LIBRARY OF THK UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. OK ** Received A c cess ions No . + : . . . 1 88 J~ . Shtlf No. \ MILITARY LESSONS: MILITARY SCHOOLS, COLLEGES, AND MILITIA. BY PROF. W. T. WELCKER, II PEOFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS AND CHIEF OF MILITARY INSTRUCTION IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. NEW YORK AND CHICAGO: IYISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR, & CO. 1874. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874, BY IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR, & CO., in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. UNIVERSITY PRESS : WELCH, BIGELOW, & Co., CAMBRIDGE. PREFACE. IN presenting this little volume to the public, the author has sought to meet what he believes to be a want of the numerous private military schools of the United States, of those institutions of higher learning where a limited amount of military in- struction is given, and of the militia of the dif- ferent States. The late wars, home and foreign, have shown that a mere knowledge of tactics is no longer sufficient ; that some further knowledge of the art of war is requisite, not only among those destined to be officers, but even among the private soldiers. And it is believed that the works hereto- fore published upon some of the topics treated have been too elaborate, scientific, and technical for those who will be prevented, either by want of technical preparation or by w^ant of time, from pursuing the studies in an exhaustive manner. There is but little claim to originality advanced ; the following chapters are, in the main, either trans- i v PREFACE. lations or compilations from various standard au- thorities on the different subjects treated. But, while the author deems the information given sound and valuable, he has avoided, as far as possible, introducing mathematics or other scientific matter suitable only for the professional officer, who studies the whole subject thoroughly, or who per- haps is devoted to a single branch, such as military engineering or artillery. The aim has been to suit the work to all who have received a common-school education. It has grown up as the result of military instruc- tion, over and above that in drill and tactics, given to the students of the University of California. W. T. WELCKER. UNIVERSITY or CALIFORNIA, August, 1874. CONTENTS, CHAPTER I. COMPOSITION AND ORGANIZATION OF ARMIES. PAGE Divisions of Troops, Infantry, Cavalry, Artillery ... 1 Greek Phalanx ^ 6 Roman Legion .......... Feudal Period . . . .11 Heavy Infantry .......... 14 Grenadiers ........... 15 Different Kinds of Cavalry, Cuirassiers, etc. . . . . . 15 Light Cavalry . .* 18 Dragoons . . Hussars ............ 19 Lancers ........... 20 Artillery 21 Engineer Troops ......... 23 CHAPTER II. SUPPLY OF ARMIES. Pay . . 24 Pay in European Services ........ 26 Subsistence Department ......... 28 Supply of Clothing and Equipage . . . . . . 31 Medical Supplies 33 CHAPTER III. MOVING OF ARMIES. Different Methods of transporting Armies . . . . .35 In the Neighborhood of the Enemy . . . . . . 37 Rear- Guard on a Retreat . . . . . . . . .39 Flank-Guards .... 40 v i CONTENTS. Trains 41 Of Halts . ' 42 Commander-in-Chief 43 Commander of the Advanced- Guard . . . . . . 45 Selection of Camps .......... 47 Commander of the Rear- Guard in Retreat 48 Duties of the Commanders of Flank, Advanced, and Rear Detachments 49 Duties of Patrols during a March 51 Regulating Marches by the Nature of the Ground. ... 54 CHAPTER IV. . PASSAGE OP RIVERS ON ICE, BY FORDS, BY BOATS, AND ON RAPTS. Selection of the Point of Crossing . . . . . . .58 To determine the Velocity of the Current 63 Passage hy Swimming 66 Passage on Ice 67 Fords 67 Passage by Boats 71 Navigation . . . . . . . . . . .75 Rafts and Foot-Bridges 77 CHAPTER Y. MILITARY BRIDGES IN GENERAL. Bridge over Hellespont by Xerxes 80 Bridges of Boats . . . Pontons of Equipage 85 Bridges on Country Boats . . . . . . ... Bridges on Rafts of Logs . . . . . . . .87 To find the Power of Flotation Bridges on Rafts of Casks, Boxes, and Skins 89 Trestle-Bridges Preservation of Bridges 92 Passage of Bridges . . Flying -Bridges 95 Destruction of Bridges Destruction of the Enemy's Bridges ...... 97 CHAPTER VI. PIELD FORTIFICATION. Art of Fortification 99 Profile of Parapet and Ditch ...."... 102 Plan .... 102 CONTENTS. vii Redoubt 104 Flanked Dispositions . . . . . . . . . 104 Star Forts 106 Cremaillere, Redan, Lunette, Priest-Cap ...... 107 Tete-de-pont 108 Revetments 108 Fascines 108 Hurdle Revetments . . . . . . . . .109 Gabions 109 Powder Magazines ......... 109 Traverses 110 Palisades 110 Block-Houses Ill Obstacles Ill Chevaux-de-frise, Crow's-Feet, Abattis 112 Attack and Defense 112 Defense 114 CHAPTER YII. STRATEGY. Strategy defined 116 Line of Operations 118 Defensive Plan 123 CHAPTER VIII. THEORY OP TIRE AND TARGET PRACTICE. Initial Velocity . 127 Recoil 129 Heating of the Barrel 130 To find the Hausse 134 Construction of the Trajectory 135 Causes of Deviation in the Projectile . . . . . .135 Combined Effect of the Action of the Air, and of Imperfections in the Projectile 136 Deviation from Unskillfulness of the -Marksman . . . . 138 Stadia 139 To calculate the Initial Velocity . . . . . . . 140 CHAPTER, IX. SMALL- ARMS. Crossbow 149 Arquebuse .......... 150 Firearms .... , 151 viii CONTENTS. Different Methods of forcing the Ball into the Grooves . . .161 Pontchara System . . 103 Systeme a tige . . . . . . . . , . 103 Balle a culot 16? Minne-Ball ... 167 Lancaster Rifle 168 Breech-Loaders .169 Repeating Rifles, Remington, Sharpe, Peabody, Ballard, Needle-Gun, Chassepot .......... 170 Winchester Rifle . 