D'OOGE 
 
 III 
 
 
«^^^.*— *-• — 
 
 GIFT OF 
 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 
 in 2008 with funding from 
 
 IVIicrosoft Corporation 
 
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CONCISE 
 LATIN GRAMMAR 
 
 BY 
 
 BENJAMIN L. D'OOGE, Ph.D. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF LATIN IN THE MICHIGAN STATE 
 NORMAL COLLEGE 
 
 Est modus in rebus, sunt certi denique fines — Horace 
 
 GJNN AND COMPANY 
 
 BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON 
 ATLANTA • DALLAS • COLUMBUS • SAN FRANCISCO 
 
COPYRIGHT, 1921, BY BENJAMIN L. D'OOGE 
 
 ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL 
 
 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 
 
 321. 1 
 
 <C6e igtbenicum 3Prc<< 
 
 GINN AND COMPANY • PRO- 
 PRIETORS • BOSTON • U.S.A. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The purpose of the author in preparing this book has been 
 to provide, in as concise a form as possible, a Latin grammar 
 which should be of equal service to the high-school pupil 
 and to the college undergraduate. To meet the needs of 
 the former the fundamental and essential facts of the language 
 have been stated as simply as possible and have been given 
 due prominence on an open page. Statements of secondary 
 importance appear in smaller type and all material that would 
 be confusing to the beginner has been relegated to footnotes, 
 and these have been reduced to a minimum. At the same time 
 the scope of the book is such as to include all that is needed 
 for translation of authors usually read in college. There is an 
 obvious advantage to the student in using the same grammar 
 throughout his Latin course. 
 
 The needs of the student have been made the guiding 
 principle in the treatment of the examples. These are 
 numerous and have been taken by preference from the 
 portions of Caesar, Cicero, and Vergil read in secondary 
 schools. Furthermore, they have been simplified when too 
 difficult for ready comprehension, without, however, destroying 
 their \^alidity. 
 
 In the matter of grammatical nomenclature a conservative 
 attitude has been taken, but such of the new terms have been 
 adopted as seem likely to win general acceptance. 
 
 Versification has been treated briefly and only the meters 
 used by Vergil and Ovid have been explained. Further treat- 
 ment is rendered superfluous by the fact that college texts 
 
 iii 
 
 459895 
 
iv PREFACE 
 
 of the lyric and dramatic poets now regularly include a detailed 
 discussion of the meters used by their authors. 
 
 Other features which, it is hoped, will meet with a favorable 
 reception are the introductory pages on the history of the Latin 
 language, the brief and practical discussion of the formation of 
 words, the paragraphs devoted to Roman names, the frequent 
 synopses of constructions in the syntax, and a treatment of 
 the Roman calendar somewhat fuller than is found in similar 
 manuals. The rules for the order of words depart in some 
 respects from doctrines previously held, and present the results, 
 as far as they seem well established, of recent investigations 
 in this field of research. 
 
 Grateful acknowledgment is due to Professor P. F. O'Brien, 
 of St. Mary's College, Winona, Minnesota, for his careful 
 revision of the proof and for many valuable suggestions and 
 much useful criticism. 
 
 BENJAMIN L. D'OOGE 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Thk Latin Language xiii 
 
 PART I. SOUNDS 
 
 The Alphabet i 
 
 Classification of Sounds 2 
 
 Orthography 3 
 
 Pronunciation 4 
 
 Syllables 5 
 
 Quantity 6 
 
 Quantity of Syllables 7 
 
 Quantity of Vowels 8 
 
 Accent 8 
 
 Phonetic Changes ..." 10 
 
 Changes in Vowels 10 
 
 Changes in Consonants 12 
 
 Vowel Gradation or Ablaut 13 
 
 PART IL FORMS 
 
 Parts of Speech 15 
 
 Inflections 15 
 
 Declension and Conjugation 15 
 
 Roots 15 
 
 Stems 16 
 
 Bases 16 
 
 Gender 16 
 
 Person 17 
 
 Number 18 
 
 V 
 
vi CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Nouns and their Declension i8 
 
 General Rules of Declension . 20 
 
 First Declension 20 
 
 Second Declension 23 
 
 Third Declension 27 
 
 Consonant Stems 27 
 
 I-Stems 32 
 
 Irregular Nouns 37 
 
 Greek Nouns 38 
 
 Rules of Gender 39 
 
 Fourth Declension 41 
 
 Fifth Declension 42 
 
 Defective Nouns 44 
 
 Variable Nouns 47 
 
 Names of Persons 49 
 
 Adjectives and their Declension 51 
 
 First and Second Declensions 51 
 
 Third Declension . 54 
 
 Comparison 60 
 
 Numerals 64 
 
 Pronouns AND their Declension 71 
 
 Personal Pronouns 71 
 
 Reflexive Pronouns 72 
 
 Possessive Pronominal Adjectives 73 
 
 Demonstrative Pronouns 74 
 
 The Intensive Pronoun 76 
 
 Relative Pronouns 76 
 
 Interrogative Pronouns 'j'j 
 
 Indefinite Pronouns 78 
 
 Conjugation of Verbs . 80 
 
 Conjugation 80 
 
 The Three Tense Systems 81 
 
 Principal Parts 83 
 
 Personal Endings 84 
 
 Formation of the Verb Stems 85 
 
 Formation of the Moods and Tenses ........ 90 
 
CONTENTS vii 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Formation of the Non-Modal Verb Forms 94 
 
 Conjugation of the Verb sum 96 
 
 Conjugation of the Regular Verbs 98 
 
 Verbs in -io of the Third Conjugation no 
 
 Deponent Verbs 112 
 
 The Periphrastic Conjugations 114 
 
 Irregular Verbs 115 
 
 Defective Verbs 125 
 
 Impersonal Verbs 127 
 
 List of Verbs 128 
 
 Particles 140 
 
 Adverbs 140 
 
 Prepositions 142 
 
 Conjunctions 144 
 
 Interjections 144 
 
 Formation of Words 145 
 
 Derivation of Nouns 145 
 
 Derivation of Adjectives 1 49 
 
 Derivation of Verbs 153 
 
 Compounds 154 
 
 PART III. SYNTAX 
 
 The Sentence. 157 
 
 Syntax of Nouns 160 
 
 Predicate Nouns 160 
 
 Appositives 161 
 
 Nominative Case 163 
 
 Vocative Case 164 
 
 Genitive Case 164 
 
 Possessive Genitive 166 
 
 Explanatory Genitive 168 
 
 Genitive of the Charge 1 68 
 
 Genitive of Description 1 68 
 
 Genitive of Measure 169 
 
viii CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Genitive of Indefinite Value . 169 
 
 Genitive of the Whole (Partitive Genitive) 1 69 
 
 Genitive of Material 171 
 
 Genitive with Verbs and Adjectives of Plenty or Want . . . 171 
 
 Genitive with Adjectives denoting Similarity or Connection . 172 
 
 Genitive with refert and interest 172 
 
 Genitive with Nouns expressing Action or Feeling . . . . 1 74 
 
 Genitive of Application 1 74 
 
 Genitive with Adjectives expressing Action or Feeling . . . 1 74 
 
 Genitive with Certain Verbs 175 
 
 Dative Case 177 
 
 Indirect Object with Transitive Verbs 1 78 
 
 Indirect Object with Intransitive Verbs 180 
 
 Indirect Object with Compound Verbs 182 
 
 Dative of Reference 183 
 
 Dative of Possession .185 
 
 Dative of Apparent Agent 185 
 
 Dative of Purpose 186 
 
 Dative with Adjectives 187 
 
 Accusative Case 188 
 
 Direct Object 189 
 
 Accusative of Kindred Meaning (Cognate Accusative) . . . 191 
 
 Direct Object and Secondary Object 192 
 
 Direct Object and Adjunct Accusative 193 
 
 Subject of an Infinitive 194 
 
 Accusative of Extent and Duration 194 
 
 Accusative of Respect 196 
 
 Accusative of the Place Whither . 1 96 
 
 Accusative of Exclamation 1 98 
 
 Idiomatic Uses . ' 1 98 
 
 Ablative Case 199 
 
 Uses of the True Ablative 1 99 
 
 Ablative of Separation 199 
 
 Ablative of the Place Whence 200 
 
 Ablative of Comparison 202 
 
 Ablative of Origin ......._ 203 
 
CONTENTS ix 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Ablative of Material 203 
 
 Ablative of Agent 204 
 
 Instrumental Uses of the Ablative 205 
 
 Ablative of Accompaniment 205 
 
 Ablative of Attendant Circumstance 205 
 
 Ablative of Accordance 205 
 
 Ablative of Manner 206 
 
 Ablative of Cause or Reason 206 
 
 Ablative of Description or Quality 207 
 
 Ablative of Means 208 
 
 Ablative of Price or Value 209 
 
 Ablative of the Way by Which 210 
 
 Ablative of the Measure of Difference 211 
 
 Ablative of Respect 211 
 
 Ablative Absolute 212 
 
 Locative Uses of the Ablative 214 
 
 Ablative of the Place Where 214 
 
 Ablative of Time 215 
 
 Syntax of Adjectives 217 
 
 Agreement 217 
 
 Adjectives used as Nouns 219 
 
 Adjectives used as Adverbs 220 
 
 Comparatives and Superlatives 221 
 
 Syntax of Pronouns 222 
 
 Personal Pronouns 222 
 
 Reflexive Pronouns and Adjectives 223 
 
 Possessive Pronominal Adjectives 225 
 
 Demonstrative Pronouns and Adjectives 226 
 
 The Intensive Pronoun ipse 229 
 
 Relative Pronouns and Adjectives 230 
 
 Interrogative Pronouns and Adjectives 233 
 
 Indefinite Pronouns and Adjectives 234 
 
 Pronominal Adjectives (alius, alter, ceteri, reliqui) 237 
 
 Syntax of Adverbs 238 
 
 Special Adverbs and their Uses 239 
 
 Negative Adverbs 24 1 
 
X CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Syntax of Conjunctions 242 
 
 Copulative Conjunctions 242 
 
 Disjunctive Conjunctions 244 
 
 Adversative Conjunctions 245 
 
 Causal Conjunctions 246 
 
 Inferential Conjunctions 247 
 
 Questions and Answers 247 
 
 Syntax of Verbs 251 
 
 Agreement 251 
 
 Moods and Tenses in Independent Sentences 253 
 
 Indicative Mood 253 
 
 Tenses of the Indicative 253 
 
 Subjunctive Mood 259 
 
 Tenses of the Subjunctive 259 
 
 Subjunctive in Independent Sentences 260 
 
 Volitive Subjunctive * 260 
 
 Optative Subjunctive 263 
 
 Potential Subjunctive 264 
 
 Imperative Mood 265 
 
 Moods and Tenses in Subordinate Clauses 266 
 
 Sequence of Tenses 266 
 
 Development of Subordinate Clauses 271 
 
 Subjunctive Clauses of Purpose 273 
 
 Adverbial Clauses of Purpose 273 
 
 Relative Clauses of Purpose 274 
 
 Substantive Clauses of Purpose 275 
 
 Subjunctive Clauses of Description or Characteristic . . . .279 
 
 Subjunctive Clauses of Consequence or Result 281 
 
 Adverbial Clauses of Result 282 
 
 Relative Clauses of Result 283 
 
 Substantive Clauses of Result 283 
 
 Temporal Clauses 285 
 
 Temporal Clauses with postquam, ubi, ut, etc 285 
 
 Temporal Clauses with cum 286 
 
 Cum Causal 288 
 
 Cum Concessive 289 
 
CONTENTS xi 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Temporal Clauses with antequam and priusquam .... 290 
 
 Temporal Clauses with dum, donee, quoad, and quam diu . . 292 
 
 Causal Clauses introduced by quod, quia, quoniam, and quand5 . 293 
 
 Conditional Sentences 295 
 
 Conditional Clauses of Comparison 304 
 
 Concessive Clauses 304 
 
 Clauses of Proviso 306 
 
 Indirect Questions 306 
 
 Quod Clauses of Fact 308 
 
 Verbal Nouns and Adjectives 310 
 
 Infinitive 310 
 
 Participles 317 
 
 (ierund and Gerundive 322 
 
 Supine 325 
 
 Indirect Discourse 326 
 
 Principal Clauses 327 
 
 Subordinate Clauses 329 
 
 Conditional Sentences 332 
 
 Implied Indirect Discourse 334 
 
 Subjunctive by Attraction 334 
 
 The Order of Words 335 
 
 PART IV. VERSIFICATION 
 
 Quantity 347 
 
 Meters and Verse For.ms 351 
 
 Dactylic Verse 355 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 The Roman Calendar 359 
 
 Index 365 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 THE LATIN LANGUAGE 
 
 The Italic Dialects. Latin, the language of the Latins, is 
 one of several closely related dialects that constitute the Italic 
 branch of the Indo-European parent speech. Some of these 
 dialects, particularly the Umbrian and the Oscan, were origi- 
 nally more important and more widely extended than Latin ; but 
 in time the political supremacy of Rome, the chief town of the 
 latins, made Latin the language not only of all Italy but of 
 most of the Roman world. 
 
 Ancient Latium. The Latins inhabited Latium, originally 
 an area of about twenty-five square miles at the mouth of the 
 Tiber. By about 300 B.C., however, Rome had so broadened 
 her sway that Latium included the region from a little above 
 the mouth of the Tiber on the north to Sinuessa on the south, 
 and extended inland to the first main chain of the Apennines. 
 Yet even in this small district some of the subjugated tribes con- 
 tinued to use their native dialects for at least a century longer, 
 though Latin was the official language. 
 
 Periods of Latin. No living language is ever stationary, 
 and Latin underwent many changes in the course of its long 
 history. We may distinguish the following six periods : 
 
 1. Preliterary Latin, from the earliest times to the begin- 
 nings of literature at Rome (about 240 b.c). 
 
 2. Early Latin, from the beginnings of literature to the date 
 of Cicero's first extant oration (240-81 e.g.). 
 
 This period includes such writers as Livius Andronicus, 
 Naevius, Gato the Elder, Plautus, and Terence. 
 
xiv INTRODUCTION 
 
 3. Classical Latin, or the Latin of the Golden Age, from 
 Cicero's first extant oration to the death of Augustus (81 b.c. 
 -A.D. 14). 
 
 This period includes most of the authors read at school 
 and college. 
 
 4. Latin of the Silver Age, from the death of Augustus 
 (A.D. 14) to about A.D. 170. 
 
 This period includes such authors as Phaedrus, Seneca, 
 Pliny the Elder, Pliny the Younger, Tacitus, Ouintilian, Juvenal, 
 Persius, and Martial. 
 
 5. Late Latin, from about a.d. 170 to the fall of the 
 Western Empire in a.d. 476. 
 
 6. Medieval Latin, a general term applied to the Latin of 
 the Middle Ages. 
 
 Development of Latin. A study of the development of 
 Latin during these six periods is naturally based on surviving 
 specimens of the language itself. Its earliest remains are in 
 the form of inscriptions. The oldest inscription on metal is 
 that on the golden fibula of Praeneste ; the oldest on stone 
 is that found in 1899, carved on the four sides of a rectan- 
 gular pillar of tufa lying about five feet below the pavement 
 of the Roman Forum. Both are believed to be earlier than 
 the fifth century b.c. Specimens of Latin earlier than the 
 third century e.g. are exceedingly scanty, but soon after that 
 time they become more numerous, and, after the earliest writers 
 begin their labors (240 b.c), materials are not lacking for 
 constructing a history of the language. , 
 
 Language rarely has a regular and uniform growth. There 
 are many influences that may affect its character and determine 
 its course of development. Chief among these are long and 
 intimate association with a foreign tongue, the political supe- 
 riority or inferiority of the people using the language, the 
 degree of culture which they possess, and the use to which 
 
INTRODUCTION xv 
 
 the language is put. How these influences affected the Latin 
 language is briefly discussed in the following sections : 
 
 I. Popular Latin and Literary Latin. Preliterary Latin 
 (prisca Latinitas), the language of early Latium, was spoken 
 with comparatively little difference by all classes of society ; 
 but with the birth of literature a distinction began. The speech 
 of the common people (sermo plebeius) continued free and 
 untrammeled, but the language of the literary classes was arti- 
 ficially developed on Greek models. The best examples of 
 early popular Latin are found in the plays of Plautus, repre- 
 senting, as they do, the life of the common people. A ruder 
 form of popular speech was that used in the country districts, 
 hence called lingua rustica. On this Cato^s " De Agri Cultura " 
 is our only source of information. The development of Latin 
 during the first two periods, then, may be represented by the 
 diagram below : 
 
 Literary Latin 
 
 Preliterary Latin 
 
 Prisca Latinitas \ Sermo plebeius 
 
 Popular Latin / 
 
 \ Lingua riistica 
 
 As time went on the difference between the popular and 
 literary forms of expression became greater and greater, in 
 spite of the fact that the influence of the cultivated language 
 filtered down through the lower grades of society and that, on 
 the other hand, many plebeian forms and constructions found 
 their way into cultivated speech. By the beginning of the 
 classical period, literary Latin, now known as the sermC urbanus, 
 had become so polished and formal, and had suffered such 
 proportionate loss of vitality, and the sermS plebeius had diverged 
 so far from the recognized standard, that there developed 
 between the two a sort of compromise known as the sermS coti- 
 dianus, which provided a free and easy means of comrhunication 
 
XVI INTRODUCTION 
 
 among all classes, and which even the educated doubtless 
 used among intimates. Cicero's letters are the best example 
 of the sermo cotidianus of the upper classes of his day, and the 
 " Cena Trimalchionis " of Petronius of the period preceding 
 Hadrian (a.d. 117). Further, along with the three varieties of 
 Latin used at Rome as described above, probably the lingua 
 rustica was still spoken in the country districts. These forms of 
 speech continued to develop more or less independently until 
 the close of the fifth period, marked by the downfall of the 
 Western Empire (a.d. 476). With the end of literary activity at 
 Rome, literary Latin disappeared, and all the forms of speech 
 merged in one, sometimes called the lingua Romana, which was 
 the common means of communication throughout the Western 
 world until the rise of the modern languages. The following 
 diagram roughly indicates the course of the development of 
 Latin from the beginning of the classical period (81 b.c.) to 
 the close of the seventh century of our era : 
 
 Literary Latin SermS urbanus 
 
 Sermo cotidianus 
 
 \ 
 
 Popular Latin 
 
 < 
 
 Latin unity after a. d. 476 
 Sermo plebeius y j Lingua R5mana 
 
 Lingua rustica 
 
 II. Proviiicial Latin, Rome always imposed her speech as 
 well as her customs upon the nations which she subjugated, 
 and Latin was the official language of the provinces. The 
 Romans dwelling in the provinces were, as a rule, not of the 
 cultivated classes, but soldiers and traders, speaking popular 
 Latin, that is, the sermO plebeius or lingua rustica. And it was 
 from these that the native inhabitants learned Latin. Since 
 popular Latin was constantly changing, provinces which were 
 
INTRODUCTION xvri 
 
 acquired at different times learned different kinds of Latin 
 from the conquerors. For example, the Latin brought to Gaul 
 by Caesar's legions in the years 58-50 b.c. differed much from 
 that brought to North Africa a century earlier by the soldiers 
 of the younger Scipio. Another factor that caused variation 
 was the difference in the native substratum. Latin spoken by a 
 Gaul would, of course, not be quite the same as that spoken 
 by a Spaniard or a German. Hence the Latin of the provinces 
 was by no means homogeneous, but there was an increasing 
 divergence from the accepted standard, especially in forms, 
 vocabulary, and pronunciation. 
 
 III. The Romatice Languages. It was the progressive de- 
 velopment of the variations in provincial Latin that led in 
 time to the formation of a number of different languages, 
 which, because of their origin in the lingua Romana, are known 
 as the Romance languages. Of these the most important are 
 Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and French. The process of 
 development was slow and gradual, and for several centuries 
 these provincial languages, though differing in minor points, 
 remained substantially Latin. It is therefore impossible to 
 draw a sharp line of division between Latin and its descend- 
 ants. On practical grounds, however, such a line is convenient 
 and has been fixed at about a. d. 7CX). Consequently, at that 
 time we may say that Latin unity ceased and the Romance 
 languages began their independent existence. 
 
 Latin unity after a. d. 476 
 Lingua Romana 
 
XVlll 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 The following illustration, taken from Brunot's " Histoire 
 de la langue fran^aise," shows in a striking manner the un- 
 broken line of descent from classic Latin to modern French. 
 In the third column is shown the opening sentence of the 
 Oath of Strasburg, a.d. 842. In the other columns is given the 
 form which the words would have assumed at different periods.^ 
 
 Classic Latin 
 Per Dei amorem et 
 per christian! populi 
 et nostram communem 
 salutem, ab hac die, 
 quantum Deus scire et 
 posse mihi dat, servabo 
 hunc meum fratrem 
 Carolum. 
 
 Spoken Latin, Sev- 
 enth Century 
 
 Por deo amore et 
 por chrestyano pob(o)- 
 lo et nostro comune 
 salvamento, de esto die 
 en avante, en quanto 
 Deos sabere et podere 
 me donat, sic salvarayo 
 eo eccesto meon fradre 
 Karlo. 
 
 Actual Text of 
 Oath (a. d. 842) 
 
 Pro deo amur et 
 pro christian poblo et 
 nostro commun salva- 
 ment, dist di en avant, 
 in quant Deus savir et 
 podir me dunat, si 
 salvarai eo cist meon 
 fradre Karlo, 
 
 French, Eleventh 
 Century 
 
 Por dieu amor et 
 por del crestiien poeple 
 et nostre comun salve- 
 ment, de cest jorn en 
 avant, quant que Dieus 
 saveir et podeir me 
 donet, si salverai jo cest 
 mien fredre Charlon. 
 
 French, Fifteenth 
 Century 
 
 Pour I'amour Dieu 
 et pour le sauvement du 
 chrestien peuple et le 
 nostre commun, de cest 
 jour en avant, quant 
 que Dieu savoir et pou- 
 voir me done, si sau- 
 verai je cest mien frere 
 Charle. 
 
 Modern French 
 Pour I'amour de 
 Dieu et pour le salut 
 commun du peuple 
 Chretien et le n6tre, k 
 partir de ce jour, autant 
 que Dieu m'en donne 
 le savoir et le pouvoir, 
 je soutiendrai mon fr^re 
 Charles. • 
 
 1 The " classic Latin " and " spoken Latin " are, of course, mere attempts 
 to turn the words of the Oath into the earlier language without regard to 
 differences of idiom. 
 
LATIN GRAMMAR 
 
 1. Latin Grammar treats of the principles and usages of the 
 Latin language. In this book the discussion is limited mainly 
 to the Classical Period or Golden Age (8i b.c.-a.d. 14), and 
 comprises four parts : Sounds, Forms, Syntax, and Versification. 
 
 PART I. SOUNDS 
 
 THE ALPHABET 
 
 2. The Latin alphabet is the same as the English except 
 that it lacks the characters j, u, and w. 
 
 The Latin alphabet is derived from a form of the Greek alphabet, 
 known as the Chalcidic, which was brought to Italy by Greek colonists 
 as early as the ninth century B.C. It originally consisted of capital 
 letters only. The small letters, or cursives, were not evolved until 
 the eighth century of our era. 
 
 a. C had originally the value of g, and retained that value in the 
 abbreviation C. for Gains and Cn. for Gnaeus. Later it was used to 
 express the sound of k, and k disappeared, except before a in a few 
 words : as, Kalendae, Karthago. 
 
 b. I and v were used both as vowels and as consonants. The 
 character j, 'representing consonant i, dates from the seventeenth 
 century, and the character u, representing vowel v, from the tenth. 
 
 In this book, u is used for vowel v, v for consonant v, and i is 
 used for both vowel and consonant i : as, iudicium, veniO, iuventus. 
 
 c. The Greek letters v {^upsi/on) and 1^ {zeta) were added to the 
 Latin alphabet as y and z in the first century b.c., and were used 
 only in words borrowed from Greek or in Greek proper names. 
 
2 ' y- %/ SOUNDS 
 
 ''classification of sounds 
 
 3. The sounds of language are either Vowels or Consonants. 
 In pronouncing a vowel, there is an uninterrupted flow of 
 
 vocal sound ; in pronouncing a consonant, the sound is more 
 or less obstructed. 
 
 4. The simple vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y. The remaining 
 letters represent consonants. 
 
 5. The diphthongs in common use are ae, oe, and au. 
 
 Eu and ui occur in a few words, and, in early Latin, ai, ei, oi, ou. 
 
 6. Consonants are either voiced {sonajit) or voiceless {surd). 
 Voiced consonants are pronounced with a vibration of the vocal 
 chords. Voiceless consonants lack this vibration. 
 
 Thus, d in den is voiced ; t in teji is voiceless. 
 
 a. The voiced consonants are b, d, g, consonant i, 1, m, n, r, v. 
 
 b. The voiceless consonants are c, f, h, k, p, q, s, t, x. 
 
 7. Consonants are divided, according to the organs deter- 
 mining their peculiar sound, into labials, dentals, and palatals. 
 
 a. Labials are pronounced with the lips : as, p, b, 
 
 b. Dentals (sometimes called Linguals) are pronounced with the tip 
 of the tongue touching or approaching the upper front teeth : as, t, d. 
 
 c. Palatals are pronounced with the upper surface of the tongue 
 touching or approaching the palate : as, k, g. 
 
 8. Consonants are classified, according to the way in which 
 the breath is used, as mutes, nasals, liquids, and spirants. 
 
 a. Mutes (speechless letters). In pronouncing a mute the breath, 
 as it passes through the mouth, is checked for an instant and then 
 allowed to escape explosively : as, p, t. 
 
 b. Nasals. In pronouncing a nasal the mouth is closed and the 
 breath passes through the nose : as, m, n. 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY 3 
 
 c. Liquids. In pronouncing a liquid the breath flows freely through 
 the mouth : as, 1, r. 
 
 d. Spirants or Fricatives. In pronouncing a spirant the breath 
 passes continuously through the mouth with audible friction : as, 8, f. 
 
 9. The vowels i and u when used as consonants (§ 2.b) so 
 far retain their vocalic character that they are called semivowels. 
 
 10. The following table shows the cortsonants classified ac- 
 cording to the preceding sections (§§ 6-9): 
 
 
 Lahial 
 
 Dental 
 
 Palatal 
 
 -. ^ [voiced 
 Mutes -^ . , 
 
 t voiceless 
 
 Nasals, voiced 
 
 Liquids, voiced 
 
 Spirants, voiceless 
 
 Semivowels, voiced 
 
 b 
 
 P 
 m 
 
 f 
 
 V 
 
 d 
 
 t 
 n 
 
 I r 
 s 
 
 g 
 
 c, k, q 
 
 n (before c, g, q) 
 
 h 
 
 consonant i 
 
 X (= cs) is called a double consonant. 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY 
 
 11. The spelling of Latin varied considerably at different 
 periods. Our knowledge rests mainly upon inscriptions for the 
 earlier periods ; and to this testimony is added, for the later 
 periods, the statements of the Latin grammarians. 
 
 12. The spelling of the first century of our era is fairly uni- 
 form, and is commonly used in modern editions of the classics. 
 Some of the most important changes from the earlier spelling 
 are the following : 
 
 a. After v or u an earlier was changed to u. Thus, earlier voltus, 
 servos, mortuos, became vultus, servus, mortuus. 
 
 b. Earlier quo became cu in the Augustan age, and this, in turn, 
 became quu in the second century of our era. The spelling quu is 
 
4 PRONUNCIATION 
 
 that adopted in most modem editions. Thus, earlier equos became 
 ecus, then equus ; sequontur became secuntur, then sequuntur. 
 
 Note. Earlier quom became cum, but did not change to quum till the 
 sixth century of our era. 
 
 c. Similarly, nguo was changed first to ngu, then to nguu. Thus, 
 original exstinguont became exstingunt, later exstinguunt. 
 
 d. Before labials u became i in the Augustan age. This change is 
 regular in unaccented syllables and occurs in some that are accented. 
 Thus, earlier maxumus, lacruma, fructubus, pontufex, lubet, became 
 maximus, lacrima, fructibus, pontifex, libet. 
 
 PRONUNCIATION 
 
 13. Latin, in the classical period, had approximately the 
 following sounds : 
 
 14. Sounds of the Vowels. 
 
 a as m father S as the first a in aha 
 
 e as ^ mfafe € as in pet 
 
 i as in machine i as in bit 
 
 5 as in botie 6 as in obey 
 
 u as 00 in boot u as mfull, or as oo mfoot 
 
 y between u and i (French // or German ii) 
 
 15. Sounds of the Diphthongs. In diphthongs (two-vowel 
 sounds) both vowels are heard in a single syllable. 
 
 ae as ai in aisle eu as e'ob (a short e followed by a 
 au as ou in out short u), almost like ew in new 
 
 ei as in eight ui as ob't (a short u followed by a 
 
 06 as oi in toil short i), almost like wi in will 
 
 16. Sounds of the Consonants. The consonants are pro- 
 nounced as in English, except that — 
 
 c is always like c in cat, never as in cent. 
 
 g is always like g in get, never as in gem. 
 
 i consonant is always like y in yes. 
 
 n before c, q, or g is like ng in sing (compare ?i in anchor). 
 
I 
 
 SYLLABLES 5 
 
 qu, gu, and sometimes su, before a vowel have the sounds of ^7v, 
 gWy and sw. Here u stands for consonant v and is not a vowel, 
 r is trilled as in French or Italian. 
 8 is like s in sea, never as in ease. 
 t is always like / in native, never as in nation. 
 V is like 7v in wine, never as in vine. 
 
 X has the value of two consonants (cs) and is like x in extract. 
 z medial is like dz in adze ; z initial probably like English z. 
 bs is like/j, and bt like//. 
 
 17. The Greek combinations ph, th, eh, known as aspirates, were 
 in that language equivalent to p, t, k, respectively, followed by a rough 
 breathing or aspirate h (as in up-hill, hot-house, i?ik-horn). In Latin 
 they are confined almost exclusively to words of Greek derivation, 
 and in the classical period were probably sounded like simple p, t, c. 
 
 18. Between consonant i and a preceding a, e, 0, or u a vowel i 
 was developed, thus producing diphthong ai, ei, etc., before the con- 
 sonant i. In such cases, however, but one i was written : as, aiO for 
 ai-i6, maius for mai-ius. 
 
 19. In compounds iaciO was spelled -iciO (not -iiciO) : as, coniciQ, 
 pronounced coniiciO (con-yidd, consonant i preceding vowel i). 
 
 20. Doubled letters, as tt, pp, 11, should be pronounced with a slight 
 pause between the two articulations. Thus, pronounce tt as in rat- 
 trap, not as in rattle ; pp as in hop-pole, not as in upper. 
 
 SYLLABLES 
 
 21. A Latin word has as many syllables as it has vowels and 
 diphthongs. Thus, aes-ta-te has three syllables, d6-lu-de-re has four. 
 
 22. Words are divided into syllables as follows : 
 
 a. A single consonant between two vowels is pronounced with the 
 following vowel : as, a-mfi-bi-lis, me-mo-ri-a, a-best, pe-r6-git. 
 
 Note. The combination qu is treated as a single consonant : as, e-quus. 
 The double consonant x (= cs) is joined sometimes with the preceding, 
 sometimes with the following, vowel : auz-it or au-xit. 
 
6 QUANTITY 
 
 6. A mute and a liquid are pronounced with the following vowel 
 except in the case of prepositional compounds : as, pu-blicus, a-gri ; 
 but ob-litus, ab-rumpo. 
 
 Note. In poetry when a long syllable (cf. § 29) is needed, the mute may 
 in all cases be joined with the preceding vowel : as, ag-ri, 
 
 c. In all other combinations of consonants the last of the group is 
 pronounced with the following vowel: as, mag-nus, il-le, sanc-tus, 
 su-bac-tus, hos-pes, sump-tus. 
 
 Note. In dividing a word at the end of a line of writing or printing, 
 prepositional compounds are separated into their component parts: as, 
 ab-est, per-€git, sub-actus, circum-sto. 
 
 23. A syllable ending in a consonant is called closed^ one 
 ending in a vowel or dipththong, open. Thus, the first syllable 
 of re-git is open, the second closed. 
 
 24. The last syllable of a word is called the ultima ; the 
 next to the last, the pennlt ; that before the penult, the ante- 
 penult. Thus, amantur consists of a- (antepenult), -man- (penult), 
 -tur (ultima). 
 
 QUANTITY 
 
 25. The quantity ^ of a vowel or a syllable is the time 
 occupied in pronouncing it. There are two degrees of quantity, 
 lo7tg and short. 
 
 Note. Technically, a long vowel or syllable is regarded as having twice 
 the length (in time) of a short one. Correct pronunciation, accent, and 
 the scansion of verse depend upon the proper observance of quantity. 
 
 26. A vowel or a syllable that may be either long or short 
 in quantity is said to be common . 
 
 ' The rules for quantity are given with greater detail under Versification. 
 Only a few of the leading facts are here stated. 
 
QUANTITY 7 
 
 I. QUANTITY OF SYLLABLES 
 
 27. A syllable is long if it contains a long vowel or a diph- 
 thong (as, cu-r5, poe-nae, aes-ta-te) or if it ends in a consonant 
 which is followed by another consonant (as, cor-pus, mag-nus).^ 
 
 In the former case it is said to be long by nature ; in the 
 latter, lo7ig by position. 
 
 Note. The vowel in a long syllable may be either long or short and 
 should be pronounced accordingly. Thus, in ter-ra the first syllable is long, 
 but the vowel is short. In words like saxum the first syllable is long 
 because x has the value of two consonants (§ 1 6). 
 
 28. A syllable is short if it ends in a short vowel : as, a-mor, 
 pi-gri. 
 
 29. A syllable is common if its vowel is short and is fol- 
 lowed by a mute and a liquid (1 or r). 
 
 Note. The quantity here depends upon the way in which the word is 
 divided into syllables. Thus, in pig-ri the first syllable ends in a conso- 
 nant and is long; but in pi-gri the first syllable ends in a short vowel 
 and is short. In prose the latter is the regular division (§ 22. b) and such 
 syllables are regarded as short, but poets often find it convenient to divide 
 the other way.^ 
 
 30. A syllable ending in a, e, 0, or u, and followed by conso- 
 nant i, is long whether the vowel is long or short : as, aiO, peius. 
 
 31. In compounds of iaciO, the first syllable, if ending with a 
 consonant, is long by position, the consonant i of the simple 
 verb being pronounced though not written : as, in-iciO (for in-iiciO). 
 
 32. In determining quantity by position, h and consonant u 
 in qu, gu, su (§ 16), are not counted as consonants. 
 
 * When two consonants belonging to different syllables concur, the first is 
 obstructed in its pronunciation by the presence of the second and is called 
 an obstructed consonant. Length by position is due to the time consumed in 
 pronouncing the two consonants and in passing from one to the other. 
 
 * The first syllable of prepositional compounds of this nature is always 
 long (§ 22. b) : as, ob-lltus, ab-rumpo. 
 
8 ACCENT 
 
 II. QUANTITY OF VOWELS 
 
 33. Vowels are either long (-) or short (w) by nature and 
 are pronounced accordingly. 
 
 Note. In this book long vowels are marked, and short vowels are, as a 
 rule, unmarked. Vowels marked with both signs at once (-) occur some- 
 times as long and sometimes as short. 
 
 34. While there are no comprehensive rules for determining 
 vowel quantity, the following statements are of practical value : 
 
 a. A vowel is long before nf, ns, nx, and net (as, infero, regens, 
 sanxi, unctus) or when it is the result of contraction : as, nil for nihil. 
 
 h, A vowel is short before another vowel in the same word or 
 before h (as, rii-i-na, trS-ho) ; before nt and nd, before final m or t, 
 and (except in words of one syllable) before final 1 or r : as, portfint, 
 portSndus, portabSm, portabSt, animfil, amSr. 
 
 Note. A long vowel occasionally appears before nt or nd as the result 
 of contraction (§ 34. a): as, contio (for conventio), nuntius (for noventius), 
 prendo (for prehendo). 
 
 c. Diphthongs are always long by nature and are not marked. 
 
 ACCENT 
 
 35. In Latin, as in English, accent is a stress of voice which 
 makes one syllable more prominent in utterance than another. 
 
 36. Original Accent. In the earliest times every Latin 
 word was stressed strongly on the first syllable. This fact led 
 to phonetic changes which will be discussed later (§§ 42ff.). 
 
 37. Later Accent. Before the beginning of the classical 
 period there had become established the ''three-syllable law," 
 by which the accent is restricted to the last three syllables of 
 the word. Thus : 
 
 a. Words of two syllables are accented on the first : as, men'sa, 
 Cae'sar. 
 
ACCENT 9 
 
 b. Words of more than two syllables are accented on the penult if 
 that is long, otherwise on the antepenult : as, mo-n6'mu8, a-man'dus, 
 re'gi-tur. 
 
 Note. Observe that the position of the accent is determined by the 
 length of the syllable, and not by the length of the vowel in the syllable. 
 
 c. Compounds follow the same rules as simple words. 
 
 38. Exceptions. 
 
 a. FaciO when compounded with other words than prepositions 
 retains the accent of the simple verb : as, beneffi'cit, satisfft'cit. 
 
 h. Genitives in -i (instead of -ii) and vocatives in -i (instead of -ie ; 
 see § 88. c) accent the penult, even if it is short : as, ingg'ni, Vergi'li. 
 
 c. Certain words which have lost a final vowel or have suffered 
 contraction are accented on the last syllable : as, illic' (for illi'ce), 
 tantSn' (for tantO'ne), prOduc' (for produ'ce), addic' (for addi'ce), audin' 
 (for audis'ne), Arpinas' (for Arpina'tis), Quiris' (for Quiri'tis), munit' 
 (for muni'vit). 
 
 39. Enclitics. An enclitic is a word which has no separate 
 existence, but is joined to the word that precedes it. 
 
 The commonest enclitics are -que, a7id ; -ve, or ; -ne, the sign of a 
 question; -ce, -met, -nam, and -te, used merely for emphasis. 
 
 40. When an enclitic is joined to a word, the accent falls on 
 the syllable next before the enclitic, whether that syllable is 
 long or short : as, populus'que, dea'que, rggna've, audit'ne. 
 
 Note. This rule rests on the authority of Latin grammarians of the 
 fourth and fifth centuries of our era, and, while valid for that period, may 
 not have been followed in the Augustan age. 
 
 a. In some combinations -que has lost its meaning of and, and 
 forms a real part of the word to which it is attached. Such words 
 are accented regularly : as, de'nique, un'dique, i'taque {accordingly). 
 
 Note; UtrS'que, each, and plerS'que, most, from uter'que and plenis'que, 
 accent the penult, though -que is not enclitic. 
 
ro PHONETIC CHANGES 
 
 41. Adjacent words pronounced together are sometimes writ- 
 ten as one, the second sometimes assuming the character of 
 an enclitic. The resulting combinations may show changes in 
 form (cf. English Fm for I am, I've for I have). 
 
 Note. Such combinations are most frequent in colloquial Latin, and occur 
 especially when es or est is preceded by a word ending in a vowel, m, or s : 
 thus, homost (homo est), periculumst (periculum est), auditas (audita es), 
 qualist (qualis est), vin (visne), scin (scisne), sis (si vis), sodes (si audes), 
 sultis (si vultis). 
 
 PHONETIC CHANGES 
 
 42. Classical Latin often differs in form from that of the 
 earlier periods. Such changes are due to the working of cer- 
 tain laws of speech {phonetie laivs) which, in general, had the 
 effect of weakening, shortening, or dropping vowels in un- 
 accented syllables and of changing or dropping consonants 
 difficult to pronounce. 
 
 I. CHANGES IN VOWELS 
 
 A. Weakening of Vowels 
 
 43. Most of the changes in vowels were due to the strong 
 stress accent which, in early Latin, fell on the first syllable of 
 every word. (Cf. § 36.) This tended to preserve a vowel or 
 diphthong of the accented syllable, but to weaken it in other 
 syllables not accented. 
 
 44. Weakening of vowels in syllables originally tmaccented 
 regularly took the following direction : 
 
 a, S before two consonants became S, except that before ng it 
 became i : as, confectus for *con-factus,^ but contingS for *con-tang5. 
 
 h. ft before a single consonant became i : as, conficio for *con-facio, 
 cecidi for ^cecadi. 
 
 1 Assumed forms are marked by an asterisk. 
 
CHANGES IN VOWELS II 
 
 c. 6, usually retained before two consonants or r, became i before 
 a single consonant: as, adimO for *ad-€m6 ; miles for *milet8, but 
 militis for *miletes. 
 
 d. ae became i : as, existimO for *ex-ae8tim6. 
 
 e. au became u : as, includO for *in-claudo. 
 
 45. Long vowels and diphthongs in syllables originally 
 accented suffered no weakening, but in classical Latin the old 
 diphthongs ai and oi were written ae and oe : as, quaestor, early 
 quaistor ; poena, early poina. 
 
 In the second century b.c. the diphthong oe became u, but 
 oe was retained in some words. Thus, in poena and ptiniO, 
 moenia and muniO, both forms go back to an original spelling 
 with oi. In late Latin oe became 6 : as, fgderatus. 
 
 B, Contraction of Vowels 
 
 46. Two concurrent vowels were often contracted into one 
 long vowel. 
 
 a. Two like vowels might be contracted into the corresponding 
 long vowel : as, nil from ni(h)il, c6pia from *coopia, pr6nd6 from 
 pre(h)end6. 
 
 h. Two unlike vowels were usually contracted into the long form 
 of the first : as, d6g6 from *d6-ag6, cogO from *co-ag6, debeo from 
 *d6-(h)abe6, amasse from ama(v)isse, cOnsuesse from c6nsue(y)isse. 
 
 c. Many concurrent vowels remained uncontracted : as, audi5, 
 maria, tuus, d61e5, etc. 
 
 C. Dropping of Vowels 
 
 47. a. A short vowel following an accented syllable was sometimes 
 dropped : as, valdg from va'lidg, rettuli from *re'tetuli, dextra from 
 dex'tera. This is called syn'co-pe. 
 
 b, A final short vowel was sometimes dropped : as, due from duce, 
 animal from *animali. This is called a-poc^o-pe. 
 
12 CHANGES IN CONSONANTS 
 
 II. CHANGES IN CONSONANTS 
 
 48. dt, tt became ds, ts, then s or ss (§ 53.^) : as, sessus from 
 *sedtus, clausus from *claudtus, passus from *pattus. 
 
 49. An original s between two vowels became r : as, honoris 
 from *hon6sis, amare from *amase, eram from *esam. This is 
 called rho'tacism from the Greek letter rho = r. 
 
 Note. Words like misi and causa are from original missi and caussa. 
 
 50. g, c, or h combined with a following s to form x : as, 
 rex from *regs, dux from *ducs, traxi from *trahsi.i 
 
 51. When two consonants came together, they tended to as- 
 similate, that is, become like each other. 
 
 Note. Sometimes the assimilation was complete : as, sella from *sedla, 
 siccus from *sitcus, collis from *colnis, summus from *supmus. Sometimes 
 the assimilation went only so far that one letter became like the other in 
 character : thus a voiced consonant might change to a voiceless one ; or, 
 when the concurrent consonants were sounded with different vocal organs, 
 one of them might be changed to another using the same vocal organ as its 
 neighbor. Thus *scribtus became scriptus, the voiced consonant b be- 
 coming voiceless to agree with the voiceless t ; and *primceps became 
 princeps, the labial nasal m changing to the palatal nasal n to agree with 
 the palatal mute c. 
 
 52. Complete or partial assimilation occurred both in inflec- 
 tions and in composition, and was especially marked in the last 
 consonant of prepositions in composition. 
 
 53. Complete Assimilation : 
 
 a. ds and ts became ss, which was simplified to s after a long vowel 
 or diphthong: thus, *cedsi became cessi,*dividsi became divisi,*claudsi 
 became clausi, *concutsi became concussi. 
 
 b, A mute was often assimilated to a following mute, liquid, or 
 nasal : thus, *adger became agger, *sedla became sella, *supmu8 
 
 1 The h in traho represents an original gh. 
 
VOWEL GRADATION OR ABLAUT 13 
 
 became summus, *8itcu8 became siccus, adligO became alligO, ad- 
 pellO became appellO, *obcurr5 became occurrO, *8ubplic6 became 
 supplied. 
 
 Note. In prepositional compounds the final consonant of the preposition 
 was often assimilated (cf . the last four examples above) ; but usage varied, 
 and in many compounds the assimilated form was found rarely, if at all, in 
 the classical period. 
 
 54. Partial Assimilation : 
 
 a. Voiced b or g before voiceless s or t was usually changed to 
 corresponding voiceless p or c : thus, *scribsi became scripsi, *scribtU8 
 became scriptus, *augtus became auctus. 
 
 b. Labial m before dental mutes was regularly changed to dental 
 n, and before palatal mutes was often changed to palatal n : thus, 
 *tamtus became tantus, *eumdem became eundem, *primceps became 
 princeps. 
 
 c. A labial mute before n became m : thus, *sopnu8 became somnus. 
 
 55. Dropping of Consonants : 
 
 a. In final syllables a d or a t before s was dropped : thus, *lapids 
 became lapis, *milets became miles. 
 
 b. Final consonants were often dropped : thus, *virgon became virgO, 
 *cord became cor, praedad became praeda, habgtod became hab6t6. 
 
 Note. WTien several consonants formed a group diflficult to pronounce, 
 one or more were sometimes dropped : as, ostendo for *obstend6, quintus for 
 ♦quinctus, misceo for *inigsce5. But when the group could be easily pro- 
 nounced, no consonants were lost: as, iunxi, rSstrum, stringo, iinctus, spretus. 
 
 III. VOWEL GRADATION OR ABLAUT 
 
 56. The Indo-European parent speech, of which most of 
 the languages of Europe are descendants, showed a regular 
 system of vowel variation in the same word or kindred words. 
 This variation is called vowel gradation or ablaut. Plain 
 traces of ablaut remain in all the languages derived from 
 the Indo-European. Compare, for example, English drink, 
 drank, dntnk \ steal, stole; hind, bound. 
 
H 
 
 VOWEL GRADATION OR ABLAUT 
 
 57. Vowel gradation in Latin appears sometimes as a mere dif- 
 ference of quantity in the same vowel (as, i, i ; u, u ; etc.) and 
 sometimes as a difference in the vowel itself (as, e, o ; i, ae ; etc.). 
 
 rggere, rule 
 rex, king 
 
 ducere, lead 
 diix, leader 
 
 dSre, give 
 donum, gift 
 
 t§gere, cover 
 tSga, robe 
 tegula, tile 
 
 fidere, trust 
 fides, faith 
 foedus, treaty 
 
 mSnere, ?'emind 
 mens, mind 
 
 miser, wretched 
 maestus, sad 
 
 s6des, seat 
 s§dere, sit 
 s6dalis, companion 
 sido (for *si-sd-o), sit 
 
 nScere, harm 
 ngx, ?nurder 
 
PART II. FORMS 
 
 58. Parts of Speech. Latin has eight parts of speech : 
 nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, con- 
 junctions, and interjections. 
 
 Latin has no article. This must be suppHed by the context. 
 
 59. Inflections. Words may change their forms to show 
 some change in sense or use. This change is called inflection 
 
 In Latin, nouns, ^ adjectives, pronouns, and verbs are capable 
 of inflection. Adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and inter- 
 jections are not inflected, and are called particles. 
 
 a. Inflectional changes sometimes take place in the body of a 
 word, or at the beginning, but oftener.in its termination. 
 
 v6x, a voice voc5, / call vocet, let him call tangit, he touches 
 
 vScis, of a voice vocat, he calls vocavit, he has called tetigit, he touched 
 
 60. Declension and Conjugation. The inflection of nouns, 
 adjectives,^ and pronouns is called declension ; that of verbs is 
 called conjugation. 
 
 61. Roots. Words are built up from roots. 
 
 A root is the simplest form to which a word can be reduced. 
 It is always a monosyllable, and contains the fundamental 
 meaning of the word, but cannot, as a rule, be used as a part 
 of speech without modification. 
 
 Thus from the root sta- we form the adjective sta-bilis by 
 adding to it an ending called a suffix. 
 
 1 A' few nouns are incapable of inflection. These are called indeclinable 
 nouns: as, fis, right; nihil, uothing. 
 
 ^ Adjectives are sometimes said to have inflections of comparison. The 
 forms of comparison are, however, really new stems and are not strictly to be 
 regarded as forms of inflection. 
 
 «5 
 
1 6 FORMS 
 
 62. Stems. The stem or theme is the body of a word to 
 which terminations are attached. 
 
 Sometimes the stem is the same as the root, but usually the 
 stem is formed from the root by the addition of a suffix or by 
 changing or lengthening its vowel. 
 
 Thus the root due- is also the stem of due-is, of a leader; but 
 from the root voc- we may form voe-a-, stem of voeare, call ; voe-ato-, 
 stem of voeatus, called \ voe-ation-, stem of voeationis, of a calli?ig\ 
 etc. By lengthening the vowel of this same root we get voe-, the 
 stem of v6e-is, of a voice. 
 
 Note. The root itself may have various forms. See ^ S7- 
 
 63. Bases. The base is that part of a word which remains 
 unchanged in inflection : as, serv- in servus, mens- in mensa, am- 
 in amem. 
 
 a. The base and the stem are often identical, as in many consonant 
 stems of nouns (as, reg- in reg-is). If, however, the stem ends in a 
 vowel, the latter does not appear in the base, but is variously com- 
 bined with the inflectional termination. Thus the stem of servus is 
 servo-, that of mensis is mensa-, and that of ignem is igni-. 
 
 GENDER 
 
 64. Latin, like English, has three genders : masculine, femi- 
 nine, and neuter. 
 
 65. The gender of Latin nouns is either natural or gram- 
 matical. 
 
 I. NATURAL GENDER 
 
 66. Natural gender is determined by sex and belongs only 
 to animate beings. 
 
 puer, M., boy vir, m., man equus, m., horse 
 
 puella. Y.,girl mulier, f., woman equa, f., mare 
 
GENDER AND PERSON 1 7 
 
 a. Many nouns may be either masculine or feminine according to 
 the sex of the object denoted. These are said to be of common 
 gender : as, civis, citizen (male or female) ; par6ns, parent (either 
 father or mother). 
 
 II. GRAMMATICAL GENDER 
 
 67. Grammatical gender belongs to names of objects and 
 qualities having no sex distinction. Such words may be either 
 masculine, feminine, or neuter, and their gender is usually 
 indicated by the termination of the nominative singular. 
 
 fluvius, M., stream ripa, f., bank caelum, n., sky 
 
 a. Names of months are masculine, being really adjectives agreeing 
 with mgnsis, m., month, understood. So names of winds and many 
 names of rivers are masculine (perhaps through the influence of 
 ventus, M., wind, and fluvius or amnis, m., stream). 
 
 b. Many names of countries, toivns, islands, and trees are feminine. 
 
 c. Some names of animals have grammatical gender. The same 
 form is then used for either sex : as, vulpSs, f., fox, of either sex ; 
 anser, m., gander or goose. Nouns with but one gender for both sexes 
 arc called epicene. 
 
 68. Indeclinable nouns, infinitives, and all expressions, 
 phrases, or clauses used as nouns are neuter. 
 
 fas, right mane, morning 
 
 nihil, nothing scire tuum, your knowledge 
 
 69. Words borrowed from the Greek or from other lan- 
 guages usually retain the gender of the original. 
 
 Lethe, f., Lethe (a river) Bibracte, n., Bibracte (a town in Gaul) 
 
 PERSON 
 
 70. In Latin, as in English, there are three persons. The 
 first person denotes the person speaking ; the second person, 
 the person spoken to ; the third person, the person spoken of. 
 
1 8 FORMS 
 
 NUMBER 
 
 71. Latin, like English, has two numbers, the singular and 
 the plural. The singular number denotes one, the plural 
 number more than one. 
 
 NOUNS AND THEIR DECLENSION 
 
 72. A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea. 
 
 Caesar, Ccesar Roma, Rome domus, house virtus, virtue 
 
 Note. The term substantive is often applied to a noun or to any word 
 or expression used like a noun. 
 
 a. Names of individual persons or places are called proper nouns : 
 as, Caesar, Roma. Other nouns are called common nouns. 
 6. Nouns are either abstract or concrete. 
 
 1. An abstract noun is the name of a quality or idea: as, virtus, 
 virtue \ vittus, fear. 
 
 2. A concrete noun is the name of something that has physical 
 existence and can be seen, touched, or handled : as, domus, house ; 
 aqua, water. 
 
 Note. Nouns that are abstract are often used in a concrete sense and 
 vice versa. 
 
 c. A collective noun is a concrete noun denoting a group or class 
 of objects. 
 
 exercitus, army grex, herd populus, people 
 
 73. Declension. Nouns are declined by adding certain ter- 
 minations to a common base or stem. The resulting form is 
 called a case. 
 
 Each case form, therefore, consists of two distinct elements, the 
 base or stem and the case ending. If the stem ends in a consonant, 
 the base and the stem are identical and the case endings appear 
 distinct and unchanged. But if the stem ends in a vowel, this vowel 
 may so combine with the case endings that the stem and real endings 
 are hard to distinguish. The suffix produced by the combination of 
 
DECLENSION OF NOUNS 
 
 19 
 
 the final vowel of the stem and the case ending is called a case 
 termination, and this term may be conveniently extended to all inflec- 
 tional sufiixes added to the base. 
 
 Thus due-is consists of the consonant stem or base due- and the 
 case termination -is, which is also the actual case ending ; but iugO 
 (base iug-, case termination -C) goes back to an original *iugo-ai, 
 which shows the stem to be iugo- and the actual case ending -ai. 
 
 74. The Cases. 1 here are six cases in Latin : 
 Nomifiative, case of the subject. 
 
 Genitive^ case of the possessor or of the object with of. 
 Dative, case of the object with to or for, especially the 
 indirect object. 
 
 Accusative, case of the direct object. 
 
 Vocative, case of address. 
 
 Ablative, case of the object "with, from, with, by, in, or at. 
 
 a. TTie Locative Case. Forms of another case, the locative, denoting 
 the place where, appear in some names of towns and a few other words. 
 
 h. The Oblique Cases. All the cases except the nominative and 
 the vocative are called the oblique cases. 
 
 THE FIVE DECLENSIONS OF NOUNS 
 
 75. Nouns are inflected in five declensions, distinguished 
 by the final letter of the stem and by the case termination of 
 the genitive singular. 
 
 Declension 
 
 Final LEriER 
 OF THE Stem 
 
 Termination of 
 THE Genitive 
 
 First 
 
 i- 
 
 -ae 
 
 Second 
 
 6- 
 
 -i 
 
 Third 
 
 i- or a consonant. 
 
 -is 
 
 Fourth 
 
 il- 
 
 -us 
 
 Fifth 
 
 6- 
 
 -€i 
 
20 GENERAL RULES OF DECLENSION 
 
 a. The dase of a noun may always be found by dropping the case 
 termination. In consonant stems the l?ase and the stem are identical. 
 In vowel stems the stem is formed from the base by adding the final 
 stem-vowel. 
 
 Thus the dase of domin-i, the genitive singular of dominus, a noun of 
 the second declension, is domin-, and the stem is domino-, formed by adding 
 0-, the final stem-vowel of the second declension, to the dase. 
 
 GENERAL RULES OF DECLENSION 
 
 76. a. The vocative is always the same as the nominative except 
 in some Greek nouns and in the singular of nouns in -us of the second 
 declension. 
 
 It is not included in the paradigms unless it differs from the nominative. 
 
 b. In neuters the nominative and accusative are always alike and 
 in the plural end in -S. The first and fifth declensions have no neuters. 
 
 c. The accusative singular of all masculines and feminines ends in 
 -m, the accusative plural in -s. 
 
 d. The dative and ablative plural are always alike. 
 
 e. In the third, fourth, and fifth declensions the accusative plural 
 is like the nominative plural. 
 
 /. Final -i, -o, -u in case forms are always long ; final -a is always 
 shorty except in the ablative singular of the first declension. 
 
 THE FIRST DECLENSION - ii-STEMS 
 
 77. The stem of nouns of the first declension ends in a- : as, 
 domina-, stem of domina, lady. 
 
 78. The Nominative Singular. Latin nouns of the first or a- 
 declension end in -fi in the nominative singular, and they are 
 regularly feminine unless they denote males. 
 
 a. Examples of masculine nouns in -a are : 
 scnha, scrz'de yema., slave agiicola., farmer n&nta, sat/or 
 also some proper nouns : as, 
 
 Murena. Murena Belgae, the BelgcB Hadria, the Adtiafk 
 
FIRST DECLENSION 
 
 21 
 
 79. Declension. Nouns of the first declension are declined 
 
 as follows : 
 
 domina, f., the (a) lady 
 
 Stem domina- Uash domin- 
 
 SINGULAR 
 Cases Meanings 
 
 NoM. domina 
 
 Gen. dominae 
 
 DAT. dominae 
 
 Ace. dominam 
 
 Abl. domina 
 
 NoM. dominae 
 
 Gen. dominarum 
 
 DAT. dominis 
 
 Ace. dominas 
 
 Abl. dominis 
 
 t/if lady (subject) 
 
 of the lady or the ladfs 
 
 to ox for the lady 
 
 the lady (direct object) 
 
 with, from, by, etc. the lady 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 the ladies (subject) 
 
 of the ladies or the ladies^ 
 
 to or for the ladies 
 
 the ladies (direct object) 
 
 with, from, by, etc. the ladies 
 
 Terminations 
 
 -am 
 
 -a 
 
 -de 
 
 -arum 
 -is 
 
 -as 
 
 -is 
 
 Peculiar Case Forms in the First Declension 
 
 80. a. An old genitive singular in -as is sometimes preserved in 
 the form familias, used in the combination pater (mater, filius, filia) 
 familias, father {mother, son, daughter) of a family ; plural, patrgs 
 familias or familiarum. 
 
 b. In early Latin the genitive singular ended in -ai (pronounced 
 in two syllables) : as, auia'i. This ending is sometimes found later 
 in poetry. 
 
 aula! medid llbabant p6cula Bacchi, /// the midst of the court they 
 poured libations of wine 
 
 c. The singular of names of towns in -a and of a few common 
 nouns has a locative case in -ae (for -ai) to denote the place where. 
 
 R5mae, at Rome militiae, in military service 
 
 Names of towns that are plural in form and belong to the first 
 declension have a locative in -is not distinguishable from the ablative. 
 Athenis, at Athens Thebis, at Thebes 
 
22 GREEK NOUNS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION 
 
 d. A genitive plural in -um instead of in -arum is sometimes found 
 in poetry, especially in Greek nouns denoting descent. 
 
 Aeneadum, of the descendants of JSneas 
 caelicolum, of the heaven dwellers 
 
 e. The dative and ablative plural of dea, goddess, and filia, daughter, 
 and of some other words take the ending -abus instead of -is to dis- 
 tinguish them from corresponding masculine forms. 
 
 Thus deabus and filiabus are distinguished from dels and filiis, corre- 
 sponding forms of deus, god, and filius, son, respectively. 
 
 Greek Nouns of the First Declension 
 
 81. Most common nouns of the first declension borrowed 
 from the Greek have Latin forms throughout (as, aula, court ; 
 philosophia, philosophy) ; but proper nouns generally retain 
 traces of their Greek case forms in the singular. 
 
 Such Greek proper nouns end in -a or -€, feminine, and -as 
 or -€s, masculine. In the singular they are declined as follows : 
 
 
 Electra 
 
 Andromache 
 
 NOM. 
 
 Electra (-a) 
 
 Andromache (-a) 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Electrae 
 
 Andromaches (-ae) 
 
 DAT. 
 
 Electrae 
 
 Andromachae 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Electran (-am) 
 
 Andromachen (-am) 
 
 Abl. 
 
 Electra 
 
 Andromache (-a) 
 
 Voc. 
 
 Electra (-a) 
 
 AndromachS (-a) 
 
 
 Aengas 
 
 Anchises 
 
 NOM. 
 
 Aeneas 
 
 Anchises 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Aeneae 
 
 AnchTsae 
 
 DAT. 
 
 Aeneae 
 
 Anchlsae 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Aenean (-am) 
 
 Anchisfin (-am) 
 
 Abl. 
 
 Aenea 
 
 Anchise (-a) 
 
 Voc. 
 
 Aenea (-a) 
 
 AnchisS (-a) 
 
 In the plural no Greek forms of declension occur. 
 
SECOND DECLENSION 
 
 23 
 
 THE SECOND DECLENSION - O-STEMS 
 
 82. The stem of nouns of the second declension ends in 0-. 
 
 domino-, stem of dominus, master viro-, stem of vir, inan 
 
 puero-, stem of puer, boy pHo-, stem of pnum, spear 
 
 83. The Nominative Singular. The nominative singular of 
 Latin nouns of the second or 0- declension ends in -us, -er, -ir, 
 masculine ; and in -um, neuter. 
 
 Note. The terminations -us and -um were originally -os and -om, and 
 after u and v these old endings were retained until the Augustan age : as, 
 equos, equom ; servos, servom. 
 
 84. The masculines in -us and neuters in -um are declined 
 as follows : 
 
 
 dominus, m. 
 
 , master 
 
 pilum, N. 
 
 , spear 
 
 Stem domino-; 
 
 Base domin- 
 
 Stem pilo-; 
 
 Base pil- 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 
 
 
 Cases 
 
 Terminations 
 
 Cases 
 
 Terminations 
 
 NOM. 
 
 dominus 
 
 -US 
 
 pilum 
 
 -um 
 
 Gen. 
 
 domini 
 
 -i 
 
 plli 
 
 -i 
 
 DAT. 
 
 dominS 
 
 -6 
 
 pll6 
 
 -6 
 
 Ace. 
 
 dominum 
 
 -um 
 
 pilum 
 
 -um 
 
 Abl. 
 
 dominO 
 
 -6 
 
 pilO 
 
 -« 
 
 Voc. 
 
 domine 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 pilum 
 
 -um 
 
 NOM. 
 
 domini 
 
 -i 
 
 pila 
 
 -a 
 
 Gen. 
 
 dominOrum 
 
 -5rum 
 
 pil Orum 
 
 -6rum 
 
 DAT. 
 
 dominis 
 
 -is 
 
 pilis 
 
 -is 
 
 Ace. 
 
 dominCs 
 
 -Cs 
 
 pila 
 
 -a 
 
 Abl. 
 
 dominis 
 
 -is 
 
 pilis 
 
 -is 
 
 a. Nouns in -us of the second declension have a special form with 
 the termination -8 for the vocative singular. 
 
24 
 
 SECOND DECLENSION 
 
 85. Nouns of the second declension in -er and -ir are 
 declined like dominus, except for the loss of the tell-minations 
 -us in the nominative and -6 in the vocative singular. 
 
 Thus we have puer (for *puerus) in the nominative singular ; puer 
 (for *puere) in the vocative singular. 
 
 puer, M., boy 
 
 Stem puero- 
 Base puer- 
 
 NoM. puer 
 
 Gen. pueri 
 
 DAT. puer 6 
 
 Ace. puerum 
 
 Abl. puer 6 
 
 Voc. puer 
 
 ager, u., field vir, m., man 
 
 Stem agro- 
 Base agr- 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 ager 
 
 agri 
 
 agrO 
 
 agrum 
 
 agr5 
 
 ager 
 
 Stem viro- 
 Base vir- 
 
 vir 
 viri 
 vir 6 
 virum 
 vir 6 
 vir 
 
 Terminations 
 (-US lost) 
 -i 
 -6 
 
 -um 
 -6 
 (-6 lost) 
 
 NoM. pueri 
 
 Gen. puerOrum 
 
 Dat.- puer is 
 
 Ace. puer 6s 
 
 Abl. puer is 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 agri 
 
 agrOrum 
 
 agris 
 
 agros 
 
 agris 
 
 viri 
 
 virOrum 
 vir is 
 vir OS 
 vir is 
 
 -i 
 
 -orum 
 
 -is 
 
 -6s 
 
 -is 
 
 a. With nouns in -er, if e belongs to the stem (as in puer), it is 
 retained throughout; otherwise it appears (as in ager) in only the 
 nominative and vocative singular, where it is inserted before the -r 
 after -o, the stem vowel, has been dropped. 
 
 Most nouns in -er are declined like ager, but the following are 
 declined like puer : 
 
 1. Compounds in -fer and -ger: as, signifer, signiferi, standard 
 bearer \ armiger, armigeri, armor bearer. 
 
 2. Gener, son-in-law; VAi&[ , Bacchus \ liheri, cltildren ; socer, fa fker- 
 in-law ; vesper, eve?iing ; and a few others. 
 
SECOND DECLENSION 25 
 
 Exceptions to Gender in the Second Declension 
 
 86. Feminine nouns in -us are : 
 
 a. Some names of countries , towns ^ islands, and trees (§67. b). 
 
 Aegyptus, Egypt Rhodus, Rhodes 
 
 Corinthus, Corinth malus, apple tree 
 
 h. Some nouns of Greek origin. 
 
 arctus, bear methodus, method 
 
 c. These four nouns : 
 
 alvus, belly colus, distaff 
 
 carbasus, linett humiis, ground 
 
 87. Neuter nouns in -us are : 
 
 pelagus, sea virus, poison vulgus, crowd 
 
 Their accusative singular (as in all neuters) is the same as the 
 nominative and they have no plural, except that pelagus has a rare 
 accusative plural, pelagg. Rarely vulgus is masculine. 
 
 Peculiar Case Forms in the Second Declension 
 
 88. a. The locative singular ends in -i, like the genitive. 
 
 humi, on the ground Corinthi, at Corinth 
 
 The locative plural ends in -is and is not distinguished in form from 
 the ablative : as, Delphis, at Delphi. 
 
 b. The genitive singular of nouns in -ius and -ium ended in -i (not 
 in -ii) until the Augustan age, and the accent was on the penult 
 
 (§ 38- *)• 
 
 fili, from filius (son) praesi'di, from praesidium (garrison) 
 
 c. The vocative singular of filius, son, and of proper nouns in -ius 
 ends in -i, instead of in -ie, and the accent is on the penult. 
 
 fill, O son Vergili, O Vergil 
 
 In such words, therefore, the genitive and the vocative are alike. 
 
26 SECOND DECLENSION 
 
 d. The genitive plural sometimes retains the original -um (or -om) 
 instead of ^ using -orum, especially in poetry. 
 
 deum, divom, superum, of the gods sestertium, of sesterces 
 
 duumvirum, of the duumviri nummum, of coins 
 
 This is the regular form in early Latin, the later -6rum being 
 merely an imitation oi the genitive plural of the first declension. 
 
 e. The declension of deus, god^ shows several peculiarities. The 
 vocative singular does not occur in classic Latin. In late Latin the 
 nominative is used as a vocative. The plural is declined as follows : 
 
 NoM. del, dil, dl 
 
 Gen. deorum, deum 
 
 Dat. dels, dils, dis 
 
 Ace. deos 
 
 Abl. dels, dils, dIs 
 
 The forms dii and diis are pronounced like di, dis. 
 
 Greek Nouns of the Second Declension 
 
 89. Greek nouns of the second declension end in -os, -os, 
 masculine or feminine, and in -on, neuter. They are mostly- 
 proper names, and are declined as follows in the singular 
 (the plural, when found, being usually regular) : 
 
 mythos, m. Androgeos, m. Delos, f. Ilion, n. 
 
 
 fable 
 
 Androgeos 
 
 Delos 
 
 Ilium 
 
 NOM. 
 
 mythos 
 
 Androgeos 
 
 Delos 
 
 Ilion 
 
 Gen. 
 
 mythi 
 
 Androgeo (-i) 
 
 Deli 
 
 Ilii 
 
 DAT. 
 
 myths 
 
 Androgeo 
 
 DelO 
 
 IliS 
 
 Ace. 
 
 myth on 
 
 Androgeon (-5) 
 
 Delon(-um) 
 
 Ilion 
 
 Abl. 
 
 myth 6 
 
 Androgeo 
 
 Del 6 
 
 Ili5 
 
 Voc. 
 
 mythe 
 
 AndrogeSs 
 
 Dele 
 
 Ilion 
 
 a. A rare genitive in -u (Greek ou) sometimes occurs : as, Menan- 
 dru, of Menander. 
 
 b. The name Panthus has vocative Panthu. 
 
THIRD DECLENSION 27 
 
 c. The termination -oe (Greek oi) is sometimes found in the 
 nominative plural, and -fin in the genitive plural. 
 
 Adelphoe, the Adelphi (a play of Terence) 
 
 G«drgic5n, of the Georgics (a poem of Vergil) % 
 
 d. For the declension of Greek names in -eus (like Orpheus) 
 see § 112. 
 
 THE XraRD DECLENSION - CONSONANT AND /-STEMS 
 
 90. Stems of the third declension are classified as follows : 
 
 {A. Mute stems 
 I. Consonant stems -< B. Liquid stems 
 (^ C. Nasal stems 
 Pure i-stems 
 
 {J 
 
 III. Irregular nouns 
 
 II. I-stems-, „ ,,. J , , 
 
 Mixed i-stems 
 
 91. In consonant stems the stem is regularly the same as 
 the base. 
 
 In i-stems the stem is formed by adding i- to the base. 
 
 I. CONSONANT STEMS 
 A. Mute Stems 
 
 92. Masculine and feminine nouns with stems ending in a 
 mute (§ 10) form the nominative singular by adding s to the 
 stem. Neuters use as nominative the simple stem, dropping 
 the final mute. 
 
 93. In forming the nominative singular from the stem the 
 following changes occur : 
 
 a. A lingual mute (t or d) is dropped before -s : as, miles (stem 
 milit-), custOs (stem custOd-). 
 
 ft. A palatal mute (c or g) unites with -s to form -x : as, dux (duc-A), 
 rftx (rCg-s). 
 
28 
 
 THIRD DECLENSION 
 
 c. In stems of more than one syllable an original unaccented e, 
 retained in the nominative singular (§ 44. r), is regularly changed to i 
 in the other cases : as, princeps, principis. 
 
 ' 94. Mute stems are declined as follows : 
 
 
 princeps, m. 
 
 miles, M. 
 
 lapis, M. 
 
 
 
 chief 
 
 soldier 
 
 stone 
 
 
 Bases 
 
 OR 
 
 Stems 
 
 Iprincip-^ 
 
 mflit-i 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 lapid- 
 
 Terminations 
 M. and F. 
 
 NOM. 
 
 princeps 
 
 miles 
 
 lapis 
 
 -s 
 
 Gen. 
 
 principis 
 
 militis 
 
 lapidis 
 
 -is 
 
 DAT. 
 
 princip i 
 
 militi 
 
 lapidi 
 
 -i 
 
 Ace. 
 
 principem 
 
 militem 
 
 lapidem 
 
 -em 
 
 Abl. 
 
 princip e 
 
 milite 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 lapide 
 
 -e 
 
 NoM. 
 
 princip 6s 
 
 mllites 
 
 lapidfis 
 
 -6s 
 
 Gen. 
 
 princip um 
 
 militum 
 
 lapidum 
 
 -um 
 
 DAf. 
 
 princip ibus 
 
 militibus 
 
 lapidibus 
 
 -ibus 
 
 Acfc. 
 
 princip es 
 
 milites 
 
 lapides 
 
 -es 
 
 Abl. 
 
 princip ibus 
 
 militibus 
 
 lapidibus 
 
 -ibus 
 
 
 r6x, M. 
 
 iudex, M. 
 
 virtus, F. 
 
 
 
 king 
 
 judge 
 
 manliness 
 
 
 Bases 
 
 OR 
 
 Stems 
 
 }- 
 
 iiidic- 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 virtut- 
 
 Terminations 
 
 M. AND F. 
 
 NOM. 
 
 rex 
 
 iudex 
 
 virtus 
 
 -8 
 
 Gen. 
 
 regis 
 
 iodic is 
 
 virtOtis 
 
 -is 
 
 DAT. 
 
 regi 
 
 iudici 
 
 virtOti 
 
 -i 
 
 Ace. 
 
 regem 
 
 iodic em 
 
 virtotem 
 
 -em 
 
 Abl. 
 
 rege 
 
 iodic e 
 
 virtote 
 
 -e 
 
 ' The original form of these stems was princep- and mQet-. See§ 44. r. 
 

 
 THIRD DECLENSION 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 
 Terminations 
 
 M. AND F. 
 
 NOM. 
 
 regis 
 
 iudicCs 
 
 virtutes 
 
 -€s 
 
 Gen. 
 
 rSgum 
 
 iudicum 
 
 virtutum 
 
 -um 
 
 DAT. 
 
 regibus 
 
 iudicibus 
 
 virtutibus 
 
 -ibus 
 
 Ace. 
 
 rggCs 
 
 iodic 6s 
 
 virtutes 
 
 -€s 
 
 Abl. 
 
 regibus 
 
 iudicibus 
 
 virtutibus 
 
 -ibus 
 
 
 cor, N. 
 
 caput, N. 
 
 po6ma, N. 
 
 
 
 heart 
 
 head 
 
 poem 
 
 
 Bases 
 
 
 
 
 
 OR 
 
 -cord- 
 
 capit- 
 
 poemat- 
 
 
 Stems 
 
 > _ 
 
 SINGl'LAR 
 
 
 Terminations 
 Neut. 
 
 \' r 1 \l 
 
 cor 
 
 caput 
 
 poema 
 
 
 »> O .>! . 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 cordis 
 
 capitis 
 
 poematis 
 
 -is 
 
 DAT. 
 
 cordi 
 
 capiti 
 
 poemati 
 
 -i 
 
 Ace. 
 
 cor 
 
 caput 
 
 poema 
 
 
 
 
 Abl. 
 
 corde 
 
 capite 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 poemate 
 
 -e 
 
 NoM. 
 
 cord a 
 
 capita 
 
 poemata 
 
 -a 
 
 Gen. 
 
 
 capitum 
 
 poematum 
 
 -um 
 
 
 DAT. 
 
 cordibus 
 
 capitibus 
 
 poematibus 
 
 -ibus 
 
 Ace. 
 
 cord a 
 
 capita 
 
 poemata 
 
 -a 
 
 Ahl. 
 
 cordibus 
 
 capitibus 
 
 poematibus 
 
 -ibus 
 
 95. Note the following irregularities : 
 
 a. The stem capit- becomes caput in the nominative singular, and 
 does not drop the final mute (§92). An ablative capiti is found. 
 
 b. A number of monosyllabic nouns with mute stems are like cor 
 in having no genitive plural. Among these are :* 
 
 crux, cross 
 fax, /orc/t 
 
 IQx, //^/// 
 nex, death 
 
 pix, peace 
 vas, bail 
 
30 
 
 THIRD DECLENSION 
 
 B, Liquid Stems 
 
 96. The nominative singular of stems ending in a liquid 
 (1 or r) is the same as the stem. But observe that — 
 
 a. Stems in tr- have -ter in the nominative : as, pater, stem patr-. 
 h. Stems in 11- or rr- lose one of the liquids in the nominative : 
 as, far, farris; mel, mellis. 
 
 c. Stems in Or- have short o in the nominative : as, amor, amoris 
 (§ 34. b). 
 
 d. Many stems in r- originally ended in s-, which still appears in 
 many nominatives : as, m5s, custom ; flos, flower. Some nominatives 
 end in either -r or -s : as, honor or honQs, arbor or arbos. 
 
 In the other cases original s regularly became r between two 
 vowels (§ 49) : as, genitive flOris (for flOsis), mOris (for mOsis). 
 
 e. Most neuter stems in er- and or- (originally es- and os-) have 
 -us in the nominative : as, genus (stem gener-), corpus (stem corpor-). 
 
 97. Liquid stems are declined as follows : 
 
 consul, M. 
 consul 
 
 Bases ^ 
 
 OR \ consul- 
 StemsJ 
 
 flOs, M. 
 flower 
 
 flor- 
 
 pastor, M. 
 shepherd 
 
 pastor- 
 
 mater, f. 
 mother 
 
 matr- 
 
 ' 
 
 NOM. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 consul 
 c5nsulis 
 
 flos 
 flor is 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 pastor 
 pastor is 
 
 mater 
 matr is 
 
 Terminations 
 
 M. AND F. 
 
 -is 
 
 DAT. 
 
 consul i 
 
 flori 
 
 pastor i 
 
 matri 
 
 -i 
 
 Ace. 
 
 consul em 
 
 flor em 
 
 pastor em 
 
 matr em 
 
 -em 
 
 Abl. 
 
 consul e 
 
 flore 
 
 pastore 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 matre 
 
 -e 
 
 NOM. 
 
 consul 6s 
 
 flor 6s 
 
 pastor 6s 
 
 matr 6s 
 
 -68 
 
 Gen. 
 
 consul um 
 
 florum 
 
 pastor um 
 
 matrum 
 
 -um 
 
 DAT. 
 
 consul ibus 
 
 flor ibus 
 
 pastor ibus 
 
 matr ibus 
 
 -ibus 
 
 Ace. 
 
 consults 
 
 flores 
 
 pastor 6s 
 
 matr 6s 
 
 -5s 
 
 Abl. 
 
 consul ibus 
 
 flor ibus 
 
 pastor ibus 
 
 matr ibus 
 
 -ibus 
 
THIRD DECLENSION 
 
 31 
 
 tempus, N. 
 
 opus, N. 
 
 aequor, n. 
 
 
 time 
 
 work 
 
 sea 
 
 
 Bases'] 
 
 
 
 
 OR vtempor- 
 Stems J 
 
 oper- 
 
 aequor- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 
 Terminations 
 Neut. 
 
 NoM. tempus 
 
 epus 
 
 aequer 
 
 
 Gen. temporis 
 
 eperis 
 
 aequor is 
 
 -is 
 
 Dat. tempori 
 
 operi 
 
 aequor i 
 
 -i 
 
 Ace. tempus 
 
 opus 
 
 aequor 
 
 
 Abl. tempore 
 
 operfi 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 aequor e 
 
 -e 
 
 NoM. temper a 
 
 opera 
 
 aequor a 
 
 -a 
 
 Gen. temix)rum 
 
 eperum 
 
 aequor um 
 
 -um 
 
 Dat. temper ibus 
 
 operibus 
 
 aequor ibus 
 
 -ibus 
 
 Ace. tempera 
 
 opera 
 
 aequor a 
 
 -a 
 
 Abl. temper ibus 
 
 operibus 
 
 aequor ibus 
 
 -ibus 
 
 C. Nasal Stems 
 
 98. The nominative singular of stems ending in a nasal 
 (n or m) is the same as the stem, with the following slight 
 modifications : 
 
 a. Stems in 5n- drop n in the nominative : as, legiS, stem legiOn- ; 
 ratio, stem ration-. 
 
 b. Stems in din- and gin- drop n and change i to 0: as, OrdO, 
 stem Ordin- ; virgO, stem virgin-. So also homO (stem homin-), nCmO 
 (stem ngmin-), ApollO (stem Apollin-). 
 
 c. Neuters and a few masculine stems in in- (not in din- or gin-) 
 have the nominative in -en: as, nOmen, n., stem nOmin-; flfimen, m., 
 stem flftmin-. 
 
 Note. There is only one stem in m-, hiems (stem hiem-), genitive 
 hiemis, loi'/i/er. This nasal stem is peculiar also in adding -a to form the 
 nominative singular. 
 
32 
 
 THIRD DECLENSION 
 
 99. Stems ending in a nasal are declined as follows : 
 
 
 6rd5, M. 
 
 legiO, F. 
 
 
 nSmen, n. 
 
 
 
 row 
 
 legion 
 
 
 name 
 
 
 Basest 
 OR V5rdin- 
 
 Stems j 
 
 legion- 
 
 
 nomin- 
 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 
 
 
 
 Terminations 
 
 Terminations 
 
 
 
 
 M. and F. 
 
 
 Neut. 
 
 NOM 
 
 ordo 
 ordinis 
 
 legio 
 legion is 
 
 
 nomen 
 nominis 
 
 
 i\«JM. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 -is 
 
 -is 
 
 DAT. 
 
 ordini 
 
 legion i 
 
 -i 
 
 nomini 
 
 -i 
 
 Arc 
 
 ordinem 
 
 legion em 
 
 -em 
 
 nomen 
 
 
 XVUC 
 
 
 Abl. 
 
 ordine 
 
 legion e 
 
 -e 
 
 nomine 
 
 -e 
 
 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 
 
 NOM. 
 
 ordines 
 
 legiones 
 
 -^s 
 
 nomin a 
 
 -a 
 
 Gen. 
 
 ordinum 
 
 legion um 
 
 -um 
 
 nominum 
 
 -um 
 
 DAT. 
 
 ordin ibus 
 
 legion ibus 
 
 -ibus 
 
 nomin ibus 
 
 -ibus 
 
 Ace. 
 
 ordines 
 
 legiones 
 
 -es 
 
 nomin a 
 
 -a 
 
 Abl. 
 
 ordin ibus 
 
 legion ibus 
 
 -ibus 
 
 nomin ibus 
 
 -ibus 
 
 . 
 
 
 II. I-STEMS 
 
 
 
 100. The original distinction between the declension of con- 
 sonant stems and that of i-stems is shown by the following 
 comparison of case terminations : 
 
 Singular 
 
 Plural 
 
 CONSONANT STEMS 
 
 Accusative (u. and f.) -em 
 Ablative (m., f., and n.) -e 
 
 ' Nominative (n.) -a 
 Genitive (M.,F.,and N.)-um 
 Accusative (m. and f.) -es, 
 (N.) -a 
 
 I-STEMS 
 
 Accusative (m. and f.) -im 
 Ablative (m., f., and n.) -i 
 
 Nominative (n.) -ia 
 Genitive (m., f., and n.) -ium 
 Accusative (m. and f.) -is, 
 (N.) -ia 
 
 This distinction was maintained throughout by relatively few 
 words, the tendency being to displace the i- forms by the 
 
THIRD DECLENSION 
 
 33 
 
 corresponding forms of the consonant stems. Along with this 
 went a tendency of certain consonant stems to assume i- forms 
 in the plural. The I- forms which persisted most strongly were : 
 
 The ablative singular in -i and the nominative and accusative 
 plural in -ia for all neuters. 
 
 The genitive plural in -ium. 
 
 The accusative plural (m. and f.) in -is. 
 
 A. Pure I-Stems 
 
 101. Pure i-stems are those that have retained some or all 
 of the i- forms in the singular and all of them in the plural. 
 
 102. Masculines and Feminines — Pure /-Stems. Masculine 
 and feminine nouns of this class regularly end in -is in the 
 nominative singular, in -ium in the genitive plural, and in -is 
 or -6s in the accusative plural. They are declined as follows : 
 
 tussis, F., cough 
 
 turris, f., tower 
 
 ignis, M.,fire 
 
 
 
 Stem tussi- 
 
 Stem turri- 
 
 Stem igni- 
 
 
 
 Base tuss- 
 
 Base turr- 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 Base ign- 
 
 Terminations 
 M. and F. 
 
 NOM. 
 
 tussis 
 
 turris 
 
 ignis 
 
 -is 
 
 Gen. 
 
 tussis 
 
 turris 
 
 ignis 
 
 -is 
 
 DAT. 
 
 tussi 
 
 turri 
 
 igni 
 
 -i 
 
 Ace. 
 
 tussim 
 
 turrim (-em) 
 
 ignem 
 
 -im (-«m) 
 
 Am.. 
 
 tussi 
 
 turri (-€) 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 igni(-€) 
 
 -i(^) 
 
 NoM. 
 
 tussgs 
 
 turrfis 
 
 ign68 
 
 -6s 
 
 Gen. 
 
 tuss ium 
 
 turrium 
 
 ign ium 
 
 -ium 
 
 DAT. 
 
 tussibus 
 
 turribus 
 
 ign ibus 
 
 -ibus 
 
 Ace. 
 
 tussis (-6s) 
 
 turris (-6s) 
 
 ignis (-68) 
 
 -is (-6S) 
 
 Abl. 
 
 tussibus 
 
 turribus 
 
 ign ibus 
 
 -ibus 
 
34 
 
 THIRD DECLENSION 
 
 a. Four i-stems end in -er in the nominative singular. These are 
 imber, rain ; linter, boat ; titer, skin ; venter, belly. 
 
 b. Declined like tussis (ace. -im, abl. -i) in the singular, but lacking 
 the plural, are names of towns and rivers in -is, and sitis, Ikirsl. 
 
 c. Declined like turris (ace. -im, -em ; abl. -i, -e) are : iehns, /ever ; 
 navis, skip ; puppis, slern ; sementis, sowing; and a few others. 
 
 d. Declined like ignis (ace. -em ; abl. -i, -e) are : avis, bird; civis, 
 citizen ; classis, fleet ; collis, hill ; finis, end ; orbis, circle ; ovis, sheep ; 
 and a few others. 
 
 e. Messis, crop ; restis, rope ; and seciiris, ax^ have the accusative 
 singular in -im or -em, and in the ablative messe, reste, and securi 
 respectively. 
 
 103. Neuters — Pure /-Stems. Neuter pure i-stems end in 
 -e, -al, or -ar in the nominative singular. They have -i in the 
 ablative singular, -ium in the genitive plural, and -ia in the 
 nominative and accusative plural, 
 
 a. In the nominative singular the final i- of the stem, if retained, 
 is changed to -e: as, insigne, stem insigni-. But most neuters in 
 which the i- of the stem is preceded by al or ar lose the final stem 
 vowel and shorten the preceding a (§ 34. ^) : as, animal, stem 
 animali-. 
 
 104. Neuter pure i-stems are declined as follows : 
 
 insigne, n. 
 
 animal, n. 
 
 calcar, n. 
 
 
 decoration 
 
 animal 
 
 spur 
 
 
 Stems insigni- 
 
 animali- 
 
 calcari- 
 
 
 Bases insign- 
 
 animal- 
 
 calcar- 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 
 Terminations 
 
 NoM. insigne 
 
 animal 
 
 calcar 
 
 -e or — 
 
 Gen. insign is 
 
 animal is 
 
 calcar is 
 
 -is 
 
 DAT. Insign i 
 
 animal i 
 
 calcar i 
 
 -i 
 
 Ace. Insigne 
 
 animal 
 
 calcar 
 
 -e or — 
 
 Abl. insigni 
 
 animali 
 
 calcar i 
 
 -i 
 
 i 
 
THIRD DECLENSION 35 
 
 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 
 Terminations 
 
 No*i. 
 
 insignia 
 
 animal ia 
 
 calcaria 
 
 -U 
 
 Gen. 
 
 insignium 
 
 animalium 
 
 calcarium 
 
 -ium 
 
 DAT. 
 
 insign ibus 
 
 animal ibus 
 
 calcaribus 
 
 -ibus 
 
 Acc. 
 
 insign ia 
 
 animal ia 
 
 calcaria 
 
 -ia 
 
 Abl. 
 
 insign ibus 
 
 animal ibus 
 
 calcaribus 
 
 -ibus 
 
 a. Geographical names in -e (as, Praeneste, SOracte) have the 
 ablative in -e. R6te, //^/, has r6te or rarely rgti. 
 
 B. Mixed I-Stems 
 
 105. Mixed i-stems are either original i-stems that have lost 
 their i- forms in the singular, or consonant stems that have 
 assumed i- forms in the plural. It is often impossible to distin- 
 guish between these two classes. 
 
 Masculines and Feminines. Mixed i-stems are masculine or 
 feminine. , 
 
 They are declined like consonant stems in the singular and 
 like i-stems in the plural, and have — 
 
 -em in the accusative singular 
 -e in the ablative singular 
 -ium in the genitive plural 
 -is or -es in the accusative plural 
 
 106. Mixed i-stems include the following : 
 
 a. Nouns in -€s, genitive -is : as, caed6s (gen. caedis), nubSs 
 (gen. nubis). 
 
 b. Monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a consonant: as, ars, 
 p6ns, arz. 
 
 c. Polysyllables in -ns or -rs : as, cliSns, cohors. 
 
 d. The plurals fauc6s, optimatSs, penates. Quiritgs, Samnitgs ; the 
 monosyllables fraus, lis, mus, nix, nox ; and sometimes nouns in -tas 
 (gen. -tatis), as, civitas (genitive plural generally civitfitum, but some- 
 times civititium). 
 
36 THIRD DECLENSION 
 
 107. Mixed i-stems are declined as follows : 
 
 nubgs, F. 
 
 urbs, F. 
 
 nox, F. 
 
 cliens, m. 
 
 aetas, f. 
 
 cloud 
 
 city 
 
 night 
 
 client 
 
 age 
 
 Stems iiub(i)- 
 
 urb(i)- 
 
 noct(i)- 
 
 client(i)- 
 
 aetat(i)- 
 
 Bases nub- 
 
 urb- 
 
 noct- 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 client- 
 
 aetat- 
 
 NoM. nubes 
 
 urbs 
 
 nox 
 
 clien s 
 
 aetas 
 
 Gen. nobis 
 
 urbis 
 
 noctis 
 
 client is 
 
 aetatis 
 
 DAT. nubi 
 
 urbi 
 
 nocti 
 
 client! 
 
 aetati 
 
 Ace. nub em 
 
 urbem 
 
 noctem 
 
 client em 
 
 aetatem 
 
 Abl. nube 
 
 urbe 
 
 nocte 
 
 client e 
 
 aetate 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 NoM. nubes urbes noctes client es aetates 
 
 Gen. nubium urbium noctium clientium^ aetatum" 
 
 Dat. nubibus urbibus noctibus client ibus aetatibus 
 
 Ace. nub is (-es) urbis (-es) noctis (-es) client is- (-es) aetatis (-es) 
 
 Abl. nubibus urbibus noctibus client ibus aetatibus 
 
 a. Auris, ear, and a few other pure i-stems have lost their i- forms 
 in the accusative and ablative singular and are declined like nubes. 
 
 b. Canis, ^og, and iuvenis, youth, are consonant stems that have 
 assumed some i- forms. They have -em in the accusative singular, 
 -e in the ablative singular, -um in the genitive plural, and -6s or -is in 
 the accusative plural. 
 
 c. FamSs, hunger, always has the ablative famS. 
 
 108. The declension of i-stems was unstable at all periods of the 
 language and was confused even among the Romans themselves, early 
 Latin having i- forms which afterwards disappeared. Thus an old 
 nominative plural in -is was completely lost. Lost in most words was 
 the accusative singular in -im. Somewhat more stable was the abla- 
 tive singular in -i, while the genitive plural in -ium and the accusative 
 plural in -is were retained in nearly all words. 
 
 1 Rarely clientum. * Also aetatium. 
 
THIRD DECLENSION 
 
 37 
 
 III. IRREGULAR NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION 
 
 109. Among the nouns showing irregular case formations 
 are the following : 
 
 
 senex, m. 
 
 cars 
 
 , F. 
 
 OS, N. 
 
 Vis, F. 
 
 bOs, c. 
 
 
 old man 
 
 flesh 
 
 bone 
 
 force 
 
 ox, cow 
 
 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 • 
 
 
 NOM. 
 
 senex 
 
 caro 
 
 
 OS 
 
 vis 
 
 bos 
 
 Gen. 
 
 sen is 
 
 cam 
 
 is 
 
 OSS is 
 
 vis (rare) 
 
 bovis 
 
 DAT. 
 
 seni 
 
 cami 
 
 ossi 
 
 vi (rare) 
 
 bovi 
 
 Ace. 
 
 sen em 
 
 cam em 
 
 OS 
 
 vim 
 
 bovem 
 
 Abl. 
 
 sene 
 
 came 
 
 osse 
 
 vi 
 
 bove 
 
 
 
 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 
 
 NoM. 
 
 sen 68 
 
 cam 
 
 68 
 
 ossa 
 
 vir68 
 
 bov6s 
 
 Gen. 
 
 senum 
 
 cam ium 
 
 ossium 
 
 virium 
 
 boum 
 
 DAT. 
 
 senibus 
 
 cam 
 
 ibus 
 
 OSS ibus 
 
 viribus 
 
 bo bus (bubus) 
 
 Ace. 
 
 sen 6s 
 
 cam 
 
 68 
 
 ossa 
 
 viris (-6s) 
 
 bov6s 
 
 Abl. 
 
 senibus 
 
 cam 
 
 ibus 
 
 OSS ibus 
 
 viribus 
 
 bo bus (bubus) 
 
 
 sfls, c. 
 
 
 [uppiter, M. 
 
 nix, F. 
 
 iter, N. 
 
 
 swine 
 
 
 Jupiter 
 
 snow 
 
 march 
 
 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 
 
 NOM. 
 
 SU8 
 
 
 luppiter 
 
 nix 
 
 iter 
 
 Qf.N. 
 
 suis 
 
 
 lovis 
 
 
 nivis 
 
 itineris 
 
 DAT. 
 
 sui 
 
 
 lovi 
 
 
 nivi 
 
 itineri 
 
 Ace. 
 
 suem 
 
 
 lovem 
 
 nivem 
 
 iter 
 
 Abl. 
 
 sue 
 
 
 love 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 nive 
 
 itinere 
 
 NOM. 
 
 SU68 
 
 
 
 
 niv6s 
 
 itinera 
 
 Gen. 
 
 suum 
 
 
 
 
 niv ium 
 
 itinerum 
 
 DAT. 
 
 subu8 (su 
 
 libU8) 
 
 
 
 nivibus 
 
 itineribus 
 
 Ace. 
 
 su68 
 
 
 
 
 niv6s 
 
 itinera 
 
 Abl. 
 
 subu8 (su 
 
 libus) 
 
 
 
 nivibus 
 
 itineribus 
 
38 GREEK NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION 
 
 a. Like sus is declined grus, crajie, except that the dative and 
 ablative plural are always gniibus. lecur, n., live?-, has genitive iecoris 
 or iecinoris. Supellex, y., furniture, has genitive supellectilis, ablative 
 supellectili or -e ; there is no plural. 
 
 The Locative Case 
 
 110. The locative singular for nouns of the third declension 
 ends in -i or -e. 
 
 ruri (rarely rure), in the country 
 Carthagini or Carthagine, at Carthage 
 
 The locative plural ends in -ibus and is not distinguished in 
 form from the ablative : as, Trallibus, at Tralles. 
 
 Greek Nouns of the Third Declension 
 
 111. Greek nouns of the third declension are often entirely 
 regular, but many, especially proper names, show Greek ter- 
 minations in the following cases : 
 
 fl. Genitive singular in -os : as, tigridos. 
 
 h. Accusative singular in -n or -a : as, basin, tigrida, aethera. 
 
 c. Vocative singular like the stem : as, Pericle, Orpheu, Atla. 
 
 d. Nominative plural in -€s : as, heroes. 
 
 e. Accusative plural in -Ss : as, lampadSs. 
 
 112. Examples of these 
 following" ■ 
 
 peculiarities are seen 
 
 in the 
 
 A VyAX\_f TV J.AX^ • 
 
 hSras, M. 
 
 lampas, f. 
 
 
 basis, F. 
 
 tigris, c. 
 
 nais, F. 
 
 hero 
 
 torch 
 
 
 base 
 
 tiger 
 
 naiad 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 
 
 NoM. hero 8 
 
 lampas 
 
 
 basis 
 
 tigris 
 
 nais 
 
 Gen. hero is 
 
 lampados 
 
 
 baseos 
 
 tigris (-idos) 
 
 naidos 
 
 DAT. heroi 
 
 lampadi 
 
 
 basi 
 
 tigri 
 
 naidi 
 
 Ace. hero a 
 
 lampada 
 
 
 basin 
 
 tigrin (-id a) 
 
 naida 
 
 Abl. heroe 
 
 lampade 
 
 
 basi 
 
 tigri (-ide) 
 
 naide 
 
 1 
 
GREEK NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION 39 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 NoM. herogs lam pad 6s basCs tigrfis naidCs 
 
 Gen. heroum lampadum basium (-eCn) tigrium naidum 
 
 U., A. heroibus lampadibus basibus tigribus naidibus 
 
 Ace. hgrofis lampadis basis (-eis) tigris (-idfts) naidfts 
 
 NOM. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 DAT. 
 
 Ace. 
 Abl. 
 Voc. 
 
 Dido 
 
 Didonis (Didfls) 
 Didoni (Dido) 
 Didonem (Dido) 
 Didone (Dido) 
 Dido 
 
 GREEK PROPER NAMES 
 
 Simois 
 
 Simoentis 
 
 Simoenti 
 
 Simoenta 
 
 Simoente 
 
 Simois 
 
 NoM. Orpheus 
 Gen. Orphei (-eOs) 
 Orphei (-e6) 
 
 Orphea (-um) 
 
 DAT. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Abl. 
 Voc. 
 
 Orphe5 
 Orpheu 
 
 Pericl6s 
 Periclis (-i) 
 Pericli (-i) 
 
 Periclem (-ea, -6n) 
 
 Pericle 
 Pericles (-€) 
 
 Capys 
 
 Capyos . 
 
 Capyi 
 
 Capyn 
 
 Capye 
 
 Capy 
 
 Paris 
 
 Paridis 
 
 Paridi 
 
 {Paridem 
 Parim (-in) 
 Paride (Pari) 
 Pari 
 
 Note. The regular Latin forms may be used for most of the above. 
 
 a. Like Simois are declined stems in ant- (nominative in -fis) : as, 
 Atlas, -antis. 
 
 b. In a few Greek titles of books -On is found in the genitive plural : 
 as, MetamorphOseOn, of the Metamorphoses (Ovid's well-known poem). 
 
 Gender in the Third Declension 
 
 113. There are no rules for gender in the third declension 
 that do not present numerous exceptions. The gender of many 
 nouns is determined by the general principles laid down in 
 vj§64ff. The most important rules for the others, with their 
 principal exceptions, are the following : 
 
40 GENDER IN THE THIRD DECLENSION 
 
 114. Masculine are nouns in -or, -os, -er, -6s (gen. -itis), -ex 
 (gen. -icis) : as, color, flOs, imber, gurges (gurgitis), vertex (verticis). 
 
 Exceptions 
 
 a. Feminine are arbor, tree ; linter, skiff. 
 
 b. Neuter are aequor, sea ; cor, keart ; marmor, marble ; 6s, mouth ; 
 cadaver, dead body ; iter, way ; v6r, spring ; and names of plants and 
 trees in -er : as, acer, maple. 
 
 115. Fe^ninirie are nouns in -6, -is, -x, and in -s preceded by 
 a consonant or by any long vowel except 6 : as, legio, avis, arx, 
 urbs, nubes, civitas, virtus. 
 
 Exceptions 
 
 a. Masculine are: 
 
 1 . serm5, talk ; cardo, hinge ; margo, edge ; ordO, order ; turbo, 
 storm ; and nouns in -io denoting material objects : as, pugio, poniard. 
 
 2. Nouns in -nis or -guis : as, ignis, Jire\ sanguis, blood. Also : 
 
 axis, axle fustis, club i^iscis, Jish 
 
 coUis, hill lapis, sto7ie postis, post 
 
 ensis, sword mensis, month pulvis, dust 
 
 fascis, bundle orbis, ciixle sentis, brier 
 
 3. Nouns in -ex (gen. -icis), and grex, gregis, herd, and r6x, regis, king. 
 
 4. d6ns, tooth ; f 6ns, fountain ; m6ns, moufitain ; p6n8, bridge. 
 
 5. ari6s, ram-, paries, wall; -pes, foot. 
 
 6. mus, mouse. 
 
 b. Neuter are vas (vasis), dish ; criis, leg; ius, law; riis, country. 
 
 116. Neuter are nouns in -e, -al, -ar, -n, -ur, -us : as, mare, 
 animal, calcar, n6men, r6bur, corpus ; also lac, milk, and caput, head. 
 
 Exceptions 
 
 fl. Masculine are i^va^n, flute-player ; vultur, vulture; lepus, hare. 
 b. Feminine is pecus (gen. -udis), beast. 
 
FOURTH DECLENSION 
 
 4' 
 
 THE FOURTH DECLENSION - t^-STEMS 
 
 117. The stem of nouns of the fourth declension ends in 
 u- : as, friictu-, stem of fractus. 
 
 118. The nominative singular of nouns of the fourth declen- 
 sion ends in -us, masculine ; or in -G, neuter. In masculines 
 the nominative is formed by adding -s to the stem : as, friictu-s, 
 fniit. The nominative singular of neuters is the simple stem 
 with -u lengthened : as, comfl, honi. 
 
 119. Nouns of the fourth declension are declined as follows : 
 
 
 fructus, M. 
 
 , fruit 
 
 cornfi, N. 
 
 , horn 
 
 
 Stem friictu-; li 
 
 ASE fruct- 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 Stem cornu-; 
 
 Bask corn- 
 
 
 Terminations 
 
 Terminations 
 
 NOM. 
 
 fructus 
 
 -us 
 
 coma 
 
 -a 
 
 Gen. 
 
 fructus 
 
 -as 
 
 comas 
 
 -as 
 
 DAT. 
 
 fructui (-U) 
 
 -Ui (-U) 
 
 corn a 
 
 -a 
 
 Ace. 
 
 fructum 
 
 -um 
 
 coma 
 
 -a 
 
 Abl. 
 
 fructG 
 
 -u 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 coma 
 
 -a 
 
 NOM. 
 
 fructfis 
 
 -fls 
 
 comua 
 
 -ua 
 
 Gen. 
 
 fructuum 
 
 -uum 
 
 corn uum 
 
 -uum 
 
 DAT. 
 
 f ruct ibus 
 
 -ibus 
 
 corn ibus 
 
 -ibus 
 
 Ace. 
 
 fructus 
 
 -us 
 
 comua 
 
 -ua 
 
 AllL. 
 
 f ruct ibus 
 
 -ibus 
 
 com ibus 
 
 -ibus 
 
 Note. Cornu, horn ; genu, knee ; and verii, spit, are the only neuters 
 of the fourth declension in common use. 
 
 Exceptions to Gender in the Fourth Declension 
 
 120. The following nouns in -us arc feminine : acus. needle ; 
 domus, lioitse \ Idus (plural), Ides\ manus, kand\ porticus, colon- 
 nade ; tribus, tribe. 
 
42 FIFTH DECLENSION 
 
 Peculiar Case Forms in the Fourth Declension 
 
 121. a. A genitive singular in -i (following the second declension) 
 is common in nouns in -tus in early writers. Other early genitive 
 endings are -uis and -uos. 
 
 Thus, senati, senatuis, senatuos occur for the regular senatus. The 
 form senati is found as late as Cicero. 
 
 b. A genitive plural in -um, following the analogy of o-stems 
 (cf. § 88. d), is sometimes used, especially by the poets : as, currum 
 for curruum. 
 
 c. In the dative and ablative plural the original ending was -ubus, 
 and this is retained in classical times in arcus and tribus. Some 
 words have both -ibus and -ubus. 
 
 d. The word domus, f., house, shows forms of both the fourth 
 and second declensions. The locative is domi (rarely domui), at home. 
 In the other cases it is declined as follows : 
 
 
 domus, F. 
 
 house or 
 
 home 
 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 NOM. 
 
 domus 
 
 
 domus 
 
 Gen. 
 
 domus, domi 
 
 
 domuum, domorum 
 
 DAT. 
 
 domui, domo 
 
 
 domibus 
 
 Ace. 
 
 domum 
 
 
 domos, domus 
 
 Abl. 
 
 domo, domu 
 
 
 domibus 
 
 Note. The genitive domi and the dative domo are early forms. The 
 ablative domu is rare, and the genitive plural domorum is poetical or late. 
 
 e. The nouns iussu, by the co?nmafid\ iniussu, without the com- 
 mand \ and natd, by birth, are found in the ablative singular only. 
 /. In early Latin the ablative singular ended in -ud : as, magistratud. 
 
 THE FIFTH DECLENSION - £-STEMS 
 
 122. The stem of nouns of the fifth declension ends in e-. 
 The nominative singular is formed from the stem by adding -s : 
 as, di6-s, day. 
 
FIFTH DECLENSION 
 
 43 
 
 123. Nouns of the fifth declension are declined as follows : 
 
 dies, M., day 
 
 res 
 
 , F., thing 
 
 fides, F., faith 
 
 
 Stem die-; Bask di- 
 
 Stem 
 
 re- ; Base r- 
 
 Stem fid^ ; Base fid- 
 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 I 
 
 ERM I NATIONS 
 
 NOM. 
 
 dies 
 
 
 res 
 
 fides 
 
 -es 
 
 Gen. 
 
 diei 
 
 
 r6i 
 
 fidgi 
 
 -ei 
 
 DAT. 
 
 diei 
 
 
 r6i 
 
 fidSi 
 
 -«i 
 
 Acc. 
 
 diem 
 
 
 rem 
 
 fid em 
 
 -em 
 
 Abl. 
 
 die 
 
 
 re 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 fide 
 
 -€ 
 
 No.M. 
 
 dies 
 
 
 res 
 
 
 -H 
 
 Gen. 
 
 dierum 
 
 
 r6nim 
 
 
 -erum 
 
 DAT. 
 
 diebus 
 
 
 rebus 
 
 
 -ebus 
 
 Acc. 
 
 dies ' 
 
 
 res 
 
 
 -es 
 
 Abl. 
 
 diebus 
 
 
 rebus 
 
 
 -ebus 
 
 Note i. The e- of the stem is regularly shortened before -m in the 
 accusative singular (§ 34. b). 
 
 Note 2. The e- of the stem is shortened in the genitive and dative 
 singular of fides, spes, and res in classical Latin. 
 
 Gender in the Fifth Declension 
 
 124. All nouns of the fifth declension are feminine except 
 dies, day (usually masculine), and meridies, midday (always mas- 
 culine). But dies is sometimes feminine in the singular when 
 it denotes an appointed time or extent of time. 
 
 cSnstituta die, on a set day longa dies, a long time 
 
 Peculiar Case Forms in the Fifth Declension 
 
 125. a. Only dies and res of the nouns of the fifth declension are 
 declined throughout. Most of them have no plural forms at all, but 
 a few have the nominative and accusative, among which are acies, 
 line of battle; f&ciia, /aee \ species, j/^^/; s^a, Aope. 
 
 b. A genitive and dative singular in -€ instead of -li are sometimes 
 found : as, die for diei ; and a genitive in -i also occurs : as, dii for diei. 
 
44 DEFECTIVE NOUNS 
 
 DEFECTIVE NOUNS 
 NOUNS USED ONLY IN THE SINGULAR 
 
 126. Some nouns are limited by their signification to the 
 singular. These are especially : 
 
 a. Names of Persons and Places : as, Caesar, Roma. But the 
 
 plural may be used to indicate two or more persons or places having 
 the same name : as, Caesares, the Ccesars ; Galliae, the two Gauls 
 (Cisalpine and Transalpine) or to define persons as of a certain 
 class or character : as, Scipiones, meft like Scipio. 
 
 b. Names of Materials : as, aurum, gol<l; aes, bro7ize. But the plural 
 may be used to denote pieces or kinds of material, or objects made 
 of it : as, nives, snowflakes ; vina, wifies ; aera, bronzes. 
 
 c. Abstract Nouns : as, metus, fear ; fortitude, courage. But the 
 plural may be used to denote insta?ices or kitids of the quality : as, 
 calSres, times of heat \ odia, kinds of hatred. The poets often use the 
 plural of abstract nouns in the sense of the singular. 
 
 NOUNS USED ONLY IN THE PLURAL 
 
 127. Some nouns are commonly or exclusively found only in 
 the plural. Such are : ' 
 
 a. Many Names of Towns.^ 
 
 Athenae, Athens Pompeii, Pompeii 
 
 b. Most Names of Festivals and Games. 
 
