are similar. Each of these is divided, by the south-north line, or line of the midst of heaven, and the hori- zontal line, or line of east and west. Besides these, they have the circles of Cancer and Capricorn, the equinoctial line, and a segmental line dividing the heaven above from that beneath tlie earth. Above the last are fifteen circles of altitude, " almu- canteras," each representing six degrees, and numbered from 6 to 90 t on the zenith. These are crossed by thirty-six incomplete arcs of azimuth, " sumut," numbered 10 to 90, in four batches respectively. * In most Oriental astrolabes this part is numbered 1 to 3(55 by fi.ves. la E.iropean instruments there are the letters uf the alphabet denotina- 24 hours. tit is therefore a " sudsi " sexpartite instrum^-nt. The "tarn" complete has 90; "Nisid," bipartite, 45; "talathi," tripartite, 30; ' khumsi," quinquepartite, 18. 472 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. < H H C c rt 50 o .r' M .0 w ■*< »OJt~ -u 1^ CO xo 00 CO CO IS O CO t- ^^ O »C -tH o o h ti •* >o f CO 3 in •*! — 1 Oi M 00 CO (M !y C5 CO -*< c r-l o o J3 ? M CO 00 iD-^ ^ f. M w Ci CO rfi n O i-o en TJ o £ •^ Cvi (M CO (D =5 i iM o e^t^ta 05 CO •* ^ s -a o 3 o '5'ir^ •s CO CO i^-* •* 00 M O-OD CO CO g 05 CO rfH u o •<*< c O «0 n 00 CO :c 00 coco C8 O O OS o -^ IN -H "2 r-t CO -o «5 lO t^ s c4 CO in (M ■pl t- IM (M 00 CO CO w d oo J3 50 J£ .-( Tt< O b- -^ o ^ w m 05 s t~N CC 00 CO CO s 00 in CO 1^ „ c jJ 2 =5 00 CO (M — = =« d 1-3 Ji— 1 M e-i -t< 5 00 t-- «o 00 CO CO o lo o 3 O :--^ a o 3<1.b ■5 .g o p-2- J>11 *; 00 ij aj « .2 - C c C: GS ^;S C O 2"o o c 3 S _aj bf j_- S S -^ •§ 4 'E „ 00 m . 3 (5 00 0) >> "2 CD ^ -^ c; +6=r^: APPENDIX. 478 From Cancer radiate twelve arcs, the planetary, temporal, or unequal hours. Another series, cutting these at the equinoctial line, and numbered 1 to 14, are the equal or clock hours or 24:ths of time, between two sunrises. There is also given on each plate the latitude at which the plate may be used, and the duration of the longest day at such latitude. These are subjoined, with the names of the towns on the tables situated on the same latitude. Latitude. -UUHATIOT^ UK LoNGKST Day. Towns. Plate I. hrs. min. 29 13-12 Shiraz. Plate II. 32 34 Plate III. H-7 H-36 Isfahan, Sari. Herat, Khartadqan, Kashan, Kiun. 38 37 Plate IV. 14-39 14-38 Tabriz, Ardebil, Anrwan, Nishabur, Meshed, Merv, Maraga. 3(5 30 14-28 13-56 Kazwin, Semnan, Damghan, Bostara, Shirwan, Lahijan, Astrabad, Amol. Busrah. It is worth notice that the space on the second side of Plate II. is shaded where the latitude and duration of day is given, which is not the case on the other plates. This renders it probable that the instrument was constructed at one of the four towns. On Shah Husein's astrolabe the duration of longest day for the various latitudes differs a trifle in four cases out of six. The reverse of Plate I. has a different combination, being called the " safihah al afakiah," or jDlate of horizons. As an almost identical plate is described in Mr. Morley's book, it is unnecessary to describe it here. The next and last of the larger parts of the instrument is the "ankabut," the spider, or the rete or net, as it was called in English examples. This is a skeleton plate, of which portions are cut away, leaving an inner and an outer ring, the circle of Zodiac and the tropic of Capricorn. Within both project numerous points called " shaziahs," each marked with the name of some star, the position of which is at the point of the ''shahziah." The zodiacal circle 474 THKOUGH TURKISH ARAHIA. is marked with the signs and degrees. At the top between Sagittarius and Oapricoi-nus is a pointer, " ahnury," and opposite it near the outer circle is the " niudir," a small knob to turn the plate by. The following is a list of the twenty-nine stars: — ■ Inside the Zodiac : — (1.) Ras al hawa, the head of the snake-catcher (ras al haque) a serpentarii. (2.) Unk al hayah, the neck of the serpent, a serpentis. (3.) Nasr tair, the flying vulture (al thayr), a Aquihe. (4.) Fum al faras, the mouth of the horse, e Pegasi. (5.) Ridf, the follower (ari-ided, arrioph), a Cygni. (6.) Nasr waki, the falling vulture (vega), a Lyra?. (7.) Nayir fakah, the luminary of fakah (munir malfecare, alpheta), a coronae borealis. (8.) Ramih, i.e., Simak-i-Ramih, the supj)orter of the spear- bearer (al lamech arcturus), a Bootis. (9.) Makib al faras, the shoulder of the horse (scheat alphe- ratz), /? pegasi. (10.) Kaf al khasib, the stained hand, /3 Cassiopeipe. (11.) (Ras al) ghul, the ghul's head (algol), ft Persei. (12.) Ayyuk, the kid (capella), /3 Aurigaj. (13.) Zahr al dhnb, the back of the bear (dubhe), a Ursge Majoris. Outside the Zodiac : — (14.) Qalb al aqrab, the heart of the scorpion (antares), a Scorpii. (15.) Simak al azal, the sustainer of the unarmed man (azimecb, spika virginis), a Virginis. (16.) Janah al gurab, the wing of the crow (al gorab), y Corvi. (17.) Qalb al asad, the heart of the lion (regulus) a Leonis. (18.) Qaidah (butiah), the base of the cup, a & ft Crateris. (19.) Pard al shajah, the solitary one of the serpent (alphard cor Hydrse) a Hydrfe. (20.) (Shii'a al) shamy, the Syrian or Damascus dog-star, (Algomeisa, Procyon) a Canis Minoris. APPENDIX. 