D'OOGE III «^^^.*— *-• — GIFT OF Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/conciselatingramOOdoogrich CONCISE LATIN GRAMMAR BY BENJAMIN L. D'OOGE, Ph.D. PROFESSOR OF LATIN IN THE MICHIGAN STATE NORMAL COLLEGE Est modus in rebus, sunt certi denique fines — Horace GJNN AND COMPANY BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON ATLANTA • DALLAS • COLUMBUS • SAN FRANCISCO COPYRIGHT, 1921, BY BENJAMIN L. D'OOGE ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 321. 1 _ SINGl'LAR Terminations Neut. \' r 1 \l cor caput poema »> O .>! . Gen. cordis capitis poematis -is DAT. cordi capiti poemati -i Ace. cor caput poema Abl. corde capite PLURAL poemate -e NoM. cord a capita poemata -a Gen. capitum poematum -um DAT. cordibus capitibus poematibus -ibus Ace. cord a capita poemata -a Ahl. cordibus capitibus poematibus -ibus 95. Note the following irregularities : a. The stem capit- becomes caput in the nominative singular, and does not drop the final mute (§92). An ablative capiti is found. b. A number of monosyllabic nouns with mute stems are like cor in having no genitive plural. Among these are :* crux, cross fax, /orc/t IQx, //^/// nex, death pix, peace vas, bail 30 THIRD DECLENSION B, Liquid Stems 96. The nominative singular of stems ending in a liquid (1 or r) is the same as the stem. But observe that — a. Stems in tr- have -ter in the nominative : as, pater, stem patr-. h. Stems in 11- or rr- lose one of the liquids in the nominative : as, far, farris; mel, mellis. c. Stems in Or- have short o in the nominative : as, amor, amoris (§ 34. b). d. Many stems in r- originally ended in s-, which still appears in many nominatives : as, m5s, custom ; flos, flower. Some nominatives end in either -r or -s : as, honor or honQs, arbor or arbos. In the other cases original s regularly became r between two vowels (§ 49) : as, genitive flOris (for flOsis), mOris (for mOsis). e. Most neuter stems in er- and or- (originally es- and os-) have -us in the nominative : as, genus (stem gener-), corpus (stem corpor-). 97. Liquid stems are declined as follows : consul, M. consul Bases ^ OR \ consul- StemsJ flOs, M. flower flor- pastor, M. shepherd pastor- mater, f. mother matr- ' NOM. Gen. consul c5nsulis flos flor is SINGULAR pastor pastor is mater matr is Terminations M. AND F. -is DAT. consul i flori pastor i matri -i Ace. consul em flor em pastor em matr em -em Abl. consul e flore pastore PLURAL matre -e NOM. consul 6s flor 6s pastor 6s matr 6s -68 Gen. consul um florum pastor um matrum -um DAT. consul ibus flor ibus pastor ibus matr ibus -ibus Ace. consults flores pastor 6s matr 6s -5s Abl. consul ibus flor ibus pastor ibus matr ibus -ibus THIRD DECLENSION 31 tempus, N. opus, N. aequor, n. time work sea Bases'] OR vtempor- Stems J oper- aequor- SINGULAR Terminations Neut. NoM. tempus epus aequer Gen. temporis eperis aequor is -is Dat. tempori operi aequor i -i Ace. tempus opus aequor Abl. tempore operfi PLURAL aequor e -e NoM. temper a opera aequor a -a Gen. temix)rum eperum aequor um -um Dat. temper ibus operibus aequor ibus -ibus Ace. tempera opera aequor a -a Abl. temper ibus operibus aequor ibus -ibus C. Nasal Stems 98. The nominative singular of stems ending in a nasal (n or m) is the same as the stem, with the following slight modifications : a. Stems in 5n- drop n in the nominative : as, legiS, stem legiOn- ; ratio, stem ration-. b. Stems in din- and gin- drop n and change i to 0: as, OrdO, stem Ordin- ; virgO, stem virgin-. So also homO (stem homin-), nCmO (stem ngmin-), ApollO (stem Apollin-). c. Neuters and a few masculine stems in in- (not in din- or gin-) have the nominative in -en: as, nOmen, n., stem nOmin-; flfimen, m., stem flftmin-. Note. There is only one stem in m-, hiems (stem hiem-), genitive hiemis, loi'/i/er. This nasal stem is peculiar also in adding -a to form the nominative singular. 32 THIRD DECLENSION 99. Stems ending in a nasal are declined as follows : 6rd5, M. legiO, F. nSmen, n. row legion name Basest OR V5rdin- Stems j legion- nomin- SINGULAR Terminations Terminations M. and F. Neut. NOM ordo ordinis legio legion is nomen nominis i\«JM. Gen. -is -is DAT. ordini legion i -i nomini -i Arc ordinem legion em -em nomen XVUC Abl. ordine legion e -e nomine -e PLURAL NOM. ordines legiones -^s nomin a -a Gen. ordinum legion um -um nominum -um DAT. ordin ibus legion ibus -ibus nomin ibus -ibus Ace. ordines legiones -es nomin a -a Abl. ordin ibus legion ibus -ibus nomin ibus -ibus . II. I-STEMS 100. The original distinction between the declension of con- sonant stems and that of i-stems is shown by the following comparison of case terminations : Singular Plural CONSONANT STEMS Accusative (u. and f.) -em Ablative (m., f., and n.) -e ' Nominative (n.) -a Genitive (M.,F.,and N.)-um Accusative (m. and f.) -es, (N.) -a I-STEMS Accusative (m. and f.) -im Ablative (m., f., and n.) -i Nominative (n.) -ia Genitive (m., f., and n.) -ium Accusative (m. and f.) -is, (N.) -ia This distinction was maintained throughout by relatively few words, the tendency being to displace the i- forms by the THIRD DECLENSION 33 corresponding forms of the consonant stems. Along with this went a tendency of certain consonant stems to assume i- forms in the plural. The I- forms which persisted most strongly were : The ablative singular in -i and the nominative and accusative plural in -ia for all neuters. The genitive plural in -ium. The accusative plural (m. and f.) in -is. A. Pure I-Stems 101. Pure i-stems are those that have retained some or all of the i- forms in the singular and all of them in the plural. 102. Masculines and Feminines — Pure /-Stems. Masculine and feminine nouns of this class regularly end in -is in the nominative singular, in -ium in the genitive plural, and in -is or -6s in the accusative plural. They are declined as follows : tussis, F., cough turris, f., tower ignis, M.,fire Stem tussi- Stem turri- Stem igni- Base tuss- Base turr- SINGULAR Base ign- Terminations M. and F. NOM. tussis turris ignis -is Gen. tussis turris ignis -is DAT. tussi turri igni -i Ace. tussim turrim (-em) ignem -im (-«m) Am.. tussi turri (-€) PLURAL igni(-€) -i(^) NoM. tussgs turrfis ign68 -6s Gen. tuss ium turrium ign ium -ium DAT. tussibus turribus ign ibus -ibus Ace. tussis (-6s) turris (-6s) ignis (-68) -is (-6S) Abl. tussibus turribus ign ibus -ibus 34 THIRD DECLENSION a. Four i-stems end in -er in the nominative singular. These are imber, rain ; linter, boat ; titer, skin ; venter, belly. b. Declined like tussis (ace. -im, abl. -i) in the singular, but lacking the plural, are names of towns and rivers in -is, and sitis, Ikirsl. c. Declined like turris (ace. -im, -em ; abl. -i, -e) are : iehns, /ever ; navis, skip ; puppis, slern ; sementis, sowing; and a few others. d. Declined like ignis (ace. -em ; abl. -i, -e) are : avis, bird; civis, citizen ; classis, fleet ; collis, hill ; finis, end ; orbis, circle ; ovis, sheep ; and a few others. e. Messis, crop ; restis, rope ; and seciiris, ax^ have the accusative singular in -im or -em, and in the ablative messe, reste, and securi respectively. 103. Neuters — Pure /-Stems. Neuter pure i-stems end in -e, -al, or -ar in the nominative singular. They have -i in the ablative singular, -ium in the genitive plural, and -ia in the nominative and accusative plural, a. In the nominative singular the final i- of the stem, if retained, is changed to -e: as, insigne, stem insigni-. But most neuters in which the i- of the stem is preceded by al or ar lose the final stem vowel and shorten the preceding a (§ 34. ^) : as, animal, stem animali-. 104. Neuter pure i-stems are declined as follows : insigne, n. animal, n. calcar, n. decoration animal spur Stems insigni- animali- calcari- Bases insign- animal- calcar- SINGULAR Terminations NoM. insigne animal calcar -e or — Gen. insign is animal is calcar is -is DAT. Insign i animal i calcar i -i Ace. Insigne animal calcar -e or — Abl. insigni animali calcar i -i i THIRD DECLENSION 35 PLURAL Terminations No*i. insignia animal ia calcaria -U Gen. insignium animalium calcarium -ium DAT. insign ibus animal ibus calcaribus -ibus Acc. insign ia animal ia calcaria -ia Abl. insign ibus animal ibus calcaribus -ibus a. Geographical names in -e (as, Praeneste, SOracte) have the ablative in -e. R6te, //^/, has r6te or rarely rgti. B. Mixed I-Stems 105. Mixed i-stems are either original i-stems that have lost their i- forms in the singular, or consonant stems that have assumed i- forms in the plural. It is often impossible to distin- guish between these two classes. Masculines and Feminines. Mixed i-stems are masculine or feminine. , They are declined like consonant stems in the singular and like i-stems in the plural, and have — -em in the accusative singular -e in the ablative singular -ium in the genitive plural -is or -es in the accusative plural 106. Mixed i-stems include the following : a. Nouns in -€s, genitive -is : as, caed6s (gen. caedis), nubSs (gen. nubis). b. Monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a consonant: as, ars, p6ns, arz. c. Polysyllables in -ns or -rs : as, cliSns, cohors. d. The plurals fauc6s, optimatSs, penates. Quiritgs, Samnitgs ; the monosyllables fraus, lis, mus, nix, nox ; and sometimes nouns in -tas (gen. -tatis), as, civitas (genitive plural generally civitfitum, but some- times civititium). 36 THIRD DECLENSION 107. Mixed i-stems are declined as follows : nubgs, F. urbs, F. nox, F. cliens, m. aetas, f. cloud city night client age Stems iiub(i)- urb(i)- noct(i)- client(i)- aetat(i)- Bases nub- urb- noct- SINGULAR client- aetat- NoM. nubes urbs nox clien s aetas Gen. nobis urbis noctis client is aetatis DAT. nubi urbi nocti client! aetati Ace. nub em urbem noctem client em aetatem Abl. nube urbe nocte client e aetate PLURAL NoM. nubes urbes noctes client es aetates Gen. nubium urbium noctium clientium^ aetatum" Dat. nubibus urbibus noctibus client ibus aetatibus Ace. nub is (-es) urbis (-es) noctis (-es) client is- (-es) aetatis (-es) Abl. nubibus urbibus noctibus client ibus aetatibus a. Auris, ear, and a few other pure i-stems have lost their i- forms in the accusative and ablative singular and are declined like nubes. b. Canis, ^og, and iuvenis, youth, are consonant stems that have assumed some i- forms. They have -em in the accusative singular, -e in the ablative singular, -um in the genitive plural, and -6s or -is in the accusative plural. c. FamSs, hunger, always has the ablative famS. 108. The declension of i-stems was unstable at all periods of the language and was confused even among the Romans themselves, early Latin having i- forms which afterwards disappeared. Thus an old nominative plural in -is was completely lost. Lost in most words was the accusative singular in -im. Somewhat more stable was the abla- tive singular in -i, while the genitive plural in -ium and the accusative plural in -is were retained in nearly all words. 1 Rarely clientum. * Also aetatium. THIRD DECLENSION 37 III. IRREGULAR NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION 109. Among the nouns showing irregular case formations are the following : senex, m. cars , F. OS, N. Vis, F. bOs, c. old man flesh bone force ox, cow SINGULAR • NOM. senex caro OS vis bos Gen. sen is cam is OSS is vis (rare) bovis DAT. seni cami ossi vi (rare) bovi Ace. sen em cam em OS vim bovem Abl. sene came osse vi bove PLURAL NoM. sen 68 cam 68 ossa vir68 bov6s Gen. senum cam ium ossium virium boum DAT. senibus cam ibus OSS ibus viribus bo bus (bubus) Ace. sen 6s cam 68 ossa viris (-6s) bov6s Abl. senibus cam ibus OSS ibus viribus bo bus (bubus) sfls, c. [uppiter, M. nix, F. iter, N. swine Jupiter snow march SINGULAR NOM. SU8 luppiter nix iter Qf.N. suis lovis nivis itineris DAT. sui lovi nivi itineri Ace. suem lovem nivem iter Abl. sue love PLURAL nive itinere NOM. SU68 niv6s itinera Gen. suum niv ium itinerum DAT. subu8 (su libU8) nivibus itineribus Ace. su68 niv6s itinera Abl. subu8 (su libus) nivibus itineribus 38 GREEK NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION a. Like sus is declined grus, crajie, except that the dative and ablative plural are always gniibus. lecur, n., live?-, has genitive iecoris or iecinoris. Supellex, y., furniture, has genitive supellectilis, ablative supellectili or -e ; there is no plural. The Locative Case 110. The locative singular for nouns of the third declension ends in -i or -e. ruri (rarely rure), in the country Carthagini or Carthagine, at Carthage The locative plural ends in -ibus and is not distinguished in form from the ablative : as, Trallibus, at Tralles. Greek Nouns of the Third Declension 111. Greek nouns of the third declension are often entirely regular, but many, especially proper names, show Greek ter- minations in the following cases : fl. Genitive singular in -os : as, tigridos. h. Accusative singular in -n or -a : as, basin, tigrida, aethera. c. Vocative singular like the stem : as, Pericle, Orpheu, Atla. d. Nominative plural in -€s : as, heroes. e. Accusative plural in -Ss : as, lampadSs. 112. Examples of these following" ■ peculiarities are seen in the A VyAX\_f TV J.AX^ • hSras, M. lampas, f. basis, F. tigris, c. nais, F. hero torch base tiger naiad SINGULAR NoM. hero 8 lampas basis tigris nais Gen. hero is lampados baseos tigris (-idos) naidos DAT. heroi lampadi basi tigri naidi Ace. hero a lampada basin tigrin (-id a) naida Abl. heroe lampade basi tigri (-ide) naide 1 GREEK NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION 39 PLURAL NoM. herogs lam pad 6s basCs tigrfis naidCs Gen. heroum lampadum basium (-eCn) tigrium naidum U., A. heroibus lampadibus basibus tigribus naidibus Ace. hgrofis lampadis basis (-eis) tigris (-idfts) naidfts NOM. Gen. DAT. Ace. Abl. Voc. Dido Didonis (Didfls) Didoni (Dido) Didonem (Dido) Didone (Dido) Dido GREEK PROPER NAMES Simois Simoentis Simoenti Simoenta Simoente Simois NoM. Orpheus Gen. Orphei (-eOs) Orphei (-e6) Orphea (-um) DAT. Ace. Abl. Voc. Orphe5 Orpheu Pericl6s Periclis (-i) Pericli (-i) Periclem (-ea, -6n) Pericle Pericles (-€) Capys Capyos . Capyi Capyn Capye Capy Paris Paridis Paridi {Paridem Parim (-in) Paride (Pari) Pari Note. The regular Latin forms may be used for most of the above. a. Like Simois are declined stems in ant- (nominative in -fis) : as, Atlas, -antis. b. In a few Greek titles of books -On is found in the genitive plural : as, MetamorphOseOn, of the Metamorphoses (Ovid's well-known poem). Gender in the Third Declension 113. There are no rules for gender in the third declension that do not present numerous exceptions. The gender of many nouns is determined by the general principles laid down in vj§64ff. The most important rules for the others, with their principal exceptions, are the following : 40 GENDER IN THE THIRD DECLENSION 114. Masculine are nouns in -or, -os, -er, -6s (gen. -itis), -ex (gen. -icis) : as, color, flOs, imber, gurges (gurgitis), vertex (verticis). Exceptions a. Feminine are arbor, tree ; linter, skiff. b. Neuter are aequor, sea ; cor, keart ; marmor, marble ; 6s, mouth ; cadaver, dead body ; iter, way ; v6r, spring ; and names of plants and trees in -er : as, acer, maple. 115. Fe^ninirie are nouns in -6, -is, -x, and in -s preceded by a consonant or by any long vowel except 6 : as, legio, avis, arx, urbs, nubes, civitas, virtus. Exceptions a. Masculine are: 1 . serm5, talk ; cardo, hinge ; margo, edge ; ordO, order ; turbo, storm ; and nouns in -io denoting material objects : as, pugio, poniard. 2. Nouns in -nis or -guis : as, ignis, Jire\ sanguis, blood. Also : axis, axle fustis, club i^iscis, Jish coUis, hill lapis, sto7ie postis, post ensis, sword mensis, month pulvis, dust fascis, bundle orbis, ciixle sentis, brier 3. Nouns in -ex (gen. -icis), and grex, gregis, herd, and r6x, regis, king. 4. d6ns, tooth ; f 6ns, fountain ; m6ns, moufitain ; p6n8, bridge. 5. ari6s, ram-, paries, wall; -pes, foot. 6. mus, mouse. b. Neuter are vas (vasis), dish ; criis, leg; ius, law; riis, country. 116. Neuter are nouns in -e, -al, -ar, -n, -ur, -us : as, mare, animal, calcar, n6men, r6bur, corpus ; also lac, milk, and caput, head. Exceptions fl. Masculine are i^va^n, flute-player ; vultur, vulture; lepus, hare. b. Feminine is pecus (gen. -udis), beast. FOURTH DECLENSION 4' THE FOURTH DECLENSION - t^-STEMS 117. The stem of nouns of the fourth declension ends in u- : as, friictu-, stem of fractus. 118. The nominative singular of nouns of the fourth declen- sion ends in -us, masculine ; or in -G, neuter. In masculines the nominative is formed by adding -s to the stem : as, friictu-s, fniit. The nominative singular of neuters is the simple stem with -u lengthened : as, comfl, honi. 119. Nouns of the fourth declension are declined as follows : fructus, M. , fruit cornfi, N. , horn Stem friictu-; li ASE fruct- SINGULAR Stem cornu-; Bask corn- Terminations Terminations NOM. fructus -us coma -a Gen. fructus -as comas -as DAT. fructui (-U) -Ui (-U) corn a -a Ace. fructum -um coma -a Abl. fructG -u PLURAL coma -a NOM. fructfis -fls comua -ua Gen. fructuum -uum corn uum -uum DAT. f ruct ibus -ibus corn ibus -ibus Ace. fructus -us comua -ua AllL. f ruct ibus -ibus com ibus -ibus Note. Cornu, horn ; genu, knee ; and verii, spit, are the only neuters of the fourth declension in common use. Exceptions to Gender in the Fourth Declension 120. The following nouns in -us arc feminine : acus. needle ; domus, lioitse \ Idus (plural), Ides\ manus, kand\ porticus, colon- nade ; tribus, tribe. 42 FIFTH DECLENSION Peculiar Case Forms in the Fourth Declension 121. a. A genitive singular in -i (following the second declension) is common in nouns in -tus in early writers. Other early genitive endings are -uis and -uos. Thus, senati, senatuis, senatuos occur for the regular senatus. The form senati is found as late as Cicero. b. A genitive plural in -um, following the analogy of o-stems (cf. § 88. d), is sometimes used, especially by the poets : as, currum for curruum. c. In the dative and ablative plural the original ending was -ubus, and this is retained in classical times in arcus and tribus. Some words have both -ibus and -ubus. d. The word domus, f., house, shows forms of both the fourth and second declensions. The locative is domi (rarely domui), at home. In the other cases it is declined as follows : domus, F. house or home SINGULAR PLURAL NOM. domus domus Gen. domus, domi domuum, domorum DAT. domui, domo domibus Ace. domum domos, domus Abl. domo, domu domibus Note. The genitive domi and the dative domo are early forms. The ablative domu is rare, and the genitive plural domorum is poetical or late. e. The nouns iussu, by the co?nmafid\ iniussu, without the com- mand \ and natd, by birth, are found in the ablative singular only. /. In early Latin the ablative singular ended in -ud : as, magistratud. THE FIFTH DECLENSION - £-STEMS 122. The stem of nouns of the fifth declension ends in e-. The nominative singular is formed from the stem by adding -s : as, di6-s, day. FIFTH DECLENSION 43 123. Nouns of the fifth declension are declined as follows : dies, M., day res , F., thing fides, F., faith Stem die-; Bask di- Stem re- ; Base r- Stem fid^ ; Base fid- SINGULAR I ERM I NATIONS NOM. dies res fides -es Gen. diei r6i fidgi -ei DAT. diei r6i fidSi -«i Acc. diem rem fid em -em Abl. die re PLURAL fide -€ No.M. dies res -H Gen. dierum r6nim -erum DAT. diebus rebus -ebus Acc. dies ' res -es Abl. diebus rebus -ebus Note i. The e- of the stem is regularly shortened before -m in the accusative singular (§ 34. b). Note 2. The e- of the stem is shortened in the genitive and dative singular of fides, spes, and res in classical Latin. Gender in the Fifth Declension 124. All nouns of the fifth declension are feminine except dies, day (usually masculine), and meridies, midday (always mas- culine). But dies is sometimes feminine in the singular when it denotes an appointed time or extent of time. cSnstituta die, on a set day longa dies, a long time Peculiar Case Forms in the Fifth Declension 125. a. Only dies and res of the nouns of the fifth declension are declined throughout. Most of them have no plural forms at all, but a few have the nominative and accusative, among which are acies, line of battle; f&ciia, /aee \ species, j/^^/; s^a, Aope. b. A genitive and dative singular in -€ instead of -li are sometimes found : as, die for diei ; and a genitive in -i also occurs : as, dii for diei. 44 DEFECTIVE NOUNS DEFECTIVE NOUNS NOUNS USED ONLY IN THE SINGULAR 126. Some nouns are limited by their signification to the singular. These are especially : a. Names of Persons and Places : as, Caesar, Roma. But the plural may be used to indicate two or more persons or places having the same name : as, Caesares, the Ccesars ; Galliae, the two Gauls (Cisalpine and Transalpine) or to define persons as of a certain class or character : as, Scipiones, meft like Scipio. b. Names of Materials : as, aurum, goleral 6o COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 153. There are three degrees of comparison : the positive, , the comparative, and the superlative. ^ \ 154. The comparative is regularly formed by adding, -iof (neuter -ius), the superlative by adding -issimus (-a, -um), to the stem of the positive, which loses its final vowel. Positive Comparative Superlative alius, high (stem alto-) alt-ior, higher alt-issimus, highest clarus, bright (stem claro-) clar-ior, brighter clar-issimus, brightest brevis, short (stem brevi-) brev-ior, shorter brev-issimus, shortest fortis, brave (stem forti-) fort-ior, braver fort-issimus, bravest atr5x, fierce (stem atroc-) atroc-ior, fiercer atroc-issimus, fiercest prudens, wise (stem prudent-) prudent-ior, wiser prudent-issimus, wisest dives, rich (stem divit-) divit-ior, richer divit-issimus, richest Note. The comparative often has the force of too or somewhat^ and the superlative that of very : as, clarior, too bright, somewhat bright ; clarissimus, very bright. a. Participles used as adjectives are similarly compared. amans, loving (stem amant-) amantior amantissimus sciens, skilled (stem scient-) scientior scientissimus notus, known (stem noto-) notior notissimus 155. Adjectives in -er form the superlative by adding -rimus to the nominative of the positive. The comparative is formed regularly. pulcher, pretty pulchr-ior pulcher-rimus miser, wretched miser-ior miser-rimus acer, keeii acr-ior acer-rimus celer, swift celer-ior celer-rimus a. Vetus, old, and matiirus, ripe, are compared as follows : vetus vetustior veterrimus matiirus matiirior maturrimus or matiirissimus COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 6l 156. Six adjectives in -lis form the superlative by adding -limus to the stem, which loses its final I. The comparative is regular. facil-ior facil-limus difficil-ior difficil-limus simil-ior simil-limus dissimil-ior dissimil-limus gracil-ior gracil-limus humil-ior humil-limus facilis, easy difficilis, difficult similis, similar dissimilis, dissimilar gracilis, slender humilis, low 157. Compounds in -dicus, -ficus, and -volus are compared as follows : maledicus, slanderous magnificus, grand benevolus. kindly maledicentior magnificentior benevolentior maledicentissimus magnificentissimus benevolentissimus Irregular Comparison 158. Several adjectives are irregular in comparison. bonus, good melior optimus malus, bad peior pessimus magnus, great maior maximus parvus, small minor minimus multus, ;////6/r plus (§151) plurimus nequam (indeclinable), worthless nequior nequissimus friigi (indeclinable), thrifty friigalior friigalissimus 159. The following four adjectives have two superlatives : exterus, outward exterior inferus, below inferior posterns, following posterior superus, above superior extremus or extimus (rare) infimus or imus postremus or postumus (rare) supremus or summus a. These adjectives are rare in the positive except when used as nouns in the masculine plural : cxteri, foreigners infer!, the gods below poster!, posterity superl, the gods abe 62 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES Defective Comparison 160. Some adjectives lack one or more of the degrees of comparison. a. Adjectives without the Positive. citerior, hither deterior, worse interior, inner ocior, swifter potior, preferable prior, former propior, nearer ulterior, farther citimus, hithermost deterrimus, wo?'st intimus, inmost ocissimus, swiftest potissimus, most importafit primus, first proximus, nearest ultimus, farthest Note. The adjective propinquus, near, is used as the positive of propior. I. Potis, able, the positive of potior, occurs in early Latin. b. Adjectives without the Comparative. f alsus, false meritus, merited novus, new pius, dutiful sacer, sacred falsissimus meritissimus novissimus, last (in order) piissimus (rare) sacerrimus I. For the comparative and superlative of novus, new, the forms recentior and recentissimus are sometimes used. For the comparison of vetus, old, see § 155. rt. c. Adjectives without the Superlative. Many adjectives ending in -ills or -bills (as, agilis, probabilis) have no superlative. Also the following : adulescentior alacrior longinquior obliquior — propior (propinquior) salutarior vicinior adulescens, young alacer, active longinquus, long obliquus, sidelong propinquus, near saliitaris, healthful vicinus, near COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 63 I. The adjectives iuvenis, youtti;, and senex. <>///. are compared as follows : iuvenis iunior or iuvenior minimus natu senex senior maximus natu In these superlatives natu is the ablative of respect (§ 478) and is often omitted. ADJECTIVES NOT COMPARED 161. Some adjectives are not compared. Such are especially : a. Adjectives denoting material. aureus, golden ferreus. iroti ligneus. ivoodeti, etc. h. Adjectives expressing personal relationship, maternus, maternal ixaXtxmxA,/ratenntl, etc. c. Adjectives expressing relations of time. hodiernu9, 0/ to-day aestivus, 0/ summer sempitemus, e^'erlasting^ etc. d. Ihe following special words : almus. nourishing immemoT,/orgetJ'ul miitus, dumd claudus, lame impar. unequal nefastus, impious curvus, cun>ed mediocris, tnedium rudis, rough ferns, wild minis, ivonderful vagus, wandering Also most adjectives compounded of verbs or substantives. Adjectives Compared with magis and maxime 162. Many adjectives, instead of using terminations, are compared by means of the adverbs magis. vtore, and maxime, most, followed by the positive. This method is especially common with participles, compound adjectives, and adjectives ending in -us preceded by a vowel : as, id5neus, fit, magis iddneus, maximS iddneus. 64 NUMERAL ADJECTIVES NUMERALS 163. The Latin numerals are of two classes : adjectives and adverbs. Numeral adjectives include cardinals^ ordinals, and distributives. a. Cardinals answer the question how many ? unus, one duo, two b. Ordinals, derived in most cases from the cardinals, answer the question which in order "i primus, yfrj-/ secundus, second c. Distributives answer the question hoiv many at a time? how many each ? singuli, o?te by one bini, two by two I. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 164. The cardinal, ordinal, and distributive numeral adjec- ves are shown in the following table : Cardinals Ordinals Distributives I. unus primus singuli 2. duo secundus bini 3. tres tertius terni, trini 4. quattuor quartus quaterni 5. quinque quintus quini 6. sex sextus seni 7. septem Septimus septeni 8. octo octavus octoni 9. novem nonus noveni 10. decern decimus deni II. undecim iindecimus undeni 12. duodecim duodecimus duodeni 13. tredecim tertius decimus terni deni 14. quattuordecim quartus decimus quaterni d6n! 15. quindecim quintus decimus quini d6ni NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 65 Cardinals ORDIfJALS Distributives 16. sMecim sextus decimus • sgni dgni 17. septendecim Septimus decimus septgni dgni 18. duodeviginti duodevicgsimus dujdgvicgni 19. Qndgviginti undSvic6simu8 undgvicgni 20. viginti vicgsimus vicgni viginti unus vicSsimus primus vicgni singuli 21. or or or finus et viginti iinus et vicSsimus singuli et vicftni 28. duodetriginta duodgtricgsimus duodgtricgni 29. undgtriginta undetricgsimus undgtricgni 30- triginta tricfisimus tricgni 40. quadraginta quadragesimus quadraggni SO- quinquaginta quinquaggsimus quinquageni 60. sexagina sexagSsimus sexaggni 70. septuagintfi septuaggsimus septuaggni 80. octCginta oct5ggsimus octOggni 90. nOnaginta nOnaggsimus nOnaggni 100. centum centgsimus centgni lOI. centum (et) unus centgsimus (et) primus centgni singuli 200. ducenti ducentgsimus ducgni 300. trecenti trecentgsimus trecgni 400. quadringenti quadringentgsimus quadringgni 500. quingenti quingentgsimus quinggni 600. sescenti sescentgsimus sescgni 700. septingenti septingentgsimus septinggni 800. octingenti octingentgsimus octinggni 900. nOngenti nOngentgsimus ndnggni 1,000. mille millgsimus singula milia 2,000. duo milia bis millgsimus bina milia 10,000. decem milia decigns millgsimus dgna milia 00,000. centum milia centigns millgsimus centgna milia Note t. The ordinals in -esimus. as, vicesimas, tricgsimus, etc., are spelled vicensimus. trfcensimus, etc., in early Latin. Note 2. The plural of mille. thousand^ is mQlia or milia. The spelling with one 1 is preferred in Latin of the best period. 66 DECLENSION OF NUMERALS 165. Numbers above 100,000 are expressed by placing numeral adverbs of multiplication before centena milia for the cardinals, and before centiens millgsimus for the ordinals. Thus, 1,000,000 is expressed deciens centena milia (ten times a hundred thousand^, cardinal ; deciens centiens millesimus {ten times the hundred thousandth), ordinal. Declension of Numerals 166. Of the cardinals only unus, duo, tres, the hundreds above one hundred, and mille used as a noun, are declined. a. Unus, one or only, is one of the nine irregular adjectives (§ and is declined as follows : 43) Masc. Fem. Neut. NOM. unus una unum Gen. unT'us > unrus unfus DAT. unT uni uni Ace. unum . unam unum Abl. uno una uno The plural is regular, and has the meaning alotie or only, unless used with nouns plural in form and singular in sense (§ 133): as, una castra, one camp ; uni mores, one set of habits. b. Duo and tres are declined as follows : Masc. Fem. Neut. M. AND F. Neut. NOM. duo duae duo tres tria Gen. duorum duarum duorum trium trium DAT. duobus duabus duobus tribus tribus Ace. duos (duo) duas duo tres (tris) tria Abl. duobus duabus duobus tribus tribus I . Ambd, doth, is declined like duo, but its final is long. c. The hundreds above one hundred are declined like the plural of bonus : as, ducenti, -ae, -a, two hundred. USES OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 67 d. Mille in the singular is regularly used as an adjective and is indeclinable. mille modis, /// <7 thousand ways cum mille hominibus, with a thousand men Mille in the plural (milia) is used as a neuter noun, is followed by the genitive of the objects enumerated, and is declined as follows : NoM. mllia Gen. milium Dat. milibus Ace. milia Abl. milibus E.XAMPLES : decern milia hominum misit, he sent ten thousand men (lit. ten thousands of men) castra milia passuum tria absunt, the camp is three miles ti^(lit. three thousands of paces) Note i . The singular mille is rarely used as a noun in the nominative and accusative : as, mille hominum misit, he sent a thousand (of) men. NoTK 2. When a declinable numeral follows milia. the form of expres- sion is as follows : duo milia ducenti milites. ur duo milia militum et ducenti, 2200 soldiers. 167. The ordinals are declined like bonus, and the distribu- tives like the plural of bonus (ij 140). Pkculiarities in the Use of Cardinals and Ordinals 168. In numbers below icx), if units precede tens, et is generally inserted ; otherwise et usually is omitted : as, duo et viginti, tzvo and twenty y or viginti duo, twenty-two, 169. Compound numerals above 100 generally have the largest denomination first, and the others follow without et ; but et may be inserted between the two highest denominations : as, mille (et) septingenti sexigintS quattuor, Z/^-/. 68 USES OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 170. The numerals i8 and 19 are generally expressed by duodeviginti {two from twenty) and undeviginti {o7te from twenty) ^ rarely by octodecim and novendecim. Similarly, the other numerals ending in 8 and 9 are usually expressed by the subtraction of two and 07te rather than by the addition of eight and 7iine respectively : as, duodeoctoginta rather than septuaginta octo, yS. 171. When referring to two persons or things, instead of using primus and secundus, Latin generally employs unus and alter respectively, erant duo consules, unus Cicero alter Antonius, there were two consuls^ one Cicero^ the other A?itony a. The usual Latin expressions for twejtty first, thirty fifth, etc., are vicesimus primus, tricesimus quintus, etc. 172. Unus, when part of a compound number, is used in the singular, and agrees with its noun in gender and case : as, viginti milites et iinus, or unus et viginti milites, twenty-one soldiers. Uses of the Distributive Numerals 173. Distributive numerals are used : a. To express so rnany apiece, so many at a time : as, censores bini in singulas civitates, tzvo censors to each state. b. To express multiplication : as, bis bina sunt quattuor, twice two are four. c. With nouns that are plural in form and usually singular in sense : as, bina castra, two camps. With such nouns uni, not singuli, is used for 07ie, and trini, not temi, for three : as, una castra, one camp ; trina castra, three camps. d. With nouns denoting objects that go in pairs or sets. bini boves, a yoke of oxen bina hastilia, a pair of spears e. By the poets instead of cardinal numbers: as, quina armenta (Vergil), fve herds. NUMERAL ADVERBS Fractions 69 174. Fractions are expressed, as in English, by cardinals in the numerator and ordinals in the denominator. The feminine gender is used to agree with pars expressed or understood. duae septimae (partes), two sevenths quinque octavae (partes), yf?/^ eighths a. When the numerator is one, it is omitted and pars is expressed with the denominator. dimidia pars (or dimidium), one ha If tertia pars, one third quarta pars, one fourth b. When the denominator is but one greater than ilic numerator, the denominator is omitted and partes is used with the numerator. duae partes, two thirds tres partes, three fourths Example: dimidia pars et tres partes et septem duodecimae sunt unum et quinque partes, ^ + j + iV ~ '«• 175. Numeral Jioiv many times 1. semel, once 2. bis, twice 3. ter, thrift 4. qua ter 5. quinquiSns 6. sexigns 7. septiSns 8. octigns 9. novigns 10. decigns II. NUMERAL ADVERBS adverbs answer the question ho7v often? 1 1 . undecigns 12. duodecigns 13. terdecigns 30. 14. quaterdecigns 40. 15. quindecigns 50. 16. sgdecigns 60. 17. septigns decigns 70. 18. octigns decigns 80. 19. novigns decigns 90. 20. vicigns 100. fvicigns semel \ semel et vicigns tricigns quadr&gigns quinqu&gigns sexagigns septufigigns octOgigns nOnAgiens centigns The termination -igs is often used instead of -Iftns : as, sexigs. 70 ROMAN NUMERALS a. The accusative or ablative neuter singular of the ordinals is sometimes used as a numeral adverb. primum,y27r the first time primo, at first SQCxmAo, for the second tifne tertio or ttxtiw.va., for the third time, etc. The Roman Numeral System 176. The following characters are used as Roman numerals : I. I IS- XV 100. C 2. 11 16. XVI 200. cc 3- in 17. XVII 300. ccc 4. IIII or IV 18. XVIII 400. cccc 5- V 19. XVIIII or XIX 500. D 6. VI 20. XX 600. DC 7. VII 21. XXI 700. Dce 8. VIII 30- XXX ■ 800. DCCC 9. Villi or IX 40. XXXX or XL 900. DCCCC 0. X 50. L 1,000. CD, 00, or CO I. XI 60. LX ' 5,000. ^orV 2. XII 70. LXX 10,000. (§) orX 3. XIII 80. LXXX 100,000. # or C 4. XIIII or XIV 90. LXXXXorXC 1,000,000. m a. The original numerical symbols were representations of the fingers, as, I, one finger ; II, two fingers ; V, the hand, iorfive (only the thumb and little finger being drawn) ; and X, the two hands crossed, for ten. X, however, is sometimes regarded as an Etruscan symbol for ten, the upper half of which was used for five. To these original symbols were added the three Chalcidic (§2) aspirates, ch, V (altered into vL/, ±, L), for 50; th, O (altered into C), for 100; and///, CD (broken into (X), CD), for iqoo. The fact that the original numerals I, V, X were identical in form with certain letters of the alphabet no doubt assisted the changes of V to L, and of O to C, the latter change being favored also by the fact that C was the first letter of centum. In a similar way the second half of CD, 1000, written D, was used for 500. PERSONAL PRONOUNS 71 &. At an early date milia passuum (miies) was represented by M . P, but the separate use of M for the word mille or milia is not found before the second century of our era. c. While CD denotes 1000, the addition of a second circle outside the first makes it mean 10,000 (^), and of a third, 100,000 {%). d. Toward the end of the Republic the thousands were denoted by drawing a line above the numeral : as, V, 5000. By adding lateral lines the numeral was multiplied by 100,000: as, fvi, 500,000. e. The symbols I and X, when placed at the left of a higher number, are to be subtracted from it; but symbols like IIII, Villi, XII II are earlier and more usual than IV, IX, XIV. Such symbols as CM for 900, MCM for 1900, are modem. The Romans wrote DCCCC for 900, MDCCCC for 1900. PRONOUNS 177. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. Pronouns and their corresponding pronominal adjectives are divided into the following eight classes : I. Personal V. Intensive II. Reflexive VI. Relative III. Possessive VII. Interrogative IV. Demonstrative VIII. Indefinite 178. Pronouns have special forms of declension differing in some respects from those of nouns. I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS 179. The personal pronouns are : SINGULAR PLURAL First Pers. ego, / nOs. 7oe Second Pers. tu, t/iou or you v6s, ir or you Pronouns of the third person, he, she, it, they, are wanting, a demonstrative or relative being used instead. 72 REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS 180. The personal pronouns ego, /, and tu, tJioii or yoii^ are declined as follows : First Person Second Person SINGULAR PLURAL SINGUJ^AR PLURAL NOM. ego nos tu vos Gen. mei nostrum, nostri tui vestrum, vestri DAT. mihi (mi) nobis tibi vobis Ace. me nos te VOS Abl. me nobis te vobis a. Emphatic forms of tu are t^ute and tutemet. The other forms of the personal pronouns, except the genitive plural, may be made emphatic by adding -met as an enclitic (§ 39) : as, egomet, vosmet. 6. The accusative and ablative forms me and te are sometimes doubled, or reduplicated : as, meme, tete. c. The preposition cum, with, when used with the ablative of a personal pronoun, is added to it as an enclitic (§ 39) : as, mecum, tecum, nobiscum, vobiscum. d. In early Latin the accusative and ablative singular forms were med, ted. Instead of vestrum and vestri the forms vostrum and vostri occur in early and late Latin. II. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS 181. Reflexive pronouns refer to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand : as, he loves himself, ive love ourselves. 182. Reflexive pronouns have no nominative. In the other cases the reflexives of the first and second person are the same as the personal pronouns. ego me video, I see myself n6s nobis persuademus, we persuade ourselves tu te vides, yott see yourself vos vobis persuadetis, you persuade yourselves POSSESSIVE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES 73 183. The reflexive of the third person has a special form, the same for both singular and plural. It is declined thus : sui, of himself , herself, itself, themselves I ) AT. sibi, to ox for himself, herself itself, themselves Aci-. 86, himself, herself, itself, themselves Abl. 86 (with fi, tic), from, etc., himself herself itself themselves a. In the accusative and ablative the reduplicated form 8€86 occurs. Emphatic forms in -met are made as in the personal pronouns (§ 180. present stem of dico, speak. Often, however, various stem elements are added to the root, and sometimes the root itself is changed. Thus arise seven different kinds of formation of the present stem, making the following seven classes^ of verbs : 1 The variation of the stem vowel between e- and o- is caused by ablaut (§ 56), and its variable character is generally indicated by writing it e/o (or, as it usually appears, i/u). 2 The thematic vowel, appearing between the root and the personal endings, is a part of the stem but not of the root. Its origin is unknown. 8 In the first five classes the stem endings added to the root are, respec- tively, e/o (the thematic vowel), yVo) nc/o, te/o» scc/o- In classes 6 and 7 the thematic vowel is added directly to the root, but the root itself is changed. THE PERFECT STEM 87 a. The root class : as, dic-6, speaA ; root die-. b. The -iC class : as, cap-iO, tak^ ; root cap-. c. The -nO class : as, tem-nO, despise ; root tem-. d. The -to class: as, flec-tO, bend\ root flee-. €. The -sc6 class : as, erg-seO, grow ; root erg-. /. The reduplicating class: as, gi-gn-5, bear\ root gen- or gn-. g. The nasal class : as, iu-n-g-0, join ; root iug-. 1, In the reduplicating class the root is changed by reduplication; that is, by prefixing its first consonant with i. 2. In the nasal class a nasal (m or n) is inserted before the final con- sonant of the simple root, and usually appears only in the present system. The Perfect Stem 222. The perfect stem may be found by dropping -i from the first person singular of the perfect indicative active. 223. The perfect stem is formed in various ways : a. The suffi.x -V- is added to the present stem. This formation is common to most verbs of the first and fourth conjugations. voca-v-i, from vocare, call audi-v-i, from audire, hear ft. The suflfix -V- is added to the root, or to a modified form of the root ending in a long vowel. This formation is found in several verbs of the second and third conjugations. fle-v-i, from flere, weep ; root fle- stra-v-I, from sternere, stre%u ; root ster-, modified root stra- n5-v-i, from ndscere, know ; root gno-, modified root n5- le-v-i, from linere, smear \ root li-, modified root le- c. The suflfix -u- is added to the root or to a modified form of it. This formation is common to most verbs of the second conjuga- tion, and also appears in some verbs of the third and (rarely) of the first and fourth conjugations. 88 THE PERFECT STEM mon-u-i, from monere, advise ; root man-, modified root mon- col-u-i, from colere, ////; root col- vet-u-i, from ye\zxt, forbid \ root vet- aper-u-i, from aperire, open ; preposition ab + root par-, modified root per- NoTE. The suffix -u- is in reality the same as the suffix -v-, the Latin having but one character for both the vowel and the consonant (§2. b). d. The suffix -s- is added to the root This formation is common to verbs of the third conjugation having roots ending in a mute (cf . § i o). It often appears also in the second conjugation and occasionally in the fourth. The combination of the final mute and s gives rise to various con- sonant changes (cf. § 50), and the quantity of the vowel in the root syllable of the perfect and of the present is sometimes not the same. rex-i, from regere, ru/e • root reg- mi-s-i, from mittere, se;id\ root mit- ar-s-i, from ardere, burn ; root ar-, modified root ard- sen-s-i, from sentire,y^i?/; root sent- e. The root is reduplicated by prefixing the first consonant, gen- erally with 6, sometimes with the root vowel. An a in the root syllable is weakened to i or e, and an ae to i (cf. § 44). This formation is found only in the third conjugation, in mordeo, pendeo, spondee, and tondeo of the second conjugation, and in do and sto. Examples are : ce-cid-i, from cadere,y«//; root cad- ce-cid-i, from caedere, cut ; root caed- te-tig-i, from tangere, totich ; root tag- to-tond-i, from tondere, shear \ root tond- 1. In compounds the reduplicated syllable usually disappears: as, incidi, perfect of incido (compound of cado); contigi, perfect of con- tingO (compound of tango). 2. When the verb begins with 3p or st, both consonants appear in the reduplication, but s disappears from the root : as, steti (for *8te-sti), perfect of sto. THE PARTICIPIAL STEM 89 /. The vowel of the root syllable is lengthened or changed. This formation is confined mostly to verbs of the second and third conjugations. mov-i, from movere, move ; root mov- fec-i, from facere, make ; root fac- eg-i, from agere, drive ; root ag- ven-i, from venire, come ; root ven- g. Sometimes the perfect stem has the same form that appears in the present. This formation is common in the third conjugation, and occurs in nearly all verbs ending in -uO. vert-i, from vertere, turn solv-i, from solvere, loosen metu-i, from metuere,y^tfr tribu-i, from tribuere, assign 224. The rules in § 223 may be summarized by the state- ment that, in general, the perfect stem is formed by adding a suffix to the root or present stem, by reduplication, or by changing the root vowel. ThK PaRTICIPI.^L STKNf 225. The participial stem may be found by dropping -us or -um from the nominative of the past participle, or -um from the supine. 226. The participial stem is formed by adding -t- or -»- : a. To the present stem. ama-t-, from amare, lo^>e dele-t-, from delere. destroy audi-t-, from audire, hear b. To the root, with or without an intervening -1-. cap-t-, from capere, /ake mon-i-t-. from monere, advise 90 FORMATION OF THE MOODS AND TENSES The addition of the suffix leads to many consonant changes, for which see §§48, 54.^. The vowel of the root syllable is generally the same as in the present. Note. Verbs in -uo form the participial stem by adding -ut- to the root syllable. stat-ut-, from statuere, set trib-ut-, from tribuere, assign FORMATION OF THE MOODS AND TENSES 227. The different moods and tenses are, as a rule, distin- guished by certain formative signs, known as mood signs or tense signs, which precede the personal endings. Long vowels are regularly shortened before another vowel, before a final m, r, or t, and before nt or nd (cf. § 34. ^). Indicative Mood 228. The tenses of the indicative mood are the present, past descriptive, future, perfect, past perfect, and future perfect. 229. The present, past descriptive, and future are formed from the present stem as follows : a. The Present Indicative has no tense sign, the personal endings being added directly to the stem. Thus, from the present stem ara- are formed ara-s, ara-tis, etc. 1. In the first conjugation the stem vowel a- disappears in the first person singular by contraction : as, amo, for *ama-6. 2. In the third conjugation the thematic vowel e/o (§221) dis- appears in the first person singular by contraction (as, rego for "^reg-e-o) ; appears as e before r (as, reg-e-ris) ; appears as u before nt (as, reg-u-nt) ; and becomes i before all the other personal endings (as, reg-i-s, reg-i-t). 3. In the fourth conjugation the thematic vowel appears as u in the third person plural between the stem and the personal ending: as, audi-u-nt. FORMATION OF THE MOODS AND TENSES 91 b. I'he Past Descriptive Indicative adds -bft- as a tense sign to the present stem : as, ama-ba-s. 1. In the third conjugation the stem vowel appears as 6-: as, reg6-ba-m. 2. In the fourth conjugation 6 generally occurs between the stem and the tense sign: as, audi-€-ba-m. This is the regular form in classical Latin. The earlier formation is without 6 : as, audi-ba-m. c. The Future Indicative in the first and second conjugations has as a tense sign -b -}- the thematic vowel i/u (changed from e/o except in the first person singular). This is added to the present stem : as, am4-b0, ama-bi-s, mon6-bu-nt. In the third and fourth conjugations the tense sign is -A- in the first person singular and -€- in the remaining forms. In the third conjugation the tense signs take the place of the stem vowel, but not in the fourth : as, reg-a-m, reg-6-mus, audi-a-m, audi-€-mus. Note i. The tense signs -a- and -e- arc really subjunctive mood signs, and futures so formed arc in origin present subjunctives. NoTK 2. In early Latin a future in -bo is found also in verbs of the fourth conjugation: as, sclbo, for sciam; audlb5, for audiam. 230. The perfect, past perfect, and future perfect indicative active are formed from the perfect stem as follows : a. The Perfect Indicative is formed by adding the endings of the perfect (cf. $ 217) to the perfect stem (cf. § 222). 