 Olympia, the Olympic games 
 Bacchanalia, the festival of Bacchus 
 
 c. Names of Classes. 
 
 poster!, descendatits optimates, the upper classes 
 
 maiores, ancestors penates. household gods 
 
 liberi, children Quirites, citizens (of Rome) 
 
 Some names of towns are either singular or plural : as, Pergamum or 
 Pergama, Pergamum. 
 
DEFECTIVE NOUNS 45 
 
 d. Words Plural by Signification. Many of these are translated 
 into English by nouns in the singular. 
 
 angustiae, narrow pass indutiae. /ruce 
 
 arma, cin/is insidiae, ambush 
 
 artvis. Joints Kalendae, Calends 
 
 cihdiXidiy food minae, threats 
 
 divitiae, riches moenia, city walls 
 
 epulae, banquet Nonae, Agones 
 
 exsequiae, funeral obsequies nuptiae, wedding 
 
 fores, double doors reliquiae, remains 
 
 hiberna, winter quarters tenebrae, darkness 
 
 Idus, Ides viscera, y7^j/r 
 
 Note. The poets often use the plural for the singular, usually for the 
 sake of the meter, but often for no apparent reason. 
 
 ora (for h%),face sceptra (for sceptnun), scepter 
 
 NOUNS DEFECTIVE IN CERTAIN CASES 
 
 128. a. Indeclinable Nouns. Some neuters are used only as nomina- 
 tive and accusative singular and so appear as indeclinable. These are : 
 
 fas, right instar, likeness opus, need 
 
 nefas, wrong nihil (nil), nothing secus, sex 
 
 b. Nouns used in One Case only. Some nouns of the fourth declen- 
 sion are found only in the ablative singular (§ 121. <r). Also: 
 
 pondd, N., by weight mane, n., morning sponte, f., voluntarily 
 
 Note. Mane is used also as an indeclinable accusative. 
 
 The accusative plural, infitias, denial, is used, but only with e6, go. 
 
 c. Nouns used in Two Cases only. 
 
 fors, F., forte, chance, nominative and ablative singular. 
 
 foras. F., foris. out 0/ doors, accusative and ablative plural, used as 
 
 adverbs. 
 
 d. Defective Nouns used in More than Two Cases. Most of these 
 are shown in the table on the next page. 
 
 e. Most nouns of the fifth declension want the whole or part of 
 the plural (§ 125. «). 
 
46 
 
 DEFECTIVE NOUNS 
 
 
 ||ilH|lll!|t|i|tiNl 
 
 < 
 
 < 
 
 calcibus 
 
 cordibus 
 
 crucibus 
 
 dapibus 
 
 facibus 
 
 frugibus 
 
 impetibus 
 
 lucibus 
 
 necibus 
 
 opibus 
 
 oribus 
 
 pacibus 
 
 precibus 
 
 solibus 
 
 vadibus 
 vicibus 
 
 c3 
 < 
 
 calcis, -es 
 
 corda 
 
 cruces 
 
 dapes 
 
 faces • 
 
 fruges 
 
 iiira 
 
 luces 
 
 mella 
 
 neces 
 
 opes 
 
 ora 
 
 paces 
 
 preces 
 
 rura 
 
 soles 
 
 tCira 
 
 vades 
 
 vices 
 
 < 
 
 calcibus 
 
 cordibus 
 
 crucibus 
 
 dapibus 
 
 facibus 
 
 frugibus 
 
 lucibus 
 
 necibus 
 
 opibus 
 
 oribus 
 
 pacibus 
 
 precibus 
 
 solibus 
 
 vadibus 
 vicibus 
 
 O 
 
 frugum 
 iurum ^ 
 
 opum 
 precum 
 
 o 
 
 
 < 
 
 D 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 calcem 
 
 cor 
 
 crucem 
 
 dapem 
 
 facem 
 
 frugem 
 
 impetum 
 
 ius 
 
 lucem 
 
 mel 
 
 ncminem 
 
 necem 
 
 opem 
 
 OS 
 
 pacem 
 
 precem 
 
 rQs 
 
 solem 
 
 tus 
 
 vadem 
 
 vicem 
 
 
 1 ■£ ■ 'i 
 
 111 ills:! 11 1 ■g||sii;g| 
 
 ;5 
 
 calcis 
 
 cordis 
 
 crucis 
 
 dapis, F. 
 
 facis 
 
 frugis,F. 
 
 iuris 
 lucis 
 mellis 
 
 necis 
 opis, F. 
 oris 
 pacis 
 
 ruris 
 solis 
 turis 
 vadis 
 vicis, F. 
 
 s 
 
 z 
 
 calx, F. 
 cor, N. 
 crux, F. 
 
 fax, F. 
 
 impetus, M. 
 ius, N. 
 lux, F. 
 mel, N. 
 nem6,2 c. 
 nex, F. 
 
 OS, N. 
 
 pax, F. 
 rus, N. 
 
 sol, M. 
 tus, N. 
 
 vas, M. 
 
HETEROCLITES 47 
 
 VARIABLE NOUNS 
 
 129. Nouns may vary in declension, in gender, or in 
 meaning. 
 
 NOUNS THAT VARY IN DECLENSION 
 
 130. A few nouns are partly of one declension and partly 
 of another. Such nouns are called heteroclitcs. 
 
 a. Some nouns of four syllables vary between the first and fifth 
 declensions. 
 
 materia or materies, material saevitia or saevities. ////j 
 
 6. Some nouns vary between the second and fourth declensions, 
 having a nominative in -um of the second declension and another in 
 -us of the fourth : as, fiventum or gventus, event. For the declension 
 of domus, house, see §121.//. 
 
 c. The name heterodite is applied also to nouns that vary between 
 different stems of the same declension. 
 
 femur, \., thigh, gen. femoris or feminis 
 
 iecur, \., liver^ gen. iocineris, iocinoris, or iecoris 
 
 d. Neuter plural names of festivals in -ilia (as, Situmilia), ancile, 
 s?iiehi, and a few other nouns regularly of the third declension have 
 the genitive plural in -ium or -finim. 
 
 €. Among other heteroclitcs of frequent occurrence are : 
 
 epulum, \., feast; plural epulae, F., singular in sense. 
 
 fames, f., hunger, regularly of the third declension, has ablative famS 
 
 of the fifth, 
 iugerum, n., acre, generally of the second declension in the singular, 
 
 and of the third in the plural, 
 pecus, 's.,Jlock, gen. pecoris, etc., has also nom. pecfl, abl. pecfi, nom. 
 
 and ace. plural pecua. gen. pecuum. 
 requies, F., rest. gen. requietis. etc., has also ace. requiem, abl. requiS. 
 
 The dative singular and the entire plural are lacking, 
 vas, N., Tessel, gen. vasis, etc., of the third declension in the singular; 
 
 but vasa, vasSrum, etc.. of the second declension in the plural, 
 vesper, m.. evening, has gen. yesperis or vesperi. ace. vesperum. abl. 
 
 vespere or vesperd. loc. vesperi, no plural. 
 
43 
 
 VARIATIONS IN GENDER AND MEANING 
 
 NOUNS THAT VARY IN GENDER 
 
 131. The following nouns of the second declension are 
 declined as either masculine or neuter : 
 
 balteus or balteum, belt 
 clipeus or clipeum, shield 
 
 pilleus or pilleum, cap 
 vallus or vallum, rajnpa?'t 
 
 132. The following nouns are of one gender in the singular 
 and of another in the plural : 
 
 balneum, n., bath 
 carbasus, f., sail 
 epulum, yi., feast 
 frenum, n., « bit 
 iocus, ^i.^jest 
 locus, M., place 
 rastrum, n., rake 
 
 balneae, f., bath house 
 
 carbasa, x., sails 
 
 epulae, y.^ feast 
 
 freni, m., or frena, x., bits or bridle 
 
 ioca, N,, or ioci, u., Jests 
 
 loca, N., places ; loci, m., passages^ topics 
 
 rastri, M., or rastra, x., rakes 
 
 Note. Balneum and epulum are also heteroclites (§ 130). 
 
 NOUNS THAT VARY IN MEANING 
 
 133. Some nouns have one meaning in the singular and 
 another in the plural, or are plural in form and singular in 
 sense. Among these are : 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 aedes, f., temple 
 auxilium, 's.,.help 
 career, m., prison 
 
 castrum, \.,fort 
 
 comitium, y^., place of assembly 
 
 copia, Y., plenty 
 
 finis, M., end 
 
 fortQna, y.^ fortune 
 
 gratia, y., favor 
 
 impedimentum, n., hindrance 
 
 littera. f., letter (of the alphabet) 
 
 locus, M.^ place, spot 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 aedes, house 
 
 auxilia, auxiliary troops 
 
 carceres, barriers or stalls (of a 
 
 race course) 
 castra, camp 
 comitia, an election 
 copiae, troops, resources 
 fines, borders, tertitory 
 fortunae, possessions 
 gratiae, thanks 
 impedimenta, baggage 
 litterae, epistle, literature 
 loci, passages (in books), topics 
 
NAMES OF PERSONS 
 
 49 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 m58, M., habit, custom 
 opera, f., work 
 rostrum, x., beak (of a ship) 
 yigilia, f., wakefulness 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 mOres, character 
 operae, day laborers 
 rdstra, speaker's platform 
 yigiliae, watchmen, sentinels 
 
 NAMES OF PERSONS 
 
 I. NAMES OF CITIZENS 
 
 134. In classical times a Roman citizen regularly had three 
 names : ( i ) the praenOmen, corresponding to our Christian, or 
 given, name ; (2) the nOmen, or name of the gfins or clan ; 
 (3) the cognomen, or name of the family. 
 
 Note. Thus, in Marcus TuUius Cicero we have Marcus, the praenomen ; 
 Tullius, the name of the gens ; and Cicero, the name of the family. 
 
 a. The praenOmina were never very numerous, and from these the 
 several gentgs were in the habit of selecting a few only, which were 
 repeated over and over again. In Latin prose these were regularly 
 abbreviated as follows : 
 
 A., Aulus 
 App., Appius 
 C, Gaius 
 Co., Gnaeus 
 D., Decimus 
 K., Kaes5 
 
 L., Lucius 
 M., Marcus 
 M'., Manius 
 Mam., Mamercus 
 N., Numerius 
 P., Publius 
 
 Q., Quintus 
 
 Ser., Servius 
 
 Sex., Sextus 
 
 Sp., Spurius 
 
 T., Titus 
 
 Ti. or Tib., Tiberius 
 
 Notp:. In the abbreviations C. and Cn., C. has the value of G. 
 (§ 2. a). 
 
 b. The nOmen, the name of the ggns or clan, regularly ends in 
 -iu8, and is really an adjective derived from the name of the real or 
 supposed founder of the clan. 
 
 NoTK. So, according to Vergil, the Julian gSns derived its name, lulius, 
 from liilus, the son of JEneas. Usually a large number of families belonged 
 to the same gins. 
 
50 NAMES OF PERSONS 
 
 c. The cognSmina, or family names, are derived from common 
 nouns or adjectives, applied originally, in many cases, because of some 
 personal peculiarity or occupation, like such English surnames as 
 White, Potter, Miller, etc. 
 
 Note. Thus, Cicero is from cicer, a chick-pea \ Barbatus signifies 
 bearded \ Scipio, a staff; Yignlus, a poUer ; etc. 
 
 Later these names continued to be used after their original meaning 
 had ceased to apply. 
 
 Sometimes a family in a gens became sufficiently numerous to 
 start a branch or family of its own. In that case both the old and the 
 new family name would be used and there would be two cognomina : 
 as, Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica. 
 
 d. Sometimes a Roman was given a name as a mark of honor to 
 commemorate some great achievement, usually of a military character. 
 This name (agnomen) was added to his three regular names. 
 
 Note. Thus Publius Cornelius Scipio, because of his victories in Africa, 
 received the additional name Africanus. 
 
 e. A son adopted into another family took the full name of his 
 adopted father, and added to that the name of his own gens in the 
 form of an adjective with the ending -anus. 
 
 Note. Thus, one of the sons of Lucius y^milius Paulus was adopted by 
 Publius Cornelius Scipio, and thereupon took the name Piiblius Cornelius 
 Scipio Aemilianus. 
 
 IL NAMES OF WOMEN 
 
 135. Women had no cognomen and, in classical times, rarely 
 a praenomen, but were known only by the feminine form of the 
 name of their g6ns. 
 
 Thus, the daughter of Marcus TuUius Cicero was TuUia. A second 
 daughter would have been called TuUia Secunda, a third TuUia Tertia, 
 and so on. Or of two daughters the older would be Maior and the 
 younger Minor. Often the name of a wife or daughter is accom- 
 panied by that of her husband or father in the genitive : as, Caecilia 
 Metelli, Ccccilia, daughter of Metellus. 
 
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES 51 
 
 III. NAMES OF SLAVES 
 
 136. A slave was merely a piece of property and had no legal 
 rights. His master, therefore, could give him any name that 
 suited his fancy. Often slaves were given the names of foreign 
 potentates or were named from the country of. their origin : 
 as, Pharnac6s, Syrus {Syrian), Afer {African). If set free, a slave 
 usually took the praenOmen and nOmen of his former master, and 
 added his servile name as cognomen. 
 
 Thus, Terence, the famous comic poet, was a slave in his youth 
 and was given the name Afer, from the country of his birth. His 
 master, Publius Terentius Lucanus, set him free and Terence as- 
 sumed the name Publius Terentius Afer. 
 
 Note. Sections 134-136 apply to the system of naming employed dur- 
 ing the classical jjeriod. In later times much confusion arose both in the 
 number and in the order of names. 
 
 ADJECTIVES 
 
 137. An adjective is a word that describes or limits a noun, 
 and generally denotes quality. 
 
 bonus, good malus, bad gravis, heavy leris, light 
 
 138. Adjectives are, in general, formed and declined like 
 nouns, but distinguish gender by different forms of the same 
 word. According to their inflection they are divided into : 
 
 I. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions. 
 II. Adjectives of the Third Declension. 
 
 I. ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS 
 
 139. Adjectives of the first and second declensions (ft- and 
 o-stems) are declined in the masculine like dominus, pucr, or 
 ager ; in the feminine like domina ; and in the neuter like pilum. 
 
52 
 
 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES 
 
 140. Masculine 
 
 declined like dominus 
 
 (§ 84) : 
 
 
 
 bonus, 
 
 bona, bonum, good 
 
 
 
 Stems 
 
 M. AND N 
 
 . bono-, F. bona- ; 
 
 , Base bon- 
 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 
 
 
 IV^ASC. 
 
 
 Fem. 
 
 
 Neut. 
 
 NOM. 
 
 bonus 
 
 
 bona 
 
 
 bonum 
 
 Gen. 
 
 boni 
 
 
 bonae 
 
 
 boni 
 
 DAT. 
 
 bono 
 
 
 bonae 
 
 
 bono 
 
 Ace. 
 
 bonum 
 
 
 bonam 
 
 
 bonum 
 
 Abl. 
 
 bono 
 
 
 bona 
 
 
 bono 
 
 Voc. 
 
 bone 
 
 
 bona 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 
 bonum 
 
 NOM. 
 
 boni 
 
 
 bonae 
 
 
 bona 
 
 Gen. 
 
 bonorum 
 
 bonarum 
 
 
 bonorum 
 
 DAT. 
 
 bonis 
 
 
 bonis 
 
 
 bonis 
 
 Ace. 
 
 bonos 
 
 
 bonas 
 
 
 bona 
 
 Abl. 
 
 bonis 
 
 
 bonis 
 
 
 bonis 
 
 a. The genitive singular masculine and neuter of adjectives in -ius 
 ends in -ii and the vocative masculine in -ie; not in -i, as in nouns 
 (§ 88. b and c). 
 
 b. The possessive pronominal adjective mens, my, has mi in the 
 vocative masculine singular. 
 
 141. Masculine declined like puer (§85): 
 
 liber, libera, liberum, free 
 Stems M. and N. libero-, F. libera- ; Base liber- 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 NOM. 
 
 liber 
 
 libera 
 
 liberum 
 
 Gen. 
 
 liberi 
 
 liber ae 
 
 liberi 
 
 DAT. 
 
 liber 6 
 
 liber ae 
 
 libero 
 
 Ace. 
 
 liberum 
 
 liber am 
 
 liberum 
 
 Abl. 
 
 liber 6 
 
 libera 
 
 libero 
 
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES 
 
 53 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 NOM. 
 
 liber i 
 
 liber ae 
 
 libera 
 
 Gen. 
 
 liber 6rum 
 
 liber ftrum 
 
 liber Orum 
 
 DAT. 
 
 liber is 
 
 liber is 
 
 liberis 
 
 Ace. 
 
 liberCs 
 
 liber fts 
 
 libera 
 
 Abl. 
 
 liberie 
 
 liber is 
 
 liberis 
 
 142. Masculine declined like ager (§ 85): 
 
 pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum, pretty 
 Stems M. anu N. pulchro-, F. pulchra- ; Hask pulchr- 
 
 
 
 .SINGULAR 
 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 NoM. 
 
 pulcher 
 
 pulchra 
 
 pulchrum 
 
 Gen. 
 
 pulchr i 
 
 pulchr ae 
 
 pulchr i 
 
 DAT. 
 
 pulchrO 
 
 pulchr ae 
 
 pulchr 6 
 
 Ace. 
 
 pulchrum 
 
 pulchr am 
 
 pulchrum 
 
 Abl. 
 
 pulchr 
 
 pulchra 
 plural 
 
 pulchr 6 
 
 NOM. 
 
 pulchr i 
 
 pulchr ae 
 
 pulchra 
 
 Gen. 
 
 pulchr Orum 
 
 pulchr ftrum 
 
 pulchr Orum 
 
 DAT. 
 
 pulchr is 
 
 pulchr is 
 
 pulchr is 
 
 Ace. 
 
 pulchr 5s 
 
 pulchr fts 
 
 pulchra 
 
 AUL. 
 
 pulchr is 
 
 pulchr is 
 
 pulchr is 
 
 a. Most adjectives in -er are declined like pulcher, but the following 
 are declined like liber : 
 
 asper, rough lacer, torn miser, wretched tener, tender 
 
 Also compounds in -fer and -ger {hearing), as, mortifer {death- 
 bearing), deadly, ftliger {wing-bearing), winged \ and sometimes dexter, 
 right. In these the e belongs to the stem (§85. a). 
 
 b. The adjective satur, /////, is declined satur, satura, satunim. 
 
54 
 
 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES 
 
 The Nine Irregular Adjectives 
 
 143. The following nine adjectives, with their compounds, 
 have the genitive singular in -ius and the dative in -i in all 
 genders. Otherwise they are declined like bonus, liber, or pulcher. 
 
 alius, alia, aliud, other, another 
 
 (of several) 
 alter, altera, alterum, the one, the 
 
 other (of two) 
 unus, -a, -um, one, alone ; only (in 
 
 the plural) 
 uUus, -a, -um, any 
 
 nuUus, -a, -um, none, no 
 solus, -a, -um, alone 
 lotus, -a, -um, all, whole, entire 
 uter, utra, utrum, which ? (of two) 
 neuter, neutra, neutrum, neither 
 (of two) 
 
 fl. The singular of these is declined as follows : 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 NOM. 
 
 null us 
 
 nulla 
 
 nullum 
 
 alius 
 
 alia 
 
 aliud 
 
 Gen. 
 
 nulli'us 
 
 nulli'us 
 
 nulli'us 
 
 (ali'us) 
 
 (ali'us) 
 
 (all 'us) 
 
 DAT. 
 
 nulli 
 
 nulli 
 
 nulli 
 
 alii 
 
 alii 
 
 alii 
 
 Ace. 
 
 nullum 
 
 null am 
 
 nullum 
 
 alium 
 
 aliam 
 
 aliud 
 
 Abl. 
 
 null 6 
 
 nulla 
 
 null 6 
 
 alio 
 
 alia 
 
 alio 
 
 The plural is regular. 
 
 ft. Note the peculiar neuter skigular ending in -d of alius. The 
 genitive alius (contracted from aliius) is rare ; alterius, the genitive 
 of alter, or alienus, aiiother's, is commonly used instead. 
 
 c. The long i of the genitive -ius may be short in verse ; so often 
 in alterius and regularly in utriusque. 
 
 II. ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION 
 
 144. Adjectives of the third declension are of the following 
 classes : 
 
 A. Adjectives of Three Terminations, having a distinct form 
 for the nominative singular in each gender. 
 
 B. Adjectives of Two Terminations, having the nominative 
 singular alike in the masculine and feminine, but a different 
 form for the neuter. 
 
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES 
 
 55 
 
 C. Adjectives of One Termination, having the same form 
 for all three genders in the nominative singular. 
 
 145. Adjectives of the third declension include both con- 
 sonant stems and i-stems, but all consonant stems (except 
 comparatives and a few other words) have assumed i- forms 
 and show the following characteristic terminations : 
 
 -i in the ablative singular ; 
 
 -ia in the nominative and accusative plural neuter ; 
 
 -ium in the genitive plural ; 
 
 -is as well as -€8 in the accusative plural masculine and feminine. 
 
 A. Adjectives of Three Terminations 
 
 146. Adjectives of three terminations end in -cr in the nom- 
 inative masculine singular, and the stem ends in ri-. They are 
 declined as follows : 
 
 
 
 ftcer, 
 
 ftcris, acre, 
 
 keen 
 
 
 
 
 Stem icri- ; Base icr- 
 
 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 
 Fkm. 
 
 
 Neut. 
 
 NOM. 
 
 acer 
 
 
 acris 
 
 
 acre 
 
 Gen. 
 
 acris 
 
 
 acris 
 
 
 acris 
 
 DAT. 
 
 acri 
 
 
 acri 
 
 
 acri 
 
 Acc. 
 
 acrem 
 
 
 acrem 
 
 
 acre 
 
 Abl. 
 
 acri 
 
 
 acri 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 
 acri 
 
 NoM. 
 
 acres 
 
 
 acres 
 
 
 acrU 
 
 Gen. 
 
 acrium 
 
 
 acrium 
 
 
 acrium 
 
 DAT. 
 
 acribus 
 
 
 acribus 
 
 
 acribus 
 
 Acc. 
 
 acris (-*8) 
 
 
 acris (-es) 
 
 acria 
 
 Abl. 
 
 acribus 
 
 
 acribus 
 
 
 acribus 
 
56 
 
 DECLENSION OF. ADJECTIVES 
 
 a. To this class belong the names of the months in -ber, found 
 only in the masculine and feminine : as, October, Octobris. 
 
 h. Celer, celeris, celere, swift, in which the second e belongs to the 
 stem, is declined like acer. Volucer, Joying, generally has volucrum 
 in the genitive plural. 
 
 Note. Some adjectives of this type, as terrestris, use the feminine forms 
 for the masculine, or, more rarely, the masculine for the feminine. This 
 peculiarity is found especially in early. or late Latin and in poetry. 
 
 B. Adjectives of Two Terminations 
 
 147. Adjectives of two terminations end in -is in the nom- 
 inative singular masculine and feminine, and the stem ends in 
 i-. They are declined as follows : 
 
 omnis, omne, every, all 
 Stem omni-; Base omn- 
 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 
 M. AND F. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 M. AND F. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 NOM. 
 
 omnis 
 
 omne 
 
 omnes 
 
 omnia 
 
 Gen. 
 
 omnis 
 
 omnis 
 
 omnium 
 
 omnium 
 
 DAT. 
 
 - omni 
 
 omni 
 
 omnibus 
 
 omnibus 
 
 Ace. 
 
 omn em 
 
 omne 
 
 omnis (-es) 
 
 omnia 
 
 Abl. 
 
 omni 
 
 omni 
 
 omn ibus 
 
 omnibus 
 
 Note. Adjectives of this type sometimes have an ablative in -e in 
 poetry, very rarely in prose. 
 
 C. Adjectives of One Termination 
 
 48. Adjectives of one termination have in the nominative 
 singular the same form for all three genders. This class in- 
 cludes all adjectives of the third declension that end neither 
 in -er^ nor in -is. They are by origin consonant stems, but, 
 with few exceptions, have assumed the forms of i-stems (§ 145). 
 Typical examples are shown on the next page. 
 
 1 Pauper and fiber, adjectives of one termination, are exceptions to this rule. 
 
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES 
 
 57 
 
 
 atrOx, 
 
 , fierce 
 
 egSns, 
 
 needy 
 
 
 Stem or Basr atr5c- 
 
 Stem or B; 
 
 vsi: egent- 
 
 
 
 .SINGULAR 
 
 
 
 
 M. and F. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 M. AND F. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 NOM. 
 
 atrox 
 
 atrox 
 
 egens 
 
 egens 
 
 Gen. 
 
 atrocis 
 
 atrocis 
 
 egentis 
 
 egentis 
 
 DAT. 
 
 atroci 
 
 atroci 
 
 egenti 
 
 egenti 
 
 Ace. 
 
 atrocem 
 
 atrox 
 
 egentem 
 
 egens 
 
 Abl. 
 
 atroci (-e) 
 
 atroci (-e) 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 egenti (-6) 
 
 egenti (-8) 
 
 NOM. 
 
 atrocSs 
 
 atrocia 
 
 egentgs 
 
 egentia 
 
 Gen. 
 
 atrocium 
 
 atrocium 
 
 egentium 
 
 egent ium 
 
 DAT. 
 
 atrocibus 
 
 atrocibus 
 
 egentibus 
 
 egent ibus 
 
 Ace. 
 
 atrocis (-€s) 
 
 atrocia 
 
 egentis (-6s) 
 
 egent ia 
 
 Abl. 
 
 atrocibus 
 
 atrocibus 
 
 egentibus 
 
 egent ibus 
 
 
 dives, rich 
 
 vetua 
 
 \,old 
 
 
 Stem or 
 
 Base divit- 
 
 Stem or Base veter- 
 
 
 
 singular 
 
 
 
 
 M. and F. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 M. AND F. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 NoM. 
 
 dives 
 
 dives 
 
 vetus 
 
 vetus 
 
 Gen. 
 
 divitis 
 
 divitis 
 
 veteris 
 
 veteris 
 
 DAT. 
 
 diviti 
 
 diviti 
 
 veteri 
 
 veteri 
 
 Ace. 
 
 divitem 
 
 dives 
 
 veterem 
 
 vetus 
 
 Abl. 
 
 divite 
 
 divite 
 
 plural 
 
 vetere 
 
 vetere 
 
 NOM. 
 
 divitSs 
 
 [ditU] 
 
 vcterCs 
 
 Vetera 
 
 Gen. 
 
 divitum 
 
 divitum 
 
 vetemm 
 
 veterum 
 
 DAT. 
 
 divitibus 
 
 divitibus 
 
 veteribus 
 
 veteribus 
 
 Ace. 
 
 divitis (-6s ) 
 
 [ditia] 
 
 veterCs 
 
 Vetera 
 
 Abl. 
 
 divitibus 
 
 divitibus 
 
 veteribus 
 
 veteribus 
 
58 DECLENSION OF COMPARATIVES 
 
 a. Most adjectives of one termination may have either -e or -i in 
 the ablative singular and are declined like atrSx or egens. The follow- 
 ing have regularly only -i : 
 
 amens, ma^ inoj^s, poor 
 
 anceps, doubtful memor, mindful 
 
 concors, harmonious par, equal 
 
 ingens, huge praeceps, headlong 
 
 b. Note that vetus is declined like a pure consonant stem. Of 
 similar declension are : 
 
 compos, master of pauper, poor sospes, safe 
 
 particeps, sharing pubes (gen. -eris), adult superstes, surviving 
 
 Note. Ubeijr/V^, otherwise like vetus, usually has the ablative singular in -i. 
 
 c. Most adjectives of one termination have -ium in the genitive 
 plural. The following have -um : dives, rich ; inops, poor ; memor, 
 mindful; and adjectives s declined like vetus (cf. b). 
 
 149. Present participles (ending in -ans and -ens) are declined 
 like egens ^(§ 148). When used as participles or as nouns, they end 
 in -e in the ablative singular, but in -i when used as adjectives. 
 
 Caesare ducente, under the leadership of Ccesar (lit. Ccesar leading) 
 
 ab amante, by a lover 
 
 ab amanti regina, by the loving quee?t 
 
 Declension of Comparatives 
 
 150. Comparatives are declined as follows : 
 
 altior, higher 
 Stem or Base altior- (for original altios-) 
 
 M. AND F. 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 Neut. 
 
 NoM. altior 
 
 
 altius 
 
 Gen. altior is 
 
 
 altior is 
 
 DAT. altior i 
 
 
 altior i 
 
 Ace. altiorem 
 
 
 altius 
 
 Abl. altior e (-1) 
 
 
 altior e (-i) 
 
 1 As nouns and in poetry present participles often have -um in the genitive plural. 
 
DECLENSION OF COMPARATIVES 59 
 
 
 M. AND F. 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 Nelt. 
 
 NOM. 
 
 altiorfis 
 
 
 altiora 
 
 Gkn. 
 
 altiorum 
 
 
 altiorum 
 
 Dai-. 
 
 altioribus 
 
 
 altioribus 
 
 Ace. 
 Abl. 
 
 altiorgs (-is) 
 altioribus 
 
 
 altiora 
 altioribus 
 
 a. All comparatives except plils are declined like altior. 
 
 b. Except for the occasional use of -i in the ablative singular and 
 the rare use of -is in the accusative plural, comparatives are declined 
 like vetus (§ 148). 
 
 Note. The stem of comparatives originally ended in Ss- ; but the final 
 8 regularly became r between two vowels (§ 49), and so appears also in 
 the nominative singular masculine and feminine by analogy with the other 
 cases. In the neuter, however, the original stem ending -6s (shortened to 
 -OS) was retained, becoming -us in the classical period. 
 
 151. The declension of pliis, more, stem or base plflr- (for 
 pltis-), is as follows : 
 
 SINGULAR PLURAL 
 
 M. AND F". Neut. M. and F. Neut. 
 
 NoM. plus plurgs pliira 
 
 Gen. pluris plurium plurium 
 
 Dat. pluribus pluribus 
 
 Ace. plus plurfis (-is) plura 
 
 Abl. plure (rare) pluribus pluribus 
 
 fl. In the singular plus is used only as a neuter noun. The com- 
 pound complQres, several, sometimes has neuter plural compluria. 
 
 Indeclinable Adjectives 
 
 152. A few adjectives are indeclinable. 
 
 frugi, thrifty nequam, worthless necesse, necessary 
 
 So also the following pronominal adjectives : 
 
 tot, so many quot, how Many 
 
 totidem,y</j/ as many aliquot, se7>eral 
 
6o COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 
 
 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 
 
 153. There are three degrees of comparison : the positive, , 
 the comparative, and the superlative. ^ \ 
 
 154. The comparative is regularly formed by adding, -iof 
 (neuter -ius), the superlative by adding -issimus (-a, -um), to the 
 stem of the positive, which loses its final vowel. 
 
 Positive Comparative Superlative 
 
 alius, high (stem alto-) alt-ior, higher alt-issimus, highest 
 
 clarus, bright (stem claro-) clar-ior, brighter clar-issimus, brightest 
 
 brevis, short (stem brevi-) brev-ior, shorter brev-issimus, shortest 
 
 fortis, brave (stem forti-) fort-ior, braver fort-issimus, bravest 
 
 atr5x, fierce (stem atroc-) atroc-ior, fiercer atroc-issimus, fiercest 
 
 prudens, wise (stem prudent-) prudent-ior, wiser prudent-issimus, wisest 
 
 dives, rich (stem divit-) divit-ior, richer divit-issimus, richest 
 
 Note. The comparative often has the force of too or somewhat^ and 
 the superlative that of very : as, clarior, too bright, somewhat bright ; 
 clarissimus, very bright. 
 
 a. Participles used as adjectives are similarly compared. 
 
 amans, loving (stem amant-) amantior amantissimus 
 
 sciens, skilled (stem scient-) scientior scientissimus 
 
 notus, known (stem noto-) notior notissimus 
 
 155. Adjectives in -er form the superlative by adding -rimus 
 to the nominative of the positive. The comparative is formed 
 regularly. 
 
 pulcher, pretty pulchr-ior pulcher-rimus 
 
 miser, wretched miser-ior miser-rimus 
 
 acer, keeii acr-ior acer-rimus 
 
 celer, swift celer-ior celer-rimus 
 
 a. Vetus, old, and matiirus, ripe, are compared as follows : 
 
 vetus vetustior veterrimus 
 
 matiirus matiirior maturrimus or matiirissimus 
 
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 
 
 6l 
 
 156. Six adjectives in -lis form the superlative by adding 
 -limus to the stem, which loses its final I. The comparative 
 is regular. 
 
 facil-ior facil-limus 
 
 difficil-ior difficil-limus 
 
 simil-ior simil-limus 
 
 dissimil-ior dissimil-limus 
 
 gracil-ior gracil-limus 
 
 humil-ior humil-limus 
 
 facilis, easy 
 difficilis, difficult 
 similis, similar 
 dissimilis, dissimilar 
 gracilis, slender 
 humilis, low 
 
 157. Compounds in -dicus, -ficus, and -volus are compared as 
 follows : 
 
 maledicus, slanderous 
 magnificus, grand 
 benevolus. kindly 
 
 maledicentior 
 
 magnificentior 
 
 benevolentior 
 
 maledicentissimus 
 
 magnificentissimus 
 
 benevolentissimus 
 
 Irregular Comparison 
 
 158. Several adjectives are irregular in comparison. 
 
 bonus, good melior optimus 
 
 malus, bad peior pessimus 
 
 magnus, great maior maximus 
 
 parvus, small minor minimus 
 
 multus, ;////6/r plus (§151) plurimus 
 
 nequam (indeclinable), worthless nequior nequissimus 
 
 friigi (indeclinable), thrifty friigalior friigalissimus 
 
 159. The following four adjectives have two superlatives : 
 
 exterus, outward exterior 
 
 inferus, below inferior 
 
 posterns, following posterior 
 
 superus, above superior 
 
 extremus or extimus (rare) 
 infimus or imus 
 postremus or postumus (rare) 
 supremus or summus 
 
 a. These adjectives are rare in the positive except when used as 
 nouns in the masculine plural : 
 
 cxteri, foreigners 
 infer!, the gods below 
 
 poster!, posterity 
 superl, the gods ab<n>e 
 
62 
 
 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 
 
 Defective Comparison 
 
 160. Some adjectives lack one or more of the degrees of 
 
 comparison. 
 
 a. Adjectives without the Positive. 
 
 citerior, hither 
 deterior, worse 
 interior, inner 
 ocior, swifter 
 potior, preferable 
 prior, former 
 propior, nearer 
 ulterior, farther 
 
 citimus, hithermost 
 deterrimus, wo?'st 
 intimus, inmost 
 ocissimus, swiftest 
 potissimus, most importafit 
 primus, first 
 proximus, nearest 
 ultimus, farthest 
 
 Note. The adjective propinquus, near, is used as the positive of propior. 
 I. Potis, able, the positive of potior, occurs in early Latin. 
 
 b. Adjectives without the Comparative. 
 
 f alsus, false 
 meritus, merited 
 novus, new 
 pius, dutiful 
 sacer, sacred 
 
 falsissimus 
 meritissimus 
 
 novissimus, last (in order) 
 piissimus (rare) 
 sacerrimus 
 
 I. For the comparative and superlative of novus, new, the forms 
 recentior and recentissimus are sometimes used. For the comparison of 
 vetus, old, see § 155. rt. 
 
 c. Adjectives without the Superlative. Many adjectives ending 
 
 in -ills or -bills (as, agilis, probabilis) have no superlative. Also 
 the following : 
 
 adulescentior 
 
 alacrior 
 
 longinquior 
 
 obliquior — 
 
 propior (propinquior) 
 
 salutarior 
 
 vicinior 
 
 adulescens, young 
 alacer, active 
 longinquus, long 
 obliquus, sidelong 
 propinquus, near 
 saliitaris, healthful 
 vicinus, near 
 
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 63 
 
 I. The adjectives iuvenis, youtti;, and senex. <>///. are compared as 
 follows : 
 
 iuvenis iunior or iuvenior minimus natu 
 
 senex senior maximus natu 
 
 In these superlatives natu is the ablative of respect (§ 478) and is often 
 omitted. 
 
 ADJECTIVES NOT COMPARED 
 
 161. Some adjectives are not compared. Such are especially : 
 a. Adjectives denoting material. 
 
 aureus, golden ferreus. iroti ligneus. ivoodeti, etc. 
 
 h. Adjectives expressing personal relationship, 
 maternus, maternal ixaXtxmxA,/ratenntl, etc. 
 
 c. Adjectives expressing relations of time. 
 
 hodiernu9, 0/ to-day aestivus, 0/ summer sempitemus, e^'erlasting^ etc. 
 
 d. Ihe following special words : 
 
 almus. nourishing immemoT,/orgetJ'ul miitus, dumd 
 
 claudus, lame impar. unequal nefastus, impious 
 
 curvus, cun>ed mediocris, tnedium rudis, rough 
 
 ferns, wild minis, ivonderful vagus, wandering 
 
 Also most adjectives compounded of verbs or substantives. 
 
 Adjectives Compared with magis and maxime 
 
 162. Many adjectives, instead of using terminations, are 
 compared by means of the adverbs magis. vtore, and maxime, 
 most, followed by the positive. 
 
 This method is especially common with participles, compound 
 adjectives, and adjectives ending in -us preceded by a vowel : 
 as, id5neus, fit, magis iddneus, maximS iddneus. 
 
64 
 
 NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 
 NUMERALS 
 
 163. The Latin numerals are of two classes : adjectives and 
 adverbs. Numeral adjectives include cardinals^ ordinals, and 
 distributives. 
 
 a. Cardinals answer the question how many ? 
 
 unus, one duo, two 
 
 b. Ordinals, derived in most cases from the cardinals, answer the 
 question which in order "i 
 
 primus, yfrj-/ secundus, second 
 
 c. Distributives answer the question hoiv many at a time? how 
 many each ? 
 
 singuli, o?te by one bini, two by two 
 
 I. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 
 
 164. The cardinal, ordinal, and distributive numeral adjec- 
 
 ves are shown in 
 
 the following table : 
 
 
 Cardinals 
 
 Ordinals 
 
 Distributives 
 
 I. unus 
 
 primus 
 
 singuli 
 
 2. duo 
 
 secundus 
 
 bini 
 
 3. tres 
 
 tertius 
 
 terni, trini 
 
 4. quattuor 
 
 quartus 
 
 quaterni 
 
 5. quinque 
 
 quintus 
 
 quini 
 
 6. sex 
 
 sextus 
 
 seni 
 
 7. septem 
 
 Septimus 
 
 septeni 
 
 8. octo 
 
 octavus 
 
 octoni 
 
 9. novem 
 
 nonus 
 
 noveni 
 
 10. decern 
 
 decimus 
 
 deni 
 
 II. undecim 
 
 iindecimus 
 
 undeni 
 
 12. duodecim 
 
 duodecimus 
 
 duodeni 
 
 13. tredecim 
 
 tertius decimus 
 
 terni deni 
 
 14. quattuordecim 
 
 quartus decimus 
 
 quaterni d6n! 
 
 15. quindecim 
 
 quintus decimus 
 
 quini d6ni 
 
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 
 
 65 
 
 
 Cardinals 
 
 ORDIfJALS 
 
 Distributives 
 
 16. 
 
 sMecim 
 
 sextus decimus • 
 
 sgni dgni 
 
 17. 
 
 septendecim 
 
 Septimus decimus 
 
 septgni dgni 
 
 18. 
 
 duodeviginti 
 
 duodevicgsimus 
 
 dujdgvicgni 
 
 19. 
 
 Qndgviginti 
 
 undSvic6simu8 
 
 undgvicgni 
 
 20. 
 
 viginti 
 
 vicgsimus 
 
 vicgni 
 
 
 viginti unus 
 
 vicSsimus primus 
 
 vicgni singuli 
 
 21. 
 
 or 
 
 or 
 
 or 
 
 
 finus et viginti 
 
 iinus et vicSsimus 
 
 singuli et vicftni 
 
 28. 
 
 duodetriginta 
 
 duodgtricgsimus 
 
 duodgtricgni 
 
 29. 
 
 undgtriginta 
 
 undetricgsimus 
 
 undgtricgni 
 
 30- 
 
 triginta 
 
 tricfisimus 
 
 tricgni 
 
 40. 
 
 quadraginta 
 
 quadragesimus 
 
 quadraggni 
 
 SO- 
 
 quinquaginta 
 
 quinquaggsimus 
 
 quinquageni 
 
 60. 
 
 sexagina 
 
 sexagSsimus 
 
 sexaggni 
 
 70. 
 
 septuagintfi 
 
 septuaggsimus 
 
 septuaggni 
 
 80. 
 
 octCginta 
 
 oct5ggsimus 
 
 octOggni 
 
 90. 
 
 nOnaginta 
 
 nOnaggsimus 
 
 nOnaggni 
 
 100. 
 
 centum 
 
 centgsimus 
 
 centgni 
 
 lOI. 
 
 centum (et) unus 
 
 centgsimus (et) primus 
 
 centgni singuli 
 
 200. 
 
 ducenti 
 
 ducentgsimus 
 
 ducgni 
 
 300. 
 
 trecenti 
 
 trecentgsimus 
 
 trecgni 
 
 400. 
 
 quadringenti 
 
 quadringentgsimus 
 
 quadringgni 
 
 500. 
 
 quingenti 
 
 quingentgsimus 
 
 quinggni 
 
 600. 
 
 sescenti 
 
 sescentgsimus 
 
 sescgni 
 
 700. 
 
 septingenti 
 
 septingentgsimus 
 
 septinggni 
 
 800. 
 
 octingenti 
 
 octingentgsimus 
 
 octinggni 
 
 900. 
 
 nOngenti 
 
 nOngentgsimus 
 
 ndnggni 
 
 1,000. 
 
 mille 
 
 millgsimus 
 
 singula milia 
 
 2,000. 
 
 duo milia 
 
 bis millgsimus 
 
 bina milia 
 
 10,000. 
 
 decem milia 
 
 decigns millgsimus 
 
 dgna milia 
 
 00,000. 
 
 centum milia 
 
 centigns millgsimus 
 
 centgna milia 
 
 Note t. The ordinals in -esimus. as, vicesimas, tricgsimus, etc., are 
 spelled vicensimus. trfcensimus, etc., in early Latin. 
 
 Note 2. The plural of mille. thousand^ is mQlia or milia. The spelling 
 with one 1 is preferred in Latin of the best period. 
 
66 
 
 DECLENSION OF NUMERALS 
 
 165. Numbers above 100,000 are expressed by placing 
 numeral adverbs of multiplication before centena milia for the 
 cardinals, and before centiens millgsimus for the ordinals. 
 
 Thus, 1,000,000 is expressed deciens centena milia (ten times a 
 hundred thousand^, cardinal ; deciens centiens millesimus {ten times the 
 hundred thousandth), ordinal. 
 
 Declension of Numerals 
 
 166. Of the cardinals only unus, duo, tres, the hundreds 
 above one hundred, and mille used as a noun, are declined. 
 
 a. Unus, one or only, is one of the nine irregular adjectives (§ 
 and is declined as follows : 
 
 43) 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 NOM. 
 
 unus 
 
 una 
 
 unum 
 
 Gen. 
 
 unT'us 
 
 > unrus 
 
 unfus 
 
 DAT. 
 
 unT 
 
 uni 
 
 uni 
 
 Ace. 
 
 unum 
 
 . unam 
 
 unum 
 
 Abl. 
 
 uno 
 
 una 
 
 uno 
 
 The plural is regular, and has the meaning alotie or only, unless 
 used with nouns plural in form and singular in sense (§ 133): as, 
 una castra, one camp ; uni mores, one set of habits. 
 
 b. Duo and tres are declined as follows : 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 M. AND F. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 NOM. 
 
 duo 
 
 duae 
 
 duo 
 
 tres 
 
 tria 
 
 Gen. 
 
 duorum 
 
 duarum 
 
 duorum 
 
 trium 
 
 trium 
 
 DAT. 
 
 duobus 
 
 duabus 
 
 duobus 
 
 tribus 
 
 tribus 
 
 Ace. 
 
 duos (duo) 
 
 duas 
 
 duo 
 
 tres (tris) 
 
 tria 
 
 Abl. 
 
 duobus 
 
 duabus 
 
 duobus 
 
 tribus 
 
 tribus 
 
 I . Ambd, doth, is declined like duo, but its final is long. 
 
 c. The hundreds above one hundred are declined like the plural of 
 bonus : as, ducenti, -ae, -a, two hundred. 
 
USES OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 67 
 
 d. Mille in the singular is regularly used as an adjective and is 
 indeclinable. 
 
 mille modis, /// <7 thousand ways 
 
 cum mille hominibus, with a thousand men 
 
 Mille in the plural (milia) is used as a neuter noun, is followed by 
 the genitive of the objects enumerated, and is declined as follows : 
 
 NoM. mllia 
 
 Gen. milium 
 
 Dat. milibus 
 
 Ace. milia 
 
 Abl. milibus 
 
 E.XAMPLES : decern milia hominum misit, he sent ten thousand men 
 
 (lit. ten thousands of men) 
 castra milia passuum tria absunt, the camp is three miles ti^(lit. three 
 
 thousands of paces) 
 
 Note i . The singular mille is rarely used as a noun in the nominative 
 and accusative : as, mille hominum misit, he sent a thousand (of) men. 
 
 NoTK 2. When a declinable numeral follows milia. the form of expres- 
 sion is as follows : duo milia ducenti milites. ur duo milia militum et ducenti, 
 2200 soldiers. 
 
 167. The ordinals are declined like bonus, and the distribu- 
 tives like the plural of bonus (ij 140). 
 
 Pkculiarities in the Use of Cardinals and Ordinals 
 
 168. In numbers below icx), if units precede tens, et is 
 generally inserted ; otherwise et usually is omitted : as, duo et 
 viginti, tzvo and twenty y or viginti duo, twenty-two, 
 
 169. Compound numerals above 100 generally have the 
 largest denomination first, and the others follow without et ; 
 but et may be inserted between the two highest denominations : 
 as, mille (et) septingenti sexigintS quattuor, Z/^-/. 
 
68 USES OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 
 
 170. The numerals i8 and 19 are generally expressed by 
 duodeviginti {two from twenty) and undeviginti {o7te from twenty) ^ 
 rarely by octodecim and novendecim. 
 
 Similarly, the other numerals ending in 8 and 9 are usually 
 expressed by the subtraction of two and 07te rather than by the 
 addition of eight and 7iine respectively : as, duodeoctoginta rather 
 than septuaginta octo, yS. 
 
 171. When referring to two persons or things, instead of 
 using primus and secundus, Latin generally employs unus and 
 alter respectively, 
 
 erant duo consules, unus Cicero alter Antonius, there were two consuls^ 
 one Cicero^ the other A?itony 
 
 a. The usual Latin expressions for twejtty first, thirty fifth, etc., are 
 vicesimus primus, tricesimus quintus, etc. 
 
 172. Unus, when part of a compound number, is used in the 
 singular, and agrees with its noun in gender and case : as, viginti 
 milites et iinus, or unus et viginti milites, twenty-one soldiers. 
 
 Uses of the Distributive Numerals 
 
 173. Distributive numerals are used : 
 
 a. To express so rnany apiece, so many at a time : as, censores bini 
 in singulas civitates, tzvo censors to each state. 
 
 b. To express multiplication : as, bis bina sunt quattuor, twice two 
 are four. 
 
 c. With nouns that are plural in form and usually singular in 
 sense : as, bina castra, two camps. 
 
 With such nouns uni, not singuli, is used for 07ie, and trini, not temi, 
 for three : as, una castra, one camp ; trina castra, three camps. 
 
 d. With nouns denoting objects that go in pairs or sets. 
 
 bini boves, a yoke of oxen bina hastilia, a pair of spears 
 
 e. By the poets instead of cardinal numbers: as, quina armenta 
 
 (Vergil), fve herds. 
 
NUMERAL ADVERBS 
 Fractions 
 
 69 
 
 174. Fractions are expressed, as in English, by cardinals in 
 the numerator and ordinals in the denominator. The feminine 
 gender is used to agree with pars expressed or understood. 
 
 duae septimae (partes), two sevenths 
 quinque octavae (partes), yf?/^ eighths 
 
 a. When the numerator is one, it is omitted and pars is expressed 
 with the denominator. 
 
 dimidia pars (or dimidium), one ha If 
 tertia pars, one third 
 quarta pars, one fourth 
 
 b. When the denominator is but one greater than ilic numerator, 
 the denominator is omitted and partes is used with the numerator. 
 
 duae partes, two thirds 
 
 tres partes, three fourths 
 
 Example: dimidia pars et tres partes et septem duodecimae sunt 
 unum et quinque partes, ^ + j + iV ~ '«• 
 
 175. Numeral 
 Jioiv many times 
 
 1. semel, once 
 
 2. bis, twice 
 
 3. ter, thrift 
 
 4. qua ter 
 
 5. quinquiSns 
 
 6. sexigns 
 
 7. septiSns 
 
 8. octigns 
 
 9. novigns 
 10. decigns 
 
 II. NUMERAL ADVERBS 
 
 adverbs answer the question ho7v often? 
 
 1 1 . undecigns 
 
 12. duodecigns 
 
 13. terdecigns 30. 
 
 14. quaterdecigns 40. 
 
 15. quindecigns 50. 
 
 16. sgdecigns 60. 
 
 17. septigns decigns 70. 
 
 18. octigns decigns 80. 
 
 19. novigns decigns 90. 
 
 20. vicigns 100. 
 
 fvicigns semel 
 
 \ semel et vicigns 
 
 tricigns 
 
 quadr&gigns 
 
 quinqu&gigns 
 
 sexagigns 
 
 septufigigns 
 
 octOgigns 
 
 nOnAgiens 
 
 centigns 
 
 The termination -igs is often used instead of -Iftns : as, sexigs. 
 
70 
 
 ROMAN NUMERALS 
 
 a. The accusative or ablative neuter singular of the ordinals is 
 sometimes used as a numeral adverb. 
 
 primum,y27r the first time 
 primo, at first 
 
 SQCxmAo, for the second tifne 
 
 tertio or ttxtiw.va., for the third time, etc. 
 
 The Roman Numeral System 
 176. The following characters are used as Roman numerals : 
 
 I. I 
 
 IS- 
 
 XV 
 
 
 100. 
 
 C 
 
 2. 11 
 
 16. 
 
 XVI 
 
 
 200. 
 
 cc 
 
 3- in 
 
 17. 
 
 XVII 
 
 
 300. 
 
 ccc 
 
 4. IIII or IV 
 
 18. 
 
 XVIII 
 
 
 400. 
 
 cccc 
 
 5- V 
 
 19. 
 
 XVIIII or 
 
 XIX 
 
 500. 
 
 D 
 
 6. VI 
 
 20. 
 
 XX 
 
 
 600. 
 
 DC 
 
 7. VII 
 
 21. 
 
 XXI 
 
 
 700. 
 
 Dce 
 
 8. VIII 
 
 30- 
 
 XXX 
 
 
 ■ 800. 
 
 DCCC 
 
 9. Villi or IX 
 
 40. 
 
 XXXX or 
 
 XL 
 
 900. 
 
 DCCCC 
 
 0. X 
 
 50. 
 
 L 
 
 
 1,000. 
 
 CD, 00, or CO 
 
 I. XI 
 
 60. 
 
 LX 
 
 ' 
 
 5,000. 
 
 ^orV 
 
 2. XII 
 
 70. 
 
 LXX 
 
 
 10,000. 
 
 (§) orX 
 
 3. XIII 
 
 80. 
 
 LXXX 
 
 
 100,000. 
 
 # or C 
 
 4. XIIII or XIV 
 
 90. 
 
 LXXXXorXC 
 
 1,000,000. 
 
 m 
 
 a. The original numerical symbols were representations of the 
 fingers, as, I, one finger ; II, two fingers ; V, the hand, iorfive (only 
 the thumb and little finger being drawn) ; and X, the two hands crossed, 
 for ten. X, however, is sometimes regarded as an Etruscan symbol 
 for ten, the upper half of which was used for five. To these original 
 symbols were added the three Chalcidic (§2) aspirates, ch, V (altered 
 into vL/, ±, L), for 50; th, O (altered into C), for 100; and///, CD 
 (broken into (X), CD), for iqoo. The fact that the original numerals 
 I, V, X were identical in form with certain letters of the alphabet no 
 doubt assisted the changes of V to L, and of O to C, the latter change 
 being favored also by the fact that C was the first letter of centum. 
 In a similar way the second half of CD, 1000, written D, was used 
 for 500. 
 
PERSONAL PRONOUNS 71 
 
 &. At an early date milia passuum (miies) was represented by 
 M . P, but the separate use of M for the word mille or milia is not 
 
 found before the second century of our era. 
 
 c. While CD denotes 1000, the addition of a second circle outside 
 the first makes it mean 10,000 (^), and of a third, 100,000 {%). 
 
 d. Toward the end of the Republic the thousands were denoted 
 by drawing a line above the numeral : as, V, 5000. By adding lateral 
 lines the numeral was multiplied by 100,000: as, fvi, 500,000. 
 
 e. The symbols I and X, when placed at the left of a higher 
 number, are to be subtracted from it; but symbols like IIII, Villi, 
 XII II are earlier and more usual than IV, IX, XIV. Such symbols 
 as CM for 900, MCM for 1900, are modem. The Romans wrote 
 DCCCC for 900, MDCCCC for 1900. 
 
 PRONOUNS 
 
 177. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. Pronouns 
 and their corresponding pronominal adjectives are divided into 
 the following eight classes : 
 
 I. Personal V. Intensive 
 
 II. Reflexive VI. Relative 
 
 III. Possessive VII. Interrogative 
 
 IV. Demonstrative VIII. Indefinite 
 
 178. Pronouns have special forms of declension differing in 
 some respects from those of nouns. 
 
 I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS 
 
 179. The personal pronouns are : 
 
 SINGULAR PLURAL 
 
 First Pers. ego, / nOs. 7oe 
 
 Second Pers. tu, t/iou or you v6s, ir or you 
 
 Pronouns of the third person, he, she, it, they, are wanting, a 
 demonstrative or relative being used instead. 
 
72 REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS 
 
 180. The personal pronouns ego, /, and tu, tJioii or yoii^ are 
 declined as follows : 
 
 First Person Second Person 
 
 SINGULAR PLURAL SINGUJ^AR PLURAL 
 
 NOM. 
 
 ego 
 
 nos 
 
 tu 
 
 vos 
 
 Gen. 
 
 mei 
 
 nostrum, nostri 
 
 tui 
 
 vestrum, vestri 
 
 DAT. 
 
 mihi (mi) 
 
 nobis 
 
 tibi 
 
 vobis 
 
 Ace. 
 
 me 
 
 nos 
 
 te 
 
 VOS 
 
 Abl. 
 
 me 
 
 nobis 
 
 te 
 
 vobis 
 
 a. Emphatic forms of tu are t^ute and tutemet. The other forms 
 of the personal pronouns, except the genitive plural, may be made 
 emphatic by adding -met as an enclitic (§ 39) : as, egomet, vosmet. 
 
 6. The accusative and ablative forms me and te are sometimes 
 doubled, or reduplicated : as, meme, tete. 
 
 c. The preposition cum, with, when used with the ablative of a 
 personal pronoun, is added to it as an enclitic (§ 39) : as, mecum, 
 tecum, nobiscum, vobiscum. 
 
 d. In early Latin the accusative and ablative singular forms were 
 med, ted. Instead of vestrum and vestri the forms vostrum and vostri 
 occur in early and late Latin. 
 
 II. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS 
 
 181. Reflexive pronouns refer to the subject of the sentence 
 or clause in which they stand : as, he loves himself, ive love 
 ourselves. 
 
 182. Reflexive pronouns have no nominative. In the other 
 cases the reflexives of the first and second person are the 
 same as the personal pronouns. 
 
 ego me video, I see myself 
 
 n6s nobis persuademus, we persuade ourselves 
 
 tu te vides, yott see yourself 
 
 vos vobis persuadetis, you persuade yourselves 
 
POSSESSIVE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES 73 
 
 183. The reflexive of the third person has a special form, 
 the same for both singular and plural. It is declined thus : 
 
 sui, of himself , herself, itself, themselves 
 I ) AT. sibi, to ox for himself, herself itself, themselves 
 Aci-. 86, himself, herself, itself, themselves 
 Abl. 86 (with fi, tic), from, etc., himself herself itself themselves 
 
 a. In the accusative and ablative the reduplicated form 8€86 occurs. 
 Emphatic forms in -met are made as in the personal pronouns 
 (§ 180. </). i'he preposition cum is added enclitically to the ablative: 
 as, 86cum (cf. § 180. r). 
 
 b. In early Latin the form sM occurs in the accusative and 
 ablative. 
 
 III. POSSESSIVE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES 
 
 184. The possessives are pronominal adjectives of the first 
 and second declensions, and are similarly declined (cf. §§ 140, 
 142). They are : 
 
 SINGULAR PLURAL 
 
 First Pers. meus, -a, -um, my no8ter, -tra, -trum, our 
 
 Second Pers. tuu8, -a, -um, thy, your ve8ter, -tra, -trum, your 
 
 Third Pers. 8UU8, -a, -um, his, her, its 8uus, -a, -um, their 
 
 a. Suu8 is used only as a reflexive possessive adjective. 
 
 puer patrem suum videt, the boy sees his {omw) father 
 
 When not reflexive, his, her, and its are usually expressed by eiu8, 
 the genitive singular of is ; and their by e«rum, m. and N., and earum, 
 K., the genitive plural of ia. 
 
 puer patrem eius videt, the boy sees his (not his o^n) father 
 
 pueri patres eorum vident, the boys see their (not their own) fathers 
 
 b. The vocative singular masculine of meus is regularly ml (rarely 
 meua). 
 
 c. Emphatic forms in -ptc are found in the ablative singular : as, 
 8u5pte. 
 
74 
 
 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 
 
 IV. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 
 
 185. The demonstrative pronouns are hie, iste, ille, is, and 
 idem. They are used to point out a person or thing, and stand 
 either alone as protiouns or with nouns as pronominal adjectives. 
 
 186. The demonstratives hie, iste, and ille are used to make 
 a distinct reference to place or time, and are called demonstra- 
 tives of the first, second, and third person respectively. Thus : 
 
 First person, hie, this, he, near the speaker 
 
 Second person, iste, that, he, near the person addressed 
 
 Third person, ille, that, he, remote from both 
 
 187. The demonstrative is, he, this, that, refers to objects 
 either far or near, and makes no definite reference to place or 
 time, idem, the same, is a compound of is. 
 
 Declension of the Demonstratives 
 
 188. 
 
 hit 
 
 ;, this, he 
 
 
 ille, that he 
 
 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 
 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fenl 
 
 Neut. 
 
 NOM. 
 
 hie 
 
 haee 
 
 hoe 
 
 ille 
 
 ilia 
 
 illud 
 
 Gen. 
 
 huius 
 
 huius 
 
 huius 
 
 illius 
 
 illius 
 
 illius 
 
 DAT. 
 
 huie 
 
 huie 
 
 huie 
 
 illi 
 
 illi 
 
 illi 
 
 Ace. 
 
 hune 
 
 hane 
 
 hoe 
 
 ilium 
 
 illam 
 
 illud 
 
 Abl. 
 
 h5c 
 
 hae 
 
 hoe 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 illo 
 
 ilia 
 
 illo 
 
 NOM. 
 
 hi 
 
 hae 
 
 haec 
 
 illi 
 
 illae 
 
 ilia 
 
 Gen. 
 
 horum 
 
 harum 
 
 horum 
 
 illorum 
 
 illarum 
 
 illorum 
 
 DAT. 
 
 his 
 
 his 
 
 his 
 
 illis 
 
 illis 
 
 illis 
 
 Acc. 
 
 hos 
 
 has 
 
 haec 
 
 illos 
 
 iUas 
 
 ilia 
 
 Abl. 
 
 his 
 
 his 
 
 his 
 
 illis 
 
 illis 
 
 illis 
 
 Note. An earlier form of ille is oUus, of which several forms occur. 
 
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 
 
 75 
 
 a. Hie is a compound of the stem ho- with the demonstrative 
 enclitic -cc, which in some forms loses its vowel and in others is 
 wholly dropped. The same enclitic is sometimes added for emphasis 
 to forms of hie ending in -s : as. huiusee. hasce, etc. ; likewise to cer- 
 tain forms of iste and ille : as, istic, istanc, illaec, illOe. 
 
 b. The forms hoius (for huius), hoic j^for huie), hisce (for hi), and 
 hibus (for his) occur in early Latin. 
 
 189. Iste, t/tat, he, is declined like iUe (§ 1 88). 
 
 190. 
 
 
 
 is, th 
 
 /s, that, he 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 INGULAR 
 
 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Num. 
 
 is 
 
 ea 
 
 id 
 
 ii or ei 
 
 eae 
 
 ea 
 
 Gen. 
 
 eius 
 
 eius 
 
 eius 
 
 eorum 
 
 earum 
 
 eorum 
 
 DAT. 
 
 ei 
 
 ei 
 
 ei 
 
 iis or eis 
 
 iis or eis 
 
 iis or eis 
 
 Ace. 
 
 eum 
 
 eam 
 
 id 
 
 eos 
 
 eas 
 
 ea 
 
 Abl. 
 
 eo 
 
 ea 
 
 eo 
 
 iis or eis 
 
 iis or eis 
 
 iis or eis 
 
 a. The forms ii and iis are preferred to ei and eis, and are pro- 
 nounced and sometimes written as monosyllables, i and is. 
 
 191. idem, the same 
 
 SINGULAR PLURAL 
 
 Masc. Fem. Neut. Ma.s( . Fem. Neut. 
 
 NoM. idem eSdem idem idem (eidem) eaedem eidem 
 
 Gen. eius'dem eius'dem eius'dem eorun'dem carun'dem eorun'dcm 
 DAT. eidem eidem eidem isdem or eisdem 
 
 Ace. eundem eandem idem eosdem easdem e&dem 
 
 Abl. eodem eadem eodem isdem or eisdem 
 
 a. idem is a compound of the demonstrative is with the indeclin- 
 able suflfi.x -dem. It is sometimes called the identifying pronoun. 
 
 ft. The plural forms idem and isdem are often written iidem, 
 iisdem, but the pronunciation remains dissyllabic. 
 
76 
 
 INTENSIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS 
 
 V. THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN 
 
 192. The intensive pronoun is ipse, self, and is used either ad- 
 jectively to strengthen another word or as an emphatic pronoun. 
 
 Ipse is compounded of is and -pse (a suffix of uncertain origin), 
 and is decHned hke ille (§ i88) except that it has ipsum in the 
 nominative and accusative neuter singular. 
 
 ipse, self 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 NOM. 
 
 ipse 
 
 ipsa 
 
 ipsum 
 
 ipsi 
 
 ipsae 
 
 ipsa 
 
 Gen. 
 
 ipsius 
 
 ipsius 
 
 ipsius 
 
 ipsorum 
 
 ipsarum 
 
 ipsorum 
 
 DAT. 
 
 ipsi 
 
 ipsi 
 
 ipsi 
 
 ipsis 
 
 ipsis 
 
 ipsis 
 
 Ace. 
 
 ipsum 
 
 ipsam 
 
 ipsum 
 
 ipsos 
 
 ipsas 
 
 ipsa 
 
 Abl. 
 
 ipso 
 
 ipsa 
 
 ipso 
 
 ipsis 
 
 ipsis 
 
 ipsis 
 
 VI. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN 
 
 193. The relative pronoun is qui, who, which, that. It is 
 declined as follows : 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 NoM. 
 
 qui 
 
 quae 
 
 quod 
 
 qui 
 
 quae 
 
 quae 
 
 Gen. 
 
 cuius 
 
 cuius 
 
 cuius 
 
 quorum 
 
 quarum 
 
 quorum 
 
 DAT. 
 
 cui 
 
 cui 
 
 cui 
 
 quibus 
 
 quibus 
 
 quibus 
 
 Ace. 
 
 quem 
 
 quam 
 
 quod 
 
 quos 
 
 quas 
 
 quae 
 
 Abl. 
 
 quo 
 
 qua 
 
 quo 
 
 quibus 
 
 quibus 
 
 quibus 
 
 a. An old ablative form qui (for quo, qua, or quibus) is found, 
 especially in the combination quicum, with which or with whom. 
 
 b. Quis is sometimes used for quibus as either dative or ablative 
 plural. 
 
 c. Early forms quoius (for cuius) and quoi (for cui) continued to 
 be used as late as Cicero. 
 
 d. The preposition cum is added enclitically to all forms of the 
 ablative: as, quacum, quibuscum (cf. § i8o. c). 
 
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS ^^ 
 
 194. The following are indefinite relatives : 
 
 quisquis 1 , 
 
 . ywhoer'er 
 
 quicumque J 
 
 utercumque, whichever (of two) 
 
 fl. In quicumque and utercumque only the first part is declined. 
 Poets often separate -cumque and its relative (§ 992). 
 
 b. Of quisquis the only forms in corhmon use are quisquis, quicquid 
 (quidquid), and quOqufi. 
 
 VII. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 
 
 195. The interroggitive pronouns, substantive and adjective, 
 are : 
 
 a. quis, who ? quid, what 1 substantive. 
 
 h. qui, quae, quod, what kind off ivhat sort of? which t what / 
 adjective. 
 
 c. uter, utra, utrum, which 1 {pi two persons or things) either 
 substantive or adjective. 
 
 196. The interrogative pronoun quis, who? quid, ivliatf is 
 declined in the singular as follows : 
 
 M. AND F. Neut. 
 
 NoM. quis quid 
 
 Gen. cuius cuius 
 
 Dat. cui cui 
 
 Ace. quern quid 
 
 Abl. quo quo 
 
 The plural is the same as that of the relative. 
 
 197. The interrogative pronominal adjective qui, quae, quod 
 is declined throughout like the relative. 
 
 a. Qui is sometimes used for quis : as, qui nCminat m6 ? who calls 
 my name ? and quis, with words denoting persons, is apparently used 
 like an adjective : as, quis homO ? ivhat man ? but the substantive 
 that follows is best regarded as in apposition. Qui homO? means 
 what kind of man f 
 
78 
 
 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 
 
 b. Early forms of the interrogative are the same as those of the 
 relative (cf. § 193. c). The old ablative qui is used chiefly as an adverb 
 meaning /low ? 
 
 c. The preposition cum is added enclitically to the ablative, sin- 
 gular and plural, as with the personal and relative pronouns : as, 
 quocum, quibus'cum. 
 
 d. The forms of quis and qui may be made emphatic by adding 
 the enclitic -nam. 
 
 quisnam, 7a/io, pray ? quidnam, what, pray ? 
 
 198. Uter, utra, utrum, which ? (of two persons or things) 
 is declined like pulcher, except that the genitive singular has 
 the termination -ius (utrius) and the dative singular -i (utri). 
 Cf. § 143. 
 
 199. Other interrogative pronominal adjectives are : 
 
 quails, quale (declined like omnis), of what kindf 
 quantus, -a, -um (declined like bonus), how great f 
 quot (indeclinable), how many ? 
 
 VIII. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 
 
 200. The most common indefinite pronouns and pronominal 
 adjectives, with the general meaning of some one^ aiiy oiie^ some- 
 thing, anythiftgy some, any, are shown in the following table : 
 
 Masculine 
 quis, some one, any one 
 
 qui 
 
 aliquis, some one, afiy 07ie 
 
 aliqui 
 
 '^uidam, a cetiain person 
 
 quidam 
 
 Feminine Neuter 
 
 quid, something, a?iything 
 (substantive) 
 qua or quae quod, some, any (adjective) 
 
 aliquid, something, anything 
 (substantive) 
 aliqua aliquod, some, any (adjective) 
 
 quiddam, a certain thing (sub- 
 stantive) 
 quaedam quoddam, a certain (adjective) 
 
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 
 
 79 
 
 Masculine 
 qui vis "\any one 
 quilibetj you loish 
 quivis 
 quilibet 
 quisquam, any one 
 
 quisque, each one 
 quisque 
 
 quispiam, any one 
 quispiam 
 
 Feminine 
 
 quaevis 
 quaelibet 
 
 quaeque 
 
 quaepiam 
 
 Neuter 
 quidvis \ anything you wish 
 quidlibet J (substantive) 
 quodvis "yany you wish (adjec- 
 quodlibet j tive) 
 quicquam or ^ anything (substan- 
 quidquam J tive) 
 quidque, each thing (substantive) 
 quodque, each, ei'ery (adjective) 
 quidpiam, anything (substantive) 
 quodpiam, any (adjective) 
 
 a. Observe that all the indefinites are compounds of quis or qui. 
 
 b. The indefinites quis and qui are declined like the interrogative 
 and relative pronouns, but usually have qua for quae except in the 
 feminine nominative plural. The same is true of aliquis and aliqui. 
 
 Note. Occasionally quis and aliquis are used adjectively and qui and 
 aliqui substantively. 
 
 c. In quidam the m in the accusative singular and genitive plural 
 is changed to n before d : as, quendam, quOrundam. 
 
 d. Quisquam has no plural, and the plural of quispiam is very rare. 
 €. The indefinites ecquis, any one (substantive), and ecqui, any 
 
 (adjective), are generally interrogative. They are declined like aliquis 
 and aliqui (§ 200. ^), but are rare in the plural. 
 
 /. The indefinites have the same early forms as the relative and 
 interrogative (cf. §§ 193. r, 197. ^). 
 
 g. For the indefinite relatives see § 194. 
 
 201. The relative, interrogative, and indefinite pronouns are origi- 
 nally from the same stems, and most of the forms are the same. 
 The stems in the masculine and neuter are quo- and qui-, and in the 
 feminine quft-. From the stem qui- the only forms are quis, quid, 
 quibus, and the old ablative qui. The accusative from the stem 
 qui- would be quim, but, like nouns with i-stems, it has borrowed 
 the ending -€m from the consonant declension. 
 
8o CONJUGATION OF VERBS 
 
 PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES 
 
 202. Several adjectives are frequently used like pronouns 
 and have adopted pronominal forms in the genitive and dative 
 singular. Among these are : 
 
 alius, another (of several) alter, the other {oi two) 
 
 unus, one nuUus (for nem5), no one 
 
 uter, which ? (of two) neuter, fieither (of two) 
 
 For the declension of these adjectives see § 143. 
 
 VERBS 
 CONJUGATION 
 
 203. The inflection of the verb is called its conjugation. 
 Through their conjugation verbs express voice, mood, tense, 
 person, and number. 
 
 Voice 
 
 204. There are two voices : active and passive, corresponding 
 in general to the active and passive in English. 
 
 a. Verbs that are passive in form but active in meaning are called 
 Deponent (§ 247). Semi-deponent verbs are active in meaning, and 
 have active forms in some of the tenses and passive forms in 
 others (§ 248). 
 
 Mood 
 
 205. There are three moods : indicative, subjunctive, and im- 
 perative.^ These mak^ up what is known as th^ finite verb. 
 
 a. In addition, the verb system includes the following non-modal 
 verb forms : 
 
 1 . Verbal Nouns : infinitive, gerund, and supine. 
 
 2. Verbal Adjectives : participles. 
 
 ^ The infinitive is often included among the moods, though it is really a 
 verbal noun both in origin and in use. 
 
CONJUGATION OF VERBS 8 1 
 
 Tense 
 
 206. The tenses are six in number : 
 
 Present Future Past Perfect (or Pluperfect) 
 
 Past (or Imperfect) Perfect Future Perfect 
 
 Only the indicative mood has all six tenses. In this mood 
 the past tense is known as the past descriptive. 
 
 The subjunctive has four tenses : the present, past, perfect, and 
 past perfect. The imperative has two : the present and future. 
 
 Person 
 
 207. There are three persons : first, second, and third. 
 
 Number 
 
 208. There are two numbers : singular and plural. 
 
 THE THREE TENSE SYSTEMS 
 
 209. A verb is inflected by adding certain endings to three 
 different tense stems, known as the Present stem, the Perfect 
 stem, and the Participial stem. 
 
 From these stems are derived the three tense systems, known 
 as the Present System, the Perfect System, and the Participial 
 System, which, taken together, make up the whole conjugation 
 of the verb. 
 
 I. The Present System, derived from the present stem, 
 consists of : 
 
 The present, past descriptive, and future indicative, active and 
 passive. 
 
 The present and past subjunctive, active and passive. 
 
 The present and future imperative, active and passive. 
 
 The present infinitive, active and passive. 
 
 The present participle, the gerund, and the gerundive. 
 
 Note. Observe that from the present stem arc derived all the presents, 
 pasts, and futures of the finite veib (§ 205). 
 
82 
 
 CONJUGATION OF VERBS 
 
 II. The Perfect System, derived from the perfect stem, 
 consists of : 
 
 The perfect, past perfect, and future perfect indicative active. 
 The perfect and past perfect subjunctive active. 
 The perfect infinitive active. 
 
 III. The Participial System, derived from the participial 
 stem, consists of : 
 
 The past participle passive, which combines with the forms of the 
 verb sum to make : 
 
 The perfect, past perfect, and future perfect indicative passive ; 
 
 The perfect and past perfect subjunctive passive ; 
 
 The perfect infinitive passive. 
 
 The future active participle/ and, hence, the future infinitive active. 
 
 The supine,^ and, hence, the future infinitive passive. 
 
 THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS 
 
 210. Regular verbs show four types of inflection, known as 
 the Four Conjugations, which are distinguished by the final 
 vowel of the present stem. This vowel, called the distingidsh- 
 hig or characteristic vowel, appears before -re in the present 
 infinitive active : 
 
 Conjugation 
 
 Present Infinitive 
 
 Present Stem 
 
 Distinguishing 
 Vowel 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 IV 
 
 amare, to love 
 monere, to advise 
 regere, to rule 
 audire, to hear 
 
 ama- 
 mone- 
 regg- 
 audi- 
 
 a 
 6 
 6 
 
 i 
 
 211. Verbs which do not conform to one of the four regular 
 conjugations are called Irregular Verbs (cf. §§251 ff.). 
 
 1 These forms are most conveniently associated with the participial stem, 
 though strictly of different origin. 
 
PRINCIPAL PARTS 83 
 
 PRINCIPAL PARTS 
 
 212. Certain forms of the verb, which show its conjugation 
 and its stems, are called its Principal Parts. These are the 
 present indicative active, first person singular ; the present in- 
 finitive active ; the perfect indicative active, first person singular ; 
 the past participle passive, nominative singular masculine. 
 
 amd, amare, amavi, amatus, love 
 
 a. The present stem may be found by dropping -re from the 
 present infinitive active : as, amS- from am&ire. 
 
 b. The perfect stem may be found by dropping -i from the perfect 
 indicative active, first person singular : as, amav- from amav i. 
 
 c. The participial stem may be found by dropping -us from the 
 past participle passive, nominative singular masculine : as, amat- from 
 amatjus. 
 
 Note. In giving the principal parts of intransitive verbs the neuter of 
 the past participle passive should be given instead of the masculine.' 
 
 veniS, venire, veni, yentum, come 
 
 If the past participle passive is wantinj?, the future participle active (^from 
 the same stem) may be given. 
 
 fugi5, fug£re, fugi, iu%X\xivai%,flec 
 
 213. In the passive voice there are three principal parts : 
 the present indicative passive, first person singular ; the present 
 infinitive passive ; and the perfect indicative passive, first 
 person singular : as, amor, am&ri, amatus sum. 
 
 214. The conjugation to which a verb is referred is deter- 
 mined by its present infinitive, no matter how irregular its 
 principal parts may be. For example, domO, domftre, domui, domi- 
 tus is referred to the first conjugation ; and pet6, petere, petivi, 
 petitus to the third. 
 
 * As intransitive verbs are used only impersonally in the passive, their past 
 participle is always neuter. 
 
84 PERSONAL ENDINGS 
 
 PERSONAL ENDINGS 
 
 215. The person of the verb is indicated, for each of the 
 three persons, both singular and plural, active and passive, by 
 regular terminations, known as personal endings. Most of 
 these seem to be remnants or fragments of old pronouns 
 whose signification is thus added to that of the verb stem. 
 
 216. The personal endings of the indicative (except in the 
 perfect active) and of the subjunctive are as follows : 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 Person Active Passive 
 
 _ fsum, I am ^ , , 
 
 1 -mor-o-^ ' , -r 2crcior. I am loved 
 
 Lamo, I love , - • . 
 
 famaris^ 7 , 
 
 2 -s 2iTCidiS, you love -nsor-re-^ y you are loved 
 
 '•^ lamare j ^ 
 
 3 -t 2im2it, he, she.it loves -tur amatur, he, she, it is 
 
 loved 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 1 -mus diTCidimviS, we love -mur amsLmur, we are loved 
 
 2 -tis 2im3.tis, you love -mini amamini, you are loved 
 
 3 -nt a.ma.nt, they love -ntur ^m^intar, they are loved 
 
 a. A long vowel is regularly shortened before final m, t, or r, or 
 before nt (cf. § 34. If). 
 
 b. Observe that the letter r appears in all but one of the passive 
 personal endings. This is sometimes called the passive sign. 
 
 217. The perfect indicative active indicates the person by 
 the following terminations, of doubtful origin : 
 
 RSON 
 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 I 
 
 -i 
 
 amavi, I have loved 
 
 2 
 
 -isti 
 
 amavisti, you have loved 
 
 3 
 
 -it 
 
 amav it, he, she, it has loved 
 
THE PRESENT STEM 85 
 
 Person PLURAL 
 
 1 -imus amavimus, we have loved 
 
 2 -istis amav iBtis, you Aave /(nrd 
 
 3 -€runt or -€re amavfirunt or -€re, lAey have loved 
 
 218. The imperative has the following terminations, of 
 uncertain origin : 
 
 PRESENT ACTIVE 
 Person singular plural 
 
 2 — am^Ly love thou -te a.m2,\Jt, love ye 
 
 FUTURE ACTIVE 
 
 2 -to diXVidLtJ^y thou shall love -tflte 2x^2i\XiX3t, ye shall love 
 
 3 -to zm^XJb, he, she, it shall love -ntO amdiiM, they shall love 
 
 PRESENT PASSIVE 
 2 -re 2LVC\2iXt, be thou loved -mini amamini, ^<r j<r /^r// 
 
 FUTURE PASSIVE 
 
 2 -tor 2im?Ltor,thou shall be loved 
 
 3 -tor amator, he, she, it shall be -ntor amantor, they shall be 
 
 lotted loved 
 
 FORMATION OF THE VERB STEMS 
 The Present Stem 
 
 219. The present stem may be found by dropping -re in 
 the present infinitive active : as, ami- from amire. 
 
 220. In the First, Second, and Fourth Conjugations the 
 present stem ends in a long vowel. 
 
 Note. Sometimes the root ends in a long vowel, and the present stem 
 and the root are identical : as, ati-, present stem and root of stare, stand. 
 But generally the final vowel of the root, or of a noun or adjective stem, 
 has been contracted with a formative verb sufiix. 
 
86 THE PRESENT STEM 
 
 a. First Conjugation. The stem vowel is a-. 
 
 Most verbs of the first conjugation are derived from the stems 
 of nouns and adjectives. The a- of the present stem generally 
 appears also in the perfect and participial stems : as, amavi, amatus. 
 
 b. Second Conjugation. The stem vowel is e-. 
 
 In most verbs of the second conjugation the stem vowel e- 
 appears only in the present system. The long stem vowel e- is 
 shortened before another vowel (§ 34. <^) : as, mongo. Some of these 
 verbs are formed directly from the root, but most of them are derived 
 from the stems of nouns and adjectives. 
 
 c. Fourth Conjugation. The stem vowel is i-. 
 
 The long stem vowel i- is shortened before another vowel (§ 34. /^) : 
 as, audio. These verbs are formed from the root or derived from the 
 stems of nouns and adjectives. 
 
 1. The i-, in verbs formed from the root, usually appears only in the 
 present system : as, venio, venire, veni, ventum, come, from the root ven-. 
 
 2. If the verbs are derived from the stems of nouns and adjectives, 
 the i- appears also in the perfect and participial systems : as, finio, finire, 
 finivi, finitus, finish, from fini-, stem of finis, end. 
 
 221. In the Third Conjugation the present stem ends in 
 a short vowel, e- or 0-/ changed in most forms to i- or u-. 
 In most cases this vowel, known as the thematic vow el ^ is 
 added directly to the unmodified root : as, dicVo-> present stem 
 of dico, speak. Often, however, various stem elements are added 
 to the root, and sometimes the root itself is changed. 
 
 Thus arise seven different kinds of formation of the present 
 stem, making the following seven classes^ of verbs : 
 
 1 The variation of the stem vowel between e- and o- is caused by ablaut 
 (§ 56), and its variable character is generally indicated by writing it e/o (or, 
 as it usually appears, i/u). 
 
 2 The thematic vowel, appearing between the root and the personal endings, 
 is a part of the stem but not of the root. Its origin is unknown. 
 
 8 In the first five classes the stem endings added to the root are, respec- 
 tively, e/o (the thematic vowel), yVo) nc/o, te/o» scc/o- In classes 6 and 7 the 
 thematic vowel is added directly to the root, but the root itself is changed. 
 
THE PERFECT STEM 87 
 
 a. The root class : as, dic-6, speaA ; root die-. 
 
 b. The -iC class : as, cap-iO, tak^ ; root cap-. 
 
 c. The -nO class : as, tem-nO, despise ; root tem-. 
 
 d. The -to class: as, flec-tO, bend\ root flee-. 
 €. The -sc6 class : as, erg-seO, grow ; root erg-. 
 
 /. The reduplicating class: as, gi-gn-5, bear\ root gen- or gn-. 
 g. The nasal class : as, iu-n-g-0, join ; root iug-. 
 
 1, In the reduplicating class the root is changed by reduplication; that 
 is, by prefixing its first consonant with i. 
 
 2. In the nasal class a nasal (m or n) is inserted before the final con- 
 sonant of the simple root, and usually appears only in the present system. 
 
 The Perfect Stem 
 
 222. The perfect stem may be found by dropping -i from 
 the first person singular of the perfect indicative active. 
 
 223. The perfect stem is formed in various ways : 
 
 a. The suffi.x -V- is added to the present stem. 
 This formation is common to most verbs of the first and fourth 
 conjugations. 
 
 voca-v-i, from vocare, call audi-v-i, from audire, hear 
 
 ft. The suflfix -V- is added to the root, or to a modified form of the 
 root ending in a long vowel. 
 
 This formation is found in several verbs of the second and third 
 conjugations. 
 
 fle-v-i, from flere, weep ; root fle- 
 
 stra-v-I, from sternere, stre%u ; root ster-, modified root stra- 
 n5-v-i, from ndscere, know ; root gno-, modified root n5- 
 le-v-i, from linere, smear \ root li-, modified root le- 
 
 c. The suflfix -u- is added to the root or to a modified form of it. 
 
 This formation is common to most verbs of the second conjuga- 
 tion, and also appears in some verbs of the third and (rarely) of 
 the first and fourth conjugations. 
 
88 THE PERFECT STEM 
 
 mon-u-i, from monere, advise ; root man-, modified root mon- 
 col-u-i, from colere, ////; root col- 
 vet-u-i, from ye\zxt, forbid \ root vet- 
 
 aper-u-i, from aperire, open ; preposition ab + root par-, modified 
 root per- 
 
 NoTE. The suffix -u- is in reality the same as the suffix -v-, the Latin 
 having but one character for both the vowel and the consonant (§2. b). 
 
 d. The suffix -s- is added to the root 
 
 This formation is common to verbs of the third conjugation having 
 roots ending in a mute (cf . § i o). It often appears also in the second 
 conjugation and occasionally in the fourth. 
 
 The combination of the final mute and s gives rise to various con- 
 sonant changes (cf. § 50), and the quantity of the vowel in the root 
 syllable of the perfect and of the present is sometimes not the same. 
 
 rex-i, from regere, ru/e • root reg- 
 
 mi-s-i, from mittere, se;id\ root mit- 
 
 ar-s-i, from ardere, burn ; root ar-, modified root ard- 
 
 sen-s-i, from sentire,y^i?/; root sent- 
 
 e. The root is reduplicated by prefixing the first consonant, gen- 
 erally with 6, sometimes with the root vowel. An a in the root syllable 
 is weakened to i or e, and an ae to i (cf. § 44). 
 
 This formation is found only in the third conjugation, in mordeo, 
 pendeo, spondee, and tondeo of the second conjugation, and in do and 
 sto. Examples are : 
 
 ce-cid-i, from cadere,y«//; root cad- 
 ce-cid-i, from caedere, cut ; root caed- 
 te-tig-i, from tangere, totich ; root tag- 
 to-tond-i, from tondere, shear \ root tond- 
 
 1. In compounds the reduplicated syllable usually disappears: as, 
 incidi, perfect of incido (compound of cado); contigi, perfect of con- 
 tingO (compound of tango). 
 
 2. When the verb begins with 3p or st, both consonants appear 
 in the reduplication, but s disappears from the root : as, steti (for 
 *8te-sti), perfect of sto. 
 
THE PARTICIPIAL STEM 89 
 
 /. The vowel of the root syllable is lengthened or changed. 
 This formation is confined mostly to verbs of the second and third 
 conjugations. 
 
 mov-i, from movere, move ; root mov- 
 fec-i, from facere, make ; root fac- 
 eg-i, from agere, drive ; root ag- 
 ven-i, from venire, come ; root ven- 
 
 g. Sometimes the perfect stem has the same form that appears in 
 the present. 
 
 This formation is common in the third conjugation, and occurs in 
 nearly all verbs ending in -uO. 
 
 vert-i, from vertere, turn 
 solv-i, from solvere, loosen 
 metu-i, from metuere,y^tfr 
 tribu-i, from tribuere, assign 
 
 224. The rules in § 223 may be summarized by the state- 
 ment that, in general, the perfect stem is formed by adding 
 a suffix to the root or present stem, by reduplication, or by 
 changing the root vowel. 
 
 ThK PaRTICIPI.^L STKNf 
 
 225. The participial stem may be found by dropping -us or 
 -um from the nominative of the past participle, or -um from 
 the supine. 
 
 226. The participial stem is formed by adding -t- or -»- : 
 
 a. To the present stem. 
 
 ama-t-, from amare, lo^>e 
 dele-t-, from delere. destroy 
 audi-t-, from audire, hear 
 
 b. To the root, with or without an intervening -1-. 
 
 cap-t-, from capere, /ake 
 mon-i-t-. from monere, advise 
 
90 FORMATION OF THE MOODS AND TENSES 
 
 The addition of the suffix leads to many consonant changes, for 
 which see §§48, 54.^. The vowel of the root syllable is generally 
 the same as in the present. 
 
 Note. Verbs in -uo form the participial stem by adding -ut- to the 
 root syllable. 
 
 stat-ut-, from statuere, set trib-ut-, from tribuere, assign 
 
 FORMATION OF THE MOODS AND TENSES 
 
 227. The different moods and tenses are, as a rule, distin- 
 guished by certain formative signs, known as mood signs or 
 tense signs, which precede the personal endings. Long vowels 
 are regularly shortened before another vowel, before a final m, 
 r, or t, and before nt or nd (cf. § 34. ^). 
 
 Indicative Mood 
 
 228. The tenses of the indicative mood are the present, past 
 descriptive, future, perfect, past perfect, and future perfect. 
 
 229. The present, past descriptive, and future are formed 
 from the present stem as follows : 
 
 a. The Present Indicative has no tense sign, the personal endings 
 being added directly to the stem. Thus, from the present stem ara- 
 are formed ara-s, ara-tis, etc. 
 
 1. In the first conjugation the stem vowel a- disappears in the 
 first person singular by contraction : as, amo, for *ama-6. 
 
 2. In the third conjugation the thematic vowel e/o (§221) dis- 
 appears in the first person singular by contraction (as, rego for 
 "^reg-e-o) ; appears as e before r (as, reg-e-ris) ; appears as u before 
 nt (as, reg-u-nt) ; and becomes i before all the other personal endings 
 (as, reg-i-s, reg-i-t). 
 
 3. In the fourth conjugation the thematic vowel appears as u in 
 the third person plural between the stem and the personal ending: 
 as, audi-u-nt. 
 
FORMATION OF THE MOODS AND TENSES 91 
 
 b. I'he Past Descriptive Indicative adds -bft- as a tense sign to 
 the present stem : as, ama-ba-s. 
 
 1. In the third conjugation the stem vowel appears as 6-: as, 
 reg6-ba-m. 
 
 2. In the fourth conjugation 6 generally occurs between the stem 
 and the tense sign: as, audi-€-ba-m. This is the regular form in 
 classical Latin. The earlier formation is without 6 : as, audi-ba-m. 
 
 c. The Future Indicative in the first and second conjugations has 
 as a tense sign -b -}- the thematic vowel i/u (changed from e/o except 
 in the first person singular). This is added to the present stem : as, 
 am4-b0, ama-bi-s, mon6-bu-nt. 
 
 In the third and fourth conjugations the tense sign is -A- in the 
 first person singular and -€- in the remaining forms. In the third 
 conjugation the tense signs take the place of the stem vowel, but not 
 in the fourth : as, reg-a-m, reg-6-mus, audi-a-m, audi-€-mus. 
 
 Note i. The tense signs -a- and -e- arc really subjunctive mood signs, 
 and futures so formed arc in origin present subjunctives. 
 
 NoTK 2. In early Latin a future in -bo is found also in verbs of the 
 fourth conjugation: as, sclbo, for sciam; audlb5, for audiam. 
 
 230. The perfect, past perfect, and future perfect indicative 
 active are formed from the perfect stem as follows : 
 
 a. The Perfect Indicative is formed by adding the endings of the 
 perfect (cf. $ 217) to the perfect stem (cf. § 222). 
 
 1. Perfects in -ftvi, -€vi, and -5vi, and also other tenses formed 
 from similar perfect stems, sometimes lose v and its following vowel 
 before s or r. 
 
 amasti. for amavisti commdrat, for commoverat 
 
 delerunt, for deleverunt ndsti, for ndvisti 
 
 2. Perfects in -ivi often omit v, but the following vowel is not 
 droppjed except before s. 
 
 audiit, for audivit audienint, for audiverunt 
 
 audisti, for audivisti petistis, for petivistis 
 
 b. The Past Perfect Indicative adds -€ri- as a tense sign to the 
 perfect stem : as, anUlv-era-m. 
 
92 FORMATION OF THE MOODS AND TENSES 
 
 c. The Future Perfect Indicative has as a tense sign -er + the 
 thematic vowel i/u (changed from e/o except in the first person singu- 
 lar). This is added to the perfect stem : as, amav-ero, amav-eri-s. 
 The third person plural, however, ends in -int (not in -unt) in imita- 
 tion of the perfect subjunctive. 
 
 Note i. The same imitation has given rise to occasional forms of the 
 second person singular and first and second person plural in -is, -imus, 
 -itis, instead of -is, -imus, -itis, the forms with i being original in the 
 perfect subjunctive. 
 
 Note 2. In early Latin the future perfect indicative sometimes has 
 forms in -so or -sso : as, faxo (fac-so), from facio ; capso, from capio ; 
 amasso, from amo. 
 
 231. The Perfect Indicative Passive and all other passive 
 tenses of the perfect system are formed by combining the 
 past participle with present, past descriptive, and future forms 
 of the auxiliary verb esse, de : as, amatus sum, amatus eram, 
 amatus ero, amatus sim, amatus esse, etc. 
 
 Subjunctive Mood 
 
 232. The tenses of the subjunctive mood are the present, 
 past, perfect, and past perfect. Long vowels are shortened, 
 before a final m, r, or t, and before nt or nd, as in the indica- 
 tive (cf. § 34. ^). 
 
 233. The present and past subjunctive are formed from the 
 present stem as follows : 
 
 a. The Present Subjunctive has the mood sign -e- in the first 
 conjugation and -a- in the others. The mood sign takes the place of 
 the final stem vowel in the first and third conjugations, but not in the 
 second and fourth : as, am-e-m, mone-a-mus, reg-a-s, audi-a-tis. 
 
 I. Many irregular verbs have -i- for a present subjunctive mood 
 sign : as, s-i-m, vel-i-mus, du-i-nt, ed-i-s. 
 
 b. The Past Subjunctive adds the mood sign -se- to the present 
 stem, the s becoming r between two vowels (cf. § 49) : as, es-s5-mus, 
 mone-re-s. 
 
FORMATION OF THE MOODS AND TENSES 93 
 
 234. The perfect and past perfect subjunctive active are 
 formed from the perfect stem as follows : 
 
 a. The Perfect Subjunctive Active adds the tense sign -erf- to the 
 perfect stem : as, amav-eri-m, amav-eri-s. 
 
 I. The i of the mood sign, originally long, is often shortened 
 through confusion with the future perfect indicative (cf. § 230. c. n. 1). 
 hjccept in the first person singular the Romans did not maintain a 
 clear distinction between these two tenses. 
 
 Note i. In early Latin a perfect subjunctive appears with the ending 
 -sim : as, faxim (fac-sim), from faci5 ; ausim, from auded. 
 Note 2. For the passive see § 231. 
 
 b. The Past Perfect Subjunctive Active adds the tense sign -issS- 
 to the perfect stem : as, amav-iss6-s, dix-isse-m. 
 
 Note. For the passive see § 23 1 . 
 
 Imperative Mood 
 
 235. The imperative mood has neither mood sign nor tense 
 signs. Its forms are made by adding its characteristic endings 
 (cf. § 218) to the present stem : as, ami-te, mone-nt5. 
 
 a. In the third conjugation the final vowel of the stem (the thematic 
 vowel, § 221) appears as 6 in the second person singular, and else- 
 where as in the present indicative : as, rege, regi-t5. 
 
 b. In the fourth conjugation the thematic vowel appears as u 
 between the stem and the ending in the third person plural of the 
 future imperative, just as in the third person plural of the present 
 indicative (cf. § 229. a. 3): as, audi-u-ntO. 
 
 c. Four verbs, dic6, duc5, faciS, and ferO, drop the final vowel in* 
 the singular of the present active imperative, making die, dQc. fac, 
 
 jand fer. 
 
 But prepositional compounds of faciO retain the final vowel : as, 
 cOnfice from cOnficiS. • 
 
 Note. In early Latin dice, duce, and face are more frequent than the 
 shortened forms. 
 
94 FORMATION OF THE NON-MODAL VERB FORMS 
 FORMATION OF THE NON-MODAL VERB FORMS 
 
 236. The non-modal verb forms are the infinitive, gerund, 
 supine, and participle. 
 
 237. The infinitive has three tenses : present, perfect, and 
 future, active and passive. 
 
 a. I. The Present Infinitive Active is formed by adding -se to the 
 present stem : as, es-se, be. But when the s of this ending comes 
 between two vowels, it is regularly changed to r (cf. § 49) : as, 
 ama-re, for ama-se ; mone-re, for mone-se. 
 
 2. The Present Infinitive Passive is formed by adding -ri to the 
 present stem in all conjugations but the third, where -i is added to 
 the root syllable : as, ama-ri, mone-ri, audi-ri, but reg-i. 
 
 Note. In early Latin and in poetry a present infinitive passive occurs 
 ending in -ier : as, amarier, monerier, regier, audirier. 
 
 h. I . The Perfect Infinitive Active is formed by adding -isse to the 
 perfect stem : as, amav-isse, monu-isse, rex-isse, audiv-isse. 
 
 2. The Perfect Infinitive Passive consists of the past pardciple with 
 esse : as, amatus esse, monitus esse. But esse is often omitted. 
 
 c. I. The Future Infinitive Active consists of the forms of the 
 future active participle with esse: as, amaturus esse. But esse is 
 very often omitted. 
 
 2. The Future Infinitive Passive consists of the supine in -um with 
 in (the present infinitive passive of eo, go) : as, amatum iri, rectum iri. 
 
 238. The Gerund is a neuter verbal noun,^ corresponding in 
 meaning to the English verbal noun in -z;/^: as, loquendi causa, 
 /or the sake of speaking. It is found only in the oblique 
 cases of the singular, and may be formed by adding -ndi to 
 the present stem : as, ama-ndi, mone-ndi, rege-ndi. In the fourth 
 conjugation the thematic vowel appears as e between the stem 
 and the ending: as, audi-e-ndi. 
 
 » Note. In early Latin -undi is often used for -endi in the third and 
 fourth conjugations: as, faciundi, audiundi. 
 
 1 The gerund is really the neuter of the gerundive used substantively. 
 
FORMATION OF THE NON-MODAL VERB FORMS 95 
 
 239. The Supine is a verbal noun of the fourth declension, 
 and is commonly found only in the accusative singular, ending 
 in -turn or -sum, and in the ablative singular, ending in -tfi or 
 -sii : as, amatum, amatu ; visum, visti. 
 
 240. There are four participles : the present active, the future 
 active, the past passive, and the future passive, or gerundive. 
 
 Latin lacks the perfect active participle (as, having heard) 
 and the present passive participle (as, being heard). But the 
 past participle of deponent verbs (§ 247), though passive in 
 form, is generally active in meaning. 
 
 a. The Present Active Participle has the same meaning as the 
 English participle in -ing. It is formed by adding -nt- (nominative 
 singular -ns) to the present stem (as, voci-ns, calling), and is declined 
 like an adjective of one ending of the third declension (of. § 149). In 
 the fourth conjugation the thematic vowel appears as e between the 
 stem and the ending : as, audl-6-ns, hearing. 
 
 b. The Future Active Participle is used to express what is /i/:e/y or 
 a/H>n/ to happen, and is regularly formed by adding -Qrus, -a, -um to 
 the participial stem. 
 
 atnat-urus, adou^ to lente monit-urus, about to advise 
 
 c. The Past Participle Passive has the meaning of the English past 
 participle passive, and is regularly formed by adding -us, -a, -um to 
 the participial stem : as, amfit-us, loved. It is used also with forms 
 of esse to form the passive tenses of the perfect system (cf. § 231). 
 
 Note. The past participle of deponent verbs (§ 247) is generally active 
 in meaning : as, hortatus, having encouraged. 
 
 d. The Future Passive Participle, or Gerundive, sometimes denotes 
 obligation, propriety, or intention, but more frequently has the same 
 meaning as the gerund (§ 238). 
 
 'I'he gerundive is formed like the gerund ^§ 238) from the present 
 stem, but with the endings -ndus, -a, -um in the nominative singular, 
 and is declined throughout like bonus (§ 1 40). 
 
 amandus. -a. -um, to be loved regendus. -a, -um. to Iw ruled 
 
96 
 
 CONJUGATION OF SUM 
 
 CONJUGATION OF SUM 
 
 241 . The verb sum, to be, is irregular, but is given first because 
 of its importance as an auxiliary in the formation of the passive 
 tenses of the regular verb. 
 
 Principal Parts : pres. indie, sum, pres. infin. esse, perf. indie, fui, 
 fut. part, futurus ^ 
 
 Pres. Stem es- 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 sum, I am 
 
 es, thou art 
 
 est, he (she, it) is 
 
 eram, I was 
 eras, thou wast 
 erat, he was 
 
 erS, I shall be 
 eris, thou wilt be 
 erit, he will be 
 
 fui, I have been, was 
 fuisti, thou hast been, wast 
 fuit, he has been, was 
 
 Perf. Stem fu- Part. Stem fut- 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 Present 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 sumus, 7ve are 
 estis, you are 
 sunt, they are 
 
 Past Descriptive 
 
 eramus, we were 
 eratis, you ivere 
 erant, they were 
 
 erimus, we shall be 
 eritis, you will be 
 erunt, they will be 
 
 fuimus, 7ve have been, were 
 iwisti^, you have been, were 
 
 I they have been, were 
 
 Future 
 
 Perfect 
 
 fueram, I had been 
 fueras, thou hadst been 
 fuerat, he had been 
 
 fu6re 
 Past Perfect 
 
 fu eramus, 7ve had been 
 f u eratis, you had bee?i 
 fu erant, they had been 
 
 1 Sum has no past participle (cf. § 212. n.). 
 
CONJUGATION OF SUM 
 
 97 
 
 Future Perfect 
 singular plural 
 
 fuerO, / shall have been fuerimus, ute shall have been 
 
 fueris, thou wilt have been fueritis, you will have been 
 
 fuerit, he will have been fucrint, they will have been 
 
 r RESENT 
 SINGULAR PLURAL 
 
 sim simus 
 
 sis sitis 
 
 sit sint 
 
 Perfect 
 fuerim fuerimus 
 
 fueris fueritis 
 
 fuerit fuerint 
 
 Present 
 2D Pers. Sing, es, be thou 
 2nPERs. Plur. ^s,\A^beye 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 Pa 
 
 ,sr 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 essem 
 
 essSmus 
 
 ess6s 
 
 cssetis 
 
 esset 
 
 essent 
 
 Past ] 
 
 Perfect 
 
 \ fuissem 
 
 fuissfimus 
 
 fuissgs 
 
 fuissgtis 
 
 fuisset 
 
 f u issent 
 
 IMPERATIVE 
 
 Future 
 2L> Pers. Sing. est5, thou shall be 
 3D Pers. Sing. estO, he shall be 
 2D Pers. Plur. estCte, ye shall be 
 3D Pers. Plur. suntO, they shall be 
 
 INFINITIVE 
 
 Pres. esse, to be 
 I'KKK. fuisse, to have been 
 Fr I. futurus, -a, -um esse, or fore, 
 to be about to be 
 
 participle 
 
 futurus, -a, -um, about to be 
 
 a. In the past subjunctive forem, forCs, foret, forent are often 
 used instead of essem, essCs, etc.; so in the future infinitive fore is 
 used for futurus esse. 
 
 b. The present participle is lacking in sum, but appears in the par- 
 ticipial adjectives ab-sCns {absent) and prae-s6ns (present). 
 
 c. Old present subjunctives are siem, sigs, siet, sient, and fuam, 
 fu&s, fuat, fuant. 
 
98 CONJUGATION OF AMO 
 
 REGULAR VERBS ' 
 242. FIRST CONJUGATION. ^-VERBS. AMO 
 
 Principal Parts : amo, amare, amavi, amatus 
 Pres. Stem ama- Perf. Stem amav- Part. Stem amat- 
 
 ACTIVE PASSIVE 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 Present 
 
 I love ^ am lovi?ig, do love, etc. I am loved, etc. 
 
 am 5 amamus ^mor amamur 
 
 amas amatis amaris (-re) amamini 
 
 amat amant amatur amantur 
 
 Past Descriptive 
 / loved, was loving, did love, etc. / was {being) loved, etc. 
 
 amabam amabamus amabar amabamur 
 
 amabas amabatis amabaris (-re) amabamini 
 
 ama bat ama bant amabatur amabantur 
 
 Future 
 
 I shall love, e.tc. I shall be loved, &ic. 
 
 ama bo amabimus amabor amabimur 
 
 ama bis amabitis amaberis (-re) amabimini 
 
 ama bit ama bunt amabitur amabuntur 
 
 Perfect 
 I have loved, loved, did love, etc. I have been (was) loved, etc. 
 
 amavi amavimus _ fsum , fsumus 
 
 _ . ^. - • .. amatus, amat I, 
 
 amavisti amavistis <^ es < estis 
 
 -a, -utn -ae, -a ] 
 amav it amav grunt (-re) Lest j^sunt 
 
CONJUGATION OF AMO 
 
 99 
 
 ACTIVE 
 
 / had imrd, etc. 
 
 amaveram amaveramus 
 amaveris amaveratis 
 amaverat amaverant 
 
 PASSIVE 
 
 Past Perfect 
 
 / had been lavedy etc. 
 
 amatus, 
 -a, -um 
 
 eram 
 
 er&s 
 
 erat 
 
 amati, 
 -ae, -a 
 
 r eramus 
 -{ eratis 
 C erant 
 
 Future Perfect 
 /shall have im'ed, etc. I shall have been loved, etc. 
 
 ama\ er6 amaverimus 
 
 amaveris amaveritis 
 am a V erit ama v erint 
 
 amatus, 
 -a, -um 
 
 ert 
 eris 
 
 I, erit 
 
 amati, 
 -ae, -a 
 
 erimus 
 
 eritis 
 
 erunt 
 
 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 
 
 
 Present 
 
 
 am em 
 
 am emus 
 
 amer 
 
 amCmur 
 
 am 6s 
 
 amgtis 
 
 am eris (-re) 
 
 amSmini 
 
 amet 
 
 ament 
 
 am6tur 
 
 amentur 
 
 Past 
 
 ama rem 
 
 amargmus 
 
 amargs 
 
 amaretis 
 
 ama ret 
 
 ama rent 
 
 ama rer ama rSmur 
 
 amarCris (-re) amarSmini 
 amargtur amarentur 
 
 amaverim amaverimus 
 amavens amaveritis 
 amaverit ama v erint 
 
 Perfect 
 
 rsim . , 
 
 amatus, , amati 
 
 < sis 
 -a, -um 1 , -ae, -a 
 
 1 sit 
 
 . rsimus 
 
 sitis 
 sint 
 
 amav issem amav issgmus 
 amavissgs amavissStis 
 amav isset amiiv issent 
 
 Past Perfect 
 
 amatus, 
 -a, -um 
 
 essem 
 
 essgs 
 
 esset 
 
 amati, 
 -ae, -a 
 
 f essgmus 
 -! essetis 
 essent 
 
:oo 
 
 CONJUGATION OF AMO 
 
 ACTIVE 
 
 ama, love thou 
 amate, love ye 
 
 ama to, thoic shalt love 
 ama to, he shall love 
 ama tote, ye shall love 
 amanto, they shall love 
 
 PASSIVE 
 
 IMPERATIVE 
 
 Present 
 
 ama re, be thou loved 
 ama mini, be ye loved 
 
 Future 
 
 ama tor, thou shalt be loved 
 ama tor, he shall be loved 
 
 amantor, they shall be loved 
 
 INFINITIVE 
 
 Pres. ama re, to love amari, to be loved 
 
 Perf. amavisse, to have loved amatus, -a, -um esse, to havebeeii loved 
 
 FuT. amaturus, -a, -um esse, amatum iri, to be about to be loved 
 to be about to love 
 
 PARTICIPLES 
 
 Pres. amans, -antis, /r;z^/;z^ Pres. 
 
 FuT. amaturus, -a, -um, ^^^7/^ Ger.i amandus, -a, -um, to be loved 
 to love 
 
 Past Past amatus, -a, -um, having been 
 
 loved, loved 
 
 GERUND 
 
 NOM. 
 
 Gen, amandi, of loving 
 
 DAT. ama ndo, for loving 
 
 Ace. amandum, loving 
 
 Abl. amand5, by loving 
 
 SUPINE (Active Voice) 
 
 Acc. amatum, to love 
 
 Abl. amatu, to love, in the loving 
 
 ^ Gerundive, sometimes called the future passive participle. 
 