475 (21.) Sliii-a Yamatiy, dog-star of Yemen (alhaboi- sirius) a Caiiis Miijoris. {'22.) liijl al Yasi-a, the left foot of Jauza (rigel al geiize) (3 Onoui.s. (23.) Yad yuinny, the right hainl of Jauza (bed al geuze) a Orionis. (24.) Aiii al thur, the eye of the bull (aldebaran) a Tauri. (25.) Musafa nahr, the interval of the river, 8, e, or ^ eridani. (26.) Sadr qitas, the breast of the whale, tt ceti. (27.) Fum qitas, the whale's mouth, y ceti. (28.) Danab qitas, the whale's tail, /? ceti. (29.) Saq sakib (ma), the leg of the water carrier (scheat) 8 aquarii. Of the remaining parts the rule is divided longitudinally l>y the "line of faith." Near either end are erect plates, called " the tiles," through which are holes to take observations. To use the instrument any or all of the plates are placed in the " urn," with the spider on the top. The pivot is passed through them by the hole which is in the centre of each, and is then secured by the small ring and wedge.* The chasing and engraving thi'oughout this instrument is of the most minute and delicate character. Though purchased at Bagdad, I was told it came from Kerbela. Those who wish to know more about Persian and Oriental astrolabes should consult Mr. Morley's work above refei"red to, without which I should never have been able to decipher the (me just deseril)ed. For the use of the astrolabe in mediaeval England no better work exists than Chaucer's " Treatise on the Astrolabe," edited by the Rev. W. W. Skeat for the Chaucer Society, V. CHAOTIC WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. / have mentioned the 2>e?7>^e■r^n(/ currency of Bagdad. TJie following report slioios the condition of the freights and measures : — * The rule is "idadah," the pivot " qiitb," the wedge " faras," and ihe rino: " fals." 476 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. The Journal of the Board of Trade quotes from the Journal of the Constantinople Chamber of Commerce a curious account of the weights and measures in use in Bagdad, in Turkish Arabia. The metric decimal system, which was decreed in Turkey in 1870, has not been adopted by the people of Bagdad, and there, as in other parts of the empire, the old weights and measures are vised. The foreigner recently arrived in the town knows nothing about them for a long time, and is liable to be easily duped by the servants and shopkeepers. Thus, for example, he should know that when a cook speaks to him of an ocque of meat, a large ocque is to be understood, for bread, meat, butter, I'ice, vegetables, fi'uits, and other comestibles are sold by the large Bagdad ocque, which is equal to about two-and- a-half Constantinople ocques. The grocer, on the other hand, who probably considers himself more progressive, sells his articles by the Constantinople 'ocque. Wheat and dates are sold per tarar of 20 vesnes of about 78 ocques, whilst for wood, lime, plaster, &c., thei-e is used a tarar of 20 vesnes of 60 Constanti- nople ocques. For wool, the men of Bagdad, equivalent to about six Bagdad ocques and 12 Constantinople ocques, is in vogue. The jeweller calculates by the metkal (miskal), which is equal to one-and-a-half direms. Tissues are sold, according to their kind, by the halebi pic (26|- inches), bagdadi pic (29^ inches), or Persian pic (40 inches). Persian furriers, before cutting a stufi" which they have purchased, always make certain that the measure is a fair one by the following process : — Taking in the left hand one of the two ends of the ell, they hold it near the nose and stretch the other arm as far as they can. This length should correspond to a dra Chah. Some singular customs are in vogue for the weighing of certain goods. There is, for example, the calculation made for gall nuts. After having weighed the goods in mens of six ocques, the mens, net weight, are reduced at the rate of 12 for 10, which result is further reduced at the rate of 31 for 30, and what i-emains is converted into kantars at the rate of 30 mens for one kantar, the price being stipulated per kantar. It is difficult to understand the origin and reason of this obscure arithmetic. The little wine coming from Diar- bekir and Kerkouk, which is consumed at this place, is sold by APPENDIX. 477 weight — that is to say, by the Constantinople ocque. Milk is sometimes sold by weight, but generally it is sold by the bottle and half-bottle, it being of little importance whether the recep- tacle is large or small, the difterence is made up as requii'ed by a larger or smaller addition of Tigris water. VI. BALBI'S JOURNEY FROM BAGDAD TO BUSRAH. Gasparo Balhi^s journey from Bagdad to Busrah, at the end of the sixteenth century, is remarkable as containing place names which do not occur on modern maps. I do not jif^t^^^d to identify them : — "The 13th of March, 1580, they departed from Bagdet towards Balsara, embarked in the Tigris, a river seeming like Nilus, not so endangered with shelves and bodies of trees as Euphi'ates. At Elmaca the river divided into two, one running after into Euphrates, the other to Balsara. The inhabitants on the right hand are Arabs, on the left Gurgi. On the 18th, they came to Cher. There are many lions and Arab thieves. There are also many keepers of oxen, sheep, and goats. Thence to Encaserami, where each mariner cast in a biscuit for devotion to a holy man there buried. Hitherto both in Euphrates and Tigris they had good air ; but there they began to have an ill scent of the river, very noisome, and they were in the night endangered with a kind of whirlpool, and wei-e fain to call to their consorts, which towed them