171 CHAPTER X. MITRAILLEUSE AND UNITED STATES ORDNANCE. Ordinance of the United States Service . . . . . .174 Shell Guns 175 Mortars 175 COMPOSITION AND ORGANIZATION OF AEMIES. AN army is a collection of men armed for war, and organized in companies, regiments, brigades, and divisions, under proper officers. In modern times it is composed of Infantry, or foot- soldiers ; Cavalry, or various kinds of mounted troops ; Artillery, or those who make use of cannon; and Engi- neer Troops, consisting of sappers and miners, poritoniers and pioneers. These main divisions have numerous subdivisions, of which the smallest is the Company. This is a body of troops varying in numbers from 50 to 200 men; the most usual number being about 100. It is evidently the same thing as the Roman century, which was commanded by a centurion. Among the Israelites, we read in the Old Tes- tament of " captains of a hundred " as well as of " captains of fifties." The permanent commander of a company is denominated Captain. Besides the captain there are either two or three other officers in every company, called Lieutenants. The 2 MILITARY LESSONS. captain and the lieutenants are called collectively company commissioned officers, because they bear the commission of the king, or other chief of state,, with his sign-manual. Lieutenants are classified as First Lieutenants and Second Lieutenants. The second lieutenant is usually the lowest commissioned officer in an army. The commission is a letter-patent from the king,, or chief executive of the state, declaring that he reposes special trust and confidence in the wisdom, loyalty, patriotism, and valor of A. B., and does thereby appoint him to be (such and such an officer), and requires all officers and soldiers to obey and respect him accordingly. In the United States service there is also the Brevet Second Lieutenant, who is a supernumerary second lieu- tenant awaiting promotion to the full grade of second lieutenant. Between the commissioned officers and the non-commissioned officers there intervenes the grade of warrant officers. At present there is, in the United States military service, but one kind of warrant officers, i. e. the Cadet. The cadet is a young officer bearing a warrant from the Secretary of War, and is not usually assigned to any of the military organizations, but undergoes instruction in the science and art of war at the national Military Academy at West Point. Upon being graduated at this institution and receiving his diploma, he is promoted to some corps of the army as Brevet Second Lieutenant, Second Lieutenant, or sometimes to a higher grade. Cornets are warrant officers of cavalry in the English service, and Ensigns are warrant officers of infantry. ORGANIZATION OF ARMIES. 3 In company organizations the officers next below are Sergeants. This word is derived by some from the Latin word " serviens," and by others from, the Persian word skids may be used, reaching down to the plow of the next trestle, which is slided down the skids to place, and set upon its legs by hauling in on ropes and pushing out with long poles. Upon the trestles when in position are laid the balks, over- lapping about a yard, and they are securely lashed to the trestles and to each other. If a draw is necessary, it must be of boats. The crossing of the Beresina, in November, 1812, on the disastrous retreat of Napoleon's grand army .out of Russia, was made by two trestle-bridges about 200 yards apart, and being about 100 yards long. The trestles were from 3 feet to 9 feet in height, and their cap-pieces were 14 feet long. 92 MILITARY LESSONS. They were constructed with lumber obtained by demol- ishing houses in the village of Wesselowo, and were placed about 14 feet apart. In place of balks they used saplings about 5 inches in diameter, and they used saplings for flooring of one of the bridges. The other had a plank floor, the planks being taken from the houses of the vil- lage. These bridges would have amply sufficed for the passage of the whole army, had good order been main- tained; but all discipline being lost, vast crowds poured upon the bridges, and produced disasters unexampled in history. The pontoniers, although worn out by a forced march, constructed these bridges in the space of twenty- four hours ; they were compelled to swim amid the ice to place and repair the trestles, and their generous de- votion cost most of them their lives. Preservation of Bridges. -To defend a bridge from floating bodies, launched by the enemy or drifting on the current, the following means are employed : 1. A lookout guard is stationed on the river, about 1,000 yards above, and this guard is provided with skiffs, long lines, anchors, grapnels, cramping-irons or staples, with mallets to drive them, boat-hooks, etc. These boats, stationed at intervals one above the other, are rowed to any floating body that comes along ; one end of a line is fastened to it, and the other sent ashore or fas- tened to a fixed point. The floating bodies are either towed ashore or swung round on to the shore by the action of the current. If some of the floating bodies elude these precau- tions, they should be steered towards the draws in the MILITARY BRIDGES IN GENERAL. 93 bridge,, and the sentinel on the bridge signaled to open the draws. 2. A floating stockade or boom is sometimes stretched diagonally across the river, so as to prevent the descent of the floating bodies,, and run them ashore. A boom is a long chain of large logs, floating in the water with their ends fastened together by short chains ; each log ought to be anchored. The angle made by the boom with the cur- rent should be about 22, which requires its length to be 2 1 the width of the river. The boom is laid thus oblique so as not to receive a square shock from the floating bodies, and to direct them ashore. 