CONJUGATION OF MONEO 
 
 243. SECOND CONJUGATION. ^-VERBS. MOlfEO 
 Principal Parts : moned, monSre, monui, monitus 
 Pres. Stem mon6- Perf. Stem monu- Part. Stbm monit- 
 
 lOI 
 
 ACTIVE 
 
 I advise^ etc. 
 
 moneO 
 mones 
 monet 
 
 monemus 
 
 monetis 
 
 monent 
 
 PASSIVE 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 Present 
 
 I am advised^ etc. 
 
 moneor monemur 
 
 moneris (-re) moncmini 
 
 mone tur mone ntur 
 
 Past Descriftive 
 / was advising, etc. / was advised^ etc. 
 
 mone bam monebftmus mone bar monebamur 
 
 mone bans (-re) moncbfimini 
 
 monebas 
 mone bat 
 
 monebatis 
 mone bant 
 
 monebatur 
 
 monebantur 
 
 / shall advise, etc. 
 
 monebO monebimus 
 
 mone bis monebitis 
 
 mone bit mone bunt 
 
 Future 
 
 / shall Ife advised, etc. 
 
 monebor 
 moneberis (-re) 
 monebitur 
 
 monebimur 
 monebimini 
 moncbuntur 
 
 / have advised, etc. 
 monui monulmus 
 
 monu isti 
 monu it 
 
 Perfect 
 
 I have been advised^ etc. 
 rsum . _ fsumus 
 
 monu istia 
 monu6runt(-re) 
 
 monitus, 
 -a, -um 
 
 < es 
 I. est 
 
 moniti 
 -ae. -a 
 
 fsun 
 ' \ esti 
 
 estis 
 ^sunt 
 
102 
 
 • • •• ' *ta>r[UGATION OF MONEO 
 
 ACTIVE 
 
 PASSIVE 
 
 
 Past Perfect 
 
 I had advised, etc. 
 
 / had been advised, etc. 
 
 monueram monueramus 
 monueras monueratis 
 monuerat monuerant 
 
 reram feramus 
 monitus, _ moniti, 1 _^. 
 
 \ eras \ eratis 
 -a, -um ^ -ae, -a 
 
 Lerat i erant 
 
 Future Perfect 
 
 I shall have advised, etc. 
 
 monuero 
 
 monueris 
 
 monuerit 
 
 monuerimus 
 monu eritis 
 monuerint 
 
 / shall have been advised, etc. 
 fero . _ rerimus 
 
 monitus 
 -a, -um 
 
 < ens 
 
 [erit 
 
 moniti 
 -ae, -a 
 
 '-; eri 
 
 eritis 
 I 
 l^erunt 
 
 moneam 
 
 moneas 
 
 moneat 
 
 moneamus 
 
 moneatis 
 
 moneant 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE 
 Present 
 
 monear 
 monearis (-re/ 
 moneatur 
 
 moneamur 
 moneamini 
 moneantur 
 
 Past 
 
 monerem moneremus monerer monergmur 
 
 moneres moneretis monereris (-re) moneremini 
 
 moneret monerent moneretur monerentur 
 
 Perfect 
 
 monuenm 
 
 monueris 
 
 monuerit 
 
 monuerimus 
 
 s^. monitus 
 monu eritis 
 
 . ^ -a, -um 
 monuennt 
 
 Past Perfect 
 
 rsim 
 
 ^sis 
 I sit 
 
 moniti, 
 -ae, -a 
 
 r simus 
 \ sitis 
 Isint 
 
 monuissem 
 
 monu issgmus 
 monuissetis "^^"^^^^ 
 monuissent "*' "^™ 
 
 r essem 
 
 moniti, 
 -ae, -a 
 
 r essemus 
 -! essetis 
 t essent 
 
 monuisses 
 monu isset 
 
 < esses 
 L esset 
 
CONJUGATION OF MONRO 
 
 03 
 
 ACTIVE 
 
 mone, advise thou 
 moncte, advise ye 
 
 PASSIVE 
 
 IMPERATIVE 
 
 Present 
 
 monere, be thou advised 
 mone mini, be ye advised 
 
 nionctO. thou shalt advise 
 mone to. he shall advise 
 m(jnct6te, ye shall advise 
 mone ntO, they shall advise 
 
 Future 
 
 mone tor, thou shalt be advised 
 mone tor, he shall be advised 
 
 mone ntor, they shall be advised 
 
 INFINITIVE 
 
 Pres. monere, to advise 
 
 Perk, monuisse, to have advised 
 
 FuT. moniturus, -a, -um esse, to 
 be about to advise 
 
 moneri, to be advised 
 
 monitus, -a, -um esse, to have 
 
 been advised 
 monitum iri, to be about to be 
 
 advised 
 
 PARTICIPLES 
 
 Pres. monens, -entis, advising Pres. 
 
 FuT. moniturus, -a, -um, about Ger. monendus. -a. -um, to be 
 to advise advised 
 
 Past Past monitus, -a, -um, having 
 
 been advised, advised 
 
 GERUND 
 
 NOM. 
 
 Gen. 
 Dat. 
 Ace. 
 Abl. 
 
 monendi, of advising 
 monend5,/^>r advising 
 monendum, advising 
 monendO, by advising 
 
 SUPINE (Active Voice) 
 
 Acc. monitum, to advise 
 Abl. monitii, to advise, in the 
 advising 
 
[04 CONJUGATION OF REGO 
 
 244. THIRD CONJUGATION. £- VERBS. REGO 
 
 Principal Parts : rego, regere, rexi, rectus 
 
 Pres. Stem rege- Perf. Stem rex- Part. Stem rect- 
 
 ACTIVE 
 
 I rule, etc. 
 
 rego regimus 
 
 regis regitis 
 
 regit regunt 
 
 PASSIVE 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 Present 
 
 I am ruled, etc. 
 
 regor 
 
 regeris (-re) 
 regitur 
 
 regimur 
 regi mini 
 reguntur 
 
 1 7vas ruling, etc. 
 
 rege bam regebamus 
 rege bas rege batis 
 rege bat rege bant 
 
 Past Descriptive 
 
 I ivas ruled, etc. 
 
 rege bar rege bamur 
 
 regebaris (-re) regebamini 
 regebatur regebantur 
 
 Future 
 
 / shall rule, etc. 
 
 regam regemus 
 
 reges regetis 
 
 reget regent 
 
 I shall be ruled, etc. 
 
 regar 
 
 regeris (-re) 
 regetur 
 
 regemur 
 regemini 
 regentur 
 
 I have ruled, etc. 
 
 rexi reximus 
 
 rexisti rexistis 
 
 rex it rexerunt (-re) 
 
 Perfect 
 
 I have been ruled, etc. 
 
 rectus, I 
 
 fsum 
 
 -a, -um 
 
 Lest 
 
 f sumus 
 recti, 1 ^. 
 
 . \ estis 
 -ae, -a 
 
 I sunt 
 
CONJUGATION OF JiEGO 
 
 105 
 
 ACTIVK 
 
 PASSIVE 
 
 
 Past Perfect 
 
 J had rtiled, etc. 
 
 / had been ruled y etc. 
 
 rexeram rcxerSmus 
 rex eras rcxerfitis 
 rexerat rexerant 
 
 feram , reramus 
 rectus, 1^^ ^^'- erstis 
 -a, -um ^ -ae, -a] 
 
 Lerat i.erant 
 
 / shall have m/edy etc. 
 
 Future Perfect 
 
 I shall have been ruled, etc. 
 
 rexerO 
 rexeris 
 rexerit 
 
 rcxerimus 
 
 rexeritis 
 
 rexerint 
 
 ^^""'Jeris 
 -^'-"'"lerit 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVK 
 
 Present 
 
 . r erimus 
 
 ^^"- eriti. 
 -ae, -« 
 
 Lerunt 
 
 regam 
 
 regamus 
 
 regar 
 
 regftmur 
 
 regis 
 
 regatis 
 
 regSris (-re) 
 
 regftmini 
 
 rcgat 
 
 regant 
 
 regitur 
 Past 
 
 rc2:antur 
 
 regerem 
 
 regergmus 
 
 regerer 
 
 regergmur 
 
 regerfis 
 
 regeretis 
 
 regerCris (-re) 
 
 regergmini 
 
 regeret 
 
 regerent 
 
 regerCtur 
 Perfect 
 
 regerentur 
 
 rexerim 
 
 rexeris 
 
 rexerit 
 
 rexenmus 
 
 rexerftis 
 
 rexerint 
 
 rsim 
 ^*«"''- Sis 
 
 Past Perfect 
 
 . - fsimus 
 '''''• < sitis 
 
 rexissem 
 
 rexissSs 
 
 rexisset 
 
 rex issfimus 
 rex issgtis 
 rex issent 
 
 ressem 
 rectus, i 
 
 < essCs 
 -a, -um 1 
 
 esset 
 
 red, f^i""' 
 I essent 
 
io6 
 
 CONJUGATION OF REGO 
 
 ACTIVE 
 
 rege, nde thou 
 regite, rule ye 
 
 PASSIVE 
 
 IMPERATIVE 
 
 Present 
 
 rege re, be thou ricled 
 regimini, be ye ruled 
 
 regito, thou shall rule 
 regito, he shall rule 
 regitote, ye shall rule 
 regunto, they shall rule 
 
 Future 
 
 regitor, thou shall be ruled 
 regitor, he shall be ruled 
 
 regunto r, they shall be ruled 
 
 INFINITIVE 
 
 regi, to be ruled 
 
 rectus, -a, -um esse, to have been 
 ruled 
 FuT. recturus, -a, -um esse, to be rectum iri, to be about to be ruled 
 about to rule 
 
 Pres. rege re, to rule 
 
 Perf. rexisse, to have ruled 
 
 PARTICIPLES 
 
 Pres. regens, -entis, ruling Pres. 
 
 FuT. recturus, -a, -um, rt-^^z// /^ Ger. regendus, -a, -um, to be 
 rule ruled 
 
 Past Past rectus, -a, -um, ^^z^/;2^/^<?^« 
 
 ruled^ ruled 
 
 GERUND 
 
 NOM. 
 
 Gen. regendi, of ruling 
 
 DAT. r&gtndio, for ruling 
 
 Ace. rege ndum, ruling 
 
 Abl. regendo, by ruling 
 
 SUPINE (Active Voice) 
 
 Acc. rectum, to rule 
 
 Abl. rectu, to rule, in the ruling 
 
CONJUGATION OF AUDIO 
 245. FOURTH CONJUGATION. /-VERBS. AUDIO 
 
 Principal Parts : audio, audire, audivi, auditus 
 pREs. Stem audi- Perf. Stem audiv- Part. Stem audit- 
 
 ACTIVE PASSIVE 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 Present 
 
 / am heard^ etc. 
 
 audi or audimur 
 
 audiri8(-re) 
 
 107 
 
 I hear, etc. 
 
 audio audimus 
 
 audi 8 auditis 
 
 audit audiunt 
 
 audltur 
 
 audi mini 
 audiuntur 
 
 Past Descriptive 
 
 / was hearing, etc. / was heard, etc. 
 
 audiSbam audiSbamus audiSbar audi6bamur 
 
 audiSbSris (-re) audiSbamini 
 
 audiebas 
 audiSbat 
 
 audiebatis 
 audiSbant 
 
 audiebatur 
 
 audiebantur 
 
 / shall hear, etc. 
 
 audi am audiSmus 
 
 audifis audietis 
 
 audiet audient 
 
 Future 
 
 / shall be heard, etc. 
 
 audiar audiSmur 
 
 audieria (-re) audiCmini 
 
 audietur 
 
 audientur 
 
 Perfect 
 
 / have heard, etc. 
 
 audivi audiv imus 
 
 audiv isti audiv istis 
 audiv it audiv 6runt (-re) 
 
 auditus, 
 -a,-um 
 
 / have been heard, etc. 
 
 auditi, f'"""' 
 
 sum 
 es 
 Lest 
 
 < estis 
 
 -ac, -a 1 
 
 Lsunt 
 
:o8 
 
 CONJUGATION OF AUDIO 
 
 ACTIVE 
 
 / had heard, etc. 
 
 audiveram 
 
 audiveras 
 
 audlverat 
 
 audiveramus 
 
 audiveratis 
 
 audiverant 
 
 PASSIVE 
 
 Past ■ Perfect 
 
 audit us, 
 -a, -urn 
 
 / had been heard, etc. 
 reram 
 
 eras 
 erat 
 
 , . reramus 
 
 audit 1, I 
 
 ->, eratis 
 -ae, -a i 
 
 iterant 
 
 I shall have heard, etc. 
 
 Future Perfect 
 
 I shall have been heard, etc. 
 
 audivero 
 
 audlveris 
 
 audiverit 
 
 audiverimus 
 
 audiveritis 
 
 audlverint 
 
 audit us, I . 
 
 <! ens 
 -a, -urn I 
 
 ^erit 
 
 audit i, J 
 -ae, -a i 
 
 ^ rerimus 
 eritis 
 
 erunt 
 
 audi am 
 audi as 
 audi at 
 
 audiamus 
 audiatis 
 audi ant 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE 
 Present 
 
 audiar 
 
 audiaris (-re) 
 audiatur 
 
 audiamur 
 audiamini 
 audiantur 
 
 audi rem audiremus 
 
 audi res audiretis 
 
 audi ret audi rent 
 
 Past 
 
 audirer 
 audireris (-re) 
 audiretur 
 
 audiremur 
 audiremini 
 audirentur 
 
 audiverim audiverimus 
 audi V eris audiv eritis 
 audiv erit audiv erint 
 
 Perfect 
 
 auditus, 
 -a, -um 
 
 Sim 
 
 sit 
 
 audit i, 
 -ae, -a 
 
 simus 
 sitis 
 tsint 
 
 Past Perfect 
 
 audiv issem 
 audiv issgs 
 audiv isset 
 
 audiv issemus 
 audiv issetis 
 audiv issent 
 
 auditus, , 
 
 \ esses 
 -a, -um I 
 
 ressem , _ ressemus 
 I audit 1, 
 
 \ essetis 
 -ae, -a 
 esset t essent 
 
CONJUGATION OF AUDIO 
 
 109 
 
 ACTIVE 
 
 audi, hear thou 
 indite, hear ye 
 
 audi to, thou shalt hear 
 audits, he shall hear 
 audi tote, ye shall hear 
 audi unto, they shall hear 
 
 PASSIVE 
 
 IMPERATIVE 
 
 Present 
 
 audi re, be thou heard 
 audi mini, be ye heard 
 
 Future 
 
 auditor, thou shalt be heard 
 auditor, he shall be heard 
 
 audiuntor, they shall be heard 
 
 infinitive 
 
 pREs. audi re, to hear 
 
 Perf. audivisse, to have heard 
 
 audiri, to be heard 
 audit us, -a, -um esse, to have been 
 heard 
 FuT. audit urus, -a, -um esse, to audit um iri, to be about to be 
 be about to hear heard 
 
 PARTICIPLES 
 
 Pres. audi fins, -ientis, hearing Pres. 
 
 FuT. auditurus, -a, -um, rtr/^/w/ /^ Ger. audiendus. -a, -um, to be 
 hear heard 
 
 Past Past audit us, -a, -um, having 
 
 been heard, heard 
 
 GERUND 
 
 NOM. 
 
 Gen. audiendi, of hearing 
 
 1 > AT. audi endO, for hearing 
 
 Ace. audiendum, hearing 
 
 Abi.. audiendO, by hearing 
 
 SUPINE (Active Voice) 
 
 Acc. audit um, to hear 
 Ai!L. audit u, to hear, in the 
 hearing 
 
no 
 
 CONJUGATION OF CAPIO 
 
 VERBS IN -10 OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION ' 
 
 246. Certain verbs in -15 do not belong to the fourth conju- 
 gation but to the third. In the present system, however, they 
 follow the fourth conjugation wherever in the fourth conju- 
 gation a vowel follows the i of the stem. Verbs of this class 
 are conjugated as follows : 
 
 capio, take 
 
 Principal Parts : capio, capere, cepi, captus 
 
 Pres. Stem cape- Perf. Stem cep- Part. Stem capt- 
 
 
 ACTIVE 
 
 PASSIVE 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 
 
 Present 
 
 
 capio 
 capis 
 capit 
 
 capimus 
 
 capitis 
 
 capiunt 
 
 capior 
 cape lis (-re) 
 capitur 
 
 Past Descriptive 
 
 capimur 
 capimini 
 capiuntur 
 
 capiebam 
 capiebas . 
 capiebat 
 
 capiebamus 
 
 capiebatis 
 
 capiebant 
 
 I capiebar 
 
 capiebaris (-re) 
 capiebatur 
 
 Future 
 
 capiebamur 
 capiebamlni 
 capiebantur 
 
 capiam 
 
 capies 
 
 capiet 
 
 capiSmus 
 
 capietis 
 
 capient 
 
 capiar 
 
 capieris (-re) 
 capietur 
 
 capiSmur 
 capiemini 
 capientur 
 
 Perfect 
 cepi, cepisti, cep it, etc. captus, -a, -um sum, es, est, etc. 
 
 Past Perfect 
 ceperam, cep eras, ceperat, etc. captus, -a, -um eram, eras, erat, etc. 
 
 Future Perfect 
 capers, ceperis, ceperit, etc. captus, -a, -um ero, eris, erit, etc. 
 
CONJUGATION OF CAPIO 
 
 III 
 
 ACTIVE PASSIVE 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 Present 
 
 cai)iam. capias, capiat, etc. capiar, -iiris (-re), -iatur, etc. 
 
 Past 
 cape rem, caperts, cape ret, etc. caperer, -ereris (-re), -ergtur, etc. 
 
 Perfect 
 ceperim, ceperis, ceperit, etc. captus, -a, -um sim, sis, sit, etc. 
 
 Past Perfect 
 ccpissem, cepiss6s, ccpisset,etc. captus, -a, -umessem, essSs, es8et,etc. 
 
 IMPERATIVE 
 
 Present 
 
 2D Pers. cape capite 
 
 Future 
 
 2D Pers. capitfl capitOte 
 
 3D Pers. capita capiuntO 
 
 cape re capimini 
 
 capitor 
 
 capitor capiuntor 
 
 
 
 INFINn 
 
 nvE 
 
 Pres. 
 
 cape re 
 
 
 capi 
 
 Perf. 
 
 cepisse 
 
 
 captus, -a, -um esse 
 
 FUT. 
 
 capturus, -a, -um esse 
 
 captum iri 
 
 
 
 PARTICIPLES 
 
 Pres. 
 
 capigns, ientis 
 
 
 Pres 
 
 
 
 Put. 
 
 capttinis, -a, -um 
 
 Ger. capiendus, -a. -um 
 
 Past 
 
 
 
 Past captus, -a, -um 
 
 SUPINE (Active Vo.cii 
 
 GERUND 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 capiendi 
 
 
 Acc. captum 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 
 Abl. capta 
 
112 
 
 CONJUGATION OF DEPONENT VERBS 
 
 DEPONENT VERBS 
 
 247. A number of verbs, called depojiefit, have in general 
 the forms of the passive but the meanings of the active. 
 
 Deponent verbs have, however, the following active forms : 
 the future infinitive, the present and future participles, the 
 gerund, and the supine. 
 
 Passive in meanmg as well as in form are always the 
 future passive participle (or gerundive) and sometimes the past 
 participle. 
 
 Deponent verbs are inflected like regular verbs. Examples : 
 
 Principal 
 Parts 
 
 I. hortor, hortari, hortatus sum, ^irge 
 II. vereor, vereri, veritus sum,/mr 
 
 III. sequor, sequi, secutus syxm, follow 
 
 IV. partior, partiri, partitus sum, share, divide 
 
 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 
 Pres. 
 
 hortor 
 
 vereor 
 
 sequor 
 
 partior 
 
 
 hortaris (-re) 
 
 vereris (-re) 
 
 sequeris (-re) 
 
 partlris (-re) 
 
 
 hortatur 
 
 veretur 
 
 sequitur 
 
 partltur 
 
 
 hortamur 
 
 veremur 
 
 sequimur 
 
 partimur 
 
 
 hortaminl 
 
 veremini 
 
 sequiminl 
 
 partimini 
 
 
 hortantur 
 
 verentur 
 
 sequuntur 
 
 partiuntur 
 
 P. D. 
 
 hortabar 
 
 verebar 
 
 sequebar 
 
 partiebar 
 
 FUT. 
 
 hortabor 
 
 verebor 
 
 sequar 
 
 partiar 
 
 Perf. 
 
 hortatus sum 
 
 veritus sum 
 
 secutus sum 
 
 partitus sum 
 
 P.P. 
 
 hortatus eram 
 
 veritus eram 
 
 secutus eram 
 
 partitus eram 
 
 F.P. 
 
 hortatus ero 
 
 veritus ero 
 
 secutus ero 
 
 partitus ero 
 
 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 
 Pres. 
 
 horter 
 
 verear 
 
 sequar 
 
 partiar 
 
 Past 
 
 hortarer 
 
 vererer 
 
 sequerer 
 
 partirer 
 
 Perf. 
 
 hortatus sim 
 
 veritus sim 
 
 secutus sim 
 
 partitus sim 
 
 P. p. hortatus essem veritus essem secutus essem partitus essem 
 
SEMI-DEPONENT VERBS 
 
 "3 
 
 Pres. hortare 
 FuT. hortator 
 
 IMPERATIVE 
 
 verfire sequere 
 
 veretor 
 
 sequitor 
 
 partire 
 partitor 
 
 INFINITIVE 
 
 vereri sequi 
 
 Pres. hortari vereri sequi partirl 
 
 Perf. hortatus esse veritus esse secutus esse partitus esse 
 Fn. hortaturus esse veritQrus esse secuturus esse partitQrus esse 
 
 Pres. hort&ns 
 
 FuT. hortiturus 
 
 Past hortatus 
 
 Ger. hortandus 
 
 hortandi, etc. 
 
 hortatum, -tu 
 
 PARTICIPLES 
 
 verens sequens 
 
 veriturus secuturus 
 
 veritus secutus 
 
 verendus sequendus 
 
 GERUND 
 
 verendi, etc. sequendi, etc. 
 
 SUPINE 
 
 veritum, -tu secfitum, -tu 
 
 partiSns 
 partiturus 
 partitus 
 partiendus 
 
 partiendi, etc. 
 
 partitum, -tu 
 
 a. Deponent verbs in -i(J of the third conjugation are inflected like 
 the passive of capiO (§ 246). 
 
 SEMI-DEPONENTS 
 
 248. A few verbs, called semi-deponents, have active forms 
 in the present system, and passive forms with active meanings 
 in the perfect system. These are : 
 
 audeo, audere, ausus sum,^ dare 
 fido, fidere. fisus sum, trust 
 gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus sum, rejoice 
 80le5, solere, solitus sum, be accustomed 
 
 a. Some of the compounds of vertO, turn, are deponent except 
 in the perfect system: as, reverter, reverti (infin.), reverti (perf.), 
 reversus, rdurn. 
 
 1 The forms ausim, aa«Ia, ausit, auslnt occur as perfect subjunctives. 
 
114 THE PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATIONS 
 
 THE PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATIONS 
 
 249. There are two periphrastic conjugations, the active and 
 the passive. 
 
 a. The active periphrastic conjugation denotes 2i future or intended 
 action, and is made by combining the future active participle with 
 the forms of sum. 
 
 h. The passive periphrastic conjugation denotes obligation^ necessity^ 
 or propriety, and is made by combining the gerundive with the 
 forms of sum. 
 
 250. The following is the inflection of the active and passive 
 periphrastic forms of a verb of the first conjugation. The 
 inflection is similar in the other conjugations. 
 
 ACTIVE PASSIVE 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 Present 
 
 laudaturus sum, I am about laudandus sum, I am to be 
 
 to (or intend to) praise (or must be) praised 
 
 Past Descriptive 
 laudaturus eram laudandus eram 
 
 Future 
 laudaturus ero laudandus ero 
 
 Perfect 
 laudaturus ful laudandus ful 
 
 Past Perfect 
 laudaturus fueram laudandus fueram 
 
 Future Perfect 
 laudaturus fuero laudandus fuero 
 
IRREGULAR VERBS 
 
 ACTIVE PASSIVE 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 115 
 
 laudaturus sim 
 laudaturus essem 
 
 Present 
 
 Past 
 
 laudandus sim 
 
 laudandus essem 
 
 Perfect 
 laudaturus fuerim laudandus fuerim 
 
 Past Perfect 
 laudaturus fuissem laudandus fuissem 
 
 INFINITIVE 
 
 Present 
 
 laudaturus esse 
 
 laudandus esse 
 
 Perfect 
 laudaturus fuisse laudandus fuisse 
 
 a. The periphrastic conjugations lack the imperative, participles, 
 gerund, and supine. 
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS 
 
 251. The irregular verbs are sum, vol6, n615, mil6, ferO. edO, 
 do, eO, queC, fiO, and their compounds. 
 
 In verbs that are regular the personal endings are preceded 
 by the thematic or stem vowel (cf. §§ 210, 221). Irregular 
 verbs contain forms in which the personal endings are added 
 directly to the root, with no intervening vowel, ^ as in es-t, 
 vul-t, etc. However, most of the forms of the irregular verbs 
 differ in no way from those of regular verbs. 
 
 ^ Because of the absence of the thematic vowel (§ 221), irregular verbs are 
 sometimes called athftnatic. 
 
Ii6 
 
 CONJUGATION OF POSSUM 
 
 SUM AND ITS COMPOUNDS 
 
 252. For the conjugation of sum see § 241. Most com- 
 pounds of sum are conjugated like the simple verb. 
 
 The present participle, which is lacking in sum, appears in 
 the participial adjectives ab-sens {absent) from absum, and prae- 
 sens {present) from praesum. 
 
 253. Prosum, help, is a compound of prod (the earlier form 
 of pro) and sum. The final d of the preposition disappears 
 before a consonant, but is retained before a vowel. 
 
 Hence in the present indicative the inflection is : 
 
 prosum pro'sumus 
 
 prodes prodes'tis 
 
 prodest prosunt 
 
 Similarly we have proderam, prodero, prodessem, etc. 
 
 254. Possum, be able, in its present system is a compound 
 of the adjective potis, or pote, able, and sum. The remaining 
 forms are from an obsolete verb potere. 
 
 . Principal Parts : possum, posse, potui, 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 Singular Plural 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 Singular Plural 
 
 Pres. 
 
 Past 
 
 FUT. 
 
 Perf. 
 P. Perf. 
 F. Perf. 
 
 possum 
 
 potes 
 
 potest 
 
 poteram 
 
 potero 
 
 potui 
 
 potueram 
 
 potuero 
 
 pes sumus 
 
 potes 'tis 
 
 possunt 
 
 poteramus 
 
 pGterimus 
 
 potuimus 
 
 potueramus 
 
 potuerimus 
 
 possim 
 possis 
 possit 
 possem 
 
 potuerim 
 potuissem 
 
 possi mus 
 possl'tis 
 possint 
 posse'mus 
 
 potuerimus 
 potuissemus 
 
 INFINITIVE 
 
 Perf. potuisse 
 
 Pres. posse 
 
 PARTICIPLE 
 
 Pres. potens, potentis (adjective), powerful 
 
IRREGULAR VERBS 
 volO, nOlO, and mAlO 
 
 117 
 
 255. N516 and malO are compounds of voW. N515 is for ne 
 (no/) -h voW, and malO for mfi (from magis, more) -\- volO. The 
 form vis, the second person singular of vol6, is from a different 
 root. 
 
 These verbs are inflected as follows : 
 
 V0I6, velle, volui, — 
 malO, malle, malui, 
 
 -, fig wiliing^ will, wish 
 -, be unwilling^ will not 
 — , be more willing, prefer 
 
 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 
 
 
 Singular 
 
 
 PRES. 
 
 volo 
 
 nolo 
 
 malo 
 
 
 vis 
 
 non vis 
 
 mavis 
 
 
 vult 
 
 non vult 
 Plural 
 
 mavult 
 
 
 volumus 
 
 nolumus 
 
 malumus 
 
 
 vultis 
 
 non vultis 
 
 mavul'tis 
 
 
 volunt 
 
 nolunt 
 
 malunt 
 
 \\ Descr. 
 
 volebam 
 
 nolebam 
 
 malebam 
 
 FUT. 
 
 volam, voles, etc. 
 
 nolam, noles, etc. 
 
 malam, males, etc. 
 
 Perf. 
 
 volui 
 
 nolui 
 
 malui 
 
 p. Perf. 
 
 volueram 
 
 nOlueram 
 
 malueram 
 
 F. Perf. 
 
 voluero 
 
 noluerS 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 Singular 
 
 maluerO 
 
 Pres. 
 
 velim 
 
 n6lim 
 
 malim 
 
 
 veils 
 
 nOlis 
 
 malis 
 
 
 velit 
 
 n5lit 
 
 malit 
 
Ii8 CONJUGATION OF VOLO, NOLO, AND MALO 
 
 
 
 Plural 
 
 
 
 veli'mus 
 
 noli'mus 
 
 mall 'mus 
 
 
 veil 'tis 
 
 noli 'tis 
 
 mali'tis 
 
 
 velint 
 
 nolint 
 Singular 
 
 malint 
 
 Past 
 
 vellem, velles, etc. 
 
 nollem, nolles, etc. 
 Plural 
 
 mallem, mj 
 
 
 velle'mus 
 
 nolle 'mus 
 
 malle'mus 
 
 
 velle'tis 
 
 nolle'tis 
 
 malle'tis 
 
 
 vellent 
 
 nollent 
 
 mallent 
 
 Perf. 
 
 voluerim 
 
 noluerim 
 
 maluerim 
 
 P. Perf. 
 
 voluissem 
 
 noluissem 
 
 imperative 
 
 noli, nolite 
 nolito, nolitote 
 nolito, nolunto 
 
 maluissem 
 
 rRES. 
 FUT. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 infinitive 
 
 
 Pres. 
 
 velle 
 
 nolle 
 
 malle 
 
 Perf. 
 
 voluisse 
 
 noluisse 
 participle 
 
 maluisse 
 
 Pres. 
 
 volens, -entis 
 
 nolens, -entis 
 
 
 Note. Vellem is for vel-sem, and velle for vel-se (cf. § 51). 
 
 FERO AND ITS COMPOUNDS 
 
 256. Fero, bear, has two independent roots : fer- in the present 
 system, and tul-, for tol- (cf. tollo), in the perfect. The past 
 participle latus is for tlatus, tla- being another form of the 
 root tol-. The past subjunctive ferrem is for fer-sem, and the 
 present infinitive ferre for fer-se (cf. §§ 51, 233. b, 237. a. i). 
 
 Fero is inflected as follows : 
 
CONJUGATION OF lERO 
 
 119 
 
 Principal Parts: ferO, ferre, tuli, Ifitus 
 Prbs. Stem fer- Perf. Stem tul- Part. Stem Ut- 
 
 
 ACTIVK 
 
 PASSIVE 
 
 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 
 Pres. 
 
 fero 
 
 ferimus 
 
 feror ferimur 
 
 
 fers 
 
 fertis 
 
 ferris (-re) ferimini 
 
 
 fert 
 
 ferunt 
 
 fertur feruntur 
 
 Past Descr. 
 
 ferebam 
 
 
 ferebar 
 
 Fl'T. 
 
 feram, feres, etc. 
 
 ferar, fereris, etc. 
 
 Perf. 
 
 tuli 
 
 
 latus, -a, -um sum 
 
 Past Perf. 
 
 tuleram 
 
 
 latus, -a, -um eram 
 
 Future Perf. 
 
 tulero 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 latus, -a, -um ero 
 
 Pres. 
 
 feram, feras, etc. 
 
 ferar, feraris, etc. 
 
 Past 
 
 ferrem 
 
 
 ferrer 
 
 Perf. 
 
 tulerim 
 
 
 latus, -a, -um sim 
 
 Past Perf. 
 
 tulissem 
 
 IMPERATIVE 
 
 latus, -a, -um essem 
 
 Pres. 2D Pers. 
 
 fer 
 
 ferte 
 
 ferre ferimini 
 
 FuT. 2D Pers. 
 3D Pers. 
 
 ferto 
 ferto 
 
 fertote 
 ferunto 
 
 
 fertor feruntor 
 
 
 
 infinitive 
 
 
 Pres. 
 
 ferre 
 
 
 ferri 
 
 Perf. 
 
 tulisse 
 
 
 latus, -a, -um esse 
 
 FuT. 
 
 laturus, -J 
 
 a, -um esse 
 
 participles 
 
 latum iri 
 
 Pres. 
 
 ferens, -entis Pres. 
 
 
 Kit. 
 
 laturus, -; 
 
 a, -um Ger. 
 
 ferendus, -a, -um 
 
 Past 
 
 
 Pact 
 
 latus, -a, -um 
 
 SUPINE (Active Voice) 
 
 GERUND 
 
 Gen. 
 
 ferendi 
 
 Acc. ferendum 
 
 Acc. latum 
 
 DAT. 
 
 ferendo 
 
 Abl. ferendo 
 
 Abl. latQ 
 
I20 
 
 CONJUGATION OF EDO 
 
 a. The compounds of fer6, conjugated like the simple verb, are 
 
 the following : 
 
 
 
 
 
 ad- 
 
 adfero 
 
 adferre 
 
 attull 
 
 allatus 
 
 au-, ab- 
 
 aufero 
 
 auferre 
 
 abstuli 
 
 ablatus 
 
 con- 
 
 confero 
 
 conferre 
 
 contuli 
 
 conlatus 
 
 dis-, di- 
 
 differo 
 
 differre 
 
 distuli 
 
 dilatus 
 
 ex.,e- 
 
 effero 
 
 efferre 
 
 ' extuli 
 
 elatus 
 
 in- 
 
 infero 
 
 inferre 
 
 intull 
 
 inlatus 
 
 ob- 
 
 offero 
 
 offerre 
 
 obtuli 
 
 oblatus 
 
 re- 
 
 refero 
 
 referre 
 
 rettuli 
 
 relatus 
 
 sub- 
 
 suffero 
 
 sufferre 
 
 sustuli 
 
 sublatus 
 
 Note. Ab- and au- are two distinct prepositions with the same meaning. 
 Sustuli and sublatus serve also respectively as the perfect indicative and 
 past participle of the verb tollo. 
 
 EDO 
 
 257. Edo,^^/, has the inflection of a regular verb of the third 
 conjugation and, in addition, alternative forms in certain tenses 
 of the present system. Thus : 
 
 Principal Parts : edo, edere (esse), edi, esus 
 
 ACTIVE 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 Pres. edo, edis (es), edit (est) 
 
 edimus, editis (estis), edunt 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 Pres. edam (edim), edas (edis), edat (edit) 
 
 edamus (edimus), edatis (editis), edant (edint) 
 
 Past ederem (essem), ederes (esses), ederet (esset) 
 
 ederemus (essemus), ederetis (essetis), ederent (essent) 
 
 INFINITIVE 
 
 edere (esse) 
 Pres. 2d Pers. ede (es) edite (este) 
 
 FuT. 2D Pers. edito (esto) editote (estote) 
 
 3D Pers. edito (esto) edunto 
 
 IMPERATIVE 
 
 Singular Plural 
 
CONJUGATION OF DO 121 
 
 PASSIVE 
 
 Pres. In Die. 3D Sing, editur (estur) 
 Past Subjv. 3D Sing, ederetur (essetur) 
 
 • a. Note that the long vowel of the shorter forms distinguishes 
 them from the corresponding forms of the verb esse, be. 
 
 h. The shorter forms of the present indicative, and the present 
 subjunctive forms edim, edis, etc., were those commonly used till the 
 latter part of the classical period. 
 
 c. Comedo, consume^ has either comSstus or comgsus as a past 
 participle. 
 
 DO 
 
 258. The verb d6, give, is conjugated like a verb of the first 
 conjugation, but the root vowel (a-) is everywhere short except 
 in the second person singular of the present indicative and the 
 present imperative active, and in the nominative singular of the 
 present participle. 
 
 Principal Parts : d6, dire, dedi. datus 
 Pres. Stem di- Perk. Stem dcd- Part. Stem dat- 
 
 
 ACTIVE 
 
 PASSIVE 
 
 
 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 Pres. 
 
 do 
 das 
 
 damus 
 datis 
 
 
 daris (-re) damini 
 
 
 dat 
 
 dant 
 
 datur dantur 
 
 P. Descr. 
 
 dabam 
 
 
 dabar 
 
 Put. 
 
 dabo 
 
 
 dabor 
 
 Perf. 
 
 dedi 
 
 
 datus, -a, -um sum 
 
 P. Perf. 
 
 dederam 
 
 
 datus, -a, -um eram 
 
 F. Perf. 
 
 dedero 
 
 
 datus, -a, -um er6 
 
122 CONJUGATION OF DO 
 
 ACTIVE PASSIVE 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 Pres. dem, des, det, etc. ,deris(-re), detur, etc. 
 
 Past darem darer 
 
 Perf. dederim datus, -a, -um sim 
 
 P. Perf. dedissem datus, -a, -um essem 
 
 IMPERATIVE 
 
 Pres 
 
 2D Pers. da date 
 
 dare damin! 
 
 "Pl'T 
 
 2D Pers. dato datote 
 3D Pers. dato danto 
 
 1 . 
 
 r L i. 
 
 dator dantor 
 
 
 INFINITIVE 
 
 
 Pres 
 
 dare 
 
 dari 
 
 Perf 
 
 dedisse 
 
 datus, -a, -um esse 
 
 FUT. 
 
 daturus, -a, -um esse 
 
 datum iri 
 
 
 PARTTCIPLES 
 
 Pres 
 
 dans, dantis Pres. 
 
 
 FUT. 
 
 daturus, -a, -um Ger. 
 
 dandus, -a, -um 
 
 "P A CT 
 
 P\^T 
 
 datus, -a, -um 
 
 SUPINE (Active Voice) 
 
 X Ao 1 
 
 GERUND 
 
 
 Gen. dandi Ace. dandum 
 
 Acc. datum 
 
 
 DAT. dando Abl. dando 
 
 Abl. datu 
 
 a. In early Latin and in poetry occur forms from the related root 
 du-: as, present subjunctive duim, duis, etc., and sometimes duam, 
 duas, etc. 
 
 h. In compounds, do generally has the meaning put} Most of 
 these compounds, if the prefix is a monosyllable, are conjugated as 
 verbs of the third conjugation : as, condo, condere, condidi, conditus, 
 found. 
 
 1 Some grammarians consider this as a different verb from do, give. 
 
259. 
 
 CONJUGATION OF EO 
 
 e6, go 
 I'RiNCiPAL Parts : eO, ire, ii (ivi), itum 
 
 123 
 
 pRt 
 
 s. St KM 1- 
 
 Perf. Stem i- 
 
 or iv- 
 
 Part. Stem it 
 
 - 
 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 IMPERATIVE 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sl.NG. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Pres. 
 
 eo imus 
 is itis 
 it eunt 
 
 earn 
 
 
 2D Pers. i 
 
 ite 
 
 Past 
 Put. 
 Perf. 
 
 ibam 
 ibo 
 ii (ivi) 
 
 irem 
 
 srim) 
 
 ■ 2D Pers. ito 
 .3D Pers. ito 
 
 itote 
 
 ierim (iv( 
 
 eunto 
 
 P. Perf. 
 
 ieram (iveram) 
 
 issem (Ivissem) 
 
 
 
 F. Perf. 
 
 iero (ivero) 
 
 INFINITIVE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PARTICIPLES 
 
 Pres. 
 
 ire 
 
 
 
 Pres. iens, euntis 
 
 Perf. 
 
 isse (ivisse) 
 
 
 
 FuT. iturus, -a, 
 
 -um 
 
 Kit. 
 
 iturus, -a, -um esse 
 
 
 Ger. eundum 
 
 
 
 GERUND 
 
 
 
 SUPINE 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 eundi Ace. 
 
 eundum 
 
 
 Ace. itum 
 
 
 DAT. 
 
 eundo Abl. 
 
 eundo 
 
 
 Abl. itu 
 
 
 a. The passive of the simple verb eO is used only in the third 
 person singular ^ : as, itur, itum est, etc. But transitive compounds, 
 such as adeO, approach, ineC, enter, have the passive complete. 
 
 b. In the perfect system the forms with v are very rare. 
 
 c. The compound ambiO, go round, is inflected regularly like a verb 
 of the fourth conjugation. 
 
 d. In prOdeC, go forth, the preposition retains its original final d. 
 
 260. QueO, be able, and neqifeO, be unable, are inflected like 
 efl, but are rare except in the present indicative active. 
 
 * Verbs appearing only in the third person singular are called impenonal^ 
 because they have no personal subject. 
 
124 CONJUGATION OF FIO 
 
 Flo AND ITS COMPOUNDS 
 
 261. The active of facio, make, is regular,^ but in the passive 
 fio, de made, become, takes its place in the present system, 
 except in the gerundive faciendus. The perfect passive system 
 is formed regularly from facio. 
 
 Principal Parts : fio, fieri, factus sum 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE IMPERATIVE 
 
 fiam 2D Pers. fi fite 
 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 Pres. 
 
 fin 
 
 Ac 
 
 
 fit fiunt 
 
 Past 
 
 fiebam 
 
 FUT. 
 
 fiam 
 
 Perf. 
 
 factus, -a, -um sum 
 
 P. Perf. 
 
 factus, -a, -um eram 
 
 F. Perf. 
 
 factus, -a, -um ero 
 
 fierem 
 
 factus, -a, -um sim 
 factus, -a, -um essem 
 
 INFINITIVE PARTICIPLES 
 
 Pres. fieri Pres. 
 
 Perf. factus, -a, -um esse Ger. faciendus, -a, -um 
 
 FuT. factum in Past factus, -a, -um 
 
 a. Most prepositional compounds of facio are inflected regularly 
 like verbs in -io of the third conjugation. 
 
 Active, conficio, conficere, confeci, c5nfectus 
 Passive, conficior, confici, c5nfectus sum 
 
 &. Syntactic compounds (cf. § 292. «) of faci5, — like benefacio, 
 calefacio, etc., — in which facio remains unchanged, have the forms 
 of fio in the passive : as, benefio, -fieri, -factus sum. 
 
 c. Isolated forms of fi5 occur in a few words : as, confit, defit, etc. 
 
 1 But it has imperative fac (§235. <:) and, besides the regular forms, the 
 future perfect faxo and the perfect subjunctive faxim. 
 
DEFECTIVE VERBS 
 
 25 
 
 DEFECTIVE VERBS 
 
 262. Defective verbs lack certain forms. 
 
 263. The following defective verbs lack the present system 
 
 
 coepi, began 
 
 Odi, hate 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 memini, remem, 
 
 Perf. 
 
 coepi 
 
 odi 
 
 memini 
 
 P. Perf. 
 
 coepcram 
 
 oderam 
 
 memineram 
 
 F. Perf. 
 
 coepero 
 
 odero 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 meminero 
 
 Perf. 
 
 coeperim 
 
 oderim 
 
 meminerim 
 
 P. Perf. 
 
 coepissem 
 
 odissem 
 
 IMPERATIVE 
 • INFINITIVE 
 
 meminissem 
 
 memento 
 mementote 
 
 Perf. 
 
 coepisse 
 
 odisse 
 
 meminisse 
 
 KlTT. 
 
 coepturus*-a, 
 
 -um esse osurus, -a, 
 
 PARTICIPLES 
 
 -um esse 
 
 Past coeptus, -a, -um, begun osus, -a, -um, hating or hated 
 I'uT. coepturus, -a, -um osurus, -a, -um, likely to hate 
 
 a. When used with the passive infinitive, the form of coepi is 
 regularly passive : as, coeptus sum vocfiri, / began to be called ; but 
 coepi vocare, /began to call. I'or the present system incipiS is used. 
 
 h. The perfect, past perfect, and future perfect of 6di and memini 
 have the meanings of a present, past, and future respectively. 
 
 6di, / hate 5deram, / hated {was hating) 5der5, / shall hate 
 
 The passive of 6di is supplied by the idiom odi6 esse, to be hated 
 (lit. to be for hatred). 
 
126 DEFECTIVE VERBS 
 
 264. Many verbs are used only in the present system. 
 
 maereo, -ere, grieve " ferio, -ire, strike 
 
 265. Some verbs occur in only a few forms. 
 a. Aio, say : 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 Pres. aio, ais, ait ; , , aiunt 
 
 P. Descr. aiebam, aiebas, etc. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 Pres. , aias, aiat ; , , aiant (rare) 
 
 IMPERATIVE PARTICIPLE 
 
 al (rare) aiens 
 
 1. The vowels a and i are pronounced separately (a-is, a-it) except 
 sometimes in old or colloquial Latin. Before a vowel, one i stands 
 for two (see § i8): thus aio was pronounced ai-yo and was sometimes 
 written alio. 
 
 2. The second singular ais with the interrogative -ne is often written 
 ain. An old past aibam, aibas, etc. (dissyllabic) is sometimes found. 
 
 3. The present ait often has the meaning of a perfect. 
 
 b. Inquam, saj', except in poetry, is used only in direct quota- 
 tions (cf. the English quoth). 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 Pres. inquam, inquis, inquit ; inquimus, inquitis (late), inquiunt 
 
 P. Descr. , , inquiebat ; , , 
 
 FuT. , inquies, inquiet ; , , 
 
 Perf. inquii, inquisti, ; , , 
 
 IMPERATIVE 
 
 Pres. inque Fut. inquito 
 
 I. The only common forms are the present inquam, inquis, inquit, 
 inquiunt, and the future inquies, inquiet. Inquam is sometimes, and inquit 
 is often, used as a perfect. 
 
IMPERSONAL VERBS 127 
 
 c. The deponent firi, to speak, has the following forms : 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 Pres. , , fatur ; , , fantur 
 
 FuT. fabor, , fabitur ; , , 
 
 Perf. , , f atus, -a, -urn est ; , , fati, -ae, -a sunt 
 
 P. Perf. fatus, -a, -um eram, , fatus, -a, -um erat ; , 
 
 IMPERATIVE INFINITIVE 
 
 Pres. fare Pres. fari 
 
 PARTICIPLES 
 
 Pres. fans, fantis, etc. (in singular) 
 
 Ger. fandus, -a, -um, to be spoken of 
 
 Past fatus, -a, -um, having spoken 
 
 GERUND SUPINE 
 
 Gen. fandi Abl. fatu 
 
 Abl. fando 
 
 I . Several forms occur in compounds : as, praefabor, affari. 
 
 d. Isolated defective forms are : 
 
 Pres. Indic. quaesS, I be^, quaesumus 
 
 Imperative salve, //<///, salvgte, salvetS ; In fin. salvgre 
 
 Imperative (h)av6, //^//, (h)av6te, (h)av6t6 ; In fin. (h)av6re 
 
 Imperative cedo, give, plural cette 
 
 IMPERSONAL VERBS 
 
 266. Impersonal verbs are used only in the third person 
 singular of the indicative and subjunctive, and in the infinitive. 
 The following verbs are almost always impersonal : 
 
 decet. // is becoming paenitet, // repents 
 
 fulgurat, // lightens piget. // grieves 
 
 libet (lubet), // pleases pluit. // rains 
 
 licet, /■/ is permitted pudet, // shames 
 
 miseret, // distresses refert, // concerns 
 
 ninguit or niogit, /'/ snows taedet. // wearies 
 
 oportet, // is fitting tonat. // thunders 
 
128 LIST OF VERBS 
 
 a. Verbs that generally have a personal subject are sometimes used 
 impersonally. 
 
 accidit, // happens placet, it pleases videtur, it seems 
 
 b. Intransitive verbs in the passive are always impersonal. 
 
 pugnatur, tkere is fighting i^X. is fought) 
 
 itur, some one goes (it is gone) 
 
 parcitur mihi, / am spared (it is spared to me) 
 
 ventum est, they {he, we, etc.) came (it was come) 
 
 LIST OF VERBS 
 
 267. Regular verbs of the First, Second, and Fourth Conju- 
 gations are omitted from this list unless lacking the Perfect or 
 the Participial System. 
 
 Compounds of regular formation, with the vowel of the 
 root syllable unchanged, and conjugated like the simple verbs, 
 are omitted. A prefixed hyphen indicates that the verb is 
 found only in compounds. 
 
 The Past Participle of transitive verbs is given in the mas- 
 culine, that of intransitives in the neuter (cf. § 212 and Note). 
 
 ab-do, 3, -didi, -ditus ac-colo, 3, -ul, — 
 
 ab-icio, 3, -ieci, -iectus [iacio] ac-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum 
 
 ab-igo, 3, -egi, -actus [ago] acesco, 3,-acuI, — [inceptive of aceo, 
 
 ab-oleo, 2, -evi, -itus 290. a ; compound coacesco] 
 
 ab-olesco, 3, -olevT, — [aboleo] acuo, 3, -uT, -utus 
 
 ab-ripio, 3, -ripui, -reptus [rapio] ad-do, 3, -didi, -ditus 
 
 abs-cid5, 3, -cidl, -cisus [caedo] ad-fer5, -ferre, attuli, allatus. Irregu- 
 
 abs-condo, 3, -dl (-didi), -ditus lar, 256. ^ 
 
 ab-sisto, 3, -stiti, — ad-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectus [facio] 
 
 abs-tineo, 2, -tinui, -tentus [teneo] ad-gredior, -T, -gressus sum [gradior]. 
 
 ab-sum, abesse, afuT, afuturus. Irreg- Deponent 
 
 ular, 252 ad-hibeo, 2, -ui, -itus [habeo] 
 
 accerso, see arcess5 ad-igo, 3, -egi, -actus [ago] 
 
 ac-cido, 3, -cldl, — [cado] ad-imo, 3, -emi, -emptus [emo] 
 
 ac-cida, 3, -cTdl, -cisus [caedo] ad-iplscor, -1, -eptus sum [apTscor]. 
 ac-cipio, 3, -cepT, -ceptus [capi5] Deponent 
 
LIST OF VERBS 
 
 129 
 
 ad-olesc6, 3, -olevl, -ultum [alesco] 
 ad-<juIr6,3,-quisIvi,-quisitus[quaero] 
 ad-sentior, -irl, -sensus sum. Deponent 
 ad-sideo, 2, -sedT, -sessum [sedeo] 
 ad-sido, 3, -sedT (-sldl), — 
 ad-sto, I , -stiti, — 
 a-gnosco, 3, -gnovi, -gnltus [nosco] 
 ago, 3, cgT, actus [-igd in most com- 
 pounds, but see cogo and perago] 
 aio. Defective, 265. a 
 albeo, 2, — , — 
 
 alesco, 3, — , — [alo, 290. a ; com- 
 pounds adolesco, coalesce, etc.] 
 algeo, 2, alsT, — 
 
 algesco, 3, alsl, — [algeo], 290. a 
 alo, 3, aluT, altus (alitus) 
 amb-igo, 3, — , — [ago] 
 amb-io, 4, -il (-IvT), -Ttus (ambibat) 
 
 [eo], 259. c 
 amicio, 4, amixi (-cul), amictus [iado] 
 I ango, 3, — , — 
 P aperia, 4, aperul, apertus 
 
 aplscor, -i, aptus sum. Deponent 
 ap-pell6, 3, -pull, -pulsus 
 ap-primo, 3, -pressi, -pressus [premo] 
 arceo, 2,-uT, — [-erceo in compounds] 
 arcesso (accerso), 3, arcessTvT, arces- 
 
 situs 
 ardeo, 2, arsl,. arsurus 
 ardesco, 3, arsi, — [ardeo], 290. a 
 arco, 2, — , — 
 
 aresco, 3, -aruT, — [areo], 290. a 
 arguo, 3, -ui, -utus 
 ar-rigo, 3, -rexl, -rectus [rego] 
 ar-ripio, 3, -ui, -reptus [rapid] 
 a-scendo, 3, -dl, -scensus [scando] 
 a-spergo, 3, -spersT, -spersus [spargo] 
 at-tendo, 3, -tendi, -tentus 
 at-tined, 2, -tinui, -tentus [tcned] 
 
 at-tingo, 3, -tigi, -tactus [tango] 
 
 audeo, audere, ausus sum. Semi- 
 deponent, 248 
 
 au-fero, -ferre, abstulT, ablatus. 
 Irregular, z$6. a 
 
 augeo, 2, auxl, auctus 
 
 ave (have), avere (hav6re). Defec- 
 tive, 265. d 
 
 balbutio, 4, — , — 
 batuo, 3, -uI, — 
 bibo, 3, bibl, potus 
 
 cado, 3, cectdi, casum [-cido in com- 
 pounds] 
 
 caedo, 3, cecTdi, caesus [-cIdo in 
 compounds] 
 
 caleo, 2, -uT, -iturus 
 
 calesco, 3, -caluT, — [caleo], 290. a 
 
 called, 2, — , — 
 
 calveo, 2, — , — 
 
 candeo, 2, -uT, — 
 
 candesco, 3, -candui, — [candeo], 
 290. a 
 
 caneo, 2, -ui, — 
 
 canescd, 3, canui, — [caneo], 290. a 
 
 cano, 3, cecini, — [-cino in most 
 compounds, perfect -cinul] 
 
 capesso, 3, capessivl, — [capio], 
 290. b. I 
 
 capio, 3, cepT, captus [-cipio in com- 
 pounds except antecapio] 
 
 careo, 2, -ul, -iturus 
 
 carpo, 3, carpsT, carptus [-cerpo in 
 compounds] 
 
 caveo, 2, cavT, cautus 
 
 cedo (imperative). Defective, 265. d 
 
 cedo, 3, cessi, cessus 
 
 -cells, 3. — ' — 
 
I30 
 
 LIST OF VERBS 
 
 -cendo, 3, -cendi, -census 
 
 censeo, 2, -ui, census 
 
 cerno, 3, crevi, -cretus 
 
 cieo (-cio), ciere (-cire), civi, citus 
 (-cTtus) 
 
 cingo, 3, cinxl, cinctus 
 
 -cio, see cieo 
 
 circum-sisto, 3, -steti (-stiti), — 
 
 circum-sto, i , -stetl (-stitI), — 
 
 clango, 3, — , — 
 
 claresco, 3, clarui, — [clareo], 290. a 
 
 claudeo, 2, — , — ; see claudo 
 QimP) 
 
 claudo {lintp\ 3, — , — 
 
 claudo {close\ 3, clausi, clausus 
 [-cludo in compounds] 
 
 clueo, 2, — , — 
 
 co-alesco, 3, -alui, -alitum 
 
 coepi, -isse, coeptus. Defective, 
 263 
 
 co-erceo, 2-, -uT, -itus [arceo] 
 
 co-gn5sco, 3, -gnovT, -gnitus [nosco] 
 
 cogo, 3, coegT, coactus [ago] 
 
 col-ligo, 3, -leg!, -lectus [lego] 
 
 colo, 3, colui, cultus 
 
 comb-uro, see iiro 
 
 com-minTscor, -1, -mentus sum. De- 
 ponent 
 
 como, 3, compsT, comptus [emo] 
 
 com-pello, 3, -pull, -pulsus 
 
 com-perco, 3, -persT, — [parco] 
 
 com-pesco, 3, -cul, — 
 
 com-pingo, 3, -pegT, -pactus [pango] 
 
 com-primo, 3, -pressi, -pressus[prem6] 
 
 com-pungo, 3, -punxi, -punctus 
 
 con-cido, 3, -cIdT, — [cado] 
 
 con-cido, 3, -cTdT, -cisus [caedo] 
 
 con-cino, 3, -uT, — [cano] 
 
 con-cipio, 3, -cepi, -ceptus [capio] 
 
 con-cludo, 3, -clusi, -clusus [claudo] 
 con-cupisco, 3, -cupivl, -cupltus[cupi6] 
 con-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum 
 con-cutio, 3, -cussi, -cussus [quatio] 
 con-do, 3, -didi, -ditus 
 con-fercio, 4, — , -fertus [farcio] 
 con-fero, -ferre, contulT, conlatus. 
 
 Irregular, 256. a 
 con-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectus [facio] 
 con-fit. Defective, 261. ^r 
 con-fiteor, -eri, -fessus sum [fateor]. 
 
 Deponent 
 con-f ringo, 3, -fregi, -fractus [frang5] 
 con-icio, 3, -ieci, -iectus [iacio] 
 con-lTdo, 3, -ITsT, -ITsus [laedo] 
 con-liiceo, 2, — , — 
 con-quTro, 3, -quislvi, -quTsItus 
 
 [quaero] 
 con-sisto, 3, -stitT, — 
 con-spergo, 3, -spersi, -spersus 
 
 [spargo] 
 con-stituo, 3, -ui, -utus [statuo] 
 c5n-st6, I, -stitT, -staturus 
 con-sulo, 3, -uT, -sultus 
 con-tendo, 3. -tend!, -tentus 
 con-ticesco, 3, -ticuT, — [taceo] 
 con-tineo, 2, -tinuT, -tentus [teneo] 
 con-tingo, 3, -tigi, -tactus [tang5] 
 con-tundo, 3, -tudi, -tiisus (-tunsus) 
 coquo, 3, coxT, coctus 
 cor-rigo, 3, -rexT, -rectus [rego] 
 cor-ripio, 3, -ripuT, -reptus [rapid] 
 crebresco, 3, -crebruT, — , 290. a 
 credo, 3, -didI, -ditus [-do] 
 crepo, I, crepuT (-crepavi), .-crepitus 
 ere SCO, 3, crevI, cretum [creo], 290. a 
 crudesco, 3, -cruduT, — , 290. a 
 cubo, I , cubui (cubavT), cubitum 
 cudo, 3, -cudi, -cusus 
 
LIST OF VERBS 
 
 13 
 
 -cumbo, 3, -cubui, -cubitum [com- 
 pounds with de-, ob-, pro-, re-, and 
 sub- lack the past participle] 
 
 cupio, 3, cupivi, cupitus 
 
 curro, 3, cucurrT, cursum [in the 
 perfect, compounds have either 
 -curri or -cucurri] 
 
 debeo, 2, -ul, -itus [habeo] 
 de-cerpo, 3, -cerpsT, -cerptus [carpo] 
 decet, decere, decuit. Impersonal 
 de-cipio, 3, -cepi, -ceptus [capio] 
 de-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursus 
 de-do, 3, -did!, -ditus 
 de-fetlscor, -i, -fessus sum [fatisco]. 
 
 Deponent 
 dego, 3, — , — [ago] 
 deleo, 2, -evi, -etus 
 de-libuo, 3, -ui, -utus 
 de-ligo, 3, -legT, -lectus [leg5] 
 demo, 3, dempsT, demptus [em5] 
 dc-pell6, 3, -pull, -pulsus 
 de-primo, 3, -pressl, -pressus [premo] 
 depso, 3, -sui, -stus 
 dc-scendo, 3, -di, -scensum [scando] 
 de-silio. 4, -ul (-ii), — [salio] 
 de-sipio, 3, — , — [sapio] 
 dc-sisto, 3, -stiti, -stitum 
 de-spondeo, 2, -di, -sponsus 
 de-tendo, 3, — , -tensus 
 de-tineo, 2, -tinuT, -tentus [tened] 
 de-vertor, -T, — . Deponent 
 dico, 3, dixT, dictus (imperative die, 
 
 235.0 
 
 dif-fero, -ferre, dlstulT, dilatus. Ir- 
 regular, 256. rf 
 
 dif-fiteor, -erl, — [fateor]. Depo- 
 nent 
 
 dl-gnosco, 3. -gnovT, — [nosco] 
 
 di-ligo, 3, -lexl, -lectus [lego] 
 
 dir-ibeo, 2, — , -itus [habeo] 
 
 dir-imo, 3, -emi, -cmptus [emo] 
 
 di-ripio, 3. -ripui, -reptus [rapio] 
 
 disco, 3, didici, — 
 
 dis-crepo, i , -crepuT (-crepavT), — 
 
 dis-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum 
 
 dis-icio, 3, dis-iecl, -iectus [iacio] 
 
 dis-sideo, 2, -sedl, — [sedeo] 
 
 dis-silio, 4, -ui, — [salio] 
 
 dis-tend5, 3, -tendl, -tentus 
 
 di-sto, I, — , — 
 
 ditesco, 3, — , — 
 
 di-vido, 3, -vTsT, -visus 
 
 do, dSre, dedi, datus [so circumdo, 
 but most other compounds are 
 of the third conjugation ; see 
 abdo, addo, condo, etc.]. Irreg- 
 ular, 258 
 
 doceo, 2, -uT, doctus 
 
 -dolesco, 3, -doluT, — [doled], 290. a 
 
 domo, I, -ui, -jtus 
 
 -dormlsco, 3, -dormlvi, — [dormio], 
 290. a 
 
 duco, 3, duxT, ductus (imperative 
 due, 235. r) 
 
 dulcesco, 3, — , — , 290. a 
 
 duresco, 3, durul, — , 290. a 
 
 e-buUib, 4. cbuUil, — 
 
 edo {eat), edere (esse), cdl, csus. 
 Irregular, 257 
 
 ^■6.0 {put fort li)s 3. -did?, -ditus 
 
 ef-fero, -ferre, extull, elatus. Irregu- 
 lar, 256. a 
 
 ef-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectus [fado] 
 
 egeo, 2, -uT, — 
 
 e-ido, 3, -iecl, -iectus [iado] 
 
 e-lido, 3. -ui, -itus [-lido] 
 
132 
 
 LIST OF VERBS 
 
 e-ligo, 3, -legl, -lectus [lego] 
 e-mico, i, -mipui, — 
 e-mineo, 2, -ui, — [maneo] 
 emo, 3, emi, emptus [-imo in most 
 
 compounds, as adimo, dirimo ; 
 
 but coemo, com5, demo, promo, 
 
 sumo] 
 e-nec6, i, -necui (-necavT), -nectus 
 
 (-necatus) 
 eo, Tre, ii (ivi), itum [so in compounds 
 
 except ambio, 4, -IvI, -itus; see 
 
 also veneo]. Irregular, 259 
 e-rigo, 3, -rexl, -rectus [rego] 
 esurio, 4, — , esuriturus [edo], 290. d 
 e-vado, 3, -vasi, -vasus 
 e-vanesco, 3, evanuT, — , 290. a 
 ex-cipio, 3, -cepT, -ceptus [capio] 
 ex-cludo, 3, -clusl, -clusus [claudo] 
 ex-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum 
 ex-cutio, 3, -cussi, -cussus [quatid] 
 ex-erceo, 2, -ui, -itus [arceo] 
 ex-im5, 3, -emi, -emptus [emo] 
 ex-olesco, 3, -olevi, -oletum [alesco] 
 ex-pello, 3, rpull, -pulsus 
 ex-pergiscor, -1, -perrectus sum 
 
 [pergo]. Deponent 
 ex-plodo, 3, -sT, -sus [plaudo] 
 ex-pungo, 3, -punxT, -punctus 
 ex-silio, 4, -ui (-il), — [salio] 
 ex-sisto, 3, -stitT, -stitum 
 ex-sto, I, — , — 
 
 ex-tendo, 3, -tendl, -tentus (-tensus) 
 exuo, 3, -uT, -utus 
 
 facesso, 3, facessT, facessTtus [facio], 
 290. b. I 
 
 facio, 3, feci, factus [-ficio in prepo- 
 sitional compounds] (imperative 
 fac, 235. ^ ; for passive see fio) 
 
 fallo, 3, fefelli, falsus 
 
 farcio, 4, farsi, fartus [-fercio in 
 
 compounds] 
 fateor, -eri, fassus sum [-fiteor in 
 
 compounds]. Deponent 
 fatisco, 3, — , — , 290. a 
 faveo, 2, favl, fautum 
 -fendo, 3, -fendi, -fensus 
 ferio, 4, — , — 
 fero, ferre, tulT, latus (imperative fer, 
 
 235. ^). Irregular, 256 
 ferveo, 2, fervi (ferbuT), — ; also 
 
 fervo, 3 
 fido, fidere, fisus sum. Semi- 
 deponent, 248 
 figo, 3, fixT, fixus 
 findo, 3, fidi, fissus 
 fingd, 3, flnxT, fictus 
 fio, fieri, factus sum. Irregular, used 
 
 as the passive of facio, 261 
 flecto, 3, flexT, flexus 
 fleo, 2, -evi, -etus 
 -fligo, 3, -flixT, -fllctus 
 fldreo, 2, -ul, — 
 
 floresco, 3, -floruT, — [floreo], 290. a 
 fluo, 3, fluxl, fluxum 
 fodio, 3, fodi, fossus 
 [for], fari, fatus. Defective, 265. c 
 foveo, 2, fovi, fotus 
 frango, 3, fregi, fractus [-fringe in 
 
 compounds] 
 fremo, 3, fremuT, — 
 frico, I , fricui, frictus (fricatus) 
 frigeo, 2, — \ — 
 
 frlgesco, 3, -frixi, — [frigeo], 290. a 
 frigo, 3, frixi, frictus 
 frondeo, 2, — , — 
 fruor, -T, fructus sum (fut. part. 
 
 fruiturus). Deponent 
 
LIST OF VERBS 
 
 133 
 
 fugio, 3, fugi, fugitunis 
 
 fulcio, 4, fulsi, fultus 
 
 fulgeo, 2, fulsi, — ; also fulgo, 3 
 
 fundo, 3, fudi, fusus 
 
 fungor, -I, functus sum. Deponent 
 
 furo, 3, — , — 
 
 gannio, 4, — , — 
 
 gaudeo, gaudere, gavlsus sum. Semi- 
 deponent, 248 
 
 gemo, 3, gemul, — 
 
 gero, 3, gessi, gestus 
 
 gestio, 4, -IvI, — 
 
 gigno, 3, genul, genitus 
 
 glisc5, 3, — , — 
 
 glubo, 3, — , — 
 
 gradior, -T, gressus sum [-gredior in 
 compounds]. Deponent 
 
 habeo, 2, -ui, -itus [-hibeo in most 
 compounds; but praebeo (from 
 prae-hibeo), diribeo (from dis- 
 hibeo), debeo (from de-hibeo)] 
 
 haereo, 2, haesi, haesurus 
 
 haurio, 4, hausT, haustus (fut. part, 
 preferably hausurus) 
 
 have, see ave 
 
 hebeo, 2, — , — 
 
 hebesco, 3, — , — [hebeo], 290. a 
 
 hinnio, 4, — , — 
 
 hisco, 3, — , — [hio], 290. a 
 
 horreo, 2, horrul, — 
 
 horresco,3,-horruI, — [horreo], 290. « 
 
 iaceo, 2, iacuT, — 
 
 iacio, 3, iecT, iactus [-ido in com- 
 pounds except superiacio] 
 Ico, 3, Id, ictus 
 i-gnosco, 3, -gnovi, -gnotum [noscoj 
 
 imbuo, 3, -ui, -utus 
 im-mineo, 2, — , — [maneo] 
 im-pell5, 3, -pull -pulsus 
 im-pingo, 3, -pegi, -pactus [pango] 
 in-cess6, 3, incessivi, — [incedo] 
 in-cido, 3, -cTdl, -casurus [cado] 
 in-cldo, 3, -cTdl, -clsus [caedo] 
 in-cipio, 3, -cepT, -ceptus [capio] 
 in-cludo, 3, -clusT, -clusus [claudo] 
 in-col6, 3, -uT, — 
 
 in-curro, 3, -currl (-cucurri), -cursum 
 in-cutio, 3, -cussT, -cussus [quatio] 
 ind-igeo, 2, -uT, — [egeo] 
 ind-ipiscor, -T, -eptus sum [aplscor]. 
 
 Deponent 
 in-do, 3, -didi, -ditus 
 indulgeo, 2, indulsl, indultum 
 induo, 3, -ui, -utus 
 in-gredior, -T, -gressus sum [gradior]. 
 
 Deponent 
 in-hibeo, 2, -ui, -itus [habeo] 
 in-lldo, 3, -lisi, -lisus [laedo] 
 in-olesc6, 3, -olevl, — [alescd] 
 inquam. Defective, 265. b 
 in-qulr6,3, -quIsIvT, -qulsTtus[quaero] 
 Tnsideo, 2, -sedl, -sessus [sedeo] 
 In-sTdo, 3, -sedl, -sessus 
 Tn-silio, 4, -ui, — [salio] 
 Tn-sisto, 3, -stitl, — 
 in-stituo, 3, -uT, -utus [statuo] 
 Tn-sto, I, -stiti, -staturus 
 intel-lego, 3, -lexT. -lectus 
 inter-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectus [fado] 
 Irascor, -1, Tratus sum. Deponent 
 iubeo, 2, iussT, iussus 
 iungo, 3, iunxT, iunctus 
 iuvenesco, 3, — , — , 290. u 
 iuvo, I, iuvT, iutus (fut. part, also 
 
 iuvatunis) 
 
134 
 
 LIST OF VERBS 
 
 labor, -1, lapsus sum. Deponent 
 
 lacesso, 3, lacessTvT, lacessitus, 290. 
 b. I 
 
 lafedo, 3, laesT, laesus [-lido in com- 
 pounds] 
 
 lambo, 3» — > — 
 
 langued, 2, — , — 
 
 languesco, 3, langui, — [langueo] 
 
 lateo, 2, -ui, — 
 
 lavo, 3, lavi, lautus (lotus) (also reg- 
 ular of the first conjugation) 
 
 lego, 3, leg!, lectus [so in most com- 
 pounds, but the root vowel 
 changes in coUigo, deligo, diligo, 
 eligo, seligo; and diligo, intellego, 
 and neglego have x in the perfect : 
 as, diligo, 3, dllexT, dilectus] 
 
 libet (early lubet), -ere, libuit or libi- 
 tum est. Impersonal, 266 
 
 liceo, 2, licuT, — 
 
 licet, -ere, licuit or licitum est (fut. 
 part, liciturum). Impersonal, 266 
 
 -licio, 3, -lexT, -lectus [for *lacio in 
 compounds ; but elici5, 3, elicuT, 
 elicitus] 
 
 lino, 3, lev! (ITvT), litus 
 
 linquo, 3, llquT, -lictus 
 
 liqueo, 2, licul, — 
 
 liquesco, 3, -licul, — [liqueo], 290. a 
 
 liquor, T-, — . Deponent 
 
 liveo, 2, — , — 
 
 loquor, -T, locutus sum. Deponent 
 
 luce5, 2, luxT, — 
 
 lucesco (-Cisco), 3, -luxT, — [liiceo], 
 290. <^ 
 
 lud5, 3, liisT, lusus 
 
 Ii5ge5, 2, liixT, — 
 
 luo {ioose\ 3, luT, luiturus 
 
 -luo {wash), 3, -lul, -lutus 
 
 madeo, 2, madul, — 
 
 madesco, 3, madul, — [made5], 
 
 290. a 
 maereo, 2, — , — 
 malo, malle, malui, — . Irregular, 
 
 255 
 
 mando, 3, mandi, mansus 
 
 maneo, 2, mansi, mansus 
 
 mansuesco, see suesco 
 
 marcesco, 3, -marcuT, — [marceo], 
 290. a 
 
 maturesco, 3, matiiruT, — , 290. a 
 
 medeor, -erl, — . Deponent 
 
 meminl, -isse. Defective, 263 
 
 mereo, 2, merui, meritus, or depo- 
 nent, mereor, etc. 
 
 mergo, 3, mersT, mersus 
 
 metior, -Tri, mensus sum. Deponent 
 
 meto, 3, messuT, -messus 
 
 metuo, 3, -uT, -utus 
 
 mico, I, micui, — [so in com- 
 pounds except dimico, i, -avi, 
 -atum] 
 
 minuo, 3, -uT, -iitus 
 
 misce5, 2, -cuT, mixtus 
 
 misereor, -erl, miseritus (rarely 
 misertus) sum. Deponent 
 
 miseret. Impersonal, 266 
 
 mitesco, 3, — , — , 290. a 
 
 mitto, 3, misi, missus 
 
 molior, -Trl, -Ttus sum. Deponent 
 
 molo, 3, moluT, molitus 
 
 mordeo, 2, momordi, morsus 
 
 morior, -T (-Tri), mortuus sum (fut. 
 part, moriturus). Deponent 
 
 moveo, 2, movT, motus 
 
 mulceo, 2, mulsT, mulsus 
 
 mulgeo, 2, mulsT, mulsus (mulctus) 
 
 muttio, 4, -IvI, -Itus 
 
LIST Ol- VERBS 
 
 135 
 
 nanciscor, -I, nactus (nanctus) sum. 
 Deponent 
 
 nascor, -i, natus sum. Deponent 
 
 neco, I , -avi (-ui), -atus [but eneco, i, 
 -necui (-necavi), -nectus (-necatus)] 
 
 necto, 3, nexf (nejoii), nexus 
 
 neg-lego, 3, -lexl, -lectus 
 
 neo, 2, nevl, — 
 
 nequeo, -quire, -quivi, -quitus. De- 
 fective, 260 
 
 nigresco, 3, nigrul, — , 290. a 
 
 ninguit (ningit), 3, ninxit. Imper- 
 sonal, 266 
 
 niteo, 2, nituT, — 
 
 nitescd, 3, — , — [niteo], 290. a 
 
 nitor, -T, nlsus (nixus) sum. Deponent 
 
 -niveo, 2, -nivT (-nIxIX — 
 
 no, I, navl, — 
 
 noceo, 2, nocuT, nociturus 
 
 nolo, nolle, noluT, — . Irregular, 255 
 
 nosco, 3, novi, notus [so in com- 
 pounds, except that agnosco has 
 agnitus and cognosce has cognitus] 
 
 notesco, 3, notui, — , 290. a 
 
 niibo, 3, nupsi, nuptum 
 
 -nuo, 3, -nui, — 
 
 ob-d5, 3, -didi, -ditus 
 ob-livTscor, -i, oblitus sum. Deponent 
 ob-mutesco, 3, -mutul, — 
 ob-sideo, 2, -sedl. -sessus [sedeo] 
 ob-sTdo, 3, — , — 
 ob-sisto, 3, -stiti, -stitum 
 obs-olesco, 3, -olevl, -oletum [alesco] 
 ob-sto, I, -stiti, -staturus 
 ob-tineo, 2, -tinui, -tentus [teneo] 
 ob-tingit, 3, obtigit [tango]. Im- 
 personal, 266 
 ob-tundo, 3, -tudi, -tusus (-tunsus) 
 
 oc-callcsc6, 3, -callui, — [calleo] 
 oc-cido, 3, -cidl, -casum [cado] 
 oc-cido, 3, -cidi, -cisus [caedo] 
 oc-cino, 3, -cinui, — [cano] 
 oc-cipio, 3, -cepi, -ceptus [capio] 
 oc-cul6, 3, -cului, -cultus 
 oc-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum 
 odi, odisse, osurus. Defective, 263 
 of-fero, -ferre, obtulT, oblatus. 
 
 Irregular, 256. /z 
 oleo {smell\ 2, olui, — 
 operio, 4, operui, opertus 
 oportet, -ere, -uit. Impersonal, 266 
 op-primo, 3, -pressi, -pressus [premo] 
 ordior, -iri, orsus sum. Deponent 
 orior, -iri, ortus sum (fut. part, oritu- 
 
 rus). Deponent ; usually of the 
 
 third conjugation except in the 
 
 present infinitive 
 os-tendo, 3, -tendi, -tentus (-tcnsus) 
 
 paciscor, -i, pactus sum [compound 
 depeciscor]. Deponent 
 
 paenitet, -ere, -uit. Impersonal, 266 
 
 palleo, 2, pallui, — 
 
 pallesco, 3, pallui, — [palleo], 290. a 
 
 pando, 3, pandi, pansus (passus) [so 
 expando.butdispandoordispendo] 
 
 pango, 3, pepigi (pegi or panxi), 
 pactus [-pingo in compounds, per- 
 fect -pegi] 
 
 parco, 3, peperci (parsi), parsurus 
 [compound compered or com parco] 
 
 pared, 2, -ui, — 
 
 pario, 3, peperi, partus (fut. part, 
 pariturus) 
 
 partior, -iri. -itus sum. Deponent 
 
 parturio, 4, -ivi, — [pario], 290. d 
 
 pasco, 3, pavT, pastus 
 
136 
 
 LIST OF VERBS 
 
 pateo, 2, patuT, — 
 
 patior, -1, passus sum [-petior in com- 
 pounds]. Deponent 
 
 pave5, 2, pa VI, — 
 
 pavesco, 3, -pavi, — [paveo], 290. a 
 
 pecto, 3, pexT, pexus 
 
 pel-licio, 3, -lexT, -lectus [-licio] 
 
 pello, 3, pepulT, pulsus [compounds 
 
 ' have -pull in the perfect, but re- 
 
 pello has reppuli for repepull] 
 
 pendeo, 2, pependl, -pensum [com- 
 pounds have -pendT in the perfect] 
 
 pendo, 3, pependl, pensus [com- 
 pounds have -pendT in the perfect] 
 
 per-ago, 3, -egi, -actus 
 
 per-cello, 3, -cull, -culsus 
 
 per-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursus 
 
 per-do, 3, -did!, -ditus 
 
 per-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectus [facio] 
 
 per-fringo, 3, -fregl, -fractus [frango] 
 
 pergo, 3, perrexT, perrectus [rego] 
 
 -perio, 4, -peri, -pertus ; also -perior, 
 deponent [so in compounds, but 
 reperio has perfect repperi] 
 
 per-petior, -T, -pessus sum [patior]. 
 Deponent 
 
 per-quTro, 3, -quTsIvI, -quTsTtus 
 [quaero] 
 
 per-sto, I, -stitl, -staturus 
 
 per-tineo, 2, -ui, — [teneo] 
 
 per-tundo, 3, -tudi, -tusus 
 
 petesso (petisso), 3, — , — [peto], 
 290. b, I 
 
 peto, 3, petivi (-il), petitus 
 
 piget, -ere, piguit or pigitum est. 
 Impersonal, 266 
 
 pingo, 3, pTnxT, pictus 
 
 pinso (piso), 3, plnsuT (pisivi), pTstus 
 (pinsltus) 
 
 plango, 3, planxi, planctus 
 plaudo, 3, plausi, plausus [so in 
 
 compounds except explodo] 
 plecto, 3, plexl, plexus 
 -plector, -I, -plexus sum. Deponent 
 -ple5, 2, -pie VI, -pletus 
 plico, I, -plicui (-plica vi), -plicitus 
 
 (-plicatus) 
 pluit, 3,pluit(pluvit). Impersonal, 266 
 polleo, 2, — , — 
 
 pol-lu5, 3, -uT, -utus [-luo {wash)^ 
 pono, 3, posui, positus [sino] 
 porr-icio, 3, — , porrectus [iacio] 
 por-rigo(porgo),3,-rexi,-rectus[rego] 
 posco, 3, poposcT, — [so in com- 
 pounds], 290, h. N. 
 pos-sideo, 2, -sedi, -sessus [sedeo] 
 possum, posse, potuT, — . Irregular, 254 
 potior, -Tri, -Ttus sum. Deponent; 
 usually of the third conjugation 
 in the present system except in 
 the infinitive 
 poto, I , -avi, -atus (potus) 
 praebeo, 2, -uT, -itus [habeo] 
 prae-cello, 3, — , — 
 prae-cino, 3, -cinuT, — [cano] 
 prae-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), — 
 prae-sagio, 4, -TvT, — 
 prae-sideo, 2, -sedT, — [sedeo] 
 prae-sto, i , -stitT, -stitum (-statum) 
 prandeo, 2, prandl, pransus 
 pre-hendo, 3, -hgndl, -hensus, or 
 
 prendo, 3, prendT, prensus 
 premo, 3, press!, pressus [-primo in 
 
 compounds] 
 prendo, see prehendo 
 pro-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum 
 prod-eo, -Ire, -ii, -itum. Irregular, 
 259.^ 
 
LIST OF VERBS 
 
 •37 
 
 prod-igo, 3, -egi, -actus [ago] 
 pro-do, 3, -didi, -ditus 
 pro-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectus [facio] 
 pro-ficTscor, -I, profectus sum. De- 
 ponent 
 pro-fiteor, -eri, prof essus sum [ fateor]. 
 
 Deponent 
 pro-mi net), 2, -ul, — [maneoj 
 promo, 3, prompsi, promptus [emo] 
 pro-silio, 4, -ul (-Tvl), — [salio] 
 pro-sum, prodesse, profuT, profu- 
 
 turus. Irregular, 253 
 pro-tendf), 3, -tendi, -tentus (-tensus) 
 psallo, 3, -1, — 
 pubesco, 3, pubuT, — , 290. a 
 pudet, -ere, puduit or puditum est. 
 
 Impersonal, 266 
 pungo, 3, pupugi, punctus [perfect 
 
 -punxl in compounds] 
 putesco, 3, putui, — [puteo], 290. a 
 
 quaero, 3, quaesIvT, quaesltus [-qulro 
 
 in compounds] 
 quaeso, 3. Defective, 265. d 
 quatio, 3, — , quassus [-cutio, -cussi, 
 
 -cussus in compounds] 
 queo, quire, quivi, quitus. Defective, 
 
 260 
 queror, -T, questus sum. Deponent 
 quiesco, 3, quievi, quietum, 290. a 
 
 rabo (rabid), 3, — , — 
 
 rado, 3, rasi, rasus 
 
 rapid, 3, rapui^raptus [-ripio, -ripui, 
 
 -reptus in compounds] 
 re-cido, 3. reccldi, recasurus [cado] 
 re-cido, 3, -cidi, -cisus [caedo] 
 re<ipi6, 3, -cepi, -ceptus [capio] 
 re-cludo, 3, -clusi, -clusus [claudo] 
 
 red-do, 3, reddidi, redditus 
 red-igo, 3, -egi, -actus [ago] 
 red-imo, 3, -emi, -emptus [emo] 
 re-fell6, 3, -felli, — [fallo] 
 re-fercio, 4, -fersi, -fertus [farcio] 
 re-fero, -ferre, rettuli, relatus. Ir- 
 regular, 256. <z 
 re-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectus [facio] 
 rego, 3, rexi, rectus [-rigo in com- 
 pounds, but see pergo and surgo] 
 re-miniscor, -i, — . Deponent 
 reor, reri, ratus sum. Deponent 
 re-pello, 3, reppuli, repulsus 
 re-perio, 4, repperi, rep)ertus [pario] 
 repo, 3, repsi, — 
 
 re-primo, 3, -pressi, -pressus [premo] 
 re-quir5, 3, -quisivi, -quisitus [quaero] 
 re-sideo, 2, -sedi, — [sedeo] 
 re-silio, 4, -ui (-ii), — [salio] 
 re-sipisco, 3,-sipivi, — ^[sapio], 290. <z 
 re-sisto, 3, -stiti, -stitum 
 re-spergo, 3, -spersi,-spersus[sparg6] 
 re-spondeo, 2, -spondi, -spdnsus 
 re-sto, I, -stiti, — 
 re-tendo, 3, -tendi, -tentus (-tensus) 
 re-tineo, 2, -tinui, -tentus [teneo] 
 re-tundo, 3, rettudi, retunsus (tusus) 
 rideo, 2, risi, -risus 
 rigeo, 2, rigui, — 
 
 rigesco, 3, rigui, — [ngeo], 290. a 
 rodo, 3, rosi, rosus 
 rubeo, 2, — , ^— 
 
 rubesco, 3, rubui, — [rubeo], 290. a 
 rudo, 3, — , — 
 rumpo, 3, rupi, ruptus 
 ruo, 3, rui, -rutus (fut. part, ruitunis) 
 
 saepio, 4, saepsi, saeptus 
 
 salio, 4, salui, — [-silio in compounds] 
 
138 
 
 LIST OF VERBS 
 
 salve, salvere. Defective, 265. d 
 
 sancio, 4, sanxT, sanctus 
 
 sapio, 3, sapTvT, — [-sipio in com- 
 pounds] 
 
 sarcio, 4, sarsT, sartus 
 
 scabo, 3, scabi, — 
 
 scalpo, 3, scalpsT, scalptus 
 
 scando, 3, -scendl, -scensus [-scendo 
 in compounds] 
 
 scateo, 2, — , — : also scato, 3 
 
 scindo, 3, scidi, scissus 
 
 scTsco, 3, scIvT, scTtus [scio], 290. a 
 
 scribo, 3, scripsi, scriptus 
 
 sculpo, 3, sculpsT, sculptus 
 
 seco, I, secuT, sectus 
 
 sedeo, 2, sedT, sessum [-side5 in 
 compounds except circumsedeo 
 and supersedeo] 
 
 se-ligo, 3, -legl, -lectus [lego] 
 
 sentio, 4, sensT, sensus 
 
 sepelio, 4, sepelTvT, sepultus 
 
 sequor, -I, secutus sum. Deponent 
 
 sero {entwine), 3, -seruT, sertus 
 
 sero (j-^'Z£'),'3, sevT, satus 
 
 serpo, 3, serpsT, — 
 
 sido, 3, sTdi (-sedi), -sessum 
 
 sileo, 2, -uT, — 
 
 sino, 3, sTvi, situs 
 
 sisto, 3, stitl, status 
 
 sitio, 4, -Tvi, — 
 
 soleo, solere, solitus sum. Semi- 
 deponent, 248 
 
 solvo, 3, solvT, solutus [luo {loo5e')\ 
 
 sono, I, -ui, -aturus 
 
 sorbeo, 2, sorbuT (rarely sorpsT), — 
 
 spargo, 3, sparsT, sparsus [-spergo 
 in compounds] 
 
 sperno, 3, sprevT, spretus 
 
 -spicio, 3, -spexT, -spectus 
 
 splendeo, 2, — , — 
 
 spondeo, 2, spopondT, sponsus 
 [perfect -spondi in compounds] 
 
 spuo, 3, -spuT, -spiitus 
 
 squaleo, 2, — , — 
 
 statuo, 3, -uT, -Litus [-stituo in com- 
 pounds] 
 
 sterno, 3, stravi, stratus 
 
 sternuo, 3, -uT, — 
 
 sterto, 3, -stertuT, — 
 
 stinguo, 3, -stinxl, -stinctus 
 
 sto, stare, stetl, statiirus [perfect 
 -stitl in most compounds] 
 
 strepo, 3, -uT, — 
 
 strideo, 2, strldi, — ; also stride, 3 
 
 stringo, 3, strlnxT, strictus 
 
 struo, 3, struxT, structus 
 
 studeo, 2, -ui, — 
 
 stupeo, 2, -uT. — 
 
 stupesco, 3, -stupul, — [stupeo] 
 
 suadeo, 2, suasi, suasus 
 
 sub-do, 3, -did!, -ditus 
 
 sub-igo, 3, -egl, -actus [ago] 
 
 suc-cido, 3, -cidl, — [cado] 
 
 suc-cTdo, 3, -cTdl, -cTsus [caedo] 
 
 suc-curro, 3, -currl, -cursum 
 
 suesco, 3, suevT, suetus, 290. a 
 
 suf-fero, sufferre, sustulT, sublatus. 
 Irregular, 256. « 
 
 suf-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectus [facio] 
 
 sugo, 3, suxT, sijctus 
 
 sum, esse, ful, futurus. Irregular, 
 241 
 
 sumo, 3, sumpsT, sufcnptus [emo] 
 
 suo, 3, -sui, sijtus 
 
 super-fluo. 3, — , — 
 
 surgo, 3, surrexJ, surrectum [rego] 
 
 sur-ripio, 3, -ripul (surpul), -reptus 
 [rapio] 
 
LIST OF VERBS 
 
 39 
 
 tabeo, 2, — , — 
 
 tabesco, 3, tabui, — [tabeo], 290. a 
 
 taedet, -ere, taeduit or taesum est. 
 
 Impersonal, 266 
 tango, 3, tetigi, tactus [-tingo, -tigi 
 
 in compounds] 
 tego, 3, texT. tcctus 
 temno, 3, -tempsi, -temptus 
 tendo, 3, tetendl, tentus (tensus) 
 
 [perfect -tend! in compounds] 
 teneo, 2, tenuT, -tentus [-tineo in 
 
 compounds] 
 tergeo, 2, tersi, tersus ; also, rarely, 
 
 tergo, 3 
 tero, 3, trivl, tritus 
 texo, 3, texuT, textus 
 timeo, 2, -ui, — 
 
 -timesco, 3, -timuT, — [timeo], 290. a 
 tingo (tinguo), 3, tinxl, tinctus 
 toUo, 3, sustull, sublatus 
 tondeo, 2, -totondl (-tondi), tonsus 
 tono, I, tonui, -tonitum (-tonatum) 
 torpeo, 2, — , — 
 torqueo, 2, torsi, tortus 
 torreo, 2, torrul, tostus 
 tra-d5, 3, -didi, -ditus 
 traho, 3, traxi, tractus 
 trans-curro, 3, -currT (-cucurri), 
 
 -cursus 
 tremo, 3, tremuT, — 
 tribuo, 3, -uT, -utus 
 trudo, 3, trusT, trusus 
 tueor, -crT, tuitus (tutus) sum. De- 
 ponent 
 tumeo, 2, — , — 
 
 tumesco,3,-tumuT, — [turned], 290. a 
 tundo, 3, tutudi, tunsus (-tusus) 
 
 [perfect -tudl in compounds, but 
 retundo has rettudl for retutudl] 
 
 turgeo, 2, tursi, — 
 tussio, 4, — , — 
 
 ulcTscor, -1, ultus sum. Deponent 
 
 unguo (ungo), 3, unxT, unctus 
 
 urgeo, 2, ursi, — 
 
 iiro, 3, ussT, ustus 
 
 utor, -T, usus sum. Deponent 
 
 vado, 3, -vasT, -vasum 
 
 vagio, 4, -it, — 
 
 valeo, 2, -uT, -iturus 
 
 valesco, 3, -valuT, — [valeo], 290. a 
 
 veho, 3, vexT, vectus 
 
 vello, 3, vein (vulsl), vulsus 
 
 vendo, 3, -didi, -ditus [venum + do ] 
 
 veneo {be sold), -ire, -ii, — [venum 
 + e6] 
 
 venio {come), 4, veni, ventum 
 
 vereor, -eri, -itus sum. Deponent 
 
 vergo, 3, ^, — 
 
 verro (vorro), 3, -verri, versus 
 
 verto (vorto), 3, vertT, versus 
 
 vescor, -1, — . Deponent 
 
 vesperascit, 3, vesperavit Imper- 
 sonal, 266 ; 290. a 
 
 veto, I, -ui, -itus 
 
 video, 2, vTdr, visus 
 
 vigeo, 2, -ui, — 
 
 vincio, 4, vTnxI, vinctus 
 
 vinco, 3, vTcT, victus 
 
 vireo, 2, -uT, -^ 
 
 vTso, 3, visT, — 
 
 vivo, 3, vTxT, victum 
 
 void, velle, volul, — . Irregular, 
 
 255 
 volvo, 3, volvT, volutus 
 vomo, 3, vomui, vomitus 
 voveo, 2, vovi, votus 
 
140 FORMATION OF ADVERBS 
 
 PARTICLES 
 
 268. Adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections 
 are called particles. They have no inflection. 
 
 a. Particles cannot always be distinctly classified, for many adverbs 
 are used also as prepositions and many as conjunctions. 
 
 ADVERBS 
 Formation of Adverbs 
 
 269. Most adverbs are derived from adjectives and, like 
 them, are compared. 
 
 270. Regular Formation. Adverbs regularly formed from 
 adjectives end in -e or -ter. 
 
 a. Adverbs are formed from adjectives of the Jirst and second 
 declensions by changing the characteristic vowel of the stem to -e. 
 
 care, dearly^ from carus, dear (stem caro-) 
 
 amice, like a friend, from amicus, /rie/tdly (stem amico-) 
 
 Note. The ending -e is a relic of an old ablative in -ed (of. ^ 5$. l>). 
 
 b. Adverbs are formed from adjectives of the f/iird declension by 
 adding -ter to the stem. Stems in nt- (nom. -ns) lose the t- ; nearly 
 all others are treated as i-stems. 
 
 fortiter, bravely, from fortis (stem forti-), brave 
 acriter, eagerly, from acer (stem acri-), eager 
 vigilanter, watchfully, from vigilans (stem vigilant-) 
 prUdenter, prudently, from prQdens (stem priident-) 
 aliter, otherwise, from alius (old stem ali-) 
 
 c. Some adjectives of the first and second declensions have adverbs 
 of both forms (-e and -ter). Thus durus, hard, has both dure and 
 duriter ; miser, wretched, has both miserg and miseriter. A few have 
 only -ter : as, violentus, violent, has only violenter. 
 
FORMATION OF ADVERBS 141 
 
 271. Special Formations. The accusative and ablative of 
 nouns, adjectives, and pronouns, especially in the neuter singu- 
 lar, are often used as adverbs. Examples : 
 
 a. Accusative neuter singular : 
 multum, MUi/i facile, easily ^uid, why 
 
 h. Ablative neuter singular : 
 falso, falsely eo, thither forte, by chance 
 
 vulgo, commonly quo, whither cx^\>xh, frequently 
 
 c. Accusative feminine singular or plural : 
 
 partim, partly coram, face to face alias, at other times 
 
 vicem, by turns quam, how foraa, out of doors 
 
 d. Ablative feminine singular or plural : 
 
 recta, straightway qua, where foris, out of doors 
 
 postea, aftei wards una, together extra, outside 
 
 272. Other adverbial endings, some of which are case ter- 
 minations in origin, are -i or -6, -tim or -sim, -tus or -itus. 
 
 a. The ending -i or -€ is, originally, a locative case termination. 
 
 ibi, there hie (for hi-ce), here hodie, to-day 
 
 ubi, where illic (for illi-ce), there pridie, the day before 
 
 b. The ending -tim or -sim originated in accusatives in -tim, like 
 partim. 
 
 separatim, separately cursim, quickly tributim, tribe by tribe 
 
 c. The ending -tus or -itus is of doubtful origin. 
 
 funditus, utterly SiriviiXMS, providentially penitus, within 
 
 Comparison of Adverbs 
 
 273. Adverbs formed from adjectives are similarly compared. 
 The comparative ends in -ius, and is in origin the neuter accusa- 
 tive singular of the comparative of the corresponding adjective. 
 The superlative may be formed from the superlative of the 
 corresponding adjective by changing final -us to -€. Examples 
 of adverbial comparison are the following : 
 
142 
 
 COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 
 
 Positive 
 
 Comparative 
 
 Superlative 
 
 cars, dearly 
 
 carius 
 
 carissime 
 
 pulchre, beautifully 
 
 pulchrius 
 
 pulcherrime 
 
 Uhere, freely 
 
 liberius 
 
 liberrime 
 
 fortiter, bravely 
 
 fortius 
 
 fortissime 
 
 audacter, boldly 
 
 audacius 
 
 audacissime 
 
 facile, easily 
 
 facilius 
 
 facilUme 
 
 a. Adverbs are sometimes compared by using the adverbs magis, 
 more, and maximg, most, with the positive : as, aperte, openly^ magis 
 aperte, maxime aperte. Many adverbs are not compared. 
 
 274. 
 
 Positive 
 
 bene, well 
 diu, a long time 
 male, ill, badly 
 magnopere^ 
 multum ]^^^^ ^ 
 multum, i7iuch 
 nuper, recently 
 panim, too little 
 
 Irregular or Defective Comparison 
 
 Comparative Superlative 
 
 prope, near 
 saepe,* often 
 satis, e?iough 
 
 melius, better 
 diutius, longer 
 peius, worse 
 
 magis, 77iore 
 
 plus, more 
 
 minus, less 
 potius, rather 
 prius, before 
 propius, nearer 
 saepius, ofte?ier 
 satius, better 
 
 optime, best 
 diutissime, lo?igest 
 pessime, worst 
 
 maxime, most 
 
 plurimum, most 
 nuperrime, most recently 
 minime, least 
 potissimum, especially 
 primum, first 
 proxime, nearest 
 saepissime, oftenest 
 
 PREPOSITIONS 
 
 275. Prepositions were not originally distinguished from 
 adverbs in form or meaning, and developed from them com- 
 paratively late in the history of language. Many of them con- 
 tinued to be used as adverbs after they assumed the function 
 of prepositions. 
 
PREPOSITIONS 
 
 143 
 
 276. The following prepositions are used with the accusative 
 
 ad. to 
 
 adversus "1 • ^ ^ j 
 
 > over against, towards 
 adversum J 
 
 ante, before 
 
 apud, at, near 
 
 circa 1 , 
 
 > around 
 circum J 
 
 circiter, about 
 
 cis, citra. on this side of 
 
 contra, against 
 
 erga, towards (a person) 
 
 extra, outside 
 
 infra, below 
 
 inter, among^ between 
 
 intra, inside 
 
 iiucta, //^ar, beside 
 
 Ob, <7// account of 
 
 penes, in the power of 
 
 per, through 
 
 p6ne, behind 
 
 post, rz/^irr • 
 
 praeter, beyond, past 
 
 prope, near 
 
 propter, on account of near 
 
 secundum, next to 
 
 supra, above 
 
 trans, across 
 
 ultra, on the further side of 
 
 versus, towards 
 
 a. Versus always follows its case : as, Arpinum versus, towards 
 ■irpinum. 
 
 277. The following prepositions are used with the ablative : 
 
 a, ab, abs, away from, by 
 absque, without, but for 
 coram, /// the presence of 
 cum, with 
 de, from, down from, concerning 
 
 e, ex, out of 
 
 prae, in comparison with 
 
 pr5, in front of , for the sake of 
 
 sine, without 
 
 tenus, up to, as far as 
 
 a. A is used only before consonants. Ab is used before vowels 
 or h, and may be used before most consonants. Abs is used only in 
 the phrase abs t6. Absque is very rare. 
 
 b. Ex is used before vowels or h. Before consonants cither 6 or 
 ex may be used. 
 
 c. Tenus always follows its case : as, capulO tenus, up to the hilt. 
 
 d. Cum is usually joined enclitically with all ablative forms of the 
 pronouns ego, tu, sui, qui, and quis: as, mScum, tecum, vObiscum, 
 sScum, quOcum, quicum, quibuscuin. 
 
 Note. In poetry and late prose the adverbs palam, procul, and simul 
 are used as prepositions with the ablative. 
 
144 CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS 
 
 278. Four prepositions, in, sub, subter, and super, are used 
 with either the accusative or the ablative. 
 
 a. In, m, into, and sub, under, with the accusative denote motion to 
 or ifito, with the ablative rest in. 
 
 in aedis venit, he ca?ne into the house 
 
 in aedibus erat, he was in the house 
 
 sub iugum exercitum misit, he sent the army under the yoke 
 
 sub arbore sedit, he sat under a tree 
 
 h. Super meaning about, concerning, takes the ablative ; in all its 
 other senses {above, beyofid, on, etc.) it usually has the accusative. 
 c. Subter, beneath, with the ablative is rare. 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS 
 
 279. Conjunctions are closely related to adverbs and are of 
 similar origin (cf. § 268. a). They are used to connect words, 
 phrases, or sentences, and are of two classes, coordinating 
 and subordinating. 
 
 a. Coordinating conjunctions connect expressions of equal rank. 
 h. Subordinating conjunctions connect a subordinate, or dependent, 
 clause with the clause upon which it depends. 
 
 The uses of conjunctions are discussed under the head of syntax 
 
 (§§597ff-)- 
 
 INTERJECTIONS 
 
 280. Interjections are particles expressing feeling, as surprise, 
 joy, sorrow, etc. Some of them are mere natural exclamations ; 
 others are derived from inflected parts of speech. 
 
 6 lux Dardaniae, O light of heu me misernm, a/as /or poor me / 
 
 Dardania ! heus Syre, hello there, Syrus ! 
 
 io triumphe, hurrah I victory f euge, puer, well done, boy ! 
 
 a. Names of deities occur as interjections in oaths : as, hercle, by 
 Hercules ; pol, by Pollux ; ecastor, by Castor. 
 
FORMATION OF WORDS 
 
 145 
 
 FORMATION OF WORDS 
 
 281. Most Latin words are either derived from or composed 
 of other simpler words, and, according to their formation, are 
 divided into two classes, derivatives and compounds. 
 
 a. Derivatives are formed from stems of nouns, adjectives, verbs, 
 or adverbs by adding certain endings called suffixes.' 
 
 I. Most suffixes are of pronominal origin, and in many cases their 
 definite meaning is not clear. 
 
 b. Compounds are formed by adding together two or more stems 
 or complete words. 
 
 armi-ger, annor-bearer (cf. arma, arms ; ger5, cany) 
 omni-potens, omnipotent {ci. omnis, all \ -pot^ns, power/ui) 
 septen-decim, seventeen (cf . aeptem, seven ; decern, ten) 
 bene-dicO, bless (cf. bene, well\ dic5, speak) 
 
 I. DERIVATIVES 
 
 A. Nouns 
 
 282. Nouns derived from Nouns, a. Diminutives are formed 
 from nouns by means of the suffixes : 
 
 Masc. Fem. 
 
 -ulu8 -ula 
 
 -olu8 -ola 
 
 -cuius -cula 
 
 -ellus -ella 
 
 -illus -illA 
 
 Neut. 
 -ulum 
 
 -olum (after a vowel) 
 -culum 
 -ellum 
 -ilium 
 
 riv-ulus, streamlet 
 gladi-olua, small sword 
 fHi-olos, little son 
 fni-ola, little daughter 
 
 riYUS, brook 
 gladius, sword 
 fnius, son 
 fflia, daughter 
 
 > It is the stem of the derived word, not the nominative, that is formed by 
 the suffix. For convenience, however, the nominative singular will be given. 
 
146 NOUNS DERIVED FROM NOUNS 
 
 atri-olum, little hall atrium, hall 
 
 flos-culus, floweret fl5s, flower 
 
 auri-cula, little ear auris, ear 
 
 munus-culum, little gift munus, ^., gift 
 
 lib-ellus, little book liber, book 
 
 lap-illus, pebble lapis, stone 
 
 1. Diminutives regularly take the gender of the nouns from which 
 they are derived, and may differ from them in meaning: as, avun- 
 culus, uncle ^ from avus, grandfather-^ osculum, kiss^ from 6s, mouth. 
 
 2. Diminutives often express affection, pity, or contempt. 
 
 deliciolae, little pet deliciae, pet 
 
 muliercula, a poor (weak) woman mulier, wojnan 
 
 Graeculus, a ?niserable Greek Graecus, a Greek 
 
 b. Nouns denoting place of keeping or growing are formed 
 from nouns by means of the neuter suffixes : 
 
 -arium, -etum or -turn, -ile 
 
 aer-arium, treasury ' aes, copper 
 
 oliv-etum, olive grove oliva, olive 
 
 arbus-tum, orchard arbor, tree 
 
 bov-fle, ox stall bos, ox 
 
 c. Nouns denoting the person employed about anything are 
 formed from nouns by means of the masculine suffixes : 
 
 -io, -alius, -icus 
 
 mul-io, mule driver mulus, mule 
 
 falc-arius, scythe maker falx, scythe 
 
 vil-icus, steward y\i\si,farfn 
 
 d. Nouns denoting the place where a business is carried on 
 
 are formed from nouns denoting persons by adding the suffix 
 
 -ina or -inum. 
 
 sutr-ina, f., cobble?'' s shop siitor, cobbler 
 
 tonstr-ina, f., barber's shop tonsor, barber 
 
 pistr-inum, n., gristmill pistor, miller 
 
NOUNS DERIVED FROM NOUNS 147 
 
 e. Nouns denoting rafi^ or office are formed from nouns by 
 means of the masculine suffix -atus. 
 
 magistr-atus, ii civil office magister, officer 
 
 consul-atus, office of consul consul, consul 
 
 tribun-atus, office of tribune tribunus, tribune 
 
 f. Nouns denoting characteristic or condition are formed 
 from nouns by means of the suffixes : 
 
 -tia, -tfis, -tU8, -tium 
 
 pueri-tia, f., boyhood puer, boy 
 
 civi-tas, F., citizenship civis, citizen 
 
 vir-tus, F., manhood vir, man 
 
 senec-tus. f., old age senex, old man 
 
 servi-tium. n., senntude servus, slave 
 
 consor-tium, n., comradeship censors, comrade 
 
 g. Nouns known as patronymics, indicating descent or rela- 
 tionship, are formed from Greek proper names, or names formed 
 in imitation of the Greek, by means of the endings : 
 
 Masc. -adgs, -id6s, -idgs 
 Fem. -Sis, -ias, -is 
 
 Anchisi-ades, son of Anchises Ner-eis, daughter of Nereus 
 
 Tantal-ides, son of Tantalus Thest-ias, daughter of Thestius 
 
 Pel-ides, son of Peleus Atlant-is, daughter of Atlas 
 
 283. Nouns derived from Adjectives. Abstract nouns denot- 
 ing quality or condition are formed from adjectives by means 
 of the feminine suffixes : 
 
 -ia, -tas, -tia, -ti6s, -tudS 
 audac-ia. boldness audax, bold 
 
 boni-tas. goodness bonus, good 
 
 tristi-tia, sadness tristis, sad 
 
 segni-ties. slo7i^ness segnis, slo7if 
 
 magni-tudd, greatness magnus. great 
 
148 
 
 NOUNS DERIVED FROM VERBS 
 
 284. Nouns derived from Verbs, a. Nouns denoting the 
 agejtt or doer are formed from verbs by means of the suffixes : 
 
 Masc. -tor (-sor) 
 Fem. -trix 
 
 can-tor, m., can-trix, f., singer 
 vic-tor, M., vic-trix, f., victor 
 ton-sor, M., barber 
 peti-tor, M., candidate 
 
 canere, stng 
 vincere, conquer 
 tondere, shear 
 petere, seek 
 
 I. A few nouns in -tor are formed from nouns. 
 
 via-tor, traveler 
 iani-tor, doorkeeper 
 
 via, way 
 ianua, door 
 
 ' b. Nouns denoting action or its result are formed from verbs 
 by means of the suffixes : 
 
 Masc. -or, -tus (-sus) 
 
 Fem. -es, -io, -monia, -tio (-sio), -tura 
 
 Neut. 
 