out. The next day they came to Casale, a Saniak's residence, where the Persian river Maroan disembogueth. There the tide was fu'st encountered from the Persian Gulf. A little beyond at Cala^tel, they fasten their barks when the tide riseth, which otherwise could force them back. The champaigns are well inhabited. They entei^ed Corns, and a little beyond encountered a piece of Euphrates, joining with Tigris, where abide many soldiers with a Saniak, to prevent thieves, which by hundreds in a company used to rob. Here the river (which in some places had been like Brent) was as large as Nilus, and well inhabited. At certain times it is here so hot 478 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. that many die thereof ; and in this voyage four persons wearied with lieat and travel sat down to refresh themselves awhile, and were overcome by a hot wind which strangled all four. On the 2Lst they arrived at Balsara." — Pinkerton's " Voyages," Vol. IX., p. 396. " At Elmaca, where the river divided into two," must refer to the Sliat el Amara or el Hai, which branches off at Kut el Amara. Cher may be identical with Ischahriye, marked on Kiepert's map, but of which I have no further knowledge. The holy man is probably Ali Sliarki, or Gharbi. The Persian river Maroan must be one of the mouths of the Kerkha; and the fact that the tide was first felt there points to that at Ezra's tomb. Corns is of course Ivornah. VII. HAMILTON'S ACCOUNT OF BUSRAH. In Captain Alexander Hamilton's travels there is an account of Busrah, containing so much of intei'est that I reproduce here an exti'act. His journeyings are printed in the eighth volume of Pinkerton's " Collection of Voyages and Travels," London, 1811, under the title, " A New Account of the East Indies ; being the Observations and Remarks of Capt. Alexander Hamilton, who spent his time there from the year 1688 to 1723 ; Trading and Travelling, by Sea and Land, to most of the Countries and Islands of Commerce and Navigation, between the Cape of Good Hope and the Island of Japan." " Bassora is the easternmost city or town in the Turkish dominions, standing about two miles from the famous Euphrates, and has a small river that washes its walls on the west side, and discharges its waters into the Euphrates. This city stands about thirty leagues from the sea, and, it is alledged, was built by the Emperor Trajan, and had the honour of being the birth-place of another Roman Emperor, Philip, surnamed the Arabian ; but at fii'St it was built along the side of the river, and the vestigia of its ancient walls are still to be seen from the aforesaid rivulet, a league down the banks of Euphrates, which disembogues her APPENDIX. 479 waters, by four or five mouths, into the Gulf of Persia ; but none na\igable for ships of burden but that channel that leads to Bassora. At the city it is a short mile over at high water, and it keeps about the same breadth to the very mouth of it. The river abounds in fish, but none good, except a small shad about the bigness of an herring. And there is great plenty of wild fowl, such as swans, geese, duck, teal, wigeon, and curlews ; and the fields have plenty of partridge of several kinds, plover, snipes, doves, pigeons, and large larks, whose flesh is very savoury, and their wild notes grateful to the ear. They have also birds of prey, as eagles, many sorts and sizes of hawks, and kites, crows black and white, and it is observable that the black keep the Arabian side of the river, and the white the Persian, and if any presume to interlope into another province they raise tlie posse, and drive them back to then- own territory. There is great plenty of small tortoise in the river ; but none eat them, because they are forbidden in the Levitical law, to which the Mahometans adhere much in point of eating. They have also many species of wild beasts. Wild swine are very numerous, and their flesh is sweet and juicy, but no fat to be seen about them. And the peasants come often to town to invite Christians to kill them ; for they make sad havoc of their corn and roots. And if a Christian kills any they'll bring them to their houses on asses or mules for a very small reward, notwith- standing there is a positive command in the Alcoran that forbids them to touch swine's flesh. They have plenty of black cattle, wild and tame, and good milk ; but they make but scurvy cheese of it, and no butter, because they make the fat of their sheep's tails serve in tlieir kitchen instead of butter, and they keep no tea tables for the consumption of fresh butter. And coftee, which is much in use, is the constant companion of a pipe of tobacco, which is taken by the ladies as well as gentlemen. In the desert, which is very near the town, there are wild camels, horses, asses, goats, lions, leopards, panthers, and foxes, which they hunt on horseback, with sword and lance, and on foot with fowling-pieces. They have plenty of delicious fruits, as pomegraiiates, peaches, apri- cots, quinces, olives, apples, pears, nectaiines, and grapes that are 480 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. us sweet as the juice of the sugar-cane, and their spirits are so weak that they'll produce neither wine nor vinegar ; but the most plenty and useful of their fruits are their dates, which support and sustain many millions of people, who make them their daily food, and they are wonderfully nourished by them. Biissora