3. The ends of the bridge should be movable, so as to adjust to sudden rising or falling of the water. Passage of Bridges. Military bridges being liable to many accidents, there ought to be as many of them as pos- sible. It is dangerous to risk everything upon only one ; the slightest accident might compromise the troops who have already passed. The unstable nature of these com- munications requires the utmost precaution. A sentinel should be stationed at each end of the bridge, and others along it at such intervals that they can see and hear every- thing that transpires, and carry out and enforce the follow- ing regulations : Infantry should march by the flank without beat of drum and in silence, being careful not to preserve the lock-step while on the bridge, because it would set the bridge to oscillating back and forth, and injure it se- riously. 94 MILITARY LESSONS. If this motion should start, the troops should halt, and remain standing until it subsides. Cavalry should dismount, and each man lead his horse with a short rein, and prevent his trotting. Care must be taken not to overload the bridge; fresh troops not being allowed to come on before those already crossing shall have completed the passage. Such interval should be kept between the different bod- ies, that there will be no stopping and crowding at the end of the bridge. Carriages in single file and twenty paces apart should march along the middle line of the bridge ; all drivers except those on the wheel-horses dis- mounted and leading. If any of the carriages should be too heavily loaded, a part of the load may be taken off ; if one should break down on the roadway, the team should be promptly unhitched, the load stored in the nearest boats, and the carriage thrown overboard. Infantry should never be mingled with artillery or cav- alry in crossing at the same time. The troops should instantly obey the command " Halt ! " given by a sentinel, and resume the march only when commanded to do so. If there should be several bridges, one should be exclusively for infantry, and another for cavalry or carriages. If there is a ford, also, the cavalry should cross there in preference. Should there be a herd of beef cattle along with the army, they should be crossed in lots, or five or six at a time. It being the nature of these animals to huddle together in a crowd when frightened, if there were too many to- gether they would ruin the bridge. Besides, as they nat- MILITARY BRIDGES IN GENERAL. 95 urally swim well, they should be got across by swimming when practicable. No fires, not even lighted pipes or cigars, should be allowed on the bridge, for fear of burning it, or of explosions. The sentinels must keep a sharp lookout for signals from above, reporting them or anything else of unusual nature to the officer of the bridge. They either halt troops or accelerate their march as circumstances may demand. On ponton-bridges, infantry march in two ranks, or even three if the bays are not more than fifteen feet apart, cavalry in one rank, and the heavier field-pieces should be drawn by only four horses. A detachment should be detailed to tighten the cords, to tend the draws, to raise the anchors now and then lest they become too deeply imbedded, and to make all the little repairs that may be requisite. If the bridge is likely to be frozen up, care must be taken to have it dismantled and removed in time, lest when the thaw comes it should be carried away. And if the bridge is destined to re- main, the ice must be broken around the supports every day. Flying-Bridges. By this term we designate a boat, a draw, or a raft, hel'd by a hawser or chain, which prevents it descending the river, and which is caused to go from one bank to the other by being held by a rudder oblique to the current. Flying-bridges have the advantage of being easy to construct, but they do not afford a continu- ous communication, and can serve but a small body of 96 MILITARY LESSONS. troops. Experience has shown that the length of the cable should be one and a half to two times the width of the river. The cable is kept above the water by floats* such as casks,, or boats, at suitable intervals. Thirty-six men can in an hour construct a flying-bridge on six boats of equipage, which would carry over two hundred and 'fifty men, or two pieces of artillery with twelve horses. This bridge would cross a stream of two hundred yards' width in a 'minute and a half. We will close this chapter by a few hints as to the repair and destruction of bridges. In general, bridges are repaired by the same means which were employed in their construction. Bridges upon piles are frequently made in the rear of an army to keep open communication when it is necessary to take up our ponton-bridges and send them forward with the army. Nothing need be said of the repair or construction of pile-bridges, for that operation is going on about the wharves of our cities all the time. When a masonry- bridge has been cut by the enemy, we can make a tempo- rary wooden bridge over the gap. If the cut is too wide for our beams to reach, intermediate supports may be made by piles, trestles, or boats. Destruction of Bridges. If we are compelled to abandon a bridge, it should be sunk, burnt, or blown up. It may be burnt by putting straw, tarred fascines, or dry sticks under- neath several places and setting fire at once. If there is not time for this, a large fire should be built in the road- way, taking up planks and piling on. This would detain MILITARY BRIDGES IN GENERAL. 