 {:; 
 
 us (gen. -eris .or -oris ) 
 
 tim-or, fear 
 
 am-or, love 
 
 audi-tus, hearifig 
 
 vi-sus, seeifig 
 
 sen-sus, feeling 
 
 caed-es, slaughter 
 
 leg-16, a collecting {levy), legion 
 
 queri-monia, complaint 
 
 voca-tio, calling 
 
 divi-sio, divisio?i 
 
 scrip-tura, writing 
 
 gaud-ium, joy 
 
 certa-men, contest 
 
 oma-mentum, ornament 
 
 testi-monium, testimony 
 
 gen-US, birth 
 
 Hmere, fear 
 
 amare, love 
 
 audire, hear 
 
 videre, see 
 
 sentire, feel 
 
 caedere, kill 
 
 legere, collect 
 
 quen, complain 
 
 vocare, call 
 
 dividere, divide 
 
 scribere, write 
 
 gaudere, rejoice 
 
 certare, contend 
 
 ornare. adorn 
 
 testari, testify 
 
 gen-, root of gignere, bear 
 
ADJECTIVES DERIVED FROM NOUNS 149 
 
 c. Nouns denoting means, instrument, or place are formed 
 from verbs by means of the neuter suffixes : 
 
 -bulum, -culum, -brum, -crum, -trum 
 
 pa-bulum, fodder pascere, feed . 
 
 sta-bulum, stall stare, stand 
 
 vehi-culum, wagon vehere, carry 
 
 delu-brum, shrine deluere, cleanse 
 
 sepul-crum, tomb sepelire, bury 
 
 claus-tnim ( *claud-truin), bar claudere, shut 
 
 ara-trum. pUnc arare, plow 
 
 I . A few masculines and feminines of the same formation occur. 
 
 fa-bula, tale filri, speak 
 
 fa-ber, smith facere, make 
 
 late-bra, hiding place latere, hide 
 
 mulc-tra, milk pail mulgere, tnilk 
 
 Ik Adjectives 
 
 285. Adjectives derived from Nouns, a. Adjectives meaning 
 /nil of are formed from 'nouns by means of the suffixes : 
 
 -Ssus, -ISns, -lentus 
 
 fluctu-^sus, billowy fluctus, billow 
 
 form-osus, beautiful forma, beauty 
 
 pericul-osus, dangerous periculum, danger 
 
 pesti-lens, pesti-lentus, pestilent pestis, pest 
 
 vino-lentus, vin-osus, given to drink vinum, wine 
 
 h. Adjectives m^dunn^ frovUed with 30[q formed from nouns 
 by means of the suffix -tus. 
 
 toga-tiu, wearing a toga toga, toga 
 
 barba-tus, bearded barba, beard 
 
 turri-tus, turreted turris, tower 
 
 cornu-tos, homed comQ, hont 
 
ISO ADJECTIVES DERIVED FROM NOUNS 
 
 c. Adjectives denoting material are formed from nouns by 
 means of the suffixes : 
 
 -eus, -aceus, -nus, -neus 
 
 aur-eus, golden aunim, gold 
 
 ros-aceus. oy roses rosa, rose 
 
 acer-nus, of maple acer, maple 
 
 ebur-neus, of ivory ebur, ivory 
 
 d. Adjectives meaning belojiging to are formed from nouns 
 by means of the suffixes : 
 
 -alls, -ills, -anus, -enus, -inus, -nus 
 -aris, -arius, -icus, -icius, -ius. -cus 
 -ester, -ivus, -ensis, -timus 
 
 1 . From commofi nouns : 
 
 mort-alis, mortal mors, death 
 
 vir-ilis, manly vir, man 
 
 mont-anus, of the jnountains mons, mountain 
 
 terr-enus, earthly terra, earth 
 
 libert-inus, of the class offreedmen libertus, one's freedman 
 
 haitei-nus, fraternal f rater, brother 
 vulg-aris, commonplace . vulgus, co7nmon people 
 
 legion-arius, legionary legi5, legion 
 
 bell-icus, of war bellum, war 
 
 patr-icius, patriciaii pater, father 
 
 reg-ius, royal rex, king 
 
 civi-cus, civic civis, citizen 
 
 silv-ester, woody silva, a wood 
 
 aest-ivus, of summer aestas, summer 
 
 for-ensis, of the forum foram. forum 
 
 fini-timus, on the borders finis, end^ limit 
 
 2. From proper nouns : 
 
 From Names of Towns 
 R5m-anus. Roman Roma. Rome 
 
 Corinth-ius, Corinthian Corinthus, Corinth 
 
 Cann-ensis, of Cannes Cannae, Cannes 
 
 Atheni-ensis, Athenian . Athenae, Athens 
 
ADJECTIVES DERIVED FROM ADJECTIVES 1 51 
 
 From Names of P&Kschv.'i 
 
 Sull-anus, oj Sulla Sulla, Sulla 
 
 Mari-anus. of Marius Marius, Matins 
 
 Caesar-ianus, 0/ Ccesar Caesar, Ccrsar 
 
 Plaut-inus, of Plautus Plautus, Plautus 
 
 Note i . Observe that -ianus is sometimes used instead of -anus. 
 
 From Names of Countries 
 
 Gall-icus. Gallic Gallia, Gaul 
 
 German-icus. German Germania, Germany 
 
 Ital-icus, Italian Italia, Italy 
 
 Afr-icus, African Africa, Africa 
 
 Note 2. From these adjectives are formed adjectives in -anus meaning 
 stationed in or associated with a country, but not native to it. 
 
 Iegi5nes Gallicanae, legions stationed in Gaul (but not made up of Gauls) 
 Scipio Africanus, Scipio Africanus (so called from his victories in Africa) 
 
 286. Adjectives derived from Adjectives. These are mostly 
 diminutives and are formed like diminutive nouns (§ 282. a). 
 
 parv-ulus, vety smali' parvus, small 
 
 pauper-culus, rather poor ^sm^t, poor 
 
 vet-ulus. somewhat old vetus, old 
 
 287. Adjectives derived from Verbs. Adjectives are derived 
 from verbs as follows : 
 
 a. Adjectives with present participial meaning are formed 
 from verbs by means of the suffixes : 
 
 -bundus, -cundus 
 
 vita-bundus, avoiding vitare, shun 
 
 treme-bundus, trembling tremere, tremble 
 
 mox\-\i\xvAy3A, dyings at the point of death mori. die 
 
 fa-cundus. eloquent fliri, speak 
 
 iri-cundu8. irascible cf. irisci, be angry 
 
152 ADJECTIVES DERIVED FROM VERBS 
 
 b. Adjectives expressing characteristic or tendency are 
 formed from verbs by means of the suffixes : 
 
 -ax, -ulus 
 
 -f^VigDr^, pugnacious ■^XLgtkie.Jight 
 
 aud-ax, bold audere, dare 
 
 cred-ulus, credulous credere, believe 
 
 \>\\)-\x\\xs, fo?td of drink bibere, drink 
 
 c. Adjectives expressing a state or settled condition are 
 formed from verbs by means of the suffix -dus. 
 
 timi-dus, titnid timeiei fear 
 
 flori-dus, blooming florere, bloom 
 
 cupi-dus, desirous cupere, desire 
 
 avi-dvLs, greedy avere, long for 
 
 d. Adjectives expressing capability (generally passive) are 
 formed from verbs by means of the suffixes : 
 
 -ills, -bills 
 
 frag-ilis, breakable, frail frangere, break 
 
 fac-ilis, able to be dojie, easy facere, do 
 
 credi-bilis, capable of belief credible credere, believe 
 
 ama-bilis, lovable amare, love 
 
 288. Adjectives derived from Adverbs. Adjectives are derived 
 from adverbs by means of the suffixes : 
 
 -emus, -ternus, -turnus, -tinus 
 
 hodi-ernus, of to-day hodie, to-day 
 
 hes-ternus, of yesterday heri, yesterday 
 
 diu-turnus, lasting diu, long time 
 
 cras-tinus, of to-morrow eras, to-morrow 
 
DERIVATION OF VERBS 1 53 
 
 C. Verbs 
 
 289. Verbs derived from Nouns or Adjectives. Verbs were 
 formed in Latin from almost every form of noun stem and 
 adjective stem. Most of these verbs are of the first conjuga- 
 tion ; but the other conjugations are also represented. 
 
 r fugS. -are, put to flight ; from fagti, flight 
 
 1ST CoNj. -j pi6, -are, expiate ; from plus, pure 
 
 [exsuld, -are, be in exile \ from exsul, exile 
 J albeo, -ere, de white ; from albus, white 
 \ Glared, -ere, shine ; from clarus, bright 
 J xnetuo. -ere, /ear \ irom metus, /ear 
 
 "* \ status, -ere, set up ; from status, position 
 
 Jfinio, -ire. bound \ from finis, end 
 ' \ custodio, -ire, guard; from cust5s, guardian 
 
 290. Verbs derived from Verbs. Verbs derived from verbs 
 are of four classes. 
 
 a. Vnceptives or Inchoatives^ denoting the beginning of an action, 
 are formed by adding -scO to the present stem. They are of the third 
 conjugation. 
 
 cale-sc5, -ere, grow ivann ; from caleo, be warm 
 laba-sc5, -ere, begin to totter ; from labo, totter 
 
 Note. In some of these verbs no inceptive meaning is present: as, 
 p08c5, demand \ qui§sc5, rest\ etc. Many are formed by analogy from 
 nouns and adjectives. 
 
 b. Intensives or Frequentatives, denoting /orcible or repeated action, 
 are formed from the participial stem and end in -tO (-sC), -itO, or -titO. 
 They are of the first conjugation. 
 
 iac-t6. -are, hurl\ from iacio. throw 
 quas-s6, -are, shatter ; from quatid, shake 
 vol-it6, -are, flit ; from void, fly 
 dic-tit6, -are, keep saying ; from dic6. say 
 
 Note i. Intensives from verbs of the first conjugation end in -lt6, not 
 -4t5 : as, rogitd, from rogS, -ire, ask. 
 
 Note 2. Verbs of this formation sometimes show no intensive or 
 frequentative meaning : as, canto, sing. 
 
154 COMPOUNDS 
 
 I . Another form of intensives, of the third conjugation, ends in -esso. 
 
 cap-esso, -ere, seise eagerly \ from capio, take 
 fac-esso, -ere, do eartiestly ; from facio, do 
 
 c. Diminutives, denoting feeble action, end in -illo. They are rare 
 and of the first conjugation. 
 
 cant-illo, -are, chirp ; from canto, sing 
 sorb-illo, -are, sip ; from sorbeo, dritik 
 
 d. Desideratives, denoting desire, end in -turio or -surio. They are 
 of the fourth conjugation, and only two are in common use : 
 
 par-turio, -ire, be in labor ; from pario, bear 
 e-surio, -ire, be himgiy ; from edo, eat 
 
 II. COMPOUNDS 
 
 291. Compound words usually consist of two parts. The 
 second part gives the essential meaning, and this is changed 
 or modified in some way by the first part. 
 
 armi-ger, armor-bearer omni-potens, omnipotent, all-powerful -. , 
 
 292. Compounds may be formed in three ways : 
 
 a. By the union of two or more words without change of form or 
 meaning. 
 
 Examples : pater-familias, father of a family ; senatus-consultum, 
 decree of the senate \ ius-iurandum, oath; aquae-ductus, ^z^// <?<'/// 1:/ ; 
 hac-tenus, thus far ; quem-ad-modum, in what way : bene-f acio, 
 benefit. 
 
 Note. In this case the words retain their identity and are often written 
 separately. There is no real composition, but mtrtXy juxtaposition. These 
 are sometimes called syntactic compounds. 
 
 h. By prefixing an indeclinable particle, usually a preposition. 
 
 Examples : per-pauci, very few ; sub-rusticus, rather clownish ; in- 
 imicus, unfriendly; ad-vena, stranger: inter-ficio, kill\ e-disco, 
 learti by heart-, amb-io, go about; se-cerno, separate. 
 
 Note. In this case the meaning of the compound is generally unlike 
 that of the component parts used separately. 
 
COMPOUNDS 155 
 
 c. By uniting two or more stems and adding inflectional suffixes 
 when necessary. 
 
 ExA.MPLKs: magnanimus (magno- + animus), high-minded \ agricola 
 (agro- + cola j, fanner ; carnifex (earn- + fex), executioner ; princeps 
 (primo- + ceps), chief. 
 
 Note. In this case the stem vowel of the first part of the compound is 
 dropped before a vowel and appears as i before consonants. Consonant 
 stems usually add i. 
 
 293. Some compounds are derived from phrases so changed 
 as to force them into the inflections of nouns. 
 
 pr&-c5nsul, proconsul (for pro consule, instead of a consul) 
 trium-vir, //7«/«z//> (singular, from triiun yirdnun, of three men) 
 
 Indeclinable Prefixes 
 
 294. The indeclinable prefixes used in forming compounds 
 are either separable or inseparable. Separable prefixes may 
 generally be used separately as adverbs or prepositions. In- 
 separable prefixes are never so used. 
 
 Prepositions in composition sometimes retain their original 
 adverbial sense. 
 
 a. Separable Prefixes, used also as prepositions or adverbs, are : 
 
 a. ab, abs. au>ay a-mitt6, send away 
 
 ad, to^ towards ' ad-duc6, lead to 
 
 ante, defore ante-currS, run before 
 
 circum, around circum-€6. i^o around 
 
 com-, con- (cum), together, forci- 1 J con-venio. come together 
 
 bly, completely j \chTi-^c\o. do completely, finish 
 
 .. , ^^ . ( dJt-smciby look down upon, despise 
 
 de, down, utterly 1:i-f_-^> 
 
 •^ l^de-etruo, destroy 
 
 I, ex, out e-ici5, throw out 
 
 1 / -.u 1. V • . . r in-e5. go in 
 
 in (with verbs), tn, on, acamst "{ . ^ , 1 • ^ 
 
 ^ /' ' ' A l^in-ferd, bear against 
 
 inter, between, together (sovnetimts 1 J intcr-ficiS. kill 
 
 causing interruption or ruin) J \ inter-rumpo. interrupt 
 
156 
 
 COMPOUNDS 
 
 intro, within 
 
 ob, obs-, towards^ to meet^ against 
 
 per, through^ thoroughly 
 
 post, after 
 prae, before 
 praeter, beside^ past 
 
 pro, prod-, y»r//!, before 
 
 retro, back 
 
 sub, subs-, under, somewhat 
 
 super, over, upon 
 supra, over 
 
 trans, tra-, across 
 
 intro-mitto, send within 
 
 op-pugn5, fight against 
 fper-venio, come through, arrive 
 i^per-disc5, learn thoroughly 
 
 post-habeo, regard after, esteem less 
 
 prae-fer5, bear before, prefer 
 
 praeter-eo, go past, pass by 
 fpro-fero, bear forth 
 \ prod-eo, go forth 
 
 retro-cedo, go back 
 J sub-eo, go under 
 \_ sub-tristis, sofnewhat sad 
 
 super-fluo, overflow 
 
 supra-scando, climb over 
 ftran-silio, leap across 
 l^tra-do, betray 
 
 b. Inseparable Prefixes, used only in composition, are : 
 
 amb-, am-, about, around 
 dis-,^ di-, apart, asunder 
 in-, not, un- (common with adjec-"" 
 tives and adverbs, and to be 
 distinguished from the prepo- 
 sition in usually compounded I 
 with verbs) j 
 
 j^ox-, forth 
 
 re-, red-, back, again 
 
 se-, sed-, apart 
 ve-, not, without 
 
 amb-io (§ 259. c), go about 
 dis-cedo, go away ' 
 
 r im-memor, unmindful 
 i^in-eptus, clumsy 
 
 por-tendo, stretch forth 
 fre-verto, tujji back 
 \^ red-eo, go back 
 r se-duc6, lead apart 
 l^sed-itio, revolt (K\X.. a going apart) 
 
 ve-sanus, not sane 
 
 On the formation of adverbs see §§ 269 ff. 
 
 ^ dis- may have a negative or intensive meaning : as, dis-pliceo, displease ; 
 dis-perdo, niin utterly. 
 
PART III. SYNTAX 
 
 295. Syntax treats of the construction of sentences. 
 
 THE SENTENCE 
 
 296. A sentence is a group of words expressing a complete 
 thought. Sentences are of four kinds : 
 
 1. Declarative Sentences make a statement. 
 
 canis currit, the dog runs 
 
 2. Interrogative Sentences ask a question. 
 
 canisne currit, does the dog run f 
 
 3. Exclamatory Sentences have the force of an ex- 
 clamation. 
 
 quam celeriter currit canis, how fast the dog runs ! 
 
 4. Imperative Sentences express a command, exhortation, 
 or entreaty. 
 
 desilite, commilitSnes, y«/«/) down, comrades 
 
 eamus, let us go 
 
 currat canis, let the dog run 
 
 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 
 
 297. Every sentence consists of a subject and a predicate. 
 The Subject is the person or thing about which something 
 
 is said. 
 
 The Predicate is that which is said of the subject. 
 
 Thus, in equitfis ad Caesarem vgngrunt, the cavalry came to Ccesar^ 
 equitCs is the subject, and ad Caesarem v6n€runt is the predicate. 
 
 «57 
 
158 THE SENTENCE 
 
 a. The subject may be implied in the personal ending of the verb, 
 and thus a sentence may consist of a single word. 
 
 sede-mus, we are sitting curri-tis, you are running 
 
 credu-nt, they believe ris-isti, you laughed 
 
 b. The subject may be some word or group of words used as 
 a noun. 
 
 haec perficere est facile, to accomplish these things is easy 
 accidit ut plena luna esset^ it happened that the moo?i was full 
 
 SIMPLE, COMPOUND, AND COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 
 298. A Simple Sentence contains but one subject and one 
 
 predicate. 
 
 Caesar Gall5s vicit, Ccesar conquered the Gauls 
 
 299. A Compound Sentence consists of two or more inde- 
 pendent simple sentences related in thought. Each member of 
 a compound sentence is called a clause, and the clauses are 
 said to be coordinate, that is, ''of equal rank," and are often 
 joined by coordinating conjunctions (§ 279. a). 
 
 Caesar Gallos vicit et Roman! gaudebant, Ccesar cofiquered the Gauls 
 and the Romans rejoiced 
 
 veni, vidi, vici, / cajne, I saw, I congicered. [Observe that this com- 
 pound sentence consists of three independent coordinate clauses, 
 . related in thought but not joined by conjunctions.] 
 
 300. A Complex Sentence consists of an independent simple 
 sentence, known as the principal or main clause, modified by 
 one or more dependent sentences, known as the subordinate 
 or dependent clauses. 
 
 Romani gavisl sunt quod Caesar Gallos vicerat, the Romans rejoiced 
 because Ccesar had conquered the Gauls 
 
 Here the complex sentence consists of the principal or main clause 
 Romani gavisi sunt, and the subordinate or dependent clause quod 
 Caesar Gallos vicerat. 
 
PHRASES AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 159 
 
 Note. A complex sentence often contains more than one subordinate 
 clause, and a subordinate clause may itself be modified by other subordinate 
 clauses. 
 
 Labieno imperavit ut pontem interscinderet et equitatum praemitteret, 
 he commanded Labieutis to destroy the bridi^e and send /or~u>ard the 
 cavalry. [Two subordinate clauses modifying the principal clause 
 Labieno imperavit.] 
 Labiend imperavit ut interscinderet pontem qui flOmen iungeret, he 
 commanded Labieuns to destroy the bridge 'which spanned the river. 
 [Two subordinate clauses, of which qui . . . iungeret is subordinate 
 to ut . . . pontem, which is itself subordinate to the principal clause 
 Labieno imperavit.] 
 
 PHRASES AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 
 
 301. A Phrase is a group of connected words not containing 
 a subject and a predicate. 
 
 302. A phrase is often equivalent to a part of speech, 
 especially to an adjective or an adverb. 
 
 Thus, in the sentence vir fuit summa nohilitate, he was a man of 
 the highest nobility, the words summa nobilitate, of the highest nobility^ 
 arc equivalent to the adjective nobilis, noble (or nobilissimus, very 
 noble) y and are called an adjective phrase. 
 
 Again, in the sentence magna celeritdte vgnit, he came with great 
 speedy the words magna celeritate, with great speed, are equivalent to 
 the adverb celeriter, quickly (or celerrimg, very quickly), and are called 
 an adverbial phrase. 
 
 303. A Subordinate Clause always has a finite verb or an 
 infinitive in the predicate, and takes the place of some part of 
 speech in its relation to the principal clause. 
 
 304. There are three kinds of subordinate clauses : noun (or 
 substantive) clauses, adjective clauses, and adverbial clauses. 
 
 a. A noun (or substantive) clause takes the place of a noun. 
 
 fieri potest ut tu recti sentias, it is possible that you think rightly. 
 [Merc ut tu recte sentias is a noun clause, the subject of potest.] 
 
i6o PREDICATE NOUNS 
 
 b. An adjective clause defines or modifies some noun or pronoun 
 and is introduced by a relative pronoun or adverb. 
 
 Considius, qui ret miUtdris peritissimus habebatur, cum exploratoribus 
 praemittitur, Considius, who was co7isidered very skilful in 
 warfare, is sent i7i adva?ice with scouts. [Here the clause qui . . . 
 habebatur is equivalent to an adjective modifying Considius.] 
 
 agri ubi hodie est haec urbs, the fields where to-day this city stands 
 
 c. An adverbial clause expresses some adverbial relation, such as 
 purpose, result, time, or cause. 
 
 veniunt ut pdcem petant, they co7ne to seek peace. [The adverbial 
 clause ut . . ; petant expresses purpose.] 
 
 Note. A subordinate clause is incapable, by itself, of expressing a 
 complete meaning. 
 
 SYNTAX OF NOUNS 
 PREDICATE NOUNS 
 
 305. A predicate noun is a noun in the predicate describing 
 or defining the subject. It is connected with the subject by a 
 form of sum or by an intransitive or passive verb. 
 
 a. The verb sum thus used as a connective is called the copula. 
 When an intransitive or passive verb is used in the same way, it is 
 called a copulative verb. 
 
 Caesar erat c5nsul, CcEsar was consul 
 
 ego patrSnus exstiti, I have come forward as an advocate 
 
 Caesar cdnsul credtus est, Ccesar was elected consul 
 
 306. A predicate noun agrees in case with the subject. 
 
 Ariovistus erat rex, Ariovistus was king 
 
 Cicero drdtor clarissimus habitus est, Cicero was regarded as a most 
 
 distinguished orator 
 somnus est imdgd mortis, sleep is the linage of death 
 
APPOSITIVES i6i 
 
 307. A predicate noun referring to two or more singular nouns is 
 in the plural. 
 
 Claudius et Servilius consulis facti sunt, Claudius and Servilius were 
 
 elected consuls 
 
 308. When a predicate noun has different forms for different 
 genders, it agrees with the subject in gender as well as in case. 
 
 usus magister est, experience is an instructor 
 historia est magistra, history is an instructress 
 
 309. In addition to sum the verbs most commonly used to 
 connect a predicate noun with the subject are : 
 
 a. Intransitive verbs of becoming, appearing, remaining, etc. : as, 
 6vad6, appareO, maneO. 
 
 b. The passive of verbs of making, calling, choosing, regarding, 
 etc. : as, creor, appellor, dgligor, habeor, iudicor, 
 
 homo magnus evaserat, he had become a great man 
 
 pater a senatu populi R5mani amicus appellatus erat, his father had 
 
 been called friend by the senate of the Roman people 
 duces ii deliguntur, those (men) are chosen as leaders 
 
 310. Sum in the sense of exist is not a copula, but makes a com- 
 plete predicate without a predicate noun or adjective. It is then 
 called the substantive verb. 
 
 sunt viri fortes, there are (exist) brave men 
 
 est classis in portu, there is a fleet in the harbor 
 
 APPOSITIVES 
 
 311. A noun used to describe another, and standing in 
 the same part of the sentence with the noun described, is 
 called an appositive, and is said to be in apposition. 
 
 Cassius consul occisus est, Cassius, the consul^ was killed 
 persuident Rauracis flnitimls, they persuade the Rauraci, their 
 
 neighbors 
 
l62 APPOSITIVES 
 
 312. An appositive agrees in case with the noun which 
 it describes. 
 
 oppidum Remorum nomine Bibrax aberat milia passuum octo, a town 
 of the Renii, Bibrax by name, was eight 7niles away. [Here the 
 appositive belongs to the subject. '\ 
 
 Caesar T. Labienum legatum misit, Ccesar sent Titus Labienus, the 
 lieutenant. [Here both nouns are in \h^ predicate.'] 
 
 a. An appositive generally agrees with its noun in gender and 
 number when it can. 
 
 sequuntur naturam optimam ducem, they follow ftature, the best guide. 
 
 [Observe that ducem is here />;///>/ /V/^.] 
 omnium doctrinarum myenfnces Athenae, Athens, the discoverer of all 
 
 learning. [Observe that inventrices \^ plural zxiA feminine. '\ 
 
 b. Words expressing parts may be in apposition with a noun 
 denoting the whole. This is called partitive apposition, and is espe- 
 cially common with quisque, uterque, alius . . . alius, and alter . . . alter. 
 
 Hannibal transfugas in suam quemque civitatem dimisit, Hannibal sent 
 
 the deserters each to his own state 
 duo consules eius anni alter ferro, alter morbo periit, the two consuls 
 
 of that year perished, the one by the sword, the other by disease 
 
 Note. For the explanatory genitive used instead of an appositive see 
 §335- 
 
 313. Urbs or oppidum in apposition with the locative case (§ 74. a) 
 of the name of a town is put in the ablative, with or without the 
 preposition in. 
 
 Antiochiae, celebri quondam urbe, at Antioch, once afatnous city 
 Albae constiterunt, in urbe munita, they halted at Alba, a fortified 
 town 
 
 314. A clause or an infinitive may be used as an appositive. 
 
 illud etiam restiterat, ut te in ius educerent, this too remained — that 
 
 they should drag you i?ito court 
 stultitia haec sit, me tibi meant operam pollicitdri, this would be folly, for 
 
 me to offer you my assistance 
 
NOMINATIVE CASE 163 
 
 315. An appositive is frequently equivalent to a relative clause, or 
 to a clause of time or cause. . Especially common in this construction 
 arc official titles and words like adul6sc6ns, puer, senex, etc., express- 
 ing time of life. 
 
 r luho 1 
 Cicerd consul Catillnam ex urbe eiecit, Cicero^ \ since he \ was consul^ 
 
 [ when he J 
 expelled Catiline from the city 
 Cats senex historiam scribere instituit, Cato began to write history 
 when he unis an old man 
 
 THE NOMINATIVE CASE 
 
 316. The subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case. 
 The finite verb includes all forms of the indicative, sub- 
 junctive, and imperative. 
 
 Caesar Rhenum transire decreverat, Ctrsar had determined to cross the 
 Rhine 
 
 a. The subject is usually a noun or a pronoun, but it may be a 
 clause or an infinitive. 
 
 accidit ut esset lUna plena, it happened that it was full moon. [The 
 
 subject is the clause ut esset etc.] 
 do^e malum est, to suffer pain is an evil. [The subject is the 
 
 infinitive dolere.] 
 
 317. Impersonal verbs and the passive of many intransitive verbs 
 may be used without any subject expressed. 
 
 pluit. // rains 
 
 sic Jtur ad astra, thus men rise to the stars (itur, lit. there is going) 
 
 acriter pugnatum est, there was sharp fighting (lit. // was fought 
 
 sharply) 
 
 318. A personal pronoun, unless it is emphatic, is regularly 
 omitted as subject, being implied in the f>ersonal ending of the verb. 
 
 significamus quid sentiamus, we show what we think 
 
1 64 VOCATIVE CASE 
 
 319. The nominative may be used in exclamations, but the accusa- 
 tive is more common (cf. § 436). 
 
 en dextra fidesque, lo, the faith and plighted word ! 
 Note. For the nominative used instead of the vocative see § 322. 
 
 320. The nominative is used as the subject of the histori- 
 cal infinitive (§ 844). 
 
 Caesar Haeduos frumentum flagitare, Ccesar demanded grain from the 
 Hcedui 
 
 THE VOCATIVE CASE 
 
 321. The vocative is the case of direct address. 
 
 desilite, commJlitones, leap down^ co7nrades 
 
 egredere ex urbe, Catilina, depart from the city, Catilifie 
 
 322. The nominative is sometimes used instead of the vocative, 
 audi tu, populus Albanus, hear thou, people of Alba 
 
 323. In poetry the nominative of an adjective is sometimes used 
 with a vocative. 
 
 nate, mea magna potentia solus, my son, thou alone my great power 
 proice.tela, sanguis mens, cast away thy weapons, son of mine 
 
 THE GENITIVE CASE 
 
 324. The genitive is used with nouns, adjectives, verbs, 
 and rarely with adverbs.^ 
 
 1 The genitive case was used with nouns, adjectives, and verbs from the 
 earliest period of the language to express a great variety of ideas. With 
 nouns and adjectives it served to define or complete the meaning in any way 
 suggested by the context, and it is this adnominal use that distinguishes the 
 genitive from the other cases. Its use with verbs is still more difficult of exact 
 definition. There being, then, no single fundamental value attached to the 
 genitive, it follows that its constructions are extremely hard to classify. The 
 categories given below include most of its recognized uses, and serve as a 
 grammatical convenience ; but many expressions remain which do not logi- 
 cally belong under any recognized category. 
 
GENITIVE CASE 165 
 
 325. The relation of, the genitive to the word that it limits is 
 generally expressed in English by the preposition of or by the pos- 
 sessive case; but other translations must often be used. 
 
 libri Ckerdnis, the books of Cicero or Cicero's books 
 
 talentum ai/rf, a talent of gold 
 
 vir summae virtutis, a man of the greatest courage 
 
 yacati5 laboris, a respite from toil 
 
 petitio consuldtus, candidacy for the consulship 
 
 regnum cwitatis, sovereignty over the state 
 
 peritus rel mJlitaris, skilful in warfare 
 
 insuetus laboris, unused to toil 
 
 capitis damnatus, condemned on a capital charge 
 
 caritas tui, affection for you 
 
 326. Most of the uses of the genitive may be classified as 
 either subjective or objective. 
 
 I. The Subjective Genitive is generally used with- nouns, 
 and denotes the subject of the action or feeling expressed by the 
 modified word, or the author, cause, or possessor of something. 
 
 amor patris, the father's love orationes Ciceronis, Cicero's orations 
 
 iter exercitUs, the army's march domus Caesaris, Ccpsar's house 
 
 II. The Objective Genitive is used with certain kinds of 
 nouns, adjectives, and verbs, and denotes the object toward which 
 the action or feeling expressed by the modified word is directed. 
 
 amor patriae, love of country 
 
 fames auri, greed for gold 
 
 metus deorum, the fear of the gods 
 
 avidus laudis. desirous of praise 
 
 dux memor vestfi, a leader mindful of you 
 
 vivorum memini, / remember the living 
 
 NoTi:. When a genitive modifies a noun denoting action or feeling, 
 the context will generally show whether the genitive is subjective or objec- 
 tive. For example, if amor patris, lo^>e of a father, means that the father 
 loves, the genitive is subjective; on the other hand, if the meaning in- 
 tended is that the father is the object of some one's love, the genitive 
 is objective. 
 
i66 POSSESSIVE GENITIVE 
 
 I. The Subjective Genitive 
 
 327. The subjective genitive includes the following con- 
 structions : 
 
 1. Possessive genitive (§ 328). 
 
 2. Explanatory genitive (§ 335). 
 
 3. Genitive of the charge (§336). 
 
 4. Genitive of description (§ 338). 
 
 5. Genitive of nieasure (§ 340). 
 
 6. Genitive of indefinite value (§ 341). 
 
 7. Genitive of the whole, or partitive genitive (§ 342). 
 
 8. Genitive of material (§348). 
 
 9. Genitive with verbs and adjectives of plenty or want 
 
 (§ 349). 
 
 10. .Genitive with adjectives denoting similarity or connection 
 and their opposites (§ 351). 
 
 11. Genitive with refert and interest (§ 352). 
 
 328. Possessive Genitive. The possessive genitive denotes 
 the person or thing to which something belongs or is in some 
 way related. 
 
 libri Ciceronis, Cicero's books 
 ilnowsf/ exercitus, the army of Ariovistus 
 Alexandri equus, Alexa7tder''s horse 
 pericula proeli, the datigers of the battle 
 
 Note. Here belongs the genitive of the person acting ox feeling. 
 
 itinera Caesaris, Ccesar's marches 
 timor consults, the consiifs fear 
 
 329. A possessive adjective is regularly used instead of the pos- 
 sessive genitive of a personal or reflexive pronoun and may be used 
 for the possessive genitive of a noun. 
 
 liber mei/s, my book ; not liber mei 
 
 filius suus, his son ; not filius sui 
 
 municeps Amerinus, a citizen of the free toivn Ameria 
 
POSSESSIVE GENITIVE 167 
 
 330. The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, espe- 
 cially after the verb sum. 
 
 In this construction the genitive may express ownership or various 
 kindred ideas : as, the part of, duty of, characteristic of. 
 
 haec domus est patris mei, this house is my father's 
 summa laus Bruti est, the highest praise belongs to Brutus 
 timidi est optare necem, /*/ is the coward's part to wish for death 
 sapientis est pauca loqui, it is characteristic of a wise man to say little 
 
 331. The genitive with causa, gratia,* and instar is possessive in 
 character. 
 
 patriae causa, y^r the sake of the fatherland 
 amici gratia, for the sake of my friend 
 
 equus instar mantis, a horse as big as a mountain (lit. a horse the 
 likeness of a mountain) 
 
 Note. With causa and gratia, for the sake of the genitive always 
 precedes. 
 
 332". Here belong the genitives expressing the relation con- 
 nected 7c<ith. « 
 
 difficultates btlti gerendi, the difficulties of (i.e. connected with) 
 waging the war 
 
 333. J'he noun on which the genitive depends is sometimes 
 omitted when it may be readily supplied. 
 
 Flaccus Claudi, Flaccus (the slave) of Claudius 
 Hectoris Andromache, Andromache (the wife) of Hector 
 ventum est ad Vestae, we came to Vesta's (temple) 
 
 Note. Observe the similar English usage in such expressions as 
 St. fohn's (church), St. Paul's (school), Wanamaker's (store). 
 
 334. The English use of that in such sentences as " the Hcct 
 of the Britons is larger than that of the Gauls " has no parallel in 
 
 ^ That the genitive preceding causX and grStiA is subjective and possessive 
 is made clear by observing that patriae causS is equivalent in meaning to the 
 English " in our country's cause," and amlci grAtii to " bccau.<se of the favor 
 which my friend inspires." 
 
l68 GENITIVE OF DESCRIPTION 
 
 Latin. In Latin the noun is repeated, or else it is dropped, leaving 
 the genitive without a governing word. 
 
 classis Britannorum maior est quam classis Gallorum or classis Bri- 
 tannonim maior est quam Gallorum, t/ie fleet of the Britons is 
 larger than that of the Gauls 
 
 335. Explanatory Genitive. The genitive is sometimes used 
 instead of an appositive (§ 3 1 1), to explain or define the meaning 
 of a noun. 
 
 oppidum Gendvae^ the tow?! of Geneva (for oppidum Genava) 
 vox voluptdtis, the wo^'d (of) pleasure (for vox voluptas) 
 
 336. Genitive of the Charge. Verbs of accusing, condemn- 
 ing, and acqidtting take the genitive of the charge.^ 
 
 arguit me furtlj he accuses me of theft 
 
 pecuniae publicae damnatus est, he was condemned for embezzlement 
 
 improbitdtis absolutus est, he was acquitted of dishonesty 
 
 a. The ablative with de is often used instead of the genitive. 
 de ambitu condemnatus est, he was condemned for bribery 
 
 337. The penalty is regularly expressed by the ablative (§ 473), 
 though the genitives capitis, pecuniae, and a few others occur. 
 
 tertia parte agri damnati sunt, they were condemned (to pay) a third 
 
 part of their lafid 
 capitis damnatus, condemned to death 
 pecuniae damnatus, cofidemned (to pay) fnoney 
 long! laboris damnatus, condemned to long labor 
 
 338. Genitive of Description. The genitive of a noun virith an 
 adjective in agreement is often used to describe a person or thing. 
 
 vir magnae sapientiae, a man of great wisdom 
 eius modi naves, ships of that sort 
 huius generis domus, a house of this kind 
 puer egregiae indolis, a boy of remarkable ability 
 
 1 This genitive is often explained as depending on crimine [charge), or a 
 similar word, understood. Sometimes crimine is expressed, but not in early 
 Latin, a fact which renders this explanation doubtful. 
 
GENITIVE OF THE WHOLE 169 
 
 a. The genitive of description frequently stands in the predicate. 
 
 tantae molts erat Rdmanam condere genttm, (of) sucA a task it was to 
 found the Roman nation 
 
 Note. The ablative is used to describe a quality more frequently 
 than the genitive (see § 466). In general the genitive is used rather 
 of permanent and essential, the ablative of incidental and external, 
 characteristics. 
 
 339. Included under the genitive of description are the 
 genitive of measure and the genitive of indefinite value. 
 
 340. Genitive of Measure. The genitive with a numeral is used 
 to define measures of length, depth, etc. 
 
 fossa trium. pedum, a trench of three feet (in depth) 
 puer decern annorum, a boy of ten years 
 iter unius diet, a march of one day 
 
 341. Genitive of Indefinite Value. The genitive of a few nouns 
 and adjectives denotes indefinite value. 
 
 non flocd faci5, / don''t care a straw 
 istoc nihili pendo. / care nothing for it 
 tantJ Gracchum fecit, he valued Gracchus so highly 
 auctdritas eius in his regidnibus magni habebatur, his influence in 
 these districts was considered of great 7ueight 
 
 Note. Among such genitives are the nouns flocci, a straw (lit. a bit of 
 wool)\ nauci, a nutshell \ xi\]x\\\, .nothing; and the adjectives magni, 
 pluris, pliirimi, paryi, minoris, minimi, tanti, and quanti. 
 
 a. The genitives tanti, quanti, pliiris, and minOris are used with 
 verbs of buying and selling to denote indefinite price. 
 
 quanti emptum est, at what price was it bought f 
 Note. Definite price is expressed by the ablative. See § 470. 
 
 342. Genitive of the Whole (Partitive Genitive). The geni- 
 tive is used to denote the whole of which a part is taken. 
 
170 GENITIVE OF THE WHOLE 
 
 This is often called the partitive genitive. The word denoting ih^part 
 may be a noun, pronoun, adjective used substantively, or an adverb. 
 
 magna pars navium, a great part of the ships 
 
 nemo eorum, not one of them 
 
 decern milia passuum, ten thousand paces (lit. ten thousands of paces) 
 
 quis mortdlium, who of mortals ? 
 
 aliquid &om, something good {oi good) 
 
 quis vestrum, who of you ? 
 
 quid novi, what ?iews (of new) ? 
 
 omnium ordtorum praestantissimus, the 7/wst distinguished of all 
 
 07'ators 
 multi civium, viajiy of the citizens 
 minox frdtrum^ the you?iger of the brothers 
 multum pecuniae, much money 
 60 miseridrum, to that (pitch) of misery 
 
 Note. The partitive genitive is not used with words modified by 
 prepositions nor with cases other than the nominative and accusative. " 
 
 ad tantum studium, to suck zeal; not ad tantum studi 
 nimia voluptdte, -uuth excessive pleasure; not nimia voluptatis 
 
 343. Certain adverbs are used with the genitive of the whole like 
 substantives. These are especially nimis, too ??iuch ; parum, too little ; 
 satis, enough ; and adverbs of place. 
 
 nimis lucis, too much light (of light) 
 
 parum sapientiae, too little wisdom (of wisdom) 
 
 satis pecuniae, enough money (of money) 
 
 ubinam gentium sumus, where in the world (where of nations) are we ? 
 
 nusquam gentium, nowhere on earth (of nations) 
 
 Note. An extension of this usage, with complete loss of the partitive 
 idea, is seen in the expressions pridie eius diei, on the day before that day ; 
 and postridie eius diei, on the day after that day. 
 
 344. The ablative v^ith e, ex, or de is often used instead of 
 the genitive of the whole, regularly with cardinal numerals 
 (except milia) and usually with quidam. 
 
 iinus ex trihunis, one of the tribunes 
 quidam ex militihus^ certain of the soldiers 
 
GENITIVE OF PLENTY OR WANT 171 
 
 345. Words including the whole are not used with the partitive 
 genitive, but with a case in agreement. 
 
 tota iirfts, the whole of the city 
 
 nos omnes, all a/ us (we all); not omnes nostrum 
 
 quot sunt hastes, hoiv many of the enemy are there ? 
 
 Note. The explanation of this is obvious from § 342. If the whole is 
 taken, no partitive idea is logical. 
 
 346. The English idiom uses of in certain common phrases (like 
 the middle of, the top of, the end of etc.) in which the Latin has an 
 adjective in agreement. 
 
 media wrhs, the middle of the city 
 summus mons, the top of the mountain 
 extrema aestas, the end of the summer 
 
 347. Adjectives of the third declension are rarely found in the 
 partitive genitive, but agree directly with the nouns they modify. 
 
 nihil grave, nothing serious ; not nihil gravis 
 quid utile, luhat advantage : not quid utilis 
 
 348. Genitive of Material. The genitive may denote the 
 material of which a thing consists or is made. 
 
 talentum aufi. a talent of gold 
 flumina lactis, rivers of milk 
 navis aeris, a ship of bronze 
 
 Note. The genitive of material is an extension of the genitive of 
 the whole. 
 
 a. Material is often expressed by the ablative with ex. See § 452. 
 
 349. Genitive of Plenty or Want. Adjectives and verbs of 
 plenty or want sometimes govern the genitive. 
 
 plenua fidei, full of loyalty 
 
 virtutis expers, de7*oid of virtue 
 
 convivium vJcindrum compleS, /fll up the banquet with wv iir!"Jihors 
 
 implentur veteris Bacchl they take their fill of old wine 
 
 auxili tui indigea, / have need of your aid 
 
 Note. This construction is an extension of the genitive of the whole. 
 
1/2 GENITIVE WITH /^£F£J^T AND INTEREST 
 
 350. Plenty or want is more usually denoted by the ablative 
 (see § 469. d). Words preferring the genitive are the adjectives 
 expers, inops, egenus, and plenus, and the verb indigeo. 
 
 351. Genitive with Adjectives of Similarity or Connection. 
 
 Certain adjectives denoting similarity or connection and their 
 opposites may take the genitive. 
 
 Among these are similis, dissimilis, par, dispar, contrarius, adfinis, 
 proprius, communis, 
 
 Crassus Cyri et Alexandrt similis esse voluit, Crassus wished to be like 
 
 Cyrus and Alexa7tder 
 id vitium non proprium senectutis est, that fault is not characteristic 
 
 of old age 
 haec quaestio communis est omnium philosophorum, this question is 
 
 common to all philosophers 
 
 Note. These adjectives are often found with other constructions, espe- 
 cially with the dative (cf. § 397) ; but the genitive is more usual with pro- 
 prius. In early Latin similis was construed with the genitive only, but 
 later the dative became more and more frequent and in post-Augustan 
 Latin displaced the genitive almost entirely. 
 
 352. Genitive with refert and interest With the impersonal 
 verbs refert and interest the person or thing interested is denoted 
 by the genitive. ^ 
 
 But instead of the genitive of the personal pronouns (mei, 
 . tui, sui, etc.), the ablative singular feminine of the correspond- 
 ing possessive (mea, tua, sua, etc.) is used.^ 
 
 Caesaris interest, // is to Coesar's interest 
 
 interest regis tueri subditos, // is of interest to a king to protect his 
 
 subjects 
 mea refert, // is to my interest^ it matters to 7ne \ 
 
 nostra interest, it is to our interest, it matters to us 
 
 ^ In early Latin refert is more frequent than interest, but is rare at all 
 periods with the genitive of the person. 
 
 2 No wholly satisfactory solution of the origin of this construction has 
 been found. 
 
OBJECTIVE GENITIVE 173 
 
 a. The subject of the interest is denoted by a neuter pronoun, an 
 infinitive, or a substantive clause. 
 
 hoc Caesaris interest, this is to Casar's interest 
 
 vincere Gallos Caesaris interest, to conquer the Gauls is to Cctsar's 
 
 interest 
 rei publicae interest ut Caesar sahms sit, Co'sar's safety is to the interest 
 
 of the state 
 
 b. The degree of the interest is denoted by a genitive of indefinite 
 value, by an adverb, or by the neuter accusative of an adjective used 
 adverbially. 
 
 maant^ (great/y ^ 
 
 maxime >- Caesaris interest, // is< exceedingly \to Casar's interest 
 multum] [much J 
 
 c. The object to be gained by securing the subject of the interest is 
 expressed by the accusative with ad. 
 
 ad gloriam vincere Gall5s Caesaris interest, to conquer the Gauls is of 
 
 interest to Casarfor (the sake of \>i\^)famc 
 fortiter pugnare mea et omnium civium ad saWtem patriae magnl refert, 
 
 to fight bravely is of great importance to me and to all citizens 
 
 for the safety of our country 
 
 Note. Very rarely the person interested is expressed by ad and the 
 accusative, or (with refert) by the dative. 
 
 quid id ad me refert, 'what difference does that make to me ? 
 quid referat intra natiirae finis vivenfi, what difference does it make to 
 one living within the bounds of nature? 
 
 II. The Objective Genitive 
 
 353. The objective genitive includes the following con- 
 structions : 
 
 1. The genitive with nouns expressing action or feeling (§ 354). 
 
 2. The genitive of application (§ 356). 
 
 3. The genitive with adjectives expressing action or feeling 
 
 (§357). 
 
 4. The genitive with certain verbs (§ 358). 
 
174 GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES 
 
 354. Genitive with Nouns expressing Action or Feeling. 
 The objective genitive is used to denote the object of an action 
 or feeling expressed by a noun. 
 
 caritas ft/f, affection for you 
 memoria nostril recollectio7i of me 
 contentio honorum, struggle for office 
 desiderium oti^ lo7iging for ?'est 
 amor patriae, love of country 
 
 metus hostium, fear of the enemy (i. e. fear of which the enemy is the 
 object; cf. § 328. n.) 
 
 355. Instead of the objective genitive a possessive pronoun, a 
 descriptive adjective, or a noun with a preposition, is sometimes used. 
 
 mea invidia, my unpopularity (i.e. the unpopularity of which I am 
 
 the object), instead of invidia mei 
 neque neglegentia tua neque id odio fecit tuo, he did this neither from 
 
 ?ieglect of you nor from hatred toward you 
 metus hostUis, fear of the enemy (hostile fear), instead of metus 
 
 hostium 
 odium in Antonium, hate of Antony, instead of odium Antoni 
 amor erga te, love for you, instead of amor tui 
 
 356. Genitive of Application. The objective genitive may 
 be used to denote that to which the quality expressed by a 
 noun or adjective applies. 
 
 praestantia virtUtis, preeminence in virtue 
 
 pauper aquae, poor in water 
 
 integer vitae scelerisque purus, upright in life and free from guilt 
 
 fessi rerum, weary of hardships 
 
 Note. This construction is freely used by the poets and later writers, 
 but is rare in Ciceronian prose. 
 
 357. Genitive with Adjectives expressing Action or Feeling. 
 
 The objective genitive is used to denote the object of an action 
 or feeling expressed by an adjective whose meaning would 
 otherwise be incomplete. 
 
GENITIVE WITH VERHS 173 
 
 Such adjectives are especially those denoting desire^ knou'Udgt, 
 ski//, memory^ pinver, participation, and their opposites ; also parti- 
 cipial adjectives in -ns and certain verbals in -ftx. 
 
 cupidus rerum novdrum, desirous of a m>o/ution 
 insuetus navigandi, unacquainted wit It na%>igation 
 peritus belU, skil/ed in war 
 immemor beneficx, forgetfui of a favor 
 potens tempestatum, powerful over t/te stonns 
 coniurationis participes, s/iaring in tlie conspiracy 
 ^atiins frigoris, enduring ofco/d 
 tenax propositi, steadfast of purpose 
 
 Note i . With verbals in -ax the genitive is found only in poetry and 
 in late prose. 
 
 Notp: 2. The poets and later writers, especially Tacitus, use the genitive 
 with almost any adjective to denote that wit It reference to whicli the quality 
 exists. The construction demanded in classic prose would be the ablative of 
 resp>ect(§ 478), hence this genitive is sometimes called the genitive of resjject. 
 
 callidus rei mtlitaris (Tacitus), skilled in the science of -ioar 
 notus animi paterni {\\.orz.c€), famed for a paternal spirit 
 
 358. Genitive with Verbs. Verbs of remembering and for- 
 getting — memini, reminiscor, obliviscor — may take the objective 
 genitive.^ 
 
 a. When the object is a person, memini takes either the genitive 
 or the accusative, obliviscor only the genitive in prose, but the 
 accusative occurs occasionally in poetry. 
 
 ipse sui meminerat, lie was mindful of himself 
 
 mvorum memini nee Epicuri licet oblivisci, / retnemher the living and 
 
 I must not forget Epicurus 
 Cinnam memini, / remember Cinna 
 obliviscere Graids (X ergiX), forget the Greeks 
 
 ^ The genitive with verbs of remembering and forgetting may be due to 
 the close relationship between these verbs and the adjectives memor, mindful 
 of, and immemor, unmindful of, which take the genitive. However, in the 
 earliest I^tin the genitive is much less frequent than the accusative. There 
 is apparently po essential difference in meanirfg between the genitive and 
 accusative with these verbs. 
 
176 GENITIVE WITH VERBS 
 
 b. When the object is a tking, memini, reminiscor, and obliviscor 
 take either the genitive or the accusative of a noun and generally 
 only the accusative of a neuter pronoun or adjective. 
 
 reminiscatur virtutis Helvetiorum, /<?/ Aim remember the valor of the 
 
 Helvetians 
 totam causam oblitus est, he forgot the whole case 
 obliviscere caedis atque incendiorum, forget murder and conflagrations 
 multa meminerunt, they reme?nber many things 
 
 359. The verb recorder, recollect, recall, regularly takes the accu- 
 sative. 
 
 recordamini omnis civilis dissensiones, recall all the civil wars 
 
 360. The expression mihi (tibi, etc.) in mentem venit, when im- 
 personal, takes the genitive. 
 
 venit mihi Platonis in mentem, the thought of Plato co?nes to 7ny 
 niitid 
 
 361. Verbs of reminding — admoneo, commoneo, commonefacio 
 — often take, along w^ith the accusative of the person reminded, 
 the gejiitive of the thmg called to mind. 
 
 te amicitiae commonefacit, he remitids you of friendship 
 Note. But a neuter pronoun or adjective is put in the accusative. 
 illud me admones, you remind me of that 
 
 362. Verbs of reminding frequently take d6 with the ablative. 
 de proelio vos admonui, I have retninded you of the battle 
 
 363. Impersonal verbs of feeling — miseret, paenitet, piget, 
 pudet, taedet — take, with the accusative of the person feeling, 
 the genitive of that toward which the feeling is directed. 
 
 me miseret ft/f, I pity you (lit. it pities me of you) 
 
 me non solum piget stultitiae meae sed etiam pudet, / /?w fiot only^ 
 
 grieved at my folly but also ashamed of it 
 vttae me taedet, / am wea?y of life 
 
DATIVE CASE 1 77 
 
 364. With verbs of feeling, an infinitive, a clause, or a neuter 
 pronoun used as subject, often takes the place of the genitive. 
 
 n6n me paenitet vixisse, I do not rej^ret iliat I have lived 
 
 me quia tuas litteras non accept piget, / am sorry that I har>e not 
 
 recei'-i'fd your letter 
 nftn te haec pudent, do not these things shame yoft f 
 
 Note i. Observe that in the last example the verb is no longer im- 
 personal. The personal construction is not uncommon with pudet, and is 
 found occasionally with paenitet and piget. 
 
 Note 2. With pudet the genitive may be used of the person before 
 whom one is ashamed. 
 
 pudet me hdrum iudicum, I am ashamed before these judges 
 
 365. Misereor and misergscO, //^j, take the genitive. 
 tiorum miseremur, we pity them 
 
 366. Potior, have power over, get possession of, usually takes the 
 ablative (of. § 469. a. x. i), but occasionally the genitive; as always 
 in the phrase potiri rferum, to become master of affairs (in a political 
 or military sense). 
 
 THE DATIVE CASE 
 
 367. The dative case originally denoted the direction of motion. 
 This relationship is generally expressed in English by the prepositions 
 to and for. 
 
 Note. Direction of motion must be carefully distinguished from the 
 goal or limit of motion, the original force of the accusative. See § 402. 
 
 368. The dative is used with verbs and adjectives, less frequendy 
 with nouns and adverbs, and sometimes modifies the sentence as a 
 whole. 
 
 369. The constructions of the dative may be divided into 
 two classes, according as the original meaning of the case has 
 been retained or has been changed and obscured by later 
 developments. 
 
1/8 
 
 DATIVE OF THE INDIRECT OBJECT 
 
 I. Original uses 
 of the dative 
 
 r I . Dative of the indirect object with transitive verbs (§371) 
 Dative of the indirect object with intransitive verbs 
 
 (§376) 
 Dative of the indirect object with verbs compounded 
 
 with prepositions (§ 382) 
 
 r a. Dative of the person judging 
 
 (§ 387) 
 b. Ethical dative (§ 388) 
 II. Derived and [ c. Dative of separation (§ 389) 
 
 special uses of -l 2. Dative of possession (§ 390) 
 the dative 3- Dative of apparent agent (§ 392) 
 4. Dative of purpose (§ 395) 
 ^5. Dative with adjectives (§ 397) 
 
 Dative of reference 
 (§ 385) 
 
 Indirect Object Defined 
 
 370. The object tozvard which an action or feeling is di- 
 rected is put in the dative. This is called the indirect object.^ 
 
 Note. This construction occurs in English (" he gave me a book ''), but 
 has been to some extent displaced by to with an object (" he gave the book 
 to me "). 
 
 Indirect Object with Transitive Verbs 
 
 371. The dative of the indirect object, with the accusative 
 of the direct object, may be used with any active transitive 
 verb whose meaning allows. 
 
 Such verbs are especially those meaning give, say, promise, reply, 
 do, and the Hke. 
 
 d filiam suam in matrimonium dat, he gives to him his daughter in 
 
 marriage 
 hoc Uhi dico, / say this to you 
 
 els auxilium suum pollicitus est, he proinised them his assistance 
 haec memoriae mandavi, / committed this to memory 
 
 1 In this use the dative has retained unchanged its original idea of direction 
 of motion, though in Latin the motion is generally to be understood in a 
 figurative rather than in a literal sense. 
 
DATIVE OF THE INDIRECT OBJECT 179 
 
 372. Verbs which, in the active voice, take the accusative and 
 dative retain the dative when used in the passive. 
 
 Thus, puella patri fabulam narrat, //le girl tells the story to her father, 
 becomes in the passive fabula patri a puella narratur, the story is told 
 to the father by the girl. Observe the same dative, patri, in both 
 sentences. 
 
 373. Verbs of motion, like mittO and fer5, which regularly take 
 the accusative with a preposition, sometimes take the dative when 
 tio real motion is involved or when the idea of giving or delivering 
 something to somebody is uppermost. Similarly the verb scribO, writey 
 varies in construction between the dative and the accusative with 
 a preposition. 
 
 suppetias mi audet ferre, he dares to bring me aid 
 iussit Euclidm haec mittere, he gave orders to send these things 
 • lo En it to 
 litteras quas ad Pompeium scrips!, the letter which I wrote (and sent) 
 
 to Povipey 
 non qu6 haberem quod tihi scriberem, not that I had anything to 
 
 write to you 
 
 Note. This use of the dative is found in prose only with nouns de- 
 noting persons. With concrete objects the accusative with a preposition 
 is almost invariable. 
 
 374. The verbs d5n6, give\ circumdO, surround \ exu6, strip off\ 
 and a few others, admit either of two constructions: {a) dative of 
 the person, accusative of the thing ; or (J)) accusative of the person, 
 ablative of the thing. 
 
 mtlitibus coronas donat, he presents wreaths to the soldiers 
 mtlites coronis donat, he presents his so/d/^-rx :,'//// rivv,////.f 
 
 375. In poetr)' the dative sometimes retains its on^^inal meaning 
 of direction of motion in a literal sense. 
 
 it clamor caelo (X'ergil), the shout rises heavenward 
 
VI 
 
 l8o DATIV.E WITH INTRANSITIVE VERBS 
 
 Indirect Object .with Intransitive Verbs 
 
 376. The dative may be used with any intransitive^ verV 
 whose meaning allows an indirect object. 
 Among these are especially the following : 
 
 auxilior, opitulor, help irascor, suscenseo, be angiy . 
 
 credo, believe minitor, threaten 
 
 diffido, distrust noceo, injure 
 
 displiced, displease parco, tempero, spare 
 
 faveo, studeo, y^z^^r pareo, cedo, obtempero, obey^ 
 
 fido, confido, tj-ust yield to, submit to 
 
 ignosco, pardojt placeo, please 
 
 impero, command resists, 7esist 
 
 indulged, indulge servio, se?-7)e 
 
 invideo, envy suadeo, persuaded, /^rj/z^rt^i? 
 
 ciir mihi invides, why do you envy me ? 
 mihi parcit atque ign5scit, he spares and pardons me 
 legibus pared, / obey the laws 
 
 ndn omnibus servid, / am not a servaiit to every man 
 prima acies victis resistlt, the first line resists the vanquished 
 Orgetorix persuadet Ccstico, Orgetorix persuades Casticus 
 decimae legiom Caesar indulserat praecipue et cdnf idebat maxime, CcEsar 
 had especially indulged the tenth legion and trusted it most of all 
 
 Note i. In English most of these verbs are transitive and take a direct 
 object, but in Latin the original meaning is intransitive and adapted to an 
 indirect object. 
 
 Thus, invidere, to envy, is literally to look askance at ; servire, to serve, is 
 to be a slave to ; persuadere, to persuade, is to 7nake a thitig pleasant to, etc. 
 
 Note 2. Fidd and cdnfidd {trust) take also the ablative. 
 
 moltum natura loci cdnfidebant, tAey had great confidence in the natural 
 strength of the place 
 
 a. Some verbs apparently of the same meanings are transitive and 
 take the accusative. 
 
 Such are iuvo, help; laedd, injure; iubed, order; delectQ, please; 
 offendo, oj^end. 
 
 ^ A verb is called intransitive if it does not admit of a direct object 
 
DATIVE WITH INTRANSITIVE VERBS l8l 
 
 377. Phrases take the dative precisely like verbs of similar character. 
 Such are audiens esse or dictO audifins esse, to be ohedUnt to ; and 
 
 fidem hab€re, to have confidence in. 
 
 Caesar « fidem habSbat, Casar had confidence in him 
 
 378. The dative is used with the impersonals libet or lubet, // 
 pleases^ and licet, /'/ is permitted \ and with the verbs dicO and faciO 
 compounded with satis, bene, and male. 
 
 petierunt ut sibi legates mittere liceret, they asked that it be permitted 
 
 them to send ambassadors 
 pQlchnim est benefacere r« pUblicae, it is a glorious thing to be of 
 
 sendee to the state 
 
 379. Intransitive verbs that govern the dative are used 
 impersonally in the passive and retain the dative. 
 
 For example, the active mihi persuade(J, /persuade myself, becomes 
 in the passive mihi persuadgtur, lam persuaded (X\i. it is persuaded to me). 
 
 380. Some verbs, ordinarily intransitive and used with the 
 dative, become transitive in certain senses and add an accu- 
 sative of the direct object to the dative. 
 
 These are especially the verbs cr6d5, tntst ; imperO, levy ; 
 minor, threaten ; persuadeC, persuade. 
 
 multi si suaque omnia alienissimis crediderunt, many intrusted them- 
 selves and all their possessions to utter strangers 
 
 Cretensibus obsides imperavit, he levied hostages on the Cretans 
 
 id eis persuasit. he persuaded them (of) this 
 
 AacaniSne pater R5manas invidet arcls (Vergil), does the father be- 
 grudge Ascanius his Roman citadels? [Poetic or late.] 
 
 381. In poetry the dative is sometimes used in e.xpressions which 
 would in prose require a different construction. So especially with 
 verbs of contending, following the analogy of the Greek. 
 
 placit5ne etiam pugnabis anion (Vergil), will you struggle even against 
 
 a love that pleases you ? [In prose: cum amOre.] 
 tibi certat (Vergil), he vies with you. [In prose: ticnm.] 
 latefi abdidit ensem ( \'ergil), he buried the strord in his side. [ I n prose : 
 in latus or in latere.] 
 
1 82 DATIVE WITH INTRANSITIVE VERBS 
 
 Indirect Object with Verbs Compounded with Prepositions 
 
 382. Many verbs compounded with the prepositions ad, ante, 
 circum, con-, de, in, iHter, ob, post, prae, sub, and super admit, as 
 the result of the composition, the dative of the indirect object. 
 These verbs are of three classes : 
 
 1. Intransitive verbs which in their simple form cannot 
 take an indirect object. 
 
 equitatui Dumnorix praeerat, Dujnnorix was m command of the cavalry 
 omnibus rebus amorem credo antevenire, I believe that love comes 
 
 before all thmgs 
 defuit officio, he has failed in his duty * 
 
 2. Transitive verbs that through composition become intran- 
 sitive and therefore take the dative instead of the accusative. 
 
 omnibus adridet^ he smiles upoti all. [Rideo, laugh at, ridicule, takes 
 
 the accusative.] 
 tempestati obsequi artis est, // is a point of skill to yield to the 
 
 weather. [Sequor, follow, takes the accusative.] 
 
 3. Transitive verbs that through composition become capable 
 of governing a dative of the indirect object in addition to an 
 accusative of the direct object. 
 
 finitimis bellum mferebant, they made war upon their neighbors 
 
 is sibi legati5nem ad civitatis suscepit, he took upofi himself the 
 
 embassy to the states 
 munitioni Labienum praeficit, he puts Labienus in commafid of the 
 
 fortification 
 
 a. Many transitive and intransitive verbs compounded with these 
 prepositions do not take the dative because the acquired meaning is 
 not suited to an indirect object. 
 
 Thus the following compounds take the accusative : 
 
 adeo, approach convoco, call together offendo, offend 
 
 adgredior, attack ineo, enter oppugn5, assault 
 
 circumsto, surround interficio, kill praecedd, excel 
 
 convenio, tneet obeo, visit, attend to subeo, undergo 
 
DATIVE OF REFERENCE 183 
 
 b. In expressions of locality or motion the usual construction after 
 these compounds is a noun with a preposition. 
 
 hostes ad fossam accesserunt. ///^r enemy drew near to the ditch (but 
 
 sententiae tuae accedo, 1 yield to your opinion) 
 in segetem flamma incidit, the fire falls on the standing grain 
 
 383. A few verbal nouns (as, insidiae, ambush ; obtemperatiO, 
 obedience) may take the dative like the corresponding verbs. 
 
 insidiae consult, the plot against the consul \ci. insidior) 
 obtemperatio legibus, obedience to the laws (cf. obtempero) 
 
 384. The adjective obvius and the adverb obviam with a verb 
 take the dative. 
 
 cm mater sese tulit obvia, his mother met him 
 
 Vercingetorix obviam Caesari proficiscitur, Vercingetorix sets out to 
 meet Casar 
 
 Dative of Reference 
 
 385. The dative of reference denotes the person for whose 
 benefit or to whose injury the action is performed, or whom it 
 remotely concerns. 
 
 In this use the dative does not depend upon a single word, but is 
 loosely connected with the sentence as a whole and is not essential 
 to its ^ammatical completeness. It is often used where we should 
 expect a possessive genitive or a possessive pronoun, especially with 
 substantives denoting parts of the body. 
 
 Bellovaci totius belli imperium sibi postulant, the Bello^taci demand 
 
 for themselves the supreme control of the entire war 
 sese Caesan ad pedes prSiecerunt. they threw themselves at Ctrsar'sfeet 
 versatur mihi ante oculos aspectus Cethegi, the sight of Cethegus comes 
 
 before my eyes 
 taurum Neptuno mactavit, he sacrificed a bull to Neptune 
 omnes in fuga sibi praesidiimi pdnebant. all sought safety for them- 
 
 selves in flight 
 homo ndn sibi sdli vivit, man lioes not live for himself alone 
 
1 84 DATIVE OF REFERENCE 
 
 laudavit mihi fratrem, he praised my brother (out of regard for me ; 
 
 laudavit fratrem meum would not imply any such motive) 
 quid ft'W vis, what do you 7nean ? (lit, what do you wish for yourself ?) 
 Caesar suis quoque rlhus Germanos timere voluit, CcEsar wished the 
 
 Germans to fear for their own interests also 
 
 386. The dative of reference is used idiomatically without any verb 
 in certain colloquial questions and exclamations and after interjections. 
 
 quo mihi fortunam, of what use to me is fortune f 
 unde mihi lapidem, where can I get a stone ? 
 ei mihi^ ah me ! 
 vae victis^ woe to the conquered ! 
 
 387. The dative of reference is used to denote the person 
 in whose judgment or opinion something is true. 
 
 This is often called the dative of the person judgiiig. 
 
 erit ille mihi semper deus, he will always be a god in tny opi?iio?i 
 oppidum primum Thessaliae venientibus ab Epiro, the first town of 
 
 Thessaly as you cojnefrojn Epirus (lit. to those coming frojn Epirus) 
 est urbe egressis tumulus, there is, as you come out of the city, a 
 
 moutid (lit. to those having come out) 
 
 Note that in defining diredioii the person is expressed indefinitely 
 by a participle without a supporting pronoun (as in the second and 
 third examples). 
 
 388. The dative of a personal pronoun is sometimes used to 
 denote the person's interest in the fact stated or merely to call 
 attention. This construction is called the ethical dative. It is 
 a variety of the dative of reference. 
 
 Tongilium mihi eduxit, //^ took Tongilius with hifn, I am happy to say 
 quid mihi Celsus agit, what is Celsus doing, I shotild like to k?iow ? 
 hem ft'Wtalentum argenti, a talent of silver, mark y 021 ! 
 non Beroe vobls est, this is not Bero'e, I tell you 
 
 Note. It is obvious from the examples that the connection of this 
 dative is very loose and its exact force hard to render or define. Many 
 examples of it occur in Shakespearean English : as, " He plucked ine ope 
 his doublet," " He thrusts me himself into the company." 
 
DATIVE OF APPARENT AGENT 185 
 
 389. Many verbs denoting separation, especially compounds 
 of ab, de, and ex, may take the dative of the persoti from ivhom 
 instead of the ablative of separation. 
 
 hunc mihi terrorem eripe, take this terror from me 
 
 nihil tibi detraxit senatus, the senate has taken nothing from you 
 
 Note. This construction, sometimes called the dative of separation, is 
 a variety of the dative of reference. It represents the action as done to 
 or yi?r the person. The poets extend the usage to many verbs not admitting 
 this construction in pH)se, 
 
 a. With names of things the ablative with a preposition is the 
 regular construction, but the dative occurs in poetry. 
 
 silici scintillam excudit Achates (Vergil), Achates struck a spark 
 
 from the flint 
 eripe te moTQt (Horace), shake off delay 
 
 Dative of Possession 
 
 390. The dative is used with forms of sum to denote the 
 
 ■> 
 
 possessor. 
 
 est mihi pater, / have a father 
 
 ei filius est, he /uis a son 
 
 imperatori nomen est C&tsax, the general has the name Casar 
 
 a. With nOmen est the name as well as the person is often put in 
 the dative. 
 
 nomen Arcturo est mihi, my name is Arcturus 
 
 391. Possession is also expressed by habeO with the accusative, 
 with no essential difference in meaning; but the dative with esse is 
 more common in expressions of naming. 
 
 Dative of Apparent Agent 
 
 392. The dative is used regularly with the passive peri- 
 phrastic, and often with the compound tenses of the regular 
 passive, to express the agent or doer} 
 
 ^ The origin of the dative of apparent agent is not certain. 
 
186 DATIVE OF PURPOSE 
 
 Caesarf omnia uno tempore erant agenda, everything had to be do?ie 
 
 at the same jnoment by CcEsar 
 haec vohis provincia est defendenda, this province must be defe?ided 
 
 by yon 
 mihi res provisa est, the matter has been seen to by me 
 
 a. The dative of apparent agent is rare with other parts of the verb, 
 neque cernitur ulli (Vergil), nor is he seen by any one 
 
 393. The regular construction denoting agency, the ablative with 
 ^^ (§ 453)> is usual with all passive forms except the gerundive, and 
 must sometimes be used even with that to avoid ambiguity. 
 
 quibus est a vobis consulendum, yb;- whom yon must consult. [Here 
 two datives, quibus and v5bis, would be ambiguous.] 
 
 394. The gerundive of intransitive verbs is impersonal, and the 
 dative of agent becomes in English the subject nominative. 
 
 omnibus moriendum est, a/i must die (lit. // must be died by alt) 
 Caesari non exspectandum est, Casar must not wait 
 
 Dative of Purpose 
 
 395. TJie dative is used, especially with forms of sum, to 
 denote the pjirpose for which, often accompanied by the dative 
 of reference denoting the person or thing concei-ned} 
 
 Caesar sihi earn rem curae futuram poUicitus est, Ccpsar promised that 
 
 he would see to that matter (lit. that that matter would be for 
 
 a care to him) 
 hoc GalUs magno erat impedimentd^ this was (for) a great hindrance to 
 
 the Gauls 
 hi novissimis praesidio erant, these were {for) a guard to the rear 
 hoc erit tibi doloru this will cause you grief ([\i. will be for a grief to 
 
 yo7i) 
 cui bond, who will be the gainer? (lit. to whom will it be for an 
 
 advantage f) 
 
 1 The dative of purpose is a natural development of the notion of direction 
 of motion, the fundamental meaning of the dative case (of. § 367). 
 
DATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES 187 
 
 a. The following examples show the dative of purpose unaccom- 
 panied by a dative of reference. 
 
 locum castrls deligit, /le selects a site for a camp 
 
 diem concilio c5nstituenmt, //ie_y appointed a day for a council 
 
 receptui canit, Ae gives the signal for retreat 
 
 396. The dative of the gerund or gerundive sometimes denotes 
 purpose. See § Sjj.a. 
 
 Dative with Adjectives 
 
 397. The dative is used with adjectives to denote that to 
 ivhich the given quality is directed, or that for ivhich it exists 
 or senses} 
 
 a. The dative is used with adjectives oi fitness, nearness, likeness, 
 senile, indination, and others of similar or opposite meaning. 
 
 nihil est tam naturae aptum, nothing is so fitted to nature 
 
 Belgae proximi suut Germdnis, the Beiges are nearest to the Germans 
 
 impar Hannibali er&t, he was no match for Hannibal 
 
 similis deo erat, he luas like a god 
 
 castris id5neum locum delegit, he chose a place suitable for a camp 
 
 tribuni nobis sunt amici, the tribunes are ffiendly to us 
 
 crat benignus cunctis, he was friendly to all 
 
 Note. In Caesar the adjectives most common with the dative are 
 finitimus, iddneus, and proximus. 
 
 398. Other constructions are sometimes found where the 
 dative might be expected. 
 
 a. Some adjectives take either the dative, or the accusative with 
 a preposition. 
 
 ad amicitiam est idoneus, he is ftted for friendship 
 cSmis in uxorem est. he is kind to his wife 
 gratior sum in te, I am more grateful to you 
 
 » The first use corresponds to the dative of the indirect object ; the second 
 to the dative of purpose. Both are plainly developments of the fundamenUl 
 dative notion of directiott of motion. 
 
1 88 ACCUSATIVE: CASE 
 
 b. With similis or dissimilis the genitive is more common than the 
 dative in early writers. Classic writers use either the genitive or da- 
 tive, but with personal pronouns the genitive is regular (cf. § 351. n.). 
 
 domini similis es (Terence), you are like your master 
 pater est mei similis, my father is like me 
 
 c. With ^X^AYi^x^, foreign to, the genitive or dative may be used, but 
 the ablative, with or without a, is the prevailing construction. 
 
 alienum a vita mea, foreign to 7ny life 
 
 mea existimdtione alienum, foreign to my thought 
 
 399. A few adverbs of likeness take the dative. 
 
 vivere convenienter naturae, to live in confo?'mity with nature 
 
 400. Adjectives and adverbs of likeness or unlikeness are often 
 followed by atque (ac), et, or -que, meaning as, than, ox from. The 
 pronoun idem, the same, regularly takes either this construction or a 
 relative clause. 
 
 alius nunc ego sum atque olim, / a7n diffe7'ent now frojn (what I was) 
 
 before 
 vita est eadem ac fuit, life is the saine as it was 
 idem abeunt qui venerant, the sa^ne men go as had come 
 
 401. In expressions of motion the adjectives propior, proximus, 
 and the adverbs propius, proxime, usually take the accusative with or 
 without ad. 
 
 castra movit propius Avaricum, he 7novedthe ca7np 7iearer to Avaricum 
 
 For the genitive with adjectives see § 357. 
 
 THE ACCUSATIVE CASE 
 
 402. It is probable that the accusative case originally denoted the 
 goal or limit of 7notion. To this use the accusative of the direct 
 object, the accusative of extent, and the accusative of the place 
 whither may be readily traced. But it is impossible to derive all the 
 constructions of the accusative from any single function of that case. 
 
ACCUSATIVE OF THE DIRECT OBJECT 
 
 89 
 
 Accusative of 
 the direct object 
 
 403. The original and derived uses of the accusative are : 
 
 1. Accusative of the direct object (§ 404) 
 
 2. Accusative of kindred meaning (§ 408) 
 
 3. Two accusatives — direct object and secondary object 
 (§412) 
 
 4. Two accusatives — direct object and adjunct accusative 
 (§4'6). 
 
 5. Accusative as subject of an infinitive (§419) 
 
 1 . Accusative of extent and duration (§ 420) 
 
 2. Accusative of respect (§427) 
 
 3. Accusative of the place whither (§ 428) 
 
 4. Accusative of exclamation (§ 436) 
 
 5. Idiomatic uses of the accusative (§ 438) 
 
 6. Accusative with prepositions (§ 276) 
 
 Other uses of 
 the accusative 
 
 Accusative of the Direct Object 
 
 404. The direct object of a transitive verb is put in the 
 
 accusative. 
 
 Caesar Gallos vicit, CtFsar conquered the Gauls 
 
 Romani Carthdginem deleverunt, M<? /Romans destroyed Carthage 
 
 Cicero multas orationis scripsit, Cicero wrote many orations 
 
 Note. The direct object may express either the person or thing directly 
 affected by the action of the verb (as in the first two examples) or the 
 result or product of the action (as in the last example). Transitive verbs 
 require a direct object to complete their sense. Verbs not admitting a 
 direct object are called intransitive. 
 
 405. The object of a transitive verb in the active voice becomes 
 its subject in the passive, and is put in the nominative. 
 
 Active : Caesar GoAlos vicit, Casar conquered the Gauls 
 
 Passive : GaXRl. Caesare victi sunt, the Gauls were conquered by Cctsar 
 
 406. Certain classes of verbs taking a direct object require 
 special notice. 
 
 ^' Ji Vcifbs Qfy5K7/«^, often intransitive, are sometimes transitive an(l 
 may be used. with an accusative or in the passive. 
 
IQO ACCUSATIVE OF THE DIRECT OBJECT 
 
 meum cdsum luctumque doluerunt, ^/ley grieved at 7ny calafnity and 
 
 soi'row 
 Ariovisti crudelitdtem horrent, they shudder at the crueUy of Ariovistus 
 ab omnibus ridetur, he is laughed at by all 
 
 Note. So, too, despero, despair of\ gemo, bemoan ; queror, complain 
 of; maereo, bewail; sitio, thirst for; etc. 
 
 6. Verbs of motion (compounds of ad, circum, in, praeter, sub, trans), 
 and a few others, frequently become transitive and take the accusative. 
 oppidum adire, to approach the town 
 sendtum circumstare, to stand about the senate 
 magistrdtum inire, to enter upon an office 
 omnia praeterire, to overlook everything 
 pericula subire, to undergo perils 
 flumen transire, to cross the river 
 
 c. A few verbs, regularly intransitive in classic prose, are some- 
 times transitive in poetry and late Latin. 
 
 me lupus fugit (Horace), a wolf fed from me 
 aequor navigare (Vergil), to sail the sea 
 maria aspera iur5 (Vergil), / swear by the rough sea 
 nee latuere doli frdtrem lunonis (Vergil), 7wr did the wiles of fun o 
 escape her brother 
 
 d. By a Greek idiom, the passive of many verbs, especially of 
 those meaning to put oft, is used by the poets as middle ^ and takes 
 a direct object, sometimes styled the medial object. 
 
 ferrum cingitur (Vergil), he girds on his sword 
 
 induitur /ac/em Dianae (Ovid), he assumes the appearance of Diana 
 
 nodo sinus collecta (Vergil), having gathered her dress in a knot 
 
 407. Impersonal verbs, if transitive, take the accusative like 
 other transitive verbs. _ 
 vds decet, it becomes you 
 me iuvat, // pleases me 
 me pudet, / am ashatned (lit. it shames me) 
 me fallit, / a?n mistaken (lit. // deceives me) 
 
 1 The middle voice, well preserved and much used in Greek, represents 
 the subject as acting on itself (that is, reflexively) : as, ferrum cingitur, he girds 
 his sword on himself. The Latin passive had originally a middle meaning. - 
 
ACCUSATIVE OF KINDRED MEANING 191 
 
 Accusative of Kindred Meaning (Coc5nate Accusative) 
 
 408. Many verbs, ordinarily intransitive, may take the accu- 
 sative of a noun of kindred meaning. 
 
 quis tutiorem vitam vivit, loAo lives a safer life ? 
 
 tertiam iam aetatem hominum vivebat, lie was now living the tliini 
 
 generation of men 
 servitutem serviunt, t/iej' are in slavery (lit. are serving a sennce) 
 Olympia vicit, he won the Olympian victory 
 longam warn iturus es, you are about to go on a long journey 
 
 Note. The noun used as the accusative of kindred meaning is fre- 
 quently derived from the same root as the verb, as in the first and third 
 examples. Often, however, there is no etymological connection, but only 
 likeness in meaning. 
 
 409. Verbs of taste, smell, and the like may take an accusative of 
 kindred meaning to define or limit the action of the verb. 
 
 mnum redolet, // smells of wine 
 
 herbam mella sapiunt. the honey tastes of grass 
 
 410. A neuter pronoun or neuter adjective is very common 
 as an accusative of kindred meaning. The English equivalent 
 is often best expressed by supplying a noun. 
 
 id laetor, / rejoice at this 
 
 hoc glorior. / make this boast 
 
 id els persuasit, he persuaded them of this 
 
 hoc te moneo,' / give you this advice 
 
 multa alia peccat, he commits many other errors 
 
 acerba tuens. looking fiercely (cf. Eng. " to look daggers ") 
 
 Bacchanalia vivere, to live in revelings (i.e. to live a Bacchanalian 
 
 life) 
 duke ridens, smiling sweetly (i.e. smiling a sweet smile) 
 aeiemum serviet, he will be a slave forever (i.e. he will serve an 
 
 e^'erlasting sent ice) 
 
 ^ In this case the verb is transitive, and the accusative of kindred meaning 
 is used along with the direct object. 
 
192 TWO ACCUSATIVES 
 
 a. Some verbs that take the neuter of a pronoun or adjective as 
 an accusative of kindred meaning would take a different construction 
 of a noun. 
 
 id laetor, / rejoice at this 
 
 victoria mea laetor, / rejoice at my victory 
 
 411. The accusative of kindred meaning (cognate accusative) is 
 frequent in poetry. Writers of classic prose use it sparingly, espe- 
 cially of nouns. Neuter pronouns and neuter adjectives thus used are 
 often scarcely distinguishable from adverbs. 
 
 Two Accusatives — Direct Object and Secondary Object 
 
 412. Transitive verbs compounded with trans, rarely with 
 other prepositions, may take (along with the direct object) a 
 secondary object governed by the preposition. 
 
 CsLesai Jinmen exercitum traducit, Ccesar leads his army across the river 
 Agesilaus copias Hellespontum traiecit, Agesila'us took his troops across 
 
 the Hellespont 
 Pompeius eos omnia sua praesidia circumdiixit, Pompey led them 
 
 round all his garrisofis 
 
 a. Trans is sometimes, and other prepositions are usually, repeated. 
 
 Caesar trans flumen exercitum traducit, Ccrsar leads his army across 
 
 the river 
 animum in spem veniae inducere, to move the mitid to the hope of 
 * pardon 
 
 b. The secondary object may be retained with a passive verb. 
 Belgae Rhenum traducti sunt, the Belgcz were led across the Rhine 
 
 413. Some verbs meaning to ask, demaiid, teach, and cel5, 
 conceal, may take two accusatives, one of the person {direct 
 object) and the other of the thing {secondar)' object). 
 
 me sententiam rogavit, he asked me my opijiion 
 
 Caesar Haeduos frUmentum flagitat, CcEsar detnands grain of the 
 
 HcEdui . 
 
TWO ACCUSATIVES 193 
 
 magister pueros tkmenta docet, the teacher teaches the children their 
 
 ABCs 
 n6n tl celavi semtdnem, I did not conceal the conversation from you 
 
 Note. This construction is found in classical authors with cel5, doced, 
 flagitft, 6r6, posed, reposcS, rogS, and interrogo. 
 
 414. Some verbs of asking and demanding take the ablative of the 
 person with a preposition instead of the accusative of the person. 
 
 pacem ab Romanis petierunt, they sought peace from the Romans 
 Note. So always pct6 and quaero ; and usually flagitd, posc5, postulo. 
 
 415. With the passive of rogO, doceC, and a few other verbs, 
 the accusative of the person becomes the subject and the accusative 
 of the thing is retained. 
 
 sententiam rogatus sum, / was asked my opinion 
 
 puefi elementa docti sunt, the children were taught their A B Cs 
 
 Note. This accusative is sometimes called the retained object. 
 
 Two Accusatives — Direct Object and Adjunxt Accusative 
 
 416. An accusative in the predicate referring to the same 
 person or thing as the direct object, but not in apposition with 
 it, is called an adjunct or predicate accusative. 
 
 417. Many verbs of makings choosingy callings regarding, 
 shoxving, and the like, may take two accusatives, one the direct 
 object and the other an adjunct accusative. 
 
 turn consulem fecerunt, they made him consul. [Here eum is the direct 
 object and consulem the adjunct accusative.] 
 
 Caesarem imperatorem appellayerunt, they called Ccesar general 
 
 Servium regem creaverunt, /hty elected Sennus king 
 
 hominem prae se neminem putavit, he regarded no one as a man in com- 
 parison with himself 
 
 Note. With verbs of regarding other constructions are common in- 
 stead of the adjunct accusative : as, eum in numero hostium (or pro haste) 
 habed. / regard him as an en em v. 
 
194 ACCUSATIVE AS SUBJECT OF AN INFINITIVE 
 
 a. The adjunct accusative may be an adjective. 
 
 me lenissimum praebui, / showed myself 7nost merciful 
 jne eius rei certiorem fecit, he informed tne of that matter 
 
 418. In the passive the direct object becomes the subject nomina- 
 tive and the adjunct accusative becomes the predicate nominative 
 (§ 309. b). 
 
 Servius rex creatus est, Servius was chosen king 
 
 Accusative as Subject of an Infinitive 
 
 419. The subject of an infinitive is put in the accusative. 
 
 intellego te sapere. I perceive that you are wise 
 
 dicit montem ab hostibus teneri, he says that the mountain is held by 
 
 the enemy 
 nostras non esse inferiores intellexit, he found that our men were not 
 
 inferior 
 
 Note i. The accusative as subject of an infinitive was originally felt 
 as the object of the verb on which the infinitive depends. This construc- 
 tion is especially common after verbs of saying, knowing, thinking, per- 
 ceiving, and the like (§ 839. a) in principal clauses of indirect discourse. 
 See § 887. 1. 
 
 Note 2. The subject of the so-called historical infinitive is in the 
 nominative (§ 844). 
 
 Accusative of Extent and Duration 
 
 420. Extent of space and duration of time are expressed by 
 
 the accusative. 
 
 421. The accusative of extent of space answers the question 
 how far f how long? or how wide? 
 
 milia passuum duodecim progressus est, he advanced twelve miles 
 umbilicus septem pedes longus. a projection seven feet long 
 fossam quindecim pedes la tarn perdiixit, he made a ditch ff teen feet wide 
 porta aberat viginti passiis, the gate was twenty paces away 
 
 Note. For the genitive of measure see § 340. 
 
ACCUSATIVE OF EXTENT AND DURATION 195 
 
 422. The accusative t)f duration of time answers the question 
 h(nv long? 
 
 regnum multos annos obtinuerat, /le had held the sovereignty for many 
 
 years 
 dies quindecim iter fecerunt, they marched for Jifteen days 
 haec magnam partem aestatis faciebant, they continued to do this 
 
 during a great part of the summer 
 
 a. Age is expressed by the past participle natus {bom') used with 
 the accusative, sometimes with the ablative. 
 
 puer decern annos {annis) natus mortuus est, the hoy died at the age of 
 ten years. 
 
 423. Duration of time is sometimes expressed by the accusative 
 witli per or by the ablative without a preposition. 
 
 ludi per decern dies facti sunt, games were held for ten days 
 
 ed totd nocte continenter ierunt, they marched without a halt during 
 
 that entire night 
 continenter horls quingue pugnatum est, the battle raged continuously 
 forfi<e hours 
 
 Notp:. The ablative in this use really designates the period rather as 
 time within which (§492. 2) than as time how long. 
 
 424. Duration of time may be expressed by the accusative singular 
 of a noun with an ordinal numeral. 
 
 regnat iam sextum annum, he has reigned going on six years (lit. he is 
 reigning now the sixth year) 
 
 425. With abhinc, ago, either the accusative of duration of time or 
 the ablative of the measure of difference (§ 475) may be used. 
 
 abhinc annos tres or abhinc tribus annis, three years ago 
 
 426. The accusative of a neuter pronoun or adjective of 
 quantity may denote the degree of an action or quality. 
 
 plurimum potest, he is most po7verful 
 
 multum sunt in venationibus, they are much occupied in hunting 
 
 quid in bello possunt. how strong are they in war ? 
 
196 ACCUSATIVE OF THE PLACE WHITHER 
 
 Note i. Other accusatives so used are aliquid, quicquam, plus, 
 tantum, quantum. Some regard these as accusatives of kindred meaning 
 (§ 41 1) or as adverbial. 
 
 Note 2. For measure of difference expressed by the ablative see § 475. 
 
 Accusative of Respect 
 
 427. The accusative is sometimes used with a verb or adjec- 
 tive to denote that in 7'espect to zvhich a statement is made. 
 
 This construction, borrowed from Greek, is used chiefly 
 in poetry, and is confined mainly to (a) nouns denoting birth], 
 mind, ox parts of the body, and {b) neuter plural adjectives, such 
 as alia, cetera, cuncta, omnia, etc. 
 
 The following are examples from Vergil : 
 
 Cressa genus, Pholoe, a Cretan by (in respect to) birth, Pholoe 
 animum arrecti, aroused in (in respect to) mind or spirit 
 oculos suffecti, wit/i eyes suffused (suffused as to eyes) 
 nuda germ, luith her knee baj-e (bare as to her knee) 
 OS umerosque deo similis, /;/ Jace and shoulders like a god 
 cetera Grains, in other ?'espects a Greek 
 
 Note. This construction is sometimes called the synecdochical or Greek 
 accusative. 
 
 Accusative of the Place Whither 
 
 428. The place whither is regularly expressed by the accusa- 
 tive with the preposition ad, in, or sub. 
 
 Haedui legatos ad Caesarem mittunt, the Hcedui send ambassadors to 
 CcBsar 
 
 in AUobrogum finis exercitum ducit, he leads the army into the terri- 
 tory of the Allobroges 
 
 exercitum sub iugum mittunt, they send the army under the yoke 
 
 429. With fhe name of a cotmtry ad denotes to the borders ; in 
 with the accusative, into the country itself. 
 
 ad lialiam iter fecit, he marched to Italy 
 in Italiam iter fecit, he marched into Italy 
 
ACCUSATIVE OF THE PLACE WHITHER 197 
 
 430. The preposition with the place whither is regularly 
 omitted with names of towns and small islands ; domus, home ; 
 and riis, conntr}', 
 
 ibd Athenas, I shall go to Athens 
 
 ille se Massiliam conferet, he will betake himself to Marseilles 
 
 Romam ad senatum veni, / ca/ne to Rome to the senate 
 
 Delum venit, he came to Delos 
 
 domum redierunt, they returned home 
 
 suas domos abienint, they went away to their homes 
 
 Tus ib6, / shall go into the country 
 
 Note. The expression of the place whither by the accusative without 
 a preposition was the original construction and follows from the funda- 
 mental notion of that case (§ 402). The prepositions, originally adverbs, 
 were afterwards added to define more exactly the direction of motion, and, 
 by long association, became indispensable except as indicated above. The 
 English home in '* I am going home " is, like domum, an old accusative of 
 the goal or /////// of motion. 
 
 431. The preposition ad is used with names of towns and small 
 islands to denote toivards, to the vicinity of in the vicinity of. 
 
 ad Alesiam proficlscuntur, they set out for Alesia 
 
 ad Gendvam pcrvenit, he came to the vicinity of Geneva 
 
 432. The accusatives urbem and oppidum expressing the plaa 
 whither require the preposition even when the name of the town 
 accompanies them. 
 
 ad urbem Romam venit, he came to the city of Rome 
 
 433. When dOmus mean's a house or building, the preposition is used. 
 in Laecae domum venisti, you cnme to Lctca^s house 
 
 434. The poets and later writers often omit the preposition when 
 it would be required in classic prose. 
 
 Italiam Laviniaque vSnit ntora (VergilX he came to Italy and the 
 
 I.avinian shores 
 devengre locos laetOs (Vergil), they reached the happy spots 
 Aegypium proficiscitur (TacitusX he sets cut for Egypt 
 
198 IDIOMATIC USES OF THE ACCUSATIVE 
 
 435. The preposition is not used with the supine in -um (§ 882. 1), 
 which is in reality an accusative of the place whither, nor in the 
 following old phrases : 
 
 infitias ire, to resort to denial venum dare, to sell 
 
 pessum dare, to ruin venum ire, to be sold 
 
 suppetids ire (venire, mittere, etc.), logo (come, send, etc.) to (any one's) aid 
 
 Accusative of Exclamation 
 
 436. The accusative is used, especially with interjections, 
 in exclamations. 
 
 fortiinatam rem pUblicam. O fortuftate republic ! 
 en quattuor drds, lo, four altars / 
 pro deum fidem, good heatietis ! 
 me miserum, ah, wretched me .' 
 
 437. The interjections ecce and em {lo! behold! see!) often combine 
 with the accusative of is or ille, giving rise to such forms as eccum 
 (ecce eum), eccam (ecce earn), eccos (ecce eos), eccillum (ecce ilium), 
 ellum (em ilium), etc. 
 
 Idiomatic Uses of the Accusative 
 
 438. The following uses of the accusative, adverbial in 
 character, are of doubtful origin. 
 
 bonam partem, /// a great, jneasure 
 
 meam (tuam, suam, etc.) partem, yi?r 7/iy {your, his, etc.) part 
 
 maiorem (maximam) partem, for the greater {most) part 
 
 nihil, not at all 
 
 id (hoc) aetatis, at that {this) age 
 
 id (hoc) temporis, at that {this) time 
 
 id (quod) genus, of that {what) sort 
 
 meam (tuam, suam, etc.) vicem, on tny {your, his, etc.) part 
 
 virile (muliebre) secus, of the male {fe7nale) sex 
 
 dextrum, on the right 
 
 laevum, on the left 
 
 quod si, but if 
 
 quid, why 
 
 For the accusative with prepositions see § 276. 
 
ABLATIVE OF SEPARATION 
 
 199 
 
 I. True ablative — from casit 
 
 THE ABLATIVE CASE 
 
 439. The Latin ablative includes the functions and in part 
 the forms of three original cases : the true ablative, or from 
 case, denoting separation ; the instrumental, or xvith (or by) case, 
 denoting association, means, or instrument ; and the locative, or 
 /;/ case, denoting the place in time or space. On this basis the 
 uses of the Latin ablative are divided into three classes as follows : ^ 
 
 1 . Ablative of separation (§ 440) 
 
 2. Ablative of the place whence (§ 441) 
 
 3. Ablative of comparison (§ 446) 
 
 4. Ablative of origin (§451) 
 
 5. Ablative of material (§ 452) 
 ,6. Ablative of agent (§ 453) 
 
 ' I. Ablative of accompaniment (§ 456) 
 
 2. Ablative of attendant circumstance (§ 457) 
 
 3. Ablative of accordance (§ 458) 
 
 4. Ablative of manner (§ 459) 
 
 5. Ablative of cause or reason (§ 462) 
 
 6. Ablative of description or quality (§ 466) 
 
 a. Ablative of price or value (§ 470) 
 
 b. Ablative of the way by which (§ 474) 
 
 c. Ablative of the measure of difference 
 
 (S 475) 
 
 8. Ablative of respect (§ 478) 
 
 9. Ablative absolute (§ 480 ) 
 Ablative of place where (§ 485) 
 
 2, Ablative of time (§ 492) 
 
 II. Instrumental 
 
 ablative — with 
 
 (or by) case 
 
 7. Ablative of 
 means (§ 468) ' 
 
 111. Locative ablative — /// case 
 
 {^: 
 
 L True Ablative Uses 
 
 440. Ablative of Separation. The ablative of separation — 
 sometimes with, sometimes without, a preposition — is used 
 in connection with verbs or adjectives denoting separation, 
 deprivation, freedom from, and the like. 
 
 * The three original cases, despite their radical difference in meaning, had 
 many points of conuct, and it is often difficult to distinguish among them. Too 
 great a degree of certainty should, therefore, not be attached to this classitication. 
 
200 ABLATIVE OF THE PLACE WHENCE 
 
 a. A preposition (a, ab, de, e, ex) is used (i) regularly before nouns 
 denoting persons, (2) generally when the separation is actual 2X\A literal. 
 
 Gallos ab Aquitanis Garumna flumen dividit, the Garonne river sepa- 
 rates the Gauls fro tn the Aquitani 
 oppidum vacuum ah defensoribus, a town stripped of defenders 
 hostem a pugna prohibebant, they kept the enemy frojft battle 
 a cultu provinciae longissime absunt, they are farthest away from 
 
 the civilizatio7i of the p?'ovince 
 anulum de digito detraxit, he drew the ringfrofn his finger 
 Messana ab his rebus vacua atque nuda est, Messa?ia is e?npty a7id 
 bare of these things 
 
 b. The preposition is generally not present when the separation 
 is figurative, especially if the verb or adjective itself contains a 
 separative preposition. 
 
 Helvetii ea spe deiecti, the //elvetii, deprived of that hope 
 Ariovistus pertindcid desistit, Ariovistiis desists from his obstinacy 
 levamur superstitione, liberamur mortis metu, we are relieved from 
 
 superstition, we are freed from fear of death 
 senectus voluptdtibus caret, old age lacks enjoyments 
 condtu desistunt, they desist from the attempt 
 auxilio eget, he needs help . 
 immunis militia, free of military service 
 
 Note. There are numerous exceptions to these rules, especially in 
 poetry, and many verbs take or omit the preposition with no apparent 
 distinction. Compare the following examples : 
 
 ex cwitdte excesserunt, i^ey depaj-ted from the state 
 finibus suis excesserant, they had left their <nvii territojy 
 hostis ab oppidis prohibent, they keep the enemy from the towns 
 snls finibus eos prohibent, they keep them from their own territory 
 
 441 . Ablative of the Place Whence. The ablative with ab, de, 
 or ex is used to denote the place whence. 
 
 ab urbe proficiscitur, he sets out from the city 
 
 de finibus suis exeunt, they go forth from their territory 
 
 legiones ex hibemis ediicit, he leads the legions out frotn their winter 
 
 quarters 
 ex Britannia obsides miserunt, they sent hostages from Britain 
 negotiator ex Africa venit, a merchant is coming from Africa 
 
ABLATIVE OF THE PLACE WHENCE 20i 
 
 442. With names of towns and small islands and with 
 domus, home, and rts, country , the place whence, after verbs of 
 motion, is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. 
 
 Roma ex urbe ndbill profectus est, /le set out from Rome, a famous city 
 Delo navigavit, lie sailed from Delos (a small island) 
 domb abit, he leaves (goes from) home 
 rure revertit, he returned from the country 
 
 Note. When domua means a building, the preposition is used. 
 
 a. With names of towns and small islands ab is used to denote 
 from the vicinity of 
 
 a Mutina discessit, he withdrew from the vicinity of Modcna 
 
 443. The words urbs, oppidum, and insula, either standing alone 
 or in apposition with a geographical name, require a preposition to 
 express the place whence. 
 
 ab (ex) urbe, from the city 
 
 ah (ex) mhe Roma., from the city of Rome 
 
 444. In expressing iht place whence poets and later writers often 
 omit the preposition when it would be required in classical prose. 
 
 Tr5as arcebat longe Latio (Vergil), she kept the Trojans far from 
 
 Latiujn 
 Scythid profecti (Q. Curtius), setting out from Scythia 
 
 445. By a difference of idiom the place where is sometimes 
 regarded in Latin as the direction from which, and is expressed 
 by the ablative with ab (rarely ex). 
 
 Orgetorix ex vxncuUs causam dicit, Orgctorix pleads his cause in chains 
 
 a. So in the following expressions : 
 
 & fronte, in front a sinistri, on the left 
 
 a terg5. in the rear ab hac parte, on this side 
 
 a dextra, on the right k latere, on the side 
 
 ab noTissimd agmine. on the rear 
 
202 ABLATIVE OF COMPARISON 
 
 446. Ablative of Comparison. TJia7i after the comparative 
 degree may be expressed by the ablative of comparison or by 
 the particle quam. With quam the two things compared are in 
 the same case. 
 
 Cato est Cicerone eloquentior, Cato is more eloquent than Cice?'o 
 Ubii sunt ceteris humani5res, the Ubii are more civilized than the ?'est 
 Caesar militum vitam sua salute cariorem habet, Ccesar holds the li7>es 
 
 of his soldiers dearer than his own safety 
 Caesar minor est quam Cicero, CcEsar is younger than Cicero 
 
 Note. The ablative of comparison is a form of the ablative of separa- 
 tion, the first example above meaning literally, reckoning from Cicero as a 
 standard, Cato is more eloquent. 
 
 a. The construction with quam is required where the first of the 
 things compared is not in the nominative or accusative. 
 
 est misericordia dignior quam contumelia, he is more worthy of pity 
 than of disgrace. [Here the ablative is due to dignus (§ 479).] 
 
 6. The comparative adverbs citius and celerius are followed by 
 the ablative of comparison. 
 
 dicto citius, soofier than you could tell it (lit. said) 
 opinione celerius, sooner than was expected (lit. expectation) 
 
 447. The poets sometimes use the ablative of comparison where 
 the prose construction requires quam (§ 446. a^. 
 
 pane egeo iam mellitis potiore placentis (Horace), / now want brea^ 
 rather than honey cakes. [Here the ablative pane depends on 
 egeo (§ 469. d).'] 
 
 448. The ablative of comparison is regular in negative sentences, 
 nihil est foedius servitute, nothing is viler than slavery 
 
 449. Tha7i followed by a relative pronoun with a definite ante- 
 cedent is never expressed by quam, but by the ablative of the relative. 
 
 rex erat Aeneas nobis, quo iiistior alter non fuit, Apneas was our king, 
 
 than wJiom no other was mo?e righteous 
 
ABLATIVE OF MATERIAL 203 
 
 450. After the comparatives plus, minus, amplius, and longius, 
 when used without quam, the noun usually takes the case required 
 by the context, without reference to the comparative. 
 
 hostes ndn amplius octingentds equites habebant, /Ae enemy had no 
 
 more than eii^ht hundred horsemen 
 plus septingenti capti sunt, /nore than seven hundred were captured 
 
 451. Ablative of Origin. The ablative, generally without a 
 preposition, is used with nascor, be borti, and with the parti- 
 ciples nitus, ortus, and a few others of similar meaning, to 
 denote parentage or origin. 
 
 amplissimS genere natus, dorft of a 7>ery noble family 
 
 summ5 *n Arvernis ortus loco^ sprung from the highest station among 
 
 the . In'i'rni 
 Maecenas edite regibus, O Maecenas, descendant of kings 
 quo sanguine crStus, bom of what blood ? 
 
 a. A preposition (generally ex) is regularly used with pronouns 
 and sometimes with nouns. 
 
 ex me hie natus n6n est sed ex fratre meo, this is not my son, but my 
 
 brother s (not born from me, etc.) 
 cum ex utraque uxore fflius natus esset, when a son had been bom of 
 
 each 7L'ife 
 
 452. Ablative of Material. The ablative, usually with ex (in 
 poetry often with dfi), is used to denote the material of which 
 anything consists or is made. 
 
 naves factae sunt ex robore, the ships were made of oak 
 scuta ex cortice facta, shields made of bark 
 valvae ex auro atque ehore, doors of gold and ivory 
 templum de marmore ponam, 77/ build a temple of marble 
 
 a. In poetry the preposition is often omitted. 
 
 scopulis pendentibus antrum (Vergil), a cave of overhanging rocks 
 aere cav6 clipeus (Vergil), a shield of hollow bronse 
 
204 ABLATIVE OF AGENT 
 
 b. The ablative of material without a preposition is used with 
 facere, fieri, and similar words, in the sense of {/o with^ become of. 
 
 quid hoc homine facialis, what are you going to do with this fellow ? 
 quid Tulliola mea f let, what will becotne of my dear Tullia ? 
 
 Note. The ablative of material is a development of the ablative of 
 origin. For the genitive of material see § 348. 
 
 453. Ablative of Agent. The ablative with a or ab is used 
 with a passive verb to denote the personal agent. 
 
 a sendtu amicus appellatus erat, he had been called frietid by the 
 
 senate 
 exercitus ab Helvetiis pulsus est, the army was defeated by the 
 
 Helvetii • 
 
 laudatur ah hls^ culpatur ah illis, he is praised by these, blamed by 
 
 those 
 ah non nuUis GalTis sollicitabantur, they were incited by some (of the) 
 
 Gauls 
 
 Note i. The ablative of agent is a development of the ablative of 
 origin. The preposition a meant from to the Roman mind, not by, as it is 
 translated in English. 
 
 Note 2. The ablative of agent (which requires a or ab) must be care- 
 fully distinguished from the ablative of means, which has no preposition 
 (§ 468). Thus, occisus gladio, slain by a sword-, but occisus ah hoste, slain 
 by an enemy. 
 
 454. Things personified and sometimes names of animals are 
 found in the construction of the agent. 
 
 vitia a virtutihus superantur, vices are^ overco?ne by virtues 
 
 455. If the person acting is regarded as the means rather than as 
 the agent, the accusative with per is generally used. 
 
 per exploratores Caesar certior factus est, Caesar was infonned by 
 (means of) scouts 
 
 Note. When the action is stressed rather than the persons acting, the 
 ablative is used without a or ab. 
 
 cena ministratur tribus puens, dinner is served by three slaves 
 
ABLATIVE OF ACCORDANCE 205 
 
 II. Instrumental Ablative Uses 
 
 456. Ablative of Accompaniment. The ablative with cum is 
 used to denote accompaniment. 
 
 Caesar cum legionibus tribus profectus est, Casar set out with three 
 
 lei^ions 
 Helvetii cum Germanis contendunt, the Helvetii fight with the Germans 
 
 Note. The ablative of accompaniment may be used with words of 
 contention and the like. See the second example above. 
 
 a. In some military expressions cum may be omitted, especially 
 when the ablative is modified by any adjective not a numeral 
 
 omnibus cdpiis subsequebatur, he folloiued close with all his forces 
 
 457. Ablative of Attendant Circumstance. The ablative, some- 
 times with cum but more usually without, is used to denote an 
 attendant circumstance or situation. 
 
 ezercitum duarum cohortium damno deducit, he leads back his army 
 
 with the loss of t7uo cohorts 
 ex oppido sUentio egressi sunt, they went forth from the town in silence 
 his ominibus proficiscere ad impium bellum, attended by these omens 
 
 go forth to your impious war 
 nemo funera fletu faxit, let no one perform my funeral rites with tears 
 Liscus intellegit quanto cum periculo id fecerit, Liscus understands 
 
 with how much danger he has done this 
 
 458. Ablative of Accordance. That in accordance with which 
 something is done is expressed by the ablative, usually without 
 a preposition, sometimes with ex or d6. 
 
 moribus suis Orgetorigem ex vinculls causam dicere coSgSrunt, in 
 
 accordance with their customs they compelled Orgetorix to plead 
 
 his cause in chains 
 consuetudine sua Caesar sex legi5nes expeditas ducSbat, according to 
 
 his custom Ccesar was leading six legions in fighting trim 
 tuo consilid faciam, / will act in accordance with your plan 
 haec ex senatus cdnsulto acta sunt, this was done in accordance with 
 
 the decree of the senate 
 
2o6 ABLATIVE OF CAUSE OR REASON 
 
 459. Ablative of Manner. The manner of an action is denoted 
 by the ablative with cum. * 
 
 magno cum strepitu ac tumultU castris egressi sunt, 'with great uproar 
 
 and confusion they ivetit fo7'th from the cainp 
 pars nuntiorum cum crucidtu necabatur, part of the messengers were 
 
 killed with torture 
 
 Note. The ablative of manner, the ablative of attendant circumstance, 
 and the ablative of accordance are so closely related that they cannot be 
 sharply distinguished. 
 
 460. With the ablative of manner the preposition cum may be 
 omitted when the noun is modified by an adjective. 
 
 flumen incredibiti Imitate fluit, the river flows with incredible slowness 
 nUdo corpore pugnant, they fight with body exposed 
 
 461. The preposition cum is not used with such words of manner 
 as modo, pacto, ratione, ritu, vi, via, nor with certain nouns that have 
 become virtually adverbs, as, iure, iniuria, iussu, iniussu, merito, 
 sponte, pace tua, etc. 
 
 pecudum nfiJ, in the maimer of beasts 
 
 iure an iniUrid, rightly or wrongly 
 
 pdce tud dixerim, / should like to say, with your permission 
 
 Note. This usage has been much extended in poetry. 
 
 insequitur ci/muZo aquae mons (Vergil), a mountain of rvater follows in 
 a mass 
 
 462. Ablative of Cause or Reason. Cause or reason is denoted 
 by the ablative, sometimes without a preposition, sometimes 
 with ab, de, or ex. 
 
 magno doldre adficiebantur, they were affected with great sorrow 
 nemo maeret suo incommodo, no one mourns over his own misfortune 
 Dumnorix grdtid plurimum poterat, Dumnorix had great power be- 
 cause of his influence 
 regni cupiditdte adductus coniurationem fecit, tnoved by his desire for 
 
 royal power, he made a conspiracy 
 sua victoria insolenter gloriabantur, they boasted insolently of their 
 victory 
 
AHLATIVE OF DESCRIPTION OR QUALITY 207 
 
 mare d sole lucet, //te sea gleams in the sun (from the sun) 
 
 qua de causa, for this reason 
 
 ex vulnere aeger, disabled by a wound (from a wound) 
 
 Note. The causal uses of the ablative, esf)ecially those without a prepo- 
 sition, originate largely in its instrumental use ; but where ab, de, or ex is 
 employed, the construction seems to go back to the true ablative (§ 439). 
 
 463. The ablatives causfi and grStifi {because, for the sake) are 
 used with a genitive preceding (§ 331. n.) or with a pronominal 
 adjective in agreement. 
 
 amicitiae causa, /or the sake of friendship 
 ea causa, o/i account of this 
 mea gratia, for my sake 
 
 464. Cause is often expressed by ob or propter with the accusative. 
 ob cam rem, for that reason 
 
 quam ob rem, on which account 
 
 pecora propter bellum remdverant, they had removed their cdt tie be- 
 cause of the war 
 
 465. A preventing cause is expressed by prae with the ablative. 
 
 s51em prae iacul5rum multitudine n5n videbitis, you will not see the 
 sun for the number of darts 
 
 466. Ablative of Description or Quality. The ablative with 
 a modifying adjective is used to desctibe a substantive. 
 
 mulier eximid pulchritudine, a woman of rare beauty 
 vir summo ingenid. a man of the greatest genius 
 m5ns magna altitudine, a mountain of great height 
 litterae hoc exempio, a letter of this tenor 
 
 Note. It is impossible to differentiate sharply between the genitive 
 and the ablative of description. For a broad distinction see § 338. .\. 
 
 467. The ablative of description is frequently in the predicate. 
 
 animb meliore sunt gladiatores, the gladiators are of a better mind 
 Germani ingenti magnitudine corporum sunt, the Gertnans are of great 
 
 size of body 
 capillo sunt promisso, they have long hair 
 magno timore sum, / aw greatly terrifed 
 
2o8 ABLATIVE OF MEANS 
 
 468. Ablative of Means. The ablative is used without a prep- 
 osition to denote the means by which something is done. 
 
 una pars flumine continetur, one part is bounded by the river 
 
 his rehus adducti, induced by these things 
 
 eum mam sua occidit, he killed him with his own hand 
 
 Note. Means^ cause^ manner^ and accompanime?it are all outgrowths 
 of the same fundamental notion, and are so closely related that they are 
 often difficult to discrirrrinate. Indeed, the Romans themselves can hardly 
 have thought of any sharp distinction. 
 
 469. The ablative of means includes the following special 
 uses. 
 
 a. The deponents utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, and several of 
 their compounds govern the ablative. 
 