exports yearly for foreign countries above ten thousand tons of dates, which employ abundance of seamen for their exportation, besides many more poor in gathering and packing them in mats made of the leaves of the date tree, and likewise in (hying them. I bought about one hurdred and sixty pound weight of wet dates for 2s. 3d. sterling, and sometimes they are cheaper. Bassora was many years in the hands of the Persians, who gave great encouragement to trade, which drew many merchants from foreign parts to settle there, and particularly from Surat, in India. But in the year 1691 a pestilence raged so violently thiit above eighty thousand people were carried oif by it, and those that remained fled fi^om it, so that for three years following it was a desert, inhabited only by wild beasts, who were at last driven out of the town by the circumjacent Arabs, who possessed it about twelve months, and were in their turn driven out by the Turks, who keep it to this day ; but its trade ,is very inconsider- able to what it was in the times that the Persians had it, and the reason is that the Turks are very insolent to strange merchants. There are many Jews in Bassora, who live by brokerage and exchanging money ; but the Turks keep that set of people very low, for reasons of state. There are also about two hundred Christians of the Greek Church, but no priests of that com- munion, wherefore some Roman missionaries officiate there. The Greek clergy are very indifierent about gaining proselytes, and to nourish their flocks will not run the risk of martyrdom, so they keep none of their priesthood at Bassora; but when I was tliere three Roman priests of the Carmelite order had the super- iiitendency of that church. These sanctified rascals were a scandal to Christianity by making a tavern of their church ; for having more indulgence from the government than the Mahome- tans in moi'al matters, they abuse it to the vilest uses, in selling arrack, which they distil from dates, and procuring birds of APPENDIX. 481 paradise for the use of their customers. The Mahometans again are strictly forbidden the drinking of wine or distilled liquors, both by their ecclesiastical and civil laws ; for the heat of the sun and the dry sandy soil create such a dust choler in their brains, that when they are heated by drinking strong liquors they become furious and mischievous to one another, and in those mad fits wound and kill their fellows. Those scandalous priests had been often reprimanded by the government for abusing the indulgence they had, but to little purpose, for their trade was very gainful ; but upon a drunken quarrel between two seamen of mine, wherein one was dangerously wounded with a knife, and the other, for fear of punishment, turned Mahometan, being a Portuguese Christian, the bashaw sent an officer and soldiei's to enter the church and all the houses appertaining to it, with orders to break their stills and jars, with the rest of the distilling utensils, and to pour out all the arrack they found on the ground, which was accordingly done ; and in the search the soldiers met with a fine silver watch and about four hundred Spanish dollars, which they carried off with them. The priests petitioned the bashaw to have the watch and money restored ; but were answered that the}' preached much on the contempt of worldly riches, and if his soldiers had made them practise what they preached they ought to be thankful, and to let the despicable money continue in hands that professed their love of it, and knew much better how to use it than priests, and so dismissed them with threats of haixler penalties on their next transgression ; but the sweets of worldly gains soon made them forget the admonition given them by the bashaw, as well as their heavenly promises and oaths made at their admission into their holy order ; and like a dog to his vomit, returned back to their old trade of debauching Christians, Jews, Mahometans, and Pagans with liquors, and set up stills for that purpose once more." I I 482 THKOUCII TURKISH ARAJ3IA. VIII. ROMANCE OF THE PERSIAN GULF. That there is still room for romance in the Persian Gulf may he seen from the foUotoing, lohich ajipeared in the " Times " of October Uh, 1892 :— ''The Indian papers biouglit by this week's mail contain a remarkable story of shipwreck and privation. Tlie steamer /S'mjiZo, which arrived in Bombay from the Persian Gulf on September 2, had on board two brothers named Lavy, belonging to Mahe. They were engaged in carrying produce from one island to another of the Seychelles, using for the purpose a small schooner of about 25 tons burden, which had but one sail. On June 21 it left Port Victoria with six persons on board, all French, on a short voyage round the island, with four days' provisions only. Shortly after leaving they encountered bad weather, which pre- vented them from making for land. Four days after leaving port the jib sail was carried away by the force of the storm. By this time they had been blown well out into the open sea, and were drifting out of the track of vessels. They divided the food and water into small allowances, and took it in turn to keep a lookout iind endeavour to keep the craft's head to the sea. On the 19th day after starting their provisions became exhausted. More than one of the castaways drank the sea water, and seven days after the provisions had given out one man died from hunger