97 the enemy some time. Bridges may be blown up by fastening barrels of, powder or loaded shells under the roadway, and firing them by slow-match or portfires. Bridges may be sunk by knocking holes in the boats, at the same time cutting the lines and throwing the plank overboard. Masonry-bridges are blown up with powder ; several arches ought to be blown up at once, to make the repair more difficult. When greatly pressed for time, sev- eral hundred-pound barrels should be suspended beneath an arch, and fired simultaneously. Destruction of the Enemy's Bridges. This is an opera- tion of the highest importance, especially when we are resist- ing an attack which he makes by main force. If we can succeed in destroying his bridge after a portion of his troops have crossed, we will thereby cut him in two, and the result should be a brilliant victory in our favor. Different means are employed for the destruction of the enemy's bridges : 1st. Bafts and boats heavily loaded should be sent down the current against the bridge, to destroy it by the shock; these floating bodies should have in front a strong mast, well stayed, and of a height sufficient to en- counter the bridge and strike it with violence. 2d. Use may be made of fire-boats loaded with incendiary mate- rials and well supplied with shells and hand-grenades which explode from time to time, and intimidate any who might wish to approach the fire-boat. 3d. Infernal-machines, destined to destroy the bridge by their explosion, may be brought into service. They consist of boats provided with strong chambers of frame-work or iron filled with 98 MILITARY LESSONS. powder, and weighted down by heavy bodies to increase the force of the explosion. Fire is communicated by a pistol or musket, the muzzle of which opens into the powder, the hammer being cocked and the trigger connected with a lever, which when it touches the bridge will draw the trigger and explode the charge. Barrels and boxes filled with powder, and these or other arrangements for explosion, ought to be sent down in great numbers, and particularly in the night, so that some will surely escape the guard and arrive at the bridge. They should be so ballasted as to keep the right side up. CHAPTER VI. FIELD FORTIFICATION, IN military language any construction or device which, renders a position to be held by troops stronger than it was left by nature is called a Fortification, The proper construction of fortification is called the art of fortification ; and this art is divided into two great . branches, which are termed respectively Field- Fortification and Permanent Fortification. These terms of themselves immediately suggest the principal difference between the two kinds of constructions ; for while permanent fortifica- tions are made at such places as are of enduring importance, like seaports and cities, and are constructed of the most lasting materials in an elaborate manner, field-fortifications are constructed hastily of earth, with the addition of wood and such other materials as are furnished by the locality, and are intended only to subserve the purposes of a cam- paign. We will here confine our attention solely to the latter. Suppose two bodies of troops equal in numbers, courage, discipline, skill, and equipment to meet each other in hostile array upon an open plain. The circumstances are equal; but if one of these bodies were posted on a hillside it would 100 MILITARY LESSONS. possess an evident advantage over its opponents, who would be compelled to climb the hill to reach it. The party on the hill would have called into their aid the force of gravity, no inconsiderable force, and the assailants would be under both a moral and physical disadvantage. If, moreover, the party on the hill had selected a position where there was a ravine or ditch at the foot of the hill, it is easy to see that their position would be yet stronger. Again, should they withdraw behind the crest of the hill, to such a distance that, while they could still see and fire upon their enemy as he was struggling across the creek or ditch and was climbing the hillside, and yet have their persons save their heads and shoulders screened from the missiles of the enemy by the crest of the hill, it is evident that they would possess a third great advantage over their assailants. In these simple considerations can be discovered the principal feature of a fortification. To make a fortification we must make the hillside, the sheltering crest, and the obstructive ditch, where none previously existed. One of the simplest instances of a fortification would be had by digging a trench or ditch in front of a straight line of bat- tle, throwing the dirt on the side from the enemy, and out of it forming an embankment or breast-height, behind which our own troops could stand, and over which they would fire upon the approaching enemy. I have supposed a case in which the contending forces were equal in all respects. But fortifications are resorted to most generally by the weaker, when in presence of a FIELD FORTIFICATION. 101 stronger force, weaker, be it noted, in absolute efficiency, for it often happens that a force numerically the greater is, by reason of inferior equipment, discipline, or morale, really weaker than its opponent. The ground-plan of a fortification may have a multitude of shapes, according to varying circumstances of locality and design in view ; but the cross-section of the works, or profile as it is generally called, is essentially the same in all, consisting of the embankment, or parapet) and the ditch. When defensive works are thrown up very hastily, and are intended merely to receive battle in, they are constructed by digging a slighter ditch, and the dirt is thrown on the side towards the enemy. The troops in this case stand in the ditch, and derive their shelter partly from the ditch and partly from the dirt thrown up on its bank. This kind of intrenchment received, during the late civil war in the United States, the name of rifle-pits, but that term was previously applied, especially by the Allies at the siege of Sebastopol, to small round excavations dug by single rifle- men, or bodies of two or three riflemen, who crept forward during the night and made their lodgements, ready to open on the enemy at daybreak. These pitmen were sharp- shooters to pick off officers, cannoneers, etc. But the usual