B | 1 ( UC- NRLF < 1' : I'i I $C lb b7S — A' WP K\t> in o o <•» • ' iff HU v^ r V 5" eUue tfti 6-A /-«» &<■*> W • * f ? THE i. COMOMHOOL GEOGRAPHY: AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. BY D. M. BARREN", ACTIIOR OF A TREATISE ON PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, ETC. ETC. Xj^LST REVISED ZEZDITIOZLST. PHILADELPHIA: COWPERTHWAIT & CO. 1869. V Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1866, by CO WPERTHWAIT $ CO., in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. PUBLISHERS' ADVERTISEMENT. * arm's j^rbs of dkagraphui TIIIS SERIES NOW COMPRISES THE FOLLOWING WORKS, VIZ.:— WARREN'S PRIMARY GEOGRAPHY, WARREN'S COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY, WARREN'S PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. These three books form a complete geographical course, adapted to the various stages of progress of the differ- ent classes of all grades of schools. In all the books of the series, the Maps and descriptive text are in the same volume. The Maps and Engravings are of the very highest order of excellence. The Primary Geography is designed for beginners. It contains a brief description of the different countries of the earth, and is illustrated by nineteen colored Electrotyped Maps drawn expressly for the work, and by more than fifty fine wood Engravings, all of which are from original designs. The Common-School Geography is especially intended for the use of the Grammar-schools of our cities and towns, and of the Common schools in the country districts. It contains a description of all the countries upon the globe, and is illustrated by very superior Copper-plate Maps, and by many fine wood Engravings. The Physical Geography is designed for advanced classes, and is well adapted to the use of Colleges, Acade- mies, Seminaries, and High Schools. The work forms one royal quarto volume of 92 pages, and is illustrated by many superior wood Engravings, and by twenty Electrotyped and Copper-plate Maps drawn expressly for the work. This Series of Geographies, in whole or in part, has been introduced into many of the best public and private schools in all parts of the country — receiving the warm approval of those teachers who have made themselves acquainted with their merits. Teachers and school-officers are respectfully requested to examine this series of works, before determining on the text-books on the subject of Geography to be used in the schools under their charge. 2 GIFT f Gun PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION. The progress of geographical discovery, and the numerous changes, political and territorial, that are constantly taking place, have again rendered necessary a revision of this work. Advantage has been taken of this alteration of the text, to introduce into the book an entirely new series of finely engraved Copper-plate Maps, in place of those hitherto contained in it. The division and general arrange- ment of the Maps remain the same as before, although, wherever practicable, their scale has been somewhat en- larged ; while a new, full-page Map of Great Britain and Ireland has been added. The new Maps have been prepared under the direct supervision of Mr. James H. Young, whose long expe- rience and well-earned reputation in this department are a sufficient guarantee of their accuracy as well as of their artistic finish. The addition of a greatly enlarged Pronouncing and Explanatory Vocabulary, and of two pages of Review* Questions, will be found, it is believed, to be a valuable improvement. The Treatise on Map-Drawing, by Mr. E. A. Apgar, State Superintendent of New Jersey, explains a new and practical method of acquiring this important art The following extract from the Preface to the first edition of the work will show its general plan and arrange- ment : — "The book consists of two parts. Part First contains lessons on the elementary principles of geographical science; Part Second, a description of the different countries. The lessons of Part First are not arranged in the usual form of question and answer. The principles are clearly stated in familiar language, and the lessons are followed by direct questions upon the text, and suggestive questions testing the learner's understanding of it. Part Second is arranged in chapters, which correspond with the maps. The description of a country is followed by a map of the same ; on the page opposite to which are suggestive questions growing out of the text, and direct questions upon the map. The descriptions in Part Second follow a natural order. The posi- tion of a country is first given, then its surface is described, and the effect of these circumstances upon the climate, productions, and inhabitants stated. An account of the political divisions follows the description of the physical features, constant reference being made to the general statement of principles in Part First. The arrangement of this part of the book in chapters will enable the teacher to assign to his pupils such length of lessons as he chooses." Acknowledgments are due to many Educators, in various parts of the country, for useful suggestions kindly offered ; and especially to Mr. P. W. Bartlett, late Master of the Chapman School, Boston, whose extensive geographical knowledge has contributed largely to the general accuracy of the work. In its improved form, it is hoped that the Common School Geography may commend itself to the Educational public, and continue to justify the generous support which has hitherto been extended to it. Philadelphia, August, 18G6. M779190 TABLE OF CONTENTS. PART I. INTRODUCTORY.^ * MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. Lesson Page I.— FORM OF THE EARTH 5 II.— MOTIONS OF THE EARTH 6 III.— MOTIONS OF THE EARTH— (Continued) 6 IV.— DIVISION OF THE EARTH BY CIRCLES 7 V.— DIVISION OF THE EARTH BY CIRCLES— (Continued) 7 VI.— ZONES 8 VII.— DAYS AND NIGHTS 8 VIII.— MAPS AND GLOBES 9 IX.— QUESTIONS ON LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 9 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. X.— NATURAL DIVISIONS OF THE LAND 10 XL— SURFACE OF THE LAND 10 XII.— NATURAL DIVISIONS OF THE WATER 11 XIII.— LAKES AND RIVERS 11 XIV.— CLIMATE 12 XV.-^VEGETATION 12 XVI.— ANIMALS 13 XVII.— MAN 13 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. XVIII.— STATES OF SOCIETY 14 XIX.— STATES OF SOCIETY— (Continued) 14 XX.— GOVERNMENT 15 XXL— RELIGION 15 XXII.— BRANCHES OF INDUSTRY 16 XXIII.— BRANCHES OF INDUSTRY— (Continued) 16 XXIV.— BRANCHES OF INDUSTRY— (Continued) 17 XXV.— BRANCHES OF INDUSTRY— (Continued) 17 PART II. DESCRIPTION OF COUNTRIES. Chapter Pago I.— THE HEMISPHERES 19 II— THE CONTINENTS 20 III.— NORTH AMERICA 22 IV— THE UNITED STATES 26 V— THE EASTERN, OR NEW ENGLAND STATES 30 VI.— THE MIDDLE STATES, MARYLAND, AND VIRGINIA 34 VII.— THE SOUTHERN STATES, ARKANSAS, AND TENNESSEE.... 38 VIII— THE WESTERN STATES 42 IX— TEXAS, CALIFORNIA, OREGON, AND THE TERRITORIES.... 46 X.— COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES 50 REVIEW QUESTIONS;.". 52 XL— THE BRITISH PROVINCES OF NORTH AMERICA 53 XII.— MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND THE WEST INDIES 56 XIII.— SOUTH AMERICA 60 XIV.— EUROPE 66 XV.— GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 70 XVI.— WESTERN EUROPE 72 XVII.— CENTRAL EUROPE 76 XVIII.— ASIA 80 XIX.— AFRICA 86 XX.— OCEANICA 90 XXI.— COMMERCE OF THE WORLD 94 QUESTIONS FOR GENERAL REVIEW 96 A TREATISE ON MAP-DRAWING 97 PRONOUNCING AND EXPLANATORY VOCABULARY 99 STATISTICAL TABLES 105 IZLSHDIEZS: TO TIKE MAPS. Page 1. Eastern and Western Hemispheres 9 2. Western Hemisphere 18 3. Eastern Hemisphere 21 4. North America 24 5. The United States 28 6. The Eastern, or New England States 32 7. Middle States, Maryland, and Virginia 36 8. Southern States, Arkansas, and Tennessee 40 ' 9. Western States 44 10. Texas, California, Oregon, and the Territories 48 11. Commercial Map op the United States 51 12. The British Provinces of North America 55 13. Mexico and Central America 58 14. The West Indies 58 16. South America ; C4 16. Route across the Isthmus of Panama 64 17. Europe . I. Mathematical Geography treats— first, of tin; form, size, ami motions of the earth; second, of its division by circles ; third, of s representation of its surface upon globes, map*, and charts! II. Form of the Earth.— The earth is nearly round. It, is so nearly round that it is called a Globe. ^-j8>^ The earth is not perfectly round, but, like an orange, is flattened on two of the opposite sides ; not nearly so much, however, in proportion to its size, as an orange. In any representation of the earth, such as an artificial globe, the difference between its real form and that of a globe would be too small to be seen. the III. Mountains and valleys do not affect the form of the earth. The highest mountain in the world is not so large, in proportion to the size of the earth, as a grain of sand upon the surface of an ordinary globe. IV. The earth does not appear to us like a globe. When we are upon the ocean, or upon an extensive plain, where there are no mountains and valleys, it seems flat, like the top of a round table. This is because we see so little of it at a time. To an ant, crawling over an artificial globe, the surface probably appears perfectly level; but we see bo much of the wooden globe at once, that we know its true shape. So tall a man, standing in the centre of an extensive plain, sees only about three miles around him, and is therefore in the condition of the little ant upon the wooden globe. If he oould see as much of the earth at a time as he can of tho wooden globe, it would appear to him to be what it really is, a great globe. 8 CO'MMON-SCHOOL GEOGKAPHY. V. Proofs that the Earth is round.— 1. The tops of the masts of a ship coming into port are always seen before the hull. — 2. It has often been circumnavigated, or sailed around. — 3. The shadow of the earth when cast on the moon is always circular. If the earth were flat, the masts of the ship, which are smaller than the hull, would appear last. PART I. ,. INTRODUCTORY. * B "f MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. Lesson Pago I.— FORM OF THE EARTH 6 II.— MOTIONS OF THE EARTH C III.— MOTIONS OF THE EARTH— (Continued) 6 IV.— DIVISION OF THE EARTH BY CIRCLES 7 V.— DIVISION OF THE EARTH BY CIRCLES— (Continued) 7 VI.— ZONES 8 VII.— DAYS AND NIGHTS 8 VIII.— MAPS AND GLOBES 9 IX.— QUESTIONS ON LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 9 mrtroTn * t riwAnn * -r»-r-"-"- ILLUSTRATION OF ONE OF THE PROOFS THAT THE EARTH IS NEARLY ROUND. The gradual appearance of the ship above the horizon (or line where the sea and sky seem to meet), proves that the surface over which she is sailing is curved, — as in the following representation: A man, standing on the ground, sees the whole of the first ship, the masts of the second, and the top of the main-mast of the third; the fourth is out of sight. As the curve is found to be nearly trie same in all parts of the world, whether sailing north or south, east or west, we conclude that the earth is shaped like a globe. Questions. — What is Geography? — From what is the term derived ? — Into what three departments is Geography divided ? — What is Mathematical Geography.? What is the form of the earth? — Is it perfectly round? — Why are not artificial globes flattened at the top and bottom, if such is the shape of our earth ? — If you were to scatter a few grains of sand on a wooden globe, would it still appear round? — Why then do not mountains affect the form of the earth? — What distance can a tall man, on a level plain, see around him? — Is the plain on which he stands perfectly level, or slightly curved? — Does it appear to him to be curved? — State one of the proofs that the earth is round. LESSON II. MOTIONS OP THE EARTH. I. The Earth has two motions : a daily revolution (or turning around) upon its axis, and a yearly course around the sun. The axis of any thing is that upon which it turns, or may turn. Thus, the axle- tree is the axis of a wheel. Pass a wire through the centre of an orange, from the stem to the opposite point, and then make the orange revolve on the wire : the wire is the axis of the orange. So the earth revolves upon its axis. Yet the axis of the earth is not a reality, it is only an imaginary line, passing through the centre of the earth, between the two opposite flattened sides. The ends of this line are called the poles of the earth. One is called the North Pole ; the other, the South Pole. The axis of the earth is inclined to the plane of its orbit at an angle of about 23 J degrees. This leaning of the axis of the earth, and its annual revolution, cause the change of seasons, known as Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter. II. The Daily Motion. — The earth is constantly revolving on its axis from west to east, and this movement is called the rotation upon its axis. It takes twenty-four hours, or one day, for each revolution. It seems to us, however, as if the earth were stationary, and as if the sun, moon, and stars were moving around towards the west. This delusion arises from the fact that the motion of the earth is so steady and uniform that we do not perceive it. III. Some parts of the earth, in its daily revolution, move at the rate of more than a thousand miles an hour. At the Poles there is little or no motion ; but, midway between the Poles, the velocity is so great that if we could be lifted up far above the earth, and suspended there, the mountains, seas, and islands below, would be rushing by with such amazing rapidity, that we should not be able to distinguish one object from another. But as we are now moving with them at the same rate, we do not perceive the motion. IV. The revolution of the earth upon its axis produces day and night — every place upon its surface being, alternately, in sunlight and in shade. Questions. — How many motions has the earth? — What is an axis? — Has the earth a real axis, like a wheel? — What are the Poles? — Are they real or imagi- nary points? — How is the axis of the earth inclined? — What does this inclination cause? — What is the daily motion of the earth? — How many hours does it take for the earth to revolve upon its own axis? — Does it ever cease to revolve? — Why does it seem to us that the earth is stationary, and that the sun moves around it towards the west? — How many miles an hour do some parts of the earth move, revolving upon its axis? — What parts are- they? — How are day and night produced? LESSON III. MOTIONS OP THE EARTH.— Continued. I. The daily revolution of the earth determines the points East, "West, North, and South. The earth is constantly turning round from west to east, towards the sun, pro- ducing the effect of sunrise. The direction from which the sun appears to rise is called East ; where it sets, West. If you stand with your right arm extended towards the East, the West will be on your left hand, the North will be before you, and the South behind you. II. These directions are called the Points of the Compass. The compass is an instrument which has a magnetic needle attached to it This always points to the north, or nearly to the north. The compass is used by sur- veyors, and by mariners to tell the direction in which their vessels are sailing. Beside the four principal points, there are four other important ones: North-eaM, North-west. South-east, and South-west. N. stands for North. N. E. for North-east, N. W. for North-west, S. E. for South-east, and S. W. for South-west. III. Motion of the Earth around the Sun.— The earth moves around the sun in a nearly circular path, called its orbit, in 365£ days, or one year. This is called the annual, or yearly motion. DIVISION OF THE EABTH BY CIECLES. Over this course, a length of upwards of 567 millions of miles, the earth moves with a velocity of more than a thousand miles in a minute. IV. The circumference of the earth is the distance around it. The diameter is the distance in a straight line through its centre, between any two opposite points on the surface, V. The circumference and diameter vary in length, in different parts of the globe. Since the earth is flattened at the Poles, and expanded in the middle, it is plain that its circumference and diameter are greater, midway between the Poles, than anywhere else. VI. The greatest circumference of the earth is about 25,000 miles, and the greatest diameter about 8000 miles. The diameter of the earth, from Pole to Pole, is 26 miles less than midway between the Poles. Questions. — How is sunrise caused ? — Does the sun really rise ? — What is that point called at which the sun appears to rise? — What are the other principal points of the compass? — How long does it take the earth to make its annual revolution around the sun? — Does it stop after having completed its yearly course? — What is the form of the earth's orbit ? — How fast does the earth move around the sun ? — Which is the more rapid; the motion of the earth around the sun, or its revolution upon its own axis ? — What do you understand by the circumference of the earth ? — By its diameter ? — Where is the circumference greatest ? — How long is the greatest diameter ? — The shortest ? LESSON IV. DIVISION OF THE EARTH BY CIRCLES. I. The surface of the globe is divided by imaginary circles. They are the Equator, the Parallels of Latitude, the Meridians of Longitude, and the Tropical and Polar Circles. II. A Circle is a curved line every point of which is equally distant from the centre. Every circle is divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees. III. A Great Circle is one that divides the globe into two equal parts, each of which is called a Hemisphere, — that is, half a sphere br globe. Each degree of a great circle is equal to CO geographical miles, or about 69J English miles. IV. A Small Circle divides the earth into two unequal parts.. The length of a degree of a small circle varies with the size of the circle. V. The Equator is a great circle drawn round the globe half-way between the Poles. VI. Parallels of Latitude are small circles drawn round the globe parallel to the Equator. The parallels are represented on maps by lines running across them from cast to west. VII. The Horizon is the boundary-line of our circle of vision, whore the earth and sky seem to meet. VIII. The Zenith is the point in the heavens directly overhead. IX. Latitude is distance from the Equator, either north or south. It is measured on great circles; and hence the length of a degree of latitude is nearly the same in all parts of the earth. Ninety of these degrees are north, and ninety south, of the Equator. All places north of the Equator are said to be in North Latitude: all south of it, in South Latitude. These degrees are numbered on the sides ofmaps. The numbers increase from the Equator towards the Poles, from to 90°. If the numbers increase from the bottom towards the top of the map. the section represented is in North Latitude; if from the top fcmvards the bottom, the section is in South Latitude. ^ Suppose a city, with streets crossing each other at right angles, like the lines in the annexed representation : — Ash Street runs north and south ; Willow Street runs east and west. Now, if a stranger should ask you to direct him to Tn"e~Court. House (marked C. H.), all you have to do is to say it is on the third street north of Willow Street, and on the fifth street west of Ash. The stranger could find it at once, and thus you might direct him to any part of the city. Tell me, in the same way, where the State House is(S.); the Market (M.); the Public Library (L.) ; the City Hall (H.) ; the Savings Bank (B.). In what direction is the State House from the Market? The Market from the Library ? The City Hallf rom the State House? The Savings Bank from the City Hall? The Market from the State House? Thus, if you could draw a set of lines on the earth's surface, running east and west, and another set running north and south, you could fix the position of places without any difficulty, and ascertain their direction from each other. This is pre- cisely what is done by the lines of latitude and longitude; although they are not real, but imaginary lines. Questions. — Name the circles which divide the surface of the globe. — What is a Circle? — How is every Circle divided? — What is a Great Circle? — What is a Hemisphere? — How long is a degree of a great circle? —What is a Small Circle? — What is the Equator? — Define Parallels of Latitude. — What is the Horizon? — What is the Zenith? — What is Latitude? — On what circles is it measured? — How many degrees of North Latitude are there? — How many of South? — If a place is said to be in ten degrees of North Latitude, on which side of the Equator is it? — If you are told that .a place is in the thirty-third degree of South Latitude, how far, and in what direction, is it from the Equator? LESSON V. DIVISION OF THE EARTH BY CIRCLES. I. Meridians of Longitude are imaginary lines encircling the earth from north to south, and passing through both Poles. The meri- dian of any place is a line passing through that place from the North to the South Pole. The meridians are represented on maps by lines running across them from north to south. II. Longitude is distance from any given meridian, east or west. It is measured on the Equator, or on parallels. The length of a degree* on the Equator is nearly the same as that of a degree of latitude. On the 20th parallel it is 65 miles ; on the 40th parallel it is 53 miles; on the 60th parallel it is 82 J males; and on the 80th parallel it is 12 miles. III. The meridian from which longitude is reckoned is called the Eirst Meridian. The Equator is the lino universally agreed upon from which to reckon latitude; but no such line has been agreed upon by different countries from, which to _. 8 COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGKAPHY. compute longitude. The English reckon from the meridian of Greenwich, near London ; the French, from that of Paris. In the United States we commonly adopt the meridian of Greenwich; though longitude is often computed from that of Wash- ington. The meridian which passes through Greenwich is marked with a cipher (0). There arc 180 degrees of East, and 180 degrees of West Longitude. All places cast of the meridian of Greenwich are iu East Longitude ; all places west of it, in West Longitude. These degrees are numbered on the top and bottom of maps, or upon the Equator. If the numbers increase from the left towards the right of the map, the section represented is in East Longitude ; if from the right towards the left, it is in West Longitude. On globes and maps, the meridians and parallels are generally cither curved or slanting. In finding the direction, therefore, of one place from another, you must follow the course of the line of longitude or latitude. IV. Parallels of Latitude and Meridians of Longitude. — These circles enable us to ascertain the position of places, and their dis- tance and direction from each other. V. Those who live on the same meridian have their noon or midnight at the same moment. Those who live on the same par- allel have an equal length of day and night. Antipodes are those who live on exactly opposite sides of the globe. Questions. — What are meridians of longitude ? — What is the meridian of a place ? — How are meridians marked on maps ? — What is longitude?, — On what is it mea- sured? — How does the length of degrees of longitude vary? — What do you mean by first meridian? — Do all nations reckon longitude from the same meridian ? — What meridian is generally adopted in the United States? — How can you tell whether a place is in East or West Longitude ? How is the meridian of Greenwich marked on the map ? — Suppose you should follow that meridian from the Equator to the South Pole : in what direction would you go? — In following the s-ame meridian to the North Pole, in what direction would you go? — Of what use are parallels and meridians? — What places have noon at the same time? — What places have an equal length of day and night ?- Define antipodes.— LESSON VI, ZONES. I. The hottest part of the earth is in the vicinity of the Equator, for the sun is more nearly overhead there, throughout the entire year, than in any other part of the globe. Going from the Equator to the Poles, the climate constantly grows colder. On account of these differences in climate, the surface of the earth is divided into five distinct zones or belts. The Torrid Zone extends about 23J degrees of latitude on each side of the Equator. The Frigid Zones extend around each Pole for nearly 23 \ degrees from it: one is the North Frigid — the other the South Frigid Zone. The Temperate Zones are between the Torrid and Frigid Zones: one is the North Temperate— the other, the South Temperate Zone. The T«mperate Zones are each a little more than 43 degrees wide. II. The Tropical Circles are those parallels of latitude which mark the boundaries of the Torrid Zone. The northern is the Tropic of Cancer : the southern, the Tropic of Capricorn. The countries between these circles are called tropical countries. The Polar Circles are those parallels of latitude which mark the boun- daries of the Frigid Zones. The northern is the Arctic : the south- era the Antarctic Circle. III. The Seasons. — During the earth's annual course around the sun, the seasons change, in the Temperate Zones, from winter to spring, from spring to summer, from summer to autumn, and from autumn to winter. The seasons in the Northern Hemisphere occur at opposite periods to those in the Southern. IV. The Frigid Zones have but two seasons — a long, cold winter, and a short summer. Winter and summer succeed each other so rapidly that spring and autumn are hardly perceptible. While it is winter in the North Frigid, it is summer in the South Frigid Zone. V. The Torrid Zone has two seasons — the wet, and the dry. It has no winter and summer, properly speaking. The dry season, in the northern half of the Torrid Zone, continues from October to April. During this time it is the wet season in the southern half. The wet season of the northern part continues from April to October ; during this period it is the dry season in the southern portion. VI. The Temperate Zones have four seasons — Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter. While it is spring in the North Temperate, it is autumn in the South Temperate Zone ; and when it is summer in the North Temperate, it is winter in the South Temperate Zone. Questions. — Where do we find the hottest part of the earth ? — Why is the heat so great in that vicinity ? — What change is observed in passing from the Equator to tho Poles? — How many zones are there? — How many seasons have the Frigid Zones? — How many the Temperate? — The Torrid? — When it is summer in the North Frigid Zone, what season is it in the South Frigid ? — When it is winter in the North Temperate Zone, what season is it in the South Temperate ? — When it is the dry sea- son in the southern half of the Torrid Zone, what season is it in the northern half? In what months is the dry season in the northern half of the Torrid Zone? — The wet season? — What are the months of the wet season in the northern half? — In the southern? — What Beason is it now in the North Temperate Zone? — In the South Temperate? LESSON VII. DAYS AND NIGHTS. I. The length of the days and nights is not the same in all parts of the world. II. In the Torrid Zone the days and nights are of nearly equal length throughout the year — that is, about twelve hours each. At the Equator they are each twelve hours long throughout the year. Leaving the Equator, the length of the days and of the nights becomes unequal ; and this inequality increases as we advance towards the Poles. III. In the Temperate Zones they are of very unequal length — the days in summer being more, and the nights less, than twelve hours ; while in winter the days are shorter, and the nights longer, than twelve hours. This inequality increases towards the Polar Circles, which are the limits of the Temperate Zones. At these circles the longest day is twenty-four hours — that is, the sun does not set on that day. IV. In the Frigid Zones, the days and nights are still more unequal in length than in the Temperate. At the Polar Circles the longest day is twenty-four hours, and its length increases towards the Poles — the sun frequently being above or below the horizon for days and weeks together. At the Poles, the days and nights are each six month*dong. Questions. — Are the days or nights, at the Equator, ever more than twelve hours long ? — Are they more than twelve hours long in any part of the world ? — When are the days longest in the Temperate Zones: in summer, or in winter? — When are the nights longest? — At what part of the Temperate Zones are the summer days long- I est: near the Tropics, or the Polar Circles? — How long is the longest day at the J Polar Circles? — Does the length of the days, in summer, increase or diminish from the Polar Circles to the Poles? — How long is the day at the Poles? — The night? — 1 Is the Day, at the Poles, summer or winter ? MAPS AND GLOBES. J6 north rm. K g worth por.r g iot j 11 FoE* LESSON VIII. MAPS, GLOBES, AND CHARTS. r* I. A Map is a representation of the whole or a part of the earth's surface on a plane. Maps exhibit the lines of latitude and longitude; the Equator; the tropical and polar circles; and the position of continents, islands, oceans, mountains, rivers, countries, and towns. Maps enable us to see at once the form of the various bodies of land and water, and their direction from each other. They assist us in comparing the sizes of different countries, and in estimating the distance from one place to another. II. North is towards the top of the map ; South is towards the bottom ; East is towards the right hand ; and West is towards the left hand. III. The best representation of the whole earth is by an artificial globe, which is a ball, on which are drawn the various objects, as on a map. On a globe we see only one hemisphere at a time. IV. If we should cut a globe into halves, and place them side by side, with the curved sides toward us, we should have nearly the same view of the earth's surface as that presented by a map of the hemispheres — such as the one above. V. The scale of a map is useful in computing the distances between different places. VI. A chart differs from a map in always having the meridians and parallels drawn as straight lines. For this reason they are chiefly used by navigators. Questions. — What is a map? — What do maps exhibit? — What is the use of maps? — Towards what part of the map is North? — South? — East? — West? What is the best representation of the whole earth ? — What kind of a view of the earth is presented by a map of the hemispheres? — Of what use is the scale of a map? — Suppose on a map, the scale of which is 50 miles to the inch, two places are three inches apart: what distance arc they from each other? — What is a Chart? 2 SOUTH fOLki S LESSON IX. QUESTIONS ON LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. [Note. — These questions may be answered from the map at the top of the page.] Is North America in North or South Latitude? — Why ? — Europe? — Why ? — Australia? — Why? — In what latitude is the greater part of South America? — Is any part of Asia in South Latitude? — Is any part of Africa in North Latitude? — In South Latitude? — Is any part of South America in North Latitude? In what longitude (from the meridian of Greenwich) is South America? — Aus- tralia? — Asia? — North America? — Is any part of Africa in West Longitude? — In what longitude is the greater part of Europe? — Why? On a certain day, the ship "Flying Cloud" was in 20° of North Latitude: can you tell me whether she was in the Atlantic, or in the Pacific Ocean ? — Suppose I also say that she was in 140° of West Longitude: can you now tell me in what ocean she was? — In what direction was she from North America? — From South America? — How many degrees from the Equator? — From the South Pole? — The North Pole? The ship "Storm King" was lost in a hurricane in 20° South Latitude, and 80° East Longitude: in what ocean was this vessel wrecked ? — In what direction from Africa was this ship? — From Asia? — From Australia? — How far was it from the Equator? — From the South Pole? Suppose two ships are at the Equator — one in 180°, the other in 40°, of West Longitude: how many degrees apart are they ? — How many miles ? — Suppose they each sail directly north to 60° of North Latitude : are they any nearer to each other than before? — How far north would they have to go, in order to meet? QUESTIONS ON ZONES. How many degrees on each side of the Equator does the Torrid Zone extend ? — How many degrees wide, then, is the Torrid Zone? — How many degrees wide are the Frigid Zones? — The Temperate Zones? — How many miles wide is each of these zones, reckoning 70 miles to a degree ? — How many degrees from the Equator are the Tropical Circles? How many degrees from the Poles arc the Polar Circles? — Between what circles is the Torrid Zone included ? — The North Temperate? — The South Temperate? — At what latitude would a ship enter the North Temperate Zone, in sailing from the Equator? What, is the meaning of Torrid ? — Frigid? — Arctic? — Antarctic ? — Australia ? [Questions of this kind, which will be found in many of the succeeding lessons, are answered in the Pronouncing Vocabulary at the end of the book.] 10 COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGEAPHY. LESSON X. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. I. Physical Geography treats of' the land and water into which the earth's surface is divided ; of the atmosphere which surrounds the earth ; and of the animals and plants which live upon it. II. The surface of the earth consists of land and water, — about one-fourth being land, and three-fourths water. III. The land surface of the earth is divided into continents and islands. Various parts of these divisions receive different names, according to their size, shape, or some other circumstance. Tho principal of them are peninsulas, capes, and isthmuses. Such divisions as continents, islands, and peninsulas are called natural, to distin- guish them from divisions formed by man, such as States and Countries. IV. A Continent is a great body of land, containing many countries. There are two continents — the Eastern and the Western. Australia is sometimes considered a continent, but in this book it is classed among islands. A tract of uninhabited land, south of Australia, first discovered in 1840, is known as the Antarctic Continent. It is not however, strictly speaking, a continent. V. An Island is a body of land entirely surrounded by water. A number of islands, closely clustered together, form an Archipelago. This term is also applied to a sea interspersed with islands. Islands differ from continents only in size — both being surrounded by water. VI. A Peninsnla is a body of land nearly surrounded by water. Africa and South America are the largest peninsulas. VII. A Cape is a point of land extending into the water. VIII. An Isthmus is a narrow neck of land which connects two larger bodies of land. The Isthmus of Panama connects North and South America. IX. A Coast or Shore is the land bordering on the water. Questions. — What is Physical Geography? — When you are learning about islands are you studying Mathematical or Physical Geography? — In what division of geography do you learn the movements of the earth? — Of what does the surface of the earth consist? — How much greater portion of it is water than land? — What is the difference between a continent and an island? — Why are such divisions as continents and islands called natural divisions? Should we call Australia a continent, if it were three or four times as large as it really is? — What is an island? — An archipelago? — What is a peninsula? — A cape? — An isthmus? — A coast?' — What do you mean by the coast of North America? — Spell the following words: Physical, Archipelago, Peninsula, Isthmus, Darien. — What is the meaning of Peninsula? — Capo? — Isthmus? LESSON XI. SURFACE OP THE LAND. I. The land surface of the earth is diversified by plains, moun- tains, hills, table-lands, and valleys. • II. A Plain is a tract of land nearly level. Some plains appear perfectly flat, while others have a rolling surface, like many of our western prairies. III. A Mountain is a tract of land which rises considerably above the general surface. IV. Elevations of less than two thousand feet, are usually called hills. The base of a mountain, or hill, is that upon which it rests. We reckon the height of mountains not from the base, but from the level of the ocean ; which is the same in all parts of the world, and therefore forms a fixed standard for com- paring the heights of mountains. Mountains are seldom found single, but are generally in groups or chains. A mountain-chain is an irregular mass of elevated land, which is sometimes several thousand miles long, and more than a hundred wide. A chain of mountains is also called a ridge, or range. A number of chains, extending in the same general direc- tion, constitute what is called a mountain-system. MOUNTAIN SCENERY. Mountains do not often rise abruptly from the level surface of a plain; tho ground, for some distance around the base, is usually broken into hills. V. A Volcano is a mountain which casts out fire, smoke, melted lava, or other substances, from its interior. It is supposed that the interior of the earth is a mass of fire, to which the volca- noes serve as chimneys. There are more than four hundred volcanoes upon tho globe. VI. A Table-land, or Plateau, is an elevated plain, rising some- what abruptly from the surrounding surface. Plateaus are gen- erally crossed by mountain-chains. VII. A Valley is a tract of country situated between mountains or hills. A valley may be a narrow space between the sides of mountains, or it may be a broad and level plain, thousands of miles in extent. VIII. A Desert is a tract of land which is nearly or wholly barren. A fertile spot in the midst of a desert is called an Oasis. Deserts are generally composed of sand or gravel. They sometimes contain tracts of clay and of salt marsh, and occasionally produce a scanty growth of coarse grass. They may be either table-lands or plains. Questions. — How is the land surface of the earth diversified? — What is a plain? — Is there a plain in your neighborhood ? — What is the difference between a moun- tain and a hill? — What is the base of a mountain? — Why is the height of moun- tains reckoned from the level of the sea? — Are mountains commonly found single? — Describe the formation of a mountain-chain. — Do mountains rise abruptly from a level surface? — What is a volcano? — What is the use of volcanoes? — What is the difference between a plateau and a plain? — By what are plateaus generally crossed? — What is a valley? — Can a valley be a plain? — Are deserts always per- fectly barren? — Of what are they composed? — Are they always low plains? — What is an Oasis ? — Spell Plateau ; Volcano. WATEE. — LAKES AND EIVEES, 11 LESSON XII. WATER. I. The waters of the earth consist of the ocean and its various divisions; and of lakes and rivers. II. The Ocean, or Sea, is that great body of salt water which covers nearly three-fourths of the surface of the earth. The Ocean is divided into five principal parts, which are also called oceans, — the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic, and Antarctic. III. Parts of the ocean near the land, or extending into it, are sometimes called seas, gulfs, bays, sounds, harbors, straits, or chan- nels. IV. A Sea, Gulf, Bay, or Bight is a body of water nearly sur- rounded by land; as the Mediterranean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, Hudson Bay, the Bight of Benin. In a few cases, however, they are more open to the ocean; as the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and the Bay of Biscay. There is but little difference between a sea, a gulf, and a bay ; though most bays are smaller than seas or gulfs. V. A Sound is a passage of water so shallow that its depth may be easily measured. VI. A Harbor is a small inlet, so sheltered from the open sea as to afford safety to vessels. A harbor, in order to be good, must be nearly surrounded by land ; it should have deep water, and be easy of entrance. Where the coast is low and sandy, the harbors are not very good, for the water is shallow, and the entrance obstructed by sand- bars. A sand-bar is a bank of sand, rising to within a few feet of the surface. If a vessel draws so many feet of water (that is, sinks so many feet deep in floating) as to strike against the sand-bar, she cannot enter the harbor. VII. A Strait or Channel is a narrow passage connecting two large bodies of water. Questions, — Of what do the waters of the earth consist? — What is the ocean? — What are its principal divisions ? — What arc those parts of the ocean called which are near the land? — What is a sea, gulf, or bay ? — Is there much difference between them? — What is a sound? — A harbor? — Can a harbor be good which has very shallow water? — What danger would there be in having sunken rocks near the entrance? — What disadvantage in having a sand-bar at the entrance? If a vessel draws ten feet of water, can she cross a sand-bar which is within eight feet of the surface? — What do you mean by saying that a vessel draws ten feet of water? — Suppose a harbor is not well protected by the land, what danger would there be to vessels lying within it? — What is a strait? LESSON XIII. LAKES AND R-IVERS. I. A Lake is a body of water surrounded by land. The greater number of lakes have rivers flowing into them, and from them. Lakes which have no outlet are generally salt ; these are often called seas. II. A River is a stream of fresh water which flows into the sea, or into some other body of water. A River System is a collection of rivers flowing into the same ocean, sea, bay, gulf, or other large river. *°° t^MOVTUS OF Their III. The Source of a river is the place where it rises. Its Mouth is where it empties. Rivers are usually formed of small streams flowing from springs among the mountains and hills. Some, however, flow directly from lakes ; while others have their source from the melting of great masses of ice called Glaciers, which cover the summits of many mountains. Most great rivers flow into the sea by several mouths. The space included be- tween the two outside streams is called a Delta, because it is shaped somewhat like a letter of the Greek alphabet, A, called delta. A very wide mouth, like that of the Amazon, is called an Estuary, Firth, Frith, or Fiord. IV. Rivers generally rise among mountains or hills, course depends upon the slope of the land. The land generally slopes from the interior towards the sea. Where the moun- tains are near the coast, the slope towards the sea is steep and abrupt; the rivers on that side, therefore, are short, and rapid. If the mountains are far from the sea, the slope is gradual ; the rivers then are long, and have a gentle current. V. The Bed of a river is the channel within which its waters are confined, and is bordered by its Banks. The right and left banks are those on the right and left sides in going down the stream — that is, from the source to the mouth. The Current of a river is the onward flow of its waters towards the mouth. When the bed slopes considerably, the river flows with great speed and violence, forming a Rapid. If the descent is steep and sudden, a Water-fall is formed. A small water-fall is a Cascade ; a great one is a Cataract. Where the river flows through a level country, there are neither rapids nor water-falls. VI. The Basin, or Valley, of a river, is the extent of country which is drained by the river with all its tributaries. If you draw a line on the map, passing through the source of a river, and of every river and stream which flows into it, the line will form the boundary of its Basin. VII. A Water-shed is the elevated land which separates two rivers, or series of rivers; one series flowing down one sjope, and the other flowing down another slope in a different direction. VIII. Rivers generally afford an easy means of reaching the interior of a country. When men begin to settle a new country, they generally select a place near a river ; because they can more readily communicate with other settlements by way of the river, than by travelling on land, where there are at first no roads. The soil, too, is commonly more fertile. In this way, villages, towns, and cities spring up on the banks of navigable rivers. Most of the great cities in the world are situ- ated upon rivers. A navigable river is one on which vessels can navigate, or sail. Rapids and falls obstruct the navigation of a river, though a channel, or canal, is sometimes made around them. Questions. — What Is a lake? — Do rivers ever flow into lakes? — Do they ever flow from them? — What lakes are generally salt? — What is a river? — What is the source of a river? — What is its mouth? — What is the delta of a river? — What is an estuary? — Where do rivers generally rise? — Upon what does their course depend ? What is the bed of a river? — In sailing towards the mouth, which bank is on your right hand? — In sailing up a river, which bank is on your left hand? — What produces a rapid? — A cataract? — Would there be any difficulty in sailing up a rapid? — Why? — Which is most likely to have rapids and falls: a level or a hilly country? — What is a river-basin? — How can you mark out the limits of a river-basin? — What is a water-shed? — Why do men, in settling a new country, select a place near a river? — Where are most of the great cities of the world situ- ated? — What is a navigable river? 12 COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGKAPHY. Tns frigid zones. THE TEMPERATE ZONES. THE TORRID ZONE. LESSON XIV. CLIMATE. I. By the Climate of a country, we mean its degree of heat or cold ; moisture or dryness, healthfulness or unhealthfulness. The Temperature of a place (that is, the degree of heat or cold) depends principally upon its distance from the Equator. There are numerous exceptions, however, to this general law; some places, more remote from the Equator, being warmer than others which are nearer to it. II. The Temperature of a place also depends upon its elevation above the level of the sea, and its vicinity to the ocean. The higher you ascend above the general surface, the colder the air becomes. The effects of this are strikingly shown in tropical countries, where in ascending a mountain only three or four miles high, you pass through as many changes of cli- mate as in travelling from the Equator to the Poles. Even at the Equator, the sum- mits of lofty mountains are perpetually covered with snow. The more equal temperature of the ocean generally gives to places on or near the coast, cooler summers and warmer winters than others in the same latitude in the interior of a country. III. In the Torrid Zone the heat is very great throughout the year, for the wet and dry seasons have nearly the same tempera- ture. Snow and ice are unknown, except among the mountains. In the dry season, little or no rain falls, and the sky is usually cloudless. In the wet season, copious showers fall nearly every day, and violent thunder-storms are frequent. IV. The Temperate Zones are characterized by a cold winter and a hot summer ; though neither the heat nor cold is so excessive as in other zones. For several degrees from the Tropics, the climate is like that of the Torrid Zone, and there is no strong contrast between the temperature of the summer and the winter. Advancing towards the Polar Circles, the winters become very cold, and the summers, though short, are yet very hot. V. In the Frigid Zones, the cold is very severe. Near the Poles, the ground is perpetually covered with snow and ice, which arc only partially thawed in summer. Great fields of ice, many miles in extent, float about in the Polar Seas; and huge blocks of fresh-water ice, called ice-bergs (ice-mountains), render the navigation extremely perilous. • Questions. — What is meant by climate? — What is temperature? — Upon what does the temperature of a place chiefly depend ? — What else influences the climate of a place? — If you were to go up in a balloon, would you find the air growing colder, or warmer? — What is the climate of the Torrid Zone? — Where would you find snow in this zone ? — What is the climate of the Temperate Zones? — Is it every- where the same? — What parts are like the Torrid Zone? — Where are the winters coldest in this zone: near the Polar or Tropical Circles? — What is the climate of the Frigid Zone? LESSON XV. VEGETATION. I. The vegetable productions of the earth vary with the climate. The term vegetation, or vegetable productions, includes trees, flowers, fruits, grains, grasses, and all other plants. II. Vegetation is most luxuriant in tropical countries. The excessive moisture and intense heat produce trees of enormous size, flowers of the most brilliant colors, and climbing-plants in great number and variety. The most important tropical productions are yams, bananas, plantains, bread- fruit, cassava (from which tapioca is made), sago, cocoa-nuts, and the cacao or cocoa tree (from the seeds of the fruit of which chocolate and cocoa are prepared). Many delicious fruits are also produced in the Torrid Zone — such as pine-apples, oranges, lemons, and citrons. Spices — such as pepper, cinnamon, cloves, and nutmegs — come from tropical countries; and many kinds of beautiful wood, as mahogany and rosewood, grow there in great abundance. The vegetation of the Torrid Zone continues green i\ ANIMALS. — MAN 13 throughout the year; while, with some exceptions, the plants of other regions cast their leaves in winter. III. On leaving the Torrid Zone, tropical plants gradually dis- appear. Instead of the palm and banana trees, we find the beech, oak, maple, and pine. The Temperate Zones are the regions of the grape-vine, the potato, and of various grains — such as wheat, Indian corn, barley, oats, and rye. Hemp and flax thrive best in these zones. Many of the most important vegetable productions grow both in the Torrid and in the warmer parts of the Temperate Zones. Among these are rice, cotton, coffee, tobacco, and the sugar-cane. Tea is principally produced in the Temperate Zone. IV. In the Frigid Zones, trees dwindle into mere shrubs ; and in the regions of perpetual snow, no vegetation exists, except a few minute plants that grow upon the surface of the snow. V. In ascending from the base of mountains and table-lands, the same changes in the character of vegetation are found. as in going towards the Poles ; so that a tropical mountain, of great elevation, possesses the climate and many of the productions of every zone. Questions. — What does the term vegetation include? — Where is it most luxuri- ant? — What trees grow in the Temperate Zones? — What kinds of grain? — What is the vegetation of the Frigid Zones? — In which zone do yams, bananas, and plan- tains grow? — Wheat, rye, oats, and barley? — Name some of the fruits of the Tor- rid Zone. — What fruits are raised in your vicinity? — What spiceg grow in the Tor- rid Zone? — From what plant is tapioca made? — Sugar? — From what plant are chocolate and cocoa made? — Where does sago come from? — In what zones are cotton, rice, and tobacco raised? LESSON XVI ANIMALS. I. The character of the animals which inhabit the earth varies with the climate and vegetation. . II. In the Torrid Zone we find the largest, strongest, and most ferocious land animals. A great variety of birds, and vast numbers of dangerous reptiles and troublesome insects, are also found in this zone. The birds, fishes, insects, serpents, and many of the wild beasts, are adorned with the most brilliant and beautiful colors. Among the most remarkable animals living within or near the Tropics, are the elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, giraffe, camel, lion, tiger, jackal, leopard, and hyena. These animals, however, are not found in the Western Continent. The monkey is confined almost entirely to tropical regions. The boa constrictor and crocodile are among the most formidable reptiles. III. In the Temperate regions we find the buffalo, bear, deer, wolf, fox, and wild-cat. Eeptiles and insects become fewer, smaller, and less troublesome. ' The birds have not so gorgeous a plumage, but they are more melodious.