and exposure. Two days later another died, but on the third day lam 1 was sighted. The boat drifted on the shore, where it afterwards sank. Shortly after they crawled on land another of their num- ber succumbed to the protracted pi-ivations. During the time they were at sea they must have drifted at least 1,300 miles in their open boat, as the place where they landed was subset^uently found to be Rashoor or Ras Madruka, a deserted point on the Arabian coast. While the three survivors were searching for some fruit and water they were surprised to see coming towards them a solitary Bedouin, who, instead of ill-treating tliem, as they expected, offered them dates and water. The three men eagerly diank of the latter, and the two Lavys also devoured the date-;, their first meal for eleven days ; but the exertion was too much for their companion, who shortly afterwards died, making the AiTEXDlX. 483 fourth death since the voyage began. The Bedouin, finding they were incapable of walking, placed them on the backs of two camels which he had with him, and travelled a short distance to a place in the desert, where he found a tree, under which he made them lie down. Here he remained for three or four day.-, trying to tind out where they had come from. Conversation, however, was not possible, but after a time he mentioned the word Muscat, and the elder Lavy, knowing that there was such a place on the Persian Gulf, signified that they would like to be taken there. On the fourth day of the sojourn in the desert, finding they had regained a portion of their strength, he placed them again on the camels, and set oiF, himself walking. After a journey of twenty-two days he led them befoi-e the British Consul at Muscat, to whom they gave an account of their adventures. The Consul handed to the friendly Bedouin as reward a large sum of money. After remaining at Muscat for three days the /Simla called, and they were placed on board and given a passage to Bombay. At the expense of Government they were to be sen t back to the Seychelles, via Aden." 11 '1 INDEX. Abbas ben al-Ummar al-Ghani, Emir of Anah, 208 Abdallah ibn Ali, sanctuary called, 406, 407 Abdin Rezak, on the heat of Muscat, 429 Abraham, traoitions of, 68 Abu Hureira, 140, 141 Abu Jafar al-Mansur, founder of Bagdad, 286 Abu Kemal, village of, 190, 191 Abu Nawas the Jester, Appendix III. Abu Obeidab, besieges Aleppo, 69 Abu rakab, the influenza, 54 Abu Jtiisha (Arborise), Emir of Anah, 208, 209 Abu Sedra, grove and saint's tomb. 389 Adod ed-Daulah the Buyide, 289 Ainsworih, W. F., references to his works, 82, 39, 138, 141, 150, 167, 183, 184, 194, 215, 227, 245, 291, 309, 317, 400, 419 Akar Kuf, see Tell Nimrud Albu Mohammed tribe, 394, 395, 403 Albuquerque, Don Mathias de, founds a factory at Hormuz, 453 Aleppo, The Azizia hotel, 47. Cook- ery, 52. Cholera, 54. Routes from to Bagdad, 55, 56. Servants-, 57 et seq. Deecription of the cii} , 74-104. Traditions, 68, 69. His- tory, 69, 70. Factories, 71, 72. Siiuation, 74. The river, 74. DimenBions, 77. Gates and wall!-, 79 ct wg. Houses, 82, 83. Bazaars. 84. Mosques, 85 et seq. Citadel, 87 et seq. Khan elWezir, 96, 97. Heraldry, 98, 99. Suburbs, 100 Cemeteries, 102. Sheikhu Bekr, 104. Population, 105. Manners, 106. Fanaiicism, 107. Mr. T^rwhitt Drake, references to, 107. Costumt, 109, 110. Cnmate, 110. Bull, 111, 112 Alexandretia, see fcjcauderun. All Gherbi, village on the Tigris, 389, 397 Ali «herghi (Sherki), 389 Alione, an (Jriental Ctiristian, 167 ct seq. Amaia, town of, 389, 398 Amir el-Omra, title of, 289 Amk, E1-, the plain of Antioch,35 Am math's causeway, over the Kara au, 39, 40 Amuratli TV., his coLquest of Bag- dad, 298 Anah, town of, 206-209. The in- habitants of, 208. Ibn Haukal, on, 208. Balph Fitch on, 208. Gas- paro Balbi on, 209. Anatho, 209. Anazeh Arabs, 134, 148, 185, 19U, etc. Costume, 149 Auiioch, plain ot, 35, 39 Arabs, cupidity of, 226 Arak drinkiug, 53 Arms, coats ot, at Aleppo, 98 Abtrolabe, purchased at Bagdad, Appendix IV. Azizieh, a village on the Tigris, 389 B Babylon, Ruins of, 316 et seq. The Mujelioe, Mukallibe, or MaklouLe (of Buckingham and Rich), 317, 323. Of Lajaid, 322. Of Aim- worth, 325. The Babel, 317-319. The Kasr, 321-323. Of Rich anu IM)EX. 485 Ainswortli, 321. Description of, by Lay-ird, 322. Amraii ibn AH, 324. Buckingham on, 324. Al Heimar, 326. Bjckingham on, '626. The mounds in general, Rich on, 325. Bagdad, Houtes to from Europe, 2 ; fro 11 Aleppo, 55. Acciount of the City, 241-300. Situation, 242. Bridge at, 244. Walls destroyed, 245. (iates, 245. Dimensions, 246. Old guna at. 247. Roads and honwes, 24S, 249. Heat at, 250, 382. Coffee Houses, 251. Bazaarr), 252, 253. Shopping in, 254, 255. Currency, 256. Mosques, 257-259. Medrasseh el-Mostan- sprah, 259. Tomb of Zubeidah, 260-262. Kazemein, 263-267. Mo.>.que of Imam Musa el-Kazem, 266. Population, 269. Inhabir- ants, 270-275. Churches, 275. Cliiuate, 276. Trafle, 277, Modern state of the town, 27.S. Post- ottice, 279, Ramazan. 280. Hotel, 281. Date mark, 282. Histury, 286-300. Floods, 380 Baghdadieh, a f. rt, 389 ISahrein, 438-440. Pearl fishery of, 439. History, 410. Balbi, Gasparn, on Rahaba, 183- On Anah, 209. Acf^ount of Hit, 220 91. On Tell Nimrud, 235. His journey from Bagd d to Bus- rah, Appendix VI. Baldwin, liis siege of Aleppo. 70 Ballums=, canoes on the Tigris, 398, 400, 412 Baluchistan, remarkable coast line, 456 Barber of Bagdad, 283. Shop of at Aleppo, 85 BarkiJirok, Sultan. 