case is where the parapet is on the side of the ditch from the enemy. The following is a representation of the profile of a para- pet and ditch. F G, the bottom of the ditch, is nine feet ten inches wide ; while the top E H is eighteen feet. It is MILITARY LESSONS. PROFILE OF PARAPET AND DITCH. seven feet deep; the interior crest A is eight feet above the terre-plein, or natural surface ; the exterior crest C is five feet six inches above the same. B is the banquette treacly four feet wide, and at a perpendicular distance below the interior crest of four feet three inches. The banquette slope is the ramp falling from B rearwards to the terre- plein. The banquette- slope and tread are made only when the parapet is too high for a man standing on the natural surface to shoot over. A is the interior slope ; A C, the superior slope, and C D is the exterior slope ; D E is the ber m ; E F is the scarp, and G H is the counter-scarp. By prolonging the line of the superior slope A C, it will be observed that a ball from a musket lying on that line would strike the ground beyond the ditch at M, and con- sequently all the space within the angle H M L would be dead space, or not attainable by missiles fired from the works. To remedy this, another embankment having the gentle inclination of the superior slope is made upon the counter-scarp bank of the ditch, which has the effect of exposing the entire person of the enemy as he approaches. This embankment in front of the ditch is called the glacis. Plan. "When the enemy has no choice but to approach FIELD FORTIFICATION. 103 directly from the front, a straight parapet and ditch will make a good defence ; but this could be improved by flanks running forward from the right and left of the line so as to bring a cross-fire on the enemy as he approached. But .the enemy certainly will not approach directly from the front if lie can avoid it, but will if possible march around the flanks of our work and come upon us in the rear. This operation is called turning the work, and neutralizes or destroys its utility. If he cannot succeed in turning the work he will at least endeavor to come upon it in a slanting direction, that is, with his line of march making a very small angle with the direction of the para- pet ; in which case very little of our fire could be brought to bear upon him. This would be true even of the musketry-fire, but still more so of that from the artillery, because the pieces with which field-fortifications are usually armed are too small to fire in barbette (i. e. over the top of the parapet), but are fired through notches or troughs cut down in the parapet, which are named embrasures. As these embrasures necessarily allow only a limited field of firey or sweep to the right and left for the cannon, they cannot be brought to bear upon a column of troops advancing in a slanting direction. To avoid the incon- venience here spoken of, deflections are made in the direc- tion of the parapet to produce flanking arrangements that will give cross-fires, of which more will be said anon. It is only in a few localities, such as narrow gorges, ravines, and streets, that the enemy would be compelled to 104 MILITARY LESSONS. approach from the front. The general case is that he can turn a line of works,, especially if it is a short one. To secure ourselves against this disaster, it is a natural expe- dient to fortify in all directions, thus inclosing the position to be fortified. A plan which would naturally suggest it- self would be a square or a parallelogram. But upon inspecting such a plan it will be seen that if the assailant approaches along the prolongations of the diago- nals, in other words, marches upon the corners, he would be exposed to a feeble fire. The angles included between the arrow-heads are called Sectors-without-fire. To get rid of these sectors-without-fire we must resort to what are called Flanked Dispositions. In these, certain portions of the work are thrown forward towards the enemy and are called Advanced Parts, while others are held back and are called retired parts. Such a disposition is shown in the following diagram. FIELD FORTIFICATION. 105 Wherein A B and E F P are the advanced parts, and B CDJEztfQ the retired parts, A and A B are the faces, as are also E F and F P ; B C and D E are the flanks, and C D is the curtain. A D and (7 7^ are the lines of defence ; A B and E F P are the salient angles ; B C D and J? (7 -# are re-entering angles, and A D E and F C B are angles of defence. It will be seen that the angle between the arrow-heads at F is swept by a fire from the flank B C, and also from a flank perpendicular to F P prolonged, and which is not shown in the figure. And so of the other sectors-witliout- fire. The face* may vary in length from thirty to eighty yards, the flanks from twenty to forty yards; and the curtain should never be less than twelve times the relief, which is the height of the interior crest above the bottom of the ditch. The kind of a front which we have just described is called a Bastioned Front. The bastion front is the best for an inclosed fort, because not only are the sectors-without- 5* 106 MILITARY LESSONS. fire remedied, but the ditches are thoroughly swept by the fire of the garrison. In the square redoubt before spoken of the sectors-with- out-fire may be pretty well remedied by making what are called Pan-coupees, the cor- ners being cut off, and re- placed by shoulders, the fire from which will be in the directions of the diagonals; but still the ditches are dead spaces, in which the enemy, once arrived there, is comparatively secure. Besides these are star forts, which give something of a flanking arrangement, as may be seen in the figure above. Not only may flanking dispositions be used for isolated positions, but also to connect and secure the different parts of long lines which are used to strengthen extended posi- tions. If we have a position where the flanks are secure from being turned, by reason of precipices, impassable moun- tains, water or morasses, it may be fortified by a Cre- maillere or Indented Line. FIELD FORTIFICATION. 