- IV. In the Polar regions, the animals have a less brilliant color. There are no reptiles, and but few insects. The variety of animals is not so great in the Arctic regions as elsewhere, but the number especially of birds and fishes is immense. The principal land animals are reindeer, bears, wolves, foxes, sables, and ermine. Whales, seals, narwhals, wal- ruses, and vast shoals of fishes, are found in the Polar Seas. Great flocks of ducks, geese, and other birds, hover in countless numbers over the islands and along the shores of these cold regions. V. In ascending from the base of tropical mountains, we find the same changes of animal life that are observed in passing from the j Equator to the Poles. I . VI. Most animals can exist only in the climate for which they are by nature adapted. The reindeer and polar bear cannot endure the warmth of the Temperate and Torrid Zones; nor could the lion and tiger long survive the rigors of an Arctic winter. On this account, a lofty chain of mountains forms an impassable barrier for tho animals living on opposite sides; for in crossing the mountains, they would have to enter a different climate from that in which they are formed to live. Many of the most useful domestic animals, however, such as the ox, horse, sheep, goat, hog, and dog, are found in almost every part of the world which is inhabited by man. Questions. — Where do we find the largest and fiercest animals? — The greatest number of serpents and insects? — Mention the most remarkable animals of the Torrid Zone. — Mention all the tropical animals that you have seen. — Which of the tropical animals are not found in the Western Continent? — What arc the principal animals of the Temperate Zones? — Name the principal animals of the Frigid Zones. — Can the animals of one zone generally live in another? — Why does a chain of high mountains usually form a barrier to animals on each side? — What useful ani- mals can live in almost any part of the world? LESSON XVII. MAN. I. The Earth was made for Man; hence, he is found in every country, and in every climate. Men can adapt the warmth or lightness of their clothing to the climate in which they live. They can also derive nourishment from various kinds of food. If it were not so, they could not occupy, and have dominion over, the whole earth. f In the Frigid Zone, where there is little or no vegetable food, men subsist almost wholly on animals. In the Torrid Zone, they live almost entirely on vegetable food, which is best suited to health in a hot climate. In the Temperate Zones, where animal and vegetable food are both abundant, men partake of both. II. The most intelligent and highly civilized nations live in the Temperate Zones. The inhabitants of the Torrid Zone are languid and indolent from the excessive heat; while in the barren regions' near the Poles, men can only procure - the mere necessaries of life. III. Mankind is divided into five varieties, or races, differing from each other by certain characteristic features. 1. The Caucasian, or White race. — Most of the nations of Europe and America belong to this race. The Caucasian race is superior to all others in intelligence, energy, and courage. 2. The Mongolian, or Yellow race, is found chiefly in Asia. The Chinese and Japanese belong to the Mongolian race. 3. The Ethiopian, or Black race, includes all the natives of Africa, except those of the northern part ; the natives of Australia, and some of the neighboring islands, and the negroes of America. 4. The Malay, or Brown race, inhabit most of the islands of the Pacific Ocean, the Peninsula of Malacca (in Asia), and many of the adjacent islands. 5. The American, or Bed race, includes all the Indians of the Western Continent, except the Esquimaux,. in the extreme north, who belong to the Mongolian race. Questions. — Are men confined to any one country or climate? — Why are men able to accommodate themselves to various degrees of heat and cold? Are they confined to any one kind of food? — If they were, what would bo the effect? Upon what kind of food do men live in the Frigid Zones? — Upon what do men live in the Torrid Zone? — In the Temperate Zones? — In what zones do the most intelligent nations live? Into how many races is mankind divided? — Do they all look alike? — Which is the most intelligent race? — Which are the most important, branches of this race? Where is the Mongolian race chiefly found? — The Ethiopian? — The Malay? The American? — -To what race do the Chinese and Japanese belong? — The American Indians? — The Esquimaux? — Most of the Africans? — The Australians? — The natives of the islands of the Pacific? — The natives of Malacca? — Most of the European nations? 14 COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY, LESSON XVIII. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. I. Political Geography treats of the division of the world into various countries or States ; and of the state of society, government, religion, and occupation of the inhabitants. II. States of Society. — The various nations and tribes of men differ greatly in regard to knowledge and manner of living. For this reason they are sometimes divided into four classes — the sav- age, barbarous, half-civilized, and civilized. III. Savages are the lowest and most degraded class. They do not cultivate the soil, but live on roots and wild fruit, or by hunt- ing and fishing. Some tribes are ignorant of the use of fire, and eat their food raw. They have scarcely any regular laws, and no large towns or cities. The American Indians, many of the negro tribes of Africa, and all the native tribes of Australia, are savages. IV. In the barbarous state, men are somewhat more advanced than in the savage. They keep many horses, cattle, and other animals, with which they wander about from place to place, wher- ever they can find pasturage. They generally live in tents, and pay little attention to agriculture, but derive their support from their flocks and herds, and from hunting and fishing. The wandering tribes of Arabia and of Tartary belong to this class. V. Savage and barbarous nations are almost always engaged in war. They are addicted to plunder and robbery — are *cruel and revengeful, and generally treat their women as inferior beings. Questions. — What is Political Geography? — What department of Geography arc you learning when you study the government of a country ? — Its plains, mountains, and rivers? — When you are studying about Latitude and Longitude? Are all nations of men equally intelligent and civilized? — Into what classes arc they divided? — Which is the- lowest class? — Upon what do savages live? — Are there farmers and mechanics among savage tribes? — Do savages have large towns and cities ? — If a tribe is ignorant of the use of fire, how must they cat their food ? — To what class do the American Indians belong ? — The negroes of Africa and Australia ? Which is the more advanced: the savage or the barbarous state? — How do bar- barous tribes support themselves? — Do they generally live in towns? — Why do they lead a wandering life? — What examples of barbarous tribes can you mention? Are savage and barbarous nations of a peaceful character? — How are women treated by tlicni ? LESSON XIX. STATES OP SOCIETY. I. Half-civilized nations carry on agriculture with considerable skill. They build houses and ships — have books, and some degree of learning — and are acquainted with many other useful arts ; but they are jealous of strangers, and have very little communication with foreign countries. For this reason they make but little progress, and continue for centuries in the same condition. Most of the half-civilized nations belong to the Mongolian race, and inhabit the Eastern Continent. The Chinese, Japanese, Persians, Turks, and Hindoos, are half-civilized. II. Among civilized nations, agriculture, manufactures, and other arts, reach their highest perfection. While the miserable savage goes naked, or clothes himself with the skins of beasts, the civilized man is supplied with the productions and luxuries of every country and of every climate. He can measure the size and distance of the heavenly bodies, which the savage ignorantly worships as gods. Civilized nations rapidly advance in knowledge ; for they maintain a constant communication with each other, and with the remotest parts of the earth. They have colleges, churches, hospitals, schools, and many other useful institutions. Most of the civilized nations belong to the Caucasian race. Nearly all the inhabitants of Europe, and their descendants in America and ether parts of the world, belong to this class. Questions. — What is the next state of society after the barbarous? — With what arts are half-civilized nations acquainted? — Are these known by savage or bar- barous tribes? — Why do half-civilized nations make but little progress? — What are the chief nations of this class? — In what Btate of society are agriculture and manufactures most advanced? — What striking points of difference exist between the savage and the civilized man? — What advantages may a people derive from a communication with foreign nations? — Do the half-civilized nations avail them- selves of this advantage? — Do the civilized? What savage tribes are there in America? — To which of the five races do they belong? — Are there any civilized nations in America? — To what class of society do most of the nations of Europe belong? — Suppose each nation were to cut off all communication with other countries: would its progress be advanced, or retarded? — Are there any nations which adopt this course? — To what race do most of tb half-civilized nations belong? — To what the civilized? V- I, tf GOVERNMENT. — EEL IG ION. 15 LESSON XX. GOVERNMENT. I. Government is that form of principles and laws by -which ithe members of a society or nation are governed or controlled. II. Those persons who execute the laws, or see that they are obeyed, are called rulers, or governors. Among savage and barbarous nations there are few established forms of law. The lives and property of the people are generally at the disposal of the chief. III. There are two principal forms of government, a Monarchy and a Republic. There are many other names of governments: as, the Patriarchal, which existed in the early history of the Jews, and is now found among the tribes of American Indians, and among some of the tribes of Arabs; and the Aristocracy and Democracy of the ancient Greeks and Romans. IV. A Monarchy is that form of government in which the supreme authority is possessed by one person, called a monarch, who holds his power for life. Monarchs have different names. Thus, the monarch of an Empire is called an Emperor, Czar, or Sultan; of a Kingdom, a King; of a Principality, a Prince; of a Duchy, a Duke ; of an Electorate, an Elector. The monarch, when a woman, is called a Queen, or Empress. V. An Absolute Monarchy, or Despotism, is a government in which the sovereign rules according to his own will, and has almost uncontrolled power over the lives and property of his subjects. China, Persia, Morocco, and most of the half-civilized countries of the Eastern Continent, are absolute monarchies. VI. A Limited Monarchy is a government in which the power of the sovereign is limited by law. Great Britain is an example of a limited monarchy. VII. A Republic is a government in which the exercise of the sovereign power is lodged in representatives chosen by the people. Most of the States and Countries of the Western Continent are Republics. The United States forms the best example of a Republican government. VIII. In the United States the power of the government is divided into three departments, — the Legislative, the Executive, and the Judicial. The Legislative power makes the laws, and belongs to Congress. Congress is composed of two branches, a Senate and a House of Representatives. The Senate is composed of two members from each State, chosen for six years. The House of Representatives is composed of members from each State, chosen for two years, the number of Representatives depending on the population. The Executive power executes the laws, and is lodged in the President, who is elected for four years by electors chosen by the people. The Judicial power determines all questions of law and justice arising under the Constitution and laws. It consists of a Supreme Court, and a number of Circuit and District Courts / IX. The character of a government depends, in a great degree, on the intelligence of the people. Despotism can exist only among the ignorant and barbarous. Civilized communities understand their rights and require their rulers to observe and respect them. Questions. — What is government? — Who arc rulers, or governors ? — Where do you find few forms of law ? — What are the two principal forms of government? — Where do you find examples of the Patriarchal government? — Of Aristocracy and Democracy? — Define a Monarchy. — What is an Absolute Monarchy? — Give an example. — What is a Limited Monarchy? — Give an example. — What is a Republic? — Where are most of the Republics found ? — What are the three departments of the United States Government? — What connection is there between the intelligence of a people and their form of government? LESSON XXT. RELIGION. Most, if not all, of the different varieties of the human race appear to have some idea of a Supreme Being. Even the most savage tribes believe in a future state, and in some invisible power of good or evil. These different ideas constitute the various forms of religion which prevail in the world. I. The principal forms of religion are the Christian, Jewish, Mohammedan, and Pagan. II. Christians believe in Jesus Christ as the Saviour of mankind, and in the Old and New Testament as the Word of God. The Christian religion is professed by the most enlightened nations of the earth. The three great classes of its followers are Roman Catholics, Protestants, and adherents of the Greek Church. The French, Spaniards, Italians, many of the Germans, and the principal part of the inhabitants of Mexico and South America, are Catholics. The inhabitants of the United States, Great Britain, and some countries of Northern Europe, are chiefly Protestants. The Russians and Greeks belong to the Greek Church. III. Jews believe in the Old Testament as the Word of God. They reject Christ and his Gospel, and expect a Messiah, or Saviour, yet to come. The Jews once inhabited the Holy Land. They are now scattered throughout nearly all parts of the world. IV. Mohammedans are followers of the false prophet Mohammed who lived in Arabia about 600 years after Christ. They believe in one God, and that Mohammed is his prophet. They consider Moses and Christ as true prophets, but Mohammed as the greatest and last. The Mohammedans are found in Turkey ,* Northern Africa, Arabia, Persia, and many other parts of Asia. V. Pagans believe in false gods, and worship many different objects : as idols, beasts, and serpents. The greater part of the inhabitants of Asia and Africa, nearly all of the native tribes of the islands of the Pacific, together with the Indians of America, are Pagans. Among some heathen tribes, as in Africa, India, and the Islands of the Pacific Ocean, the horrid practice of human sacrifice is connected with their religious worship. VI. About one-half of the people upon the globe are Pagans ; about one-third are Christians ; nearly one-sixth are Mohamme- dans; and there are about four millions of Jews. Christian nations are more powerful, and much more advanced in knowledge, than any others. Their power also is continually increasing. They have colonies in many Pagan countries. They send missionaries to the remotest parts of tho earth. They establish schools, and other useful institutions ; and there is little doubt that in the course of a few generations, the Christian religion will be spread over the greater part of the earth. Questions. — What are the principal forms of religion upon the globe? — What do Christians believe? — How does their belief differ from that of the Jews? — Name the three classes of Christians. — What is the character of Christian nations? — Where do the Jews live? t Who was Mohammed? — How long ago did he live? — Where are the Mohamme- dans found? — What do they believe? — In what do Pagans believe? — What do they worship? — What Pagan tribes inhabit America? — Is human sacrifice ever practised with religious worship? — Where? — By whom? Which are the most numerous: Pagans or Christians? — What is the estimated number of Jews? — What part of the inhabitants of the globe are Mohammedans ? -rsWhat nations are most powerful? 16 COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGKAPHY. LESSON XXII. LESSON XXIII. BRANCHES OP INDUSTRY. I. Among civilized nations men are engaged in obtaining the natural products of the land and water, in manufactures, and. in commerce. II. The natural products of the land and water are animal, vege- table, and mineral. Every substance in the world belongs to one of these classes. III. Animal productions consist of land animals, either in a wild or domestic state, and of fish. In a thinly settled country, where wild animals are numerous, hunting is a favorite occupation. In cold countries, many animals arc hunted for their furs, which are very valuable. IY. In countries where good pasturage is abundant, grazing — or the feeding of cattle upon grass — and the raising of live-stock are important occupations. The term live-stock includes cattle (that is, oxen and cows), horses, sheep, goats, and some other animals. The various articles which are obtained from them are included among animal productions, namely : hides, skins, horns, tallow, hair, wool, beef, and pork ; also, milk, butter, cheese, and other products of the dairy. Y. Pishing. — The products of the fisheries are of great value to man. Oil and whale-bone are obtained from the whale ; seal-skin and oil, from the seal ; and vast numbers of cod, salmon, mackerel, herring, and other fish, are salted, or otherwise preserved, for food. Questions. — How are the inhabitants of a civilized country generally employed? — Of what three classes do natural productions consist? — Of what do animal productions consist ? What is a favorite occupation in a thinly-settled country? — Are there any wild animals in the vicinity of the place in which you live? — Is the wolf a wild animal? — Are dogs? — Let each scholar name a wild animal which he has seen. What does live-stock mean? — To what class do the articles which are obtained from these animals belong? — From what animals are hides obtained? — Horns? Tallow ? — Wool ? — Beef ? — Pork ? — Milk, butter, and cheese ? — Oil ? — Whale- bone ? — Seal-skin ? BRANCHES OP INDUSTRY.— Continued. I. Agriculture is the cultivation of the soil. The products of agriculture, and of the forests, form the most important part of vegetable productions. In very warm countries agriculture is not conducted with much skill ; for the fruits grow wild, in great abundance, and little care is required to procure food, shelter, and clothing. Thus, it is said that three of the Bread-Fruit trees will afford one person a constant supply of food. On the other hand, in very cold countries, where the ground is covered with snow the greater part of the year, the soil will not yield a sufficient support, and the people must gain a subsistence by hunting and fishing. II. A temperate climate is favorable to the highest skill in agriculture. In such a climate, few useful plants grow without cultivation ; yet, by cultivation, a great abundance may be pro- duced. For the production of wheat, corn, and other grains com- mon to the Temperate Zones, much labor is required, but such labor is well rewarded. III. Mining is the business of obtaining mineral productions The place where they are obtained is called a mine. The place from which building-stone is taken, is termed a quarry. Mineral productions consist principally of jewels or precious stones; of precious metals, such as gold, silver, and platinum; of useful metals, as iron, tin, load, copper, zinc, and quicksilver; of various kinds of stone, such as marble, granite, sandstone, limestone — useful for building purposes; of coal, salt, and many other minerals, which are obtained beneath the surface of the earth. Questions. — What are the most important vegetable productions? — What is agriculture? — Why is not agriculture conducted with much skill in very warm countries? — In very cold climates? — Why is a temperate climate favorable to agricultural skill? — In what countries is agricultural skill unnecessary? — In what countries is it unsuccessful? — In what is it both necessary and successful. What is mining? — What is a mine? — What is a quarry? — Let each scholar name some jewel or precious stone. — Name the principal precious metals. — The useful metals. — The various kinds of stone. — What other useful minerals can you mention? — Which are most necessary to our comfort and convenience: gold, silver, and diamonds — or iron, lead, coal, and salt? BRANCHES OF INDUSTRY, 17 LESSON XXIV. BRANCHES OF INDUSTRY.— Continued. I. Manufacturing is the art of adapting natural productions to the uses of man. Very fow productions are used in their natural state by men : they must undergo some change to suit their necessity or pleasure. Even the savage, whose wants are few and simple, pounds his corn into meal with, a heavy stone, and fashions his rude war-hatchet and spear. II. In civilized society many different articles are manufactured from animal, vegetable, and mineral productions Such articles are called manufactures. Thus, leather is made from the skins of animals ; cloth from cotton, hemp, and flax ; agricultural and house- hold implements from iron, copper, and tin. It will thus be seen that there are two classes of productions : those which are in a natural state, and those which are manufactured. III. Among the most necessary manufactures are those which are used for food, clothing, and shelter. From grain, milk, and the sugar-cane, various kinds of food and drink are made — some of them wholesome, others very injurious. Thus, grain is made not only into flour and meal, but into ale, beer, whiskey, and other intoxicating drinks. From the sugar-cane are manufactured not only sugar and molasses, but rum. Vast quantities of wino are made from the grape. Among the substances mo9t used for clothing are wool, cotton, leather, flax, and hemp (from which linen is made), and silk. Silk is made from the web of the silk- worm. The silk-worm is fed with the leaves of the mulberry tree, which grows luxuriantly in Southern Europe, China, and India. For building-purposes, wood, stone, clay (for bricks) and iron, are chiefly employed. The principal material used in making glass is sand. IV. The ingenious and costly machinery of our great manufac- turing establishments requires wealth and a high state of civiliza- tion. On that account we must not look for extensive manufactures in a thinly settled country, or among an indolent people. Questions. — What is manufacturing ? — Do men commonly use the productions of the earth in a natural state? — Does the savage manufacture as great a variety of articles as the civilized man ? — From what three classes of substances are manufac- tures derived? — What two classes of productions are there? — What are the most necessary manufactures? — Name some of the substances which are manufactured for food. — From what are ale, beer, and whiskey made? — Wine? — Rum? — Flour? — Butter and cheeso ? — Sugar and molasses? — Which of these articles are most valuable ? Name some of the substances manufactured for clothing ? — From what substance are shoes principally made ? — Coats ? — Hats and caps ? — Bonnets ? — Stockings ? — To which class — animal, vegetable, or mineral — does leather belong? — Wool? Straw? — Cotton ? — Hemp and flax? — From what is linen made? — From what silk? — On what is the silk-worm fed? — From what countries do we obtain silk? Name the substances most used for building. LESSON XXV. BRANCHES OP INDUSTRY.— Continued. I. Commerce is the exchange of goods. When a farmer raises more grain than he wants, he sells the remainder (called the sur- plus,) for something which he does not himself produce. This is the case, too, with the miner, the manufacturer, the fisherman, and §ery other producer. Suppose the farmers of an extensive district raise an abundance of grain and live- stock — they wish to sell tho surplus in order to procure other articles, such as sugar, tea, coffee, furniture, and books. They cannot dispose of their grain and live stock to each other, for each man raises more than he needs for his own use. They cannot spare the time to carry their produce to a distant region: they there- fore take it to some neighboring town. The merchants of that town buy the produce thus furnished by the surrounding country, and export it (send it away) to other places. They also import (bring in) a variety of articles, of which the people stand in need. II. Commercial Towns. — In a prosperous country there are many large commercial towns in the interior and upon the coast, each forming the centre of trade for the surrounding district. A sea-coast town cannot have an extensive foreign commerce, unless the harbor is deep enough to admit large ships — for the commerce with distant countries is not often carried on in small vessels. The interior commercial towns are generally situated upon some large river, or lake, which communicates with the coast. Where these are wanting, a railroad sometimes supplies the deficiency. III. Our own country, so well supplied with noble lakes, rivers, and harbors, contains many great commercial cities which exhibit the advantages of a fortunate position. Thus, if we examine the map of the United States (p. 26), we shall find on the chain of Great Lakes, Chicago, Milwaukie, Detroit, Toledo, Cleveland, and Buffalo. The wheat, corn, and other products of the Great West are forwarded through these cities, along the lakes and by various railroads and canals, to the great Atlantic cities — New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Boston. These latter cities pay for the produce thus received by goods manufactured in their vicinity, or by merchandise imported from foreign countries. In like manner, New Orleans carries on a trade with St. Louis, Cincinnati, and other places in the interior. Questions. — What is commerce? — now do the farmer, miner, fisherman, and manufacturer dispose of their surplus products ? — Name some of the articles which the farmer Wants, in return for his own productions. — What do the merchants in a commercial town do with the productions of the surrounding country? — What do they import? — »A certain country has no iron mines, but manufactures a great amount of cotton goods : which would the people be likely to export ? — To import? Do you generally find many commercial towns in a prosperous country? — Why must a large commercial seaport have a deep harbor? — How are the commercial towns of the interior connected with the coast? — Is our own country well supplied with favorable sites for commercial towns? — Give an example of the way in which commerce is carried on between cities on the coast, and those in the interior. PAET II. DESCRIPTIONS OF COUNTRIES. CHAPTER I. THE HEMISPHERES. I. The entire surface of the globe is represented by the maps of the two hemispheres : — the Eastern, and the Western. The meridian of 20 degrees west from Greenwich is the line usually chosen for the division of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, though any other meridian would answer equally well. This line was adopted because it was supposed to be the meridian of Ferro, one of the Canary Islands. Ferro was the most western land known to the ancients; the region beyond being to them one of doubt and darkness. This island is now known to be a little east of 20°. II. The Western Hemisphere comprises the Western Continent, a small part of the Eastern Continent, a portion of the Antarctic Land, and numerous islands ; besides a part of the Pacific, Atlantic, Arctic, and Antarctic Oceans. There is much more water than land in this hemisphere. III. The Eastern Hemisphere comprises the Eastern Continent (except the north-eastern extremity), a portion of the Antarctic Land, and numerous islands ; besides -the Indian Ocean, and a part of the Pacific, Atlantic, Arctic, and Antarctic Oceans. There is also more water than land in this hemisphere. IV. Except the Antarctic Land, and a few small islands far out at sea, every tract of land now known is included within one of the six Grand Divisions of Asia, Europe, Africa, North America, South America, and Oceanica. Y. The globe may also be divided into a Northern and a Southern Hemisphere; of which the former contains the greater proportion of land — the latter, of water. VI. In the Southern Hemisphere there are various tracts of land lying within the Antarctic Ocean, which may be included in the general name of Antarctic Land. Until the year 1819, no land was known to exist south of the GOth degree of South Latitude. Since that time, navigators have discovered numerous islands and bodies of land, among which are the South Shetland Islands, Graham's Land, Vic- toria Land, and Enderby's Land. The most extensive tract yet known, in that part of the world, is called the Ant- arctic Continent, situated about 2000 miles south of Australia. It was discovered in 1840, by Captain Wilkes, of the American Navy. He sailed along the coast a distance of 1700 miles east and west. In 1841, Captain Ross, of the British Navy, explored a line of coast (Victoria Land), extending southward to within 830 miles of the South Pole; being the near- est approach yet made to that point. He discovered, in these frozen regions, an active volcano, 12,400 feet high, which he named Mount Erebus. A little farther east, he saw an extinct volcano, which he named Mount Terror. All these regions are barren and desolate. The land is perpetually covered with ice and snow, and the coasts are for the most part bordered by vast masses of ice. There are no inhabitants, and but few land animals; and some tracts are wholly destitute of vegetation. It has been ascertained thai the ice of the Antarctic regions extends 10 degrees nearer the Equator than that of the Arctic. Questions. — What proportion of the surface of the globe is represented by the map of the Eastern Hemisphere ?• — By that of the Western ? — By both ? — What meridian is usually chosen for the division of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres ? — Could any other line be adopted? — Suppose some other meridian were used for this pur- pose : would the map of each hemisphere contain the same portions of laud and water as it does now ? Suppose the meridian of 100° of West Longitude were selected for the dividing line: in which hemisphere would South America be? — Why is the meridian of 20° commonly adopted? — In which hemisphere is the Island of Ferro ? — Why? What, bodies of land are included in the Western Hemisphere ? — What oceans lie partly within this hemisphere ? — What bodies of land are included in the Eastern Hemisphere? — What ocean is entirely within it ? — What other oceans are partly within it? — What contains the greater proportion of land: the Northern, or the Southern Hemisphere? — Which contains the more water? What is included in the term Antarctic Land? — In what year did the discovery of these regions commence ? — Where is Victoria Land? — The South Shetland Isles? Graham's Land ? — What is the character of these regions? — Why are there no inhabitants ? — In which region, the Arctic or Antarctic, does the ice extend farthest towards the Equator ? QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. Which is the largest division of laud in the Western Hemisphere ? —What ocean is north of this division? — What ocean is East? — West? What is that portion of the Atlantic Ocean north of the Equator called ? — What is the portion south called ? — What is that part of the Pacific Ocean north of the Equator called? — What is the part south called ? Through what strait would you sail, to go from the Pacific to the Arctic Ocean ? — ■ What narrow isthmus separates the waters of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans? — The Antarctic Ocean is south of the Antarctio Circle : what land is in this ocean ? What sea and gulf lie between North and South America? — Of what ocean do these bodies of water form a part?— What sea is north of the Aleutian Islands ? — Of what ocean is it a part?- — Through what bay must Dr. Kane have sailed to reach his farthest point north ? A vessel is reported to have been wrecked in Latitude 40° North, and Longitude 30° West: in what ocean did it occur ? — Near what land? A United States vessel of war is ordered to cruise among the islands situated between Latitude 10° and 30° North, and Longitude G0° and 90° West ; whaUslands are meant ? A whaling-vessel is reported in Latitude 30° South, and Longitude 80° West: in what pcean is this vessel? — Near what group of islands? — What main-land. 19 20 COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGEAPHY. CHAPTER II. THE CONTINENTS. I. The most extensive bodies of land upon the surface of the earth are the Eastern and the Western Continents. II. The Eastern Continent, and the adjacent islands, form three grand divisions : Europe, Asia, and Africa. _This continent is more than twice as large as the Western. III. The Western Continent, with the neighboring islands, forms two grand divisions : North America and South America. These are connected by the Isthmus of Panama. The two continents approach nearest each other at Behring Strait, which, at the narrowest part, is only 36 miles wide. A partial connection is established by the Aleutian Islands, which extend from the Peninsula of Alaska, in North America, to Kamtschatka, in Asia. IV. Position. — The greatest extent of land in the two continents is north of the Equator, and in the North Temperate Zone. Only a small part is in the South Temperate, and none at all in the South Frierid Zone. O V. Climate. — The position of the continents determines, in a great measure, the climate of the five sections of which they are composed. The three northern sections (Asia, Europe, and North America) are principally in the Temperate Zone, and extend beyond the Arctic Circle — forming almost a connected line around the North Pole. They arc, therefore, colder than the two southern sections (Africa and South America), which lie chiefly within the Tropics, and are far removed from the Frigid Zone. VI. Outline. — The outline of the two continents presents some points of resemblance, and some of contrast. 1. The southern section of each continent is a peninsula, connected with the main body by a narrow isthmus. Each of these peninsulas terminates in a pointed pro- jection towards the Bouth. 2. An island, or group of islands, is found east of the southern part of each conti- nent: as Madagascar, east of Africa; and the Falkland Islands, east of South America. 3. The three northern sections are deeply indented by large seas and gulfs ; while in the two southern, the coast is unbroken by any large arms of the ocean. It is partly owing to this circumstance that South America and Africa have not been more thoroughly explored by Europeans. 4. The greatest length of the Western Continent is from north-west to south-east; while that of the Eastern is from northeast to south-west. VII. Surface. — The Western Continent is traversed throughout its entire length by a great mountain-system, which accompanies the line of its western shores. VIII. East of this great chain is a vast plain, stretching through- out the entire length of the continent, interrupted only by the Gulf of Mexico. The eastern limits of this plain are formed by inferior mountain-systems. IX. The Eastern Continent also contains an immense mountain- system, traversing the greatest length of the main body (Asia and Europe), from the Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean. [Notk. — The mountain-systems of the two continents will be described in con- nection with the Grand Divisions.] Southward from this system extend a number of peninsulas : Farther India, llindoostan, and Arabia, in Asia ; and Greece, Italy, and the Spanish Peninsula, in Europe. These peninsulas are penetrated by mountain-chains — branches of the principal system. s> X. Northward from this great mountain band, a vast plain extends to the shores of the Arctic Ocean. It stretches east and west, from Behring Strait to the Atlantic Ocean — about one-third the circumference of the globe. Questions. — What are the most extensive bodies of land upon the surface of the earth? — Which is the larger of the two? — Of what three sections does it consist? — Of what two sections is the Western Continent composed ? — Where do the continents approach nearest to each other? — What is the shortest distance between them? — How is a partial connection established between them ? On which side of the Equator is the greatest extent of land, in the two continents ? — In what zone? — Which contains the greatest extent of their surface: the Torrid, or the South Temperate Zone? — Does any part of these continents extend beyond the Arctic Circle ? — The Antarctic ? What determines the climate of the continents? — Why arc Asia, Europe, and North America colder than Africa and South America? Which sections of the continents are most deeply indented: the three northern, or the two southern?— Why has the unbroken outline of South America and Africa, in some measure, prevented Europeans from exploring them more thoroughly? In what direction does the chief mountain-system of the Western Continent extend? — What is the character of the surface cast of this system? In what direction docs the principal mountain-system of the Eastern Continent extend? — What grand divisions docs it cross? — Name the peninsulas which extend southward from this central system? — By what mountain-chains are they pene- trated? In what direction does the great plain, north of this system, slope? — What is its extent? — In what direction does the greatest length of this plain extend? — In what direction does the greatest length of the plain in the Western Continent extend ? QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. Which is the largest division of land in the Eastern Hemisphere? — What ocean is north of it? — What oceans are cast? — What ocean is west? AVhich are the two northern divisions of the Eastern Continent? — Which division is a great peninsula? — What isthmus connects it with the main land? What great sea and bay arc south of Asia? — Of what ocean are they a part? — Of what ocean arc the seas south and west of Europe a part ? — Name the four great seas east of Asia.— Of what ocean are they a part? Which is the largest island of (he Eastern Hemisphere ? — To what grand division does it belong ? — Name two other islands belonging to the same grand division. In what zone is the greater part of.Asia? — Is any part of Europe in the Torrid Zone? — Is any part of Asia south of the Equator? — Is any part of Africa in the South Temperate Zone? — In what zones is Australia? To what grand division docs Madagascar belong? — The Japan Islands? — Bor- neo? — Tasmania? — What extensive tract of land is south of Australia? — Is the Antarctic Continent inhabited or uninhabited ? A bottle containing the following paper was picked up at sea, in Latitude 10° South, and Longitude 50° East: "Thrown overboard from the wreck of the ship Valparaiso, in Latitude 80° South, and Longitude 110° East;" near what islands and main-land was the bottle found ? — Where was it thrown overboard? — Across what ocean had it drifted ? A British cruiser captures a Portuguese brig engaged in the slave-trade, in Lati- tude 10° South, and Longitude 10° East: in what ocean did this capture occur? — Near what land ? On what ocean would a vessel sail, to go by the nearest route from Africa to the island of St. Helena ? — Across what ocean would a vessel sail, to go by the nearest course from Madagascar to Australia ? A vessel is captured by Malay pirates near the Equator, in Longitude 105° East: between what two great islands was this? — Near which of the Grand Divisions of the Eastern Continent ? A vessel is wrecked in Latitude 40° North, and Longitude 150° East: in what ocean is this? — The passengers and crew are saved, and escape to the nearest land : what is it? V T .1 It C T J C li r K .1 X s P 1 lA *■*.$ 22 COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGBAPHY, CHAPTER III. NORTH AMERICA. PHYSICAL FEATURES. I. Outline. — North America is penetrated by many large gulfs and bays. In this respect it differs from South America, which has an unbroken coast-line. II. Surface. — North America contains three mountain-systems: the Eocky Mountain, California, and Alleghany Systems. The Rocky Mountain System extends from the Isthmus of Panama to the Arctic Ocean. As far north as Latitude 38°, the principal chain is called the Sierra Madre; thence to the Arotic Ocean it is known as the Rocky Mountains. The California System includes the chains which extend along the Pacific coast, from the southern extremity of California into Russian America. The Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains are the principal ranges. The Alleghany Mountains extend along the Atlantic coast, from within two hun- dred miles of the Gulf of Mexico to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. III. The surface of North America is divided by the Eocky and Alleghany Mountains into three distinct sections: the Atlantic Slope, the Pacific Slope, and the Great Central Plain. The Atlantic Slope includes the country lying between the Alleghany Mountains and the Atlantic Ocean. The Pacific Slope extends from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. The Great Central Plain, lying between the Rocky and Alleghany Mountains, extends from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. It is divided, about mid- way, into a northern and a southern slope. The surface is so level that a man may traverse its entire length without encountering an elevation of more than a few hundred feet. IV. Rivers and Lakes. — Each of these three sections is drained by a system of lakes and rivers. How does the outline of North America differ from that of South America ? — Name the three mountain-systems. — Describe each of them. — Into what three sections is the country divided? — Describe each of them.