1. Perfects in -ftvi, -€vi, and -5vi, and also other tenses formed from similar perfect stems, sometimes lose v and its following vowel before s or r. amasti. for amavisti commdrat, for commoverat delerunt, for deleverunt ndsti, for ndvisti 2. Perfects in -ivi often omit v, but the following vowel is not droppjed except before s. audiit, for audivit audienint, for audiverunt audisti, for audivisti petistis, for petivistis b. The Past Perfect Indicative adds -€ri- as a tense sign to the perfect stem : as, anUlv-era-m. 92 FORMATION OF THE MOODS AND TENSES c. The Future Perfect Indicative has as a tense sign -er + the thematic vowel i/u (changed from e/o except in the first person singu- lar). This is added to the perfect stem : as, amav-ero, amav-eri-s. The third person plural, however, ends in -int (not in -unt) in imita- tion of the perfect subjunctive. Note i. The same imitation has given rise to occasional forms of the second person singular and first and second person plural in -is, -imus, -itis, instead of -is, -imus, -itis, the forms with i being original in the perfect subjunctive. Note 2. In early Latin the future perfect indicative sometimes has forms in -so or -sso : as, faxo (fac-so), from facio ; capso, from capio ; amasso, from amo. 231. The Perfect Indicative Passive and all other passive tenses of the perfect system are formed by combining the past participle with present, past descriptive, and future forms of the auxiliary verb esse, de : as, amatus sum, amatus eram, amatus ero, amatus sim, amatus esse, etc. Subjunctive Mood 232. The tenses of the subjunctive mood are the present, past, perfect, and past perfect. Long vowels are shortened, before a final m, r, or t, and before nt or nd, as in the indica- tive (cf. § 34. ^). 233. The present and past subjunctive are formed from the present stem as follows : a. The Present Subjunctive has the mood sign -e- in the first conjugation and -a- in the others. The mood sign takes the place of the final stem vowel in the first and third conjugations, but not in the second and fourth : as, am-e-m, mone-a-mus, reg-a-s, audi-a-tis. I. Many irregular verbs have -i- for a present subjunctive mood sign : as, s-i-m, vel-i-mus, du-i-nt, ed-i-s. b. The Past Subjunctive adds the mood sign -se- to the present stem, the s becoming r between two vowels (cf. § 49) : as, es-s5-mus, mone-re-s. FORMATION OF THE MOODS AND TENSES 93 234. The perfect and past perfect subjunctive active are formed from the perfect stem as follows : a. The Perfect Subjunctive Active adds the tense sign -erf- to the perfect stem : as, amav-eri-m, amav-eri-s. I. The i of the mood sign, originally long, is often shortened through confusion with the future perfect indicative (cf. § 230. c. n. 1). hjccept in the first person singular the Romans did not maintain a clear distinction between these two tenses. Note i. In early Latin a perfect subjunctive appears with the ending -sim : as, faxim (fac-sim), from faci5 ; ausim, from auded. Note 2. For the passive see § 231. b. The Past Perfect Subjunctive Active adds the tense sign -issS- to the perfect stem : as, amav-iss6-s, dix-isse-m. Note. For the passive see § 23 1 . Imperative Mood 235. The imperative mood has neither mood sign nor tense signs. Its forms are made by adding its characteristic endings (cf. § 218) to the present stem : as, ami-te, mone-nt5. a. In the third conjugation the final vowel of the stem (the thematic vowel, § 221) appears as 6 in the second person singular, and else- where as in the present indicative : as, rege, regi-t5. b. In the fourth conjugation the thematic vowel appears as u between the stem and the ending in the third person plural of the future imperative, just as in the third person plural of the present indicative (cf. § 229. a. 3): as, audi-u-ntO. c. Four verbs, dic6, duc5, faciS, and ferO, drop the final vowel in* the singular of the present active imperative, making die, dQc. fac, jand fer. But prepositional compounds of faciO retain the final vowel : as, cOnfice from cOnficiS. • Note. In early Latin dice, duce, and face are more frequent than the shortened forms. 94 FORMATION OF THE NON-MODAL VERB FORMS FORMATION OF THE NON-MODAL VERB FORMS 236. The non-modal verb forms are the infinitive, gerund, supine, and participle. 237. The infinitive has three tenses : present, perfect, and future, active and passive. a. I. The Present Infinitive Active is formed by adding -se to the present stem : as, es-se, be. But when the s of this ending comes between two vowels, it is regularly changed to r (cf. § 49) : as, ama-re, for ama-se ; mone-re, for mone-se. 2. The Present Infinitive Passive is formed by adding -ri to the present stem in all conjugations but the third, where -i is added to the root syllable : as, ama-ri, mone-ri, audi-ri, but reg-i. Note. In early Latin and in poetry a present infinitive passive occurs ending in -ier : as, amarier, monerier, regier, audirier. h. I . The Perfect Infinitive Active is formed by adding -isse to the perfect stem : as, amav-isse, monu-isse, rex-isse, audiv-isse. 2. The Perfect Infinitive Passive consists of the past pardciple with esse : as, amatus esse, monitus esse. But esse is often omitted. c. I. The Future Infinitive Active consists of the forms of the future active participle with esse: as, amaturus esse. But esse is very often omitted. 2. The Future Infinitive Passive consists of the supine in -um with in (the present infinitive passive of eo, go) : as, amatum iri, rectum iri. 238. The Gerund is a neuter verbal noun,^ corresponding in meaning to the English verbal noun in -z;/^: as, loquendi causa, /or the sake of speaking. It is found only in the oblique cases of the singular, and may be formed by adding -ndi to the present stem : as, ama-ndi, mone-ndi, rege-ndi. In the fourth conjugation the thematic vowel appears as e between the stem and the ending: as, audi-e-ndi. » Note. In early Latin -undi is often used for -endi in the third and fourth conjugations: as, faciundi, audiundi. 1 The gerund is really the neuter of the gerundive used substantively. FORMATION OF THE NON-MODAL VERB FORMS 95 239. The Supine is a verbal noun of the fourth declension, and is commonly found only in the accusative singular, ending in -turn or -sum, and in the ablative singular, ending in -tfi or -sii : as, amatum, amatu ; visum, visti. 240. There are four participles : the present active, the future active, the past passive, and the future passive, or gerundive. Latin lacks the perfect active participle (as, having heard) and the present passive participle (as, being heard). But the past participle of deponent verbs (§ 247), though passive in form, is generally active in meaning. a. The Present Active Participle has the same meaning as the English participle in -ing. It is formed by adding -nt- (nominative singular -ns) to the present stem (as, voci-ns, calling), and is declined like an adjective of one ending of the third declension (of. § 149). In the fourth conjugation the thematic vowel appears as e between the stem and the ending : as, audl-6-ns, hearing. b. The Future Active Participle is used to express what is /i/:e/y or a/H>n/ to happen, and is regularly formed by adding -Qrus, -a, -um to the participial stem. atnat-urus, adou^ to lente monit-urus, about to advise c. The Past Participle Passive has the meaning of the English past participle passive, and is regularly formed by adding -us, -a, -um to the participial stem : as, amfit-us, loved. It is used also with forms of esse to form the passive tenses of the perfect system (cf. § 231). Note. The past participle of deponent verbs (§ 247) is generally active in meaning : as, hortatus, having encouraged. d. The Future Passive Participle, or Gerundive, sometimes denotes obligation, propriety, or intention, but more frequently has the same meaning as the gerund (§ 238). 'I'he gerundive is formed like the gerund ^§ 238) from the present stem, but with the endings -ndus, -a, -um in the nominative singular, and is declined throughout like bonus (§ 1 40). amandus. -a. -um, to be loved regendus. -a, -um. to Iw ruled 96 CONJUGATION OF SUM CONJUGATION OF SUM 241 . The verb sum, to be, is irregular, but is given first because of its importance as an auxiliary in the formation of the passive tenses of the regular verb. Principal Parts : pres. indie, sum, pres. infin. esse, perf. indie, fui, fut. part, futurus ^ Pres. Stem es- SINGULAR sum, I am es, thou art est, he (she, it) is eram, I was eras, thou wast erat, he was erS, I shall be eris, thou wilt be erit, he will be fui, I have been, was fuisti, thou hast been, wast fuit, he has been, was Perf. Stem fu- Part. Stem fut- INDICATIVE Present PLURAL sumus, 7ve are estis, you are sunt, they are Past Descriptive eramus, we were eratis, you ivere erant, they were erimus, we shall be eritis, you will be erunt, they will be fuimus, 7ve have been, were iwisti^, you have been, were I they have been, were Future Perfect fueram, I had been fueras, thou hadst been fuerat, he had been fu6re Past Perfect fu eramus, 7ve had been f u eratis, you had bee?i fu erant, they had been 1 Sum has no past participle (cf. § 212. n.). CONJUGATION OF SUM 97 Future Perfect singular plural fuerO, / shall have been fuerimus, ute shall have been fueris, thou wilt have been fueritis, you will have been fuerit, he will have been fucrint, they will have been r RESENT SINGULAR PLURAL sim simus sis sitis sit sint Perfect fuerim fuerimus fueris fueritis fuerit fuerint Present 2D Pers. Sing, es, be thou 2nPERs. Plur. ^s,\A^beye SUBJUNCTIVE Pa ,sr SINGULAR PLURAL essem essSmus ess6s cssetis esset essent Past ] Perfect \ fuissem fuissfimus fuissgs fuissgtis fuisset f u issent IMPERATIVE Future 2L> Pers. Sing. est5, thou shall be 3D Pers. Sing. estO, he shall be 2D Pers. Plur. estCte, ye shall be 3D Pers. Plur. suntO, they shall be INFINITIVE Pres. esse, to be I'KKK. fuisse, to have been Fr I. futurus, -a, -um esse, or fore, to be about to be participle futurus, -a, -um, about to be a. In the past subjunctive forem, forCs, foret, forent are often used instead of essem, essCs, etc.; so in the future infinitive fore is used for futurus esse. b. The present participle is lacking in sum, but appears in the par- ticipial adjectives ab-sCns {absent) and prae-s6ns (present). c. Old present subjunctives are siem, sigs, siet, sient, and fuam, fu&s, fuat, fuant. 98 CONJUGATION OF AMO REGULAR VERBS ' 242. FIRST CONJUGATION. ^-VERBS. AMO Principal Parts : amo, amare, amavi, amatus Pres. Stem ama- Perf. Stem amav- Part. Stem amat- ACTIVE PASSIVE INDICATIVE Present I love ^ am lovi?ig, do love, etc. I am loved, etc. am 5 amamus ^mor amamur amas amatis amaris (-re) amamini amat amant amatur amantur Past Descriptive / loved, was loving, did love, etc. / was {being) loved, etc. amabam amabamus amabar amabamur amabas amabatis amabaris (-re) amabamini ama bat ama bant amabatur amabantur Future I shall love, e.tc. I shall be loved, &ic. ama bo amabimus amabor amabimur ama bis amabitis amaberis (-re) amabimini ama bit ama bunt amabitur amabuntur Perfect I have loved, loved, did love, etc. I have been (was) loved, etc. amavi amavimus _ fsum , fsumus _ . ^. - • .. amatus, amat I, amavisti amavistis <^ es < estis -a, -utn -ae, -a ] amav it amav grunt (-re) Lest j^sunt CONJUGATION OF AMO 99 ACTIVE / had imrd, etc. amaveram amaveramus amaveris amaveratis amaverat amaverant PASSIVE Past Perfect / had been lavedy etc. amatus, -a, -um eram er&s erat amati, -ae, -a r eramus -{ eratis C erant Future Perfect /shall have im'ed, etc. I shall have been loved, etc. ama\ er6 amaverimus amaveris amaveritis am a V erit ama v erint amatus, -a, -um ert eris I, erit amati, -ae, -a erimus eritis erunt SUBJUNCTIVE Present am em am emus amer amCmur am 6s amgtis am eris (-re) amSmini amet ament am6tur amentur Past ama rem amargmus amargs amaretis ama ret ama rent ama rer ama rSmur amarCris (-re) amarSmini amargtur amarentur amaverim amaverimus amavens amaveritis amaverit ama v erint Perfect rsim . , amatus, , amati < sis -a, -um 1 , -ae, -a 1 sit . rsimus sitis sint amav issem amav issgmus amavissgs amavissStis amav isset amiiv issent Past Perfect amatus, -a, -um essem essgs esset amati, -ae, -a f essgmus -! essetis essent :oo CONJUGATION OF AMO ACTIVE ama, love thou amate, love ye ama to, thoic shalt love ama to, he shall love ama tote, ye shall love amanto, they shall love PASSIVE IMPERATIVE Present ama re, be thou loved ama mini, be ye loved Future ama tor, thou shalt be loved ama tor, he shall be loved amantor, they shall be loved INFINITIVE Pres. ama re, to love amari, to be loved Perf. amavisse, to have loved amatus, -a, -um esse, to havebeeii loved FuT. amaturus, -a, -um esse, amatum iri, to be about to be loved to be about to love PARTICIPLES Pres. amans, -antis, /r;z^/;z^ Pres. FuT. amaturus, -a, -um, ^^^7/^ Ger.i amandus, -a, -um, to be loved to love Past Past amatus, -a, -um, having been loved, loved GERUND NOM. Gen, amandi, of loving DAT. ama ndo, for loving Ace. amandum, loving Abl. amand5, by loving SUPINE (Active Voice) Acc. amatum, to love Abl. amatu, to love, in the loving ^ Gerundive, sometimes called the future passive participle. CONJUGATION OF MONEO 243. SECOND CONJUGATION. ^-VERBS. MOlfEO Principal Parts : moned, monSre, monui, monitus Pres. Stem mon6- Perf. Stem monu- Part. Stbm monit- lOI ACTIVE I advise^ etc. moneO mones monet monemus monetis monent PASSIVE INDICATIVE Present I am advised^ etc. moneor monemur moneris (-re) moncmini mone tur mone ntur Past Descriftive / was advising, etc. / was advised^ etc. mone bam monebftmus mone bar monebamur mone bans (-re) moncbfimini monebas mone bat monebatis mone bant monebatur monebantur / shall advise, etc. monebO monebimus mone bis monebitis mone bit mone bunt Future / shall Ife advised, etc. monebor moneberis (-re) monebitur monebimur monebimini moncbuntur / have advised, etc. monui monulmus monu isti monu it Perfect I have been advised^ etc. rsum . _ fsumus monu istia monu6runt(-re) monitus, -a, -um < es I. est moniti -ae. -a fsun ' \ esti estis ^sunt 102 • • •• ' *ta>r[UGATION OF MONEO ACTIVE PASSIVE Past Perfect I had advised, etc. / had been advised, etc. monueram monueramus monueras monueratis monuerat monuerant reram feramus monitus, _ moniti, 1 _^. \ eras \ eratis -a, -um ^ -ae, -a Lerat i erant Future Perfect I shall have advised, etc. monuero monueris monuerit monuerimus monu eritis monuerint / shall have been advised, etc. fero . _ rerimus monitus -a, -um < ens [erit moniti -ae, -a '-; eri eritis I l^erunt moneam moneas moneat moneamus moneatis moneant SUBJUNCTIVE Present monear monearis (-re/ moneatur moneamur moneamini moneantur Past monerem moneremus monerer monergmur moneres moneretis monereris (-re) moneremini moneret monerent moneretur monerentur Perfect monuenm monueris monuerit monuerimus s^. monitus monu eritis . ^ -a, -um monuennt Past Perfect rsim ^sis I sit moniti, -ae, -a r simus \ sitis Isint monuissem monu issgmus monuissetis "^^"^^^^ monuissent "*' "^™ r essem moniti, -ae, -a r essemus -! essetis t essent monuisses monu isset < esses L esset CONJUGATION OF MONRO 03 ACTIVE mone, advise thou moncte, advise ye PASSIVE IMPERATIVE Present monere, be thou advised mone mini, be ye advised nionctO. thou shalt advise mone to. he shall advise m(jnct6te, ye shall advise mone ntO, they shall advise Future mone tor, thou shalt be advised mone tor, he shall be advised mone ntor, they shall be advised INFINITIVE Pres. monere, to advise Perk, monuisse, to have advised FuT. moniturus, -a, -um esse, to be about to advise moneri, to be advised monitus, -a, -um esse, to have been advised monitum iri, to be about to be advised PARTICIPLES Pres. monens, -entis, advising Pres. FuT. moniturus, -a, -um, about Ger. monendus. -a. -um, to be to advise advised Past Past monitus, -a, -um, having been advised, advised GERUND NOM. Gen. Dat. Ace. Abl. monendi, of advising monend5,/^>r advising monendum, advising monendO, by advising SUPINE (Active Voice) Acc. monitum, to advise Abl. monitii, to advise, in the advising [04 CONJUGATION OF REGO 244. THIRD CONJUGATION. £- VERBS. REGO Principal Parts : rego, regere, rexi, rectus Pres. Stem rege- Perf. Stem rex- Part. Stem rect- ACTIVE I rule, etc. rego regimus regis regitis regit regunt PASSIVE INDICATIVE Present I am ruled, etc. regor regeris (-re) regitur regimur regi mini reguntur 1 7vas ruling, etc. rege bam regebamus rege bas rege batis rege bat rege bant Past Descriptive I ivas ruled, etc. rege bar rege bamur regebaris (-re) regebamini regebatur regebantur Future / shall rule, etc. regam regemus reges regetis reget regent I shall be ruled, etc. regar regeris (-re) regetur regemur regemini regentur I have ruled, etc. rexi reximus rexisti rexistis rex it rexerunt (-re) Perfect I have been ruled, etc. rectus, I fsum -a, -um Lest f sumus recti, 1 ^. . \ estis -ae, -a I sunt CONJUGATION OF JiEGO 105 ACTIVK PASSIVE Past Perfect J had rtiled, etc. / had been ruled y etc. rexeram rcxerSmus rex eras rcxerfitis rexerat rexerant feram , reramus rectus, 1^^ ^^'- erstis -a, -um ^ -ae, -a] Lerat i.erant / shall have m/edy etc. Future Perfect I shall have been ruled, etc. rexerO rexeris rexerit rcxerimus rexeritis rexerint ^^""'Jeris -^'-"'"lerit SUBJUNCTIVK Present . r erimus ^^"- eriti. -ae, -« Lerunt regam regamus regar regftmur regis regatis regSris (-re) regftmini rcgat regant regitur Past rc2:antur regerem regergmus regerer regergmur regerfis regeretis regerCris (-re) regergmini regeret regerent regerCtur Perfect regerentur rexerim rexeris rexerit rexenmus rexerftis rexerint rsim ^*«"''- Sis Past Perfect . - fsimus '''''• < sitis rexissem rexissSs rexisset rex issfimus rex issgtis rex issent ressem rectus, i < essCs -a, -um 1 esset red, f^i""' I essent io6 CONJUGATION OF REGO ACTIVE rege, nde thou regite, rule ye PASSIVE IMPERATIVE Present rege re, be thou ricled regimini, be ye ruled regito, thou shall rule regito, he shall rule regitote, ye shall rule regunto, they shall rule Future regitor, thou shall be ruled regitor, he shall be ruled regunto r, they shall be ruled INFINITIVE regi, to be ruled rectus, -a, -um esse, to have been ruled FuT. recturus, -a, -um esse, to be rectum iri, to be about to be ruled about to rule Pres. rege re, to rule Perf. rexisse, to have ruled PARTICIPLES Pres. regens, -entis, ruling Pres. FuT. recturus, -a, -um, rt-^^z// /^ Ger. regendus, -a, -um, to be rule ruled Past Past rectus, -a, -um, ^^z^/;2^/^, eratis -ae, -a i iterant I shall have heard, etc. Future Perfect I shall have been heard, etc. audivero audlveris audiverit audiverimus audiveritis audlverint audit us, I . AT. audi endO, for hearing Ace. audiendum, hearing Abi.. audiendO, by hearing SUPINE (Active Voice) Acc. audit um, to hear Ai!L. audit u, to hear, in the hearing no CONJUGATION OF CAPIO VERBS IN -10 OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION ' 246. Certain verbs in -15 do not belong to the fourth conju- gation but to the third. In the present system, however, they follow the fourth conjugation wherever in the fourth conju- gation a vowel follows the i of the stem. Verbs of this class are conjugated as follows : capio, take Principal Parts : capio, capere, cepi, captus Pres. Stem cape- Perf. Stem cep- Part. Stem capt- ACTIVE PASSIVE INDICATIVE Present capio capis capit capimus capitis capiunt capior cape lis (-re) capitur Past Descriptive capimur capimini capiuntur capiebam capiebas . capiebat capiebamus capiebatis capiebant I capiebar capiebaris (-re) capiebatur Future capiebamur capiebamlni capiebantur capiam capies capiet capiSmus capietis capient capiar capieris (-re) capietur capiSmur capiemini capientur Perfect cepi, cepisti, cep it, etc. captus, -a, -um sum, es, est, etc. Past Perfect ceperam, cep eras, ceperat, etc. captus, -a, -um eram, eras, erat, etc. Future Perfect capers, ceperis, ceperit, etc. captus, -a, -um ero, eris, erit, etc. CONJUGATION OF CAPIO III ACTIVE PASSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE Present cai)iam. capias, capiat, etc. capiar, -iiris (-re), -iatur, etc. Past cape rem, caperts, cape ret, etc. caperer, -ereris (-re), -ergtur, etc. Perfect ceperim, ceperis, ceperit, etc. captus, -a, -um sim, sis, sit, etc. Past Perfect ccpissem, cepiss6s, ccpisset,etc. captus, -a, -umessem, essSs, es8et,etc. IMPERATIVE Present 2D Pers. cape capite Future 2D Pers. capitfl capitOte 3D Pers. capita capiuntO cape re capimini capitor capitor capiuntor INFINn nvE Pres. cape re capi Perf. cepisse captus, -a, -um esse FUT. capturus, -a, -um esse captum iri PARTICIPLES Pres. capigns, ientis Pres Put. capttinis, -a, -um Ger. capiendus, -a. -um Past Past captus, -a, -um SUPINE (Active Vo.cii GERUND Gen. capiendi Acc. captum etc. Abl. capta 112 CONJUGATION OF DEPONENT VERBS DEPONENT VERBS 247. A number of verbs, called depojiefit, have in general the forms of the passive but the meanings of the active. Deponent verbs have, however, the following active forms : the future infinitive, the present and future participles, the gerund, and the supine. Passive in meanmg as well as in form are always the future passive participle (or gerundive) and sometimes the past participle. Deponent verbs are inflected like regular verbs. Examples : Principal Parts I. hortor, hortari, hortatus sum, ^irge II. vereor, vereri, veritus sum,/mr III. sequor, sequi, secutus syxm, follow IV. partior, partiri, partitus sum, share, divide INDICATIVE Pres. hortor vereor sequor partior hortaris (-re) vereris (-re) sequeris (-re) partlris (-re) hortatur veretur sequitur partltur hortamur veremur sequimur partimur hortaminl veremini sequiminl partimini hortantur verentur sequuntur partiuntur P. D. hortabar verebar sequebar partiebar FUT. hortabor verebor sequar partiar Perf. hortatus sum veritus sum secutus sum partitus sum P.P. hortatus eram veritus eram secutus eram partitus eram F.P. hortatus ero veritus ero secutus ero partitus ero SUBJUNCTIVE Pres. horter verear sequar partiar Past hortarer vererer sequerer partirer Perf. hortatus sim veritus sim secutus sim partitus sim P. p. hortatus essem veritus essem secutus essem partitus essem SEMI-DEPONENT VERBS "3 Pres. hortare FuT. hortator IMPERATIVE verfire sequere veretor sequitor partire partitor INFINITIVE vereri sequi Pres. hortari vereri sequi partirl Perf. hortatus esse veritus esse secutus esse partitus esse Fn. hortaturus esse veritQrus esse secuturus esse partitQrus esse Pres. hort&ns FuT. hortiturus Past hortatus Ger. hortandus hortandi, etc. hortatum, -tu PARTICIPLES verens sequens veriturus secuturus veritus secutus verendus sequendus GERUND verendi, etc. sequendi, etc. SUPINE veritum, -tu secfitum, -tu partiSns partiturus partitus partiendus partiendi, etc. partitum, -tu a. Deponent verbs in -i(J of the third conjugation are inflected like the passive of capiO (§ 246). SEMI-DEPONENTS 248. A few verbs, called semi-deponents, have active forms in the present system, and passive forms with active meanings in the perfect system. These are : audeo, audere, ausus sum,^ dare fido, fidere. fisus sum, trust gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus sum, rejoice 80le5, solere, solitus sum, be accustomed a. Some of the compounds of vertO, turn, are deponent except in the perfect system: as, reverter, reverti (infin.), reverti (perf.), reversus, rdurn. 1 The forms ausim, aa«Ia, ausit, auslnt occur as perfect subjunctives. 114 THE PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATIONS THE PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATIONS 249. There are two periphrastic conjugations, the active and the passive. a. The active periphrastic conjugation denotes 2i future or intended action, and is made by combining the future active participle with the forms of sum. h. The passive periphrastic conjugation denotes obligation^ necessity^ or propriety, and is made by combining the gerundive with the forms of sum. 250. The following is the inflection of the active and passive periphrastic forms of a verb of the first conjugation. The inflection is similar in the other conjugations. ACTIVE PASSIVE INDICATIVE Present laudaturus sum, I am about laudandus sum, I am to be to (or intend to) praise (or must be) praised Past Descriptive laudaturus eram laudandus eram Future laudaturus ero laudandus ero Perfect laudaturus ful laudandus ful Past Perfect laudaturus fueram laudandus fueram Future Perfect laudaturus fuero laudandus fuero IRREGULAR VERBS ACTIVE PASSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 115 laudaturus sim laudaturus essem Present Past laudandus sim laudandus essem Perfect laudaturus fuerim laudandus fuerim Past Perfect laudaturus fuissem laudandus fuissem INFINITIVE Present laudaturus esse laudandus esse Perfect laudaturus fuisse laudandus fuisse a. The periphrastic conjugations lack the imperative, participles, gerund, and supine. IRREGULAR VERBS 251. The irregular verbs are sum, vol6, n615, mil6, ferO. edO, do, eO, queC, fiO, and their compounds. In verbs that are regular the personal endings are preceded by the thematic or stem vowel (cf. §§ 210, 221). Irregular verbs contain forms in which the personal endings are added directly to the root, with no intervening vowel, ^ as in es-t, vul-t, etc. However, most of the forms of the irregular verbs differ in no way from those of regular verbs. ^ Because of the absence of the thematic vowel (§ 221), irregular verbs are sometimes called athftnatic. Ii6 CONJUGATION OF POSSUM SUM AND ITS COMPOUNDS 252. For the conjugation of sum see § 241. Most com- pounds of sum are conjugated like the simple verb. The present participle, which is lacking in sum, appears in the participial adjectives ab-sens {absent) from absum, and prae- sens {present) from praesum. 253. Prosum, help, is a compound of prod (the earlier form of pro) and sum. The final d of the preposition disappears before a consonant, but is retained before a vowel. Hence in the present indicative the inflection is : prosum pro'sumus prodes prodes'tis prodest prosunt Similarly we have proderam, prodero, prodessem, etc. 254. Possum, be able, in its present system is a compound of the adjective potis, or pote, able, and sum. The remaining forms are from an obsolete verb potere. . Principal Parts : possum, posse, potui, INDICATIVE Singular Plural SUBJUNCTIVE Singular Plural Pres. Past FUT. Perf. P. Perf. F. Perf. possum potes potest poteram potero potui potueram potuero pes sumus potes 'tis possunt poteramus pGterimus potuimus potueramus potuerimus possim possis possit possem potuerim potuissem possi mus possl'tis possint posse'mus potuerimus potuissemus INFINITIVE Perf. potuisse Pres. posse PARTICIPLE Pres. potens, potentis (adjective), powerful IRREGULAR VERBS volO, nOlO, and mAlO 117 255. N516 and malO are compounds of voW. N515 is for ne (no/) -h voW, and malO for mfi (from magis, more) -\- volO. The form vis, the second person singular of vol6, is from a different root. These verbs are inflected as follows : V0I6, velle, volui, — malO, malle, malui, -, fig wiliing^ will, wish -, be unwilling^ will not — , be more willing, prefer INDICATIVE Singular PRES. volo nolo malo vis non vis mavis vult non vult Plural mavult volumus nolumus malumus vultis non vultis mavul'tis volunt nolunt malunt \\ Descr. volebam nolebam malebam FUT. volam, voles, etc. nolam, noles, etc. malam, males, etc. Perf. volui nolui malui p. Perf. volueram nOlueram malueram F. Perf. voluero noluerS SUBJUNCTIVE Singular maluerO Pres. velim n6lim malim veils nOlis malis velit n5lit malit Ii8 CONJUGATION OF VOLO, NOLO, AND MALO Plural veli'mus noli'mus mall 'mus veil 'tis noli 'tis mali'tis velint nolint Singular malint Past vellem, velles, etc. nollem, nolles, etc. Plural mallem, mj velle'mus nolle 'mus malle'mus velle'tis nolle'tis malle'tis vellent nollent mallent Perf. voluerim noluerim maluerim P. Perf. voluissem noluissem imperative noli, nolite nolito, nolitote nolito, nolunto maluissem rRES. FUT. infinitive Pres. velle nolle malle Perf. voluisse noluisse participle maluisse Pres. volens, -entis nolens, -entis Note. Vellem is for vel-sem, and velle for vel-se (cf. § 51). FERO AND ITS COMPOUNDS 256. Fero, bear, has two independent roots : fer- in the present system, and tul-, for tol- (cf. tollo), in the perfect. The past participle latus is for tlatus, tla- being another form of the root tol-. The past subjunctive ferrem is for fer-sem, and the present infinitive ferre for fer-se (cf. §§ 51, 233. b, 237. a. i). Fero is inflected as follows : CONJUGATION OF lERO 119 Principal Parts: ferO, ferre, tuli, Ifitus Prbs. Stem fer- Perf. Stem tul- Part. Stem Ut- ACTIVK PASSIVE INDICATIVE Pres. fero ferimus feror ferimur fers fertis ferris (-re) ferimini fert ferunt fertur feruntur Past Descr. ferebam ferebar Fl'T. feram, feres, etc. ferar, fereris, etc. Perf. tuli latus, -a, -um sum Past Perf. tuleram latus, -a, -um eram Future Perf. tulero SUBJUNCTIVE latus, -a, -um ero Pres. feram, feras, etc. ferar, feraris, etc. Past ferrem ferrer Perf. tulerim latus, -a, -um sim Past Perf. tulissem IMPERATIVE latus, -a, -um essem Pres. 2D Pers. fer ferte ferre ferimini FuT. 2D Pers. 3D Pers. ferto ferto fertote ferunto fertor feruntor infinitive Pres. ferre ferri Perf. tulisse latus, -a, -um esse FuT. laturus, -J a, -um esse participles latum iri Pres. ferens, -entis Pres. Kit. laturus, -; a, -um Ger. ferendus, -a, -um Past Pact latus, -a, -um SUPINE (Active Voice) GERUND Gen. ferendi Acc. ferendum Acc. latum DAT. ferendo Abl. ferendo Abl. latQ I20 CONJUGATION OF EDO a. The compounds of fer6, conjugated like the simple verb, are the following : ad- adfero adferre attull allatus au-, ab- aufero auferre abstuli ablatus con- confero conferre contuli conlatus dis-, di- differo differre distuli dilatus ex.,e- effero efferre ' extuli elatus in- infero inferre intull inlatus ob- offero offerre obtuli oblatus re- refero referre rettuli relatus sub- suffero sufferre sustuli sublatus Note. Ab- and au- are two distinct prepositions with the same meaning. Sustuli and sublatus serve also respectively as the perfect indicative and past participle of the verb tollo. EDO 257. Edo,^^/, has the inflection of a regular verb of the third conjugation and, in addition, alternative forms in certain tenses of the present system. Thus : Principal Parts : edo, edere (esse), edi, esus ACTIVE INDICATIVE Pres. edo, edis (es), edit (est) edimus, editis (estis), edunt SUBJUNCTIVE Pres. edam (edim), edas (edis), edat (edit) edamus (edimus), edatis (editis), edant (edint) Past ederem (essem), ederes (esses), ederet (esset) ederemus (essemus), ederetis (essetis), ederent (essent) INFINITIVE edere (esse) Pres. 2d Pers. ede (es) edite (este) FuT. 2D Pers. edito (esto) editote (estote) 3D Pers. edito (esto) edunto IMPERATIVE Singular Plural CONJUGATION OF DO 121 PASSIVE Pres. In Die. 3D Sing, editur (estur) Past Subjv. 3D Sing, ederetur (essetur) • a. Note that the long vowel of the shorter forms distinguishes them from the corresponding forms of the verb esse, be. h. The shorter forms of the present indicative, and the present subjunctive forms edim, edis, etc., were those commonly used till the latter part of the classical period. c. Comedo, consume^ has either comSstus or comgsus as a past participle. DO 258. The verb d6, give, is conjugated like a verb of the first conjugation, but the root vowel (a-) is everywhere short except in the second person singular of the present indicative and the present imperative active, and in the nominative singular of the present participle. Principal Parts : d6, dire, dedi. datus Pres. Stem di- Perk. Stem dcd- Part. Stem dat- ACTIVE PASSIVE INDICATIVE Pres. do das damus datis daris (-re) damini dat dant datur dantur P. Descr. dabam dabar Put. dabo dabor Perf. dedi datus, -a, -um sum P. Perf. dederam datus, -a, -um eram F. Perf. dedero datus, -a, -um er6 122 CONJUGATION OF DO ACTIVE PASSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE Pres. dem, des, det, etc. ,deris(-re), detur, etc. Past darem darer Perf. dederim datus, -a, -um sim P. Perf. dedissem datus, -a, -um essem IMPERATIVE Pres 2D Pers. da date dare damin! "Pl'T 2D Pers. dato datote 3D Pers. dato danto 1 . r L i. dator dantor INFINITIVE Pres dare dari Perf dedisse datus, -a, -um esse FUT. daturus, -a, -um esse datum iri PARTTCIPLES Pres dans, dantis Pres. FUT. daturus, -a, -um Ger. dandus, -a, -um "P A CT P\^T datus, -a, -um SUPINE (Active Voice) X Ao 1 GERUND Gen. dandi Ace. dandum Acc. datum DAT. dando Abl. dando Abl. datu a. In early Latin and in poetry occur forms from the related root du-: as, present subjunctive duim, duis, etc., and sometimes duam, duas, etc. h. In compounds, do generally has the meaning put} Most of these compounds, if the prefix is a monosyllable, are conjugated as verbs of the third conjugation : as, condo, condere, condidi, conditus, found. 1 Some grammarians consider this as a different verb from do, give. 259. CONJUGATION OF EO e6, go I'RiNCiPAL Parts : eO, ire, ii (ivi), itum 123 pRt s. St KM 1- Perf. Stem i- or iv- Part. Stem it - INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE IMPERATIVE Sl.NG. Plur. Pres. eo imus is itis it eunt earn 2D Pers. i ite Past Put. Perf. ibam ibo ii (ivi) irem srim) ■ 2D Pers. ito .3D Pers. ito itote ierim (iv( eunto P. Perf. ieram (iveram) issem (Ivissem) F. Perf. iero (ivero) INFINITIVE PARTICIPLES Pres. ire Pres. iens, euntis Perf. isse (ivisse) FuT. iturus, -a, -um Kit. iturus, -a, -um esse Ger. eundum GERUND SUPINE Gen. eundi Ace. eundum Ace. itum DAT. eundo Abl. eundo Abl. itu a. The passive of the simple verb eO is used only in the third person singular ^ : as, itur, itum est, etc. But transitive compounds, such as adeO, approach, ineC, enter, have the passive complete. b. In the perfect system the forms with v are very rare. c. The compound ambiO, go round, is inflected regularly like a verb of the fourth conjugation. d. In prOdeC, go forth, the preposition retains its original final d. 260. QueO, be able, and neqifeO, be unable, are inflected like efl, but are rare except in the present indicative active. * Verbs appearing only in the third person singular are called impenonal^ because they have no personal subject. 124 CONJUGATION OF FIO Flo AND ITS COMPOUNDS 261. The active of facio, make, is regular,^ but in the passive fio, de made, become, takes its place in the present system, except in the gerundive faciendus. The perfect passive system is formed regularly from facio. Principal Parts : fio, fieri, factus sum SUBJUNCTIVE IMPERATIVE fiam 2D Pers. fi fite INDICATIVE Pres. fin Ac fit fiunt Past fiebam FUT. fiam Perf. factus, -a, -um sum P. Perf. factus, -a, -um eram F. Perf. factus, -a, -um ero fierem factus, -a, -um sim factus, -a, -um essem INFINITIVE PARTICIPLES Pres. fieri Pres. Perf. factus, -a, -um esse Ger. faciendus, -a, -um FuT. factum in Past factus, -a, -um a. Most prepositional compounds of facio are inflected regularly like verbs in -io of the third conjugation. Active, conficio, conficere, confeci, c5nfectus Passive, conficior, confici, c5nfectus sum &. Syntactic compounds (cf. § 292. «) of faci5, — like benefacio, calefacio, etc., — in which facio remains unchanged, have the forms of fio in the passive : as, benefio, -fieri, -factus sum. c. Isolated forms of fi5 occur in a few words : as, confit, defit, etc. 1 But it has imperative fac (§235. <:) and, besides the regular forms, the future perfect faxo and the perfect subjunctive faxim. DEFECTIVE VERBS 25 DEFECTIVE VERBS 262. Defective verbs lack certain forms. 263. The following defective verbs lack the present system coepi, began Odi, hate INDICATIVE memini, remem, Perf. coepi odi memini P. Perf. coepcram oderam memineram F. Perf. coepero odero SUBJUNCTIVE meminero Perf. coeperim oderim meminerim P. Perf. coepissem odissem IMPERATIVE • INFINITIVE meminissem memento mementote Perf. coepisse odisse meminisse KlTT. coepturus*-a, -um esse osurus, -a, PARTICIPLES -um esse Past coeptus, -a, -um, begun osus, -a, -um, hating or hated I'uT. coepturus, -a, -um osurus, -a, -um, likely to hate a. When used with the passive infinitive, the form of coepi is regularly passive : as, coeptus sum vocfiri, / began to be called ; but coepi vocare, /began to call. I'or the present system incipiS is used. h. The perfect, past perfect, and future perfect of 6di and memini have the meanings of a present, past, and future respectively. 6di, / hate 5deram, / hated {was hating) 5der5, / shall hate The passive of 6di is supplied by the idiom odi6 esse, to be hated (lit. to be for hatred). 126 DEFECTIVE VERBS 264. Many verbs are used only in the present system. maereo, -ere, grieve " ferio, -ire, strike 265. Some verbs occur in only a few forms. a. Aio, say : INDICATIVE Pres. aio, ais, ait ; , , aiunt P. Descr. aiebam, aiebas, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE Pres. , aias, aiat ; , , aiant (rare) IMPERATIVE PARTICIPLE al (rare) aiens 1. The vowels a and i are pronounced separately (a-is, a-it) except sometimes in old or colloquial Latin. Before a vowel, one i stands for two (see § i8): thus aio was pronounced ai-yo and was sometimes written alio. 2. The second singular ais with the interrogative -ne is often written ain. An old past aibam, aibas, etc. (dissyllabic) is sometimes found. 3. The present ait often has the meaning of a perfect. b. Inquam, saj', except in poetry, is used only in direct quota- tions (cf. the English quoth). INDICATIVE Pres. inquam, inquis, inquit ; inquimus, inquitis (late), inquiunt P. Descr. , , inquiebat ; , , FuT. , inquies, inquiet ; , , Perf. inquii, inquisti, ; , , IMPERATIVE Pres. inque Fut. inquito I. The only common forms are the present inquam, inquis, inquit, inquiunt, and the future inquies, inquiet. Inquam is sometimes, and inquit is often, used as a perfect. IMPERSONAL VERBS 127 c. The deponent firi, to speak, has the following forms : INDICATIVE Pres. , , fatur ; , , fantur FuT. fabor, , fabitur ; , , Perf. , , f atus, -a, -urn est ; , , fati, -ae, -a sunt P. Perf. fatus, -a, -um eram, , fatus, -a, -um erat ; , IMPERATIVE INFINITIVE Pres. fare Pres. fari PARTICIPLES Pres. fans, fantis, etc. (in singular) Ger. fandus, -a, -um, to be spoken of Past fatus, -a, -um, having spoken GERUND SUPINE Gen. fandi Abl. fatu Abl. fando I . Several forms occur in compounds : as, praefabor, affari. d. Isolated defective forms are : Pres. Indic. quaesS, I be^, quaesumus Imperative salve, // — langued, 2, — , — languesco, 3, langui, — [langueo] lateo, 2, -ui, — lavo, 3, lavi, lautus (lotus) (also reg- ular of the first conjugation) lego, 3, leg!, lectus [so in most com- pounds, but the root vowel changes in coUigo, deligo, diligo, eligo, seligo; and diligo, intellego, and neglego have x in the perfect : as, diligo, 3, dllexT, dilectus] libet (early lubet), -ere, libuit or libi- tum est. Impersonal, 266 liceo, 2, licuT, — licet, -ere, licuit or licitum est (fut. part, liciturum). Impersonal, 266 -licio, 3, -lexT, -lectus [for *lacio in compounds ; but elici5, 3, elicuT, elicitus] lino, 3, lev! (ITvT), litus linquo, 3, llquT, -lictus liqueo, 2, licul, — liquesco, 3, -licul, — [liqueo], 290. a liquor, T-, — . Deponent liveo, 2, — , — loquor, -T, locutus sum. Deponent luce5, 2, luxT, — lucesco (-Cisco), 3, -luxT, — [liiceo], 290. <^ lud5, 3, liisT, lusus Ii5ge5, 2, liixT, — luo {ioose\ 3, luT, luiturus -luo {wash), 3, -lul, -lutus madeo, 2, madul, — madesco, 3, madul, — [made5], 290. a maereo, 2, — , — malo, malle, malui, — . Irregular, 255 mando, 3, mandi, mansus maneo, 2, mansi, mansus mansuesco, see suesco marcesco, 3, -marcuT, — [marceo], 290. a maturesco, 3, matiiruT, — , 290. a medeor, -erl, — . Deponent meminl, -isse. Defective, 263 mereo, 2, merui, meritus, or depo- nent, mereor, etc. mergo, 3, mersT, mersus metior, -Tri, mensus sum. Deponent meto, 3, messuT, -messus metuo, 3, -uT, -utus mico, I, micui, — [so in com- pounds except dimico, i, -avi, -atum] minuo, 3, -uT, -iitus misce5, 2, -cuT, mixtus misereor, -erl, miseritus (rarely misertus) sum. Deponent miseret. Impersonal, 266 mitesco, 3, — , — , 290. a mitto, 3, misi, missus molior, -Trl, -Ttus sum. Deponent molo, 3, moluT, molitus mordeo, 2, momordi, morsus morior, -T (-Tri), mortuus sum (fut. part, moriturus). Deponent moveo, 2, movT, motus mulceo, 2, mulsT, mulsus mulgeo, 2, mulsT, mulsus (mulctus) muttio, 4, -IvI, -Itus LIST Ol- VERBS 135 nanciscor, -I, nactus (nanctus) sum. Deponent nascor, -i, natus sum. Deponent neco, I , -avi (-ui), -atus [but eneco, i, -necui (-necavi), -nectus (-necatus)] necto, 3, nexf (nejoii), nexus neg-lego, 3, -lexl, -lectus neo, 2, nevl, — nequeo, -quire, -quivi, -quitus. De- fective, 260 nigresco, 3, nigrul, — , 290. a ninguit (ningit), 3, ninxit. Imper- sonal, 266 niteo, 2, nituT, — nitescd, 3, — , — [niteo], 290. a nitor, -T, nlsus (nixus) sum. Deponent -niveo, 2, -nivT (-nIxIX — no, I, navl, — noceo, 2, nocuT, nociturus nolo, nolle, noluT, — . Irregular, 255 nosco, 3, novi, notus [so in com- pounds, except that agnosco has agnitus and cognosce has cognitus] notesco, 3, notui, — , 290. a niibo, 3, nupsi, nuptum -nuo, 3, -nui, — ob-d5, 3, -didi, -ditus ob-livTscor, -i, oblitus sum. Deponent ob-mutesco, 3, -mutul, — ob-sideo, 2, -sedl. -sessus [sedeo] ob-sTdo, 3, — , — ob-sisto, 3, -stiti, -stitum obs-olesco, 3, -olevl, -oletum [alesco] ob-sto, I, -stiti, -staturus ob-tineo, 2, -tinui, -tentus [teneo] ob-tingit, 3, obtigit [tango]. Im- personal, 266 ob-tundo, 3, -tudi, -tusus (-tunsus) oc-callcsc6, 3, -callui, — [calleo] oc-cido, 3, -cidl, -casum [cado] oc-cido, 3, -cidi, -cisus [caedo] oc-cino, 3, -cinui, — [cano] oc-cipio, 3, -cepi, -ceptus [capio] oc-cul6, 3, -cului, -cultus oc-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum odi, odisse, osurus. Defective, 263 of-fero, -ferre, obtulT, oblatus. Irregular, 256. /z oleo {smell\ 2, olui, — operio, 4, operui, opertus oportet, -ere, -uit. Impersonal, 266 op-primo, 3, -pressi, -pressus [premo] ordior, -iri, orsus sum. Deponent orior, -iri, ortus sum (fut. part, oritu- rus). Deponent ; usually of the third conjugation except in the present infinitive os-tendo, 3, -tendi, -tentus (-tcnsus) paciscor, -i, pactus sum [compound depeciscor]. Deponent paenitet, -ere, -uit. Impersonal, 266 palleo, 2, pallui, — pallesco, 3, pallui, — [palleo], 290. a pando, 3, pandi, pansus (passus) [so expando.butdispandoordispendo] pango, 3, pepigi (pegi or panxi), pactus [-pingo in compounds, per- fect -pegi] parco, 3, peperci (parsi), parsurus [compound compered or com parco] pared, 2, -ui, — pario, 3, peperi, partus (fut. part, pariturus) partior, -iri. -itus sum. Deponent parturio, 4, -ivi, — [pario], 290. d pasco, 3, pavT, pastus 136 LIST OF VERBS pateo, 2, patuT, — patior, -1, passus sum [-petior in com- pounds]. Deponent pave5, 2, pa VI, — pavesco, 3, -pavi, — [paveo], 290. a pecto, 3, pexT, pexus pel-licio, 3, -lexT, -lectus [-licio] pello, 3, pepulT, pulsus [compounds ' have -pull in the perfect, but re- pello has reppuli for repepull] pendeo, 2, pependl, -pensum [com- pounds have -pendT in the perfect] pendo, 3, pependl, pensus [com- pounds have -pendT in the perfect] per-ago, 3, -egi, -actus per-cello, 3, -cull, -culsus per-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursus per-do, 3, -did!, -ditus per-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectus [facio] per-fringo, 3, -fregl, -fractus [frango] pergo, 3, perrexT, perrectus [rego] -perio, 4, -peri, -pertus ; also -perior, deponent [so in compounds, but reperio has perfect repperi] per-petior, -T, -pessus sum [patior]. Deponent per-quTro, 3, -quTsIvI, -quTsTtus [quaero] per-sto, I, -stitl, -staturus per-tineo, 2, -ui, — [teneo] per-tundo, 3, -tudi, -tusus petesso (petisso), 3, — , — [peto], 290. b, I peto, 3, petivi (-il), petitus piget, -ere, piguit or pigitum est. Impersonal, 266 pingo, 3, pTnxT, pictus pinso (piso), 3, plnsuT (pisivi), pTstus (pinsltus) plango, 3, planxi, planctus plaudo, 3, plausi, plausus [so in compounds except explodo] plecto, 3, plexl, plexus -plector, -I, -plexus sum. Deponent -ple5, 2, -pie VI, -pletus plico, I, -plicui (-plica vi), -plicitus (-plicatus) pluit, 3,pluit(pluvit). Impersonal, 266 polleo, 2, — , — pol-lu5, 3, -uT, -utus [-luo {wash)^ pono, 3, posui, positus [sino] porr-icio, 3, — , porrectus [iacio] por-rigo(porgo),3,-rexi,-rectus[rego] posco, 3, poposcT, — [so in com- pounds], 290, h. N. pos-sideo, 2, -sedi, -sessus [sedeo] possum, posse, potuT, — . Irregular, 254 potior, -Tri, -Ttus sum. Deponent; usually of the third conjugation in the present system except in the infinitive poto, I , -avi, -atus (potus) praebeo, 2, -uT, -itus [habeo] prae-cello, 3, — , — prae-cino, 3, -cinuT, — [cano] prae-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), — prae-sagio, 4, -TvT, — prae-sideo, 2, -sedT, — [sedeo] prae-sto, i , -stitT, -stitum (-statum) prandeo, 2, prandl, pransus pre-hendo, 3, -hgndl, -hensus, or prendo, 3, prendT, prensus premo, 3, press!, pressus [-primo in compounds] prendo, see prehendo pro-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum prod-eo, -Ire, -ii, -itum. Irregular, 259.^ LIST OF VERBS •37 prod-igo, 3, -egi, -actus [ago] pro-do, 3, -didi, -ditus pro-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectus [facio] pro-ficTscor, -I, profectus sum. De- ponent pro-fiteor, -eri, prof essus sum [ fateor]. Deponent pro-mi net), 2, -ul, — [maneoj promo, 3, prompsi, promptus [emo] pro-silio, 4, -ul (-Tvl), — [salio] pro-sum, prodesse, profuT, profu- turus. Irregular, 253 pro-tendf), 3, -tendi, -tentus (-tensus) psallo, 3, -1, — pubesco, 3, pubuT, — , 290. a pudet, -ere, puduit or puditum est. Impersonal, 266 pungo, 3, pupugi, punctus [perfect -punxl in compounds] putesco, 3, putui, — [puteo], 290. a quaero, 3, quaesIvT, quaesltus [-qulro in compounds] quaeso, 3. Defective, 265. d quatio, 3, — , quassus [-cutio, -cussi, -cussus in compounds] queo, quire, quivi, quitus. Defective, 260 queror, -T, questus sum. Deponent quiesco, 3, quievi, quietum, 290. a rabo (rabid), 3, — , — rado, 3, rasi, rasus rapid, 3, rapui^raptus [-ripio, -ripui, -reptus in compounds] re-cido, 3. reccldi, recasurus [cado] re-cido, 3, -cidi, -cisus [caedo] re). b. Adverbs are formed from adjectives of the f/iird declension by adding -ter to the stem. Stems in nt- (nom. -ns) lose the t- ; nearly all others are treated as i-stems. fortiter, bravely, from fortis (stem forti-), brave acriter, eagerly, from acer (stem acri-), eager vigilanter, watchfully, from vigilans (stem vigilant-) prUdenter, prudently, from prQdens (stem priident-) aliter, otherwise, from alius (old stem ali-) c. Some adjectives of the first and second declensions have adverbs of both forms (-e and -ter). Thus durus, hard, has both dure and duriter ; miser, wretched, has both miserg and miseriter. A few have only -ter : as, violentus, violent, has only violenter. FORMATION OF ADVERBS 141 271. Special Formations. The accusative and ablative of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns, especially in the neuter singu- lar, are often used as adverbs. Examples : a. Accusative neuter singular : multum, MUi/i facile, easily ^uid, why h. Ablative neuter singular : falso, falsely eo, thither forte, by chance vulgo, commonly quo, whither cx^\>xh, frequently c. Accusative feminine singular or plural : partim, partly coram, face to face alias, at other times vicem, by turns quam, how foraa, out of doors d. Ablative feminine singular or plural : recta, straightway qua, where foris, out of doors postea, aftei wards una, together extra, outside 272. Other adverbial endings, some of which are case ter- minations in origin, are -i or -6, -tim or -sim, -tus or -itus. a. The ending -i or -€ is, originally, a locative case termination. ibi, there hie (for hi-ce), here hodie, to-day ubi, where illic (for illi-ce), there pridie, the day before b. The ending -tim or -sim originated in accusatives in -tim, like partim. separatim, separately cursim, quickly tributim, tribe by tribe c. The ending -tus or -itus is of doubtful origin. funditus, utterly SiriviiXMS, providentially penitus, within Comparison of Adverbs 273. Adverbs formed from adjectives are similarly compared. The comparative ends in -ius, and is in origin the neuter accusa- tive singular of the comparative of the corresponding adjective. The superlative may be formed from the superlative of the corresponding adjective by changing final -us to -€. Examples of adverbial comparison are the following : 142 COMPARISON OF ADVERBS Positive Comparative Superlative cars, dearly carius carissime pulchre, beautifully pulchrius pulcherrime Uhere, freely liberius liberrime fortiter, bravely fortius fortissime audacter, boldly audacius audacissime facile, easily facilius facilUme a. Adverbs are sometimes compared by using the adverbs magis, more, and maximg, most, with the positive : as, aperte, openly^ magis aperte, maxime aperte. Many adverbs are not compared. 