107 Should the position be assailable not only in front but on the flanks, while the rear is secure, there are various other dispositions which can be used, according to locality A and other circumstances. We may mention the Redan, the Lunette, and the Priest-cap, or Swallow-tail. Long lines may be secured and connected redans, lunettes, and cremailleres, or any combination of them which may be found expedient. There are continuous lines, and lines with intervals. The first have no openings through which the enemy might penetrate, except a few for the conven- ience of the defenders, and these are usually covered and concealed from view by small redans in front of them. The second kind are marked by detached forts, which are separated by wide intervals, the intervening spaces being defended only by cross-fires from the forts. The Eedan Line is a series of redans connected by curtains, the faces of the redans about 60 yards long and the curtains about 180 yards. In this arrangement the ditches are not flanked, or swept by our fire ; this defect is remedied by changing the curtains from long straight lines to broken ones, con- ' stituting new redans, with their faces perpendicular to those of the original redans. This is called the Tenaille Line. 108 MILITARY LESSONS. A great variety of combinations of lines has been used by different engineers, but it would not profit to enter into an examination of them here. Tete-de-Pont. A tete-de-pont, or bridge-head, is a de- tached fort placed near the end of a bridge to secure the same. Its plan may be a redan with a pan-coupee, a lunette, priest-cap, or any form suitable to the locality. If practicable, it should be supported by the fire of bat- teries placed on the opposite shore, which shall cross in its front, and sweep along its flanks. Revetments. When the slopes of any of the embank- ments of fortifications are not steeper than the natural slope of the earth, they will stand and do very good service, with no other preparation than packing and ramming; but to prevent the effect of rains, it is well, when there is time, to cover the surface of the slope with sods of grass. These sods should be cut from a sward where the grass is short and has thickly matted roots; they should be evenly cut in rectangles, and laid like the tiles of a pave- ment. But this precaution, which is optional on gentle slopes, is necessary on steep ones, like the interior slope of the parapet, the scarp and counter-scarp of the ditch. Any facing made to sustain the face of a slope is called a revetment. It may be of sods, stone, or wood, and also of a mixture of clay and earth ; these last materials are mixed with water into a stiff paste or mud, and laid on about a foot thick, being well packed. Fascines. A fascine is a cylindrical bundle of rods or twigs, bound together or wrapped with witkes. They are FIELD FORTIFICATION. 109 from 9 to 12 inches in diameter, and from 10 to 20 feet long. To make a revetment of fascines, say for the interior slope, the first layer is laid horizontally at the foot of the slope, being about half imbedded below the banquette-tread, and held in position by stakes driven into them, and also by having withes leading to anchoring-pickets driven into the interior of the parapet at intervals of a few feet. On top of this layer, as the parapet rises, is laid another layer of fascines fastened to the anchoring-pickets and to the fas- cines below, and so on to the top. Hurdle Revetments. A hurdle revetment is made by laying parallel poles along the face of the slope and in its direction, driving them into the earth at its foot, and then making a kind of wicker-work by interlacing twigs or withes with the poles. The poles are laid as if they had been driven in an upright row at the foot of the interior slope first, and then inclined over until they lay against that slope. Gabions. Gabions are sometimes used for a revetment. A gabion is a hollow cylinder of basket-work, made of twigs. They are set on top of each other, in the direction of the slope, and filled with earth. A revetment is often made of scantling and planks. Bags filled with sand are often used to form a revetment when great haste is necessary, and even to throw up a hasty shelter or parapet. But as the bags soon rot, they are only used for works of a very temporary character. It may be well to say a word about Powder-Magazines. 110 MILITARY LESSONS. Some place must be had, of course, for storing the ammu- nition. The requisites are that it be safe from fire, the enemy's shot, and dampness. If the site of the work is dry ground, they ought to be placed under ground, the sides and top being made of framed work, and planks or fas- cines. The vault, may be about 6 feet wide, and of the same height, with length sufficient to hold the ammunition. On the top of these should be a thickness of 6 feet of earth, and the entrance, which should be from the rear, should have a splinter-proof screen, to prevent fragments of the enemy's shells from entering it. Where the soil is very wet, the powder-magazines are sometimes placed in the traverses. A Traverse is a short embankment, generally made with gabions, which run perpendicularly to the rear from the parapet. When traverses are used there are always several, and their object is to prevent the splinters of the enemy's shells from having an extended range up and down, or to the right and left, along the work. Usually two pieces of cannon are found between two traverses. The traverses ex- tend to the rear only far enough to shelter the cannoniers. Palisades are forts made of wooden logs