— Which has the largest rfrers ? The rivers of the Great Central Plain, owing to the extent of that section, are much the largest. They flow in various directions: those of the southern slope into the Gulf of Mexico ; and those of the northern slope into the Arctic Ocean, Hudson's Bay, or the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The rivers of the northern slope are connected with numerous chains of great lakes, which are said to contain more than half the fresh water upon the surface of the globe. V. North America consists of the following divisions : the United States, British America, Danish America, Eussian America, Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies. BRITISH, DANISH, AND RUSSIAN AMERICA. VI. These three divisions comprise the whole country north of the United States, and constitute one-half of North America. VII. The Arctic Ocean washes the northern shores of this immense territory. The regions bordering upon the Arctic Ocean are among the most dreary and desolate on the face of the earth. The shores are covered with eternal snows, and the entire surface of the sea with large fields and huge masses of floating ice. VIII. Notwithstanding the fearful dangers encountered in these frozen regions, the Arctic Ocean has been perseveringly explored for the last 300 years, with the hope of finding a passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The voyage to India and China, from Europe or the ports on our Atlantic coast, is now made by way of Cape Horn or the Cape of Good Hope. The distance by way of the Arctic Ocean is only half as great ; hence these repeated explorations. That such a passage exists was proved by Capt. McClure, of the British Navy, who in 1852 forced his way through it ; but so perilous and difficult is its navigation that it can never be of any commercial value. What are the Political Divisions of North America ? — Which of them border on the Arctic Ocean? — Describe the Arctie regions. — Why has the Arctic Ocean been so perseveringly explored? — What results have followed these explorations? NOETH AMEEICA, 23 IX. Discoveries in the Arctic Ocean. — Most of the discoveries have been made by British and American navigators, and many of the places bear their names. Grinnell Land was discovered in 1800, by the Expedition i*der command of Lieut. De Haven, sent out in search of Sir John Franklin, and named in honor of Henry Grinnell, Esq., of New York, whoso munificence fitted out the Expedition. Mount Franklin was named in honor of Sir John Franklin. In 1852, Dr. Kane, of the U. S. Navy, penetrated as far as 82° 30' North Latitude, where he discovered on open Polar Sea, free from ice. Ho explored a tract of country north of Greenland, to which he gave the name of Washington Land. X. Climate. — It has been generally supposed that the climate of nearly all British, Russian, and Danish America, was so severe that the country must forever remain a desolate waste. The Valley of the St. Lawrence, and a part of the Basin of tho Saskatchewan, have usually been regarded as the only cultivable regions. It is now believed, however, that a large portion of the country south-west of Hudson Bay (especially the section west of the Rocky Mountains,) has a genial climate and fertile soil, and that it is capable of sustaining a dense population. XI. Vegetation. — There is scarcely any vegetation, in the north, capable of supporting man. In the cultivable districts of the south, wheat and other grains common to the Temperate Zones are raised. An abundance of mosses, lichens, berries, willows, and shrubs, grow in the cold districts of tho north, upon which the numerous birds and land-animals subsist. In Greenland, a very small red plant grows upon the surface of the snow. When first seen it was thought to be red snow, and is now generally called by that name. XII. Animals. — These frozen regions of the north, though thinly peopled, abound with animal life, both on land and in the sea. Their chief value, indeed, to the European governments, by which they are held, is in the trade in oil, whalebone, and skins, which are thus supplied. Within the Tropics, land-animals attain the greatest size; but the largest sea- animals are found in or near the Polar waters. The Great Borqual (a species of whale found in the Northern Atlantic,) is the largest of living animals, being some- times from 80 to 100 feet long. The lakes and seas abound with fish, and myriads of water-fowl hover upon the coast. The principal amphibious animals are the seal and walrus. The walrus is a ferocious creature, sometimes eighteen feet long, with tusks three feet in length. The grizzly bear, the largest and most dangerous of the bear tribe, is found among the Rocky Mountains, in the southern districts. The white, or Polar bear, inhabits the northern coasts. The buffalo, moose, elk, deer, and reindeer, are numerous ; and immense num- bers of the smaller fur-bearing animals — as the fox, wolf, raccoon, otter, marten, and beaver — are yearly taken by the trappers. XIII. Inhabitants. — Except in Iceland and the British Provinces, the inhabitants are chiefly Indians and Esquimaux. The few Europeans are mostly government officers, or persons employed in the fur-trade. The Esquimaux inhabit the northern districts, near the coast. They belong to the Mongolian race, and are of low stature and filthy appearance. They derive their support principally from the sea. They eat the flesh of the bear and reindeer, and clothe themselves with the skins. The oil of the whale, seal, and walrus, affords them light during the long night of winter; and they consume the blubber (or fat,) for food. The Esquimaux frames his canoe with the bones of the whale, and covers it with the skin of the seal. Instead of the reindeer, he harnesses a team of dogs to his sledge, by which he is rapidly drawn over tho fields of ice and snow. The hardy native does not hesitate to attack the formidable walrus and Polar bear, which are encountered on the fields of ice. By whom have most of the discoveries in the Arctic regions been made ? — Mention some of tho results of American explorations. — What is the climate of these regions ? — What is the character of the vegetation? — What kind of animals are numerous? — Name somo of tho principal land-animals. — Why is this country valuable to Euro- pean governments? — Who inhabit those regions? — Describe the Esquimaux. BEITISH AMERICA. XIY. This country comprises all of North America north of tho United States, except Eussian America, Greenland, and Iceland. Its different divisions are Rupert Land, or New Britain, British Columbia, Van- couver Island, and the more thickly settled provinces in the southeast. (A descrip- tion of the latter is given on page 54.) Rupert Land comprises the greater part of British America. It was formerly under the control of the Hudson Bay Company, who had the exclusive right to the fisheries and trade of this vast region. British Columbia is west of the Rocky Mountains. Gold is found in considerable quantities on Fraser Rive"r. New Westminster is the capital. Vancouver Island is very fertile, and contains a great abundance of coal. Victoria is the principal settlement. RUSSIAN AMERICA. XV. This country was purchased by the Government of the United States from Eussia in 1867. It has an area of 570,000, square miles, or more than ten times that of the State of Illinois, and has hitherto been but partially explored. North of the Peninsula of Alaska the coast is low and marshy, but south of this Peninsula it is bold and mountainous, often consisting of precipitous cliffs which descend abruptly to tho sea. Groups of volcanic islands skirt this part of the coast, and between them and the main land is a remarkable interior channel, safe for steamboat navigation at all times. Extensive forests of pine, cypress, spruce, poplar, and willow cover much of the country. Deposits of valuable minerals exist in the mountain ranges. An astonishing quantity of animal life is supported in tho forests, the streams, and the island passages of the sea. The otter, beaver, mink, ermine, sable ; — foxes, bears, wolves, and other fur-bearing animals, are found in great numbers. Myriads of birds fill the woods in the summer season ; while the waters swarm with cod, halibut, salmon, and many other varieties of fish. About six thousand Russians and sixty thousand Indians and Esquimaux con- stitute the inhabitants. — The latter nro filthy and degraded, and live in huts wholly or partly under ground. Sitka, on Baranoff Island, is the principal settlement. DANISH AMERICA. XVI. Danish America includes Greenland and Iceland. ' XVII. Greenland. — It is not yet known whether Greenland is an island, or a projection from an Arctic continent not yet discovered. Some writers suppose it to be a cluster of islands joined together by ice. The interior has never been explored, but the coast is high and rooky, and tho more elevated portions are covered with perpetual snow and ice. The Danish Governor resides at Lichtenfels on {he west coast. Tho Moravian missionaries have also settlements on this coast and on the opposite coast of Labra- dor, and have converted many of tho natives to Christianity. XVIII. Iceland. — This island is of volcanic formation. Eanges of high and rugged mountains border the coast, while the interior is a dreary desert of volcanoes, ice-clad mountains, or fields of lava. The most famous of tho volcanoes is Mount Ilecla. There are also boiling springs which throw up water, steam, and even large stones to a great height. The settlements are all near the coast. Reikiavik is the principal town. The Icelanders are of European origin, and are generally well educated. Notwithstanding its name, Iceland is not so cold a country as Greenland. It was called Iceland by a Norwegian pirate, who, on his first visit, saw a bay filled with ice which had floated there from Greenland. Greenland was so named by an Icelandic chief, who, for somo crime, was obliged to flee from his native land. To induce his countrymen to follow him to Greenland, he falsely represented it as superior in fertility to Iceland. What does British America comprise? — Name the different divisions. — Which of them is the largest ? — What can you say of Russian America ? — Describe the coast.; — Mention some of the animals found there. — By whom is it inhabited ? — What does Dan- ish America include ? — Describe Greenland. — Where have the Moravian missionaries settlements ? — Describe Iceland. — Which is the colder country, Iceland or Greenland ? Si Longitude West 20 from Washington QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF NORTH AMERICA. OUTLINE. Which has the more irregular outline: North or South America? — By what oceans is North America surrounded? — Which of these is on the north? — By what strait is it connected with the Pacific? — Is there any communication with the Atlantic ? What land is east of Baffin Bay? — Is Greenland attached to the main-land of the Continent? — In what direction does Greenland extend? — What cape at the southern extremity? — In what direction is Iceland from that cape? On the eastern coast of North America there are five great branches of the Atlan- tic Ocean: which of these are called'gulfs? — Which one is called a sea? — Which are called bays? — Do you perceive any reason why some of them should be called bays, and others gulfs and seas? — Name the only large branch of the ocean on the western coast. By what strait is Baffin Bay entered from the Atlantic? — By what strait is Hud- son Bay? — By what land is that bay surrounded? — By what island and peninsula is the Gulf of St. Lawrence partly enclosed? — What cape at the south-eastern extremity of Newfoundland? — At the south-western extremity of Nova Scotia? By what two peninsulas is the Gulf of Mexico partly enclosed? — In what direc- tion does the Peninsula of Yucatan extend? — By what group of islands is the Caribbean Sea separated from the Atlantic? — What land separates it from the Pacific? What two peninsulas on the western coast, of North America? — In what direction do they extend? — What cape at the southern extremity of California? — What chain of islands extends from the Peninsula of Alaska to that of Kamtschatka? (See map of the Western Hemisphere.) — Name the principal islands on the western coast of British and Russian America. — To what country does Vancouver Island belong? SURFACE. What three mountain-systems are there in North America? — Do they follow the general direction of the neighboring coast? — In what direction, then, does the Rocky Mountain System extend? — The Alleghany System? — Which of the three systems is the longest? — What mountain-system extends from the Isthmus of Panama to the Arctic Ocean? — What name is given to the southern part of the principal chain? — -To the northern part? — What system follows the coast, from Cape St. Lucas to Russian America? — What two lofty peaks in Russian America does it contain? — Between what two gulfs does the Alleghany System extend? — In what range is Mount Brown? LAKES AND RIVERS. Into what three sections is North America divided by the mountain-systems? — Which section is the most extensive? — Which, then, contains the largest rivers? — From what mountains do the rivers of the Atlantic Slope flow? — In what general direction ? From what mountains do the largest rivers of the Pacific Slope flow ? — In what general direction? — Why? — Into what ocean? — Which of them is in Russian America? — Which flows into the Gulf of California? — Into the Gulf of Georgia? Do the rivers of the Central Plain all flow in the same general direction ? — Why ? — Where is this plain divided? — Towards what great gulf does the southern half slope? — Name the principal river of this southern slope. — W T hat other large river flows between Mexico and the United States? — Into what gulf do these rivers flow? Ocea hat great river, in the northern half of the Central Plain, flows into the Arctic cean ? — In what mountains does it rise? — What name does it bear in the upper part of its course? — Name the three largest lakes with which it is connected. — Does any part of this river rise on the west side of the Rocky Mountains ? — Is this river frozen during any part of the year? What is there on the map which would make you think that the land around Hudson Bay slopes towards it? — What is meant by the "Basin of Hudson Bay"? — What lake empties into Hudson Bay through Nelson River? — What great river empties into that lake? — What great river and chain of lakes flows into the Gulf of St. Lawrence? The following rivers rise in the Rocky Mountains — name the waters into which they flow: the Columbia, Fraser, Colorado, Mackenzie, Saskatchawan, Missouri, Rio Grande. — Can you reach the Alleghany Mountains by following a tributary of the Mississippi? — Can you also reach the Rocky Mountains by following some of its tributaries ? 4 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION. [These questions require a thorough understanding of the principles stated in the lessons on Climate and Vegetation, page 12.] On which side of the Equator does North America lie? — Does the climate, then, become warmer or colder, as you go north? — In what zone is North America situated? — In which zone is the greatest extent included? — Are the climate and productions of North America, then, generally thoje of the Torrid or Temperate Zone? In what part of the country would you expect to find tropical productions? — In advancing towards the north, would you find the vegetation becoming more or less luxuriant? — In what regions would you expect to find the vegetation almost entirely cease? — Where would you expect to find grain most extensively produced? Are the summers generally hotter or colder in the interior of a country than on the coast? — -Where are the winters usually more severe: upon the coast, or in the interior? — Where, then, would you expect to find the hotter summer: on the Atlantic coast, or upon the banks of the Mississippi River, in the same latitude ? POLITICAL DIVISIONS. What three divisions occupy the northern half of the country? — What great country lies south of British America? — What one between the Pacific Ocean and Gulf of Mexico? — Between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean? What group of islands between North and South America ? — Name the two largest political divisions of North America. — Which of these is the more valuable coun- try? — Why? — What divisions are in the Torrid Zone? — Are all of the West India Islands in the Torrid Zone ? — In what part of British America is British Columbia ? — Labrador? MISCELLANEOUS. What proportion of North America is occupied by British, Danish, and Russian America? — Why is this not, generally, a habitable region? — What parts are capable of supporting a numerous population ? What is the chief value of these countries to the governments by which they are held ? — If there is not vegetation enough to support man, how do the animals live ? — Name the principal land animals. — What animals are amphibious? — What is an amphibious animal ? Where is Reikiavik ? — Sitka? — Would you find any white people living in these towns? — As the vegetation is scanty, upon what do they subsist? — Is Iceland in the Frigid or North Temperate Zone? — Is any part of Greenland in the Temperate Zone? Which is the colder country: Iceland, or Greenland ? — How, then, came they to receive such erroneous names? — Where is Lichtenfels? — Where are there any Moravian settlements? — Where are the settlements in Greenland and Iceland: in the interior, or on the coast? — Why? — What can you say of the animal life of Russian America ? Why have not the various bodies of land in the Arctic Ocean been more thor- oughly explored? — For what purpose have most of the expeditions been sent into these seas? — Has the Northwest passage ever been made? — Does such a passage exist ? Who discovered the open Polar Sea? — Where is Grinnell Land? — Why is it so called? — What other ocean has a similar character to that of the Arctic ? Who inhabit the northern coasts of North America? — How do they live? — Are they of the same race as the Indians? — As the inhabitants of Iceland? — What valuable articles do we obtain from these northern regions? — W : here is Nain ? — Mount Hecla ? — Disco Island? — Washington Land? — Upernavik? — On what island is Victoria? What mountains would you cross, in going from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, on the 40th parallel of latitude ? — What lakes and bay, going from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean, on the meridian of 10° West Longitude from Washing- ton? — Following the same meridian south, what peninsula and country would you cross? — What ocean would you reach? — Would you cross a level or mountainous country, in going from the Gulf of Mexico to thje Arctic Ocean, on the meridian of 20° west from Washington ? Bound each political division of North America. Sketch a map of North America, locating the principal mountain-chains and rivers. — (See article on Map Drawing, page 97.) 25 26 COMMON-SCnOOL GEOGRAPHY. THE FALLS OF NIAGARA. CHAPTER IV. THE UNITED STATES. PHYSICAL FEATURES. I. The United States occupy the central part of North America, and form about three-eighths of its extent. The country has a fortunate position, being equally removed from the blighting cold of the North, and the enfeebling heat of the Torrid Zone. II. Surface. — The three great mountain-systems of North America cross the United States from north to south. III. The Alleghany system is almost wholly confined to the United States, only a small portion of it extending into Canada. This system extends from the north-eastern border to within 200 miles of the Gulf of Mexico. It consists of several parallel ranges, known in the different States by various local names. The average width of the system is about CO miles, and the average elevation from 2000 to 3000 feet. IV. The Rocky Mountain system stretches entirely across the United States, at an average distance from the Pacific Ocean of about 800 miles. North of Latitude 38°, the principal chain is called the Rocky Mountains; south of it, the Sierra Madre. V. The California system also extends entirely across the coun- try, closely skirting the Pacific coast. The various chains, in the United States, are the Coast Range, the Cascade Mountains, and the Sierra Nevada. Why may the United States be regarded as having a fortunate position? — Name the three principal mountain-systems. — Describe each of them. — Which of them are clothed with vegetation? — Which have peaks covered with snow? — Which, then, are highest? The Coast Range and the Alleghany Mountains are generally clothed with vege- tation to their Bummits ; while the Rocky Mountains, the Sierra Nevada, and Cascade Range, are bald and inaccessible — many of the peaks being perpetually covered with snow. VI. The country is divided by the mountain-systems into three principal sections : the Atlantic Slope, the Pacific Slope, and the Central Plain. VII. The Atlantic Slope embraces the Country which extends from the Alleghany Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico. For about 100 or 150 miles from the base of the mountains, the land has a general elevation of about 1000 feet, with a hilly and broken surface. Between this upland country and the sea is the coast district, which is low and flat, rarely rising more than 100 feet above the ocean. From the Hudson River south, this lowland district has an average width of from i 30 to 150 miles. A considerable portion of it is sandy or marshy. North-east of the Hudson River (in New England), the hilly country extends nearly or quite to the ocean ; so that the flat district is an unimportant feature. The rivers of the Atlantic Slope are usually navigable to the edge of the upland country. This point, therefore, determines the position of many important cities and towns. VIII. The Pacific Slope embraces the country between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Ocean. The region between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range, is, for the most part, a table-land, with an elevation of from 2500 to 5000 feet. It is generally barren; and is crossed by several mountain-chains, which connect the Rocky Mountain and California Systems. Fremont, or Great Basin, is a desolate tract, lying within these limits. Its water; do not flow into the ocean. Most of the country west of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains is exceedingly fertile, and is capable of sustaining a dense population. Into what sections is the United States divided? —What part of the Atlantic Slope is upland? — Lowland? — What point determines the position of man important places?— Why? — What part of the Pacific Slope is fertile? — Whi parts are barren? I\ THE UNITED STATES. 27 IX. The Central Plain is a part of the Great Central Plain of North America (page 22), and embraces the Mississippi Valley, the Basin of the St. Lawrence, the small valley of the Eed River, of the North and the Texas Slope. The Mississippi Valley is, next to that of the Amazon, the largest river-basin in the world. It is generally level, only rising into hills near the mountains, -which form its limits. The soil is generally very rich. The most important exception to the fertility of this region consists in a desert- plateau along the base of the Rocky Mountains, stretching eastward to a distance of 200 or 400 miles. It has an elevation of 2000 to 5000 feet- Most of the States of Wisconsin and Illinois, and much of the country west of the Mississippi River, consists of prairie land. The term prairie is applied to the great treeless plains of our Western States. The prairies are not, however, entirely destitute of timber, but are well wooded near the banks of the streams. The land is generally fertile, and yields a natural growth of heavy grass. The surface of the prairies is sometimes level and some- times rolling. The St. Lawrence Basin, and the valley of the Red River of the North, belong to the northern slope of the Great Central Plain. The Red River valley is included in the Saskatchawan Basin, and its waters flow into Hudson's Bay. The St. Lawrence Basin is a well-wooded, fertile region, from 300 to 500 feet in elevation. The Texas Slope includes the region between the Mississippi Valley and the Rocky Mountains. It resembles the Mississippi Valley. X. Lakes and Rivers. — Each of these divisions is drained by a system of lakes and rivers, which will be described in connection with the different States. XI. Climate. — The climate is such as belongs to the middle and southern parts of the North Temperate Zone. In our Southern States the summer is very warm, and the winter mild. Farther north, the contrast between the seasons is greater; the winters are very cold, and the summers are not so warm as at the south. XII. Vegetation. — The vegetable productions are such as are common to the middle and southern parts of the North Temperate Zone — including, therefore, many plants of a tropical character, as well as those belonging to a temperate climate. The various grains — wheat, Indian corn, rye, oats, and barley — are raised in all parts of the country. The northern and middle sections produce the greatest quantity of wheat; while Indian corn grows best in the middle and southern districts. The potato succeeds best in the Northern States. Its place is supplied at the south by the Carolina or sweet potato. Tobacco is principally raised in the middle sections, though it is also grown in several of the Northern States. Hemp and flax thrive in the middle districts. Most of the cotton used by mankind is raised in our Southern States. Rice grows in great abundance at the south, in the marshy tracts along the coast. In the extreme south, sugar is ono of the most important productions ; and oranges are easily raised. XIII. Inhabitants. — Tho white population is chiefly of English descent ; but there is also a large proportion of Irish, •Germans, and other natives of Europe. Our population has increased more rapidly than that of any other country in the world. In the Middle and Western States, especially, small villages rapidly grow into large towns, and large towns into great cities. The principal cause of this remarkable growth is the arrival of emigrants from Europe, who seek in America that employment and liberty which are denied them at home. What does the Central Plain comprise? — Describe each section. — How does the climate of the Southern States compare with that of the Northern ? — Name some of the plants which grow in all sections of our country. — Where is tobacco raised ? — Cotton ? — Sugar ? — Rice ? — Of what descent is the white population ? — What has caused the remarkable growth of this country? — What are the political divisions of the United States ? POLITICAL DIVISIONS. XIV. The United States consist of thirty-seven States, ten Territories, the District of Columbia, and the extensive country known as Russian America, recently purchased from Russia. The States are divided into the Eastern, Middle, Southern, and Western. XV. Government — The government of the United States is republican, and a President is elected by the people every four years. XVI. Religion. — Unlike most European countries, the govern- ment supports no particular form of religion. The greater part of the inhabitants, however, are Protestants. XVII. Education is more general in the United States than in any other country. Colleges .and academies are numerous, and in nearly all the States there is a system of free schools. HISTORY. XVIII. The first settlements in the New World were made prin- cipally by the Spanish, French, and English. The Spaniards occupied the greater part of South America, and the sections bordering on the Gulf of Mexico. These countries (save Florida and Texas) are still occupied by their descendants, who speak the Spanish language. The French originally claimed and partly settled the Basin of the St. Lawrence and the Valley of the Mississippi. But the only part of this vast territory now in their possession is two small islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The early settlements of the English were almost wholly confined to the Atlantic Slope, between Maine and Florida. Yet, by energy and intelligence, their descend- ants have become possessed of the greater part of North America, and the countries they have settled are the most flourishing on tho Western Continent. XIX. In the year 1607, the first English settlement, or colony, in America, was established at Jamestown, in Virginia. Other colonies were settled from time to time, until, in the year 1733, they amounted to thirteen in number. It is fortunate for our country that the Spaniards (who discovered the New World) first landed at the south — leaving the Atlantic coast of North America to bo settled chiefly by the English. The Spaniards were cruel and avaricious: they did not come to America to till the soil, and follow honest labor, but with extrava- gant hopes of becoming suddenly rich from mines of gold and silver. The people of the Spanish colonies, therefore, became idle, ignorant, and corrupt; and their descendants retain that character to this day. But the English were an industrious people, who loved liberty and humanity, and earned success by energetic toil in the fields and on the sea. XX. The English colonies remained firmly attached to the mother country, until its tyranny induced them to rebel. This led to the war of the Revolution. The first battle was fought at Lexington, in 1775. The surrender of Lord Cornwallis, in 1781, put an end to hostilities, which had lasted six years and a half. On the 4th of July, 1776, the colonies declared themselves a separate nation. In 1783, the British Government acknowledged their independence. XXI. At the close of the Revolutionary "War, the area of the United States was about 800,000 square miles, and there were about 3,000,000 of inhabitants. Now (.1868), the area of the country (including Russian America) is 3,500,000 square miles, and the population exceeds 31,000,000. Nor has the progress of the country, in other respects, been less marked than its increase in extent and population ; and the great mass of the people of the United States have hitherto been more prosperous and happy than those of any other country upon the globe. What is the form of government? — Of what religion are most of the inhabit- ants? — Is education general? — By whom were the early settlements made in the New World? — What sections were settled by the Spaniards? — French? — English? — What difference was there in the character of the Spanish and English settlers ? — When did the English colonies become independent? — What progress has the country made since? QUESTIONS ON THE MAR Political Divisions of the United States. EASTERN STATES. WESTERN STATES. Maine. Ohio. New Hampshire. Indiana. Vermont. Illinois. Massachusetts. Kentucky. Rhode Island. Tennessee. Connecticut. Arkansas. Missouri. Michigan. MIDDLE STATES. Wisconsin. New York. Iowa. Minnesota. Pennsylvania. California. Oregon. Kansas. Nevada. SOUTHERN STATES. Nebraska. Maryland. Virginia. West Virginia. TERRITORIES. North Carolina. Washington. * £*" South Carolina. Idaho. Georgia. Montana^ Florida. Dakota. - * Alabama. Utah, « Mississippi. Col era do. Louisiana. -Arizona. Texas. New Mexico. District of Columbia. Indian. Wyoming Position and Abba. What country is situated upon the north of the United States ? — Upon the south-west ?— What ocean upon the east? — On the west?— - What gulf on the south ? — What part of North America does the United States occupy? Outline. In what general direction does the Atlantic coast of the United States extend? — The Pacific coast 1 — Where is Passamaquoddy Bay ? — Dela- ware Bay ? — Chesapeake Bay ? — Albemarle Sound?— What bay upon the Pacific coast? — Which coast has the most numerous inlets : the Atlantic, or the Pacific ? Between what bodies of water is the Penin- sula of Florida ? — Where is Cape Cod ? — Cape Hatteras?— Cape Sable?— Cape Flattery? SuKFACE. By what three mountain-systems is the United States crossed ? — Which of these systems com- mences near the shores of the Gulf of St. Law rence? What mountain-system skirts the Pacific coast? — Which chain of this system is nearest the coast? — What chain in California lies east of the Coast Mountains? — In what direction does the Rocky Mountain System extend? — What part of this system is called the Sierra Madre ?— Where are the Wasatch Mountains ? Into what three sections is the United States divided by these mountain-systems?— What part of the Atlantic Slope is generally level ? What mountain-system forms the eastern boundary of the Pacific Slope ?— Describe the country between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Ranges. — The country west of the two latter chains. — Between what mountains is Fremont Basin situated ? Between what mountains does the Central Plain of the United States lie ?— What are the different divisions of this plain ?— What can you say about the. site of the Mississippi Valley ? — What part of it is a barren tract?— Describe the prairies. — What part of the Central Plain is occupied by the St. Lawrence Basin and Valley of the Red River of the North '—Where is the Texas Slope? Rivers and Lakes. In what mountains do most of the rivers of the Atlantic Slope rise'' — Into what ocean and gulf do they flow ? — In what direotion, and into what gulf, does the Mississippi flow ? — In what mountains do many of the tributaries of the Mississippi rise ? In what direction, and into what lake, does the Red River of the North flow ? — By what river are the Great Lakes drained ? — Into what gulf, and in what direction, doi Lakes, beginning with the mm into what gulf, do the rivers of Mississippi River rise ? — ThroO| What river of the United Stt — In what mountains does thii into what body of water, does! the general direction of the ril iver flow '—Name the Great ■ly. — In what direction, and ow ? — In what State does the State does it flow ? s into the Golf of California ? ise? — In what direction, and imbia River flow '-What is e Pacific Slope ' Climate ahd Productiohs. In what zone are the United States situated ?— Where are the sum niers hotter, near the Gulf of Mexico, or near the Great Lakes ? — Name die principal grains raised in the United States. — Where is most wheat produced ? — Corn ?— Rice ? — Cotton ? — Tobacco ? — Sugar ? Name in order, beginning with the most northerly, the thirteen States bordering on the Atlantic Ocean. — The five on thegulf of Mexico. —The two States and Territory on the Pacific. — Name the eight States border- ing on the Great Lakes. — What State has the St. Lawrence River for a part of its boundary ? — Of what State is the Rio Grande the south- western boundary ? — What Territories border on British America ! What two on Mexico ? — Name the six States bordering on the east em bank of the Mississippi River. — The five on the western bank. — Between what parallels does the United States lie' -Between what meridians ? — What is the Capital ' so COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY. CHAPTER V. THE EASTERN, OR NEW ENGLAND STATES. I. New England is composed of six States : — Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. II. Coast. — North of Cape Cod, the coast is bold and rocky; south of that peninsula, it is generally low and sandy. III. Surface. — The Green Mountains, by which the western part of New England is crossed, belong to the Alleghany System. The general appearance of the country is hilly and picturesque. The White Mountains, in New Hampshire, are an off-shoot from the Green Moun- tain chain. Mount Washington, the highest of the group, is the loftiest peak, but one, in the Alleghany System. Another branch of this system crosses Maine in a north-easterly direction. It consists of a ridge of highlands, of which Mount Katahdin and Mars Hill are the principal elevations. IV. The Lakes and Rivers belong to two systems — the Atlantic, and St. Lawrence — which are separated by the Green Mountains. The rivers of New England, like most of those which belong to the Atlantic Slope, flow through a hilly country, and afford great water-power for manufactures. The Penobscot, Kennebec, and Connecticut, are the only ones which are navigable to any considerable distance. V. New England, and especially Maine, abounds with lakes of clear, bright water, which lie sheltered among the hills, giving life and beauty to the landscape. The largest lake entirely within the limits of New England is Moosehead Lake, in Maine. It is navigable for steamboats. Lake Winnipiseogee, in New Hampshire, is the most picturesque and beautiful. VI. Productions. — Manufactures, commerce, the forests, and fish- eries, form the principal sources of wealth in New England. The agricultural products are not important, except for home consumption: they consist chiefly of Indian corn, wheat; rye, oats, and tobacco. The only mineral productions of much value are various kinds of building-stone. The forests are most extensive in Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont. The latter State is the only one which is not much engaged in manufactures. The fisheries employ more men in New England than in any other section of the Union. Massachusetts and Maine are the only States which have an extensive foreign commerce, though the others, except Vermont, have a coast trade with our Atlantic sea-ports. VII. Inhabitants. — The New Englanders are mostly of English descent, and are noted for their enterprise and industry. They arc a moral and religious people ; and, from the earliest settlement of the country, have given great attention to the subject of education. Many of them have emigrated to the Western States of the Union. MAINE. VIII. The coast of Maine is penetrated by numerous inlets, and is lined with islands. Maine has a greater number of good harbors than any other State in the Union. IX. Productions. — The forests cover the interior of the State, and form the principal source of its wealth. Which are the New England States? — What is the character of the coast north of Cape Cod ? — South ? — Describe the surface. — To what two systems do the lakes and rivers belong ? — Which are the principal navigable rivers ? — Of what value are those which are not navigable? — Which is the largest lake? — What form theprincipal sources of wealth in New England? — Which of these are most important? — Of what descent are most of the inhabitants? — For what are they noted? — Describe them. In winter, great numbers of men are engaged in cutting down the trees, and dragging them over the hard and deep snow to the rivers. In the spring, the logs are floated down to the saw-mills, where they are converted into timber, boards, planks, shingles, and other kinds of lumber. Maine builds more ships, and exports more lumber, than any other State in the Union. The other exports are gran- ite, marble, lime, ice, potatoes, and fish. X. The Towns are in the south- ern part of the State ; the north being still unsettled. Augusta is the capital. Portland, the largest city, has one of the best harbors in the Union. Bangor is the principal place for the shipment of lumber. Bath, and many other towns on the coast, arc engaged in ship-building. Great quantities of lime are exported from Rockland. Lewiston, Saco, and Biddeford (on the opposite side of the river from Saco), have extensive cotton factories. Waterville and Brunswick each contains a college. NEW HAMPSHIRE. XL New Hampshire is often called the Granite State, on account of the abundance of that mineral. From the magnificent scenery of the White Mountains, it is also styled the Switzerland of America. SHIP-BUILDING. VIEW OF LAKE WINNIPISEOGEE. XII. Productions. — The manufactures of cotton and wool form the chief wealth of the State. Potatoes, cattle, wool, and the products of the dairy are also important. XIII. Towns. — Concord is the capital. The principal manufac- turing towns are Manchester, Nashua, Dover, and Great Falls. Portsmouth, on the Piscataqua River, is the only sea-port. Opposite the city, on an island in the river, is a United States Navy Yard. Hanover contains Dartmouth College. VERMONT. XIV. Vermont ("green mountain") derives its name from the mountains which traverse the State, and which are clothed with evergreen pines, firs, and hemlocks. XV. Productions. — The people are principally engaged in farming and grazing. The valleys have a rich soil ; and, upon the mountain- What advantage does Maine derive from the character of its coast? — What forms the principal sources of its wealth 7 — In what does Maine exceed any other State in the Union? — What are the principal exports? — In what part of the State are the towns? — Name the capital. — The other principal cities and towns. — What is New Hampshire often called? — Why? — What are the principal productions? — Name the capital. — The other important towns.— Which is the only sea-port? THE EASTERN, OK NEW ENGLAND STATES. 81 Bides are pastured great numbers of cattle, torses, and sheep. Live-stock, wool, and dairy products, are largely exported. V"l_ ...» -..«"«* -V-A A GRAZING SCENE. The lumber-trade is valuable, and great quantities of maple-sugar are made Vast bedj of the most beautiful marble are found in various parta of the State XVI. Towns.— Montpelier is the capital. Burlington i3 the largest town, and contains the University of Vermont. Rutland and Middlebury have an extensive trade in marble. Middlebury and Norwich each contains a college. Brattleboro is a noted summer resort. At Ben- nington, the Green Mountain Boys defeated a detachment of Hessians from Bur- goyne's army, in 1777. MASSACHUSETTS. XVII. Massachusetts borders on Massachusetts Bay : whence it i3 often called the Bay State. It is one of the wealthiest and most populous of the United States. XVIII. Productions.— Massachusetts surpasses every other State in the manufacture of boots and shoes, cotton and woollen goods, and in the fisheries. These, with commerce, are the principal sources of her wealth. The commerce of the State is second only to that of New York. The exports consist principally of manufactured goods, whale-oil, salt-fish, granite, and ice. XIX. Towns.— Boston is the capital, and is the largest city in New England. It is exceeded only by New York in the extent of its foreign commerce. Salem is also a com- mercial town. New Bedford and Nantucket are engaged in the whale-fishery; Glouces- ter, Marblehead, New- burypcrt, and Barn- stable, in the cod and mackerel fisheries. Lowell and Lawrence are the principal seats of the cotton and wool- len manufactures. Lynn 13 well known for tho manufacture of ladies' shoes. At Taunton, loco- motives and steam-engines are made. Fall River has extensive iron-works. Quiucy is well known for its granite. Worcester is growing rapidly, and is a great railroad centre. It contains a State Lunatic Asylum, and numerous manu- factories. Cambridge is tho seat of Harvard University. Springfield contains a United States Arsenal. From what docs Vermont derive its name? — In what are most of the people engaged ? — Name the capital. — The other principal towns. — Why is Massachusetts often called the Bay State? — In what does it surpass every other Stato? — What is the commercial rank of Massachusetts? — What is said of Boston ? FANEUIL HALL. XX. Several of the towns in this State are celebrated in the early history of our country. Plymouth is the place where the Pilgrim Fathers landed in 1620; and the first battles of the Revolution were fought at Concord, Lexington, and Charlestown. BHODE ISLAND. XXI. Rhode Island is the smallest of the United States. In proportion to its size, it is the most populous State, except Massachusetts. XXII. Productions. — Cotton and woollen manufactures are the most valuable productions. The small streams are lined with manufacturing villages, which, how- ever, are not so large as those on the Merrimac River. XXIII. Towns. — Providence and Newport are the capitals of tho State. Providence is tho largest city, and has a considerable foreign commerce and coast-trade. It contains Brown University. Newport is one of the finest watering- places in the Union. Bristol is a com- mercial town. Smithficld contains many manufacturing villages. Woonsocket, a part of which is in this town, is the largest of them. CONNECTICUT. XXIV. Owing to the sobriety and industry of the inhabitants, this Stato is known as the " Land of Steady Habits." Its principal wealth is derived from manufactures. Connecticut is noted for the great variety of her manufactures — such as cotton and woollen goods, farmers' and mechanics' tools, saddlery, coaches, paper, buttons, combs, and clocks. XXV. Towns. — New Haven and Hartford are the capitals of the State. A MANUFACTURING VILLAGE. A VIEW OF YALE COLLEGE. New Haven, tho " City of Elms," is a beautiful place, and tho scat of Yale College. Hartford contains Trinity College, a Deaf and Dumb Asylum, and a Retreat for tho Insane. Its manufactures are extensive, and large steamboats ascend the Connecticut River to this point. New London and Stonington send a considerable number of vessels to tho whale- fishery. Norwich is beautifully situated at the head of the Thames River. Mid- dletown contains tho Wesleyan University. Name the most important places in Massachusetts. — Which of them are celebrated in history, and for what ? — How does Rhode Island compare in size with the other States ? — What are the most important productions ? — Name the capitals. — What are the prin- cipal productions of Connecticut ? — Name tho capitals. — The other principal plaoca. 74 73 72 l..^fno 1 I.imu'iliuli- Went I'riiiii Critrimi/h ? "\ 70 FbharifamopkL^^ 69 Matdflorraako 68 J/ul' 1 " S'.Juai'l S^misHrae • s\ MBKj \smrrnH pvtniess S'JusHpn nrtiW •«i Nrwifivlantl " icbjiumcl aldM 1 »»»*? 145 i \J Bedford '■•.r,. v ,|IH' n fcS! AUi-,iii> ijnfemuu mJ Yirtov'm s«s* ' i; .... CoUta k ■': The! 'Higeluw adilleliack «; fin* IHWniji.-l. , a \ P, , 'r//„t'i"' r " iTT! 'iit. -; """*'' lliiBtps. 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What British Frovince lies north of New England? — What Province east of Maine? — What ocean washes the shores of these States? — What State and Prov- ince arc upon the western borders ? AREA. [For the answers to the following questions, refer to the Statistical Tables, page 108.] — Which of the United Slates is nearly the same size as all of the Eas;ern States? — Which is the smallest Slate in the Union? — The next in size? — Nome the Eastern States in the order of their size, commencing with the largest. — Which one is nearly equal in extent to the 'other five? — Which is the larger: Vermont or New Hampshire? OUTLINE. What part of the coast of the Eastern States is rocky? — What part is low and sandy? — Which State has the most numerous bays and inlets? — Which of these bays lies between Maine and New Brunswick ? — What large bay receives the waters of Penobscot River? — Upon what bay is Portland situated? What two bays are cast of Massachusetts? — What bay is south of the eastern part of Massachusetts ?— What islands south of the peninsula of Cape Cod? — What cape on the norlh-eastcrn shore of Massachusetts ? What bay within Rhode Island ? — What island south of the State ? — What is the general character of the coast of Connecticut ? — What sound on the coast ? — What island is south of Connecticut? — What Point at the eastern extremity of Long Island ? SURFACE. What mountains cross the western part of the Eastern States ? — To what system do they belong ? — What part of the boundary of New Hampshire do they form? — Of Maine? Where are the White Mountains ? — Name the highest peak. — Where is Mt. Katah- ,li n | _ Mars Hill ? — Mt. Monadnock ? — Wachusett ? — Holyoke ? — Tom ? — Saddle Mountain ? — To what system do all these belong ? To what Slope does most of New England belong ? — What is the character of it : hilly, or level ? — Is the flat coast-district an important feature in New England, as it is in the rest of the Atlantic Slope? — Why? — [See description of the Atlantic Slope, in the chapter on the United States.] LAKES AND RIVERS. In what mountain-chain do most of the rivers of the New England States rise? — To what system do most of the lakes and rivers belong? — How are the Atlantic rivers separated from the St. Lawrence System ? To what system does Lake Chaniplain belong? — By what river docs it flow into the St. Lawrence? — Name the four rivers in Vermont which flow into Lake Cham- plain. — To what system do they belong ? To which system do all those lakes and rivers of the Eastern States belong, which flow southward into the Atlantic Ocean ? — What river partly separates Maine from New Brunswick ? — Maine from Canada? — Through what lake does the Penobscot first flow? — Into what does the Aroostook River flow? What river receives the waters of Grand Lake, and the Schoodic Lakes? — Into what bay does the river flow ? — What lake does Kennebec River drain? — In what State does the Androscoggin River rise? — What mountains turn its course eastward ? In what mountains does the Saco River rise ? — What tributary does the Merrimac receive from Lake Winnipiseogce? — Through what States does the Merrimac flow? — For what is it chiefly valuable? What river flows into the head of Narragansett Bay? — What three rivers flow into Long Island Sound? — What lake forms the source of the Connecticut River? — What States does that river separate, and through what ones does it flow? Let each scholar describe some river in the Eastern States : stating the system to which it belongs, what is its source, what lakes it receives, what States it separates or crosses, in what direction, and into what waters it flows. 5 CLIMATE AND PRODUCTIONS. [Refer to Climate and Vegetation, in the chapter on the United States.] — Describe the climate of the Eastern States.— How does it differ from that of the Southern States? — In what part of the New England States are the winters most severe: on the coast, or in the interior? — In the three northern, or the three southern States? Is the vegetation of New England of a temperate, or of a tropical character? — What grains are raised there? — Is tobacco extensively grown? — Is cotton raised there ? — Rice ? — The sugar-cane ? — Wheat ? What form the principal sources of wealth in the Eastern States ? — Are the agri- cultural products raised in sufficient quantities for exportation? — What kinds of minerals arc found there ? Which would be most likely to be engaged in the fisheries : Vermont, or the States on the coast? — Why? — Which States have a foreign commerce, or coast-trade? — Which are the manufacturing States? — Where are the forests most extensive? Which State is most engaged in the lumber-trade, and in ship-building? — In which State are farming and grazing the principal sources of wealth? — Which is most engaged in manufacturing? — In commerce? — In the fisheries? What are the principal sources of wealth in Maine? — New Hampshire? — Ver- mont ? — Massachusetts ? — Rhode Island ? — Connecticut ? TOWNS. On what river is the capital of Maine ? — On what bay is the largest city? — On what river is the principal place for the shipment of lumber? — Where is Bath ? — Rockland ? — In what are the people of these places engaged ? — Where is Lewiston? — Saco? — Biddeford? — What important business is done in these towns? — In what part of Maine are most of the towns situated? What is the capital of New Hampshire? — On what river is it situated? — On what river is Portsmouth? — Dover and Great Falls? — What is the principal business of the two latter towns? — What manufacturing towns in New Hampshire upon the Merrimac River? — In what part of the State are the largest towns? What is the capital of Vermont? — On what river is it situated? — What town near the mouth of that river? — On what river are Rutland and Middlebury ? — What trade is carried on in the two latter towns? — On what river are Brattleboro and Norwich ? — What can you tell about Bennington ? — Where is it situated ? What is the capital and largest city of Massachusetts? — Where is it situated? — Which are the principal cities engaged in the whale-fishery ? — In the cod and mack- erel fisheries? — In cotton and woollen manufactures? — Where is Lynn? — Taun- ton? — Fall River?. — What is the leading business in each of these places? — In what direction from Boston is Quincy? — Salem? — Cambridge? — Springfield? — Worcester ? — Plymouth ? — Concord ? — Lexington ? — Charlestown ? — For what are these places noted ? Name the capitals of Rhode Island. — Which of them is at the head of Narragan- sett Bay? — Which is a fashionable watering-place ? — Is it on an island, or on the main-land ? — Wherje are Bristol and Smithfield ? — For what are they noted ? Name the capitals of Connecticut ? — On what river is Hartford ? — Where is New Haven situated ? — New London ? — Stonington ? — Norwich ? — Middletown ? — Which of these places contain colleges ? —Which of them are on or near the coast? MISCELLANEOUS. What is the scale of the map of New England ? — Of what use is the scale of a map ? — What is the distance across the State of Vermont, from its northern to its southern boundary ? — What is the distance, in a direct line, from Portland to Boston ? On what waters would you sail, to go from Hartford to New York? — From Provi- dence to Boston? — From Bangor to Portland? — From Burlingtoiv-to Plattsburg? If a boat were set adrift in the Connecticut River, in what direction, and into what water would it float? — What two important rivers would you cross in going from Boston to Albany? Bound each of the New England States. — Name three important towns in each. — Mention the principal rivers and mountains in each State. — Spell the name of each State. — Spell Passamaquoddy. Nantucket. Narragansett. Montauk. Katalnlin. Monadnock. Wachusett. Richelieu. Missisque. Lamoille. Chesuncook. Schoo- dic. Kennebec. Androscoggin. Saco. Thames. Housatonic. Biddeford. Mont- pclicr. Gloucester. Waterville. Winnipiseogce. — Give the meaning of the last name. 33 31 COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY. CHAPTER VI. THE MIDDLE STATES; MARYLAND, VIRGINIA, AND THE DISTRICT OP COLUMBIA. I. The Middle States are New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware. Maryland, Virginia, and "West Virginia, are South- ern States. The District of Columbia was formerly a part of Mary- land. II. The agricultural and grazing products of this section are very important, and it possesses great advantages for manufactures and commerce. The mines of coal and iron far exceed in value those of any other section. Manu- facturing is promoted by the abundance of coal, and by the water-power of the rivers. The commerce is immense. Numerous railroads and canals connect the Ohio River and the Great Lakes with the Atlantic coast, and bring hither the products of the Western States, which are exported through the great commercial cities of New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore. Commerce is also promoted by the Atlantic rivers, nearly all of which are navi- gable ; and by Chesapeake and Delaware bays, which penetrate far into the interior. . III. Surface. — This region is crossed by the Alleghany Mountain System, which here attains its greatest breadth. The Catskill and Adirondack mountains are parts of the system. The name of Alleghany Mountains is applied not. only to the whole system, but separately to one of the principal chains. The eastern chain is called the Blue Ridge. Various local names are given to the other ranges. IV. West of the mountains the surface is hilly, with the excep- tion of some level tracts in New York. The country between the mountains and the sea consists of two regions : a low and generally sandy tract upon the coast, and a hilly district in the interior. The boundary between the hilly and level country would be marked by a line drawn from New York city, through Newark, Trenton, Baltimore, Washington, Fredericksburg, Richmond, and Petersburg, to Weldon, in North Carolina ; for these places are near the rapids or falls at the head of tide-water. V. Lakes and Rivers. — These belong to three different systems : the Atlantic, Mississippi, and St. Lawrence. VI. Owing to the hilly nature of the country, the rivers and lakes present many striking scenes of natural beauty. The Hudson, Delaware, and Potomac rivers, force their way through narrow gorges in the eastern ridge of the Alleghanies — the mountains sometimes rising perpen- dicularly to the height of 1000 feet. The Highlands on the Hudson, the Delaware Water-Gap, and the passage of the Potomac at Harper's Ferry, are thus produced. The Great Lakes pour their immense volume of water over a precipice 165 feet high, forming the unrivalled Cataract of Niagara. The Genesee River flows into Lake Ontario, over a series of magnificent falls: one of them, at Rochester, having a perpendicular descent of 97 feet. The Mohawk River and its tributaries have several beautiful cascades, of which Trenton Falls are the most celebrated. IfEW YORK. VII. In wealth, population, and commercial importance, New York holds the first rank in the Union, and is therefore called the Empire State. VIII. Productions. — The agricultural and grazing products, the minerals and manufactures, of New York, are all very important ; but commerce is the leading interest. Which are the Middle States? — Do Maryland and Virginia belong to the Middle or Southern States? — What are the chief resources of this section? — How is com- merce promoted ? — Describe the surface. — To what systems do the lakes and rivers belong? — Mention somo ef the scenes of natural beauty found here. Salt is the most valuable mineral, and is found in greater quantities here than in any other State. Iron and building-stone are abundant. The manufactures of New York now exceed in value those of any other State. The principal articles are cotton and woollen gooils, and iron. Great quantities of flour are made. IX. Towns. — Albany is the capital. No other State contains so many large towns and cities. The city of New York is the largest on the Western Continent, and is next to Lon- don and Liverpool in commer- cial importance. Brooklyn is, next to New York, the largest city in the State. The other important cities are situated on the lakes, or on the great routes of travel which centre towards the chief city. Immense quantities of produce from the Western States and Canada are received at Buffalo, Oswego, and Ogdcnsburg, and forwarded thence to the sea- coast. Rochester has the most extensive flonr-mills, and Syracuse the greatest salt- works, in the country. West Point is well-known as the seat of the U. S. Military Academy, and Saratoga as a fashionable watering-place. X. There are many places in Now York which have been the scenes of famous battles. Most of these are upon or near Laku Cbamplain and the Hudson River. PENNSYLVANIA. XI. Pennsylvania, the " Keystone State," is one of the wealthiest and most populous States in the Union. CASCADE BRIDGE, ERIE RAILROAD. PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD BRIDGE, ACROSS THE SUSQUEHANNA BIVEB. XII. Productions. — Pennsylvania is principally a mining and manufacturing State ; but it is also rich in grain and live-stock. Large quantities of wheat, rye, and Indian corn are raised here every year. What rank does New York hold ? — What is the leading interest of this State ? — Name the principal cities and towns. — -Which of them is most important ? — Is Penn- sylvania a commercial or a mining and manufacturing State ? — What kinds of grain are raised in this State ? THE MIDDLE STATES. 