274. Positive bene, well diu, a long time male, ill, badly magnopere^ multum ]^^^^ ^ multum, i7iuch nuper, recently panim, too little Irregular or Defective Comparison Comparative Superlative prope, near saepe,* often satis, e?iough melius, better diutius, longer peius, worse magis, 77iore plus, more minus, less potius, rather prius, before propius, nearer saepius, ofte?ier satius, better optime, best diutissime, lo?igest pessime, worst maxime, most plurimum, most nuperrime, most recently minime, least potissimum, especially primum, first proxime, nearest saepissime, oftenest PREPOSITIONS 275. Prepositions were not originally distinguished from adverbs in form or meaning, and developed from them com- paratively late in the history of language. Many of them con- tinued to be used as adverbs after they assumed the function of prepositions. PREPOSITIONS 143 276. The following prepositions are used with the accusative ad. to adversus "1 • ^ ^ j > over against, towards adversum J ante, before apud, at, near circa 1 , > around circum J circiter, about cis, citra. on this side of contra, against erga, towards (a person) extra, outside infra, below inter, among^ between intra, inside iiucta, //^ar, beside Ob, <7// account of penes, in the power of per, through p6ne, behind post, rz/^irr • praeter, beyond, past prope, near propter, on account of near secundum, next to supra, above trans, across ultra, on the further side of versus, towards a. Versus always follows its case : as, Arpinum versus, towards ■irpinum. 277. The following prepositions are used with the ablative : a, ab, abs, away from, by absque, without, but for coram, /// the presence of cum, with de, from, down from, concerning e, ex, out of prae, in comparison with pr5, in front of , for the sake of sine, without tenus, up to, as far as a. A is used only before consonants. Ab is used before vowels or h, and may be used before most consonants. Abs is used only in the phrase abs t6. Absque is very rare. b. Ex is used before vowels or h. Before consonants cither 6 or ex may be used. c. Tenus always follows its case : as, capulO tenus, up to the hilt. d. Cum is usually joined enclitically with all ablative forms of the pronouns ego, tu, sui, qui, and quis: as, mScum, tecum, vObiscum, sScum, quOcum, quicum, quibuscuin. Note. In poetry and late prose the adverbs palam, procul, and simul are used as prepositions with the ablative. 144 CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS 278. Four prepositions, in, sub, subter, and super, are used with either the accusative or the ablative. a. In, m, into, and sub, under, with the accusative denote motion to or ifito, with the ablative rest in. in aedis venit, he ca?ne into the house in aedibus erat, he was in the house sub iugum exercitum misit, he sent the army under the yoke sub arbore sedit, he sat under a tree h. Super meaning about, concerning, takes the ablative ; in all its other senses {above, beyofid, on, etc.) it usually has the accusative. c. Subter, beneath, with the ablative is rare. CONJUNCTIONS 279. Conjunctions are closely related to adverbs and are of similar origin (cf. § 268. a). They are used to connect words, phrases, or sentences, and are of two classes, coordinating and subordinating. a. Coordinating conjunctions connect expressions of equal rank. h. Subordinating conjunctions connect a subordinate, or dependent, clause with the clause upon which it depends. The uses of conjunctions are discussed under the head of syntax (§§597ff-)- INTERJECTIONS 280. Interjections are particles expressing feeling, as surprise, joy, sorrow, etc. Some of them are mere natural exclamations ; others are derived from inflected parts of speech. 6 lux Dardaniae, O light of heu me misernm, a/as /or poor me / Dardania ! heus Syre, hello there, Syrus ! io triumphe, hurrah I victory f euge, puer, well done, boy ! a. Names of deities occur as interjections in oaths : as, hercle, by Hercules ; pol, by Pollux ; ecastor, by Castor. FORMATION OF WORDS 145 FORMATION OF WORDS 281. Most Latin words are either derived from or composed of other simpler words, and, according to their formation, are divided into two classes, derivatives and compounds. a. Derivatives are formed from stems of nouns, adjectives, verbs, or adverbs by adding certain endings called suffixes.' I. Most suffixes are of pronominal origin, and in many cases their definite meaning is not clear. b. Compounds are formed by adding together two or more stems or complete words. armi-ger, annor-bearer (cf. arma, arms ; ger5, cany) omni-potens, omnipotent {ci. omnis, all \ -pot^ns, power/ui) septen-decim, seventeen (cf . aeptem, seven ; decern, ten) bene-dicO, bless (cf. bene, well\ dic5, speak) I. DERIVATIVES A. Nouns 282. Nouns derived from Nouns, a. Diminutives are formed from nouns by means of the suffixes : Masc. Fem. -ulu8 -ula -olu8 -ola -cuius -cula -ellus -ella -illus -illA Neut. -ulum -olum (after a vowel) -culum -ellum -ilium riv-ulus, streamlet gladi-olua, small sword fHi-olos, little son fni-ola, little daughter riYUS, brook gladius, sword fnius, son fflia, daughter > It is the stem of the derived word, not the nominative, that is formed by the suffix. For convenience, however, the nominative singular will be given. 146 NOUNS DERIVED FROM NOUNS atri-olum, little hall atrium, hall flos-culus, floweret fl5s, flower auri-cula, little ear auris, ear munus-culum, little gift munus, ^., gift lib-ellus, little book liber, book lap-illus, pebble lapis, stone 1. Diminutives regularly take the gender of the nouns from which they are derived, and may differ from them in meaning: as, avun- culus, uncle ^ from avus, grandfather-^ osculum, kiss^ from 6s, mouth. 2. Diminutives often express affection, pity, or contempt. deliciolae, little pet deliciae, pet muliercula, a poor (weak) woman mulier, wojnan Graeculus, a ?niserable Greek Graecus, a Greek b. Nouns denoting place of keeping or growing are formed from nouns by means of the neuter suffixes : -arium, -etum or -turn, -ile aer-arium, treasury ' aes, copper oliv-etum, olive grove oliva, olive arbus-tum, orchard arbor, tree bov-fle, ox stall bos, ox c. Nouns denoting the person employed about anything are formed from nouns by means of the masculine suffixes : -io, -alius, -icus mul-io, mule driver mulus, mule falc-arius, scythe maker falx, scythe vil-icus, steward y\i\si,farfn d. Nouns denoting the place where a business is carried on are formed from nouns denoting persons by adding the suffix -ina or -inum. sutr-ina, f., cobble?'' s shop siitor, cobbler tonstr-ina, f., barber's shop tonsor, barber pistr-inum, n., gristmill pistor, miller NOUNS DERIVED FROM NOUNS 147 e. Nouns denoting rafi^ or office are formed from nouns by means of the masculine suffix -atus. magistr-atus, ii civil office magister, officer consul-atus, office of consul consul, consul tribun-atus, office of tribune tribunus, tribune f. Nouns denoting characteristic or condition are formed from nouns by means of the suffixes : -tia, -tfis, -tU8, -tium pueri-tia, f., boyhood puer, boy civi-tas, F., citizenship civis, citizen vir-tus, F., manhood vir, man senec-tus. f., old age senex, old man servi-tium. n., senntude servus, slave consor-tium, n., comradeship censors, comrade g. Nouns known as patronymics, indicating descent or rela- tionship, are formed from Greek proper names, or names formed in imitation of the Greek, by means of the endings : Masc. -adgs, -id6s, -idgs Fem. -Sis, -ias, -is Anchisi-ades, son of Anchises Ner-eis, daughter of Nereus Tantal-ides, son of Tantalus Thest-ias, daughter of Thestius Pel-ides, son of Peleus Atlant-is, daughter of Atlas 283. Nouns derived from Adjectives. Abstract nouns denot- ing quality or condition are formed from adjectives by means of the feminine suffixes : -ia, -tas, -tia, -ti6s, -tudS audac-ia. boldness audax, bold boni-tas. goodness bonus, good tristi-tia, sadness tristis, sad segni-ties. slo7i^ness segnis, slo7if magni-tudd, greatness magnus. great 148 NOUNS DERIVED FROM VERBS 284. Nouns derived from Verbs, a. Nouns denoting the agejtt or doer are formed from verbs by means of the suffixes : Masc. -tor (-sor) Fem. -trix can-tor, m., can-trix, f., singer vic-tor, M., vic-trix, f., victor ton-sor, M., barber peti-tor, M., candidate canere, stng vincere, conquer tondere, shear petere, seek I. A few nouns in -tor are formed from nouns. via-tor, traveler iani-tor, doorkeeper via, way ianua, door ' b. Nouns denoting action or its result are formed from verbs by means of the suffixes : Masc. -or, -tus (-sus) Fem. -es, -io, -monia, -tio (-sio), -tura Neut. {:; us (gen. -eris .or -oris ) tim-or, fear am-or, love audi-tus, hearifig vi-sus, seeifig sen-sus, feeling caed-es, slaughter leg-16, a collecting {levy), legion queri-monia, complaint voca-tio, calling divi-sio, divisio?i scrip-tura, writing gaud-ium, joy certa-men, contest oma-mentum, ornament testi-monium, testimony gen-US, birth Hmere, fear amare, love audire, hear videre, see sentire, feel caedere, kill legere, collect quen, complain vocare, call dividere, divide scribere, write gaudere, rejoice certare, contend ornare. adorn testari, testify gen-, root of gignere, bear ADJECTIVES DERIVED FROM NOUNS 149 c. Nouns denoting means, instrument, or place are formed from verbs by means of the neuter suffixes : -bulum, -culum, -brum, -crum, -trum pa-bulum, fodder pascere, feed . sta-bulum, stall stare, stand vehi-culum, wagon vehere, carry delu-brum, shrine deluere, cleanse sepul-crum, tomb sepelire, bury claus-tnim ( *claud-truin), bar claudere, shut ara-trum. pUnc arare, plow I . A few masculines and feminines of the same formation occur. fa-bula, tale filri, speak fa-ber, smith facere, make late-bra, hiding place latere, hide mulc-tra, milk pail mulgere, tnilk Ik Adjectives 285. Adjectives derived from Nouns, a. Adjectives meaning /nil of are formed from 'nouns by means of the suffixes : -Ssus, -ISns, -lentus fluctu-^sus, billowy fluctus, billow form-osus, beautiful forma, beauty pericul-osus, dangerous periculum, danger pesti-lens, pesti-lentus, pestilent pestis, pest vino-lentus, vin-osus, given to drink vinum, wine h. Adjectives m^dunn^ frovUed with 30[q formed from nouns by means of the suffix -tus. toga-tiu, wearing a toga toga, toga barba-tus, bearded barba, beard turri-tus, turreted turris, tower cornu-tos, homed comQ, hont ISO ADJECTIVES DERIVED FROM NOUNS c. Adjectives denoting material are formed from nouns by means of the suffixes : -eus, -aceus, -nus, -neus aur-eus, golden aunim, gold ros-aceus. oy roses rosa, rose acer-nus, of maple acer, maple ebur-neus, of ivory ebur, ivory d. Adjectives meaning belojiging to are formed from nouns by means of the suffixes : -alls, -ills, -anus, -enus, -inus, -nus -aris, -arius, -icus, -icius, -ius. -cus -ester, -ivus, -ensis, -timus 1 . From commofi nouns : mort-alis, mortal mors, death vir-ilis, manly vir, man mont-anus, of the jnountains mons, mountain terr-enus, earthly terra, earth libert-inus, of the class offreedmen libertus, one's freedman haitei-nus, fraternal f rater, brother vulg-aris, commonplace . vulgus, co7nmon people legion-arius, legionary legi5, legion bell-icus, of war bellum, war patr-icius, patriciaii pater, father reg-ius, royal rex, king civi-cus, civic civis, citizen silv-ester, woody silva, a wood aest-ivus, of summer aestas, summer for-ensis, of the forum foram. forum fini-timus, on the borders finis, end^ limit 2. From proper nouns : From Names of Towns R5m-anus. Roman Roma. Rome Corinth-ius, Corinthian Corinthus, Corinth Cann-ensis, of Cannes Cannae, Cannes Atheni-ensis, Athenian . Athenae, Athens ADJECTIVES DERIVED FROM ADJECTIVES 1 51 From Names of P&Kschv.'i Sull-anus, oj Sulla Sulla, Sulla Mari-anus. of Marius Marius, Matins Caesar-ianus, 0/ Ccesar Caesar, Ccrsar Plaut-inus, of Plautus Plautus, Plautus Note i . Observe that -ianus is sometimes used instead of -anus. From Names of Countries Gall-icus. Gallic Gallia, Gaul German-icus. German Germania, Germany Ital-icus, Italian Italia, Italy Afr-icus, African Africa, Africa Note 2. From these adjectives are formed adjectives in -anus meaning stationed in or associated with a country, but not native to it. Iegi5nes Gallicanae, legions stationed in Gaul (but not made up of Gauls) Scipio Africanus, Scipio Africanus (so called from his victories in Africa) 286. Adjectives derived from Adjectives. These are mostly diminutives and are formed like diminutive nouns (§ 282. a). parv-ulus, vety smali' parvus, small pauper-culus, rather poor ^sm^t, poor vet-ulus. somewhat old vetus, old 287. Adjectives derived from Verbs. Adjectives are derived from verbs as follows : a. Adjectives with present participial meaning are formed from verbs by means of the suffixes : -bundus, -cundus vita-bundus, avoiding vitare, shun treme-bundus, trembling tremere, tremble mox\-\i\xvAy3A, dyings at the point of death mori. die fa-cundus. eloquent fliri, speak iri-cundu8. irascible cf. irisci, be angry 152 ADJECTIVES DERIVED FROM VERBS b. Adjectives expressing characteristic or tendency are formed from verbs by means of the suffixes : -ax, -ulus -f^VigDr^, pugnacious ■^XLgtkie.Jight aud-ax, bold audere, dare cred-ulus, credulous credere, believe \>\\)-\x\\xs, fo?td of drink bibere, drink c. Adjectives expressing a state or settled condition are formed from verbs by means of the suffix -dus. timi-dus, titnid timeiei fear flori-dus, blooming florere, bloom cupi-dus, desirous cupere, desire avi-dvLs, greedy avere, long for d. Adjectives expressing capability (generally passive) are formed from verbs by means of the suffixes : -ills, -bills frag-ilis, breakable, frail frangere, break fac-ilis, able to be dojie, easy facere, do credi-bilis, capable of belief credible credere, believe ama-bilis, lovable amare, love 288. Adjectives derived from Adverbs. Adjectives are derived from adverbs by means of the suffixes : -emus, -ternus, -turnus, -tinus hodi-ernus, of to-day hodie, to-day hes-ternus, of yesterday heri, yesterday diu-turnus, lasting diu, long time cras-tinus, of to-morrow eras, to-morrow DERIVATION OF VERBS 1 53 C. Verbs 289. Verbs derived from Nouns or Adjectives. Verbs were formed in Latin from almost every form of noun stem and adjective stem. Most of these verbs are of the first conjuga- tion ; but the other conjugations are also represented. r fugS. -are, put to flight ; from fagti, flight 1ST CoNj. -j pi6, -are, expiate ; from plus, pure [exsuld, -are, be in exile \ from exsul, exile J albeo, -ere, de white ; from albus, white \ Glared, -ere, shine ; from clarus, bright J xnetuo. -ere, /ear \ irom metus, /ear "* \ status, -ere, set up ; from status, position Jfinio, -ire. bound \ from finis, end ' \ custodio, -ire, guard; from cust5s, guardian 290. Verbs derived from Verbs. Verbs derived from verbs are of four classes. a. Vnceptives or Inchoatives^ denoting the beginning of an action, are formed by adding -scO to the present stem. They are of the third conjugation. cale-sc5, -ere, grow ivann ; from caleo, be warm laba-sc5, -ere, begin to totter ; from labo, totter Note. In some of these verbs no inceptive meaning is present: as, p08c5, demand \ qui§sc5, rest\ etc. Many are formed by analogy from nouns and adjectives. b. Intensives or Frequentatives, denoting /orcible or repeated action, are formed from the participial stem and end in -tO (-sC), -itO, or -titO. They are of the first conjugation. iac-t6. -are, hurl\ from iacio. throw quas-s6, -are, shatter ; from quatid, shake vol-it6, -are, flit ; from void, fly dic-tit6, -are, keep saying ; from dic6. say Note i. Intensives from verbs of the first conjugation end in -lt6, not -4t5 : as, rogitd, from rogS, -ire, ask. Note 2. Verbs of this formation sometimes show no intensive or frequentative meaning : as, canto, sing. 154 COMPOUNDS I . Another form of intensives, of the third conjugation, ends in -esso. cap-esso, -ere, seise eagerly \ from capio, take fac-esso, -ere, do eartiestly ; from facio, do c. Diminutives, denoting feeble action, end in -illo. They are rare and of the first conjugation. cant-illo, -are, chirp ; from canto, sing sorb-illo, -are, sip ; from sorbeo, dritik d. Desideratives, denoting desire, end in -turio or -surio. They are of the fourth conjugation, and only two are in common use : par-turio, -ire, be in labor ; from pario, bear e-surio, -ire, be himgiy ; from edo, eat II. COMPOUNDS 291. Compound words usually consist of two parts. The second part gives the essential meaning, and this is changed or modified in some way by the first part. armi-ger, armor-bearer omni-potens, omnipotent, all-powerful -. , 292. Compounds may be formed in three ways : a. By the union of two or more words without change of form or meaning. Examples : pater-familias, father of a family ; senatus-consultum, decree of the senate \ ius-iurandum, oath; aquae-ductus, ^z^// (singular, from triiun yirdnun, of three men) Indeclinable Prefixes 294. The indeclinable prefixes used in forming compounds are either separable or inseparable. Separable prefixes may generally be used separately as adverbs or prepositions. In- separable prefixes are never so used. Prepositions in composition sometimes retain their original adverbial sense. a. Separable Prefixes, used also as prepositions or adverbs, are : a. ab, abs. au>ay a-mitt6, send away ad, to^ towards ' ad-duc6, lead to ante, defore ante-currS, run before circum, around circum-€6. i^o around com-, con- (cum), together, forci- 1 J con-venio. come together bly, completely j \chTi-^c\o. do completely, finish .. , ^^ . ( dJt-smciby look down upon, despise de, down, utterly 1:i-f_-^> •^ l^de-etruo, destroy I, ex, out e-ici5, throw out 1 / -.u 1. V • . . r in-e5. go in in (with verbs), tn, on, acamst "{ . ^ , 1 • ^ ^ /' ' ' A l^in-ferd, bear against inter, between, together (sovnetimts 1 J intcr-ficiS. kill causing interruption or ruin) J \ inter-rumpo. interrupt 156 COMPOUNDS intro, within ob, obs-, towards^ to meet^ against per, through^ thoroughly post, after prae, before praeter, beside^ past pro, prod-, y»r//!, before retro, back sub, subs-, under, somewhat super, over, upon supra, over trans, tra-, across intro-mitto, send within op-pugn5, fight against fper-venio, come through, arrive i^per-disc5, learn thoroughly post-habeo, regard after, esteem less prae-fer5, bear before, prefer praeter-eo, go past, pass by fpro-fero, bear forth \ prod-eo, go forth retro-cedo, go back J sub-eo, go under \_ sub-tristis, sofnewhat sad super-fluo, overflow supra-scando, climb over ftran-silio, leap across l^tra-do, betray b. Inseparable Prefixes, used only in composition, are : amb-, am-, about, around dis-,^ di-, apart, asunder in-, not, un- (common with adjec-"" tives and adverbs, and to be distinguished from the prepo- sition in usually compounded I with verbs) j j^ox-, forth re-, red-, back, again se-, sed-, apart ve-, not, without amb-io (§ 259. c), go about dis-cedo, go away ' r im-memor, unmindful i^in-eptus, clumsy por-tendo, stretch forth fre-verto, tujji back \^ red-eo, go back r se-duc6, lead apart l^sed-itio, revolt (K\X.. a going apart) ve-sanus, not sane On the formation of adverbs see §§ 269 ff. ^ dis- may have a negative or intensive meaning : as, dis-pliceo, displease ; dis-perdo, niin utterly. PART III. SYNTAX 295. Syntax treats of the construction of sentences. THE SENTENCE 296. A sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought. Sentences are of four kinds : 1. Declarative Sentences make a statement. canis currit, the dog runs 2. Interrogative Sentences ask a question. canisne currit, does the dog run f 3. Exclamatory Sentences have the force of an ex- clamation. quam celeriter currit canis, how fast the dog runs ! 4. Imperative Sentences express a command, exhortation, or entreaty. desilite, commilitSnes, y«/«/) down, comrades eamus, let us go currat canis, let the dog run SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 297. Every sentence consists of a subject and a predicate. The Subject is the person or thing about which something is said. The Predicate is that which is said of the subject. Thus, in equitfis ad Caesarem vgngrunt, the cavalry came to Ccesar^ equitCs is the subject, and ad Caesarem v6n€runt is the predicate. «57 158 THE SENTENCE a. The subject may be implied in the personal ending of the verb, and thus a sentence may consist of a single word. sede-mus, we are sitting curri-tis, you are running credu-nt, they believe ris-isti, you laughed b. The subject may be some word or group of words used as a noun. haec perficere est facile, to accomplish these things is easy accidit ut plena luna esset^ it happened that the moo?i was full SIMPLE, COMPOUND, AND COMPLEX SENTENCES 298. A Simple Sentence contains but one subject and one predicate. Caesar Gall5s vicit, Ccesar conquered the Gauls 299. A Compound Sentence consists of two or more inde- pendent simple sentences related in thought. Each member of a compound sentence is called a clause, and the clauses are said to be coordinate, that is, ''of equal rank," and are often joined by coordinating conjunctions (§ 279. a). Caesar Gallos vicit et Roman! gaudebant, Ccesar cofiquered the Gauls and the Romans rejoiced veni, vidi, vici, / cajne, I saw, I congicered. [Observe that this com- pound sentence consists of three independent coordinate clauses, . related in thought but not joined by conjunctions.] 300. A Complex Sentence consists of an independent simple sentence, known as the principal or main clause, modified by one or more dependent sentences, known as the subordinate or dependent clauses. Romani gavisl sunt quod Caesar Gallos vicerat, the Romans rejoiced because Ccesar had conquered the Gauls Here the complex sentence consists of the principal or main clause Romani gavisi sunt, and the subordinate or dependent clause quod Caesar Gallos vicerat. PHRASES AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 159 Note. A complex sentence often contains more than one subordinate clause, and a subordinate clause may itself be modified by other subordinate clauses. Labieno imperavit ut pontem interscinderet et equitatum praemitteret, he commanded Labieutis to destroy the bridi^e and send /or~u>ard the cavalry. [Two subordinate clauses modifying the principal clause Labieno imperavit.] Labiend imperavit ut interscinderet pontem qui flOmen iungeret, he commanded Labieuns to destroy the bridge 'which spanned the river. [Two subordinate clauses, of which qui . . . iungeret is subordinate to ut . . . pontem, which is itself subordinate to the principal clause Labieno imperavit.] PHRASES AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 301. A Phrase is a group of connected words not containing a subject and a predicate. 302. A phrase is often equivalent to a part of speech, especially to an adjective or an adverb. Thus, in the sentence vir fuit summa nohilitate, he was a man of the highest nobility, the words summa nobilitate, of the highest nobility^ arc equivalent to the adjective nobilis, noble (or nobilissimus, very noble) y and are called an adjective phrase. Again, in the sentence magna celeritdte vgnit, he came with great speedy the words magna celeritate, with great speed, are equivalent to the adverb celeriter, quickly (or celerrimg, very quickly), and are called an adverbial phrase. 303. A Subordinate Clause always has a finite verb or an infinitive in the predicate, and takes the place of some part of speech in its relation to the principal clause. 304. There are three kinds of subordinate clauses : noun (or substantive) clauses, adjective clauses, and adverbial clauses. a. A noun (or substantive) clause takes the place of a noun. fieri potest ut tu recti sentias, it is possible that you think rightly. [Merc ut tu recte sentias is a noun clause, the subject of potest.] i6o PREDICATE NOUNS b. An adjective clause defines or modifies some noun or pronoun and is introduced by a relative pronoun or adverb. Considius, qui ret miUtdris peritissimus habebatur, cum exploratoribus praemittitur, Considius, who was co7isidered very skilful in warfare, is sent i7i adva?ice with scouts. [Here the clause qui . . . habebatur is equivalent to an adjective modifying Considius.] agri ubi hodie est haec urbs, the fields where to-day this city stands c. An adverbial clause expresses some adverbial relation, such as purpose, result, time, or cause. veniunt ut pdcem petant, they co7ne to seek peace. [The adverbial clause ut . . ; petant expresses purpose.] Note. A subordinate clause is incapable, by itself, of expressing a complete meaning. SYNTAX OF NOUNS PREDICATE NOUNS 305. A predicate noun is a noun in the predicate describing or defining the subject. It is connected with the subject by a form of sum or by an intransitive or passive verb. a. The verb sum thus used as a connective is called the copula. When an intransitive or passive verb is used in the same way, it is called a copulative verb. Caesar erat c5nsul, CcEsar was consul ego patrSnus exstiti, I have come forward as an advocate Caesar cdnsul credtus est, Ccesar was elected consul 306. A predicate noun agrees in case with the subject. Ariovistus erat rex, Ariovistus was king Cicero drdtor clarissimus habitus est, Cicero was regarded as a most distinguished orator somnus est imdgd mortis, sleep is the linage of death APPOSITIVES i6i 307. A predicate noun referring to two or more singular nouns is in the plural. Claudius et Servilius consulis facti sunt, Claudius and Servilius were elected consuls 308. When a predicate noun has different forms for different genders, it agrees with the subject in gender as well as in case. usus magister est, experience is an instructor historia est magistra, history is an instructress 309. In addition to sum the verbs most commonly used to connect a predicate noun with the subject are : a. Intransitive verbs of becoming, appearing, remaining, etc. : as, 6vad6, appareO, maneO. b. The passive of verbs of making, calling, choosing, regarding, etc. : as, creor, appellor, dgligor, habeor, iudicor, homo magnus evaserat, he had become a great man pater a senatu populi R5mani amicus appellatus erat, his father had been called friend by the senate of the Roman people duces ii deliguntur, those (men) are chosen as leaders 310. Sum in the sense of exist is not a copula, but makes a com- plete predicate without a predicate noun or adjective. It is then called the substantive verb. sunt viri fortes, there are (exist) brave men est classis in portu, there is a fleet in the harbor APPOSITIVES 311. A noun used to describe another, and standing in the same part of the sentence with the noun described, is called an appositive, and is said to be in apposition. Cassius consul occisus est, Cassius, the consul^ was killed persuident Rauracis flnitimls, they persuade the Rauraci, their neighbors l62 APPOSITIVES 312. An appositive agrees in case with the noun which it describes. oppidum Remorum nomine Bibrax aberat milia passuum octo, a town of the Renii, Bibrax by name, was eight 7niles away. [Here the appositive belongs to the subject. '\ Caesar T. Labienum legatum misit, Ccesar sent Titus Labienus, the lieutenant. [Here both nouns are in \h^ predicate.'] a. An appositive generally agrees with its noun in gender and number when it can. sequuntur naturam optimam ducem, they follow ftature, the best guide. [Observe that ducem is here />;///>/ /V/^.] omnium doctrinarum myenfnces Athenae, Athens, the discoverer of all learning. [Observe that inventrices \^ plural zxiA feminine. '\ b. Words expressing parts may be in apposition with a noun denoting the whole. This is called partitive apposition, and is espe- cially common with quisque, uterque, alius . . . alius, and alter . . . alter. Hannibal transfugas in suam quemque civitatem dimisit, Hannibal sent the deserters each to his own state duo consules eius anni alter ferro, alter morbo periit, the two consuls of that year perished, the one by the sword, the other by disease Note. For the explanatory genitive used instead of an appositive see §335- 313. Urbs or oppidum in apposition with the locative case (§ 74. a) of the name of a town is put in the ablative, with or without the preposition in. Antiochiae, celebri quondam urbe, at Antioch, once afatnous city Albae constiterunt, in urbe munita, they halted at Alba, a fortified town 314. A clause or an infinitive may be used as an appositive. illud etiam restiterat, ut te in ius educerent, this too remained — that they should drag you i?ito court stultitia haec sit, me tibi meant operam pollicitdri, this would be folly, for me to offer you my assistance NOMINATIVE CASE 163 315. An appositive is frequently equivalent to a relative clause, or to a clause of time or cause. . Especially common in this construction arc official titles and words like adul6sc6ns, puer, senex, etc., express- ing time of life. r luho 1 Cicerd consul Catillnam ex urbe eiecit, Cicero^ \ since he \ was consul^ [ when he J expelled Catiline from the city Cats senex historiam scribere instituit, Cato began to write history when he unis an old man THE NOMINATIVE CASE 316. The subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case. The finite verb includes all forms of the indicative, sub- junctive, and imperative. Caesar Rhenum transire decreverat, Ctrsar had determined to cross the Rhine a. The subject is usually a noun or a pronoun, but it may be a clause or an infinitive. accidit ut esset lUna plena, it happened that it was full moon. [The subject is the clause ut esset etc.] do^e malum est, to suffer pain is an evil. [The subject is the infinitive dolere.] 317. Impersonal verbs and the passive of many intransitive verbs may be used without any subject expressed. pluit. // rains sic Jtur ad astra, thus men rise to the stars (itur, lit. there is going) acriter pugnatum est, there was sharp fighting (lit. // was fought sharply) 318. A personal pronoun, unless it is emphatic, is regularly omitted as subject, being implied in the f>ersonal ending of the verb. significamus quid sentiamus, we show what we think 1 64 VOCATIVE CASE 319. The nominative may be used in exclamations, but the accusa- tive is more common (cf. § 436). en dextra fidesque, lo, the faith and plighted word ! Note. For the nominative used instead of the vocative see § 322. 320. The nominative is used as the subject of the histori- cal infinitive (§ 844). Caesar Haeduos frumentum flagitare, Ccesar demanded grain from the Hcedui THE VOCATIVE CASE 321. The vocative is the case of direct address. desilite, commJlitones, leap down^ co7nrades egredere ex urbe, Catilina, depart from the city, Catilifie 322. The nominative is sometimes used instead of the vocative, audi tu, populus Albanus, hear thou, people of Alba 323. In poetry the nominative of an adjective is sometimes used with a vocative. nate, mea magna potentia solus, my son, thou alone my great power proice.tela, sanguis mens, cast away thy weapons, son of mine THE GENITIVE CASE 324. The genitive is used with nouns, adjectives, verbs, and rarely with adverbs.^ 1 The genitive case was used with nouns, adjectives, and verbs from the earliest period of the language to express a great variety of ideas. With nouns and adjectives it served to define or complete the meaning in any way suggested by the context, and it is this adnominal use that distinguishes the genitive from the other cases. Its use with verbs is still more difficult of exact definition. There being, then, no single fundamental value attached to the genitive, it follows that its constructions are extremely hard to classify. The categories given below include most of its recognized uses, and serve as a grammatical convenience ; but many expressions remain which do not logi- cally belong under any recognized category. GENITIVE CASE 165 325. The relation of, the genitive to the word that it limits is generally expressed in English by the preposition of or by the pos- sessive case; but other translations must often be used. libri Ckerdnis, the books of Cicero or Cicero's books talentum ai/rf, a talent of gold vir summae virtutis, a man of the greatest courage yacati5 laboris, a respite from toil petitio consuldtus, candidacy for the consulship regnum cwitatis, sovereignty over the state peritus rel mJlitaris, skilful in warfare insuetus laboris, unused to toil capitis damnatus, condemned on a capital charge caritas tui, affection for you 326. Most of the uses of the genitive may be classified as either subjective or objective. I. The Subjective Genitive is generally used with- nouns, and denotes the subject of the action or feeling expressed by the modified word, or the author, cause, or possessor of something. amor patris, the father's love orationes Ciceronis, Cicero's orations iter exercitUs, the army's march domus Caesaris, Ccpsar's house II. The Objective Genitive is used with certain kinds of nouns, adjectives, and verbs, and denotes the object toward which the action or feeling expressed by the modified word is directed. amor patriae, love of country fames auri, greed for gold metus deorum, the fear of the gods avidus laudis. desirous of praise dux memor vestfi, a leader mindful of you vivorum memini, / remember the living NoTi:. When a genitive modifies a noun denoting action or feeling, the context will generally show whether the genitive is subjective or objec- tive. For example, if amor patris, lo^>e of a father, means that the father loves, the genitive is subjective; on the other hand, if the meaning in- tended is that the father is the object of some one's love, the genitive is objective. i66 POSSESSIVE GENITIVE I. The Subjective Genitive 327. The subjective genitive includes the following con- structions : 1. Possessive genitive (§ 328). 2. Explanatory genitive (§ 335). 3. Genitive of the charge (§336). 4. Genitive of description (§ 338). 5. Genitive of nieasure (§ 340). 6. Genitive of indefinite value (§ 341). 7. Genitive of the whole, or partitive genitive (§ 342). 8. Genitive of material (§348). 9. Genitive with verbs and adjectives of plenty or want (§ 349). 10. .Genitive with adjectives denoting similarity or connection and their opposites (§ 351). 11. Genitive with refert and interest (§ 352). 328. Possessive Genitive. The possessive genitive denotes the person or thing to which something belongs or is in some way related. libri Ciceronis, Cicero's books ilnowsf/ exercitus, the army of Ariovistus Alexandri equus, Alexa7tder''s horse pericula proeli, the datigers of the battle Note. Here belongs the genitive of the person acting ox feeling. itinera Caesaris, Ccesar's marches timor consults, the consiifs fear 329. A possessive adjective is regularly used instead of the pos- sessive genitive of a personal or reflexive pronoun and may be used for the possessive genitive of a noun. liber mei/s, my book ; not liber mei filius suus, his son ; not filius sui municeps Amerinus, a citizen of the free toivn Ameria POSSESSIVE GENITIVE 167 330. The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, espe- cially after the verb sum. In this construction the genitive may express ownership or various kindred ideas : as, the part of, duty of, characteristic of. haec domus est patris mei, this house is my father's summa laus Bruti est, the highest praise belongs to Brutus timidi est optare necem, /*/ is the coward's part to wish for death sapientis est pauca loqui, it is characteristic of a wise man to say little 331. The genitive with causa, gratia,* and instar is possessive in character. patriae causa, y^r the sake of the fatherland amici gratia, for the sake of my friend equus instar mantis, a horse as big as a mountain (lit. a horse the likeness of a mountain) Note. With causa and gratia, for the sake of the genitive always precedes. 332". Here belong the genitives expressing the relation con- nected 7c- Caesaris interest, // is< exceedingly \to Casar's interest multum] [much J c. The object to be gained by securing the subject of the interest is expressed by the accusative with ad. ad gloriam vincere Gall5s Caesaris interest, to conquer the Gauls is of interest to Casarfor (the sake of \>i\^)famc fortiter pugnare mea et omnium civium ad saWtem patriae magnl refert, to fight bravely is of great importance to me and to all citizens for the safety of our country Note. Very rarely the person interested is expressed by ad and the accusative, or (with refert) by the dative. quid id ad me refert, 'what difference does that make to me ? quid referat intra natiirae finis vivenfi, what difference does it make to one living within the bounds of nature? II. The Objective Genitive 353. The objective genitive includes the following con- structions : 1. The genitive with nouns expressing action or feeling (§ 354). 2. The genitive of application (§ 356). 3. The genitive with adjectives expressing action or feeling (§357). 4. The genitive with certain verbs (§ 358). 174 GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES 354. Genitive with Nouns expressing Action or Feeling. The objective genitive is used to denote the object of an action or feeling expressed by a noun. caritas ft/f, affection for you memoria nostril recollectio7i of me contentio honorum, struggle for office desiderium oti^ lo7iging for ?'est amor patriae, love of country metus hostium, fear of the enemy (i. e. fear of which the enemy is the object; cf. § 328. n.) 355. Instead of the objective genitive a possessive pronoun, a descriptive adjective, or a noun with a preposition, is sometimes used. mea invidia, my unpopularity (i.e. the unpopularity of which I am the object), instead of invidia mei neque neglegentia tua neque id odio fecit tuo, he did this neither from ?ieglect of you nor from hatred toward you metus hostUis, fear of the enemy (hostile fear), instead of metus hostium odium in Antonium, hate of Antony, instead of odium Antoni amor erga te, love for you, instead of amor tui 356. Genitive of Application. The objective genitive may be used to denote that to which the quality expressed by a noun or adjective applies. praestantia virtUtis, preeminence in virtue pauper aquae, poor in water integer vitae scelerisque purus, upright in life and free from guilt fessi rerum, weary of hardships Note. This construction is freely used by the poets and later writers, but is rare in Ciceronian prose. 357. Genitive with Adjectives expressing Action or Feeling. The objective genitive is used to denote the object of an action or feeling expressed by an adjective whose meaning would otherwise be incomplete. GENITIVE WITH VERHS 173 Such adjectives are especially those denoting desire^ knou'Udgt, ski//, memory^ pinver, participation, and their opposites ; also parti- cipial adjectives in -ns and certain verbals in -ftx. cupidus rerum novdrum, desirous of a m>o/ution insuetus navigandi, unacquainted wit It na%>igation peritus belU, skil/ed in war immemor beneficx, forgetfui of a favor potens tempestatum, powerful over t/te stonns coniurationis participes, s/iaring in tlie conspiracy ^atiins frigoris, enduring ofco/d tenax propositi, steadfast of purpose Note i . With verbals in -ax the genitive is found only in poetry and in late prose. Notp: 2. The poets and later writers, especially Tacitus, use the genitive with almost any adjective to denote that wit It reference to whicli the quality exists. The construction demanded in classic prose would be the ablative of resp>ect(§ 478), hence this genitive is sometimes called the genitive of resjject. callidus rei mtlitaris (Tacitus), skilled in the science of -ioar notus animi paterni {\\.orz.c€), famed for a paternal spirit 358. Genitive with Verbs. Verbs of remembering and for- getting — memini, reminiscor, obliviscor — may take the objective genitive.^ a. When the object is a person, memini takes either the genitive or the accusative, obliviscor only the genitive in prose, but the accusative occurs occasionally in poetry. ipse sui meminerat, lie was mindful of himself mvorum memini nee Epicuri licet oblivisci, / retnemher the living and I must not forget Epicurus Cinnam memini, / remember Cinna obliviscere Graids (X ergiX), forget the Greeks ^ The genitive with verbs of remembering and forgetting may be due to the close relationship between these verbs and the adjectives memor, mindful of, and immemor, unmindful of, which take the genitive. However, in the earliest I^tin the genitive is much less frequent than the accusative. There is apparently po essential difference in meanirfg between the genitive and accusative with these verbs. 176 GENITIVE WITH VERBS b. When the object is a tking, memini, reminiscor, and obliviscor take either the genitive or the accusative of a noun and generally only the accusative of a neuter pronoun or adjective. reminiscatur virtutis Helvetiorum, /e not recei'-i'fd your letter nftn te haec pudent, do not these things shame yoft f Note i. Observe that in the last example the verb is no longer im- personal. The personal construction is not uncommon with pudet, and is found occasionally with paenitet and piget. Note 2. With pudet the genitive may be used of the person before whom one is ashamed. pudet me hdrum iudicum, I am ashamed before these judges 365. Misereor and misergscO, //^j, take the genitive. tiorum miseremur, we pity them 366. Potior, have power over, get possession of, usually takes the ablative (of. § 469. a. x. i), but occasionally the genitive; as always in the phrase potiri rferum, to become master of affairs (in a political or military sense). THE DATIVE CASE 367. The dative case originally denoted the direction of motion. This relationship is generally expressed in English by the prepositions to and for. Note. Direction of motion must be carefully distinguished from the goal or limit of motion, the original force of the accusative. See § 402. 368. The dative is used with verbs and adjectives, less frequendy with nouns and adverbs, and sometimes modifies the sentence as a whole. 369. The constructions of the dative may be divided into two classes, according as the original meaning of the case has been retained or has been changed and obscured by later developments. 1/8 DATIVE OF THE INDIRECT OBJECT I. Original uses of the dative r I . Dative of the indirect object with transitive verbs (§371) Dative of the indirect object with intransitive verbs (§376) Dative of the indirect object with verbs compounded with prepositions (§ 382) r a. Dative of the person judging (§ 387) b. Ethical dative (§ 388) II. Derived and [ c. Dative of separation (§ 389) special uses of -l 2. Dative of possession (§ 390) the dative 3- Dative of apparent agent (§ 392) 4. Dative of purpose (§ 395) ^5. Dative with adjectives (§ 397) Dative of reference (§ 385) Indirect Object Defined 370. The object tozvard which an action or feeling is di- rected is put in the dative. This is called the indirect object.^ Note. This construction occurs in English (" he gave me a book ''), but has been to some extent displaced by to with an object (" he gave the book to me "). Indirect Object with Transitive Verbs 371. The dative of the indirect object, with the accusative of the direct object, may be used with any active transitive verb whose meaning allows. Such verbs are especially those meaning give, say, promise, reply, do, and the Hke. d filiam suam in matrimonium dat, he gives to him his daughter in marriage hoc Uhi dico, / say this to you els auxilium suum pollicitus est, he proinised them his assistance haec memoriae mandavi, / committed this to memory 1 In this use the dative has retained unchanged its original idea of direction of motion, though in Latin the motion is generally to be understood in a figurative rather than in a literal sense. DATIVE OF THE INDIRECT OBJECT 179 372. Verbs which, in the active voice, take the accusative and dative retain the dative when used in the passive. Thus, puella patri fabulam narrat, //le girl tells the story to her father, becomes in the passive fabula patri a puella narratur, the story is told to the father by the girl. Observe the same dative, patri, in both sentences. 373. Verbs of motion, like mittO and fer5, which regularly take the accusative with a preposition, sometimes take the dative when tio real motion is involved or when the idea of giving or delivering something to somebody is uppermost. Similarly the verb scribO, writey varies in construction between the dative and the accusative with a preposition. suppetias mi audet ferre, he dares to bring me aid iussit Euclidm haec mittere, he gave orders to send these things • lo En it to litteras quas ad Pompeium scrips!, the letter which I wrote (and sent) to Povipey non qu6 haberem quod tihi scriberem, not that I had anything to write to you Note. This use of the dative is found in prose only with nouns de- noting persons. With concrete objects the accusative with a preposition is almost invariable. 374. The verbs d5n6, give\ circumdO, surround \ exu6, strip off\ and a few others, admit either of two constructions: {a) dative of the person, accusative of the thing ; or (J)) accusative of the person, ablative of the thing. mtlitibus coronas donat, he presents wreaths to the soldiers mtlites coronis donat, he presents his so/d/^-rx :,'//// rivv,////.f 375. In poetr)' the dative sometimes retains its on^^inal meaning of direction of motion in a literal sense. it clamor caelo (X'ergil), the shout rises heavenward VI l8o DATIV.E WITH INTRANSITIVE VERBS Indirect Object .with Intransitive Verbs 376. The dative may be used with any intransitive^ verV whose meaning allows an indirect object. Among these are especially the following : auxilior, opitulor, help irascor, suscenseo, be angiy . credo, believe minitor, threaten diffido, distrust noceo, injure displiced, displease parco, tempero, spare faveo, studeo, y^z^^r pareo, cedo, obtempero, obey^ fido, confido, tj-ust yield to, submit to ignosco, pardojt placeo, please impero, command resists, 7esist indulged, indulge servio, se?-7)e invideo, envy suadeo, persuaded, /^rj/z^rt^i? ciir mihi invides, why do you envy me ? mihi parcit atque ign5scit, he spares and pardons me legibus pared, / obey the laws ndn omnibus servid, / am not a servaiit to every man prima acies victis resistlt, the first line resists the vanquished Orgetorix persuadet Ccstico, Orgetorix persuades Casticus decimae legiom Caesar indulserat praecipue et cdnf idebat maxime, CcEsar had especially indulged the tenth legion and trusted it most of all Note i. In English most of these verbs are transitive and take a direct object, but in Latin the original meaning is intransitive and adapted to an indirect object. Thus, invidere, to envy, is literally to look askance at ; servire, to serve, is to be a slave to ; persuadere, to persuade, is to 7nake a thitig pleasant to, etc. Note 2. Fidd and cdnfidd {trust) take also the ablative. moltum natura loci cdnfidebant, tAey had great confidence in the natural strength of the place a. Some verbs apparently of the same meanings are transitive and take the accusative. Such are iuvo, help; laedd, injure; iubed, order; delectQ, please; offendo, oj^end. ^ A verb is called intransitive if it does not admit of a direct object DATIVE WITH INTRANSITIVE VERBS l8l 377. Phrases take the dative precisely like verbs of similar character. Such are audiens esse or dictO audifins esse, to be ohedUnt to ; and fidem hab€re, to have confidence in. Caesar « fidem habSbat, Casar had confidence in him 378. The dative is used with the impersonals libet or lubet, // pleases^ and licet, /'/ is permitted \ and with the verbs dicO and faciO compounded with satis, bene, and male. petierunt ut sibi legates mittere liceret, they asked that it be permitted them to send ambassadors pQlchnim est benefacere r« pUblicae, it is a glorious thing to be of sendee to the state 379. Intransitive verbs that govern the dative are used impersonally in the passive and retain the dative. For example, the active mihi persuade(J, /persuade myself, becomes in the passive mihi persuadgtur, lam persuaded (X\i. it is persuaded to me). 380. Some verbs, ordinarily intransitive and used with the dative, become transitive in certain senses and add an accu- sative of the direct object to the dative. These are especially the verbs cr6d5, tntst ; imperO, levy ; minor, threaten ; persuadeC, persuade. multi si suaque omnia alienissimis crediderunt, many intrusted them- selves and all their possessions to utter strangers Cretensibus obsides imperavit, he levied hostages on the Cretans id eis persuasit. he persuaded them (of) this AacaniSne pater R5manas invidet arcls (Vergil), does the father be- grudge Ascanius his Roman citadels? [Poetic or late.] 381. In poetry the dative is sometimes used in e.xpressions which would in prose require a different construction. So especially with verbs of contending, following the analogy of the Greek. placit5ne etiam pugnabis anion (Vergil), will you struggle even against a love that pleases you ? [In prose: cum amOre.] tibi certat (Vergil), he vies with you. [In prose: ticnm.] latefi abdidit ensem ( \'ergil), he buried the strord in his side. [ I n prose : in latus or in latere.] 