set into the earth in an upright position to form walls. The logs are hewn flat on the sides which are in contact, and the garrison fire through loop-holes cut between the logs. There may be more than one tier of loop-holes ; the men firing through the upper holes while standing on a staging constructed against the palisades, and upheld by a parallel row of posts about six feet to the rear. FIELD FORTIFICATON. Ill Block-Houses are built of logs either upright or horizontal, and often of two thicknesses, the one upright and the other horizontal. They are provided with loop-holes, and are sometimes defended by a ditch with a draw-bridge. Being usually square or rectangular in plan, they have sectors- without-fire. This can be remedied by having two stories, the upper story being turned around, or so placed that its walls shall be perpendicular to the diagonals of the lower story. With this arrangement the fire from the upper story will entirely remove the sectors-without-fire. Obstacles. It may be well to cast a passing glance at some of the devices which are classified under this heading. When the enemy is approaching the work to assault it, it is desirable to reach him at the earliest possible moment with our projectiles, and to detain him under fire as long as we can. With this view we cut down all trees within extreme range of the fort, level off banks and small hillocks behind which he could be concealed or protected, and make whatever arrangements are practicable to diminish the num- ber of avenues of approach. If the routes by which he can come upon the work are few, his men will be more massed together, and therefore more vulnerable, while we, being called to attend to but a few points, will be able to bring to bear a greater propor- tion of strength on him. Among the obstacles designed to detain the enemy in front of the work are ckevaux-de-frise> trous-de-loups or e/ ' J- military pits, crow's-feet, mines, abattis, etc. 112 MILITARY LESSONS. A Cheval-de-frise is a log or scantling bored through by augers, the alternate holes running through in directions perpendicular to each other. Through these staves or poles are passed up to their middle, having both ends shod with pike heads. Crow's-feet are composed of several v sharp iron spikes, united at a single point, but all pointing outwards, so that when thickly scattered on the ground they form a serious obstacle to the march of troops. Abattis are trees cut down and laid with their tops to- wards the enemy. Only the smaller branches are cut off, while the longer limbs have their ends sharpened and pointed towards the enemy. They are interlocked and tied together. Trous-de-lonps are pits dug in the ground to about the depth of six feet, and are five or six feet in diameter at top. They have a stake, sharpened at top, planted in the bottom. Mines are deposits of gunpowder placed under the glacis, and connected with a hose or train leading under the par- apet. They are intended to be exploded when, the enemy arrives over them ; and their moral effect is immense. Attack and Defense. An attack may be made openly or by surprise, but in either case it is necessary to obtain all the information possible about the work beforehand. Much valuable information may be obtained from spies and deserters, but this information should be received with all the circumspection recommended in a previous chapter. Another method is by reconnoissance ; that is, to go and see. An officer, attended by an escort sufficient to drive in FIELD FORTIFICATION. 113 the pickets and outlying parties from the garrison, ap- proaches and examines the defenses, endeavoring to observe the strength, equipment, and nature of the garrison, the nature of the work, the depth and width of the ditch, whether dry or filled with water, the number, caliber, and position of the cannon, the presence or absence of obstacles in front of the ditch, etc. If an attempt to surprise the post is to be made, it should be done at night, selecting the time about two hours before day, because then the sentinels are always less vigilant than earlier in the night, and be- sides, the garrison will be in a deep sleep. The storming party will, of course, approach in the stealthiest manner, picking their way around or through obstacles. Engineer troops with tools should precede them, to remove obstacles. If the ditch is deeper than six feet, scaling-ladders should be taken along for the purpose of descending into the ditch and mounting the parapet on the other side. Sentinels must be secured or bayoneted. There should always be several false attacks made along with the true one, to divert the attention of the garrison, confuse them, and divide their forces. The false attacks must be conducted by parties strong enough to convert them into true ones, should they meet with better success than they anticipated. The leaders of the different parties should all know which is the true attack, so that, should they succeed in getting into the work, they may hasten to that point. The storming parties should be of picked troops, espe- cially of such as had volunteered upon that occasion. 