35 The mines of iron and coal far surpass those of any other State. The anthracite coal is found between the Delaware and Susquehanna rivers; the bituminous coal, in the western part of the State. Petroleum or coal-oil abounds in the north- western portion of the State. Pennsylvania is the first State in the amount of iron manufactures. The other loading manufactures arc cotton and woollen goods. Great quantities of flour are cade. XIII. Towns.— Ilarrisburg is the capital. Philadelphia is the principal city. Philadelphia is the greatest manufacturing city in the Union. It has an extensive commerce, and is the principal port in the country for the export of coal. Pittsburfh, surrounded by rich mines of coal and iron ore, is a great manufactur- ing city; and, from its position at the head of the Ohio River, commands an exten- sive inland commerce. The other places of most importance are Allegheny City, Lancaster, and Reading. NEW JERSEY. XIV. Productions. — New Jersey is principally an agricultural State, and supplies New York and Philadelphia with fruits and garden vegetables. The manufactures of cotton, wool, leather, and India-rubber goods, are also important. The productions of New Jer- sey are principally sent to New York and Philadelphia. XV. Towns.— Trenton, the capital, is celebrated for the cap- ture of the Hessians, by Wash- ington, in 177G. Newark (the largest, city), Paterson, New Brunswick, and Trenton, arc the principal manufacturing places. Jersey City is opposite to New York, and Cam- den to Philadelphia. Princeton, the scat of Princeton College, was the scene of a victory gained by the Americans over the British, during the Revolution. CajJfc May, Long Branch, and Atlantic City, arc well-known resorts for sea- bathing. DELAWARE. XVI. Delaware is, next to Ehode Island, the smallest State in the Union. This is the only ,-fcx State, the whole of which is included within the low district of the Atlantic Slope. ^ XVII. Productions.— Wheat and corn arc the principal pro- ductions. XVIII. Towns.— Dover is the capital. Wilmington is the largest city. Many steamboats and ether vessels are built at Wilmington; and in the vicinity there are numerous flour, pow- der, and paper mills. STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, TRENTON. DEEP CUT, CHESAPEAKE AND DELAWARE CANAL. What is said of the mines of iron and coal? — Where is the anthracite and bitu- minous coal found? — What are the leading manufactures? — Which is the principal city? — What advantages of position has Pittsburgh? — What are the chief produc- tions of New Jersey? — Name the large towns. — What is said of Delaware? — Name the productions. — The towns. MARYLAND. XIX. Maryland is divided by Chesa- peake Bay into two sections ; the portion east of the bay is called the Eastern Shore. XX. Productions. — Wheat, corn, and tobacco, are the chief productions. Iron and coal are abundant in the western dis- tricts. The manufactures of iron, cotton, and wool, arc important. XXI. Towns. — Annapolis is the capi- tal, and contains a Naval School. Baltimore is a great commercial and manufacturing city. Ship-building is :; 31 an important branch of industry. Cumberland is noted for its coal-trade. Fred- erick City and Hagerstown are flourishing places. battle monskent, Baltimore. DISTRICT OP' COLUMBIA. XXII. The District of Columbia is under the immediate govern- ment of Congress. It contains the cities of Washington and Georgetown, the former of which is the capital of the United States. VIRGINIA. XXIII. Virginia was settled in 1607, and being the earliest of the English Colonies, was styled the "Ancient Dominion." XXIV. Productions.— Tobacco, wheat, and corn, are the most important productions. Iron and coal are the principal minerals. XXV. Towns. — Eichmond is the capital, and the principal commer- cial city. It has numerous flour-mills, and many tobacco factories. Norfolk has one of the best harbors on the Atlantic coast. Yorktown is famous for the surrender of the British Army to Gen. Washington, in the year 1781. This event put an end to the war. Mount Vernon was the residence of Washington. WEST VIRGINIA. XXVI. West Virginia was admitted into the Union as a State, December 81st, 1862. It lies between the Alleghany Mountains on the East, and the Ohio and Big Sandy rivers on the West, and comprises about a third part of the old State of Virginia. HARPER'S FERRY. XXVII. Productions. — In climate, soil, and productions, it resembles the States of Ohio and Kentucky. Coal, iron, and salt abound. Petroleum exists in large quantities in the region adjacent to the Ohio River. XXVIII. Towns. — Wheeling, the capital, is situated on the left bank of the Ohio Kiver, which is here crossed by a handsome suspension bridge. Charleston, on the Great Kanawha Kiver, is noted for its salt works. Parkersburg and Point Pleasant are smaller towns. Harper's Ferry, at the junction of the Potomac and Shenandoah rivers, is a well-known place. By what Bay is Maryland divided? — What are the principal productions? — Name the important towns. — What is said of the District of Columbia? — Why is Virginia called the Ancient Dominion? — What are the most important productions? Name the capital, and the largest towns. — Describe the situation of West Virginia? — Name the large towns. 1 3 -==r 7!) Longitude Weal 78 Irani Greenwich 77 MAP 0¥ THE DD1E STATES WITH L RYLAND&VIRGIN(A. lli'iKtmi'i > In. ..m N"rwii'll./| « , "^eSaUi UHariia WT,",I 4JF "'''J" %L, IT ^»*^ ^N * >37 5 Longitude W est 4 from Washington 3 36 Longitude Kas1 1 from Washington 2 QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF THE MIDDLE STATES. FOSITIOH. What country lies north of this section? — What three States and ocean upon the east? — What State upon the south? — What two States on the west? AREA. Name the three largest of these States. — The three smallest. — Which is the largest State in this section? — The smallest? — How many States of the size of Massachusetts would Virginia make ? — How do New York and Pennsylvania compare in area? OUTLINE. What ocean washes the shores of this section ? — What two bays indent the coast ? — What, island is south of Long Island Sound ? — Where is Staten Island ? — Wliijt two capes at the entrance of Delaware Bay? — Of Chesapeake Hay ? — What two States have no sea-coa3t? — What States border upon the lakes? SURFACE. What mountain-system crosses this region? — In what direction does it extend? — What part of New Jersey docs it cross? — What part of New York ? — In what part of New York does it cross the Hudson River, and thence extend into New England ? Is the name of Alleghany Mountains applied to the whole system, or to a separate range ? — What is the most eastern range called ? — Name the chains in Pennsylvania, beginning at the cast. — In Virginia. — Name the chains in New Y'ork. Describe the surface of this section, west of the mountains. — Between the moun- tains and the sea. — Draw the boundary line between the hilly and the low country. — Where is the Valley of Virginia. LAKES AND RIVERS. To what three systems do the lakes and rivers of this section belong ? — In what mountains do most of the rivers rise ? — Why do the rivers present so many pictu- resque scenes? To what system does the Ohio, with its tributaries, belong? — What gulf do its waters finally reach? — What two rivers unite to form the Ohio? — Describe the course of the Alleghany River. — Of the Monongahela. — Name the tributaries of the Ohio in West Virginia. Into what gulf do the waters of the St. Lawrence and its tributaries flow ? — By what river does Lake Erie flow into Lake Ontario? — Over what Falls ? — What can you tell about this cataract? What three rivers flow into Lake Ontario? — What is there interesting connected with the Genesee River? — The Oswego River drains a chain of lakes: name the three principal ones. — By what river does Lake Champlain flow into the St. Law- rence?— Into what lake does Lake George flow? — What river flows into Lake Champlain? In what general direction do most of the rivers of the Atlantic System flow ? — Through what mountains do many of them pass? — In what mountains does the Hudson River rise? — In what direction docs it flow ? — What tributary docs it re- ceive? — What States does the Hudson separate, in the lower part of its course? Where are the Raritan and Passaic rivers ? — By what river is Pennsylvania sepa- rated from New Jersey, and partially from New Y'ork? — In what State does it rise ? Into what bay does it flow? — What tributaries does it receive in Pennsylvania? What river empties into the head of Chesapeake Bay? — In what State does its north branch rise? — The west branch? — What tributary does the Susquehanna receive ? Describe the Potomac River. — In what direction do its two largest branches flow? — On which side of the Blue Ridge do tJie Y'ork and Rappahannock rise ? — The James River? — What two rivers of Virginia flow through North Carolina into Albemarle Sound ? Where are the Falls of Niagara ? — At what city is one of the Falls of the Gen- esee? — On what river are Trenton Falls ? — Where are the Highlands of the Hud- son? — Where is the Delaware Water-Gap? — Harper's Ferry? — The Genesee and Alleghany rivers rise very near each other : if a log were thrown into the Genesee, into what gulf would it drift? — If into the Alleghany River? What rivers of this section does Lake Ontario receive? — Delaware Bay 1 — Chesa- peake Bay? — Let each scholar describe some river, in the manner proposed in the questions on the New England States — mentioning, also, whatever scene of natural beauty may be connected with it. CLIMATE AND PRODUCTIONS. Does New England, or this section, lie farther south? — Which, then, has the warmer climate? — Which has the warmest climate: New Y'ork, or Virginia? — Why? Where arc the winters colder: on the mountains, or low-lands ? — In the interior, or near the coast? — Which State is in the same latitudes as New England ? — Which, ' then, has a climate most nearly resembling that of New England ? Are the farming and grazing products more, or less, important in this section, than in New England? — These States lie in the northern and middle parts of our country, what, then, are the principal agricultural productions? — [Refer to Vege- tation, in the chapter on the United States.] How do these States compare with other sections in the amount of coal and iron obtained? — Between what rivers is the anthracite coal region of Pennsylvania? — In what part of the State is the bituminous coal region ? — Iu what part of Maryland is the coal-field of that State ? What are the principal productions of New Y'ork? — What is the leading interest? — -What are the principal productions of Pennsylvania ? — Of New Jersey ? — Dela- ware ? — Maryland ? — Virginia? Which is the first commercial State in the Union ? — Why is New Y'ork called the Empire State ? — Which is the first State in the Union in its mines of coal and iron ? — In the amount of iron manufactures? — What State supplies New Y'ork and Philadelphia with garden vegetables? — What minerals are found in West Virginia? TOWNS. What State contains the greatest number of large towns ? — Where is the capital of New Y'ork? — The principal city? — -The next in size? — Where are the other important cities of this State situated? — What can you say of the city of New Y'ork? — To what do Buffalo, Oswego, and Ogdensburg owe their prosperity ? — Where are tbey situated? — Where is Rochester? — Syracuse? — West Point? — Saratoga ? — -For what are they noted ? Where is the capital of Pennsylvania ?— The principal city ? —Pittsburgh ? — Allegheny City? — Lancaster? — Reading? — What can you say of Philadelphia? — What advantages has Pittsburgh from its position ? Where is Trenton? — Newark? — Paterson? — New Brunswick? — Jersey City ? — Camden? — Princeton? — Cape Island? — Atlantic City? — Which of these are noted for battles in the Revolutionary War ? — Which of them are manufacturing towns ? Where is Dover ? — Wilmington ? — Annapolis? — Baltimore? — Georgetown ? — Washington ? — Richmond ? — Norfolk ? — Wheeling ? — Charleston ? — Y'orktown 1 — Mount Vernon ? — What can you say of each of these places? MISCELLANEOUS. From what city would you ship a cargo of coal to Boston? — Of tobacco? — At what ports may a New England merchant purchase a cargo of grain? — Of flour? Of iron manufactures ? — Why does he leave his own section to obtain these articles ? What is the scale of this map? — What is the distance in a direct line of Rich- mond from Philadelphia? — Of Wheeling from New York? — Of Syracuse from Washington ? — To which of the three Atlantic cities of New Y'ork, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, is Buffalo nearest, measuring the distance in a direct line 1 On which bank of the Delaware is Philadelphia: the right or left? — Is Wash- ington on the right or left bank of the Potomac? — If you wished to go from Washington to Mfc. Vernon, would you cross the river? — On which bank of the river, then, is Mt. Vernon ? On what waters would a vessel sail, to go from New Y'ork to Philadelphia? — From Philadelphia to Richmond? — From Baltimore to Washington? — On what river would you sail, to go from Pittsburgh to Wheeling? — What lake would you cross, in going from Oswego to Toronto ? Bound each State of this section — Name three important towns in each. — Give the principal rivers and mountains in each State. — Spell Philadelphia. Pennsyl- vania. Chesapeake. Catskill. Adirondack. Genesee. Annapolis. Monongahela. Alleghany. Seneca. Shenandoah. Oneida. Passaic. Susquehanna. Schuylkill- 37 38 COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY. CHAPTER VII. THE SOUTHERN STATES, ARKANSAS AND TENNESSEE. I. The section described in this chapter includes most of the Southern States ; together with Arkansas and Tennessee, which are Western States. The Southern States are Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. Maryland, Virginia, and West Virginia are described in connection with the Middle States; and Texas, with the Territories. II. The Coast is low, and, in general, is either sandy or marshy. It is lined throughout with low and sandy islands, and contains few good harbors. III. Surface. — A part of this section belongs to the Atlantic Slope ; the remainder, to the Mississippi Valley. The surface of the Atlantic Slope in these States resembles that of the Middle States. The boundary between the hilly and level country would be marked by aline drawn from Weldon, through Fayetteville, Augusta, Columbus, Wctumpka, and Tus- caloosa, to Aberdeen. That part of this- section included within the Mississippi Valley is, in general, very level. The only hilly regions of any importance are in Tennessee and Ala- bama, near the base of the Alleghany Mountains. IV. Rivers belong to two systems: the Atlantic, and the Mis- sissippi. They afford extensive navigation for steamboats. The Valley of the Mississippi is, next to that of the Amazon, the largest in the world. The river rises in Lake Itasca, in Minnesota, and, after a course of 2800 miles, flows into the Gulf of Mexico by several mouths. It is navigable to the Falls of St. Anthony, a distance of 2200 miles. In Louisiana, embankments, called levees, are built on both sides of the river, to prevent the waters from overflowing the land. Yet the river sometimes breaks through these defences, causing immense damage to the country. V. Productions. — This is chiefly an agricultural region. Cotton is the great staple production, and forms the principal article of export. The climate and soil of this section are particularly favorablo to the cultivation of cotton. The value of the quantity exported in the year ending June 30th, 1860, exceeded $190,000,000. Corn is raised in all the States. Rice is produced in the marshy districts of the coast, especially in South Carolina and Georgia. Tobacco is an important product in Tennessee and North Carolina ; and sugar, in Louisiana. The extensive pine forests, in the sandy parts of the coast-district, furnish lumber and naval stores ; the latter consist of turpentine, resin, tar, and pitch, made from the sap of the trees. The mineral wealth of this region is also very great. The coal-fields of North Carolina and Alabama arc extensive, though as yet they are little worked. Copper is abundant in North Carolina, iron in Tennessee and North Carolina, and consider- able quantities of gold are found in North Carolina and Georgia. VI. The Commerce of this section is very extensive, and is carried on mainly through New Orleans, Mobile, Charleston, and Savannah. VII. The Inhabitants are chiefly of English descent, except in Louisiana, where there are many French, and in portions of Texas which have been settled principally by Germans. The negroes are much more numerous in this portion of the Union than in any other, and perform most of the labor. Which are the Southern States? — What States form the section described in this chapter? — Describe the coast of this section. — The surface of that part of it be- longing to the Atlantic Slope. — The Mississippi Valley. — To what two systems do the lakes and rivers belong? — What is the principal production of this region? — Name some of the other productions. — Through what cities is most of the foreign commerce carried on? — Of what descent are the inhabitants? — By whom is tha labor chiefly performed ? STATE CAPITOL, AT RALEIGH. NORTH CAROLINA. VIII. Productions. — North Carolina derives her chief wealth from her pine forests : lumber and naval stores being the principal exports. Cotton, corn, tobacco, wheat, and rice, are also important productions. IX. Towns. — Raleigh is the capital. Wilming- ton is the principal city. Beaufort has the best harbor in the State. Fay- etteville, on Cape Fear River, is a flourishing place. SOUTH CAROLINA. X. South Carolina is, next to Maryland, the smallest of the Southern States; but, in proportion to its size, it is one of the most populous and wealthy. On account of the abundance of Palmetto trees growing in this State, it is often called the Palmetto State. XL Productions. — More rice is raised in South Carolina than in any other State, and the celebrated sea-island cotton is extensively grown on the islands along the coast. These articles, with lumber and naval stores, are the principal exports. XII. Towns. — Columbia is the capital; Charleston, the largest city. More rice is ex- ported from the latter city than from any other in the union. Georgetown, Camden, and Cheraw, are the other most important places. GEORGIA. XIII. Georgia is second in population among the Southern States. It was the last settled of the thirteen original States. XIV. Productions. — Georgia produces cotton and corn largely, is sec- ond in the amount of rice, and first in sweet potatoes. The principal exports consist of cotton, rice, lumber, and naval stores. XV. Towns. — Millcdgeville is the capital ; Savannah, the prin- cipal city. Augusta, Columbus, and Macon, are next in importance. From what does North Carolina derive her chief wealth ? — What are the princi- pal exports? — Name the capital. — The other important places. — What is Soulh Carolina often called ? — Why ? — What arc the principal productions ? — Name the capital. — The largest city. — What rank does Georgia hold among the Southern States in population? — What rank'in the production of rice? — Sweet potatoes? — Name other productions. — What arc the principal exports? — Name the capital. The other principal places. THE PALMETTO TREE. FACLS OF TOWALIGO. THE SOUTHERN STATES. FLORIDA. XVI. Productions — Cotton, rice, sugar, lumber, and naval stores, are the principal pro- ductions. The live-oak is of great value for ship-building. XVII. Towns— Tal- lahassee is the capital. Key West is the largest town. Key West is situated upon nn island of coral formation, south-west of the main-land. It is the most southern town in the United States, and has an excellent harbor. Pensacola contains a United States Navy Yard. St. Augustine is the oldest town in the Union. A SCENE IN FLORIDA. XVIII. Productions y^i-ijA ALABAMA. Alabama is one of the leading cotton-grow- ing States. Indian corn, sweet potatoes, rice, and lumber, are the other principal productions. XIX. Towns.— Mont- gomery is the capital ; Mobile is the largest city. Tuscaloosa con- tains the State Uni- ADING WITH COTTON. versity. A COTTON FIELD. Mobile is second only to New Orleans in the shipment of cotton. It exports not only the productions of Alabama, but a large portion of those of Mississippi. MISSISSIPPI. XX. Productions.— Mississippi ranks first in cotton. Indian corn, rice, and sweet potatoes, are the other principal productions. The productions of this State arc chiefly forwarded for export to New Orleans and Mobile. LOUISIANA. XXII. Louisiana was settled by the French, and purchased of them by the United States in 1803. The chief productions are sugar and cotton. Nearly all the sugar made from t le sugar-cane in the United States is produced in Louisiana A SUGAR PLANTATION. XXIII. Towns. — Baton Rouge is the capital; New Orleans, the largest city. New Orleans is the greatest cotton-mart in the world, and exports not only the productions of Louisiana, but of a considerable part of the Mississippi Valley. The city is built upon a bend in the Mississippi River, and is therefore called the Crescent City. ARKANSAS. XXIV. Productions. — The staple productions are Indian corn, cotton, and live-stock. XXV. Towns.— Little ^AflMttfll Rock is the capital, and the largest town in the State. The Hot Springs of Arkan- sas are regarded as a great natural curiosity. They are about eighty in number, situ- ated fifty miles southwest of Little Rock, and are much resorted to by invalids. ING IN WOOD. XXI. Towns. — Jackson is the capital. The other principal towns are Natchez, Vicksburg, Aberdeen, Columbus, and Holly Springs. What are the principal productions of Florida? — Name the capital. —The other important towns. — What rank has Alabama as a cotton-growing State? — Name the capital. — The largest city. —What of tho productions of Mississippi ? —Through what cities are its productions chiefly exported? — Name the capital. — The other important places. TENNESSEE. XXVI. The Cumberland Mountains and Tennessee River divide the State into'East, Middle, and West Tennessee. • XXVII. Productions.— In- dian corn, cotton, and to- bacco, are tho leading pro- ductions. The iron mines arc also of great value. XXVIII. Towns.— Nash- ville, the largest city of Mid- dle Tennessee, is the capital. Memphis is on tho Mississippi River St. Louis and New Orleans. STATE CAPITOL, AT NASHVILLE. It is the largest city on that river between Knoxvillo is the principal town in East Tennessee. 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Name the three northern States of this section. — The three eastern. — The two southern. — The three western. — What country is north of this section? — What three Slates are east of it! — What two States south? Name the six States which border on the great lakes. — The four States bordering on the Ohio River ? — What States border on the Mississippi ? — Of what two States does the Missouri River form a part of the western boundary ? AREA. Name the largest State of this section. — The smallest. — Which States are larger than New York? — Which are smaller than Pennsylvania! — How many States, of the size of New Jersey, would Missouri make ? SURFACE. What is the general character of the surface of this region !- mountain-range ? — Of what system is t!4s chain a part ? -Where is the only LAKES AND RIVERS. To what two systems do the principal lakes and rivers belong? — In which of these river-basins is the larger part of this section situated ? — Into what lakes do the rivers of Michigan flow ? — In which basin, then, is Michigan situated: that of the Mississippi, or of the St. Lawrence ? — Into what do all the rivers of Iowa and Missouri flow ? — In what basin, then, are these States? By what river does Lake Superior flow into Lake Huron ? — In what direction do the waters of Lake Michigan flow? — Through what strait? — Does Lake Huron flow in the same, or in an opposite direction, from Lake Michigan ? — Through what waters would a vessel sail, in going from Lake Huron to Lake Erie ? Name the lakes of which the following bays are a part: Green Bay. — Saginaw Bay. — Keweenaw Bay. — Georgian Bay. — Grand Traverse Bay. — Thunder Bay. — Through what river do the waters of the great lakes flow into the ocean ? — Name three rivers of this section flowing into the great lakes, and the State in which each is situated. What is the general course of the Ohio River ? — Into what does it flow ? — Name its four tributaries from the north. — Which of these forms a part of the boundary between Indiana and Illinois? — Name the seven tributaries of the Ohio flowing into it from the south. — Which of these forms a part of the boundary between Vir- ginia and Kentucky ? The Mississippi River has its source in Lake Itasca: where is this lake? — Which is the principal tributary of the Mississippi in Minnesota ? — What tributary of the Mississippi forms a part of the boundary between Minnesota and Wisconsin ? — Name the rivers of Wisconsin flowing into the Mississippi. — Those of Iowa. — Of Illinois. What is the general course of the Missouri River? — Across what State does it .flow? — Into what river? — Name its principal branches in Missouri. — What river on the western border of Minnesota flows into Lake Winnipeg? CLIMATE AND PRODUCTIONS. Does the climate of this section most nearly resemble that of the Eastern and Middle States, or that of the Southern States ? — Which is the colder country : the northern, or southern peninsula of Michigan? — Minnesotaor Missouri? — Wisconsin or Kentucky! What are the most important grains raised in this section? — In what States are tobacco and hemp produced? — Where are the timber-lands? — For what purpose arc the cattle and swine chiefly reared ? What mines are found in this region? — Where is iron obtained? — Copper? — Lead? — What can you say about the coal-beds? — What is the principal building- stone? — Which State in this section raises the most tobacco! — Which holds the first rank in the Union in the production of wine? — Of wheat and Indian corn? What rank among the United States has Kentucky as a tobacco-growing State ? — What do you understand by live-stock? — To what part of the Union are many horses, cattle, and swine, sent from this section ? TOWNS. On what river is the capital of Kentucky ! — The largest city ! — What important places are opposite Cincinuati ! — Where is Lexington t On what river is the capital of Ohio ? — The largest city ? — What important places are situated on the shores of Lake Erie ? — On what river is Dayton ? — Steubcn- ville? — Zanesville? Name the capital of Indiana. — The principal places situated on the Ohio River. — Those on the Wabash. — The one on the Maumec. — Where is Richmond ? Name the capital of Illinois. — On what lake is the largest city ? — Name the river on which Peoria is situated. — Quincy. — Alton. — In what part of the State is Galena? Name the capital of Michigan. — On what river is the largest city? — What can you say about Ann Arbor ! — Ypsilanti ? Where is the capital of Wisconsin ? — The largest city ? — On what lake are Racine and Kenosha ? — On what river is Janesville ? On what river is the capital of Missouri? — The largest city ? — The other prin- cipal places mentioned in the text ? What is the capital of Iowa? — Name the river on which each of the following places is situated: Burlington. — Keokuk. — Muscatine. — Davenport. — Iowa City. What is the capital of Minnesota? — On what rivir is it situated ? — Describe the position of the other principal places mentioned in the text. MISCELLANEOUS. The following are the most important cities of this section; describe their situa- tion, and tell what you know about them : Cincinnati. St. Louis. Chicago. Louis- ville. Milwaukee. Cleveland. Detroit. — Let each scholar describe the position of some town, and tell what he can about it. A party in Cleveland chartered a steamboat to visit the Pictured Rocks of Lake Superior: name the bodies of water through which they passed. — What is the route of a person who goes by water from Chicago to the copper-region of Lake Superior? — On what rivers will you sail, to go from Cincinnati to the Falls of St. Anthony? A party in St. Louis wish to visit the Mammoth Cave : what route shall they take? — What rivers will you ascend, to go from St. Louis to Council Bluffs ! — What lake is very near Lake Travels ? — After a heavy rain, the country between these lakes is often overflowed, so that boats can pass from one to the other ; thin an Indian with his canoe might make the passage from Hudson Bay to the Gulf of Mexico: name all the lakes and rivers he must navigate in the journey. Which of the States in this section consists of two peninsulas ? — What bodies of water enclose the lower one ? — The upper ? — In what part of this region are there numerous small lakes ? — What part of this section is best adapted to the growth of grain: the northern, or southern? — Where are the products of the forests most valuable ? Is this section principally an agricultural and grazing country, or a manufacturing region ? — Is it probable, then, that most of the wool produced in Ohio is manufac- tured into cloth there, or exported ? — Is it likely that cotton is largely imported from the Southern States? — Where do the people of this section procure their manufactured goods? The water-shed between the St. Lawrence and Mississippi Basins is, in general, a very slight elevation of ground, and there are houses so situated that the rain which falls on one side of the roof is drained into the St. Lawrence, and that which fails on the other is drained into the Mississippi : suppose a house to be so located between the Fox River of Wisconsin, and Rock River, and follow the course of the drops of rain which fall on each side of the roof, to the ocean. What is the scale of this map ? — In what direction, and across what States, would you travel, to go from Columbus to St. Louis ! — What is the distance, in a direct line, between these places? — What is the distance from Cleveland to Chicago? — From Chicago to Iowa City ? — From Iowa City to Council Bluffs ! Bound each of these States. — Name three important towns in each. — Mention the principal rivers. — Spell the following words: — Kentucky Michigan. Milwaukee Illinois. Keweenaw. Minnesota. Iowa. Keokuk. Chicago. Chippewa. Onton- agon. Marquette. Dubuque. Galena. Kaskaskia. Wabash. Mackinaw. Wis- consin. — Give the meaning of the following names: — Mississippi. Terre Haute. Ohio. Fond du Lac. Missouri. 45 46 COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGEAPHY. CHAPTER IX. TEXAS, CALIFORNIA, OREGON, KANSAS, AND THE ADJACENT STATES AND TERRITORIES. I. The section described in this chapter includes the States of Texas, California, Oregon, Kansas, Nevada, Nebraska, and the Territories. These States arc all 'Western States except Texas, which is a Southern State. II. The Coast of this region lies partly upon the Pacific Ocean, and partly upon the Gulf of Mexico. The shores of the Pacific are bold and rocky, being skirted by the Coast Range of the California Mountain System. The Bay of San Francisco, and the Strait of Juan de Fuca, are the only large inlets upon thiB part of the Pacific coast. The coast of the Gulf of Mexico is low and sandy, like that of the other Southern States. III. Surface. — This section belongs to two divisions: the Pacific Slope, and the Central Plain. [For a full description of the mountains and general surface, sec the article on the United States. CI""-*-- IV., paragraphs IV., V., VIII., and IX.] 11 will be perceived by an examination of this chapter, that this section embraces an extensive desert-plateau, from 2000 to 0000 feet high, which extends from the Cnaeuue and Sierra Nevada Ranges, a distance of 200 to 400 miles cast of the Rocky Mountains. This is the only barren tract of great extent in the United States. IV. Lakes and Rivers. — These belong to four systems : the Pacific, the Mississippi, the Texas, and the Utah Systems. Great Salt Lake, in Utah, is the only lake of considerable size. The rivers of the desert-plateau, owing to the small quantity of rain which falls there, are generally very shallow. V. Climate. — The Pacific coast, and the highlands of the interior, have a different climate from that of any other part of the Union. On the Pacific coast, the year is divided into a wet and a dry season, somewhat lilce those of the Tropics. The wet season occurs during winter and spring, the dry during summer and autumn. It is no uncommon occurrence, at places upon this coast, for entire months to pass, in the dry season, without the fall of a drop of rain. The summers are much cooler, and the winters warmer, upon the Pacific coast than on the Atlantic. The year is also divided into a wet and dry season on the desert-plateau. Very little rain falls there during the entire year, but that which does fall is almost wholly during the winter and spring. VI. Productions. — This section, as yet, is thinly settled, and the agricultural resources are but partially developed. They are, how- ever, like those of the same latitudes in the other parts of the country. The mineral wealth of this region is very great. The gold mines of California arc immensely rich. Quicksilver and many other valuable minerals abound. Gold is also found throughout the central portion of Colorado and Idaho. There are valuable silver mines in Arizona and Nevada. VII. Inhabitants. — The population is composed chiefly of emi- grants from the other States, and from Europe. There are many Mexicans in California and New Mexico, and a considerable number of Chinese in California. Most of the Indians within the United States inhabit this section. Some of them are civilized, while others are still in a savage state. Several tribes maintain blmost constant hostilities against the whites. TEXAS. VIII. Texas is the largest State in the Union. Only about one- half of it is settled. The western part is occupied by Indians, and supports large herds of wild horses and buffaloes. Name the States described in this chapter. — Which of the States is a Southern State? — Which are Western States? — Describe the coast of this section. — The surface. — To what systems do the lakes and rivers belong? — How does the climate differ from that of the Atlantic States? — Whnt can you say of the agricultural resources? — Of the minerals ? — The inhabitants? — The Indians? — What part of Texas is settled? IX. Productions. — - Cotton, corn, sugar, tobacco, and rice, are th* chief products. ^ Oranges, lemons, and other tropical fruits, succeei well. CAMELS IN TEXAS. Camels were at one time introduced into Texas for the purpose of traversing the desert-plateau between this State and the Pacific Ocean. X. Towns. — Austin is the capital. Galveston and Houston are the most important towns. Galveston is situated upon Galveston Island, and has the best harbor in the State. Houston is the principal shipping-port for an extensive and very fertile section of country. San Antonio is the oldest town. It contains the Alamo fortress, so renowned in the history of the State, where 150 Tcxans defended themselves for two weeks against 4000 Mexicans. CALIFORNIA. XI. California is the largest State in the Union except Texas. This State has great commercial advantages. It has nearly eight hundred miles of coast, and many excellent harbors. San Francisco Bay is one of the finest harbors in the world. Except the outlet to the sea through the Golden Gate, a mile wide, it is entirely surrounded by land, and is securely sheltered from storms. Its waters are deep enough for the largest vessels, and its anchorage very firm. The climate in the vicinity of this bay and that of the valleys west of the Coast Range, being tempered by the ocean breezos, is remarkably uniform. At San Francisco the difference of temperature between the average of the coldest month of the year and that of the warmest is only nine degrees. The mountains and streams of California are rich in gold and silver ; and emigrants in search of these precious metals hnve crowded to its shores from all parts of the world. The wealth of the gold mines has contributed in a remarkable degree to the prosperity of the United States. The quicksilver mines of New Almaden, in Santa Clara county, are the richest in the world. XII. Surface. — The surface of California consists of mountains and valleys. The great valley of the Sacramento and San Joaquin, 500 miles long and from 50 to 100 miles wide, lies between the Sierra Nevada and Coast Mountains. Most of the gold mines of the State are in this valley, along the western base of the Sierra Nevada. This valley is very fertile, as are also many little valleys west of the Coast Mountains formed by spurs extending from this range towards the ocean. The What are the principal productions of Texas? — For what purpose are camels used in this State? — Name the capital. — Describe the most important towns. — How does California compare in size with other States? — What is said of its com- mercial advantages? — What of San Francisco Bay? — Of the climate? — What can you s:iy of the gold and silver? — Of the quicksilver mines? — Describe the surface of California. — Where are most of the gold mines in the State? THE WES TEEN TEEEITOEIES. 47 remaining surface of the State, with few exceptions, ia either rugged or sterile; and that part comprised in the great interior basin and the Colorado Desert ia almost destitute of vegetation. The Colorado Desert is below the level of the Gulf of California, the waters of which probably once covered it. XIII. The scenery of California is scarcely surpassed, for gran- deur and variety, by that of any other part of the United States. Yosemite Valley, a narrow gorge or rift in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, in Mari- posa county, surrounded by precipitous rocks from two thousand to four thousand feet high, contains Yosemite Falls, one of the most magnificent cataracts in the world, besides several smaller cascades of romantic beauty. XIV. Productions. — The soil in the valleys west of the Sierra Nevada yields great crops of wheat and barley. The vine and olive flourish in the southern part of the State. Large quantities of wine are made in Los Angeles and other counties. V^^^I VIEW OF THE QUICKSILVER MINES OF NEW ALMADEN. Many of the forest trees are of gigantic size. The celebrated Grove in Calaveras county contains trees one hundred feet in circumference and more than three hun- dred feet high, and even larger trees have been found in Tulare county. XV. Towns. — Sacramento, on the Sacramento Eiver, is the capi- tal. It is finely situated for commerce, the river being navigable to this point for vessels and steamers of large size at all seasons of the year. » San Francisco, on San Francisco Bay, is the great commercial mart of California, and the most important city on the Pacific coast of America. Its growth has been most extraordinary; and its commercial position is ao favorable, that it can hardly fail to become one of the great cities of the globe. Marysville, Nevada, and Stockton, are the other large towns in the interior of the State; and Benicia, San Jos<5, Monterey, and San Diego, are smaller places upon or near the coast. Los Angeles is noted for grapes. XVI. The great lines of railroad now being constructed across the country, connecting the shores of the Atlantic with those of the Pacific Ocean will doubtless add greatly to the prosperity of Cali- What portions of the State are aterile? — What ia said of* the scenery ?— De- scribe Yosemite Valley. — Where are wheat and barley produced? — Name some other productions. — What is said of the great trees? — Name the capital of Cali- fornia.— What is said of it? — What is said of San Francisco? — Name some of the large towns in the interior of the State.— Some of those upon or near the sea-coast. — For what ia Los Angeles noted? — How will the new Pacific Railroads affect California? fornia, as well as of the other States and Territories through which they pass. OREGON. XVII. — Oregon was admitted into the Union in 1859. The aection west of the Cascade Mountains contains many fertile valleys. Most of the white inhabitants live in this part of the State. XVIII. Towns. — Salem is the capital. Portland is the largest town. KANSAS. XIX. Kansas became the thirty-fourth State of the Union in 1861. The soil in the eastern part of Kansas is exceedingly fertile, and this portion is being populated rapidly by emigration from the other Statea. ■Topeka is the capital, and Leavenworth the XX. Towns. largest city. NEVADA. XXI. Nevada was formed from a portion of Utah i.n 1861. In 1864 it was admitted into the Union as the thirty-sixth State. A large portion of Nevada ia a barren deaert, and its lakes are nearly all salt. It is more abundant in silver than any other part of the Union. The mines extend nearly to the eastern boundary of the State. XXII. Towns. — Carson City is the capital. Virginia City and Genoa are next in importance. NEBRASKA. XXIII. Nebraska became the thirty-seventh State in 1867. In climate, soil, and productions, it resembles the adjoining State of Iowa. XXIV. Towns. — Lincoln is the capital. Omaha, Plattesmouth and Nebraska City are the principal towns. THE "WESTERN TERRITORIES. XXV. The Territories of the United States are ten in number, viz. : Washington, Idaho, Montana, Dakota, Utah, Colorado, Ari- zona, New Mexico, Wyoming, and Indian Territory. XXVI. Washington. — This territory borders on the Pacific Ocean. Nearly all the white inhabitants live west of the Cascade Mountains. The eastern and central parts are inhabited by various tribes of Indiana. XXVII. Towns. — Olympia is the capital. Steilacoom is one of the most important places. XXVIII. Idaho. — This territory, organized in 1863, extends east of Oregon and Washington. It is inhabited chiefly by Indians ; but the rich gold mines, recently discovered, are attracting many white emigrants thither. Boise City is the capital. XXIX. Montana. — ■ Montana was organized in 1864. It lies on both sides of the Eocky Mountains, and abounds in gold. XXX. Towns. — Virginia City is the capital. XXXI. Dakota. — Dakota was organized in 1861, and is the largest territory. It contains but few white inhabitants. XXXII. Towns. — Yankton is the capital. Pembina is the oldest town. In what section of Oregon do most of the inhabitants live? — When did Kansas become a State? — What can you say of the eastern part of Kansas? — Name the capi- tal. — The largest city. — From a part of what territory was Nevada formed ? — Name the capital. — What State does Nebraska resemble? — Give the number and names of the Western Territories. — On what ocean does Washington Territory border? — By what are many emigrants attracted to Idaho ? — What abounds in Montana? — Which is the largest Territory? SmiE/OF CALIFORNIA, ENGRAVED TO ILLUSTRATE STERMEDIAX E GEOGRAPH Statutr- Miles fi9.2.to a Degree. Scale 75 Miles to an inru. State Capital County Towns . _ 9 Common do. . o Tin' Overland Mail Route from S) Loulfl to Sun Francisco 2,765 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■> Mm- . 120 Longitude "West 11» from Greenwich 118 bmwn hvJETcuna Entered -tu ivrdinp to Act of Conpress.in the year 1858, by U. (awpfrtttwati •* ''".in the Clerk's office ofthe.S)\smrt Court »t tin eastern district of !'• mtsybtama &«kl^sM *x,nt£h ■>- Ac THE WESTERN TERRITORIES. *47 XXXIII. Utah. — Utah contains the Great Salt Lake, and the principal portion of the Fremont or Great Basin, the most desolate region in the United States. This basin is about four thousand feet above the level of the sea, :ind its rivers have no outlet to the ocean. They either empty into inland lakes or are swallowed up in the sand. The white inhabitants of Utah are mostly Mormons, a peculiar religious sect. The Great Basin is inhabited by a degraded tribe of Indians, called "Diggers," who subsist chiefly upon roots. * SANTA FE TRAIN FORDINfi THE ARKANSAS RIVER. Most of the manufactured articles used in New Mexico and Utah are brought hither across the plains from the towns of Western Missouri. For protection against the Indians, and to aid each other on the way, the traders usually travel in companies, and form their wagons into what is called trains. What does Utah contain ? — What can you say of the Great Basin ? — Who are the white inhabitants? — By whom is the Great Basin inhabited? — Describe the method of conveying manufactured articles to Utah and New Mexico. — Name the capital of Utah. — The principal towns. — When was Colorado organized? — For what is it famous ? — Name the capital and largest town. — When was Arizona made a separate XXXIV. Towns. — Salt Lake City is the capital. Fillmore City and Paragoona are smaller towns. XXXV. Colorado. — This territory was organized in 1861, and extends from Kansas to Utah. It is famous for its gold, which was first discovered near Pike's Peak, and the mining of which gives employment to most of the white inhabitants. XXXVI. Towns. — Denver is the capital and largest town. XXXVII. Arizona. — Arizona was formerly a part of New Mex- ico, but was made a separate territory in 1863. Valuable gold and silver mines abound in nearly all parts of the territory. XXXVIII. Towns. — Prescott is the capital. Tucson and Tubac are the chief towns. XXXIX. New Mexico. — This territory is occupied chiefly by Indians. The white inhabitants are Mexicans and Americans. XL. Towns. — Santa Fe is the capital. Albuquerque and Socorro are the places of next importance. XLI. Wyoming was formed from a part of Dakota in 1868. XLII. Towns. — Cheyenne is the principal town. XLIII. Indian Territory. — This tract of country has been set apart as a permanent home for various tribes of Indians, who were either natives of the soil, or have been removed from the States east of the Mississippi River. Some of these tribes have made considerable advance in agriculture and the useful arts, and have churches, school-houses, and mills. XLIV. Towns. — Tahlequah, a Cherokee town, is the most im- portant place in the territory. territory? — What is said of its gold and silver mines?— Name the capital? — The chief towns. — By whom is New Mexico chiefly inhabited? — What is the capital? — When was Wyoming formed? — Name the principal town. — For whom has the Indian Territory been set apart? — What is said of .some of these tribes? — Name the most important town. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF CALIFORNIA. By what State is California bounded on the north ? — By what State and Territory on the east? — By what country on the south? — What ocean on the west? — Where is Humboldt Bay? — San Diego Bay? — Where are the Santa Barbara Islands? — Where is Cape Mendocino ? — Where are the Farallone Islands ? What is the area of California ? — How many States of the size of Virginia would it make? — How many of the size of Massachusetts? Name the two principal mountain-chains in California. — Which cf them is nearest the coast ? — What great valley lies between these mountain-ranges ? — Where is Mount Shasta? — Mount San Bernardino? — Mount San Gorgonio? — What is the character of the surface west of the Coast Range ? What river forms part of the boundary between California and Arizona ? — What river flows into the Colorado at the extreme southern boundary of California ? — What two rivers empty into the Bay of San Francisco? — In what general direction does the Sacramento River flow? — The San Joaquin ? — Name some of the principal tributaries of each of these rivers. — Into what bay does the river Salinas flow? — Where is the Klamath River? — Where is Tulare Lake? — What rivers flow into it ? — Name two lakes that arc situated partly in California and partly in Nevada. — Where are the Yosemite Falls ? Through how many degrees of latitude does California extend? — Is the cli- mate more uniform upon the coast or in the interior? — Why? — What is the differ- enca between the average temperature of the warmest and coldest months of the year at San Francisco ? What portions of California are the most fertile? — Where are gold and silver principally found? — In what part of the State are large quantities of wine made? Where is San Francisco? — On what river is Sacramento? — Marysville? — Stockton? — On what bay is San Diego? — Monterey? — Where is Nevada? — Beui cia? — San Jos<5? — Name all the waters on which you would sail to go from Sacra- mento to San Diego. — From Stockton to Crescent City. . Sketch a map of California, locating the principal mountain-ranges, the rivers and towns. If you wished to forward a quantity of gold dust from California to the Mint at Philadelphia, how would you send it; across the country by land, or by sea ? — What are the principal obstacles to the transportation of merchandise from New York to San Francisco by a direct land route? — By what triumph of human skill and ingenuity are these obstacles about to be overcome ? QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF THE ENVIRONS OF SAN FRANCISCO AND SACRAMENTO. What is the direction of Sacramento from San Francisco? — What-is the distance between these places by a direct line? — In what direction from San Francisco is Stockton? — On what rivers would you sail, to go from Stockton to Sacramento? Through what strait must vessels sail from the Pacific Ocean to enter the Bay of San Francisco? — What reason do you perceive for the name given to this strait? — What is the distance from the Golden Gate to the southern extremity of San Fran- cisco Bay? — Name all the bodies of water through which you would pass, sailing from San Francisco to Sacramento. — What mountain about midway between San Francisco and Stockton? Spell the following names: — California. — San Francisco. — Sacramento. — San Joaquin. — Benicia. — Monterey. — San Diego. — Calaveras. — Yreka. — Klamath — What is the meaning of Sierra Nevada? EH PH - i— i O o «*: X! 