1 82 DATIVE WITH INTRANSITIVE VERBS Indirect Object with Verbs Compounded with Prepositions 382. Many verbs compounded with the prepositions ad, ante, circum, con-, de, in, iHter, ob, post, prae, sub, and super admit, as the result of the composition, the dative of the indirect object. These verbs are of three classes : 1. Intransitive verbs which in their simple form cannot take an indirect object. equitatui Dumnorix praeerat, Dujnnorix was m command of the cavalry omnibus rebus amorem credo antevenire, I believe that love comes before all thmgs defuit officio, he has failed in his duty * 2. Transitive verbs that through composition become intran- sitive and therefore take the dative instead of the accusative. omnibus adridet^ he smiles upoti all. [Rideo, laugh at, ridicule, takes the accusative.] tempestati obsequi artis est, // is a point of skill to yield to the weather. [Sequor, follow, takes the accusative.] 3. Transitive verbs that through composition become capable of governing a dative of the indirect object in addition to an accusative of the direct object. finitimis bellum mferebant, they made war upon their neighbors is sibi legati5nem ad civitatis suscepit, he took upofi himself the embassy to the states munitioni Labienum praeficit, he puts Labienus in commafid of the fortification a. Many transitive and intransitive verbs compounded with these prepositions do not take the dative because the acquired meaning is not suited to an indirect object. Thus the following compounds take the accusative : adeo, approach convoco, call together offendo, offend adgredior, attack ineo, enter oppugn5, assault circumsto, surround interficio, kill praecedd, excel convenio, tneet obeo, visit, attend to subeo, undergo DATIVE OF REFERENCE 183 b. In expressions of locality or motion the usual construction after these compounds is a noun with a preposition. hostes ad fossam accesserunt. ///^r enemy drew near to the ditch (but sententiae tuae accedo, 1 yield to your opinion) in segetem flamma incidit, the fire falls on the standing grain 383. A few verbal nouns (as, insidiae, ambush ; obtemperatiO, obedience) may take the dative like the corresponding verbs. insidiae consult, the plot against the consul \ci. insidior) obtemperatio legibus, obedience to the laws (cf. obtempero) 384. The adjective obvius and the adverb obviam with a verb take the dative. cm mater sese tulit obvia, his mother met him Vercingetorix obviam Caesari proficiscitur, Vercingetorix sets out to meet Casar Dative of Reference 385. The dative of reference denotes the person for whose benefit or to whose injury the action is performed, or whom it remotely concerns. In this use the dative does not depend upon a single word, but is loosely connected with the sentence as a whole and is not essential to its ^ammatical completeness. It is often used where we should expect a possessive genitive or a possessive pronoun, especially with substantives denoting parts of the body. Bellovaci totius belli imperium sibi postulant, the Bello^taci demand for themselves the supreme control of the entire war sese Caesan ad pedes prSiecerunt. they threw themselves at Ctrsar'sfeet versatur mihi ante oculos aspectus Cethegi, the sight of Cethegus comes before my eyes taurum Neptuno mactavit, he sacrificed a bull to Neptune omnes in fuga sibi praesidiimi pdnebant. all sought safety for them- selves in flight homo ndn sibi sdli vivit, man lioes not live for himself alone 1 84 DATIVE OF REFERENCE laudavit mihi fratrem, he praised my brother (out of regard for me ; laudavit fratrem meum would not imply any such motive) quid ft'W vis, what do you 7nean ? (lit, what do you wish for yourself ?) Caesar suis quoque rlhus Germanos timere voluit, CcEsar wished the Germans to fear for their own interests also 386. The dative of reference is used idiomatically without any verb in certain colloquial questions and exclamations and after interjections. quo mihi fortunam, of what use to me is fortune f unde mihi lapidem, where can I get a stone ? ei mihi^ ah me ! vae victis^ woe to the conquered ! 387. The dative of reference is used to denote the person in whose judgment or opinion something is true. This is often called the dative of the person judgiiig. erit ille mihi semper deus, he will always be a god in tny opi?iio?i oppidum primum Thessaliae venientibus ab Epiro, the first town of Thessaly as you cojnefrojn Epirus (lit. to those coming frojn Epirus) est urbe egressis tumulus, there is, as you come out of the city, a moutid (lit. to those having come out) Note that in defining diredioii the person is expressed indefinitely by a participle without a supporting pronoun (as in the second and third examples). 388. The dative of a personal pronoun is sometimes used to denote the person's interest in the fact stated or merely to call attention. This construction is called the ethical dative. It is a variety of the dative of reference. Tongilium mihi eduxit, //^ took Tongilius with hifn, I am happy to say quid mihi Celsus agit, what is Celsus doing, I shotild like to k?iow ? hem ft'Wtalentum argenti, a talent of silver, mark y 021 ! non Beroe vobls est, this is not Bero'e, I tell you Note. It is obvious from the examples that the connection of this dative is very loose and its exact force hard to render or define. Many examples of it occur in Shakespearean English : as, " He plucked ine ope his doublet," " He thrusts me himself into the company." DATIVE OF APPARENT AGENT 185 389. Many verbs denoting separation, especially compounds of ab, de, and ex, may take the dative of the persoti from ivhom instead of the ablative of separation. hunc mihi terrorem eripe, take this terror from me nihil tibi detraxit senatus, the senate has taken nothing from you Note. This construction, sometimes called the dative of separation, is a variety of the dative of reference. It represents the action as done to or yi?r the person. The poets extend the usage to many verbs not admitting this construction in pH)se, a. With names of things the ablative with a preposition is the regular construction, but the dative occurs in poetry. silici scintillam excudit Achates (Vergil), Achates struck a spark from the flint eripe te moTQt (Horace), shake off delay Dative of Possession 390. The dative is used with forms of sum to denote the ■> possessor. est mihi pater, / have a father ei filius est, he /uis a son imperatori nomen est C&tsax, the general has the name Casar a. With nOmen est the name as well as the person is often put in the dative. nomen Arcturo est mihi, my name is Arcturus 391. Possession is also expressed by habeO with the accusative, with no essential difference in meaning; but the dative with esse is more common in expressions of naming. Dative of Apparent Agent 392. The dative is used regularly with the passive peri- phrastic, and often with the compound tenses of the regular passive, to express the agent or doer} ^ The origin of the dative of apparent agent is not certain. 186 DATIVE OF PURPOSE Caesarf omnia uno tempore erant agenda, everything had to be do?ie at the same jnoment by CcEsar haec vohis provincia est defendenda, this province must be defe?ided by yon mihi res provisa est, the matter has been seen to by me a. The dative of apparent agent is rare with other parts of the verb, neque cernitur ulli (Vergil), nor is he seen by any one 393. The regular construction denoting agency, the ablative with ^^ (§ 453)> is usual with all passive forms except the gerundive, and must sometimes be used even with that to avoid ambiguity. quibus est a vobis consulendum, yb;- whom yon must consult. [Here two datives, quibus and v5bis, would be ambiguous.] 394. The gerundive of intransitive verbs is impersonal, and the dative of agent becomes in English the subject nominative. omnibus moriendum est, a/i must die (lit. // must be died by alt) Caesari non exspectandum est, Casar must not wait Dative of Purpose 395. TJie dative is used, especially with forms of sum, to denote the pjirpose for which, often accompanied by the dative of reference denoting the person or thing concei-ned} Caesar sihi earn rem curae futuram poUicitus est, Ccpsar promised that he would see to that matter (lit. that that matter would be for a care to him) hoc GalUs magno erat impedimentd^ this was (for) a great hindrance to the Gauls hi novissimis praesidio erant, these were {for) a guard to the rear hoc erit tibi doloru this will cause you grief ([\i. will be for a grief to yo7i) cui bond, who will be the gainer? (lit. to whom will it be for an advantage f) 1 The dative of purpose is a natural development of the notion of direction of motion, the fundamental meaning of the dative case (of. § 367). DATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES 187 a. The following examples show the dative of purpose unaccom- panied by a dative of reference. locum castrls deligit, /le selects a site for a camp diem concilio c5nstituenmt, //ie_y appointed a day for a council receptui canit, Ae gives the signal for retreat 396. The dative of the gerund or gerundive sometimes denotes purpose. See § Sjj.a. Dative with Adjectives 397. The dative is used with adjectives to denote that to ivhich the given quality is directed, or that for ivhich it exists or senses} a. The dative is used with adjectives oi fitness, nearness, likeness, senile, indination, and others of similar or opposite meaning. nihil est tam naturae aptum, nothing is so fitted to nature Belgae proximi suut Germdnis, the Beiges are nearest to the Germans impar Hannibali er&t, he was no match for Hannibal similis deo erat, he luas like a god castris id5neum locum delegit, he chose a place suitable for a camp tribuni nobis sunt amici, the tribunes are ffiendly to us crat benignus cunctis, he was friendly to all Note. In Caesar the adjectives most common with the dative are finitimus, iddneus, and proximus. 398. Other constructions are sometimes found where the dative might be expected. a. Some adjectives take either the dative, or the accusative with a preposition. ad amicitiam est idoneus, he is ftted for friendship cSmis in uxorem est. he is kind to his wife gratior sum in te, I am more grateful to you » The first use corresponds to the dative of the indirect object ; the second to the dative of purpose. Both are plainly developments of the fundamenUl dative notion of directiott of motion. 1 88 ACCUSATIVE: CASE b. With similis or dissimilis the genitive is more common than the dative in early writers. Classic writers use either the genitive or da- tive, but with personal pronouns the genitive is regular (cf. § 351. n.). domini similis es (Terence), you are like your master pater est mei similis, my father is like me c. With ^X^AYi^x^, foreign to, the genitive or dative may be used, but the ablative, with or without a, is the prevailing construction. alienum a vita mea, foreign to 7ny life mea existimdtione alienum, foreign to my thought 399. A few adverbs of likeness take the dative. vivere convenienter naturae, to live in confo?'mity with nature 400. Adjectives and adverbs of likeness or unlikeness are often followed by atque (ac), et, or -que, meaning as, than, ox from. The pronoun idem, the same, regularly takes either this construction or a relative clause. alius nunc ego sum atque olim, / a7n diffe7'ent now frojn (what I was) before vita est eadem ac fuit, life is the saine as it was idem abeunt qui venerant, the sa^ne men go as had come 401. In expressions of motion the adjectives propior, proximus, and the adverbs propius, proxime, usually take the accusative with or without ad. castra movit propius Avaricum, he 7novedthe ca7np 7iearer to Avaricum For the genitive with adjectives see § 357. THE ACCUSATIVE CASE 402. It is probable that the accusative case originally denoted the goal or limit of 7notion. To this use the accusative of the direct object, the accusative of extent, and the accusative of the place whither may be readily traced. But it is impossible to derive all the constructions of the accusative from any single function of that case. ACCUSATIVE OF THE DIRECT OBJECT 89 Accusative of the direct object 403. The original and derived uses of the accusative are : 1. Accusative of the direct object (§ 404) 2. Accusative of kindred meaning (§ 408) 3. Two accusatives — direct object and secondary object (§412) 4. Two accusatives — direct object and adjunct accusative (§4'6). 5. Accusative as subject of an infinitive (§419) 1 . Accusative of extent and duration (§ 420) 2. Accusative of respect (§427) 3. Accusative of the place whither (§ 428) 4. Accusative of exclamation (§ 436) 5. Idiomatic uses of the accusative (§ 438) 6. Accusative with prepositions (§ 276) Other uses of the accusative Accusative of the Direct Object 404. The direct object of a transitive verb is put in the accusative. Caesar Gallos vicit, CtFsar conquered the Gauls Romani Carthdginem deleverunt, Mes of his soldiers dearer than his own safety Caesar minor est quam Cicero, CcEsar is younger than Cicero Note. The ablative of comparison is a form of the ablative of separa- tion, the first example above meaning literally, reckoning from Cicero as a standard, Cato is more eloquent. a. The construction with quam is required where the first of the things compared is not in the nominative or accusative. est misericordia dignior quam contumelia, he is more worthy of pity than of disgrace. [Here the ablative is due to dignus (§ 479).] 6. The comparative adverbs citius and celerius are followed by the ablative of comparison. dicto citius, soofier than you could tell it (lit. said) opinione celerius, sooner than was expected (lit. expectation) 447. The poets sometimes use the ablative of comparison where the prose construction requires quam (§ 446. a^. pane egeo iam mellitis potiore placentis (Horace), / now want brea^ rather than honey cakes. [Here the ablative pane depends on egeo (§ 469. d).'] 448. The ablative of comparison is regular in negative sentences, nihil est foedius servitute, nothing is viler than slavery 449. Tha7i followed by a relative pronoun with a definite ante- cedent is never expressed by quam, but by the ablative of the relative. rex erat Aeneas nobis, quo iiistior alter non fuit, Apneas was our king, than wJiom no other was mo?e righteous ABLATIVE OF MATERIAL 203 450. After the comparatives plus, minus, amplius, and longius, when used without quam, the noun usually takes the case required by the context, without reference to the comparative. hostes ndn amplius octingentds equites habebant, /Ae enemy had no more than eii^ht hundred horsemen plus septingenti capti sunt, /nore than seven hundred were captured 451. Ablative of Origin. The ablative, generally without a preposition, is used with nascor, be borti, and with the parti- ciples nitus, ortus, and a few others of similar meaning, to denote parentage or origin. amplissimS genere natus, dorft of a 7>ery noble family summ5 *n Arvernis ortus loco^ sprung from the highest station among the . In'i'rni Maecenas edite regibus, O Maecenas, descendant of kings quo sanguine crStus, bom of what blood ? a. A preposition (generally ex) is regularly used with pronouns and sometimes with nouns. ex me hie natus n6n est sed ex fratre meo, this is not my son, but my brother s (not born from me, etc.) cum ex utraque uxore fflius natus esset, when a son had been bom of each 7L'ife 452. Ablative of Material. The ablative, usually with ex (in poetry often with dfi), is used to denote the material of which anything consists or is made. naves factae sunt ex robore, the ships were made of oak scuta ex cortice facta, shields made of bark valvae ex auro atque ehore, doors of gold and ivory templum de marmore ponam, 77/ build a temple of marble a. In poetry the preposition is often omitted. scopulis pendentibus antrum (Vergil), a cave of overhanging rocks aere cav6 clipeus (Vergil), a shield of hollow bronse 204 ABLATIVE OF AGENT b. The ablative of material without a preposition is used with facere, fieri, and similar words, in the sense of {/o with^ become of. quid hoc homine facialis, what are you going to do with this fellow ? quid Tulliola mea f let, what will becotne of my dear Tullia ? Note. The ablative of material is a development of the ablative of origin. For the genitive of material see § 348. 453. Ablative of Agent. The ablative with a or ab is used with a passive verb to denote the personal agent. a sendtu amicus appellatus erat, he had been called frietid by the senate exercitus ab Helvetiis pulsus est, the army was defeated by the Helvetii • laudatur ah hls^ culpatur ah illis, he is praised by these, blamed by those ah non nuUis GalTis sollicitabantur, they were incited by some (of the) Gauls Note i. The ablative of agent is a development of the ablative of origin. The preposition a meant from to the Roman mind, not by, as it is translated in English. Note 2. The ablative of agent (which requires a or ab) must be care- fully distinguished from the ablative of means, which has no preposition (§ 468). Thus, occisus gladio, slain by a sword-, but occisus ah hoste, slain by an enemy. 454. Things personified and sometimes names of animals are found in the construction of the agent. vitia a virtutihus superantur, vices are^ overco?ne by virtues 455. If the person acting is regarded as the means rather than as the agent, the accusative with per is generally used. per exploratores Caesar certior factus est, Caesar was infonned by (means of) scouts Note. When the action is stressed rather than the persons acting, the ablative is used without a or ab. cena ministratur tribus puens, dinner is served by three slaves ABLATIVE OF ACCORDANCE 205 II. Instrumental Ablative Uses 456. Ablative of Accompaniment. The ablative with cum is used to denote accompaniment. Caesar cum legionibus tribus profectus est, Casar set out with three lei^ions Helvetii cum Germanis contendunt, the Helvetii fight with the Germans Note. The ablative of accompaniment may be used with words of contention and the like. See the second example above. a. In some military expressions cum may be omitted, especially when the ablative is modified by any adjective not a numeral omnibus cdpiis subsequebatur, he folloiued close with all his forces 457. Ablative of Attendant Circumstance. The ablative, some- times with cum but more usually without, is used to denote an attendant circumstance or situation. ezercitum duarum cohortium damno deducit, he leads back his army with the loss of t7uo cohorts ex oppido sUentio egressi sunt, they went forth from the town in silence his ominibus proficiscere ad impium bellum, attended by these omens go forth to your impious war nemo funera fletu faxit, let no one perform my funeral rites with tears Liscus intellegit quanto cum periculo id fecerit, Liscus understands with how much danger he has done this 458. Ablative of Accordance. That in accordance with which something is done is expressed by the ablative, usually without a preposition, sometimes with ex or d6. moribus suis Orgetorigem ex vinculls causam dicere coSgSrunt, in accordance with their customs they compelled Orgetorix to plead his cause in chains consuetudine sua Caesar sex legi5nes expeditas ducSbat, according to his custom Ccesar was leading six legions in fighting trim tuo consilid faciam, / will act in accordance with your plan haec ex senatus cdnsulto acta sunt, this was done in accordance with the decree of the senate 2o6 ABLATIVE OF CAUSE OR REASON 459. Ablative of Manner. The manner of an action is denoted by the ablative with cum. * magno cum strepitu ac tumultU castris egressi sunt, 'with great uproar and confusion they ivetit fo7'th from the cainp pars nuntiorum cum crucidtu necabatur, part of the messengers were killed with torture Note. The ablative of manner, the ablative of attendant circumstance, and the ablative of accordance are so closely related that they cannot be sharply distinguished. 460. With the ablative of manner the preposition cum may be omitted when the noun is modified by an adjective. flumen incredibiti Imitate fluit, the river flows with incredible slowness nUdo corpore pugnant, they fight with body exposed 461. The preposition cum is not used with such words of manner as modo, pacto, ratione, ritu, vi, via, nor with certain nouns that have become virtually adverbs, as, iure, iniuria, iussu, iniussu, merito, sponte, pace tua, etc. pecudum nfiJ, in the maimer of beasts iure an iniUrid, rightly or wrongly pdce tud dixerim, / should like to say, with your permission Note. This usage has been much extended in poetry. insequitur ci/muZo aquae mons (Vergil), a mountain of rvater follows in a mass 462. Ablative of Cause or Reason. Cause or reason is denoted by the ablative, sometimes without a preposition, sometimes with ab, de, or ex. magno doldre adficiebantur, they were affected with great sorrow nemo maeret suo incommodo, no one mourns over his own misfortune Dumnorix grdtid plurimum poterat, Dumnorix had great power be- cause of his influence regni cupiditdte adductus coniurationem fecit, tnoved by his desire for royal power, he made a conspiracy sua victoria insolenter gloriabantur, they boasted insolently of their victory AHLATIVE OF DESCRIPTION OR QUALITY 207 mare d sole lucet, //te sea gleams in the sun (from the sun) qua de causa, for this reason ex vulnere aeger, disabled by a wound (from a wound) Note. The causal uses of the ablative, esf)ecially those without a prepo- sition, originate largely in its instrumental use ; but where ab, de, or ex is employed, the construction seems to go back to the true ablative (§ 439). 463. The ablatives causfi and grStifi {because, for the sake) are used with a genitive preceding (§ 331. n.) or with a pronominal adjective in agreement. amicitiae causa, /or the sake of friendship ea causa, o/i account of this mea gratia, for my sake 464. Cause is often expressed by ob or propter with the accusative. ob cam rem, for that reason quam ob rem, on which account pecora propter bellum remdverant, they had removed their cdt tie be- cause of the war 465. A preventing cause is expressed by prae with the ablative. s51em prae iacul5rum multitudine n5n videbitis, you will not see the sun for the number of darts 466. Ablative of Description or Quality. The ablative with a modifying adjective is used to desctibe a substantive. mulier eximid pulchritudine, a woman of rare beauty vir summo ingenid. a man of the greatest genius m5ns magna altitudine, a mountain of great height litterae hoc exempio, a letter of this tenor Note. It is impossible to differentiate sharply between the genitive and the ablative of description. For a broad distinction see § 338. .\. 467. The ablative of description is frequently in the predicate. animb meliore sunt gladiatores, the gladiators are of a better mind Germani ingenti magnitudine corporum sunt, the Gertnans are of great size of body capillo sunt promisso, they have long hair magno timore sum, / aw greatly terrifed 2o8 ABLATIVE OF MEANS 468. Ablative of Means. The ablative is used without a prep- osition to denote the means by which something is done. una pars flumine continetur, one part is bounded by the river his rehus adducti, induced by these things eum mam sua occidit, he killed him with his own hand Note. Means^ cause^ manner^ and accompanime?it are all outgrowths of the same fundamental notion, and are so closely related that they are often difficult to discrirrrinate. Indeed, the Romans themselves can hardly have thought of any sharp distinction. 469. The ablative of means includes the following special uses. a. The deponents utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, and several of their compounds govern the ablative. Star vestra benignitate, I will avail myself of your kindness (lit. / will serve ntyself by your kindness) Caesar isdem ducibus usus est, CcEsar employed the same guides lux qua. fruimur, the light which we enjoy (lit. the light by which we enjoy ourselves) mUneribus corporis fungi, to perform the functions of the body (lit. to busy oursek'cs with the fjinctiojts of the body) impedimentis castrisque nostri potiti sunt, our soldiers took possession of the baggage and camp (lit. ojir soldiers tnade themselves masters by means of the baggage and camp) lacte et came vescebantur, they fed on milk and meat (lit. they fed themselves by means of milk and meat) Note i. Potior sometimes takes the genitive. totlUS Gattiae potiuntur, tAn' ta^e possession of the 7vhole of Gaul Note 2. In early Latin these verbs are sometimes transitive and take the accusative; and in classic Latin they retain the personal use of the gerundive. fiinctus est officium (Terence), he performed the part modus sit fruendae voluptatis, let there lye a limit to the enjoyment of pleasure ABLATIVE OF PRICE OR VALUE 209 b. 0pu8 est, and less commonly tisus est, f/t^e is rued^ take the ablative' • magistratibus opus est, t/iere is need 0/ magistrates opus /ac/o est. there is need 0/ action nunc viribus usus est, now there is need 0/ strength Note i. Opus is often in the predicate, with the thing needed in the nominative as subject. This is the regular construction when the thing needed is a neuter pronoun or adjective. dux nObis et auctor opus est, we need a chief and adviser (lit a chief atiJ tiih'iicr is necessary for us) 81 quid mihi opus est, if I need anything (lit if anything is needful to me) multa nobis opus sunt, we need many things (lit many things are needful to us) Note 2. Opus est is sometimes used with the ablative of a past participle. properato opus erat, there was need of haste c. Contentus, satisfied, frgtus, relying on (lit supported)^ and innixus, leaning on, take the ablative. contentus sorte, satisfied with his lot virtute fretus, relying on his valor d. Verbs and adjectives denoting fullness or abundance may be used with the ablative of means. aggere fossas explent, they fill the ditches with earth Forum Appi differtum nautis. Forum Appii, crowded with boatmen vita plena voluptatibus, a life full of delights Note i. For the genidve with similar expressions see § 350. Note 2, For means denoted by per with the accusative of personal nouns see § 455. 470. Ablative of Price or Value. With expressions of buy- ing and selling definite price or value is expressed by the ablative. * The noun Qsus follows the analogy of the verb utor ; and opus, originally a genitive (cf. hoc opus est this is of service), takes the ablative by an extension of the construction with flsus. 210 ABLATIVE OF THE WAY BY WHICH agrum vendidit sestertium sex nulibus, he sold the land for six thou- sand ^esterces istuc verbum vile est xx minis, that word is cheap at twenty mince triginta minis emi, / bought it for thirty mince Note. The ablative of price is a development of the ablative of means. 471. Indefinite price or value, when expressed by an adjective, is regularly denoted by the genitive (§ 341) ; but when expressed by a noun, is usually denoted by the ablative. quanti earn emit ? ViR (pretio), how much did he buy her for ? Cheap (lit. at a low price) venibunt praesenti pecUnid, they will be sold for cash quibus hie pretUs porci veneunt, at what price are pigs sold here ? Dumnorix vectigalia parvo pretid redempta habebat, Dumnorix had bought the taxes at a small price 472. With the verb muto, exchange, and some of its compounds, either the thi7ig taken or the thing given in exchange may be in the ablative of price. religionem pecUnid commiitat, he barters his conscience for money exsilium patria side mutavit, he took exile in exchange for his ?tative latid 473. With verbs of condemning, the penalty (when it is a fine of definite amount) is denoted by the ablative of price. Frusinates tertia parte agri damnati sunt, the Frusinates were fined a third part of their land tor the genitive of the charge see § 336. 474. Ablative of the Way by Which. The zvay by ivhich, after verbs of motion, is expressed by the ablative without a preposition. Aurelia vid profectus est, he set out by the Aurelian road via breviore equites praemisi, I sent forward the cavalry by a shorter road frumentum quod flumine navibus subvexerat, the grain which he had brought up the river by ships provehimur pelago, we sail forth over the sea Note. The ablative of the way by which is a development of the ablative of means. ABLATIVE OF RESPECT 211 475. Ablative of the Measure of Difference. With words expressing or implying comparison the ablative is used to denote the measure of difference. alterum iter est multo facilius et expeditios, ///^ o/A^r route is much easier and quicker quinque mTlibus passoum distat, // is Jive miles distant (lit. distant by five miles) nee longd distant cursu, nor are they far away (lit. distant by a long course) Note. The ablative of the measure of difference is a development of the ablative of means. 476. Measure of difference is expressed by the correlative ablatives qu6 . . . e6 (hOc) and quantO . . . tantO with comparatives, as in English by the . . . the. quo minus cupiditatis, eo plus auctdritatis, the less avarice the more authority (lit. by what the less of avarice^ by that the more of authority) quanto erat gravior oppugnatio, tanto crebriores litterae mittebantur. the worse the siege was, the more frequent letters were sent 477. The ablative of the measure of difference is often used with the adverbs ante {before), post {after), and abbinc {ago), to denote time before or after. tribus ante annis. three years before (lit. before by three years) tribus post annis, three years after (lit. after by three years) abhinc tribus cmms, three years ago (lit. ago by three years) Note. As prepositions, ante and post take the accusative (§ 276). Abhinc is generally followed by the accusative of duration (§ 425). 478. Ablative of Respect. The ablative is used to denote /■;/ ivhat respect something is true. virtate praecedunt, they excel in valor infirmiores animo sunt, they are weaker in < oumt^e hi omnes lingua, institutis, tigibus inter se differunt. all these differ from each other in language, custopns, and laws 212 ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE claudus altero pede, lame m one foot maior natu, older (lit. greater in respect to birth) minor natu, younger (lit. less in respect to birth) Note. For the supine in -u in this construction see § 882. II. 479. The adjectives dignus and indignus usually take the ablative of respect. The genitive occurs, especially in early Latin. hoc dignum memorid videtur, this seems woi'th ?nention vir patref avo, maioribus suis dignissimus, a ma?i most worthy of his father^ grandfather^ attd aticestoi's dignus salutis, deserving of safety Note. So the verb dignor in poetry. hand equidem tali me dignor honore (Vergil), / do not deem myself worthy of siick an honor 480. Ablative Absolute. The ablative of a noun or pro- noun with a participle in agreement may be used absolutely, that is, as grammatically independent of the rest of the sen- tence. The ablative absolute defines the time or circumstances of the action. nondum hieme confecta in finis Nerviorum contendit, the winter not yet beifig over^ he hastened into the territory of the Ner^ni Note. The ablative absolute is of instrumental origin ; but the locative and true ablative may have contributed to its development. 481. As the verb sum has no present participle, we often find two nouns, or a noun and an adjective, in the ablative absolute with no participle expressed. M. Messala M. Pisone oonsulibus, Marcus Messala and Marcus Piso being consuls ezigua parte aestatis reliqua^ a small part of the summer remaining 482. A noun or pronoun in the ablative absolute regularly denotes a person or thing not elsewhere mentioned in the same clause. ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE 2 1 3 Compare the sentences : rhe Gauls ha~i'ini^ been ionquercd by L\rsixt\ the army returned home. Gains a Caesare i/tcfts exercitus domum rediit The Gaulsy having been conquered by Casar, returned home, Galli a Caesare oicti domum redierunt rhe ablative absolute is used in the first example, but is not admis- sible in the second. 483. A participle or an adjective is sometimes used in the ablative absolute without a substantive. Ifbdto summd tenus attigit 6re (Vergil), after pouring the libation she touched (the goblet) with her lips missis qui iter monstrarent, (men) having been sent to show the way 484. While grammatically independent, the ablative absolute has a logical connection with the rest of the sentence and may express a great variety of relations. This connection is often best expressed in translation by a subordinate clause, and should not always be rendered by the English nominative absolute. Thus, the ablative absolute may replace — a. A temporal clause. Caesar acceptis litteris nuntium mittit, after Caesar receives the letter he sends a messenger h. A causal clause. maiSres nostri saepe mercatoribus nostris iniuriosius tractatts bclla gesserunt, our ancestors often waged 7c>ars hrcausc our traders had been somewhat unjustly treated c. A concessive clause. oppidum paucis difendentibus expugnare non potuit, though only a few defended the town^ he could not take it d. \ conditional clause. deditidnis nulla est condicio nisi armls trdditis, there are no terms of surrender if the arms are not handed over €, A clause denoting attendant circumstance. ea omnia insdentibus Haeduis fecit, he did all these things while the Hcpdui were in ignorance 214 ABLATIVE OF THE PLACE WHERE HI. Locative Ablative Uses 485. Ablative of the Place Where. The place where is reg- ularly denoted by the ablative with the preposition in. in hac urhe vitam degit, he passed his life in this city in Gallia remanserunt, they remained in Gaul in Germanorum finibus bellum genint, they wage war in the territory of the Germans a. But the preposition in is omitted before names of towns and small islands and before loco, locis, parte, partibus, dextra, sinistra, laeva, terra, mari, and nouns modified by totus. Carthagine, at Carthage Curibus (§ i lo), at Cures Athenis (§ 80. c\ at Athens terra marique, on land and sea Delphis (§ 88. a\ at Delphi tota Sicilia, in all Sicily Note. Many idiomatic expressions omit in : as, periculis, in dajtgers ; mentibus, /;/ minds ; and it is freely omitted in poetry : as, litore curvo (Vergil), on the winding shore. 486. The locative case, denoting the place ivhere, not dis- tinguished in the plural from the ablative, has a form like the genitive with names of towns and small islands in the singular of the first or second declension. Romae, at Rotne Corinthi, at Corinth Avarici, at Avaricufn Cypri, at Cyprus 487. Names of towns of the third declension are usually in the ablative to denote the place where, but a few locative forms in -i are found. Carthagini, at Carthage Tiburi, at Tibur 488. The following special nouns have locative forms like names of towns : animi, in mind humi, on the ground belli, in war militiae, in military semice domi, at home ruiT falso abl. rure). in the country heri, yesterday vesperi, in the evening ABLATIVE OF TIME 215 489. The locative domi may be modified only by a possessive adjective or by a noun in the genitive ; when it would be otherwise modified, the ablative with in is used instead. domi meae, ai my house Caesaris domi, at Orsars house in Marci splendida domo^ at the fine home of Marcus 490. Verbs oi placing y though implying motion, take the abla- tive of place where. Such are p6n0, loc6, conlocfl, statuC, cOnstituO, etc. Plato rationem in capite posuit, iram in pectore locavit, Piato placed reason in tlw Jwad (and) located anger in the heart 491. Summary of Constructions of Place, i. Names of places not toivns are generally put — a. In the accusative with ad or in to denote the place to which, exercitum in Italiam duxit, //f /ed an army into Italy b. In the ablative with ab, d5, or ex to denote the place from which. ab urbe proficiscitur, he sets out from the city c. In the locative ablative with in to denote the place at or in which. Hannibal in Italia fuit, Hannibal was in Italy 2. Names of towns and words which follow their analogy are put — a. In the accusative to denote the place to which. legati Athends missi sunt, ambassadors were sent to Athens b. In the ablative to denote the place from which. Demaratus fugit Corintho, Demaratus fled from Corinth c. In the locative or ablative to denote the place at or in which. Romae ct domi tuae viTcre, to live at Rome and in your home Athinis eram. / 7C'as at Athens 492. Ablative of Time. Time w/ii-n or wit/tin ivhich is ex- pressed by the ablative, regularly without a preposition. 2i6 ABLATIVE OF TIME 1 . Time when : secunda vigHia castris egressi sunt, in the second watch they went forth fro )n the cajnp Diviciacus eo tempore principatum obtinebat, Diviciacus at that time held the highest place Caesar septimo ^ie pervenit, CcEsar arrived on the seventh day 2. Time within which : diebus viginti quinque aggerem exstruxerunt, within twefityfive days they finished building a mound hoc toto proelio aversum hostem videre nemo potuit, throughout this whole battle no one could see an enemy in retreat paucis anms omnes ex Galliae finibus pellentur, within a few years all will be driven fro ?n the territory of Gaul Note. Titne wit /tin which often approaches closely to the idea of duration of time (cf. § 423. n.), as in the second example. 493. The preposition in is often used with the ablative of time, especially when the ablative has no modifier. in pueritia, in boyhood in adulescentia, in youth in bell5, in war bis in anno, twice a year 494. Many expressions have in Latin the construction of ti?ne when, where in English the idea is rather that oi place ivhere. secund5 Piinico bell5, in the second Punic war liidis Romanis, at tJie Roman games pugna Cannensi, /// tJie battle of Cannes 495. In many idiomatic expressions of time prepositions are used with the accusative or ablative. cum prima liice, at dawn de tertia vigilia, about, the third watch sub occasum solis, toward sunset sub vesperum, toward evening convenerunt ad diem, they assembled on the (appointed) day sub idem tempus, about the same time sub noctem, at iiightfall in tertium annum, ^r the third year For the expression of dates see § loio. AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES 217 SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES CLASSIFICATION 496. Adjectives are classified as (a) aitrtdutwe, {b) apposi- iive, and (c) predicate. a. An Attributive Adjective ' is closely attached to its noun and is translated immediately before it. vir fortis, a braye man stellae liicidae, firij^A/ s/ars b. An Appositive Adjective explains its noun like an appositive substantive, and is translated immediately after it. Laelius sapiens et bonus, Lcp/ius, the wise and good Orgetorix nobilissimus et ditissmus Helvetiorum, Orgeton'x, the noblest and richest of the Helve tit c. A Predicate Adjective completes the meaning of the predicate, but describes or limits the subject. vir erat fortis, the man was brave sit Sclpid clarus, let Scipio be illustrious Note. The verb that connects a noun with its predicate adjective is sometimes not expressed. locum idoneum putavit, Af thought the place (to be) suitahU. [Here the verb esse, to l>f, is understood.] AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES 497. General Rule. Adjectives, pronominal adjectives, and participles agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case. Agreement wrrH a Single Noun 498. An adjective limiting a single noun agrees with it in gender, number, and case. fortissimt sunt Belgae, the Belgce are the bravest Una pars, one part iter angustum et diffidle^ a way narrow and difficult * The attributive adjective is sometimes called the adherent adjective. 2l8 AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES 499. Two or more similar adjectives in the singular may limit a plural noun. prima et vicesima legiones, the first and twentieth legiotts 500. An adjective limiting a clause or an infinitive is neuter singular. certwn est liberSs amari, // is certain that children are loved 501. Construction according to Sense. Sometimes, especially in poetry, an adjective modifying a collective noun agrees, not with its grammatical gender and number, but with the gender and number conveyed by its sense. pars certare paratT, a paii (some) prepared to contend multitudo convicti sunt, a multitude were convicted Agreement with Two or More Nouns 502. One adjective limiting two or more nouns agrees with them in case. Its number and gender are determined by the following rules : 1. Agreement in number. a. A predicate adjective with two or more nouns is regularly plural. Caesar et Cicero erant clari, Ccesar and Cicero were famous Sicilia Sardiniaque sunt amissae, Sicily and Sardinia are lost b. An attributive adjective with two or more nouns usually agrees in number with the nearest. Caesaris omni gratia et opibus fruor, / enjoy all Ccpsar's favor and resources 2. Agreement in gender. a. An attributive adjective with two or more nouns of different genders agrees with the nearest. cunctae terrae mariaque or terrae mariaque cuncta, all lands and seas aptus ad frigora et aestus tolerandos. capable of enduring cold and heat ADJECTIVES USED AS NOUNS 219 b. A predicate adjective with two or more nouns of different genders will be regularly masculine plural if the nouns denote persons^ usually neuter plural if the nouns denote things. pater et mater mortul sunt, father and mother are dead murus et portae alia erant, the wall and the gates were high Note i. If nouns of different genders include both persons and things, the predicate adjective is usually neuter plural ; but it may follow the per- sons in gender and be masculine or feminine, or may agree with the nearest noun if that is plural. natura inimica sunt libera civitas et rex, by nature a free state and a king are hostile rex regiaque classis profecti sunt, the itinj^ and the royal fleet set out legati sortesque oraculi exspeciandae sunt. tAe ambassadors and the replies of the oracle should be aicaited Note 2. Two or more masculine or feminine abstract nouns denoting things may have a predicate adjective in the neuter plural. stultitia et temeritas et iniustitia sunt fugienda, folly, rashness, and injustice are to be shunned ADJECTIVES USED AS NOUNS 503. Plural adjectives are often used as nouns {substantively) ^ the masculine to denote men ov people in general] the feminine, zvomcn ; and the neuter, things. omnes, all men (everybody) omnia, all things maiores, ancestors mindres, descendants Romani, Romans barbari, barbarians nostri, <7«r(men) sua, ///^/r (possessions) omnes fortia laudant, all men praise brave deeds 504. Singular adjectives, especially in the neuter, are some- times used as nouns [substantively). lupus est tfiste stabulis, the wolf is a griei'ous thing for the folds sapiens est rex. the wise man is king mater eius erat Rberta, his mother was a freedwoman naves erant in ariddy the ships were on dry land 220 ADJECTIVES USED AS ADVERBS 505. When ambiguity would arise from the substantive use of an adjective, a noun must be added. dei potentiam omnium rerum habent, //i^ gods have power over every- thing. [If rerum were not expressed, the gender of omnium would be uncertain.] 506. Some adjectives have become nouns. aequalis, a co7iteinporary propinqui, relatives amicus, friend ' socius, ally familiaris, intimate friend vicinus, neighbor a. Many adjectives have become practically substantives by the omission of some noun, which is understood from constant association. Africus (ventus), southwest wind hiberna (castra), winter quarters September (mensis), September triremis (navis), trireme patria {ttrra), fatherland regia (domus), royal palace b. Conversely, a few nouns are used as adjectives, especially those ending in -tor or -trix : as, victor exercitus, a victorious army ; populus latg rex, a people ruling far a fid wide. See also § 584. ADJECTIVES USED AS ADVERBS 507. Adjectives are sometimes used in Latin where adverbs would be used in English. Socrates venenum laetus hausit, Socrates drank the poison cheerfully erat ille Romae /regwens, he was frequefitly at Rome naves totae ex robore factae, ships made entirely of oak a. The adjectives prior, primus, princeps, postremus, and ultimus are used instead of adverbs to denote the first or last in order of time. Hannibal pnnceps in proelium ibat, ultimus excedebat, Hannibal was the first to go into battle and the last to withdraw (^xl. went firsts withdrew last) primus venit, he was the first to come COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES 221 COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES 508. When two qualities of an object are compared, both adjectives are in the comparative. When magis is used, both adjectives arc in the positive. longior quam latior acies erat, ihe line was longer than it was broad is erat disertus magis quam sapiens, he was more eloquent than wise a. Disproportion is expressed by the comparative with quam pr5 {than for) and the ablative, or with quam ut {than that) or quam qui {than who) and the subjunctive. maior sum (piam cut possit fortuna nocere, / am too great for fortune to harm me 509. The superlative may be strengthened by the following words : longg, by far \ quam, as possible ^ often with the addition of a form of possum ; unus, the one ; vel, the very^ even. longe nobilissimus fuit Orgetorix, Orgetorix was by far the noblest carroriun quam maximum numerum coemere, to buy up the greatest possible numhcr of wagons quam maximis potest itineribus in Galliam contendit, he has/ens into Gaul by marches the greatest possible (he is able) Ripheus, iUstissimus Unus in Teucris, Ripheus, the one most righteous man among the Teucri eo tempore vel maxima apud regem auctdritas erat, at that time his influence with the king was the X'ery greatest 510. The following adjectives, mostly superlatives, denote a part of the object modified : extrSmus, imus (infimus), intimus, medius, postrSmus, primus, reliquus, summus, ultimus. summus mdns, the top of the mountain media urbs, the midst of the city Pompeius bellum extrimd hieme apparavit, prima vere suscepit, mediS aestate confecit, Pompey prepared for war at the end of winter, began it at the beginning of spring, and finished it in midsummer Note. For other special meanings of the comparative and superlative ste § I 54. N. 222 PERSONAL PRONOUNS SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS PERSONAL PRONOUNS 511. Personal pronouns have the same constructions as nouns, but are never used in the nominative except for emphasis or contrast. te voco, / afn calling you quis me vocat ? Ego te voco, who is calling tne ? I (emphatic) am calling you ego certe meum officium praestitero, / at least shall have done my duty a. In poetry nos is sometimes used for ego, and noster for meus ; but vos and vester are never used for tu and tuus. 512. The Latin has no personal pronoun of the third person.^ This want is supplied by a demonstrative or by a relative (§§531,564). is coniurationem fecit, he made a conspiracy qui cum eum convenissent, when they had met him 513. To express possession the possessive pronominal adjec- tives meus, tuus, noster, vester are used, and not the genitive of the personal pronouns. liber meus, my book ; not liber mei a. But nostrum and vestrum may be used with omnium. vita nostra, our lives vita omnium nostrum, the lives of us all 514. The genitives mei, tui, nostri, vestri are generally objective ; nostrum and vestrum, partitive. memoria mei tua est iiicunda, your remembrance of me is delightful habetis ducem memorem vestri, you have a leader tnindful of you minus habeo virium quam vestrum utervis, / have less strength than either of you pars nostrum mansit, a part of us remained 1 For the reflexive sui see §§ 517 ff. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 223 REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 515. Reflexive pronouns in their regular use stand in the predicate and refer to the subject. 