290 Barmeki (Barmecide) Wezirs, 287 Battdntr, danger of, while travelling, 157, 191 Beetle, an ingenious, 192 Beilan, village of, 82 Beirut, town and port of, 20 ef icq. Disgusting scene at, 21 Belfante, Mr., 27 Beni Lam Arabs, 397 Benjamin of Tudela, Rabbi, his account of Bagdad, 291. Of the Birris Nimrud, 342. Of Jews at Hillah, 335, etc. Borosa founded by Seleucus Nicator 69 Birris Nimrud, the mound of, 336- 349. Ddscribed,340. Liyardon, 340 n. Theories about, 343. Account of Benjamin of Tudela, 342. Opinions of Rich, Bucking- ham, Oppprt, Rawlinson, Layard. and Ainsworth, 343. Sanctuary called Nebbi Ibrahim at, 346. Traiitions of Abraham, 346 Bitumen springs, 220, 221. Use of bitumen and naphtha as a weapon (Tarikh Mlrkond), 221 n. Blunt, Lady Anne, her '-Bedouin Tribes of the Euphrates " referred to. 135 01., 141, 166, 277 «. Bombay, 458 Bostani Kesra, the ruins of Ctesi- phon, 389 Brickmakine', atMusseyib, 356. At, Kerbela, 374 Buckingham, J. S., the traveller, references to his writings. On Tell Nimrud, 236. The walls of Bagdad, 245. Conical tombs, 262 n. Khat) ez-Zad, 304. Khan Iscanderieh, 309. Population of Bagdad, 269. Its climate, 276. Ruins of Babylon, 317 et seq. Birris Nimrud, 343 Buggalow (baghlah), 390, 428 Bukhit, the katterji, 128, 129 ; mean- ing of the name, 129 Bunder Abbas, town of, 448 et seq. Old guns at, 448. Great heat of, 449. Prevalent diseases, 449. Bab el-Belao, 449 and w. Exports, 450. Population, Hamilton on, 450 Bursif, Borsiph, Byrsia, Borsippa, 343 Burton, Sir Richard, reference to his works, 169. Bushire, town of, 432, et seq. Euro- pean shop at, 434. " Bajirs," a', 434. Water supply, 436. History, 437 Busrah, 411-419. The creek at, 413. Condition of thfi town. 414. Eng- lish spoken at, 415. History. 416, 417. Trade, 417 Button, Aleppo, aboii, 111, 112 Buyide dynasty, 288-290 Buyuruldi, a passport, 67 486 TiiROUGll TUKKLSII ARABIA. C Ci'nis of stones, (seoulchral ?) near Wady Fahmin, 212 Cairo, 8-10. Dole at tomb of the latt'. Khedive. 10 ct xeq. Moolid of Sicii Zeyneb, 14 et seq. Caliphs. Al-Mansnr, 28(). Amin, 287. Motasiiu,287. Mustiiiii, 287, Mutazz, 287. Mohtady, 287. Mok- tader, 287. Al-Radhi, 288. Mos- tader, 2S30. Kaim, 290. Nasir, 292. Mostan.ser, 292, Mosiaseni. 293. AH, 368. Muavia, 368' Oiuar, 416 Canals, Babylonian, 222, 234, 315 Caravanhorais, 304. See also Khans. Cau.«eway, from Auranitis to Car- rha3, 150. Chaldajan Christians as sailors, 387 Chause, chiaus, chouse, etc., a Tur- kish otRccr, 72. Mr. G. A. Sala on, 72 n. Cherrid, an irrigation appliance, 164 Cliina pots, used for kohl, 443 Ciitisiians of Bagdad, once subject to oppression, 294 Corniuander of the Faithful, title of, 288. 289 C'Stume. at Aleppo. 109. Of mule- teers, 129, 130. Ar Bagdad, 272. Ctesiphon, ruins of, 379 and n, 392 Currency, Turkish, 19. At Bagdad, 256. At Busrab, 415 Curzon, Hon. G., refeiences to bis work, '• Persia and the Persian Question," 262 n, 268, 368. Hor- muz, 455. D Darga Beg, title of governor of Bu&hire, 438. Date mark at Bagdad, a hoil, 282 Deir, town of, 161-176. Lack of provisions at, 164. Cultivation, 164. Cherrids, 165. Inhabitants. 165. History, 167. Woodfuel fishing', 170. Mounds near, 178 Deir, village fear Aleppo, 118 Urir Hafr, village, 122. Khan at, 124 D(-fseit, fear of by townsmen, 172 U'Htrbelot, reference to, 286 n. D ala river, 389, 391 Durwish, howling, at Sabbakh, 154. Wandering, 188 Dysentery, 157, 209 E Eleohau(ii>is, in the Persian Gulf, 431, 449 Ez-a. tomb of (El Ozeir), 389, 407, 408 F Factories, European, at Scanderun, 25. At Aleppo, 71 ct seq. At Busrah, 417. At Kharak, 432. At Bunder Abbas, 455. At Hor- muz, 453. At Bushire, 437. Farur, island of, 442 Feliija, village, 231, 232. Ferry, 232. Fllaria Mendenensis (or Draoun- culm) the Guinea worm, 431 Fitch, Ralph, hi-* description of 'he Tell Niujrud by the name of the " Tower of Habel." 235. His de- scription of Bagdad, 297. Of Hor- muz, 453. Flints, worked, found four hours south of Deir, 179. Near Wady Skeikh Jebur, 193. Fovv (P'ao). quarantine station, etc., 425. Frogs, at Aleppo, 75 Fauna, of the Euphrates, 202. G Gearv, Grattun, references to his " Througti Asiatic Turkey." Tell Nimrud, 236. Date trade, 277. Population of Hillah, 335. On Tragedy of Husein, 373 «. 'J'raffic of the Tigris, 395. Revolt of the Madan Arabs, 405 n Geini (or Keim) E1-, fort at, 195. Ghazu, 195-199. Ptolemy's Agam- na, 195 German travellers umrderedat Deir, 166 Giliied plates on Shiah shrines, 267, 268 and n Ghazu, an Arab foray, 191, 195 ct SCA] Ghenghis Khan, 292 Gombroon, 445. See also Bundtr Abhas Gul Buehi, mound of, 40 Gun--, old, at Bunrler Abbas, 448 H Haditha, village of, 213 INDEX. 