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W T hat lands and waters on the map of the Western Hemisphere are intersected by the meridian of Boston ? — Name the principal mountain-ranges of North America, and the general direction of each. — Give the proofs that the earth is round. — Name the great circles of the earth. — Give the latitude and longitude of Boston. — Of London.— Where are the principal coal and iron mines in the United States ? Name some of the principal exports of the United States. — Some of the prin- cipal imports. — What is the horizon ? — Name the circles which bound the zones. — Can you go farther north than the North Pole ? — Why is the length of a degree of longitude on the 40th parallel less than the length of a degree on the equator? — What is the width of the North Temperate Zone in degrees? — In miles? — On what circumstances does the climate of a place depend ? Name some of the principal islands that lie near the Atlantic coast of North America. — On what does the change of seasons depend ? — What proportion of the earth's surface is covered with water t — Of how many States and Territories docs the United States consist ?— What is the latitude of the North Pole ?— Of the Tropic of Capricorn ? — Of the Equator ? — What rivers unite to form the Ohio, and what city is at their junction ? Where is the Bay of Fundy, and for .vhat is it remaiAmblc ':■ — What is the right bank of a river ? — What is the distance in degrees between the Tropics and Polar Circles? — In miles? — Of what States docs the Mississippi River form the boundary? — What building-stones are exported from Massachusetts? — From Connecticut? — Bound the Great Central Plain of North America. — Has the northwest passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean ever been made ? To what race do the Esquimaux belong? — How wide is Behring Strait? — What were the area and population of the United States at the time of the Revo- lutionary War ? — What are they now ? — Where in the United States is salt found ? — Name some of the fashionable watering-places in the United States. — AVhat State lies wholly between the upland country and the Atlantic Ocean ? — What is the latitude of Charleston, South Carolina ? What islands in the Atlantic in about the same latitude as Charleston ? — Which of the Western States has the largest population? — What parallel bounds the United States on the north, from the Lake of the Woods to the Pacific Ocean? — What is the largest grain port in the world? — What lake in Central America? — What lake in California? — Are despotic governments found among savage or civilized people? — How many seasons arc there in California? Name four branches of the Ohio. — AVhat are the latitude and longitude of New Orleans? — What is the largest city west of the Rocky Mountains? — Name four rivers which flow into Hudson Bay. — What is the largest lake that lies wholly within the United States? — How many miles is it from the centre of the earth to the surface ? — Name three branches of the Missouri River. — Two ships are, at the equator, 20° apart, and sailing directly north at the same rate : on reach- ing 10° north latitude, will i hey be more or fewer degrees apart? — More or fewer miles? ' Into how many departments is Geography divided ? — Define each. — In what direction docs the earth revolve on its axis? — Which is longer, the polar or the equatorial diameter of the earth? — How many miles longer? — Where is British Columbia? — What point on the earth has neither latitude nor longitude ? — What is a plateau? — An oasis? — A watershed? — How do the animals of the Torrid differ from those of the Temperate Zone ? S2 What are the three departments of the government of the United States? Name the principal rivers in Virginia. — Name the principal rivers of North America flowing into the Pacific Ocean.— What are the four chief branches of industry? — What is the second commercial city in the United States? — What is the character of the harbors of the Southern States? — In travelling from the mouth of the Mississippi to the mouth of the Mackenzie River, would you meet any high elevations of land 1 In what direction is Quito, in South America, from Charleston, South Caro- lina? — In what direction, then, is South America from North America? — Name the principal commercial cities in the United States. — What is the difference between domestic and foreign commerce? — Into what sections is North Amer- ica divided by its mountain systems? — What is the latitude of Cape Sable (Florida) ? — Does Iceland belong to the Eastern or the Western Hemisphere t In what zone is it ? — Name the principal branches of Hudson Bay. — Of the Gulf of Mexico. — Caribbean Sea. — Go by water from the largest city in Michigan to the largest city in Illinois. — What point of North America approaches nearest to Asia? — What point approaches nearest to Europe ? — What is the largest city in the State of Missouri? — Which is farther west, Havana or Buffalo? Where arc the settlements in Greenland ? — What rivers drain Texas on the east ? — What island at the mouth of the St. Lawrence River ? — Name the three largest cities in the Middle States.— In the Southern States.— In the Western States. — What group of islands on the coast of California? — AVhere are the Wind River Mountains? — What celebrated pass near these mountains? — What points of resemblance do the outlines of the two continents present? What active volcano near the South Pole? — What is an active volcano: — Name the two largest cities on the Mississippi River. — On what river is the capital of Kansas? — AVhat countries of the AVestern Continent does the Arctic Circle cross? — AVhat group of islands connect the continent of America with Asia? — AVhat is the largest city on the AA'cstern Continent? — How many meri- dians are there ? — What is a first meridian i What is the distance in a straight line from Lake of the AVoods to Galveston? — From Cape Mendocino to the mouth of the Hudson River? — AVhat climate is the most favorable for agriculture ? — Name the rivers flowing into Long Island Sound. — AVhere is Southampton Island? — AA'hat peninsulas on the cast coast of North America? — AVhat ones on the west coast ? — Tell where you find the follow- ing mountain-peaks: Mitchell's Peak; Mount Baker ; Mount San Bernardino; Mars Hill; Mount Brown. — Are icebergs formed on the land, or on the sea? . Name five rivers flowing into the Gulf of Mexico cast of the mouth of the Mississippi. — What parts of the earth move at the rate of a thousand miles an hour ? — AVhat parts at the rate of a thousand miles a minute ? — Name the riven flowing into Hudson Bay on the cast. — AVhat mountains on the east and west bound the Great Interior Basin of the United States? — Name the rivers of the United States flowing into Lake Erie. — Into Lake Ontario. AVhat mineral is chiefly used for making glass? — What bodies of land do you find near the South Pole ? — In what direction docs the great mountain system of the Western Continent extend? — In what direction does that of the Eastern Continent extend? — -AVhat town at the head of AVinncbago Lake? — At the head of Lake>Superior ? — What are Geysers? — AVhat is the principal settlement of the Russian Fur Company ' What separates A7ancouver Island from the mainland ? — AVhere are the Tor- tugas Island? — Where is Gettysburg? — Chattanooga? — Fortress Monroe? — Harper's Ferry? — Vicksburg? — Fort Sumter? — For what are these places noted? — What is the chief staple of the States bordering on the Gulf of Mexico? — What strait separates Florida from the West Indies? — How wide is the equator? — AVhat are the most necessary manufactures? — On what waters will you sail in going from the capital of Kansas to the capital of Nebraska? THE BRITISH PROVINCES OF NORTH AMERICA. 53 CHAPTER XI. THE BRITISH PROVINCES OP NORTH AMERICA. I. The British Provinces are : — The Dominion of Canada (which includes the Provinces of Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia), Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland, and British Columbia. All of these, with the exception of British Columbia, which lies on the Pacific Ocean, are situated within or near the Basin of the St. Lawrence. II. Surface. — In surface, climate, and productions, these prov- inces resemble the adjacent parts of our own country. Thus, the south-western districts of Canada arc like the States on the opposite shores of the lakes ; and New Brunswick and Nova Scotia resemble Maine. III. The Alleghany Mountain-System extends into Canada, and terminates in low hills on the Gulf of St. Lawrence. A chain of hills, called the Wotchish Mountains, separates the Basin of the St. Lawrence from that of Hudson Bay. IV. Lakes and Rivers. — The River St. Lawrence drains the waters of the five great lakes — Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario. They are said to contain more than half the fresh water upon the globe. '~'-"' ; 'S*l . A VIEW AMONG THE THOUSAND ISLES The Basin of the St. Lawrence is famous for the grandeur and beauty of its natural scenery. Niagara Falls, the Thousand Isles and Rapids of the St. Lawrence, the Falls of Montmorenci (near Quebec), and the grand scenery of the Saguenay River, are the admiration of thousands of tourists. The St. Lawrence and the Lakes form the great natural highway of the country. By means of canals, they have been made navigable throughout their entire length. In winter the water-communication is frozen up. What are the names of the British Provinces? — Where are they situated ? — De- scribe the surface of the country. — The mountain systems. — What lakes arc drained by the St. Lawrence? — For what is the Basin of the St. Lawrence famous? — How far is the river navigable for ships? — What are the obstacles to navigation above Montreal? — How are they overcome ? — What obstacle is there to the winter navi- gation of the St. Lawrence? The river admits ships from the Gulf to Montreal. Between that point and Lake Ontario there arc rapids. These are avoided, in ascending the river, by canals on the left bank; but the downward passage, though perilous, is made by the river itself. Lake Ontario is also connected with the Ottawa River by the Rideau Canal. The Falls of Niagara are avoided by the Welland Canal, which connects Lakes Erie and Ontario. The Falls in the River St. Mary (which flows from Lake Supe- rior to Lake Huron) are the only other natural obstruction, and are passed in a ship canal. V. Climate. — The climate of the Provinces, though it has a. gen- eral resemblance to that of the adjoining parts of the United States, is subject to great extremes. The summers are very hot, while the winters are long and exceedingly cold. The interior has a dry and clear atmosphere, but the coast is often visited by thick fogs. In those districts which border upon the sea or the great lakes, the winters are much milder, and the heat of summer is less intense. VI. Government, — The British Government appoints a Governor for each of the provinces. Every province, however, elects its own legislature, and is wisely permitted to be in a great measure inde- pendent. The Governor of Canada is Governor-General of the whole of British America. THE DOMINION OP CANADA. VII. The Dominion of Canada was formed in 1867 by the con- federation of the provinces of Quebec (Canada East), Ontario (Can- ada West), New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. VIII. Quebec contains many descendants of the early French settlers. They speak a corruption of the French language, and maintain the politeness and gayety of their race ; but are averse to improvement, and jealous of English rule. Canada was once in possession of the French, who built Quebec, Montreal, and other towns in the lower part of the province. In the years 1759 and 1760, it was conquered by the British. IX. Ontario has been settled chiefly since the American Revo- lution. The inhabitants are principally of British origin, and profess the Protestant religion ; while in Lower Canada, the ma- jority of the people are Catholics. X. Productions. — Besides immense - wealth in forests, Canada has the same vegetable productions that belong to the neighboring States of our own country: grain, hemp, flax, and potatoes. Towards the mouth of the St. Lawrence the climate is too severe, and the land too poor to admit of much cultivation ; but in the south-western districts the soil is very rich, and produces great crops of wheat and other grains. XL Towns. The principal towns of Quebec are Quebec and Montreal; of Ontario, Toronto, Hamilton, Kingston, Ottawa, and London. Ottawa was selected as the capital of Canada some years ago, but the necessary public buildings were not completed until 1867 It is now the residence of the Governor-General, and the Canadian Parliament meets there. Quebec consists of an upper and a lower town. The upper town is built upon a bold promontory which rises abruptly from the river. It is.the only walled town in America, and is one of the strongest fortresses in the world. The lower town lies at the foot of this steep rock, and is the seat of commerce. Montreal, the chief city of British America, is built upon the island of that name in the River St. Lawrence. Toronto is the largest city in Ontario. What is the climate of the Provinces? — Describe the Government. — Of what docs the Dominion of Canada consist? — What is the character of the descendants of the French settlers? — Where arc they found : in Quebec, or Ontario? — Who settled Ontario? — Name some of the productions of Canada. — Which are (ha principal towns? — Name the newly-selected capital. — Describe Quebec. — Where is Montreal ? 54 COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY. XII. New Brunswick. — The people of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and the other provinces bordering upon the Gulf, are exten- sively engaged in the fisheries, which form one of their principal sources of wealth. XIII. New Brunswick is north-east of the United States. Its shores are washed by the Gulf of St Lawrence and the Bay of Fundy. The Bay of Fundy is remarkable for having the highest tides in the world. XIV. Towns. — Fredericton, the capital, is at the head of sloop navigation on the River St. John, 80 miles from its mouth. The city of St. John, however, at the mouth of the river, is the largest in the province, and is the principal seat of commerce. XV. Nova Scotia and Cape Breton Island form together a single province. The coast contains a great number of fine harbors, pro- moting the extensive commerce and fisheries, which form the chief business of the people. XIV. Towns. — Halifax, the capital, has a magnificent harbor, and is the principal British naval station in this part of the world. The chief exports of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick are lumber, fish, coal, grindstones, gypsum (or plaster), grain, potatoes, and hay. XVII. Prince Edward Island. — Like all the other regions in or upon the Gulf, this province has valuable fisheries. Farming and grazing, however, form the chief occupation of the people. Char- lottetown is the capital. XVIII. Newfoundland. — The Surface is generally rocky and barren. The coast is bold, and indented by deep inlets, which form many excellent harbors. St. John's is the capital, and the only town of any note upon the island. XIX. Climate. — The winters are very cold, but the summers are hot. Dense fogs hang over the coast during a large part of the year. XX. Productions. — The fisheries form almost the sole wealth of Newfoundland. The exports are fish, oil, and seal-skin. The fish are taken along the shores of the island, and upon shallow places in the sea, called the Banks of Newfoundland. The Grand Bank, which lies farthest to the eastward, is more than 600 miles long, and 250 broad. XXI. The authority of the Governor of Newfoundland extends over the adjoining coast of Labrador. XXII. British Columbia. (See Map of North America.) — This is a new province which lies between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. It is a rugged, uncultivated region, covered with thick forests. Fraser River is the principal stream, upon whose banks, and those of its tributa- ries, gold abounds. XXIII. Vancouver and Washington Islands are situated on the coast, westward of this province. XXIV. Towns. — New Westminster is the capital of British Columbia. Victoria is the principal town on Vancouver Island. FRENCH ISLANDS. XXV. The small islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, south of Newfoundland, belong to Franca, and serve for fishing-stations. These isjands, a part of Guiana (in South America), and a few small islands among the West Indies, are all that remain to France of the immense territory which she once possessed in America. In what are many of the people of the Gulf provinces engaged? — Where is New Brunswick? — For what is the Bay of Fundy remarkable? — What is the capital of New Brunswick ? — Nova Scotia? — Newfoundland? — What are the chief exports of these provinces? — What is the climate of Newfoundland? — What can you say of British Columbia? — Where are Vancouver and Washington Islands? — Which are the French Islands ? — Arc the present possessions of the French in America greater or less than formerly ? B © 9 v. S£ S VI no to u a © a 5- o ... to a a .^ ,S •3 a 2 2 in •s b •2 © I a .5 ~ to ■§1 g O 9 © A A «* H St. j. 2 1-4 « © I* <± T. 3 d4 ~ ,9 '% S - a 9 03 © a, S3 00 a 3 n p. « 73 w a js <~ ci A & a ■a *.. a £ ° -2 " © a « o > © © S3 *± a eo <-> *": a O 3 .2 <* a W „• P3 fc ■S'S a a =5 ,2 a «5 c to o a «M 00 A *> Z OB . S -J © ay " fl <* — GO a -2 ft 2° to a -a ... > 12 S a •~ I 1 a £ " a — ! 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"^ ^« a I a "S ? g a -aj i •3 a a to a 05 -» ja «- .2 © A a 6 -3 b a p. a © S a " a os I 43 1 § a fe a -a © >> to i 42 3 . o "" a 2 -° a & a "^ fe O 0-. t a 00 ^ © 3 e -o 42 a 2 O I I 9 a « © to 7a a S *~ S3 .5 o «M ♦- *" ° 2 © ^ g M 3 S © © - . a * % mt I a I I oK* H a I 5 .2 ~ S 1 a u a 73 3 3 a o 2 s ° a w « eS a .S aL " — to ■ (h m c > t- 3 — « « o S3 a7,§ 15 a ^> -a 2 3 ^ §) 3 a a &■& 3 ' .•2 * * 1 ■a ° p. « ■s Si I ! o. © i! a 60 3 O S ^3 to ^; to a •P ° a © a ja fe J I a a o J3 i * a » § S 3 >> 03 •3 O a . ca a w p. II © fe — p. a a © - p. .2 2 j=i a © 5 © fe M I £ o ^ 13 t. .35^ S -5 - J3 03 o 5 * es a a) t3 t_ ■•- B g . o o fl * O j) OJ * » ^ TO & W o '<■* •S a* •35 © sf js -a <9 S3 * g 3 © a a M d ■bC i -5 1 c 3Q >» 3 § ■ 6 to h ta ■1 CJ 9 8 n ■ L I Xi c 7i O -^ O n ■O Hi s -C , fc= ^j ^a A EV *" 7i E M ■ u < 1 ■ ■ d 1 4| si e > 5 u V g il d b 09 00 1 u 1 i t^ M & \ 56 COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGEAPHY. CHAPTER XII. MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND THE WEST INDIES. I. These countries are included within Spanish America, or that part of the American Continent which was first settled by the Spaniards, and is still occupied by their descendants. '[Note. The extent of Spanish America, and the character of the people, are described in the History of the United States, page 27.] II. The greater part of Spanish America lies within or near the Torrid Zone. All that portion which borders upon the Pacific contains mountains and table-lands, and therefore exhibits an ex- traordinary variety of vegetable products. The mineral wealth, particularly in gold and silver, is also very great. Yet such is the indolence of the people, that agriculture is almost wholly neglected, and the mines are imperfectly worked. The rearing of live-stock better suits the idle habits of the people, and many horned cattle, horses, and mules, are raised. The cattle are slaughtered principally for their hides, horns, and tallow. III. The only portions of Spanish America now in possession of the mother country are Cuba and Porto Rico. The other colonies threw off the yoke in the first quarter of the present century, and established themselves as independent republics. Most of them, however, are wretchedly governed; one revolution following another, in endless succession. IV. Mexico, Central America, and the Isthmus of Panama, oc- cupy the narrowest portion of the Western Continent, and afford the most convenient route between our Atlantic coast and that of the Pacific. A new interest was awakened in these routes by the vast emigration to California, caused by the discovery of gold. There were three routes projected: one by the Isthmus of Tehuantcpec, in Mexico ; another by the way of the river San Juan and Lake Nicaragua, in Central America; the third and most important across the Isthmus of Fanama. The latter has become the great channel of communication between the oceans by means of the Panama Railroad, which was completed in 1855. (For Panama, gee Map of South America.) V. Inhabitants. — The inhabitants of Spanish America are whites, blacks, Indians, and the mixed races. By far the greater part of the population of Mexico and Central America belong to the In- ; dian and mixed races. MEXICO. VI. Coast. — Upon the Gulf of Mexico (as we have seen in the United States), the coast is flat and sandy, and therefore deficient in good harbors. The shores of the Pacific, however, are more bold, and abound with fine harbors, which admit ships of the largest size. VII. Surface. — The interior consists of table-lands, from 4000 to 9000 feet high. They rise abruptly from the Pacific coast, but there is a considerable interval of low land between them and the Gulf of Mexico. From the Gulf, the table-lands are only accessible by two carriage-roads: ono by Jalapa, from Vera Cruz; the other by Saltillo, from Matamoras and Monterey. Both these routes were made the points of attack by the United States Army, in the recent war between the two countries. What do you understand by Spanish America? — Within what zone does it prin- cipally lie? — What, then, is its climate? — What are some of the productions? What part of Spanish America is still in possession of Spain? — What three routes were projected from the Atlantic to the Pacific? — Which has become the great channel of communication? — Who inhabit this country? — What is the character of The Sierra Madre crosses the table-land from north to south, and forms a con- tinuation of the Rocky Mountains. The highest mountains in Mexico are a line of single peaks (many of them volcanoes), which cross the southern part of the plateau from east to west. VIII. Climate. — The rainy season continues from May till Octo- ber; the dry season from October to May. Like all tropical coun- tries which contain high and low lands, Mexico exhibits a great variety of climate. In ascending from the coast to the surface of the plateau, we find three regions in succession: — the hot, swampy, and pestilential lowlands; the temperate regions, which enjoy a healthful and delightful climate; and the cold, desolate plains above. IX. Productions. — The vegetable productions vary with the cli- mate — passing through gradual changes, from the lowlands to the surface of the plateau. Thus, Mexico possesses, in the same latitude, the vegetation of nil the zones. The oak and pine are found here, as well as the mahogany, ebony, and palm. Wheat and barley are produced in the cooler regions; and cotton, tobacco, the sugar-cane, and many fruits and spices, in the plains and valleys below. Indian corn grows both on the high -and low-lands. Jhe Maguey plant furnishes an intoxicating drink, called pulque, of which the Mexicans consume a great quantity. One plant often yields 1C0 gallons. The mines of Mexico once yielded immense quantities of gold and silver, but they are now less productive. Iron, copper, and other useful metals have since been discovered, and are worked to a limited extent. X. Towns. — Mexico, the capital, is situated upon a table-land, 7000 feet above the sea. The capture of this city by General Scott, in 1847, was the closing event of the war with the United States. VIEW OF THE CITY OF MEXICO. [This view represents, in the foreground, one of the magnificent aqueducts which supply the city with water. On the left of the centre is the Cathedral, and on the right the two convents of San Augustine and San Francisco. In the distance are represented the volcanoes of Popocatapetl ("Smoking-mountaia") and Iztaccihuatl ("White Lady") ] Most of the towns in the interior are situated on the table-lands, where the climate ia much moro healthful than on the swampy regions of the co^st. Gua- naxuato and Zacatecas, on the highlands, are rich in mines of gold and silver. Vera Cruz and Tampico arc the principal ports on the Gulf of Mexico ; Acapulco, San Bias, Mazatlan, and Guaymas, are the principal ones on the Pacific coast. the coast of the Gulf of Mexico? — Which is the principal mountain-chain of Mexico? — Describe the climate of the country. — What are gome of the productions? — Are they of moro than one climate? — What is pulque? — How does the present pro- ductiveness of the mines compare with that of the past? — Describe the city of Mexico. — Which are the principal mining towns? — Name the principal ports. MEXICO, CENTKAL AMEEICA, AND THE WEST INDIES. 57 XI. Commerce. — Though Mexico is so rich in natu- ral productions, every branch of industry is neglected. Commerce is, therefore, very limited, and the exports consist of the simplest productions : gold, silver, cattle, hides, and cochineal. The cochineal is an insect which feeds on a species of cactus. When killed, and dried in the sun, it yields a brilliant crimson dye. XII. History. — Fernando Cortcz, a Spanish adven- turer, conquered the country in 1521. He found there an extensive kingdom, with regular laws, and with cities, temples, public roads, and many of the arts of civilized life. After the conquest, the cruelty of the Spaniards drove the Indians back into a state of barbarism. In 1821, Mexico became independent of Spain, and established first an empire, then a republican form of government. By the war with the United States, which ceased in 1848, she lost Upper California and New Mexico. XIII. The Peninsulas of Yucatan and Old Califor- nia are parts of Mexico but little known. The former is noted for its ruins of ancient temples and cities. Belize, or Balize, (a part of Yucatan,) belongs to the British. CENTRAL AMERICA. XIV. Central America comprises the five States of Guatemala, Honduras, San Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Eica. In surface, climate, and productions, the country bears a general resemblance to Mexico. The height of the table-lands gradually decreases towards the Isthmus of Pana- ma, where the surface is varied by a chain of low hills. Along the south-western edge of the plateau is a line of volcanoes, which form a part of the great volcanic chain on the Pacific coast of America. XV. Towns. — The largest city in Central America is New Gua- temala, the capital of the State of Guatemala. Comayagua is the capital of Honduras ; San Salvador, of San Salvador ; Leon, of Nicaragua ; and San Jose 1 , of Costa Rica. WEST INDIES. XVI. The "West India Islands form three divisions: the Greater Antilles, the Lesser Antilles, and the Bahamas. The Greater Antilles consist of Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica, and Porto Rico. The Lesser Antilles include the chain of islands which extend from Porto Rico to South America. The Antilles are mountainous, and are supposed to be the remains of a mountain-chain, which, at some remote period, connected North and South America. The Bahamas are low islands, of coral formation. Guanahani, one of the Ba- hama Islands, was the first land, of the New World, discovered by Columbus. XVII. The climate and productions of the "West Indies are tropical. The climate is generally healthful, except in the rainy season. The islands are subject to terrific hurricanes. Sugar, molasses, rum, coffee, tobacco, mahogany, spices, and tropical fruits, form the chief exports. XVIII. Inhabitants. — The population of the West Indies con- sists principally of whites, free negroes, and slaves. What are the exports of Mexico? — What is cochineal? — Who first conquered Mexico ? — When did it become independent? — For what is Yucatan noted? — Where is Balize ? — To what country docs it belong? — Name the Political Divisions of Central America. — Which is the largest city of Central America ? — Name the capital of each of the States of Central America. — What divisions do the West Indies form? RUINS OF CHICHEN, YUCATAN. About one sixth of the inhabitants are white. The negroes were once all slaves, but, except in Cuba and Porto Rico, they are now free. A considerable number of Chinese, called Coolies, have been taken to some of the islands, to labor upon the plantations. XIX. Most of the West India Islands are in possession of Eu- ropean nations. Cuba and Porto Rico belong to Spain ; Jamaica, the Bahamas, and most of the Lesser Antilles, to Great Britain; Hayti is independent; and the remaining islands are owned by France, Denmark, Holland, Sweden, and Venezuela. Cuba, the "Queen of the Antilles," is the richest of Spain's possessions. It is about as large as the State of Kentucky, and nearly equal in area to all the rest of the West Indies. The extensive foreign commerce of the island is chiefly carried on through Havana and Matanzas. Jamaica is a very beautiful and fertile island ; but, like the rest of the British West Indies, the amount of her productions and commerce has of late years greatly decreased. Kingston is the largest town. XX. Hayti embraces two distinct States : the Eepublic of Dominica and the Eepublic of Hayti. The island once belonged to France and Spain. In 1791, the slaves in the western, or French division, rose against their masters, and, after a bloody and cruel war, succeeded in establishing themselves, first as an empire, then as an independent republic. In 1849, Soulouque (who was then President) proclaimed himself Emperor, with the title of Faustin I. After a reign of ten years, Soulouque was deposed, and, in 1859, a republican form of government was again adopted. In 1821, the eastern division revolted from Spain, and formed a republican government. Hayti is noted for its beautiful scenery and for the fertility of its soil, which is capable of producing every variety of tropical vegetation. XXI. The Bermuda Islands are situated in the Atlantic Ocean, north of the West Indies. They belong to Great Britain. There are about 400 of these islands. Most of them are so small and barren that they have neither name nor inhabitants. [For location, see map of N. America.] Which are the Greater Antilles ? — The Lesser Antilles ? — Are they level or moun- tainous ? — Are the Bahama Islands high or low lands? — Name some of the pro- ductions of the West Indies. — In which of the islands are there slaves ? — In whose possession are most of the islands? — Which belong to Spain? — Great Britain? — Which is independent ? — Where are the Bermuda Islands ? — To whom do they belong ? I.i.« a ®S^OT« &\. i^ WiS: 1 '! '? i SILLERO AND TRAVELLER. CHURCH OF THE JE8UIT8, AT CUZCO. DESCENDING THE ANDES. CHAPTER XIII. SOUTH AMERICA. PHYSICAL FEATURES. I. Outline. — South America is a great peninsula, connected with North America by the Isthmus of Panama. Unlike' North America, the coast is indented by no large bays and gulfs. This is one of the principal reasons why the interior is not better known to Europeans, and more thickly settled by them. II. Surface. — South America contains three principal mountain- systems: the Andes, Parime, and Brazilian Mountains. III. The Andes are a part of the great mountain-system of the "Western Continent. They form one 'of the grandest mountain- ranges in the world. They commence in low hills on the Isthmus of Panama, and terminate in the island of Cape Horn, which is a black and naked rock, rising 3500 feet from the sea. In Patagonia, they rise abruptly from the shore ; but further north, they retreat to the distance of 60 or 100 miles from the coast. The Andes consist generally of parallel ranges of lofty mountains, with high valleys and table-lands between them — the whole mass being from 30 to 400 miles wide. The region of the Andes is subject to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. The towns among the highlands and along the coast are, therefore, liable to be destroyed by these convulsions of nature; and, indeed, many splendid cities have been laid in ruins. This is true, also, of Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies. The table-lands of the Andes are great plains far above the level of the sea, sur- rounded by ramparts of snow-capped heights and smoking volcanoes. The Great How does the coast of South America differ from that of North America? — What effect has this had upon the settlement of the country by Europeans? — What are the three mountain-systems? — Describe the Andes, — The Great Plateau of the Andes, Tlateau, in the centre of the system, is about a thousand miles long. It contains Lake Titicaca, 12,800 feet above the sea, and supports some of the loftiest moun- tains of the Andes. The southern part of the Great Plateau is called Dexpoblado (" uninhabited "). This is a desert plain, a large portion of which is covered with salt. The Plateaus of Bogota, Quito, and Popayan, are from 7000 to 10,000 feet high. IV. The Parime system comprises several parallel ranges, ex- tending from east to west, between the Orinoco and Amazon rivers. They have an average elevation of 3000 or 4000 feet. V. The Brazilian Mountains (or Brazilian Andes) extend along the south-east coast of Brazil for more than 2000 miles. Their average elevation is about 3500 feet. VI. The whole country east of the Andes, with the exception of the Parime and Brazilian Mountains, is a vast plain. It is generally so level, that in the rainy season, when the rivers over- flow their banks, vast tracts of country are laid under water, pre- senting the appearance of large inland seas. VII. This great plain comprises the basins of the Orinoco, the Amazon, and the La Plata. The Llanos (Plains) of the Orinoco, at the close of the wet season, are covered with rich grass ; but in the dry months, the lakes and pools are dried up, the vegetation is withered, and the hot winds sweep clouds of dust over the parched and desolate plain. The Silvas, or "forest plains," cover the lower part of the valley of the Amazon, and extend along the banks of that river for 1500 miles from its mouth. They are copiously watered throughout the year. The Pampas, or "treeless plains " of the La Plata, are covered with thistles and coarse grass. South of the Pampas is the stony desert of Patagonia. This in- cludes all the country east of the Andes, and south of the River Negro. What does Dcspoblado mean ? — Describe the Parime system? — The Brazilian Mountains? — What part of South America is a great plain? — Where are the Llanos? — Silvas? — Pampas? — How do these plains differ?— What kind of coun- try is south of the Pampas? SOUTH AMERICA. CI VIII. Rivers and Lakes. — The three principal rivers of South America are the Orinoco, the Amazon, and the La Plata. Owing to the flatness of the country, the water-shed between these great rivers is sometimes only a gentle rise in the ground, so slight as to be imperceptible to the eye ; and, in the rainy season, the head-waters of the Amazon mingle with those of the Orinoco and La Plata. . The River Cassiquiare connects the Orinoco with the River Negro, a tributary of the Amazon. It sometimes flows from the Orinoco into the River Negro, and some- times in the opposite direction — as the water is high or low in the rivers which it connects, The Valley of the Amazon is the largest river-basin in the world ; it is two- thirds as large as the United States. Some of the tributaries of this mighty stream are longer than the largest rivers of Europe. The mouth of the Amazon is so wide, that in crossing it you would be as oompletely out of sight of land, as if you were sailing on the ocean. The Rio de la Plata, next to the Amazon and Mississippi, drains the largest extent of country of any river in America. Only one river of the Eastern Conti- nent (the Obe) has a larger basin than the La Plata. A recent exploration of several of its tributaries, by Lieutenant Page, of the U. S. Navy, shows many of them to be navigable nearly to their sources, and the country which they drain to be one of extraordinary productiveness. Many other rivers of South America are of great importance, and admit an exten- sive navigation : such as the Magdalena, the rivers of Guiana, and of Brazil. IX. There are but few permanent lakes of large size in South America. With the exception of Lake Titicaca and Lake Mara- caybo, they are more like vast morasses than lakes. Lake Titicaca is a saltish lake, about half as large as Lake Erie. Its waters do not flow into the ocean. Lake Maracaybo is, more properly speaking, a bay, being connected by a strait with the Caribbean Sea. X. Climate. — South America lying principally within the Torrid Zone, has, for the most part, a tropical climate. In the low lands, within the Tropics, the heat is intense; but as we go southward, or ascend the mountains, the climate gradually changes to that of the Temperate Zone. In Patagonia, the cold becomes severe; and, in the Strait of Magellan, snow falls almost every day. XL Productions. — In no other country do we find more luxu- riance, and a greater variety of vegetation, than in South America. The forests yield many kinds of rare and valuable wood : as the rosewood, mahog- any, logwood, and caoutchouc tree (from the sap of which India-rubber is made). Medicinal plants of great value are also found here: as sarsaparilla, ipecacuanha, and the cinchona tree (from which Peruvian bark is obtained). The forests cover a large portion of the country ; and are frequently so dense, and so entangled by shrubs, twining-plants, and sharp-edged grasses, that an axe is necessary to clear the way. The immense herds of horses and cattle that roam over the great plains are among the chief sources of wealth to the inhabitants. The slaughter of oxen, for their hides, is the principal business in many parts of the country. Gold, silver, copper, and diamonds, are found in abundance. XII. Animals. — The beasts of prey, though numerous and for- midable, are much inferior, in size, strength, and ferocity, to those of Asia and Africa. The jaguar-, or South American tiger, and the condor of the Andes, are among the largest animals of South America. The vampire-bat is a singular creature, which lives by sucking the blood of animals. The Llama is much used in the moun- tain regions as a beast of burden. No part of the world contains a greater number and variety of reptiles and insects than are found in the low lands of South America. Huge alligators and water- Which are the three principal rivers of South America? — Is the water-shed between them high or low land ? — Into what does the Cassiquiare flow, when the Orinoco is high and the Rio Negro low? — What is said of the Basin of the Ama- zon? — The La Plata? — Are there any other rivers of importance in South America? — Describe the lakes. — Is it, in general, a hot or cold country? — What are some of the productions? snakes swarm in the rivers and marshes of the tropical regions ; the boa-con- strictor attains a monstrous size ; and many venomous snakes lie coiled under the leaves. Scorpions, centipedes, and spiders, in some sections, keep the traveller in con- stant alarm; while the incessant stinging of flies, mosquitoes, and other insects, renders life miserable, — indeed, some places are so infested with these plagues as to be quite uninhabitable even by the Indians. SOUTH AMERICAN SCENERY. XIII. Inhabitants. — The population of South America consists of whites, Indians, negroes, and mixed races. The whites, who form but a small proportion of the population, are chiefly the descendants of Spanish and Portuguese. They are, in general, an idle people, fond of swinging in their hammocks, and smoking cigars. The negroes were brought into the country for slaves : but most of them have been freed, except in Brazil. The Indians of the settled States are an inoffensive people, and in some places perform most of the labor of the country. In the interior, however, there are many fierce and savage tribes. XIV. History. — Columbus landed at the mouth of the Orinoco Eiver, in 1498. The European nations soon took possession of the country. Brazil was settled by the Portuguese ; Guiana, by the Dutch and French ; and Spain claimed the rest. In the first quarter of the present century, the Spanish colonies, after a long and severe struggle, threw off the yoke of Spain, and established themselves as inde- pendent republics. Brazil, in 1822, effected a peaceable separation from Portugal. XV. Religion. — The people of South America are chiefly Roman Catholics ; except in British and Dutch Guiana, where the Prot- estant religion prevails. POLITICAL DIVISION'S. XVI. The countries embraced within the limits of South America are nine Republics, namely : Venezuela, United States of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chili, the Argentine Confederation, Uru- guay, and Paraguay ; the Empire of Brazil ; the colonies of British, Dutch, and French Guiana ; and the unsettled country of Patagonia. Name some of the animals. — How do they compare with those of the tropical regions of the Old World? — What is said of the reptiles and insects ? — What classes does the population comprise? — What is the character of the whites? — By whom was South America first settled ? — To what religion are the principal part of the inhabitants attached ? — Name the Political Divisions of South America. 62 COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY. VENEZUELA, UNITED STATES OF COLOMBIA, ECUADOR, PERU, BOLIVIA. XVII. These States are much alike in the character of their sur- face, climate, and productions. Each of them is divided into three distinct regions : the narrow plain on the coast ; the mountains and plateaus in the centre ; and the great plains which stretch from the Andes into the interior. The coast of Venezuela, Ecuador, and the United States of Colombia, is very wet ; which fact, combined with the intense heat, makes the climate exceedingly unhealthy. The coast of Bolivia and Peru is dry and barren, for the lofty mountains in these States intercept the rain-clouds in their passage to the Pacific. The Bolivian coast, indeed, is an absolute desert. XVIII. The largest towns in this region are in the interior, and are generally situated on the table-lands, where the climate is cool and healthy. Owing to the mountainous character of the country, communication between the towns of the coast and of the interior is difficult, and commerce very limited. Travel- ling among the mountains is often extremely difficult and dangerous. There are scarcely any carriage-roads ; travellers and goods are carried by mules, or on the backs of men. The traveller sits in a chair which is slung upon the back of the Indian porter ; and in this manner they cross the most frightful chasms, upon the slippery trunk of a tree, where a single false step would be fatal. XIX. Venezuela. — The greater part of this State is included within the Llanos, or plains of the Orinoco. No white man has ever reached the source of this great river, which flows through a wilderness of forests and plains. Upon the banks dwell a tribe of savages, who partially subsist upon balls of clay. They are called the " dirt-eaters of the Orinoco." La Guayra is the principal sea-port. Caraccas, the capital, is among the moun- tains. Margarita, a small island of the West Indies, near the coast, belongs to Ven- ezuela. Margarita (which means "a pearl") was once famous for its pearl-fisheries. Which of the States resemble each other in surface, climate, and productions? — Into what regions is each divided? — What is the character of the coast of Vene- zuela, Ecuador, and the United States of Colombia ? —Bolivia and Peru ? — Where are the principal towns situated ? — Where is Venezuela? — What kind of people live on the banks of the Orinoco? — Name the principal sea-port of Venezuela? — What is the capital? XX. United States of Colombia— The Andes are divided, in this Republic, into three chains. Down the valleys between them flow the Magdalena and Cauca, the principal rivers of the country. Cartagena is the principal sea-port. Aspinwall and Panama, on opposite shores of the Isthmus of Panama, arc connected by a railroad. Bogota (the capital) and Popayan are on lofty table-lands in the interior, several thousand feet above the sea. XXI. Ecuador is crossed by the Equator, and derives its name from that circumstance. It contains Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, and several more of the most famous volcanoes of the Andes. Quito, the capital, is situated on an elevated plain, almost directly under the Equator. Guayaquil, on the gulf of that name, is the principal Bea-port. XXII. Pern, though now of little importance among nations, is remarkable for its history. At the time of the discovery of the New World, Peru, like Mexico, was inhabited by Indians, who were considerably advanced in civilization. They were governed by a race of princes, called Incas, whose empire extended along the Andes, from the United States of Colombia to the southern boundary of Chili. Pizarro, a bold Spanish adventurer, had heard of the wealth of Peru, and the great abundanoe of its gold and silver. With a small band of fierce and brave fol- lowers, he entered the country, took possession of the empire and treasure of the Incas, and Peru thus became a part of the Spanish possessions. The Chincha and Lobos Islands, which lie on the coast, belong to Peru. They arc of great value for the immense quantity of guano found upon them. It is exported to Europe and the United States, for manure. Lima, the capital of Peru, is a large city, six miles from the coast, and is situated in a fine river valley. Callao is the principal sea-port. Among the mountain towns arc Cerro Pasco, famous for its silver mines; Cuzco, the capital of the ancient Peru- vian monarchy ; Arequipa, and Huamanga. XXIII. Bolivia was named in honor of General Bolivar, under whose guidance the people threw off the yoke of Spain. The Bolivian coast is a narrow strip of barren country, and contains no sea-port of any importance. The foreign trade is carried on through Peru and La Plata ; but communication is so difficult, that few of the products will pay the cost of trans- portation to the coast. Potosi stands on the side of a mountain of the same name, at the height of 13,350 feet above the level of the sea, and is said to be the highest city in the world. The silver-mines of Potosi are estimated to have yielded the value of sixteen hundred millions of dollars since their discovery ; but though they arc nearly as rich as ever, they are not now worked, for want of proper enterprise. Sucre, the capital, and La Paz, the largest town, are on the high table-lands of the interior. XXIV. The exports of this section of South America are made principally from La Guayra and Cartagena on the Caribbean Sea, and Guayaquil and Callao on the Pacific Ocean. From La Guayra are shipped coffee, cotton, sugar, cacao, indigo, and hides; from the other ports, gold and silver, hides, some tobacco, cotton, and Peruvian bark. CHILI. XXV. Chili lies wholly upon the western side of the Andes. The greater part of the country is covered with hills, which branch off from that great chain, and diminish in height as they approach the coast. The most fertile districts of Chili are in the southern half of the country. Towards the north, the hills become more naked and barren, and finally merge into the Desert of Atacama on the Bolivian coast. Describe the United States of Colombia.— What is the capital ? — From what does Ecuador derive its name?— What is the capital? — For what is Peru remarkable? — Name the capital. — In honor of whom was Bolivia named? — Through what countries does it carry on its foreign trade? — For what is Potosi noted ? — What is the capital of Bolivia? — The largest town? — Where is Chili ? — What is the character of the surface. SOUTH AMERICA. 