 Star vestra benignitate, I will avail myself of your kindness (lit. / will 
 
 serve ntyself by your kindness) 
 Caesar isdem ducibus usus est, CcEsar employed the same guides 
 lux qua. fruimur, the light which we enjoy (lit. the light by which we 
 
 enjoy ourselves) 
 mUneribus corporis fungi, to perform the functions of the body (lit. to 
 
 busy oursek'cs with the fjinctiojts of the body) 
 impedimentis castrisque nostri potiti sunt, our soldiers took possession 
 
 of the baggage and camp (lit. ojir soldiers tnade themselves 
 
 masters by means of the baggage and camp) 
 lacte et came vescebantur, they fed on milk and meat (lit. they fed 
 
 themselves by means of milk and meat) 
 
 Note i. Potior sometimes takes the genitive. 
 
 totlUS Gattiae potiuntur, tAn' ta^e possession of the 7vhole of Gaul 
 
 Note 2. In early Latin these verbs are sometimes transitive and take 
 the accusative; and in classic Latin they retain the personal use of the 
 gerundive. 
 
 fiinctus est officium (Terence), he performed the part 
 
 modus sit fruendae voluptatis, let there lye a limit to the enjoyment of 
 pleasure 
 
ABLATIVE OF PRICE OR VALUE 209 
 
 b. 0pu8 est, and less commonly tisus est, f/t^e is rued^ take the 
 ablative' • 
 
 magistratibus opus est, t/iere is need 0/ magistrates 
 
 opus /ac/o est. there is need 0/ action 
 
 nunc viribus usus est, now there is need 0/ strength 
 
 Note i. Opus is often in the predicate, with the thing needed in the 
 nominative as subject. This is the regular construction when the thing 
 needed is a neuter pronoun or adjective. 
 
 dux nObis et auctor opus est, we need a chief and adviser (lit a chief atiJ 
 
 tiih'iicr is necessary for us) 
 81 quid mihi opus est, if I need anything (lit if anything is needful to me) 
 multa nobis opus sunt, we need many things (lit many things are needful 
 
 to us) 
 
 Note 2. Opus est is sometimes used with the ablative of a past 
 participle. 
 
 properato opus erat, there was need of haste 
 
 c. Contentus, satisfied, frgtus, relying on (lit supported)^ and innixus, 
 leaning on, take the ablative. 
 
 contentus sorte, satisfied with his lot 
 virtute fretus, relying on his valor 
 
 d. Verbs and adjectives denoting fullness or abundance may be 
 used with the ablative of means. 
 
 aggere fossas explent, they fill the ditches with earth 
 
 Forum Appi differtum nautis. Forum Appii, crowded with boatmen 
 
 vita plena voluptatibus, a life full of delights 
 
 Note i. For the genidve with similar expressions see § 350. 
 Note 2, For means denoted by per with the accusative of personal 
 nouns see § 455. 
 
 470. Ablative of Price or Value. With expressions of buy- 
 ing and selling definite price or value is expressed by the 
 ablative. 
 
 * The noun Qsus follows the analogy of the verb utor ; and opus, originally 
 a genitive (cf. hoc opus est this is of service), takes the ablative by an extension 
 of the construction with flsus. 
 
210 ABLATIVE OF THE WAY BY WHICH 
 
 agrum vendidit sestertium sex nulibus, he sold the land for six thou- 
 sand ^esterces 
 istuc verbum vile est xx minis, that word is cheap at twenty mince 
 triginta minis emi, / bought it for thirty mince 
 
 Note. The ablative of price is a development of the ablative of means. 
 
 471. Indefinite price or value, when expressed by an adjective, is 
 regularly denoted by the genitive (§ 341) ; but when expressed by a 
 noun, is usually denoted by the ablative. 
 
 quanti earn emit ? ViR (pretio), how much did he buy her for ? Cheap 
 
 (lit. at a low price) 
 venibunt praesenti pecUnid, they will be sold for cash 
 quibus hie pretUs porci veneunt, at what price are pigs sold here ? 
 Dumnorix vectigalia parvo pretid redempta habebat, Dumnorix had 
 
 bought the taxes at a small price 
 
 472. With the verb muto, exchange, and some of its compounds, 
 either the thi7ig taken or the thing given in exchange may be in the 
 ablative of price. 
 
 religionem pecUnid commiitat, he barters his conscience for money 
 exsilium patria side mutavit, he took exile in exchange for his ?tative latid 
 
 473. With verbs of condemning, the penalty (when it is a fine of 
 definite amount) is denoted by the ablative of price. 
 
 Frusinates tertia parte agri damnati sunt, the Frusinates were fined a 
 third part of their land 
 
 tor the genitive of the charge see § 336. 
 
 474. Ablative of the Way by Which. The zvay by ivhich, 
 after verbs of motion, is expressed by the ablative without a 
 preposition. 
 
 Aurelia vid profectus est, he set out by the Aurelian road 
 
 via breviore equites praemisi, I sent forward the cavalry by a shorter road 
 
 frumentum quod flumine navibus subvexerat, the grain which he had 
 
 brought up the river by ships 
 provehimur pelago, we sail forth over the sea 
 
 Note. The ablative of the way by which is a development of the 
 ablative of means. 
 
ABLATIVE OF RESPECT 211 
 
 475. Ablative of the Measure of Difference. With words 
 expressing or implying comparison the ablative is used to 
 denote the measure of difference. 
 
 alterum iter est multo facilius et expeditios, ///^ o/A^r route is much 
 
 easier and quicker 
 quinque mTlibus passoum distat, // is Jive miles distant (lit. distant by 
 
 five miles) 
 nee longd distant cursu, nor are they far away (lit. distant by a long 
 
 course) 
 
 Note. The ablative of the measure of difference is a development of 
 the ablative of means. 
 
 476. Measure of difference is expressed by the correlative ablatives 
 qu6 . . . e6 (hOc) and quantO . . . tantO with comparatives, as in 
 English by the . . . the. 
 
 quo minus cupiditatis, eo plus auctdritatis, the less avarice the more 
 authority (lit. by what the less of avarice^ by that the more of 
 authority) 
 
 quanto erat gravior oppugnatio, tanto crebriores litterae mittebantur. 
 the worse the siege was, the more frequent letters were sent 
 
 477. The ablative of the measure of difference is often used with 
 the adverbs ante {before), post {after), and abbinc {ago), to denote 
 time before or after. 
 
 tribus ante annis. three years before (lit. before by three years) 
 tribus post annis, three years after (lit. after by three years) 
 abhinc tribus cmms, three years ago (lit. ago by three years) 
 
 Note. As prepositions, ante and post take the accusative (§ 276). 
 Abhinc is generally followed by the accusative of duration (§ 425). 
 
 478. Ablative of Respect. The ablative is used to denote 
 /■;/ ivhat respect something is true. 
 
 virtate praecedunt, they excel in valor 
 infirmiores animo sunt, they are weaker in < oumt^e 
 hi omnes lingua, institutis, tigibus inter se differunt. all these differ from 
 each other in language, custopns, and laws 
 
212 ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE 
 
 claudus altero pede, lame m one foot 
 
 maior natu, older (lit. greater in respect to birth) 
 
 minor natu, younger (lit. less in respect to birth) 
 
 Note. For the supine in -u in this construction see § 882. II. 
 
 479. The adjectives dignus and indignus usually take the ablative 
 of respect. The genitive occurs, especially in early Latin. 
 
 hoc dignum memorid videtur, this seems woi'th ?nention 
 
 vir patref avo, maioribus suis dignissimus, a ma?i most worthy of his 
 
 father^ grandfather^ attd aticestoi's 
 dignus salutis, deserving of safety 
 
 Note. So the verb dignor in poetry. 
 
 hand equidem tali me dignor honore (Vergil), / do not deem myself 
 worthy of siick an honor 
 
 480. Ablative Absolute. The ablative of a noun or pro- 
 noun with a participle in agreement may be used absolutely, 
 that is, as grammatically independent of the rest of the sen- 
 tence. The ablative absolute defines the time or circumstances 
 of the action. 
 
 nondum hieme confecta in finis Nerviorum contendit, the winter not 
 yet beifig over^ he hastened into the territory of the Ner^ni 
 
 Note. The ablative absolute is of instrumental origin ; but the locative 
 and true ablative may have contributed to its development. 
 
 481. As the verb sum has no present participle, we often find 
 two nouns, or a noun and an adjective, in the ablative absolute with 
 no participle expressed. 
 
 M. Messala M. Pisone oonsulibus, Marcus Messala and Marcus Piso 
 
 being consuls 
 ezigua parte aestatis reliqua^ a small part of the summer remaining 
 
 482. A noun or pronoun in the ablative absolute regularly denotes 
 a person or thing not elsewhere mentioned in the same clause. 
 
ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE 2 1 3 
 
 Compare the sentences : 
 
 rhe Gauls ha~i'ini^ been ionquercd by L\rsixt\ the army returned 
 home. Gains a Caesare i/tcfts exercitus domum rediit 
 
 The Gaulsy having been conquered by Casar, returned home, Galli 
 a Caesare oicti domum redierunt 
 
 rhe ablative absolute is used in the first example, but is not admis- 
 sible in the second. 
 
 483. A participle or an adjective is sometimes used in the ablative 
 absolute without a substantive. 
 
 Ifbdto summd tenus attigit 6re (Vergil), after pouring the libation she 
 
 touched (the goblet) with her lips 
 missis qui iter monstrarent, (men) having been sent to show the way 
 
 484. While grammatically independent, the ablative absolute 
 has a logical connection with the rest of the sentence and may 
 express a great variety of relations. This connection is often 
 best expressed in translation by a subordinate clause, and should 
 not always be rendered by the English nominative absolute. 
 Thus, the ablative absolute may replace — 
 
 a. A temporal clause. 
 Caesar acceptis litteris nuntium mittit, after Caesar receives the letter 
 he sends a messenger 
 
 h. A causal clause. 
 maiSres nostri saepe mercatoribus nostris iniuriosius tractatts bclla 
 gesserunt, our ancestors often waged 7c>ars hrcausc our traders 
 had been somewhat unjustly treated 
 
 c. A concessive clause. 
 
 oppidum paucis difendentibus expugnare non potuit, though only a few 
 defended the town^ he could not take it 
 
 d. \ conditional clause. 
 
 deditidnis nulla est condicio nisi armls trdditis, there are no terms of 
 surrender if the arms are not handed over 
 
 €, A clause denoting attendant circumstance. 
 ea omnia insdentibus Haeduis fecit, he did all these things while the 
 Hcpdui were in ignorance 
 
214 ABLATIVE OF THE PLACE WHERE 
 
 HI. Locative Ablative Uses 
 
 485. Ablative of the Place Where. The place where is reg- 
 ularly denoted by the ablative with the preposition in. 
 
 in hac urhe vitam degit, he passed his life in this city 
 in Gallia remanserunt, they remained in Gaul 
 
 in Germanorum finibus bellum genint, they wage war in the territory 
 of the Germans 
 
 a. But the preposition in is omitted before names of towns and 
 small islands and before loco, locis, parte, partibus, dextra, sinistra, 
 laeva, terra, mari, and nouns modified by totus. 
 
 Carthagine, at Carthage Curibus (§ i lo), at Cures 
 
 Athenis (§ 80. c\ at Athens terra marique, on land and sea 
 
 Delphis (§ 88. a\ at Delphi tota Sicilia, in all Sicily 
 
 Note. Many idiomatic expressions omit in : as, periculis, in dajtgers ; 
 mentibus, /;/ minds ; and it is freely omitted in poetry : as, litore curvo 
 (Vergil), on the winding shore. 
 
 486. The locative case, denoting the place ivhere, not dis- 
 tinguished in the plural from the ablative, has a form like the 
 genitive with names of towns and small islands in the singular 
 of the first or second declension. 
 
 Romae, at Rotne Corinthi, at Corinth 
 
 Avarici, at Avaricufn Cypri, at Cyprus 
 
 487. Names of towns of the third declension are usually in the 
 ablative to denote the place where, but a few locative forms in -i 
 are found. 
 
 Carthagini, at Carthage Tiburi, at Tibur 
 
 488. The following special nouns have locative forms like names 
 of towns : 
 
 animi, in mind humi, on the ground 
 
 belli, in war militiae, in military semice 
 
 domi, at home ruiT falso abl. rure). in the country 
 
 heri, yesterday vesperi, in the evening 
 
ABLATIVE OF TIME 215 
 
 489. The locative domi may be modified only by a possessive 
 adjective or by a noun in the genitive ; when it would be otherwise 
 modified, the ablative with in is used instead. 
 
 domi meae, ai my house 
 
 Caesaris domi, at Orsars house 
 
 in Marci splendida domo^ at the fine home of Marcus 
 
 490. Verbs oi placing y though implying motion, take the abla- 
 tive of place where. Such are p6n0, loc6, conlocfl, statuC, cOnstituO, etc. 
 
 Plato rationem in capite posuit, iram in pectore locavit, Piato placed 
 
 reason in tlw Jwad (and) located anger in the heart 
 
 491. Summary of Constructions of Place, i. Names of 
 places not toivns are generally put — 
 
 a. In the accusative with ad or in to denote the place to which, 
 exercitum in Italiam duxit, //f /ed an army into Italy 
 
 b. In the ablative with ab, d5, or ex to denote the place from which. 
 ab urbe proficiscitur, he sets out from the city 
 
 c. In the locative ablative with in to denote the place at or in which. 
 Hannibal in Italia fuit, Hannibal was in Italy 
 
 2. Names of towns and words which follow their analogy 
 are put — 
 
 a. In the accusative to denote the place to which. 
 
 legati Athends missi sunt, ambassadors were sent to Athens 
 
 b. In the ablative to denote the place from which. 
 Demaratus fugit Corintho, Demaratus fled from Corinth 
 
 c. In the locative or ablative to denote the place at or in which. 
 
 Romae ct domi tuae viTcre, to live at Rome and in your home 
 Athinis eram. / 7C'as at Athens 
 
 492. Ablative of Time. Time w/ii-n or wit/tin ivhich is ex- 
 pressed by the ablative, regularly without a preposition. 
 
2i6 ABLATIVE OF TIME 
 
 1 . Time when : 
 
 secunda vigHia castris egressi sunt, in the second watch they went 
 
 forth fro )n the cajnp 
 Diviciacus eo tempore principatum obtinebat, Diviciacus at that time 
 
 held the highest place 
 Caesar septimo ^ie pervenit, CcEsar arrived on the seventh day 
 
 2. Time within which : 
 
 diebus viginti quinque aggerem exstruxerunt, within twefityfive days 
 
 they finished building a mound 
 hoc toto proelio aversum hostem videre nemo potuit, throughout this 
 
 whole battle no one could see an enemy in retreat 
 paucis anms omnes ex Galliae finibus pellentur, within a few years 
 
 all will be driven fro ?n the territory of Gaul 
 
 Note. Titne wit /tin which often approaches closely to the idea of 
 duration of time (cf. § 423. n.), as in the second example. 
 
 493. The preposition in is often used with the ablative of time, 
 especially when the ablative has no modifier. 
 
 in pueritia, in boyhood in adulescentia, in youth 
 
 in bell5, in war bis in anno, twice a year 
 
 494. Many expressions have in Latin the construction of ti?ne 
 when, where in English the idea is rather that oi place ivhere. 
 
 secund5 Piinico bell5, in the second Punic war 
 liidis Romanis, at tJie Roman games 
 pugna Cannensi, /// tJie battle of Cannes 
 
 495. In many idiomatic expressions of time prepositions are used 
 with the accusative or ablative. 
 
 cum prima liice, at dawn 
 
 de tertia vigilia, about, the third watch 
 
 sub occasum solis, toward sunset 
 
 sub vesperum, toward evening 
 
 convenerunt ad diem, they assembled on the (appointed) day 
 
 sub idem tempus, about the same time 
 
 sub noctem, at iiightfall 
 
 in tertium annum, ^r the third year 
 
 For the expression of dates see § loio. 
 
AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES 217 
 
 SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES 
 CLASSIFICATION 
 
 496. Adjectives are classified as (a) aitrtdutwe, {b) apposi- 
 iive, and (c) predicate. 
 
 a. An Attributive Adjective ' is closely attached to its noun and is 
 translated immediately before it. 
 
 vir fortis, a braye man stellae liicidae, firij^A/ s/ars 
 
 b. An Appositive Adjective explains its noun like an appositive 
 substantive, and is translated immediately after it. 
 
 Laelius sapiens et bonus, Lcp/ius, the wise and good 
 
 Orgetorix nobilissimus et ditissmus Helvetiorum, Orgeton'x, the noblest 
 
 and richest of the Helve tit 
 
 c. A Predicate Adjective completes the meaning of the predicate, 
 but describes or limits the subject. 
 
 vir erat fortis, the man was brave 
 
 sit Sclpid clarus, let Scipio be illustrious 
 
 Note. The verb that connects a noun with its predicate adjective is 
 sometimes not expressed. 
 
 locum idoneum putavit, Af thought the place (to be) suitahU. [Here the 
 verb esse, to l>f, is understood.] 
 
 AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES 
 
 497. General Rule. Adjectives, pronominal adjectives, and 
 participles agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case. 
 
 Agreement wrrH a Single Noun 
 
 498. An adjective limiting a single noun agrees with it in 
 gender, number, and case. 
 
 fortissimt sunt Belgae, the Belgce are the bravest 
 
 Una pars, one part 
 
 iter angustum et diffidle^ a way narrow and difficult 
 
 * The attributive adjective is sometimes called the adherent adjective. 
 
2l8 AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES 
 
 499. Two or more similar adjectives in the singular may limit a 
 plural noun. 
 
 prima et vicesima legiones, the first and twentieth legiotts 
 
 500. An adjective limiting a clause or an infinitive is neuter 
 singular. 
 
 certwn est liberSs amari, // is certain that children are loved 
 
 501. Construction according to Sense. Sometimes, especially in 
 poetry, an adjective modifying a collective noun agrees, not with its 
 grammatical gender and number, but with the gender and number 
 conveyed by its sense. 
 
 pars certare paratT, a paii (some) prepared to contend 
 multitudo convicti sunt, a multitude were convicted 
 
 Agreement with Two or More Nouns 
 
 502. One adjective limiting two or more nouns agrees with 
 them in case. Its number and gender are determined by the 
 following rules : 
 
 1. Agreement in number. 
 
 a. A predicate adjective with two or more nouns is regularly 
 plural. 
 
 Caesar et Cicero erant clari, Ccesar and Cicero were famous 
 Sicilia Sardiniaque sunt amissae, Sicily and Sardinia are lost 
 
 b. An attributive adjective with two or more nouns usually agrees 
 in number with the nearest. 
 
 Caesaris omni gratia et opibus fruor, / enjoy all Ccpsar's favor and 
 resources 
 
 2. Agreement in gender. 
 
 a. An attributive adjective with two or more nouns of different 
 genders agrees with the nearest. 
 
 cunctae terrae mariaque or terrae mariaque cuncta, all lands and seas 
 aptus ad frigora et aestus tolerandos. capable of enduring cold and heat 
 
ADJECTIVES USED AS NOUNS 219 
 
 b. A predicate adjective with two or more nouns of different 
 genders will be regularly masculine plural if the nouns denote persons^ 
 usually neuter plural if the nouns denote things. 
 
 pater et mater mortul sunt, father and mother are dead 
 murus et portae alia erant, the wall and the gates were high 
 
 Note i. If nouns of different genders include both persons and things, 
 the predicate adjective is usually neuter plural ; but it may follow the per- 
 sons in gender and be masculine or feminine, or may agree with the nearest 
 noun if that is plural. 
 
 natura inimica sunt libera civitas et rex, by nature a free state and a king 
 
 are hostile 
 rex regiaque classis profecti sunt, the itinj^ and the royal fleet set out 
 legati sortesque oraculi exspeciandae sunt. tAe ambassadors and the replies 
 
 of the oracle should be aicaited 
 
 Note 2. Two or more masculine or feminine abstract nouns denoting 
 things may have a predicate adjective in the neuter plural. 
 
 stultitia et temeritas et iniustitia sunt fugienda, folly, rashness, and 
 injustice are to be shunned 
 
 ADJECTIVES USED AS NOUNS 
 
 503. Plural adjectives are often used as nouns {substantively) ^ 
 the masculine to denote men ov people in general] the feminine, 
 zvomcn ; and the neuter, things. 
 
 omnes, all men (everybody) omnia, all things 
 
 maiores, ancestors mindres, descendants 
 
 Romani, Romans barbari, barbarians 
 
 nostri, <7«r(men) sua, ///^/r (possessions) 
 
 omnes fortia laudant, all men praise brave deeds 
 
 504. Singular adjectives, especially in the neuter, are some- 
 times used as nouns [substantively). 
 
 lupus est tfiste stabulis, the wolf is a griei'ous thing for the folds 
 
 sapiens est rex. the wise man is king 
 
 mater eius erat Rberta, his mother was a freedwoman 
 
 naves erant in ariddy the ships were on dry land 
 
220 ADJECTIVES USED AS ADVERBS 
 
 505. When ambiguity would arise from the substantive use 
 of an adjective, a noun must be added. 
 
 dei potentiam omnium rerum habent, //i^ gods have power over every- 
 thing. [If rerum were not expressed, the gender of omnium would 
 be uncertain.] 
 
 506. Some adjectives have become nouns. 
 
 aequalis, a co7iteinporary propinqui, relatives 
 
 amicus, friend ' socius, ally 
 
 familiaris, intimate friend vicinus, neighbor 
 
 a. Many adjectives have become practically substantives by the 
 omission of some noun, which is understood from constant association. 
 
 Africus (ventus), southwest wind hiberna (castra), winter quarters 
 
 September (mensis), September triremis (navis), trireme 
 
 patria {ttrra), fatherland regia (domus), royal palace 
 
 b. Conversely, a few nouns are used as adjectives, especially those 
 ending in -tor or -trix : as, victor exercitus, a victorious army ; populus 
 latg rex, a people ruling far a fid wide. See also § 584. 
 
 ADJECTIVES USED AS ADVERBS 
 
 507. Adjectives are sometimes used in Latin where adverbs 
 would be used in English. 
 
 Socrates venenum laetus hausit, Socrates drank the poison cheerfully 
 erat ille Romae /regwens, he was frequefitly at Rome 
 naves totae ex robore factae, ships made entirely of oak 
 
 a. The adjectives prior, primus, princeps, postremus, and ultimus 
 are used instead of adverbs to denote the first or last in order of 
 time. 
 
 Hannibal pnnceps in proelium ibat, ultimus excedebat, Hannibal was 
 the first to go into battle and the last to withdraw (^xl. went firsts 
 withdrew last) 
 primus venit, he was the first to come 
 
COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES 221 
 
 COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES 
 
 508. When two qualities of an object are compared, both 
 adjectives are in the comparative. When magis is used, both 
 adjectives arc in the positive. 
 
 longior quam latior acies erat, ihe line was longer than it was broad 
 is erat disertus magis quam sapiens, he was more eloquent than wise 
 
 a. Disproportion is expressed by the comparative with quam pr5 
 {than for) and the ablative, or with quam ut {than that) or quam 
 qui {than who) and the subjunctive. 
 
 maior sum (piam cut possit fortuna nocere, / am too great for fortune 
 to harm me 
 
 509. The superlative may be strengthened by the following 
 words : longg, by far \ quam, as possible ^ often with the addition 
 of a form of possum ; unus, the one ; vel, the very^ even. 
 
 longe nobilissimus fuit Orgetorix, Orgetorix was by far the noblest 
 carroriun quam maximum numerum coemere, to buy up the greatest 
 
 possible numhcr of wagons 
 quam maximis potest itineribus in Galliam contendit, he has/ens into 
 
 Gaul by marches the greatest possible (he is able) 
 Ripheus, iUstissimus Unus in Teucris, Ripheus, the one most righteous 
 
 man among the Teucri 
 eo tempore vel maxima apud regem auctdritas erat, at that time his 
 
 influence with the king was the X'ery greatest 
 
 510. The following adjectives, mostly superlatives, denote 
 a part of the object modified : extrSmus, imus (infimus), intimus, 
 medius, postrSmus, primus, reliquus, summus, ultimus. 
 
 summus mdns, the top of the mountain 
 
 media urbs, the midst of the city 
 
 Pompeius bellum extrimd hieme apparavit, prima vere suscepit, mediS 
 aestate confecit, Pompey prepared for war at the end of winter, 
 began it at the beginning of spring, and finished it in midsummer 
 
 Note. For other special meanings of the comparative and superlative 
 ste § I 54. N. 
 
222 PERSONAL PRONOUNS 
 
 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS 
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS 
 
 511. Personal pronouns have the same constructions as nouns, 
 but are never used in the nominative except for emphasis or 
 contrast. 
 
 te voco, / afn calling you 
 
 quis me vocat ? Ego te voco, who is calling tne ? I (emphatic) am 
 
 calling you 
 ego certe meum officium praestitero, / at least shall have done my duty 
 
 a. In poetry nos is sometimes used for ego, and noster for meus ; 
 but vos and vester are never used for tu and tuus. 
 
 512. The Latin has no personal pronoun of the third person.^ 
 This want is supplied by a demonstrative or by a relative 
 (§§531,564). 
 
 is coniurationem fecit, he made a conspiracy 
 
 qui cum eum convenissent, when they had met him 
 
 513. To express possession the possessive pronominal adjec- 
 tives meus, tuus, noster, vester are used, and not the genitive of 
 the personal pronouns. 
 
 liber meus, my book ; not liber mei 
 a. But nostrum and vestrum may be used with omnium. 
 
 vita nostra, our lives 
 
 vita omnium nostrum, the lives of us all 
 
 514. The genitives mei, tui, nostri, vestri are generally objective ; 
 nostrum and vestrum, partitive. 
 
 memoria mei tua est iiicunda, your remembrance of me is delightful 
 habetis ducem memorem vestri, you have a leader tnindful of you 
 minus habeo virium quam vestrum utervis, / have less strength than 
 
 either of you 
 pars nostrum mansit, a part of us remained 
 
 1 For the reflexive sui see §§ 517 ff. 
 
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 223 
 REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 515. Reflexive pronouns in their regular use stand in the 
 predicate and refer to the subject. 
 
 516. For reflexives of the first and second persons the 
 obHque cases of the personal pronouns ego and tu are used. 
 The corresponding possessive adjectives are meus and tuus. 
 
 morti me obtull, / exposed myself to death 
 
 hinc tl reginae ad limina perfer, betake yourself hence to the queen's 
 
 threshold 
 vobis novenos vestri similes eligite, p/ih out {for yourseh<es) nine like 
 
 yourselves 
 nostram patriam amamus, ive love our own country 
 
 517. The reflexive pronoun of the third person is sui (sibi, 
 86). The corresponding possessive adjective is suus (-a, -um). 
 
 Dumnorigem ad si vocat, he calls Dumnorix to him 
 
 German! e suis finibus transibant, the Germans were crossing over 
 
 from their own territories 
 
 518. The reflexive pronoun sui and the reflexive possessive 
 adjective suus have two principal uses, known as the direct 
 and the indirect. 
 
 I. Direct Reflexivks 
 
 519. Sui and suus as direct reflexives stand in the predicate 
 and refer to the subject of the clause (whether principal or 
 subordinate) in which they occur. 
 
 miles se interfecit, the soldier killed himself 
 
 miles sud gladio interfectus est, the soldier was killed with his own 
 
 sword 
 si suaque dediderurt. they surrendered themselves and their possessions 
 iussi Helvetios in suds fines reverti, / ordered the Helvetii to 
 
 return into their 070N territory 
 Caesar imperavit hostibus ut si dederent, Orsar ordered the enemy to 
 
 surrender (themseh'es) 
 
224 REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 II. Indirect Reflexives 
 
 520. Sui and suns as indirect reflexives stand in a subor- 
 dinate clause, either in the subject or predicate, and refer to 
 the subject of the principal clause. 
 
 sentit quid si/f cives cogitent, he perceives what his own fellow citizens 
 
 think 
 petierunt ut sfbi liceret, they begged that it tnight be allowed thetn 
 dat negotium Gallis uti se certiorem faciant, he directs the Gauls to 
 
 inform him 
 his Caesar mandat ut ad se revertantur, to these CcBsar gives orders 
 
 that they retiiiii to him 
 
 521. The use of sui and suus as indirect reflexives is regular when 
 the subordinate clause expresses the words or thought of the subject 
 of the principal clause. Hence it is very common in indirect discourse 
 (§§883ff.). 
 
 Caesar dixit si obsides ab eis sM dentur, se cum eis pacem esse factu- 
 rum, Ccesar said that if hostages should be given by them to him^ 
 he would make peace with them 
 
 Note. When the subordinate clause does not express the words or 
 thought of the subject of the principal clause, is is used, not se, and eius, 
 e5nim, etc., not suus, to refer to that subject. 
 
 522. When the use of sui or suus as an indirect reflexive would 
 cause ambiguity, ipse is used instead. 
 
 rogavit cur de sua virtiite aut de ipsms diligentia desperarent, he 
 asked why they despaired of their own valor or his vigilance 
 
 Note. Occasionally is is used as an indirect reflexive, 
 
 persuadent Rauracis uti una cum eis proficiscantur, tJiey perstiade the 
 Rauraci to set out witti them 
 
 523. Sometimes suus is used with the subject and refers to an 
 emphatic word (especially quisque) in the predicate. 
 
 S5cratem cives si/f interfecerunt, his own fellow citizens killed Socrates 
 sua quemque virtiis defendit, his own valor defends each one 
 
POSSESSIVE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES 225 
 
 NoTK I . Suu8 should not be used with the second of two subjects or of 
 two objects to refer to the first. For example, in Ccrsar and his legions 
 are brave ^ or / see Ccrsar and his legions^ the word his, if expressed at all, 
 would be eius, not suae or su&s. 
 
 Note 2. Occasionally the clause to which the reflexive really belongs is 
 absorbed. 
 
 studeo sanare sihi ipsSs, / am anxious to cure these men for their man 
 benefit (i.e. ut sani sibi sint, that they may be cured for themselves) 
 
 524. Reciprocal action or relation (" each other ") is expressed by 
 the reflexive phrases inter nOs, inter vOs, inter sfi. 
 
 r nos damus, ive "] 
 obsides inter \ vos datis,yo tt >give hostages to each other 
 \^ si dant, they J 
 
 POSSESSIVE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES 
 
 525. The possessive pronouns are pronominal adjectives 
 agreeing with the noun to which they belong. 
 
 haec ornamenta sunt mea, these jewels are mine 
 
 526. Possessive adjectives, when attributive, are generally 
 omitted if they are unemphatic and plainly implied in the context. 
 
 ipse cum omnibus copiis e6s sequi coepit, he himself began to follow 
 them with all Q[{\%) forces 
 
 527. l^ossessive attributive adjectives may be necessary for 
 cleartiess, for emphasis, or for contrast. When used merely 
 for clearness, the possessive adjective follows its noun ; when 
 expressed for emphasis or contrast, it regularly precedes its noun. 
 
 ipse cum omnibus c5piis mtls eos sequi coepit, he himself began to 
 follow them with all my forces (meis expressed for clearness) 
 
 ego d5 tnto sensu iudico, / judge by my own feeling (meS expressed 
 for emphasis) 
 
 Helvetil suis finibus eos prohibent aut ipsi in eorum finibus bellum 
 gerunt, the Heh.ctii keep them from their own territory or them- 
 selves cany on war in their territory (suis expressed for contrast) 
 
226 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 
 
 528. Possessive adjectives are often used substantively, 
 especially in the masculine and neuter plural. 
 
 Ariovistus in nostras impetum fecit, Ariovistus made an attack upon 
 our men (lit. ours) 
 
 dedite vos vestraque omnia, siwrender yourselves and all .your posses- 
 sions (lit. yours) 
 
 flamma extrema meorum, last flames of my countrymen (lit. mine) 
 
 529. The genitive of a pronoun or adjective may be used to agree 
 with the genitive implied in a possessive adjective. Especially common 
 are the genitives ipsius, ipsorum, solius, unius, and omnium. 
 
 mea ipsius patria, my own country (equivalent to the country of me 
 
 myself) 
 tua soTius (or UnJus) causa, for your sake alone (equivalent to for the 
 
 sake of you alone) 
 nostra omnium patria, the country of us all. [This might be written 
 
 also nostrum omnium patria; cf. §§ 345, 513. a.] 
 
 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 530. The demonstratives are hie, iste, ille, is, and idem. 
 
 They are used either as pronouns or as pronominal adjectives. 
 
 531. The demonstrative pronouns, besides their own special 
 uses, supply the lack of a personal pronoun of the third person 
 (§ 512). This use is regular in the oblique cases, especially of is. 
 
 ei fiftam dat, he gives him his daughter 
 
 Caesar et exercitus eius, Ccesar a/id his army (lit. the army of him) 
 
 obsides ab eis dantur, hostages are given by them 
 
 hi sunt fortissimi, they are the bravest 
 
 ille minimum poterat, he had veiy little power 
 
 532. As pronominal adjectives the demonstratives follow 
 the rules for the agreement of adjectives (§§ 497 ff.). 
 
 a. A demonstrative usually agrees with an appositive or predicate 
 noun, if there be one, rather than with the word to which it refers. 
 
 rerum caput hoc erat, hie fons, this was the head of things, this the source 
 ea vera est pietas. that is true piety 
 
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 227 
 
 hiC) iste, ille, is 
 
 533. Hie, this, is used of what is near the speaker in time, 
 place, or thought. Hence it is called the demonstrative of the 
 first person. 
 
 luppiter est custSs hui\is urbis, Jitpiter is the guardian of this city 
 his sex diebus, /// ///£- /ust s/x days 
 
 534. Hie sometimes refers to the speaker himself. 
 
 noli tradere hunc hominem, do not betray me (lit. this man) 
 
 535. Iste, tJiat {of yours), is used of what is near the person 
 addressed in time, place, or thought. Hence it is called the 
 demonstrative of the second person. 
 
 miita istam mentem, change that purpose of yours 
 
 536. From its frequent application to the views of an opponent, 
 iste often implies contempt. 
 
 iinius usiiram h5rae gladiator! isti non dedissem. / luould not have 
 given that (contemptible) g/adiator the enjoyment of a single hour 
 
 537. Hie, that {yonder), is used of what is more or less 
 remote in time, place, or thought, both from the speaker and 
 from the person addressed. Hence it is called the demonstrative 
 of the third person. 
 
 in ilUs ulterioribus munitionibus, /// those more distant fortifications 
 ilia pars quam commemoravi, that part which I have mentioned 
 
 538. Ille, usually following its noun^ is sometimes used in the 
 sense of that famous, that well-kninun. 
 
 Medea ilia quondam ex Pont5 profiigit, that well-known Medea once 
 
 fled from Pont us 
 Magnus Ule Alexander, that famous Alexander the Great 
 
 a. In this sense ille may be combined with hie. 
 
 hoc iUud est, this is that weU-known (saying) 
 hie i7te est, this is that famous (man) 
 
228 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 
 
 539. Hie sometimes means the former, and hie the latter, of two 
 objects previously mentioned. 
 
 ignavia corpus hebetat, labor firmat ; iRa maturam senectutem, hie 
 longam adulescentiam reddit, sloth weakens the body, toil 
 strengthens it; the former brings on premature old age, the 
 latter renders youth long 
 
 Note. Less frequently hie means the for?ner and ille the latter. 
 
 540. Is, referring to what is either near or more remote, is 
 a weaker demonstrative than the others, and is especially 
 common as a personal pronoun of the third person (§ 531) 
 or as the antecedent of a relative. 
 
 rex aufugit ; is est in prdvincia tua, the king has fled ; he is in your 
 
 province 
 id quod natura eogit, that which nature compels 
 
 541. Is in the sense of such, of such a kind, is followed by a sub- 
 junctive clause of description introduced by qui (§ 727). 
 
 non is sum qui mortis perieulo terrear, / am not such as to be terrified 
 by the danger of death 
 
 542. Is combined with et or atque is translated and that too. 
 vineula et ea sempiterna, chaifis and that too for life 
 
 543. Hie, ille, and is may point either back to something just 
 mentioned or forward to something about to be mentioned. 
 
 haec dixit, these things he said, or he spoke as follows 
 
 544. The English word that in the phrase that of is regularly 
 omitted in Latin. Either the genitive construction is continued with- 
 out the pronoun or the noun is repeated. 
 
 classis Britannorum maior est quam Gattorum or quam classis GalWntm 
 (but not quam ea Gallorum), the fleet of the Britons is larger than 
 that of the Gauls 
 
 Note. In expressions like him fleeing, those pursuing, etc., the pro- 
 noun is left out in Latin : thus, fugientem (not eum fugientem), seqiientes 
 (not eos sequentes). 
 
THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN IPSE 229 
 
 idem 
 
 545. idem, the same, identifies^ the person or thing in 
 question with one just mentioned or about to be mentioned. 
 
 ^dem die, on the same day (as that before mentioned) 
 
 546. idem qui or idem atque (ac) is translated the same as. 
 facia idem quod semper, you are doing the same as always 
 
 xAtl. idem is sometimes best rendered also, too, yet, at the same time. 
 
 dixi ego idem in senatu. / also said in the senate 
 6rati5 splendida et eadem faceta, an oration brilliant and at the same 
 time witty 
 
 THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN IPSE 
 
 548. Ipse, self^ standing either alone or in agreement with 
 another word, expresses emphasis or contrast. 
 
 549. Ipse is used alone, substantively, as follows : 
 
 a. In the nominative to emphasize an omitted pronoun subject. 
 
 ipsi recordamini, you yourseh'es remember 
 ipse eum vidi, / myself saw him 
 
 Note i. This use must be distinguished from that of the reflexive, 
 especially as the word sel/ is used in translating both. Thus, ipse se lau- 
 dat, he himself praises himself, contains both an intensive and a reflexive. 
 
 Note 2. Ipse usually agrees with the subject, even when the emphasis 
 in English is on a reflexive in the predicate : as, me ipse cSnsolor, / console 
 myself. 
 
 6. In the oblique ^ cases as an emphatic pronoun of the third person, 
 id erat ip&s gloriosum, this was glorious for them themselves 
 
 c. As an indirect reflexive pronoun (see § 522). 
 
 ^ Idem is sometimes called the identifying pronoun. 
 
 * The oblique cases include all except the nominative and vocative. 
 
230 RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 550. Ipse in agreement with a noun or pronoun is often 
 best translated by very, even, exactly, just, in person, of his 
 own accord. 
 
 hoc ipso tempore, at this very time 
 ipso die aderant, they were present on the very day 
 turpe mihi ipsi videbatur, even to me it seetned disgraceful 
 Crassus triennio ipso minor erat quam Antonius, Crassus was Just (or 
 exactly) th?'ee years yotmger than Antony 
 
 RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 551. Relative pronouns refer to a substantive called the 
 antecedent and connect it with the clause which they introduce. 
 The relation of the relative clause to its antecedent is an 
 adjective relation, and the clause is regularly subordinate. 
 
 Thus, in the sentence hi sunt Galli qui victi sunt, these are the 
 Gauls who were conquered, the relative qui refers to Galli, its ante- 
 cedent, and the relative clause qui victi sunt is subordinate and adjec- 
 tive. The adjective relation is shown by the fact that an adjective 
 may be substituted for the relative clause : as, hi sunt victi Galli, 
 these are the conquered Gauls. 
 
 Agreement of the Relative 
 
 552. A relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in 
 gender and number, but its case is determined by its construc- 
 tion in its own clause. 
 
 legio quam secum habebat, the legion which he had with him 
 pons qui ad Genavam erat, the bridge which was near Geneva 
 leges quibus paremus, the laws which we obey 
 
 a. A relative with two or more antecedents follows the rules for 
 the agreement of predicate adjectives (§ 502). 
 
 filius et filia quos dilexit, the son and daughter whom he loved 
 5tium atque divitiae, quae prima mortales putant, idleness and wealth, 
 which 7nortals count first (in importance) 
 
RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 231 
 
 553. A relative regularly agrees with a predicate noun rather than 
 with its antecedent. 
 
 ThSbae, quod est caput, Thebes, which is the capital. [Here quod 
 agrees with caput and not with Thebae.] 
 
 554. The relative is sometimes attracted into the case of its 
 intccedent. 
 
 sub iudice quo nosti, under a judge whom you know (quo for quern) 
 
 Note. In poetry the antecedent may be attracted into the case of the 
 relative. 
 
 urhtm quam statud vestra est (Vergil), the city which I am building is 
 yours 
 
 555. The relative sometimes agrees with the real meaning of its 
 antecedent without regard to its grammatical form. 
 
 equitatus qui viderunt, the cavalry who saw 
 
 556. When a relative refers to a clause or a whole sentence as its 
 antecedent, quod, id quod, or quae r6s is used. 
 
 quod exspectavi, iam sum adsecutus, ut vos omnes factam esse coniu- 
 rati5neni videretis, 7L>hat I waited for I hai'C now attained, 
 (namely) that you might all see that a conspiracy has bee'n made. 
 [Instead of quod, id quod or quam rem might have been used.] 
 
 Antecedent of the Relative 
 
 557. The antecedent is often omitted when it is general, 
 indefinite, or implied in a possessive pronoun. 
 
 terra reddit quod accepit, the earth returns what it has received. 
 
 [Antecedent is general.] 
 sunt 9uf dicant. there are some who say. [Antecedent indefinite.] 
 nostra qui remansimus caede, by the slaughter of us who remained. 
 
 [Antecedent implied in nostra.] 
 
 558. The antecedent is sometimes repeated in the relative clause. 
 
 erant itinera duo quibus itinerihus dom5 exire possent, there were two 
 routes by which (routes) they could leave home 
 
232 SPECIAL USES OF THE RELATIVE 
 
 559. The antecedent may stand in the relative clause, agree- 
 ing with the relative in case. 
 
 This arrangement is regular (i) when the relative clause is 
 emphatic and stands first, or (2) when the antecedent is an 
 appositive. 
 
 (i) quam fecerat classem, iubet convenire, /le orders the fleet which he 
 
 had built to assemble 
 quas res gessi, hie versibus attigit, the deeds I performed he touched 
 
 tip in verse 
 (2) Roma, quam urbem amo, Rome, the city that I love 
 
 Note, In the first case a demonstrative usually stands in the ante- 
 cedent clause. 
 
 quae pars civitatis calamitatem intulerat, ea princeps poenas persolvit, 
 
 thai part of the state zvhtch had caused the disaster ivas the first to pay 
 the penalty (lit. what part . . . that) 
 
 560. The superlative of an adjective belonging to the antecedent 
 may stand in the relative clause, 
 
 vasa ea quae pukherrima apud eum viderat, those most beautiful 
 vessels which he had seen at his house 
 
 Special Uses of the Relative 
 
 56L The relative with an abstract noun may be used in a paren- 
 thetical clause to characterize a person, like the English such. 
 
 quae est vestra prudentia or qua prudentia es, such is your prudence 
 (lit. which is your prudence or of which prudence you are) • 
 
 562. The relatives qui, quSlis, quantus, etc. are often rendered 
 
 simply by as. 
 
 eadem fortuna quae, the sajne fortune as 
 talis dux qudlis, such a leader as 
 
 563. The relative is never omitted in Latin, as it often 
 is in English. 
 
 liber quern mihi dedisti, the book you gave me 
 
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 233 
 
 564. A relative, referring to an antecedent in the preceding 
 sentence, often stands at the beginning of a new sentence to 
 connect it with the sentence that precedes. It is then translated 
 by a demonstrative or personal pronoun, with or without and. 
 
 nostri non eadem alacritate utebantur. Quod ubi Caesar animadvertit 
 etc., our men did not manifest the same eagerness, ll'/ien C<esar 
 discox'ered this etc. 
 
 quae cum ita sint, {and) since this is so 
 
 quae qui audiebant, {and) those who heard this 
 
 Note. This is sometimes called the connecting relative. A similar use 
 of the relative is occasionally found within a sentence. 
 
 res loquitur ipsa, quae semper valet plurimum, the fact itseif speaks, and 
 this always has the greatest -iveight 
 
 565. The rules given for the relative qui apply in general also to 
 quails, of which kind, as ; qualiscumque, of whatever kind; quicumque, 
 whoever \ and to relative adverbs, as, ubi, qu6, unde, qua r6. 
 
 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 566. Quis, ivhof interrogative pronoun, and qui, of what sort? 
 interrogative adjective, are used to refer to one or more of 
 an indefinite number of objects. 
 
 quis me vocat, luho is calling me ? 
 
 qui homo me vocat, what sort of man is calling me ? • 
 
 quae amicitia est, what kind of friendship is it ? 
 
 Note. But quia may be used as an adjective instead of qui, and qui 
 is sometimes used as a substantive for quis. 
 
 quis gladiator inveniri potest, what gladiator can be found? 
 
 567. Uter, ivhich f is used as an interrogative pronoun or 
 adjective referring to one of tivo persons or things. 
 
 in utro haec virtiis f uit, in Mil5ne an in C15di5, in which of the two 
 was this excellence, in Milo or in Clodius f 
 
 568. Other interrcgatives are : 
 
 ecquis, any at all ? any one ? any f quantus, how great f 
 qualifl, of what kind? quot (indecl.X how many ? 
 
234 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 
 
 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 569. Indefinite pronouns and adjectives indicate that some 
 person, thing, or quaUty is meant, without closer definition. 
 
 570. Quis, substantive, some oiie^ aiiy one, and qui, adjective, 
 somey any^ are the weakest and vaguest of the indefinites. 
 They never stand first in a clause, and usually follow si, nisi, 
 ne, or num. 
 
 si quid accidat, if anything should happen 
 
 ne quam facultatem dimittat, that he may not lose any opportunity 
 
 dixerit quis, so?ne one may say 
 
 Note. The distinction between quis and qui is not always maintained 
 (cf. § 566. X.). 
 
 571. Aliquis, substantive, so>ne one, (at least) one (as opposed 
 to 710 one), and aliqui, adjective, some (as opposed to no), are 
 rather more definite than quis, qui. 
 
 aliqui ex navi, some/rom the ship 
 
 qui in aliquo numero sunt, who are of some account 
 
 Note. The distinction between aliquis and aliqui is not always 
 maintained (cf. § 566. n.). 
 
 572. Quidam, substantive or adjective, a certain ojie, a certain ^ 
 implies definite knowledge. 
 
 For example, aliqui philosophi, some philosophers, is wholly in- 
 definite ; but quidam philosophi, certain philosophers, means that the 
 philosophers are known to the speaker and could be named by him 
 or otherwise defined. 
 
 quidam ex militibus dixit, a certain one of the soldiers said 
 
 a. The adjective quidam in the sense of a sort of a kind of is 
 often used to soften the meaning of a noun or adjective. 
 
 dicendi singularis quaedam facultas, a hind of unique ability in 
 speaking 
 
rNDEFINITE PRONOUNS 235 
 
 Note. Sometimes, on the other hand, quidam intensifies the force of 
 the adjective. 
 
 alio quodam modo, /// <;« entirely Jijifent ivay 
 
 573. Quisquam, substantive, any one (at all), and the corre- 
 sponding adjective, GUus, any (at all), are used chiefly in nega- 
 tive sentences, in questions expecting a negative answer, in 
 conditions, and in clauses which follow a comparative. 
 
 neque quisquam egredi audet, /wr does any one dare to go forth 
 ciir quisquam iudicaret, w/iv should any one judge ? 
 si quisquam est timidus, is ego sum, if any one is timid, I am he 
 neque ulld necessitate continebantur, nor were they restrained by any 
 
 necessity 
 num censes ullum periculum, you don't think there is any danger, 
 
 do you / 
 saepius cum hoste c5nflixit quam quisquam cum inimicd concertavit, 
 
 he fought more often with the enemy than any one has contended 
 
 with a personal foe 
 
 Note. After si, nisi, ne, or num, quisquam is sometimes used instead 
 of quia, and is rather more emphatic. 
 
 81 quisquam, if any one (ever) 
 
 574. NemO, no one, is the negative of quisquam, any one, 
 and nuUus, no, is the negative of ullus, any. 
 
 a. NSmO is sometimes used for nuUus ; so regularly with adjectives 
 used substantively. 
 
 nimd Latinus, no Latin (man) ; not nullus Latinus 
 nemo dives, no rich man ; not niillus dives 
 
 b. Niillus is sometimes used for nSmO, regularly so in the genitive 
 and ablative singular (ntillius, nfillO) ; and in the plural it is often a 
 substantive. 
 
 nUllius aures violavit. he has shocked the ears of no one 
 
 in mild flagrantius studium vidi. /// no one have J seen more ardent zeal 
 
 nUtlis est iucundior. to none is he more pleasing 
 
 Note. In negative commands (§ 674), let no one is translated by ne quia. 
 
236 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 
 
 575. Nescio quis, some one or other (lit. / know not who), often 
 expresses contempt. 
 
 nescio quis loquitur, some one or other is speaking 
 
 nescio quo pacto, somehow or other (lit. / know not in what way) 
 
 Note. Observe that nescio, when thus used, does not change its form 
 and has no effect on the construction of the words that follow it (§ 820). 
 
 576. Quisque, substantive or adjective, each one, each, is 
 often used with pronouns, superlatives, ordinals, and with unus, 
 usually immediately after them : 
 
 a. With pronouns. 
 
 quod cuique obtigit, id quisque teneat, what has fallen to each, that let 
 
 each one keep 
 se quisque diligit, each one loves himself 
 suum cuique, to each one his own 
 milites ad suum quisque oppidum redierunt, the soldier's returned, each 
 
 to his own town 
 
 b. With superlatives. 
 
 optimus quisque ei favet, all the best 7nen (lit. each best man) favor him 
 antiquissimum quodque tempus, the ?nost ancient times 
 
 c. With ordinal numerals and unus, 
 
 decimus quisque miles, one soldier i?i ten (lit. each tenth soldier) 
 primo quoque tempore, at the earliest possible time 
 primum quidque, each thing in order 
 unus quisque regum, each one of the kings 
 
 577. Uterque, substantive or adjective, as distinguished from 
 quisque, means each of two. 
 
 uterque utrique erat exercitus in conspectu, each army was in sight of 
 
 the other (lit. each to each) 
 pugnatum est ab utrisque acriter, the contest was carried on vigorously 
 
 by each side 
 
PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES 2^1 
 
 PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES 
 
 alius AND alter 
 
 578. Alius, ot/ier, another, and alter, the other (or one of 
 two), are used both substantively and adjectively. 
 
 aliud iter nullum habebant, they had no other way 
 
 itinera duo, unum per Sequanos, alteram per provinciam, two routes, 
 
 one through the Sequani, the other through the proi'ince 
 fuit claudus altero pede, he was lame in one foot 
 
 a. Alter is generally used instead of secundus ; cf . ?5 171. 
 
 b. Alignus is used instead of the genitive of alius to express 
 possession. 
 
 aliena domus, another's house 
 
 579. Alius and alter are often used in pairs as correlatives : 
 
 alter . . . alter, the one . . . the other 
 
 alteri . . . alteri, the one party . . . the other party 
 
 alius . . . alius, one . . . another 
 
 alii . . . alii, so/ne . . . others 
 
 alteri dimicsint, alteri yictorem timent, one party fights, the other fears 
 the victor 
 
 aliud est maledicere, aliud acciisare, // is one thing to slander, another 
 to accuse 
 
 alii vallum scindunt, alii fossam complent, some tear down the ram- 
 part, others fill the ditch 
 
 580. Alius followed by alius in another case in the same 
 sentence is used to express reciprocity of action or to express 
 the idea that one does one thing and another does another. 
 
 alius ex alio causam quaerit, they ask one another the reason 
 
 alius aliud petit, one seeks one thing, another another (lit. another 
 
 seeks another thing) 
 alii aliam in partem fiigerunt, some fled in one direction, others in 
 
 anotfier (lit. others fled in another direction) 
 
 Note. The adverbs alias, alibi, aliS, and aliter may be used in a 
 similar way. 
 
 alias aliSs deSs precamur. -oe proy sometimes to one god, sometimes to another 
 
t>38 SYNTAX OF ADVERBS 
 
 ceteri and reliqui 
 
 581. Ceteri means all the rest, alljhe others. 
 
 Remi frumento ceterisque rebus iuvant, the Retni assist with grain 
 and everything else 
 
 582. Reliqui, tke reniaiiiijig, differs from ceteri in not 
 emphasizing the fact that none is excepted. 
 
 reliqua privata aedificia incendunt, they set fire to the remaining 
 • private buildi7igs 
 
 SYNTAX OF ADVERBS 
 
 583. An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjec- 
 tive, or another adverb. 
 
 facilius eis persuasit, he persuaded them more easily 
 longe ditissimus fuit, he was far the richest 
 minus late vagantur, they wander less widely 
 
 584. Adverbs sometimes appear as modifiers of nouns, the word 
 really modified being omitted for brevity. 
 
 ignari ante malorum, ignorant of past misfortunes (lit. ignorant of 
 misfortunes previously, a word meaning endured being omitted) 
 consul iterum, consul for the seco?id time 
 
 585. Adverbs are sometimes used like adjectives. 
 
 haec sunt palam, these facts are well hnown 
 
 fit obviam Clodio, he falls in with Clodius 
 
 duo talenta sunt satis, two talents are sufiicient 
 
 forte quadam divinitus, by some provide7ttial chance 
 
 586. Adverbs of quantity and place — satis, enough ; nimis, too 
 much ; parum, too little ; ubi, where ; nusquam, nowhere ; etc. — are 
 sometimes used as nouns and modified by a partitive genitive (§ 343). 
 
 satis eloquentiae, sufficient {of) eloquence 
 nimis insidiarum, too much (of) trickery 
 ubi terrarum, where in the world? 
 
USES OF ADVERBS 239 
 
 587. An adverb is often equivalent to a pronoun with a preposition. 
 
 eo {= in iis) imponit vasa, u/>o^ them he puts the camp utensils 
 apud eos quo ( = ad qu5s) se contulit, among those to whom he went 
 locus quo ( = ad quem) aditus n5n erat, a place to which there was 
 no access 
 For the formation and comparison of adverbs see §§ 269 ff. 
 
 SPECIAL ADVERBS AND THEIR USES 
 
 588. Etiam (et lam), also, even, still, and quoque, also, are 
 strengthening adverbs, though quoque sometimes expresses 
 merely addition. Etiam usually precedes the emphatic word ; 
 quoque regularly follows it. 
 
 etiam inermes armatis occurrerunt, even the unarmed ran to meet the 
 
 artned 
 Caesar quoque castra p5nit, Ccesar also pitches camp 
 
 589. Ita and sic, so, in this way, thus, are generally used 
 with verbs ; tarn, so, expresses degree, and as a rule is used 
 only with adjectives and adverbs. 
 
 quae cum ita sint, since this is so 
 
 sic se res habet. thus the matter stands 
 
 tarn necessari5 tempore, at so critical a time 
 
 Note. Tam may be used with verbs also when correlative with quam. 
 
 590. Nunc, noiv, at the present moment, refers to present time 
 or to past time conceived as present. 
 
 lam, no7v, already, contrasts an existing condition in present, 
 past, or future time with a preceding different condition. With 
 the future, iam means presently ; with negatives, longer. 
 
 Caesar nunc vincit, Casar is conquering now 
 
 Caesar iam vincit, Ccesar is already conquering (he was not before) 
 
 Caesar iam vincebat, Ccesar was already conquering (he had not been 
 
 before) 
 Caesar iam vincet. Ccrsar^vill conquer presently (he is not conquering now) 
 n6n est iam lenitati locus, there is no longer room for mercy (there 
 
 may have been before) 
 
240 USES OF ADVERBS 
 
 591. Primum means first, in the first place, in a series of 
 events or acts. Primo means at first, as opposed to afterwards, 
 
 hoc primum sentio, in the first place I think this 
 
 aedis primo mere rebamur, atfi7-st we thought the house was falling dowti 
 
 Note. Primum or primo often means for the first time ; similarly 
 tertium or tertio, far the third tijne ; quartum or quarto, for the fourth 
 ti^ne ; etc. For the second time is expressed by iterum. 
 
 a. Enumerations are introduced by primum or prim6 and may 
 be closed by postremo or denique, finally, at last. The intervening 
 steps are introduced by deinde, inde, or postea, secondly, next, later, 
 followed by tum, then, repeated as often as necessary, 
 
 primum mihi videtur de genere belli, deinde de magnitiidine, tum de 
 imperatore deligendo esse dicendum, first it seems to me that I 
 should speak of the character of the war, next of its Tnagnitiide, 
 then of the choice of a comjna?ider 
 
 Note. Instead of repeating tum, theft, the ordinals in -um may be used : 
 as, quartum, fourth ; quintum, fifth ; etc. 
 
 592. Quidem, indeed, to be sure, follows the word it empha- 
 sizes. Often the clause with quidem makes a statement, which, 
 while granted to be true, is shown by a succeeding statement, 
 introduced by bnt (sed, autem, etc.), to have little value. 
 
 amicum tuum non quidem odimus, sed certe non probamus, we do not to 
 be sure hate your friend, but we certainly do not approve of him 
 
 a. N6 . . . quidem means «<?/ even. The emphatic word or words 
 must stand between nS and quidem. 
 
 ne di quidem immortales pares eis sunt, ?tot evefi the immortal gods 
 are a match for them 
 
 Note. Equidem is used like quidem, but is rare except with the first 
 person. 
 
 593. Ng, surely (to be distinguished from the conjunction n6, lest, 
 that not, not), is regularly followed by a personal or a demonstrative 
 pronoun. 
 
 m ill! vehementer errant, surely they are greatly mistaken 
 
USES OF ADVERBS 241 
 
 NEGATIVE ADVERBS 
 
 594. The common negative adverbs are nOn, 116, and baud. 
 
 N(Jn is the usual negative, n6 is used with certain subjunctives and 
 the imperative, and baud with adjectives and adverbs and in the 
 phrase baud sciO an, / don't know but. 
 
 Note. NuUus is sometimes used colloquially for n5n, 
 
 595. Two negatives cancel each other and are equivalent to 
 an affirmative. 
 
 non nulli, some (lit. not none) 
 
 n5n nihil, something (lit. not nothing) 
 
 non nemo, some one (lit. not no one) 
 
 a. But when words of general negation, like nOn, nibil, numquam, 
 etc., are followed by nee . . . nee, neque . . . neque, nOn mode, n6 . . . 
 quidem, the negation is not destroyed but is distributed among the 
 separate subordinate members. 
 
 numquam Scipidnem ne minimi quidem re offendi, never did I give 
 
 ojfcnse to Scipio even in the smallest matter 
 nemo umquam neque poeta neque Srator fuit, there was never any one, 
 
 either poet or orator 
 
 Note. The proper translation of nfln modo . . . sed ne . . . quidem 
 with a common verb in the second member is not only not . . . but not 
 even, n5n modo being used instead of n5n modo n5n. 
 
 adsentatid non modo amic5 sed ne liberS quidem digna est, Jiattery is 
 not only not becoming to a friend but not even to a gentleman 
 
 596. In the second of two connected ideas, and not is regu- 
 larly expressed by neque (nee), not by et nOn. So also negO, / 
 dcny^ is preferred to dicO nOn. 
 
 hostSs terga verterunt jmpie fugere destitSrunt, the enemy turned and 
 
 fled and did not stop fleeing 
 negant quicquam esse bonum, they say that nothing is good (lit they 
 
 deny that anything is good) 
 
242 COPULATIVE CONJUNCTIONS 
 
 SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS 
 
 597. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or sentences. 
 They are divided into two classes, coordinating and subordi- 
 nating (§ 279). 
 
 USE OF COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS 
 
 598. Coordinating conjunctions are of five varieties : 
 
 I. Copulative. III. Adversative. 
 
 II. Disjunctive. IV. Causal. 
 
 V. Inferential. 
 
 I. Copulative Conjunctions 
 
 599. Copulative conjunctions, meaning and, also, and not, 
 unite similar constructions. The principal copulative conjunc- 
 tions are et, -que, atque (ac), neque (nee). 
 
 600. Et, and, simply co7tnects words or clauses. 
 
 Castor et Pollux, Castor and Pollux 
 
 cum coniugibus et liberis, with wives and children 
 
 601. The enclitic -que, and, is attached to the word that it 
 connects, and combines more closely than et. 
 
 senatus populusque Romanus, the senate and the Rotnan people (com- 
 bining to form the governing power) 
 ferro igmque, with fire <3:«^ j-w^n/ (the combined means of devastation) 
 
 a. When -que connects a phrase or clause, it is usually attached to 
 the first word of that phrase or clause ; but if the first word is a 
 preposition, -que is usually attached to the second word. 
 
 ob easque res supplicatio decreta est, and for these reasons a thanks- 
 giving was decreed 
 
 Note. The enclitic -que should not be attached to a word ending in c or e. 
 
COPULATIVE CONJUNCTIONS 243 
 
 602. Atque or ac, and^ and so, and what is more, generally 
 throws some emphasis on what is added. Atque is used before 
 either vowels or consonants ; ac, as a rule, only before 
 consonants. 
 
 omnia honesta atque inhonesta, ail things honorabie and, what is 
 
 more, dislionorable 
 ac Bibracte ire contendit, and so he hastened to go to Bibracte 
 
 a, Atque or ac is used after words of iikcness, uniikeness, or com- 
 parison, in the sense of as, than. 
 
 idem ac, the same as 
 
 non secus (non aliter) ac si, not otherwise than if 
 
 baud minus ac, no less titan, just as 
 
 alius ac, other than 
 
 603. Neque or nee, and not, neither, nor, is generally used 
 for et nOn (§ 596) ; and n6ve or neu for et n6. 
 
 ne aba te banc segreges neu deseras, do not put lier away from you 
 nor desert iter 
 
 604. Correlatives. Copulative conjunctions are often used 
 in pairs, or are repeated in successive coordinate clauses. 
 
 \botli . . . and 
 -que . . . -que J 
 
 neque (nee) . . . neque (nee), neither . . . nor 
 
 cum . . . tum, while . . . at the same time, not only . . . but also 
 
 605. Enumerations. In naming the members of a series, 
 (I) all connectives may be omitted (see § 619); (2) et may 
 precede each member, or each but the first ; (3) -que may be 
 attached to the last of the series. 
 
 (1) pater mitM, Mter, ,or«r 1 ^ ^ ^^^ 
 
 (2) {et) pater et mater et frater et soror > - / 
 
 (3) pater, mater, frater, sororque 
 
244 DISJUNCTIVE CONJUNCTIONS 
 
 11. Disjunctive Conjunctions 
 
 606. Disjunctive conjunctions, meaning or, and, as correla- 
 tives (§6io), either . . . or, offer a choice between objects. 
 The principal disjunctive conjunctions are aut, vel, sive (seu). 
 
 607. Aut, or, has the power of excluding, and indicates that 
 only one of the objects or ideas presented can be true, or, at 
 least, that they are strongly contrasted or essentially different. 
 
 animus aut est aut non est, the soul either exists or it does not 
 omne enuntiatum aut verum aut falsum est, every proposition is either 
 true or false 
 
 608. Vel, or, is the old imperative of volo, wish, and means 
 literally wish, take your choice. It is used to connect objects 
 or ideas that are not mutually exclusive, and indicates that 
 any one or all of them may be chosen. 
 
 Catilmam ex urbe vel eiecimus vel emisimus, Catiline we have either 
 cast out of the city or (if you choose) we have let hint out 
 
 imbecilliores vel animo vel fortuna, inferior either in spirit or in 
 fortune (meaning in either respect or in both) 
 
 Note. Vel is sometimes an intensive particle meaning evoi, fqr 
 instance : as, vel minimus, even the least. 
 
 a. The enclitic -ve, or, is a weakened form of vel, and is used to 
 express a distinction so unimportant as to be a matter of indifference. 
 
 telum tormentumve, a weapon or an engi7ie of war (it is unimportant 
 which you call it) 
 
 609. Sive or seu, or, has about the force of vel, and is often 
 used to connect alternative names for the same thing. 
 
 hoc Plato sive quis alius dixit, Plato or some one else said this 
 hie discessus sive potius turpissima f uga, this departure or rather this 
 most disgraceful flight 
 
 For sive, or if connecting conditions, see § 777. 
 
ADVERSATIVE CONJUNCTIONS 245 
 
 610. Correlatives. Disjunctive conjunctions are often used 
 in pairs, or are repeated in successive coordinate clauses, 
 aut . . . aut 
 
 sive (8«u) . . . sive (seu), whether . . . or 
 
 - .either . . . or 
 vel . . . vel 
 
 III. Adversative Conjunctions 
 
 611. Adversative conjunctions, meaning bitty yety however , 
 etc., denote opposition or contrast. The principal adversative 
 conjunctions are sed, v6rum, v6r0, autem, tamen, at. 
 
 612. Sed, the usual word for but, and v6rum, but in truth, 
 buty are used to modify or oppose what precedes, especially 
 after negatives {not this . . . but something- else), 
 
 nihil Sequani responderunt, sed taciti permanserunt, the Sequani made 
 
 no reply, but remained silent 
 non modo iniussu suo sed etiam inscientibus ipsis, not only against 
 
 his orders but also iinthoiit their knowledge 
 pacem habebimus, verum cnientam, we shall have peace, but in truth 
 
 a bloody one 
 
 a. Both sed and v6rum may be used to mark a return to the main 
 thought after a digression. 
 
 sed (or verum) redeo ad rem, but I return to the subject 
 
 613. V6r5 (postpositive 1), but, in fact y is generally stronger 
 than sed or v6rum. 
 
 haec sunt leviora, ilia vero gravia, these things are somewhat triviaL 
 but those weighty 
 
 Note. Turn ver5, then in truth, then verily, is used in narrative to in- 
 troduce the climax or crisis of a series of events. lam verS marks a transition. 
 
 turn viro cl&m5re audit5 nostri acrius impugn&re coepSrunt, then verily, 
 when they heard the shout i/lg, our men began to fight more fiercely 
 
 iam vero acgritudinSs oblividne leniuntur, but again, sorrows are healed 
 by forgetfulness 
 
 * A postpositive word is one that never begins a sentence, but stands after 
 one or more words. 
 
246 CAUSAL CONJUNCTIONS 
 
 614. Autem (postpositive), however, moreover , now, is the 
 weakest of the adversatives. It neither contradicts what pre- 
 cedes nor marks a sharp contrast, but indicates merely a 
 transition to a new thought. 
 
 pro multitudine OMfCTTi hominum etc., in proportion to the number of 
 inhabitants^ moreover^ etc. 
 
 615. Tamen, 7ievertheless, declares something as true in spite 
 of what precedes. It may stand first or follow an emphatic 
 word. 
 
 locum reperit munitum ; tamen hunc oppugnare contendit, he finds the 
 place fortified J nevertheless he strives to storm it 
 
 616. At (old form ast) may be used like sed, verum, or vero, 
 but is used especially to introduce {a) a new phase of a situa- 
 tion or a new point in the argument, {b) the supposed objec- 
 tion of an adversary, being then usually strengthened by enim, 
 or (r) a change of scene or speaker. 
 
 at dices etc., but you will say etc. 
 
 ad navis tendebat Achates. At Cytherea etc., Achates hastened to the 
 ships. But Cytherea etc. 
 
 Note. For quamquam in the sense of and yet^ however., see § 807. 
 
 IV. Causal Conjunctions 
 
 617. The causal conjunctions, meaning /<?;', explain or give 
 the reason for a preceding statement. The principal causal 
 conjunctions are nam, namque, enim, etenim. 
 
 is pagus appellabatur Tigurinus ; nam civitas in quattuor pag5s divlsa 
 
 est, that catiton was called Tigurinus j for the state was divided 
 into four cantons 
 
 a. Enim is postpositive except in early Latin, where it means 
 indeed., verily. 
 
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 247 
 
 V. Inferential Conjunctions 
 
 618. Inferential conjunctions, meaning therefore^ and so, 
 introduce the natural result or logical inference of what pre- 
 cedes. The principal inferential conjunctions are ergO, igitur, 
 itaque. 
 
 Dumnorix novis rebus studebat. Ilaque rem suscipit, Dumnorix was 
 eager for a revolution. And so he undertook the business 
 
 a. Igitur is usually postpositive. It is sometimes used to resume 
 an interrupted narrative and may then be translated as I was saying. 
 
 . Subordinating conjunctions are discussed in connection with 
 the various subordinate clauses introduced by them. 
 
 ASYNDETON 
 
 619. Asyndeton is the omission of conjunctions between 
 two or more coordinate words, phrases, or sentences where 
 they would be naturally expected. The effect, except in a few 
 common expressions like the names of the consuls in dates 
 (as, L. PisOne A. GabiniO cOnsulibus, in the consulship of Lucius 
 Piso and Aulus Gabinius), is to produce rhetorical emphasis. 
 
 iura, leges, agr5s, libertatem nobis reliquenint, they have left us our 
 
 rij^/ifs, our liut's, our fields, our liberty 
 abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit, he has gone, withdrawn, escaped, burst 
 forth 
 
 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 
 
 620. Questions are either real or rhetorical. 
 
 a. A real question is one that seeks for information, and the verb 
 is in the indicative. 
 
 quid f acis, what are you doing f 
 
 b. A rhetorical question is interrogative in form, but does not seek 
 information nor expect an answer. It answers itself and is, in fact, 
 
248 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 
 
 an emphatic assertion of something. The verb is either indicative 
 or subjunctive (§§ 678, 679). 
 
 num etiam recentium iniuriarum memoriam deponere possum, / can't 
 forget the 7'ecent w7'oiigs too, can If [Equivalent to the assertion 
 I can't forget them.'] 
 
 quid facerem, what was I to do ? [Equivalent to / couldn't do atiy- 
 thifig.'] 
 
 621. Questions are either direct or indirect. 
 
 a. A direct question retains the form used in asking it. 
 quid est, what is it ? ubi sum, where am I ? 
 
 b. An indirect question reports the substance of a question in the 
 form of a dependent clause. The verb is in the subjunctive (§ 812). 
 
 rogo quid sit, I ask what it is 
 
 nescit ubi sit, he does not know where he is 
 
 Note. For exclamatory questions with the infinitive cf. § 843. 
 
 622. Questions either inquire as to the truth or falsity of 
 something, and expect the answer yes or no ; or they inquire 
 as to some detail or circumstance. 
 
 "YES" OR "NO" QUESTIONS 
 
 623. '' Yes " or " No " questions are introduced by -ne, nonne, 
 or num as follows : 
 
 a. By -ne (attached to the emphatic word), asking for information. 
 mortemne timet, does he fear death ? or is it death that he fears ? 
 
 b. By nonne, implying the answer yes. 
 nonne mortem timet, doesn't he fear death f 
 
 c. By num, implying the answer no. 
 
 num mortem timet, he does n't fear death, does he ? 
 
 Note. The particle -ne sometimes has the force of nonne, especially 
 when added to the verb. 
 
 meministine me in senatu dicere, don't you remember my saying in the 
 
 senate ? 
 
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 249 
 
 624. " Yes " or " No " questions sometimes have no introductory 
 word, especially if the first word of the question is nOii. 
 
 mortem timet, does he fear death ? 
 
 patere tua consilia non sentis, do you not see tliat your schemes are 
 
 manifest f 
 non f ugis hinc, do you not flee hence f 
 
 QUESTIONS OF DETAIL OR CIRCUMSTANCE 
 
 625. Questions inquiring into some detail or circumstance are 
 introduced, as in English, by interrogative pronouns or adverbs. 
 
 quid exspectas. what are you looking forward to ? 
 quern socium defendistis, what ally have you defended? 
 quando et qud is, when and whither are you going f 
 
 626. The enclitic -nam may be added to interrogative pronouns 
 or adverbs for the sake of emphasis. 
 
 quisnam est, who, pray, is it ? 
 
 ubinam gentium sumus, where in the world are we ? 
 
 ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS 
 
 627. An alternative question is an inquiry as to which of 
 two or more cases is true. It is introduced as follows : 
 
 utrum ... an 1 
 
 -ne . . . an K {whether) . . . or 
 
 ... an J 
 
 utrum haec vera an falsa sunt^ 
 
 verane haec an falsa sunt I are these things true or false ? 
 
 haec vera an falsa sunt J 
 
 Note. Observe that introductory ntrum or -ne in a direct alternative 
 question has no English equivalent. 
 
 a. Or not is expressed by annOn when the alternative question is 
 direct, usually by necne when it is indirect (§ 817). 
 
 utrum haec sunt vera annon, are these things true or not ? 
 rogat utrum haec sint vera necne, he asks whether these things are 
 true or not 
 
250 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 
 
 • 6. Sometimes the first member of an alternative question is 
 omitted, and an alone asks the question, usually with indignation 
 or surprise. 
 
 an invidiam posteritatis times, (or) do you fear the hatred of future 
 
 years f 
 an Pamphilus venit, has Pa7nphilus really come ? 
 
 628. Alternative questions asking which of two things is true 
 must be distinguished from single questions asking whether either is 
 true. In the latter case or is expressed by aut or vel. 
 
 utrum nescis, an pro nihilo id putas, don't you know, or do you think 
 
 nothing of it ? [Alternative question.] 
 estne urbs magna aut pulchra, is the city large or beautiful? [Single 
 
 question.] 
 num vel Caucasum transcendere potuit vel Gangem transnatare, could 
 
 it either clif?tb over the Caucasus or switn across the Ganges ? 
 
 [Single question.] 
 
 ANSWERS 
 
 629. There is no one Latin word meaning simply yes or no. 
 
 a. The answer yes may be expressed by repeating the verb of 
 the question, or by an affirmative adverb — vero, ita, etiam, sane, etc. 
 
 .valetne, is he well? valet, he is, or vero, truly 
 
 b. The answer no is expressed by repeating the verb of the 
 question with a negative, or by a negative adverb — non, minime, etc. 
 
 valetne, is he well ? non valet, he is not well, or non, not so 
 
 630. The answer to an alternative question is expressed by 
 repeating all or part of one member of it. 
 
 utrum vidisti an audivisti, did you see it or hear it ? egomet vfdf, I 
 saw it 7nyself 
 
AGREEMENT OF VERBS 251 
 
 SYNTAX OF VERBS 
 AGREEMENT OF VERB AND SUBJECT 
 Agreement with One Subject 
 631. A verb agrees with its subject in number and person. 
 
 Romulus urbem condidit, Romulus founded the city 
 
 hi omnes inter se differunt, all these differ from one another 
 
 nos desumus, we are wanting 
 
 a. In verb forms containing a participle, the participle agrees with 
 the subject in gender as well as in number. 
 
 Gallia eat dmsa in partis tres, Gaul is divided into three parts 
 
 63JJ. A verb sometimes agrees, not with its subject, but with a 
 predicate noun or an appositive. 
 
 amantium irae am5ris integratio est, the quarrels of lovers are the 
 
 renewal of love 
 Corinthus liimen Graeciae exstfnctum est, Corinth, the light of Greece, 
 
 has been put out 
 
 633. The verb sometimes agrees with the real meaning of the 
 subject without regard to its grammatical form. 
 
 multitud5 abeunt, the multitude depart. [Number.] 
 
 decern milia occisi sunt, ten thousand were slain. [Gender.] 
 
 Agreement with Two or More Subjects 
 
 634. Number. With two or more singular subjects the verb 
 is regularly plural. 
 
 pater et avns mortui sunt, his father and grandfather are dead 
 
 a. The verb sometimes agrees with the nearest subject and is 
 understood with the others. 
 
 fnia atque unus e filiis captus est, his daughter and one of his sons 
 were captured 
 
252 AGREEMENT OF VERBS 
 
 6. When subjects unite to make a single whole, the verb is singular. 
 
 senatus populusque Romanus intellegit, the senate and the Roman 
 people understand 
 
 635. With singular subjects connected by disjunctives (§ 6o6) the 
 verb is usually singular. 
 
 neque fides neque ius iurandum eum repressit, neither Jidelity nor his 
 oath restrained him 
 
 636. Person. When the subjects are of different persons, 
 the verb is in the first person rather than the second and in 
 the second rather than the third. 
 
 si tu et Tullia valetis, ego et Cicero valemus, if you and Tullia are well, 
 Cicero and I are well 
 
 Note. Contrary to English usage, courtesy in Latin requires that the 
 first person be mentioned first. So in the example above, Cicero and I is 
 rendered ego et Cicero. 
 
 637. When the subject is a relative pronoun, the verb takes the 
 person of the antecedent. 
 
 adsum qui feci, here am I who did it 
 
 638. Gender. With subjects of different genders the parti- 
 ciple in a verb form follows the rules for the agreement of 
 predicate adjectives. See § 502. 2. 
 
 Omission of Subject or Verb 
 
 639. The subject is omitted when it is an unemphatic 
 personal pronoun (§511). 
 
 putamus, we think dicunt, they say 
 
 640. The present indicative and infinitive of sum, and indic- 
 ative tenses of other common verbs, are often omitted. 
 
 tu coniunx, you (are) his wife 
 
 quid multa, why (say) much ? " 
 
 Aeolus haec contra, ^olus (spoke) thus in reply 
 
TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE 253 
 
 MOODS AND TENSES IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES 
 
 641. The Moods express by the form of the verb the way 
 in which the subject regards the action — as true, desired, 
 doubtful, etc. ; and the Tenses express the time of the action. 
 
 THE INDICATIVE MOOD 
 
 642. The indicative mood is used to state something as a 
 fact or to inquire as to facts. This inherent function of the in- 
 dicative is the same both in principal and in subordinate clauses. 
 
 643. Special Uses. The indicative is sometimes used where 
 the English idiom would suggest the subjunctive (cf. § 797) : 
 
 a. In expressions of duty, propriety, ability, and the like, especially 
 when using the passive periphrastic conjugation. 
 
 haec condicio n6n accipienda fuit, this condition should not have been 
 
 accepted 
 eum colere debuisti, you ought to have revered him 
 multa dicere possum, I might say much 
 
 &. In such expressions as longum est, // would be tedious ; difficile 
 est, // would be diffiailt ; melius f uit, /'/ would have been better ; etc. 
 
 longum est omnes nSminare, // would be tedious to name them all 
 
 Tenses of the Indicative 
 
 644. The tenses of the indicative are six in number : the 
 present, past descriptive,^ future, perfect (divided into present 
 perfect 2 and past absolute 3), past perfect,* future perfect 
 
 645. The Latin tenses express : 
 
 a. The period of time — present, past, or future. 
 h. The kind of action — going on, completed, or indefinite as to 
 continuation or completion. 
 
 * Also called the imperfect. • Also called the perfect indefinite. 
 
 * Also called the perfect definite. * Also called the pluperfect 
 
254 
 
 TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE 
 
 646. The Latin has no special forms for action indefinite 
 as to continuation or completion ; hence, in some cases, the 
 same form has a double use. 
 
 TABLE OF TENSES 
 
 TIME 
 
 KIND OF ACTION 
 
 Going on 
 
 Completed 
 
 Indefinite 
 
 Present 
 
 Pres. duco, 
 / a7n leading 
 
 Pres. Perf. duxi, 
 / have led 
 
 Pres. duco, 
 / lead 
 
 Past 
 
 Past Descrip. ducebam, 
 / was leading 
 
 Past Perf. duxeram, 
 I had led 
 
 Past Absolute duxi. 
 lied 
 
 Future 
 
 Fut. ducam, 
 / shall be leading 
 
 Fut. Perf. duxero, 
 / shall have led 
 
 Fut. ducam, 
 / shall lead 
 
 Present Indicative 
 
 647. The present indicative represents the action or state 
 {a) as now existing or going on ; {b) as a general truth. 
 
 {a) Germani trans Rhenum incolunt, the Germans live across the Rhine 
 {p) obsequium amlcos parit, Jlattery gains friends 
 
 Note. The present of a general truth is called the gnofnic present. 
 
 Special Uses of the Present 
 
 648. The Historical Present. In lively narration a past action 
 is often expressed by the present. 
 
 ad eum accurrunt atque docent, they ran up to him a7id pointed out etc. 
 Caesar castra movet, Ccesar moved his camp 
 
 Note. The historical present may be translated by either a present or 
 a past tense. 
 
 a. With dum meaning while^ in the sense of during the tij?ie that, 
 the historical present is regular (§ 763). 
 
 dum haec geruntur, while this was going on 
 
TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE 255 
 
 NoTi:. A past tense with dum meaning tvhile, all the time that, or as 
 long as makes the time emphatic by contrast. 
 
 dum tram vdbiscum, animum meum non videbatis, while 1 7vas with you, 
 yoH did not see my soul. [Here the time when he was aUve is con- 
 trasted with that after death.] 
 
 649. The Conative Present. The present sometimes denotes an 
 action attempted or merely be^un. 
 
 iam manu tenet, already he tries to seize him 
 
 dena^sfertur in hostis, he starts to rush into the thickest of the foe 
 
 650. The Present with iam diu etc. With iam, iam diu, iam 
 dudum, etc. {already^ now for a long time), the present is used 
 in the sense of the English perfect to denote an action begun 
 in the past and continuing in the present. 
 
 iam diu igndrb quid agas, now for a long time I have not known what 
 
 you were doin^ 
 te iam dudum hortor, I have been urging you now for a long time 
 
 651. The Annalistic Present. The present may be used for the 
 perfect in a summary enumeration of past events. 
 
 Roma interim crescit Albae minis : duplicatur civium numerus ; Caelius 
 additur urbi m5ns, Rome meanwhile grows as a result of the fall 
 of Alba : the number of citizens is doubled; the Ccelian hill is 
 added to the town 
 
 Past Descriptive ^ Indicative 
 
 652. The past descriptive indicative has two uses : ,{d) to 
 denote an action going on or repeated in past time ; (b) to 
 describe a situation in past time or a past occurrence. 
 
 (</) Gain inter 8§ obsides dabant, the Gauls were giving hostages to 
 
 each other 
 sS in proxima oppida recipiebant, they used to retreat to the nearest towns 
 (b) erant omnino duo itinera, there were in all two ways 
 palus erat n5n magna, there was a stnall marsh 
 
 * Also called the imperfect. 
 
256 TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE 
 
 Note. In its descriptive use the past descriptive is usually translated 
 by the English past, since the English fails to distinguish between the past 
 descriptive and the past absolute (§ 658. II). For example, Haedui graviter 
 ferebant and Haedui graviter tulerunt are both rendered the Hadui were 
 afmoyed\ but the first sentence describes a situation, and the second merely 
 states a fact. 
 
 Special Uses of tJie Past Descriptive 
 
 653. The Conative Past Descriptive. The past descriptive, like 
 the present, sometimes denotes an action attempted or merely begun. 
 
 eum in exsilium eiciebam, I was trying to sejid him into exile 
 nostros prohibebant^ they tried to keep back our men 
 
 654. The Past Descriptive with iam diu etc. With iam, iam 
 diu, iam dudum, etc. (already, now for a lo7ig time), the past 
 descriptive is used in the sense of the English past perfect to 
 denote an action or state continuing in the past but begun at 
 some previous time (cf. § 650). 
 
 domicilium Romae iam diu habebat, he had now /or a long time had 
 his residetice at Ro?ne 
 
 Future Indicative 
 
 655. The future indicative denotes an action or state that 
 will take place or be going on in future time. 
 
 meam libertatem recuperabo, I shall regain my freedom 
 
 mea erit culpa, // will be 7ny own fault 
 Note. The distinction felt in English between j//^// and will in the 
 first person is usually disregarded in Latin, both ideas being expressed by 
 the same future form. Thus moriar may mean, according to context, / 
 shall die (futurity) or / will die (determination). 
 
 656. The future may have the force of an imperative. 
 tu hodie apud me cenabis, you will dine with me to-day 
 
 657. The English present is often used for the future. We 
 say, for example, if he comes, meaning if he shall come. This use 
 of the present is rare in Latin, the more regular future being 
 preferred. 
 
TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE 257 
 
 Perfect Indicative 
 
 658. The perfect indicative has two distinct uses : 
 
 I. As the present perfect^ it represents the action as com- 
 pleted in present time, and is rendered by the English perfect 
 with have. 
 
 nunc opus vtegi, noio I have finished my work 
 ut supra demonstrdvimus, as we have shown above 
 
 I I . As the past absolute '-^ it represents the action as having 
 taken place at some undefined point of past time, and is ren- 
 dered by the English past. 
 
 is coniurationem nobilitatis fecit, he made a conspiracy of the nobility 
 eo exercitum duxii, he led his army thither 
 vSni, vidi, vici, / came, I saw, I conquered 
 
 a. In narrative the perfect ,(or historical present) tells the leading 
 events, while the past descriptive describes the circumstances that 
 attended these events (cf. § 652. b). 
 
 planities erat magna et in ea tumulus satis grandis. Hie locus aequo 
 fere spatio ab castris Ariovisti et Caesaris aberat. E6 ad conlo- 
 quium vinerunt there was a large plain and on it a hill of con- 
 siderable size. This place was about equally distant from the 
 camp of Ariovistus and that of CcEsar. Thither they came for a 
 conference. [Note the two sentences describing a place followed by 
 the sentence stating what happened there.] 
 
 Special Uses of the Perfect 
 
 659. The perfect 'is sometimes used to contrast a past 
 condition of things with a present condition. 
 
 f nium habed, imm5 habul^ I have a son ; no, I had one 
 
 fuimus Trftcs, fuit ilium, we have ceased to be Trojans, Ilium is no 
 
 more (lit. we were Trojans, Ilium was) 
 
 1 Sometimes called the perfect definite. 
 
 ' Sometimes called the historical perfect or perfect indefinite. 
 
258 TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE 
 
 660. The present perfect sometimes denotes a present state 
 resulting from a completed act. Such a perfect is rendered by 
 the present. Among these perfects are : 
 
 memini. / reme7nber (/ have called to mind) 
 
 novi or cognovi, / know (/ have learned) 
 
 6di, / hate 
 
 consuevi, / ajn accustomed (/ have grown accustomed) 
 
 Note. The past perfect and future perfect of such verbs are rendered 
 by the past descriptive or the perfect and by the future respectively. 
 
 nSveram, / knew, I have kfiown n5vero, / shall know 
 
 Past Perfect ^ Indicative 
 
 661. The past perfect indicative denotes an action or state 
 completed in past time. 
 
 omnes civitates defecerant, all the states had revolted 
 
 Future Perfect Indicative 
 
 662. The future perfect indicative denotes an action or state 
 that will be completed in future time. 
 
 ego certe meum ofELcium praestitero, I at least shall have do fie 7?ty duty 
 
 663. Latin is far more exact than English in the use of tenses. 
 Hence the future perfect is much commoner in Latin than in English. 
 It may be used to translate an English future or even an English 
 present, when exactness of expression demands a future perfect : thus, 
 when you come, you will find out is translated cum veneris^ cogn6sc6s. 
 
 Epistolary Tenses 
 
 664. In letters the writer, instead of using tenses suited to 
 the time of writing, sometimes uses tenses that will be suit- 
 able when his letter is received. Tenses so used are called 
 
 epistolary. 
 
 1 Also called the pluperfect. 
 
TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE 259 
 
 Thus he may use the past descriptive or the perfect for actions 
 and events that are present, and the past perfect for those that 
 are past. 
 
 nihil habebam quod ad te scriberem ; ad tuas omnis epistulas lam 
 rescrtpseram, I have nothing to write to you ; I have already 
 answered all your letters (lit. / had nothing to write to you ; I 
 had already etc.) 
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
 
 665. The Latin subjunctive ^ is used to express something 
 as willed, as desired, or as possible. It is found both in 
 independent and in subordinate clauses. 
 
 Tenses of the Subjunctive 
 
 666. The tenses of the subjunctive are four in number : 
 the present, past,^ perfect, and past perfect.^ 
 
 667. The four tenses of the subjunctive have in general the 
 same temporal force as the corresponding tenses of the 
 indicative. 
 
 vide5 quid facias, I see what you are doing 
 videbam quid faceres. I saw what you were doing 
 video quid feceris, I see what you have done 
 videbam quid fecissis, I saw what you had done 
 
 ^ The Latin subjunctive is the result of the fusion of two distinct moods of 
 the Indo-European parent speech, the subjunctive and the optative, and 
 has kept the characteristic meanings of each. The Indo-European subjunc- 
 tive expressed (a) the 7ciii of the speaker, (b) futurity; the Indo-European 
 optative expressed (a) the -wish of the speaker, {b) possibility- The Latin sub- 
 junctive inherited all these powers, but its use as a pure future (like the future 
 indicative) disappeared at an early period, except in certain kinds of subordi- 
 nate clauses, and even here the future force of the mood may perhaps be 
 traced to a different origin. 
 
 ^ Also called the imperfect. 
 
 ' .Mso called the pluperfect. 
 
26o THE VOLITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 668. The subjunctive lacks the future and the future perfect, 
 but any subjunctive tense may in some constructions express 
 futurity. (See also § 698. a, b.) 
 
 peream, may I perish / 
 quid faciam^ what shall I do? 
 rogavi quid facerem, I asked what I should do 
 dixerit aliquis, so?ne one may say 
 
 demonstravit, si venissent, multos interitiiros, he showed that if they 
 should come {should have co?ne), 7na?iy would perish 
 
 a. The place of the future is supplied by the subjunctive present 
 or past of the active periphrastic conjugation (§ 249. «) whenever the 
 use of the ordinary subjunctive forms would be ambiguous. 
 
 Vide5 quid facturus sis, I see what you will {are going to) do 
 videbam quid facturus esses, I saw what you would {were going to) do 
 
 669. In wishes (§ 681. IL i) and in conditions contrary to fact 
 (§ 786) the past subjunctive refers to the present. 
 
 The Subjunctive in Independent Sentences 
 
 670. The subjunctive in independent sentences represents 
 an act or state as — 
 
 Willed — the volitive subjunctive. 
 Desired — the optative subjunctive. 
 Possible — the potential subjunctive.^ 
 
 The Volitive Subjunctive 
 
 .671. The volitive subjunctive represents an act or state as 
 willed, implying authority. This subjunctive comprises : 
 
 I. The Hortatory. III. The Concessive. 
 
 II. The Jussive. IV. The Deliberative. 
 
 1 The potential subjunctive is often called the subjuHCtive of contingent 
 futurity. 
 
THE VOLITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 261 
 
 I. The Hortatory Subjunctive 
 
 672. The hortatory subjunctive expresses an exhortation, 
 regularly in the first person plural of the present. The negative 
 is ne. 
 
 proficiscamur, lei us set out 
 
 optimus potius quam querdmur, let us pray rather than complain 
 
 ne hos latrones interficiamus, let us not kill these robbers 
 
 \A diets pareamus, let us not obey the order 
 
 II. The Jussive Subjunctive 
 
 673. The jussive 'subjunctive expresses a command or a 
 prohibition. The negative is n6. 
 
 674. In commands the jussive subjunctive is regularly con- 
 fined to the present, third person singular or plural. 
 
 obsides reddat, let him return the hostages 
 
 Aeolus regnet, let j-Eolus reign 
 
 secedant improbi, secemant se a bonis, let the wicked depart^ let them 
 
 separate thepnseh'es from the good 
 desinant insidiari consuli, let them cease lying in wait for the consul 
 
 a. The second person of the jussive subjunctive is used only of 
 an indefinite subject and in poetry. 
 
 istS bono Utdre dum adsit, use that blessing while it is present 
 doceds iter (Vergil), sho7v us the way 
 remittds quaerere (Horace), cease to question 
 
 675. In prohibitions the jussive subjunctive with n6 is in 
 the second person, singular or plural. The tense may be either 
 present or perfect, with no apparent difference in meaning. 
 
 ne metuds, don't fear ne mentidris, don't lie 
 
 hoc ne fecerts, don't do this ne dispexens, do not despise 
 
 But neither of these forms of expression is common in 
 classic prose. 
 
w 
 
 262 THE VOLITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 676. Prohibition is regularly expressed in two ways : 
 
 a. By noli (singular) or nolite (plural) with the present infinitive. 
 
 noli putare, don'^ think (lit. be unwilling to think) 
 noli me tangere, don't touch me 
 
 b. Less commonly by cave (take ca^r), cave ne, or fac n6 (see to it 
 lesi)^ with the present subjunctive (§ 720). 
 
 cave (ne), or fac ne, putes, take care 7iot to think (lit. take care^ or see 
 to it, lest you thifik) 
 
 For the imperative in prohibitions see § 690. a. n. 
 
 III. The Concessive Subjunctive 
 
 677. The subjunctive may be used to concede or grant 
 something for the sake of argument. The present is used 
 for present time, the perfect for past. The negative is ne. 
 
 sit fur ; at est bonus imperator, grant that he is a thief ^ yet he is a 
 
 good goieral 
 sit Scipio ille clams, grant that Scipio isfa?nous 
 ne fuerit talis aliis, suppose that he was not such to others 
 sit hoc malum, n5n summum certe est malum, grant that this is an 
 
 evil, certainly it is not the greatest evil 
 
 IV. The Deliberative Subjunctive 
 
 678. The subjunctive is used in rhetorical questions (§ 620.^) 
 of surpnse, perplexity, or indignation, expecting no reply.^ 
 
 1 This use of the volitive subjunctive, beginning with questions asked by 
 the speaker in regard to the -will or desire of the person addressed, developed 
 into questions no longer volitive but deliberative, in which the speaker is in 
 doubt and deliberates on the proper course to pursue. A further step leads 
 to the usual meaning covered by the rule above, where the questions are 
 purely rhetorical or exclamatory. The name deliberative is generally given 
 to all these idioms, though applicable to only one of them, 
 quid f aciam, what do you desire me to do ? [Volitive.] 
 quid faciam, 7uhat am I to do ? [Deliberative.] 
 quid faciam, 7uhat shall I do ? [Rhetorical or Exclamatory.] 
 
THE OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 263 
 
 The present is used of present time, the past of past time. 
 The negative is nOn.* 
 
 quid agam ? quo me vertam, 7uhat shall I do f whither shall I turn ? 
 quam rationem pugnae Jnsistam, what plan of battle shall J adopt f 
 quid dicerem, what was I to say f 
 cut ego n6n laeter, why should I not rejoice f 
 
 679. The indicative is sometimes used in deliberative questions. 
 
 quid ago, what am I to do ? 
 
 dedemus ergo Hannibalem, shall we then surrender Hannibal? 
 
 The Optative Subjunctive 
 
 680. The optative subjunctive is used to express a wish. 
 The negative is n6. 
 
 681. I. The present subjunctive (with or without utinam) 
 
 denotes a wish as possible. 
 
 sis f elix, may you be happy 
 falsus utinam vates s/m, may I be a false prophet 
 di omen avertant, may the gods ai'ert the omen 
 ne vtvaniy si sci5, may I not live, if I know 
 
 Note. Utinam, uti, or ut (§ 682), introducing a wish, do not appear in 
 the translation. 
 
 II. I. The past subjunctive with utinam denotes a wish 
 uuattaincd in present time. 
 
 utinam Clodius vtveret, would that Clodius were now alive (but he 
 
 is n't) 
 
 2. The past perfect subjunctive with utinam denotes a wish 
 wiattained in past time. 
 
 utinam omnia edUxisset, would that he had led thtm all out (but he 
 
 did n't) 
 utinam ne mortuus esset^ would that he had not died 
 
 • The use of ndn instead of nS, the regular negative with the vohtive, may be 
 due to the fact that most of these questions have lost their volitive character. 
 
264 THE POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 682. Uti or ut is sometimes used instead of utinam in poetry and 
 in early Latin. 
 
 ut pereat robigine telum (Horace), may the weapoti perish with rust 
 
 683. In poetry si or 6 si with the subjunctive sometimes expresses 
 a wish. 
 
 o « angulus ille acccdaf (Horace), O if that corner might only be added 
 
 The Potential Subjunctive 
 
 684. The potential subjunctive ^ represents an act or state 
 as possible or conceivable. The negative is non. 
 
 Note. There is no single English equivalent for this subjunctive; it 
 must be rendered, according to circumstances, by the auxiliaries would^ 
 should^ may, might, can, could. 
 
 685. The present and perfect of the potential subjunctive 
 denote an existing possibility, the past^ denotes a past possi- 
 bility no longer existing. 
 
 nemo dicat or dixerit, no one would say 
 diceres, you would have said 
 
 Note. Rarely the past perfect is used, instead of the past, to refer to 
 what might have been but is not. 
 
 686. The potential subjunctive has three uses : 
 
 a. The potential subjunctive is used in the first person singular, 
 present or perfect, of verbs of sayifig, wishing, or thijiking to make a 
 softened or cautious assertion. 
 
 pace tua dixerim, I would say by your leave 
 
 velim ita putare, / should like to think so 
 
 nolim eum laudare, / should be unwilling to praise him 
 
 ego censeam, I should think 
 
 1 Also called the subjunctive of contingent futurity. 
 
 2 Compare the use of the past subjunctive in conditions contrary to fact 
 (§ 786). 
 
THE IMPERATIVE MOOD 265 
 
 b. The potential subjunctive is used in the indefinite second person 
 singular, present or more frequently past, of verbs of saying, believing^ 
 seeing, and the like. 
 
 reos diceres, you would have said they were culprits 
 
 crideris victos, you would have believed them conquered 
 
 vidires susurros, you might have seen them whispering (lit. whispers) 
 
 c. The potential subjunctive is used in any tense, person, or number 
 to express something as possible or conceivable. The subject is often 
 an indefinite pronoun. 
 
 aliquis dfcat some' one may say 
 
 nil ego contulerim amico, / should compare nothing to a friend 
 
 quid dixisset luhat would he have said? 
 
 quis temperet a lacrimis, who could refrain from tears ? 
 
 687. The potential subjunctive may be regarded as the conclusion 
 of a conditional sentence with the condition understood. See § 774. 
 
 688. The indicative is used in certain expressions when the 
 potential subjunctive might have been expected. See § 643. 
 
 THE IMPERATIVE MOOD 
 
 689. The imperative is the mood of cominajid or request. 
 The negative is n6. 
 
 690. The tenses of the imperative are two in number, the 
 present and the future. 
 
 a. The present imperative demands immediate action. 
 
 disiltte, commilitones, leap down, comrades 
 
 muta istam mentem, change that pufpose of yours 
 
 egredere ex urbe, depart from the city 
 
 Note. The present with n5 to express prohibitions is found only in 
 early Latin and in poetry. For the regular expression of prohibitions see 
 
 ?5 '')76. 
 
266 SEQUENCE OF TENSES 
 
 b. The future imperative is used in commands demanding future 
 action and in laws and precepts. 
 
 eras petito, ask to-morrow 
 
 Phyllida mitte, postea ipse veniio, send Phyllis, afterwards co7ne 
 
 yoM7'self 
 praetor cust5s esto, the prcEtor shall be the guardian 
 borea flante, ne arato, when the north wind blows, don't plow 
 
 691. The verbs scio, memini, and habeo (in the sense of consider) 
 are used in the future imperative instead of in the present. 
 
 memento Horati Flacci, be mindful of Hor-atius Flaccus 
 sic habeto, mi Tiro, so consider it, my good Tiro 
 
 For the future indicative used as imperative see § 656. 
 
 MOObS AND TENSES IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 
 
 692. Tenses are divided into two classes, — primary and sec, 
 ondary. Primary tenses denote present or future time. Second 
 ary tenses denote past time. 
 
 r Present 
 
 T Ti • ^ Future 
 
 I. Primary tenses^ ^ ^ . 
 
 ^ j Present Perfect 
 
 (^Future Perfect 
 
 r Past Descriptive (Imperfect) 
 II. Secondary tenses^ Past Absolute (Historical Perfect) 
 \ Past Perfect (Pluperfect) 
 
 693. In the subjunctive the present and perfect tenses are 
 primary, the past and past perfect are secondary. 
 
 694. The tense class of a subjunctive in a dependent clause 
 is determined by the tense class of the verb in the principal 
 clause. This relationship is called sequence of tenses. 
 
SEQUENCE OF TENSES 267 
 
 695. The following is the general rule for the sequence 
 of tenses : 
 
 When the principal verb is primary, a dependent subjunctive 
 will be present or perfect ; when, the principal verb is secondary, 
 a dependent subjunctive will be past or past perfect. • 
 
 Regular Sequence of Tenses 
 
 696. In dependent clauses the tenses of the subjunctive 
 represent the action as takiui:; place, as ^oing to take place, or 
 as hainng taken place at the time denoted by the principal verb. 
 
 The kind of action denoted by the tenses of the verb in the 
 dependent clause, and the sequence of tenses, are shown in 
 the following table : 
 
 
 prinxipal 
 Verk 
 
 Dki-EM)ENT Scbjunctive 
 
 Action going on 
 
 Future Action 
 
 Past Action 
 
 :3L 
 
 7. 
 as 
 
 a: 
 
 ■J. 
 
 Present 
 Future 
 
 Present Perfect 
 Future Perfect 
 
 Present 
 
 (After any pri- 
 mary tense) 
 
 Present or Per- 
 fect 
 
 (After any pri- 
 mary tense) 
 
 Perfect 
 (After any pri 
 mary tense) 
 
 Past Descriptive 
 Past Absolute 
 Past Perfect 
 
 Past 
 (After any sec- 
 ondary tense) 
 
 Past or Past 
 Perfect 
 
 (After any sec- 
 ondary tense) 
 
 Past Perfect 
 (After any sec- 
 ondary tense) 
 
 697. Sequence of tenses is illustrated in the table on the 
 next page. 
 
 698. In applying the rules for the use and sequence of the 
 tenses of the subjunctive, observe especially the following points : 
 
 a. The future is supplied by the present subjunctive after primary 
 tenses and by the past subjunctive after secondary tenses. 
 
 exspectant quid Caesar faciat, they wait to see what C'asar will do 
 exspectabant quid Caesar faceret, they watted to see what C(Psar 
 would do * 
 
268 
 
 SEQUENCE OF TENSES 
 
 C/2 
 C/3 
 
 ^; 
 
 w 
 
 o 
 
 w 
 u 
 
 w 
 
 D 
 W 
 
 o 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 ■^ «r \» 
 
 "Ki 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 to 
 
 00 ^ 
 
 
 P- 
 
 1 s,^-i 
 
 1 - 
 
 > 
 
 
 o« 
 
 cr 
 
 
 2^1 
 
 '^1 1 
 
 
 c 
 .2 
 
 o 
 
 1§ 1 
 
 •1 ic- 
 
 
 :3 
 
 Q 
 
 1 
 
 is ^ S 
 
 aceres or 
 
 esses, 
 i/d do 
 fecisses, 
 
 i/d have 
 
 w 
 
 , 
 
 MH oo M-. t^ 
 
 '^^ w 5 5 
 
 0. 
 
 
 12 2 12 -^ 
 
 3 2^3^ 
 
 Q 
 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 ;^ :i 
 
 
 
 a* cr 
 
 & o* 
 
 
 •^ 
 ^ ^ 
 
 ■^ ^ 
 
 
 c 
 
 O 
 
 1.| 
 
 1| 
 
 
 
 |l 
 
 fi 
 
 
 .2 
 
 '*^ S 
 
 
 "•Ij 
 
 o 
 
 < 
 
 1^ 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 
 cr 
 
 cr 
 
 
 
 •VJ 
 
 t-j 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 n 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 ^ S 
 
 > 
 
 
 ^ ^ ^ 
 
 o « 
 
 < 
 
 
 ^ ^ ^ 
 
 ^ -^ s 
 
 Oc 
 
 c 
 
 
 ■<. -^ ^ ^ 
 
 s § a 
 a > ^. 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 ^ s S «-^ ^ 
 
 
 
 lO loS icS 108 C 
 
 lets ^ K i« 
 bo ^ bo bo 
 
 
 
 bo bfl ho bo ^ 
 
 
 
 S 2 2 2 
 
 2 2 2 
 
 
 AHVKIHd 
 
 AHVaNOD3S 
 
SEQUENCE OF TENSES 269 
 
 b. The future perfect is supplied by the perfect subjunctive after 
 primary tenses and by the past perfect subjunctive after secondary 
 tenses. 
 
 demSnstrat, si venerint, multds interiturSs, A^ s/ioivs that if they come 
 
 {shall hiiTt' come), many will perish 
 demdnstravit, si vinissent, multds interiturds, he showed that if they 
 
 should come {should have come\ many would perish 
 
 c. When a clearer reference to future time is necessary, the active 
 periphrastic forms in -iirus sim and -Qnis essem are employed. 
 
 exspectant quid Caesar facturus sit, they wait to see what Casar 
 
 "will do 
 exapectabant quid Caesar facturus esset, they waited to see what Casar 
 
 would do 
 
 Note. This is the usual form of expression in future indirect questions 
 (§815). 
 
 d. After a primary tense the perfect subjunctive is used to denote 
 
 any past action. ^ , ... 
 
 ^ ^ I have written 
 
 n5n dubito quin omnes scripserint, I do not doubt that all\ wrote 
 
 y were writing 
 
 Peculiarities in the Sequence of Tenses 
 
 699. The present perfect is ordinarily treated as a secondary 
 tense and is followed by a secondary tense of the subjunctive. 
 
 ut satis tsset praesidi prSvisiun est, provision has been made that 
 there should be ample guard 
 
 a. When present time is clearly in mind, the present perfect is 
 followed by a primar)' tense. 
 
 ita didicimus ut magis virttite quam insidiis contendamus, we have 
 been so trained that we fight more by valor than by stratagems 
 
 700. The historical present (§ 648) takes either the primary 
 or the secondary sequence. 
 
 roeat ut haec I ^^^ \he['" f A ^ti>" i^> attend to these tnatters 
 * \aLrartt] yaskedy 
 
2/0 SEQUENCE OF TENSES 
 
 701. A ge?teral truth after a secondary tense follows the rule for 
 sequence of tenses. 
 
 quanta conscientiae vis esset ostendit, he showed how g?-eat the 
 strength of conscience is 
 
 702. In clauses of result the perfect subjunctive is very often 
 (the present rarely) used after a secondary tense. 
 
 ita non timidus fuit ut fortiter pugnaverit, he was so fearless that he 
 
 fought bravely 
 Hortensius ardebat tanta cupiditate dicendi ut in null5 mnquam fla- 
 
 grantius studium vTderim, Hortensius burned with so great a 
 
 desire for speaking that I have never seen a 7nore burning ardor 
 
 in any man 
 
 a. Occasionally the same irregular use of the perfect subjunctive 
 appears in other clauses. 
 
 cum multas horas pugnatum sit, aversum hostem videre nemo potuit, 
 though the conflict raged for many hours, no one could see aft 
 enemy in retreat 
 
 703. A dependent perfect infinitive is usually followed by a 
 secondary tense, even when the principal verb on which the 
 infinitive depends is in a primary tense. 
 
 satis mihi multa verba fecisse videor qua re hoc bellum esset necessa- 
 rium, / seem to have made it sufficiently clear why this war is 
 necessary 
 
 704. The past and past perfect subjunctive in conditions 
 contrary to fact (§§ 786, 793) are not affected by the sequence 
 of tenses. 
 
 non dubito quin ad me venires, si posses, I do not doubt that you would 
 co7ne to 7ne if you could 
 
 705. When a subjunctive depends on a subjunctive, the 
 sequence is as follows : 
 
 a. The present subjunctive is regularly followed by primary tenses. 
 6. The past, perfect, and past perfect subjunctive are followed by 
 secondary tenses. 
 