516. For reflexives of the first and second persons the obHque cases of the personal pronouns ego and tu are used. The corresponding possessive adjectives are meus and tuus. morti me obtull, / exposed myself to death hinc tl reginae ad limina perfer, betake yourself hence to the queen's threshold vobis novenos vestri similes eligite, p/ih out {for yoursehgive hostages to each other \^ si dant, they J POSSESSIVE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES 525. The possessive pronouns are pronominal adjectives agreeing with the noun to which they belong. haec ornamenta sunt mea, these jewels are mine 526. Possessive adjectives, when attributive, are generally omitted if they are unemphatic and plainly implied in the context. ipse cum omnibus copiis e6s sequi coepit, he himself began to follow them with all Q[{\%) forces 527. l^ossessive attributive adjectives may be necessary for cleartiess, for emphasis, or for contrast. When used merely for clearness, the possessive adjective follows its noun ; when expressed for emphasis or contrast, it regularly precedes its noun. ipse cum omnibus c5piis mtls eos sequi coepit, he himself began to follow them with all my forces (meis expressed for clearness) ego d5 tnto sensu iudico, / judge by my own feeling (meS expressed for emphasis) Helvetil suis finibus eos prohibent aut ipsi in eorum finibus bellum gerunt, the Heh.ctii keep them from their own territory or them- selves cany on war in their territory (suis expressed for contrast) 226 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 528. Possessive adjectives are often used substantively, especially in the masculine and neuter plural. Ariovistus in nostras impetum fecit, Ariovistus made an attack upon our men (lit. ours) dedite vos vestraque omnia, siwrender yourselves and all .your posses- sions (lit. yours) flamma extrema meorum, last flames of my countrymen (lit. mine) 529. The genitive of a pronoun or adjective may be used to agree with the genitive implied in a possessive adjective. Especially common are the genitives ipsius, ipsorum, solius, unius, and omnium. mea ipsius patria, my own country (equivalent to the country of me myself) tua soTius (or UnJus) causa, for your sake alone (equivalent to for the sake of you alone) nostra omnium patria, the country of us all. [This might be written also nostrum omnium patria; cf. §§ 345, 513. a.] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 530. The demonstratives are hie, iste, ille, is, and idem. They are used either as pronouns or as pronominal adjectives. 531. The demonstrative pronouns, besides their own special uses, supply the lack of a personal pronoun of the third person (§ 512). This use is regular in the oblique cases, especially of is. ei fiftam dat, he gives him his daughter Caesar et exercitus eius, Ccesar a/id his army (lit. the army of him) obsides ab eis dantur, hostages are given by them hi sunt fortissimi, they are the bravest ille minimum poterat, he had veiy little power 532. As pronominal adjectives the demonstratives follow the rules for the agreement of adjectives (§§ 497 ff.). a. A demonstrative usually agrees with an appositive or predicate noun, if there be one, rather than with the word to which it refers. rerum caput hoc erat, hie fons, this was the head of things, this the source ea vera est pietas. that is true piety DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 227 hiC) iste, ille, is 533. Hie, this, is used of what is near the speaker in time, place, or thought. Hence it is called the demonstrative of the first person. luppiter est custSs hui\is urbis, Jitpiter is the guardian of this city his sex diebus, /// ///£- /ust s/x days 534. Hie sometimes refers to the speaker himself. noli tradere hunc hominem, do not betray me (lit. this man) 535. Iste, tJiat {of yours), is used of what is near the person addressed in time, place, or thought. Hence it is called the demonstrative of the second person. miita istam mentem, change that purpose of yours 536. From its frequent application to the views of an opponent, iste often implies contempt. iinius usiiram h5rae gladiator! isti non dedissem. / luould not have given that (contemptible) g/adiator the enjoyment of a single hour 537. Hie, that {yonder), is used of what is more or less remote in time, place, or thought, both from the speaker and from the person addressed. Hence it is called the demonstrative of the third person. in ilUs ulterioribus munitionibus, /// those more distant fortifications ilia pars quam commemoravi, that part which I have mentioned 538. Ille, usually following its noun^ is sometimes used in the sense of that famous, that well-kninun. Medea ilia quondam ex Pont5 profiigit, that well-known Medea once fled from Pont us Magnus Ule Alexander, that famous Alexander the Great a. In this sense ille may be combined with hie. hoc iUud est, this is that weU-known (saying) hie i7te est, this is that famous (man) 228 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 539. Hie sometimes means the former, and hie the latter, of two objects previously mentioned. ignavia corpus hebetat, labor firmat ; iRa maturam senectutem, hie longam adulescentiam reddit, sloth weakens the body, toil strengthens it; the former brings on premature old age, the latter renders youth long Note. Less frequently hie means the for?ner and ille the latter. 540. Is, referring to what is either near or more remote, is a weaker demonstrative than the others, and is especially common as a personal pronoun of the third person (§ 531) or as the antecedent of a relative. rex aufugit ; is est in prdvincia tua, the king has fled ; he is in your province id quod natura eogit, that which nature compels 541. Is in the sense of such, of such a kind, is followed by a sub- junctive clause of description introduced by qui (§ 727). non is sum qui mortis perieulo terrear, / am not such as to be terrified by the danger of death 542. Is combined with et or atque is translated and that too. vineula et ea sempiterna, chaifis and that too for life 543. Hie, ille, and is may point either back to something just mentioned or forward to something about to be mentioned. haec dixit, these things he said, or he spoke as follows 544. The English word that in the phrase that of is regularly omitted in Latin. Either the genitive construction is continued with- out the pronoun or the noun is repeated. classis Britannorum maior est quam Gattorum or quam classis GalWntm (but not quam ea Gallorum), the fleet of the Britons is larger than that of the Gauls Note. In expressions like him fleeing, those pursuing, etc., the pro- noun is left out in Latin : thus, fugientem (not eum fugientem), seqiientes (not eos sequentes). THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN IPSE 229 idem 545. idem, the same, identifies^ the person or thing in question with one just mentioned or about to be mentioned. ^dem die, on the same day (as that before mentioned) 546. idem qui or idem atque (ac) is translated the same as. facia idem quod semper, you are doing the same as always xAtl. idem is sometimes best rendered also, too, yet, at the same time. dixi ego idem in senatu. / also said in the senate 6rati5 splendida et eadem faceta, an oration brilliant and at the same time witty THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN IPSE 548. Ipse, self^ standing either alone or in agreement with another word, expresses emphasis or contrast. 549. Ipse is used alone, substantively, as follows : a. In the nominative to emphasize an omitted pronoun subject. ipsi recordamini, you yourseh'es remember ipse eum vidi, / myself saw him Note i. This use must be distinguished from that of the reflexive, especially as the word sel/ is used in translating both. Thus, ipse se lau- dat, he himself praises himself, contains both an intensive and a reflexive. Note 2. Ipse usually agrees with the subject, even when the emphasis in English is on a reflexive in the predicate : as, me ipse cSnsolor, / console myself. 6. In the oblique ^ cases as an emphatic pronoun of the third person, id erat ip&s gloriosum, this was glorious for them themselves c. As an indirect reflexive pronoun (see § 522). ^ Idem is sometimes called the identifying pronoun. * The oblique cases include all except the nominative and vocative. 230 RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 550. Ipse in agreement with a noun or pronoun is often best translated by very, even, exactly, just, in person, of his own accord. hoc ipso tempore, at this very time ipso die aderant, they were present on the very day turpe mihi ipsi videbatur, even to me it seetned disgraceful Crassus triennio ipso minor erat quam Antonius, Crassus was Just (or exactly) th?'ee years yotmger than Antony RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 551. Relative pronouns refer to a substantive called the antecedent and connect it with the clause which they introduce. The relation of the relative clause to its antecedent is an adjective relation, and the clause is regularly subordinate. Thus, in the sentence hi sunt Galli qui victi sunt, these are the Gauls who were conquered, the relative qui refers to Galli, its ante- cedent, and the relative clause qui victi sunt is subordinate and adjec- tive. The adjective relation is shown by the fact that an adjective may be substituted for the relative clause : as, hi sunt victi Galli, these are the conquered Gauls. Agreement of the Relative 552. A relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender and number, but its case is determined by its construc- tion in its own clause. legio quam secum habebat, the legion which he had with him pons qui ad Genavam erat, the bridge which was near Geneva leges quibus paremus, the laws which we obey a. A relative with two or more antecedents follows the rules for the agreement of predicate adjectives (§ 502). filius et filia quos dilexit, the son and daughter whom he loved 5tium atque divitiae, quae prima mortales putant, idleness and wealth, which 7nortals count first (in importance) RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 231 553. A relative regularly agrees with a predicate noun rather than with its antecedent. ThSbae, quod est caput, Thebes, which is the capital. [Here quod agrees with caput and not with Thebae.] 554. The relative is sometimes attracted into the case of its intccedent. sub iudice quo nosti, under a judge whom you know (quo for quern) Note. In poetry the antecedent may be attracted into the case of the relative. urhtm quam statud vestra est (Vergil), the city which I am building is yours 555. The relative sometimes agrees with the real meaning of its antecedent without regard to its grammatical form. equitatus qui viderunt, the cavalry who saw 556. When a relative refers to a clause or a whole sentence as its antecedent, quod, id quod, or quae r6s is used. quod exspectavi, iam sum adsecutus, ut vos omnes factam esse coniu- rati5neni videretis, 7L>hat I waited for I hai'C now attained, (namely) that you might all see that a conspiracy has bee'n made. [Instead of quod, id quod or quam rem might have been used.] Antecedent of the Relative 557. The antecedent is often omitted when it is general, indefinite, or implied in a possessive pronoun. terra reddit quod accepit, the earth returns what it has received. [Antecedent is general.] sunt 9uf dicant. there are some who say. [Antecedent indefinite.] nostra qui remansimus caede, by the slaughter of us who remained. [Antecedent implied in nostra.] 558. The antecedent is sometimes repeated in the relative clause. erant itinera duo quibus itinerihus dom5 exire possent, there were two routes by which (routes) they could leave home 232 SPECIAL USES OF THE RELATIVE 559. The antecedent may stand in the relative clause, agree- ing with the relative in case. This arrangement is regular (i) when the relative clause is emphatic and stands first, or (2) when the antecedent is an appositive. (i) quam fecerat classem, iubet convenire, /le orders the fleet which he had built to assemble quas res gessi, hie versibus attigit, the deeds I performed he touched tip in verse (2) Roma, quam urbem amo, Rome, the city that I love Note, In the first case a demonstrative usually stands in the ante- cedent clause. quae pars civitatis calamitatem intulerat, ea princeps poenas persolvit, thai part of the state zvhtch had caused the disaster ivas the first to pay the penalty (lit. what part . . . that) 560. The superlative of an adjective belonging to the antecedent may stand in the relative clause, vasa ea quae pukherrima apud eum viderat, those most beautiful vessels which he had seen at his house Special Uses of the Relative 56L The relative with an abstract noun may be used in a paren- thetical clause to characterize a person, like the English such. quae est vestra prudentia or qua prudentia es, such is your prudence (lit. which is your prudence or of which prudence you are) • 562. The relatives qui, quSlis, quantus, etc. are often rendered simply by as. eadem fortuna quae, the sajne fortune as talis dux qudlis, such a leader as 563. The relative is never omitted in Latin, as it often is in English. liber quern mihi dedisti, the book you gave me INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 233 564. A relative, referring to an antecedent in the preceding sentence, often stands at the beginning of a new sentence to connect it with the sentence that precedes. It is then translated by a demonstrative or personal pronoun, with or without and. nostri non eadem alacritate utebantur. Quod ubi Caesar animadvertit etc., our men did not manifest the same eagerness, ll'/ien Cne one, (at least) one (as opposed to 710 one), and aliqui, adjective, some (as opposed to no), are rather more definite than quis, qui. aliqui ex navi, some/rom the ship qui in aliquo numero sunt, who are of some account Note. The distinction between aliquis and aliqui is not always maintained (cf. § 566. n.). 572. Quidam, substantive or adjective, a certain ojie, a certain ^ implies definite knowledge. For example, aliqui philosophi, some philosophers, is wholly in- definite ; but quidam philosophi, certain philosophers, means that the philosophers are known to the speaker and could be named by him or otherwise defined. quidam ex militibus dixit, a certain one of the soldiers said a. The adjective quidam in the sense of a sort of a kind of is often used to soften the meaning of a noun or adjective. dicendi singularis quaedam facultas, a hind of unique ability in speaking rNDEFINITE PRONOUNS 235 Note. Sometimes, on the other hand, quidam intensifies the force of the adjective. alio quodam modo, /// <;« entirely Jijifent ivay 573. Quisquam, substantive, any one (at all), and the corre- sponding adjective, GUus, any (at all), are used chiefly in nega- tive sentences, in questions expecting a negative answer, in conditions, and in clauses which follow a comparative. neque quisquam egredi audet, /wr does any one dare to go forth ciir quisquam iudicaret, w/iv should any one judge ? si quisquam est timidus, is ego sum, if any one is timid, I am he neque ulld necessitate continebantur, nor were they restrained by any necessity num censes ullum periculum, you don't think there is any danger, do you / saepius cum hoste c5nflixit quam quisquam cum inimicd concertavit, he fought more often with the enemy than any one has contended with a personal foe Note. After si, nisi, ne, or num, quisquam is sometimes used instead of quia, and is rather more emphatic. 81 quisquam, if any one (ever) 574. NemO, no one, is the negative of quisquam, any one, and nuUus, no, is the negative of ullus, any. a. NSmO is sometimes used for nuUus ; so regularly with adjectives used substantively. nimd Latinus, no Latin (man) ; not nullus Latinus nemo dives, no rich man ; not niillus dives b. Niillus is sometimes used for nSmO, regularly so in the genitive and ablative singular (ntillius, nfillO) ; and in the plural it is often a substantive. nUllius aures violavit. he has shocked the ears of no one in mild flagrantius studium vidi. /// no one have J seen more ardent zeal nUtlis est iucundior. to none is he more pleasing Note. In negative commands (§ 674), let no one is translated by ne quia. 236 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 575. Nescio quis, some one or other (lit. / know not who), often expresses contempt. nescio quis loquitur, some one or other is speaking nescio quo pacto, somehow or other (lit. / know not in what way) Note. Observe that nescio, when thus used, does not change its form and has no effect on the construction of the words that follow it (§ 820). 576. Quisque, substantive or adjective, each one, each, is often used with pronouns, superlatives, ordinals, and with unus, usually immediately after them : a. With pronouns. quod cuique obtigit, id quisque teneat, what has fallen to each, that let each one keep se quisque diligit, each one loves himself suum cuique, to each one his own milites ad suum quisque oppidum redierunt, the soldier's returned, each to his own town b. With superlatives. optimus quisque ei favet, all the best 7nen (lit. each best man) favor him antiquissimum quodque tempus, the ?nost ancient times c. With ordinal numerals and unus, decimus quisque miles, one soldier i?i ten (lit. each tenth soldier) primo quoque tempore, at the earliest possible time primum quidque, each thing in order unus quisque regum, each one of the kings 577. Uterque, substantive or adjective, as distinguished from quisque, means each of two. uterque utrique erat exercitus in conspectu, each army was in sight of the other (lit. each to each) pugnatum est ab utrisque acriter, the contest was carried on vigorously by each side PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES 2^1 PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES alius AND alter 578. Alius, ot/ier, another, and alter, the other (or one of two), are used both substantively and adjectively. aliud iter nullum habebant, they had no other way itinera duo, unum per Sequanos, alteram per provinciam, two routes, one through the Sequani, the other through the proi'ince fuit claudus altero pede, he was lame in one foot a. Alter is generally used instead of secundus ; cf . ?5 171. b. Alignus is used instead of the genitive of alius to express possession. aliena domus, another's house 579. Alius and alter are often used in pairs as correlatives : alter . . . alter, the one . . . the other alteri . . . alteri, the one party . . . the other party alius . . . alius, one . . . another alii . . . alii, so/ne . . . others alteri dimicsint, alteri yictorem timent, one party fights, the other fears the victor aliud est maledicere, aliud acciisare, // is one thing to slander, another to accuse alii vallum scindunt, alii fossam complent, some tear down the ram- part, others fill the ditch 580. Alius followed by alius in another case in the same sentence is used to express reciprocity of action or to express the idea that one does one thing and another does another. alius ex alio causam quaerit, they ask one another the reason alius aliud petit, one seeks one thing, another another (lit. another seeks another thing) alii aliam in partem fiigerunt, some fled in one direction, others in anotfier (lit. others fled in another direction) Note. The adverbs alias, alibi, aliS, and aliter may be used in a similar way. alias aliSs deSs precamur. -oe proy sometimes to one god, sometimes to another t>38 SYNTAX OF ADVERBS ceteri and reliqui 581. Ceteri means all the rest, alljhe others. Remi frumento ceterisque rebus iuvant, the Retni assist with grain and everything else 582. Reliqui, tke reniaiiiijig, differs from ceteri in not emphasizing the fact that none is excepted. reliqua privata aedificia incendunt, they set fire to the remaining • private buildi7igs SYNTAX OF ADVERBS 583. An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjec- tive, or another adverb. facilius eis persuasit, he persuaded them more easily longe ditissimus fuit, he was far the richest minus late vagantur, they wander less widely 584. Adverbs sometimes appear as modifiers of nouns, the word really modified being omitted for brevity. ignari ante malorum, ignorant of past misfortunes (lit. ignorant of misfortunes previously, a word meaning endured being omitted) consul iterum, consul for the seco?id time 585. Adverbs are sometimes used like adjectives. haec sunt palam, these facts are well hnown fit obviam Clodio, he falls in with Clodius duo talenta sunt satis, two talents are sufiicient forte quadam divinitus, by some provide7ttial chance 586. Adverbs of quantity and place — satis, enough ; nimis, too much ; parum, too little ; ubi, where ; nusquam, nowhere ; etc. — are sometimes used as nouns and modified by a partitive genitive (§ 343). satis eloquentiae, sufficient {of) eloquence nimis insidiarum, too much (of) trickery ubi terrarum, where in the world? USES OF ADVERBS 239 587. An adverb is often equivalent to a pronoun with a preposition. eo {= in iis) imponit vasa, u/>o^ them he puts the camp utensils apud eos quo ( = ad qu5s) se contulit, among those to whom he went locus quo ( = ad quem) aditus n5n erat, a place to which there was no access For the formation and comparison of adverbs see §§ 269 ff. SPECIAL ADVERBS AND THEIR USES 588. Etiam (et lam), also, even, still, and quoque, also, are strengthening adverbs, though quoque sometimes expresses merely addition. Etiam usually precedes the emphatic word ; quoque regularly follows it. etiam inermes armatis occurrerunt, even the unarmed ran to meet the artned Caesar quoque castra p5nit, Ccesar also pitches camp 589. Ita and sic, so, in this way, thus, are generally used with verbs ; tarn, so, expresses degree, and as a rule is used only with adjectives and adverbs. quae cum ita sint, since this is so sic se res habet. thus the matter stands tarn necessari5 tempore, at so critical a time Note. Tam may be used with verbs also when correlative with quam. 590. Nunc, noiv, at the present moment, refers to present time or to past time conceived as present. lam, no7v, already, contrasts an existing condition in present, past, or future time with a preceding different condition. With the future, iam means presently ; with negatives, longer. Caesar nunc vincit, Casar is conquering now Caesar iam vincit, Ccesar is already conquering (he was not before) Caesar iam vincebat, Ccesar was already conquering (he had not been before) Caesar iam vincet. Ccrsar^vill conquer presently (he is not conquering now) n6n est iam lenitati locus, there is no longer room for mercy (there may have been before) 240 USES OF ADVERBS 591. Primum means first, in the first place, in a series of events or acts. Primo means at first, as opposed to afterwards, hoc primum sentio, in the first place I think this aedis primo mere rebamur, atfi7-st we thought the house was falling dowti Note. Primum or primo often means for the first time ; similarly tertium or tertio, far the third tijne ; quartum or quarto, for the fourth ti^ne ; etc. For the second time is expressed by iterum. a. Enumerations are introduced by primum or prim6 and may be closed by postremo or denique, finally, at last. The intervening steps are introduced by deinde, inde, or postea, secondly, next, later, followed by tum, then, repeated as often as necessary, primum mihi videtur de genere belli, deinde de magnitiidine, tum de imperatore deligendo esse dicendum, first it seems to me that I should speak of the character of the war, next of its Tnagnitiide, then of the choice of a comjna?ider Note. Instead of repeating tum, theft, the ordinals in -um may be used : as, quartum, fourth ; quintum, fifth ; etc. 592. Quidem, indeed, to be sure, follows the word it empha- sizes. Often the clause with quidem makes a statement, which, while granted to be true, is shown by a succeeding statement, introduced by bnt (sed, autem, etc.), to have little value. amicum tuum non quidem odimus, sed certe non probamus, we do not to be sure hate your friend, but we certainly do not approve of him a. N6 . . . quidem means « - / (3) pater, mater, frater, sororque 244 DISJUNCTIVE CONJUNCTIONS 11. Disjunctive Conjunctions 606. Disjunctive conjunctions, meaning or, and, as correla- tives (§6io), either . . . or, offer a choice between objects. The principal disjunctive conjunctions are aut, vel, sive (seu). 607. Aut, or, has the power of excluding, and indicates that only one of the objects or ideas presented can be true, or, at least, that they are strongly contrasted or essentially different. animus aut est aut non est, the soul either exists or it does not omne enuntiatum aut verum aut falsum est, every proposition is either true or false 608. Vel, or, is the old imperative of volo, wish, and means literally wish, take your choice. It is used to connect objects or ideas that are not mutually exclusive, and indicates that any one or all of them may be chosen. Catilmam ex urbe vel eiecimus vel emisimus, Catiline we have either cast out of the city or (if you choose) we have let hint out imbecilliores vel animo vel fortuna, inferior either in spirit or in fortune (meaning in either respect or in both) Note. Vel is sometimes an intensive particle meaning evoi, fqr instance : as, vel minimus, even the least. a. The enclitic -ve, or, is a weakened form of vel, and is used to express a distinction so unimportant as to be a matter of indifference. telum tormentumve, a weapon or an engi7ie of war (it is unimportant which you call it) 609. Sive or seu, or, has about the force of vel, and is often used to connect alternative names for the same thing. hoc Plato sive quis alius dixit, Plato or some one else said this hie discessus sive potius turpissima f uga, this departure or rather this most disgraceful flight For sive, or if connecting conditions, see § 777. ADVERSATIVE CONJUNCTIONS 245 610. Correlatives. Disjunctive conjunctions are often used in pairs, or are repeated in successive coordinate clauses, aut . . . aut sive (8«u) . . . sive (seu), whether . . . or - .either . . . or vel . . . vel III. Adversative Conjunctions 611. Adversative conjunctions, meaning bitty yety however , etc., denote opposition or contrast. The principal adversative conjunctions are sed, v6rum, v6r0, autem, tamen, at. 612. Sed, the usual word for but, and v6rum, but in truth, buty are used to modify or oppose what precedes, especially after negatives {not this . . . but something- else), nihil Sequani responderunt, sed taciti permanserunt, the Sequani made no reply, but remained silent non modo iniussu suo sed etiam inscientibus ipsis, not only against his orders but also iinthoiit their knowledge pacem habebimus, verum cnientam, we shall have peace, but in truth a bloody one a. Both sed and v6rum may be used to mark a return to the main thought after a digression. sed (or verum) redeo ad rem, but I return to the subject 613. V6r5 (postpositive 1), but, in fact y is generally stronger than sed or v6rum. haec sunt leviora, ilia vero gravia, these things are somewhat triviaL but those weighty Note. Turn ver5, then in truth, then verily, is used in narrative to in- troduce the climax or crisis of a series of events. lam verS marks a transition. turn viro cl&m5re audit5 nostri acrius impugn&re coepSrunt, then verily, when they heard the shout i/lg, our men began to fight more fiercely iam vero acgritudinSs oblividne leniuntur, but again, sorrows are healed by forgetfulness * A postpositive word is one that never begins a sentence, but stands after one or more words. 246 CAUSAL CONJUNCTIONS 614. Autem (postpositive), however, moreover , now, is the weakest of the adversatives. It neither contradicts what pre- cedes nor marks a sharp contrast, but indicates merely a transition to a new thought. pro multitudine OMfCTTi hominum etc., in proportion to the number of inhabitants^ moreover^ etc. 615. Tamen, 7ievertheless, declares something as true in spite of what precedes. It may stand first or follow an emphatic word. locum reperit munitum ; tamen hunc oppugnare contendit, he finds the place fortified J nevertheless he strives to storm it 616. At (old form ast) may be used like sed, verum, or vero, but is used especially to introduce {a) a new phase of a situa- tion or a new point in the argument, {b) the supposed objec- tion of an adversary, being then usually strengthened by enim, or (r) a change of scene or speaker. at dices etc., but you will say etc. ad navis tendebat Achates. At Cytherea etc., Achates hastened to the ships. But Cytherea etc. Note. For quamquam in the sense of and yet^ however., see § 807. IV. Causal Conjunctions 617. The causal conjunctions, meaning / o« cr 2^1 '^1 1 c .2 o 1§ 1 •1 ic- :3 Q 1 is ^ S aceres or esses, i/d do fecisses, i/d have w , MH oo M-. t^ '^^ w 5 5 0. 12 2 12 -^ 3 2^3^ Q ^ ^ ;^ :i a* cr & o* •^ ^ ^ ■^ ^ c O 1.| 1| |l fi .2 '*^ S "•Ij o < 1^ 1^ cr cr •VJ t-j 1 1 n "^ ^ S > ^ ^ ^ o « < ^ ^ ^ ^ -^ s Oc c ■<. -^ ^ ^ s § a a > ^. 2 2 ^ s S «-^ ^ lO loS icS 108 C lets ^ K i« bo ^ bo bo bo bfl ho bo ^ S 2 2 2 2 2 2 AHVKIHd AHVaNOD3S SEQUENCE OF TENSES 269 b. The future perfect is supplied by the perfect subjunctive after primary tenses and by the past perfect subjunctive after secondary tenses. demSnstrat, si venerint, multds interiturSs, A^ s/ioivs that if they come {shall hiiTt' come), many will perish demdnstravit, si vinissent, multds interiturds, he showed that if they should come {should have come\ many would perish c. When a clearer reference to future time is necessary, the active periphrastic forms in -iirus sim and -Qnis essem are employed. exspectant quid Caesar facturus sit, they wait to see what Casar "will do exapectabant quid Caesar facturus esset, they waited to see what Casar would do Note. This is the usual form of expression in future indirect questions (§815). d. After a primary tense the perfect subjunctive is used to denote any past action. ^ , ... ^ ^ I have written n5n dubito quin omnes scripserint, I do not doubt that all\ wrote y were writing Peculiarities in the Sequence of Tenses 699. The present perfect is ordinarily treated as a secondary tense and is followed by a secondary tense of the subjunctive. ut satis tsset praesidi prSvisiun est, provision has been made that there should be ample guard a. When present time is clearly in mind, the present perfect is followed by a primar)' tense. ita didicimus ut magis virttite quam insidiis contendamus, we have been so trained that we fight more by valor than by stratagems 700. The historical present (§ 648) takes either the primary or the secondary sequence. roeat ut haec I ^^^ \he['" f A ^ti>" i^> attend to these tnatters * \aLrartt] yaskedy 2/0 SEQUENCE OF TENSES 701. A ge?teral truth after a secondary tense follows the rule for sequence of tenses. quanta conscientiae vis esset ostendit, he showed how g?-eat the strength of conscience is 702. In clauses of result the perfect subjunctive is very often (the present rarely) used after a secondary tense. ita non timidus fuit ut fortiter pugnaverit, he was so fearless that he fought bravely Hortensius ardebat tanta cupiditate dicendi ut in null5 mnquam fla- grantius studium vTderim, Hortensius burned with so great a desire for speaking that I have never seen a 7nore burning ardor in any man a. Occasionally the same irregular use of the perfect subjunctive appears in other clauses. cum multas horas pugnatum sit, aversum hostem videre nemo potuit, though the conflict raged for many hours, no one could see aft enemy in retreat 703. A dependent perfect infinitive is usually followed by a secondary tense, even when the principal verb on which the infinitive depends is in a primary tense. satis mihi multa verba fecisse videor qua re hoc bellum esset necessa- rium, / seem to have made it sufficiently clear why this war is necessary 704. The past and past perfect subjunctive in conditions contrary to fact (§§ 786, 793) are not affected by the sequence of tenses. non dubito quin ad me venires, si posses, I do not doubt that you would co7ne to 7ne if you could 705. When a subjunctive depends on a subjunctive, the sequence is as follows : a. The present subjunctive is regularly followed by primary tenses. 6. The past, perfect, and past perfect subjunctive are followed by secondary tenses. SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 271 nescid quid causae sit ciir nullas ad me litteras des (dederis, daturus sis)^ I do not know what the reason is why you send {have sent, wilt send) me no letter nescio quid causae fuerit cur niillas ad me litteras dares (dedisses, daturus esses), I do not know wluit the reason was why you sent {had sent, would send) me no letter nesciebam quid causae \ !- cur nullas ad me litteras dares {dedisses, daturus esses), I did not know what the reason \ i. j i. \ f^hy you sent {had sent, would send) me no letter 706. When a subjunctive clause depends on a present or future infinitive, a supine, gerund, or participle, its tense class is regulated by the tense class of the verb in the principal clause. confido me quod velim facile a te impetratiirum esse. / trust I shrill t'iis//y obtain from you what I wish constitueram venire ut te vidirem, J had made up my mind to come to see you miserunt Delphos consultum (supine) quidnam facerent, they sent to Delphi to ask what they should do NoTK. For the sequence of tenses after the perfect infinitive see § 703. 707. Though the laws of tense sequence are in general closely observed, they are not inflexible, and many irregularities occur. These are often due to a desire for rhetorical effect and sometimes to careless writing. DEVELOPMENT OP SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 708. In the early stages of language there were no subordi- nate clauses, but only coordinate independent sentences. From these subordinate clauses were a gradual development. I'or example, timeC n6 veniant consisted originally of two inde- pendent sentences, I fear. May they not come. Later, n6 veniant was felt as a subordinate clause, and thus was developed the com- plex sentence I fear that they will come (lit. lest they may come). 2/2 SUBORDINATE CLAUSES Kinds of Subordinate Clauses 709. From independent sentences with the indicative or subjunctive were developed three kinds of subordinate clauses : I. Adverbial clauses, expressing various adverbial relation- ships and introduced by conjunctive adverbs. venio ut Caesarem laudem, I co?ne to praise CcEsar II. Adjective clauses, used to qualify some noun or pronoun and introduced by the relative qui or by a relative adverb. legatum mittit qui haec curet, he sends his lieutenant to see to these ^natters Note. These are usually called relative clauses. III. Substantive, or noun, clauses, used as subject, object, predicate noun, or appositive. accidit ut GalU consilium mutdrent, it happened that the Gauls changed their plati. [Substantive clause used as subject.] The Indicative or Subjunctive in Subordinate Clauses 710. Both the indicative and the subjunctive are used in subordinate clauses. The uses of the subjunctive are all developed from the three meanings (volitive, optative, and potential) that this mood has in principal clauses (§ 670). 711. The indicative or subjunctive is used in subordinate clauses to express — 1. Purpose (subjunctive ; §712). 2. Description or characteristic (subjunctive; § 726). 3. Consequence or result (subjunctive ; §731). 4. Time (indicative or subjunctive; § 743). 5. Cause (indicative or subjunctive ; §767). 6. Condition (indicative or subjunctive; § 772). 7. Comparison (subjunctive ; § 803). CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 273 8. Concession (indicative or subjunctive ; § 805). 9. Proviso (subjunctive; §811). 10. Indirect questions (subjunctive; § 812). 1 1. Facts introduced by quod (indicative; § 821). 12. Indirect discourse (subjunctive ; §886). Subjunctive Clauses of Purpose 712. The subjunctive is used in adverbial, relative, and substantive clauses to express purpose. I. Adverbial Clauses of Purpose 713. An adverbial clause denoting purpose takes the sub- junctive, and is introduced by ut or uti, that, in order that, or 116, that noty in order that not, lest. Caesar equ5s remSvit ut spem fugae totleret, Casar removed the horses that he might take away the hope of flight ibi tormenta conlocavit nl hostes suos circumvenire possent, there he placed his engines of war that the enemy might not be able to surround his men ne graviori bell6 occurreret, ad exercitum proficiscitur, he set out for the army that he might not pneet with too serious a war n5n null!, ut timSris suspicidnem vitarent, remanebant, some remained {in order) to avoid the suspicion of fear Note. Purpose clauses are often called final clauses. The subjunctive of purpose is volitive (§671) in origin. a. Ut nOn may be used for nfi when the negative applies to a single word or phrase and not to the whole clause. ut non Siectus sed invitatus isse videaris, that you may seem to have gone not expelled but invited b. Ut n6 is stronger than 118 alone. exstiti ut nl omnind desertus esaet, / appeared that he might not be entirely deserted 274 CLAUSES OF PURPOSE c. And that not, and lest, or that not are regularly expressed by nSve or neu. id fecit ne poenas daret neve quid detrimenti acciperet, he did this that he might not receive pufiishine7it ajid that he might not suffer any harm nuntios misit ne Helvetios frumento neoe alia re iuvarent, he sent messejigers that they 7night not assist the Helvetii with grain or anythijig else aliae sublicae supra pontem agebantur ut earum rerum vis minueretur neu ponti nocerent, other piles were driven above the bridge that the violence of those things might be diminished or that they might not injure the bridge 714. Subjunctive clauses with ut or ne are sometimes inserted parenthetically. • ac ne longum s/Y, tabellas pr5ferri iussimus, and, not to be tedious, we ordered the tablets to be p7'oduced optima vitae, ut ita dicam, supellex, the best furniture, so to speak, of life Note. The subjunctive may be regarded as depending on some unex- pressed verb : as, (I speak thus) in order not to be tedious. II. Relative Clauses of Purpose 715. A relative clause denoting purpose takes the subjunctive. Helvetii legates mittunt qui dicerent, the Helvetii sent ambassadors to say (lit. who should say) sarmenta coUigunt quibus fossas expleant, they gather fagots with which to fill the ditches scribebat orationes quas alii dicerent, he wrote speeches for others to deliver dies dicta est qua omnes convenirent, a day was appointed on which all should assemble Note. In this construction qui is equivalent to ut is, ut ego, etc. ; and the subjunctive, as in ut clauses of purpose, is volitive (§671) in origin. 716. A relative clause of purpose is often introduced by the relative adverbs ubi (= ut ibi), where ; unde (= ut inde), whence ; qu5 (= ut eo), whither-, etc. CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 275 domum ubi habitaret legit, //^ cAose a house where he might dwell (equivalent to /// order that he might dwell there) habebam quo confugeremy I had a place to flee to (lit. whither I might flee ; equivalent to in order that I might flee thither) 717. The adjectives dignus, indignus, and idOneus are followed by a relative clause of purpose. hunc Caesar idoneum iudicavit quern mitteret, Casar judged him a suit- able person to send (lit. whom he might send) hi libri sunt digni qui legantur, these books are worth reading (lit. worthy which should be read) 718. The ablative qu5 is used as a conjunction in purpose clauses which contain a comparative. manipulos Uucare iussit quo facilius gladiis uti possent, he gai'e orders to open the ranks that they might be able to use their swords more easily castella communit quo facUius hostis prohibere posset, he fortified the redoubts that he might the more easily be able to ward off the enemy Note i. In this construction qu6 is really an ablative of the measure of difference (§475). Note 2. Qu5 rarely introduces a purpose clause containing no com- parative. Sulla cxercitum, quo sibi fidum faceret, luxuriose habuerat, Sulla had treated the army luxuriously, in order to make it devoted to him Note 3, For qu5 minus (= ut eo minus) after verbs of hindering see § 720. III. III. Substantive Clauses of Purpose 719. Substantive clauses developed from the volitive or optative subjunctive are generally designated as substantive clauses of purpose, and are conveniently classified together under this name. But in many cases no idea of purpose is perceptible and the mood is due to some original volitive or optative use which may never have denoted jDurpose at all. Note. Compare substantive clauses of result (§ 736). 276 CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 720. Object Clauses of Purpose. Object clauses with the subjunctive are used after verbs denoting an action directed toward the future. Thus : I. Object clauses with the subjunctive, introduced by ut or ne, are used after verbs meaning to advise, ask, command, decide, permit, persuade, strive, urge, wish, and the like. monet ut omnes suspiciones vitet, he advises him to avoid all suspicion te rogo atque oro ut eum iuves, I ask and beseech you to help him suis imperavit ne quod telum reicerent, he commanded his men ?iot to throw back any weapon persuadet Castico ut regnum occuparet, he persuaded Casticus to seize the royal power hortatur e5s ne deficiant, he urges thent not to fail a. lubeo, order, and YQto, forbid, regularly take the infinitive with subject accusative. liberos ad se adducT iussit, he ordered the children to be brought to him legdtos discedere vetuerat, he had forbidden the lieute?tants to go away h. V0I6 (nolo, malo) and cupio generally take the infinitive ; so also other verbs of wishing when the subject remains the same. rex fieri volui, / wished to become king cUpio me esse clementem or cupi5 esse Clemens, / desire to be merciful cupi5 ut impetret, I wish he may get it. [The subject changes.] c. Conor, try^ and patior, permit, regularly take the infinitive. flumen trdnsire conantur, they try to cross the river per suos finis e5s ire patiuntur, they allow them to pass through their territory d. Many of these verbs take either the subjunctive or the infini- tive ; and some, retaining an earlier form of expression, may take the subjunctive without ut. Caesar statuit proficisci^ Cccsar decided to set out. [Note the infinitive.] statuunt ut decem milia hominum mittant, they decide to send ten thousand men. [Note the subjunctive.] ^ rogat finem faciat, he asks him to cease CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 277 II. Object clauses with the subjunctive are used after verbs of fearing — metuO, timeO, vereor, etc. The object clause is introduced by n6, translated by that^ and nC nOn or ut, translated by that fiot} timed ne Verres hoc fecerit, I fear that Verres has done this vereor ni non veniat, I fear that he is not coming vereor ut passim, I fear thai I cannot Note. When the verb of fearing is negatived, ne n6n is preferred to ut. non vereor nl tua virtus opinion! hominum non respondeat, / do not fear that your worth unit not equal popular expectation a. Verbs of fearing are often followed by the complementary infinitive, as in English. vereor te lauddre, I fear to praise you III. Object clauses with the subjunctive are used after verbs of hindering y opposing y refusing — dfiterreO, prohibeO, impediO, retineO, reciisO, etc. The object clause is introduced by nS, quin, or quOminus (quO minus). N6 or quSminus is used when the main clause is affirmative, quin or quOminus when it is negative or implies a negative. prohibent ne fiat, they Prevent it from being done deterret ne maior multitudd traducatur, he pre^'ents a larger number from beini^ broui^ht over nihil impedit quominus id fadamus, nothing hinders us from doing that German! retineri n5n poterant quin tela conicerent, tht Germans could not be restrained from huriini^ their weapons neque reciisant quin armis contendant, nor do they refuse to fight a. Some of these verbs may take the infinitive, nostrds /n^^^d/ prohibebant, they prevented our men from entering > Originally timed; n8 accidat meant I fear; may it not happen (§680). When the sentence beconKs complex (§ 300), the EngHsh equivalent is I fear that it will happen. The origin of the ut clause after verbs of fearing is similar, vereor ; ut accidat meaning originally I fear; may it happen (ut introducing a wish and not appearing in the translation, cf. § 682) ; then, I fear that it will not happen. The translation of ot by that not and of n8 by that is therefore due only to the demands of the Englisii idiom and not to any real change in the value of the Latin words themselves- 278 CLAUSES OF PURPOSE IV. Object clauses with the subjunctive are used after verbs of doubt or ignorance that are negatived or imply a negative — non dubito, quis dubitat, quis ignorat, etc. The object clause is introduced by quin. non dubitat quin Troia peritura sit, he does 7iot doubt that Troy will fall non dubito quin supplicium sumaU I do not doubt that he will inflict PunisJunent quis ignorat quin tria genera sint, who is ignorant that there are three kinds? a. Similarly negatived expressions of doubt — non est dubium, there is no doubt ; non abest suspicio, suspicion is not wanting ; etc. — are followed by quin and the subjunctive. non erat dubium quin Helvetii plurimum possent, there was no doubt that the Helvetii were the most powerful neque abest suspicio quin ipse sibi mortem consdverit, nor is the sus- picion wanting that he committed suicide Note. Dubito, doubt, without a negative, is generally followed by an indirect question (§ 813); and in the s' nse of hesitate, regularly by the infinitive (§ 837), but sometimes by quin Ui.^ mc "Subjunctive. 721. Subject Clauses of Purpose. Subject clauses of purpose with the subjunctive are used after the passive of verbs that in the active take object clauses (see § 720). persuadetur Castico ut regnum occuparet, Casticus is persuaded to seize the royal power (lit. it is persuaded to Casticus that he seize etc.) erat ei praeceptum ne proelium committeret, it had been enjoined upon him that he should not engage in battle u 722. Subject clauses of purpose with the subjunctive are used with licet, oportet, and necesse est, usually without ut. licet queramur, it is allowed us to complain sint enim oportet, for they must exist CLAUSES OF DESCRIPTION 279 723. Subject clauses of purpose with the subjunctive are used with impersonal expressions Hke reliquum est, sequitur, opus est, 16x est, mOs est, etc., when the dependent clause does not state a fact already existing^ but looks forward to some- thing yet to come. reliquum est ut dicam, it remains for me to say est lex amicitiae ut idem amici velint, it is a law of friendship that friends should have the same wish Note. Compare subject clauses of result, which state a fact (§§ 738, 739). 724. Clauses of Purpose as Appositives. Subjunctive clauses, introduced by ut or n6, may be used as appositives to nouns or pronouns. in hoc iinum vivo, ut patriae prosim, I am living for this one thing, that I may be of sen'ice to my country » id agunt, ut omnes videant. they strii'c for this, that all may see haec erat lex, ut omnes interficerentur. this was the law, that all should be killed 725. Developed from the volitive subjunctive in its deliberative use are substantive clauses following such expressions as niilla causa est cur (qua r6, quin), nOn est cdr, etc. niilla causa est cur earn, there is no reason why I should go (originally why should I go ? There is no reason) For other ways of expressing purpose, and for a summary of them all, see § 882. I, footnote. Subjunctive Clauses of Description or Characteristic 726. A relative clause that describes an antecedent by telling what kind of person or thing it is, is called a clause of descrip- tion or characteristic and takes the subjunctive.* 1 This construction has its origin in the potential subjunctive (§ 684), the idea oi possibility easily passing over into that of quality ox characteristic (com- nare there is no one who would be able with there is no one ivho is able). It is specially common when the antecedent is otherwise undefined or general, 28o CLAUSES OF DESCRIPTION nihil vide5 quod timeam, I see nothing to fear (lit. which I fear) multa dicunt quae vix intellegam, they say many things which (such as) / ha?-dly understand erat nullum oppidum quod se defenderet, there was no tow?i which defended itself (stated not as a fact but as a characteristic) erant omnino itinera duo quibus itineribus domo exire possent, there were in all two ways by which they could go forth from home nihil habebam quod scriberem, I had 7iothing to write 727. Relative clauses of description or characteristic are used especially after general expressions of existence or non- existence : sunt qui, there are some who nemo or niillus est qui, there is no one who nihil est quod, there is 7iothing which , quis est qui, who is there who is qui, the ofie who iinus or s51us qui, the only one who sunt qui putent, there are some who think domi nihil erat quo famem tolerdrent, there was jtothing at home by which to sustain hunger quis est qui eum non laudet^ who is there that does not praise him ? non is sum qui hoc facial^ I am not the matt to do this Note. After expressions like multi (non niilli, quidam) sunt qui, where the antecedent is partially defined, the choice of mood depends on the shade of meaning. 