63 XXVI. One of the Juan Fernandez Islands, 400 miles from Chili, is famous for having been the solitary residence of Alexander Selkirk, a Scotch sailor. His life and adventures in this lonely spot are supposed to have given rise to the story of Robinson Crusoe. XXVII. The climate of Chili is temperate, and remarkably healthy. The rains fall in the winter months, from June to Septem- ber, and the country is soon covered with wild flowers and verdure. XXVIII. The Chilians are more active and intelligent than the other inhabitants of Spanish America, and are making considerable advancement in their state of society. The Araucanians are a bold and warlike tribe of savages, inhabiting a distinct territory in the southern part of Chili. They are a noble race; and, by their singular valor, have always maintained their independence of Spanish rule. Santiago is the capital of Chili. Valparaiso is the principal sea-port, and the most important city on the western coast of South America. Copper and other metals are exported in considerable quantities from Copiapo and Tongoy. Wheat is also an important article of export. THE ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION. XXIX. The Argentine Confederation consists of a number of States united under a government modelled after that of the United States. XXX. Buenos Ayres, the most important State of the Republic, for a long time maintained an independent government, and was frequently at war with the other States. It is now, however (1867), again a member of the Confederation. Buenos Ayres, the capital, is the largest city in the Basin of the La Plata, and one of the most important commercial cities in South America. Parana is rapidly increasing in population. Rosario, on the Parana River, has of late years become a commercial mart of much importance. Mendoza is the oentre of trade between Buenos Ayres and Chili. URUGUAY. XXXI. This republic has, from its position, and the fertility of its soil, many natural advantages ; but the wars, which it has been forced to carry on with Buenos Ayres, have checked the commerce and industry of the country. Since the navigation of the La Plata has been made free, however, it is probable that commerce will increase. Montevideo is the capital, and the only town of importance. PARAGUAY. XXXII. This country, situated far in the interior, has hitherto had but little communication with foreigners. Assumption is the capital. Mai(, or Paraguay tea, is the dried leaf of an evergreen tree which grows in great abundance in Paraguay. A beverage made from this tea is a favorite drink in South American countries. XXXIII. Uruguay and Paraguay were formerly members of the Argentine Confederation. Paraguay was for many years governed by the dictator, Dr. Francia, who obliged the people to be educated, and to engage in some useful employment. It is only since his death, in 1840, that the country has been opened to strangers. The exports of the countries occupying the basin of the Bio de la Plata are principally made from the cities of Buenos Ayres and Montevideo. They consist mainly of hides, horns, bones, tallow, and wool. For what is one of the Juan Fernandez Islands famous ? — What is the climate of Chili? — Who are the Araucanians ? — Name the most important towns of Chili. What can you say of the Argentine Confederation and Buenos Ayres? — What has prevented the advancement of Uruguay? — Where is Paraguay? — What is Mate"? Through what citios are tho products of the La Plata countries exported ? BRAZIL. XXXIV. The central and eastern regions of this immense empire form a table-land of moderate elevation, crossed by hills, which in general rise to only a trifling height above its level. The low lands of the interior and on the coast are excessively moist and hot. The table-lands and the provinces of the south have a milder and drier climate. FAMILY CONVEYANCE IN BRAZIL. Brazil is one of the richest countries in the world, in its natural productions. Its commerce is very extensive. The gold mines are productive, and most of the diamonds now in use come from Brazil. Bio Janeiro, the capital, has one of the finest harbors in the world, and is a place of great trade. Bahia, Pcrnambuco, Maranham, and Par&, are also large and im- portant commercial cities. The towns in the interior are small, and of but little note. The exports of Brazil are coffee, hides, sugar, rice, cotton, rosewood, caoutchouc (or India-rubber), Peruvian bark, and many other articles. Caoutchouc and Peru- vian bark are brought down the Amazon, and are principally shipped from Para. The greatest quantity of cofFeo is sent from Rio Janeiro. GUIANA. XXXV. Guiana is a low and fertile region, with a climate and productions wholly tropical. The heat is very great. It is divided into British, Dutch, and French Guiana. Georgetown is the capital of the British; Paramaribo, of the Dutch; and Cayenne, of the French portion. The exports are sugar, rum, coffee, cocoa, indigo, and tropical fruits. PATAGONIA. XXXVI. Patagonia is a sterile country, inhabited only by native tribes of Indians. The Patagonians are a tall and muscular people, many of whom are more than six feet in height. They subsist upon their herds of cattle, and by hunting. Terra del Fuego is the most southern part of the inhabited world, and is peopled by a race of miserable savages, who live chiefly by fishing. The Falkland Islands, off Patagonia, belong to Great Britain. Great numbers of wild cattle find pasturage there, and seals are hunted for their fur. A British colony has been established, but the population is very small. Describe the surface of Brazil. — Its climate. — Name some of its productions. — What is the capital ? — What are the principal sea-ports ? — What are some of the exports? — What kind of country is Guiana? — To what European nations does it belong? — What are the exports? — Who inhabit Patagonia? — Where is Terra del Fuego? — To what country do the Falkland Islands belong ? — Where are they ? QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA. OUTLINE. How does the outline of South America differ from that of North America? — Which has the greatest number of large islands near the coast? — What ocean is east of South America ? What ocean is west ? — What sea is north ? — Are the West India Islands in- cluded in North or South America ? — By what country in South America is the island of Margarita owned ? — By what strait is Terre del Fuego separated from Patagonia? Where are the Falkland Islands ? — To what country do they belong ? — Where are the islands of Juan Fernandez? — For what are they famous? — To what country does the island of Chiloc belong? — Where are the Lobos and Chincha Islands? — To what country do they belong ? — For what arc they valuable ? What is the most northern cape of South America ? — Where is Cape Parina ? — Cape St. Roquc? — Cape Horn?— What is Cape Horn?— What bay south of the Isthmus of Panama? — What gulf on the coast of Ecuador? SURFACE. What three mountain-systems in South America? — Which of these skirts the western coast ? — Through how many degrees of latitude does it extend? — What is the character of this system on the Isthmus of Panama? How far are the Andes from the Pacific coast ? — Do they generally consist of one or of several chains? — What is the breadth of the system? — To what convulsions of nature is the region of the Andes liable ? — What effect have these upon the towns ? — What other parts of Spanish America are subject to the same disasters ? How high is the loftiest summit of the Andes ? — In what country is it situated ? — Where is Chimborazo ? — Sorata ? — Cotopaxi ? — Potosi ? — Which of these are vol- canoes? — Is any mountain of North America as high as Aconcagua? Where are the Brazilian Mountains ? — Between what rivers do the Parime Moun- tains lie ? — What is the character of the surface of South America, cast of the Andes, with the exception of these two systems ? — In what general direction does the land slope ? RIVERS AND LAKES. Into what ocean do the principal rivers of South America flow ? — Why arc those on the east side of the Andes the largest ? — Name the three principal rivers. — Why do their head-waters sometimes mingle ? — In what season does this occur ? Which is the largest river in South America ? — What is the area of its basin 1^- Ilas any other river a larger basin ? — In what three mountain-systems do the waters of this basin rise ? — Which of these systems is on the west ? — On the north ? — The south-east ? The Amazon is formed by the union of the Tunguragua and Ucayale: in what mountains do they rise? — In what country ? — Over what kind of surface do they flow? — What is the length of the Amazon '.' — What kind of surface is drained by the Amazon, east of the Andes? — What island at the mouth of the Amazon ? What is the largest tributary of the River Amazon on the north '! — How is it con- nected with the Orinoco ? — Name the largest tributary on the south. — Which of the southern tributaries discharges itself near the mouth of the Amazon? — Name the two tributaries between the Tocantins and the Madeira. Between what two mountain-chains is the Basin of the Orinoco situated ? — What are the plains of the Orinoco called? — In what general direction does this river flow? — Between what two mountain-systems is the La Plata Basin situated? — Which of these partly separates it from the Basin of the Amazon ? Which has the most numerous lakes: North or South America? — What is. the general character of the South American lakes ? — In what countries is Lake Titicaca situated? — How high is it located ? — Do its waters flow into the sea? — Where is Lake Maracaybo ? In what country is the Magdalena River? — What is its principal tributary? — Name the bodies of water through which you would pass, sailing from the mouth of the Cauca to that of the Madeira. — In what country is the Essequibo River? — Into what does it flow ? Down what rivers would you float from Lake Xarayes to reach the Ocean ? — In what mountain-system do the Parana, Paraguay, Uruguay, and San Francisco rivers rise ? — Why does the San Francisco flow in an opposite direction from the others? — What river separates Patagonia from the Argentine Confederation ? 9 CLIMATE. On which side of the Equator is the greater part of South America situated? — Would you find the climate growing warmer or colder, in going southward from the Equator? — In what zones is South America? Which zone contains the greatest extent of South America? — What, then, is the prevailing character of the climate: temperate or tropical? — Where will you find (in the tropical portion of the country) a mild and temperate climate? How many seasons are there in the tropioal region ? — In what months is the wet season, in the northern half of the Torrid Zone? — In the southern half? — If you should cross the Llanos of the Orinoco in July, would you find them clothed with verdure, or parched with heat ? What is the season, in Rio Janeiro, in July? — Is December one of the rainy or dry months at that place ? — Do the seasons in the South Temperate Zone occur in the same months as in the North Temperate ? (See lesson on Zones, page 8.) — What is the season in Chili, then, in July and August? — In December and January? POLITICAL DIVISIONS. Name the countries bordering on the Pacific, beginning at the north. — Which of these are in the Torrid Zone? — In the Temperate? — What unsettled territory at the south ? — Name the four divisions on the northern coast. — Name all those on the Atlantic coast between Guiana and Patagonia. Which is the largest of the South American countries ? — Which has the smallest extent of sea-coast ?— What is the character of that coast ? — Describe the climate of the Peruvian coast. — Of the coast of Ecuador, United States of Colombia, and Venezuela. What is the government of Brazil? — To what country docs Guiana belong? — What is the government of the other countries ? — From what European nation is the white population of Brazil descended? — The whites of the Spanish republics? — By whom is the interior of South America chiefly inhabited ? What countries are partly included within the Basin of the La Plata? — In what confederation were Uruguay and Paraguay once included? — Between what two rivers is Paraguay situated ? What was the extent of the empire of the Incas ? — Where is Araucania ? — Why is it independent ? — Where is the Desert of Atacama ? — What kind of a country is Patagonia? — Describe the Patagonians. MISCELLANEOUS. Why are many of the towns in South America situated among the mountains ? — Why are the towns on the coast of Venezuela, United States of Colombia, and Ecuador, unhealthy? — Why are the coasts of Peru and Bolivia so dry ? Are the following towns on the coast, or among the mountains: La Guayra, Bogota, Cayenne, Caraccas, Aspinwall, Panama, Popayan, Quito, Guayaquil, Cuzco, Potosi, Callao, Lima, Valparaiso, Sucre, Arcquipa, Huamanga, Tongoy? — Let each scholar describe the situation of one of these towns. Ship a cargo of goods from Para to New York : what articles would be sent, and across what ocean? — From Rio Janeiro to Baltimore? — From the Chincha and Lobos Islands to Philadelphia ? — From Valparaiso to San Francisco ? From what ports would tin and copper be exported? — Diamonds? — Gold? — Hides? — Coffee? — Cocoa? — Rum? — Sugar and molasses? — Peruvian bark? — From what country is Yerba Mat6 obtained ? — Where is it principally consumed ? Bound each of the divisions of South America. — Sketch a map of South America, locating the principal mountains and rivers, and the chief towns. — Spell the fol- lowing words : — Quito. Cassiquiarc. Guiana. Maracaybo. Magellan. Venezuela. Rio Janeiro. Uruguay. Paraguay. La Guayra. Caraccas. Chimborazo. Cotopaxi. Guayaquil. Callao. Cuzco. Arcquipa. Huamanga. Araucania. Montevideo. Bahia. Paramaribo. Cayenne. Falkland. Chiloe. Aconcagua. Tunguragua. Ucayale. Madeira. 65 66 COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGEAPEY. BULL-JIGHT. CHURCH Or NOTRE DAME, AT PABIS. CONVENT OF 8T. BEENABD. CHAPTER XIV. EUROPE. PHYSICAL FEATURES. I. The outline of Europe is more irregular than that of any other division of the earth. Large seas and gulfs penetrate far into the in- terior, affording unequalled advantages for commercial intercourse. II. Surface. — Europe is crossed from west to east by a great mountain-system, which is continued, in Asia, to the Pacific Ocean. The principal parts of this system, in Europe, are the Cantabrian Mountains, the Pyrenees, the Cevennes, the Alps, the Balkan Mountains, and the Caucasus. Southward from this great chain (both in Europe and Asia) extend a number of peninsulas, each penetrated by a branch of the principal system. Thus, in Spain we find the Sierra Morena and Sierra Nevada ; in Italy, the Apennines ; and in Greece, the chain of Mount Pindus. The Carpathians, and the mountains of Germany, are also branches of the central chain. The only mountains of any importance, not connected with the principal system, are those of the Scandinavian Peninsula, and the Ural Mountains. III. Northward from this mountain-system extends a great plain, which stretches from the Pacific to the Atlantic Oceans. The European division of this great plain extends from the Ural Mountains to the western shores of France. It includes Russia, Northern Germany, Denmark, Holland, Belgium, and part of France. A large portion of this plain is remarkably level, often extending many hundred miles with scarcely a rise in the ground. In some cases the surface of this plain is lower than the level of the ocean. Thus, the country around the Caspian Sea is many feet below the surface of the Mediter- ranean ; and the coasts of Holland and Belgium are protected from the encroach- ments of the waves by banks of earth, called dykes. Describe the outline of Europe? — What ranges form its principal mountain- system? — What chains extend from it to the south? — What other mountains in Europe? — What is the character of the country north of this system? — Describe the great northern plain. IV. Lakes and Rivers. — Europe contains no such extensive plains as are found in America. The rivers, therefore, are smaller than those of the Western Continent. The lakes consist of two groups : one of which is situated in the country around the Baltic Sea — the other is in the valleys among the Alps. Most, of the former flow into the Baltic Sea. Being in a level country (part of the Great Plain), they are shallow, and of considerable extent. The Alpine lakes, on the contrary, lying in high mountain valleys, are small and deep. They ar« famous for their magnificent scenery. V. The Climate of Europe exhibits the usual varieties of the Temperate Zone — passing from the almost tropical character of the southern shores, to the intense cold of the Arctic coast. The shores of the Mediterranean, protected by mountain-chains from the cold winds of the north, enjoy a delightful climate; though occasionally suffering from the burning winds which sweep across the sea from the Desert of Sahara. The climate of Eastern Europe is very different from that of the countries bor- dering on the Atlantic Ocean. In Eastern Europe the winters are excessively cold, even as far south as the Black Sea ; while the summers are very hot. On the shores of the Atlantic,' however, the westerly winds and warm ocean- current render the climate mild and moist. Thus, in England the grass is green throughout the year ; while in Russia, in the same latitude, the country is buried in snow in winter, and parched by fervent heat in summer. VI. Productions. — Europe is rich in the a Various productions of the Temperate Zone, and is veil supplied with useful minerals. On the shores of the Mediterranean, the olive (from which sweet oil is obtained), the fig, lemon, and orange, are very abundant. The Bugar-cane is also cultivated. The mulberry-tree (whose leaves feed the silk-worm) grows here luxuriantly. Sillt, therefore, is one of the most important productions of Southern Europe. Great quantities of wine are made in the southern and central districts; and beet-root sugar is very extensively manufactured, especially in France. Why are not the rivers of Europe as large as those of America ? — Where do you find the shallow lakes? — Where the deep ones? — Why is one group shallow, and the other deep? — What difference in climate is there between the various sections of Europe ? EUROPE. 67 The usual grains of the Temperate Zone are abundant, though Indian corn is not so generally cultivated as in the United States. Rye, oats, barley, and potatoes are raised even north of the Arctic Circle. Hemp and flax are important productions in Eastern and Central Europe. Gold and silver are found in limited quantities; but there is an abundance of iron, lead, tin, zino, copper, coal, and salt. VII. Religion. — Most of -the inhabitants of Europe profess the Christian religion. The Turks,, and some of the tribes of Southern Russia, are Mohammedans ; and, scattered throughout the country, there are about two millions of Jews. Tho people of Russia and Greece are principally adherents of the Greek Church. The greater part of tho inhabitants of Southern Europe, Austria, Belgium, and Ireland, and about one-half of the Germans, Prussians, and Swiss, are Roman Catholics. Protestants are most numerous in Great Britain, Holland, and the other countries of Northern Europe. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. VIII. Europe comprises forty-three States, of which four are empires, and twelve are kingdoms. Among the smaller States are four republics and three free cities. Great Britain, France, Russia, Prussia, and Austria, arc the most important countries of Europe. These are called the five Great Powers. IX. Europe may be divided into three sections : Northern and Eastern Europe, Western Europe, and Central Europe. Northern and Eastern Europe comprise Sweden and Norway, and Russia. THE KINGDOM OF SWEDEN AND NORWAY. X. Sweden and Norway occupy the Scandinavian Peninsula. They form two distinct States, with separate governments, but are united under one king. XI. Surface. — The western part of Sweden, and nearly the whole of Norway, are mountainous. The south-eastern part of Sweden is a level plain, resembling that on the opposite shores of the Baltic Sea. The mountains of the peninsula rise abruptly from tho Atlantic coast, but they descend more gradually towards the east. XII. Productions. — The chief wealth of the country is in its mines of iron and copper, its forests, and its fisheries. The principal exports are iron, lumber, and fish. The greater part of the peninsula is too barren for cultivation, yet rye, oats, and barley are raised in Norway, 1400 miles further north than on the opposite coast of America. Great quantities of fish are caught off the shores of the Loffoden Islands. Towns. — Stockholm is the capital of Sweden, and the chief commercial city. Christiana is the capital of Norway. Hammerfest is the most northern town of Europe. Islands. — The islands of Gothland and Oland, in the Baltic Sea, and St. Bartholo- mew, one of the West Indies, belong to Sweden. The Faroe Islands, west of Norway, belong to Denmark. XIII. Lapland. — The country north of the Arctic Circle, between the White Sea and Atlantic Ocean, is called Lapland. It belongs to Russia, Sweden, and Norway. The chief wealth of the Laplanders consists in their numerous herds of reindeer. These supply them with food, clothing, and the means of travelling. Name some of the important productions of Europe. — What different forms of religion do the inhabitants profess ? — Name the five great European Powers. — Into what three sections may Europe be divided ? — What are the countries of Northern and Eastern Europe ? — Describe the surface of Sweden and Norway. — Name the principal productions. — What is the capital of Sweden ? — Norway ? — What islands belong to Sweden? — To what country do the Faroe Islands belong? — Where is Lapland? RUSSIAN EMPIRE. The Russian Empire is the largest in extent in the world. It comprises fully one half of Europe, and more than a third of Asia. XV. European Russia is, for the most part, very level. The only mountainous section is the region north of the Caucasus Mountains. XVI. Productions. — The principal wealth of Russia consists in its forests, and in the products of agriculture and grazing. Iron, gold, and platinum, are found in abundance in the Ural Mountains, principally on the Asiatic side. The forests cover two-fifths of the country. Great quantities of wheat are raised in the central and south-western regions, and exported to Western Europe. Hemp, flax, tallow, hides, leather, and timber, are also important articles of export. XVII. Inhabitants. — The people are divided into four classes: — 1. the nobles; 2. the clergy; 3. the merchants; 4. the lately, emancipated serfs. The government is an absolute monarchy. On the outskirts of Russia there are many tribes belonging to the Mongolian race: such as the Finns and Laplanders, the Semoides, and the Cossacks. Tho Cossacks inhabit the Steppes, or treeless plains in the south-east, and are of great service in the Russian army as light cavalry. The Circassians, a bold and hardy people who long 'resisted the Russians, belong to the Caucasian race. MONUMENT TO THE EMPEROR ALEXANDER I., AT ST. PETERSBURG. XVIII. Towns. — St. Petersburg, the capital of the Russian Empire, is situated at the mouth of the River Neva. • Moscow, the ancient capital, was burnt by the inhabitants, to prevent its falling into tho hands of Napoleon, during his invasion in 1812. Warsaw was the capital of Poland. Sebastopol is famous for the siege which it sustained for a year, against the English, French, Turkish, and Sardinian armies. It was finally taken. The principal ports for foreign commerce are St. Petersburg, • Cronstadt, Riga, Archangel, and Odessa. The principal centres of trade in the interior are Moscow and Niznei Novgorod. At the latter place a great fair is held every year, which is attended by many thousands of people, who come from different parts of Europo and Asia to buy and sell goods. Is there any other empire larger than the Russian? — Describe the surface of European Russia. — Name the principal productions. — What are the principal exports? — Into what classes are the people divided? — Name some of the tribes on the outskirts belonging to the Mongolian race. — To what race do the Circassians belong ? — What is the capital of Russia ? — Which are the principal ports for foreign commerce? — Name the principal centres of the inland trade. 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The sea-coast is very irregular, and abounds in fine harbors and roadsteads. III. Surface. — England and Ireland are generally level or undu- lating. Scotland and Wales are rugged and mountainous. The surface of Scotland is divided by the Grampian Mountains into the Uigh- lnn da and Lowlands, — the Highlands lying north, and the Lowlands south, of the mountains. IV. Climate. — ; The climate is moist and mild. The winters even of Scotland are rarely severe. The soil of England and Ireland, by careful culture, has been rendered fertile and productive. The moisture of the climate gives the fields a continually fresh and verdant ap- pearance ; but it sometimes prevents the ripening of the crops. Ireland contains over 3,000,000 acres of turf bog, from which peat, the chief article of fuel, is obtained. V. . Productions. — The chief wealth of Great Britain consists in her commerce and manufactures, and in products of her mines. Great Britain surpasses every other country in the world in the amount of her manufactures ; of which the most important are those of cotton, wool, and iron. V, VI. Commerce. — In the extent and importance of her commerce, Great Britain holds the first rank among nations. She imports from other countries such materials as her own soil or mines do not fur- nish, and, in return, sends her manufactured products to every market in the world. The trade with the United States exceeds that with any other nation, the amount of exports to this country being nearly double that which she sends to any other. Great Britain requires a large navy to protect her extensive commerce and dis- tant colonies. She accordingly ranks among the first naval powers in the world. She has also established lines of steam packets to all the principal ports of the world. Minerals. — The tin mines of Cornwall have been famous from remote antiquity. Rich mines of pit coal, copper, iron, and slate are found in Wales. What do the British Islands comprise? — What is the British Empire? — Describe the surface. — Climate and soil. — What are the chief productions ? — What can you say of the commerce of Great Britain? — Of the navy? — Of the minerals? QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. In what direction from the mainland of Europe are the British Isles? In what direction from the United States? — What branches of the Atlantic separate them from the mainland? — What sea between England and Ireland? — By what channel may it be entered from the south? — From the north ?— What strait separates Eng- land from France? — The island of Anglesea from Wales? — What docs the island of Great Britain comprise ? — What groups of small islands near it ? — Where is the Isle of Wight? — The Isle of Man? Where are the Grampian Hills?— What is the portion of Scotland north of these hills called? — South of them? — What hills separate England and Scotland? Mount Snowdon (3571 ft. high) is the highest point of land in England and Wales: where is it ? , Name three principal rivers flowing into the North Sea. — Which of them is most important? — Where is the Severn? — The Mersey ? — The Solway ? The Clyde? The Liffey ? — The Shannon ? — Name two of the Channel Islands. Which is farther north, Great Britain or New England ? — Which of these coun- tries has the milder winters? — Why ? — Which has the warmer summer, London or St. Petersburg? — Why ? — How does Great Britain compare with other countries in the amount of her manufactures? — What is commerce? In the year 1865 Great Britain produced about 70,000,000 tons of coal, and about 4,200,000 tons of iron. VII. Towns. — London, the capital of the British Empire, is the largest city in the world, and the first in commercial importance. It has a population, according to the census of 1865, of 3,015,000, and covers an area of about one hundred and twenty-two square miles. The city is situated on both banks of the Thames, which is crossed by nine bridges. Liverpool is the second city in population, and is the great port of the manufac- turing districts. It is the city through which the most of the commerce with the United States is carried on. Its fine docks on the river Mersey cover more than four hundred acres. Portsmouth, Plymouth, and Chatham are the three principal naval stations. Manchester is noted for its cotton manufactures — the most exten- sive in the world ; Leeds and Bradford, for their manufactures of wool; Birming- ham, for hardware ; Sheffield, for cutlery and plated ware. Edinburgh is the metropolis of Scotland. Glasgow is the largest city, and the chief seat of commerce and manufactures. Dundee and Aberdeen are noted for manufactures and ship- building. Dublin is the capital and largest city in Ireland. Belfast is the first commercial city, and the seat of the linen manufacture. Cork is the third city in Ireland, and has an extensive commerce. Limerick is noted for the manufacture of gloves, lace, and fish-hooks. Galway is the principal seaport on the western coast. Merthyr Tydvil, the largest town in Wales, is noted for its iron-works. Swansea is the principal seat of the copper trade of Great Britain, and is much resorted to for sea-bathing. VIII. Great Britain has colonies in every quarter of the globe, and unites under one sovereign a greater number of people than are ruled by any other government. The principal foreign possessions of Great Britain are as follows : — In Europe, Gibraltar, in Spain. Malta and Gozo, in the Mediterra- nean. In Asia. British India, including Ceylon, Hindoostan, a part of Farther India, and Singapore. The island of Hong-Kong (China). Aden (Arabia). In Africa. Sierra Leone, and other settlements on the western coast. Cape Colony and Natal, in South Africa. St. Helena and Ascension Islands. Mauritius and Seychelle Islands. Describe London. — Liverpool. — Name and describe the principal towns in Scotland. — In Ireland. — In Wales. — Let each scholar name one of the foreign colonies of Great Britain and say what he can about it. Does Great Britain export or import cotton? — Broadcloth ? — Tea ? — Razors? — With what country is she most extensively engaged in trade? — Which divisions have a fertile soil ? Where is peat found? — Is it a vegetable or mineral product? — Cornwall is the southwestern county of England : what celebrated mines there?— What mines in Wales? — Are minerals generally found in mountainous or level districts? To what city in England would you go to buy cotton goods? — Hardware? — Woollens? — Cutlery? — Which is the largest city in Scotland? — In Ireland? — What town in England opposite Calais in France? — From Dover to Calais is twenty- one miles: across what strait would you sail? — What is the most southwestern point of the island of Great Britain? — What is the chief town in Wales? — What channels separate Ireland from Great Britain? — What is the latitude of London? — Longitude? — Where is Menai Strait? — What city has a population nearlyequal to that of all New England ? — Where is Valentia Harbor? — What is the seat of the linen manufacture in Ireland ? — Where is Cork? — What articles are manufac- tured at Limerick ? — Which is farther west, Ireland or the Spanish Peninsula ? — On what river is Dublin ? — Give the boundary, capital, and two other important towns, of each division of the British Isles. Name, also, the principal rivers and mountains. Sketch from memory, if you can, a map of each division, locating the chief towns, mountains, and rivers. In Oceanica. Part of Borneo, and the island of Labuan. Australia. Tasmania. Norfolk Island. New Zealand. In America. British America. The Bermuda Islands. Balize. Jamaica, and other islands in the West Indies. British Guiana. The Falkland Islands. 8 Longitude West 6 from Greenwich :..■: m'EAT B1M TMW ! AND STATITK Mll.KS «».'.! TO A 1>K( : RHB. 5 15 £5 5Q 75 IOO 12ft Battatii ra|ii'Wj-iith- Duri i POMONA M AIM.. Ihim Wah'l- Scale 70 milew to au ixidi . ■ti-i 4 ■ > S^ ■■ - M'Hil'm;lv " somiii ° H M '4M r ,: • HeadofBarraj" '**"* GoavS Hfftjiocl ISLAN1JS ■lUionu 'firm ^ THE S HETLAND ISLAND S. . >aWess Sandwic KtfiuHeariUS, ^TSmnlnu-gh Heart Scale 70iuiles to an inch.. V *J St I SLA X l)S M '.K % v Lou. loll. I. 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Africa is the largest peninsula in the world. It is connected with Asia by the Isthmus of Suez. II. Outline. — The coast is not indented by deep gulfs and bays. This is one of the principal reasons why the interior is so little known. Geographers possess much less knowledge of Africa than of any other Grand Division of the earth. Large portions of its interior have never been visited by a white man. Even the source of the Nile, a river which has been famous in history since the time of Moses, has only been discovered very recently. The insalubrity of the climate, and the savage character of the natives, are additional obstacles to the exploration of Africa, and many intrepid travellers have lost their lives in the attempt. III. Surface. — The principal mountain-systems of Africa are the Atlas Chain, the Mountains of the Moon, the Snow Mountains, the Kong, Crystal and Cameroon Mountains. The ranges of the eastern coast have been but little explored; they are known, however, to stretch from the Highlands of Abyssinia to the southern extremity of Africa. The Mountains of the Moon, once erroneously supposed to extend across Central Africa from east to west, are a part of this system. The only plateaus of which we have any reliable knowledge are those of Abys- sinia, the Sahara, or Great Desert, and South Africa. The first embraces nearly all of Abyssinia; the last, the section south of the Snow Mountains. The prin- cipal plains are those of Egypt, Central and Southern Africa. IV. Rivers. — The rivers flow into the Mediterranean Sea, the Indian, and the Atlantic Oceans. Describe the coast of Africa. — State some of the reasons why its interior is so little known. — Describe the surface. — Into what, do the rivers flow? — What can you say of the climate ? — What parts are said to be unhealthful ? There are also many rivers of considerable size flowing into lakes, which are not, probably, connected with the ocean. V. Climate. — The greater part of Africa is in the Torrid Zone, and, much of the country being desort-land, it is, as a whole, the hottest and driest Grand Division of the globe. The climate of the eastern and western coasts is very unhealthful. It is espe- cially fatal to white men. [The productions, animals, and inhabitants, will be described in connection with the separate divisions.] VI. Africa may be divided into Northern, Eastern, SoihBto, "Western, and Central Africa. NORTHERN AFRICA. VII. Northern Africa comprises Barbary, the Sahara, or Great Desert, and the Nile countries. The principal food-plants in this region are dhourra, teff, and millet (kinds of grain), and the date-palm tree. So numerous are these trees in the section south of the Atlas Mountains, that the country is called Beled el Jerid (" Land of Dates"). Rice, wheat, and cotton, are raised in Egypt. Abyssinia is supposed to be the native country of the coffee-plant. The lion, elephant, rhinoceros, and camelopard, are found in this section, as also throughout nearly all of Africa. The camel is the most useful animal. The ostrich is the largest bird, and the crocodile the most formidable reptile. Most of the inhabitants belong to the Caucasian race, and profess the Mohamme- dan religion. There are, however, many negroes in the Nile countries. VIII. Barbary embraces Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, and Tripoli. Morocco is an independent empire. Algeria is a colony of France. Tunis and Tripoli are nominally subject to Turkey. Into what divisions may Africa be separated? — What does Northern Africa com- prise? — What are the principal productions of this section ? — Name the animals. — To what race do the inhabitants belong? — What are the different countries of Barbary ? AFEICA. 87 By means of caravans, tho inhabitants carry on an extensive trade with the negro tribes, south of the Great Desert, and they export wool, goat-skins, leather, olive oil, and various fruits. Barca and Fezzan, one of the oases of the Great Desert, are provinces of Tripoli. Tunis, Tripoli, Algiers, Morocco, and Fez, are the chief cities of Barbary. IX. The Sahara, or Great Desert, is a vast table-land, about four- fifths the size of the United States, consisting chiefly of sandy and stony tracts. It contains a few oases, or fertile spots, and can only be crossed by the aid of camels. The only inhabitants of this dreary region are a few wandering tribes, called Tibboos and Tuaricks. Salt is found on the desert in large quantities. X. The countries of the Nile are Egypt, Nubia, and Abyssinia. XL Egypt is celebrated for its pyramids, and its ruins of ancient cities and temples. It has been a country of unrivalled fertility, from the earliest dawn of history. XII. Nubia and Kordofan (which lies to the southwest of Nubia), are subject to the Pasha of Egypt. It rarely or never rains in Middle or Upper Egypt, and the land is watered by the annual overflow of tho river Nile. Alexandria is the chief sea-port of Egypt. Cairo, the capital, is the largest city in Africa. Khartoom is the only city of any considerable size in Nubia. XIII. Abyssinia consisted until lately of three separate States, but they are now united under the government of the Negus or Emperor Theodorus. Gondar is the capital of Abyssinia. Most of the people profess the Christian religion, but their faith is obscured by many barbarous and superstitious ceremonies. The Gallas or Ormas, a dark-brown race, inhabit the regions south of Abyssinia, and were once the terror of the surrounding nations, but their habits are now more peaceful. They cultivate the ground to a limited extent, and raise large herds of cattle. EASTERN AFRICA. XIV. Eastern Africa includes the countries upon the coast, from the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb to the Tropic of Capricorn. The principal divisions are Zanguebar and Mozambique. The country north of Zanguebar is occupied by a people Balled the Konmulies. The Suahilies inhabit the coast districts. The people of the interior are pagan Negroes. The towns on t he coagf of Zaniruebar are governed by the Sultan of Zan- zibar. Zanzibar City is the seat of his government. Mozambique belongs to Portugal. SOUTHERN AFRICA. XY. Southern Africa comprises Cape Colony, Natal, Caffraria, the Trans Vaal Eepublic, Orange Eiver Free State, and the Zoolu, Bechuana, Namaqua, and Damara countries. Cape Colony and Natal are British colonies. Caffraria is in the possession of independent tribes of Oaffirs, a variety of the negro race. The Trans Vaal Republic and Orange River Free State are independent States, inhabited by negro tribes and Dutch boors, or farmers, the latter being the ruling class. The Zoolu, Bechuana, Damara, and Namaqua countries are thinly inhabited by rude, pastoral tribes, who go about from place to place, to feed their numerous herds of cattle, which form their chief wealth. XVI. Cape Colony is the most important division of Southern Africa. About one-half of the inhabitants are Dutch and English. Cape Town, the chief city, carries on an extensive trade with Great Britain and other foreign countries. Wool is the principal article of export. Name the chief cities of Barbary. — Describe the Sahara. — Which are the Nile countries ? — For what is Egypt celebrated? — To what power are Nubia and Kor- dofan subject ? —What can you say of Abyssinia ? — Of the Gallas ? —What are the principal divisions of Eastern Africa? — To what power does Zanguebar belong ? — Mozambique? — What does Southern Africa comprise? — Which divisions belong to the British? — Describe the others. WESTERN AFRICA. XVII. Western Africa includes the countries upon the coast, from the Great Desert to the Tropic of Capricorn. Senegambia and Guinea are the principal divisions. The British, Dutch, French, and Portuguese, have settlements on this coast. The most important one is the British colony of Sierra Leone, which was founded in 1787 as a refuge for liberated slaves. XVIII. Liberia is a negro republic, with a government modelled after that of the United States. Liberia was founded in 1821, by the American Colonization Society, as a place of refuge for free blacks and liberated slaves from tb,e United States. It is regarded as a most successful experiment for the civilization of Africa. Monrovia is the capital and chief town. It is a place of considerable trade, con- taining many schools and churches. Ashantee, Dahomey, and Yoruba are the most important native kingdoms. The army of Dahomey is composed chiefly of women. CENTRAL AFRICA. XIX. Central Africa comprises Soudan, Ethiopia, and the Eegion of the Zambesi. Soudan contains many small States, some of which are known to us only by name. The whole region is a plain of great fertility, and embraces the basin of Lake Tchad, and the greater part of that of the river Niger. Dr. Barth and other recent travellers report Soudan to be well peopled by various nations, one of whom, the Fellatas, have acquired an empire of 1400 miles in extent since the commencement of the present century. There are some cities and towns of considerable size in Soudan. Of these, Sokoto, Kashna, Kano, Sego, and Wurno are perhaps the most important. Ethiopia is still an almost unknown region, notwithstanding the numerous attempts to explore it. In 1859, Lake Tanganyika and Lake Victoria Nyanza were discovered by Captains Burton and Speke, and in 1864 Lake Albert Nyanza by Mr. Baker. The latter is now supposed to be the source of trf"ie river Nile. The Region of the Zambesi has been recently explored by Dr. Livingstone. Lake Nyassa was discovered by him in 1859. He reports the country to be a low and fertile plain, which in the rainy season is in part covered with water. The productions of Eastern, Western, and Central Africa, are such as belong to the Torrid Zone. The natives collect some palm-oil, ivory, and gold dust, which are exported from the towns on the coast, but the principal trade is the selling of slaves — a traffic which most Christian nations have united in endeavoring to suppress. Savage and powerful animals, such as the lion, elephant, rhinoceros, hippopota- mus, and the gorilla, a gigantic species of ape, abound in this portion of Africa. The natives are found in various stages of barbarism. Nearly all of them belong to the negro race. Those of Central Africa are considered somewhat superior to the inhabitants of tho coast. They work skilfully in gold, iron, and leather, and weave and dye substantial cotton fabrics. AFRICAN ISLANDS. XX. Madagascar is the -largest of the African Islands. It is a mountainous country, and but little known. Part of the inhab- itants belong to the Negro, and part to the Malay race. Bourbon and Mauritius Islands are east of Madagascar. The former belongs to France ; the latter, to England. The Almirante and Seychelle Islands are depen- dencies of Mauritius. Socotra is under the dominion of the Sultan of Zanzibar. The Azores, Madeira, and Cape Verd Islands belong to Portugal ; the Canaries, to Spain. Fruit, sugar, coffee, cochineal, and salt are the chief exports. St. Helena and Ascension are 4M£&* islands. The former is noted as having been the place of exile of the Emperor Napoleon, who died there in 1821. 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" RUNNING A MUCK. BUINS OF TUE TEMPLE OF BOKO BODO, IN JAVA. GOLD MINING IN AUSTRALIA. CHAPTER XIX. OCEANICA. I. Oceanica consists entirely of islands ; and comprises the three divisions of Malaysia, Australasia, and Polynesia. , MALAYSIA. II. Malaysia includes a number of islands which lie to the south east of Asia. This division is also known as the East Indian Archi- pelago. The principal islands are Borneo, Sumatra, and Java (which, with some smaller ones, are embraced under the general name of the Sunda Isles), the Philippine, Spice Islands, and Celebes. III. Surface. — Most of these islands are mountainous, and many of them contain numerous active volcanoes. The Sunda Islands alone contain eighty volcanoes, and there are forty-three on the single island of Java. Earthquakes are frequent. IV. Climate. — Malaysia lies within the Torrid Zone. The cli- mate, therefore, is very hot. The low lands near the coast, owing to the excessive moisture and great heat, are frequently very unhealthy. At an elevation of a few hundred feet, the climate becomes more healthful ; and, by ascending still higher, we reach a delightful region of perpetual spring. V. Productions. — No part of the world is richer in its vegetable productions than the islands of Malaysia. The minerals are also valuable. Nearly all the spices which we use — such as cinnamon, cloves, nutmegs, and pepper — are raised on these islands. Here also grow the bread-fruit tree, sago, Of what does Oceanica consist? — What three divisions does it comprise? — What does Malaysia include? — Which are the principal islands? — Describe the sur- face. — What is said of the climate? — What are the principal productions of Malaysia ? — « the cocoa-nut palm, bananas, and yams. Gutta-percha is the sap of a tree which grows in the forests of Borneo, and of other islands in the Archipelago. Rice is cultivated in most of the islands. Java exports great quantities of cofFeo and sugar. Borneo furnishes gold and diamonds; and Banca, tin. From the Philippine Islands we receive sugar, hemp, and tobacco. VI. Animals. — Many of the animals of Malaysia are among the largest and fiercest upon the earth. The rhinoceros and tiger are found in Sumatra and Java ; the elephant in Sumatra ; and the ourang-outang in Sumatra and Borneo. Reptiles and insects are numerous in all the islands. In many of them, domestic animals — as hogs, cattle, goats, and sheep — are abundant. The birds are noted for the beauty of their plumage. VII. Inhabitants. — The ruling people of the Archipelago are Malays. They are much engaged in maritime pursuits, and many of them are pirates. The Malays consume a great deal of opium, and, under its influence, sometimes burst into fits of furious madness. While in this condition, with their daggers in their hands, they frequently rush at, any one they chance to meet, scroaming "Amok! amok!" (kill! kill!): hence the expression, " running a muck." In the interior of the larger islands are tribes of negroes, among the most degraded creatures on the earth. Some of them are cannibals. There are also in the islands numerous Chinese, and in the commercial towns a few Europeans. VIII. The Dutch, Spanish, English, and Portuguese, have pos- sessions in Malaysia. Java, the Spice Islands, part of Borneo, Sumatra, Celebes, and Timor, belong to the Dutch. The Philippine Islands are in the possession of the Spanish. The English occupy a part of Borneo, and all of the adjoining island of Labuan. A part of Timor belongs to the Portuguese. IX. Towns. — Batavia and Manilla are the most important cities of Malaysia, and are the chief ports for the commerce of the islands. Name some of the animals. — Who are the ruling people? — What other races also inhabit these islands? — What European nations have possession here? — Which of the islands belong to the Dutch? — Spanish? — English? — Portuguese? — Name the principal cities. OCEANICA. 91 AUSTRALASIA. X . Australasia is the largest division of Oceanica. It comprises Australia, Papua, or New Guinea, Tasmania, New Zealand, New Caledonia, and many other islands of less importance. Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, Norfolk, and Chatham Islands, belong to Great Britain; and New Caledonia, to France. The other islands are still in possession of the native inhabitants. Australia, on account of its great size, is by many geographers regarded as a continent. AUSTRALIA. XI. Surface. — Near the coast, almost the entire island seems to be guarded by mountain-ranges. The central regions have never been explored, but are supposed to consist of a low, barren plain. The only river of much importance is the Murray. The settled regions are the sections between the mountains and the coast, the many valleys between the different mountain-ranges, and the slopes towards the interior. XII. Climate. — The northern part of the island is in the Torrid Zone, and its climate is strictly tropical. The temperature of the southern part is much like that of Southern Europe. New South Wales is subject to excessive heat, caused by burning winds from the sterile plains of the interior. The thermometer sometimes rises as high as 130° in the shade. This section is also subject to long droughts, at irregular intervals, which are often followed by torrents of rain, flooding the whole country. XIII. Productions. — The most important of these are gold and tIooI, both of which are largely exported. Few fcod plants of any value have been found in Australia, although those of other countries, in similar climates, are grown here successfully. The native trees are nearly all evergreens. The grass is of superior quality, and sustains numerous flocks of sheep, which the early English settlers introduced in great numbers. Gold was first discovered in 1851. Its product since that time has been greater than that of all the rest of the world, except California. XIV. Animals. — The largest native animal is the kangaroo. The most singular one is the platypus, which has the body of an otter, the bill of a duck, and lays eggs. Birds are numerous. The domestic animals of Europe have been introduced into the island in great numbers. XV. Inhabitants. — The natives of Australia, and of most of the islands in Australasia, are a degraded race of negroes, called Papuans. The greater part of the inhabitants are Europeans and their descendants. XVI. Political Divisions. — The colonies are New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, West Australia, and Queensland. New South Wales and Victoria are by far the most important divisions. The gold-fields are in these colonies. XVII. Towns. — Melbourne and Sydney are the most important cities, and the principal commercial marts of the country. Adelaide is the capital of South Australia, and Perth of West Australia. XVIII. Tasmania, south of Australia, is a fine agricultural island, inhabited solely by European colonists. The islands of New Zea- land are mountainous, and have a climate much resembling that of Great Britain. The native inhabitants belong to the Malay race. Name the principal islands of Australasia. — Which of them belong to Great Britain? —Which belong to France? — Describe the surface of Australia.— Its climate.— What are the most important productions ? — Name someof the animals. — To what racedo the native inhabitants belong? — What are the political divisions of Australia? Which are the most Important cities? — What is said of Tasmania? — Describe New Zealand. XIX. Little is known of Papua, and the other islands of Aus- tralasia. There are no white settlements in any of them, except New Caledonia. They are for the most part mountainous, and undoubtedly contain many valuable productions. POLYNESIA. XX. Polynesia includes the great number of islands which are scattered throughout the wide expanse of the Pacific Ocean. Though very numerous, and some of them of considerable size, these islands, as compared with the great ocean, are as mere specks upon its surface. XXI. The islands of Polynesia are mountainous, or low. VIEW OF TAHITI. The mountainous islands are principally of volcanic formation. The low islands are the work of the coral insect. They arc very level, and have scarcely any elevation above the surface of the ocean. XXII. The most important groups are the Sandwich, Ladrone, Caroline, Society, Marquesas, and Friendly Islands. Nearly all of these are mountainous. The Ladrone and Caroline Islands belong to Spain. The Marquesas group, and Tahiti, (one of the Society Islands,) belong to France. XXIII. Climate and Productions. — Nearly the whole of Polynesia is in the Torrid Zone. Many tropical productions have been intro- duced, and grow in great luxuriance. The climate is much modified by the influence of the sea, and is, in general, like that of perpetual spring. The bread-fruit, cocoa-nut, and plantain-trees, with yams, are the most important native productions. XXIV. Animals. — When first discovered, these islands contained neither insects nor reptiles, and no animal larger than a hog. Many of the domestic animals of Europe and America have, however, been taken to Polynesia by vessels from those countries. XXV. Inhabitants. — Most of the natives belong to the Malay race. In some of the islands they are very savage ; in others, they are intelli- gent and gentle. Many of them have been converted to Christianity, under the influence of missionaries who have labored among them. XXVI. Towns. — Honolulu, on Oahu, one of the Sandwich Islands, is the only important town in Polynesia. 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M M M Eh w Q 1 O s o H O « N o o 00 s bo- 03 & pG c»-r d O cp ID § p° o d B S S >-> o cj cp 0) Jtl -a o! *" §^ pd ^ M O Ph « PJ a fi S '° d o a .2 -1 pt o d a d> 1 s ,rH o •jh pd S| a " a - O m 0) ■a > .