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 271 
 
 nescid quid causae sit ciir nullas ad me litteras des (dederis, daturus sis)^ 
 
 I do not know what the reason is why you send {have sent, wilt 
 
 send) me no letter 
 nescio quid causae fuerit cur niillas ad me litteras dares (dedisses, 
 
 daturus esses), I do not know wluit the reason was why you sent 
 
 {had sent, would send) me no letter 
 
 nesciebam quid causae \ !- cur nullas ad me litteras dares {dedisses, 
 
 daturus esses), I did not know what the reason \ i. j i. \ f^hy 
 you sent {had sent, would send) me no letter 
 
 706. When a subjunctive clause depends on a present or 
 future infinitive, a supine, gerund, or participle, its tense class is 
 regulated by the tense class of the verb in the principal clause. 
 
 confido me quod velim facile a te impetratiirum esse. / trust I shrill 
 
 t'iis//y obtain from you what I wish 
 constitueram venire ut te vidirem, J had made up my mind to come 
 
 to see you 
 miserunt Delphos consultum (supine) quidnam facerent, they sent to 
 
 Delphi to ask what they should do 
 
 NoTK. For the sequence of tenses after the perfect infinitive see § 703. 
 
 707. Though the laws of tense sequence are in general closely 
 observed, they are not inflexible, and many irregularities occur. 
 These are often due to a desire for rhetorical effect and sometimes 
 to careless writing. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OP SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 
 
 708. In the early stages of language there were no subordi- 
 nate clauses, but only coordinate independent sentences. From 
 these subordinate clauses were a gradual development. 
 
 I'or example, timeC n6 veniant consisted originally of two inde- 
 pendent sentences, I fear. May they not come. Later, n6 veniant 
 was felt as a subordinate clause, and thus was developed the com- 
 plex sentence I fear that they will come (lit. lest they may come). 
 
2/2 SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 
 
 Kinds of Subordinate Clauses 
 
 709. From independent sentences with the indicative or 
 subjunctive were developed three kinds of subordinate clauses : 
 
 I. Adverbial clauses, expressing various adverbial relation- 
 ships and introduced by conjunctive adverbs. 
 
 venio ut Caesarem laudem, I co?ne to praise CcEsar 
 
 II. Adjective clauses, used to qualify some noun or pronoun 
 and introduced by the relative qui or by a relative adverb. 
 
 legatum mittit qui haec curet, he sends his lieutenant to see to these 
 ^natters 
 
 Note. These are usually called relative clauses. 
 
 III. Substantive, or noun, clauses, used as subject, object, 
 predicate noun, or appositive. 
 
 accidit ut GalU consilium mutdrent, it happened that the Gauls changed 
 their plati. [Substantive clause used as subject.] 
 
 The Indicative or Subjunctive in Subordinate Clauses 
 
 710. Both the indicative and the subjunctive are used in 
 subordinate clauses. The uses of the subjunctive are all 
 developed from the three meanings (volitive, optative, and 
 potential) that this mood has in principal clauses (§ 670). 
 
 711. The indicative or subjunctive is used in subordinate 
 clauses to express — 
 
 1. Purpose (subjunctive ; §712). 
 
 2. Description or characteristic (subjunctive; § 726). 
 
 3. Consequence or result (subjunctive ; §731). 
 
 4. Time (indicative or subjunctive; § 743). 
 
 5. Cause (indicative or subjunctive ; §767). 
 
 6. Condition (indicative or subjunctive; § 772). 
 
 7. Comparison (subjunctive ; § 803). 
 
CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 273 
 
 8. Concession (indicative or subjunctive ; § 805). 
 
 9. Proviso (subjunctive; §811). 
 
 10. Indirect questions (subjunctive; § 812). 
 
 1 1. Facts introduced by quod (indicative; § 821). 
 
 12. Indirect discourse (subjunctive ; §886). 
 
 Subjunctive Clauses of Purpose 
 
 712. The subjunctive is used in adverbial, relative, and 
 substantive clauses to express purpose. 
 
 I. Adverbial Clauses of Purpose 
 
 713. An adverbial clause denoting purpose takes the sub- 
 junctive, and is introduced by ut or uti, that, in order that, 
 or 116, that noty in order that not, lest. 
 
 Caesar equ5s remSvit ut spem fugae totleret, Casar removed the horses 
 
 that he might take away the hope of flight 
 ibi tormenta conlocavit nl hostes suos circumvenire possent, there he 
 
 placed his engines of war that the enemy might not be able to 
 
 surround his men 
 ne graviori bell6 occurreret, ad exercitum proficiscitur, he set out for the 
 
 army that he might not pneet with too serious a war 
 n5n null!, ut timSris suspicidnem vitarent, remanebant, some remained 
 
 {in order) to avoid the suspicion of fear 
 
 Note. Purpose clauses are often called final clauses. The subjunctive 
 of purpose is volitive (§671) in origin. 
 
 a. Ut nOn may be used for nfi when the negative applies to a 
 single word or phrase and not to the whole clause. 
 
 ut non Siectus sed invitatus isse videaris, that you may seem to have 
 gone not expelled but invited 
 
 b. Ut n6 is stronger than 118 alone. 
 
 exstiti ut nl omnind desertus esaet, / appeared that he might not be 
 entirely deserted 
 
274 CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 
 
 c. And that not, and lest, or that not are regularly expressed by 
 nSve or neu. 
 
 id fecit ne poenas daret neve quid detrimenti acciperet, he did this that 
 
 he might not receive pufiishine7it ajid that he might not suffer 
 
 any harm 
 nuntios misit ne Helvetios frumento neoe alia re iuvarent, he sent 
 
 messejigers that they 7night not assist the Helvetii with grain or 
 
 anythijig else 
 aliae sublicae supra pontem agebantur ut earum rerum vis minueretur 
 
 neu ponti nocerent, other piles were driven above the bridge that 
 
 the violence of those things might be diminished or that they 
 
 might not injure the bridge 
 
 714. Subjunctive clauses with ut or ne are sometimes inserted 
 parenthetically. • 
 
 ac ne longum s/Y, tabellas pr5ferri iussimus, and, not to be tedious, we 
 
 ordered the tablets to be p7'oduced 
 optima vitae, ut ita dicam, supellex, the best furniture, so to speak, of life 
 
 Note. The subjunctive may be regarded as depending on some unex- 
 pressed verb : as, (I speak thus) in order not to be tedious. 
 
 II. Relative Clauses of Purpose 
 
 715. A relative clause denoting purpose takes the subjunctive. 
 
 Helvetii legates mittunt qui dicerent, the Helvetii sent ambassadors to 
 
 say (lit. who should say) 
 sarmenta coUigunt quibus fossas expleant, they gather fagots with 
 
 which to fill the ditches 
 scribebat orationes quas alii dicerent, he wrote speeches for others to 
 
 deliver 
 dies dicta est qua omnes convenirent, a day was appointed on which 
 
 all should assemble 
 
 Note. In this construction qui is equivalent to ut is, ut ego, etc. ; and 
 the subjunctive, as in ut clauses of purpose, is volitive (§671) in origin. 
 
 716. A relative clause of purpose is often introduced by the relative 
 adverbs ubi (= ut ibi), where ; unde (= ut inde), whence ; qu5 
 (= ut eo), whither-, etc. 
 
CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 275 
 
 domum ubi habitaret legit, //^ cAose a house where he might dwell 
 (equivalent to /// order that he might dwell there) 
 
 habebam quo confugeremy I had a place to flee to (lit. whither I might 
 flee ; equivalent to in order that I might flee thither) 
 
 717. The adjectives dignus, indignus, and idOneus are followed by 
 a relative clause of purpose. 
 
 hunc Caesar idoneum iudicavit quern mitteret, Casar judged him a suit- 
 able person to send (lit. whom he might send) 
 
 hi libri sunt digni qui legantur, these books are worth reading (lit. 
 worthy which should be read) 
 
 718. The ablative qu5 is used as a conjunction in purpose 
 clauses which contain a comparative. 
 
 manipulos Uucare iussit quo facilius gladiis uti possent, he gai'e orders 
 
 to open the ranks that they might be able to use their swords 
 
 more easily 
 castella communit quo facUius hostis prohibere posset, he fortified the 
 
 redoubts that he might the more easily be able to ward off the 
 
 enemy 
 
 Note i. In this construction qu6 is really an ablative of the measure 
 of difference (§475). 
 
 Note 2. Qu5 rarely introduces a purpose clause containing no com- 
 parative. 
 
 Sulla cxercitum, quo sibi fidum faceret, luxuriose habuerat, Sulla had 
 treated the army luxuriously, in order to make it devoted to him 
 
 Note 3, For qu5 minus (= ut eo minus) after verbs of hindering see 
 § 720. III. 
 
 III. Substantive Clauses of Purpose 
 
 719. Substantive clauses developed from the volitive or optative 
 subjunctive are generally designated as substantive clauses of purpose, 
 and are conveniently classified together under this name. But in 
 many cases no idea of purpose is perceptible and the mood is due to 
 some original volitive or optative use which may never have denoted 
 jDurpose at all. 
 
 Note. Compare substantive clauses of result (§ 736). 
 
276 CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 
 
 720. Object Clauses of Purpose. Object clauses with the 
 subjunctive are used after verbs denoting an action directed 
 toward the future. Thus : 
 
 I. Object clauses with the subjunctive, introduced by ut or 
 ne, are used after verbs meaning to advise, ask, command, 
 decide, permit, persuade, strive, urge, wish, and the like. 
 
 monet ut omnes suspiciones vitet, he advises him to avoid all suspicion 
 te rogo atque oro ut eum iuves, I ask and beseech you to help him 
 suis imperavit ne quod telum reicerent, he commanded his men ?iot to 
 
 throw back any weapon 
 persuadet Castico ut regnum occuparet, he persuaded Casticus to seize 
 
 the royal power 
 hortatur e5s ne deficiant, he urges thent not to fail 
 
 a. lubeo, order, and YQto, forbid, regularly take the infinitive with 
 subject accusative. 
 
 liberos ad se adducT iussit, he ordered the children to be brought to him 
 legdtos discedere vetuerat, he had forbidden the lieute?tants to go away 
 
 h. V0I6 (nolo, malo) and cupio generally take the infinitive ; so 
 also other verbs of wishing when the subject remains the same. 
 
 rex fieri volui, / wished to become king 
 
 cUpio me esse clementem or cupi5 esse Clemens, / desire to be merciful 
 
 cupi5 ut impetret, I wish he may get it. [The subject changes.] 
 
 c. Conor, try^ and patior, permit, regularly take the infinitive. 
 
 flumen trdnsire conantur, they try to cross the river 
 per suos finis e5s ire patiuntur, they allow them to pass through their 
 territory 
 
 d. Many of these verbs take either the subjunctive or the infini- 
 tive ; and some, retaining an earlier form of expression, may take the 
 subjunctive without ut. 
 
 Caesar statuit proficisci^ Cccsar decided to set out. [Note the infinitive.] 
 statuunt ut decem milia hominum mittant, they decide to send ten 
 thousand men. [Note the subjunctive.] ^ 
 
 rogat finem faciat, he asks him to cease 
 
CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 277 
 
 II. Object clauses with the subjunctive are used after verbs of 
 fearing — metuO, timeO, vereor, etc. The object clause is introduced 
 by n6, translated by that^ and nC nOn or ut, translated by that fiot} 
 
 timed ne Verres hoc fecerit, I fear that Verres has done this 
 vereor ni non veniat, I fear that he is not coming 
 vereor ut passim, I fear thai I cannot 
 
 Note. When the verb of fearing is negatived, ne n6n is preferred to ut. 
 
 non vereor nl tua virtus opinion! hominum non respondeat, / do not fear 
 that your worth unit not equal popular expectation 
 
 a. Verbs of fearing are often followed by the complementary 
 infinitive, as in English. 
 
 vereor te lauddre, I fear to praise you 
 
 III. Object clauses with the subjunctive are used after 
 verbs of hindering y opposing y refusing — dfiterreO, prohibeO, impediO, 
 retineO, reciisO, etc. The object clause is introduced by nS, quin, 
 or quOminus (quO minus). N6 or quSminus is used when the main 
 clause is affirmative, quin or quOminus when it is negative or 
 implies a negative. 
 
 prohibent ne fiat, they Prevent it from being done 
 
 deterret ne maior multitudd traducatur, he pre^'ents a larger number 
 
 from beini^ broui^ht over 
 nihil impedit quominus id fadamus, nothing hinders us from doing that 
 German! retineri n5n poterant quin tela conicerent, tht Germans could 
 
 not be restrained from huriini^ their weapons 
 neque reciisant quin armis contendant, nor do they refuse to fight 
 
 a. Some of these verbs may take the infinitive, 
 nostrds /n^^^d/ prohibebant, they prevented our men from entering 
 
 > Originally timed; n8 accidat meant I fear; may it not happen (§680). 
 When the sentence beconKs complex (§ 300), the EngHsh equivalent is I fear 
 that it will happen. The origin of the ut clause after verbs of fearing is similar, 
 vereor ; ut accidat meaning originally I fear; may it happen (ut introducing a 
 wish and not appearing in the translation, cf. § 682) ; then, I fear that it will 
 not happen. The translation of ot by that not and of n8 by that is therefore due 
 only to the demands of the Englisii idiom and not to any real change in the 
 value of the Latin words themselves- 
 
278 CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 
 
 IV. Object clauses with the subjunctive are used after verbs 
 of doubt or ignorance that are negatived or imply a negative 
 — non dubito, quis dubitat, quis ignorat, etc. The object clause 
 is introduced by quin. 
 
 non dubitat quin Troia peritura sit, he does 7iot doubt that Troy will 
 
 fall 
 non dubito quin supplicium sumaU I do not doubt that he will inflict 
 
 PunisJunent 
 quis ignorat quin tria genera sint, who is ignorant that there are 
 
 three kinds? 
 
 a. Similarly negatived expressions of doubt — non est dubium, there 
 is no doubt ; non abest suspicio, suspicion is not wanting ; etc. — are 
 followed by quin and the subjunctive. 
 
 non erat dubium quin Helvetii plurimum possent, there was no doubt 
 that the Helvetii were the most powerful 
 
 neque abest suspicio quin ipse sibi mortem consdverit, nor is the sus- 
 picion wanting that he committed suicide 
 
 Note. Dubito, doubt, without a negative, is generally followed by an 
 indirect question (§ 813); and in the s' nse of hesitate, regularly by the 
 infinitive (§ 837), but sometimes by quin Ui.^ mc "Subjunctive. 
 
 721. Subject Clauses of Purpose. Subject clauses of purpose 
 with the subjunctive are used after the passive of verbs that in 
 the active take object clauses (see § 720). 
 
 persuadetur Castico ut regnum occuparet, Casticus is persuaded to 
 seize the royal power (lit. it is persuaded to Casticus that he 
 seize etc.) 
 
 erat ei praeceptum ne proelium committeret, it had been enjoined upon 
 
 him that he should not engage in battle 
 
 u 
 
 722. Subject clauses of purpose with the subjunctive are 
 used with licet, oportet, and necesse est, usually without ut. 
 
 licet queramur, it is allowed us to complain 
 sint enim oportet, for they must exist 
 
CLAUSES OF DESCRIPTION 279 
 
 723. Subject clauses of purpose with the subjunctive are 
 used with impersonal expressions Hke reliquum est, sequitur, 
 opus est, 16x est, mOs est, etc., when the dependent clause does 
 not state a fact already existing^ but looks forward to some- 
 thing yet to come. 
 
 reliquum est ut dicam, it remains for me to say 
 
 est lex amicitiae ut idem amici velint, it is a law of friendship that 
 friends should have the same wish 
 
 Note. Compare subject clauses of result, which state a fact (§§ 738, 739). 
 
 724. Clauses of Purpose as Appositives. Subjunctive clauses, 
 introduced by ut or n6, may be used as appositives to nouns or 
 pronouns. 
 
 in hoc iinum vivo, ut patriae prosim, I am living for this one thing, 
 
 that I may be of sen'ice to my country » 
 
 id agunt, ut omnes videant. they strii'c for this, that all may see 
 haec erat lex, ut omnes interficerentur. this was the law, that all 
 should be killed 
 
 725. Developed from the volitive subjunctive in its deliberative 
 use are substantive clauses following such expressions as niilla causa 
 est cur (qua r6, quin), nOn est cdr, etc. 
 
 niilla causa est cur earn, there is no reason why I should go (originally 
 why should I go ? There is no reason) 
 
 For other ways of expressing purpose, and for a summary of them 
 all, see § 882. I, footnote. 
 
 Subjunctive Clauses of Description or Characteristic 
 
 726. A relative clause that describes an antecedent by telling 
 what kind of person or thing it is, is called a clause of descrip- 
 tion or characteristic and takes the subjunctive.* 
 
 1 This construction has its origin in the potential subjunctive (§ 684), the 
 
 idea oi possibility easily passing over into that of quality ox characteristic (com- 
 
 nare there is no one who would be able with there is no one ivho is able). It is 
 
 specially common when the antecedent is otherwise undefined or general, 
 
28o CLAUSES OF DESCRIPTION 
 
 nihil vide5 quod timeam, I see nothing to fear (lit. which I fear) 
 multa dicunt quae vix intellegam, they say many things which (such as) 
 
 / ha?-dly understand 
 erat nullum oppidum quod se defenderet, there was no tow?i which 
 
 defended itself (stated not as a fact but as a characteristic) 
 erant omnino itinera duo quibus itineribus domo exire possent, there 
 
 were in all two ways by which they could go forth from home 
 nihil habebam quod scriberem, I had 7iothing to write 
 
 727. Relative clauses of description or characteristic are 
 used especially after general expressions of existence or non- 
 existence : 
 
 sunt qui, there are some who 
 nemo or niillus est qui, there is no one who 
 nihil est quod, there is 7iothing which 
 , quis est qui, who is there who 
 is qui, the ofie who 
 iinus or s51us qui, the only one who 
 
 sunt qui putent, there are some who think 
 
 domi nihil erat quo famem tolerdrent, there was jtothing at home by 
 
 which to sustain hunger 
 quis est qui eum non laudet^ who is there that does not praise him ? 
 non is sum qui hoc facial^ I am not the matt to do this 
 
 Note. After expressions like multi (non niilli, quidam) sunt qui, where 
 the antecedent is partially defined, the choice of mood depends on the 
 shade of meaning. 
 
 728. After nem5, niillus, nihil, or quis the clause of descrip- 
 tion or characteristic may be introduced by quin instead of qui 
 (quae, quod) non. 
 
 nemo est quin sciat, there is no one who does not know 
 
 quis est qidn intellegat, who is there who does not utiderstand f 
 
 and is to be distinguished from the relative clause with the indicative, which 
 states a fact about the antecedent and does not describe it : thus, nulla est 
 nati5 quam pertimescimus (indicative) means //lere is no nation luhich (as a fact) 
 we fear \ whereas nulla est natio quam pertimescdmus (subjunctive) means tAere 
 is no nation which is of suck a character that we fear it. 
 
CLAUSES OF RESULT 281 
 
 729. Included under relative clauses of description or character- 
 istic are restrictive clauses like quod sciam, so far as I know ; quod 
 Knv^ntAm, so far as I have discovered \ etc. 
 
 n5n ego te, quod scianif umquam ante hunc diem vidi, so far as I knotUy 
 I have neiter seen you before this day 
 
 730. The relative clause of description or characteristic may 
 express cause or concession. 
 
 I. The relative clause of description or characteristic may 
 express cause, the relative — equivalent to cum is, since he — 
 being often accompanied by ut, utpote, or quippe. 
 
 incusant Belgas qui se dediderint, they blame the Belga who have 
 
 (= because they have) surrendered 
 Caesar iniuriam facit qui vectigalia deteriSra facmt, Caesar is doing an 
 
 injustice since he is inakini^ the reventtes less 
 c5nsul, ut qui id ipsum quaesisset, moram non fecit, the consul, since he 
 
 had sought that very thing, did not delay 
 
 II. The relative clause of description or characteristic may 
 express concession, the relative being equivalent to cum is, though 
 he, and the clause expressing something in spite of which the 
 main statement is true. 
 
 Cicero, ([ui omnes superiores dies milites in castris continuisset, septimS 
 die quinque cohortes frumentatum mittit, Cicero, though he had 
 kept his soldiers in camp on all the preceding days, on the 
 seventh day sent five cohorts to gather grain 
 
 Note. The relative clause sometimes amounts to a proviso (§ 811), 
 
 nihil est molestum quod non desideris, nothing is troublesome which you 
 do not miss ( = provided you do not miss it) 
 
 Subjunctive Clauses of Consequence or Result 
 
 731. The subjunctive is used in adverbial, relative, and 
 substantive clauses to express consequence or result.^ 
 
 * The use of the subjunctive to express result is a development of its use in 
 c lauses of description (§ 726), the quality which would lead to some action 
 readily passing over into a real action resulting from a quality. This step leads 
 to clauses of pure result with no idea of description. 
 
282 CLAUSES OF RESULT 
 
 1. Adverbial Clauses of Result 
 
 732. An adverbial clause denoting consequence or result 
 takes the subjunctive, introduced by ut or uti, so that. The 
 negative is non. 
 
 The main clause often contains talis, tantus, tot, is (= talis), ita, 
 adeo, tarn, or some other word of quality or degree. 
 
 mons impendebat ut facile perpauci prohibere possent, a viou7itam 
 
 tou'e?'ed above^ so that a very few could easily keep (them) back 
 eius modi sunt tempestates c5nseciitae uti opus intermitteretur, storms 
 
 of such a character folloived that the work was interrupted 
 flumen incredibili lenitate fluit ita ut oculis, in utram partem fluat, 
 
 itidicarl non possit, the river flows with incredible slowness, so that 
 
 it cannot be determitted by the eyes in which direction it flows 
 tanta vis probitatis est ut earn in hoste diligdmus, so great is the power 
 
 of goodness that we love it even in an enetny 
 
 Note. It is to be observed that the constructions of purpose and result 
 in Latin are precisely alike in the affirfnative, but that negative purpose 
 has ne, negati^ie result ut non. 
 
 a. Instead of ne quis, ne quid, ne ullus, etc., used to introduce 
 negative purpose clauses, negative result clauses have ut nemo, ut 
 nihil, ut niillus, etc. 
 
 se occultabant ne quis eos cernere posset, they concealed themselves that 
 
 no one might be able to see them (purpose) 
 se occultabant ut nemo eos cernere posset, they concealed thefnselves so 
 that no otie could see them (result) 
 
 733. A clause of result or characteristic with quam ut, quam qui, 
 rarely with quam alone, may be used after a comparative. 
 
 haec signa rigidi5ra sunt quam < \ imitentur veritatem, these statues 
 
 are too stiff to {stiffer than that they should) represent nature 
 senior erat quam ut pugndret, he was too old to fight 
 
 734. A clause of result is sometimes used in a restrictive sense and 
 so amounts to a proviso (§ 8ii). 
 
 vobis ita concedunt ut vobiscum certent, they yield to you only to the 
 extent that they vie with you 
 
CLAUSES OF RESULT 283 
 
 II. Relative Clauses of Result 
 
 735. Relative clauses of result, introduced by qui, quin 
 equivalent to qui nOn), or a relative adverb (ubi, unde, qu6, etc.), 
 
 are developed from the relative clause of description or charac- 
 teristic (§ 726), and, as a rule, cannot be distinguished from it. 
 
 nulla est celeritas quae possit cum animi celeritate contendere, there* is 
 tio sivi/tncss tJiiit can compare with the swiftness of the mind 
 
 cem5 erat adeO tardus quin putarety no one was so slothful as not to 
 (= who did not) think 
 
 n5n habet undt te solvat, he has no resources fro tn which (lit. has not 
 whence) to pay you 
 
 No IK. Here belong such expressions as facere non possum quin, fieri 
 non potest quin, with the subjunctive. 
 
 facere non possum "| ^. J cannot but speak (lit. / am not able 
 
 fieri non potest J ^ r ^ 
 
 to act so that I do not, or // cannot happen that J do not) 
 
 III. Substantive Clauses of Result 
 
 736. Substantive clauses developed from the potential subjunctive 
 are generally called substantive clauses of result ; but the idea of result 
 is often weak or lacking altogether, and the subjunctive is translated 
 like an indicative stating a fact. They are introduced by ut or ut nOn. 
 
 Note. Compare substantive clauses of purpose (§ 719). 
 
 737. Object Clauses of Result. Substantive clauses of result 
 are used as the object of verbs of bringing about and accom- 
 plishing (facMJ, efficifl, perficiO, etc.) when the dependent clause 
 states a fact. 
 
 eflaciam irf intettegatis, J will make you understand (lit that you 
 
 understand) 
 cflaciebat ut commeatus portiri possent, he made it possible for supplies 
 
 to he brought 
 obsides ufi inter se dent perficit, he brings if about that they give 
 
 hostages to each other 
 
284 CLAUSES OF RESULT 
 
 738. Subject Clauses of Result. Substantive clauses of result 
 stating a fact are used as the subject of passive verbs denoting 
 bringing about and accomplishing. 
 
 factum est ut German! mercede arcesserentur^ it was brought about that 
 the Germafis were invited for pay 
 
 * 739. Substantive clauses of result stating a fact are used as 
 subject with impersonals like fit, accidit, evenit, it happens ; 
 relinquitur, restat, reliquum est, it remains ; accedit, it is added ; 
 est, it is a fact ; sequitur, efficitur, it follows. 
 
 accidit ut esset luna plena, // happened that there was a full moon 
 reliquum est i/f mihi ipsi consulam, the fact remains that I consult for 
 
 jnyself 
 ad senectiitem accedebat ut caecus esset, to his ol^i age was added the 
 fact that he was blind 
 
 740. Fore (or futiiruin esse) ut with a clause of result as subject 
 is regularly used for the future passive infinitive, and for the future 
 active infinitive vi^hen this is lacking. 
 
 vide5 fore ut hostes vincantur, I see that the enemy will be conquered 
 spero fore ut contingat, I hope that it will happen 
 
 741. Clauses of Result as Appositives or Predicate Nouns. 
 A substantive clause of result stating a fact may be in apposi- 
 tion with a noun or neuter pronoun, or may serve as a predicate 
 noun after m6s est, ius est, and similar expressions. 
 
 banc gratiam refert, ut gravetur, he makes this return, that he objects 
 id est proprium civitatis, ut sit libera, this is characteristic of a state ^ 
 
 that it is free 
 ea est vis probitatis, ut earn vel in hoste dUigdmus, such i^ the power 
 
 of integrity that we love it even in an enemy 
 est m5s hominum ut nolint eundem pluribus rebus excellere, it is the 
 
 way of men that they do not wish the same person to excel in 
 
 several respects 
 
CLAUSES WITH POSTQUAM, UBl UT, ETC. 285 
 Temporal Clauses 
 
 742. Temporal clauses are adverbial and express time. 
 
 743. Temporal clauses may be classified as follows : 
 
 I. Clauses with po8tqUam,ubi,ut, etc., with the indicative (§§ 745 ff.). 
 
 II. Clauses with cum, with the indicative or subjunctive (§§ 749 fT.). 
 
 III. Clauses with antequam and priusquam, with the indicative or 
 subjunctive (§§ 757 ff.). 
 
 IV. Clauses with dum, dOnec, quoad, and quam difi, with the indic- 
 ative or subjunctive (§§ 762 ff.). 
 
 Observe that only with the first of these varieties is the indicative 
 always used. 
 
 744. In general, expressions of pure time are in the indica- 
 tive. The subjunctive is used when the time relation is modi- 
 fied by some other notion, as description, cause, concession^ 
 doubt, purpose, and the like. 
 
 I. Temporal Clauses with postguamj ubi^ ut, etc. 
 
 745. Clauses introduced by postquam (posteaquam), after; 
 ubi, ut, U'/ien ; cum primum, simul atque (simul ac, or simul 
 alone), as soon as, take the indicative, — usually in the perfect 
 or the historical present. 
 
 postquam id animum advertit,' cb^ias suas Caesar subducit, tr/ie-r Ccpsar 
 
 noticed tliis^ he wii/u/rew /us /ones 
 Caesar, ubi su5s urgeri vtdii, prScessit, when Casar saw that his vien 
 
 were hard pressed, he adi'attced 
 Catilina, ubi e5s convenisse videt, secedit, when Catiline sees that they 
 
 ha7>e come together, he retires 
 simul atque introductus est, rem c5nfecit, as soon as he was brought in^ 
 
 he Jittished the matter 
 
 746. Ut and ubi (sometimes compounded with -cumque) in the 
 sense of whenever take the perfect indicative after a primary tense 
 and the past perfect after a secondary tense (cf. § 800. a\ 
 
286 TEMPORAL CLAUSES 
 
 ut quisque venitj accedo, wheneve7' any one conies {has come), I go 
 
 to him 
 etiam senex, uhi occasi5 data eraty discebat, even in old age he learned 
 
 whenever oppo7'tunity was given 
 
 747. To denote a definite interval of time after, postquam regu- 
 larly takes the past perfect indicative. When thus used, post is 
 usually separated from quam and placed in the main clause as a 
 preposition or adverb, or is sometimes omitted altogether. 
 
 pugnatum est post paucos dies (or paucis post diebus) quam pervenerat, 
 
 the battle was fought a few days after he arrived 
 tertio anno quam Aristides mortuus erat, three yeaj's after Aristides died 
 
 748. Postquam, ubi, ut, etc, are used with the past descriptive in- 
 dicative to denote a continued state in past time. 
 
 ubi nemo obvius ibaty ad castra hostium tendunt, whe?t no one catne 
 to 7neet the?n, they hastened to the camp of the enemy 
 
 II. Temporal Clauses with cum 
 
 749. Cum Clauses with the Indicative. A cum clause refer- 
 ring to present or future time takes the indicative. 
 
 animus nee cum adest nee cum discedit apparet, the soul is not visible 
 
 either when it is present or whefi it departs 
 te videre volo, cum id satis eommode facere potero, I wish to see you, 
 
 when I can do so cojiveniently 
 cum veneris, cognosces, when you {shq^ll have) come, you will find out 
 
 Note. Observe that the English present is represented by the Latin 
 future in the second example and by the future perfect in the third. This 
 precision in expressing time is characteristic of Latin. Cf. §§ 657, 663. 
 
 fl. A cum clause with the indicative is used to explain one act as 
 identical with another {explicative cum). 
 
 cum quiescunty probant, when they are silent, they approve 
 
 750. A cum clause referring to past time takes the indicative 
 when it dates or defines the time of the main action {definitive 
 cum) . 
 
CLAUSES WITH Cl/M 287 
 
 When thus used, cum is often found in the combinations eO tempore 
 cum, ^ diS cum, nunc cum, Olim cum, n&per cum. tum cum, and 
 the like. 
 
 paruit eo tempore cum parere necesse erat, he obeyed at the time when 
 
 it luas necessary to obey 
 tum cum in Asia res magnas permulti amtserant, at that time when 
 
 many had lost ^reat fortunes in .Isia, etc. 
 cum Caesar in Galliam venit, factidnes erant duae, when Ccesar came 
 
 into Gaul, there were two factions 
 quern ego cum ex urbe pellebam, hoc prdvidebam, when I was t tying to 
 
 drive him out of the city, I 7i<as anticipating this 
 Conon praetor fuit cum Athenienses divictfsunt Conon was commander 
 at the time when the Athenians were defeated 
 
 751. Sometimes an independent sentence introduced by vix 
 {hardl}'), iam (already'), nOndum (not yet), or an adverb of similar 
 value, is followed by a cum clause, subordinate in form, but express- 
 ing the principal action. In this use (called cum inversitm) cum takes 
 the perfect indicative or the historical present. 
 
 Tix veneram cum profectus est hardly had I come when he set out 
 vix loqui inceperam cum subito ingressus est, hardly had J begun to 
 
 speak when suddenly he entered 
 vix exercitus processerat cum Galli proelium committunt, hardly had 
 
 the army advanced when the Gauls joined battle 
 
 752. Cum meaning whenever (iterative cum) takes the same 
 construction as ubi in this sense. See §§ 746, 8<x>. ^. 
 
 753. Cam Clauses with the Subjunctive. Cum is used with 
 the past or past perfect subjunctive to describe the circumstances 
 that accompanied or preceded the action of the main verb 
 (descriptive cmvo)} 
 
 ' Cum (early form quom) is by origin a relative, and has constructions 
 similar to qui. In early Latin it took the indicative in all tenses. In classic 
 Latin a distinction is made in the past tenses between cum Jefnttij^ a time 
 and cum describing a time. Cum liefinini^ a time takes the indicative (§ 750). 
 like an indicative qui clause ol fact. Ciun descnhitig a time takes the subjunc- 
 tive, like a qui clause of description or characteristic (§ 726). T%e cum ilause 
 
288 CLAUSES WITH CUM 
 
 Caesari cum. id nuntidtum esset, maturat proficisci, w/ien this had been 
 
 announced to Cczsa?; he hastened to set out 
 fuit antea tempus cum Germanos Galli virtute superdrent, there was 
 
 formerly a tmie when the Gauls surpassed the Germans in valor 
 cum essem 5tiosus domi, accepi tuas litteras, when I was at home 
 
 taking my ease^ I received your letter 
 cum esset Caesar in citeriore Gallia, crebri ad eum rumores adferebantur, 
 
 when CcEsar was in hither Gaul^ frequent j-eporis were brought 
 
 to him 
 cum ab his quaereret, sic reperiebat, when he 7nade inquiries fro7n 
 
 these men, he gained the following informatio?i 
 cum de improvisS venisset, Remi legates miserunt, when he had come 
 
 unexpectedly, the Remi sent etivoys 
 
 754. Cum Causal. A cum clause of description with the 
 subjunctive sometimes denotes cause . Cum is then usually 
 translated by since, and the subjunctive may be in any tense. 
 
 id difficile non est, cum tantum valedmus, this is not difficult since we 
 
 are so strong 
 Haedui cum se defendere non possent, legates mittunt, since the Hcedui 
 
 could not defend themselves, they se?it afnbassadors 
 quae cum ita sint^ eamus, since this is so, let us go 
 
 with the past or past perfect siibjii7ictive is the 7'egular coiistrticiion iti 7tarrative, 
 and has largely displaced the use ofcnm. with u past tense of the indicative, even 
 whe7'e no idea of characteristic is perceptible. 
 
 The difference between these two uses of cum is further illustrated by the 
 following examples in English : 
 
 1. Catiline made a conspiracy when Cicero was consul. Here the when 
 clause merely defines and fixes the time when Catiline made his conspiracy 
 (63 B.C.), and the main statement is true independently of Cicero's being consul. 
 Catiline would have made his conspiracy just the same if Cicero had not 
 been consul. 
 
 2. Columbus discovered America when he was seeking a new route to India. 
 Here the wkeit clause does not define or date the time of the discovery of 
 America ; it describes the circumstances under which America was discovered, 
 and suggests that but for these circumstances Columbus would not have made 
 the discovery. 
 
 The Latin would use the indicative in the first sentence and the subjunc- 
 tive in the second. 
 
CLAUSES WITH CUM 
 
 289 
 
 Note i. With this may be compared the qui clause of characteristic 
 denoting cause (§ 730. I). 
 
 Note 2. Following the usage of early Latin, cum causal is sometimes 
 found with the indicative in the classical period. 
 
 gritulor tibi cum tantum votes (Cicero), / congratulate you since you are 
 so tftjiuential, or, freely, / congratulate you on your influence 
 
 755. Cum Concessive. A cum clause of description with the 
 subjunctive may denote concession. Cum is then translated by 
 thottgh or while, and the subjunctive may be in any tense. 
 
 cum primi concidissent, tamen reliqui resistebant, though the foremost 
 
 had fallen, yet the others kept on resisting 
 Sabinus castris sese tenebat, cum Viridoyiz cotldie pugnandi potestatem 
 
 faceret, Sabinus remained in camp, though Viridovix daily gave 
 
 him a chance to fight 
 
 a. When cum . . . tum means hoth . . . and, the cum clause is in 
 the indicative ; but with the meaning though . . . yet, the cum clause 
 is generally in the subjunctive. 
 
 cSnsilium tuum cum semper probdvissem, tum mult5 magis probavi 
 lectis tuis proximis litteris, though I had always esteemed your 
 ivisdom, yet I esteemed it much more after reading your last letter 
 
 756. Synopsis of cum constructions : 
 
 I. Indicative uses of cum 
 
 II. Subjunctive uses of cum* 
 
 1. In clauses referring to present or 
 
 future time (§ 749) 
 
 2. In clauses referring to past time that 
 
 define the time of the main action 
 {definitive cum ; § 750) 
 
 3. Cum inversum (§ 751) 
 
 4. Cum meaning whenever (iterative 
 
 cum; § 752) 
 
 1. With the past or past perfect sub- 
 
 junctive in clauses of description 
 or characteristic {descriptive cum ; 
 
 § 753) 
 
 2. Cum causal {since ; § 754) 
 
 3. Ciun concessive {though or while', 
 
 §755) 
 
290 CLAUSES WITH ANTEQUAM AND FRIUSQUAM 
 III. Temporal Clauses with antequam and priusquam 
 
 757. Clauses introduced by antequam or priusquam, before, 
 are relative in character, and, like other relative clauses, take 
 the indicative in expressions of real or assumed fact and the 
 subjunctive to express other relations. 
 
 Note. Antequam and priusquam consist of the adverbs ante {before) 
 and prius {sooner) combined with the relative conjunction quam {than). 
 The adverbs often stand in the main clause, being separated from quam by 
 other words. Priusquam is much oftener used than antequam. 
 
 758. Antequam and priusquam with the Indicative. The in- 
 dicative is used with antequam or priusquam to express a real or 
 assumed fact. 
 
 a. The present or perfect is used in clauses referring to present time. 
 priusquam lucet, adsunt, before it is dawn, they are present 
 
 b. The present or future perfect is used in clauses referring to 
 future time. 
 
 priusquam de ceteris rebus responded, de amicitia dicam, before I reply 
 in regard to the other matters, I will speak about friefids hip 
 
 non defatigabor antequam haec percepero, I shall not weary before I 
 (shall) have traced out these things 
 
 Note. The present subjunctive is sometimes found in uses a and h. 
 
 c. The perfect is used in clauses referring to past time. 
 
 res ita se habebant antequam vent, things were in that co7iditioti before 
 
 I came 
 neque prius fugere destiterunt quam ad fliimen pervenerunt, nor did they 
 
 stop running before they reached the river 
 
 Note. This construction is especially common when the main clause 
 is negative, as in the last example above. 
 
 759. Antequam and priusquam with the Subjunctive. The 
 past subjunctive is used with antequam or priusquam in clauses 
 referring to past time : {a) to denote an act that was expected 
 and prepared for by a preceding action expressed in the main 
 
CLAUSES WITH ANTEQC/AM M^D PRIUSQUAM 291 
 
 clause ; {b) to denote an act that was expected but prevented 
 by a preceding action expressed in the main clause. 
 
 Caesar 8u5s hortabatur priusquam proelium committerent, Ccesar used to 
 address his men before they joined (should join) battle. [That is, in 
 expectation of a battle, Caesar prepared his men by addressing them.] 
 
 Caesar Britanniae litora ezpldravit priusquam transeundi periculum 
 faceret, Cctsar explored the shores of Britain before he made the 
 attempt to cross. [That is, in expectation of crossing to Britain, 
 Caesar explored its shores.] 
 
 priusquam telum abici posset, omnis acies terga vertit, before a weapon 
 iould be thrown, the whole line fed. [That is, the expected hurling 
 of weapons was prevented by the flight of the enemy.] 
 
 priusquam effugere posset, interfectus est, before he could escape, he 
 was put to death 
 
 Note i. Rarely the past perfect subjunctive is used instead of the past. 
 Note 2. After the historical present (§ 648) the present (rarely the 
 perfect) subjunctive may be used instead of the past. 
 
 ab e5 prius milites non discedunt quam in c5nspectum Caesaris 
 deducdtur, the soldiers did not leave him before he was conducted 
 into Cirsar's presence 
 
 Note 3. The subjunctive with antequam or priusquam is often called 
 the subjunctive of expectation or anticipation. 
 
 760. The later writers freely use the past subjunctive with ante- 
 quam and priusquam even when no idea of expectation is present. 
 
 priusquam peteret consulatum, insanit, he was insane before he sought 
 the consulship 
 
 761. Synopsis of constructions with antequam and priusquam : 
 
 I. Present time — indicative, present or perfect (§ 758. a) 
 antequam II. Future time — indicative, present or future perfect(§ 758. b) 
 and \ r Indicative (perfect) to state an actual fact 
 
 pnusquam (§ 758. c) 
 
 a. To denote action ex- 
 
 UII. Past time 
 
 .Subjunctive (past) 
 
 pected and prepared 
 for (§ 759. a) 
 b. To denote action ex- 
 pected but prevented 
 (§ 759- *) 
 
292 CLAUSES WITH DUM, DONEC, QUOAD, ETC. 
 IV. Temporal Clauses with dum^ donee ^ quoad, and quam diu 
 
 762. Dum, donee, quoad, and quam diu, meaning as long as, 
 take the indicative. 
 
 dum anima est, est spes, as long as there is life, there is hope 
 
 donee gratus eram tibi, rege beatior fui, as long as I enjoyed thy 
 
 favor, I was happier than a king 
 quoad potuit, restitit. he resisted as long as he could 
 quam diu mihi insididtus es, me defend!, as long as you plotted against 
 me, I defended myself 
 
 763. Dum, meaning while, takes the indicative in the his- 
 torical present. 
 
 The historical present (§ 648) in this construction is generally 
 translated by the English past progressive. 
 
 dum haec geruntur, Caesari nuntiatum est, while this was going on, 
 
 ' word was brought to Ccesar 
 dum Romani consultant, iam Saguntum oppugnabatur, while the 
 Roma7is were deliberating, Sagu7itum was ab'eady being besieged 
 
 Note. As shown by the examples, dum with the present denotes /;/ 
 the time, but not throughout the time. In the latter sense dum, though 
 it may be translated by while, is equivalent to as long as, and the tenses 
 present no pecuHarity (§ 762). 
 
 764. Dum, donee, and quoad, meaning until, take the perfect 
 indicative to denote an actual fact in past time. 
 
 neque finem sequendi fecerunt quoad praecipites hostes egerunt, nor 
 
 did they cease ptirsui7ig ujitil they 7'outed the e7iemy 
 donee rediit, silentium fuit, imtil he returned, there was sile7ice 
 Romae fuerunt quoad Metellus profectus est, they remai7ied at Rome 
 
 M7itil Metellus set out 
 
 765. Dum, donee, and quoad, meaning tmtil, take the present 
 or past subjunctive to denote pitrpose or expectation. 
 
 exspectas fortasse dum dicat, you are waiting perhaps for hi7n to say 
 {U7itil he says) 
 
CAUSAL CLAUSES 
 
 293 
 
 exspectavit dum reliquae nav^s convenirent, he waited for the rest of 
 the ships to join him {until they should join him) 
 
 Horatius impetum sustinuit quoad ceteri pontem interrumperent, Hora- 
 tius sustained the attack until the rest should cut down the 
 bridge 
 
 Note. The present and future perfect indicative are occasionally found. 
 
 766. Synopsis of constructions with dum, dOnec, quoad, and 
 
 quam diu : 
 
 I. Dum, ddnec, quoad, quam diu, as long as, indica- 
 tive (§ 762) 
 II. Dum, while, indicative (historical present ; § 763) 
 a. Perfect indicative to de- 
 
 dum, d5nec, quoad. 
 
 and quam diu 
 
 III. 
 
 Dum, donee, quoad, 
 until 
 
 note an actual fact in 
 past time (§ 764) 
 Present or past subjunc- 
 tive to denote purpose 
 or expectation (§ 765) 
 
 Causal Clauses 
 
 767. Cause is expressed in Latin by three kinds of clauses : 
 
 L Cum clauses of description (§ 754). 
 II. Qui clauses of description or characteristic (§ 730. I). 
 III. Clauses introduced by quod, quia, quoniam, and quandS. 
 
 768. Quod and quia, because, take {a) the indicative when 
 the writer or speaker is giving his otvn reason ; {b) the sub- 
 junctive when he is giving the reason of another. 
 
 a. Indicative, 
 fortissimi sunt Belgae propterea quod longissime absunt, the Belga 
 
 are the brai'est because they arc the farthest away 
 Helvetii reliquos Gall5s virtute praecedunt quod fere cotidianis proeliis 
 
 cum Germanis contendunt, the Hcl^'ctii excel the remaining Gauls 
 
 in valor because they jight nearly every day with the Germans 
 leve erat Yulnus quia se retrahibat ab ictu, the wound was slight 
 
 because he drew {himself) back from the blow 
 
294 CAUSAL CLAUSES 
 
 b. Subjunctive. 
 
 mihi gratiae aguntur quod virtute mea res publica sit liberdta, thanks 
 
 are given to me because (as they say) the state has been set free 
 by my coui'age 
 
 Haedui querebantur quod Harudes fines populdrentur, the Hcedui com- 
 plained because (as they said) the Harudes were laying the 
 country waste 
 
 mea mater irata est quia non redierim, my mother is angry because I 
 didn't return (as she says) 
 
 Note i. The subjunctive is used on the principle of impHed indirect 
 discourse (§ 906). 
 
 Note 2. Quia regularly introduces a statement of fact, and rarely takes 
 the subjunctive. 
 
 769. Quoniam and quando, since ^ introduce a reason of the 
 writer or speaker, and take the indicative. 
 
 quoniam supplicati5 decreta est, celebratote illos dies, since a thanks- 
 giving has been decreed, celebrate those days 
 
 quando ita vfs, di bene vortant, since you so wish, may the gods bless 
 the undertaking 
 
 Note. Quando, originally temporal {when), is rarely used in the causal 
 sense in classic Latin prose. 
 
 770. Non quod, non quia, and non quo (for non eo quod) introduce 
 a possible but rejected reason, and hence take the subjunctive. 
 
 haec servanda censeo, non quod probem, sed quia etc., / think these 
 should be preserved, not because I approve of them, but because etc. 
 
 a. Non quin, not that not, with the subjunctive, is sometimes used 
 for non quod non. 
 
 volui ad te scribere, non quin confiderem diligentiae tuae, sed etc., / 
 wished to zvritetoyou, not that I did not trust your diligence, but etc. 
 
 h. The indicative is sometimes used in clauses of this sort when 
 the statement is a fact, though not accepted as the true reason. 
 
 haec dixit orator, non quod timebat, sed quod etc., the orator said this, 
 not because he was afraid (as he really was), but because etc. 
 
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 
 
 295 
 
 Causal clauses are 
 expressed by 
 
 I. Quod and quia • 
 
 771. Synopsis of causal constructions: 
 
 a. With the indicative when the 
 writer or speaker gives his 
 own reason (§ 768. a) 
 
 b. With the subjunctive when the 
 writer or speaker gives, not 
 his own reason, but the reason 
 alleged by another (§ 768. b) 
 
 II. Quoniam and quandd with the indicative (§ 769) 
 
 III. Cum {since) with the subjunctive (§ 754) 
 
 IV. Qui with the subjunctive (§ 730. I) 
 
 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 
 
 772. A clause expressing a condition, introduced by if or 
 by some equivalent word, is called a conditional clause. 
 
 773. A sentence that contains a conditional clause is called 
 a conditional sentence. 
 
 774. A conditional sentence is complex and consists of 
 two parts : ^ 
 
 fl. A subordinate (adverbial) clause, commonly introduced by si, if 
 and expressing the condition. 
 
 h. A principal clause, expressing the conclusion, that is, the state- 
 ment which is true in case the condition expressed in the si clause is true. 
 
 81 obsides ab eis dentur (condition), cum eis pacem facial (conclusion), 
 if hostages should be given by them^ he ivould make peace 
 with them 
 
 Note. The term " condidon " is often applied to the whole sentence, 
 including the condidon and conclusion. 
 
 * The conditional complex sentence has arisen, like other complex sen- 
 tences (§ 708), from two sentences originally independent but closely related 
 in thought. Thus, laugh, and the xoorld laughs with you is an earlier and 
 simpler form of expression than if you laugh, the 7oorld laughs with you. The 
 conditional particle bI was originally an adverb meaning so, and its conjunc- 
 tional use and meaning developed later. Conditional sentences without si 
 occur in all periods of Latin and are a survival of the earlier linguistic form. 
 
296 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 
 
 775. Use of si and its Compounds. The conditional clause, 
 when affirmative ^ is introduced by si, if\ when negative^ by 
 nisi, unless. But if the negative applies to only one word, 
 si non is used instead of nisi, 
 
 actum de te est nisi provides, it 'j all over with you unless you look out 
 
 si non easdem opes habemusy eandem tamen patriam habemus, if we have 
 
 not the sa?ne resources, we have nevertheless the same native land 
 
 a. Nisi si, except if, unless, occurs for nisi. Ni for nisi is mostly 
 poetic or late. 
 
 776. Sin, btct if, introduces a supposition contrary to one 
 that precedes ; nisi vero or nisi forte an ironical objection. 
 
 accusator ilium defendet si poterit ; sin minus poterit, negabit, the 
 
 accuser will defend him if he can; but if he cannot, he will refuse 
 
 777. Sive (or sen), or if, is generally used as a correlative 
 
 (sive (or seu) . . . sive (or sen), if . . . or if whether . . . or) to 
 
 introduce alternative conditional clauses. 
 
 facilis est res, sive manent sive proficiscuntur, the matter is easy, 
 whether they stay or go 
 
 Classification of Conditional Sentences 
 
 778. Particular and General Conditions. Any kind of condi- 
 tional sentence may be either {a) particular or {b) general. 
 
 a. A particular condition refers to a definite act, or series of acts, 
 occurring at some definite time. 
 
 h. A general condition refers to any one of a series of acts which 
 may occur, or may have occurred, at any time. 
 
 For example, if the enemy should cross the river, they would be driven 
 back is a particular condition ; but if at any time the enemy crosses the 
 river, they are always driven back is a general condition. 
 
 c. Particular and general conditions usually have the same form. 
 For special forms of general conditions see § 8oo. 
 
 779. Conditional sentences, according to the time of the 
 supposed case, are divided into three classes : 
 
 I. Present conditions II. Future conditions III. Past conditions 
 
PRESENT CONDITIONS 297 
 
 780. Present and past conditions are of two kinds : non- 
 committal and contrary to fact. 
 
 781. A present or past condition is non-committal 'w\\tx\ noth- 
 ing is said or implied as to the truth or falsity of the case supposed. 
 
 If this is gold (perhaps it is, perhaps it is n't), // is valuable 
 
 782. A present or past condition is contrary to fact when 
 the supposition has been realized and found to be false. 
 
 Jf this were gold (bni it isn't), /'/ would be valuable 
 
 783. Future conditions are of two kinds : more definite and 
 less definite. 
 
 a. A more definite future condition states a future possibility dis- 
 tinctly, expressing a doubt as to whether it 7tiill or will not be the case. 
 If this pro%>es to be gold (that remains to be seen and is a future 
 possibility), // will be valuable 
 
 h. A less definite future condition states a future possibility less dis- 
 tinctly, expressing a doubt as to whether it would or would not be 
 the case. 
 
 If this should prove to be gold, it would be valuable 
 
 I. Present Conditions 
 
 784. Present conditions are either non-committal or contrary 
 to fact. 
 
 785. Present non-committal conditions regularly take the 
 present indicative in both clauses. 
 
 si hacfadtf lauddtur, if he is doing this, he is being praised 
 a. The verb in the conclusion of a present non-committal condition 
 is not always an indicative, but may be a hortatory or an optative 
 subjunctive, an imperative, or any other form demanded by the sense. 
 
 81 llbertatem servare non possumus, moriamur, if we cannot preser^'e 
 our liberty, let us die (hortatory subjunctive in the conclusion) 
 
 81 verum non dico, dei supplicium sumant if I am not speaking the 
 truth, may the gods punish ///^(optative subjunctivein the conclusion) 
 
 81 ndndum satis cernitis, recordaminl if you eh not yet see clearly^ 
 recollect (imperative in the conclusion) 
 
298 FUTURE CONDITIONS 
 
 786. Present conditions contrary to fact regularly take the 
 past subjunctive in both clauses. 
 
 si hoc faceretf lauddretur, if he were doing this (but he is not), he 
 
 would be praised (at the present time) 
 si dives essem^ non avarus essem, if I were rich^ I should not be 
 
 avaricious 
 si viveret, verba eius audlretis, if he were livings you would hear his 
 
 words 
 
 II. Future Conditiofis 
 
 787. Future conditions are either more definite or less defi- 
 7tite, and express future possibility (cf. § 783). 
 
 788. More definite future conditions regularly take the future 
 indicative in both clauses, the conclusion stating what will 
 be the result if the condition is {shall be) realized. 
 
 si hoc /aczef, lauddbitur, if he does {shall do) this, he will be praised 
 si dives ero, non avarus ero, if I shall be rich, I shall not be avaricious 
 naturam si seguemur ducem, numquam aberrdbimus, if we {shall) follow 
 
 nature as guide, we shall never go astray 
 si Galli obsides mittentj Caesar cum eis pacem faciei, if the Gauls 
 
 {shall) send hostages, CcEsar will make peace with them 
 
 Note. In English the conditional clause is usually expressed by the 
 present indicative, rarely by the future with shall. 
 
 789. Less definite future conditions regularly take the present 
 subjunctive ^ in both clauses, the conclusion stating what wotdd 
 be the result if the condition should be realized. 
 
 si hoc faciatf laudetur, if he should do this, he would be praised 
 
 si dives s/m, n5n avarus sim, if I should be rich, I should not be 
 
 avaricious 
 haec si tecum patria loqudtur, nonne impetrare debeat, if your native 
 
 land should thus speak with you, would she not deserve to prevail? 
 quod si quis deus mihi largidtur^ valde recusem, if some god should 
 
 grant me this, I should stoutly refuse 
 
 1 The subjunctive in the conditional clause of a less definite future con- 
 ditional sentence is hortatory by origin, and the subjunctive in the conclusion 
 is potential (§ 687). 
 
PAST CONDITIONS 299 
 
 790. The future perfect is used in the conditional clause instead 
 of the future, and the perfect subjunctive instead of the present, 
 when the conditional act is regarded as completed before that of 
 the conclusion begins. 
 
 id si fecerisy magnam habSbd gratiam, if you Jo {shall have done) 
 
 this, I shall be very grateful 
 si relictus sim^ non possim dicere, if I should be {should have been) 
 
 deserted, I should be unable to speak 
 
 Note. Not infrequently the future perfect is found in both clauses. 
 
 mihi gratum feteris si hunc comprehenderis, you will do {will have done) 
 me a favor if you receive {shall have received) him 
 
 III. Past Conditions 
 
 791 . Past conditions are either non-committal or contrary to fact 
 
 792. Past non-committal conditions regularly take the past 
 descriptive or perfect indicative in both clauses. 
 
 si hoc fadtbat (or fecit)^ laudabatur (or laudatus est), if he did tJiis, he 
 
 was praised 
 si dives eram, non a varus eram, if J ivas rich, I was not avaricious 
 si ita exJstimavistt, vehementer errdvisti, if you thought so, you were 
 
 greatly //list a ken 
 si probus es, poenam non meruistt, if you are good, you did not desen/e 
 
 punishment. [Non-committal condition, with a present conditional 
 
 clause and a past conclusion.] 
 
 Note. The conclusion of a past non-committal condition may assume 
 a great variety of forms. Cf. § 785. a. 
 
 793. Past conditions contrary to fact regularly take the past 
 
 perfect subjunctive in both clauses. 
 
 si hoc fecisset, laudatus esset, if he had done this (but he did not), he 
 
 would have hee/i praised 
 si dives fuissem, n6n avanis fuissem, if I had been rich, I should not 
 
 have been avaricious 
 ni«i tfl dnibissest numqnam nOpissem^ unless you had lost it, I should 
 
 never have recovered it 
 
300 PECULIARITIES OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 
 
 Synopsis of Conditional Sentences 
 
 794. The use of moods and tenses in regular conditional 
 sentences is shown in the synopsis on the opposite page. 
 
 Special Peculiarities of Conditional Sentences 
 Peculiar Future Conditions 
 
 795. The conclusion of a future condition may be in any 
 form that expresses or implies future time : as, the imperative, 
 the present indicative of the periphrastic conjugations and of 
 verbs of necessity^ possibility, and the like. 
 
 quid, si hostes veniant, factufi estis, what are you goifig to do if the 
 
 etiemy should come ? 
 possum istum accusare, si cupiam, I cafi accuse him if I desire 
 
 796. A future condition is sometimes regarded from a past point 
 of view. In such cases the past or past perfect subjunctive is used 
 without implying that the condition is contrary to fact. 
 
 Caesar si peteretj non quicquam proficeret, if even Ccesar were to ask, 
 he would gain nothing. [This is simply si petat, non proficiat, 
 viewed from the past.] 
 
 Peculiar Conditiojis Co7itrary to Fact 
 
 797. Past tenses of the indicative may be used in the con- 
 clusion of conditions contrary to fact, as follows : 
 
 a. With verbs like oportet, decet, debeo, possum, necesse est, opus est. 
 
 h. With verbs in the active or passive periphrastic conjugation. 
 
 c. With longum, aequum, difficile, melius, etc. in such expressions 
 as longum erat, // would be tedious ; difficile erat, // woidd be difficult ; 
 melius fuerat, it would have been better. 
 
 non potuit fieri sapiens, nisi natus esset, he could not have become a 
 
 sage if he had not been born 
 81 privatus esset, tamen is erat deligendus, if he were a private citizen, 
 yet he ought to be chosen 
 Note. In this construction the past descriptive indicative usually refers 
 to present time, and the perfect or past perfect to past time. 
 
SYNOPSIS OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 301 
 
 73 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 i i 
 
 ^1 
 
 3 ,., *- ^> « a c 
 
 rt - C <; "" ^ 8 
 
 o '<" -B .-tt ^ ^ *- 
 
 -^ ^'- 5« is c :-s. C 
 
 •t^.£ 
 
 « « .S c S -^ -s .^ 
 
 •s -g ^ i 5 : s *f s 1 § 
 
 3 .5 2 X .2 S5 * I 
 
 a « p - - 55 • ^ 8 
 
 N 
 
 V ' ^ 
 
 
 J 
 
 (A 
 
 o & fc 
 Z ^ Q 
 > SI 
 
 •" 5 
 
302 
 
 GENERAL CONDITIONS 
 
 798. The past subjunctive may be used in either the condition or 
 the conclusion of a condition contrary to fact, to denote continued 
 action in past time or a past state of affairs that still exists. 
 
 Carthago non concidisset, nisi ea urbs classibus nostris pateret, Car- 
 thage would not have fallen^ had not that city been (constantly) 
 open to our fleets 
 
 799. In poetry the present subjunctive is sometimes used, instead 
 of the past, in conditions contrary to fact. 
 
 nee, si sciat^ imperet illis (Ovid), noT\ if he knew, could he control them 
 
 Special Forms of General Conditions 
 
 800. Special forms of general conditions (§ 778. b, c), denoting 
 repeated or customary action, are shown in the following table : 
 
 Time 
 
 Condition 
 
 Conclusion 
 
 Present 
 
 Present subjunctive, sec- 
 ond person singular, of 
 an indefinite subject, 
 or perfect indicative 
 
 Present indicative 
 
 Past 
 
 Past or past perfect sub- 
 junctive (rare in classic 
 Latin), or past perfect 
 indicative 
 
 Past indicative 
 
 memoria minuitur si earn n5n exerceas, the memory grows weak if you 
 
 don't exercise it 
 si quos inutiles notdverunt, necari iubent, if they (ever) 7nark any as 
 
 infirm, they (always) order them to be put to death 
 si quis prehenderetury eripiebdtur, if any one was (ever) arrested, he was 
 
 (always) rescued 
 si quis equo deciderat, circumsistebant, if any one {ever) fell from his 
 
 horse, they (always) surrou?ided him 
 
SUBSTITUTES FOR REGULAR CONDITIONS 303 
 
 a. General conditions are often introduced by cum or ubi, meaning 
 ivhenevtr {ii 746, 752). 
 
 cum rosam vfderat, turn incipere ver arbitrabatur, u>heneT.'er he saw a 
 rose, then lie thotti^ht spritti^ u>as bei^innitig 
 
 Note. In this construction the perfect indicative is usually translated 
 by the English present, and the past p>erfect by the English past. See 
 examples above. 
 
 Conditional Relative Clauses 
 
 801. Relative clauses often express condition, and may take 
 the place of any of the forms of condition found in conditional 
 sentences. 
 
 qut mentiri so/ef, peierare cSnsuevit, whoever is in the habit of lying 
 is accustovied to swear falsely. [ = si quia solet, present non- 
 committal.] 
 
 quisquis hiic venerit, vapulabit, whoever comes here shall get a thrash- 
 ing. [= si quis venerit, future more definite.] 
 
 quaecumque vos causa hiic attulissetf laetarer, whatever cause had 
 brought you here, I should Ift glad. [ = si qua . . . attulisset, 
 past contrary to fact.] 
 
 Substitutes for Regular Conditions 
 
 802. Condition may be expressed by a word or a phrase, 
 instead of appearing in the regular form with si ; or it may be 
 merely implied (§ 687). 
 
 facile me paterer, UW ipso rudice quaerente, prO R58ci5 dicere, / should 
 readily allow myself to speak for Roscius, if that very judge 
 were conducting the case. [Present contrary to fact, si quaereret, 
 paterer. ] 
 
 quid hunc pauc5rum anndrum accessio iuvare potuisset, what good 
 could the addition of a few years have done him f [Past contrary 
 * to fact, si accessissent, quid . . . potuisset ?] 
 
 commove: senties, stir him uf> : you will Jind etc. [Funire more 
 definite, si commovebis, sentiSs.J 
 
304 CLAUSES OF COMPARISON 
 
 Conditional Clauses of Comparison 
 
 803. Conditional clauses of comparison are introduced by 
 comparative particles meaning as if, and take the subjunctive, 
 present or perfect, unless the sequence of tenses requires the 
 past or the past perfect. 
 
 a. The commoner particles meaning as if are ac si, ut si, quasi, 
 tamquam, tamquam si, velut, and velut si, 
 
 absentis Ariovisti crudelitatem horrent, ye/wf sf coram adsit^ they shudder 
 at the cruelty of Ariovistus in his absence, as if he were present 
 
 absentis Ariovisti crudelitatem horrebant, velut si coram adesset, they 
 shuddered at the cruelty of Ariovistus in his absence, as if he 
 were pi'esent 
 
 Note. The English idiom would lead us to expect the past or past 
 perfect subjunctive (contrary to fact) in these clauses ; but from the Latin 
 point of view they are really less definite future conditions, with the con- 
 clusion omitted. Thus the first example above really means, they shudder 
 at the cruelty of Ariovistus in his abse?tce, as (they would shudder) if 
 (at some future time) he should be present. In other words, the real 
 conclusion is suppressed. 
 
 Concessive Clauses 
 
 804. Concessive clauses concede something or state that 
 something is true in spite of something else. In the latter 
 sense they are sometimes called adversative clauses. 
 
 805. Concession is often expressed by the volitive subjunctive 
 in an independent sentence (§§671, ^'j'j), but it more frequently 
 takes a dependent form and shows the following varieties : 
 
 1. Qui clause of description, with the subjunctive (§ 730. II). 
 
 2. Cum clause of description, with the subjunctive (§ 755). 
 
 3. Quamquam, etsi, and tametsi with the indicative. 
 
 4. Quamvis or ut with the subjunctive. 
 
 5. Licet with the subjunctive. 
 
 Note. The principal clause is often introduced by tamen, yet, 
 nevertheless. 
 
CONCESSIVE CLAUSES 305 
 
 806. Quamquam, etsi, and tametsi, although^ introduce an 
 admitted fact ^ and take the indicative.^ ' 
 
 quamquam sunt eiusdem generis, sunt humaniOrSs, although they are 
 
 of the same race, they are more civilized 
 quamquam oninis virtus n5s ad se adUcitf tamen liberalitas id maximS 
 
 ef&cit, although every virtue attracts us, yet generosity does so 
 
 Most of all 
 etsi sine ull5 pericul5 proelium fore videbatf tamen committendum 
 
 non putabat, although he saw that the battle would be without 
 
 any danger^ yet he did not think that it should be begun 
 
 807. Quamqxiam more commonly means and yet ^ and introduces a 
 new proposition in the indicative. 
 
 quamquam quid loquor, and yet ^ why do I speak t 
 
 808. Etsi, tametsi, etiam si, meaning n^en if, are really conditional 
 particles, and take the indicative or subjunctive according to the 
 rules for conditional sentences (§§ 785-793). 
 
 optimi faciunt quod honestum est, etsi nullum emolumentum c5nsecQ- 
 turum vident, the best men do what is honorable, even if they see 
 that no reward will follow. [Present non-committal.] 
 
 nQnne patria impetrare debeat, etiam si vim adhibere ndn possit, should 
 not our country gain its request^ even if it should be unable to 
 use force? [Future less definite.] 
 
 809. Quamvis, to whatever degree, however, and ut, although, 
 take the subjunctive.^ 
 
 avari indigent, quamvis divitSs sint, the avaricious are poor, however 
 
 rich they may be 
 ut omnia contra opini5nem accidant, tamen plurimum nivibus possunt, 
 
 though everything should happen contrary to expectation, yet 
 
 they are greatly superior in ships 
 
 a. Quamvis (quam vis, literally as (much as) you wish) is generally 
 used in expressions involving comparison or degree. It is therefore 
 often found with adjectives and adverbs. 
 
 quamvis mail, however wicked quamvis multum, however much 
 
 * In poetry quamquam occurs with the subjv. and quamvis with the indie. 
 
306 CLAUSES OF PROVISO 
 
 810. Licet, although, takes the present or perfect subjunctive. 
 
 licet omnes mihi tenores impendeant, dicam, though all terrors should 
 menace me^ I will speak 
 
 Note. Licet is properly a verb in the present tense, meaning // is 
 granted. Hence the subjunctive following it is limited by sequence of 
 tenses to the present or perfect. It was not used as a mere conjunction 
 until after Cicero. 
 
 Clauses of Proviso 
 
 811. Dum, modo, and dummodo (dum m(Ao), provided, if only, 
 introduce a proviso, and take the present or past subjunctive. 
 The negative is ne. 
 
 magno me metu liberabis, dum modo inter me atque te mums intersit, 
 
 you will 7'elease 7ne from great fear, if only a wall is between 
 
 you and me 
 dum ne tibi videar, n5n Iab5r6, provided I do not seein so to you, I do 
 
 not care 
 omnia postposui, dummodo praeceptis patris parerem, I considered 
 
 everything else of secondary importance, if only I might obey my 
 
 father's precepts 
 
 Note. This is a development of the volitive subjunctive (§ 671). 
 
 Indirect Questions 
 
 812. An indirect question is a dependent substantive clause, 
 introduced by an interrogative word (§621). The verb is in 
 the subjunctive.^ 
 
 813. Indirect questions depend on verbs or other expressions 
 of asking, doubting, fearing, thinking, perceiving, telling, and 
 the hke, and are usually object clauses. 
 
 814. Indirect questions are introduced by interrogative pro- 
 nouns and adverbs, by -ne or num, or by si. 
 
 1 In early Latin the indicative is used in indirect questions. The origin of 
 the subjunctive construction is uncertain. 
 
INDIRECT QUESTIONS 307 
 
 a. By interrogative pronouns and adverbs. 
 
 ostendit quae fieri vellet, he showed what he wished to be dene 
 
 exponam quid sentiam, I icill explain what 1 think 
 
 intellego quanto cum periculd id fecerim, I understand with how great 
 
 danger J have done that 
 nescit uhi sit, he does not know where he is 
 
 b. By -ne or num, used without distinction, in the sense of whether. 
 c5n8uluit possetne id fieri, he took counsel whether it could be done 
 quaero num id permittas, I ask whether you allow it 
 
 c. By si, in the sense of whether, sometimes with omission of the 
 governing verb. 
 
 SI nostri transirent, hostes exspectabant, the enemy were waiting (to 
 
 see) whether our men would cross 
 
 815. Indirect questions referring to future time usually 
 take the subjunctive of the active periphrastic conjugation 
 (§ 668. a). 
 
 dicam tibi quid factOms sim, 1 7/ tell you what I am going to do 
 
 Note. The sentence above could also be written dicam tibi quid faciam, 
 but this might be translated 77/ tell you what I am doing. The peri- 
 phrastic forms remove all ambiguity. 
 
 816. The indirect question sometimes represents, not a direct 
 question in the indicative, but a direct rhetorical question in the 
 deliberative subjunctive (§ 678). 
 
 quo me vertam nesciS, / do not know which way to turn. [Direct 
 
 form : quo me vertam, whither shall I turn f\ 
 Deque satis constabaf quid agerent, and it was not -r'e/y clear what 
 
 they had better do. [ Direct form : quid agamus, what shall 
 
 we dof] 
 
 817. Indirect alternative questions have the same introduc- 
 tory particles as direct alternative questions (§ 627), but or not 
 in the second member is expressed by necne rather than by 
 annOn. 
 
308 QUOD CLAUSES OF FACT 
 
 c5nsuluerunt utrum statim necaretur an in aliud tempus reservaretur, 
 
 they deliberated whether he should be killed at once or kept for 
 
 some other ti?ne 
 deliberatur de Avarico, incendi placeat an defend!, a discussion is held 
 
 concerning Avaricuin^ whether it seems desi?'able that it be burned 
 
 or defended 
 quaesivi a Catilina, in conventu fuisset necne, I asked Catiline whether 
 
 he had been at the jneeting or not 
 
 818. Haud scio an or nescio an, / a7n inclined to thi?ik, probably 
 (literally I do not know whether^^ takes the subjunctive in an alternative 
 indirect question, the first member of which is omitted. 
 
 haud scio an hoc melius sit, I am incli7ied to think that this is better 
 eloquentia nescio an habuisset parem neminem in oratory he would 
 probably have had no peer 
 
 819. Forsitan, perhaps, is follov^^ed by the subjunctive in an indirect 
 question, the adverb standing for an original fors sit an, // would be 
 a chafice whether. 
 
 forsitan requiras quae fata Priami fuerint, perhaps you inquire what 
 the fate of Priam was 
 
 820. Nescio quis, as an indefinite pronoun meaning so7ne one, and 
 the adverbial phrases nescio quo modo, nescio quo pacto, somehow \ 
 nescio quando, at some time; and the like, are not followed by the 
 subjunctive. 
 
 nuper nescio quis ex me quaesivit, I'ecently some one asked 7ne 
 sed nescio quo pacta omnium scelerum matiiritas nunc erupit, but some- 
 how the ripeness of all crimes has now burst fo'rth 
 
 Quod Clauses of Fact 
 
 821 . Dependent substantive clauses introduced by quod, thaty 
 the fact that, take the indicative. 
 
 Like other substantive clauses, the clause of fact with quod may 
 be used as subject, object, appositive, etc. 
 
QUOD CLAUSES OF FACT 309 
 
 822. The quod clause of fact is used as subject, especially 
 after verbs of happening (fit, accidit, Cvcnit, etc.) modified by 
 adverbs like bene or male. 
 
 quod rediitf nobis mirabile videtur, Ma/ Ag returned seems wonderful 
 
 to us 
 bene mihi evenit, quod ad mortem mittor, it happens well for me that 
 
 I am sent to death 
 opportune acciderat, quod legati venerant, it had happened opportunely 
 
 that ambassadors had covie 
 
 823. The quod clause of fact is used as appositive with a 
 preceding noun or demonstrative (hoc, illud, id, inde, ex eO, 
 propterea, etc.). 
 
 opportunissima res accidit, quod German! venerunt, a very fortunate 
 
 thing happened, (namely) tliat the Germatis came 
 in hoc sumus sapientes, quod naturam sequimur^ we are wise in this, 
 
 that we follow nature 
 hoc iinum in Alexandr5 vituperS, quod iracundus fuit, this one thing 
 
 J censure in Alexander, that he was quick-tempered 
 h5€ est miserior fortuna, quod ne in occultS quidem queri audent, their 
 
 lot is more pitiful in this, that they do not dare to complain even 
 
 in secret 
 
 824. A quod clause of fact is sometimes used as an accusa- 
 tive of respect (§ 427), quod having the meaning as tOy as for 
 the fact that. Such a quod clause regularly precedes the main 
 clause. 
 
 quod me Agamemnonem aemulari putas, falleris, as to your thinking 
 that J emulate ^{gamemnon, you are mistaken 
 
 quod mihi gratularis, minimg miramur, as to your congratulating me, 
 we are not at all surprised 
 
 825. Substantive clauses with quod, substantive clauses with ut or 
 n6 (§§ 724, 739), and infinitive clauses with subject accusative (§ 839) 
 are constructions so nearly equivalent that sometimes any one of the 
 three may be used with relatively little difference in meaning. 
 
3IO TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE 
 
 VERBAL NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 826. The verbal nouns and adjectives are the infinitives, 
 the participles, the gerund, and the supine. 
 
 THE INFINITIVE 
 
 827. The infinitive is a verbal noun, that is, a verb form 
 which partakes of the nature of a noun. Like a noun, it has 
 certain case constructions ; like a verb, it has tense and voice, 
 may be modified by adverbs, and often takes an object. 
 
 Note. The forms of the Latin infinitive are by origin partly dative 
 and partly locative. 
 
 Tenses of the Infinitive 
 
 828. The tenses of the infinitive are the present, perfect, 
 and future. These do not denote time independently, but 
 their time depends on that denoted by the leading verb. 
 
 a. The present infinitive denotes the same time as that of the 
 leading verb. 
 
 scio te scnhere^ I know that you are writing 
 sciebam te scribere, /knew that you were writing 
 
 b. The perfect infinitive denotes time before that of the leading verb. 
 
 scio te scripsisse, I know that you have written 
 sciebam te scripsisse, I knew that you had written 
 
 Note. In indirect discourse (§ 887. I. b) the perfect infinitive may 
 represent any past tense of the indicative. 
 
 c. The future infinitive denotes time after that of the leading verb. 
 
 scio te scripturum esse, I know that you will write 
 sciebam te scripturum esse, I knew that you would write 
 
 Note. The future infinitive is used only in indirect discourse (§ 887. 1, b). 
 
 829. With past tenses of verbs of necessity, propriety, and 
 possibility (as dfibui, oportuit, potui), the present infinitive is 
 
USES OF THE INFINITIVE 311 
 
 > he ought to have written 
 
 generally used in Latin where the English idiom prefers the 
 
 perfect infinitive, 
 debuit scrTbere 
 oportuit eum scribere _ 
 potuit scrfbere, he could have written 
 
 illl contra patriam arma ferre ndn debuenmt, they ought not to have 
 borne arms against their country 
 
 Note. The perfect infinitive when used emphasizes the idea of com- 
 pleted action. 
 
 830. The present infinitive is sometimes used in indirect discourse 
 to express continued or repeated action in past time, standing for the 
 past descriptive indicative of the direct discourse. 
 
 te memini dicere, I remember that you used to say. [Direct : dicSbas.] 
 
 831. Verbs that have no participial stem (§ 209), and hence 
 lack the future infinitive, use as its equivalent the periphrastic 
 form futurum esse (or fore) with ut and the subjunctive. 
 
 sperabat fore ut pertinacia desisteret, he hoped that he would cease 
 from his obstinacy 
 
 a. The same periphrastic construction is often used, especially for 
 the future passive infinitive, even when the verb has a participial stem. 
 
 dicit fore ut urbs dileatur, he says that the city will be destroyed. 
 [Instead of dicit urbem deletum iri.] 
 
 Common Uses of the iNFiNmvE 
 
 832. In general the infinitive has the uses of a neuter noun. 
 
 The Infinitive as Subject 
 
 833. The infinitive, with or without a subject accusative (§ 4 1 9), 
 may be used as subject with est and a predicate noun or adjective. 
 
 bellum gerere scelus est, to wage war is a crime 
 
 dolire malum est, to suffer pain is an einl 
 
 perfacile est cOnata perficen^ to accomplish their undtrtakings is 
 
 '•ery easy 
 mirum est tS nihil scribere, it is strange that you write nothing 
 
312 USES OF THE INFINITIVE 
 
 a. The noun or adjective in the predicate is sometimes a posses- 
 sive genitive. 
 
 iudicis est venim sequi, to follow truth is (the duty) of a judge 
 
 834. The infinitive, v^ith or without a subject accusative 
 (§419), may be used as subject with impersonal verbs and 
 expressions like libet, licet, oportet, decet, placet, visum est, pudet, 
 paenitet, necesse est, opus est, constat, fama est, interest, refert, etc. 
 
 necesse est mori^ it is necessary to die 
 visum est iter facere, it seemed best to march 
 
 traditum est Homerum caecum fuisse, the report has been handed down 
 that Homer was blind 
 
 a. As shown in the last example above, a predicate noun or adjective 
 is usually in the accusative ; but if the impersonal verb or expression 
 is followed by the dative, the predicate word is also in the dative. 
 Thus regularly with licet. 
 
 mihi neglegenti esse non licet, it is not permitted 7ne to be negligent 
 
 The Infinitive as Appositive or Predicate Noun 
 
 835. The infinitive, with or without a subject accusative 
 (§419), may be used as an appositive or as a predicate noun. 
 
 miserdri, invidere, gestire, laetdri, haec omnia morbos Graeci appellant, to 
 
 feel pity ^ envy^ desire^ joy ^ all these things the Greeks call diseases 
 videre est credere^ seeing is believing 
 id est convenienter naturae vivere, that is to live in conformity with 
 
 nature 
 hoc tantum peto, te non prqficTscI, I ask only this, that you do not 
 
 set out 
 
 The Infinitive as Object 
 
 836. The infinitive, without subject accusative, is used after 
 many verbs to denote another action of the same subject. 
 
 This is called the complementary infinitive^ because it completes the 
 thought introduced by the finite verb. 
 
USES OF THE INFINITIVE 313 
 
 Note. With transitive verbs the complementary infinitive may be 
 regarded as the direct object. With intransitive verbs it may be regarded 
 as an adverbial modifier. 
 
 837. Verbs followed by the complementary infinitive are 
 especially : 
 
 V0I6 (n616, malo), cupi5, opto, studeo, desire 
 
 statuo, c5nstitu5, c5gito, in animd habed, decide^ plan 
 
 coepi, incipio. pergo, begin 
 
 omittS, desists, cessS, cease 
 
 Conor, nitor, molior, tempt5, try 
 
 contends, matiiro, proper5, hasten 
 
 metuo, timed, \txt(ii,/ear 
 
 c5nsuesc6, soled, be wont 
 
 possum, be able 
 
 debe5, ought 
 
 sci5, know hoib 
 
 audeo, diire 
 
 dubit5, hesitate 
 
 discs, learn 
 
 cfinstituenint ea comparare, they decided to prepare those things 
 copias parare cesserunt, they ceased to prepare forces 
 iudicarf n5n debet, // ought not to be judged 
 iam se sustinere n5n poterat, he could not hold up longer 
 
 a. Some verbs take either a subjunctive clause or a complementary 
 infinitive without difference in meaning. 
 
 contendit oppidum capert or contendit ut oppidum caperet, he strove to 
 
 take the town 
 
 838. A predicate noun or adjective after a complementary 
 infinitive is in the nominative. 
 
 fieri doctior studebam, / was eager to become wiser 
 brevis esse laboro, / struggle to be brief 
 
 a. The infinitive may have a reflexive pronoun as subject accusative. 
 In that case the predicate noun or adjective is also in the accusative. 
 
 cupiS m8 esse cWnentem, / desire to be merciful 
 
314 USES OF THE INFINITIVE 
 
 839. The infinitive, with subject accusative, is used as object 
 with the following classes of verbs : 
 
 a. Very commonly with verbs of saying (dico, nuntio, etc.), think- 
 mg (puto, existimo, etc.), knowing (scio, cognosce, etc.), and perceiv- 
 ing (video, audio, sentio, etc.). 
 
 This is the regular construction of principal clauses in indirect 
 discourse (§ 887. I). 
 
 legati haec se reldturos esse dixerunt, //le ambassadors said that they 
 
 would report these matters 
 non existimamus Romanos sine ope divina bellum gerere^ we do not 
 
 think that the Romans wage war without divifie aid 
 Caesar cognovit montem a suis teneri, Ccesar learned that the mountain 
 
 was held by his me)i 
 sentio in hac urbe esse consules vigilantes, I perceive that in this city 
 
 there a7'e vigilant consuls 
 
 , h. With V0I6, nolo, malo, cupio, and studeo, when the subject of 
 the infinitive is not the same as that of the governing verb. 
 
 nolo te suspectum esse^ I do not wish you to be suspected 
 rem ad arma deduct studetis, you are desirous that the ?natter be 
 brought to (a decision of) a?-ms 
 
 c. With iubeo and veto. 
 
 liberds obsides ad se addUci iubet, he bids the children to be brought to 
 
 him as hostages 
 dux captlvos vindn vetuit, the leader forbade the captives to be bound 
 
 d. With sino and patior. 
 
 Nervii vinum ad se inferri non patiebantur, the Nervii did not permit 
 wine to be by-ought to them 
 
 e. With verbs of feeling or emotion : as, 
 
 gaudeo, laetor, rejoice 
 
 doleo, maereo. grieve 
 
 graviter (moleste, etc.) fero, be annoyed 
 
 miror, admiror, wonder^ be surprised 
 
 queror, complain 
 
 indignor, be indig?iant 
 
USES OF THE INFINITIVE 315 
 
 miror ti nesdre, I am surprised that you do not know 
 exercitum hiemdre in Gallia moleste ferebant, they were annoyed that 
 the artny was ivitttering in Gaul 
 
 Note. As most of these verbs imply thinking or saying, the dependent 
 construction may be regarded as indirect discourse (§ 885). Verbs of this 
 type are often followed by a causal clause with quod (§ 768). 
 
 840. The infinitive may be used with the passive of many 
 verbs which in the active take the infinitive with subject accusa- 
 tive ; so especially with dicor, existimor, iudicor, putor, videor, and 
 (in the third person) traditur, traduntur, fertur, feruntur. 
 
 centum pagos habere dicuntur, they are said to have a hundred cantons 
 Lycurgi temporibus Homenis fuisse traditur, Homer is said to have 
 lived in the time of Lycurgus 
 
 a. Passive verbs with the infinitive are generally personal in the 
 present system and impersonal in the perfect system. 
 
 So the first example above, with the passive verb changed to the 
 perfect, would become — 
 
 eos centum pag6s habere dictum est, it was said that they had a 
 hundred cantons 
 
 Note. Narr5, niintid, and trado are always impersonal in the perfect 
 passive system. 
 
 Special Uses of the Infinitive 
 The Infinitive with Adjectives 
 
 841. Paratus, suStus, and their compounds take the infinitive 
 like the verbs from which they are derived. 
 
 omnia perpett parati, ready to endure e^'ery thing 
 adsuefacti superari, used to being conquered 
 
 a. This construction was extended in poetry and late prose writers 
 to many other adjectives. 
 
 durus compdnere versus, harsh in composing verse 
 
3i6 USES OF THE INFINITIVE 
 
 The Infinitive of Purpose 
 
 842. Poets and early prose writers often use the infinitive to 
 express purpose, contrary to the usage of classic prose. 
 
 non ferro Libycos populdre Penates venimus, ive have not co?ne to lay 
 
 waste with the sword the Libyan homes 
 loricam donat habere vir5, he gives the hero a breastplate to wear 
 
 The Infinitive in Exclamation 
 
 843. The infinitive, with or without the interrogative particle -ne 
 attached to the emphatic word of the clause, may be used in an 
 exclamation or exclamatory question to express surprise^ anger, 
 or regret. 
 
 te in tantas aerumnas propter me incidisse, to think that you should 
 
 have- fallen into such grief for tne / 
 rnme inceptS desistere victam, what! I beaten desist from my 
 
 purpose f 
 
 ' a. Exclamatory questions are sometimes expressed by the sub- 
 junctive with or without ut. 
 
 te ut uUa res frangat, what I anything crush you ? 
 
 The Historical Infinitive 
 
 ■ 844. In descriptive narration the present infinitive may be 
 used instead of the past descriptive indicative, and has its 
 subject in the nominative. 
 
 cotidie Caesar Haeduds frumentum fldgitdre, every day Ccesar was 
 
 asking the HcBdui for the grain 
 pars cedere, alii insequi, a part gave way, others pressed on 
 
 Note. This construction is very rare in subordinate clauses and is 
 never used to state a mere historical fact. It is always descriptive, and is 
 especially common where several important actions occur in rapid succession, 
 leading to a climax or crisis. 
 
TENSES OF THE PARTICIPLE 317 
 
 The Infinitive as a Pure Noun 
 
 845. The infinitive is sometimes a pure noun, and as such may be 
 limited by an adjective or may be the object of a preposition. 
 
 hie xmlfi perdidit, he has lost his sense of shame 
 
 hoc n5n dolere, this freedom from pain 
 
 scire tuum, your knowledge 
 
 nil praeter plordre^ nothing except tears 
 
 PARTICIPLES 
 
 846. The participle is a verbal adjective, and combines all 
 the functions of an adjective with some of the functions of a 
 verb. Like an adjective, it agrees with a noun in gender, 
 number, and case (§ 497) ; like a verb, it has tense and voice, 
 may be modified by adverbs, and often takes an object. 
 
 Tenses of the Participle 
 
 847. The tenses of the participle are the present, past, and 
 future. The participle, like the infinitive, does not denote time 
 independently, but its time depends on that denoted by the 
 leading verb. 
 
 a. The present participle denotes the same time as that of the 
 leading verb. 
 
 video militem sequentem, I see the soldier following 
 vidi militein sequentem, I saw the soldier following 
 
 b. The past participle denotes time before that of the leading verb. 
 
 miles secutus adest, the soldier followed and is present (lit. having 
 
 followed is present) 
 miles secutus aderat, the soldier had followed and was present 
 
 c. The future participle denotes time after that of the leading verb, 
 miles secutSrus adest, the soldier (who is) adout to follow is present 
 
3i8 TENSES OF THE PARTICIPLE 
 
 Tense Peculiarities 
 
 848. The past participles ratus, solitus, veritus, regularly, and 
 others occasionally, are used as present. 
 
 rem incredibilem rati, thinking the thing incredible 
 Insidias veritus, fearing an ambuscade 
 
 849. The present participle sometimes denotes attempted action. 
 
 Flaminio restitit agrum Picentem dividenti, he resisted Flaminius 
 (who was) attempting to divide the Picetie territory 
 
 Lacking Forms of the Participle 
 
 850. As compared with English, the Latin participle is 
 defective. It lacks {a) the present passive (cf. English being 
 seen) and {b) the past active (cf. English having seen). 
 
 Note. Deponent verbs, being passive in form but active in meaning, 
 are, therefore, the only verbs capable of giving a literal rendering of an 
 English perfect active participle : as, secutus, having followed. 
 
 851 . The place of the missing present passive participle is supplied 
 usually by a clause with dum or cum. 
 
 obiere dum calciantur duo Caesares, two Ccesars died while their shoes 
 
 were being put o?i 
 me ista delectant cum Latine dicuntur, those things please me, being 
 
 spoken in Latin 
 
 852. The place of the missing past active participle is generally 
 supplied by the past passive participle in the ablative absolute, or by 
 a clause with cum or postquam. 
 
 convocdtis centurionihus milites certiores facit, having called the cen- 
 
 turio7is together (lit. the centurions having been called together), 
 
 he infor7ns the soldiers 
 cum venisset, animadvertit collem, having come (lit. when he had 
 
 come), he noticed a hill 
 postquam id animum advertit, copias suas in proximum collem subducit, 
 
 having obser^'cd this (lit. after he had observed this), he led his 
 
 troops to the nearest hill 
 
USES OF THE PARTICIPLE 319 
 
 Common Uses of the Participle 
 
 858. Like a verb, the participle may take an object when 
 its meaning allows. Like an adjective or a verb, the participle 
 may take an adverbial modifier. 
 
 videns montem, seeing the mountain 
 
 hortatus milites. having encouraged the soldiers 
 
 magna voce loquens, speaking in a loud voice 
 
 854. The participle, when used as an adjective, may be either 
 attributive or predicate. 
 
 Attributive Use of the Participle 
 
 855. The present and past participles are sometimes used 
 
 as attributive adjectives. 
 
 aeger et ftagrans animus, his sick and passionate mind 
 mater amata, a beloved mother 
 
 856. The only future active participles used as attributive 
 adjectives in Ciceronian I^tin are futurus and venturus. The 
 future passive participle is occasionally so used at all periods. 
 
 res futuwae. future events 
 
 n5n ferenda iniuria, an intolerable wrong 
 
 Predicate Use of the Participle 
 
 857. A participle in the predicate may be joined to the 
 subject by esse. 
 
 Gallia est divlsa, Gaul is divided 
 
 858. The past participle is used with the incomplete tenses 
 of esse to form the compound tenses of the passive. 
 
 amatus sum, / hai'e been loved 
 amdtus eram, / had been loved 
 amatus erd, / shall have been lo-ved 
 
320 USES OF THE PARTICIPLE 
 
 859. The future active participle in -urns is used with the forms 
 of sum to make the active periphrastic conjugation (§ 249. a). 
 
 amaturus sum, / am about to love 
 
 praeter quod secum portatun erant, except what they intended to 
 carry with them 
 
 860. The future passive participle in -ndus is used with the 
 forms of sum to make the passive periphrastic coftjugatioji 
 (§ 249. b). 
 
 amandus sum, / must be loved 
 
 Caesari omnia uno tempore erant agenda, Ccesar had to do everything 
 
 at the same time (lit. everything had to be done at the same 
 
 ti?ne by CcEsar) 
 omnes cruciatus sunt perferendi, all (kinds of) cruelty have to be endured 
 
 a. Intransitive verbs are always impersonal in the passive peri- 
 phrastic, and take their usual cases (genitive, dative, or. ablative). 
 
 concedendum esse non putabat, he did not think that he ought to comply 
 
 (lit. that it ought to be complied) 
 tempori serviendum est, one must obey the (demands of the) time 
 utendum est exercitationibus modicis, we must use moderate exercise 
 
 b. Transitive verbs are occasionally impersonal in the passive peri- 
 phrastic, but may have an accusative object. 
 
 agitandum est vigilias, / have got to sta?td guard 
 
 861. The present and past participles are often used as 
 predicate, where in English a phrase or a subordinate clause 
 would be more natural. In this use participles express especially 
 time, cause, meajts, mamier, condition, and coficession. 
 
 a. Time. 
 
 Plato scribens mortuus est, Plato died while writing (or /w the act of 
 writing) 
 
 b. Cause. 
 
 quibus rebus Caesar vehementer commotus maturandum sibi existi- 
 mavit, because he was greatly disturbed by these facts, CcEsar 
 thought that he ought to hasten 
 
USES OF THE PARTICIPLE 321 
 
 c. Means. 
 
 sdl oriens diem c5nficit, M^ sun, by Us risings causes the day 
 
 d. Manner. 
 
 ftentis impl5rabant, they begged with tears 
 
 e. ('ondition. 
 
 damnation poenam sequi oportSbat, if he was condemned, punishment 
 was to overtake him 
 
 f. Concession. 
 
 beneficid adfectus banc gratiam refert, though he has been treated 
 with kindness, he makes this return 
 
 862. A coordinate clause is often compressed into a past participle. 
 
 instructos 5rdines in locum aequum deducit, he draws up the lines, and 
 leads them to level ground 
 
 Special Uses of the Participle 
 
 863. Participles, like adjectives, may be used as nouns. 
 
 recte facta paria esse debent, right deeds ought to be like in value 
 opini5nem pugnantium praebent, they give the impression of men fighting 
 
 864. Video, audio, faciO, and a few other verbs may take a present 
 participle in the predicate instead of an infinitive. 
 
 vidi urbem concidentem, I sa7i> the city falling 
 
 Xenophon facit S5cratem disputantem, Xenophon represents Socrates 
 as discussing 
 
 865. The past participle is used with habed with almost the 
 same meaning as the perfect or past perfect indicative active. 
 
 vectigalia redempta habet, he has bought up the revenues 
 
 perfidiam Haeduonim perspectam habitat, he had observed the treachery 
 
 of the Hccdui 
 
 866. A noun and a participle are often so combined that the 
 participle and not the noun contains the main idea. 
 
 ante urbem conditam, before the founding of the city 
 
 post natos homines, since the creation of man 
 
 Sicilia Sardiniaque Smissae, the loss of Sicily and Sardinia 
 
322 GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 
 
 867. The past participle with a noun in agreement, or in the neuter 
 as an abstract noun, is used in the ablative with opus, need (§ 469. b). 
 
 opus facto est viatico, there is need of providing traveling expetises 
 maturdto opus est, t/iere is need x)f haste 
 
 868. The future active participle (rarely the present) is sometimes 
 used by poets and late writers to QXY>rQss purpose. 
 
 egreditur vallum invdsurus, he comes forth to attack the rampai't 
 
 869. After the verbs euro, see to\ do, tradS, mando, give over\ 
 concedo, surrender ; relinqu5, leave ; suscipio, tmdertake ; loco, 
 contract for \ and a few others, the future passive participle is 
 used in agreement with the object to denote purpose. 
 
 ■pontem faciendum curavit, he saw to the building of a bridge 
 agios vdstandos tradidit, he gave over the fields to be laid waste 
 signum conlocandum locaverunt, the_y contracted to have the statue 
 erected 
 
 THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 
 
 870. The Gerundive is the name given to the future passive 
 participle when used as a verbal adjective in agreement with 
 a noun. The gerundive, unlike the participle, does not express 
 necessity or obligation. 
 
 bellum gerendum est, the war must be waged. [Participle.] 
 cupidus belli gerendi, desirous of waging war. [Gerundive.] 
 
 871. The Gerund is the neuter singular of the gerundive 
 used as an active verbal noun in the genitive, dative, accusa- 
 tive, and ablative. 
 
 Note. The nominative singular of the gerund is supplied by the present 
 
 active infinitive : as, overcoming (or to overcome) danger demands courage. 
 
 ' ^T _ ( overcomihg^ , - . . 
 
 NoM. superarei ^ }■ Infinitive 
 
 Gen. superandi, of overcoming 1 
 
 DAT. ^yxpttdiXi^, for overcoming \ 
 
 Ace. superandum, overcoming [ 
 
 Abl. superando, by overcoming J 
 
GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 323 
 
 872. A comparison of the gerund and gerundive shows the 
 following points of difference : 
 
 a. The gerund is a verbal noun. The gerundive is a verbal adjective, 
 ft. The gerund is active. The gerundive is passive. 
 c. The gerund may stand alone or with an object The gerundive 
 always accompanies and agrees with a noun. 
 
 Note i. The gerund and gerundive are translated in the same way 
 although of different construction. Thus, apes urbem capiendJ (gerund) and 
 spes urbis capiendae (gerundive) are both translated /tope of taking the city ; 
 but the latter, rendered literally, would be hope of the city to be taken. 
 
 Note 2. To change from the gerund to the gerundive construction, put 
 the object of the gerund into the case of the gerund, and change the gerund 
 to a gerundive agreeing with it. See the example in Note i . 
 
 Gase Constructions of the Gerund and Gerundive 
 
 873. The gerund and gerundive have in general the same 
 case constructions as nouns. 
 
 874. The genitive of the gerund and gerundive is used with 
 nouns or adjectives. 
 
 Gerund Gerundive 
 
 c5nsilium ^a^en</l spatium, //m^y^^r cdnsili habendi spatium, tivte for 
 
 formini^ a plan fotmini^ a plan 
 
 cupidus bellum gerendi, desirous of cupidus belli gerendi, desirous of 
 
 carrying on war carrying on war 
 
 875. The genitive of the gerund and gerundive is used with causi 
 or gratia to ^\'^x^%s purpose. 
 
 frumentandi causa progress! sunt, they advanced for the purpose 
 
 of gathering grain 
 
 876. With mei, tui, sui, nostri, and vestri, even when the pronoun 
 refers to the feminine or the plural, the gerundive ends in i. 
 
 Tarpeia omamenta cupivit am omandi causa, Tarpeia desired jewels 
 
 to adorn herself 
 Haedui legates ad Caesarem aui pUrgandi gratii mittunt, the Hctdui 
 
 send ambassadors to Co'sar to excuse themselves 
 hoc veatri adhortandt causa non died, / do not say this to encourage you 
 
324 GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 
 
 877. The dative of the gerund and gerundive is used with 
 adjectives denoting fitness. 
 
 libri utiles legendo, books useful for reading 
 
 tempora fructibus percipiendis accommodata, seasons suitable for 
 
 gathering the harvest 
 aetas bello gerendo matura, a time of life ripe for carry i?ig on war 
 
 a. The dative of the gerund and gerundive may be used with verbs 
 and vi^ith nouns. The latter are usually names of officials, and the 
 dative denotes the purpose for which they serve. 
 
 hi scribendo aderant, these were present at the writing 
 
 duumviri agris adsignandis, duutnviri for the assigntnent of lands 
 
 diem praestitit operi faciendo, he appointed a day for doi7tg the work 
 
 Note. The dative of the gerufid with a direct object should not be used, 
 but the gerundive as above. 
 
 878. The accusative of the gerund and gerundive is used 
 with ad to denote purpose. 
 
 diem ad deliberandum siimam, / will take time for deliberating 
 vivis non ad deponendam sed ad confirmandam audaciam, you live not 
 to put off but to confirin your dari?tg 
 
 Note i. The accusative of the gerund with a preposition should never 
 be used with a direct object ; the ge?'undive is used instead (see above). 
 Note 2. Rarely other prepositions appear in this construction. 
 
 879. The ablative of the gerund and gerundive is used to ex- 
 press cause, means, etc., and after the prepositions ab, de, ex, or in. 
 
 coniiirationem non credendo corr5boraverunt, they have strengthened the 
 
 coiispij^acy by not believitig 
 oculi \^xx%v^^^!!^. flendo, eyes swollen with weepiftg 
 condendo ad se multitiidinem, by callitig to them a multitude 
 reperiebat in quaerendo, he found on iftvestigating 
 in equis parandis cura, care in providing horses 
 de expugnando oppid5, concerning the storming of the town 
 
 Note. When the ablative of the gerund has no preposition, it may be 
 used with a direct object, as in the third example ; but after a preposition 
 only the gerundive construction is possible, as in the last two examples. 
 
THE SUPINE 325 
 
 Relative Frequency and Limitations of the Gerund and 
 Gerundive 
 
 880. When the participial phrase contains a substantive, 
 either the gerund or the gerundive construction is, as a rule, 
 permissible, though the latter is more common in classical 
 Latin. However, the following limitations are to be observed : 
 
 a. The gerund with a direct object is permissible only in the 
 genitive and in the ablative without a preposition. 
 
 b. Only the gerund is permissible with a neuter adjective used 
 substantively. 
 
 ars vera ac falsa dliUdicandi, the art of distinguishing true from false 
 
 Note, This is to avoid ambiguity. The equivalent gerundive phrase, 
 ars y§r5nim ac falsdrum diiudicanddrum, would mean the art of distinguish- 
 ing true men from false men. 
 
 c. Only the gerund is used when the verb is intransitive, 
 eis persuadendi causa, for the sake of persuading them 
 
 Note, tjtor, fruor, fuogor, potior, vescor, originally transitive, may be 
 used in either the gerund or the gerundive construction. 
 
 THE SUPINE 
 
 881. The supine is a verbal noun of the fourth declension, and 
 has but two forms, the accusative in -um and the ablative in -a. 
 
 882. The supine has only two uses : 
 
 I. The supine in -um is used after verbs of motion to 
 express purpose.^ 
 
 ' A conspectus of the commonest constructions employed to express pur- 
 pose is shown in the following table : 
 
 1. Adverbial clauses, introduced by ut or 
 
 n«(§7>3) 
 
 2. Relative clauses (§715) 
 
 3. Substantive clauses, used as subject 
 Purpose may be J (§721), object (§ 720), or appositive 
 
 expressed by I (§ 724) 
 
 The gerund or gerundive (§§ 875, 878) 
 The supine in -um (§ 882. I) 
 
 The subjunctive 
 
326 INDIRECT DISCOURSE 
 
 legates ad Caesarem mittunt rogdtum auxilium, they send envoys to 
 
 CcEsar to ask aid 
 filiam nuptum dat, /le gives his daughter in marriage (lit. to marry) 
 
 a. The supine in -um may take an object, as in the first example. 
 
 Note. The supine in -um with iri, the passive infinitive of e5, forms 
 the future passive infinitive. 
 
 sciebat se truciddtum m, he knew that he was going to be murdered 
 
 But the future passive infinitive is rare ; fore ut with the subjunctive is 
 regularly employed instead (§831. a). 
 
 II. The supine in -u is used with a few adjectives, and with 
 the nouns fas, nefas, and opus, as an ablative of respect (§478). 
 
 perfacile factu est, it is very easy to do 
 difficile dictu est, it is hard to say 
 nefas est dictu, it is a sin to say 
 
 a. The supine in -u never takes an object. 
 
 b. The only supines in -u in common use are cognitu, dictu, 
 factu, natu, and visu. Adjectives frequently followed by the supine 
 are facilis, difficilis, horribilis, incredibilis, and mirabilis. 
 
 INDIRECT DISCOURSE 
 
 883. The original words of a speaker or writer quoted with- 
 out change, in the form of an independent sentence, are said 
 to be in direct discourse. 
 
 Caesar dicit : Belgae sunt fortes, Ccesar says, " The Belgce are brave " 
 
 884. The words of a speaker or writer quoted in dependent 
 form after a verb of saying, thinking, knowing, or perceiving 
 are said to be in ijidirect discourse. 
 
 Caesar dicit Belgds esse fortes, Ccssar says that the Belgce are brave 
 
 885. Verbs and other expressions of saying, thinking, know- 
 ing, perceiving, and the like are commonly followed by indirect 
 discourse. 
 
PRINCIPAL CLAUSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 327 
 
 Verbs of saying: dic(J, nfintiC, referO, poUiceor, prdmittO, etc 
 
 Verbs of thinking : putO, arbitror, existimO, etc. 
 
 Verbs of knowing: sciO. cognOscS, etc. 
 
 Verbs oi perceiving \ videC, audio, sentiO, intellegS, comperiC, etc. 
 
 a. The verb of sayings etc, is sometimes implied by the context. 
 
 886. General Rule. In indirect discourse the verbs in the 
 
 principal clauses of declarative sentences are in the infinitive, 
 and the verbs in the subordinate clauses are in the subjunctive. 
 
 PRINCIPAL CLAUSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 
 
 887. Principal clauses of direct discourse, on becoming 
 indirect, . show the following changes : 
 
 I. Principal clauses, when declarative, change the indicative 
 to the infinitive with subject accusative. 
 
 Direct Discourse Indirect Discourse 
 
 diSs Instate the day is at hand intellSxit diem mstare, he perceived 
 
 that the day was at hand 
 Helvetii castra moverunt, the Helvetii cognovit Helvetios castra movisse, he 
 moved their camp learned that the Ilcli'ctii had 
 
 moved their camp 
 Allobrogibus persuddebimus, ive shall existimabant se Allobrogibus pcr- 
 persuade the Allobroges sudsuros (esse), they thought that 
 
 they should persuade the Al- 
 lobroges 
 
 a. The subject accusative of the infinitive is regularly expressed 
 in indirect discourse, even when the subject of the verb is unexpressed 
 as a pronoun in the direct. 
 
 Direct: Srator sum, I am an orator 
 
 Indirect : dicit si esse Orit&rem, he says that he is an orator 
 
 b. The tenses of the infinitive in indirect discourse denote time 
 contemporaneous with, prior to, or subsequent to that of the verb by 
 which the indirect discourse is introduced (§ 885). 
 
328 PRINCIPAL CLAUSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 
 
 Direct Discourse 
 
 Present indicative 
 Past descriptive "I 
 Perfect [ indicative 
 
 Past perfect J 
 Future active indicative 
 Future passive indicative 
 
 Future perfect indicative 
 
 Indirect Discourse 
 becomes Present infinitiv.e 
 
 becomes Perfect infinitive 
 
 becomes Future active infinitive 
 becomes fore (futurum esse) ut with the 
 present or past subjunctive ^ 
 becomes fore (futurum esse) ut with the 
 perfect or past perfect sub- 
 junctive 
 
 Note i . The present infinitive posse often has a future force. 
 
 t5tius Galliae sese potiri posse sperant, i/iey hope that they shall be able 
 to get possession of the whole of Gattl 
 
 Note 2. The infinitive construction is regularly continued after a com- 
 parative with quam. 
 
 addit se prius occisum iri quam me violdtum In, he adds that he himself 
 will be killed sooner than I shall be injured 
 
 II. Principal clauses, when ijiterrogative, change the indica- 
 tive of the direct discourse to the subjunctive if the question 
 is real ; to the infinitive if the question is rhetorical .^ 
 
 Direct Discourse 
 
 quid i^? cur venis, what do you 
 
 want ? why do you come ? [ Real 
 
 questions.] 
 num memoriam deponere possum, 
 
 can I lay aside the memory? 
 
 [Rhetorical question.] 
 
 Indirect Discourse 
 
 dixit quid vellefi cur vemret, he 
 
 said what did he want? why 
 
 did he come ? 
 dixit num memoriam se deponere 
 
 posse, he said could he lay aside 
 
 the memory ? 
 
 Note i. Real questions are generally in the second person, rhetorical 
 questions in the first or third ; but no sharp line can be drawn between them. 
 
 Note 2. Questions, either real or rhetorical, directly following a verb of 
 asking, are treated as indirect questions and take the subjunctive (§ 812). 
 
 1 Or (rarely) future passive infinitive. 
 
 2 Rhetorical questions (§ 620. b) do not ask for information, but are equiva- 
 lent to statements ; hence they are treated like declarative sentences (§ 887. 1). 
 
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 329 
 
 a. The deliberative subjunctive (§ 678) remains subjunctive in 
 indirect discourse. 
 
 Direct : quid facerem, what was I to do f 
 
 Indirect : dixit quid faceret, he said what was he to do f 
 
 III. Principal clauses, when imperative (that is, when t\' 
 \iXQss\r\g commands, prayers f tvishes, d^nd prohibitions), have the 
 verb in indirect discourse in the subjunctiVe. The negative is n6. 
 
 Direct Discourse Indirect Discourse 
 
 Present subjunctive after a 
 
 - ^. - primary tense 
 
 Imperative becomes •< ^, *^ , • • r 
 
 Past subjuncuve after a sec- 
 ondary tense 
 {Subjunctive, though the tense 
 may be changed by the 
 law of tense sequence 
 
 Direct Discourse Indirect Discourse 
 
 reminiscere veteris incommodi, re- dixit remimsceretur veteris incom- 
 member the anciettt disaster modi, he told him to retnember 
 
 the ancient disaster 
 amimus patriam, /et us love our dixit amarent patriam, he told thetn 
 
 country to love their country 
 
 istS bonS utare, use that blessing dicit isto bono utatur, he says that 
 
 he should use that blessing 
 n61i dubitare, don^t hesitate dicit rH dubitet, he tells him not to 
 
 hesitate 
 
 a. A prohibition with nOli and the infinitive (§676. a) becomes 
 the subjunctive with nC, as shown in the last example. 
 
 SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 
 
 888. Subordinate clauses, on becoming indirect, take the 
 subjunctive. 
 
 889. The tenses of the subjunctive in indirect discourse 
 follow the rule for sequence of tenses (§ 695), and depend on 
 the verb by which the indirect discourse is introduced. 
 
330 SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 
 
 Direct Discourse 
 Present"! 
 