728. After nem5, niillus, nihil, or quis the clause of descrip- tion or characteristic may be introduced by quin instead of qui (quae, quod) non. nemo est quin sciat, there is no one who does not know quis est qidn intellegat, who is there who does not utiderstand f and is to be distinguished from the relative clause with the indicative, which states a fact about the antecedent and does not describe it : thus, nulla est nati5 quam pertimescimus (indicative) means //lere is no nation luhich (as a fact) we fear \ whereas nulla est natio quam pertimescdmus (subjunctive) means tAere is no nation which is of suck a character that we fear it. CLAUSES OF RESULT 281 729. Included under relative clauses of description or character- istic are restrictive clauses like quod sciam, so far as I know ; quod Knv^ntAm, so far as I have discovered \ etc. n5n ego te, quod scianif umquam ante hunc diem vidi, so far as I knotUy I have neiter seen you before this day 730. The relative clause of description or characteristic may express cause or concession. I. The relative clause of description or characteristic may express cause, the relative — equivalent to cum is, since he — being often accompanied by ut, utpote, or quippe. incusant Belgas qui se dediderint, they blame the Belga who have (= because they have) surrendered Caesar iniuriam facit qui vectigalia deteriSra facmt, Caesar is doing an injustice since he is inakini^ the reventtes less c5nsul, ut qui id ipsum quaesisset, moram non fecit, the consul, since he had sought that very thing, did not delay II. The relative clause of description or characteristic may express concession, the relative being equivalent to cum is, though he, and the clause expressing something in spite of which the main statement is true. Cicero, ([ui omnes superiores dies milites in castris continuisset, septimS die quinque cohortes frumentatum mittit, Cicero, though he had kept his soldiers in camp on all the preceding days, on the seventh day sent five cohorts to gather grain Note. The relative clause sometimes amounts to a proviso (§ 811), nihil est molestum quod non desideris, nothing is troublesome which you do not miss ( = provided you do not miss it) Subjunctive Clauses of Consequence or Result 731. The subjunctive is used in adverbial, relative, and substantive clauses to express consequence or result.^ * The use of the subjunctive to express result is a development of its use in c lauses of description (§ 726), the quality which would lead to some action readily passing over into a real action resulting from a quality. This step leads to clauses of pure result with no idea of description. 282 CLAUSES OF RESULT 1. Adverbial Clauses of Result 732. An adverbial clause denoting consequence or result takes the subjunctive, introduced by ut or uti, so that. The negative is non. The main clause often contains talis, tantus, tot, is (= talis), ita, adeo, tarn, or some other word of quality or degree. mons impendebat ut facile perpauci prohibere possent, a viou7itam tou'e?'ed above^ so that a very few could easily keep (them) back eius modi sunt tempestates c5nseciitae uti opus intermitteretur, storms of such a character folloived that the work was interrupted flumen incredibili lenitate fluit ita ut oculis, in utram partem fluat, itidicarl non possit, the river flows with incredible slowness, so that it cannot be determitted by the eyes in which direction it flows tanta vis probitatis est ut earn in hoste diligdmus, so great is the power of goodness that we love it even in an enetny Note. It is to be observed that the constructions of purpose and result in Latin are precisely alike in the affirfnative, but that negative purpose has ne, negati^ie result ut non. a. Instead of ne quis, ne quid, ne ullus, etc., used to introduce negative purpose clauses, negative result clauses have ut nemo, ut nihil, ut niillus, etc. se occultabant ne quis eos cernere posset, they concealed themselves that no one might be able to see them (purpose) se occultabant ut nemo eos cernere posset, they concealed thefnselves so that no otie could see them (result) 733. A clause of result or characteristic with quam ut, quam qui, rarely with quam alone, may be used after a comparative. haec signa rigidi5ra sunt quam < \ imitentur veritatem, these statues are too stiff to {stiffer than that they should) represent nature senior erat quam ut pugndret, he was too old to fight 734. A clause of result is sometimes used in a restrictive sense and so amounts to a proviso (§ 8ii). vobis ita concedunt ut vobiscum certent, they yield to you only to the extent that they vie with you CLAUSES OF RESULT 283 II. Relative Clauses of Result 735. Relative clauses of result, introduced by qui, quin equivalent to qui nOn), or a relative adverb (ubi, unde, qu6, etc.), are developed from the relative clause of description or charac- teristic (§ 726), and, as a rule, cannot be distinguished from it. nulla est celeritas quae possit cum animi celeritate contendere, there* is tio sivi/tncss tJiiit can compare with the swiftness of the mind cem5 erat adeO tardus quin putarety no one was so slothful as not to (= who did not) think n5n habet undt te solvat, he has no resources fro tn which (lit. has not whence) to pay you No IK. Here belong such expressions as facere non possum quin, fieri non potest quin, with the subjunctive. facere non possum "| ^. J cannot but speak (lit. / am not able fieri non potest J ^ r ^ to act so that I do not, or // cannot happen that J do not) III. Substantive Clauses of Result 736. Substantive clauses developed from the potential subjunctive are generally called substantive clauses of result ; but the idea of result is often weak or lacking altogether, and the subjunctive is translated like an indicative stating a fact. They are introduced by ut or ut nOn. Note. Compare substantive clauses of purpose (§ 719). 737. Object Clauses of Result. Substantive clauses of result are used as the object of verbs of bringing about and accom- plishing (facMJ, efficifl, perficiO, etc.) when the dependent clause states a fact. eflaciam irf intettegatis, J will make you understand (lit that you understand) cflaciebat ut commeatus portiri possent, he made it possible for supplies to he brought obsides ufi inter se dent perficit, he brings if about that they give hostages to each other 284 CLAUSES OF RESULT 738. Subject Clauses of Result. Substantive clauses of result stating a fact are used as the subject of passive verbs denoting bringing about and accomplishing. factum est ut German! mercede arcesserentur^ it was brought about that the Germafis were invited for pay * 739. Substantive clauses of result stating a fact are used as subject with impersonals like fit, accidit, evenit, it happens ; relinquitur, restat, reliquum est, it remains ; accedit, it is added ; est, it is a fact ; sequitur, efficitur, it follows. accidit ut esset luna plena, // happened that there was a full moon reliquum est i/f mihi ipsi consulam, the fact remains that I consult for jnyself ad senectiitem accedebat ut caecus esset, to his ol^i age was added the fact that he was blind 740. Fore (or futiiruin esse) ut with a clause of result as subject is regularly used for the future passive infinitive, and for the future active infinitive vi^hen this is lacking. vide5 fore ut hostes vincantur, I see that the enemy will be conquered spero fore ut contingat, I hope that it will happen 741. Clauses of Result as Appositives or Predicate Nouns. A substantive clause of result stating a fact may be in apposi- tion with a noun or neuter pronoun, or may serve as a predicate noun after m6s est, ius est, and similar expressions. banc gratiam refert, ut gravetur, he makes this return, that he objects id est proprium civitatis, ut sit libera, this is characteristic of a state ^ that it is free ea est vis probitatis, ut earn vel in hoste dUigdmus, such i^ the power of integrity that we love it even in an enemy est m5s hominum ut nolint eundem pluribus rebus excellere, it is the way of men that they do not wish the same person to excel in several respects CLAUSES WITH POSTQUAM, UBl UT, ETC. 285 Temporal Clauses 742. Temporal clauses are adverbial and express time. 743. Temporal clauses may be classified as follows : I. Clauses with po8tqUam,ubi,ut, etc., with the indicative (§§ 745 ff.). II. Clauses with cum, with the indicative or subjunctive (§§ 749 fT.). III. Clauses with antequam and priusquam, with the indicative or subjunctive (§§ 757 ff.). IV. Clauses with dum, dOnec, quoad, and quam difi, with the indic- ative or subjunctive (§§ 762 ff.). Observe that only with the first of these varieties is the indicative always used. 744. In general, expressions of pure time are in the indica- tive. The subjunctive is used when the time relation is modi- fied by some other notion, as description, cause, concession^ doubt, purpose, and the like. I. Temporal Clauses with postguamj ubi^ ut, etc. 745. Clauses introduced by postquam (posteaquam), after; ubi, ut, U'/ien ; cum primum, simul atque (simul ac, or simul alone), as soon as, take the indicative, — usually in the perfect or the historical present. postquam id animum advertit,' cb^ias suas Caesar subducit, tr/ie-r Ccpsar noticed tliis^ he wii/u/rew /us /ones Caesar, ubi su5s urgeri vtdii, prScessit, when Casar saw that his vien were hard pressed, he adi'attced Catilina, ubi e5s convenisse videt, secedit, when Catiline sees that they ha7>e come together, he retires simul atque introductus est, rem c5nfecit, as soon as he was brought in^ he Jittished the matter 746. Ut and ubi (sometimes compounded with -cumque) in the sense of whenever take the perfect indicative after a primary tense and the past perfect after a secondary tense (cf. § 800. a\ 286 TEMPORAL CLAUSES ut quisque venitj accedo, wheneve7' any one conies {has come), I go to him etiam senex, uhi occasi5 data eraty discebat, even in old age he learned whenever oppo7'tunity was given 747. To denote a definite interval of time after, postquam regu- larly takes the past perfect indicative. When thus used, post is usually separated from quam and placed in the main clause as a preposition or adverb, or is sometimes omitted altogether. pugnatum est post paucos dies (or paucis post diebus) quam pervenerat, the battle was fought a few days after he arrived tertio anno quam Aristides mortuus erat, three yeaj's after Aristides died 748. Postquam, ubi, ut, etc, are used with the past descriptive in- dicative to denote a continued state in past time. ubi nemo obvius ibaty ad castra hostium tendunt, whe?t no one catne to 7neet the?n, they hastened to the camp of the enemy II. Temporal Clauses with cum 749. Cum Clauses with the Indicative. A cum clause refer- ring to present or future time takes the indicative. animus nee cum adest nee cum discedit apparet, the soul is not visible either when it is present or whefi it departs te videre volo, cum id satis eommode facere potero, I wish to see you, when I can do so cojiveniently cum veneris, cognosces, when you {shq^ll have) come, you will find out Note. Observe that the English present is represented by the Latin future in the second example and by the future perfect in the third. This precision in expressing time is characteristic of Latin. Cf. §§ 657, 663. fl. A cum clause with the indicative is used to explain one act as identical with another {explicative cum). cum quiescunty probant, when they are silent, they approve 750. A cum clause referring to past time takes the indicative when it dates or defines the time of the main action {definitive cum) . CLAUSES WITH Cl/M 287 When thus used, cum is often found in the combinations eO tempore cum, ^ diS cum, nunc cum, Olim cum, n&per cum. tum cum, and the like. paruit eo tempore cum parere necesse erat, he obeyed at the time when it luas necessary to obey tum cum in Asia res magnas permulti amtserant, at that time when many had lost ^reat fortunes in .Isia, etc. cum Caesar in Galliam venit, factidnes erant duae, when Ccesar came into Gaul, there were two factions quern ego cum ex urbe pellebam, hoc prdvidebam, when I was t tying to drive him out of the city, I 7i. ^. 753. Cam Clauses with the Subjunctive. Cum is used with the past or past perfect subjunctive to describe the circumstances that accompanied or preceded the action of the main verb (descriptive cmvo)} ' Cum (early form quom) is by origin a relative, and has constructions similar to qui. In early Latin it took the indicative in all tenses. In classic Latin a distinction is made in the past tenses between cum Jefnttij^ a time and cum describing a time. Cum liefinini^ a time takes the indicative (§ 750). like an indicative qui clause ol fact. Ciun descnhitig a time takes the subjunc- tive, like a qui clause of description or characteristic (§ 726). T%e cum ilause 288 CLAUSES WITH CUM Caesari cum. id nuntidtum esset, maturat proficisci, w/ien this had been announced to Cczsa?; he hastened to set out fuit antea tempus cum Germanos Galli virtute superdrent, there was formerly a tmie when the Gauls surpassed the Germans in valor cum essem 5tiosus domi, accepi tuas litteras, when I was at home taking my ease^ I received your letter cum esset Caesar in citeriore Gallia, crebri ad eum rumores adferebantur, when CcEsar was in hither Gaul^ frequent j-eporis were brought to him cum ab his quaereret, sic reperiebat, when he 7nade inquiries fro7n these men, he gained the following informatio?i cum de improvisS venisset, Remi legates miserunt, when he had come unexpectedly, the Remi sent etivoys 754. Cum Causal. A cum clause of description with the subjunctive sometimes denotes cause . Cum is then usually translated by since, and the subjunctive may be in any tense. id difficile non est, cum tantum valedmus, this is not difficult since we are so strong Haedui cum se defendere non possent, legates mittunt, since the Hcedui could not defend themselves, they se?it afnbassadors quae cum ita sint^ eamus, since this is so, let us go with the past or past perfect siibjii7ictive is the 7'egular coiistrticiion iti 7tarrative, and has largely displaced the use ofcnm. with u past tense of the indicative, even whe7'e no idea of characteristic is perceptible. The difference between these two uses of cum is further illustrated by the following examples in English : 1. Catiline made a conspiracy when Cicero was consul. Here the when clause merely defines and fixes the time when Catiline made his conspiracy (63 B.C.), and the main statement is true independently of Cicero's being consul. Catiline would have made his conspiracy just the same if Cicero had not been consul. 2. Columbus discovered America when he was seeking a new route to India. Here the wkeit clause does not define or date the time of the discovery of America ; it describes the circumstances under which America was discovered, and suggests that but for these circumstances Columbus would not have made the discovery. The Latin would use the indicative in the first sentence and the subjunc- tive in the second. CLAUSES WITH CUM 289 Note i. With this may be compared the qui clause of characteristic denoting cause (§ 730. I). Note 2. Following the usage of early Latin, cum causal is sometimes found with the indicative in the classical period. gritulor tibi cum tantum votes (Cicero), / congratulate you since you are so tftjiuential, or, freely, / congratulate you on your influence 755. Cum Concessive. A cum clause of description with the subjunctive may denote concession. Cum is then translated by thottgh or while, and the subjunctive may be in any tense. cum primi concidissent, tamen reliqui resistebant, though the foremost had fallen, yet the others kept on resisting Sabinus castris sese tenebat, cum Viridoyiz cotldie pugnandi potestatem faceret, Sabinus remained in camp, though Viridovix daily gave him a chance to fight a. When cum . . . tum means hoth . . . and, the cum clause is in the indicative ; but with the meaning though . . . yet, the cum clause is generally in the subjunctive. cSnsilium tuum cum semper probdvissem, tum mult5 magis probavi lectis tuis proximis litteris, though I had always esteemed your ivisdom, yet I esteemed it much more after reading your last letter 756. Synopsis of cum constructions : I. Indicative uses of cum II. Subjunctive uses of cum* 1. In clauses referring to present or future time (§ 749) 2. In clauses referring to past time that define the time of the main action {definitive cum ; § 750) 3. Cum inversum (§ 751) 4. Cum meaning whenever (iterative cum; § 752) 1. With the past or past perfect sub- junctive in clauses of description or characteristic {descriptive cum ; § 753) 2. Cum causal {since ; § 754) 3. Ciun concessive {though or while', §755) 290 CLAUSES WITH ANTEQUAM AND FRIUSQUAM III. Temporal Clauses with antequam and priusquam 757. Clauses introduced by antequam or priusquam, before, are relative in character, and, like other relative clauses, take the indicative in expressions of real or assumed fact and the subjunctive to express other relations. Note. Antequam and priusquam consist of the adverbs ante {before) and prius {sooner) combined with the relative conjunction quam {than). The adverbs often stand in the main clause, being separated from quam by other words. Priusquam is much oftener used than antequam. 758. Antequam and priusquam with the Indicative. The in- dicative is used with antequam or priusquam to express a real or assumed fact. a. The present or perfect is used in clauses referring to present time. priusquam lucet, adsunt, before it is dawn, they are present b. The present or future perfect is used in clauses referring to future time. priusquam de ceteris rebus responded, de amicitia dicam, before I reply in regard to the other matters, I will speak about friefids hip non defatigabor antequam haec percepero, I shall not weary before I (shall) have traced out these things Note. The present subjunctive is sometimes found in uses a and h. c. The perfect is used in clauses referring to past time. res ita se habebant antequam vent, things were in that co7iditioti before I came neque prius fugere destiterunt quam ad fliimen pervenerunt, nor did they stop running before they reached the river Note. This construction is especially common when the main clause is negative, as in the last example above. 759. Antequam and priusquam with the Subjunctive. The past subjunctive is used with antequam or priusquam in clauses referring to past time : {a) to denote an act that was expected and prepared for by a preceding action expressed in the main CLAUSES WITH ANTEQC/AM M^D PRIUSQUAM 291 clause ; {b) to denote an act that was expected but prevented by a preceding action expressed in the main clause. Caesar 8u5s hortabatur priusquam proelium committerent, Ccesar used to address his men before they joined (should join) battle. [That is, in expectation of a battle, Caesar prepared his men by addressing them.] Caesar Britanniae litora ezpldravit priusquam transeundi periculum faceret, Cctsar explored the shores of Britain before he made the attempt to cross. [That is, in expectation of crossing to Britain, Caesar explored its shores.] priusquam telum abici posset, omnis acies terga vertit, before a weapon iould be thrown, the whole line fed. [That is, the expected hurling of weapons was prevented by the flight of the enemy.] priusquam effugere posset, interfectus est, before he could escape, he was put to death Note i. Rarely the past perfect subjunctive is used instead of the past. Note 2. After the historical present (§ 648) the present (rarely the perfect) subjunctive may be used instead of the past. ab e5 prius milites non discedunt quam in c5nspectum Caesaris deducdtur, the soldiers did not leave him before he was conducted into Cirsar's presence Note 3. The subjunctive with antequam or priusquam is often called the subjunctive of expectation or anticipation. 760. The later writers freely use the past subjunctive with ante- quam and priusquam even when no idea of expectation is present. priusquam peteret consulatum, insanit, he was insane before he sought the consulship 761. Synopsis of constructions with antequam and priusquam : I. Present time — indicative, present or perfect (§ 758. a) antequam II. Future time — indicative, present or future perfect(§ 758. b) and \ r Indicative (perfect) to state an actual fact pnusquam (§ 758. c) a. To denote action ex- UII. Past time .Subjunctive (past) pected and prepared for (§ 759. a) b. To denote action ex- pected but prevented (§ 759- *) 292 CLAUSES WITH DUM, DONEC, QUOAD, ETC. IV. Temporal Clauses with dum^ donee ^ quoad, and quam diu 762. Dum, donee, quoad, and quam diu, meaning as long as, take the indicative. dum anima est, est spes, as long as there is life, there is hope donee gratus eram tibi, rege beatior fui, as long as I enjoyed thy favor, I was happier than a king quoad potuit, restitit. he resisted as long as he could quam diu mihi insididtus es, me defend!, as long as you plotted against me, I defended myself 763. Dum, meaning while, takes the indicative in the his- torical present. The historical present (§ 648) in this construction is generally translated by the English past progressive. dum haec geruntur, Caesari nuntiatum est, while this was going on, ' word was brought to Ccesar dum Romani consultant, iam Saguntum oppugnabatur, while the Roma7is were deliberating, Sagu7itum was ab'eady being besieged Note. As shown by the examples, dum with the present denotes /;/ the time, but not throughout the time. In the latter sense dum, though it may be translated by while, is equivalent to as long as, and the tenses present no pecuHarity (§ 762). 764. Dum, donee, and quoad, meaning until, take the perfect indicative to denote an actual fact in past time. neque finem sequendi fecerunt quoad praecipites hostes egerunt, nor did they cease ptirsui7ig ujitil they 7'outed the e7iemy donee rediit, silentium fuit, imtil he returned, there was sile7ice Romae fuerunt quoad Metellus profectus est, they remai7ied at Rome M7itil Metellus set out 765. Dum, donee, and quoad, meaning tmtil, take the present or past subjunctive to denote pitrpose or expectation. exspectas fortasse dum dicat, you are waiting perhaps for hi7n to say {U7itil he says) CAUSAL CLAUSES 293 exspectavit dum reliquae nav^s convenirent, he waited for the rest of the ships to join him {until they should join him) Horatius impetum sustinuit quoad ceteri pontem interrumperent, Hora- tius sustained the attack until the rest should cut down the bridge Note. The present and future perfect indicative are occasionally found. 766. Synopsis of constructions with dum, dOnec, quoad, and quam diu : I. Dum, ddnec, quoad, quam diu, as long as, indica- tive (§ 762) II. Dum, while, indicative (historical present ; § 763) a. Perfect indicative to de- dum, d5nec, quoad. and quam diu III. Dum, donee, quoad, until note an actual fact in past time (§ 764) Present or past subjunc- tive to denote purpose or expectation (§ 765) Causal Clauses 767. Cause is expressed in Latin by three kinds of clauses : L Cum clauses of description (§ 754). II. Qui clauses of description or characteristic (§ 730. I). III. Clauses introduced by quod, quia, quoniam, and quandS. 768. Quod and quia, because, take {a) the indicative when the writer or speaker is giving his otvn reason ; {b) the sub- junctive when he is giving the reason of another. a. Indicative, fortissimi sunt Belgae propterea quod longissime absunt, the Belga are the brai'est because they arc the farthest away Helvetii reliquos Gall5s virtute praecedunt quod fere cotidianis proeliis cum Germanis contendunt, the Hcl^'ctii excel the remaining Gauls in valor because they jight nearly every day with the Germans leve erat Yulnus quia se retrahibat ab ictu, the wound was slight because he drew {himself) back from the blow 294 CAUSAL CLAUSES b. Subjunctive. mihi gratiae aguntur quod virtute mea res publica sit liberdta, thanks are given to me because (as they say) the state has been set free by my coui'age Haedui querebantur quod Harudes fines populdrentur, the Hcedui com- plained because (as they said) the Harudes were laying the country waste mea mater irata est quia non redierim, my mother is angry because I didn't return (as she says) Note i. The subjunctive is used on the principle of impHed indirect discourse (§ 906). Note 2. Quia regularly introduces a statement of fact, and rarely takes the subjunctive. 769. Quoniam and quando, since ^ introduce a reason of the writer or speaker, and take the indicative. quoniam supplicati5 decreta est, celebratote illos dies, since a thanks- giving has been decreed, celebrate those days quando ita vfs, di bene vortant, since you so wish, may the gods bless the undertaking Note. Quando, originally temporal {when), is rarely used in the causal sense in classic Latin prose. 770. Non quod, non quia, and non quo (for non eo quod) introduce a possible but rejected reason, and hence take the subjunctive. haec servanda censeo, non quod probem, sed quia etc., / think these should be preserved, not because I approve of them, but because etc. a. Non quin, not that not, with the subjunctive, is sometimes used for non quod non. volui ad te scribere, non quin confiderem diligentiae tuae, sed etc., / wished to zvritetoyou, not that I did not trust your diligence, but etc. h. The indicative is sometimes used in clauses of this sort when the statement is a fact, though not accepted as the true reason. haec dixit orator, non quod timebat, sed quod etc., the orator said this, not because he was afraid (as he really was), but because etc. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 295 Causal clauses are expressed by I. Quod and quia • 771. Synopsis of causal constructions: a. With the indicative when the writer or speaker gives his own reason (§ 768. a) b. With the subjunctive when the writer or speaker gives, not his own reason, but the reason alleged by another (§ 768. b) II. Quoniam and quandd with the indicative (§ 769) III. Cum {since) with the subjunctive (§ 754) IV. Qui with the subjunctive (§ 730. I) CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 772. A clause expressing a condition, introduced by if or by some equivalent word, is called a conditional clause. 773. A sentence that contains a conditional clause is called a conditional sentence. 774. A conditional sentence is complex and consists of two parts : ^ fl. A subordinate (adverbial) clause, commonly introduced by si, if and expressing the condition. h. A principal clause, expressing the conclusion, that is, the state- ment which is true in case the condition expressed in the si clause is true. 81 obsides ab eis dentur (condition), cum eis pacem facial (conclusion), if hostages should be given by them^ he ivould make peace with them Note. The term " condidon " is often applied to the whole sentence, including the condidon and conclusion. * The conditional complex sentence has arisen, like other complex sen- tences (§ 708), from two sentences originally independent but closely related in thought. Thus, laugh, and the xoorld laughs with you is an earlier and simpler form of expression than if you laugh, the 7oorld laughs with you. The conditional particle bI was originally an adverb meaning so, and its conjunc- tional use and meaning developed later. Conditional sentences without si occur in all periods of Latin and are a survival of the earlier linguistic form. 296 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 775. Use of si and its Compounds. The conditional clause, when affirmative ^ is introduced by si, if\ when negative^ by nisi, unless. But if the negative applies to only one word, si non is used instead of nisi, actum de te est nisi provides, it 'j all over with you unless you look out si non easdem opes habemusy eandem tamen patriam habemus, if we have not the sa?ne resources, we have nevertheless the same native land a. Nisi si, except if, unless, occurs for nisi. Ni for nisi is mostly poetic or late. 776. Sin, btct if, introduces a supposition contrary to one that precedes ; nisi vero or nisi forte an ironical objection. accusator ilium defendet si poterit ; sin minus poterit, negabit, the accuser will defend him if he can; but if he cannot, he will refuse 777. Sive (or sen), or if, is generally used as a correlative (sive (or seu) . . . sive (or sen), if . . . or if whether . . . or) to introduce alternative conditional clauses. facilis est res, sive manent sive proficiscuntur, the matter is easy, whether they stay or go Classification of Conditional Sentences 778. Particular and General Conditions. Any kind of condi- tional sentence may be either {a) particular or {b) general. a. A particular condition refers to a definite act, or series of acts, occurring at some definite time. h. A general condition refers to any one of a series of acts which may occur, or may have occurred, at any time. For example, if the enemy should cross the river, they would be driven back is a particular condition ; but if at any time the enemy crosses the river, they are always driven back is a general condition. c. Particular and general conditions usually have the same form. For special forms of general conditions see § 8oo. 779. Conditional sentences, according to the time of the supposed case, are divided into three classes : I. Present conditions II. Future conditions III. Past conditions PRESENT CONDITIONS 297 780. Present and past conditions are of two kinds : non- committal and contrary to fact. 781. A present or past condition is non-committal 'w\\tx\ noth- ing is said or implied as to the truth or falsity of the case supposed. If this is gold (perhaps it is, perhaps it is n't), // is valuable 782. A present or past condition is contrary to fact when the supposition has been realized and found to be false. Jf this were gold (bni it isn't), /'/ would be valuable 783. Future conditions are of two kinds : more definite and less definite. a. A more definite future condition states a future possibility dis- tinctly, expressing a doubt as to whether it 7tiill or will not be the case. If this pro%>es to be gold (that remains to be seen and is a future possibility), // will be valuable h. A less definite future condition states a future possibility less dis- tinctly, expressing a doubt as to whether it would or would not be the case. If this should prove to be gold, it would be valuable I. Present Conditions 784. Present conditions are either non-committal or contrary to fact. 785. Present non-committal conditions regularly take the present indicative in both clauses. si hacfadtf lauddtur, if he is doing this, he is being praised a. The verb in the conclusion of a present non-committal condition is not always an indicative, but may be a hortatory or an optative subjunctive, an imperative, or any other form demanded by the sense. 81 llbertatem servare non possumus, moriamur, if we cannot preser^'e our liberty, let us die (hortatory subjunctive in the conclusion) 81 verum non dico, dei supplicium sumant if I am not speaking the truth, may the gods punish ///^(optative subjunctivein the conclusion) 81 ndndum satis cernitis, recordaminl if you eh not yet see clearly^ recollect (imperative in the conclusion) 298 FUTURE CONDITIONS 786. Present conditions contrary to fact regularly take the past subjunctive in both clauses. si hoc faceretf lauddretur, if he were doing this (but he is not), he would be praised (at the present time) si dives essem^ non avarus essem, if I were rich^ I should not be avaricious si viveret, verba eius audlretis, if he were livings you would hear his words II. Future Conditiofis 787. Future conditions are either more definite or less defi- 7tite, and express future possibility (cf. § 783). 788. More definite future conditions regularly take the future indicative in both clauses, the conclusion stating what will be the result if the condition is {shall be) realized. si hoc /aczef, lauddbitur, if he does {shall do) this, he will be praised si dives ero, non avarus ero, if I shall be rich, I shall not be avaricious naturam si seguemur ducem, numquam aberrdbimus, if we {shall) follow nature as guide, we shall never go astray si Galli obsides mittentj Caesar cum eis pacem faciei, if the Gauls {shall) send hostages, CcEsar will make peace with them Note. In English the conditional clause is usually expressed by the present indicative, rarely by the future with shall. 789. Less definite future conditions regularly take the present subjunctive ^ in both clauses, the conclusion stating what wotdd be the result if the condition should be realized. si hoc faciatf laudetur, if he should do this, he would be praised si dives s/m, n5n avarus sim, if I should be rich, I should not be avaricious haec si tecum patria loqudtur, nonne impetrare debeat, if your native land should thus speak with you, would she not deserve to prevail? quod si quis deus mihi largidtur^ valde recusem, if some god should grant me this, I should stoutly refuse 1 The subjunctive in the conditional clause of a less definite future con- ditional sentence is hortatory by origin, and the subjunctive in the conclusion is potential (§ 687). PAST CONDITIONS 299 790. The future perfect is used in the conditional clause instead of the future, and the perfect subjunctive instead of the present, when the conditional act is regarded as completed before that of the conclusion begins. id si fecerisy magnam habSbd gratiam, if you Jo {shall have done) this, I shall be very grateful si relictus sim^ non possim dicere, if I should be {should have been) deserted, I should be unable to speak Note. Not infrequently the future perfect is found in both clauses. mihi gratum feteris si hunc comprehenderis, you will do {will have done) me a favor if you receive {shall have received) him III. Past Conditions 791 . Past conditions are either non-committal or contrary to fact 792. Past non-committal conditions regularly take the past descriptive or perfect indicative in both clauses. si hoc fadtbat (or fecit)^ laudabatur (or laudatus est), if he did tJiis, he was praised si dives eram, non a varus eram, if J ivas rich, I was not avaricious si ita exJstimavistt, vehementer errdvisti, if you thought so, you were greatly //list a ken si probus es, poenam non meruistt, if you are good, you did not desen/e punishment. [Non-committal condition, with a present conditional clause and a past conclusion.] Note. The conclusion of a past non-committal condition may assume a great variety of forms. Cf. § 785. a. 793. Past conditions contrary to fact regularly take the past perfect subjunctive in both clauses. si hoc fecisset, laudatus esset, if he had done this (but he did not), he would have hee/i praised si dives fuissem, n6n avanis fuissem, if I had been rich, I should not have been avaricious ni«i tfl dnibissest numqnam nOpissem^ unless you had lost it, I should never have recovered it 300 PECULIARITIES OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES Synopsis of Conditional Sentences 794. The use of moods and tenses in regular conditional sentences is shown in the synopsis on the opposite page. Special Peculiarities of Conditional Sentences Peculiar Future Conditions 795. The conclusion of a future condition may be in any form that expresses or implies future time : as, the imperative, the present indicative of the periphrastic conjugations and of verbs of necessity^ possibility, and the like. quid, si hostes veniant, factufi estis, what are you goifig to do if the etiemy should come ? possum istum accusare, si cupiam, I cafi accuse him if I desire 796. A future condition is sometimes regarded from a past point of view. In such cases the past or past perfect subjunctive is used without implying that the condition is contrary to fact. Caesar si peteretj non quicquam proficeret, if even Ccesar were to ask, he would gain nothing. [This is simply si petat, non proficiat, viewed from the past.] Peculiar Conditiojis Co7itrary to Fact 797. Past tenses of the indicative may be used in the con- clusion of conditions contrary to fact, as follows : a. With verbs like oportet, decet, debeo, possum, necesse est, opus est. h. With verbs in the active or passive periphrastic conjugation. c. With longum, aequum, difficile, melius, etc. in such expressions as longum erat, // would be tedious ; difficile erat, // woidd be difficult ; melius fuerat, it would have been better. non potuit fieri sapiens, nisi natus esset, he could not have become a sage if he had not been born 81 privatus esset, tamen is erat deligendus, if he were a private citizen, yet he ought to be chosen Note. In this construction the past descriptive indicative usually refers to present time, and the perfect or past perfect to past time. SYNOPSIS OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 301 73 C i i ^1 3 ,., *- ^> « a c rt - C <; "" ^ 8 o '<" -B .-tt ^ ^ *- -^ ^'- 5« is c :-s. C •t^.£ « « .S c S -^ -s .^ •s -g ^ i 5 : s *f s 1 § 3 .5 2 X .2 S5 * I a « p - - 55 • ^ 8 N V ' ^ J (A o & fc Z ^ Q > SI •" 5 302 GENERAL CONDITIONS 798. The past subjunctive may be used in either the condition or the conclusion of a condition contrary to fact, to denote continued action in past time or a past state of affairs that still exists. Carthago non concidisset, nisi ea urbs classibus nostris pateret, Car- thage would not have fallen^ had not that city been (constantly) open to our fleets 799. In poetry the present subjunctive is sometimes used, instead of the past, in conditions contrary to fact. nee, si sciat^ imperet illis (Ovid), noT\ if he knew, could he control them Special Forms of General Conditions 800. Special forms of general conditions (§ 778. b, c), denoting repeated or customary action, are shown in the following table : Time Condition Conclusion Present Present subjunctive, sec- ond person singular, of an indefinite subject, or perfect indicative Present indicative Past Past or past perfect sub- junctive (rare in classic Latin), or past perfect indicative Past indicative memoria minuitur si earn n5n exerceas, the memory grows weak if you don't exercise it si quos inutiles notdverunt, necari iubent, if they (ever) 7nark any as infirm, they (always) order them to be put to death si quis prehenderetury eripiebdtur, if any one was (ever) arrested, he was (always) rescued si quis equo deciderat, circumsistebant, if any one {ever) fell from his horse, they (always) surrou?ided him SUBSTITUTES FOR REGULAR CONDITIONS 303 a. General conditions are often introduced by cum or ubi, meaning ivhenevtr {ii 746, 752). cum rosam vfderat, turn incipere ver arbitrabatur, u>heneT.'er he saw a rose, then lie thotti^ht spritti^ u>as bei^innitig Note. In this construction the perfect indicative is usually translated by the English present, and the past p>erfect by the English past. See examples above. Conditional Relative Clauses 801. Relative clauses often express condition, and may take the place of any of the forms of condition found in conditional sentences. qut mentiri so/ef, peierare cSnsuevit, whoever is in the habit of lying is accustovied to swear falsely. [ = si quia solet, present non- committal.] quisquis hiic venerit, vapulabit, whoever comes here shall get a thrash- ing. [= si quis venerit, future more definite.] quaecumque vos causa hiic attulissetf laetarer, whatever cause had brought you here, I should Ift glad. [ = si qua . . . attulisset, past contrary to fact.] Substitutes for Regular Conditions 802. Condition may be expressed by a word or a phrase, instead of appearing in the regular form with si ; or it may be merely implied (§ 687). facile me paterer, UW ipso rudice quaerente, prO R58ci5 dicere, / should readily allow myself to speak for Roscius, if that very judge were conducting the case. [Present contrary to fact, si quaereret, paterer. ] quid hunc pauc5rum anndrum accessio iuvare potuisset, what good could the addition of a few years have done him f [Past contrary * to fact, si accessissent, quid . . . potuisset ?] commove: senties, stir him uf> : you will Jind etc. [Funire more definite, si commovebis, sentiSs.J 304 CLAUSES OF COMPARISON Conditional Clauses of Comparison 803. Conditional clauses of comparison are introduced by comparative particles meaning as if, and take the subjunctive, present or perfect, unless the sequence of tenses requires the past or the past perfect. a. The commoner particles meaning as if are ac si, ut si, quasi, tamquam, tamquam si, velut, and velut si, absentis Ariovisti crudelitatem horrent, ye/wf sf coram adsit^ they shudder at the cruelty of Ariovistus in his absence, as if he were present absentis Ariovisti crudelitatem horrebant, velut si coram adesset, they shuddered at the cruelty of Ariovistus in his absence, as if he were pi'esent Note. The English idiom would lead us to expect the past or past perfect subjunctive (contrary to fact) in these clauses ; but from the Latin point of view they are really less definite future conditions, with the con- clusion omitted. Thus the first example above really means, they shudder at the cruelty of Ariovistus in his abse?tce, as (they would shudder) if (at some future time) he should be present. In other words, the real conclusion is suppressed. Concessive Clauses 804. Concessive clauses concede something or state that something is true in spite of something else. In the latter sense they are sometimes called adversative clauses. 805. Concession is often expressed by the volitive subjunctive in an independent sentence (§§671, ^'j'j), but it more frequently takes a dependent form and shows the following varieties : 1. Qui clause of description, with the subjunctive (§ 730. II). 2. Cum clause of description, with the subjunctive (§ 755). 3. Quamquam, etsi, and tametsi with the indicative. 4. Quamvis or ut with the subjunctive. 5. Licet with the subjunctive. Note. The principal clause is often introduced by tamen, yet, nevertheless. CONCESSIVE CLAUSES 305 806. Quamquam, etsi, and tametsi, although^ introduce an admitted fact ^ and take the indicative.^ ' quamquam sunt eiusdem generis, sunt humaniOrSs, although they are of the same race, they are more civilized quamquam oninis virtus n5s ad se adUcitf tamen liberalitas id maximS ef&cit, although every virtue attracts us, yet generosity does so Most of all etsi sine ull5 pericul5 proelium fore videbatf tamen committendum non putabat, although he saw that the battle would be without any danger^ yet he did not think that it should be begun 807. Quamqxiam more commonly means and yet ^ and introduces a new proposition in the indicative. quamquam quid loquor, and yet ^ why do I speak t 808. Etsi, tametsi, etiam si, meaning n^en if, are really conditional particles, and take the indicative or subjunctive according to the rules for conditional sentences (§§ 785-793). optimi faciunt quod honestum est, etsi nullum emolumentum c5nsecQ- turum vident, the best men do what is honorable, even if they see that no reward will follow. [Present non-committal.] nQnne patria impetrare debeat, etiam si vim adhibere ndn possit, should not our country gain its request^ even if it should be unable to use force? [Future less definite.] 809. Quamvis, to whatever degree, however, and ut, although, take the subjunctive.^ avari indigent, quamvis divitSs sint, the avaricious are poor, however rich they may be ut omnia contra opini5nem accidant, tamen plurimum nivibus possunt, though everything should happen contrary to expectation, yet they are greatly superior in ships a. Quamvis (quam vis, literally as (much as) you wish) is generally used in expressions involving comparison or degree. It is therefore often found with adjectives and adverbs. quamvis mail, however wicked quamvis multum, however much * In poetry quamquam occurs with the subjv. and quamvis with the indie. 306 CLAUSES OF PROVISO 810. Licet, although, takes the present or perfect subjunctive. licet omnes mihi tenores impendeant, dicam, though all terrors should menace me^ I will speak Note. Licet is properly a verb in the present tense, meaning // is granted. Hence the subjunctive following it is limited by sequence of tenses to the present or perfect. It was not used as a mere conjunction until after Cicero. Clauses of Proviso 811. Dum, modo, and dummodo (dum m(Ao), provided, if only, introduce a proviso, and take the present or past subjunctive. The negative is ne. magno me metu liberabis, dum modo inter me atque te mums intersit, you will 7'elease 7ne from great fear, if only a wall is between you and me dum ne tibi videar, n5n Iab5r6, provided I do not seein so to you, I do not care omnia postposui, dummodo praeceptis patris parerem, I considered everything else of secondary importance, if only I might obey my father's precepts Note. This is a development of the volitive subjunctive (§ 671). Indirect Questions 812. An indirect question is a dependent substantive clause, introduced by an interrogative word (§621). The verb is in the subjunctive.^ 813. Indirect questions depend on verbs or other expressions of asking, doubting, fearing, thinking, perceiving, telling, and the hke, and are usually object clauses. 814. Indirect questions are introduced by interrogative pro- nouns and adverbs, by -ne or num, or by si. 1 In early Latin the indicative is used in indirect questions. The origin of the subjunctive construction is uncertain. INDIRECT QUESTIONS 307 a. By interrogative pronouns and adverbs. ostendit quae fieri vellet, he showed what he wished to be dene exponam quid sentiam, I icill explain what 1 think intellego quanto cum periculd id fecerim, I understand with how great danger J have done that nescit uhi sit, he does not know where he is b. By -ne or num, used without distinction, in the sense of whether. c5n8uluit possetne id fieri, he took counsel whether it could be done quaero num id permittas, I ask whether you allow it c. By si, in the sense of whether, sometimes with omission of the governing verb. SI nostri transirent, hostes exspectabant, the enemy were waiting (to see) whether our men would cross 815. Indirect questions referring to future time usually take the subjunctive of the active periphrastic conjugation (§ 668. a). dicam tibi quid factOms sim, 1 7/ tell you what I am going to do Note. The sentence above could also be written dicam tibi quid faciam, but this might be translated 77/ tell you what I am doing. The peri- phrastic forms remove all ambiguity. 816. The indirect question sometimes represents, not a direct question in the indicative, but a direct rhetorical question in the deliberative subjunctive (§ 678). quo me vertam nesciS, / do not know which way to turn. [Direct form : quo me vertam, whither shall I turn f\ Deque satis constabaf quid agerent, and it was not -r'e/y clear what they had better do. [ Direct form : quid agamus, what shall we dof] 817. Indirect alternative questions have the same introduc- tory particles as direct alternative questions (§ 627), but or not in the second member is expressed by necne rather than by annOn. 308 QUOD CLAUSES OF FACT c5nsuluerunt utrum statim necaretur an in aliud tempus reservaretur, they deliberated whether he should be killed at once or kept for some other ti?ne deliberatur de Avarico, incendi placeat an defend!, a discussion is held concerning Avaricuin^ whether it seems desi?'able that it be burned or defended quaesivi a Catilina, in conventu fuisset necne, I asked Catiline whether he had been at the jneeting or not 818. Haud scio an or nescio an, / a7n inclined to thi?ik, probably (literally I do not know whether^^ takes the subjunctive in an alternative indirect question, the first member of which is omitted. haud scio an hoc melius sit, I am incli7ied to think that this is better eloquentia nescio an habuisset parem neminem in oratory he would probably have had no peer 819. Forsitan, perhaps, is follov^^ed by the subjunctive in an indirect question, the adverb standing for an original fors sit an, // would be a chafice whether. forsitan requiras quae fata Priami fuerint, perhaps you inquire what the fate of Priam was 820. Nescio quis, as an indefinite pronoun meaning so7ne one, and the adverbial phrases nescio quo modo, nescio quo pacto, somehow \ nescio quando, at some time; and the like, are not followed by the subjunctive. nuper nescio quis ex me quaesivit, I'ecently some one asked 7ne sed nescio quo pacta omnium scelerum matiiritas nunc erupit, but some- how the ripeness of all crimes has now burst fo'rth Quod Clauses of Fact 821 . Dependent substantive clauses introduced by quod, thaty the fact that, take the indicative. Like other substantive clauses, the clause of fact with quod may be used as subject, object, appositive, etc. QUOD CLAUSES OF FACT 309 822. The quod clause of fact is used as subject, especially after verbs of happening (fit, accidit, Cvcnit, etc.) modified by adverbs like bene or male. quod rediitf nobis mirabile videtur, Ma/ Ag returned seems wonderful to us bene mihi evenit, quod ad mortem mittor, it happens well for me that I am sent to death opportune acciderat, quod legati venerant, it had happened opportunely that ambassadors had covie 823. The quod clause of fact is used as appositive with a preceding noun or demonstrative (hoc, illud, id, inde, ex eO, propterea, etc.). opportunissima res accidit, quod German! venerunt, a very fortunate thing happened, (namely) tliat the Germatis came in hoc sumus sapientes, quod naturam sequimur^ we are wise in this, that we follow nature hoc iinum in Alexandr5 vituperS, quod iracundus fuit, this one thing J censure in Alexander, that he was quick-tempered h5€ est miserior fortuna, quod ne in occultS quidem queri audent, their lot is more pitiful in this, that they do not dare to complain even in secret 824. A quod clause of fact is sometimes used as an accusa- tive of respect (§ 427), quod having the meaning as tOy as for the fact that. Such a quod clause regularly precedes the main clause. quod me Agamemnonem aemulari putas, falleris, as to your thinking that J emulate ^{gamemnon, you are mistaken quod mihi gratularis, minimg miramur, as to your congratulating me, we are not at all surprised 825. Substantive clauses with quod, substantive clauses with ut or n6 (§§ 724, 739), and infinitive clauses with subject accusative (§ 839) are constructions so nearly equivalent that sometimes any one of the three may be used with relatively little difference in meaning. 