487 Hamadi the Ak.am, 131. Costume, 131 Hamdanide Sultans, the capital of, 61) Hamilton, Ca]it. Alexaii'ler, on Big- dad. 800. On BundPi- Abhas,-150. < 'u Hormuz, 45-1. His account of Busrah, Appendix VII. Haramam Khan, 41. Sulphur springs at, 41 Hankliz, AI-, an eel at Aleppo, 75 and n llarun al Rashid, puts to death El- Kathem, 2«3. The Caliphate under, 286 llishi, the, a mrrh-eist wind, 430 il-issan, see 3a_vyid Hassan Haudaj, the, a litter, 148 Hebbet, es Sinah, tne Aleppo boil, 111 Heraldic dr vices at Aleppo, 98 Herbert, Sir Thomas, on Hormuz, 455 Hieroglyphic formula found in heraldic devices at Aleppo, 98 et seq. Hill^h, town of, 329-335. Descrip- tion, 334. Population, 335 fTistoncal sketch of Bagdad, 286-300 Hit, rown of, 217-221. Ancient mounds of Is, 219. Bitumen springs oF, 219. History of the springs, and acccuncs of travellers, 220 n, and 221 Hormuz, island of, 451-456. History, 451 et seq. Descr'ntion in the Tarihlt Mirlwml, 452. By Marco P >lo, 452. Factory, 453. For', 453. Sir Thomas Herbert on, 455 Hotel at Aleppo, description of, 49 Hulagu, riestruction of Aleppo by, 70. His conquest of Bagdad, 293, 296 Husein, the Tragedj- of, 373 and oi. 492. Hisde-ithat Kerbela, 368- 370, References to accounts, 370 n I Itinerary of steamer's route from Bagdad to Busrah, 389 Itinerary of the road between Scan- deran and Bagdad, Appendix I. Jago, Mr. T. S., British Consul at Aleppo, 54 et seq. Jaleel, a boy of Aleppo, 33, 51, etc. Jebels, Bakhnr, 447. Bustaneh, 442. Hamrin,b97. Jinao, 446, Kush- ga, 203. Khamir, 447. Shimal, 447. Simon, 44. Turanjeh, 442 Jebul (Sabbakh el Jebul), a salt lake, 121 Jebrin, village of, 118 Jews, at Aleppo, 105, 10(). At Bag- dad, 273 e' seq. A' Deir Mahariz, 142. ^t Hibah, 335. Their pil- tirimage to Ezra's tomb, 408 Jisr Gerarah, on the Tigris, 391 Julian, tlie Emperor, his halt at Antiocb, 69 K Kaif, 173 Kiic Bey, Sultan, arms "sed by, 99 K^jaweh, the, a litter, 305 Kak, a hard biscuit, 64 Kaiah Balis (Barbarissiis Barbalis- sus), 137. History, 138 Kalah Jaber (Dauser Dabanas, etc), 140, 142 Kalah liamadi, town of, 224, 225 Kalah Salah, village of, 405, 406 Kara Khan, village and khans, 35, 36 Kara Su, Amaurath's causeway over, 39, 40 Karun river, 420, 421. The Bah- I'leshir channel, its naturp^l outlet, 422. A trade route, 425 Kacterji Bashi, the head muleteer, 117 Kaz^mein, 263-267. Its mosque, 266. Gold-plated domes at, 267 Kellek, a raft, 203 Kerbela, the pilgrimage to, 303,306, 371. The pilgrim road to, 308. Our host's house, 363. The mosque of Mesheil Hu-eiu, 364, 366. Of Imam Abbas, 364. Ker- bela stones, o()6. Fanaticism a'', 367,368. A place of pilgrimakC, 368. The martyrdom of Husein the origin of t'le pilgrimage, 368 371. Corpse caravans, 372. The town, 373, 374 Keubbe, a pr.'piration of meat, 41 Khabnr river, junction of with the Euphrates, 180 Khafaja Arabs, 347 Khalid, thp -sword of God." his siege of Aleppo, (59 488 THROUGH TURKISH ARABIA. Khans, Appendix II., Kara Khan, 85. Afiin, 42. El-Wezir, description of. 96 cf svq. At Deir Hafr, 122. 124. At Deir. Kil. Khirr, 302. Ez-Zad. 304, 305. Mahmudieh. 305. Hsswa, 30S, 309, 310. Biru- nus, 30(5, 308. Iscanderieh, 309, 378. 379. Nasrieh, 313. Mabawil, 314, 352 Kharak, island of, 432 Khosru II.. Aleppo burned by, 69 Kiff el Yaljudeh, the tradiiional tomb of Ezekiel, 341 Killi, a Persian game, 43() Kishm, island of, 446, 447 Kniphau.'en, Bare n. director of the Dutch factojy at Kharak, 432 Kofa, circular boats, 231, etc. Kornah, the traditional Garden of Eden. 410 Koss, the, a south-east wind, 430 Kubabs, a preparation of meat, 52 w Kuh Hormuj, a mountain, 432 Kut el Amara, a village. 389, 396 Kuweik Su, the river of Aleppo, 74 Ladies, Syrian, 37, 3s Layard, Sir Henry, references to his writings. The ruins of Babylon, 321 ft xeq. His description of a building on the Kasr, 322, 323, and n. The Birris Nimrud. 343. Ctesiiihon, 379 n. Leben, a preparation of milk, 52 «, 145 Levinge bed, description of, 3 Lingah, town of, 443. Unsanitary condition of, 443. Inhabitants, 443. Birkehs, 444. Lawlessness of, 444 Lizard, a species of /jwJio. 132 and n Locust-'.said to be killedby birds, 354 M Madan Arabs, revolt of, 403 ff scrj., 412 Madum, mounds called, 132 Mahadi, town of, 291 Mahdi, see Sayyid Mahdi Mahmud of Ghizni, besieges Bas-- dad, 289 Marco Polo, his account of Bagdad. 294 et scq. Of Ormuz, 452. " Marshes near Bagda'i, 238 Mattarf). a leather water-bottle, 64, 192 Matting encampments on the Tigris, 397 and n. Maundrell, Henry, his account of salt works at Jebul, 121 Mayedin, village of, 183 Medrasseh el Mostanser, founded, 292 Meskineh, on the Euphrates, 135 Midhat Pasha, his tramway. 263 Mirage, effect of, 178, 179' Mir Mahenna, sheikh of Kharak, 432 Mir Naser, sheikh of Kharak, 432 Mizal, sheikh of Mohamraerah, 420. 423 Modein, A1-, the twin cities, 393 Mogla, Lake, (?) 157 Mohammed, Haji, the Akam, 130 Mohammed ibn Hassan, tomb of, 355 Mohammed of Kharazm, 292 Mohammerah, town of, 420 et aeq. Canoes at, 421. Fisheries, 421. History. 423. Mongols, at Bagdad, 292 et seq. Montefik Arab?, 394 Hnd oi Months in which the Kerbela pil- grimage is most usually per- formed, 371 Moryson, his description of Scan- derun, 25 Mosques at Aleppo, 85 et s-eq. At Batrdad, 257 et seq. At Kaze- mein,266 et ,teq. Mosquitoes, at Kerbela, 375 Mouth of Hell, a name of Hit, 219 Muiz ed Daulah, Sultan, the Buyide, 289 Mules, sore backs of, 160. The crv of, 187 Muleteers, Agreements with, 160. Hardihood of, 175 Musa el Kathem or Kazem. Imam, death of, 263. Mosque of, 266 Mnsseyib, town of, 857-362, 37.S. Pilgrim trafific in, 358 ot seq. N Nahr Huseinieh. a canal to Kerbela. 373 Nahr Salah (the Pallacopas ?), an old outlet of the Euphrates, 419 and n Nahr Sare?, an old canal, 227 Nahura, a water-wheel, 103 INDEX. 489 Noah, traditional residence of, at Doir, 1()7 Nured Pin, Aleppo rebuilt by, 70 Nusiiieh Arabs, 355 O On ebn JalYa, Nebbi, tomb called, :!62 Oj)hidiuiit Mastacembelus, a fish ot: Aleppo, 75 Outfit tor the journej', my, 3, 4 Qwlad Muslim, duines near Mus^e- yib, 355 P Pass, mountain, between Scanderun and the plain of Autioch, 32, 34 Pearl fishery at Balitein, 439 Persian Gulf, 420 et seq. Geography of, 427. Piracy, 428. 