£> >> o pQ ?1 o ft 3 3 "3 a s 5 Jj -3 O j a o • 1 a o a 03 03 a a -a •2 5 ■S 5 CO U CO e3 x B 'E K. a « .2 m .2 « a a 3 3 a a B a O J3 l : tli CO 3 3 .2 2 1 a co a ■s 3 c a s I a .2 Ha « v, ■° .2 2 5 •o 03 73 ■ 3 -J. 0! -PI co o bO to e ? 2 ■ «• 73 ,p < a ja <1 - ft ' a E E •< tt> bo a J^H OJ to a rc A a 1 lu El u O to 3 |J « •< 73 S ' a to cS H CO 3 73 Oh .2 co ft M ■a « o 2 2 73 £ pti te; £ QUESTIONS FOR GENERAL REVIEW. What seas, gulfs, and bays lie east and south of Asia ? — What are the prin- cipal exports of Franco ?— Of Russia ? — What is the ditference in time between Paris and New York ?— What is the latitude of Cape Horn ?— Of the Cape of Good Hope? — Name the four largest rivers of Europe, and describe the Danube. What does the Dominion of Canada comprise ? — Why are great cities usually situated upon rivers! Name the six largest cities in the United States. — In Europe. — Where are the principal coal, iron, and gold mines in Europe? — How would you go by water from Philadelphia to Vienna ? — What is a desert ? — Name some of the most celebrated. — Give the latitude and longitude of the five most populous cities in the world. — Trace the different routes used by travellers in going from Eng- land to India. Name the principal rivers that flow into the Pacific Ocean. — Name in order the countries bordering on the Mediterranean Sea. — Name the oceans in the order of their size. — Name the islands in the Indian Ocean. — In what direction will shadows be cast at noon, on the 23d of September, at Quito ? — At Chicago ? — At Callao ? — At St. Helena ? — At Java ? — At Montevideo ? — Name several cities on the globe that lie on, or near, the parallel of New Orleans. What does the British Empire comprise ? — Which has the longer day on the 21st of June, Boston or London? — Why? — Name the principal islands in the Mediterranean Sea. — Mention some of the principal deltas on the globe. — Define a Great Circle. — Where is the Dead Sea? — Where is the Peak of Teneriffe? — For what are the following places noted ? Lyons; Canton; Genoa; Malaga; Mobile ; Jerusalem. Name the three southern peninsulas of Europe. — Of Asia. — Docs the North Pole incline towards the sun, or from it, on the 21st of June? — What is govern- ment ? — What meridian divides the hemispheres ? — Name the highest mountain on the globe; the largest fresh- water lake; the longest river. — When does the rainy season occur in tropical countries north of the equator ? — Through what waters, and over what countries and islands, does the Equator pass ? How does a lofty mountain in the Torrid Zone illustrate the differences of climate and vegetation? — To what race do the Moors belong? — Do you find large manufacturing establishments in thickly-settled countries, or in those thinly settled ? — Why? — What strait separates North America from Asia ? — Vera Cruz and the city of Mexico have nearly the same latitude : which has the milder climate ? — Why ? Why are large commercial cities generally found on the sea-coast? — What is the Gulf Stream ? — Name the five most powerful states of Europe. — What are the principal branches of the Mediterranean Sea? — Describe the overland route from London to Bombay. — Name four branches of the Amazon River. — Name six remarkable volcanoes, and locate them. — What names are given to the great mountain-system extending across the Eastern Hemisphere from Spain to the China Sea?— Name three of the Sunda Islands. What is the most important town in South Africa?— What is the source of the Nile ?— What Taces inhabit Madagascar ?— What is the largest river of Western Africa ?— Of Southern Africa ?— What is the latitude of the Azores ?— Of the Sandwich Islands ?— When it is summer at Chicago, what is the season at Valparaiso ?— Where do the Mongolians chiefly live ?— What is a degree ?— From what countries do the paper-makers of the United States import the most of their rags ? What country produces the best tea ?— Tobacco?— Coffee ?— Where is Aleppo? — Surat?— Astrakhan?— Ghent?— Where are the Atlas Mountains?— Where. is Roumania ?— What are the two chief commercial towns of Australia?— What peninsula in North America extends towards the north ?— What one in Europe ? —Name the rivers that drain Siberia.— What is the capital of British India?— In what countries does Mohammedanism prevail ' (96) What country is tho most extensively engaged in manufacturing ? — What two mountain-chains separate Asia from Europe ? — How does a chart differ from a map ? — What is the most important town on the Philippine Islands ? — Is tho Sahara a table-land, or a plaja ? — Name the largo rivers that drain China. — Farther India. — Hindoostan. — Where i3 Lapland? — What 13 the latitude of Cape Farewell?— Of St. Petersburg? To what state of society do the Chinese belong? — What waters does tho Isthmus of Suez separate? — What lands docs it connect? — Which grand divi- sion of land stretches farthest towards the North Pole ? — Where is the Kwichpak River? — Which ocean contains the more land? the Arctic, or the Antarctic? — Name the Greater Antilles. — What three mountain-systems in South America! — What connects the Persian Gulf with the Arabian Sea ? Into what does tho Euphrates flow? — Mention two lakes in South America. — Describe the river Nile. — Name the principal rivers flowing into the Black Sea. — Into tho Baltic Sea. — Where are the Mountains of the Moon? — Tho Snow Mountains ? — What is the latitude of the island of St. Helena ? — What city dic- tates to the civilized world in matters of dross and fashion? — Define diameter. — Locate Singapore; Smyrna; Para; Leipsic; Madras; Odessa. Where is tho island of Malta ?— To what government does it belong ? — What country on the south side of the Caucasus Mountains? — What isits capital? — What do you mean by the Ottoman Empire? — From what islands are spices chiefly imported? — Where is Batavia? — AVhat is the capital of Canada? — In what portions of Europe is wheat abundantly produced ? — The olive and mul- berry tree? — In what country is peat the chief article of fuel? What grand division does the Arctic Circle cross ? — The Tropic of Cancer ? The Tropic of Capricorn? — Name all the principal rivers on the western coast of Europe, between the Strait of Gibraltar and the Strait of Dover. — Between the Strait of Dover and Denmark. — What strait connects the Red Sea with the Arabian Sea? — What two straits connect the Indian Ocean with the China Sea? — Which grand division has the most extensive plateaus? On what waters will a vessel sail in going from New York, round the Capo of Good Hope, to Bombay, — thence to Canton, — thence to San Francisco, — and thence, by way of Cape Horn, to New York again? — At what towns on the borders of the Chinese Empire and Siberia do the Russians and Chinese carry on an extensive trade? — What town in Russia is noted for its great fairs? Mention the names of some distinguished travellers who have recently made discoveries in Africa. Which zone contains the most highly civilized nations? — What is the effect of the climate of the Torrid Zone on its inhabitants ? — Which of the West Indies belong to Spain? — Name two of them which belong to France. — Name one be- longing to England. — Which division of South America has no towns? — How many empires are there on the Western Continent? — What is the oldest-settled town in New England? — In the United States? The course of the Mississippi River is from north to south; the course of the Amazon is from west to east: which river, do you think, is the most favorable to trade and commerce? — Why? — Why are there no large rivers on the western coast of South America? — Which is the largest empire in the world? — Which one has the largest number of subjects? — Name the rivers flowing into the Caspian Sea Into the Sea of Aral. — Where are the Cyclades? What is the most southern point of Asia? — Of Europe? — Where is Virginia City? — Carson City? — Golden City? — In what countries is the lion found? — What is the only animal that can live in all parts of the globe ? — What three rivers unite to form the Missouri? — What is the holy city of the Jews? — Of tho Mohammedans? — On the 21st day of March, is the sun north or south of the equator? — Give the latitude and longitude of Wheeling. — Of Lima. — Of Vienna. TREATISE ON MAP-DRAWING. BY E. A. APGAK. No pupil in geography can properly be said to have become thoroughly ac- quainted with the surface of the earth until he has a distinct and definite picture of the whole, as represented by maps, indelibly impressed upon his mind. The most ready and accurate method of thus transferring to the mind that which is upon the printed page is by means of rightly-conducted exercises in map- drawing. And the only true and reliable test that such an acquaintance with the surface of the earth has been acquired by the pupil, is his ability to repro- duce upon slate, paper, or blackboard, any portion of that surface, with only his mental picture as a guide. In map-drawing, the teacher is generally content if his pupils are able to copy accurately. To do this, alone, is no test of any clear geographical know- ledge. A pupil can be said to have a distinct mental picture only of that which he can draw from memory. The Disadvantages of using Parallels and Meridians in Drawing Maps. — Parallels and meridians should never be used by a pupil in geography as helps for map- drawing. They do not aid the student to draw from memory; they necessitate the use of a copy even more than a blank page does ; they lead the attention to the comparatively unimportant miuutia! of the contour of tho continent, while I 1. The Triangulation.— First draw the vertical line AB, of any convenient length ; bisect it at C ; bisect the upper half at D. From D draw the horizontal line DE equal to one-half of AB, and trisect it. Draw DF equal to one-third of DE. Connect the points as in the figure, and trisect the lines FA, AE, and EB. The figure thus drawn gives what may be called the geometrical expression of the continent, and serves as a basis for constructing the map. The angles at A, E, B, and F determine the accurate position of four of the most important points of the continent, and the sides give us the general direction of the coast- line, while the trisecting points serve as guide-posts for making certain pro- jections or indentations. The simplicity of the construction of this figure con- sists in the fact that there are no angles to be measured, and that all distances are determined by reference to the first line, or measuring unit AB. This line may serve as a scale of miles for determining all distances upon the continent. the general shape and prominent characteristic projections and indentations are entirely overlooked. The relation between the coast-line of a continent and a system of these lines involves too many particulars, and cannot be re membered; and even if this relationship should be remembered, the lines them- selves cannot be constructed by the pupil without the use of instruments, and at a great loss of time. The Advantages of using Triangulations in Drawing Maps. — The easiest and, indeed, the only effectual way to draw from memory the map of a country, is to observe, in the first place, what convenient geometrical figure will give, by its lines and angles, the accurate position of tho greatest number of leading points in the country. This geometrical figure, which can be easily remem- bered, and readily drawn by the eye, then serves as a basis on which to construct accurately from memory the general outlines of the proposed map. By the use of such a figure the pupil is led at once to the consideration of the most general laws of the form, after which the details will follow without difficulty. To illustrate this method, an outline map of South America is here given, with directions for constructing the preliminary triangulation and drawing the coast-lino. l'cna. of Paraguana Ki[ltutor C. J'aritwj C. Frio C. Pillar 2. The Coast-Line. — The coast-line of South America is quite simple, and closely follows the sides of the triangulation. The point A, on the figure, co- incides with the peninsula of Paraguana; E, with Cape St. Roque; B, with Cape Pillar; and F, with Cape Parina. The trisecting points, 2, 4, 5, and 6, determine respectively the positions of the Isthmus of Panama, the mouth of the Amazon, Cape Frio, and the mouth of the La Plata. In drawing either of the continents, the pupil should first be taught to con- struct the triangulation accurately, upon which he afterwards may draw the coast-line, first through the use of a copy, and then from memory. It is all- important that the pupil should be able to draw the contour of a continent readily and accurately before he attempts to represent any of the inland features; for upon an imperfect drawing of the outline the details must necessarily be imperfect. 98 TllEATISE ON MAP-DRAWING. DIKECTIONS FOR DRAWING THE STATES. For drawing the States no additional geometrical figures are necessary. All that is required is that, in each State, some one line shall be taken which will best serve as a measuring unit for determining the position of the greatest number of prominent points in the complete boundary. To illustrate this, a simple outline drawing of the four Middle States is here given. The measuring unit in each State is the line extending from 1 to 2, and the order for drawing the different boundary lines must follow the order of the numbers. The following directions will give the relative measurements of the above States. NEW YOEK. From 1 to 2, first line, 100 miles long. From 2 to 3 = first line. From 3 to 4 = first line. From 3 to 5 = first line. From 6 to 6 = twice first line (-|-) From 6 to 7 = one-half of first line. From 7 to 8 = one-half of first line. From 1 to 9 = first line, nearly. The distance from the southern boundary of the State to the southern shore of Lake Ontario is equal to first line. The eastern shore of the lake is midway between the Niagara River and the eastern boundary of the State. The southern straight boundary is in a direct line with the southern boundary of Massachusetts. The northern boundary of Massachusetts is midway be- tween 2 and 3. NEW JEESET. From 1 to 2, first line, 50 miles long. From 1 to 3 = three times first line. The great bend of the river at 4 is midway between 1 and 3 Points 1, 4, and 3 are connected by the Delaware River, in the shape of a W turned thus, $. The distance of the upper bend of the river from the vertical line is equal to one-half of first line. The distance of the lower bend from the vertical line is equal to three-fourths of first line. Draw the horizontal line from 4 to 5, and, by trisecting the distance from 2 to 5, the position of the bay in which Staten Island is situated is determined. Points 5 and 3 are connected by the coast-line slightly curved. PENNSYLVANIA. From 1 to 2, first line, 225 miles long. From 1 to 3 = one-half of the one-third of first line. From 1 to 4 = one-half of the distance from 1 to 3. From 3 to 5 = two-thirds of first line. From 5 to 6 = northern boundary. Points 2, 7, and are connected by the Delaware Itiver, in the shape of a W turned thus, ^ . DELAWAEE. From 1 to 2, first line, 100 miles long. From 2 to 3 = one-half of first line, nearly. When, by means of these simple directions, the outline of a State has been accurately drawn, the principal difficulty to be encountered has been overcome, and the art of representing the remaining features can be easily acquired. It is very important that, in each State, the proper line should be chosen for the measuring unit. To serve this purpose, it must be a common measure or a common multiple of the other lines. Thus, in drawing the State of New York, some might be led to select the northern boundary as the measuring unit; but it will readily be seen how few distances this will give us as compared with those obtained by taking the length of Lake Champlain. In conducting exercises in map-drawing, the class should be practised, first, in drawing upon the blackboard, under the immediate direction of the teacher; second, in drawing upon slates, their work to be submitted to the teacher; and third, in executing, at home, maps upon paper, to be presented to the criticism of both the teacher and the class. Either the teacher or one of the most skilful pupils should execute a well- finished and accurate map upon the blackboard. From this drawing — which is much to be preferred to any printed outline map — the class may recite their lesson, and upon it each of the new features, as they are learned from day to day, may be represented. It will be well to accompany every lesson in map-drawing with more or less practice in rapid sketching. Let one rapidly illustrate on the board the lesson which has just been recited, and, to excite emulation for quick work, let this exercise be timed. Pupils will, by practice, soon be able to draw a triangulation in half a minute, a continent in from two to five minutes, a State in from half a minute to two minutes, and a physical map in from eight to twelve minutes. Concert recitation should frequently accompany rapid sketching. It will also be found a valuable exercise to require the pupil, while he is drawing a map, to briefly describe, in a lively manner, the features he is repre senting upon the board ; his verbal explanations all the while keeping pace with his illustrations by the chalk. All directions and exercises in map-drawing should be such as to prepare the pupil to draw rapidly, accurately, and without a copy. As the object of studying maps is to obtain a knowledge of the divisions ol the Earth's surface which they represent, and as this knowledge is most readily acquired by means of intelligent instructions in map-drawing, as soon as the pupil commences the study of maps he should begin to learn to draw them. A further development of the method here explained will be found in War- ren's Physical and Outline Charts, and in Apgars' Geographical Drawing-liook. In the latter work an attempt is made to reduce map-drawing to a science, while by the use of an original system of coloring and symbolic language the physical features, the populations of cities, and the heights of mountain-ranges and peaks are so represented to the eye as to leave the facts impressed upon the mind. PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. ay represents the sound of a in fate; ah, thai, of a in far; aw, a in fall; ft, a in fat; 6, e in met; 83, i in eit; 6h, e in berth; T, i in pine; I, i in pin; o, 6w, o in no; 6, o iu not; oo, oo in good; n\v, ou in our; G, uinpure; % u in tun; gh, g in get; fi, ni in onion; n, n in won't; (A,£Ainthen; th,fAinthin; u, prolonged sound of u in thus; b, almost like e in her; ii, French w and German w, a aound intermediate between those of ee and oo; no, ng sounded through the nose. Aalborg, oll>org. Aar, ar. Abaco, ahTjah-ko. Abeokuta, alib-e-o-koo'tah. Aberdeen, ab-er-deen'. Aberystwith, ab-er-ist'with. Ahiquiu, ah-be-ke-oo'. Abomey, ab-o-niay'. Abreojos, ah-bray-o'hoce. Abrolhos, ah-brole'yoca. Abydos, ah-bi'dos. Abyssinia, ab-is-sin'e-ah. (" Mixed peo- ple:" so named by the Arabs, as showing that the people were not of pure Arab blood.) Acapulco, ah-kah-pool'ko. Acaray, ah-kah-ri'. Ac'comack. Achcen, at-cheen'. Achill, akll. Aconcagua, ah-kon-kab'gwalu Aden, ah'den, or ay'den. Ailije, ad'e-je. Adiroudack, ad-e-ron'dak. Adour, ah-door 7 . Adrianople, ad-re-an-o'p"l. ("City of Adrian.") Adriatic, ad-re-at'ik. (Named from "Adria," formerly an important city on the Gulf of Venice, now Adriatic.) Afghanistan, ahf-gahn-is-tahn'. ("Af- ghan land.") Africa, af're-kah. Agra, ah'grah. Agulhas, ah-gool'yahs. (Cai>e Agul- has, *'Cape Needles.") Air, ah-eer 7 . Aisne, ain. Ai t-la-Chapelle, aiks-lah -shah-pel'. Ajaccio, ah-yaht'eho. Ajail, ;i)i-/l;.;l!h'. Akaba, ah'kah-bah. Akerman, ah'ker-mahn. Alabama, al-a-bah'mah. ("ITero we rest :" said to have been so named by a peaceful tribe of Indians driven thither.) Alamo, al'a-mo. (A M poplar-tree.") Aland, ah'lahnd. Alapaba, ah-lap'a-haw. Alaska, ah-lahsTtah. Albany, awl'ba-ne. Albemarle, al-be-marF. Albuquerque, ahl-boo-ke'r'kay. Alcoy, abl-ko'e. Alderncy, awl'der-ne. Alencon, ah-len'san. Aleutian, ah-Ioo'shan. (From aUut, a "hold rock.") Alexandrowsk, ah-lex-ahn-drovak'. Algeria, il-je're ah. Algiers, ahl-jeerz'. Alicante, al-e-kant'. Alleghany, al-le-gay'ne. Aller, ahl'ler. • Allior, ali 1-1 1 --ay'. Almadcn, ahl-mah-tfien'. Almansa, ahl-mahn'sah. Almcria, aht-may-re'ah. Alnwick, an'nlk. Altai, ahl-tl'. Altnuiaha, awI-tah-mah-haV. Alton, awl'tdn, or al'tun. Altona, ahl'to-nah. Altoona, al-too'nah. Alvarado, ahl-vah-rah'do. Amarapura, ah-uiah-rah-poo'rah. Amazon, am'a-zuu. (Named by the In- dians Amas'soua, '* boat-destroyer.") A in boy 'na. America, a-meVe-kah. (Named from Americus Vespucius.) Amherst, am'erst. Amiens, ani'e-enz- Amirante, am-c -rant'. Amuo, ah-muo'. Amoor, ah-moor'. Amoskeag, a-nios'keg. Amoy, ah-moy'. Am'sterdam. (From A mstddam, " dam [or dike] of tho Amstel.") Anadir, ah-nah-deer'. Anam, ah-nahm'. Ancona, ahu-ko'nah. Andaman'. Andes, an'diz. (From a Peruvian word signifying " copper.'*) Andor'ra, An'dover. Andros, ahn'dros. Androscoggin, au-dros-kog'ghin. Andujar, ahu-dooliar. Angara, ahng-gah-rah'. Angers, an'jcrz. Anglesea, ang'g'l-se, Angola, ang-go'lah. Angouleme, oSG-goo-lem'. Anguilla, aug-gliiriah. Annap'olis. Antananarivo, ahn-tah-nah-nah-re-vo'. Antarctic, ant-ark'tik. ("Opposite tho Arctic.*') Antcquera, ahn-tay-kay'rah. Anticosti, an-te-kos'te, Antigua, ahn-te'gah. Antioquia, ahn-te-o-ke'ah, Antilles, ahn-tcel'. Antongil, ahn-ton-zhil'. Ant'werp. Apache, ah-pah'chay. Apalachee, ap-ah-lah'che. Apalachicola, ap-pah-lah-chc-kolah. Aprnniuo, ap'en-ninc. Arabia, a-ray'be-ah. Araguay, ah-rah-gwl'. Aral, ftr'al. (Sea of Aral, "sea of islands.") Aranjuez, ah-rahn-hwetb/. Ararat, ar'a-rat. Araucania, ah-raw-kay'ne-ah. Archangel, ark-ain'jel. Archipelago, ar-ke-pel'a-go. Arctic, ark'tik. (Arctic, from arctoa, a "bear," signifies northern, because the constellation called the- Great Bear lies towards the north pole: hence Arctic Ocean and Arctic Circle mean Northern Ocean, Ac; conse- quently, Antarctic means Southern.) Arequipa, ah-ray-ke'pah. Argentiue, aKjen-teen. Arizona, ar-e-zo'nah. Arkansas. Armagh, ar-mah'. Aroostook, a-roos'took. Ar'ras. Ascension, as-sen'shun. Ascutney, as-kut'ue. Ashantee, ahsh-akn-te'. Asia, ay's he-ah. (.Froui^lsia, a daughter of Ocean us.) As'pinwall. A^sam, ahs-sahm'. Assiniboin, us-siu'e-boyn. Assouan, ahs-soo-ahn'. Assumption, as-sum'shun. A.strakban, ahs-trah-kahn'. Atacama, ah-tah-kah'mah. Atckafalaya, atck-a-fa-li'ah. (" Lost water.") Athabasca, ath-a-basltah. Athens, ath'enz. (So called from Athene, the goddess of wisdom.) Atlan'tic. (So called from the Atlas Mountains.) At'las. (The Atlas Mountains were named from Atlas, an ancient king of Mauritania, who was skilled iu astronomy, and was reputed to have borne the world on his shoulders.) Audi, 5sh. Auckland, awk'land. Augela, uw-jelah. Augsburg, awgz'burg. Aurillac, o-recl-yahk'. Au Sable, o-sahb'l'. Australasia, aws-tral-ay'she-ah. ("Southern Asia.") Australia, aws-tray'le-ah. (" Southern land.") Austria, aws'treah. ("Eastern king- dom." So named as being tho east- ern part of the dominions of Charlfr- magne.) Auvergne, o-vairn"'. Aux Cayes, o-kay'. Auxerre, o-sair'. Ava, ah'vah. Avignon, ah-veen-y5Na'. Avon, ay'von. Axuin, ahk-soom'. Azores, az'orz, or azn5rz'. (From Port, erfor, a "hawk," a number of these birds being found there.) Az'ov. Babelmandeb, bahb-el-mahn'deb. ("The gate of tears.") Eadajos, bad-ah-hoce 7 . Baden, bah'den. Baeza, bah-ay'thah. Baffin. Bagdad, bahg-dahd'. Bagur, bah-goor'. Bahamas, bah-hay'maz. Bahia, bah-e'ah. Baikal, bi'kahl. ("Rich lake." It abouuds in fish.) Balearic, bal-e-ftr'ik. (From balrarr?, "slingers." These islands produced the best slingers in the world.) Balize, ba-leez'. (This is a corruption of Waliz, which the Spaniards coiled this place on account of its being the resort of a noted pirate named Wal- lice.) Balkan, bahl-kahn'. Balkasb. bahl-kahsh'. Balmoral, bal-mor'al. Balsas, bahl'saha, Baltic, hawl'tik. Baltimore, bawl'te-moro. Banca, bang^ah. Banlf, bamf. Bangkok, bang-kok'. Bangor, bang'gor. Baniuluka, bah-ne-ah-loo'kah. Baracoa, bah-rah-ko'ah. Barbadoes, bar-bay'doze. Barbuda, bar-boo'dah. Barcelona, bar-say-lo'nah. Barfieur, bar-flur / . Bari, bah're. Basle, bahl, or bahz'l. Bat;ibano, bah-tah-bah'no. BataWa, bft-tay've-ali. Katiscan, bah-toes-koNa'. Baton Rouge, bat'un-roozh'. ^"Red stick.") Bavaria, ba-vay're-ah. Baylen, bl-len'. Bayona, bah-yo'nah. Bayonne, bah-yon'. Bayou la Fourche, bi'oo-lah-foorsh'. Bayreuth, bi'ruth. Beaufort (U. S.), hu'furt. Beauharnois, bo-har-uay'. Beaumaris, bo-may 'ris. Beauvais, bo-vay'. Bechuanas, bet-choo-ah'naz. Bedouin, bed'oo-in. Begharmi, bay-gar'me. Behring, be'ring. Beirut, bay'root. Beja, bay'zhuh. Beled-el-Jerid, bel-ed'el-je-reed'. (" Land of dates.") Belem, bay-leNa'. Belfast'. Belgium, bol'jo-nm. Belleisle, bel-ile'. ("Beautiful island.") Belmonte, bel-mon'tay. Beloit, be-loit'. Beloochistan, bel-oo-chis-tahn'. ("Country of the Beloochees.") Bernini, bay-me'ne. Benares, ben-ah'rSz. Bengal, ben-gawl'. Bonguela, ben-gaylah. Benicia, be-nish'e-ah. Benin, ben-een'. Benisouef, ben-c-swef . Benjarmassin, ben-y ar-mah s-sin'. Ben MacDhui, ben mak-doo'e. Ben Ne'vis. Bergen (U.S.), ber'ghen. Bergen (Norway), bftrg'en. Berlin. Bermudas, ber-moo'ro. century.) crab." As tbo crab moves in a back- Chelmsford, chemz'fQrd. Cot6 d'Or, kote-dore'. Ecija, ay'the-hah. Francois, froNQ-swah'. ward direction, so the sun, when ho Cheltenham, c belt' nam. Cotopaxi, ko-to-pax'e. Ecuador, ek-wab-dore' ("Equator." So Frankfort, frank'furt reaches this tropic, moves in a back- Chemnitz, kem'mts. Coudersport, kow'ders-pOrt. named from its situation, being inter- Fresnillo, fres-neel'yo. ward direction, towards Capricorn.) Cher, shair. Covington kuv'ingtbn. sected through its whole length by Frigid, frij'Id. (From frigus, "cold." Candahar, Jta bn-dah-har / . Cheraw, che-raw 7 . Coxsackie. koOk-sawTse. the equinoctial line.) This name is given to two of the Can'dia Cherbourg, sher'barg. Cozumel, ko-zoo-mel'. Edinburgh, ed'in-bur-rbh. (Name sup- zones,— North and South Frigid.) Canea, kah-ne'ah. Chesapeake, ches'a-peek. Cracow, kray'ko. posed to be derived from Edwin, a Frijol, fre-hol'. Cantabrian, kan-tay'bre-an. Chesuncook, che-sunTtook. Creuse, kruz. king of Northumberland.) Fronteras, fron-tay'rahs. Canton (U.S) Chetunal, cbay-too-nubl'. Croux, kruh. Ed'isto. Fuerteventura, fw6r / tay-vcn-too'rab. Canton (China), kan-ton'. Cheviot, chiv'e-ot. Crimea, krim-e'ah. Egina, e-ji'nah. Fundy, fun'de. Cape. (From hat. caput, & "head," or Cheyenne, she-en' Cronstadt,kron'staht. ("King's town.") Egypt* e'jipt. Funen, foo'nen. " beginning.") Chicago, she-kaw'go. Cuba, ku'hah Eider, I'der. FQnfkirchcn, feenrk65r-ken. Cape Breton, kape brit't'n. Chichester, chitch'es-ter. Cuenca, kwen'kah. Ekaterinburg, ay-kah'tay-reen-boorg. Cap'ricorn. ("Ooat'shorn." The name Chihuahua, che-wah'wah. Cumana, koo-mah-nah'. Elba, clOjah. G. given to the southern tropic As Chili, chil'lo. Curaora7.o, chiin-bo-rah'zo. Cuzco, koosTto. Elgin, el'ghin. Galatz, gah'lahts. Cancer. Both Cancer and Capricorn China, chi'nah. (Chinese, Chon-koo, Cyclae. Darien, day're-en. Euphrates, yoo-fray'teez. ("To make Genii, hay-ncel'. Cobija, ko-bo'hah. / Darmstadt, darm'staht. glad." This river, like the Nile, an- Genoa, jen'o-ah. Coblentz. Cockburn, ko'burn. Debretzin, day-bret'sin. Dec'can. (" The Boutb." Tt forms the nually overflows its bankts, thereby fertilizing the adjacent country.) Georgia, jor'je-ab. Geral, zhay-rabl'. Coepang, koo-pahng'. southern portion of tho peninsula of Europe, yoo'rbp. Germany, jer'mah-ne. (Lat. Germania Castine, kas-teen'. Coimbra, ko-eem'brah. Hindostan.) European, yoo-rc-po'an. " Wehrman," i.e. " war-man," wai Catahoula, kat-a-hoolah. Colima, ko-le'mah. Decierta, day-se-air'tab. Eutaw, yoo'taw. changed by the RomansintoGcrman: Catania, kah-tah'uo-ah. Cologne, ko-lown'. (From colonia, a Delaware, del'a-wDr. Evansville, iv'anz-vil. hence the name of Germany.) Catoche, kah-to'chay. CatsTdll. Cattaro, kaht'tah-ro. Cattegut, kat'te-gat. (" Cat's gate.") Cauca, kOwTtah. " colony.") Colorado, kol-o-rah'do. (" Colorerd") Comayagua, ko-nu-ah'gwah. Co'mo. Delgado, dcl-gah'do. Delhi, delle. Denbigh, denlie. Den'mark. (A "low country.") Evora, ev'o-rah. Evreux, ev-ruh'. Eylau, HOW. Ghauts, gawts. (Ghaut signifies > " mountain-pass.") Ghent, ghent. Gibraltar, je-brawl'ter. (In the eighth Comonur, ko-mo-noor'. Derne, der'n6h. century, Tarif, with an army of Sa Caucasus, kaw'ka-sus. (" White moun- tain.") Cav'an. Com'orin. Desaguadero, d6s-ah-gwah-fAay'ro. Falkirk, fawl-kirk'. racens, landed here and built a castlf Concepcion, kon-sep-se-Ow^'. Concord, kongTturd. Conecuh, ko-noTc&h. D«s Moines, de-moin'. Detroit, de-troit'. (A "strait.") Falkland, fawk'land. Falmouth, fal'inbth. on the rock, which was called Gib-e?- Tarif, — i.c. the Mountain of Taril, Caxias, kah-ehe'ahs. Diamantina, di>-ah-niabn-te'nah. Falster, fabl'ster. whence the present name.) Caxim'bas. Conesus, ko-ne'sus. Diarbekir, de-ar-bay-keer 7 . Farallones, ftih-rahl-yo'nfit- Gila, he'Iah. Caycos, kTTcoco. Cayenne, ki-en'. Cayman, kl-mahn'. ("Alligator.") Cayos, kl'oce. Congaree, kong-ga-re'. Congo, kong'go. Conhocton, kon-hok'tun. Conneautville, kon-ne-awt'vil. Dieppe, de-ep'. Digne, deeii. Dijon, de-zhONo'. Dinaric, de-nar'ik. Faribault, far-e-bo'. Faro, fah'ro. Faroe, fah'ro. Fayetteville, fay'et-vil. Gilolo,je-lo'lo. Girardeau, je-rnr-do'. Girgeh, jeer'jeh. Gironde, je-rond'. Cayuga, kay-yoo'gah. C. di Leuca, de-lay'oo-kah. Connecticut, kon-net'e-kut. Constantinople, kon-stan-te-no-p'l Dnieper, ne'per. Dniester, neets'ter. Dominica, dom-e-neTtah. Fee'jee. Fcrnandina, fer-nan-de'nah. Ferrol, fer-role 7 . Glasgow, glas'go. Glogau, glo'gOw. Gloucester, glos'ter. Celano, chay-lah'no. Celebes, sel'e-bes. Centoce, sen-to'say. (" City of Constantino.") Constitucion, kon-ste-too-BC-Own'. Continent, kon'te-nent. (From the Dongola, dong'go-lah. Dordogne, dor-down\ Dornoch, dor'nok. Fezzan, fez-zahn'. Finisterre, fin-is-tair'. (" Land's end.") Fittre, fit'tray. Glfickstadt, gleek'staht. Goa, go'ah. Gobi, gd'be. Cepbalonia, sef-ah-lo'ne-ah. Ceram, se-rabra'. Coredo, sc-re'do. Cerigo, cheVe-go. Co t to, set. Cottigne, chet-teer ''.*ay. Ceuta, soo'tah. Cevennes, say-vac . Ceylon, selon, or ne-lown' Latin word contineo, to "hold to- gether, to comprise," Ac. This word, Douro, doo'ro. Dovrefield, do'vreh-fe-eld. (From dovre, Fiume, fe-oo'may. Flandreau, fian-dro'. Godavery, go-dah'ver-©. Goliad, go-le-ad'. in Geography, signifies a vast extent of land comprising several king- a "village," and field, a "mountain- ridge.") Flensburg, flens'bOOrg. Florence, fldVonss. (From Hora, Gonaives, go-nive 7 . Gon'dar. doms or countries. Europe, Asia, Africa, and America are continents.) Con'toocook. Draakberg, dralikTifirg. Draguignan, drah-gbeen-yoso'. Drave, drahv. " goddess of flowers.") Florida (U.S.), flor'e-dah. (Named from the day [Easter Sunday] on which it Go'sben. Gotha, go'tah. Gottenburg, got'en-burg. Copenhagen, ko-pen-bay'gben. ("Buy- ing or trading port,") Dres'den. 1 Dubuque, doo-bOok'. was discovered. Tho Spaniards call that day " Puscua Florida.") GUttingeu, get'ting-en. Gouverneur, goov-er-noor / . * PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. 101 Gozo, got'zo. the Hindoos." Hindoo also signifies ese Niphon. Nip signifies "origin," u cultivable land," to distinguish it Llanos, l'yah'noce. {Llanos, "plains." Graciaa a Dios, grah'se-uhs ah de'oce. "black," and start, "country," — i.c. and jnm, u sun :" — i.e. " origin of tho from Greenland.) A term applied to the extensive (" Thanks to God.") Grampians, gram'pe-anz. the "country of the blacks," the Hin- sun," — the east.) Labium, lah-boo-ahn'. plains of South America, — the samo doos being darker than the Persians. Jaroslav, yah-ro-slahv'. Laccadive, lahk'ka-iliv. as prairies in North America or Granada, grah-nah'dah. It may be derived from Indus, a Jassy, yahs'se. Lachlan, lak'lan. steppes in Rnssia.) Greece, grccss. " river.") Java, jah'vah. La Crosse, lah-krosB / . Llerena, l'yay-ray'nah. Green 'land. Hoang-Ho, ho-ahng-ho'. (" Yellow Javary, hah-vah-re'. Ladoga, lahd'o-gah. Loaugo, lo-ang'go. Greenwich (U.S.), grcen'ieh. river.") Jeeudana, joen-dah'nah. Ladrone, lah-droue'. (Called also tho Lobos, lo'boce. Grecnwich (Eng.), grin'ij. Hobartou, hob'er-tun. Jeremie, zhay-ray-me'. Mariana Islands. These were dis- Loffo'den. Grenada, greu-ay'dah, or grcn-ah'dah. UoKlaud. (" Muddy or marshy land." Jersey, jcr'ze. covered in 1521, by Magellan, and Logrofio, lo-grone'yo. Grenoble, gren-obV. Originally OUant. A large portion of Jesso, yes'so. called Las Mas de lot Ladronex, — t\e. Loire, lwahr. Grin'ucll. Holland lies below the level of the Jeypore, jl-poor'. "the islands of the thieves." They Lombardy, lom'bar-de. (Lombardy Groningen, gron'ing-en. sea: hence the name Netherlands.) Jijiginsk, je-je-ghinsk\ were named also the Mariana Islands, derives its namo from the Longobardi, Grosswardein, groco-wahrMine. Ilolstein, hol'stlno. Jiloco, he-lo'ko. in honor of the queen of Philip IV. a people of German extraction, who Guadalaviar, gwah-dah-lah-ve-ar'. Holston, hole'stun. Joannes, zho-ahn'nfia. of Spain.) established themselves here in tho Guadalaxara, gwah-dah-lah-hah'rah. Holyhead, hol'e-hed. Joliet, jo'le-et. La Fayette, laf-ay-yet'. Bixth century.) Guadalquivir, gaw-dal-kwiv'er. (The Holyoke, hol'yoko. Joliette, zhol-le-et'. Lagos, lah'goce. Lomond, lo'mhnd. "great river.") Honduras, hon-doo'rahs. Jor'dan. La Guayra, lah-gwl'rah. London, lun'dun. Guadalupe, gwah-dah-loo'pay. Hongkong'. (" Sweet waters.") Jorullo, ho-rool'yo. Lahaina, lah-hl'nah. Lorca, lorTtah. Guadeloupe, gaw-deh-loop'. Honolulu, hon-o-looloo. Ju'an do Fu'ca. Lahsa, lah'sah. Lob Angeles, luce an'jch-lez. Guadiana, gwah-de-ah'nah. Hoogly, hoog'l©. Ju'an Fcrnan'dez. Lamoille, lah-moil'. Los Roquos, loce ro'kfis. Guanaliaui, gwah-uah-hah'nc. Houghton, ho'tQn. J uba, zhoo'bah. Lamurek, lah-moo-rek'. Louisiade, loo-e-ze-ahd'. Guanaxuato, gwah-nah-hwah'to. Houlton, hole'tun. Jujuy, hoo-hwee'. Lancaster, lank'a-ster. Louisiana, loo-c-ze-ah'nah. Guardafui, gwahr-dah-fwe'. Housatonic, hoo-sa-ton'ik. Juniata, joo-ne-ah'tah. Landes, loNd. Louisville, loo'is-vil. Guardia, gwahr'de-ah. HouBsa, hOw'sah. Jura, joo'rah. Langanaes, lahng'ah-ness. Louvain, loo-vayn'. Guatemala, gaw-to-mah'lah, or gwah- Houston, hQ'stun. Jurua, hoo-roo'ah, or zhoo-roo'ah. Laon, hih-uN'/. Lowell, lo'el. tay-mah'lah. Huallaga, wahl-yah'gah. Jutay, boo-tl', or zhoo-tl'. Laos, lah'oce. Lubeck, looTjck. Guaviare, gwah-vc-ah'ray. Huamanga, wah-mahng'gah. Jut'land. La Paz, lah-pahs'. Lucca, luk'kah. Guayama, gwf-ah'mah. Hue, hway, or hoo-ay'. K. Kngosima, kah-go-se'mah, Kairwan, klr-wahn'. Kalahari, kah-lah-hah're, Kalamazoo, kal-a-ma-zoo'. Kamtschatka, kahm-chaht'kah. Kanawha, ka-naw'wah. La Plata, lah plah'tah. ("Silver." Lucerne, loo-sern'. Guayaquil, gwi-ah-keel'. Huesca, wes'kah. Kio de la Plata, "river of silver.") Lucknow, luk'nOw. Guaymas, gwl'mahs. Hungary, hung'ga-re. (Name derived Lap'land. (" Country of tho Lapps.") Luneburg, loo'nfih-burg. Guernsey, gheru'ze. Guiana, ghe-ah'nah. Guinea, ghin'ne. Guyandotte, ghi-an-dot'. from tho "Htinni," or "Huns," who took possession of this country to- wards the close of the fourth century.) Huron, hu'run. Hyderabad, hi-der-ah-bahd'. Laramie, lar'a-mo. Laredo, hth-ray'do. Larissa, lah-ris'sah. ("New town") La Rochelle, lah ro-shel'. Lassa, lahs'sah. (" Land of the divine Lux'emburg. Luzon, loo-zono'. Lyons, li'hnz. M. H. ITaarlem, har'lem. i. Kankakee, kan-kaw'ko. Kansas, kan'zas. (" Smoky water.") Kara kah'rah. intelligence." Tho grand temple of Buddha, with its gilded dome, is here; Maas, mahs. Macao, mah-kOw'. Hadramaut, hah-drah-mOwt'. Ibraila, o-brl'Iah. Kaskaskia kas-kis'ke-ah. also, the residenco of tho Grand Macassar, mah-kahs'sar. Hague, haig. (" Count's wood.") Ice'land. Katahdin, ka-tah'din. Lama.) Machias, mat*chi'as. Hainan, hi-nahn'. (" South of tho Idalio, i'da-ho. Kazan, kah-zahu'. Lat'itude. (From latitudo, "breadth." Mackenzie, mak-ken'ze. sea.") Hakodadi, hah-ko-dah'do. Ilheos, ecl-yay'oce. Hi, e'le. Kearsarge, keer'sarj. Kelat, ke-laht'. Tho ancients believed that the globe was a fiat plain, and much longer Mackinaw, mak'e-naw. Macon (U.S.), may'kun. Halifax, hal'e-fax. Illimani, eel-ye-mah'ne. Konia, ke'no-ah. from east to west than from north to Macquarrie, mak-kwOr'ro. Halle, hal'16h. Illinois, il-lin-oyz', or il-lin-oy'. K e n ' h e bee. south: consequently they called dis- Madagascar, mad-a-gas'kar. Ham'burg. India, in'de-ah. Kenosha, ken-o'shah. tanco from north to south latitude, Madawaska, mad-a-wos'kah. Ilam'merfest. Indiana, in-de-an'ah. Kentucky, ken-tuk'e. as they called distance from east Madeira, mah-de'rah. (Madeira signi- Han'oTer. Indianapolis, in-de-a-nap'o-lla. Keokuk, ko'o-kuk. to west longitude, — from longitudo, fies, in Portuguese/' timber." These Harrisburg, har'ris-bnrg. Indianola. Kermadec, ker-mah-dek'. " length.") islands wcro so named on account Hatch'ee. Indighirka, in-de-ghlr'kah. Keweena, ke-we'nah. Lauenburg, lOw'cn-boorg. of their magnificent forests. The Ma- Hattcras, hat'er-ass. Iuhambane, oen-ahm-bahn'. Khartoom, kar-toom'. Lausanne, lo-zahn'. deira River flows through a densely- Havana, ha-van'ah. Innspruck, ins'prdok. (" Bridge of tho Klungan, kin-gahn'. Khiva, ke'vah. Laybaeh, li'bahk. wooded region.) Haverhill, hay'ver-il. Inn.") Lazaro, lah'zah-ro. Madeira (River), mah-day'rah. Havre, hahv'r. (A "harbor," or Inverness'. Khokan, ko-kahn'. Leavenworth, lev'en-wurth. Madras, ma-drass'. " haven.") Ionian, i-o'ne-an. Kiel, keel. Lech, lek. Madrid, mah-drid'. Havre do Grace, hahv'r-deh-grahss'. Iowa, i'o-wah. Kiev, ke-ev'. Lecomp'ton. Maelstrom, mayl'strum. (A " mill- (" Haven of grace.") Iquique, e-ko'kay. Kilimandjaro, kil-e-mahn-jah-ro'. Leghorn, leg-horn'. stream.") Hawaii, hah-wi'e. Iran, e-rahn'. Killarney, kil-lar'nc. Lch, lay. Maesc, mah'seh. Hayti, hay'te. (" Mountainous.") Ireland, Ir'land. Kingkitao, king-ke-tah'o. Leicester, les'ter. Maestricht, mahs'trikt. Haytien, hay'te-en. Irkoutsk, ir-kootak'. Kiolen, ke-ti'len. Leipsic, llp'sik. Magadoxa, mng-ah-dox'ah. Hebrides, heb'rid-cez. Irrawaddy, Ir-rah-wod'de. (" Great Kirghis, klr-ghocz'. Kittan'uing. Kiusiu, ke-oo-se-oo'. Leiria, lay-re'ah. Magdalena, mag-da-le'nah, or mabg- Hecla, hek'lah. river.") Leith, lecth. dah-lay'nah. Hejaz, hed-jahz'. Irtish, ir-tish'. Lo Mans, leh-moNQ'. Magellan, mah-jel'lan. Helena, hel-e'nah. Iser, e'zer. Klagcnftirth, klah'ghen-foort. Lena,le'nah. (A"sluggard :" sonamed Maggiore, mahd-jo'ray. (Logo Maggiore, Heligoland, hel'e-go-lahud. (" Holy Isere, e-zair / . Klausenburg, kl5w 'zeu-bdurg. (" Castle of the defile.") on account of its sluggish courso.) " large lake.") land.") iBlay (Hebrides), ilay. Lepanto, le-pan'to. Maimatchin, nn-mah-choen'. HeHas. Isle, eel. Kodiak, ko'de-ahk. Lerida, lcVc-dah. Main, mayn. Hemisphere, hcm'is-feer. (From the Isolette, o-so-let'. Kolima, ko-le'mah. Lcv'en. Majorca, mah-jor'kah. (Majorca and Qreek, signifying "half a sphere or Ispahan, is-pa-hahn'. Konieh, ko'ne-eh. Lew Chew, loo-choo'. Minorca were anciently named Gym- globe," when it is supposed to be cut Italy, it'a-le. Koniggratz, ken'ig-grcts. Liberia, li-bo're-ah. (From Lat. libera, nastic. The epithet major, tho through its centre in the plane of one Itasca, I-tasTtah. Kiinigsberg, ken'igz-berg. (" King's " free.") " greater," was given to one, while of its greatest circles.) Ithaca, ith'a-kah. town.") Kordofan, kor-do-fahn'. Lichtenfcls, lik'ten-fels. that of minor, tho " less," was applied Henlo'pen. Ivi;a, e-ve'sah. Liege, leej,or lo-aizh'. to the other.) Herat, her-aht'. Lttaccihuatl.ees-tahk-se-whahfl'. (Tho Kouka, koo'kah. Lievely, leevlo. Malabar, mal-a-bar'. Hereford, herVfQrd. " white lady.") Kuen-Lun, kwon-loon'. Liim Fiord, lcem-fe-ord'. Malacca, ma-lak'kah. Hermaustadt, her'mahn-staht. j. Kurile, koo'ril. (Derived from kooroo Lille, leel. Malaga, mal'a-gah. Hortbcrg, hert'berg. miLsi, — i.e. tho "road of sea-weeds." Lima, le'mah. Malaysia, mah-lay'she-ah. Hesse-Cassel, hess-kas'sel. Jacmel, zhahk-mel'. Kooroo signifies " sea-weed.") Kurrachec, kur-rah-cho'. Limoges, le-mOzh'. Maldive, mal'dive. (" Thousand isles.") II esse- Darmstadt, hess-darm'staht. Jaen, hah-en'. Lincoln, link'Qn. Malta, mawl'tah. Hesse-Homburg, hess-hoiu'burg. Jalapa, hah-lah'pah. (Tho medicinal Kwieh'pak. Kyachta, ke-ahk'tah. Linnhe, lin'uo. Mamoro, mah-mo-ray'. Hiawassee, hi-ah-wos'so. herb jalap owes its name to this Lipari, lip'ah-re. Manaar, mah-nar'. Hieres, he-air / . town.) Lippe, lip'pe-h. Manhcim, man'hime. Himalaya, him-ah-K'ah. ("Abode of Jalon, hah-lone / . L. Lisbon, liz'bQn, Manilla, ma-nil'lah. snow.") Jamaica, ja-may'kah. Laaland, lah'lahnd. Liv'erpool. Manitoulinc, man-e-too-leen'. Hin'doo-Koosh'. Janina, yahn'ne-nah. Labrador, lab-ra-doV. (Labrador signi- LlandafT, lan-daff*. Manitowoc, man-e-to-wok'. IIiudoostan,hin-doo-«tan'. (In Persian, Jan Maycn. yahn-ml'en. fies a "husbandman," or "farmer." Llano Estacado, 1'yah'no cs-tah-kah'do. Mantchooria, maut-choo're-ah. this term signifies tho "country of Japan, jah-pan'. (Called by the Japan- This land was called U:rra labrador, (" Staked plaiu.") Mantua, man'tu-ah. 102 PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. Maracaybo, mah-rah-klTx). Maracayu, mah-rah-ki-oo'. Maramec, meVre-mak. Maranham, mar-an-ham'. Margarita, mar-gah-rc'tah. (A " pearl." Pearls were formerly found in great quantities on the coasts of this island.) Marie Galante, mah-re' gab-lost'. Marmora, mar'mo-rah. (" Marble." One of the islands of this sea has long been celebrated for its marble- quarries.) Marne, marn. Marquesas, mar-kay'sahs. Marquette, mar-ket'. Marsala, mar-Bah'lah. Marseilles, mar-say Iz'. Martaban, mar-tab -ban'. Martinique, mar-tin-eek'. Maryland, may're-Iand. Mascarenhas, mahs-kah-ren'yahs. Massachusetts, mas-sa-choo'scts. (So named after Massasoit, an Indian chief.) Masulipatam, mah-soo-le-pah-tahni'. Matagorda, mat-a-gorMah. Matamoras, mat-a-mo'ras. Matunzas, mah-tan'zahs. Matapan, mah-tah-pahn'. Matsmai, mabts-ral'. Mattapony, mat-ta-po'ne. Mattawamkcag, mat-ta-wom'keg. Mauch Chunk, mawk-chunk'. Maui, mflw'e. Maumee, maw-rac'. Mauna Kea, muw'nuh kay'ah. Mauritius, maw-rish'e-us. Mayenne, mi-en'. Mazatlan, mahz-at-Iahn'. Mecca, mek'kah. Mechlin, meklin. Medina, me-de'nah. ("The City.") Mediterranean, med-e-tor-ray'ne-an. (" Midland.") Meinam, may-e-nahm'. ("Mother of waters.") Mciningen, ual'ning-on. Melbourne, mcl'burn. Mom'el. Mcmpbremagog, mem-fro-may'gog. Mcnai, men'I. Menan'. Mende, moxd. Menomonee, mc-nom'o-no. Meqtiincz, mek'e-nez. Merida, me^e-dan. Mermenteau, mer-men-to'. Merrimack, meVre-mak. Merthyr Tydvil, mer'thir tid'vil. Messina, raes-se'nah. Mesurado, nies-oo-rah'do. MetZ, Juris. Meuse, muze. Mexico, mex'e-ko. Miaco, me-ah'ko. (" Capital residence.") Miami, mi-ah'me. Michigan, mish'e-gan. Middlebourne, mid'd'1-burn. Mil'an. Milledgeville, mil'lej-vil. Millinoket, mil-le-no'ket Milt-in. milt-seen'. Milwaukee, mil-waw'ke. Minatitlan, niin-ah-tit-lahn'. Mindanao, min-dah-nah'o. Minbo, meen'yo. Minneapolis, min-ne-ap'o-Jt*. Minnesota, min-ne-so'tab. Minni Wakan, min'iio waw-kahn'. Minorca, inin-or'kah. Mi not, me-not'. Miqnclon, mik-gh-lon'. MiramiclU, mlr-a-me-sho'. Miraprovos, me-rah-pru'voce. Mirim, me-reeNo'. Mississippi, mis-«is-Bip'pe. (•* Father of waters.") Missisqne, mis-eisTiwe. Missolonghi, mis-o-Iong'ghe. Missouri, mis-soo're. (" Smoky water," or " mud river.") Mistissiuny, mis-tis-6in'ne. Mityleno, mit-c-lo'no. Mobile, mo-beel'. Mocambe, mo-kahm'bay. Mocha, mo'kah. Modena, mod'en-ah. Mogadore, mog-ab-dore'. Mohave, ruo-hayv'. Mo'hawk. MohileT, mo-he'Iev. Moldau, niol'duw. Molda'via. Molokai, mo-lo-kl'. Molucca, mo-luk'kah. Moinbas, mom-bahs'. Monaco, mon'ah-ko. Monad'nock. Monclova, mon-klo'vah. Mondego, inon-day'go. Mongolia, mon-go'le-ah. Monongabela, mo-non-ga-hc / lah. Monrovia, mon-ro've-ah. Montana, mon-tah'nah. Montauban, moNO-to-boNQ'. Montauk, mon-tawk'. Mont Blanc, moxa-bloira'. ("White mountain.") Monte Christo, mon'tay kris'to. Montenegro, mon-tay-nay'gro. (" Black mountain.") Monterey, mon-tay-ray'. (" King's mountain.") Monteverde, mon-tay-v6r'day. Montevideo, mon-to-vid'e-o. (" Mount prospect.") Montgomery, mont-gum'er-e. Montmorenci, mont-mo-ren'se, Montpelier, mont-peel'yer. Montpellicr, mont-pel'le-er, or m5NQ- pel-le-ay'. Montreal, mon-tre-awl'. (" Royal mount.") Montserrat, mont-ser-raht'. Moquegua, nio-kay'gwah. Morant, mo-rant'. Morava, mo-rah'vah. Moroa, mo-ro'ah. (So called from the word mo-re, a " mulberry-tree," from the quantities of those trees it pro- duces, or because its shape resembles that of a mulberry-leaf.) Moreau, mo-rC. Morelia, mo-rayle-ah. Morella, nio-rel'yah. Morlaix, nior-lay'. Morocco, mo-rok'ko. (" Farthest west.") Morro Hcrmoso, mor'ro 6r-mo'so. Moscow, mos'ko. Moselle, mo-zel'. Mossamedes, mos-sah-may'des. Mo'sul. Moulins, moo-laxo'. Mourzouk, inoor-zook'. Mozambique, mo-zam-boek', Muhr, moor. Mulahacen, moo-lah-ah-then'» Mulas, moo 'labs. Mtilhauscn, meel'hfiw-zen, Munich, mu'nik. Munkacz, inoon-kahtch'. Minister, meen'ster. Murcia, mur'she-ah. Muscat, mus-kat'. Muscatine, mus-ka-toen'. Muske'gon. Muskingum, mus-king'gum. N. . Nacogdoches, nak-o-do'chlz. Nagasaki, nah-gah-sah'ke. Namaqua, nah-inah'kwah. Namur, nay'niur. Nancv. uau'se. Nankin, nan-kin'. ("Southern capital.") Nanling 7 . ("Southern mountain- chain.") Nantes, nants. Nantuck'et. Nao, nc.Vo. Naples, nay'p'lz. (" New city.") Napoli (Groece), nah'po-le. Narbonne, nar-bon'. Narew, nah'rev. Narragansett, nar-ra-gan'set. Narraguagus, nar-ra-gway'gus. Nashua, nash'yoo-ah. Nashville, nash'viL Nassau, nas'saw. Natal, nah-tahl'. (So named by Vasco da Gama, because he discovered this coast on Christmas day [the day of the Nativity].) Natchez, natch'iz. Natchitoches, natch-c-totch'iz ; often pronounced nak-e-tush'. Nauta, now'tiih. Navarino, nah-vah-re'no. Naxia, nahx-e'ah. Nebraska, ne-bras'kah. (" Flat water.") Neches, netch'iz, Neck'ar. Neembucu, n*yay-om-boo-koo / , Negril, ne-gril'. Negrilo, nay-grelo. Negropont, nay'gro-pont Neilgberry, ncel-gh&r're, Neisse, ni'suh. Nejed, ned'jed. Neosho, no-o'sho. Nepaul, ne-pawl'. Nerbuddah, ner-bud'dah. Nertschinsk, nSr-chinsk'. Neufchatel, nush-ah-tel'. Neuse, nuce. Nevada, ne-vab'dah. Nevers, nfih-vair'. Newark, nu'ark. Nowburyport, nu'ber-re-port Newfoundland, nu'fund-land. New Granada, nu grah-nah'dah. New Orleans, nu or'le-unz. New West'minster. New Zealand, nu ze'land. Ngami, n'gah'me. Niagara, ni-ag'a-rah. (" Thunder of waters.") Nicaragua, nik-ah-rah'gwah, Nice, neess. Nic'obar. Nicolaivsky, nik-o-Iive'ske. Nicoya, ne-ko'yah. Nicmen, ne'men. Niger (ni'jer,) or Quor'ra, or Jol'iba. (" The great dark river.") Nile. (So named from Ittlus, King of ThebcB.) Niobrara, ni-o-bray'rah. Niort, ne-or\ Nipe, ne'pay. Niphon, nif-on'. (The " east") Nisbnobatona, nish-nGh-ba-to'nah. Nismes, neem. Niznei Novgorod, nizb'ne nov-go-rod'. Noirmoutier, nwahr-moo-te-ay'. Norfolk, norTOk. Noric, noVik. • Nor' way. Norwich (U.S.), nor'witch, or nor*ritch. Norwich (Eng.), nor'ry. Nourse, noorss. Nova Scotia, no'vab sko'sbe-ah. (" New Scotland.") No'va Zem'bla. ("New land.") Nubia, noo'be-ah. Nueces, nway'ses. Nuevitas, nway-ve'tabs. Nunnivack, noon-ne-vahk'. Nuremberg, noo'rem-borg. Nyanza, n'yahn'zah. Nyassi, n'yahs'se. Oahu, wah'hoo. Oases, o'ah-sez. Oaxaca, wah-bah'kah. OTms. Obidos, o-be'doce. Ocean, o'shuu. (Derived from Occanus, a powerful deity of the sea, son of Ccelus and Terra. lie is generally re- presented as an old man, with a long flowing beard, sitting on the waves of the sea, with a pike in bis hand.) Ocean ica, o-she-an'e-kah. Ochotsk, o-kotsk'. Ocmulgee, ok-mul'ghe. Ocoa, o-ko'ah. Oconee, ok-o'ne. Odcnse, o'den-sSh. O'der. Odessa, o-des'sah. Oeiras, o-ay'e-rahs. Ogasima, o-gah-se'mah. Ogeechee, o-ghe'ebe. Ohi'o. (The " beautiful river.") Okechobee, o-ke-cho'be. Okefinokee, o-ke-fin-o'ke. Okinagon, o-ke-nab'gon. Ol'denburg. Olean, o-le-an'. Olenek, o-lay-nek'. Olmutz, oKmuts. Olot, o-lot'. Olviopol, ol-ve-o'pol. Olympus, o-lim'pus. Omaha, o'ma-haw. Omoa, o-mo'ah. Onega, o-ne'gah. Oneida, o-nl'dah. Oneonta, on-e-on'tah. Onondaga, on-on-daw'gah. Ontario, on-tay're-o. Ontonagon, on-ton-ah'gon. Oporto, o-por'to. (The "port") Oran, o-rahn'. Orchilla, or-cheel'yah. Oregon, Or'e-gon. Oronse, o-ren'say. Orihuela, o-re-waylah. Orinoco, o-re-no'ko. (The "coiled ser- pent") Oristano, o-ris-tah'no. Orizaba, o-re-sah'bah, Orkneys, ork'neez. Orleans, or'le-Gnz. (A corruption of Aureliani, its ancient name.) Or'mus. Ortegal, or-tay-gahl'. Osage, o-saij'. Osceola, os-se-olah. Osh'kosh. Oskaloo'Ba. Ossnna, os-soo'nah. Oswegatchie, os-we-gatch'o. Oswe'go. Otranto, o-trahn'to. Otse'go. Ottawa, ot'ta-wah, or ot'ta-way. Ourique, oo-re'kay. Ouro Prcto, oo'ro pray'to, Ouse, ooz. Oviedo, o-ve-ay'Mo. p. Pacific Ocean. (This name was given by Magellan, the first European who traversed it, in consequence of the mild weather he experienced while navigating its surface.) Padre, pah'dray. Padua, pabd'yoo-ah. Palawan, pah-lah-wahn'. Palombang, pah-lem-bahng 7 . Palermo. pah-IfiKmo. Palestine, p&l'es-tlne. (Supposed to be derived from Philistine, as the name was commonly applied to the land inhabited by the Israelites, including the country of the Philistines.) Palliser, pal'lia-er. Palma, pahl'mah. Palmyra, pal-mi'rah. Palos, pah'loce. Pamlico, pam'le-ko. Pampas, pahm'pahs. ("Treeless plains.") Pampeluna, pabm-pay-loo'nah. Pamunky, pa-mung'ke. Panama, pahn-ah-mah'. Pantellaria, pahn-tel-lah-re'ah. Papua, pah'poo-ah. (The inhabitant* received the name of papuas from the Malays, in whose languago it signifies " frizzled hair.".) Para, pab-rah'. Paragoona, par-a-goo'nah. Paraguay, pab-rah-gwt'. Parahyba, pab-rah- e'bah. Paraiba, pab-rah-e'bah. Paramaribo, par-a-mar'e-bo. Paramatta, par-a-mat'tah. Parana, pah-rah-nah'. Paranagua, pah-rah-nab-gwab'. Parime, pah-re'may. Paris, par'is. Parma, par'mah. Parnahyba, par-nah-e'bah. Parnaiba, par-nah-c'bah. Parnas'sus. Parras, par'rahs. Pascagoula, pas-ka-goolah. Passaic, pas-say'ik. Passamaquoddy, pas-sa-ma-kwod'de. Passaro, pahs'sah-ro. Passau, paliB'suw. Patagonia, pat-i-go'ne-ah. {Patagcn means, in Spanish, "a man with large feet." Magellan gave the in- habitants of tins country the namo ofPatagonians on account of the appa- rent large size of their feet, which, being wrapped in skins, seemed much larger than they really were.) Patapsco, pa-taps'ko. Pat'erson. Patras, pah-trahs'. Patuxent, pa-tux'ent. Pau, po.. Pawtuck'et. Payta, (ll'tah. Pecos, pay'koce. Pedee, pe-de'. Pegu, pe-goo'. Peipus, pay'e-pooco. Pekin, pe-kin'. (" Northern capital.'') Pelew, pe-loo'. Peling, pe-ling*. ("Northern moun- tain-cbain.'') Pembina, pem'be-nah. Pemigewasset, pciu-c-je-wos'sQt PeRas, pen'yahs. Pend Oreilles, poNd-o-rail'. Pennsylvania, pen-si l-vay'ne-ab. (" Penn's woodland.") Penob'scot. Pensacola, pcn-sa-kolah. Penzance, pen-zanss'. Peoria, pe-o're-ah. Pepin, pip'in. Perdido, per-de'do. Pere Marquette, pair mar-ket'. Perigueux, pay-re-gt'b/. Pernambuco, i)6r-nahm-boo'ko. Perouse, pe-rooz'. Perpignan, per-peen-yoxo'. Persia, pcr'she-ab. Peru, pe-roo'. Perugia, pay-roo'jah. Pescara, pes-kah'rah. Pesth, pest. Pe'tra. Petropanlovsky, pay-tro-p6w-lov'ske. Petrop'olis. Petrovitcb, pay'tro-vitch. PRONOUNCIxVG VOCABULARY. 