3IO TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE VERBAL NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 826. The verbal nouns and adjectives are the infinitives, the participles, the gerund, and the supine. THE INFINITIVE 827. The infinitive is a verbal noun, that is, a verb form which partakes of the nature of a noun. Like a noun, it has certain case constructions ; like a verb, it has tense and voice, may be modified by adverbs, and often takes an object. Note. The forms of the Latin infinitive are by origin partly dative and partly locative. Tenses of the Infinitive 828. The tenses of the infinitive are the present, perfect, and future. These do not denote time independently, but their time depends on that denoted by the leading verb. a. The present infinitive denotes the same time as that of the leading verb. scio te scnhere^ I know that you are writing sciebam te scribere, /knew that you were writing b. The perfect infinitive denotes time before that of the leading verb. scio te scripsisse, I know that you have written sciebam te scripsisse, I knew that you had written Note. In indirect discourse (§ 887. I. b) the perfect infinitive may represent any past tense of the indicative. c. The future infinitive denotes time after that of the leading verb. scio te scripturum esse, I know that you will write sciebam te scripturum esse, I knew that you would write Note. The future infinitive is used only in indirect discourse (§ 887. 1, b). 829. With past tenses of verbs of necessity, propriety, and possibility (as dfibui, oportuit, potui), the present infinitive is USES OF THE INFINITIVE 311 > he ought to have written generally used in Latin where the English idiom prefers the perfect infinitive, debuit scrTbere oportuit eum scribere _ potuit scrfbere, he could have written illl contra patriam arma ferre ndn debuenmt, they ought not to have borne arms against their country Note. The perfect infinitive when used emphasizes the idea of com- pleted action. 830. The present infinitive is sometimes used in indirect discourse to express continued or repeated action in past time, standing for the past descriptive indicative of the direct discourse. te memini dicere, I remember that you used to say. [Direct : dicSbas.] 831. Verbs that have no participial stem (§ 209), and hence lack the future infinitive, use as its equivalent the periphrastic form futurum esse (or fore) with ut and the subjunctive. sperabat fore ut pertinacia desisteret, he hoped that he would cease from his obstinacy a. The same periphrastic construction is often used, especially for the future passive infinitive, even when the verb has a participial stem. dicit fore ut urbs dileatur, he says that the city will be destroyed. [Instead of dicit urbem deletum iri.] Common Uses of the iNFiNmvE 832. In general the infinitive has the uses of a neuter noun. The Infinitive as Subject 833. The infinitive, with or without a subject accusative (§ 4 1 9), may be used as subject with est and a predicate noun or adjective. bellum gerere scelus est, to wage war is a crime dolire malum est, to suffer pain is an einl perfacile est cOnata perficen^ to accomplish their undtrtakings is '•ery easy mirum est tS nihil scribere, it is strange that you write nothing 312 USES OF THE INFINITIVE a. The noun or adjective in the predicate is sometimes a posses- sive genitive. iudicis est venim sequi, to follow truth is (the duty) of a judge 834. The infinitive, v^ith or without a subject accusative (§419), may be used as subject with impersonal verbs and expressions like libet, licet, oportet, decet, placet, visum est, pudet, paenitet, necesse est, opus est, constat, fama est, interest, refert, etc. necesse est mori^ it is necessary to die visum est iter facere, it seemed best to march traditum est Homerum caecum fuisse, the report has been handed down that Homer was blind a. As shown in the last example above, a predicate noun or adjective is usually in the accusative ; but if the impersonal verb or expression is followed by the dative, the predicate word is also in the dative. Thus regularly with licet. mihi neglegenti esse non licet, it is not permitted 7ne to be negligent The Infinitive as Appositive or Predicate Noun 835. The infinitive, with or without a subject accusative (§419), may be used as an appositive or as a predicate noun. miserdri, invidere, gestire, laetdri, haec omnia morbos Graeci appellant, to feel pity ^ envy^ desire^ joy ^ all these things the Greeks call diseases videre est credere^ seeing is believing id est convenienter naturae vivere, that is to live in conformity with nature hoc tantum peto, te non prqficTscI, I ask only this, that you do not set out The Infinitive as Object 836. The infinitive, without subject accusative, is used after many verbs to denote another action of the same subject. This is called the complementary infinitive^ because it completes the thought introduced by the finite verb. USES OF THE INFINITIVE 313 Note. With transitive verbs the complementary infinitive may be regarded as the direct object. With intransitive verbs it may be regarded as an adverbial modifier. 837. Verbs followed by the complementary infinitive are especially : V0I6 (n616, malo), cupi5, opto, studeo, desire statuo, c5nstitu5, c5gito, in animd habed, decide^ plan coepi, incipio. pergo, begin omittS, desists, cessS, cease Conor, nitor, molior, tempt5, try contends, matiiro, proper5, hasten metuo, timed, \txt(ii,/ear c5nsuesc6, soled, be wont possum, be able debe5, ought sci5, know hoib audeo, diire dubit5, hesitate discs, learn cfinstituenint ea comparare, they decided to prepare those things copias parare cesserunt, they ceased to prepare forces iudicarf n5n debet, // ought not to be judged iam se sustinere n5n poterat, he could not hold up longer a. Some verbs take either a subjunctive clause or a complementary infinitive without difference in meaning. contendit oppidum capert or contendit ut oppidum caperet, he strove to take the town 838. A predicate noun or adjective after a complementary infinitive is in the nominative. fieri doctior studebam, / was eager to become wiser brevis esse laboro, / struggle to be brief a. The infinitive may have a reflexive pronoun as subject accusative. In that case the predicate noun or adjective is also in the accusative. cupiS m8 esse cWnentem, / desire to be merciful 314 USES OF THE INFINITIVE 839. The infinitive, with subject accusative, is used as object with the following classes of verbs : a. Very commonly with verbs of saying (dico, nuntio, etc.), think- mg (puto, existimo, etc.), knowing (scio, cognosce, etc.), and perceiv- ing (video, audio, sentio, etc.). This is the regular construction of principal clauses in indirect discourse (§ 887. I). legati haec se reldturos esse dixerunt, //le ambassadors said that they would report these matters non existimamus Romanos sine ope divina bellum gerere^ we do not think that the Romans wage war without divifie aid Caesar cognovit montem a suis teneri, Ccesar learned that the mountain was held by his me)i sentio in hac urbe esse consules vigilantes, I perceive that in this city there a7'e vigilant consuls , h. With V0I6, nolo, malo, cupio, and studeo, when the subject of the infinitive is not the same as that of the governing verb. nolo te suspectum esse^ I do not wish you to be suspected rem ad arma deduct studetis, you are desirous that the ?natter be brought to (a decision of) a?-ms c. With iubeo and veto. liberds obsides ad se addUci iubet, he bids the children to be brought to him as hostages dux captlvos vindn vetuit, the leader forbade the captives to be bound d. With sino and patior. Nervii vinum ad se inferri non patiebantur, the Nervii did not permit wine to be by-ought to them e. With verbs of feeling or emotion : as, gaudeo, laetor, rejoice doleo, maereo. grieve graviter (moleste, etc.) fero, be annoyed miror, admiror, wonder^ be surprised queror, complain indignor, be indig?iant USES OF THE INFINITIVE 315 miror ti nesdre, I am surprised that you do not know exercitum hiemdre in Gallia moleste ferebant, they were annoyed that the artny was ivitttering in Gaul Note. As most of these verbs imply thinking or saying, the dependent construction may be regarded as indirect discourse (§ 885). Verbs of this type are often followed by a causal clause with quod (§ 768). 840. The infinitive may be used with the passive of many verbs which in the active take the infinitive with subject accusa- tive ; so especially with dicor, existimor, iudicor, putor, videor, and (in the third person) traditur, traduntur, fertur, feruntur. centum pagos habere dicuntur, they are said to have a hundred cantons Lycurgi temporibus Homenis fuisse traditur, Homer is said to have lived in the time of Lycurgus a. Passive verbs with the infinitive are generally personal in the present system and impersonal in the perfect system. So the first example above, with the passive verb changed to the perfect, would become — eos centum pag6s habere dictum est, it was said that they had a hundred cantons Note. Narr5, niintid, and trado are always impersonal in the perfect passive system. Special Uses of the Infinitive The Infinitive with Adjectives 841. Paratus, suStus, and their compounds take the infinitive like the verbs from which they are derived. omnia perpett parati, ready to endure e^'ery thing adsuefacti superari, used to being conquered a. This construction was extended in poetry and late prose writers to many other adjectives. durus compdnere versus, harsh in composing verse 3i6 USES OF THE INFINITIVE The Infinitive of Purpose 842. Poets and early prose writers often use the infinitive to express purpose, contrary to the usage of classic prose. non ferro Libycos populdre Penates venimus, ive have not co?ne to lay waste with the sword the Libyan homes loricam donat habere vir5, he gives the hero a breastplate to wear The Infinitive in Exclamation 843. The infinitive, with or without the interrogative particle -ne attached to the emphatic word of the clause, may be used in an exclamation or exclamatory question to express surprise^ anger, or regret. te in tantas aerumnas propter me incidisse, to think that you should have- fallen into such grief for tne / rnme inceptS desistere victam, what! I beaten desist from my purpose f ' a. Exclamatory questions are sometimes expressed by the sub- junctive with or without ut. te ut uUa res frangat, what I anything crush you ? The Historical Infinitive ■ 844. In descriptive narration the present infinitive may be used instead of the past descriptive indicative, and has its subject in the nominative. cotidie Caesar Haeduds frumentum fldgitdre, every day Ccesar was asking the HcBdui for the grain pars cedere, alii insequi, a part gave way, others pressed on Note. This construction is very rare in subordinate clauses and is never used to state a mere historical fact. It is always descriptive, and is especially common where several important actions occur in rapid succession, leading to a climax or crisis. TENSES OF THE PARTICIPLE 317 The Infinitive as a Pure Noun 845. The infinitive is sometimes a pure noun, and as such may be limited by an adjective or may be the object of a preposition. hie xmlfi perdidit, he has lost his sense of shame hoc n5n dolere, this freedom from pain scire tuum, your knowledge nil praeter plordre^ nothing except tears PARTICIPLES 846. The participle is a verbal adjective, and combines all the functions of an adjective with some of the functions of a verb. Like an adjective, it agrees with a noun in gender, number, and case (§ 497) ; like a verb, it has tense and voice, may be modified by adverbs, and often takes an object. Tenses of the Participle 847. The tenses of the participle are the present, past, and future. The participle, like the infinitive, does not denote time independently, but its time depends on that denoted by the leading verb. a. The present participle denotes the same time as that of the leading verb. video militem sequentem, I see the soldier following vidi militein sequentem, I saw the soldier following b. The past participle denotes time before that of the leading verb. miles secutus adest, the soldier followed and is present (lit. having followed is present) miles secutus aderat, the soldier had followed and was present c. The future participle denotes time after that of the leading verb, miles secutSrus adest, the soldier (who is) adout to follow is present 3i8 TENSES OF THE PARTICIPLE Tense Peculiarities 848. The past participles ratus, solitus, veritus, regularly, and others occasionally, are used as present. rem incredibilem rati, thinking the thing incredible Insidias veritus, fearing an ambuscade 849. The present participle sometimes denotes attempted action. Flaminio restitit agrum Picentem dividenti, he resisted Flaminius (who was) attempting to divide the Picetie territory Lacking Forms of the Participle 850. As compared with English, the Latin participle is defective. It lacks {a) the present passive (cf. English being seen) and {b) the past active (cf. English having seen). Note. Deponent verbs, being passive in form but active in meaning, are, therefore, the only verbs capable of giving a literal rendering of an English perfect active participle : as, secutus, having followed. 851 . The place of the missing present passive participle is supplied usually by a clause with dum or cum. obiere dum calciantur duo Caesares, two Ccesars died while their shoes were being put o?i me ista delectant cum Latine dicuntur, those things please me, being spoken in Latin 852. The place of the missing past active participle is generally supplied by the past passive participle in the ablative absolute, or by a clause with cum or postquam. convocdtis centurionihus milites certiores facit, having called the cen- turio7is together (lit. the centurions having been called together), he infor7ns the soldiers cum venisset, animadvertit collem, having come (lit. when he had come), he noticed a hill postquam id animum advertit, copias suas in proximum collem subducit, having obser^'cd this (lit. after he had observed this), he led his troops to the nearest hill USES OF THE PARTICIPLE 319 Common Uses of the Participle 858. Like a verb, the participle may take an object when its meaning allows. Like an adjective or a verb, the participle may take an adverbial modifier. videns montem, seeing the mountain hortatus milites. having encouraged the soldiers magna voce loquens, speaking in a loud voice 854. The participle, when used as an adjective, may be either attributive or predicate. Attributive Use of the Participle 855. The present and past participles are sometimes used as attributive adjectives. aeger et ftagrans animus, his sick and passionate mind mater amata, a beloved mother 856. The only future active participles used as attributive adjectives in Ciceronian I^tin are futurus and venturus. The future passive participle is occasionally so used at all periods. res futuwae. future events n5n ferenda iniuria, an intolerable wrong Predicate Use of the Participle 857. A participle in the predicate may be joined to the subject by esse. Gallia est divlsa, Gaul is divided 858. The past participle is used with the incomplete tenses of esse to form the compound tenses of the passive. amatus sum, / hai'e been loved amdtus eram, / had been loved amatus erd, / shall have been lo-ved 320 USES OF THE PARTICIPLE 859. The future active participle in -urns is used with the forms of sum to make the active periphrastic conjugation (§ 249. a). amaturus sum, / am about to love praeter quod secum portatun erant, except what they intended to carry with them 860. The future passive participle in -ndus is used with the forms of sum to make the passive periphrastic coftjugatioji (§ 249. b). amandus sum, / must be loved Caesari omnia uno tempore erant agenda, Ccesar had to do everything at the same time (lit. everything had to be done at the same ti?ne by CcEsar) omnes cruciatus sunt perferendi, all (kinds of) cruelty have to be endured a. Intransitive verbs are always impersonal in the passive peri- phrastic, and take their usual cases (genitive, dative, or. ablative). concedendum esse non putabat, he did not think that he ought to comply (lit. that it ought to be complied) tempori serviendum est, one must obey the (demands of the) time utendum est exercitationibus modicis, we must use moderate exercise b. Transitive verbs are occasionally impersonal in the passive peri- phrastic, but may have an accusative object. agitandum est vigilias, / have got to sta?td guard 861. The present and past participles are often used as predicate, where in English a phrase or a subordinate clause would be more natural. In this use participles express especially time, cause, meajts, mamier, condition, and coficession. a. Time. Plato scribens mortuus est, Plato died while writing (or /w the act of writing) b. Cause. quibus rebus Caesar vehementer commotus maturandum sibi existi- mavit, because he was greatly disturbed by these facts, CcEsar thought that he ought to hasten USES OF THE PARTICIPLE 321 c. Means. sdl oriens diem c5nficit, M^ sun, by Us risings causes the day d. Manner. ftentis impl5rabant, they begged with tears e. ('ondition. damnation poenam sequi oportSbat, if he was condemned, punishment was to overtake him f. Concession. beneficid adfectus banc gratiam refert, though he has been treated with kindness, he makes this return 862. A coordinate clause is often compressed into a past participle. instructos 5rdines in locum aequum deducit, he draws up the lines, and leads them to level ground Special Uses of the Participle 863. Participles, like adjectives, may be used as nouns. recte facta paria esse debent, right deeds ought to be like in value opini5nem pugnantium praebent, they give the impression of men fighting 864. Video, audio, faciO, and a few other verbs may take a present participle in the predicate instead of an infinitive. vidi urbem concidentem, I sa7i> the city falling Xenophon facit S5cratem disputantem, Xenophon represents Socrates as discussing 865. The past participle is used with habed with almost the same meaning as the perfect or past perfect indicative active. vectigalia redempta habet, he has bought up the revenues perfidiam Haeduonim perspectam habitat, he had observed the treachery of the Hccdui 866. A noun and a participle are often so combined that the participle and not the noun contains the main idea. ante urbem conditam, before the founding of the city post natos homines, since the creation of man Sicilia Sardiniaque Smissae, the loss of Sicily and Sardinia 322 GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 867. The past participle with a noun in agreement, or in the neuter as an abstract noun, is used in the ablative with opus, need (§ 469. b). opus facto est viatico, there is need of providing traveling expetises maturdto opus est, t/iere is need x)f haste 868. The future active participle (rarely the present) is sometimes used by poets and late writers to QXY>rQss purpose. egreditur vallum invdsurus, he comes forth to attack the rampai't 869. After the verbs euro, see to\ do, tradS, mando, give over\ concedo, surrender ; relinqu5, leave ; suscipio, tmdertake ; loco, contract for \ and a few others, the future passive participle is used in agreement with the object to denote purpose. ■pontem faciendum curavit, he saw to the building of a bridge agios vdstandos tradidit, he gave over the fields to be laid waste signum conlocandum locaverunt, the_y contracted to have the statue erected THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 870. The Gerundive is the name given to the future passive participle when used as a verbal adjective in agreement with a noun. The gerundive, unlike the participle, does not express necessity or obligation. bellum gerendum est, the war must be waged. [Participle.] cupidus belli gerendi, desirous of waging war. [Gerundive.] 871. The Gerund is the neuter singular of the gerundive used as an active verbal noun in the genitive, dative, accusa- tive, and ablative. Note. The nominative singular of the gerund is supplied by the present active infinitive : as, overcoming (or to overcome) danger demands courage. ' ^T _ ( overcomihg^ , - . . NoM. superarei ^ }■ Infinitive Gen. superandi, of overcoming 1 DAT. ^yxpttdiXi^, for overcoming \ Ace. superandum, overcoming [ Abl. superando, by overcoming J GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 323 872. A comparison of the gerund and gerundive shows the following points of difference : a. The gerund is a verbal noun. The gerundive is a verbal adjective, ft. The gerund is active. The gerundive is passive. c. The gerund may stand alone or with an object The gerundive always accompanies and agrees with a noun. Note i. The gerund and gerundive are translated in the same way although of different construction. Thus, apes urbem capiendJ (gerund) and spes urbis capiendae (gerundive) are both translated /tope of taking the city ; but the latter, rendered literally, would be hope of the city to be taken. Note 2. To change from the gerund to the gerundive construction, put the object of the gerund into the case of the gerund, and change the gerund to a gerundive agreeing with it. See the example in Note i . Gase Constructions of the Gerund and Gerundive 873. The gerund and gerundive have in general the same case constructions as nouns. 874. The genitive of the gerund and gerundive is used with nouns or adjectives. Gerund Gerundive c5nsilium ^a^en3) 2. Relative clauses (§715) 3. Substantive clauses, used as subject Purpose may be J (§721), object (§ 720), or appositive expressed by I (§ 724) The gerund or gerundive (§§ 875, 878) The supine in -um (§ 882. I) The subjunctive 326 INDIRECT DISCOURSE legates ad Caesarem mittunt rogdtum auxilium, they send envoys to CcEsar to ask aid filiam nuptum dat, /le gives his daughter in marriage (lit. to marry) a. The supine in -um may take an object, as in the first example. Note. The supine in -um with iri, the passive infinitive of e5, forms the future passive infinitive. sciebat se truciddtum m, he knew that he was going to be murdered But the future passive infinitive is rare ; fore ut with the subjunctive is regularly employed instead (§831. a). II. The supine in -u is used with a few adjectives, and with the nouns fas, nefas, and opus, as an ablative of respect (§478). perfacile factu est, it is very easy to do difficile dictu est, it is hard to say nefas est dictu, it is a sin to say a. The supine in -u never takes an object. b. The only supines in -u in common use are cognitu, dictu, factu, natu, and visu. Adjectives frequently followed by the supine are facilis, difficilis, horribilis, incredibilis, and mirabilis. INDIRECT DISCOURSE 883. The original words of a speaker or writer quoted with- out change, in the form of an independent sentence, are said to be in direct discourse. Caesar dicit : Belgae sunt fortes, Ccesar says, " The Belgce are brave " 884. The words of a speaker or writer quoted in dependent form after a verb of saying, thinking, knowing, or perceiving are said to be in ijidirect discourse. Caesar dicit Belgds esse fortes, Ccssar says that the Belgce are brave 885. Verbs and other expressions of saying, thinking, know- ing, perceiving, and the like are commonly followed by indirect discourse. PRINCIPAL CLAUSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 327 Verbs of saying: dic(J, nfintiC, referO, poUiceor, prdmittO, etc Verbs of thinking : putO, arbitror, existimO, etc. Verbs of knowing: sciO. cognOscS, etc. Verbs oi perceiving \ videC, audio, sentiO, intellegS, comperiC, etc. a. The verb of sayings etc, is sometimes implied by the context. 886. General Rule. In indirect discourse the verbs in the principal clauses of declarative sentences are in the infinitive, and the verbs in the subordinate clauses are in the subjunctive. PRINCIPAL CLAUSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 887. Principal clauses of direct discourse, on becoming indirect, . show the following changes : I. Principal clauses, when declarative, change the indicative to the infinitive with subject accusative. Direct Discourse Indirect Discourse diSs Instate the day is at hand intellSxit diem mstare, he perceived that the day was at hand Helvetii castra moverunt, the Helvetii cognovit Helvetios castra movisse, he moved their camp learned that the Ilcli'ctii had moved their camp Allobrogibus persuddebimus, ive shall existimabant se Allobrogibus pcr- persuade the Allobroges sudsuros (esse), they thought that they should persuade the Al- lobroges a. The subject accusative of the infinitive is regularly expressed in indirect discourse, even when the subject of the verb is unexpressed as a pronoun in the direct. Direct: Srator sum, I am an orator Indirect : dicit si esse Orit&rem, he says that he is an orator b. The tenses of the infinitive in indirect discourse denote time contemporaneous with, prior to, or subsequent to that of the verb by which the indirect discourse is introduced (§ 885). 328 PRINCIPAL CLAUSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE Direct Discourse Present indicative Past descriptive "I Perfect [ indicative Past perfect J Future active indicative Future passive indicative Future perfect indicative Indirect Discourse becomes Present infinitiv.e becomes Perfect infinitive becomes Future active infinitive becomes fore (futurum esse) ut with the present or past subjunctive ^ becomes fore (futurum esse) ut with the perfect or past perfect sub- junctive Note i . The present infinitive posse often has a future force. t5tius Galliae sese potiri posse sperant, i/iey hope that they shall be able to get possession of the whole of Gattl Note 2. The infinitive construction is regularly continued after a com- parative with quam. addit se prius occisum iri quam me violdtum In, he adds that he himself will be killed sooner than I shall be injured II. Principal clauses, when ijiterrogative, change the indica- tive of the direct discourse to the subjunctive if the question is real ; to the infinitive if the question is rhetorical .^ Direct Discourse quid i^? cur venis, what do you want ? why do you come ? [ Real questions.] num memoriam deponere possum, can I lay aside the memory? [Rhetorical question.] Indirect Discourse dixit quid vellefi cur vemret, he said what did he want? why did he come ? dixit num memoriam se deponere posse, he said could he lay aside the memory ? Note i. Real questions are generally in the second person, rhetorical questions in the first or third ; but no sharp line can be drawn between them. Note 2. Questions, either real or rhetorical, directly following a verb of asking, are treated as indirect questions and take the subjunctive (§ 812). 1 Or (rarely) future passive infinitive. 2 Rhetorical questions (§ 620. b) do not ask for information, but are equiva- lent to statements ; hence they are treated like declarative sentences (§ 887. 1). SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 329 a. The deliberative subjunctive (§ 678) remains subjunctive in indirect discourse. Direct : quid facerem, what was I to do f Indirect : dixit quid faceret, he said what was he to do f III. Principal clauses, when imperative (that is, when t\' \iXQss\r\g commands, prayers f tvishes, d^nd prohibitions), have the verb in indirect discourse in the subjunctiVe. The negative is n6. Direct Discourse Indirect Discourse Present subjunctive after a - ^. - primary tense Imperative becomes •< ^, *^ , • • r Past subjuncuve after a sec- ondary tense {Subjunctive, though the tense may be changed by the law of tense sequence Direct Discourse Indirect Discourse reminiscere veteris incommodi, re- dixit remimsceretur veteris incom- member the anciettt disaster modi, he told him to retnember the ancient disaster amimus patriam, /et us love our dixit amarent patriam, he told thetn country to love their country istS bonS utare, use that blessing dicit isto bono utatur, he says that he should use that blessing n61i dubitare, don^t hesitate dicit rH dubitet, he tells him not to hesitate a. A prohibition with nOli and the infinitive (§676. a) becomes the subjunctive with nC, as shown in the last example. SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 888. Subordinate clauses, on becoming indirect, take the subjunctive. 889. The tenses of the subjunctive in indirect discourse follow the rule for sequence of tenses (§ 695), and depend on the verb by which the indirect discourse is introduced. 330 SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE Direct Discourse Present"! Future J indicative Perfect Future perfect . indicative becomes becomes - Past descriptive indicative becomes- Past perfect indicative becomes Indirect Discourse Present subjunctive after a pri- mary tense Past subjunctive after a second- ary tense Perfect subjunctive after a pri- mary tense Past perfect subjunctive after a secondary tense Perfect subjunctive after a pri- mary tense Past subjunctive after a second- ary tense Perfect subjunctive after a pri- mary tense Past perfect subjunctive after a secondary tense 890. A subjunctive in a subordinate clause of the direct discourse remains subjunctive when the clause becomes indirect ; but the tense may be changed to conform to the law of tense sequence. 891. A past or past perfect subjunctive in the subordinate clause of a condition contrary to fact always remains unchanged in indirect discourse (see § 900). 892. The following examples include both principal and subordinate clauses : Direct Discourse Indirect Discourse sunt non niilli quorum auct5ritas dicit esse non nullos quorum aucto- _i- • _._i-_^ j7. _:i=_ -.in-; .— I * 1,^ ,« pliirimum vdleat, there are some whose influe7ice is very strong id quod in Nerviis feci faciam, / will do that which I did in the case of the Nervii ritas plurimum valeat, he says that there are some whose in- fluence is very strong respondit se id quod in Nerviis fecisset facturum esse, he replied that he would do that which he had done in the case of the Nervii SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 331 Direct Discoursk Indirect Discourse ad Caesarem Ib5 ut pacem petatn, I dixit se ad Caesarem iturum ut u'ill ^o to Citsar that I may pacem peteret, he said that he beg for peace would go to Ccesar that he might beg for peace obeamcausamquam diu />ofi/Ftacui, dicit ob earn causam se quam di& for this reason I have kept si- potuerit tacuisse, he says that lence as long as I could for this reason he has kept si- lence as long as he could 893. The subjunctive depending on a perfect infinitive is usually in the past or past perfect in indirect discourse, even if the verb of saying etc. is in a primar)' tense (cf. § 703). satis mihi multa verba fecisse videor qua re esset hoc bellum necessa- riom, I think I have said enough to show why this war is necessary 894. The present or perfect subjunctive is often used after a secondary tense to make the narrative more vivid (cf. § 707). dicebant totidem Nervios polliceri, qui longissime absinty they said that the Nervii, who live farthest off, promised as many 895. Subordinate clauses inserted by the narrator himself, and not part of the indirect discourse, are in the indicative. referunt silvam esse, quae appellatur Bacenis, they say that there is a forest, which is called Bacenis 896. Clauses introduced by a relative which is equivalent to a demonstrative with a conjunction (§ 564) are subordinate only in form, and hence take the accusative and infinitive in indirect discourse like declarative principal clauses (§ 887. I). quibus proeliis fractos Haeduos coactos esse Sequanis obsides dare, and that weakened by these battles the Hcedui had been compelled to give hostages to the Sequani 897. If the verb of a relative clause is the same as that of the principal clause, it may be omitted and its subject attracted into the accusative. tS suspicor iisdem rSbus quibus me ipsum (instead of ego ipse) commo- v5ri, / suspect that you are mo7>ed by the same things as I 332 INDIRECT DISCOURSE CONDITIONAL SENTENCES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 898. The condition in a conditional sentence is a subordinate clause, and the conclusion is a principal clause. Hence in indirect discourse — I. The condition is always in the subjunctive. II. The conclusion, if declarative, is always in some form of the infinitive. 899. Conclusions that are interrogative or imperative in form are treated like other principal clauses of that sort. See § 887. II, III. 900. Conditional sentences show the following changes in mood and tense on passing from direct to indirect discourse : Form of Condition Condition (Sub- ordinate Clause) Conclusion (Principal Clause) I. Non-committal (present and past) Indicative becomes subjunctive Indicative becomes infinitive Imperative becomes subjunctive Subjunctive remains subjunctive II. More and less definite (future) Indicative becomes subjunctive Subjunctive remains subjunctive Future active indicative or pres- ent active subjunctive becomes future active infinitive Future passive indicative or present passive subjunctive becomes fore (futurum esse) ut with the present or past subjunctive Future perfect indicative or per- fect subjunctive becomes fore (futurum esse) ut with the perfect or past perfect sub- junctive III. Contrary to fact (present and past) Past or past perfect subjunctive re- mains unchanged Past or past perfect active sub- junctive becomes the future participle with fuisse Past or past perfect passive sub- junctive becomes futurum fuisse ut with the past sub- junctive CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 333 901. The changes required in conditional sentences when they pass from direct to indirect discourse are illustrated by the following examples : Direct Disc«)tKSK Indirect Discoursi I. Non-committal (present and past) 1. si pugnas, vincis, if you Jight^ YOU conquer 2. SI pugnas, vince, if you fight ^ conquer 3. si pugnas, vincas, if you fight, may you conquer ( died si pugnes, te vincere Idiz! 81 pugnariSf tS vincere / dico si pugnes, vincas ' ^' 1 dixi si pugnares, vinceres II. More and less definite (future) 1. si pugnabis, vinces, if you (shaii) fight, you will con- quer. [More definite.] 2. si pugnes, vincas, if you should fight, you would conquer. [Less definite.] 3. si pugnabis, vinceris, if you (shall) fight, you will be con- quered. [More definite.] 4. si pugnes, vincaris, if you should fight, you would be con- quered. [Less definite.] 1,2. died si pugnes, te victUrum esse. [More and less defi- nite.] dixi si pugnares, te victUrum esse. [More and less defi- nite.] ' dic6 si pugnes, fore ut vincaris. [More and less definite.] 3» 4- s dijd si pugnares, fore ut vin- cereris. [More and less definite.] III. Contrary to fact (present and past) 1 . si pugnares, vinceres, i/'you were fighting, you would be con- quering. [Present.] 2. si pugnavisses, vicisses, if you had fought, you would Jiave conquered. [Past.] 3. si pugnares, vinccrSris, if you were fighting, you would be conquered. [ Present. ] 4. s! pugnavissSs, victus ess^s, // you had fought, you would have been conquered. [Past.] 1. dico. or dixi, si pugnares, te vic- tUrum fuisse. [ Present. ] 2. died, or dixi, si pugnavissis, te vic- tUrum fuisse. [ I'ast. ] 3. dic5, or dixi, si pugnaris, futUrum fuisse ut vincereris. [ Present.] 4. dic5, or dixi, si pugnavisses, futU- rum fuisse ut vinceriris. [ Past. ] 334 SUBJUNCTIVE BY ATTRACTION 902. Observe that more and less definite future conditions assume the same form in indirect discourse and cannot be distinguished. 903. Observe that in indirect discourse present and past condi- tions contrary to fact have the same form in the conclusion, but that they retain the regular distinction of tense in the condition. 904. Observe that the tenses of the subjunctive follow the rules of tense sequence except in conditions contrary to fact. IMPLIED INDIRECT DISCOURSE 905. The presence of the subjunctive in a subordinate clause may show that it is an indirect quotation, even though there is no verb of saying or the like in the principal clause. Paetus omnis libros quos frater suus reliquisset mihi donavit, Pectus presented to me all the books which (he said) his brother had left Caesar Haeduos frumentum quod cssent poUiciti flagitare, Ccssar kept asking the Hcedui for the grain which (he asserted) they had promised 906. The principle of implied indirect discourse explains the use of the subjunctive in causal clauses when the reason given is that of another than the speaker or writer (§ 768, b). queritur quod desertus sit, he complains because (as he says) he has been deserted THE SUBJUNCTIVE BY ATTRACTION 907. A subordinate clause depending on a subjunctive or an infinitive clause, and essential to its thonght, is attracted into tlie subjunctive. hortatus sum ut ea quae sciret sine timore indicaret, / urged him to disclose without fear the things which he knew quis tam dissoluto animo est, qui haec cum videat^ tacere possit, who is of so reckless a spirit that, when he sees these things, he can keep silent ? ORDER OF WORDS 335 in58 est Athenis Uudari in cdnti5ne eos qui sint in proeliis inteffecti, it is the custom at Athens for those to be eulogized in the assembly who have been killed in battle 908. The dependent clause must be a necessary and logical part of the subjunctive or infinitive clause, or no attraction takes place. milites misit ut eSs qui fugerant persequerentur, he sent soldiers to pursue those who had fled ne hostes, quod tantum multitiidiDe poterant, suds circumvenire possent, le'st the enemy ^ because they were so strong in numbers, should be able to surround his men 909. The subjunctive in implied indirect discourse and the sub- junctive by attraction are so closely related that it is often difficult to distinguish between them. THE ORDER OF WORDS GENERAL PRINCIPLES 910. The words of an English sentence stand in a more or less fixed order, which shows their grammatical relation to each other. In Latin this relation is shown by inflection, and the order of the words depends mainly upon the connection of thought, the emphasis, and the principles of euphony. 911. The two most important places in the Latin sentence are the beginning and the end, and the words standing there have a corresponding value. Note. The clear indication of the beginning and end of the sentence by the order of words was the more important to the Romans because they had no marks of punctuation. 912. The normal ^ order of the simple, independent, discon- nected sentence is as follows : 1. Subject. 2. Modifiers of the subject. * By normal is meant the order in which no attempt is made to give any part of the sentence unusual emphasis or to secure rhythmic or euphonic effects. 336 ORDER OF WORDS 3. Object. If there are both a direct and an indirect object, the indirect sometimes precedes the direct and sometimes follows it. 4. Adverb. 5. Verb. The position of other elements, such as ablatives, preposi- tional phrases, etc., cannot be exactly formulated, but is deter- mined largely by emphasis and euphony. 913. In connected narrative the first sentence normally begins with the subject, and each succeeding sentence with whatever word links the thought of the sentence with that of the sentence preceding. palus erat n5n magna inter nostrum atque hostium exercitum. Hanc si nostri transirent hostes exspectabant, ^/lere was a swam/f of no great size between our army and that of the e?iemy. The enemy were waiting to see whether our meti would cross this Note that the first sentence is introduced by palus, the subject, but the second by hanc, the linking word. Observe also the next two examples : subitum bellum in Gallia coortum est. Eius belli haec fuit causa, a sudden war arose in Gaul. Of that war the cause was as follows ipse in lUyricum proficiscitur. Ed cum venisset, milites certum in locum convenire iubet. Qua. re niintiata Piriistae legates ad eum mittunt. Percepta oratione eorum Caesar obsides imperat, he hiinself set out for Illyricum. Upon his arrival there., he ordered soldiers to assemble in a particular place. When this was reported.^ the Pirustce sent oivoys to him. Having heard their plea., CcEsar demanded hostages a. The relative pronoun is thus frequently used as a connecting link (§ 564). quod ubi Caesar animadvertit, legati ita responderunt, wheti Ccesar noticed this, the legates replied as follows I ORDER OF WORDS 337 SPECIAL RULES Attributive Adjectives and Genitives 914. Attributive adjectives in general both precede and follow their nouns. a. Numeral adjectives, adjectives of quantity and size, as omnis, tOtus, magnus, etc., and the adjectives alius, alter, Qllus, nullus, normally precede. decima legiS, thg tenth legion totum oppidum, the entire town ingens multitud6, a huge number aliud iter, another way h. The position of many adjectives has been fixed by custom, populus Romanus, the Roman people res publico, the commonwealth di immortales, the immortal gods res frumentaria, the grain supply Sacra Via, the Sacred IVay (a street in Rome) c. Proper adjectives usually follow their nouns. S5crates Atheniensis, Socrates the Athenian 915. Genitives in general both precede and follow their nouns. a. Causa and gratii are always preceded by their genitive. honoris causa, for the sake of honor exempli gratia, yi^r example b. The genitives of interrogative and relative pronouns always pre- cede their nouns, and the genitives of other pronouns generally do so. cuius magnae c5piae, whose great forces eorum obsidSs, their hostages c. In stereotyped phrases consisting of a noun modified by a genitive, the genitive generally follows. pater familias. father of a family tribunus ptebis, tribune of the people mflia passuum, thousands of paces But unatus cfinsultum, a decree of the senate 338 ORDER OF WORDS 916. When a noun is modified by both an adjective and a genitive, the usual order is adjective^ nouuy genitive ; less frequently adjective, genitive, noun. The order genitive, noun, adjective is rare. inferior pars insulae, the lower part of the island magna hominum multitudo, a great number of 7nen 917. Prepositions usually precede an adjective with its noun, but monosyllabic prepositions (especially cum, de, ex, and in) often stand between the adjective and its noun. ad latus apertum, oti the exposed side ex proximis navibus, fro7n the nearest ships summa cum laude, with the highest praise a. Relative and interrogative adjectives usually precede the preposition. qua de causa, for this reason quam ob rem, wherefore quern ad modum, how Pronouns 918. Hie, iste, ille, is, and idem, used as pronominal adjectives, and indefinite pronominal adjectives normally precede their nouns. haec spes, this hope ista vita, that life ille exercitus, that arjny aliqua causa, some case a. Ille in the sense of that (or the) famous ^ that (or the) well- known, normally follows its noun (see § 538). 919. Possessive pronominal adjectives normally follow their nouns. domus mea, 7ny house pater noster, our father copiae suae, his forces ORDER OF WORDS 339 920. Quisque regularly follows sS or suus, superlatives, and ordinals. ad suam quisque domam, racA to his own house optimus quisque civis, a// the best citizens quartd quoque aim5, ei.>ery fourth year 921. The pronoun of the first person precedes the second, and the second the third. ego et tu, you and I tu et ille, you and he 922. Relatives and interrogatives normally stand first in their clauses. Note. For the antecedent standing in the relative clause see § 559. Adverbs 923. Adverbs normally precede the words they modify ; but quidem, quoque, dfinique, and d6mum regularly, and fert and saepe usually, follow. Conjunctions 924. Conjunctions normally introduce their clauses ; butautem, enim, v6r6, and generally igitur ^ stand second^ sometimes third. Note. Such words are said to be postpositive. Prepositions 925. Prepositions normally precede their cases, but tenus, versus, and enclitic cum (§ 277. d) follow. a. A preposition may follow its case. This is rare in prose, but occurs in poetry, especially with prepositions of two syllables. vSstibulum ante (Vergil), before the entrance Note. Observe the idiomatic order in per 18 deds 6r6, / beseech you by the gods. 1 1{itur sometimes stands /rr/. 340 ORDER OF WORDS Verbs 926. The finite verb normally tends to stand last. Ariovistus legates ad eum mittit, Ariovistus sends envoys to him a. The verb often stands first in explanatory clauses when the connecting word is autem or enim. loquor autem de communibus amicitiis, / am speaking now, howeve?; about 0}-di7iary friendships licet enim mihi apud te gloriari, for it is allowed me to boast in your presence 927. Sum has no fixed position ; but when it means exist, it regularly stands first or, at any rate, before its subject. sunt fortes viri, there are brave men 928. Inquam, / say, stands after one or more words of a direct quotation and is usually followed by its subject. " refer," inquis, " ad senatum," " lay the matter befo?-e the senate,'''' you say " est vero," inquit Cicero, " n5tum quidem signmn," " it is truly,^'' said Cicero, '' a i'e?y well-known sear'' Negatives 929. The negative generally precedes the verb (§ 923) ; if it is emphatic, it begins the sentence ; if it negatives only one word, it precedes that word. The Vocative 930. The vocative normally stands after one or more words in the sentence. parce metu, Cytherea, cease your fear, Cytherea a. When emphatic, the vocative stands first. M. Tulli, quid agis, Marcus Tullius, what are you doing? ORDER OF WORDS 34 1 ARRANGEMENT OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 931. Subordinate clauses normally begin with the connective and end with the verb. The intervening words are arranged in general as in principal clauses. The distinct indication of the beginning and end of the subordinate clause was the more necessary because the Romans had no punctua- tion marks. 932. Subordinate clauses generally precede the principal clause ; but the principal clause normally precedes clauses of purpose or result, substantive clauses in indirect discourse, and indirect questions. cum esset Caesar in citeriore GalliOy crebri ad eum rumSres adferebantur, when Ccesar was in hither Gaui, frequent reports were brought to him mittunt legatSs qui pacem petant, they send envoys to beg for peace verebantur ne ad eos exercitus noster addUceretur^ they feared that our army would be led against them certior fiebat orrmis Belgas obsides inter si dare, he was informed that all the Belgce 7vere giving hostages to each other rogat me quid sentiam, he asks me what I think THE RHETORICAL ORDER 933. Deviations from the normal order (§ 912) arc very frequent and are known as the rhetorical order. These devia- tions arise from the desire to indicate emphasis or to secure pleasing euphonic effects (see also § 938). 