447 n. Climate and winds, 429, 430. Formerly a land-locked sea, 44G. Romance of. Appendix VIII PigeoQ Post, between BHgdad and Busiah. 417 Pilaf, an Eastern dish, 52 >i Piracy in the Persian Gulf, 428, 447 Pococke, Dr., on the dimensions of Aleppo, 77 Politeness of the Pers-iaos, 351 Pcsr, CameJ, fr» m Damascus to Bigdad, 280 Postal services, between Bagdad and England, 279 Quarantine on the Syrian Coast, 9 R Rahaba, Saractnic castle of, 180- 183. •' Rehoboth on the liver," 183. Notes OD history of, 183 Ealiaba al-Malik ben Tauk, 185 Rakka. a distant view of, 151 Ramazan, 221, 22G, 280 Kauwolf. the traveller, on Rahaba, 183 ReU Sea, rougn weather in, 459 Reshire, 435 Rhowa, village of, 204 Rich, C. J., references to his writings; the ruins of Baby. on, 317, 318, 325. The Birns Mim- rud, 343 Rochette, Reference to " Hist, des Colonies Grttquts," 24 Russell, Dr. Alexander, references to his '• Natural History of Aleppo." On Scunderun, 25. On the Kuweik Su, 75. His list of the gates of Aleppo, 79. His plan of Aleppo, 78. On an ancient conduit there, 103. Russian Travellers at the Birris Nimrud, 338 S Saba^ans at Amara, 400 and n. Sabbakh, oti the Euphrates. 152 Sdbbgkh or Subkhet el .Jebul, a salt lake, 121. MaundrelTs accouLt, 121 Saour, a sort of fish, 421 Saheili, the, a souih-west wind, 430 Saklawieh Canal, 292, 302 Salah ed din capt^ures Aleppo, 70 Salahieh, ruins of, (Rahaba al- Malik ben Tauk), 185 Salt lake at Jebul, 121. Salt at Hit, 219 Samida and Samargha, marshes of, 399 Sand storm at Salahieh, 186 Sarab (mirage), 178 Saud ibn Munshid, sheikh of the Madan Arabs, his revolt, 403 Say\id, meaning: of the title, 330 Sayyid Hassan, 329, 330, 333, 849, Sayyid Mahdi, 363 Scanderun, town of (Alexandrelta), 24-30. Willebrand of Oldenburg, Rochette, Russell, Mor3soD, ana Van Egmont, on, 24,25. Hotel at, 27. Present state, 28 Sea snake in tne Persian Gulf, 457 Selim, Sultan, Overthrow ot Mam- luks by, 70 Seleucus Nicator, founder of Bercua, 69 Shahid Husein, a tragedy, 373 and n. Shah it' Shah, the title, 289 Shah Ishmi^el Sophi, Cdi.ture of Bigdad by, 297 Stiammar, fellahin of the tribe of, 354 Sharks, in the Kaiun river aud Tigris, 421 Shat el Arab, descriptions of, 410, 425 Shat el Khud, 399 490 TJIKOlGIl TURKISH AHAfUA. Sheep, the Black and White, Turco- man hordes, 297 Sheep-skins, inflated, used for swim- miDg, 158 Sheikti Ghana, a tell called, 140 Sheikh Jebur, ttll and wad}-, 193 Shemal; a north wind, 430 Sbiali shrines, precedence of. 368 «. Shohr, name of a fellahin irihe, 137 Shrines, Shiah, see Shiah shrines. Shuster, natives of, tradition of their origin, 422 Stano, Mr. F. F., 63 et aeq. Subzabad, 435 Sulphur springs atHammam, 41 Sur, ruins at. 194 and n. Sura, 227 Surieb, ruins of, (Thapsachus), 150 Tahir, General of Mamun, his siege of Bagdad, 287 Takht-i-Khu.srau, the arch at Ciesi- phon, description of, 392 Takht-i-rawan, description of, 124, 125 Tancrf d the Crusader, 138 Tarikh Mir li and, Teixeira's trans- lation of, edited by John Stf-vers, 221 n., 280, 290, 291 »., 296, 451 oi. Description of Hormuz, 452 Tavernier, on the Afrin river, 40 n. Tells, el Fad r (a village), 45. Mun- khir, 151. Nimrud (Akar Kuf ), 234, 235, 236. Various writers on, ibid. Sheikh Ghana, 140. Sheikli Jebur, 193 Tenioeiature in the Persian Gulf, 429 Tent used for travelling, 3 Teskereh, or Tethkireh, a passport, 67 Thipsachns, site of. 150 Thieves, Arab, 133,' 222, 223 Thompson, Charles Robert, Monu- mental inscription to, 102 Tib river, 399 Tigris, the. Steam traffic, 385. Paucity of traffic, 395 Tigris, the steamer, foundering of, 187 n. Timur Beg, (Tamerlane), Bagdad taken by, 296 Togrul Beg, destruction of Bagdad by, 290 Tragedy of Hust-in, the, 373, 402, References to accoiir.t-i of, 373 Tramway at Baed^d, 263 Tripoli, port of, 23 Turks-, the, at Bagdad, 289 U Ushareh, mounds of, 184 Van Egmont, on Scanderun, 25. His travels, 26 «. On the causf- way of Amurath, 39. On Aleppo, 70, 71, 73, 77,79, 82, 113 Van Houting, Mr., diiector of the Dutch factory at Kharak, 432 W Water of the Euphra'es, turbid, 136 Water, stagnant, preference of Arabs for, 210 Wad^s, formation of, 201. Sheikh Jebur, 193. Sofra, 201. Zella, 201. Kushga, 203. Fahmin, 211, 212. Sagreidan, 214. Bag- dadi, 215 Wali, a sheikh's tomb, 224. Mean- ing of, 224 11. Weights and measures at Bagdad, Appendix V. Willebrand of Oldenburg on Alex- andretta, 24 Winds in the Persian Gulf, 430 Wright, Thomas, " Karly travels in Palestine " referred to, 291 Wulda Arabs, 141 Y YafH, town and port of, 17 et seq. Yoghurt, a Tuikisti preparation of milk, 52 Yusuf Antika, 283 et seq. Zabtiehs, or Turkish police, 145 Zobeide Arab^ 394, 396 Zubeidah, Ladv, the tomb of, 260 et seq., 291 RECENT TRAVEL. Crown 8vo, Illustrated, Gs. IN THE SHADOW OF THE PAGODA: Sketches of Burmese Life and Character. By E. D. Cuming, Second Edition, Crown 8vo, Illustrated, 6s. WANDERINGS OF A WAR ARTIST. By Irving Montagu, late Speinal War Artist, " Illustrated London News." "Mr. Montagu is to be congratulated on an eminently readable book, whicti, both in style and matter, is a.bove the average of productions in this kind.'' — Morning Post. " The adventures of Mr. Montagu are narrated with humour, and are seldom dull reading." — (ilasgon- Herald. " It is seldom that a more exciting and readable book comes into our hands. . . . 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