 Future J 
 
 indicative 
 
 Perfect 
 Future perfect . 
 
 indicative 
 
 becomes 
 
 becomes - 
 
 Past descriptive indicative becomes- 
 
 Past perfect indicative 
 
 becomes 
 
 Indirect Discourse 
 
 Present subjunctive after a pri- 
 mary tense 
 
 Past subjunctive after a second- 
 ary tense 
 
 Perfect subjunctive after a pri- 
 mary tense 
 
 Past perfect subjunctive after a 
 secondary tense 
 
 Perfect subjunctive after a pri- 
 mary tense 
 
 Past subjunctive after a second- 
 ary tense 
 
 Perfect subjunctive after a pri- 
 mary tense 
 
 Past perfect subjunctive after a 
 secondary tense 
 
 890. A subjunctive in a subordinate clause of the direct discourse 
 remains subjunctive when the clause becomes indirect ; but the tense 
 may be changed to conform to the law of tense sequence. 
 
 891. A past or past perfect subjunctive in the subordinate clause 
 of a condition contrary to fact always remains unchanged in indirect 
 discourse (see § 900). 
 
 892. The following examples include both principal and 
 subordinate clauses : 
 
 Direct Discourse 
 
 Indirect Discourse 
 
 sunt non niilli quorum auct5ritas dicit esse non nullos quorum aucto- 
 
 _i- • _._i-_^ j7. _:i=_ -.in-; .— I * 1,^ ,« 
 
 pliirimum vdleat, there are some 
 whose influe7ice is very strong 
 
 id quod in Nerviis feci faciam, / 
 will do that which I did in the 
 case of the Nervii 
 
 ritas plurimum valeat, he says 
 that there are some whose in- 
 fluence is very strong 
 respondit se id quod in Nerviis 
 fecisset facturum esse, he replied 
 that he would do that which he 
 had done in the case of the 
 Nervii 
 
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 331 
 
 Direct Discoursk Indirect Discourse 
 
 ad Caesarem Ib5 ut pacem petatn, I dixit se ad Caesarem iturum ut 
 u'ill ^o to Citsar that I may pacem peteret, he said that he 
 
 beg for peace would go to Ccesar that he might 
 
 beg for peace 
 obeamcausamquam diu />ofi/Ftacui, dicit ob earn causam se quam di& 
 for this reason I have kept si- potuerit tacuisse, he says that 
 
 lence as long as I could for this reason he has kept si- 
 
 lence as long as he could 
 
 893. The subjunctive depending on a perfect infinitive is usually 
 in the past or past perfect in indirect discourse, even if the verb of 
 saying etc. is in a primar)' tense (cf. § 703). 
 
 satis mihi multa verba fecisse videor qua re esset hoc bellum necessa- 
 riom, I think I have said enough to show why this war is necessary 
 
 894. The present or perfect subjunctive is often used after 
 a secondary tense to make the narrative more vivid (cf. § 707). 
 
 dicebant totidem Nervios polliceri, qui longissime absinty they said 
 that the Nervii, who live farthest off, promised as many 
 
 895. Subordinate clauses inserted by the narrator himself, and not 
 part of the indirect discourse, are in the indicative. 
 
 referunt silvam esse, quae appellatur Bacenis, they say that there is a 
 forest, which is called Bacenis 
 
 896. Clauses introduced by a relative which is equivalent to 
 a demonstrative with a conjunction (§ 564) are subordinate only 
 in form, and hence take the accusative and infinitive in indirect 
 discourse like declarative principal clauses (§ 887. I). 
 
 quibus proeliis fractos Haeduos coactos esse Sequanis obsides dare, and 
 that weakened by these battles the Hcedui had been compelled to 
 give hostages to the Sequani 
 
 897. If the verb of a relative clause is the same as that of the 
 principal clause, it may be omitted and its subject attracted into 
 the accusative. 
 
 tS suspicor iisdem rSbus quibus me ipsum (instead of ego ipse) commo- 
 v5ri, / suspect that you are mo7>ed by the same things as I 
 
332 
 
 INDIRECT DISCOURSE 
 
 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 
 
 898. The condition in a conditional sentence is a subordinate 
 clause, and the conclusion is a principal clause. Hence in 
 indirect discourse — 
 
 I. The condition is always in the subjunctive. 
 II. The conclusion, if declarative, is always in some form of 
 the infinitive. 
 
 899. Conclusions that are interrogative or imperative in form are 
 treated like other principal clauses of that sort. See § 887. II, III. 
 
 900. Conditional sentences show the following changes in 
 mood and tense on passing from direct to indirect discourse : 
 
 Form of 
 Condition 
 
 Condition (Sub- 
 ordinate Clause) 
 
 Conclusion 
 (Principal Clause) 
 
 I. Non-committal 
 (present and past) 
 
 Indicative becomes 
 subjunctive 
 
 Indicative becomes infinitive 
 Imperative becomes subjunctive 
 Subjunctive remains subjunctive 
 
 II. More and less 
 definite (future) 
 
 Indicative becomes 
 
 subjunctive 
 Subjunctive remains 
 
 subjunctive 
 
 Future active indicative or pres- 
 ent active subjunctive becomes 
 future active infinitive 
 
 Future passive indicative or 
 present passive subjunctive 
 becomes fore (futurum esse) 
 ut with the present or past 
 subjunctive 
 
 Future perfect indicative or per- 
 fect subjunctive becomes fore 
 (futurum esse) ut with the 
 perfect or past perfect sub- 
 junctive 
 
 III. Contrary to 
 
 fact (present and 
 
 past) 
 
 Past or past perfect 
 subjunctive re- 
 mains unchanged 
 
 Past or past perfect active sub- 
 junctive becomes the future 
 participle with fuisse 
 
 Past or past perfect passive sub- 
 junctive becomes futurum 
 fuisse ut with the past sub- 
 junctive 
 
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 
 
 333 
 
 901. The changes required in conditional sentences when 
 they pass from direct to indirect discourse are illustrated by the 
 following examples : 
 
 Direct Disc«)tKSK 
 
 Indirect Discoursi 
 
 I. Non-committal (present and past) 
 
 1. si pugnas, vincis, if you Jight^ 
 
 YOU conquer 
 
 2. SI pugnas, vince, if you fight ^ 
 
 conquer 
 
 3. si pugnas, vincas, if you fight, 
 
 may you conquer 
 
 ( died si pugnes, te vincere 
 Idiz! 81 pugnariSf tS vincere 
 
 / dico si pugnes, vincas 
 ' ^' 1 dixi si pugnares, vinceres 
 
 II. More and less definite (future) 
 
 1. si pugnabis, vinces, if you 
 
 (shaii) fight, you will con- 
 quer. [More definite.] 
 
 2. si pugnes, vincas, if you should 
 
 fight, you would conquer. 
 [Less definite.] 
 
 3. si pugnabis, vinceris, if you 
 
 (shall) fight, you will be con- 
 quered. [More definite.] 
 
 4. si pugnes, vincaris, if you should 
 
 fight, you would be con- 
 quered. [Less definite.] 
 
 1,2. 
 
 died si pugnes, te victUrum 
 esse. [More and less defi- 
 nite.] 
 
 dixi si pugnares, te victUrum 
 esse. [More and less defi- 
 nite.] 
 
 ' dic6 si pugnes, fore ut vincaris. 
 [More and less definite.] 
 3» 4- s dijd si pugnares, fore ut vin- 
 cereris. [More and less 
 definite.] 
 
 III. Contrary to fact (present and past) 
 
 1 . si pugnares, vinceres, i/'you were 
 
 fighting, you would be con- 
 quering. [Present.] 
 
 2. si pugnavisses, vicisses, if you 
 
 had fought, you would Jiave 
 conquered. [Past.] 
 
 3. si pugnares, vinccrSris, if you 
 
 were fighting, you would be 
 conquered. [ Present. ] 
 
 4. s! pugnavissSs, victus ess^s, // 
 
 you had fought, you would 
 have been conquered. [Past.] 
 
 1. dico. or dixi, si pugnares, te vic- 
 
 tUrum fuisse. [ Present. ] 
 
 2. died, or dixi, si pugnavissis, te vic- 
 
 tUrum fuisse. [ I'ast. ] 
 
 3. dic5, or dixi, si pugnaris, futUrum 
 
 fuisse ut vincereris. [ Present.] 
 
 4. dic5, or dixi, si pugnavisses, futU- 
 
 rum fuisse ut vinceriris. [ Past. ] 
 
334 SUBJUNCTIVE BY ATTRACTION 
 
 902. Observe that more and less definite future conditions assume 
 the same form in indirect discourse and cannot be distinguished. 
 
 903. Observe that in indirect discourse present and past condi- 
 tions contrary to fact have the same form in the conclusion, but that 
 they retain the regular distinction of tense in the condition. 
 
 904. Observe that the tenses of the subjunctive follow the rules 
 of tense sequence except in conditions contrary to fact. 
 
 IMPLIED INDIRECT DISCOURSE 
 
 905. The presence of the subjunctive in a subordinate clause 
 may show that it is an indirect quotation, even though there is 
 no verb of saying or the like in the principal clause. 
 
 Paetus omnis libros quos frater suus reliquisset mihi donavit, Pectus 
 presented to me all the books which (he said) his brother had left 
 
 Caesar Haeduos frumentum quod cssent poUiciti flagitare, Ccssar kept 
 asking the Hcedui for the grain which (he asserted) they had 
 promised 
 
 906. The principle of implied indirect discourse explains the use 
 of the subjunctive in causal clauses when the reason given is that of 
 another than the speaker or writer (§ 768, b). 
 
 queritur quod desertus sit, he complains because (as he says) he has 
 been deserted 
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE BY ATTRACTION 
 
 907. A subordinate clause depending on a subjunctive or an 
 infinitive clause, and essential to its thonght, is attracted into 
 tlie subjunctive. 
 
 hortatus sum ut ea quae sciret sine timore indicaret, / urged him to 
 
 disclose without fear the things which he knew 
 quis tam dissoluto animo est, qui haec cum videat^ tacere possit, who 
 
 is of so reckless a spirit that, when he sees these things, he can 
 keep silent ? 
 
ORDER OF WORDS 335 
 
 in58 est Athenis Uudari in cdnti5ne eos qui sint in proeliis inteffecti, it 
 is the custom at Athens for those to be eulogized in the assembly 
 who have been killed in battle 
 
 908. The dependent clause must be a necessary and logical part 
 of the subjunctive or infinitive clause, or no attraction takes place. 
 
 milites misit ut eSs qui fugerant persequerentur, he sent soldiers to 
 
 pursue those who had fled 
 ne hostes, quod tantum multitiidiDe poterant, suds circumvenire possent, 
 
 le'st the enemy ^ because they were so strong in numbers, should be 
 
 able to surround his men 
 
 909. The subjunctive in implied indirect discourse and the sub- 
 junctive by attraction are so closely related that it is often difficult to 
 distinguish between them. 
 
 THE ORDER OF WORDS 
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES 
 
 910. The words of an English sentence stand in a more or 
 less fixed order, which shows their grammatical relation to each 
 other. In Latin this relation is shown by inflection, and the 
 order of the words depends mainly upon the connection of 
 thought, the emphasis, and the principles of euphony. 
 
 911. The two most important places in the Latin sentence 
 are the beginning and the end, and the words standing there 
 have a corresponding value. 
 
 Note. The clear indication of the beginning and end of the sentence 
 by the order of words was the more important to the Romans because they 
 had no marks of punctuation. 
 
 912. The normal ^ order of the simple, independent, discon- 
 nected sentence is as follows : 
 
 1. Subject. 
 
 2. Modifiers of the subject. 
 
 * By normal is meant the order in which no attempt is made to give any part 
 of the sentence unusual emphasis or to secure rhythmic or euphonic effects. 
 
336 ORDER OF WORDS 
 
 3. Object. If there are both a direct and an indirect object, 
 the indirect sometimes precedes the direct and sometimes 
 follows it. 
 
 4. Adverb. 
 
 5. Verb. 
 
 The position of other elements, such as ablatives, preposi- 
 tional phrases, etc., cannot be exactly formulated, but is deter- 
 mined largely by emphasis and euphony. 
 
 913. In connected narrative the first sentence normally 
 begins with the subject, and each succeeding sentence with 
 whatever word links the thought of the sentence with that of 
 the sentence preceding. 
 
 palus erat n5n magna inter nostrum atque hostium exercitum. Hanc si 
 nostri transirent hostes exspectabant, ^/lere was a swam/f of no 
 great size between our army and that of the e?iemy. The enemy 
 were waiting to see whether our meti would cross this 
 
 Note that the first sentence is introduced by palus, the subject, but 
 the second by hanc, the linking word. Observe also the next two 
 examples : 
 
 subitum bellum in Gallia coortum est. Eius belli haec fuit causa, a 
 sudden war arose in Gaul. Of that war the cause was as 
 follows 
 
 ipse in lUyricum proficiscitur. Ed cum venisset, milites certum in locum 
 convenire iubet. Qua. re niintiata Piriistae legates ad eum mittunt. 
 Percepta oratione eorum Caesar obsides imperat, he hiinself set out 
 for Illyricum. Upon his arrival there., he ordered soldiers to 
 assemble in a particular place. When this was reported.^ the 
 Pirustce sent oivoys to him. Having heard their plea., CcEsar 
 demanded hostages 
 
 a. The relative pronoun is thus frequently used as a connecting 
 link (§ 564). 
 
 quod ubi Caesar animadvertit, legati ita responderunt, wheti Ccesar 
 noticed this, the legates replied as follows 
 
 I 
 
ORDER OF WORDS 337 
 
 SPECIAL RULES 
 Attributive Adjectives and Genitives 
 
 914. Attributive adjectives in general both precede and 
 follow their nouns. 
 
 a. Numeral adjectives, adjectives of quantity and size, as omnis, 
 tOtus, magnus, etc., and the adjectives alius, alter, Qllus, nullus, 
 normally precede. 
 
 decima legiS, thg tenth legion 
 
 totum oppidum, the entire town 
 
 ingens multitud6, a huge number 
 
 aliud iter, another way 
 
 h. The position of many adjectives has been fixed by custom, 
 populus Romanus, the Roman people 
 res publico, the commonwealth 
 di immortales, the immortal gods 
 res frumentaria, the grain supply 
 Sacra Via, the Sacred IVay (a street in Rome) 
 
 c. Proper adjectives usually follow their nouns. 
 
 S5crates Atheniensis, Socrates the Athenian 
 
 915. Genitives in general both precede and follow their nouns. 
 
 a. Causa and gratii are always preceded by their genitive. 
 
 honoris causa, for the sake of honor 
 exempli gratia, yi^r example 
 
 b. The genitives of interrogative and relative pronouns always pre- 
 cede their nouns, and the genitives of other pronouns generally do so. 
 
 cuius magnae c5piae, whose great forces 
 eorum obsidSs, their hostages 
 
 c. In stereotyped phrases consisting of a noun modified by a 
 genitive, the genitive generally follows. 
 
 pater familias. father of a family 
 tribunus ptebis, tribune of the people 
 mflia passuum, thousands of paces 
 But unatus cfinsultum, a decree of the senate 
 
338 ORDER OF WORDS 
 
 916. When a noun is modified by both an adjective and 
 a genitive, the usual order is adjective^ nouuy genitive ; less 
 frequently adjective, genitive, noun. The order genitive, noun, 
 adjective is rare. 
 
 inferior pars insulae, the lower part of the island 
 magna hominum multitudo, a great number of 7nen 
 
 917. Prepositions usually precede an adjective with its noun, 
 but monosyllabic prepositions (especially cum, de, ex, and in) 
 often stand between the adjective and its noun. 
 
 ad latus apertum, oti the exposed side 
 
 ex proximis navibus, fro7n the nearest ships 
 
 summa cum laude, with the highest praise 
 
 a. Relative and interrogative adjectives usually precede the 
 preposition. 
 
 qua de causa, for this reason 
 quam ob rem, wherefore 
 quern ad modum, how 
 
 Pronouns 
 
 918. Hie, iste, ille, is, and idem, used as pronominal adjectives, 
 
 and indefinite pronominal adjectives normally precede their 
 
 nouns. 
 
 haec spes, this hope 
 
 ista vita, that life 
 
 ille exercitus, that arjny 
 
 aliqua causa, some case 
 
 a. Ille in the sense of that (or the) famous ^ that (or the) well- 
 known, normally follows its noun (see § 538). 
 
 919. Possessive pronominal adjectives normally follow their 
 
 nouns. 
 
 domus mea, 7ny house 
 
 pater noster, our father 
 
 copiae suae, his forces 
 
ORDER OF WORDS 339 
 
 920. Quisque regularly follows sS or suus, superlatives, and 
 
 ordinals. 
 
 ad suam quisque domam, racA to his own house 
 
 optimus quisque civis, a// the best citizens 
 
 quartd quoque aim5, ei.>ery fourth year 
 
 921. The pronoun of the first person precedes the second, 
 and the second the third. 
 
 ego et tu, you and I 
 tu et ille, you and he 
 
 922. Relatives and interrogatives normally stand first in their 
 clauses. 
 
 Note. For the antecedent standing in the relative clause see § 559. 
 
 Adverbs 
 
 923. Adverbs normally precede the words they modify ; but 
 quidem, quoque, dfinique, and d6mum regularly, and fert and saepe 
 usually, follow. 
 
 Conjunctions 
 
 924. Conjunctions normally introduce their clauses ; butautem, 
 enim, v6r6, and generally igitur ^ stand second^ sometimes third. 
 
 Note. Such words are said to be postpositive. 
 
 Prepositions 
 
 925. Prepositions normally precede their cases, but tenus, 
 versus, and enclitic cum (§ 277. d) follow. 
 
 a. A preposition may follow its case. This is rare in prose, but 
 occurs in poetry, especially with prepositions of two syllables. 
 vSstibulum ante (Vergil), before the entrance 
 
 Note. Observe the idiomatic order in per 18 deds 6r6, / beseech you by 
 the gods. 
 
 1 1{itur sometimes stands /rr/. 
 
340 ORDER OF WORDS 
 
 Verbs 
 
 926. The finite verb normally tends to stand last. 
 Ariovistus legates ad eum mittit, Ariovistus sends envoys to him 
 
 a. The verb often stands first in explanatory clauses when the 
 connecting word is autem or enim. 
 
 loquor autem de communibus amicitiis, / am speaking now, howeve?; 
 
 about 0}-di7iary friendships 
 licet enim mihi apud te gloriari, for it is allowed me to boast in your 
 
 presence 
 
 927. Sum has no fixed position ; but when it means exist, it 
 regularly stands first or, at any rate, before its subject. 
 
 sunt fortes viri, there are brave men 
 
 928. Inquam, / say, stands after one or more words of a 
 direct quotation and is usually followed by its subject. 
 
 " refer," inquis, " ad senatum," " lay the matter befo?-e the senate,'''' 
 
 you say 
 " est vero," inquit Cicero, " n5tum quidem signmn," " it is truly,^'' 
 
 said Cicero, '' a i'e?y well-known sear'' 
 
 Negatives 
 
 929. The negative generally precedes the verb (§ 923) ; if it 
 is emphatic, it begins the sentence ; if it negatives only one 
 word, it precedes that word. 
 
 The Vocative 
 
 930. The vocative normally stands after one or more words 
 in the sentence. 
 
 parce metu, Cytherea, cease your fear, Cytherea 
 
 a. When emphatic, the vocative stands first. 
 M. Tulli, quid agis, Marcus Tullius, what are you doing? 
 
ORDER OF WORDS 34 1 
 
 ARRANGEMENT OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 
 
 931. Subordinate clauses normally begin with the connective 
 and end with the verb. The intervening words are arranged in 
 general as in principal clauses. 
 
 The distinct indication of the beginning and end of the subordinate 
 clause was the more necessary because the Romans had no punctua- 
 tion marks. 
 
 932. Subordinate clauses generally precede the principal 
 clause ; but the principal clause normally precedes clauses of 
 purpose or result, substantive clauses in indirect discourse, and 
 indirect questions. 
 
 cum esset Caesar in citeriore GalliOy crebri ad eum rumSres adferebantur, 
 
 when Ccesar was in hither Gaui, frequent reports were brought 
 
 to him 
 mittunt legatSs qui pacem petant, they send envoys to beg for peace 
 verebantur ne ad eos exercitus noster addUceretur^ they feared that our 
 
 army would be led against them 
 certior fiebat orrmis Belgas obsides inter si dare, he was informed that 
 
 all the Belgce 7vere giving hostages to each other 
 rogat me quid sentiam, he asks me what I think 
 
 THE RHETORICAL ORDER 
 
 933. Deviations from the normal order (§ 912) arc very 
 frequent and are known as the rhetorical order. These devia- 
 tions arise from the desire to indicate emphasis or to secure 
 pleasing euphonic effects (see also § 938). 
 
 934. Emphasis is secured by putting words in unusual 
 positions, as follows : 
 
 a. By inverting the normal order of the subject and verb. This 
 transposition makes them both emphatic. 
 
 mdvit ml oratio tua, your speech mooted me 
 
 fuimu8 Tr6e8, fuit ilium, we have ceased to be Trojans^ Ilium is no 
 more (of. § 659) 
 
342 ORDER OF WORDS 
 
 b. By placing first a word that would not normally stand there. 
 luce sunt clariora tua consilia, your pla7is are clearer than daylight 
 
 c. By taking an emphatic word or phrase out of a subordinate 
 clause and placing it before the connective. 
 
 servi mel si me isto pacto metuerent, etc., if even my si.aye.s feared 
 me in that fashion^ etc. 
 
 d. By inverting the normal order of a noun and its modifier. This 
 transposition makes the modifier emphatic. 
 
 oratores hi sunt clarissimi, these orators are the most famous 
 non est rma culpa, it is 7iot my fault 
 
 e. By separating words that would normally stand together. 
 Thus especially an emphatic adjective is separated from its noun. 
 
 haec res UnTus est propria Caesaris, this exploit belongs to Caesar alone 
 magna dis immortalibus habenda est gratia, great gratitude is due to 
 
 the imtnortal gods 
 Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres, Gaul^ viewed as a whole, is 
 
 divided into three parts 
 
 f. By reversing the order of words in the second of two contrasted 
 expressions. This is called chias^mus and is very common. 
 
 fragile corpus, animus sempiternus, a frail body^ an immortal soul 
 quam diii vixit, vixit in luctii, as long as he livedo he lived in sorrow 
 
 Note. Chiasmus is named from the Greek letter chi (X), in which 
 the lines are crossed. 
 
 CLAUSE AND SENTENCE BUILDING 
 
 935. The connection of clause with clause and sentence 
 with sentence is much closer in Latin than in English. There 
 is evident a constant effort to combine into a harmonious whole 
 the different parts of discourse and to make clear their logical 
 relationship. 
 
 936. Structure of the Period. English narrative consists 
 largely of short sentences, each distinct from the rest and 
 saying one thing by itself. Latin writers, on the contrary, 
 
EUPHONY AND RHYTHM 343 
 
 viewed a number of related actions or thoughts as a whole, 
 and this resulted in the formation of what is known as the 
 Period. 
 
 To form a period, the chief action or thought among a number of 
 related ones is selected and made the principal clause, and all the 
 other clauses are incorporated in it as subordinate elements. Gener- 
 ally the period begins with the subject of the principal clause, then 
 follow the subordinate clauses, and the period closes with the predi- 
 cate of the principal clause, the main verb usually standing last In 
 this way the thought is kept in suspense from clause to clause and 
 is not complete until the final word. Roman writers were very fond 
 of the periodic style, and it is imitated sometimes in English, espe- 
 cially in poetry, as in the following : 
 
 High on a throne of royal state, which far 
 Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind, 
 Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand 
 Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold, 
 Satan exalted sat — " Paradise Lost," ii, 1-5 
 
 A Latin period is usually best translated into English by breaking 
 it up into two or more short sentences. 
 Examples of the Latin period : 
 
 Caesar primum su6 deinde omnium ex conspectu remStis equis, ut 
 
 aequatd omnium perlculd spem fugae tolleret, cohortatus suds 
 
 proelium commisit 
 Caesar, una aestate duobus maximis bellis confectis, maturius pauld 
 
 quam tempus anni postulabat, in hiberna in Sequands exercitum 
 
 deduzit 
 
 937. Euphony and Rhythm. Good writers of I^tin had 
 regard for sound as well as for sense, and this had an impor- 
 tant effect on the order of words. They avoided a succession 
 of monosyllabic or of polysyllabic words, as also the heaping 
 up of a number of verbs at the end of the sentence. The 
 orators in particular took pains to have a sentence close with 
 a pleasing combination of short and long syllables. These 
 
344 RHETORICAL EFFECTS 
 
 closing syllables were known as the cadence. Certain cadences 
 were sought after and others avoided. For example : 
 
 r w w w I _ w, reperietiir (tribrach and trochee) 
 
 „ . J I _ w I _ w, quaereretiir (two trochees) 
 
 Favorite cadences <^ ' _ y , , • r ^ ^ ^ 
 
 _ w _, muniunt (cretic; cf. § 967) 
 
 t w I , criminis causa (cretic and spondee) 
 
 Avoided cadence, _ w w | , omne tene bant (dactyl and spondee) 
 
 Preferably a word of two or more syllables of sonorous sound was 
 placed last. 
 
 RHETORICAL EFFECTS 
 
 938. As has been already pointed out (§933), emphasis is 
 produced by deviations from the normal order of words. In 
 addition rhetoricians employed many devices to secure unusual 
 effects. Among those most employed are the following : 
 
 939. Anaph^ora: the repetition of a word at the beginning of 
 successive clauses. 
 
 nihil agis, nihil moliris, nihil cogitas, you do nothings you plan nothings 
 you think nothing 
 
 Note. The repetition of a word at the end of successive clauses is 
 called epiph'ora. 
 
 940. Antith^esis : opposition or contrast. This is often secured by 
 placing words opposed in meaning next to each other. 
 
 nee audet appellare virum virgo, nor does the maid dare to address 
 
 the hero 
 alius aliam in partem fugit, one fled in one direction, another in 
 
 another 
 
 Note. Antithetical phrases or pairs of words are usually contrasted by 
 chiasmus (see § 934./^). 
 
 941. Aposiope'sis : an abrupt pause in the midst of a sentence, 
 leaving the imagination to supply the remainder. 
 
 quos ego sed m5t6s praestat componere fluctus, whom I '- 
 
 but it is better to calm the angry billows 
 
RHETORICAL EFFECTS 345 
 
 942. Asyn'd£/on : omission of conjunctions. 
 
 iura, leges, agrds, libertatem ndbis reliquirunt, they have left us our 
 rights, our laws, our fields, our liberty 
 
 Note. The opposite of asyndeton, when more conjunctions are ex- 
 pressed than is necessary, is called polysyndeton. 
 
 943. EpizeuxHs : the emphatic repetition of a word. 
 
 fuity fuit quondam in hac rC public& virtiis, there was, there was 
 fonnerly virtue in this republic 
 
 944. Hendi^adys : the use of two nouns with a conjunction instead 
 of a single modified noun, or of two verbs for an adverb and verb. 
 
 ardor et impetus, heat and attack, for heated attack 
 
 te semper amavi et ditexi, I have always loved you dearly 
 
 945. HysUeron prot'eron (the last first): a reversing of the natural 
 order of ideas. 
 
 moriamur et in media arma ruamus, let us die and rush into the 
 midst of the conflict 
 
 946. Interlocked order : the placing of the attribute of one pair of 
 words between the parts of another. 
 
 tantS su6/to« terrdre ruinae, with such fear of sudden disaster 
 Note. This is a favorite Vergilian device. 
 
 947. JJ totes : the affirming of a thing by denying its contrary, or 
 by understating it. 
 
 n6n sordidus auctor. no mean authority^ meaning a distinguished 
 authority 
 
 948. OnomatopQ:'ia : the use of words whose sound suggests the 
 sense. 
 
 exoritur clamorque vimm clangorque tubarum, the shouts of men and 
 the blare of trumpets rise 
 
 949. Oxymo'ron : the placing together of two apparently contra- 
 dictory ideas. 
 
 irida nutrix, the parched nurse 
 splendide mendix, gloriously false 
 
346 GRAMMATICAL TERMS 
 
 GRAMMATICAL TERMS 
 
 950. a. Anacolu^thon : a change of construction in the same sen- 
 tence, leaving the first part without grammatical construction. 
 
 h. Ellip^sis : the omission of one or more words necessary to the 
 sense. 
 
 c. EnaVlage : substitution of one form or word for another. 
 
 d. HypaVlage : interchange of constructions. 
 
 e. pyonasm : the use of needless words. 
 
 /. Syndesis : agreement of words according to the sense and not 
 the grammatical form. 
 
 g. Tme'sis (cutting) : the separation of the two parts of a com- 
 pound word by other words. 
 
 h. Zeiig^ma : the connection of a word with two others, to only 
 one of which it strictly applies. 
 
 pacem an bellum gerens, (making) peace or waging war (lit. waging 
 peace or war) 
 
PART IV. VERSIFICATION 
 
 QUANTITY 
 
 951. Quantity is the time required for the utterance of a 
 vowel, a consonant, or a syllable. Some sounds require much 
 more time than others. We speak therefore of long quantity 
 and short quantity. The marks — and ^ are used to indicate 
 long and short quantity respectively. A long quantity is gen- 
 erally reckoned as equal in length to two short ones. 
 
 952. English poetry is based on accent, and the rhythm of 
 English poetry depends on a regular succession of accented 
 and unaccented syllables. 
 
 This is the | forest pri|meval. The | murmuring | pines and the | hemlocks 
 
 Latin poetry, too, has a metrical accent (§978), but is based 
 primarily on quantity, and the rhythm of Latin poetry depends, 
 like music, on a regular succession of equal intervals of time, 
 accipijens sCnI| tum sax |i de | verticg | pastdr (cf. § 967) 
 
 As the line of English depends for its rhythm upon the regular 
 succession of the six accented syllables, so the Latin is made rhyth- 
 mical by the succession of the six equal intervals or measures of 
 time, each consisting of two long syllables or their equivalent 
 
 QUANTITY 1 OF VOWELS 
 
 953. Long Vowels. A vowel is regularly long — 
 
 a. Before ns, nf, nx, and net : as, reggns. inferO, sinxi, sanctum. 
 h. When formed by contraction: as, nil (for nihil), c6g6 (for 
 co-agO), pr6nd5 (for prehendO). 
 
 * A few of the leading rules for quantity are given in §§ 25-34- 
 347 
 
348 QUANTITY 
 
 954. Diphthongs. A diphthong is regularly long and is left 
 unmarked. 
 
 Note. When qu-, su-, or gu- combines with a following vowel to form 
 a single syllable, u has the sound of w and does not form a diphthong with 
 the following vowel : as, aquSm, suavis, sanguis, 
 
 955. Short Vowels. A vowel is regularly short — 
 
 a. Before -nt or -nd : as, amSnt, monSndus, 
 h. Before another vowel or h : as, via, trfiho. 
 To this rule there are the following exceptions : 
 
 1 . E in the genitive and dative singular of the fifth declension is long 
 between two vowels : as, diei ; otherwise usually short : as, fidei, r6i. 
 
 2. I in the genitive singular ending -ius is regularly long : as, illius, 
 totius. 
 
 But in poetry it is regularly short in alterius, usually in utrius, and some- 
 times in other words. 
 
 3. I is long in the forms of fio, ex(?ept in fit and when followed by er. 
 Thus, fiebam, fiam, but fieri, fierem. 
 
 4. In a few other Latin words and in many Greek words a vowel 
 before another vowel is long : as, dius, Aeneas, aer, heroas. 
 
 QUANTITY OF VOWELS IN FINAL SYLLABLES 
 
 956. Most nouns and adjectives of one syllable have a long 
 vowel : as, bos, 6s (oris), par, sol, vis. 
 
 But the vowel- is short in c6r, 5s (bssis), qufit, tfit, and vir. 
 
 957. Most monosyllabic particles have a short vowel : as, in, 
 CIS, n6c, and the attached (enclitic) particles -c6, -n6, -qu6, -v6. 
 
 But the vowel is long in cur, nOn, and quin. 
 
 958. Most adverbs in c have a long vowel in the final 
 syllable : as, hie, hue, illic, illuc, sic. 
 
 959. Final a is long in the ablative singular of the first 
 declension, in imperatives (except putfi), and in indeclinable 
 
QUANTITY 349 
 
 words except iU and quil. Elsewhere it is generally short. 
 Thus, tuba (abl.), amft, frQstrft, triginti, but tub* (nom.), anlmfilift. 
 
 960. Final e is long — 
 
 a. In all monosyllables except enclitics (§ 957) : as, m€, tC. 
 &. In nouns of the fifth declension : as, r^, fldC. 
 
 c. In the active imperative singular of the second conjugation : 
 as. monS. 
 
 d. In adverbs formed from adjectives of the first and second 
 declension, except bene and male : as, longg. facUlimg. 
 
 «. In some Greek words : as, Phoeb€, Circ6. 
 Elsewhere it is short. 
 
 961. Final i is long : as, eiti, sui, audi. 
 
 But it is regularly short in nisi and quasi, and usually in mihi, tibi, 
 sibi, ibi, ubi, and in some Greek vocatives : as, ChlOrl 
 
 962. Final is regularly long. 
 
 But it is short in eg6, du6, and modd, sometimes in imm5 and pro- 
 fectfi, and rarely in the first person singular of verbs. 
 
 963. Final u is long. 
 
 964. In final as, es, and os the vowel is long. 
 
 But it is short in the following : 
 
 a. Greek plurals in -as or -es : as, lampadAs, TrWs. 
 
 b. Nominative singular in -es of most consonant stems : as, milfis, 
 obsSs. 
 
 965. In final is and us the vowel is short. 
 
 But it is long in the following : 
 a. Plural case forms in -is : as, bonis, nObis, partis. 
 6. The second person singular in -is in the present indicative active 
 of the fourth conjugation : as, audis. Also fis, vis. 
 
 c. The second person singular in -is in the present subjunctive 
 active of some irregular verbs : as, mills, nOlis, sis, velis. 
 
350 QUANTITY 
 
 d. All the forms in -us of the fourth declension except the nomi- 
 native singular : as, fructus (gen.). 
 
 e. Nominative singular in -us of nouns of the third declension 
 having long u in the other cases : as, virtus, virtutis, but pecfis, 
 pecudis. 
 
 QUANTITY OF SYLLABLES 
 
 966. A syllable is long if it contains a long vowel or a diph- 
 thong : as, u-nus, men-sa, aes-tas, aus-pex. 
 
 967. A syllable is long if it ends in a consonant which is 
 followed by another consonant. Such a syllable is said to be 
 long by position. Thus,^ ad-ven-tiis, p8s-co, Sr-mS. 
 
 Note. The syllables underlined in the words above are long by position, 
 but the vowel in each is short and should be so pronounced. Vowel length 
 must be carefully distinguished from syllable length. Sometimes a syllable 
 long by position contains a long vowel or a diphthong. It is then long for 
 both reasons. 
 
 a. The second of the two consonants making a syllable long by 
 position may be the initial letter of the word following. Thus, in 
 nullliin sperarg the syllable -l&m is long by position. 
 
 968. A syllable is regularly long if its vowel is followed by conso- 
 nant i : as, major, aio, peius, Gaius, Pompeius. 
 
 Note. So also in compounds of iacio, where the consonant i is pro- 
 nounced though not written: as, obicio (for ob-iicio), inicio (for in-iicio), 
 reicio (for re-iicio). So, too, in the genitives Gai (for Gaii), Pomgei (for 
 Pompeii). 
 
 969. When a short vowel is followed by a mute with 1 or r, the 
 syllable may be either long or short, and is said to be common in 
 quantity : as, pStris or pStris. 
 
 Note. The quantity of such syllables depends on the way in which the 
 word is divided. Thus in pSt-ris the first syllable is long because t is 
 pronounced with a and the syllable ends in a consonant (see § 27) On 
 the other hand, in pS-tris the t goes with the last syllable, and the first 
 syllable ends in a short vowel and is therefore short (§ 28). 
 
 1 The syllables long by position are underlined. 
 
VERSIFICATION 351 
 
 METERS AND VERSE FORMS 
 
 970. A single line of poetry is called a verse. 
 
 971. A verse, like a bar of music, consists of a succession 
 of measures. These are called /<?^/. 
 
 972. A foot is a succession of syllables arranged in a 
 recognized group. 
 
 973. The unit of measure in versification is one short syllable. 
 This is called a mora. It is represented by the sign v^, or in 
 musical notation by the quarter note (j^). A long syllable is 
 regularly equal to two rnoric, and is represented by the sign — , 
 or by the half note (P). 
 
 974. A foot contains as many morce or beats as it has short 
 syllables, a long syllable being always counted equal to two 
 short ones. 
 
 975. The kinds of feet most frequently used, together with 
 their musical notation, are the following : 
 
 Trochee, _ v> or Pi*, containing three beats or mora 
 
 Iambus, w _ or |* f^, containing three beats or mora 
 
 Dactyl, _ v^ w or P ^ ^^ containing four beats or mora 
 
 Anapaest, v^ v^ _ or C T (^t containing four beats or mora 
 
 Spondee, or P (^, containing four beats or mora 
 
 a. A verse is named from its fundamental, or characteristic, foot : 
 as. Trochaic, Iambic, Dactylic, Anapaestic ; and from the number of 
 measures which it contains: as, Hexameter (sL\ measures), Pen- 
 tameter (five measures), Tetrameter (four measures). Trimeter (three 
 
 measures). 
 
 976. Trochaic and iambic verses are measured, not by single feet, 
 but by pairs ; so that, for example, six iambic feet make a trimeter, 
 or three measures. 
 
352 VERSIFICATION 
 
 977. Substitution. A long syllable may take the place of 
 two short ones, or two short syllables the place of a long one. 
 
 Thus, a spondee ( ) may take the place of a dactyl (_ w w) 
 
 or of an anapaest (w w _). 
 
 978. Ictus. One syllable in each foot is pronounced with 
 greater stress than the others. This verse beat, or musical 
 accent, is called the ictics and is marked thus : ^ w w. The 
 ictus does not destroy the word accent, but is subordinate to it. 
 
 Note. Many hold, on the contrary, that the ictus is superior to the 
 word accent and destroys it when in conflict with it (see § 993. b). 
 
 979. Thesis and Arsis. That part of the foot which receives 
 the ictus is called the thesis ; the unaccented part is called 
 the arsis. 
 
 Note. Thesis means properly XhQ putting down, and arsis the raising, 
 of the foot in the march or dance. The regular alternation of thesis and 
 arsis constitutes the rhythm of poetr}'. 
 
 980. Scansion. To divide a verse into its measures accord- 
 ing to the rules of quantity and versification is called scannijig 
 or scansion. 
 
 981. Elision. In scanning, a final vowel or diphthong, or 
 m with a preceding vowel, is regularly elided before a word 
 beginning with a vowel or h ; that is, the final and initial 
 syllables are blended and pronounced as one syllable. 
 
 The following line shows three elisions : 
 
 mSnstr'™ hor|r6nd'*™, in|f6rm«, in|gens, cui|lumen a|demptuin 
 
 « 
 The nature of elision as practiced by the Romans is not certain. 
 
 It is customary to omit the elided syllables entirely. 
 
 982. The e of est is lost after a word ending in m, a vowel, or a 
 diphthong, and st is added to the final syllable of the preceding word. 
 Thus, victa est is read victast, actum est is read actumst, etc. 
 
VERSIFICATION 353 
 
 983. Hia'tus. Sometimes elision is omitted, especially when 
 the first word is an interjection or is followed by a pause ip 
 the sense. This omission is called hiatus. 
 
 6 fitl|n4m £os|s^ p«pfl(16s repajrirt pl|t^mis 
 p5stMbI|ti cdiajissd Si|ind ; hie | illliis | Armi 
 
 In the first line there is hiatus between the interjection and utinam, 
 and in the second between SamO (followed by a pause) and hie. 
 
 984. Syl'laba An'ceps. The last syllable of any verse may 
 be cither long or short, and is hence called the syllaba anccps^ 
 or the doubtful syllable. 
 
 985. Cat'alectic and A'catalectic Verses. A catalectic verse 
 is one in which the last foot is incomplete. An acatalectic 
 verse is one in which the last foot is complete. 
 
 986. Caesu'ra. The ending of a word within a foot is called 
 ccesura. This may occur in any foot of the verse, but when 
 it coincides with a pause in the sense, we have what is called a 
 ciesural pause. Most verses have only one caesural pause, but 
 there may be two, and it is not necessary that there be even 
 one. The position of each caesura is marked by the sign || . 
 
 Note the caesural pauses in the following verses : 
 
 nunc gA|d^m for|tiin& yi|r5s || tot | cislbiis | ictSs 
 ins6qul|tur. || Quern | dis f!|n6m, || rex | mig nfe, lX|b6riiffl ? 
 
 Note. The pause in the sense marking the position of the ca?sural pause 
 may be too slight to be marked by a punctuation point (cf . the first line above). 
 
 987. Diaer'esis. The ending of a word with the end of a 
 foot is called diceresis. There may be a pause in the sense at a 
 diaeresis. This is not, strictly speaking, a caesural pause, but it 
 may be marked in the same way. 
 
 Note the diaeresis with pause in the following verse : 
 cSnstltIt, II it Lib|yaS d6|fixit j IQmInX | rJgnia 
 
354 VERSIFICATION 
 
 SPECIAL IRREGULARITIES 
 
 988. Synize'sis or Synaer'esis. Two vowels of different syllables 
 may be pronounced together as one long syllable: as, deinde for 
 de-inde, meos for me-6s, deesse for de-esse, dehinc for de-hinc. 
 
 989. Sys'tole. A syllable regularly long is sometimes used as 
 short: as, stetenint for steterunt. 
 
 990. Dias'tole. A final syllable regularly short is sometimes used 
 as long. Such a syllable is nearly always one receiving the ictus and 
 followed by the cassural pause. 
 
 luctus, u|bique pa|v6r,* || et | plurima | m6rtis i|mag6 
 6sten|tins arlt^mque pa|ter* || ar|cumque so|ndntem 
 
 Note. Both systole and diastole are sometimes merely a return to an 
 earlier pronunciation. 
 
 991. The vowels i and u are sometimes used as consonants, 
 i having the sound of y, and u of w. The preceding syllable then 
 becomes long by position : as, ab-ie-te (abyete) for a-bi-e-te, gen -ua 
 (getiwd) for ge-nu-a. 
 
 a. Conversely, consonant i and v are sometimes used as vowels : 
 as, si-lu-a for sil-va. 
 
 992. Tme'sis. The component parts of a compound word are 
 sometimes separated: as, quod erit cumque for quodcumque erit. 
 This is called tmesis (cutting). 
 
 RULES FOR ORAL READING OF VERSE 
 
 993. Ancient poetry was written for rhythmical recitation, 
 chanting, or singing. It is, therefore, especially through much oral 
 reading that metrical composition can be best understood, appreci- 
 ated,, and enjoyed. The following directions should be observed : 
 
 a. Pronounce the words as in prose. 
 
 This includes the proper sounding of each letter, the correct placing of 
 the accent, and a careful observance of the quantity of each syllable, A 
 long syllable should have twice as much time as a short one. 
 
DACTYLIC VERSE 
 
 355 
 
 *. Stress slightly the syllables upon which the ictus falls. 
 
 Sometimes the word accent and the ictus coincide ; but when they fall 
 on different syllables of the same word, the word accent should be given 
 the greater stress and the ictus be made subordinate to it* In this way the 
 word accent will be preserved and at the same time the rhythm of the verse 
 distinctly maintained as an undertone. 
 
 c. Give attention to the thought as well as to the words, and do 
 not come to a complete stop at thp end of every verse, regardless of 
 punctuation. 
 
 994. Apprehension of rhythm and quantity is greatly assisted by 
 beating time to the measure as in music, the long syllables receiving 
 two beats and the short syllables one. 
 
 DACTYLIC VERSE 
 DACTYLIC HEXAMETER 
 
 995. Dactylic hexameter is the meter used by Greek and 
 Roman epic poets, and is often called Heroic Verse. It con- 
 sists theoretically of six dactyls (— ^ ^) ; but a spondee ( ) 
 
 may take the place of a dactyl in any foot except the fifth, and 
 
 the sixth foot may be either a spondee ( ) or a trochee 
 
 (_ v/), the last syllable of a line being either long or short 
 (§ 984). The verse may be represented thus : 
 
 Cv5 I ^J^ 1 — C^ I — vi^ I — ^^ I — — 
 
 Example : 
 
 it 81 fit& dS um, 8i mins n5n laevi fii iss£t 
 
 rrrrrrr r r rrrrr 
 
 a. Rarely a spondee is found in the fifth foot ; the verse is then 
 called spondaHc and usually ends with a word of four syllables. 
 pr6xh nas hul'c, lonlgO sed grdximtts inter yall5 
 
 r^^ r &r rrrrrrr 
 
 » Many dissent from this view and give the greater stress to the ictus, even 
 to the complete neglect of the word accent. 
 
356 VERSIFICATION 
 
 996. The Caesu'ral Pause. The dactylic hexameter has 
 regularly one caesural pause, sometimes two, accompanied by 
 a pause in the sense (§ 986). 
 
 997. The caesural pause is usually after the thesis of the 
 third foot. 
 
 ht si I flta de|um, || si | mens non | laeva fu|lsset 
 
 998. Less frequently the caesural pause is after the thesis of the 
 fourth foot, usually with a second caesura in the second foot. 
 
 non galejae, || n5n | ensis e|rdt: || sine | militis j usu 
 
 a. A pause in the sense in the fourth foot, with no such pause in 
 the third, is a sure indication that the caesura is in the fourth foot 
 and not in the third. 
 
 999. Occasionally the caesural pause is between the two short 
 syllables of the third foot, its presence there being indicated by a 
 pause in the sense. 
 
 mem bra so|lo posu|ere ; || si| mul sup|rema ia|c6ntes 
 
 a. Such a caesura is called feminine, while one occurring after the 
 first syllable of a foot is called masculine. A masculine caesura is far 
 more common than a feminine. 
 
 1000. Sometimes it is impossible to determine the caesural pause 
 with certainty, and a diaeresis (§ 987) may take the place of the 
 caesural pause. 
 
 s^ntiat. II At quoni|dm con|currere | c6ni minus | h6sti 
 
 1001. The dactylic hexameter rarely ends in a monosyllable. 
 
 1002. The first seven verses of Vergil's yEneid afford a good 
 example of dactylic hexameter, and are scanned as follows : 
 
 Arm5 vi|rumqu6 ca|n6 || Trojiae qui | primus Sb | oris 
 italij^ fa|t5 pr5fii|gus || Lajvfnijqug | v§nit 
 
DACTYLIC VERSE 357 
 
 liWri, I mult — il|l« it terjris || iac|titiia 6t | Alto 
 vi sap6| rum sae|Yae in6md|r^ Iu|ndnl8 db | irim ; 
 mulUl qud|qu* it beljld ^jsus {| dum | c6nd6rtt | urbdm, 
 infer|r^qu6 di|68 Utlp, || ggnfls | und6 La|ti'niSin 
 Alba|niqu6 pi[|tre's || atjqu* Altae { motnli | R5mae. 
 
 a. Dactylic hexameter in English verse is illustrated by the follow- 
 ing lines from Longfellow's " Evangeline " : 
 
 This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the hemlocks, 
 Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in the twilight, 
 Stand like Druids of eld, with voices sad and prophetic, 
 Stand like harpers hoar, with beau-ds that rest on their bosoms. 
 
 DACTYLIC PENTAMETER 
 
 1003. The dactylic pentameter is the same as the hexameter 
 except that it omits the unaccented part (arsis) of the third foot 
 and of the sixth foot. It consists therefore of two parts, each 
 of which contains two dactyls and a long syllable. The first 
 half of the verse always ends with a word and is followed by a 
 pause. The scheme of the verse is as follows : 
 
 Spondees may take the place of the dactyls in the first half, 
 but not in the second, and the last syllable of the line may be 
 either long or short (§ 984). 
 
 1004. Elegi'ac Dis'tich. The dactylic f)entameter is rarely 
 used alone, but regularly combines with a preceding hexameter 
 to form a couplet (distich), as illustrated in English by — 
 
 In the hexjameter | rises I| the | fountain's | silvery | column. 
 In the pcn|tamcter | aye x falling in | melody ] back. 
 
358 DACTYLIC VERSE 
 
 This form of verse became the favorite of writers of Latin 
 elegy, such as Catullus, Tibullus, Propertius, and Ovid, and 
 hence it is known as the elegiac distich, or elegiac stanza. 
 The distich is generally a unit in thought as well as in form, 
 the sense rarely being left uncompleted at its close. 
 
 1005. The following verses from Ovid well illustrate the 
 elegiac distich : 
 
 Cum subit | illi|us tris[tissiina | n6ctis ijmago 
 qua miW | sup re[ mum x t6mpus in j urbS fu|it, 
 
 cum repe|to noc|t6m, || qua | t6t mihi | cara re|liqul, 
 labitur | 6x 6cu|lis x nunc qu5que | gutta mg|is. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 THE ROMAN CALENDAR 
 
 1006. In earlier times the Romans designated the year of an 
 event by the names of the consuls, in the ablative absolute : 
 as, M. Messala M. PisOne cOnsulibus, /;/ the consulship of Marcus 
 Messala and Marcus Pisa, Later the year was reckoned from 
 the founding of the city (ab urbe conditi or ann5 urbis conditae, 
 abbreviated to a.u.c), the date of which is assigned to the 
 year 753 b.c. In order, therefore, to find the year of the Chris- 
 tian era corresponding to a given Roman date A.u.c, the 
 number of the Roman year must be subtracted from 754, 
 I being added to 753 to allow for the Roman custom of includ- 
 ing both extremes when reckoning the difference between two 
 numbers. For example, Caesar was killed in 710 a.u.c, or 
 44 (754-710) B.C. 
 
 1007. Before Julius Caesar's reform of the calendar (46 b.c) 
 the Roman year consisted of 355 days. All the months had 
 29 days except March, May, July, and October, which had 
 31 days, and February, which had 28. As this calendar year 
 was too short for the solar year, a month of varying length 
 (mgnsis intercalaris) was inserted every other year after February 23, 
 the rest of February being omitted. 
 
 1008. The Julian calendar, as reformed by Julius and 
 Augustus Caesar, had 365 days, divided into months as at 
 present, February having 29 days every fourth year. The 
 Julian calendar remained unchanged till the adoption of the 
 Gregorian calendar, A.n. 1582, which omits leap year three 
 times in every four hundred years. 
 
 359 
 
36o THE ROMAN CALENDAR 
 
 1009. The names of the months, used as mascuUne or fem- 
 inine adjectives, were as follows : 
 
 lanuarius, -a, (-um) Maius, -a, (-um) September, -bris, (-bre) 
 
 Februarius, -a, (-um) lunius, -a, (-um) October, -bris, (-bre) 
 
 Martius, -a, (-um) Quintilis, (-e) November, -bris, (-bre) 
 
 Aprilis, (-e) Sextilis, (-e) December, -bris, (-bre) 
 
 The year was formerly regarded as beginning with March, 
 which made July the fifth (quintilis) month, August the sixth 
 (sextilis), etc. The month Quintilis was later called lulius in 
 honor of Julius Caesar, and Sextilis was called Augustus in honor 
 of the emperor Augustus. 
 
 1010. Dates were reckoned from three points in the month, 
 namely, the Calends (Kalendae, -arum, f.), the first day of the 
 month ; the Nones (Nonae, -arum, f.), the fifth day ; and the 
 Ides (idus, iduum, f.), the thirteenth. * 
 
 However, in March, May, July, and October the Nones fell 
 on the seventh day, and the Ides on the fifteenth. 
 
 Kalendae Nonae Idus Kalendae 
 
 ^ I I r ^1 I 
 
 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 lo r I 12 13 14 15 i6 ... 27 28 29 30 31 i 
 
 An event occurring at any one of these points was said to 
 occur on the Calends, on the Nones, or on the Ides, and the 
 date was expressed by the simple ablative of time. The noun 
 denoting the date was modified by the adjective representing 
 the month in question. 
 
 Kalendis Februariis, on the first of February 
 Nonis Aprilibus, on the fifth of April 
 Nonis Octobribus, on the seventh of October 
 idibus lanuariis, 07i the thirteenth of January 
 idibus Martiis, on the fifteenth of March 
 
 a. From the Calends, Nones, and Ides the dates in the month were 
 reckoned backwards. The date immediately preceding any one of them 
 
THE ROMAN CALENDAR 361 
 
 was expressed by the word pridifi, used as a preposition followed by 
 the accusatives Kalendas, NOnis, Idas, modified by the adjective form 
 of the word denoting the month. 
 
 prldie Kalendas Februarias, the thiriy-Jirst of January 
 pridie Nonas lanuarias, the fourth of January 
 pridie Idus Martias, the fourteenth of March 
 pridie Idus Septembres, the twelfth of September 
 
 b. The dates intervening between any two points were counted 
 as so many days before the second point. The Romans, however, 
 in reckoning a series, counted both extremes; for exaifiple, the 
 eleventh day of April was counted as the thin^ day before the 
 Ides (that is, the thirteenth), the tenth of April as the fourth day 
 before the Ides. And in counting back from the Calends to a date 
 in the preceding month the Calends were included ; thus a Roman 
 would say that there are four days from August 29 to September i 
 (of. § \012.d). 
 
 In expressing dates the phrase ante diem (translated the day before) 
 was used with the accusatives Kalendas, N6nas, Idus, the word diem 
 being modified by the proper ordinal numeral. 
 
 ante diem quirtum Kalendas SeptembrSs, the fourth day before the 
 
 Calends of September {A Ui^nst 2g) 
 ante diem quartum Kalendas OctdbrSs, the fourth day before the 
 
 Calends of October {September 2S) 
 ante diem sextum IdQs Martias, the sixth day before the Jdes of 
 
 March (Afarch JO) 
 ante diem quintum N5nas Maias, the fifth day before the Nones of 
 
 May {May J) 
 
 Note i . These expressions were generally abbreviated as follows : 
 
 a.d. IV. Kal. Sept. or IV. Kal. Sept. 
 a.d. VI. id. Mart, or VI. id. Mart, 
 a. d. V. Ndn. MaUa or V. Non. Maifta 
 
 Note 2. The phrase ante diem probably originated thus : the ablative 
 form denoting time when (followed by ante), as, di5 tertio ante etc.. came 
 to be written after ante instead of before it ; subsequently ante diS tertifi 
 became ante diem tertium, as if the noun were governed by ante. 
 
362 THE ROMAN CALENDAR 
 
 c. The whole expression denoting a date was sometimes treated 
 as a single substantive governed by a preposition. 
 
 in a. d, V. Kal. Nov., to the fifth day before the Calends of November 
 
 {October 28) 
 opus contulit in ante diem III. Id. Oct., he postponed the ivork to the 
 
 third day before the Ides of October {October ij) 
 
 1011. To find the equivalent in English for a date given in 
 Latin, observe the following rule : 
 
 If the, given Latin date is counted from the Calends, add two to 
 the number of days in the preceding month, and from the number 
 thus ascertained subtract the given date ; if from the Nones or the 
 Ides, add o?ie to the day on which they fall, and from the number 
 thus ascertained subtract the given date. 
 
 a. d. VI. Kal. Ian. (31 + 2 — 6), December 27 
 a. d. V. Non. Oct. (7 + i — 5), October j 
 a. d. III. id. Apr. (13 + i — 3), April 11 
 
 1012. To express an English date in Latin observe the 
 following rules : 
 
 fl. If the date is that on which the Calends, Nones, or Ides respec- 
 tively fall, use the simple ablative of time (Kalendis, Nonis, or Idibus) 
 modified by the adjective representing the month in question (cf. 
 § loio). 
 
 h. If the date immediately precedes the Calends, Nones, or Ides, 
 use pridig followed by the accusative Kalendas, Nonas, or Idus, as 
 the case may be, and the adjective form of the word denoting the 
 month (cf . § i o i o. «). 
 
 c. If the date falls between the first and the fourth (or the sixth of 
 March, May, July, or October), subtract one from the English date, and 
 subtract this remainder from the date on which the Nones fall. The num- 
 ber thus obtained (usually preceded by ante diem or a.d.) followed by 
 Nonas or Non. and the name of the month will be the expression desired. 
 
 If the date falls between the fifth and twelfth (or the seventh and 
 fourteenth of March, May, July, or October), follow the rule above, 
 substituting the Ides for the Nones (cf. § loio. ^). 
 
THE ROMAN CALENDAR 363 
 
 d. If the date is later than the thirteenth (or fifteenth of March, 
 May, July, or October), subtract t^vo from the English date, and sub- 
 tract this remainder from the number of days in the month. The 
 number thus obtained (usually preceded by ante diem or a. d.) 
 followed by Kalendfts or Kal. and the name of the fuxi month ^will be 
 the expression desired (cf . § 1010. /^). 
 
ABBREVIATIONS 
 
 abl. = ablative 
 abs. = absolute 
 ace. = accusative 
 act. = active 
 adj. = adjective 
 adv. = adverb 
 a/p. = appositive 
 attrib. = attributive 
 cf. (confer) = compare 
 el. = clause 
 cotN/>. = composition 
 com/a?: = comparison 
 comps. = compounds 
 conj. = conjugation 
 eofis. = consonant 
 cotisir. = construction 
 dai. = dative 
 deel. = declension 
 defect. = defective 
 descript. = descriptive 
 dir. = direct 
 fem. = feminine 
 ^. = and following 
 
 ftn. = footnote 
 
 f/f. = future 
 
 gen. = genitive 
 
 id. (idem) = the same 
 
 impers. — impersonal 
 
 imv. = imperative 
 
 ind. disc. = indirect dis- 
 course 
 
 ifid. quest. = indirect 
 question 
 
 indecl. = indeclinable 
 
 indie. = indicative 
 
 inf. = infinitive 
 
 interrog. = interrogative 
 
 inirans. =: intransitive 
 
 loc. = locative 
 
 masc. = masculine 
 
 N. = Note 
 
 neg. = negative 
 
 nettt. = neuter 
 
 nam. = nominative 
 
 obf = object 
 
 part. = participle 
 
 pass. = passive 
 Perf. = perfect 
 pers. = personal 
 p/ur. = plural 
 poss. = possessive 
 pred. = predicate 
 prep. = preposition 
 pj-es. = present 
 Pfin. = principal 
 pron. = pronoun 
 quest. = question 
 rt/. = relative 
 sing. = singular 
 subj. = subject 
 subjz'. = subjunctive 
 subord. = subordinate 
 siibst. = substantive 
 superl. = superlative 
 trans. — transitive 
 vb. = verb 
 voc. = vocative 
 w. = with 
 
 Other abbreviations need no explanation. When only the last article in a reference 
 group needs to be consulted, the parts of the group are separated by periods ; otherwise 
 commas are used. 
 
 364 
 
INDEX 
 
 a. sound, 1 4 ; quantity of final, 959 
 8, weakened to e or i, 44. a, if\ ace. 
 
 of Greek nouns in, 1 1 1 . ^ 
 a, distinguishing vowel in decl. 1, 75 ; 
 in fern. Greek nouns, decl. I, 
 81 ; inconj. I, 210, 220. a, 229. 
 a. I, 289 ; in fut. indie, 229. ^; 
 in pres. subjv., 233. a 
 a (ab, abs), general use, 277. a; as 
 prefix, 294. a ; in comps. w. dat. 
 of reference expressing separa- 
 tion, 389 ; w. ^bl. of separation, 
 440. a ; w. abl. of place whence, 
 441 ; w. names of towns, 442. 
 a ; expressing position, 445 ; w. 
 gerund and gerundive, 879 
 a dextra, a fronte, d tergO, etc., 
 
 445. a 
 a-declension, 77-81 
 Abbreviations of praenomina, 134. a 
 abhinc, w. ace, 425 ; w. abl., 477 
 Ablative case, defined, 74 
 
 Forms : abl. in -abus, 80. e ; of 
 i-stems, decl. Ill, 100, 103, 
 105; list of nouns having -i or 
 -i and -e in abl. sing., 102. d, 
 c, (/; abl. in -ubus, decl. IV, 
 \2\.c\ in -ud, early Latin, id. 
 /: abl. of adjs., decl. Ill, 145. 
 148. a; of pres. parts., 149; 
 of pers. prons.. 180. by d\ of 
 rd. prons., qui, quia, 193. <z, 
 b\ adverbial forms of abl., 
 
 271. b, d\ abl. of decl. IV 
 used as supine, 881 
 Syntax: classification and general 
 meaning, 439 
 
 With preps., 277, 278 
 
 Separation, 440; prep, ex- 
 pressed, id. a ; prep, omitted, 
 id. b ; exceptions, id. N. 
 
 IMace whence, 441 ; w. names 
 of towns, domus, rus. 442: 
 prep, used w. urbs, oppidum, 
 insula, 443; prep, omitted in 
 poetry, 444 ; expressing place 
 where, 445 
 
 Comparison, 446; when not 
 admissible, id. a ; after citius 
 and celerius, id. ^ ; in poetry, 
 447 ; regular in neg. sen- 
 tences, 448; w. rel., 449: 
 constr. after plus, minus, am- 
 plius, longius, 450 
 
 Origin, 451; ex used with pro- 
 nouns, id. a 
 
 Material, 452 ; prep. Omitted in 
 poetry, id. a ; abl. w. facere, 
 fieri, etc., id. b 
 
 Agent, 453 ; distinguished from 
 abl. of means, id. N. 2; w. 
 things personified, 454 ; prep, 
 omitted, 455. N. 
 
 Accompaniment, '456 ; cum 
 omitted, id. a 
 
 Attendant circumstance, 457 
 
 365 
 
366 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Accordance, 458 
 
 Manner, 459; cum omitted, 460, 
 461 
 
 Cause or reason, 462 ; causa, 
 gratia, 463 ; ace. w. ob or 
 propter used instead, 464 ; 
 prae w. abl. to denote prevent- 
 ing cause, 465 
 
 Description or quality, 466 ; in 
 pred., 467 
 
 Means, 468; w. utor, fruor, etc., 
 469. a ; w. opus and usus, 
 id. b\ w. contentus and fretus, 
 id. c. ; w. vbs. and adjs. of 
 fullness, id. d 
 
 Price, 470 ; indefinite price ex- 
 pressed by gen., 471.; constr. 
 w. miito, 472 ; w. vbs. of con- 
 demning to denote the pen- 
 alty, 473 
 
 Way by which, 474 
 
 Measure of difference, 475 ; 
 quo . . . eo, quanto . . . tanto, 
 476 ; w. ante, post, abhinc, 
 
 477 
 
 Respect, 478 ; w. dignus, indig- 
 nus, 479; in supine, 882. II 
 
 Absolute, 480 ; w. two nouns or 
 noun and adj., 481 ; when 
 admissible, 482 ; w. part, or 
 adj. without a subst., 483 ; re- 
 placing subord. cl., 484 
 
 Place where, 485; prep, omitted, 
 id. a and N. ; w. vbs. of plac- 
 ing, 490 
 
 Time, 492 ; w. prep, in, 493 ; 
 duration of time, 423 ; ex- 
 pressing place rather than 
 time, 494 ; idiomatic expres- 
 sions, 495 
 
 Gerund and gerundive, 879 ; 
 
 w. dir. obj., id. N. 
 Supine, 882. II 
 
 Ablaut, 56, 57 
 
 Absolut© case, see Abl. absolute 
 
 absque, 277 
 
 Abstract nouns, plur. of, 1 26. c ; w. 
 neut. adj., 502. 2. b. N. 2 
 
 Abundance, words of, w. abl. of 
 means, 469. d 
 
 -abus, in dat. and abl. plur., decl. I, 
 80.^ 
 
 ac, see atque 
 
 ac si, w. subjv., 803 
 
 Acatalectic and catalectic verse, 985 
 
 acceditut, 739 
 
 Accent, rules of, 35-41 ; original 
 accent and its effect on vowels, 
 36, 42 ff. ; in comps. of faci5, 
 38. a ; in gen. sing, in decl. II, 
 88. b ; musical accent, 978 
 
 accidit quod, 822 ; accidit ut, 7^9 
 
 accommodatus, w. dat. of gerund, 
 
 877 
 Accompaniment, abl. of, 456 ; cum 
 
 omitted w., id. a 
 Accordance with, denoted by abl. ,458 
 Accusative case, defined, 74 
 
 Forms : in -a in neut. plur., 76, b\ 
 in -m in sing, and -s in plur. 
 of masc. and fem., id. c ; in 
 i-stems, decl. Ill, 100, 102.. b\ 
 neut. sing, used as adv., 
 271. «; fem. used as adv., 
 id. c\ ace. of decl. IV used 
 as supine, 881 
 Syntax: general meaning, 402; 
 classification, 403 
 With preps., 276, 278 ; w. ante 
 diem, loio. /^ 
 
INDEX 
 
 367 
 
 With ad after r§fert and interest 
 to denote the object sought^ 
 
 With vbs. of remembering and 
 forgetting instead of gen., 
 358. a, b, 359 
 
 With vbs. of reminding, 361 
 
 With impers. vbs., 363, 407 
 
 Along w. dat., 371 
 
 With vbs. of motion that some- 
 times take the dat., 373 
 
 Construction w. d6n6, circumdd, 
 exu6. 374 
 
 With iuv6, laed5, iubeo, and the 
 like, 376. a 
 
 With credo, imper5, minor, per- 
 suaded, 380 
 
 Withcomps. of ad.ante,circum, 
 etc., 382. 3, a 
 
 With propior and proximus,40 1 
 
 Direct object, 404 ; w. vbs. of 
 feeling, 406. a ; w. vbs. of mo- 
 tion, comps. of ad, circum, in, 
 etc., id. l> ; in poetiy, id. c ; w. 
 pass. vbs. meaning to put on, 
 id. d; w. impers. vbs., 407; 
 w. pass, periphrastic, 860. b 
 
 Kindred meaning, 408 ; w. vbs. 
 of taste and smell, 409 ; ad- 
 verbial use w. neut. prons. 
 and adjs., 410, 41 1 
 
 Two accusatives, dir. obj. and 
 secondary obj., 41 2-4 r 5 ; vbs. 
 of asking Av. abl., 414; constr. 
 w. pass, of rog6, doced, etc., 
 
 415 
 Two accusatives, dir. obj. and 
 
 adjunct ace, 4 1 6-4 1 8 ; constr. 
 
 in pass., 418 
 Subjectofinf •"• x^o.'^^7^ ''^ 
 
 Extent and duration, 420-426 ; 
 
 w. natus, 422. a; w. per or the 
 
 abl., 423 ; w. abhinc, 425 ; 
 
 expressing degree, 426 
 
 Respect (Greek ace), 427; quod 
 
 cl. as ace. of respect, 824 
 Place whither, 428-435 ; names 
 of towns, domus, riis, 430, 
 433 ; ad w. names of towns, 
 43 1 ; ad urbem R5mam, 432 ; 
 in poetry, 434 ; supine, 435, 
 882.1 
 K.xclamation, 436,437 
 Adverbial, 438 
 In ind. disc., 839, 887. I. a 
 Gerund and gerundive, 878 
 Supine, 882. I 
 Accusing, condemning, acquitting, 
 
 vbs. of, w. gen., 336 
 acer, decl., 146; compar., 155 
 -aceus, adj. suffix, 285. c 
 acigs, deck, 125. </ 
 Action, nouns of, formed from vbs., 
 
 284. b ; w. objective gen., 354 
 
 Active periphrastic conjugation, 
 
 takes place of fut. subjv., 668.d ; 
 
 in ind. quests., 815; forms, 859 
 
 Active voice, 204 ; change to pass., 
 
 405 
 acu8, gender, 1 20 
 
 ad, use, 276 ; as prefix, 294. a ; w. 
 refert and interest to denote 
 obj. sought, 352. <-■; in comps. 
 w. dat., 382 ; w. propior and 
 proximus, 401 ; in comps. w. 
 ace, 406.^; w. ace. of place 
 whither, 428; w. names of coun- 
 tries, 429 ; w. names of towns, 
 43 1 ; w. gerund and gerundive, 
 878 
 
368 
 
 INDEX 
 
 adeo (vb.), constr. after, 382. a 
 adeo ut, 732 
 
 -ades, patronymic ending, 282.^ 
 adfinis, w. gen., 351 ; w. dat, 397 
 adgredior, constr. after, 382. ^ 
 Adjective clauses, defined, 304. b, 
 709. 1 1 ; rel. clause, 551; pur- 
 pose, 715; description, 726- 
 730 ; cause, 730. I ; concession, 
 id. II ; result, 735 
 Adjective pronouns, see Pronouns 
 Adjectives, defined, 137 
 
 Forms: decl., 138-152; decls. I 
 and II, 139-143 ; nine irregular 
 adjs., 143; decl. Ill, 144-151 ; 
 decl. Ill, three terminations, 
 1 46 ; adjs. using fem. forms 
 for masc. and vice versa, 146. 
 <^. N. ; decl. Ill, two termina- 
 tions, 147 ; decl. Ill, one termi- 
 nation, 148 ; decl. of pres. parts., 
 1 49 ; decl. of comparatives, 150; 
 decl. of pliis, 151; indecl. adjs., 
 152; derivation of adjs., 285- 
 288"; adjs. derived from proper 
 names, 285. </. 2 
 Comparison : defined, 153; regu- 
 lar, 154-157; irregular, 158- 
 159; defect, 160; adjs. not 
 compared, 161 ; adjs. compared 
 w. magis and maxime, 1 62 
 Syntax: adjs. w. gen. of the whole, 
 342 ; adjs. of plenty or want w. 
 gen., 350 ; w. abl., 440, 469. d\ 
 adjs. of similarity or connection 
 w. gen., 351, 398. b\ adjs. of 
 action or feeling w. gen., 357; 
 adjs. w. dat., 397 ; adjs. of like- 
 ness or unlikeness followed by 
 atque (ac), et, -que, 400 ; constr. 
 
 w. propior, proximus, 401 ; ad- 
 verbial ace, 410, 411 ; adjunct 
 ace, 417. a\ classification of 
 adjs., 496; agreement, 497-502 ; 
 w. single noun, 498 ; w. clause, 
 500 ; w. two or more nouns, 
 502 ; adjs. used as nouns, 503- 
 506; as advs., 507; w. inf., 
 841. <2, 845 ; w. dat. of gerund, 
 ^TJ\ w. supine, 882. II. b\ 
 normal position, 914, 916, 917; 
 emphatic position, 934, d, e 
 Adjunct accusative, 416, 417 
 admoneo, constr. after, 361 
 adulescens, compar., 160. c 
 Adverbial clauses, defined, 304. c, 
 709. I; purpose, 713, 714; re- 
 sult, 732-734; temporal, 742- 
 766; causal, J^j-jyi ; con- 
 ditional, 772-803 ; concessive, 
 804-810; proviso, 811 
 Adverbs 
 
 Forms: numeral advs., 175; advs. 
 formed from adjs., 270; case 
 forms and special formations, 
 271, 272; compar., 273, 274 
 Syntax: w. gen. of the whole, 
 343 ; w. dat., 399 ; followed by 
 atque (ac), et, -que, 400 ; w. abl. 
 of comparison, 446. b ; defined, 
 583 ; modifying nouns, 584 ; 
 used as adjs., 585 ; as nouns, 
 586; equivalenttopron.w.prep., 
 587; special advs. and their 
 uses, 588-593 ; neg. advs., 594- 
 596 ; normal position, 91 2, 923 
 Adversative conjunctions, 61 1-616; 
 defined, 611; sed, 612; vero, 
 613 ; autem, 614 ; tamen, 61 5 ; 
 at, 616 
 
INDEX 
 
 369 
 
 adversus or adversum, 276 
 
 Advising, vbs. of, w. subjv., 720. 1 
 
 ae, diphthong, 5 ; sound, 1 5 ; weak- 
 ened to i, 44. </; loc. ending, 
 80.^ 
 
 aedgs, sing, and plur., 133 
 
 AengSs, decl., 81 
 
 aequor, decl., 97 
 
 aes. use of plur., 1 26. b 
 
 aetas, decl., 107 
 
 aethSr, ace. of, 1 1 1 . ^ 
 
 Affirmation, expressed by two neg^., 
 595 ; nonne expecting affirma- 
 tive answer, 623. b\ ways of 
 saying yes^ 629. a 
 
 Age, how expressed, 422. a 
 
 Agent, dat of, w. gerundive and 
 past part., 392 ; w. other forms, 
 id. a ; abl. of, 453 ; things and 
 animals as agent, 454; agent 
 regarded as means, 455 
 
 ager, decl., 85 
 
 aggredior, see adgredior 
 
 Agnomen, 134. </ 
 
 Agreement 
 
 Noun, pred., 306-308; appositive, 
 
 3'2 
 Adjective, general rule, 497; w. 
 single noun, 498; w. clause or 
 inf., 500; constr. according to 
 sense, 501 ; w. two or more 
 nouns, 502 
 Verb, 631-638; agreement w. 
 subj., 631 ; w. pred. noun or 
 appositive, 632 ; constr. accord- 
 ing to sense, 633 ; w. two or 
 more subjs., 634, 635 ; w. subjs. 
 of different persons, 636; w. 
 rel. pron., 637 
 Participle, 631. </, 638 
 
 -4i for -ae in gen., 80. b 
 
 aiO, conj., 265. a ; ain for aisne, 
 aibam for aiibam, id. 2 ; ait as 
 perf., id. 3 
 
 -al and -ar, neuters in, 103, 104 
 
 alacer, compar., 1 60. c 
 
 aliSnus, for poss. gen. of alius, 1 43. 
 b, 578. b\ constr. w., 398. t* 
 
 aliquid, as ace. of degree, 426. N. 1 
 
 aliquis (-qui), decl., 200. b ; mean- 
 ing, 571 
 
 aliquot, indecl. adj., 152 
 
 -alis, -dris, adj. suffixes, 28$. t/ 
 
 alius, decl., 143; meaning, 578; 
 alienus used for gen., 578.^; 
 alius . . . alius, 579; alius w. 
 another case of alius, 580; 
 advs. alias, alibi, etc., id. N. 
 
 Alphabet, 2 ; i and u as vowels 
 and consonants, id. b; Greek 
 letters, id. c ; vowels, 4 ; diph- 
 thongs, 5; consonants, 6-10 
 
 alter, decl., 143; meaning, 578; for 
 secundus, id.<z; alter ... alter, 
 
 579 
 
 Alternative questions, 627, 628 
 annon, nccne, <?/- //<?/, 62 7. tf , 8 1 7 
 first member omitted, 627. b 
 distinguished from single ques- 
 tions, 628 ; answers, 630 ; in- 
 direct, 817 
 
 Although, conjunctions meaning, 
 805 
 
 alvus. gender, 86. c 
 
 am-, amb-, inseparable prefix, 294. b 
 
 amissO, fut. perf., 230. c. N. 2 
 
 ambiG, conj., 259. c 
 
 imSns, abl. sing, in -!, 148. u 
 
 amO, conj., 242 
 
 ampliua, without quam, 450 
 
370 
 
 INDEX 
 
 an, annon, necne, in alternative 
 questions, 627 
 
 Anacoluthon, 950. ^ 
 
 Anapaest, 975 
 
 Anaphora, 939 
 
 anceps, abl. sing, in -i, 148. a 
 
 Anchises, decl., 81 
 
 Androgeos, decl., 89 
 
 Andromache, decl., 8r 
 
 animal, decl., 104 
 
 Animals, gender of names of, 67. c ; 
 regarded as agent, 454 
 
 animi, loc, 488 
 
 Annalistic present, 65 1 
 
 annon, necne, omot, 627. a 
 
 Answers to questions, 629, 630 
 
 ante, 276; used as prefix, 294. «; 
 in comps. w. dat., 382 ; w. abl. 
 of measure of difference, 477 
 
 ante diem, constr., \o\o. b,c 
 
 Antecedent of relative, 551-560 
 
 Antepenult, defined, 24 
 
 antequam and priusquam, 757-761 
 
 Anticipation, subjv. of, 759- N. 3 
 
 Antithesis, 940 
 
 -anus, adj. suffix, 285.^ 
 
 Apodosis, see Conclusion 
 
 Aposiopesis, 941 
 
 Application, gen. of, 356 
 
 Appointing, vbs. of, w. two aces., 41 7 
 
 Appositive, defined, 311; agree- 
 ment, 312; partitive apposition, 
 id. b\ app. w. loc, 313; cl. as 
 app., 314; app. equivalent to 
 rel. cl., 315; gen. instead of 
 app., 335 ; inf. used as app., 835 
 
 Appositive adjective, defined, 496, b 
 
 Appositive clauses, of purpose, 724; 
 of result, 741 ; w. quod and 
 indie, 823 
 
 aptus, w. dat. of gerund, 877 
 apud, 276 
 
 -ar, neut. ending, decl. Ill, 103, 116 
 arbor or arbos, 96. d 
 arctus, gender, 86. b 
 arcus, dat. and abl. plur., iii.c 
 -aris, adj. suffix, 285.^ 
 -arium, noun suffix, 282. b 
 -arius, noun suffix, 282. c ; adj. suf- 
 fix, i%i.d 
 Arrangement of words, see Order 
 
 of words 
 Arsis and thesis, 979 
 as, final, quantity, 964 
 -Ss, in ace. plur. of Greek nouns, \\\.e 
 -as, old gen. ending, 80. a ; Greek 
 
 nom. ending, 8 r , 112.^; gender 
 
 of nouns in, 115 
 Asking, vbs. of, w. two aces., 413 ; 
 
 w. abl., 414 ; w. subjv. cl, 720. 1 
 Aspirates ch, ph, th, 1 7 
 Assertions of fact, in indie, 642 
 Assimilation of consonants, 51-54; 
 
 in prefixes, 53. N. 
 Asyndeton, 619, 942 
 at, use, 616 
 Athematic verbs, 251 
 Atlas, decl., 112.^ 
 atque (ac), 602 ; w. adjs. of likeness, 
 
 etc., id. a ; atque . . . atque, 604 
 atrox, decl., 148 
 Attendant circumstance, abl. of, 457 ; 
 
 expressed by abl. abs., 484. e 
 Attraction, of case of rel., 554; of 
 
 case of antecedent, id. N. 
 Attraction, subjv. by, 907-909 
 Attributive adjective, defined, 496. 
 
 a ; agreement w. two nouns, in 
 
 number, 502. \.b\ in gender, 
 
 id. 2. a 
 
 
INDEX 
 
 37' 
 
 -itus, noun suffix, 282. e 
 
 au, diphthong, 5 ; sound, 1 5 ; weak- 
 ened to fl, 44, e 
 
 audicter, compar., 273 
 
 audeO, semi-deponent, 248 
 
 audio, conj., 245 ; w. pres. part., 864 
 
 aula, old gen. of, 80. b 
 
 aureus, not compared, 161. <z 
 
 auris, decl., 107. <? 
 
 ausim, ausis, etc., perf. subjv., 
 234. ^. N. I, 248. ftn. 
 
 aut, use, 607 ; aut . . . aiit, 610 
 
 autem, use, 614; position, 924 
 
 auxilior, dat. w., 376 
 
 auxilium, auxilia, 1 33 
 
 av6, forms, 265. d 
 
 avis, decl., 102.// 
 
 -fix, verbal adj. suffix, 287.^; adjs. 
 in, w. gen., 357 
 
 -ba-, tense sign, 229. b 
 balneum, plur. balneae, 132 
 Base, defined, 63; of nouns, 75. a 
 basis, decl., 112 
 
 Beginning, vbs. of, w. complemen- 
 tary inf., 837 
 belli, loc., 488 
 bene, compar., 274 
 benefaci5, w. dat., 378 
 -ber. noun suffix, 284. c. i 
 -bi-, tense sign, 229. r 
 -bills, verbal adj. suffix, 287. d 
 Birth or origin, nouns of, derivation, 
 282. g ; participles of, w. abl., 
 
 45» 
 bonus, decl., 140; compar., 158 
 bCs. decl.. 109 
 -bra. noun suffix, 284. c. i 
 Bringing about, vbs. of, w. subjv., 
 
 737. 738 
 
 -brum, noun suffix, 284.^ 
 bs and bt, sound, 16 
 -bula, -bulum, noun suffixes, 284. ^, t 
 -bundus. adj. suffix, 287. a 
 Buying, vbs. of, w. gen., 341. «; 
 \v. abl., 470 
 
 C, for g in early use and as abbrevi- 
 ation, 2. a ; sound, 16 ; quantity 
 of final syllables in, 958 
 
 Cadences, favorite, 937 
 
 Caesura, 986; position of caesural 
 pause in dactylic hexameter, 
 996- 1 000 
 
 Calendar, Roman, 1 006-1 01 2 
 
 Calends (Kalendae), loio 
 
 Calling, vbs. of, w. two aces., 417 
 
 calx, decl., p. 46 
 
 Can, expressed by potential subjv., 
 684. N. 
 
 canis, decl., 107.^ 
 
 capiO, conj., 246 
 
 capitis, w. vbs. of condemning, 337 
 
 capsO, fut. perf., 230. <:. N. 2 
 
 caput, decl., 94 
 
 Capys, decl., 1 12 
 
 carbasus, gender, 86.^; plur. car- 
 basa, 132 
 
 career, carcerCs, 1 33 
 
 Cardinal numbers, 164; decl., 166; 
 use of et, 168, 169; replaced 
 by distributives, iy^.f; w. ex 
 instead of partitive gen., 344 
 
 cfirC, compar., 273 
 
 carO, decl., 109 
 
 Case, defined, 73 ; names of cases, 
 74; quantity of final vowels 
 in case forms, 76. /; nouns 
 defect in case forms. 1 28 ; 
 cases w. preps., 276-278 ; case 
 
372 
 
 INDEX 
 
 constructions, 305 ff.; agreement 
 in, 306, 312; nom., 316-320 
 voc, 321-323 ; gen., 324-366 
 dat. 367-401 ; ace, 402-438 
 abl., 439-495 ; case of rel. pron., 
 552 
 
 castrum, castra, 133 
 
 Catalectic and acatalectic verse, 985 
 
 causa, w. gen., 331, 463 ; w. gen. of 
 gerund, 875 
 
 Causal clauses, replaced by abl. 
 abs., 484. b ; w. qui and subjv., 
 730. I ; w. cum and subjv., 
 754 ; w. quod, quia, and indie. 
 or subjv., 768 ; w. quoniam, 
 quand5. and indie, 769 ; w. non 
 quod, non quia, etc., and subjv., 
 770; and indie, id. b\ non 
 quin for non quod non, id. a ; 
 causal cl. replaced by a part., 
 861./^ 
 
 Causal conjunctions, 617 
 
 Cause, rel. cl. of, 730. 1 
 
 Cause or reason, abl. of, 462 ; ex- 
 pressed by ob or propter w. 
 ace, 464 ; preventing cause 
 expressed by prae w. abl., 465 
 
 cave, cave ne, in prohibitions, 676. b 
 
 -ce, enclitic, 39, \Z%.a 
 
 Ceasing, vbs. of, w. complementary 
 inf., 837 
 
 cede, forms, '265. d 
 
 cedo, dat. w., 376 
 
 celer, decl., 146. <^ 
 
 celo, w. two aces., 413 
 
 censeo, constr. after, 720. I 
 
 ceteri, use, 581 
 
 oh, sound, 1 7 
 
 Characteristic or description, subjv. 
 of, 726-730 ; expressing cause. 
 
 730. I ; expressing concession, 
 id. II 
 
 Charge and penalty, gen. of, 336, 337 
 
 Chiasmus, 934./" 
 
 Choosing, vbs. of, w. two aces., 417 
 
 circa, use, 276 
 
 circiter, use, 276 
 
 circum, use, 276 ; as prefix, 294. a ; 
 incomps. w.dat.,382; incomps. 
 w. ace, 406. b 
 
 circumdo, double constr. w., 374 
 
 Circumstance, attendant, abl. of, 
 457; expressed by abl. abs., 
 484.^ 
 
 circumsto, constr. after, 382. a 
 
 cis, citra, use, 276 
 
 citerior, compar., 160.^ 
 
 Cities, see Towns 
 
 civis, decl., \oi.d 
 
 civitas, decl., 106. d 
 
 classis, decl., 102. d 
 
 Clauses, defined, kinds of, 299, 300, 
 303, 304; used as subj., 316. 
 a ; replaced by abl. abs., 484 ; 
 subord., syntax of, 692 ff.; pur- 
 pose, 712; description, 726; 
 result, 73 1 ; time, 743 ; cause, 
 767; condition, 772 ff.; com- 
 parison, 803 ; concession, 805 ; 
 proviso, 811; ind. quests., 812; 
 fact w. quod, 821 ; inf., 832 ff. ; 
 ind. disc, 886 
 
 cliens, decl., 107 
 
 Closed syllables, 23 
 
 coepi, conj., 263 ; pass. w. pass, inf., 
 id. a ; incipio used for pres., id. 
 
 Cognate accusative, 408 ; w. vbs. of 
 taste and smell, 409 ; w. neut. 
 prons. and adjs., 410; in poetry, 
 411 
 
INDEX 
 
 373 
 
 Cognomen. 134. . 
 cognOvi. in pres. sense, 660 
 Collective noun w. sing, or plur. vb., 
 
 633 
 
 coUis, decl., 102. </ 
 
 colus, gender, 86. c 
 
 com- (con-), prefix, 294. a ; in comps. 
 w. dat., 382 
 
 comedo, past part, of, 257. ^ 
 
 comitium. comitia, 133 
 
 Commanding, vbs. of, w. subjv., 720. 
 I ; w. inf., id. a 
 
 Commands, expressed by subjv., 
 674: by im v., 689, 690 ; inind. 
 disc, 887. Ill 
 
 Common gender, 66. a 
 
 Common syllables, 969 
 
 commonefaciO, w. ace. and gen., 361 
 
 commoneO, w. ace. and gen., 361 
 
 communis, w. gen., 35 1 ; w. dat., 397 
 
 commutO, constr. after, 472 
 
 Comparative suffix, of adjs., 154; of 
 advs., 273 
 
 Comparatives, decl., 1 50 ; stem, id. 
 N.; meaning of, 154. N.; w. 
 abl. of comparison, 446-449; 
 quam w. comparatives, 446. a\ 
 two comparatives, 508 ; com- 
 paratives w. quam ut, quam 
 qui, id. a 
 
 Comparison, clauses of, 803 
 
 Comparisonof adjs., 153-162; reg- 
 ular, I 54 ; adjs. in -«r, 155; six 
 adjs. in -lis, 156; comps. of 
 -dicus, -ficus, -volus, 157; irreg- 
 ular, 158, 159; defect., 160, 
 161; w. magis and maxime, 1 62 
 
 Comparison of advs,, 273 ; w. magis 
 and maxime, id. a ; irregular 
 and defect., 274 
 
 Comparison of parts., 1 54. a 
 
 Complementary infinitive, 836; vbs. 
 w., 837: pred. noun or adj. 
 after, 838 ; w. reflexive pron. as 
 subj., id. a 
 
 complex), constr. after, 349, 469. d. 
 
 Complex sentence, 300 
 
 compiarSs, decl., 151. <z 
 
 compos, decl., 148. b 
 
 Compound sentence, 299 
 
 Compound words, 291 ; formation 
 of, 292, 293 
 
 Compounds, derived from phrases, 
 293 ; w. dat., 382 
 
 con-, see com- 
 
 con- (com-), comps. of, w. dat, 382 
 
 Conative past descriptive, 653 
 
 Conative present, 649 
 
 concSdO, w. fut pass, part express- 
 ing purpose, 869 
 
 Concessive clauses, defined, 804; 
 replaced by abl. abs., 484.^; 
 volitive subjv., 671, 677; qui 
 concessive, 730. II; cum con- 
 cessive, 755 ; quamquam, etsi, 
 tametsi {although), 806; etsi, 
 tametsi, etiam si (even if), 808 ; 
 quamvis, ut, 809; licet, 810; 
 replaced by part., 86i.y 
 
 Concessive conjunctions, 805 
 
 Conclusion, see Conditional sen- 
 tences 
 
 concors, decl., 148.^1 
 
 Condemning, vbs. of, constr. after, 
 336, 337 
 
 Conditional clauses, defined, 772; 
 replaced by abl. abs., 484.*/: 
 by part, 861.^ 
 
 Conditional clauses of comparison, 
 803 
 
374 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Conditional conjunctions, 77S-777i 
 800. a 
 
 Conditional sentences, defined, 773 ; 
 development of, p. 295, ftn. i ; 
 condition and conclusion, 774; 
 si and its compounds, use, 
 77^-777 \ classification of con- 
 ditions, 77^-7^3 ' present con- 
 ditions, non-committal, 785 ; 
 present conditions, contrary to 
 fact, 786; future conditions, 
 more definite, 788 ; future con- 
 ditions, less definite, 789 ; past 
 conditions, non-committal, 792; 
 past conditions, contrary to fact, 
 793 ; synopsis of conditional 
 sentences, 794 ; peculiar future 
 conditions, 795, 796; peculiar 
 conditions contrary to fact, 797- 
 799; general conditions, 7 7 8. (^,<r, 
 800 ; temporal (cum, ubi, or ut 
 meaning whenever), 746, 752, 
 800. a ; conditional relative 
 clauses, 801 ; substitutes for 
 regular conditions, and implied 
 conditions, 484. d, 802, 861. e; 
 clauses of comparison (conclu- 
 sion omitted), 803 ; concessive 
 clauses w. etsi, etc., 808; pro- 
 viso, 811 
 
 Conditional sentences in indirect dis- 
 course, 898-904; conclusions 
 that are interrogative or im- 
 perative, 899; non-committal 
 conditions, 900. I ; future con- 
 ditions, id. II ; conditions con- 
 trary to fact, id. Ill, 903 ; more 
 and less definite future condi- 
 tions not distinguishable, 902 ; 
 sequence of tenses, 904 
 
 Conditions contrary to fact, tense 
 sequence in, 704, 904 ; in ind. 
 disc, 900. Ill 
 
 confido, w. dat., 376; w. abl., id. 
 N. 2 
 
 Conjugation, defined, 60 ; conj. of 
 vbs., 203-267 ; voice, 204 ; 
 mood, 20 5 ; tense, 206 ; per- 
 son, 207 ; number, 208 ; tens6 
 systems, 209 ; distinguishing 
 vowels, 210; principal parts, 
 212-214; pers. endings, 215- 
 218; formation of vb. stems, 
 219-226; formation of moods 
 and tenses, 227-235 ; forma- 
 tion of non-modal vb. forms, 
 236-240; conj. of sum, 241; 
 conj. of regular vbs., 242-246; 
 conj. of deponents, 247 ; semi- 
 deponents, 248 ; periphrastic 
 conjs., 249, 250 ; irregular vbs., 
 251-261; defectives, 262-265; 
 impersonals, 266; list of vbs., 
 267 
 
 Conjunctions, origin and classifica- 
 tion, 279; syntax of conjunc- 
 tions, 597-619; defined and 
 classified, 597, 598 ; copulative, 
 599-605; disjunctive, 606-610; 
 adversative, 6 1 1 -6 1 6 ; causal, 
 617; inferential, 618; asyndeton, 
 619 ; position, 924 
 
 Connectives, relatives used as, 564 
 
 Conor, w. inf., 720. I. c 
 
 Consequence or result, see Result 
 clauses 
 
 Consonant stems, of nouns, decl. Ill, 
 90-99; of adjs., 145, 148, 150 
 
 Consonants, defined and classified, 
 6-10; pronunciation, 16-20; 
 
INDEX 
 
 375 
 
 changes in, 48-55 ; rhotadsm, 
 49; assimilation, 51-54; drop- 
 ping of, 55 
 
 Construction according to sense, see 
 Syncsis 
 
 Constructions of cases, see under 
 Ablative, etc. 
 
 cOnsuSvi, use, 660 
 
 consul, dccl., 97 
 
 Contending, vbs. of, w. dat, 381 
 
 contentus, w. abl., 469. c 
 
 Continued action, tenses of, 646 
 
 contrfi. use, 276 
 
 Contraction, of vowels, 46 ; quantity 
 of resulting vowel, 34. a, 953. 
 b \ contraction of syllables, 988 
 
 contrarius, w. gen., 351 ; w. dat., 
 
 397 
 Contrary to fact, conditions, sequence 
 
 of tenses in, 704 ; present, 786 ; 
 
 past, 793 ; in ind. disc., 900. Ill 
 conveniO, constr. after, 382. a 
 convocO, constr. after, 382. a . 
 Coordinating conjunctions, 279. «, 
 
 598 (see Conjunctions) 
 c6pia, cOpiae, 133 
 Copula, 305. a ; position of, 927 
 Copulative conjunctions, 599-605 ; 
 
 et, 600 ; -que, 60 1 ; atque, ac, 
 
 602 ; and not, 603 ; repeated, 
 
 604 ; in enumerations, 605 ; 
 
 omitted, 619 
 Copulative verbs, 305. « 
 cor. dccl.. p. 46 
 cOram. 277 
 Correlatives, 604, 610; qu6 . . . cd, 
 
 rendered the . . . t/ig, 476 
 Countries, names of, gender, 67. d ; 
 
 as end of motion, 428, 429. 434; 
 
 as place whence, 44 1 , 444 
 
 crSdO, w. dat, 376; w. dat. and ace, 
 
 380 
 Crime or charge, gen. of, 336 
 -crum, noun suffix, 284. c 
 crux, decl., p. 46 
 CU for earlier quo, 1 2. d 
 -culum, noun suffix, 284. c 
 -cuius, diminutive suffix, 282 
 cum (conjunction), temporal, 749- 
 753; causal, 754; concessive, 
 755 ; definitive, 750 ; uwtrsum^ 
 751; iterative («'//^««'^r), 752, 
 800. tf; descriptive, 753; cum 
 . . . turn, 755.^/: cum clause 
 instead of a part., 851, 852 
 cum (prep.), as enclitic w. prons., 
 180. r, 183. /7, 193. </, 197.^, 
 277. d, 925; use, 277; in 
 comps., see com-; w. abl. of 
 accompaniment, 456 ; w. words 
 of contention, id. N. ; w. abl. 
 of manner, 459 
 cum primum in temporal clauses, 
 
 745. 748 
 -cundus, verbal adj. sufiix, 287. a 
 cupiS, constr. after, 720. I. b, 839. b 
 cQrO, w. fut. pass. part, expressing 
 
 purpose, 869 
 -cus, adj. suffix, 285. </ 
 
 d, changed to s, 48 ; assimilated, 53; 
 dropped, 55; old abl. ending 
 of nouns, i 2 1 ./; of pers. prons., 
 180.^/, 183.^; ad vs. originally 
 in -ed, 270. a. N. 
 
 Dactyl, 975 ; in dactylic verse, 
 id. a 
 
 Dactylic hexameter, how constituted, 
 995 ; spondaic, id. a ; cxsural 
 pause, 996-1000; masculine 
 
376 
 
 INDEX 
 
 and feminine caesura, 999. a ; 
 
 example of dactylic hexameter, 
 
 1002 
 Dactylic pentameter, 1003; in elegiac 
 
 distich, 1004 
 dapis, decl., p. 46 
 Dates, how expressed, 10 10, 1012; 
 
 equivalent in English of Latin 
 
 dates, 1 01 1 
 Dative case, defined, 74 
 
 Forms : in -abus in decl. I, 80. ^ ; 
 in -ubus in decl. IV, 121. ^; 
 in -e instead of -li in decl. V, 
 12$. b\ in -i in adjs., nuUus, 
 etc., 143 
 Syntax, 367-401 : original use, 
 367 ; classification, 369 
 
 Indirect object, 370-384; w. 
 act. of trans, vbs. together w. 
 dir. obj., 371, 380; w. pass, 
 of trans, vbs., 372; w. vbs. 
 of motion, 373 ; w. dono, cir- 
 cumd5, exuo, 374; in poetry 
 denoting direction of motion, 
 375; w. intrans. vbs., credo, 
 impero, etc., 376 ; vbs. of sim- 
 ilar meaning w. ace, id. ^; 
 dat. w. phrases, audiens esse, 
 etc., 377 ; w. libet, licet, and 
 comps. of satis, bene, male, 
 378 ; w. pass, of intrans. vbs., 
 379 ; w. vbs. of contending, 
 381 ; w. vbs. compounded w. 
 preps., 382; vbs. similarly 
 compounded w. ace, id. a; 
 dat. w. verbal nouns, insidiae, 
 obtemperatio, etc., 383 ; w, 
 obvius and obviam, 384 
 
 Dative of reference, 385-389 ; 
 used idiomatically, 386; of 
 
 person judging, 387 ; ethical 
 dative, 388 ; w. comps. of ab, 
 de, ex, 389 
 Possession, 390 
 Apparent agent, 392 ; w. im- 
 
 pers. gerundive, 394 
 Purpose, 395 
 With adjectives, 397; other 
 
 constructions, 398 
 With adverbs of likeness, 399 
 Gerund and gerundive, 877 
 
 de, use, 277; as prefix, 294.^; w. 
 abl. to denote the charge, 336. a ; 
 w. abl. instead of partitive gen., 
 344 ; w. vbs. of reminding, 362 ; 
 in comp. w. vbs. w. dat., 382, 
 389 ; w. abl. of separation, 440. 
 a\ w. abl. of place whence, 441 ; 
 w. abl. of material, 452 ; w. abl. 
 of accordance, 458 ; w. abl. of 
 cause, 462 ; in expressions of 
 time, 495 ; w. abl. of gerund 
 or gerundive, 879 
 
 dea, dat. and abl. plur., 80. e 
 
 debeo, in conclusion of conditions 
 contrary to fact, 797. a ; in past 
 tense w. pres. inf., 829; w. 
 perf. inf., id. N. 
 
 decet, w. ace, 407 ; in conclusion of 
 conditions contrary to fact, 
 797. a 
 
 Deciding, vbs. of, w. subjv. cl., 720. 1 
 
 Declarative sentence, 296. i ; in ind. 
 disc, d>?>7. 1 
 
 Declension, defined, 60 ; distinguish- 
 ing vowels, 75; base, 75. «; 
 general rules, ^6 
 
 Declension of adjectives, 138 ; decls. 
 I-II, 139-143; decl. Ill, 144- 
 148; of comparatives, 150 
 
INDEX 
 
 377 
 
 Declension of nouns, 73, 74 ; decl. 
 I, 77-81 ; decl. II, 82-89; decl. 
 Ill, 90-1 16; decl. IV, 1 17-121 ; 
 decl. V, 122-125 
 
 Declension of present participles, 149 
 
 Defective comparison, 160 
 
 Defective nouns, of decl. IV', 121.^; 
 of decl. V, 1 25. a ; used in sing, 
 only, 126; used in plur. only, 
 1 27 ; used in certain cases only, 
 128 
 
 Defective verbs, 262-265 
 
 Definite perfect, 658. I; sequence 
 after, 699 
 
 Definitive cum, 750 
 
 dgfit. 261. t 
 
 Degree of an action or quality ex- 
 pressed by ace, 426 
 
 Degrees of comparison, 153 
 
 deinde, in enumerations, 591. a 
 
 dglectO, w. ace, 376. a 
 
 Deliberative subjunctive, 678 ; in 
 ind. quests., 816; in ind. disc., 
 887. II. rf 
 
 D6I0S. decl., 89 
 
 Demonstrative pronouns and adjec- 
 tives, defined, 185 
 Forms: declension, 188- 191 
 Syntax: used as pers. pron. of 
 third person, 531 ; agreement, 
 532; hie, 533, 534; i«te, 535, 
 536; ille, 537-539; is. 540- 
 542 : omission of that in that of, 
 544: idem, 545-547; normal 
 position, 91 8 ; emphatic position, 
 
 934-^ 
 dSmum, position, 923 
 denique, in enumerations, 591. a\ 
 
 position, 923 
 Denominative verbs, 289 
 
 Dentals, 7. b 
 
 Dependent clauses, kinds, 709 ; indie. 
 
 or subjv. in, 710 ff. 
 Deponent verbs, defined, 204. a ; 
 
 conjugated, 247 ; act. forms, 
 
 id. ; forms pass, in meaning, id. ; 
 
 semi-deponents, 248 
 Deprivation, vbs. of, abl. w., 440 
 Derivation, of nouns, 282-284; of 
 
 adjectives, 285-288 ; of verbs, 
 
 289, 290 
 Description or characteristic, subjv. • 
 
 of, 726-730; cum clauses of, 
 
 753-755 
 Description or quality, gen. of, 338 ; 
 
 abl. of, 466 
 Descriptive, past, 652-654 
 Descriptive adj. instead of objective 
 
 gen., 355 
 Descriptive cum, 753 
 Desiderative verbs (in -uri5), 290. d 
 Desire, adjs. of, w.gen., 357 
 deterior, compar., 1 60. a 
 deus. decl., 88. g 
 
 dextrd, abl. without prep., 485. a 
 di-, see dis- 
 Diaeresis, 987 
 Diastole. 990 
 die, prcs. imv,, 235. <r 
 -dicus, adjs. in, compar. of, 157 
 Dido, decl., 1 1 2 
 dies, decl., 1 23 ; gender, 1 24 ; irreg. 
 
 forms, 125.^ 
 Difference, measure of, 475 
 difficilis, compar., 156; w. supine, 
 
 882. II. ^ 
 diffidC, dat. w., 376 
 dignor, w. abl., 479. N. 
 dignus. w. abl., 479; w. rel. cl of 
 
 purpose, 717 
 
378 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Diminutive endings, of nouns, 282. 
 a ; of adjs., 286 ; of vbs., 290. c 
 
 din-, stems in, 98. b 
 
 Diphthongs, 5 ; sounds, 1 5 ; quan- 
 tity, 27, 954; weakening of, 
 44. d, e 
 
 Direct discourse, 883 
 
 Direct object, 404-407; w. vbs. of 
 feeling, 406. a ; w. vbs. of 
 motion (comps. of ad, circum, 
 etc.), id. b ; w. intrans. vbs., id. c ; 
 w. pass, used as Greek middle, 
 id. d\ w. gerund, 880. a 
 
 Direct question, 62 1 . rt; 
 
 Direct quotation w. inquam, 265. b 
 
 Direct reflexive, 5 1 9 
 
 dis- (di-), inseparable prefix, 294. b 
 
 Disjunctive conjunctions, 606-610 ; 
 defined, 606; aut, 607; vel, 
 608 ; siye or seu, 609 ; correla- 
 tive use, 610 
 
 dispar, w.gen., 351 ; w. dat., 397 
 
 displiceo, w. dat., 376 
 
 Disproportion, how expressed, 508,^ 
 
 dissimilis, similis, compar., 156; 
 w. gen., 351 ; w. dat., 397, 
 398.^ 
 
 Distributive numerals, 1 64 ; decl., 
 167; use, 173 
 
 Distributive pronouns, 576, ^-j'j 
 
 diu, compar., 274 
 
 dives, decl., 148 
 
 divom, gen. plur., 88. d 
 
 do, conj., 258 ; w. fut. pass. part, 
 expressing purpose, 869 
 
 doceo, constr. after, 413, 415 
 
 domi, loc, 488 ; w. poss. adj. or 
 gen., 489 
 
 domus, gender, 120: decl., 121.^; 
 omission of prep. w. ace. and 
 
 abl., 430, 442; w. prep, when 
 meaning house, 433, 442. N. 
 donee, as long as, 762 ; u?itil, 764, 
 
 765 
 
 dono, double constr. w., 374 
 
 Doubled consonants, 20 
 
 Doubt, vbs. of, w. quin and subjv., 
 720. IV 
 
 Doubtful syllable in verse, 984 
 
 Dropping of vowels, 47 ; of conso- 
 nants, 55 
 
 dubito, w. neg. and quin, 720. IV; 
 w. ind. quest., id. N. ; w. inf. or 
 quin, id. 
 
 due, pres. imv., 235.^ 
 
 dum, while,^. historical pres., 648. a, 
 763 ; as long as, w. indie, 762 ; 
 mitil, w. indie, to denote a fact, 
 764; w. subjv. to denote pur- 
 pose or expectation, 765 ; pro- 
 vided, 811; dum clause for pres. 
 pass, part., 851 
 
 ^yxvaxsiQ^Q, provided, w. subjv., 811 
 
 duo, decl., 166. b 
 
 Duration, ace. of, 420, 422, 424; 
 abl. of, 423 
 
 -dus, adj. suffix, 287. c 
 
 6, sound, 14; changed to i, 44. c, 
 93. c ; dropped, 47 a. ; changed 
 to by ablaut, 57; in voc. of 
 decl. II, 84.^; in abl. of decl. 
 Ill, 94; in abl. of adjs. of one 
 or two terminations, 147. N., 
 148; stem vowel, conj. Ill, 210, 
 221, 229. a. 2, 289 ; final, quan- 
 tity of, 960 
 
 e, sound, 1 4 ; for early oe, 45 ; end- 
 ing of fem. Greek nouns, decl. I, 
 81 ; in voc. of Greek nouns, 
 
INDEX 
 
 379 
 
 decl. 111,112; stem vowel, decl. 
 V, 122; in gen. and dat. sing, 
 of decl. V, 125. b, 955. b. i ; 
 stem vowel, conj. II, 210, 220. 
 b, 289 ; in past descript. indie, 
 229. ^. I, 2 ; in fut. indie., 229. 
 c ; in pres. subjv., 233. a ; as 
 adv. ending, 270. a 
 
 g (ex), prep., use, 277. b ; in comps., 
 294. a ; abl. w., instead of parti- 
 live gen., 344 ; in comps. w. 
 dat., 389 ; w. abl. of separation, 
 440. a ; w. abl. of place whence, 
 441 ; expressing position, 445 ; 
 w. abl. of origin, 45 1 . « ; w. abl. 
 of accordance, 458 ; w. abl. of 
 cause, 462 ; w. abl. of gerund, 
 S79 
 
 ecce (eccum, eccam, etc.), 437 
 
 ecquis, indefinite, 200. /•; interrog., 
 568 
 
 ecus, early form for equus, 1 2. b 
 
 ed6. conj., 257 
 
 efficiO ut, 737, 739 
 
 egens. decl., 148 
 
 egenus, w. gen., 350 
 
 ege5. constr. after, 349, 469. d 
 
 ego, decl., 180 
 
 egomet, 1 80. ^ 
 
 ei, diphthong, 5 ; sound, 1 5 
 
 -€is, patronymic ending, 282.^ 
 
 Electra, dec!., 81 
 
 Elegiac distich, 1004, 1005 
 
 Elision. 981 ; before est, 982 
 
 Ellipsis, 950. b 
 
 ellum, etc., 437 
 
 -ellus, diminutive ending, 282 
 
 Emotion, vbs. of, w. inf., 839. e ; w. 
 ind. disc, or quod cl., id. N. 
 