934. Emphasis is secured by putting words in unusual positions, as follows : a. By inverting the normal order of the subject and verb. This transposition makes them both emphatic. mdvit ml oratio tua, your speech mooted me fuimu8 Tr6e8, fuit ilium, we have ceased to be Trojans^ Ilium is no more (of. § 659) 342 ORDER OF WORDS b. By placing first a word that would not normally stand there. luce sunt clariora tua consilia, your pla7is are clearer than daylight c. By taking an emphatic word or phrase out of a subordinate clause and placing it before the connective. servi mel si me isto pacto metuerent, etc., if even my si.aye.s feared me in that fashion^ etc. d. By inverting the normal order of a noun and its modifier. This transposition makes the modifier emphatic. oratores hi sunt clarissimi, these orators are the most famous non est rma culpa, it is 7iot my fault e. By separating words that would normally stand together. Thus especially an emphatic adjective is separated from its noun. haec res UnTus est propria Caesaris, this exploit belongs to Caesar alone magna dis immortalibus habenda est gratia, great gratitude is due to the imtnortal gods Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres, Gaul^ viewed as a whole, is divided into three parts f. By reversing the order of words in the second of two contrasted expressions. This is called chias^mus and is very common. fragile corpus, animus sempiternus, a frail body^ an immortal soul quam diii vixit, vixit in luctii, as long as he livedo he lived in sorrow Note. Chiasmus is named from the Greek letter chi (X), in which the lines are crossed. CLAUSE AND SENTENCE BUILDING 935. The connection of clause with clause and sentence with sentence is much closer in Latin than in English. There is evident a constant effort to combine into a harmonious whole the different parts of discourse and to make clear their logical relationship. 936. Structure of the Period. English narrative consists largely of short sentences, each distinct from the rest and saying one thing by itself. Latin writers, on the contrary, EUPHONY AND RHYTHM 343 viewed a number of related actions or thoughts as a whole, and this resulted in the formation of what is known as the Period. To form a period, the chief action or thought among a number of related ones is selected and made the principal clause, and all the other clauses are incorporated in it as subordinate elements. Gener- ally the period begins with the subject of the principal clause, then follow the subordinate clauses, and the period closes with the predi- cate of the principal clause, the main verb usually standing last In this way the thought is kept in suspense from clause to clause and is not complete until the final word. Roman writers were very fond of the periodic style, and it is imitated sometimes in English, espe- cially in poetry, as in the following : High on a throne of royal state, which far Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind, Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold, Satan exalted sat — " Paradise Lost," ii, 1-5 A Latin period is usually best translated into English by breaking it up into two or more short sentences. Examples of the Latin period : Caesar primum su6 deinde omnium ex conspectu remStis equis, ut aequatd omnium perlculd spem fugae tolleret, cohortatus suds proelium commisit Caesar, una aestate duobus maximis bellis confectis, maturius pauld quam tempus anni postulabat, in hiberna in Sequands exercitum deduzit 937. Euphony and Rhythm. Good writers of I^tin had regard for sound as well as for sense, and this had an impor- tant effect on the order of words. They avoided a succession of monosyllabic or of polysyllabic words, as also the heaping up of a number of verbs at the end of the sentence. The orators in particular took pains to have a sentence close with a pleasing combination of short and long syllables. These 344 RHETORICAL EFFECTS closing syllables were known as the cadence. Certain cadences were sought after and others avoided. For example : r w w w I _ w, reperietiir (tribrach and trochee) „ . J I _ w I _ w, quaereretiir (two trochees) Favorite cadences <^ ' _ y , , • r ^ ^ ^ _ w _, muniunt (cretic; cf. § 967) t w I , criminis causa (cretic and spondee) Avoided cadence, _ w w | , omne tene bant (dactyl and spondee) Preferably a word of two or more syllables of sonorous sound was placed last. RHETORICAL EFFECTS 938. As has been already pointed out (§933), emphasis is produced by deviations from the normal order of words. In addition rhetoricians employed many devices to secure unusual effects. Among those most employed are the following : 939. Anaph^ora: the repetition of a word at the beginning of successive clauses. nihil agis, nihil moliris, nihil cogitas, you do nothings you plan nothings you think nothing Note. The repetition of a word at the end of successive clauses is called epiph'ora. 940. Antith^esis : opposition or contrast. This is often secured by placing words opposed in meaning next to each other. nee audet appellare virum virgo, nor does the maid dare to address the hero alius aliam in partem fugit, one fled in one direction, another in another Note. Antithetical phrases or pairs of words are usually contrasted by chiasmus (see § 934./^). 941. Aposiope'sis : an abrupt pause in the midst of a sentence, leaving the imagination to supply the remainder. quos ego sed m5t6s praestat componere fluctus, whom I '- but it is better to calm the angry billows RHETORICAL EFFECTS 345 942. Asyn'd£/on : omission of conjunctions. iura, leges, agrds, libertatem ndbis reliquirunt, they have left us our rights, our laws, our fields, our liberty Note. The opposite of asyndeton, when more conjunctions are ex- pressed than is necessary, is called polysyndeton. 943. EpizeuxHs : the emphatic repetition of a word. fuity fuit quondam in hac rC public& virtiis, there was, there was fonnerly virtue in this republic 944. Hendi^adys : the use of two nouns with a conjunction instead of a single modified noun, or of two verbs for an adverb and verb. ardor et impetus, heat and attack, for heated attack te semper amavi et ditexi, I have always loved you dearly 945. HysUeron prot'eron (the last first): a reversing of the natural order of ideas. moriamur et in media arma ruamus, let us die and rush into the midst of the conflict 946. Interlocked order : the placing of the attribute of one pair of words between the parts of another. tantS su6/to« terrdre ruinae, with such fear of sudden disaster Note. This is a favorite Vergilian device. 947. JJ totes : the affirming of a thing by denying its contrary, or by understating it. n6n sordidus auctor. no mean authority^ meaning a distinguished authority 948. OnomatopQ:'ia : the use of words whose sound suggests the sense. exoritur clamorque vimm clangorque tubarum, the shouts of men and the blare of trumpets rise 949. Oxymo'ron : the placing together of two apparently contra- dictory ideas. irida nutrix, the parched nurse splendide mendix, gloriously false 346 GRAMMATICAL TERMS GRAMMATICAL TERMS 950. a. Anacolu^thon : a change of construction in the same sen- tence, leaving the first part without grammatical construction. h. Ellip^sis : the omission of one or more words necessary to the sense. c. EnaVlage : substitution of one form or word for another. d. HypaVlage : interchange of constructions. e. pyonasm : the use of needless words. /. Syndesis : agreement of words according to the sense and not the grammatical form. g. Tme'sis (cutting) : the separation of the two parts of a com- pound word by other words. h. Zeiig^ma : the connection of a word with two others, to only one of which it strictly applies. pacem an bellum gerens, (making) peace or waging war (lit. waging peace or war) PART IV. VERSIFICATION QUANTITY 951. Quantity is the time required for the utterance of a vowel, a consonant, or a syllable. Some sounds require much more time than others. We speak therefore of long quantity and short quantity. The marks — and ^ are used to indicate long and short quantity respectively. A long quantity is gen- erally reckoned as equal in length to two short ones. 952. English poetry is based on accent, and the rhythm of English poetry depends on a regular succession of accented and unaccented syllables. This is the | forest pri|meval. The | murmuring | pines and the | hemlocks Latin poetry, too, has a metrical accent (§978), but is based primarily on quantity, and the rhythm of Latin poetry depends, like music, on a regular succession of equal intervals of time, accipijens sCnI| tum sax |i de | verticg | pastdr (cf. § 967) As the line of English depends for its rhythm upon the regular succession of the six accented syllables, so the Latin is made rhyth- mical by the succession of the six equal intervals or measures of time, each consisting of two long syllables or their equivalent QUANTITY 1 OF VOWELS 953. Long Vowels. A vowel is regularly long — a. Before ns, nf, nx, and net : as, reggns. inferO, sinxi, sanctum. h. When formed by contraction: as, nil (for nihil), c6g6 (for co-agO), pr6nd5 (for prehendO). * A few of the leading rules for quantity are given in §§ 25-34- 347 348 QUANTITY 954. Diphthongs. A diphthong is regularly long and is left unmarked. Note. When qu-, su-, or gu- combines with a following vowel to form a single syllable, u has the sound of w and does not form a diphthong with the following vowel : as, aquSm, suavis, sanguis, 955. Short Vowels. A vowel is regularly short — a. Before -nt or -nd : as, amSnt, monSndus, h. Before another vowel or h : as, via, trfiho. To this rule there are the following exceptions : 1 . E in the genitive and dative singular of the fifth declension is long between two vowels : as, diei ; otherwise usually short : as, fidei, r6i. 2. I in the genitive singular ending -ius is regularly long : as, illius, totius. But in poetry it is regularly short in alterius, usually in utrius, and some- times in other words. 3. I is long in the forms of fio, ex(?ept in fit and when followed by er. Thus, fiebam, fiam, but fieri, fierem. 4. In a few other Latin words and in many Greek words a vowel before another vowel is long : as, dius, Aeneas, aer, heroas. QUANTITY OF VOWELS IN FINAL SYLLABLES 956. Most nouns and adjectives of one syllable have a long vowel : as, bos, 6s (oris), par, sol, vis. But the vowel- is short in c6r, 5s (bssis), qufit, tfit, and vir. 957. Most monosyllabic particles have a short vowel : as, in, CIS, n6c, and the attached (enclitic) particles -c6, -n6, -qu6, -v6. But the vowel is long in cur, nOn, and quin. 958. Most adverbs in c have a long vowel in the final syllable : as, hie, hue, illic, illuc, sic. 959. Final a is long in the ablative singular of the first declension, in imperatives (except putfi), and in indeclinable QUANTITY 349 words except iU and quil. Elsewhere it is generally short. Thus, tuba (abl.), amft, frQstrft, triginti, but tub* (nom.), anlmfilift. 960. Final e is long — a. In all monosyllables except enclitics (§ 957) : as, m€, tC. &. In nouns of the fifth declension : as, r^, fldC. c. In the active imperative singular of the second conjugation : as. monS. d. In adverbs formed from adjectives of the first and second declension, except bene and male : as, longg. facUlimg. «. In some Greek words : as, Phoeb€, Circ6. Elsewhere it is short. 961. Final i is long : as, eiti, sui, audi. But it is regularly short in nisi and quasi, and usually in mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi, and in some Greek vocatives : as, ChlOrl 962. Final is regularly long. But it is short in eg6, du6, and modd, sometimes in imm5 and pro- fectfi, and rarely in the first person singular of verbs. 963. Final u is long. 964. In final as, es, and os the vowel is long. But it is short in the following : a. Greek plurals in -as or -es : as, lampadAs, TrWs. b. Nominative singular in -es of most consonant stems : as, milfis, obsSs. 965. In final is and us the vowel is short. But it is long in the following : a. Plural case forms in -is : as, bonis, nObis, partis. 6. The second person singular in -is in the present indicative active of the fourth conjugation : as, audis. Also fis, vis. c. The second person singular in -is in the present subjunctive active of some irregular verbs : as, mills, nOlis, sis, velis. 350 QUANTITY d. All the forms in -us of the fourth declension except the nomi- native singular : as, fructus (gen.). e. Nominative singular in -us of nouns of the third declension having long u in the other cases : as, virtus, virtutis, but pecfis, pecudis. QUANTITY OF SYLLABLES 966. A syllable is long if it contains a long vowel or a diph- thong : as, u-nus, men-sa, aes-tas, aus-pex. 967. A syllable is long if it ends in a consonant which is followed by another consonant. Such a syllable is said to be long by position. Thus,^ ad-ven-tiis, p8s-co, Sr-mS. Note. The syllables underlined in the words above are long by position, but the vowel in each is short and should be so pronounced. Vowel length must be carefully distinguished from syllable length. Sometimes a syllable long by position contains a long vowel or a diphthong. It is then long for both reasons. a. The second of the two consonants making a syllable long by position may be the initial letter of the word following. Thus, in nullliin sperarg the syllable -l&m is long by position. 968. A syllable is regularly long if its vowel is followed by conso- nant i : as, major, aio, peius, Gaius, Pompeius. Note. So also in compounds of iacio, where the consonant i is pro- nounced though not written: as, obicio (for ob-iicio), inicio (for in-iicio), reicio (for re-iicio). So, too, in the genitives Gai (for Gaii), Pomgei (for Pompeii). 969. When a short vowel is followed by a mute with 1 or r, the syllable may be either long or short, and is said to be common in quantity : as, pStris or pStris. Note. The quantity of such syllables depends on the way in which the word is divided. Thus in pSt-ris the first syllable is long because t is pronounced with a and the syllable ends in a consonant (see § 27) On the other hand, in pS-tris the t goes with the last syllable, and the first syllable ends in a short vowel and is therefore short (§ 28). 1 The syllables long by position are underlined. VERSIFICATION 351 METERS AND VERSE FORMS 970. A single line of poetry is called a verse. 971. A verse, like a bar of music, consists of a succession of measures. These are called / or Pi*, containing three beats or mora Iambus, w _ or |* f^, containing three beats or mora Dactyl, _ v^ w or P ^ ^^ containing four beats or mora Anapaest, v^ v^ _ or C T (^t containing four beats or mora Spondee, or P (^, containing four beats or mora a. A verse is named from its fundamental, or characteristic, foot : as. Trochaic, Iambic, Dactylic, Anapaestic ; and from the number of measures which it contains: as, Hexameter (sL\ measures), Pen- tameter (five measures), Tetrameter (four measures). Trimeter (three measures). 976. Trochaic and iambic verses are measured, not by single feet, but by pairs ; so that, for example, six iambic feet make a trimeter, or three measures. 352 VERSIFICATION 977. Substitution. A long syllable may take the place of two short ones, or two short syllables the place of a long one. Thus, a spondee ( ) may take the place of a dactyl (_ w w) or of an anapaest (w w _). 978. Ictus. One syllable in each foot is pronounced with greater stress than the others. This verse beat, or musical accent, is called the ictics and is marked thus : ^ w w. The ictus does not destroy the word accent, but is subordinate to it. Note. Many hold, on the contrary, that the ictus is superior to the word accent and destroys it when in conflict with it (see § 993. b). 979. Thesis and Arsis. That part of the foot which receives the ictus is called the thesis ; the unaccented part is called the arsis. Note. Thesis means properly XhQ putting down, and arsis the raising, of the foot in the march or dance. The regular alternation of thesis and arsis constitutes the rhythm of poetr}'. 980. Scansion. To divide a verse into its measures accord- ing to the rules of quantity and versification is called scannijig or scansion. 981. Elision. In scanning, a final vowel or diphthong, or m with a preceding vowel, is regularly elided before a word beginning with a vowel or h ; that is, the final and initial syllables are blended and pronounced as one syllable. The following line shows three elisions : mSnstr'™ hor|r6nd'*™, in|f6rm«, in|gens, cui|lumen a|demptuin « The nature of elision as practiced by the Romans is not certain. It is customary to omit the elided syllables entirely. 982. The e of est is lost after a word ending in m, a vowel, or a diphthong, and st is added to the final syllable of the preceding word. Thus, victa est is read victast, actum est is read actumst, etc. VERSIFICATION 353 983. Hia'tus. Sometimes elision is omitted, especially when the first word is an interjection or is followed by a pause ip the sense. This omission is called hiatus. 6 fitl|n4m £os|s^ p«pfl(16s repajrirt pl|t^mis p5stMbI|ti cdiajissd Si|ind ; hie | illliis | Armi In the first line there is hiatus between the interjection and utinam, and in the second between SamO (followed by a pause) and hie. 984. Syl'laba An'ceps. The last syllable of any verse may be cither long or short, and is hence called the syllaba anccps^ or the doubtful syllable. 985. Cat'alectic and A'catalectic Verses. A catalectic verse is one in which the last foot is incomplete. An acatalectic verse is one in which the last foot is complete. 986. Caesu'ra. The ending of a word within a foot is called ccesura. This may occur in any foot of the verse, but when it coincides with a pause in the sense, we have what is called a ciesural pause. Most verses have only one caesural pause, but there may be two, and it is not necessary that there be even one. The position of each caesura is marked by the sign || . Note the caesural pauses in the following verses : nunc gA|d^m for|tiin& yi|r5s || tot | cislbiis | ictSs ins6qul|tur. || Quern | dis f!|n6m, || rex | mig nfe, lX|b6riiffl ? Note. The pause in the sense marking the position of the ca?sural pause may be too slight to be marked by a punctuation point (cf . the first line above). 987. Diaer'esis. The ending of a word with the end of a foot is called diceresis. There may be a pause in the sense at a diaeresis. This is not, strictly speaking, a caesural pause, but it may be marked in the same way. Note the diaeresis with pause in the following verse : cSnstltIt, II it Lib|yaS d6|fixit j IQmInX | rJgnia 354 VERSIFICATION SPECIAL IRREGULARITIES 988. Synize'sis or Synaer'esis. Two vowels of different syllables may be pronounced together as one long syllable: as, deinde for de-inde, meos for me-6s, deesse for de-esse, dehinc for de-hinc. 989. Sys'tole. A syllable regularly long is sometimes used as short: as, stetenint for steterunt. 990. Dias'tole. A final syllable regularly short is sometimes used as long. Such a syllable is nearly always one receiving the ictus and followed by the cassural pause. luctus, u|bique pa|v6r,* || et | plurima | m6rtis i|mag6 6sten|tins arlt^mque pa|ter* || ar|cumque so|ndntem Note. Both systole and diastole are sometimes merely a return to an earlier pronunciation. 991. The vowels i and u are sometimes used as consonants, i having the sound of y, and u of w. The preceding syllable then becomes long by position : as, ab-ie-te (abyete) for a-bi-e-te, gen -ua (getiwd) for ge-nu-a. a. Conversely, consonant i and v are sometimes used as vowels : as, si-lu-a for sil-va. 992. Tme'sis. The component parts of a compound word are sometimes separated: as, quod erit cumque for quodcumque erit. This is called tmesis (cutting). RULES FOR ORAL READING OF VERSE 993. Ancient poetry was written for rhythmical recitation, chanting, or singing. It is, therefore, especially through much oral reading that metrical composition can be best understood, appreci- ated,, and enjoyed. The following directions should be observed : a. Pronounce the words as in prose. This includes the proper sounding of each letter, the correct placing of the accent, and a careful observance of the quantity of each syllable, A long syllable should have twice as much time as a short one. DACTYLIC VERSE 355 *. Stress slightly the syllables upon which the ictus falls. Sometimes the word accent and the ictus coincide ; but when they fall on different syllables of the same word, the word accent should be given the greater stress and the ictus be made subordinate to it* In this way the word accent will be preserved and at the same time the rhythm of the verse distinctly maintained as an undertone. c. Give attention to the thought as well as to the words, and do not come to a complete stop at thp end of every verse, regardless of punctuation. 994. Apprehension of rhythm and quantity is greatly assisted by beating time to the measure as in music, the long syllables receiving two beats and the short syllables one. DACTYLIC VERSE DACTYLIC HEXAMETER 995. Dactylic hexameter is the meter used by Greek and Roman epic poets, and is often called Heroic Verse. It con- sists theoretically of six dactyls (— ^ ^) ; but a spondee ( ) may take the place of a dactyl in any foot except the fifth, and the sixth foot may be either a spondee ( ) or a trochee (_ v/), the last syllable of a line being either long or short (§ 984). The verse may be represented thus : Cv5 I ^J^ 1 — C^ I — vi^ I — ^^ I — — Example : it 81 fit& dS um, 8i mins n5n laevi fii iss£t rrrrrrr r r rrrrr a. Rarely a spondee is found in the fifth foot ; the verse is then called spondaHc and usually ends with a word of four syllables. pr6xh nas hul'c, lonlgO sed grdximtts inter yall5 r^^ r &r rrrrrrr » Many dissent from this view and give the greater stress to the ictus, even to the complete neglect of the word accent. 356 VERSIFICATION 996. The Caesu'ral Pause. The dactylic hexameter has regularly one caesural pause, sometimes two, accompanied by a pause in the sense (§ 986). 997. The caesural pause is usually after the thesis of the third foot. ht si I flta de|um, || si | mens non | laeva fu|lsset 998. Less frequently the caesural pause is after the thesis of the fourth foot, usually with a second caesura in the second foot. non galejae, || n5n | ensis e|rdt: || sine | militis j usu a. A pause in the sense in the fourth foot, with no such pause in the third, is a sure indication that the caesura is in the fourth foot and not in the third. 999. Occasionally the caesural pause is between the two short syllables of the third foot, its presence there being indicated by a pause in the sense. mem bra so|lo posu|ere ; || si| mul sup|rema ia|c6ntes a. Such a caesura is called feminine, while one occurring after the first syllable of a foot is called masculine. A masculine caesura is far more common than a feminine. 1000. Sometimes it is impossible to determine the caesural pause with certainty, and a diaeresis (§ 987) may take the place of the caesural pause. s^ntiat. II At quoni|dm con|currere | c6ni minus | h6sti 1001. The dactylic hexameter rarely ends in a monosyllable. 1002. The first seven verses of Vergil's yEneid afford a good example of dactylic hexameter, and are scanned as follows : Arm5 vi|rumqu6 ca|n6 || Trojiae qui | primus Sb | oris italij^ fa|t5 pr5fii|gus || Lajvfnijqug | v§nit DACTYLIC VERSE 357 liWri, I mult — il|l« it terjris || iac|titiia 6t | Alto vi sap6| rum sae|Yae in6md|r^ Iu|ndnl8 db | irim ; mulUl qud|qu* it beljld ^jsus {| dum | c6nd6rtt | urbdm, infer|r^qu6 di|68 Utlp, || ggnfls | und6 La|ti'niSin Alba|niqu6 pi[|tre's || atjqu* Altae { motnli | R5mae. a. Dactylic hexameter in English verse is illustrated by the follow- ing lines from Longfellow's " Evangeline " : This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the hemlocks, Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in the twilight, Stand like Druids of eld, with voices sad and prophetic, Stand like harpers hoar, with beau-ds that rest on their bosoms. DACTYLIC PENTAMETER 1003. The dactylic pentameter is the same as the hexameter except that it omits the unaccented part (arsis) of the third foot and of the sixth foot. It consists therefore of two parts, each of which contains two dactyls and a long syllable. The first half of the verse always ends with a word and is followed by a pause. The scheme of the verse is as follows : Spondees may take the place of the dactyls in the first half, but not in the second, and the last syllable of the line may be either long or short (§ 984). 1004. Elegi'ac Dis'tich. The dactylic f)entameter is rarely used alone, but regularly combines with a preceding hexameter to form a couplet (distich), as illustrated in English by — In the hexjameter | rises I| the | fountain's | silvery | column. In the pcn|tamcter | aye x falling in | melody ] back. 358 DACTYLIC VERSE This form of verse became the favorite of writers of Latin elegy, such as Catullus, Tibullus, Propertius, and Ovid, and hence it is known as the elegiac distich, or elegiac stanza. The distich is generally a unit in thought as well as in form, the sense rarely being left uncompleted at its close. 1005. The following verses from Ovid well illustrate the elegiac distich : Cum subit | illi|us tris[tissiina | n6ctis ijmago qua miW | sup re[ mum x t6mpus in j urbS fu|it, cum repe|to noc|t6m, || qua | t6t mihi | cara re|liqul, labitur | 6x 6cu|lis x nunc qu5que | gutta mg|is. APPENDIX THE ROMAN CALENDAR 1006. In earlier times the Romans designated the year of an event by the names of the consuls, in the ablative absolute : as, M. Messala M. PisOne cOnsulibus, /;/ the consulship of Marcus Messala and Marcus Pisa, Later the year was reckoned from the founding of the city (ab urbe conditi or ann5 urbis conditae, abbreviated to a.u.c), the date of which is assigned to the year 753 b.c. In order, therefore, to find the year of the Chris- tian era corresponding to a given Roman date A.u.c, the number of the Roman year must be subtracted from 754, I being added to 753 to allow for the Roman custom of includ- ing both extremes when reckoning the difference between two numbers. For example, Caesar was killed in 710 a.u.c, or 44 (754-710) B.C. 1007. Before Julius Caesar's reform of the calendar (46 b.c) the Roman year consisted of 355 days. All the months had 29 days except March, May, July, and October, which had 31 days, and February, which had 28. As this calendar year was too short for the solar year, a month of varying length (mgnsis intercalaris) was inserted every other year after February 23, the rest of February being omitted. 1008. The Julian calendar, as reformed by Julius and Augustus Caesar, had 365 days, divided into months as at present, February having 29 days every fourth year. The Julian calendar remained unchanged till the adoption of the Gregorian calendar, A.n. 1582, which omits leap year three times in every four hundred years. 359 36o THE ROMAN CALENDAR 1009. The names of the months, used as mascuUne or fem- inine adjectives, were as follows : lanuarius, -a, (-um) Maius, -a, (-um) September, -bris, (-bre) Februarius, -a, (-um) lunius, -a, (-um) October, -bris, (-bre) Martius, -a, (-um) Quintilis, (-e) November, -bris, (-bre) Aprilis, (-e) Sextilis, (-e) December, -bris, (-bre) The year was formerly regarded as beginning with March, which made July the fifth (quintilis) month, August the sixth (sextilis), etc. The month Quintilis was later called lulius in honor of Julius Caesar, and Sextilis was called Augustus in honor of the emperor Augustus. 1010. Dates were reckoned from three points in the month, namely, the Calends (Kalendae, -arum, f.), the first day of the month ; the Nones (Nonae, -arum, f.), the fifth day ; and the Ides (idus, iduum, f.), the thirteenth. * However, in March, May, July, and October the Nones fell on the seventh day, and the Ides on the fifteenth. Kalendae Nonae Idus Kalendae ^ I I r ^1 I I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 lo r I 12 13 14 15 i6 ... 27 28 29 30 31 i An event occurring at any one of these points was said to occur on the Calends, on the Nones, or on the Ides, and the date was expressed by the simple ablative of time. The noun denoting the date was modified by the adjective representing the month in question. Kalendis Februariis, on the first of February Nonis Aprilibus, on the fifth of April Nonis Octobribus, on the seventh of October idibus lanuariis, 07i the thirteenth of January idibus Martiis, on the fifteenth of March a. From the Calends, Nones, and Ides the dates in the month were reckoned backwards. The date immediately preceding any one of them THE ROMAN CALENDAR 361 was expressed by the word pridifi, used as a preposition followed by the accusatives Kalendas, NOnis, Idas, modified by the adjective form of the word denoting the month. prldie Kalendas Februarias, the thiriy-Jirst of January pridie Nonas lanuarias, the fourth of January pridie Idus Martias, the fourteenth of March pridie Idus Septembres, the twelfth of September b. The dates intervening between any two points were counted as so many days before the second point. The Romans, however, in reckoning a series, counted both extremes; for exaifiple, the eleventh day of April was counted as the thin^ day before the Ides (that is, the thirteenth), the tenth of April as the fourth day before the Ides. And in counting back from the Calends to a date in the preceding month the Calends were included ; thus a Roman would say that there are four days from August 29 to September i (of. § \012.d). In expressing dates the phrase ante diem (translated the day before) was used with the accusatives Kalendas, N6nas, Idus, the word diem being modified by the proper ordinal numeral. ante diem quirtum Kalendas SeptembrSs, the fourth day before the Calends of September {A Ui^nst 2g) ante diem quartum Kalendas OctdbrSs, the fourth day before the Calends of October {September 2S) ante diem sextum IdQs Martias, the sixth day before the Jdes of March (Afarch JO) ante diem quintum N5nas Maias, the fifth day before the Nones of May {May J) Note i . These expressions were generally abbreviated as follows : a.d. IV. Kal. Sept. or IV. Kal. Sept. a.d. VI. id. Mart, or VI. id. Mart, a. d. V. Ndn. MaUa or V. Non. Maifta Note 2. The phrase ante diem probably originated thus : the ablative form denoting time when (followed by ante), as, di5 tertio ante etc.. came to be written after ante instead of before it ; subsequently ante diS tertifi became ante diem tertium, as if the noun were governed by ante. 362 THE ROMAN CALENDAR c. The whole expression denoting a date was sometimes treated as a single substantive governed by a preposition. in a. d, V. Kal. Nov., to the fifth day before the Calends of November {October 28) opus contulit in ante diem III. Id. Oct., he postponed the ivork to the third day before the Ides of October {October ij) 1011. To find the equivalent in English for a date given in Latin, observe the following rule : If the, given Latin date is counted from the Calends, add two to the number of days in the preceding month, and from the number thus ascertained subtract the given date ; if from the Nones or the Ides, add o?ie to the day on which they fall, and from the number thus ascertained subtract the given date. a. d. VI. Kal. Ian. (31 + 2 — 6), December 27 a. d. V. Non. Oct. (7 + i — 5), October j a. d. III. id. Apr. (13 + i — 3), April 11 1012. To express an English date in Latin observe the following rules : fl. If the date is that on which the Calends, Nones, or Ides respec- tively fall, use the simple ablative of time (Kalendis, Nonis, or Idibus) modified by the adjective representing the month in question (cf. § loio). h. If the date immediately precedes the Calends, Nones, or Ides, use pridig followed by the accusative Kalendas, Nonas, or Idus, as the case may be, and the adjective form of the word denoting the month (cf . § i o i o. «). c. If the date falls between the first and the fourth (or the sixth of March, May, July, or October), subtract one from the English date, and subtract this remainder from the date on which the Nones fall. The num- ber thus obtained (usually preceded by ante diem or a.d.) followed by Nonas or Non. and the name of the month will be the expression desired. If the date falls between the fifth and twelfth (or the seventh and fourteenth of March, May, July, or October), follow the rule above, substituting the Ides for the Nones (cf. § loio. ^). THE ROMAN CALENDAR 363 d. If the date is later than the thirteenth (or fifteenth of March, May, July, or October), subtract t^vo from the English date, and sub- tract this remainder from the number of days in the month. The number thus obtained (usually preceded by ante diem or a. d.) followed by Kalendfts or Kal. and the name of the fuxi month ^will be the expression desired (cf . § 1010. /^). ABBREVIATIONS abl. = ablative abs. = absolute ace. = accusative act. = active adj. = adjective adv. = adverb a/p. = appositive attrib. = attributive cf. (confer) = compare el. = clause cotN/>. = composition com/a?: = comparison comps. = compounds conj. = conjugation eofis. = consonant cotisir. = construction dai. = dative deel. = declension defect. = defective descript. = descriptive dir. = direct fem. = feminine ^. = and following ftn. = footnote f/f. = future gen. = genitive id. (idem) = the same impers. — impersonal imv. = imperative ind. disc. = indirect dis- course ifid. quest. = indirect question indecl. = indeclinable indie. = indicative inf. = infinitive interrog. = interrogative inirans. =: intransitive loc. = locative masc. = masculine N. = Note neg. = negative nettt. = neuter nam. = nominative obf = object part. = participle pass. = passive Perf. = perfect pers. = personal p/ur. = plural poss. = possessive pred. = predicate prep. = preposition pj-es. = present Pfin. = principal pron. = pronoun quest. = question rt/. = relative sing. = singular subj. = subject subjz'. = subjunctive subord. = subordinate siibst. = substantive superl. = superlative trans. — transitive vb. = verb voc. = vocative w. = with Other abbreviations need no explanation. When only the last article in a reference group needs to be consulted, the parts of the group are separated by periods ; otherwise commas are used. 364 INDEX a. sound, 1 4 ; quantity of final, 959 8, weakened to e or i, 44. a, if\ ace. of Greek nouns in, 1 1 1 . ^ a, distinguishing vowel in decl. 1, 75 ; in fern. Greek nouns, decl. I, 81 ; inconj. I, 210, 220. a, 229. a. I, 289 ; in fut. indie, 229. ^; in pres. subjv., 233. a a (ab, abs), general use, 277. a; as prefix, 294. a ; in comps. w. dat. of reference expressing separa- tion, 389 ; w. ^bl. of separation, 440. a ; w. abl. of place whence, 441 ; w. names of towns, 442. a ; expressing position, 445 ; w. gerund and gerundive, 879 a dextra, a fronte, d tergO, etc., 445. a a-declension, 77-81 Abbreviations of praenomina, 134. a abhinc, w. ace, 425 ; w. abl., 477 Ablative case, defined, 74 Forms : abl. in -abus, 80. e ; of i-stems, decl. Ill, 100, 103, 105; list of nouns having -i or -i and -e in abl. sing., 102. d, c, (/; abl. in -ubus, decl. IV, \2\.c\ in -ud, early Latin, id. /: abl. of adjs., decl. Ill, 145. 148. a; of pres. parts., 149; of pers. prons.. 180. by d\ of rd. prons., qui, quia, 193. ; in poetiy, id. c ; w. pass. vbs. meaning to put on, id. d; w. impers. vbs., 407; w. pass, periphrastic, 860. b Kindred meaning, 408 ; w. vbs. of taste and smell, 409 ; ad- verbial use w. neut. prons. and adjs., 410, 41 1 Two accusatives, dir. obj. and secondary obj., 41 2-4 r 5 ; vbs. of asking Av. abl., 414; constr. w. pass, of rog6, doced, etc., 415 Two accusatives, dir. obj. and adjunct ace, 4 1 6-4 1 8 ; constr. in pass., 418 Subjectofinf •"• x^o.'^^7^ ''^ Extent and duration, 420-426 ; w. natus, 422. a; w. per or the abl., 423 ; w. abhinc, 425 ; expressing degree, 426 Respect (Greek ace), 427; quod cl. as ace. of respect, 824 Place whither, 428-435 ; names of towns, domus, riis, 430, 433 ; ad w. names of towns, 43 1 ; ad urbem R5mam, 432 ; in poetry, 434 ; supine, 435, 882.1 K.xclamation, 436,437 Adverbial, 438 In ind. disc., 839, 887. I. a Gerund and gerundive, 878 Supine, 882. I Accusing, condemning, acquitting, vbs. of, w. gen., 336 acer, decl., 146; compar., 155 -aceus, adj. suffix, 285. c acigs, deck, 125. ?>7. 1 Declension, defined, 60 ; distinguish- ing vowels, 75; base, 75. «; general rules, ^6 Declension of adjectives, 138 ; decls. I-II, 139-143; decl. Ill, 144- 148; of comparatives, 150 INDEX 377 Declension of nouns, 73, 74 ; decl. I, 77-81 ; decl. II, 82-89; decl. Ill, 90-1 16; decl. IV, 1 17-121 ; decl. V, 122-125 Declension of present participles, 149 Defective comparison, 160 Defective nouns, of decl. IV', 121.^; of decl. V, 1 25. a ; used in sing, only, 126; used in plur. only, 1 27 ; used in certain cases only, 128 Defective verbs, 262-265 Definite perfect, 658. I; sequence after, 699 Definitive cum, 750 dgfit. 261. t Degree of an action or quality ex- pressed by ace, 426 Degrees of comparison, 153 deinde, in enumerations, 591. a dglectO, w. ace, 376. a Deliberative subjunctive, 678 ; in ind. quests., 816; in ind. disc., 887. II. rf D6I0S. decl., 89 Demonstrative pronouns and adjec- tives, defined, 185 Forms: declension, 188- 191 Syntax: used as pers. pron. of third person, 531 ; agreement, 532; hie, 533, 534; i«te, 535, 536; ille, 537-539; is. 540- 542 : omission of that in that of, 544: idem, 545-547; normal position, 91 8 ; emphatic position, 934-^ dSmum, position, 923 denique, in enumerations, 591. a\ position, 923 Denominative verbs, 289 Dentals, 7. b Dependent clauses, kinds, 709 ; indie. or subjv. in, 710 ff. Deponent verbs, defined, 204. a ; conjugated, 247 ; act. forms, id. ; forms pass, in meaning, id. ; semi-deponents, 248 Deprivation, vbs. of, abl. w., 440 Derivation, of nouns, 282-284; of adjectives, 285-288 ; of verbs, 289, 290 Description or characteristic, subjv. • of, 726-730; cum clauses of, 753-755 Description or quality, gen. of, 338 ; abl. of, 466 Descriptive, past, 652-654 Descriptive adj. instead of objective gen., 355 Descriptive cum, 753 Desiderative verbs (in -uri5), 290. d Desire, adjs. of, w.gen., 357 deterior, compar., 1 60. a deus. decl., 88. g dextrd, abl. without prep., 485. a di-, see dis- Diaeresis, 987 Diastole. 990 die, prcs. imv,, 235. plQs, decl., 151; compar., 158, 274 ; as acx:. of degree, 426. N. i ; without quam, 450 ponds, defect., 1 28. b p5n5, w. abl., 490 per-, prefix, 294. b porticus. gender, 1 20 poscO, w. two aces., 413. N. ; w. ace. and abl,, 414. N. Position, expressed by ab or ex, 445 ; syllable long by, 967, 991 Possession, expressed by gen., 328 ; by dat., 390 ; by habeo, 391 Possessive genitive, 328 ; in pred., 330» 833- '' ; dat. of reference used instead, 385 Possessive pronouns and adjectives Forms, 184; mi, voc. of meus, id. b\ emphatic forms in -pte, id.r Syntax : used for poss. gen., 329 ; for objective gen., 355 ; agree- ment, 525 ; omitted, 526; used substantively, 528; w. gen. in apposition, 529; normal posi- tion, 919; emphatic position, 934. ^/, g Possibility, vbs. of, in conclusion of conditions contrary to fact, 797. a possum, conj., 254; in conclusion of conditions contrary to fact, 797.^ post, adv., w. abl. of measure of dif- ference, 477 ; w. quam, 747 poet, prep., use, 276; as prefix, 294. a; in comps. w. dat., 382 postefl, in enumerations, 591. <2 posterns, compar., 1 59 ; meaning in plur., id. a Postpositive conjunctions, 924 postquam (poateaquam), in temporal clauses, 745, 747, 748 ; w. clause instead of past act. part., 852 postrgmS, in enumerations, 591. a postrgmus, last part t?/*, 510 postridig, w. gen., 343. N. postulO, w. ace. and abl., 414. N. Potential subjunctive, 684; force of tenses, 685 ; in softened asser- tions, 686. a ; of vbs. of saying, believing, etc., id. b\ denoting possibility, id. r ; as conclusion of condition, 687 potior, adj., compar., 160. a potior, vb., w. gen., 366 ; w. abl., 469. a ; w. ace, id. N. 2 ; w. gerund or gerundive, 880. c. N. potis, in early Latin, 1 60. ^. I potius. compar., 274 potui, w. pres. inf., 829; w. perf. inf., id. N. prae, use, 277 ; as prefix, 294. a ; in comps. w. dat., 382 ; to express a preventing cause, 465 praecMO, constr. after, 382. a praeceps, decl., 148. « Praenomina and their abbreviations, 1 34. a praesgns, 241. ^ praeter, use, 276 ; as prefix, 294. a ; in comps. w. ace, 406. b preci, decl., p. 46 Predicate, defined, 297; pred. use of part., 861 Predicate or adjunct accusative, 4 1 6, 417; becomes pred. nom. in pass., 418 398 INDEX Predicate adjective, defined, 496, c ; vb. omitted, id. N.; agreement, 497, 502. I. a, id. 2. /^, N. I ; in ace. or dat., 834. a ; after com- plementary inf., 838 Predicate genitive, 330 Predicate noun, defined, 305 ; agree- ment, 306-308 ; vbs. used w., 309; rel. agreeing w., 553 ; re- sult cl. as, after mos est, iiis est, etc., 74 1 ; in ace. or dat., 834. a ; inf. used as pred. noun, 835 ; pred. noun after inf., 838 Prefixes, 294 ; separable, id. a ; in- separable, id. b Prepositions, assimilation of, 52, 53. N. ; derivation of, 275 ; w. ace, 276; w. abl.,277; w.eith'er, 278; in comps., 294; noun w. prep, instead of obj. gen., 355 ; in comps. w. dat., 382-384 ; in comps. of vbs, of motion, 406. b\ w. ace. of place whither, 428, 429; omitted, 430, 434; w. gerund and gerundive, 878, 879; position, 917, 925; fol- lowing their case, 925. (^ Present conditions, non-committal, 785 ; contrary to fact, 786 Present indicative, formation, 229.^; general use, 647; historical pres., 648 ; pres. w. dum, id. a ; cona- tive pres., 649 ; pres. w. iam diii, etc., 650 ; annalistic pres., 65 1 ; pres. used for fut., 657 Present infinitive, formation, act. and pass., 237. « : w. debui, oportuit, etc., 829 ; expressing past time in ind. disc, 830; posse w. fut. meaning, 887. I. i^. N. i Present participle, dec!., 149; forma- tion, 240.^; general use, 847.^; denoting attempted action, 849; pres. pass, part., how supplied, 851 ; pres. part, as attrib. adj., 855 ; used for phrase or clause, 861 ; w. video, audio, etc., for inf., 864 Present perfect, see Perfect tense Present stem, formation, 219-221 Present subjunctive after a second- ary tense, 702 Present system, 209. I Preventing, vbs. of, constr. after, 720. Ill Price or value, abl. of, 470 ; gen. of, 471 ; constr. w. muto, 472 ; w. vbs. of condemning, 473 pridie, w. gen., 343- N. Primary tenses, of indie, 692 ; of subjv., 693 primo, primum, 591 primus, compar., i6o.«; meaning begimiiiig o/] 510 Principal clause, defined, 300; in ind. disc, 887 Principal parts, act., 212; pass., 213; fist of, 267 prior, compar., 160. a priusquam and antequam, in tem- poral clauses, 7S7-7^^ pro, use, 277 ; pro, prod-, as prefix, 294. « prodeo, conj., 259. ^ prohibeo, constr. after, 720. Ill, a Prohibitions, expressed by jussive subjv., 675 ; by noli, 676. a ; by cave (cave ne), fac ne, id. b ; by imv., 689, 690; in ind. disc, 887. III. « INDEX 399 Pronominal adjectives, 202; alius and alter, 578-580; caeri,58i ; reliqui, 582 Pronouns, classified, 177 Fonns : personal, 179, 180; re- flexive, 1 8 1 - 1 83 ; possessive, 184; demonstrative, 185-191 ; intensive, 192; relative, 193, 1 94 ; interrogative, 1 95- 1 99 ; indefinite, 200 ; pronominal adjs., 202 ; contained in verb ending, 215 Syntax : personal, 5 1 1 -5 1 4 ; re- flexive, 515-524; possessive 525-529; demonstrative, 530- 547; intensive, 548-550; rela- tive, 551-565; interrogative, 566-568; indefinite, 569-577; pronominal adjs., 578-582; position, 918-922 Pronunciation, vowels, 14; diph- thongs, 15; consonants, 16; ph, th, ch, 1 7 ; comps. of iaci5, 19; doubled consonants, 20 prope, adv., compar., 274 prope. prep., use, 276 Proper names, plur. of, 1 26.^? ; names of citizens, 134; of women, 135 ; of slaves, 136 propinquus, compar., 160.^: propior, compar., 1 60. a\ constr. after, 401 propius, compar., 274 ; constr. after, 401 proprius. w. gen., 351 ; w. dat, 397 Prosody, see Meters and verse forms pr5sum. conj., 253 Proviso, expressed by rel. cl., 730. II. N. ; w. dum, mode, etc., 811 proximS, compar., 274 ; constr. after, 401 proximus, compar., 160. a; constr. after, 397. N., 401 -pte (enclitic), 1 84. c pubSs, decl., 148, b pudet, impers., 266; constr. after, 363, 364 puer. decl., 85 pulcher, decl., 142; compar., 155 puppis, decl., 102.^: Purpose, adverbial clauses of, 713; inserted parenthetically, 714; rel. clauses of, 715-718; w. dignus, etc., 717; w. quo, 718; substantive clauses of, 719-725; object clauses of, w. vbs. of ad- vising, etc., 720. 1 ; omission of ut, id. //, 722 ; object, w. vbs. of fearing, 720. II ; w. vbs. of hin- dering, etc., id. Ill ; w. vbs. of doubting, id. IV; subject clauses of, w. pass, vbs., 721 ; w. licet, etc., 722; w. reliquum est, etc., 723 ; appositive clauses of, 724 ; purpose expressed by inf., 720. d, 842 ; by fut. part., 868, 869 ; by gerund and gerundive, 875, 878 ; by supine, 882. I ; conspectus of purpose construc- tions, p. 325, ftn. Purpose or end, dat. of, 395 putfi. quantity of a, 959 Putting on, vbs. of, constr. after. 406. d qu, 8U, gu, sound of, before a vowel, 16, 954. N. quaerd. w. ab. ex, or de, 414. N. ; w. subjv., 813 400 INDEX quaeso, defect, 265.^ qualis, decl., 199; use, 568 Quality, gen. of, 338 ; abl. of, 466 quam, in comparison, 446 ; w. two comparatives, 508 ; w, superla- tive, 509 ; quam ut, quam qui, w.subjv., 733 quamquam, although^ 806 ; andyet, 807 quamvis, use, 809 quando, interrog,, 625 ; causal, 769 quanti, gen. of value and price, 34i.N.,« Quantity, defined, marks of , 25, 95 1 ; of syllables, 27-32, 966-969; of vowels, 33, 34, 953-965 ; in final syllables, 956-965 quanto . . . tanto, denoting measure of difference, 476 quantum, as ace. of degree, 426. N. i quantus, 5 68 quasi, w. primary tenses of subjv., 803 quasso, intensive, 290. b -que, enclitic, 601 ; -que . . . -que, 604; in enumerations, 605 que5, conj., 260 Questions and answers, 620-630; real questions, 620. a ; rhetori- cal, id. b ; direct, 62 1 . «; indirect, id. b ; " yes " or " no," 623, 624; questions of detail or circum- stance, 625, 626; alternative, 627, 628 ; answers, 629, 630 ; exclamatory questions, w. ut and subjv., 843. a ; questions in ind. disc, 887.11 qui, abl., 193.^, 201 qui, indefinite, 200 ; decl., id. b qui, interrogative, 197 qui, relative, see Relative pronouns quia, causal conj., 768 ; non quia, 770 quicquam, as ace. of degree, 426. N. i quicum, 193.^ quicumque, decl., 194. « quidanijdecl., 200, 6"; use, 572 ; mean- ing a sort of, id. a ; intensive, id.N. quidem, use, 592 ; ne . . . quidem, id. a ; equidem, id. N. ; position of quidem, 923 quilibet, 200 quin, w. vbs. of hindering, etc., 720. Ill ; w. negatived vbs. of doubt, id. IV ; nulla causa est quin, 725 ; for qui non, 728 ; facere non possum quin, 735. N. quippe, w. rel. cl. of cause, 730. 1 Quirites, decl., 106. d quis, qui, indefinite, 200 ; decl., id. ^; early forms, id./; use, 570 quis, qui, interrogative, decl., 196; early forms, 197. b ; w. cum en- clitic, id. c\ emphatic forms, id. ^; use, 566; quis est qui, w. subjv., 727 quis, for quibus, 1 93. b quispiam, 200, d quisquam, 200; decl.,id.^; use, 573; used for quis, id. N. quisque, decl., 200; use, 576; w. iinus, id. c ; position, 920 quisquis, 1 94. /^ quivis, decl., 200 quo, of early Latin, changed to cu, \2.b quo, by ivhich, in cl. of purpose, 718; quo minus w. vbs. of hindering, 720. Ill ; non qu5 in causal cl., 770 quo, whither, in cl. of purpose, 7 r 6 INDEX 401 qn5 . . . eC, denoting measure of dif- ference, 476 quoad. 2.f tussis, decl., 102 tute, tutemet, 1 80, ^ Two accusatives, dir. obj, and sec- ondary obj., 412-415 ; dir. obj. and adjunct ace, 416-418 Two datives, 395 U (v), 2. b ; for earlier 0, 1 2. a-c ; changed to i, id. ^; sound, 14; as a cons, after g, q, s, and in verse, 16, 954. N., 991 ; suffix of perf., 223. r; quantity when final, 963 U-stems, decl. IV, 11 7-1 21 uber, decl., 148. b. N. ubi, used as a noun, 586; in pur- pose cl., 716 ; in result cl., 735 ; in temporal cl., 745, 746, 748; in general condition, 800. a ubicumque, in temporal cl. express- ing general condition, 746, 800. <« -ubus, in dat. and abl. plur., decl. IV, 121. c -ud, in abl. sing., decl. IV, i2\.f ui, diphthong, sound, 1 5 -uis (uos), in gen., decl. IV, 121. a uUus, decl., 143; use, 573 ulterior, compar., \6o.a ultimus, lasl part ^510 ultra, use, 276 -ulus, diminutive ending, 282.^; verbal adj. suffix, 287. b -um, for -arum, 80. d\ for -orum, 88.^; for -uum, \2\.b unde, in purpose cl., 716; in result cl., 735 Undertaking, vbs. of, w. fut. pass, part, expressing purpose, 869 unus, decl., 143; w. superl., 509; w. quisque, 576, ^ unus qui, w. subjv., 727 -uos, in gen., decl. IV, \2\.a urbs, decl., 107; in relations of place, 432, 443, 485 Urging, vbs. of, w. ut cl., 720. 1 us, final, quantity of, 965 -us, verbal noun suffix, 284. b usus est, w. abl., 469. b ut (uti), w. optative subjv., 682 ; in clauses of purpose, 713; ut non for ne, id. <3; ; ut ne for ne, id. b ; w. parenthetic cl., 714; ut omitted, 720. I. ^,722; after vbs. of fearing, 720. II ; w. rel. cl. of cause, 730. I ; in clauses of result, 732, 736; in temporal clauses, 745, 746, 748 ; in gen- eral condition, 746, 800.^; in concessive clauses, 809 ut si, w. subjv., 803 utcumque, in temporal cl. expressing general condition, 746, 800, a uter, decl,, 143, 198; use, 567 uter, decl., 102.^ INDEX 409 uterque, use, 577 iitilis, w. dat. of gerund, 877 utinam. w. optative subjv., 681 ; uti or ut used instead, 682 fltor, w. abl., 469. a ; w. ace, id. N. 2 ; used impersonally in pass. periphrastic, 860. a ; gerund and gerundive use of, 880. c. N. utpote qui, 730. I utrum ... an, 627, d V, 2. ^; sound, 16; suffix of perf., 223.