103 Philadelphia, fil-a-dcl'fiwili. ("City of Bailee, sahl-lay'. Segura, aay-goo'rah. Sorel, Bo-rol'. brotherly love.") R. Salonica, sah-lo-ne'kah. Seine, sayn, or sen. Soria, so're-ah. Philippine, fiTIip-pin. Rabatt, rah-baht'. Saltillo, sal-tillo. Sena, say'nah. Soudan, soo-dan'. (licled-es- Somlaji, Philippopolis, fil-lip-pop'o-lis. Racine, rah-seen'. Saluda, sa-loo'dah. Seneca, sen'e-kah. "land of the blacks.") Phoenix, fe'nix. Radack, rah'dahk. Salwen, sahl-wen'. Senegal, sen-e-gawl'. Southampton, sutA-amp'tuu. Piacenza, pc-ah-chen'zah. Ragusa, rah-goo'sah. Salzburg, sahlts'boorg. Senegambia, sen-o-gam'be-ah. (Named Spa, spaw. Piacina, pe-ah-se'nah. Raleigh, rawle. Samara, sah-mah-rah'. from the two large rivers which flow Spartel, spar-tel'. Pichincha, pe-chin'chah. Ralick, rah'lik. Samarang, sah-mah -rating 7 . through the country, — viz., the Sene- Spezia, sped'ze-ah. Picolata, pik-o-lay'tah. Rangoon, rang-goon'. Samarcand, sah-mar-kahnd'. gal and the Gambia.) Spitzbergen, spits-berg'en. Piedmont, peed'mont. ("Foot of the Rapidan, rap-id-an'. Samos, say'mos. Sennaar, Ben-nar / . Spree, spray. mountain.") Rap pahan 'nock. Sana, sah-nah'. Senne, sen'nfih. Squillace, skwil-lah'chay. Pikomayo, pil-ko-mi'o. Raritan, rarVt&n. San Diego, sahn de-ay'go. Seres, seVesT Stanovoi, stah-no-voy'. Pinalena, pe-nah-lay'nah. Rat'isbon. Sandomierz, sahn-do'me-airzh. Sereth, Bay-ret'. Sta. Maria, sahn'tah mah-re'ah. Piqua, pik'wah, or pik'way. Ravenna, rah-ven'nah. Sandusky, san-dus'ke. Sergipe del Rey, sSr-zhe'pay del ray. St. Augustine, sent-aw-gus-teen\ Pisa, pe'zah. Reading, red'ing. Sandwich, sand'witch. Servia, ser've-ah. Staunton, stan'tun. Piscataqua, pis-kat'a-kway. Recife, ray-se'fay. San Felipe, sahn fe-le'pay. Sesheke, say-shay'kay. St. Bias, sent-blahs'. Piscataquis, pis-kat'a-kwis. Refnaes, ref 'ness. San Franc is'co. Severo VoBtochnoi, say-vay'ro vos-tok'- St. Croix, sent-kroy'. Pisuerga, pe-sweVgah. Reggio, red'jo. Sangamon, snn'ga-mon. noy. St. Domingo, sent-do-ming'go. Pittsburgh, pits'burg. Reikiavik, ri'ke-ah-vik, (" Steam- Sangar, salm-gar 7 . Sevier, sev-eer'. Steilacoom, sti-lah-koom'. Plaquemine, plak-mecn'. town.") San Joaquin, sahn ho-ah-keen'. Seville, sev'il, or se-vil'. St. Elias, sent-e-li'as. Plymouth, plim'&th. Rendsburg, rends'boOrg. San Jose, sahn ho-say'. •Seychelle, say-sheel'. St. Etienne, saift-ay-te-en'. Podesti, po-des'te. Rennes, ren. San Juan, sahn hoo-ahn'. Shanghai, shang-M'. Stettin, stet-teen'. Poitiers, poi-tecr//. Requeiia, ray-kayn'yah. San Juan Bautista, sahn hoo-ahn' bOw- Shan'non. Steubenville, stoo'ben-vil. Poland. (" Flat land.") Resen, ray'zen. tees'tah. Sheboy'gan. St. Genevieve, sent-jen-c-vcev'. Policastro, po-le-kahs'tro. Reus, ray'ooce. San Lucas, sahn looTiahs. Sheffield, Bhef'feeld. St. Helena, sent-hel-e'nah. Polynesia, pol-e-ne'she-ah. (" Many Rev'el. San Luis do Potosi, Balm loo'is day Shenandoah, shen-an-do'ah. St. Heliers, sent-hel'yers. * islands.") Revillagigedo, ray-vecl'yah-he-hay'do. po-to-se'. Shilluks, shil-lookB'. St. Lawrence, sent-law'renss. Ponce, pon'say. Rheims, reemz. San Marino, sahn mah-rc'no. Shiraz, she-rahz'. St. Lazaro, sent-Iah'zah-ro. Pondicherry, pon-de-shoVre. Rhine, rine. San Miguel, sahn me-ghel'. Shrewsbury, shroze'ber-re, or ehrooz'- St. Louis, sent-Ioo'is. Pongo, pong'go. Rhode Island, rodc-iland. San Saba, sahn sah'bah. ber-re. St. Main, sent mahlo. Pontchartrain, pon-shar-trayn'. Rhodes, rOdz, San Salvador, sahn sahl-vah-dore'. Shuia, shoo'yah. Stock'holm. Pontiac, pon'te-ak. Rhodope, rod'o-pe. (" Holy Saviour.") Shumla, shoom'lah. Stolpemiinde, stol'p8h-meei,-deh. Popayan, po-pi-ahn'. Rhone, rone. San Sebastian, sahn say-bahs-te-ahn'. Siberia, si-be're-ah. St. Pierre, saNQ pe-air 7 . Popocatapetl, po-po-kah-tah-petT. Ribe, re'bSh. Santa Cruz, sahn'tah krooss. ("Holy Sicily, sis'Bil-e. St. Quentiu, saNG koNG-taNo'. (^Smoking mountain,") Richelieu, re-sh5-lu'. cross.") Sierra, se-er'rah. (Sierraliterally means Strabane, stra-ban'. Porongos, po-ron-goce'. Rideau, re-do'. Santa Fe, sahn'tah fay. (" Holy faith.") a " saw," and is applied to a mountain- Stralsund, Btrahl'edotit. Portalegrc, por-tah-Iay'gray. Riga, re'gah. Santa Maura, sahn'tah niow'rah. range, becauso at a distance it pre- StrasTiurg. Port au Prince, port-o-prinss'. Rio del Norte, ro'o del nor'tay. Santander, san-tan'der, or sahn-tahn- sents a notched appearance like the Strelitz, Btraylitz. Port Mahon, port-ma-hown'. (" River of the north.") dair'. teeth of a saw.) Stromboli, strom'bo-Ie. Porto Imperial, por'to ecm-pay-re-alil'. Rio Grande, ro'o grahn'day. ("Great Santarem, sahn-tah-rexo'. Sierra Estrella, se-5r'rah es-trel'yah. St. Ubes, aent-yoobz'. Porto Itico, por/to re'ko. (" Rich har- river.") Santiago, sahn-te-ah'go. (" Saint Sierra Leone, se-eVrah le-o'no. (" Lion Stutt'gard. bor.") Rio Janeiro, rl'o ja-ne'ro. (Rio de James.") mountains.") Suaken, swah'ken. Porto Vecchio, por'to vek'ke-o. (" Old Janeiro, "river of January." The Santiago de Cuba, Bahn-te-ah'go day Sierra Madre, se-er'rah mali'dray. Suchil, soo-cheel'. harbor.") place having been discovered iu Janu- koo'bah. (" Mother mountains.") Sucre, Boo'kray. (Formerly Chuqui- Portsmouth, ports'muth. ary, this name was given afterwards Santorini, sahn-to-re'no. Sierra Morena, se-Sr'rah mo-ray'oah. saca, choo-ke-sah'kah .) Portugal, port'yoo-gal. both to the city and the river.) Sao Felipe de Benguela, sgwng fay-le'- (" Brown mountains.") Sudetic, soo-det'ik. Posen, po'zen. Rioja, re-o'hah. pay day ben-gay'lah. Sien-a Nevada, se-er'rah nay-vah'dah. Suez, soo'ez. Potomac, po-to'mak. Rio Negro, re'o nay'gro. (" Black Saone, sone. (" Snow mountains.") Suir, shoor. Potosi, po-to'se, or po-to-«e'. river.") Sao Joao, sOwNO zhiSwNG'. Sihon, se-hon'. Sumatra, soo-mah'trah. Poughkecpsio, po-kip'se. Roanoke, ro-an-oke'. Sao Paulo, sCwno powlo. Sikoke, se-koke'. Sumbawa, soom-baw'wah. Poultuey, polt'ne. Rochelle, ro-shel'. Saragossa, sah-rah-gos'sah. Silan, se-lahn'. Sumburgh, Bum'bur-ruh. Powhatan, puw-a-tan'. Rochester, rotch'es-ter. Saranac, sar-a-nak'. Silistria, sil-is'tre-ah. Sunda, sun'dah. Poyang, po yahng 7 . Romagna, ro-mahn'yah. Sarasu, sah-rah-soo'. Simferopol, sim-fer-o'pol. Surat, soo-raht'. Praga, prah'gah. Romania, ro-mah'ne-ah. Saratoga, sar-a-to'gah. Simoda, se-mo'dah. Susquehanna, sus-kwe-han'nah. Prague, praig. Romanos, romah'noce. Sarawak, sah-rah-wahk'. Sinai, si'nay, or si'oay-i. Sutlege, sut'lej. Prairie du Chien, pray're doo-sheen'. Rome. (Named from Romulus, its Sardinia, sar-din'yah. Sinaloa, sin-ah-lo'ah. Suwanee, soo-waw'ne. (" Dog meadow.") founder.) Saskatchawan, Bas-katch'a-w8n. Singapore, sing-gah-pore'. ("City of Swansea, swon'se. Pregel, pray'ghel. Roscom'mon. (" Swift current.") lions.") Swatow, swah-tuV. Pres'burg. Rotterdam. (Name derived from a Sassari, sahs'sah-ro. Siout, se-oot'. Swe'den. Presidio del Norte, pray-se'de-o del "dam of the Rotte," a little river Saugerties, sawg'or-teez. Sioux, soo. Swit'zerland. nor/tay. which runs through the city.) Saut de St. Marie, so dch sah\o mah-re'. Sisal, se-sahl'. Sydney, eid'ne. Presque Isle, presk-ecl'. (A "penin- Rouen, roo'en. Saut St. Marie, boo sent may're. Siwah, se'wah. Syra, se'rah. sula.") Roxo, roTio. Save, sahv. Skager Rack, ekah-gher-rahk'. Syracuse, elr'a-kuze. Primero, pre-may'ro. (" First.") Rugeri, re'ghen. Saxony, sax'o-ne. (" Crooked strait of Skagen.") Syria, sir're-ah. (From the Greek svna, Prip'et. Ruska Poyana, rusTiah po-yah'nah. Scandinavian, skan-de-nay've-an. Skowhegan, sko-he'gan. a contraction of Assuria,— i.«. the Privas, pre-vahs'. Russia, rush'yah. Scheldt, skelt, or sheld. Skyros, ske'ros. land of Assur, the son of Shcm.) Prussia, prush'yah. Schemnitz, shein'nits. Sles'wick. Szamos, sOh-raosh'. Puebla, pweb'lah. ("Town," or "vil- s. Schenectady, sken-ek'ta-de. SH'go. Szcgedin, seg'ed-in. lage?") Sabine, sah-been'. Schoodic, Bkoo'dik. Slout, sloot. Pueblo, pweb'lo. Sable, say'b'I. Scliuyler, skiler. Smolensk'. T. Puerto Principe, pwer'to preen'se-pay. Saco, saw'ko. Schuylkill, skoolTdl. (It is said that Smyrna, smir'nah. Tabasco, tah-bnhs'ko. (" Prince's port," or "chief gate.") Sacramento, sak-rah-men'to. the first explorers of the Delawaro Soconusco, Bo-ko-noos'ko. Tabreez, tah-breez'. Punjab'. SadHo, 6ah-ddwxa'. River passed the mouth of the Schuyl- Socorro, so-kor'ro. Tacazze, tah-kaht'say. (The " terrible •" Punta Arenas, poon'tah ah-ray'nahs. Saghalien, sah-gah-le'en. kill without observing it: hence its Socotra, sok'o-trah. from its numerous cataracts.) Pun'ssima, poo-rces'se-mah. Saginaw, Bag'e-naw. name, signifying "hidden creek.") Sofala, so-fahlah. (Supposed to be the Tafilelt, tah-fe-lelt'. Purus, poo'rooce. Sagua la Grande, sah'gwah lah grahn'- Schwerin, shway-reen'. "Ophir" of Scripture.) Tagus, tay'gus. Pyrenees, plr'eo-eez. day. Scio, she'o, or si'o. Sokoto, Bok-o-to 7 . Tahiti, tah-he'te. Q. Quebec, kwe-bok'. (The " narrows.") Saguenay, sahg-e-nay 7 . Scioto, si-o'to. Somaulie, so-mawle. Tahlequah, tahle-kwah. Sahara, sa-hay'rah. (A * desert.") Scituate, sit'yoo-ate. Sombrcrete, som-bray-ray'tay. Tai-yuen, ti-yoo*en'. Saigon, sl-gOwn'. Scotland. Sombrero, som-bray'ro. Talavera, tah-lah-vay'rah. Queretaro, kay-ray-tah'ro. Salado, sah-lah'do. (" Salt.") Scutari, skoo'tah-re. Somme, spm. Talcahuana, tahl-kah-wah'nah. Quesaltenango, kay-sahl-tay-nahn'go. Salamanca, sah-lah-mahngTcah. Searcy, scr'se. Songari, son-gah're. Talladega, tal-la-de'gah. Quiloa, ke'lo-ah. Salem. Sebas'ticook. Sonora, so-no'rah. Tallahassee, tal-la-has'se. Quimper, kaM-pair 7 . Salford, sawl'fttrd. Sebastopol, Beb-as-to'pol. Sooloo, soo-Ick/. Tallapoosa, tal-la-poo'sah. Quincy, kwin'se. 8aIina(U.S.), eft-li'nah. Secundo, eay-koon'do. (" Second.") Soongaria, Boon-gay're-ah. Tamatave, tah-mah-tah'vay. Quinnobaug, kwin-ne-bawg'. Salinas, sah-lo'nahs. Segovia, se-go've-uh. Sophia, so-fo'ah. Tamaulipas, tah-muw-Ie'pahs, Quito, ke'to. Salisbury, sawlz'ber-re. Segre, say'gray. Sorata, so-rah'tah. Tampico, tahm-pe'ko. 104 • PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. Tanaro, tah-nah'ro. Timbuctoo, tlm-buk'too. Tunguragua, toong-goo-rah'gwah. Victoria, vik-tOTe-ah. Winona, we-nc/nab. Tanganyika, tahn-gahn-yeTcab. Timor, te-more'. Tunis, too'nis. Vienna, ve-en'nah. Winooski, we-noos'ko. Tangier, tahn-jeer'. Timorlaut, te-mor-lowt'. Turin, too'rin. Vienne, ve-en'. Wiscon'sin. Taos, tah'oce. Tioga, ti-o'gah. Turkestan, toor-kes-tahn'. ("Country Vigo, ve'go. Wit' ten berg. Tapajos, tah-pah'zhoce* Tippecanoe, tip-pe-ka-noo'. of the Turks.") Vilaine, ve-layn'. Woolwich, wixil'ich, or w&6Tij. Tarauto, tah'rahn-to. Titicaca, te-te-kah'kah. Turkey, tur'ko. Villa del Fuerte, veel'yah del fwer'tay. Woonsocket, wuon-sok'et. Tarazona, tah-rah-tho'nah. Tobago, to-bah'go. Tuscaloosa, tus-ka-loo'sah. Villa Real, vil'lah ray-abl'. Worcester, woos'ter. Tarbe*, tarb. Tobiquo, to-beek'. Tuscany, tus'ka-ne. Villa Rica, vil'lah re'kah. Wot'cbish. Tarija, tah-re'hah. Tobolsk, to-bolsk'. Tuxpan, toos-pahn'. Vindbya, vind'yah. Wurtemberg, wur'tera-berg. Tarnopol, tar-no'pol. Tocantins, to-kahn-teens'. Tyrol, tlr'rol. Virgeues, veer-hay'ne* Wyoming, wi-o'ming. Tarragona, tar-rah-go'nah. Toledo, to-Ie'do. Virginia, vir-jin'e-ah. (So named in Tartary, tar'tah-re. Tolosa, to-lo'sah. u. honor of the maiden queen of Eng- X. Tasmania, taz-may'no-ah. Tombigby. tom-big'be. Uaupes, wOVpes. land, Elizabeth.) Xarayes, shah-ri'es. Taudeny, tOw-day-ne'. Tonawanda, ton-a-won'dah. Ubeda, oo-bay'^/iab. Visa, ve'sah. Xcnia, zeen'e-ah. Taunton, tan' tun. Tongoy, ton-go'e. TJcayale, oo-ki-ahlay. Visou, ve'say-oo. Xeres, hay-res'. Taurus, taw'rus. Tonquin, ton-keen'. Uist, wist. Vistula, vis'tu-lah. Xingu, shing-goo'. Tchad, cbabd. Tooele, too-ele. Ujein, oo-jane'. Viterbo, ve-UJr'bo. Xucar, hoo'kar. Tcberkasi, ch8r-kah'se. Topeka, to-peOtah. Umbagog, um-bay'gog. Viti Levu, ve'te lay'voo. Tchernigov, cher'ne-gov. Tormes, tor'mes. Umea, oo'may-o. Vitoria, ve-to're-ah. Y. Tchernowitz, cheVno-vitz. Toronto, to-ron'to. Umpqua, ump'kwah. Volcano, vol-kay'no. (Namo derived Yablonoi, yab-blo-noy'. (" Mountains Tchin-tou, chin-too'. Tor'rid. (Torrid, "hot," from torreo, Ungava, ung-gah'vah. from Vulcanut, " Vulcan," the god of of apples.") Tchoui, choo'e. to "roast." This torm is applied to Uniamesi, oo-ne-ah-may'se. fire. According to the ancients, his YadTsin. Tchoulkova, chool-ko'vah. one of tho zones, viz., that lying be- Upernavik, oo'per-uah-vik. forges wero under Mount Etna, as YakoutBk, yah-kootsk'. Teentsin, te-en-tseen'. tween the tropics, on account of the Up'sal. well as under every other burning Yang-tsc-Kiang, yahng-tse-kc-ahng'. Teheran, teh-hcr-ahn'. extreme heat which prevails here.) Ural, yoo'ral. mountain: hence the name.) ("Blue river." Called sometimes Tehuantcpec, tay-wabn-tay-pok'. Tortugas, tor-too'gaz. (So named from Urbana, ur-ban'nab. Volga, vol 'gab. Ta Kiang, — £* "great river,'— the Teify, tl've. the quantity of tortoises seen there. Ures, oo'rfis. Vosgcs, v5zb. largest river in China. It is called. Temesvar, tem-esh-var / . Tortuga means "tortoise.") Uros, oo'roce. poetically, the " Sou of tho sea.") Teneriffe, ten-er-if. Toulon, too-lo.VG'. Uruguay, oo-roo-gwl'. w. Yaqui, yah-ko'. Tennessee, ten-nes-so'. Toulouse, too-looz'. Ush'ant. Waag, wabg. Yarkand'. * Tepeleni, tay-pay-lay'ae. Tournay, toor-nay'. Utah, yoo'taw. Wabash, waw'bash. Yarmouth, yar'muth. Tepic, tay-peck'. Tours, toor. Utica, yoo'to-kah. Wabashaw, waw'bash-shaw. Yazoo, ya-zoo'. Terceira, ter-say'e-rah. (" Tliird.") Towanda, to-wfln'dah. Utrecht, yoo'trekt. Wabembe, wah-bem'bay. Yed'o. Terra del Fuego, ter'rah del fu-o'go. Trafalgar, traf-al-gar'. Utrera, oo-tray'rah. Wachusett, waw-choo'set. Yem'en. ('* Land of fire." This island was dis- Transylvania, tran-sil-vay'ne-ah. (This Waco, wayTto. Yenisei, yen-e-say'o. covered, in 1520, by Magellan, and so name was given by the Hungarians; V. Waday, wah'dl. Yeniseisk, yeu-e-Bay'isk. named by him on account of tho Transylvania signifying tho "country Vaigatch, vi-gatch'. Waimate, wi-mah'tay. Yonne, yon. number of fires bo saw along tho beyond tho woods," — i".e. the exten- Valdai, vahl'df. Wales, wailz. (Derived from Gallia, the Youcon, yoo-kOwn'. coast, which bo supposed to be tho sive woody mountains which sepa- Valdivia,vahl-de've-ah. (" Rich valley.") Welsh being considered a remnant of Youghall, yohTiil. eruptions of volcanoes.) rate this provinco from Hungary.) Valence, vah-luNSB'. the ancient Oauls.) Ypsilanti, ip-se-lan'te. Terra Nova, ter'rah uo'vah. (" New Trans Yaal, trahns-vahl'. Valencia, vah-len'she-ah. Wallachia, waw-lay'ke-ah. Yucatan, yoo-kah-tahn'. land.") Trebizond, treb'e-zoud. Valenciennes, vab-loNo-se-en'. Walloostook, wfil-loo-stook'. Yuma, yoo'mah. Terre Haute, tSr-reh-hote'. ("High Tremoli, trcm'o-lo. Valladolid, val-la-do-lid'. Walwisch, wuhl'vish. Yuthia, yoot'he-ah. land.") Tren'ton, Valparaiso, vahl-pah-ri'so. ("Valo of WapBipin'econ. Tetas, tay'tahs. Tres Colunas, tr6s-ko-loo'nahs- paradise.") War'saw. z. Tete, tay'tay. Tres Montes, tres-mon'tes. Valverdo, val-ver'de. Wartha, war'tah. Zacatccas, sah-kah-tay'kahs. Teulada, tay-oo-lah'dah. Treves, treevz. Vancouver, van-koo'ver. Wasatch, wah-sateh'. Zacatula, sah-kah-too'lah. Tex'as. Trieste, tro-est'. Vannes, vahn. Washington, wOsli'ing-tGn. Zaizan, zi-zahu'. Tex'el. Trinidad, trin-e-dad'. (" Trinity.") Vanua Levu, vah-noo'ah lay'voo. Washita, wosh'c-taw. Zambesi, zahm-bay'zo. Thames, temz. Tripoli, trip'o-le. ("Three cities." Vaudreuil, vo-drul'. Waukegan, waw-ko'gan. Zamora, sah-mo'rah. Thebes, theebz. Three largo towns formerly occupied Veile, vi'leh. Waukesha, wnw'ke-shaw. Zanguebar, zang-gay-bar'. Tbeiss, tice. tho site of tho present Tripoli.) Venango, ve-nang'go. Weimar, wi'mar. Zante, zahn'te. Thian-Sban, tc-abn-shahn'. ("Celestial Tripollzza, tre-po-lit'sah. Vendee, voso-day'. Wcner, way'ner. Zanzibar, zahn-zo-bar'. mountains.") Trop'ics. (Derived from the Greek Yenetia, ven-e'sbe-ah. Werchitz, wer'kits. Zara, zah'rah. Thibet, tib'et. (One of its native appella- trepd, " to turn," because the Bun in Venezuela, ven-ez-welah. (" Little Wc'ser. Zealand, ze'land. (" Sea-land.") tions signifies tho "snowy region of his annual course — the ecliptic — Venice." So called by the Spaniards Wetumpka, we-tumTiah. Zhehol, zhay-bol'. the north.") turns wheu be reaches the signs of because they found some Indian vil- Weymouth, way'mutb. Zone. (From tho Greek zone, a " girdle." Thibodeaux, tib-o-do'. Cancer and Capricorn. The term lages built on piles in Lake Mara- Wheel'ing. In Geography wo understand zone to Thorn, torn. "tropical" is applied to every thing caybo, reminding them of the modo Wieliczka, vVay-litchTtah. signify a division of tho earth : i.e. Thur, tur. produced indigenously within those of building in Venice.) Wiesbaden, weesTjah-den. the earth is said to be divided into Ti'ber. (This river was originally called two circles, or, in other words, within Venice, ven'iss. Wight, wite. five zones or portions, such as five Albula, from tho clearness of its the Torrid zone.) Vera Cruz, vay'rah krooss. (The " true Wilkesbarre, wilks'bar-ro. equally sized belts or girdles would waters, and afterwards Tiberis, from Troyes, trwah. cross.") Willamette, wil-Iah'met. completely encircle.) Tiberinus, King of Alba, who was Truxillo, troo-heel'yo. Verd (Cape). ("Green" cape.) Wil'mington. Zufli, zoon-ye\ drowned there.) Tsadda, t'sad'dah. Vermcjo, ver-may'ho. (" Vermilion.") Winneba'go. Zurich, zoo'rik. Tibesty, te-bes-to'. Tuaricks, too-ah-reeks'. Vermont'. (" Green mountains.") Winnebigoshlsh, win-ne-be-go'shish. Zutphen, zut'fen. Tiburon, te-boc-rtSwn'. Tuat, too-abt'. Veronah, vay-ro'nah. Win'nipeg. Zuyder Zee, zl-der-ze'. (" South sea." Ticino, to-che'no. Tubac, too-babk'. Versailles, Ver-saylz'. Winnipegoos, win-ne-pe-goose'. In contradistinction to the North Ticonderoga, ti-kon-de-ro'gah. Tucson, took-sone'. Vesoul, veh-zool\ Winnipiseogee, win-ne-pe-sok'e. Sea, with which it is connected.) Tiete, te-ay'tay. Tucuman, too-koo-mahn'. Vesuvius, ve-soo've-us. ("Beautiful lake among the high- Zwellendam, zwel-Ien-dabm'. Tiflis, or Teflis. Tula, too'lah. Vevay, ve-vay'. lands," or, " smile of the Great Zwolle, zwollfth. Ti'grij. Tule, too'lay. (A "bulrush.") Ylcks'burg. Spirit.") Zytomir, zbit-o-meer / . GEOGRAPHICAL AND STATISTICAL TABLES. DIMENSIONS OF THE EARTH. Miles. Polar Diameter » 7,899 Eqnatorial Diameter 7,925 Equatorial Circumference 24,899 SURFACE OF THE EARTH. The area of the entiro surface of the globe is estimated at nearly 200,000,000 square miles; of which, a little more than £■0,000,000 miles are land, und somewhat less than 150,000,000 are water. AREA OF THE LAND-SURFACE OF THE GLOBE. Square Miles. Eastern Continent - 31.000,000 Western Continent 13,750,000 Australia, Greenland, and other islands 5,250,000 Total 50,000,000 ASEAS OF THE PRINCIPAL ISLANDS. AMERICA. Square Miles. Greenland 720,000 Newfoundland 60,000 Cuba 36,000 Iceland 40,000 Hayti 29,000 Vancouver Island 13,500 Jamaica. 5,500 EUROPE. Great Britain 87,000 Ireland 32,000 Sicily 10,500 Sardinia 9,300 ASIA. Niphon 109,000 Jesso 62,000 Seghalien 47,000 Kiusiu 28,300 Ceylon 25,000 Sikoke 21,200 Formosa 15,000 AFRICA. Madagascar -... 225,000 OCEANICA. Australia 3,120,000 Borneo 300,000 Papua, or Now Guinea 260,000 Sumatra 150,000 New Zealand 95,000 Celebes 70,000 Luzon 56.600 Java 50,000 Mindanao 35,000 Tasmania 28,000 Ilawaii 4,000 AREA OF THE WATER- SURFACE OF THE EARTH. Square Miles. Pacific Ocean 83,000,000 Atlantic Ocean 30,000,000 Indian Ocean 21,000,000 Antarctic Ocean 13,000,000 Arctic Ocean 3,000,000 Total 150,000,000 ESTIMATED AREAS OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL LAKES. Square Miles. Caspian Sea 145,000 Sea of Aral 30,000 Lake Superior 31,500 Lake Michigan 23,150 Lake Huron 23,100 Lake Baikal _ 14,000 Great Slave Lake 11,800 Lake Erie - 7,800 Lako Ontario 6,900 Lake Winnipeg. 6,500 Lake Ladoga - 6,190 Lake Nicaragua 4,000 Lako Titfcaca 4,000 Great Salt Lako 1,873 HEIGHTS OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL MOUN- TAIN-PEAKS OF THE GLOBE. NORTH AMERICA. Feet Mount St. Elias, Russian America 17,860 Popocatepetl, Mexico 17,717 Mount Brown, Rocky Mountains 16,000 Sierra Nevada, California 15,500 Mount Hood, Oregon Territory. 14,000 Fremont's Peak, Hocky .Mountains 13,470 Long's Peak, Rocky Mountains 12,500 Pike's Peak, Itocky Mountains 12.000 Clingman's Peak, (highest land east of tho Mississippi) 6,940 Mount Mitchell, North Carolina 6,470 Mount Washington, White Mountains, New Hampshire 6,234 Mount Tahawus, or Marcy, New York 5,300 SOUTH AMERICA. Feet. Aconcagua, Chili 23,910 Chimborazo, Ecuador 21,420 Sorata, Bolivia 21,286 Itambe, Brazil 5,755 EUROPE. Elliniz, (highest of the Caucasus Mountains,) Russia 17,776 Mont Blanc, (highest of the Alps,) 15.668 Mount Malailetta, (highest of the Pyrenees,) 11,436 Mount Scardus, (highest of tho Balkan Mount's,) Turkey 10,000 Konjnkofski-Kamen, Ural Mountains, Russia 5,397 Ben Nevis, (highest of the Grampian Mount's,) Scotland 4,368 Suowdon (highest mountain in Wales,) 3,571 ASIA. Everest, Himalaya Mountains, (highest in the world,) 29,100 Kunchinginira, Himalaya Mountains 28,176 Dhawalaghiri, Himalaya Mountains 28,000 Hindoo Koosh, Cabul .' 20,000 Mount Ararat. Turkeyin Asia 17,216 Mount Lebanon, Syria, Jeb-el-Makmel 12,000 Mount Olympus, Turkoy in Asia 9,100 Mount Sinai, Arabia 7,497 AFRICA. Mount Kilimandjaro 20,000 Mount Kenia 20,000 Abba Yared, Abyssinia 15,'JOO Piton des Neiges, Islo of Bourbon 12,500 Peak of Teneriffe, Canary Islands 12,182 Mount Miltsin, .highest of the Atlas Mount's,) Morocco 11,400 Snow Mountains, Cape Colony 10,000 Peak of Pico, Azores 7,613 OCEANICA. Mount Ophir, Sumatra 13.842 Semero Mountain, Island of Java 13,(00 Mount Orobena, Society Islands 8,500 Mount Kosciusko, New South Wales 6,500 Mount Humboldt, Tasmania 5,520 ELEVATIONS OF SEVERAL ACTIVE VOLCANOES Feet. Aconcagua, Chili 23,910 Gualateiri, Peru 22,000 Arequipa, Peru 20,320' Cotopaxi, Ecuador 18,875 Tolima, Now Grenada 18,020 Popocatepetl, Mexico 17,717 Pichincha, Ecuador 15.924 St. Helens, United States 13,300 Manna Loa, Sandwich Islands ."... 13,120 Erebus, Antarctic Land 12,400 Etna, Sicily „ 10,874 Hecla, Iceland 5,110 Souffriere, Ouadaloupe (W. I.) 5,108 Morno Garou, St. Vincent's, West India Islands 5,007 Jorullo, Mexico 4,265 Vesuvius, Naples, Italy 3,948 LENGTHS OF THE PRINCIPAL RIVERS IN THE WORLD. NORTH AMERICA. Miles. Missouri, to its Junction with tho Mississippi „,„ 2,900 Missouri to the Bea, forming the longest river in the world 4,100 Mississippi proper 2,800 Mackenzie 2,500 St. Lawrence 2,200 Arkansas 2,000 Rio Grande 1,800 Kwichpak. 1,600 Saskatchawan and Nelson 1,000 Columhia l'200 Nebraska 1,200 Red River 1,'200 Colorado, in California 1,100 Yellow Stone 1,000 Ohio 950 Kansas 900 Tennessee „ 800 Frasor 750 Miles. Red River of the North 700 Colorado, in Texas 650 Brazos 650 Wisconsin 600 Cumberland 605 Alabama 600 Wabash 650 Apalachicola and Chattahoochee 550 Susquehanna 500 Potomac 500 • T ames 600 Roanoke 509 Savannah .- 500 St. John, New Brunswick 450 Connecticut 450 Great Pedee .1 450 Trinity 450 Great Whale 400 Delaware 400 Altamaha 400 Sacramento 400 Penobscot 350 Hudson 350 Cape Fear 350 Pearl 350 Nueces 350 Sabino 360 Severn 300 Kennebec „ 300 SOUTH AMERICA. Amazon 8,600 Rio do La Plata, (including the Parana,) 2,250 Madeira 2.000 Orinoco 1,500 St. Francisco 1,300 Tocantins and Araguay 1,100 Colorado 1,000 Rio Negro 1,000 Magilalena 900 Parnaiba „ 900 EUROPE. Volga 2,000 Danube ],600 Don 1,000 Dnieper _ 1,000 Rbino 950 Dwina 700 Petchora 600 Elbe 600 Loire 600 Vistula 650 Tagus 650 Dniester 600 Guadiana 500 Oder 450 Douro 450 Rhone 450 Po 460 Seine 450 Mezene 400 Desna „ 400 Bog 400 Guadalquivir 400 Dunn S60 Niemen 350 Ebro 360 Dahl 300 Bug 300 Weser 300 Garonne 300 Thames 233 ASIA. Yang-tso-Kiang 2,800 Lena t 2.(00 Obo 2,500 Hoang-Ho 2,500 Yenisei 2,300 A moor 2,200 Cambodia 2,000 Indus „ 1,700 Irrawaddy 1,700 Gangos 1,(00 Brahmaputra 1,500 Euphrates „ 1,4(0 Amoo, or Oxus 900 Salwen 900 Tigris 800 Nerbndah 800 Meinam 800 AFRICA. Nilo 3,000 Niger, or Joliba „ 2,600 Zambesi . 1,800 Senegal 1,200 Orango 1,000 Gambia „ 700 OCEANICA. Murray , 1.300 lOo 106 AREAS AND POPULATIONS OP THE DIFFERENT COUNTRIES OF THE GLOBE. NORTH AMERICA. Greenland. . ( t . i >■■ -n la u \ Iceland.. Danish America llritish America . United States, (including Russian America). Indians in the United States Mexico Central America West Indies Total . SOUTH AMERICA. Venezuela , United States of Colombia Ecuador Bolivia Peru Chili Argentine Confederation and Buenos Ayres , Uruguay Paraguay Brazil {British Hutch - French Patagonia and adjacent islands Sq. Miles. Total.. EUROPE. Russia in Europe Austria Prance •— Turk"y in Europe Spain Sweden 1 Norway) Great Britain and Ireland Prussia Italy - Portugal Donnmrk Greece Switzerland The Netherlands Belgium Bavaria Wirtemberg linden Saxony Mecklenburg Ib^se-Darmstadt Saxe-Altonburg S i\''-Coburg-Gotha Saxo-Meiuinjren Si.v- Wei mar-Eisenach. Oldenburg Brunswick Nassau The Schwartzburg Principalities and Waldeck Anlult ltrus.s-iJreitz and Renss-Schleitz Lippe-Detmold and Lippe Schaumburg.. Lichtensteiu Hamburg Lubec Bremen 720,000 40,000 2,S16,760 3,612,000 668,000 200,000 95,000 Population. 8,152,760 410,000 460,000 220,000 480,000 610,000 250,000 900,000 70.000 75,000 3,100,000 76,000 60,000 35,000 350,000 6,996,000 2,101,000 227,000 212,000 207,000 182,750 168,000 121,000 121,000 137,000 108,000 36,500 14,500 19,950 15,230 13,620 11,313 29,320 7,075 5,904 6,770 5,831 2,863 3,698 2.421 1,531 2,751 1,160 990 662 645 63 151 114 84 Total . 3,767,376 9,000 65.000 S,4S5,000 31,415,000 400,000 8,218.000 2,162,000 4,023,000 49,777,000 1,605,000 2.303,000 1,040,000 1,987.000 2,865,000 1,676,000 1,172,000 241,000 1,337,000 10,014,000 162,000 67.000 26,000 120,000 24,624,000 68,197.000 34,671,000 37,472,000 15,500,000 16,302,000 3,860,000 1,434,000 29,321.000 22,7<>9.000 24,150,000 3,988,000 ],60S,000 1,332.000 2.534,000 3,700.000 4,895,000 4,807,009 1,721.000 1,435,1100 2,837,000 652,000 807,000 740,000 205,000 282,000 457,000 254,910 182,000 126,500 137,000 7,150 208,000 49,400 89,000 ASIA. Turkey Russia in Asia Turkestan Chinese Empire Japan llindoostan, (including Ceylon).. Farther India Afghanistan Beloochistan Persia Arabia Total.. AFRICA. Barbary Great Desert Egypt (including Nubia and Kordofan).. Abyssinia Eastern Africa Cape Colony and Natal Other countries of Southern Africa Western Africa Soudan Ethiopia African Islands Total.. Sq. Miles. OCEANICA. Australasia, Australia ,. Tasmania New Zealand Papua, and other islands, Malaysia, Borneo Sumatra Java Philippine Islands Celebes Spice, and other islands .. Polynesia. Sandwich Islands Other islands. Total 662,000 6,750,000 640,000 4,700,000 i 156,000 1,250.000 920,000 350,000 150,000 470,000 1,200,000 15,420,000 658,000 2,600.000 600.000 280,000 600,000 128,000 200.000 890,000 1,700,000 3.000,000 230,000 10,786,000 3,120,000 28,000 95,000 350,000 300.000 150,000 50,000 120,000 70,000 70,000 6,000 144,000 4,503,000 Population. 16,000,000 8,329,000 6,600,000 477,000,000 35.000.000 187.668,000 42,000.000 6,000,000 1,600,000 9,000.000 8,000,000 754,997,000 15,208,000 300,000 5,125,000 3,000,000 3,000.000 385,279 100.000 17,000,000 11,200,000 3,000,000 5,100,000 63,418,279 1,400,000 90,000 100,000 600,000 3,000,000 4,000,000 9,530,781 3,815,000 2,000,000 1,000,000 74,000 370,000 25,979,781 RECAPITULATION- POPULATION OF THE WORLD. North America- South America... Europe Asia Africa Oceanica Antarctic Lands.. 286,818,9691 Total 49,732,521 1,205,615,382 Sq. Miles. 8,152,000 6,996.000 3,766,376 15,420,000 10,786,000 4,503,000 109,145 Population. 49.777,000 24,624,353 286,818,969 754.997,000 63,418,279 25,979,781 RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN DETAIL. Rnssia in Europe. Asiatic Russia Total Sq. Miles. 2.101.000 5,786,000 7,SS7,000 Population. 68,197,000 8,327,000 7,524,000 BRITISH EMPIRE IN DETAIL, Grout Britnin and Ireland Ionian Island*, Malta, Gibraltar, Ac New Britain British Columbia and Vancouver Island.... Canada New Brunswick Nova Scotia and Cape Breton Island Newfoundland and Prince Edward's > Island j British West Indies Honduras British Guiana British India, Aden, and Hong Kong. Cape Colony, Natal, and other African ) Possessions.., / Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, Ac Total Sq. Miles. Population. 119,000 1,192 2,154,500 200,000 210,000 27,037 18,800 29.307 109 354,797 158,000 89,000 507,000 252.000 330,000 42,200 203,495 12,583 13,500 76,000 1,200,000 1,091.000 25.639 155,000 187,745,000 136,000 953,000 3,600,000 1,211,000 7,210,812 222,382,130 WEST INDIA ISLANDS IN DETAIL, ., ., f Hiiyti ""y" { Dominica Cuba Porto Rico Jamnica Trinidad Barbadoes Grenada, Ac St. Vincent Tobago St. Lucia Antigua Montserrnt St. Christopher. Virgin Islands Dominica Bahama Islands... Guadeloupe, &c Martinique St. Martin's Curacoa, Ac St. Eustatius Santa Cruz St. Thomas St. John's St. Bartholomew's. Margarita Total To whom belongs. Independent. Spain. Great Britain. France, Holland and France Denmark. Swfden. Venezuela. Sq. Miles. 29,000 5,000 3,865 5,468 2,000 166 138 131 90 300 108 49 68 137 291 5,424 61S 322 32 275 190 105 43 42 25 ' 540 Population. 800,000 200.000 1,396.000 330,000 377.433 84.438 152,727 31,900 31,755 15.450 27,141 35,408 7,053 20,741 6.053 25,065 27,519 139,055 137,465 6.560 31.835 1,903 22,862 12,561 1,715 9,000 15,000 54.424 3,946,629 NINE OF THE LARGEST PRODUCING STATES. OF SOME OF THE MOST IMPORTANT STAPLES OF THE UNITED STATES. Corn in 1866. Illinois Indiana . Ohio Kentucky Iowa ']>n!t"ssee Missouri lVinisvlvania.. New York Bushels. 156,844,350 127,676.247 99,766,822 66,564,630 62,288.184 4fi,880.933 46,819,543 35,831,877 22,809.893 Wheat in 1866. Illinois Wisconsin Iowa Michigan New York Pennsylvania Ohio Indiana Maryland Bushels. 28,551. 20.307. 15,763: 14,740. 12,550, 10,519 10,208 9,114. 4,383 ■l'.i! 920 323 039 ,408 000 ,864 563 70S Oats in 1866. Pennsylvania New York Illinois Ohio Wisconsin Iowa Virginia Indiana Michigan Bushels. 54,954, 54,029. 30,054, 22,187. 17,174! 12,607. 10.245. 10,158; 8.293, Hay iu 1866. New York .... Illinois Pennsylvania Ohio Michigan Iowa Wisconsin Indiana Maine Tons. 4,759. 2,340. 1,970. 1,963. 1,218, 1,161 1,151 1,088, 957 White Potatoes in 1866. New York .... Pennsylvania Maine Vermont Illinois Michigun Ohio New Jersey.... Wisconsin BuBhels. 31,156,676 16,636.859 6,146,725 5,305,045 5,102,035 5.037,298 4,516,640 4,039,708 3,940,273 Tobacco in 1866. Pounds. Cotton in 1860. Bales 400 lbs. each. Rice in 1860. Pounds. Wool in 1860. Pounds. Sugar in 1860. Hhds. of 100 lbs. 114,480,5161 61,683,856 40,054,083 39,423.900 29,963,672| 26.693,815 17,516.981 12.952.2S5 9,824,384 1,195,609 997.978 722.218 701.840! 405,100 367,4S5, 353,413 i 227,4501 145,5141 119,100,528 62,507,652 7,593.976 6,455,017 1 657 ,293 j 499,559 223,209 30,616) 25,670, 10,648,101 9,454.473 4,752.523 4.062,858 2,975,544 2,681,922 2,509,443 2,477.563 2,466,264 297,816 Georgia 1,761 Tennessee 1,167 North Carolina 590 283 Ohio 244 Illinois „ 198 108 38 POPULATIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL CITIES OF. THE WORLD. 107 NORTH AMERICA. UNITED STATES. Eastern States. Popuiatioo. Boston. Mass 177.4S1 Providence, R. 1 50,660 New Haven, Conn 39,263 Lowell. Mass. 36,827 Hartford, Conn 29,152 Portland, Me 20,312 Cambridge, Mass 26,060 RoxOurv. " '-o,l;l7 Charleatown, " 26,0*3 Worcester, " 24,960 New Bedford, " 22,300 Salem, " 22,252 M mchester, N. H 20,107 Lynn, Mass 19,033 L LW'l'ril ". MaS3 17,639 Bangor, Me 16,107 Taunton, Mass 15,370 SpringBold," 15,199 Norwich. Conn — 14,517 Fall River, " 14,025 Newburyport, Mass 13,400 Chelsea, Mm 13,395 Bridgeport. Conn 13,300 Smithfleld, R. I 13,290 North Providence, R. 1 11,818 Gloucester, Mass 10,904 Newport, R.I 10,508 New London, Conn 10,115 Nashua, N. II 10.100 Wutorbury, Conn 10,001 Middle States. New York. N.Y 813,668 Philadelphia, Pa 565,531 Brooklyn, N. Y 220,064 Buffalo, " 81,131 Newark, N.J 71,911 Albany, N.Y 62,.:..8 Pittsburg, Pa 49,220 Rochester, N.Y 48,213 Troy, " 39,235 Jersey City, N. J 29,220 Allegheny, Pa 28,703 Syracuse, N. Y 28,199 Reading, Pa 23,102 Olios, N.Y 22,528 Wilmington, Del 21,258 Paterson, N. J 19,583 Lancaster, Pa. 17,603 IrsotOB, N. J 17.221 Oswego, N. Y 16,817 Kingston," 10,040 Newburg, " 15,198 Poughkeepsio, N.Y 14,720 Oamdan. N.J 14,358 Nowtou. N. Y 13,725 Lockport, " 13,523 Harrisburg, Pa 13,405 Hempstead, N. Y 12,375 Yonkers. " 11,818 Elizabeth, N.J 11.507 New Brunswick, N.J 11,255 Auburn. N. Y.. 11,000 Flushing, N.Y 10,189 Southern States, Baltimore, Mil 212,419 New Orleans, La 108,472 Washington, D. C 61,118 Charleston, S. C 61,210 Richmond, Va. 37,910 Mobile. Ala 29,259 Savannah. Ga 22.20.! Petersburg, Va 18,260 Norf.dk, " 14.00'J Wheeling, " 14,183 Alexandria, •' 12,054 Augusta, Ga 12,193 Donaldsonville, La 11,481 Western States. Cincinnati, O 161.041 St. Louis. Mo 151,730 Chicago. Ill 109,263 Louisville, Ky 69.740 Sin Francisco, Cal 66,605 Detroit, Mich 46,619 Milwairlde, Wis 45,254 Cleveland, 36.054 Memphis, Tenn 22,620 Dayton, O. ., 20,482 Indianapolis, Ind 18,612 Nashville, Tenn 16,988 Covington, Ky 16,471 Peoria, HI 14,046 Mill Creek, 13,844 Toledo, 13,763 Quincy, 111 13,718 Dubuque, Iowa 13,000 Sacramento City, Cal 13,788 New Albanv, Ind 12,647 Kvansvillo, " 11.4SG Port Wayne. " 10,388 BRITISH AMERICA. Montreal, C. E 90,323 Quebec, 0. K 51.100 Toronto, W 44,821 Halifax. N.8 26.000 St. John, N. B 23,745 St. .Tehn's, Newfoundland 21,000 Hamilton, C. W 19.096 Ottawa 14,690 North America— Continued. MEXICO, Population. Mexico 205,000 La Puebla 71,000 (luadalaxara 63,000 Guanaxuato 49,000 Qucretaro 29,700 Merida, 40,000 Morelia 25,000 Zacatecas 25,000 Monterey 13,500 Vera Cruz 8,000 CENTRAL AMERICA, New Guatiiuala, Quatimala .... 60,000 Leon, Nicaragua 35,000 San Jose, Costa Rica 30,000 Cojutepeque, San Salvador 15,000 Comayagua, Honduras 18,000 WEST INDIES. Havana, Cuba 134,000 Puerto Principe 49,000 Matanzas 20,000 Kingston, Jamaica 35,000 St. John's, Porto Rico 20,000 Port au Prince, Hayti 20,000 St. Domingo 15.000 St. John's, P. R 15,000 Trinidad 15,000 SOUTH AMERICA. VENEZUELA. Caraccas mm 63,000 Valencia 20,000 Maracaybo.- 18,000 Barcelona - 15,000 Cumana 10,000 La Guayra 8,000 UNITED STATES OF COLOMBIA Bo-ota 40,000 Popayan 20,000 Carthagcna 20,000 Panama 20.000 Socorro 15,000 Aspinwall 7,000 PERU. Lima 100,000 Cuzco 46,000 Aivquipa 35,000 Guamanga 26,000 Huanta 25,000 Pasco 12,000 Oallao 10,000 Cumana . 10,000 ECUADOR. Quito 76,000 Guayaquil 25,000 Cueuca 20,000 BOLIVIA. La Paz 76,000 Cochabamba 40,000 Potosi 24,000 Sucre 23,000 CHILI. Santiago 80,000 Valparaiso 75,000 ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION, Buenos Ayres 120,000 Cordova 25,000 Baa Juan 20,000 Corrieutes 16,000 URUGUAY. Montevideo 46,000 PARAGUAY. Assnmpcton 15,000 Coucepaiun 10,000 BRAZIL. Rio Janeiro 296.000 IJ.ibia 175,000 Pernambuco 70,000 Maranham ... 30,000 Para 25,000 Sao Paulo 25,000 Villa Bello 20,000 Natal. 10,000 EUROPE. NORWAY. Christiana 39,000 Bergen 26,000 Droutheim 16,000 SWEDEN. Stockholm 125,000 Goltcnburg 42,000 Malmo 23,000 NoukjBpping 20,000 RUSSIA, St. Petersburg 188,000 Moscow 378.000 Warsaw 225,000 Odessa 120,000 Europe — Continued. Population. Saratov 84,000 Rign 75,000 Kiev 70,000 Wilna 60,000 Kazan 60,000 Berditchev... 52,000 Kharkov 60.000 Astrakhan.'. 45,000 Voronez 44,000 Sebnstopol 40.000 Novgorod 38,000 Tula 38,000 Orel 36,000 Kalonga 35,000 Cronstadt 30,000 Pultowa 30,000 ENGLAND. London 3,015,000 Liverpool 476,000 Manchester 355,000 Birmingham 328,000 Leeds 224,000 Sheffield 186,000 Bristol 162,000 Salford 111,000 Newcastle 110,000 Bradford 106,000 Hull 99,000 Portsmouth 95,000 Preston 83,000 Sunderland 81,000 Brighton 78,000 Norwich 75,000 Nottingham 75,000 Oldham 73,000 Bolton 71,000 Leicester 68.000 Blackburn 63,000 Plymouth 63.000 Wolverhampton 61,000 Bath 55.000 Stockport 65,000 York 63,000 Devonport 51,000 Mcrtliyr Tydvil (Wales) _. 46,000 SCOTLAND. Glasgow 424,000 Edinburgh 175,000 Duudeo 91,000 Aberdeen 74,000 Greenock 36,000 Paisley 33,000 IRELAND. Dublin 318,000 Belfast „ 120,000 Cork 79,000 Limerick „ 45,000 Watcrford 27,000 Galway 25,000 Kilkenny 21,000 HOLLAND. Amsterdam 251,000 Rotterdam 114,000 The Hague 86,000 Utrecht 58,000 Groningen 38,000 Lcyden „ 37,000 Haarlem 30,000 Arnhem 29,000 Leuwarden 25,000 BELGIUM. Brussels 190,000 Ghent 123,000 Antwerp 121,000 Liege _ 105,000 Brogea 61,000 Louvain 33,000 Tournay 32,000 Tenters 30,ooo FRANCE. Paris 1,696,000 Lyons 319,000 Marseilles 261,000 Bordeaux 163,000 Lille 132,000 Toulouse 115,000 Nantes 114,000 Rouen 103,000 St. Etieune 95,000 Toulon 85,000 Strasburg 82,000 Havre 75,000 Brest 70,000 Amiens 60,000 Rheitns 56.000 Montpellier 52,000 SPAIN. Madrid 476,000 Barcelona 252.000 Seville 152,000 Valencia 146.000 Malaga 113,000 Murcia 109,000 Grenada 101,000 Sarrogossa 82,000 Cadiz „ 72,000 Europe — Continued. PORTUGAL, Population. Lisbon 27i,000 Oporto 81,000 Braga 30,000 DENMARK. Copenhagen 155,000 Odense 14,000 BAVARIA. Munich 168.000 Nuremberg 70,00) Augsburg 60,000 Wtlrzburg 41,000 Ratisbon 30,000 SAXONY. Dresden 140,000 Leipsio 85,000 Chemnitz 65,000 WIRTEMBERG. Stuttgard 69.000 Clm 23,000 BADEN. Carlsruho 30,000 Manheim 27,000 Heidelberg 18,000 FREE CITIES. Hamburg 230,000 Bremen 101,000 Lubeek 61,0o0 PRUSSIA. Berlin 633,000 Breslau 163,000 Cologne 122,000 Kiinigsberg 102,000 Magdeburg 95,000 Dantzic 91,000 Frankford-on-the-Maiu 90,000 Hanover 80,000 Stettin 70,000 Aix-la-Chapolle 65,000 Elberfeld 6u,C03 Altona 53,000 Crefeld 51,000 Posen 61,000 Baruven 50,000 Halle 43,000 Mentz 43,000 DUsseldorf 42,000 Potsdam 42,000 Cassel 40,000 Frankfort-on-tho-Oder 40,000 Erfurth 40,000 Gbrlltz 80.000 Coblontz 29,000 Monster _ 28,000 Elbing 26,000 Dortmund 25,000 Stralsund 25,000 Brandenburg 24,000 AUSTRIA. Vienna 679,000 Prague 143,000 Pesth 132,000 Lemberg 70,000 Trieste 66,000 Gratz .'. 63,000 Szegedin 63,000 Verona 59,000 DrUun _ 59,000 Buda 66,000 Theresienstadt 64,000 Presburg 44,000 Cracow 41,000 SWITZERLAND. Geneva 42,000 Basle 37,000 Heme 29,000 Lausanne 21,000 Zurich „ 20,000 ITALY. Naples 419,000 Rome 204,000 Turin 181,000 Milan 196,000 Palermo 16S.0O0 Genoa 128.000 Venice 118,000 Florence „ 114,000 Bologna 90,000 Leghorn 84.000 Catania 65,000 Messina 62,000 Padua 54,000 Parma 47,000 Brescia 40,000 Piacenza 39,000 Pisa 34,000 Bad 33,000 Modena 82,000 Poggia 32.000 Cremona 31,000 Pavia 29,000 Casrliari 28,000 Ferrara 28,003 Moilica 27,000 Europe — Continued- GREECE. Population. Athens 41 000 Corru 2:,.ono Zante 20,000 Syra 19.000 Potras 18.000 Thebes 12,000 TURKEY. Constantinople 1,075,000 Adrianople 140,000 Salonica 80,000 Bucharest 80,01 Serngevo 70.000 Qnllipoli 60.000 Jassv .'0.000 Phllippopolil 40,000 Bcntari 40,000 Kodosto 40,000 ASIA. TURKEY, Smyrna 1CO.000 Damascus 150,000 Aleppo 80,000 Bagdad co.ipo llrusa 60.000 Bassorah 60.000 Diarbeker 60,000 Trobizond 00.000 Mosul 40.000 Jerusalem 20,000 RUSSIA, Tifiis 40.000 Tobolsk 20.000 Tomsk 20,000 TURKESTAN. Bokhara 90 000 Khokan 60,000 CHINESE EMPIRE. Pekin 2.000.000 Canton .1,000.000 ! Soo-chow 700,000 ; Hang-chow 500.000 ! Pull-Chow 600,000 i Amov 2:0.000 Shanghai 200,000 JAPAN. Yeddo .2,000.000 Miaco 600,000 INDIA. Calcutta 1,000.000 Bombay 817,000 Benares 400,000 Madras 100,000 Lucknow 300,000 Patna 280.000 Odcvpore 276,000 Delhi 200,000 Cashmere 200,000 FARTHER INDIA, Araoan 250.000 Bangkok 100.000 Singapore 70.000 HuJ.... 60,000 AFGHANISTAN. Candahar 90,000 Cabul 60.000 Herat 60,000 BELOOCHISTAN. Kelat 12,000 PERSIA, Meshid... Teheran . Tabreez . Ispahan.. ARABIA. Mecca... Muscat . Tunis Morocco . Fez AFRICA. BARBARY STATES. EGYPT. Cairo. Alexandria. OTHER CITIES OF AFRICA. Aheokuto Port Louis, Mauritius - Cape Town « Funchal, Madeira OCEANICA. Manilla Batavia Sydney, Australia Melbourne Samarang .. Honolulu 100.000 80.000 80.000 60.000 60,000 60,000 130,000 100.000 80,000 300,000 200,000 100,000 26,000 25,000 25,000 140.000 140,000 100.000 100.000 60,000 6,000 108 AREAS AND CAPITALS OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1868. POPULATION AND EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS FROM THE CENSUS OF 1860. STATES AND TERRITORIES. Maine Now Hampshire Vermont Massachusetts Rhoda Island ■ Connecticut , New York New Jersey Pennsylvania , Delaware Maryland , District of Columbia. Virginia , , West Virginia , North Carolina South Carolina , Georgia. Florida , Alabama Mississippi , Louisiana ..... Texas Ohio Indiana , Illinois , Kentucky Tennessee , Arkansas Missouri Michigan Wisconsin , Iowa „ i Minnesota California. . Oregon Kansas Nevada Nebraska TERRITORIES. Washington Idaho. ..„ Montana.- Dakota.. Utah Colorado ftt. H Arizona. .' New Mexico Indian Territory Russian American Purchase ... Wyoming.!. Total CAPITALS. Augusta Concord Montpelier.. Boston Providencoand Newport . Hartford audi' Albany Trenton Harrisburg . Dover Annapolis ... Richmond Wheeling Raleigh Columbia Millodgfviilo. .;..: ". „« , Tallahassee , Montgomery. Jackson Baton Rouge Austin Columbus Indianapolis , Springfield Frttnkfort «. , Nashville Little Rock Jefferson City , Lansing , Madison Des Moines St. Paul Sacramento Salem Topeka „. Carson City Omaha City Olympia.. Boise City Virginia City Yankton. .... Salt Lake .'. Denver Prescott... Santa Fe Tahlequah... Sitka Cheyenne Areas. Whites. Free Colored. Slaves. Total. Number attend- iug School* and Colleges. Annual Kxpeuditure for Education. Peraous over 20 years unable to mad and writ.. Total number of volumes in public libraries. 35,000 9,280 10,212 7,800 626,952 325,579 314,389 1,221,464 170,668 451,520 3,831,730 646,699 2,849,266 90,589 616,918 60,764 712,495 334,916 631,100 291,388 691,588 77,748 526,431 353,901 357,629 421,294 2,302,838 1,339,000 1,704,323 919,517 826,782 324,191 1,063,509 742.314 774,710 673.844 173,596 361,353 62,337 106,579 6,812 28,759 11,138 1,327 494 709 9.602 3,952 8,627 49.005 25,318 56,849 19,829 83,942 11,131 66,064 1,978 30,463 9,914 3,500 932 2.690 773 18,647 355 36,664 11,428 7,628 10,684 7,300 144 3,572 6,799 1,171 1,104 259 4,086 128 625 46 67 30 628,279 320,073 315,098 1,231,066 174,620 460,147 3,880,735 672,035 2,906,115 112,216 687,049 75,080 1,246,462 349.856 992,622 ' 703,708 1,057,286 140,425 964,201 791,305 708,002 604,215 2,339,502 1,350,428 1.711,915 1,155,084 1,109,801 435,450 1,182,012 749,113 776,881 674,948 173,865 365,439 52,465 107,206 6,857 28,841 11,168 189,210 82,934 79,565 249,293 31,568 89.936 805.550 119,216 609,961 18,672 79,f,75 9,726 154,963 $533,610 343,576 294,345 2,035,401 213,327 648,235 4,917,794 798,629 3,135,819 115,309 437,357 121.854 1,042,879 8,598 4,717 8,916 46,921 6,112 8,833 121,878 23,081 81,515 13,169 37,518 6,881 86,452 405,901 237,312 167,429 1,997,151 405,419 404,206 2,436.576 433,321 1,344,924 88,470 235,055 191,723 67,150 1,306 4,760 47,000 8,320 46,000 18 2,120 11,124 #0 38,352 23,000 1.79S 67,189 3.185 477,903 12,962 331,059 402,406 462,198 61,745 435,080 436.631 331,726 182,566 50,704 34,000 68,000 69,268 60,722 47,166 116,567 46,690 94,687 8,603 98,204 656,684 497,837 687,339 95,511 711,108 699,201 931,706 556,302 2,825,885 800,238 2,420,134 942,556 984,465 188,759 1,051,786 621,567 703,966 652,642 101,382 493,849 60,080 40,792 74,977 16,208 44,257 5,461 38,060 15,636 19,010 18,476 64,828 62.716 59,364 70,040 72,054 23,665 60,545 18.485 16,546 19,951 4,763 19,693 1,511 3,067 150 634 438 190.091 471,542 272,935 46.375 165,275 41,346 274,356 39,964 48,023 63,625 «05,666 338,091 405,121 182,059 163,022 42,726 203,488 188,604 184,709 167,608 24,150 25,916 10,816 13,332 110,604 86,538 790,668 467,062 33,809 65,410 37,680 45,600 52,198 65,350 66,451 225,483 275,719 111,115 114,931 148,012 245,228 23,221 1S4,884 260,686 150,559 53,924 55,045 83,531 33,649 188,981 95,274 5,300 9,735 81.318 112,090 2 75,995 69.994 15 3,296 1,088 12,219 23,976 10,742 11,325 143,770 149.797 2,576 40,214 34,231 270 7,944 77 323 104,500 113,916 30 46 29 40,273 34,277 32,738 5,476 68,991 677,390 82,924 85 83,009 1,466 7,944 9,449 32,785 3,611,849 26,975,575 487,996 3,953,760 31,414,719 5,634,374 $32,440,305, 1,186,311 12,829,849 In consequence of the abolition of slavery throughout the United States, the slaves in the above table should now be classed as Free Colored. Tlio Indians of tho United States were not included in the Consus of 1860. Of these there are estimated to bo about 400,000; thus making the total population of the United States nearly 32,000,000. AGRICULTURAL AND MANUFACTURING STATISTICS OF THE UNITED STATES FROM THE CENSUS OF 1860. STATES AND TERRITORIES. Maine New Hampshire Vermont MwfajBftflTlfffttrn Rhode Island Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania Delaware Marvlaud District of Columbia.. Virginia North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Florida Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Texas Arkansas Tennessee Kentucky Ohio Michigan Indiana Illinois Missouri Iowa Kansas . Wisconsin Minnesota California Oregon „., TERRITORIES. Washington Dakota Nebraska Nevada „.. New Mexico Utah Total.. AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS. Wheat, bushels. Corn, bushels. 233,877 238,966 431,127 119,783 1,131 52,401 8,681,100 1,763,128 13,045,231 912,941 6,103,480 12,760 13,129,180 4,743,706' 1,285,631 2,544,913 2,808 1,222,487 579,452 29,283 1,464,273 955,298 5,409,863 7,394,811 14,532,570 8,313,185 15,219,120 24,159,500 4,227,586 8.433,205 168,527 15,812,625 2,195,812 5,946,619 822,408 92,609 945 72,268 446.075 382,697 1,546,071 1,414,628 1,463,020 2,157,063 458,912 2,059,835 20.061,048 9,723.336 28,196,821 3,892,337 13,444,922 80,840 38,360,704 30,078,564 15,065,606 30,776,293 2,824,538 32,761,194 29,563,735 16,205,856 16,521,593 17,758,665 50,748,266 64,043,633 70,637,140 12,152,110 69,641,591 115,296,779 72,892,157 41,116.994 5,678,834 7,565.290 2,987,570 524,857 74,566 4,792 20.296 1,846,785 710,605 ' 93,861 830,451,707 Oats, bushels. 2,988,939 1,329,233 3,630,267 1,980,075 244,453 1,522,218 35,175,134 4,539,132 27.387,147 1,046,910 3,959,298 29,548 10,186,720 2,781,860 936,974 1,231,817 46,899 682,179 221,285 89,377 985,889 475,268 2,267,814 4,677,029 15,409.234 4,036,980 6,317,831 15,220,029 :i,imi,st() 5,887,645 88,325 11,059,260 2,176,002 1,043,006 885,673 134,3.14 2,540 74,502 1,082 7,246 63,211 Cotton, bales, 400 lbs. 12,727 145,514 353,413 701,840 63,322 997,978 1,195.699 722,218 405.100 307,485 227,450 4.092 100 1,133 272,643,185 5,198,077 Rice, pounds. 1,120 8,225 7,593,976 119,100,628 52,507,652 223,209 499,559 657,293 6,455,01' 25,670 216 30,516 24,407 1,219 9,767 Tobacco, pounds. 1,583 21,281 12,153 3,233,198 705 6,000,133 5,764,682 149,485 3,181,586 9,699 38,410,965 15,200 123,967,757 32,853,250 104,412 919,316 758,015 221,284 127,736 40,610 98,016 999,757 38,931,277 108,102,433 25,528,972 120,621 7,246,132 7,014,230! 25,080,196 312,919 16,978 87,595 3S.510 3,150 215 10 "b'soi Sugar, hhds. of 1000 lbs. 6,999 10 38 198 1,167 1,761 108 244 297,816 590 Wool, pounds. 283 429,390,771 302,205 1,495,063 1,160,212 2,975,544 377,267 90,699 335,9S6 9,454,473 349,250 4,752,523 60,201 491,611 100 2,509,443 883,473 427.102 946,229 58,594 681,404 637,729 296,187 1,497,748 410,285 1,400,508 2,325,124 10,648,101 4,062,858 2,466,204 2,477.563 2,069,77 653,036 22,593 1,011,915 22,740 2,681.922 208,943 20,720 "3,312 479,245 75,638 Hay, tons. 975,803 642,741 940,178 665,331 82,722 662.425 3,564,793 508,726 2,245,413 36.973 191,744 3,183 445,133 181,365 87,587 46,448 11,478 62,211 32,901 62,721 11,865 9.356 143,499 158,476 1,564,502 768,256 622,426 1,774,554 401,070 813,173 56,232 855,037 179,482 305,655 27,986 4,580 855 21.458 2.213 1,113 19,235 Irish Potatoes, bushels. 6,374,617 4,137,543 6,253,498 3,201,901 642,909 1,833,148 26,447,394 4,171,690 11,687,467 377,931 1,264,429 31,693 2,292,398 830,565 226,736 303,789 18,766 491,646 414,320 294,655 174,182 418,010 . 1,182,005 1,750,531 8,i'95,101 5,261,245 3,866,647 6,540,390 1,990,850 2,806,720 296,335 3,818,309 2,565,485 1,789,463 303.319 163,594 9,489 162.188 5,686 5,223 141,001 Sweet Potatoes, bushels. 1,425 161 623 616 946 2,710 7,629 1,034,832 103,187 142,213 236,740 5,666 1,960,817 6,140,039 4,115,688 6,508,541 1,129,759 6,439,917 4,663,873 2,060,981 1,846,612 1,666,540 2,604,672 1,057,557 304.445 38,492 299,516 306,164 336,102 61,362 9,965 2,396 792 214,307 335 IS 168 200 ISO MANUFACTURING STATISTICS. 60,511.343! 19,083.896 111,148,8671 42,095,026! Amount of capital invested. $22,000,000 26,900,000 9,500,000 133,000,000 23,300,000 45,720,000 175,449,206 40.000,000 189,000,000 5,360,000 51,800,000 2,660,000 26,640,000 8,310,000 6,610,000 11,160.000 6.675,000 8,260,000 8,740,000 7,110,000 8,850,000 1,040,000 17,270,000 20,000,000 58,000,000 24,000.000 18,875,000 27,700,000 20.500,000 7,500,000 1,063,000 16,580,000 2,400,000 23,682,693 1,293,000 1,296,700 ""271,475 Value of raw material used. 2,OS1.900 412,126 Value of annual product. $20,861,452 24,400,008 8,110,000 141,000,000 23,400,000 40,140,000 209,899,890 42,600,000 145,300,000 5,375,000 21,900,000 2,801,000 80,880,000 9,860,000 3,620,000 10,000,000 965,000 4,400,000 2,460,000 7,380,000 2,770,000 909,000 9,366,000 21,380,000 70,000.000 19000.000 27.360,000 33,800,000 24,000,000 8,500,000 669,269 17,250.000 2,060,000 I6,558,e36 1,452,000 505,000 "238,225 432.000 398,528 $36,075,498 46,500,000 16,000,000 266,000,000 47,600,000 83/100,000 S79,6J3.5C0 81,000,000 285,600,000 9,920,000 42,676,000 5,612,000 61,300,000 14,460,000 6,800,000 13,700,000 2,700.000 9,400,000 6,000,000 15,600,000 6,250,000 2,150,000 17,100.000 36,:i30,00O 125,000,000 35,200.000 43,260,000 66,750,000 43,500,000 14.900,000 2,800.000 28,500,000 3,100,000 59,500,000 3,138,000 1,405,000 "681,'942 1.1C5.000 s2.-;.ooo $1,050,000,0001 $l,012,000,00o| $1,900,000,000 Owing to tho past disturbed condition of the nation, tho statistics of 1860 are continued in this table, as exhibiting a truer record of the resources of tho whole country, than those of a later period. YF 00705 fc ^ . (pt '■ Au c < /V; &A r^ $s * CQWPERIHWAIT & CO. •^TJBLlSHBE;S ( AITD booksbllebs, philadelphia, INVITE ATTEMION TO THE FO'.LOWING ■\ v a AjXjaJLHBi scHoor < ptjbucations. WARREN'S GEOGftAPHICAL SERIES. POTTER & HAMMOND'S SYSTEM OF PENMANSHIP, WARREN'S PRIMARY GEOGRAPHY, *» miREB ~ Jl " WARREN COMMON SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY. Nos. 1 to 9 inclusive. WARREN'S PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Tin Nos. 10 to d to all ■ Ti\e. Jiercantil and 0; .rW of the very hig '^ 3l ie volume low used in most of I d the warmed -Nos. 13 to 15 in- t' r 0A: rs, rsical and 1 diig S .00. ^al and 0i ■ set, $10.00 iicjtlar. , DRAW: - T jol t'ue i & HAMMOND'S Bv iol Book-Xf ' Tho High Sc HAMMOND'S WRi { GRAMMAR. INE'S ANAL COLBURN'S SERIES OF ARITHMETICS. THE CHILD'S ARITHMETIC. BURN'S INTELLECTUAL ARITHMETIC, f DLBURF3 COMMON SCHOOL ARITHMETIC. tfLBUFN'S ARITHMETIC AND ITS APPLICATIO d by r PL > EXPLi MRU'S HISTORY CF THE BFKARD'S MANUAL OF SPANISH ART AND LITERATURE. GOODRICH'S CHILD'S HISTORY Cf THE UNITED STATT. t LEACH'S COMPLETE SPETUNG-BOOK, 'th us in re$