 Emphasis, how secured, 934 
 
 Enallage, 950. c 
 
 Enclitics, defined, 39; accent, 40; 
 
 enclitic cum, 180. <•, 183. a, 
 
 i93'd, 197.4, 277. //, 925 
 End of motion, expressed by dat., 
 
 373; ace. of, 428 ff. 
 Endings, see Personal endings 
 English dates in Latin, 10 12 
 enim, use, 617 ; position, id. a, 924 
 -Snsis, adj. suffix, 285. r/ 
 Enumeration, 591. </, 605 
 -€nu8. adj. suffix, 285. d 
 Envying, vbs. of, w. dat., 376 
 e6, conj., 259; pass, of, id. a ; ambio, 
 
 id. c ; prdded, id. t/; w. supine 
 
 in -um to form fut. pass, inf., 
 
 882. 1.rf.N. 
 eO (pron.), w. qu5, to express measure 
 
 of difference, 476 
 Epicene nouns, 67. c 
 Epiphora, 939. N. 
 Epistolary tenses, 664 
 Epizeuxis. 943 
 epulum, epulae, 132 
 equidem, 592. a. N. 
 -er, nom. ending, decl. II, 83, 85; 
 
 decl. Ill, 96. a, 97; gender of 
 
 nouns in, decl. Ill, 114; adjs. 
 
 in, 141, 142, 146; com par. of 
 
 adjs. in, 155 
 ergi, use, 276 
 ergO, use, 618 
 -emus, adj. suffix, 288 
 es, final, quantity, 964 
 -is, in nom. plur. of Greek nouns, 
 
 III, (f; gender of nouns in, 
 
 114 
 -Ss, Greek nouns in, 81, 112; nom. 
 
 ending, decl. V, 122; noun 
 
 suffix. 284. b 
 
38o 
 
 INDEX 
 
 -ess5, vb. suffix, 290. b. I 
 
 est, w. ut cl. as subj., 739; w. inf. 
 
 as subj., 833; united w. other 
 
 words, 982 
 -ester, adj. suffix, 285. d 
 et, use, 600 ; et . . .. et, 604 ; in enu- 
 merations, 605 
 etenim, use, 617 
 Ethical dative, 388 
 etiam, use, 588 ; in answers, 629, a 
 etiam si, eve7t if, 808 
 etsi, although, 806 ; even if, 808 
 -etum, noun suffix, 282. b 
 eu, diphthong, 5 ; sound, 1 5 
 Euphony and rhythm, 937 
 -eus, decl. of Greek names in, 112 
 -eus, -aceus, -nus, -neus, adj . suffixes, 
 
 285.^ 
 evenit ut, 739 ; evenit quod, 822 
 Exclamation, nom. in, 3 19 ; ace. in, 
 
 436 ; w. inf., 843 
 Exclamatory questions, w. inf., 843 ; 
 
 w. ut and subjv., id. a 
 Exclamatory sentences, 296. 3; nom. 
 
 in, 3 T 9 ; ace. in, 436 ; w. inf., 843 
 Existence expressed by sum, 927 
 Expectation or anticipation, subjv. 
 
 of, 759. N. 3, 765 
 expers, w. gen., 350 
 Explanatory genitive, 335 
 Extent of space, ace. of, 420, 421 
 exterus, compar., 1 59; exteri, id. a 
 extra, use, 276 
 extremus, end of 510 
 exuo, double constr. w., 374 
 
 fac, pres. imv., 235. c, fac ne, in pro- 
 hibitions, 676. b 
 facies, decl., 125. a 
 facilis, compar., 156 
 
 facio, pass, of, 261 ; w. abl., 452. b; 
 
 w. ut and obj. cl. of result, 737 ; 
 
 w. pres. part., 864 
 falsus, compar., 160. b 
 fames, abl. of, 107. ^ 
 fari, conj., 265. r; comps., id. i 
 fas, indecl., 128. a\ w. supine in -u, 
 
 882. II 
 fauces, decl., 106. d 
 faveo, w. dat., 376 
 fax, decl., p. 46 
 
 faxim, perf. subjv., 234. a. N. i 
 faxo, fut. perf., 230. c. N. 2 
 Fearing, vbs. of, w. ne, ne non, or ut 
 
 and subjv., 720. II; w. inf., id. a 
 febris, decl., \o^.c 
 Feeling, nouns of, w. gen., 354; adjs. 
 
 of, w. gen., 357; impers. vbs. 
 
 of, w. gen., 363 ; vbs. of, w. inf., 
 
 a cl., or a neut. pron. as subj., 
 
 364 ; vbs. of, w. ace, 406. a 
 Feet, in verse, 971-975 
 Feminine caesura, 999. a 
 Feminine gender, general rule, 67. b 
 femur, decl., 130. <: 
 fer, pres. imv., 235. c 
 -fer and -ger, comps. in, 85. ^. i , 142.^ 
 fere, position, 923 
 ferio, conj., 264 
 fero, conj., 256 
 
 Festivals, plur. names of, 127. b 
 -ficus, adjs. in, compar. of, 157 
 fido, semi-deponent, 248 ; w. dat., 
 
 376; w. abl., id. N. 2 
 Fifth declension, 122-125; gender, 
 
 1 24 ; peculiar forms, 1 25 
 filia, dat. and abl. plur., 80. e 
 filius, gen. and voc. sing., 88. b, c 
 Filling, words of, w. gen., 349, 350 ; 
 
 w. abl., 469. d 
 
INDEX 
 
 381 
 
 Final clauses, see Purpose 
 Final syllables, quantity, 956-965 
 finis, decl., 102. (1\ meaning in plur., 
 
 133 
 
 fi5, conj., 261 ; in comps., id. <?, b\ 
 cdnfit, defit, id. ^; w. abl., 452. 
 /' : quantity of i in, 955. b. 3 
 
 First conjugation, prin. parts, 212; 
 pres. stem, 220. a ; perf. stem, 
 223. a, c\ part, stem, 225, 
 226; paradigms, 242 ; vbs. of, 
 derivation, 289 
 
 First declension, 77-81 ; peculiar 
 forms, 80 ; Greek nouns, 81 
 
 fit ut, 739 ; fit quod, 822 
 
 Fitness, adjs. of, w. dat., 397, a, 877 
 
 flagite, constr. after, 413, 414 
 
 flocci, gen. of value, 341. N. 
 
 Following, vbs. of, w. subjv. cl., 739 
 
 Foot, in verse, see Feet 
 
 foras, foris, 1 28. c 
 
 fore, 24 r . <7 ; fore ut, 740, 83 1 
 
 forem, forSs, etc., 241. a 
 
 Forgetting, vbs. of, constr. after, 358 
 
 Formation of words, 281-294; nouns 
 from nouns, 282; from adjs., 
 283 ; from vbs., 284 ; adjs. 
 from nouns, 285 ; from adjs., 
 286; from vbs., 287; from 
 advs., 288; vbs. from nouns 
 or adjs., 289; from vbs., 290; 
 comps., 291-293; prefixes, 294 
 
 fors, forte. 1 28. c 
 
 forsitan. w. subjv.. 819 
 
 fortuna. fortunae. 133 
 
 Fourth conjugation, pres. stem, 
 220, c\ perf. stem. 223. a, r, d\ 
 part, stem, 225, 226 ; prin. parts 
 and paradigms, 245; vbs. of, 
 derivation, 289, 290.^ 
 
 Fourth declension. 11 7-1 21; gen- 
 der, 118, 1 20 ; peculiar forms, 
 121 
 
 Fractions, how expressed, 1 74 
 
 fraus, dec!., 106. </ 
 
 Freedom, vbs. or adjs. of, w. abl., 
 440 
 
 frSnum, plur. in -i or -a, 132 
 
 Frequentative verbs, 290. b 
 
 fretus. w. abl., 469.^ 
 
 Fricatives, 8. d 
 
 friigi. indecl., i 52 ; compar., 1 58 
 
 frflgis, decl., p. 46 
 
 fruor, w. abl., 469. a ; w. ace, id. 
 N. 2 ; in gerund, 880. c. N. 
 
 fuam. fuSs, etc., 241. r 
 
 Fullness, words of, w. gen., 349,350; 
 w. abl., 469. d 
 
 fungor, w. abl., 469. a ; w. ace, id. 
 N. 2 ; in gerund, 880. c. N. 
 
 Future conditions, moredefinite, 788; 
 less definite, 789; relatives in, 
 801 ; in ind. disc., 900. II 
 
 Future indicative, formation, 229. c ; 
 use, 655; used for imv., 656; for 
 English pres., 657; how sup- 
 plied in subjv., 698. a, c\ how 
 expressed in ind. quest., 815 
 
 Future infinitive, formation, 237. c, 
 882. I. <7. N. ; expressed by fore 
 or futiirum esse ut,etc., 740, 83 1 
 
 Future jxirticiple. formation, 240. b,d\ 
 of deponents, 247; lime denoted, 
 847. c\ as attrib. adj., 856; form- 
 ing periphrastic conjs., 859. 
 860; impers. use, 860. a, b\ 
 act. expressing purpose, 868 : 
 pass. w. curd, d5. tridft. etc., ex- 
 pressing purpose. 869: gerun- 
 dive use, 870 
 
382 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Future perfect, formation, 230. c ; 
 use, 662 ; rendered by English 
 fut. or pres., 663 ; how repre- 
 sented in subjv., 698. b^c\ in 
 conditions, 790 ; in ind. disc, 
 887. I. /5, 889. 
 
 futurum esse (fore) ut, 740, 831 ; 
 futUrum fuisse ut, 900. Ill 
 
 g, represented by c, 2. a ; sound, 
 
 16 
 Games, plur. names of, 127. ^ 
 gaudeo, semiTdeponent, 248 ; w. inf., 
 839, e\ w. ind. disc, or quod 
 cl., id. N. 
 Gender, kinds, 64, 65 ; natural, 66 ; 
 common, id. a ; grammatical, 
 general rules for, 67-69 ; com- 
 mon (epicene), 67. c\ foreign 
 words, 69 ; decl. I, 78 ; decl. II, 
 83, 86, 87; decl. Ill, 113-116; 
 decl. IV, 1 1 8, 1 20 ; decl. V, 1 24 
 Syntax : agreement in gender of 
 appositives, 312.^; of adjs. w. 
 single noun, 498 ; w. cl. or inf., 
 500 ; w. two or more nouns, 
 502; of rel. pron., 552 
 General conditions, defined, 778. <^,^; 
 
 use, 800 ; relatives in, 801 
 Genitive case, defined, 74 
 
 Forms : terminations in sing, of 
 nouns,, ys 5 g^^i. in -as and-ai, 
 decl. I, 80. «, b\ in -um for 
 -arum, id. d ;in -i for -ii, decl. 
 II, 88. b ; in -um for -orum, 
 id. d\ in -i or -os in Greek 
 names, decl. Ill, 1 11.^, 112; 
 in -i, -uis, or -uos for -us, 
 decl. IV, 12.1, a\m -um for 
 -uum, id. b\ in -e or -i for -ei. 
 
 decl. V, 125. <^; in -ium or 
 -orum in neut. names of fes- 
 tivals, 1 30. ^; in -ius in adjs., 
 
 143 
 
 Syntax: how translated, 325; 
 subjective and objective, 326 
 Possessive, 328 ; gen. of person 
 acting or feeling, id. N. ; poss. 
 gen. in pred., 330 ; w. causa, 
 gratia, and instar, 331 ; de- 
 pending on omitted noun, 
 333 ; how to translate that 
 
 of, 334 
 
 Explanatory, instead of an ap- 
 positive, 335 
 
 Charge, 336; penalty, 337 
 
 Description, 338 ; in pred., id. a ; 
 gen. and abl. of description 
 compared, id. N. ; gen. of 
 measure, 340 ; indefinite 
 value, 341 
 
 Partitive, or genitive of the 
 whole, 342 ; w. ad vs., 343 ; 
 abl. w. e, ex, or de used in- 
 stead, especially w. cardinals 
 or quidam, 344 ; rare in adjs. 
 of decl. Ill, 347 
 
 Material, 348 ; abl. w. ex used 
 instead, id. a 
 
 Plenty or want, 349 ; abl. used 
 instead, 350 
 
 With adjectives of similarity, 
 etc., 351 ; dat. used instead, 
 id. N., 397, 398 ; alienus, 
 constr. after, 398. c 
 
 With refert and interest, 352 
 
 Objective with nouns of action 
 or feeling, 354; other con- 
 structions, 355 
 
 Application, 356 
 
INDEX 
 
 383 
 
 With adjectives of action or 
 
 feeling, 357 
 With verbs, 358-366; memini, 
 etc., 358 ; vbs. of reminding, 
 361 ; impersonals, miseret, 
 etc., 363, 364; misereor, 
 miserescS, 365 ; potior, 366, 
 469. (i.N. I 
 Agreeing w. a gen. implied in 
 
 a poss. adj., 529 
 Gerund and gerundive, 874-876 
 Position, 915, 916 
 Gens or clan, 134 
 genu, decl., 1 19. N. 
 -ger. comps. in, decl., 85. a. i, 142. a 
 Gerund 
 
 Forms : formation, 238; -undi for 
 
 -endi, id. N. 
 Syntax, 871-880; neut. sing, of 
 gerundive, 871 ; compared w. 
 gerundive, 872; gen. of, 874; 
 w. causa or gratia to express 
 purpose, 875 ; dat. of, 877; ace. 
 of, w. ad to express purpose, 
 878 ; abl. of, 879 ; gerund w. 
 dir. obj., 880. a ; w. neut. adj., 
 id. ^; gerund ofutor, etc., id. ^.N. 
 Gerundive 
 
 Forms : formation, 240. d 
 Syntax, 869-8S0 ; after cur6, d6, 
 etc., to denote purpose, 869; 
 compared w. gerund, 872 ; gen. 
 of, 874; w. causa or gratU to 
 express purpose, 875; w. mei, 
 tui, 8ui, etc., 876; dat. of, 877 ; 
 ace. of, w.ad to express purpose, 
 878 ; abl. of, 879 ; relative fre- 
 quency and limitations of ger- 
 und and gerundive, 880 
 gin-, stems in, 98. b 
 
 Giving over, vbs. of, w. fut. pass. 
 
 part, expressing purpose, 869 
 gracilis, compar., 1 56 
 Gradation of vowels, 56, 57 
 Grammatical gender, 67-69 
 grfitia, gratiae, 133 
 gratii, w. gen., 331, 463; w. gen. 
 
 of gerund, 875 
 Greek accusative, 427 
 Greek nouns, decl. I, 81 ; decl. II, 
 
 89; decl. Ill, III, 112 
 Greek plurals in -as or -es, quantity, 
 
 954. tf 
 grfls, decl., 109. /z 
 gu, sound of, before a vowel, 16, 
 
 954. N. 
 
 h, does not make position, 32; eli- 
 sion of vowel before, 98 1 
 
 habeO, imv. of, 691 ; w. past part, 
 865 
 
 Happening, vbs. of, w. subjv. clause, 
 
 739 
 baud, 594 
 baud scid an, nesciO an, w. subjv., 
 
 818 
 have (ave), defect, vb., 265.// 
 Helping, vbs. of, w. dat, 376; w. 
 
 ace, id. a 
 Hendiadys, 944 
 heri, loc., 488 
 Heroic verse, 995 
 hfirOs, decl., 1 1 2 
 Heteroclites, 130 
 Heterogeneous nouns, 131, 132 
 Hexameter verse, 975. a, 995 
 Hiatus, 983 
 hie, decl., 1 88 ; formation, id. a ; 
 
 early forms, id. b\ use, 533, 539, 
 
 543 
 
384 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Hindering, opposing, etc., vbs. of, 
 w. ne, quin, or qu5minus and 
 subjv., 720. Ill ; w. inf., id. a 
 
 Historical infinitive, 844 
 
 Historical perfect, or past absolute, 
 658. II 
 
 Historical present, 648 ; sequence 
 after, 700 
 
 Hortatory subjunctive, 672 
 
 hortor, deponent vb., conj., 247 ; 
 constr. after, 720. I 
 
 humi, loc, 488 
 
 humilis, compar., 156 
 
 humus, gender, 86. c 
 
 Hundreds, how declined, 1 66. c 
 
 Hypallage, 950. d 
 
 Hysteron proteron, 945 
 
 i, as vowel and as cons., 2.b; as semi- 
 vowel, 9 ; as transient vowel, 18 ; 
 in comps. of iacio, 1 9 : quantity 
 when final, 961 ; quantity of 
 syllable preceding cons, i, 968 ; 
 i as a cons, in verse, 991 
 
 i, sound,- 1 4 ; changed from S or S, 
 44. <z-^; in Greek voc, 112; 
 for 6 in conj. Ill, 221, 229. a. 2 
 
 i, sound, 14; changed from ae, 44. d\ 
 for -ii in gen. sing, of nouns in 
 -ius (-ium), 88. b ; in voc. of 
 filius and proper names in -ius, 
 id. ^; in abl. of decl. Ill, 100; 
 in loc. of decl. Ill, 1 10 ; in gen. 
 of decl. IV, 121. a \ in gen. of 
 decl. V, 125. ^ ; in dat. of alius, 
 etc., 143 ; as subjv. mood sign, 
 233.^.1; in forms of fio, 95 5. ^.3 
 
 i-stems, decl. Ill, 100-104; mixed, 
 105-108; inadjs., 145; in vbs., 
 210, 220. r, 289 
 
 -ia, suffix of abstract nouns, 283 
 iacio, comps. of, 19, 31, 968. N. 
 iam, use, 590 ; iam vero, marking a 
 transition, 613. N. ; iam, iam 
 diu, etc., w. pres., 650 ; w. past 
 descript., 654 
 Iambus, 975 ; iambic verse, id. a, 976 
 -ias, patronymic suffix, 282.^ 
 -ibam for -iebam in conj. IV, 229. b. 2 
 -ibo for -iam in conj. IV, 229. ^. N. 2 
 -icius, adj. suffix, 285. d 
 Ictus, defined, 978 ; how observed, 
 
 993-^ 
 -icus, noun suffix, 282. <: ; adj. suffix, 
 
 285.^ 
 idem, deck, 191; formation, id. a; 
 
 use, 545 ; w. qui, ac, or atque, 
 
 the same as, 546 ; meaning also, 
 
 too, etc., 547 
 Ides (13th or 15th of month), loio 
 -ides (-ides), patronymic suffix, 282.^ 
 Idiomatic uses of the ace, 438 
 idoneus, compar., 1 62 ; w. dat, 
 
 397. <2 ; w. ad and ace, 398. a ; 
 
 w. rel. ck, 717; w. gerund, ^jj 
 Idus, gender, 120 
 -ie, in voc. of adjs. in -ius, 140. a 
 iecur, deck, 109.^, 130, <: 
 -ier, in inf. pass., 237. a. 2. N. 
 igitur, use, 618.^; position, 924 
 ignis, deck, 102 
 ignosco, w. dat., 376 
 -ii, in gen. of decl. II, ^^.b; of 
 
 adjs., 140. a 
 ii, iis, from is, 190. « 
 -ile, noun suffix, 282. b 
 ilion, decl., 89 
 -ills, -bills, compar. of adjs. in, 1 56, 
 
 1 60.^; 'verbal adj. suffix, 287.^ 
 -ills, adj. suffix, 285. d 
 
INDEX 
 
 38S 
 
 ille, decl., 1 88 ; ollns in early Latin, 
 id. N. ; combined w. -ce, id. a ; 
 use, 537 ; meaning the JamouSy 
 538, 918.^1; the former, 539; 
 the latter, id. N. 
 
 -illO, vb. suffix, 290. c 
 
 -illus. diminutive suffix, 282 
 
 -im, ace. ending, decl. Ill, 100, 102 ; 
 in pres. subjv., 233, a. i 
 
 imber, decl., 102. a 
 
 impedimentum, impedimenta, 133 
 
 Imperative mood, 205; terminations, 
 218; formation, 235 ; die, due, 
 fae, fer, id. c ; use, 689, 690 ; 
 fut. imv. of seio. memini, and 
 habeo for pres., 691; in condi- 
 tions, 785. rt ; in ind. disc., 887. 
 Ill 
 
 Imperative sentence, 296. 4 
 
 Imperfect indicative, see Past de- 
 scriptive 
 
 imperO, w. dat.. 376; w. ace, 380; 
 \v. ut and subjv., 720, I 
 
 Impersonal use of pass. w. inf. d. 
 as subj., 840. a 
 
 Impersonal verbs, 266; subj. not 
 expressed, 317: miseret, paeni- 
 tet, etc., w. ace. and gen., 363 ; 
 impers. pass, of intrans. vbs., 
 379; decet, iuvat, etc., w. ace., 
 407 ; impers. vbs. w. inf. as 
 subj., 834 
 
 impetus, decl., p. 46 
 
 Implied conditions, 802 
 
 Implied indirect discourse, 905, 906 
 
 impdnO, constr. after, 490 
 
 imus. superl., 1 59 ; meaning base of, 
 510 
 
 in, prep., use, 278. a ; compounded 
 w. vbs., 294. a ; in comps. that 
 
 take the dat, 382; in comps. 
 taking the ace., 406. b\ w. 
 ace of place whither, 428 ; w. 
 names of countries, 429 ; w. abl. 
 of place where, 485 ; w. abl. of 
 time, 493; w. abl. of gerund, 
 879 
 
 in-, inseparable prefix, 294. b 
 
 In the vicinity of, expressed by ad 
 w. ace, 43 1 
 
 -ina, noun suffix. 282. d 
 
 Inceptive verbs, 290. a 
 
 Incomplete action, tenses of, 645, 
 646 
 
 Indeclinable adjectives, 152 
 
 Indeclinable nouns, 1 28. a 
 
 Indefinite pronouns, meaning and 
 declension, 200 ; use, 569-577; 
 defined, 569; quia, qui, 570; 
 aliquis, aliqui. 571 ; quidam, 
 572: quisquam and iillus. 573 ; 
 nem5 and nullus. 574: nesci5 
 quia, 575; quisque, 576: uter- 
 que, f577 ; normal position, 
 918; emphatic position, 934. d, e 
 
 Indefinite value, gen. of, 341 
 
 Indicative mood, 205 ; tenses, 206, 
 228 
 Forms: formation of pres., 229.^ ; 
 past descript., id. b\ fut., id. c\ 
 perf., 230. a ; past perf.. id. b ; 
 fut. perf., id. c ; perf. pass, sys- 
 tem, 231 
 Syntax: general use, 642 ; in ex- 
 pressions of duty, propriety, 
 etc., 643. a ; for subjv., id. b ; 
 tenses, 644-646; pres., 647- 
 651 ; past descript., 652-654; 
 fut., 655-657; perf., 658-660; 
 ^past perf., 661 ; fut. perf., 662, 
 
386 
 
 INDEX 
 
 663 ; in deliberative questions, 
 679 ; in quod clauses of fact, 
 821-825 
 
 indigeo, w. gen., 350 
 
 indignus, w. abl., 479 ; w. qui and 
 subjv., 717 
 
 Indirect discourse, direct and indirect 
 quotation, 883, 884 ; verbs that 
 take ind. disc, 885 ; vb. of 
 saying implied, id. a.\ moods 
 in ind. disc, 886; prin. clauses 
 in ind. disc, 887 ; declarative 
 clauses, id. I ; tenses of inf. in 
 ind. disc, id. b ; posse w. fut. 
 force, id. N. I ; inf. constr. con- 
 tinued after a comparative w. 
 quam, id. N. 2 ; real and rhe- 
 torical questions in ind. disc, 
 ^Z'j. II ; deliberative subjv. in 
 ind. disc, id. a ; commands and 
 volitive or optative subjv. in 
 ind. disc, 887. Ill ; prohibitions 
 w. noli in ind. disc, id. a ; sub- 
 ord. clauses in ind.idisc, 888- 
 •897; tenses of the subjv. in 
 ind. disc, 889-894 ; subjv. 
 depending on perf. inf., 893 ; 
 pres. and perf. after secondary 
 tense, 894 ; subord. clauses not 
 part of ind. disc, 895 ; rel. 
 clauses equivalent to prin. 
 clauses, 896; conditional sen- 
 tences in ind. disc, 898-904; 
 implied ind. disc, 905, 906 
 
 Indirect object, defined, 370; w. 
 trans, vbs., 371 ; w. intrans. 
 vbs., 376; w. comps., 382 
 
 Indirect questions, defined, 621.^., 
 812,813; introduced by interrog. 
 prons. and advs., %\\.a\ by 
 
 -ne or nuni,id./^; by si (whether)^ 
 id. c ; fut. time in, 815; delib- 
 erative subjv. in, 816; ind. 
 alternative questions, 817; haud 
 scio an, nescio an, 8 1 8; forsitan, 
 819; nescio quis, etc., 820 
 Indirect quotation, see Indirect dis- 
 course 
 Indirect reflexives, 520-523 
 indulges, w. dat., 376 
 induo, pass, as middle, 406. d 
 ineo, constr. after, 382. «: 
 Inferential conjunctions, 618 
 inferus, compar., 1 59 ; inferi, id. a 
 Infinitive, 205. a, 827 
 
 Fonns : formation of pres. act., 
 237. a. I ; pres. pass., id. a. 2 ; 
 perf. act., id. b. i ; perf. pass., 
 id. b. 2 ; fut. act., id. c. i ; fut. 
 pass., id. c. 2 
 Syntax: inf. used instead of a gen. 
 after miseret, paenitet, etc., 364; 
 subj. of inf., 419; inf. w. noli, 
 676; tenses of, 828-831 ; pres. 
 w. debui, oportuit, etc., 829 ; 
 pres. expressing past time in 
 ind. disc, 830 ; fore ut, etc, for 
 fut. inf., 831 ; used as subj., 
 833, 834; as appositive or pred. 
 noun, 835 ; as obj., 836-840 ; 
 complementary inf., 836-838; 
 vbs. followed by, 837 ; case of 
 pred. noun or adj., 838 ; w. 
 reflexive pron. as subj., id. a ; 
 w. subj. ace, 839, 840 ; w. adjs., 
 841 ; inf. of purpose, 842 ; in 
 exclamations, 843 ; historical 
 inf., 844 ; as pure noun, 845 ; 
 in ind. disc, Z%T. I. b\ after 
 quam w. comparative, id. N. 2 
 
INDEX 
 
 387 
 
 infitUs. defect, 128. ^.N.; infitias 
 
 ire. 435 
 
 Inflection, defined, 59 
 
 Informal indirect discourse, 905,906 
 
 infra, use, 276 
 
 inggns, decl., 148. a 
 
 iniuria, as abl. of manner, 461 
 
 iniussu, defect., 121.^; as abl. of 
 manner, 461 
 
 innixus, w. abl., 469. c 
 
 inops, dec)., 148. rt,^; w. gen., 350 
 
 inquam, conj., 265. b ; position, 
 928 
 
 Inseparable prefixes, 294. b 
 
 insidiae, dat. w., 383 
 
 instar. indecl., 128. «; gen. w., 331 
 
 Instrumental ablative, 439. II, 
 456 ff. 
 
 Integral part, subjv. of, 907-909 
 
 Intensive pronoun, ipse, formation 
 and decl., 192; use, 548-550 
 
 Intensive verbs, 290, b 
 
 inter, use, 276; in comps., 294. a; 
 comps.of,w. dat.,382; internds, 
 etc., 524; position, 925. <; 
 
 interest, w. gen., or w. abl. fern, of 
 poss. pron., 352; degree of in- 
 terest, how expressed, id, b 
 
 interficiO. constr. after, 382. a 
 
 interior, compar., 160. a 
 
 Interjections, 280 
 
 Interlocked order of words, 946 
 
 Interrogative particles, 623, 627 
 
 Interrogative pronouns and adjec- 
 tives, decl. of quis, 196; decl. 
 of qui, 197; use, 566-568; quit 
 and qui, 566 ; uter, 567 ; other 
 interrogs., 568 ; position. 922 . 
 
 Interrogative sentences, 296. 2; 
 forms of, 620-628 
 
 interrogO, w. two aces., 413. N. 
 
 intimus, inmost part o/, $10 
 
 intra, use, 276 
 
 Intransitive verbs, defined, p. 180. 
 ftn. I ; used impersonally in 
 pass., 266/^, 3 79; dat.w.,376ff.; 
 used transitively w. ace. and dat., 
 380; w. ace. of kindred meaning, 
 408 
 
 intr(J, as prefix, 294. a 
 
 -inum, noun suffix, 282. if 
 
 -inus, adj. suffix, 285. ^/ 
 
 invideO, w. dat., 3 76 ; w. dat and ace, 
 380 
 
 -i5, class of vbs., 221. ^; forms of 
 vbs. in, conj. IV, 245 ; conj. 
 Ill, 246; noun suffix, 282.^, 
 284. b 
 
 locus, ioca, 132 
 
 ipse, intensive pron., formation and 
 decl., 192; used as indirect re- 
 flexive, 522, 549.6-; in gen. 
 agreeing w. gen. implied in a 
 poss. adj., 529 ; used as subst., 
 549; distinguished from a re- 
 flexive, id. N. I ; agrees w. subj. 
 when emphasis in Eng. is on a 
 reflexive in the pred., id. N. 2 ; 
 meaning 7'ery, even, exactly, 
 etc., 550 
 
 irascor, w. dat., 376 
 
 iri, in fut. pass, inf., 237. c. 2, 882. 
 I. a. N. 
 
 Irregular comparison of adjs., 1 58- 
 
 •59 
 
 Irregular verbs, conj., 251-261 
 
 is, final, quantity, 965 
 
 is, decl., 190 ; is for iis, id. a \ use, 
 540-544 ; such, of such a kind, 
 541 : combined w. et or atque, 
 
388 
 
 INDEX 
 
 and that too, 542 ; omitted w. 
 
 part., 544. N. ; is qui, the one 
 
 who, the one to, w. subjv., 
 
 727 
 -is, patronymic suffix, 282.^ 
 Islands, names of, place to, ace, 430, 
 
 431 ; place from, abl., 442, 443; 
 
 place at or in, abl. or loc, 485. ^, 
 
 486 
 iste, decl., 189; use, 535; implying 
 
 contempt, 536 
 It, subj. of impers. vb., not ex- 
 pressed, 317 
 ita, use, 589; in answers, 629.(2; 
 
 ita ut w. subjv., 732 
 itaque, use, 618 
 iter, decl,, 109 
 -ito, vbs. in, 290. b 
 -itus, adverbs in, 272. c 
 iubeo, w. ace, 376. a; w. inf., 720. 
 
 I. a, 839. c 
 -ium, in gen. plur. of decl. Ill, 100- 
 
 109; of adjs., 145, 148.^; noun 
 
 suffix, 284. b 
 luppiter, decl., 109 
 lure, as abl. of manner, 461 
 -ius, gen. and voc. of nouns in, 88, b. c\ 
 
 of adjs. in, \/^o.a\ adj. suffix, 
 
 285. rt' 
 -ius, gen. sing, ending, 143 ; quantity 
 
 of i, id. c 
 iiis, decl., p. 46 
 iussu, defect,, \i\.e\ as abl. of 
 
 manner, 461 
 iuvat, w. ace, 407 
 iuvenis, decl., 107. b; compar., 160. 
 
 c. I 
 iuv5, w. ace, 376. a 
 iuxta, use, 276 
 -ivus, adj. suffix, 285. d 1 
 
 j (the character), 2. b 
 Judging, dat. of the person, 387 
 Julian calendar, 1008 
 Jussive subjunctive, 673 ; in com- 
 mands, 674; in prohibitions, 675 
 
 k, supplanted by c, 2. a 
 
 Kalendae, loio 
 
 Kindred meaning, accusative of, 
 
 408 ; w. vbs. of taste and smell, 
 
 409 ; of neut. pron. or adj ., 4 1 o ; 
 
 in poetry, 411 
 Knowing, vbs. of, w. ace and inf., 
 
 885 
 Knowledge, adjs. of, w. gen., 357 
 
 Labials, 7. a 
 
 laedo, w. ace, 376. a 
 
 laeva, abl. without prep., 485. « 
 
 lampas, decl., 1 1 2 
 
 Latin language. Introduction, pp. 
 
 xiii ff. 
 Length by position, 967, 991 
 -lens, -lentus, adj. suffixes, 285. a 
 Less definite future conditions, 
 
 783, b, 789 
 lex est ut, w. subjv., 723, 741 
 liber, adj., decl., 141 
 libet, w. dat., 378 
 licet, w. dat., 378; w. subjv., 722; 
 
 meaning although, w. subjv., 
 
 810 ; w. inf. and dat., 834. a 
 Likeness, adjs. of, w. gen., 351; w. 
 
 dat., 397. a, 398. b 
 Linguals, 7. b 
 linter, decl., 102. « 
 Liquids, 8. r; stems in, decl. Ill, 
 
 96, 97 
 -lis, adjs. in, compar., 156, 160.^ 
 lis, decl, 106. d 
 
INDEX 
 
 389 
 
 List of verbs, pp. 128-139 
 
 Litotes, 947 
 
 littera. litterae, 133 
 
 Locative ablative uses,439. 1 1 1, 485(1. 
 
 Locative case, defined, 74. a ; in 
 decl. I, 80. r; in decl. 11,88.^ ; 
 in decl. Ill, no; w. abl. in 
 apposition, 313; denoting place 
 where, 486, 487 ; list of special 
 nouns having loc. forms, 488 ; 
 domi w. modifier, 489 
 
 loc6, vb., w. fut. pass. part, express- 
 ing purpose, 869 
 
 locO. locis, without prep., 485. a 
 
 locus, loca, 132 
 
 Long and short, see Quantity 
 
 Long vowels, 953 
 
 longinquus, compar., 160.^ 
 
 longius, without quam, 450 
 
 longum est, difficile est, etc., w. 
 subjv. meaning, 643. b 
 
 Ifix, decl., p. 46 
 
 m, inserted in vb. root, 221.2; 
 elision in verse, 981 
 
 -m, sign of ace, 76. c 
 
 magis, as sign of comparison, 162 
 
 magni, gen. of value, 341. N. 
 
 magnus. compar., 158 
 
 Main clause, defined, 300 
 
 maior natu, 478 
 
 maiOrgs, meaning, 503 
 
 Making, vbs. of, constr. after, 417 
 
 male, compar., 274; comps. of, w. 
 dat., 378 
 
 milO. conj., 255 ; w. inf. or subjv., 
 720. I. ^; w. inf., 839. b 
 
 mains, compar., 1 58 
 
 mandO. w. fut. pass, part express- 
 ing purpose, 869 
 
 mine, defect, 1 28. b 
 
 Manner, abl. of, 459 ; cum omitted, 
 
 460, 461 ; manner denoted by 
 
 part., 861. </ 
 manus, gender, 1 20 
 man, loc. abl., 485. a 
 Masculine caesura, 999. a 
 Masculine gender, general rule, 67. a 
 Material, adjs. of, not compared, 
 
 161. tf; gen. of, 348; abl. of, 
 
 452; prep, omitted in poetry. 
 
 id. a 
 maturus, compar., 155. « 
 maxims, sign of superl., 162; 
 
 compar., 274 
 Means, nouns denoting, 284. c ; abl. 
 
 of, 468 : special uses, 469 ; 
 
 denoted by per w. ace, id. d. 
 
 N. 2. ; by part, 861. f: 
 Measure, gen. of, 340 ; unit of, in 
 
 verse, 973 
 medius, middle of , 510 
 mei, w. gerundive, 876 
 mel, decl., p. 46 
 
 melius est, // would be better^ 643 
 mSmS, 1 80. b 
 memini, conj., 263 ; in pres. sense, 
 
 id. b, 660 ; w. ace. or gen., 358. 
 
 a, b\ imv., 691 
 memor, decl., 148. rt,^ 
 Memory, adjs. of, constr. after, 357 ; 
 
 vbs. of, constr. after, 358 
 Men, names of, 1 34 
 -men, -mentum, noun suffixes, 284. b 
 meridigs, gender, i 24 
 merits, as abl. of manner, 461 
 meritus, compar., 160. ^ 
 messis, decl., 102. e 
 -met, enclitic, 180. a 
 Metamorphoses, decl., 112.^ 
 
390 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Meters and verse forms, 970-992 ; 
 verse defined, 970; foot de- 
 fined, 971, 972; mora defined, 
 973, 974 ; kinds of feet, 975 ; 
 names of verse, id. a ; measures 
 of verse, 976 ; substitution, 977 ; 
 ictus, 978 ; thesis and arsis, 
 979; scansion, 98Q ; elision, 
 981 ; hiatus, 983 ; syllaba an- 
 ceps^ 984 ; catalectic and acata- 
 lectic, 985 ; caesura, 986 ; diaere- 
 sis, 987; synizesis or synaere- 
 sis, 988; systole, 989; diastole, 
 990 ; tmesis, 992 
 
 metuo, w. subjv., 720. II 
 
 meus, voc. mi, 140. b 
 
 Middle voice, 406. d 
 
 mihi (tibi, etc.) in mentem venit, 
 w. gen., 360 
 
 miles, decl., 94 
 
 militiae, loc, 488 
 
 mille, decl. and constr., 166. d 
 
 minime, compar,, 274; in neg. 
 answers, 629. d 
 
 minimi, gen. of value, 341. N. 
 
 minitor, w. dat., 376; w. dat. and 
 ace, 380 
 
 minor, compar., 158; w. natii, 478 
 
 minores, meaning, 503 
 
 minoris, gen. of value, 341. N.; 
 denoting price, id. a 
 
 minus, compar., 274; constr. with- 
 out quam, 450 
 
 miser, decl., 142.^; compar., 155 
 
 misereor and miseresco, w. gen., 
 
 365 
 miseret, impers., 266; w. ace. and 
 
 gen., 363 
 Mixed i-stems, 105-107 
 modo, provided^ w. subjv., 81 \ 
 
 modo, as abl. of manner, 461 
 
 moneo, conj., 243 ; constr. after 
 comps. of, 361 
 
 -monia, -monium, noun suffixes, 
 284.^ 
 
 Monosyllables, quantity, 956, 957 
 
 Months, gender of names of, 67. a ; 
 decl. of names in -ber, 146. a; 
 names of, 1009; division of, in 
 Roman calendar, loio 
 
 Moods, names of, 205 
 
 Moods and tenses, formation of, 
 indie, 228-231 ; subjv., 232- 
 234; imv., 235; uses of, in 
 independent sentences, 641- 
 691 ; in subord. clauses, 692- 
 869 ; in ind. disc, 883-909 
 
 Mora, in verse, 973-975 
 
 More definite future conditions, 788 
 
 mos, mores, 133 
 
 mos est, iiis est, etc., w. ut and 
 subjv., 723, 741 
 
 Motion, to, ace, 428, 430; from, abl., 
 441,442; vbs. of, w. supine, 
 882.1 
 
 Multiplication by distributives, 173. b 
 
 multum, compar., 274 
 
 multus, compar., 158 
 
 mUs, decl., 106. d 
 
 Musical accent in verse, 978 
 
 Mutes, 8. a; stems in, decl. Ill, 
 92 ff. 
 
 miito, constr. after, 472 
 
 mythos, decl., 89 
 
 n, sound before c, q, or g, 16; 
 dropped when final letter of 
 stem, 98. a, b ; inserted in vb. 
 root, 221.^, 2 
 
 nais, decl., 1 1 2 
 
1M)KX 
 
 391 
 
 -nam. enclitic w. intcrrogs., 197. d, 
 626 
 
 nam. namque, use, 61 7 
 
 Names, of months, gender and decl., 
 67. a^ 1 46. a, 1 009 ; of men, 
 134; of women, 135; of slaves, 
 .36 
 
 Naming, vbs. of, w. two aces., 41 7 
 
 Nasals, 8. b\ stems in, 98, 99; 
 inserted in vb. root, zz\. g,z 
 
 nfttu, defect., 121.^; w. maior or 
 minor, 478 
 
 n&tus, w. ace. or abl. in expressing 
 age, 422. fl; w. abl. of origin, 451 
 
 n&vis, decl., 102.^ 
 
 -nd and -nt, vowel short before, 
 34. /J, 955. rt 
 
 -ne, enclitic, in questions, 623. a ; 
 w. force of n5nne, id. N. ; 
 omitted, 624; in alternative 
 questions, 627; in ind. ques- 
 tions, 814.^; w. inf. in excla- 
 mations, 843 
 
 n6, neg., 594 ; w. hortatory subjv., 
 672 ; w. jussive subjv., 673 ; w. 
 prohibitions, 675, 676. b\ w. 
 concessive subjv., 677 ; w. opta- 
 tive subjv., 680 ; w. imv., 689 ; in 
 purpose clauses, 713 ff.; after 
 vbs. of fearing, 720. II; after 
 vbs. of hindering, etc., id". Ill 
 
 n€, surely, 593 
 
 nS . . . quidem, 592. a \ after n5n, 
 595. a\ after n6n modo, id. N. 
 
 Nearness, adjs. of, w. dat., 397. a 
 
 necesse. indecl., 152 
 
 necesse est ut, w. subjv., 722 
 
 Necessity, vbs. of, in conclusion of 
 conditions contrary to fact, 
 797. a 
 
 necne, in alternative questions, 627. «, 
 
 817 
 nef&s, indecl., 1 28. a ; w. supine, 
 
 882.11 
 Negative, position of, 929 
 Negative adverbs, 594-596; n5n, 
 
 594 ; nullus for non, id. N. ; two 
 
 negatives cancel, 595 ; negative 
 
 after words of general negation, 
 
 id. a ; n5n modo . . . sed ne 
 
 . . . quidem, id. N. ; and not^ 
 
 596 
 Negative answers, 629. b 
 neg5, for dic5 non, 596 
 ngmd, decl., p. 46 ; nemo and nullus, 
 
 5 74 ; nemo or niillus est qui w. 
 
 subjv., 727 
 n^uam, indecl., 152; compar., 
 
 158 
 neque (nee) . . . neque (nee), 604 ; 
 
 after a neg., 595. a ; neque, and 
 
 not, 596, 603 
 nequeo, conj., 260 
 nesciO an, w. subjv., 818 
 nesci5 quis, nesciO qu5 modO, as 
 
 indefinites, 575, 820 
 -neus, adj. suffix, 285. t 
 neuter, decl., 143 
 Neuter ace. as adv., 271. rr, 273 
 Neuter gender, general rule, 68 : 
 
 cases alike in, 76. b 
 Neuter pron. as ace. of kindred 
 
 meaning. 410 
 n6ve or neu, for et ne, 603, 713. t 
 nex, decl, p. 46 
 ni, nisi, use, 775 
 nihil, indecl., 1 28. a 
 nihili, gen. of value, 341. N. 
 nimis, as noun, 586 
 Nine irregular adjs., 143 
 
392 
 
 INDEX 
 
 nisi and si non, use, 775 ; nisi si 
 or nl, id. a; nisi ver5 or nisi 
 forte introducing an ironical 
 objection, 776 
 
 nix, decl., 109 
 
 No, in answers, how expressed, 629. d 
 
 -no, class of vbs. in, 221.^ 
 
 noceo, w. dat., 376 
 
 noli, in prohibitions, 676; in ind. 
 disc, 887. III. « 
 
 nolo, conj., 255 ; w. inf. or subjv., 
 720. l.d; w. inf., 839. d 
 
 Nomen, denoting the gens, 134. ^ 
 
 nomen est, w. pred. nom. or dat., 
 390. a 
 
 Nominative case, defined, 74 
 
 Fo7-7)is : neuter nom. and ace. 
 alike, 76.*^; nom. sing. of decl. 
 1,78; decl. II, 83; decl. Ill, 
 92, 96, 98, 102, 103, 106; 
 decl. IV, 118; decl. V, 1 22 
 Syntax : subject, 316 
 In exclamations, 319 
 Subject of historical infinitive, 
 
 320, 844 
 Instead of vocative, 322 
 
 non, use, 594 ; nullus for non, id. N. ; 
 non followed by nee . . . nee, 
 etc., 595. a ; and not, 596, 603 ; 
 in answers, 629, b ; w. delibera- 
 tive subjv., 678 ; w. potential 
 subjv., 684 
 
 non dubito, quis dubitat, etc., w. 
 quin and subjv., 720. IV 
 
 non modo . . . sed ne . . . quidem, 
 595. N. 
 
 non nUlli, non nihil, non nemo, 
 
 595 
 non quia (quod, quo, quin), w. 
 
 subjv., 770 
 
 Non-committal conditions, present, 
 785 ; past, 792 ; in ind. disc, 
 900. I 
 
 Nones (nonae), i o i o 
 
 nonne, in questions, 623. <5; omitted, 
 624 
 
 nos, decl., 180 ; nos and noster used 
 for ego and mens, 5 1 1 . « 
 
 nostri, as objective gen., 514; w. 
 gerundive in -i, 876 
 
 nostrum, as partitive gen., 514 
 
 Noun and adjective forms of vb., 
 205. a ; formation, 236-240 
 
 Nouns, defined and classified, 72 ; 
 gender of indecl. nouns, 68 ; 
 decl. of nouns, 73-133; de- 
 rivatives, 282-284 ; syntax, 
 305 ff. ; used as adjs., 506. b 
 
 novi or cognSvi, in pres. sense, 
 660 
 
 novus, compar., 160. b 
 
 nox, decl., 107 
 
 ns, nf, nx, net, quantity of vowel 
 preceding, 34. a, 953. a 
 
 nubes, decl., 107 
 
 nulla causa est ciir(qua re, quin), w. 
 subjv., 725 
 
 nailus, decl., 143. «; use, 574; for 
 nemo, id. b 
 
 num, in questions, 623. c ; omitted, 
 624; in ind. questions, 814. ^ 
 
 Number, 71 ; nouns used only in 
 sing., 1 26 ; nouns used only in 
 plur., 1 27 ; number in vbs., 208 ; 
 agreement of appositives in 
 number, 312. « ; of adjs., 497- 
 502 ; of rel. prons., 552; of vbs., 
 631,634, 635 
 
 Numeral adjectives, position, 914.^? 
 
 Numeral adverbs, 1 75 
 
INDEX 
 
 393 
 
 Numerals, 1 63- 1 76 ; cardinals, or- 
 dinals, and distributives, 164: 
 decl. of, 1 66, 167; use of cardi- 
 nals and ordinals, 1 68- 172; use 
 of distributives, 1 73 ; fractions, 
 1 74 ; numeral advs., 1 75 ; 
 Roman numeral system, 1 76 
 
 nunc, compared w. iam, 590 
 
 -nus, adj. suffix, 285. r, d 
 
 nusquam, as noun, 586 
 
 0, for u in early Latin, 1 2. </, d, c ; 
 sound, 1 4 ; quantity of final, 962 
 si, w. subjv, of wish, 683 
 0-stems, decl. II, 82-89; of adjs., 
 
 1 39- '43 
 
 ob, use, 276; as prefix, 294. «; in 
 comps. w. dat., 382 ; to express 
 cause, 464; w. gerund, 878. N. 2 
 
 obeO, constr. after, 382. a 
 
 Obeying, vbs. of, w. dat., 376 
 
 Object, indirect w. dat., 371-382; 
 direct w. ace, 404-41 7; second- 
 ary obj., 412, 413 ; adjunct ace, 
 416, 417; normal position, 912 
 
 Object cases, 74 
 
 Object clauses, purpose, 720; result, 
 737; ind. questions, 813 ; inf. 
 clauses, 836-839 
 
 Objective genitive, defined, 326. II; 
 constructions included, 353 ; vv. 
 nouns, 354; w. adjs., 357; w. 
 vbs., 358 
 
 Oblique cases, defined, 74. b 
 
 obliquus. compar., 160, ^ 
 
 obliviscor, w. ace. or gen., 358. a, b 
 
 obtemperStiO. dat. w., 383 
 
 obtemperO. dat. w., 376 
 
 obvius (obviam), dat. w., 384 
 
 Ocior, compar., 1 60. a 
 
 Ml, conj., 263; w. meaning of pres., 
 id. ^; pass, supplied by odiS 
 esse, id. 
 
 oe, diphthong, sound, 15; foroi of 
 early Latin, 45 
 
 -oe, for -i in nom. plur. of Greek 
 nouns, decl. II, 89. <: 
 
 offendO, constr. after, 376. a, 382. a 
 
 Ollus, for ille, 188. N. 
 
 -olus, diminutive suffix, 282. a 
 
 Omission, of noun on which a gen. 
 depends, 333 ; of poss. adj., 
 526; of antecedent, 557; of con- 
 junctions, 605, 619; of subj., 
 639 ; of vb., 640 
 
 omnis, decl., 147; nos omnes (not 
 omnes nostrum), 345 
 
 -Cn, gen. plur. ending of Greek nouns, 
 decl. II, 89. r 
 
 Onomatopoeia, 948 
 
 Open syllables, 23 
 
 opera, operae, 133 
 
 opis, decl., p. 46 
 
 opitulor, w. dat., 376 
 
 oportet, 266; w. ace, 407; w. subjv., 
 722 ; in conclusion of conditions 
 contrary to fact, 797. a ; w. 
 inf., 834 
 
 oportuit, w. pres. inf., 829 ; w. perf. 
 inf., id. N. 
 
 oppidum, w. ad, 432 
 
 oppugns, constr. after, 382. a 
 
 Optative subjunctive, 680 ; denoting 
 a wish as possible, 68 1 . I ; as 
 unattained, id. II; introduced 
 by utinam, id. : by uti or ut, 
 682 : by si or 6 si, 683 ; in ind. 
 disc. 887. Ill 
 
 optimitSs, decl., 106.//; used only 
 in plur., 1 27. c 
 
394 
 
 INDEX 
 
 opus, indecl., 128. a; w. abl., 469. d ; 
 in the pred., id. N. i ; w. past 
 part., id. N. 2, 867 ; w. supine, 
 882. II 
 
 -or, noun suffix, 284. 3 
 
 Oratio obliqua, see Indirect discourse 
 
 orbis, decl., 102. d 
 
 Order of words, 910-949; normal or- 
 der, 912-932; rhetorical order, 
 933-934 ; periodic structure, 
 936; euphony and rhythm, 
 937; rhetorical effects, 938-949 
 
 Ordinal numbers, 164; decl, 167 
 
 Origin, abl. of, 451 
 
 oro, w. two aces., 413. N. 
 
 Orpheus, decl., 112 
 
 Orthography, 11,12 
 
 OS, final, quantity, 964 
 
 OS, ossis, decl., 109 
 
 OS, oris, decl., p. 46 
 
 -osus, adj. suffix, 285. a 
 
 ovis, decl., \02. d 
 
 Oxymoron, 949 
 
 pace tua, abl. of manner, 461 
 pacto, abl. of manner, 461 
 paenitet, 266 ; w. ace. and gen., 363 
 palam, as apparent adj., 585 
 Palatals, 7. c 
 par, decl., 148. ^ ; vv. gen., 351 ; w. 
 
 dat., 397. a 
 paratus, w. inf., 841 
 parco, w. dat., 376 
 Pardoning, vbs. of, w. dat., 376 
 Parenthetic clause of purpose, 714 
 pareo, w. dat., 376 
 Paris, decl., 112 
 parte, partibus, loc. abl. without 
 
 prep., 485. a 
 partem, adverbial use, 438 
 
 particeps, decl., 148. I? 
 
 Participial stem, formation, 225, 226 
 
 Participial system, 209. Ill 
 
 Participles, 205. a, 240 
 
 Forms : formation, 240, a-d; decl. 
 of pres. part, 1 49 ; compar., 1 54. 
 a ; parts, of deponent vbs,, 247 
 Syntax: parts, in -ns w. gen., 
 357; inabl.abs., 480 ; nature and 
 agreement of parts., 497, 846 ; 
 tenses, 847-852 ; ratus, solitus, 
 veritus, etc., used as pres., 848 ; 
 pres. part, denoting attempted 
 action, 849 ; pres. pass, part., 
 how supplied, 851 ; past act., 
 how supplied, 852; part. w. 
 an object or adv. modifier, 
 853 ; used as an attrib. adj., 
 855, 856; as pred. adj., 857; 
 w. tenses of esse, 858 ; act. peri- 
 phrastic conj., 859; pass, peri- 
 phrastic conj., 860 ; part, used 
 for phrase or clause, 86 1 , 862 ; 
 as noun, 863 ; w. video, audio, 
 facio, etc., for an inf., 864; 
 past part. w. habeo, 865 ; part, 
 carrying the main idea, 866; 
 w. opus, 867 ; fut. act. part, 
 expressing purpose, 868 ; fut. 
 pass. part. w. do, trado-, etc., 
 expressing purpose, 869 : ge- 
 rundive use, 870 
 
 Particles, defined, 268 ; adverbs, 
 269-274; prepositions, 275- 
 278; conjunctions, 279; inter- 
 jections, 280 ; interrogatives, 
 623 
 
 Particular conditions, defined, 778. <2 
 
 partior, conj., 247 
 
 Partitive apposition, 312./^ 
 
INDEX 
 
 395 
 
 Partitive genitive (genitive of the 
 whole), 342; w. advs., 343; 
 rarely used w. cardinals or qui- 
 dam, 344 ; not used w. words 
 including the whole, 345 ; 
 rarely used w. adjs. of decl. Ill, 
 347 : nostrum andvestrum, 514 
 
 Parts of speech, 58 
 
 panim, compar., 274 ; used as noun, 
 586 
 
 parvi, gen. of value, 341. N. 
 
 parvus, compar., 1 58 
 
 Passive periphrastic conj., 249, 250, 
 860 ; w. dat. of agent, 392 
 
 Passive voice, 204 ; prin. parts, 
 213; personal endings, 216; 
 formation of perf. pass., 231 ; 
 of past part., 240. t:; offut.part., 
 id. </; deponent vbs., 247: peri- 
 phrastic conjs., 249, 250; im- 
 pers. pass, of intrans. vbs., 266.^ 
 
 Past absolute, or historical perfect, 
 658.11 
 
 Past conditions, non-committal, 792; 
 contrary to fact, 793 
 
 Past descriptive (imperfect) indie, 
 formation, 229. b\ use, 652; 
 conative, 653 ; w. iam diii, etc., 
 654 : epistolary, 664 
 
 Past participle, formation, 240, c ; 
 of deponents, 247 ; w. dat. of 
 agent, 392 ; time denoted by, 
 847. ^; ratus, solitus, etc., used 
 as pres., 848 ; past act. part., 
 how supplied, 852 ; part, as 
 attrib. adj., 855: as pred. adj., 
 857 : w. tenses of esse, 858 ; for 
 phrase or cl., 86 1 , 862 : as noun, 
 863 ; w, habed. 865 ; carrying 
 main idea, 866 ; w. opus, 867 
 
 Past perfect (pluperfect) indie, for- 
 mation, 230. b ; use, 661 ; episto- 
 lary, 664 
 
 Past perfect (pluperfect) subjv., 
 formation, 234. b 
 
 Past (imperfect) subjv., formation, 
 
 233-^ 
 
 pater familias, decl., 80. a 
 
 patior, w. inf., 720. I.^, 839. </ 
 
 Patronymics, 2^2.. g 
 
 pauper, decl., 148. b 
 
 pax, decl., p. 46 
 
 pecuniae, gen. w. vbs. of condemn- 
 ing, 337 
 
 pelagus (plur. pelage), gender, 87 
 
 Penalty, gen. of, 337; abl. of, 473 
 
 penates, decl., xod.d 
 
 per, prep., 276; as prefix, 294. ^ ; 
 w. ace. of duration, 423 ; w. ace. 
 of persons to express means, 
 
 455 
 
 Perceiving, vbs. of, w. ind. disc, 885 
 
 Perfect infinitive, formation, 237. b ; 
 sequence after, 703 ; w. debui, 
 oportuit, etc., 829. N. ; in ex- 
 clamations, 843 
 
 Perfect subjunctive, after primary 
 tense, 698. d\ after secondary 
 tense, 702 
 
 Perfect system, 209. II 
 
 Perfect tense 
 
 Formation : personal endings, 
 217; formation of stem, 222- 
 224 ; perf. indie, act., 230. a ; 
 contracted forms of, id. i , 2 ; 
 perf. indie, pass., 231; perf. 
 subjv. act., 234. a \ forms of, in 
 -Sim, id. N. i ; pass., id. N. 2 ; 
 perf. inf. act., 237. b. \ ; pass., 
 id. 2 
 
396 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Syntax : uses of perf . indie, (pres. 
 perf. and past absolute), 658 ; 
 perf. and past descript. distin- 
 guished, id. l\.a\ special uses, 
 659, 660 ; epistolary, 664 ; perf. 
 subjv. in prohibitions, 675 ; perf. 
 inf. in exclamations, 843 
 
 perficio ut, 737 
 
 Pericles, decl., 112 
 
 Periodic structure of sentence, 936 
 
 Periphrastic conjugations, definition 
 and formation, 249, 859, 860 ; 
 paradigms, 250 ; use in con- 
 clusion of conditions contrary to 
 fact, 797. b ; in ind. questions, 
 815 
 
 Permission, vbs. of, w. subjv., 720. I 
 
 Person, 70; of vbs., 207, 215, 631 ; 
 w. subjs. of different persons, 
 636; order of the three per- 
 sons, id. N. ; agreement w. 
 antecedent of a rel., 637 
 
 Personal constr. of pass., w. inf., 
 840. a 
 
 Personal endings, defined, 215; of 
 indie, and subjv., 216, 217; 
 of imv., 218 
 
 Personal pronouns 
 
 Forms : paradigms, i 79, 1 80 ; 
 emphatic forms, 1 80. a ; re- 
 duplicated forms, id. b ; w. cum 
 enclitic, id. c ; early forms, id. d 
 Syntax: omitted as subj., 318, 
 511: nos used for ego, id. a ; 
 third person, how expressed, 
 512; not used in gen. to express 
 possession, 513; objective and 
 partitive forms, 514 
 
 persuaded, w. dat, 376; w. dat and 
 ace, 380; w. subjv., 720. I 
 
 Persuading, vbs. of, w. dat., 376; 
 vv. subjv., 720. I 
 
 pessum dare, 435 
 
 peto, w. prep, and abl., 414. N. ; w! 
 subjv., 720. I 
 
 ph, th, ch, sound of, i 7 
 
 Phonetic changes, 42-57; weaken- 
 ing of vowels, 43-45 ; contrac- 
 tion of vowels, 46 ; dropping 
 of vowels, 47 ; changes in con- 
 sonants, 48-55 ; vowel grada- 
 tion, 56, ^y 
 
 Phrases, defined, 301; adjective and 
 adverbial phrases, 302 ; phrases 
 w. dat., 377 
 
 piget, constr. after, 363 
 
 plus, compar., 160. b 
 
 Place, whither, 428 ; constr. of do- 
 mus, rus, and names of towns, 
 
 430-433, 442, 443, 485- ^-489; 
 place whence, 441 ; place where, 
 485 ; loc. case, 486-488 ; sum- 
 mary of place constructions, 
 491 
 
 placeo, w. dat., 376 
 
 Placing, vbs. of, constr. after, 490 
 
 Pleasing, vbs. of, constr. after, 
 376 
 
 Plenty or want, gen. of, 349, 350; 
 abl. of, 469. d 
 
 plenus, constr. after, 350 
 
 Pleonasm, 950. e 
 
 Pluperfect, see Past perfect 
 
 Plural, defect, in decl. V, 1 25. ^; in 
 names of persons, 126. a \ in 
 names of materials, id. b\ in ab- 
 stract nouns, id. c ; plur. only, 
 127; plur. in poetry, id. N. ; 
 plur. different from sing, in 
 sense, 133 
 
INDEX 
 
 397 
 
 pluris. plurimi, gen. of value, 
 34> 
 
 plQs, decl., 151; compar., 158, 274 ; 
 as acx:. of degree, 426. N. i ; 
 without quam, 450 
 
 ponds, defect., 1 28. b 
 
 p5n5, w. abl., 490 
 
 per-, prefix, 294. b 
 
 porticus. gender, 1 20 
 
 poscO, w. two aces., 413. N. ; w. ace. 
 and abl,, 414. N. 
 
 Position, expressed by ab or ex, 445 ; 
 syllable long by, 967, 991 
 
 Possession, expressed by gen., 328 ; 
 by dat., 390 ; by habeo, 391 
 
 Possessive genitive, 328 ; in pred., 
 330» 833- '' ; dat. of reference 
 used instead, 385 
 
 Possessive pronouns and adjectives 
 Forms, 184; mi, voc. of meus, 
 id. b\ emphatic forms in -pte, 
 id.r 
 Syntax : used for poss. gen., 329 ; 
 for objective gen., 355 ; agree- 
 ment, 525 ; omitted, 526; used 
 substantively, 528; w. gen. in 
 apposition, 529; normal posi- 
 tion, 919; emphatic position, 
 934. ^/, g 
 
 Possibility, vbs. of, in conclusion of 
 conditions contrary to fact, 
 797. a 
 
 possum, conj., 254; in conclusion 
 of conditions contrary to fact, 
 797.^ 
 
 post, adv., w. abl. of measure of dif- 
 ference, 477 ; w. quam, 747 
 
 poet, prep., use, 276; as prefix, 294. a; 
 in comps. w. dat., 382 
 
 postefl, in enumerations, 591. <2 
 
 posterns, compar., 1 59 ; meaning in 
 plur., id. a 
 
 Postpositive conjunctions, 924 
 
 postquam (poateaquam), in temporal 
 clauses, 745, 747, 748 ; w. clause 
 instead of past act. part., 852 
 
 postrgmS, in enumerations, 591. a 
 
 postrgmus, last part t?/*, 510 
 
 postridig, w. gen., 343. N. 
 
 postulO, w. ace. and abl., 414. N. 
 
 Potential subjunctive, 684; force of 
 tenses, 685 ; in softened asser- 
 tions, 686. a ; of vbs. of saying, 
 believing, etc., id. b\ denoting 
 possibility, id. r ; as conclusion 
 of condition, 687 
 
 potior, adj., compar., 160. a 
 
 potior, vb., w. gen., 366 ; w. abl., 
 469. a ; w. ace, id. N. 2 ; w. 
 gerund or gerundive, 880. c. N. 
 
 potis, in early Latin, 1 60. ^. I 
 
 potius. compar., 274 
 
 potui, w. pres. inf., 829; w. perf. 
 inf., id. N. 
 
 prae, use, 277 ; as prefix, 294. a ; in 
 comps. w. dat., 382 ; to express 
 a preventing cause, 465 
 
 praecMO, constr. after, 382. a 
 
 praeceps, decl., 148. « 
 
 Praenomina and their abbreviations, 
 1 34. a 
 
 praesgns, 241. ^ 
 
 praeter, use, 276 ; as prefix, 294. a ; 
 in comps. w. ace, 406. b 
 
 preci, decl., p. 46 
 
 Predicate, defined, 297; pred. use 
 of part., 861 
 
 Predicate or adjunct accusative, 4 1 6, 
 417; becomes pred. nom. in 
 pass., 418 
 
398 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Predicate adjective, defined, 496, c ; 
 vb. omitted, id. N.; agreement, 
 497, 502. I. a, id. 2. /^, N. I ; in 
 ace. or dat., 834. a ; after com- 
 plementary inf., 838 
 
 Predicate genitive, 330 
 
 Predicate noun, defined, 305 ; agree- 
 ment, 306-308 ; vbs. used w., 
 309; rel. agreeing w., 553 ; re- 
 sult cl. as, after mos est, iiis est, 
 etc., 74 1 ; in ace. or dat., 834. a ; 
 inf. used as pred. noun, 835 ; 
 pred. noun after inf., 838 
 
 Prefixes, 294 ; separable, id. a ; in- 
 separable, id. b 
 
 Prepositions, assimilation of, 52, 
 53. N. ; derivation of, 275 ; w. 
 ace, 276; w. abl.,277; w.eith'er, 
 278; in comps., 294; noun w. 
 prep, instead of obj. gen., 355 ; 
 in comps. w. dat., 382-384 ; in 
 comps. of vbs, of motion, 406. b\ 
 w. ace. of place whither, 428, 
 429; omitted, 430, 434; w. 
 gerund and gerundive, 878, 
 879; position, 917, 925; fol- 
 lowing their case, 925. (^ 
 
 Present conditions, non-committal, 
 785 ; contrary to fact, 786 
 
 Present indicative, formation, 229.^; 
 general use, 647; historical pres., 
 648 ; pres. w. dum, id. a ; cona- 
 tive pres., 649 ; pres. w. iam diii, 
 etc., 650 ; annalistic pres., 65 1 ; 
 pres. used for fut., 657 
 
 Present infinitive, formation, act. and 
 pass., 237. « : w. debui, oportuit, 
 etc., 829 ; expressing past time 
 in ind. disc, 830; posse w. fut. 
 meaning, 887. I. i^. N. i 
 
 Present participle, dec!., 149; forma- 
 tion, 240.^; general use, 847.^; 
 denoting attempted action, 849; 
 pres. pass, part., how supplied, 
 851 ; pres. part, as attrib. adj., 
 855 ; used for phrase or clause, 
 861 ; w. video, audio, etc., for 
 inf., 864 
 
 Present perfect, see Perfect tense 
 
 Present stem, formation, 219-221 
 
 Present subjunctive after a second- 
 ary tense, 702 
 
 Present system, 209. I 
 
 Preventing, vbs. of, constr. after, 
 720. Ill 
 
 Price or value, abl. of, 470 ; gen. of, 
 471 ; constr. w. muto, 472 ; w. 
 vbs. of condemning, 473 
 
 pridie, w. gen., 343- N. 
 
 Primary tenses, of indie, 692 ; of 
 subjv., 693 
 
 primo, primum, 591 
 
 primus, compar., i6o.«; meaning 
 begimiiiig o/] 510 
 
 Principal clause, defined, 300; in 
 ind. disc, 887 
 
 Principal parts, act., 212; pass., 213; 
 fist of, 267 
 
 prior, compar., 160. a 
 
 priusquam and antequam, in tem- 
 poral clauses, 7S7-7^^ 
 
 pro, use, 277 ; pro, prod-, as prefix, 
 294. « 
 
 prodeo, conj., 259. ^ 
 
 prohibeo, constr. after, 720. Ill, a 
 
 Prohibitions, expressed by jussive 
 subjv., 675 ; by noli, 676. a ; by 
 cave (cave ne), fac ne, id. b ; by 
 imv., 689, 690; in ind. disc, 
 887. III. « 
 
INDEX 
 
 399 
 
 Pronominal adjectives, 202; alius 
 and alter, 578-580; caeri,58i ; 
 reliqui, 582 
 
 Pronouns, classified, 177 
 
 Fonns : personal, 179, 180; re- 
 flexive, 1 8 1 - 1 83 ; possessive, 
 184; demonstrative, 185-191 ; 
 intensive, 192; relative, 193, 
 1 94 ; interrogative, 1 95- 1 99 ; 
 indefinite, 200 ; pronominal 
 adjs., 202 ; contained in verb 
 ending, 215 
 Syntax : personal, 5 1 1 -5 1 4 ; re- 
 flexive, 515-524; possessive 
 525-529; demonstrative, 530- 
 547; intensive, 548-550; rela- 
 tive, 551-565; interrogative, 
 566-568; indefinite, 569-577; 
 pronominal adjs., 578-582; 
 position, 918-922 
 
 Pronunciation, vowels, 14; diph- 
 thongs, 15; consonants, 16; 
 ph, th, ch, 1 7 ; comps. of iaci5, 
 19; doubled consonants, 20 
 
 prope, adv., compar., 274 
 
 prope. prep., use, 276 
 
 Proper names, plur. of, 1 26.^? ; names 
 of citizens, 134; of women, 
 135 ; of slaves, 136 
 
 propinquus, compar., 160.^: 
 
 propior, compar., 1 60. a\ constr. after, 
 401 
 
 propius, compar., 274 ; constr. after, 
 401 
 
 proprius. w. gen., 351 ; w. dat, 397 
 
 Prosody, see Meters and verse forms 
 
 pr5sum. conj., 253 
 
 Proviso, expressed by rel. cl., 
 730. II. N. ; w. dum, mode, etc., 
 811 
 
 proximS, compar., 274 ; constr. after, 
 
 401 
 proximus, compar., 160. a; constr. 
 
 after, 397. N., 401 
 -pte (enclitic), 1 84. c 
 pubSs, decl., 148, b 
 pudet, impers., 266; constr. after, 
 
 363, 364 
 
 puer. decl., 85 
 
 pulcher, decl., 142; compar., 155 
 
 puppis, decl., 102.^: 
 
 Purpose, adverbial clauses of, 713; 
 inserted parenthetically, 714; 
 rel. clauses of, 715-718; w. 
 dignus, etc., 717; w. quo, 718; 
 substantive clauses of, 719-725; 
 object clauses of, w. vbs. of ad- 
 vising, etc., 720. 1 ; omission of 
 ut, id. //, 722 ; object, w. vbs. of 
 fearing, 720. II ; w. vbs. of hin- 
 dering, etc., id. Ill ; w. vbs. 
 of doubting, id. IV; subject 
 clauses of, w. pass, vbs., 721 ; w. 
 licet, etc., 722; w. reliquum est, 
 etc., 723 ; appositive clauses of, 
 724 ; purpose expressed by inf., 
 720. d, 842 ; by fut. part., 868, 
 869 ; by gerund and gerundive, 
 875, 878 ; by supine, 882. I ; 
 conspectus of purpose construc- 
 tions, p. 325, ftn. 
 
 Purpose or end, dat. of, 395 
 
 putfi. quantity of a, 959 
 
 Putting on, vbs. of, constr. after. 
 406. d 
 
 qu, 8U, gu, sound of, before a 
 
 vowel, 16, 954. N. 
 quaerd. w. ab. ex, or de, 414. N. ; 
 
 w. subjv., 813 
 
400 
 
 INDEX 
 
 quaeso, defect, 265.^ 
 
 qualis, decl., 199; use, 568 
 
 Quality, gen. of, 338 ; abl. of, 466 
 
 quam, in comparison, 446 ; w. two 
 comparatives, 508 ; w, superla- 
 tive, 509 ; quam ut, quam qui, 
 w.subjv., 733 
 
 quamquam, although^ 806 ; andyet, 
 807 
 
 quamvis, use, 809 
 
 quando, interrog,, 625 ; causal, 769 
 
 quanti, gen. of value and price, 
 34i.N.,« 
 
 Quantity, defined, marks of , 25, 95 1 ; 
 of syllables, 27-32, 966-969; 
 of vowels, 33, 34, 953-965 ; in 
 final syllables, 956-965 
 
 quanto . . . tanto, denoting measure 
 of difference, 476 
 
 quantum, as ace. of degree, 426. N. i 
 
 quantus, 5 68 
 
 quasi, w. primary tenses of subjv., 
 803 
 
 quasso, intensive, 290. b 
 
 -que, enclitic, 601 ; -que . . . -que, 
 604; in enumerations, 605 
 
 que5, conj., 260 
 
 Questions and answers, 620-630; 
 real questions, 620. a ; rhetori- 
 cal, id. b ; direct, 62 1 . «; indirect, 
 id. b ; " yes " or " no," 623, 624; 
 questions of detail or circum- 
 stance, 625, 626; alternative, 
 627, 628 ; answers, 629, 630 ; 
 exclamatory questions, w. ut and 
 subjv., 843. a ; questions in ind. 
 disc, 887.11 
 
 qui, abl., 193.^, 201 
 
 qui, indefinite, 200 ; decl., id. b 
 
 qui, interrogative, 197 
 
 qui, relative, see Relative pronouns 
 
 quia, causal conj., 768 ; non quia, 770 
 
 quicquam, as ace. of degree, 426. N. i 
 
 quicum, 193.^ 
 
 quicumque, decl., 194. « 
 
 quidanijdecl., 200, 6"; use, 572 ; mean- 
 ing a sort of, id. a ; intensive, 
 id.N. 
 
 quidem, use, 592 ; ne . . . quidem, 
 id. a ; equidem, id. N. ; position 
 of quidem, 923 
 
 quilibet, 200 
 
 quin, w. vbs. of hindering, etc., 
 720. Ill ; w. negatived vbs. of 
 doubt, id. IV ; nulla causa est 
 quin, 725 ; for qui non, 728 ; 
 facere non possum quin, 735. N. 
 
 quippe, w. rel. cl. of cause, 730. 1 
 
 Quirites, decl., 106. d 
 
 quis, qui, indefinite, 200 ; decl., id. ^; 
 early forms, id./; use, 570 
 
 quis, qui, interrogative, decl., 196; 
 early forms, 197. b ; w. cum en- 
 clitic, id. c\ emphatic forms, 
 id. ^; use, 566; quis est qui, 
 w. subjv., 727 
 
 quis, for quibus, 1 93. b 
 
 quispiam, 200, d 
 
 quisquam, 200; decl.,id.^; use, 573; 
 used for quis, id. N. 
 
 quisque, decl., 200; use, 576; w. 
 iinus, id. c ; position, 920 
 
 quisquis, 1 94. /^ 
 
 quivis, decl., 200 
 
 quo, of early Latin, changed to cu, \2.b 
 
 quo, by ivhich, in cl. of purpose, 718; 
 quo minus w. vbs. of hindering, 
 720. Ill ; non qu5 in causal cl., 
 770 
 
 quo, whither, in cl. of purpose, 7 r 6 
 
INDEX 
 
 401 
 
 qn5 . . . eC, denoting measure of dif- 
 ference, 476 
 
 quoad. <w long as, 762; until, w. 
 indie, 764: w. subjv., 765 
 
 quod, in causal cl., 768 ; non quod, 
 770; in subst. cl. of fact, used 
 as subj., 822 ; as app., 823 ; as 
 ace. of respect, 824; equiva- 
 lent constrs., 825 
 
 quod sciam, restrictive, 729 
 
 quoius (Cuius), quoi (cui), 193. c 
 
 quom (sec cum), 1 2. ^. N. 
 
 quOminus, w. vbs. of hindering, 
 720. Ill 
 
 quoniam. in causal cl., 769 
 
 quoque, use, 588 ; position, 923 
 
 quot. indecl., 152; use, 568 
 
 quu, for cu. 1 2. b 
 
 quum (see cum), 1 2. b. N. 
 
 r, pronunciation, 16; for s between 
 
 two vowels, 49 
 rastnim, plur. in -a or -i, 132 
 ratiOne, as abl. of manner, 461 
 ratus, as pres. part., 848 
 re-, red-, inseparable prefix, 294. b 
 Reading of verse, 993. 994 
 Reciprocal action, inter nos, inter 
 
 v5s. inter se, 524 
 recordor, constr. after, 359 
 Reduplicated perfect, 223. e 
 Reduplicating class of verbs, Z2.\.f 
 Reference, dative of. 385 ff. 
 rgfert and interest, w. gen. or posses- 
 sive pron., 352 ; other constrs., 
 id. N. 
 Reflexive pronouns, defined, 181 
 Forms: dccl., 182, 183; sSsS, 
 183. </; emphatic forms, id.; 
 w. cum enclitic, id. ; 8€d, 183. b 
 
 Syntax : ^'eneral rule, 515; first 
 and second persons, 516; third 
 person, 517; direct reflexives, 
 5 1 9; indirect, 5 20-523 ; recipro- 
 cal action, 524; reflexive pron. 
 as subj. of inf., 838. a, 887. I. a 
 
 Refleicive verbs (Greek middle) w. 
 ace, 406. d 
 
 regO, conj., 244 
 
 Regular comparisonofadjs., 1 54-1 57 
 
 Regular verbs, 210-246 
 
 Relationship, nouns of, 282.^ 
 
 Relative adverbs, 565 ; w. clauses 
 of purpose, 716; of result, 735 
 
 Relative clauses, defined, 551; intro- 
 duced by rel. advs., 565, 716, 
 735; denoting purpose, 71,5; 
 description, 726-730; cause, 
 730. I ; concession, id. II ; pro- 
 viso, id. N. ; condition, 801; 
 rel. clauses in ind. disc., 888- 
 897 ; equivalent to prin. clauses 
 in ind. disc, 896 ; position of 
 relative in rel. cl., 922 
 
 Relative pronouns, defined, 551 
 Forms : decl., 193 ; abl. form qui, 
 id. a ; quis for quibus, id. /^ ; 
 early forms, id. c ; w. cum en- 
 clitic, id. ^; indefinite relatives, 
 
 '94 
 Syntax : agreement, w. one ante- 
 cedent, 552; w. two or more, 
 id. a\ w. pred. noun, 553; by 
 attraction, 554; according to 
 sense, 555 ; referring to clause, 
 556; antecedent omitted, 557; 
 repeated, 558; standing in rel. 
 cl., 559; superlative belonging 
 to antecedent standing in rel. 
 cl., 560; rel. meaning such^ 
 
402 
 
 INDEX 
 
 561 ; as, 562 ; never omitted, 
 563 ; used as connecting word, 
 564, 913. «; person of vb. 
 agreeing w. antecedent, 637; 
 position of rel., 922 
 
 relinquitur ut, 739 
 
 relinquO, w. fut pass, part., 869 
 
 reliqui, 582 
 
 reliquum est ut, 723, 739 
 
 reliquus, rest ^,510 
 
 Remembering, vbs. of, constr. after, 
 358 
 
 Reminding, vbs. of, constr. after, 
 361, 362 
 
 reminiscor. constr. after, 358.^ 
 
 reposco, w. two aces., 413. N. 
 
 requies, decl., 1 30. e 
 
 res, decl., 123 
 
 Resisting, vbs. of, constr. after, 376 
 
 resists, w. dat., 376 
 
 Respect, ace. of, 427 ; abl. of, 478 ; 
 quod clause used as ace. of 
 respect, 824 ; respect denoted 
 by supine in -u, 882. II 
 
 restat ut, 739 
 
 restis, decl., 102. ^ 
 
 Restrictive clauses, quod sciam, etc., 
 729 
 
 Result clauses, perf. subjv. in, used 
 after a secondary tense, 702; 
 adverbial, vv. ut or ut non, 732 ; 
 ut nemo, ut nihil, etc., id. a ; 
 w. quam ut, quam qui, after a 
 comparative, 733 ; equivalent 
 to a proviso, 734 ; relative, 735 ; 
 facere non possum quin, fieri 
 non potest quin, id. N. ; sub- 
 stantive, 736-741 ; object, after 
 facio, etc., 737; subject, after 
 factum est, etc., 738 ; after fit. 
 
 accidit, etc., 739; after fore 
 (futurum esse), 740 ; as apposi- 
 tive or predicate noun, 741 
 
 rete, decl., 1 04. a 
 
 retro, as prefix, 294. a 
 
 rex, decl., 94 
 
 Rhetorical effects, 938-949 
 
 Rhetorical order of words, 933, 934 
 
 Rhetorical questions, 620. b, 678, 
 679 ; in ind. disc, 887. II, N. 2 
 
 Rhotacism, 49 
 
 Rhythmical reading of verse, 980, 
 
 993. 994 
 ritii, abl. of manner, 461 
 Rivers, gender of names of, 67. a 
 rogo, constr. after, 413, 415 
 Roman calendar, 1 006-101 2 
 Roman names of persons, 134-136 
 Roman pronunciation, 13-20 
 Root class of verbs, 221.^ 
 Roots, 61 
 
 rSstrum, rostra, 133 
 riiri, loc, 488 
 riis, decl., p. 46; prep, omitted w., 
 
 430, 442 
 
 s, pronunciation, 1 6 ; changed to r, 
 
 49 ; substituted for d or t, 53. « ; 
 
 d or t dropped before, 55.^; 
 
 suffix forming the perf. stem, 
 
 223. d 
 sacer, compar., 160, b 
 saepe. compar., 274; position, 923 
 salutaris, compar., 1 60. c 
 salve, defect., 265. ^ 
 Samnites, decl., 106.^ 
 sane, in answers, 629. a 
 satis, compar., 274; comps. of, w. 
 
 dat., 378; used as a noun, 586 
 satisfaciS, w. dat., 378 
 
INDEX 
 
 403 
 
 satur. decl., 142. b 
 
 Saying, vbs. of, w. ind. disc., 885 ; 
 vb. of saying implied, id. a 
 
 Scansion. 980, 993, 994 
 
 8Cin, for scisne, 41. N. 
 
 aciO, imv. of, 691 
 
 -scO, class of vbs. in, 22 1 . ^ ; inceptive 
 suffi.x, 290. a 
 
 BCribO, constr. after, 373 
 
 88-, sM-, inseparable prefix, 294. b 
 
 Second conjugation, pres. stem, 
 220. b\ perf.stem, 222, 223.^-y; 
 part, stem, 225, 226 ; prin. parts 
 and paradigms, 243 ; deriva- 
 tion of vbs. of, 289 
 
 Second declension of nouns, 82-89 ; 
 gender, 83 ; exceptions to gen- 
 der, 86. 87 ; loc, 88. a ; gen. of 
 nouns in -ius and -ium, id. b ; 
 voc. of filius, etc., id. c ; gen. 
 plur. in -um, id. d\ Greek nouns, 
 89 
 
 Secondary object, 412, 413 
 
 Secondary tenses, of indie, 692 ; of 
 subjv., 693 ; used after perf. 
 inf., 703. See also Sequence 
 of tenses 
 
 secundum, use, 276 
 
 securis, decl., 102.^ 
 
 secus, indecl. noun, 1 28. ^ ; as idio- 
 matic ace., 438 
 
 sed, use, 612 
 
 sM-. see se- 
 
 Selling. vbs. of, w. gen., 341, </ ; w. 
 abl., 470 
 
 s^mentis. decl., 102. r 
 
 Semi-deponent verbs, 204. «, 248 
 
 Semivowels. 9 
 
 seniti. senituis. senituos, gen. 
 forms in decl. I\', xix.a 
 
 senex, dech, 109; compar., 160. <:. i 
 
 Sentences, defined and classified, 
 296; simple, 298; compound, 
 299; complex, 300; building 
 of, 935-937 
 
 Separation, dat. of, 389 ; abl. of, 440 
 
 Sequence of tenses, defined, 694; 
 general rule, 695 ; tables of, 696 
 and p. 268 ; sequence after pres. 
 perf., 699; after historical pres., 
 700; in a general truth, 701; 
 use of perf. or pres. subjv. 
 after a secondary tense, 702; 
 sequence after perf. inf., 703 ; 
 in conditions contrary to fact, 
 704 ; sequence of subjv. depend- 
 ing on a subjv,, 705 ; sequence 
 after inf., supine, gerund, or 
 part., 706 
 
 sequitur ut, 723, 739 
 
 sequor, conj., 247 
 
 Service, adjs. of, w. dat., 397 
 
 Serving, vbs. of, w. dat., 376 
 
 serviO, w. dat., 376 
 
 seu, see sive 
 
 Short syllables, 28 
 
 Short vowels, 34. b, 955 
 
 8i (6 si), w. optative subjv., 683 ; use 
 of si and its comps., 77S-777 ; 
 sindn and nisi, 775 : si, whether^ 
 w. ind. quest. 814. r 
 
 sic, 589 
 
 siem, sigs, etc., 241. < 
 
 Signs of mood and tense, 227 ff. 
 
 -sim, old ending of perf. subjv., 
 234. a. N. I ; adverbs in, 272. b 
 
 similis, compar., 1 56 ; w. gen., 351 ; 
 w. dat., 397 ; prevailing usage, 
 398.^ 
 
 Simois, decl., 1 1 2 
 
404 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Simple sentence, 298 
 
 simul, simul atque (ac), in temporal 
 
 clauses, 745 
 sin, 776 
 sine, 277 
 Singular, nouns used only in, 1 26 ; 
 
 nouns defect, in, 127 
 sinistra, without prep., 485. « 
 sino, constr. after, 839. d 
 -sio, noun suffix, 284. b 
 sis (si vis), 41. N. 
 sitis, decl., 102. b 
 sive (seu), 609 ; sive (seu) . . . sive 
 
 (seu), 610; or if, 777 
 Slaves, names of, 136 
 Smell, vbs. of, w. ace, 409 
 -so, vbs.'in, 290. b 
 -so (-SSO), old ending of fut. perf., 
 
 230. c. N. 2 
 sodes (si audes), 41. N. 
 sol, decl., p. 46 
 soleo, semi-deponent, 248 
 solitus, as pres. part., 848 
 solus, decl., 1 43 ; w. rel. cl. of descrip- 
 tion, 727 
 Sonants, 6 
 
 -sor, noun suffix, 284. a 
 sospes, decl., 148. b 
 Sounds, pp. I -1 4 
 Source, expressed by abl., 451 
 Space, extent of, expressed by ace, 
 
 420, 421 
 Sparing, vbs. of, w. dat, 376 
 species, decl., 12^. a 
 Specification, see Respect 
 Spelling, variations in, 1 2. a-d 
 spes, decl., 125. ^ 
 Spirants or fricatives, 8. d 
 Spondee, 975 ; spondaic verse, 
 
 995.^ 
 
 sponte, defect., 1 28. ^ ; as abl. of 
 manner, 461 
 
 statuo, constr. after, 490 
 
 Stems, defined, 62; how formed, id.; 
 a-stems, decl. I, 77-79; o-stems, 
 decl. II, 82-85 ; decl. Ill, mute 
 stems, 92-95 : liquid stems, 96, 
 97; nasal stems, 98, 99 ; i-stems, 
 100-104; mixed i-stems, 105- 
 108; u-stems, decl. IV, 117- 
 119; e-stems, decl. V, 1 22, 1 23 ; 
 adj. stems, decls. I and II, 
 139-142; adj. stems, decl. Ill, 
 145-151; tenses of verbs ar- 
 ranged by stems, 209; stems 
 of verbs, 212; pres. stem, 219- 
 221 ; perf. stem, 222-224; part, 
 stem, 225, 226 
 
 Striving, vbs. of, w. subjv., 720. I 
 
 studeo, w. dat., 376; w. inf., 837, 839. <^ 
 
 su, sound of, w. following vowel, 
 16, 954. N. 
 
 suadeo, w. dat., 376 
 
 sub, prep., use, 278.^; as prefix, 
 294. a; in comps. w. dat., 382 ; 
 in comps. w. ace, 406. b.; w. 
 ace. of' place, 428; in expres- 
 sions of time, 495 
 
 subeo, w. ace, 382. ^ 
 
 Subject, defined, 297; implied, id. a\ 
 group of words as subj., id. b ; 
 subj. of inf., 419; vb. agrees w., 
 631-633; two or more subjs., 
 634, 635; subj. omitted, 639; 
 in ind. disc, 887. I. a; normal 
 position of subj., 912; emphatic 
 position, 934. a 
 
 Subject clauses, purpose, 721-723; 
 result, 738-740 ; w. quod, 822 ; 
 inf., 833, 834 
 
TNOFX 
 
 405 
 
 Subjunctive mood, 665 
 
 Forms : tenses, 206, 232; forma- 
 tion of prcs., 233. a ; past, id. b ; 
 perf., 234. a \ past perf., id. b 
 
 Syntiix, direct discourse : origin 
 of subjv., 665. ftn. I ; tenses 
 and their meaning, 666-669; 
 classificationofusesinindepend. 
 sentences, 670 ; volitive, 67 1 ; 
 hortatory, 672; jussive, 673- 
 675; concessive, 677 ; delibera- 
 tive, 678; optative, 680-683; 
 potential, 684-688 ; classifica- 
 tion of uses in subord. clauses, 
 71 I ; purpose, 712; description, 
 726; rel. cl. of cause or con- 
 cession, 730 ; result, 73 1 ; cum 
 temporal, 753; cum causal. 754; 
 cum concessive, 755; w. ante- 
 quam and priusquam, 759; w. 
 dam, donee, quoad, 765 ; causal 
 cl. w. quod, quia, etc., 768. h ; 
 conditions, 786, 789, 793, 800; 
 comparison, 803 ; concession, 
 808-8 1 o ; proviso, 811; ind. 
 quest., 812 
 
 Syntax, indirect discourse: de- 
 liberative, 887. \\.a\ volitive 
 or optative, 88 7. Ill; in subord. 
 clauses, tenses, 889, 890; con- 
 dition contrary to fact, 89 1 , 900 ; 
 depending on perf. inf., 893 ; 
 pres. or perf. after secondary 
 tenses, 894; in conditional sen- 
 tences, 898-904 ; implied ind. 
 disc, 905, 906 ; subj. by attrac- 
 tion, 907-909 
 Subordinate clauses, defined, 300, 
 303 ; classified, 304, 709; devel- 
 opment, 708 ; use, in dir. disc., 
 
 710-825; in ind. disc., 888- 
 895 ; rel. cl. equivalent to declar. 
 sentence, 896; conditions in 
 ind. disc., 898-904 : implied 
 ind. disc., 905, 906; subjv. by 
 attraction, 907-909; arrange- 
 ment of subord. clauses, 931, 
 932 
 
 Substantive clauses, defined, 304. a, 
 709. Ill; development, 708 ; 
 purpose, 719-725; result, ^36- 
 74r ; ind.quest., 81 2-820: quod 
 cl. of fact., 821-825 ; inf., 832- 
 840 
 
 Substantive use, of adjs., 503-506 ; 
 of possessives, 528 ; of inf., 845 
 
 Substantive verb sum, 310 
 
 Substitution in verse, 977 
 
 subter, use. 278.^ 
 
 suetus, w. inf., 841 
 
 sui and suus, decl., 183, 184; use 
 as dir. reflex., 519; as ind. 
 reflex., 520-523; when not 
 used, 521. N.; ipse used in- 
 stead, 522 ; suus in subj. re- 
 ferring to pred., 523 ; inter se, 
 524 ; sui w. gerundive, 876 
 
 sum, conj., 241 ; as copula, 305.^?: 
 meaning exist, 310 ; w. dat. of 
 possessor, 390 ; omitted, 640 ; 
 position, 927 
 
 summus, compar., 159; top of ^ 510 
 
 sunt qui, w. subjv., 727 
 
 supellex, decl., 109.^ 
 
 super, use, 278. b \ as prefix, 294. a ; 
 in comps. w. dat., 382 
 
 superior, compar., 159 
 
 Superlative, suffix, 1 54 ; w. force of 
 tvrv, id, N.; in -rimus, 155; in 
 -limus, 1 56 ; w. maxime, 1 62 ; 
 
4o6 
 
 INDEX 
 
 strengthened by longe, quam, 
 unus, vel, 509 ; denoting part 
 of, 510; w. quisque, 576. <^ 
 
 superstes, decl., 148. <^ 
 
 supenis, compar., 159; superi, id. ^ 
 
 Supine, defined, 881 
 Formation^ 239 
 
 Sytttax : in -um, after vbs. of mo- 
 tion, 882. I ; w. an obj., id. a\ 
 w. iri to form fut. pass, inf., 
 id. N. ; in -ii, 882. II ; not used 
 w. obj,, id. a ; common supines 
 in -u, id. b 
 
 suppetias ire, venire, etc., 435 
 
 supra, use, 276; as prefix, 294.^ 
 
 Surds, 6 
 
 -surio, verb suffix, 290. d 
 
 -sus, noun suffix, 284. b 
 
 sus, decl., 109 
 
 suscenseo, w. dat, 376 
 
 suscipio, w. fut. pass, part express- 
 ing purpose, 869 
 
 suus, see sui 
 
 Syllaba anceps, 984 
 
 Syllables, rules for division of, 21, 
 22 ; closed and open, 23; ultima, 
 penult, antepenult, 24; long 
 and short, 25-32, 966-969 
 
 Synaeresis or synizesis, 988 
 
 Synesis, w. adjs., 501 ; w. vbs., 633 ; 
 defined, 950./" 
 
 Synizesis or synaeresis, 988 
 
 Syntactic compounds, 292. a 
 
 Syntax, 295-950 
 
 Systole, 989 
 
 t, sound, 16; changed to s, 53. «:; 
 
 dropped before s, 55.^2 
 taedet, impers., 266 ; w. aca and 
 
 gen., 363 
 
 talis ut, etc., 732 
 
 tarn, use, 589 ; correlative w. quam, 
 id. N. 
 
 tamen, 615 
 
 tametsi, althoiigh, 806; even if, 808 
 
 tamquam, tamquam si, as if, 803 
 
 tanti, gen. of value, 341. N. ; of 
 price, id. a 
 
 tanto, following quanto, 476 
 
 tantum, as ace. of degree, 426. N. i 
 
 -tas, noun suffix, 282. /J 283 
 
 Taste, vbs. of, w. ace, 409 
 
 Teaching, vbs. of, w. two aces., 413 ; 
 constr. in pass., 415 
 
 tempero, w. dat., 376 
 
 Temporal clauses, replaced by abl. 
 abs., 484..^ ; defined, 742 ; clas- 
 sified, 743 ; general rule for 
 mood, 744 ; w. postquam, etc., 
 745-748 ; w. cum, 749-756 ; w. 
 antequam and priusquam, 757- 
 761 ; w. dum, donee, etc., 762- 
 766; in general conditions, 
 800. a 
 
 Tenses, names, 206; systems, 209 
 Forms : indie, 229-331 ; subjv., 
 232-234; imv., 235 ; inf., 237; 
 part., 240 
 Syjitax : tenses of indie, use of, 
 644-664; epistolary tenses, 664; 
 tenses of subjv., use of, 666- 
 669 ; classification of tenses, 
 692, 693 ; sequence of, defined, 
 694 ; general rule for, 695 ; table 
 of, 696 ; illustrations, p. 268 ; 
 special rules for, 698 ; peculiari- 
 ties of, 699-707; tenses of inf., 
 828-831; of part., 847-849; 
 tenses of inf. in ind. disc, 887. 
 l.b 
 
INDEX 
 
 407 
 
 tenus. w. abl., 277.4 ; position, 925 
 
 -ter. adverbs in, 270. b 
 
 -ternus, adj. suffix, 288 
 
 terra, abl. without prep., 485. <{ 
 
 tCtC, emphatic pron., 1 80. b 
 
 th, sound of, i 7 
 
 Than, how expressed. 446 
 
 That of, not expressed in Latin, 334 
 
 The . . . the, how expressed, 476 
 
 Thematic and athematic vbs., 251 
 and ftn. i 
 
 Thematic vowel ^j^ in vbs., 221, 
 229. a. 2 and 3 
 
 Thesis and arsis, 979 
 
 Thinking, vbs. of, w. ind. disc., 885 
 
 Third conjugation, pres. stem, 221 ; 
 perf. stem, 223. b-ir\ part, stem, 
 225, 226; prin. parts and para- 
 digms, 244 ; derivation of vbs. 
 of, 2S9, 290. a, fi. I 
 
 Third declension of nouns, 90-1 1 6 ; 
 mute stems, 92-95 ; liquid 
 stems, 96, 97 ; nasal stems, 98, 
 99; pure i-stems, 1 01 -104; 
 mixed i-stems, 105-108; irreg. 
 nouns, 109; loc., iio; Greek 
 nouns, 1 1 i-i 12; gender, 1 13- 
 116 
 
 Though, see Although 
 
 Threatening, vbs. of, w. dat, 376 
 
 -tia. noun suffix, 282._/", 283 
 
 -tiSs, noun suffix, 283 
 
 tigris, decl., 1 1 2 
 
 -tim or -aim, adverbs in, 272. b 
 
 Time, duration of, 422-425; time 
 before or after, 477 ; time de- 
 noted by abl. abs., 480; time 
 when, 492. 1 ; time within, id. 2 ; 
 time in Lat. corresponding to 
 place in £ng., 494 
 
 Time clauses, sec Temf)oral clauses 
 
 timed, constr. after, 720. II 
 
 -timus, adj. suffix, 285. // 
 
 -tinus, adj. suffix, 288 
 
 -tiO, noun suffix, 284. b 
 
 -tite, vb. suffix, 290. b 
 
 -tium, noun suffix, 282./" 
 
 Tmesis, 950. j^, 992 
 
 -to, class of verbs in, 221. </; vb. 
 suffix, 290. b 
 
 -to, -sO, -itO, -titO, vb. suffixes, 290. b 
 
 -tor (-sor), -trix, suffix of nouns de- 
 noting agency, 284. a ; such 
 nouns used as adjs., 506. b 
 
 tot, indecl. adj., 152 
 
 totidem, indecl. adj., 152 
 
 tOtus, decl., 143; nouns w., in abl. 
 without a prep., 485. ^ 
 
 Toward, to the vicinity of, in the 
 vicinity of, how expressed, 43 1 
 
 Towns, names of, gender, 67. ^ ; as 
 place to which, 430, 431 ; as 
 place from which. 442 ; as place 
 where, in abl., 485. a ; in loc., 
 486, 487 
 
 -tra, noun suffix, 284. c. i 
 
 trddO, w. fut. pass. part, expressing 
 purpose, 869 
 
 trans, use, 276; as prefix, 294. a; 
 in comps. w. ace, 406. b ; in 
 comps, w. two aces., 412 
 
 Transitive verbs, usually intrans., 
 380 ; made intrans. by com- 
 position, 382. 2 ; made capable, 
 by composition, of governing 
 an ind. obj., id. 3 ; w. ace, 404 
 
 Trees, names of, gender, 67. b 
 
 tr6s, decl., 166. b 
 
 tribus. gender, 120; decl., 121. c 
 
 -trix, noun suffix, 284. a 
 
408 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Trochee, 975 ; trochaic verse, 976 
 
 -trum, noun suffix, 284. c 
 
 tu, decl., 180; use, 51 1' 
 
 -tudo, noun suffix, 283 
 
 tui, w. gerundive, 876 
 
 turn, in enumerations, 591.^; turn 
 vero, 613. N. 
 
 -turn, noun suffix, 282. b 
 
 -tura, noun suffix, 284. b 
 
 -turio (-surio), verb suffix, 290. d 
 
 -turnus, adj. suffix, 288 
 
 turris, decl., 102 
 
 -tus, adj. suffix, 285. b\ noun suffix, 
 284. b ; adverbs in, 272. c 
 
 tus, decl., p. 46 
 
 -tus, noun suffix, 2?>2.f 
 
 tussis, decl., 102 
 
 tute, tutemet, 1 80, ^ 
 
 Two accusatives, dir. obj, and sec- 
 ondary obj., 412-415 ; dir. obj. 
 and adjunct ace, 416-418 
 
 Two datives, 395 
 
 U (v), 2. b ; for earlier 0, 1 2. a-c ; 
 changed to i, id. ^; sound, 14; 
 as a cons, after g, q, s, and in 
 verse, 16, 954. N., 991 ; suffix 
 of perf., 223. r; quantity when 
 final, 963 
 
 U-stems, decl. IV, 11 7-1 21 
 
 uber, decl., 148. b. N. 
 
 ubi, used as a noun, 586; in pur- 
 pose cl., 716 ; in result cl., 735 ; 
 in temporal cl., 745, 746, 748; 
 in general condition, 800. a 
 
 ubicumque, in temporal cl. express- 
 ing general condition, 746, 800. <« 
 
 -ubus, in dat. and abl. plur., decl. 
 IV, 121. c 
 
 -ud, in abl. sing., decl. IV, i2\.f 
 
 ui, diphthong, sound, 1 5 
 
 -uis (uos), in gen., decl. IV, 121. a 
 
 uUus, decl., 143; use, 573 
 
 ulterior, compar., \6o.a 
 
 ultimus, lasl part ^510 
 
 ultra, use, 276 
 
 -ulus, diminutive ending, 282.^; 
 verbal adj. suffix, 287. b 
 
 -um, for -arum, 80. d\ for -orum, 
 88.^; for -uum, \2\.b 
 
 unde, in purpose cl., 716; in result 
 cl., 735 
 
 Undertaking, vbs. of, w. fut. pass, 
 part, expressing purpose, 869 
 
 unus, decl., 143; w. superl., 509; 
 w. quisque, 576, ^ 
 
 unus qui, w. subjv., 727 
 
 -uos, in gen., decl. IV, \2\.a 
 
 urbs, decl., 107; in relations of 
 place, 432, 443, 485 
 
 Urging, vbs. of, w. ut cl., 720. 1 
 
 us, final, quantity of, 965 
 
 -us, verbal noun suffix, 284. b 
 
 usus est, w. abl., 469. b 
 
 ut (uti), w. optative subjv., 682 ; in 
 clauses of purpose, 713; ut non 
 for ne, id. <3; ; ut ne for ne, id. b ; 
 w. parenthetic cl., 714; ut 
 omitted, 720. I. ^,722; after vbs. 
 of fearing, 720. II ; w. rel. cl. 
 of cause, 730. I ; in clauses of 
 result, 732, 736; in temporal 
 clauses, 745, 746, 748 ; in gen- 
 eral condition, 746, 800.^; in 
 concessive clauses, 809 
 
 ut si, w. subjv., 803 
 
 utcumque, in temporal cl. expressing 
 general condition, 746, 800, a 
 
 uter, decl,, 143, 198; use, 567 
 
 uter, decl., 102.^ 
 
INDEX 
 
 409 
 
 uterque, use, 577 
 
 iitilis, w. dat. of gerund, 877 
 
 utinam. w. optative subjv., 681 ; uti 
 
 or ut used instead, 682 
 fltor, w. abl., 469. a ; w. ace, id. N. 
 
 2 ; used impersonally in pass. 
 
 periphrastic, 860. a ; gerund 
 
 and gerundive use of, 880. c. N. 
 utpote qui, 730. I 
 utrum ... an, 627, d 
 
 V, 2. ^; sound, 16; suffix of perf., 
 223. <z,^; suppressed in perf., 
 230. a. 1,2; omitted in perf. 
 of e6, 259. b 
 
 Value, gen. of indefinite, 341 
 
 Variable nouns, 129-133; hetero- 
 clites, 1 30 ; varying in gender, 
 131, 132; in meaning, 133 
 
 Variations in spelling, 1 2 
 
 vas, dccl., p. 46 
 
 -ve, 608. a 
 
 v6-, inseparable prefix, 294. b 
 
 ▼el, w. superl., 509 ; general use, 
 608; intensive, even, id. N.; -ve 
 for vel, id. «; vel . . . vel, 610 
 
 velut. velut si, w. subjv., 803 
 
 venum dare, venum ire, 435 
 
 Verb list. pp. 128-139 
 
 Verbal adjs. in -ax, w. gen., 357, N. i 
 
 Verbal nouns, w. dat., 383 
 
 Verbal nouns and adjs., 20 5. /z; forma- 
 tion, 236-240; syntax, 826-882 
 infs., 827-845 ; parts., 846-869; 
 gerund and gerundive, 8 70-880 
 supine, 881, 882 
 
 Verbs 
 
 Forms : inflection, 203 ; voice, 
 204 : mood, 205 ; verbal nouns 
 and adjs., id. a ; tense, 206 ; per- 
 
 son, 207 ; number, 208 ; three 
 tense systems, 209; four con- 
 jugations, 210; prin. parts, 
 212-214; pers, endings, 215- 
 218; formation of vb. stems, 
 219-226; formation of moods 
 and tenses, 227-235 ; formation 
 of non-modal vb. forms, 236- 
 240 ; paradigms of regular vbs., 
 242-246; deponents, 247; semi- 
 deponents, 248 ; periphrastic 
 forms, 249, 250 ; irregular vbs., 
 251-261; defect, vbs., 262- 
 265; impers. vbs., 266; list of 
 vbs., 267 ; derivation of vbs., 
 289, 290 ; compound vbs., 294 
 Syntax : subj. implied in ending. 
 297. a, 639 ; rules of agreement, 
 631-638; vb. omitted, 640; 
 use of moods and tenses, 641- 
 825, 886-909 (see under the 
 names of the moods) ; followed 
 by complementary inf., 837; by 
 inf. w. subj. ace, 839 ; position 
 of vb., 912, 926-928, 93 r, 
 934. a. For cases w. vbs., see 
 under the names of the cases 
 
 Verbs of fullness, w. gen., 349, 350 : 
 w. abl., 469. d 
 
 Verbs of motion w. supine, 882. I 
 
 Verbs of remembering and forget- 
 ting, constr. after, 358 
 
 Verbs of reminding, constr. after, 361 
 
 vereor, conj., 247 ; w. subjv., 720. II 
 
 yeritus, as pres. part., 848 
 
 vfirO, use, 613; turn vero, iam vero. 
 id. N. ; in answers, 629. a ; posi- 
 tion, 924 
 
 Verse, defined, 970; unit of measure. 
 973 ; names of verse, 975. a ; 
 
4IO 
 
 INDEX 
 
 iambic and trochaic, 976 ; rules 
 for reading, 993, 994 ; dactylic, 
 995-1005 
 
 Versification, 951-1005 
 
 versus, use, 276; position, id. a, 925 
 
 verto, semi-deponent in comps., 248.^2 
 
 verum, use, 612, 613 
 
 vescor, w. abl., 469. a ; w. ace, id. 
 N. 2; gerund and gerundive 
 use of, 880. c. N. 
 
 vesperi, loc, 488 
 
 vestri, as obj. gen., 514; w. gerun- 
 dive in -i, 876 
 
 vestrum, as partitive gen., 5 1 4 
 
 veto, w. ace. and inf., 720. 1, a^ 839. c 
 
 vetus, decl, 148; compar., 155. « 
 
 via, as abl. of manner, 461 
 
 vicinus, compar., 160. c 
 
 vicis, decl., p. 46 
 
 video, w. pres. part., 864 
 
 vigilia, vigiliae, 133 
 
 vir, decl., 85 
 
 virus, gender, 87 
 
 vis, decl., 1 09 ; vi, abl. of manner, 461 
 
 vo, of early Latin, changed to vu, 1 2..a 
 
 Vocative case, defined, 74 
 
 Forms: yG.a^ voc. of nouns in -us, 
 decl. II, 84. «; of filius, etc., 88. 
 c; of deus, 88. ^; of Panthus, 
 89. b\ of Greek nouns, decl. Ill, 
 1 1 1 . ^ ; of adjs. in -ius, 1 40. a ; 
 of meus, id. b, 1 84. b 
 Syntax : general use, 321 ; nom. 
 used as voc, 322 ; nom. of adj. 
 agreeing w. voc, 323 ; position 
 of voc, 930 
 
 Voice, 204 ; middle voice, 406. d, ftn. 
 
 Volitive subjunctive, classification, 
 671; hortatory, 672; jussive, 
 673-676; concessive, 677; de- 
 
 liberative, 678; volitive subjv. 
 in ind. disc, 887. Ill 
 
 V0I6 and its comps., conj., 255 ; w. 
 inf. or subjv., 720. l.b\ w. inf., 
 837, 839. b 
 
 volucer, decl., 146. b 
 
 -volus, adjs. in, compar., 157 
 
 vos, decl., 180 ; vosmet, id. a 
 
 vostrum, vostri, 1 80. d 
 
 Vowels, 4 ; sounds, 1 4 ; quantity, 33, 
 34, 953, 955 ; weakening, 43- 
 45 ; contraction, 46 ; dropping, 
 47 ; gradation (ablaut), 56, $7 \ 
 quantity of, in final syllables, 
 956-965 
 
 vulgus, gender, ^y 
 
 w, not in Latin alphabet, 2 
 
 Want, words of, w. gen., 349, 350; 
 
 w. abl., 440 
 Way or route by which, abl. of, 474 
 Weakening of vowels, 43-45 
 Whole, gen. of, 342 
 Winds, gender of names of, 67. a 
 Wishing, vbs. of, w. subjv., 720. 1 ; 
 
 w. inf., id.b, 837, 839.^ 
 Women, names of, 135 
 Words, formation of, 281 ff. ; order 
 
 of, 910 ff. 
 
 X, 10; sound, 16; in division of 
 syllables, 22. a. N. 
 
 y, of Greek origin, 2.^; sound, 14 
 Year, Roman, 1006- 1008; months, 
 
 1009; dates, 1010-1012 
 Yes, how expressed in Latin, 629. a 
 
 z, of Greek origin, 2. c ; sound, 1 6 
 Zeugma, 950. h 
 
ANNOUNCEMENTS 
 
LATIN FOR BEGINNERS 
 
 By Benjamin L. D'Ooce, Head of the I^tin Department in the 
 Michigan State Normal College 
 
 lamo, cloth, 348 pages, illustrated, with four colored pbtes 
 and map in color 
 
 The first pages of this book are devoted to a brief discussion of 
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 the Latin usage. By this correlation English and Latin are made 
 mutually helpful to each other. 
 
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 phasis may be laid upon the essentials. 
 
 8. Connected I^tin for translation is introduced at the earliest pos- 
 sible moment, and is made a prominent feature throughout. 
 
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 duced by way of preparation for the translation of that author. 
 
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 of the ancient Romans, some of the pictures being specially drawn for 
 this work. 
 
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C^SAR IN GAUL 
 
 AND SELECTIONS FROM THE THIRD BOOK OF 
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 of the times. 
 
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