114 MILITARY LESSONS. When an open attack is made, all obstacles should be destroyed, as far as can be done bj the fire of artillery. A heavy fire should be concentratedi on the enemy's guns until they are silenced. Shells should be fired into the parapet to cause the earth to slide down into the ditch, forming a ramp by which the parapet may be mounted. When the assault is about to be made, a cloud of light troops is thrown out to open a fire on the garrison, and divert their . attention from the storming columns. These last should advance over the intervening ground with the utmost celerity. The remainder of the troops follow close to repel sorties, and support the stormers, who will not stop to fire, but rely exclusively on speed and the bayonet. Defense. To make a successful defense there should be troops enough to allow of two ranks all along the ban- quette, and a suitable reserve beside. The defenses and equipments must be put into the most serviceable condi- tion. When an attack is expected, the enemy must be closely watched by scouts and patrols, and lookouts must be stationed at those places behind which he could ap- proach unperceived. Bodies of troops sufficient to repel and keep aloof all reconnoitering parties must be main- tained on the outside. At night the number of sentinels must be increased, and after midnight unusual vigilance enjoined and enforced. In anticipation of an attack the different troops should have their duties assigned them, and they should be drilled therein. Occasionally, but not frequently, false alarms of an attack should be made, FIELD FORTIFICATION. 115 to accustom the minds of the garrison to such an emer- gency. The men, in case of ' a real attack, should be exposed as little as may be consistent with a good defense. For in- stance, while the enemy is cannonading the work previous to an assault, all the troops except the cannoneers and sen- tinels may lie down behind the parapets and traverses. The reserve should be kept sheltered until called into action. When a night attack is expected with confidence, fire- balls should be thrown out to light up the neighborhood of the enemy, and to disclose his movements. Should the enemy^s storming columns be shaken and thrown into confusion by the fire of the garrison and by the obstacles, a sortie should be made in force to complete their confusion and to put them to rout. CHAPTER VII. STRATEGY. IN this chapter only a few of the leading principles of strategy will be considered, the subject being one the discussion of which might be carried to almost any extent ; vast tomes might be, and have been, written upon the sub- ject, but it is deemed expedient here to spend but a little time in its examination, and we will confine ourselves to its leading features. This not because the subject is of but little importance, far from that ; but because it is in its nature less definite and fixed, less subject to specific rules than any branch of the art, and because it is impossi- ble to give directions for all the cases which may arise. Strategy is defined in Scott's Military Dictionary to be "the art of concerting a plan of campaign, combining a system of military operations determined by the end to be attained, the character of the enemy, the nature and re- sources of the country, and the means of attack and de- fense." It has also been defined to be " generalship, the science of military command, the science of conducting great military operations/'' Although it may be difficult to improve on these definitions, it is certain that they are somewhat vague. STRATEGY. 117 In directing the movements of bodies of troops, there are three departments calling for consideration ; to wit, Tactics, Grand Tactics, and Strategy. Tactics comprise those precise, formal, well -ascertained, and elementary movements of troops upon a small theater, which are pre- scribed in works on that subject. Grand Tactics have a more extended range, are the movements on a more ex- tended scale, are less definite, not so clearly foreseen, and are not executed by uniform technical commands. Grand tactics also have their theater on the field of battle or in the immediate vicinity of the enemy. The adaptation of the different arms of service infantry, cavalry, and artillery to the different kinds of ground; the selection of the proper time for them to come into action ; the disposition of brigades, divisions, or army corps ; turning movements during a battle ; the posting and ordering of reserves ; feigned attacks, retreats, and ambuscades, may be con- sidered as belonging to the domain of grand tactics. Strategy has a still more extended range, looks further into the future, and combines and directs the movements of large bodies of troops, and even armies over a greater scope of country ; still, the limits of strategy and grand tactics are so commingled, that it is not always practicable to point out distinctly where the one ceases and the other begins. Many of the operations described in the chapter on moving of armies belong to the domain of grand tactics, and some were strategic. Strategic points are such as are of great importance to us for securing our subsistence, insuring our safety, facili- 118 MILITARY LESSONS. tating our success, or which may enable us to annoy, foil, or defeat the enemy. Of such are cross-roads, particularly in a timbered and broken country, where roads are of prime importance ; places where railways meet, passes through mountains, fords across rivers and plains where navigation is interrupted by falls or rapids, large cities, fortified posts, the capital of a country, etc., etc. There may be no strong reasons of a physical kind or reasons in themselves strictly military for making the capi- tal of a country an object of great interest, and yet political and moral considerations may confer upon it great strategic importance. The first things which should engage attention in the planning or conduct of a campaign should be the Base of Operations, the Line of Operations, and the Objective Point. The Base of Operations may be a point, but is more gen- erally a line, whence our army sallies forth to march upon the enemy, from which we draw our supplies and reinforce- ments, and upon which we expect to fall back in case of reverse or disaster. In case we invade the enemy 's ter- ritory by land, it would naturally be the frontier of our own. But if we are engaged in a defensive campaign, it would be a chain of fortified posts or cities, or a river, parallel to the frontier, and in which would be stored our reserves of men and materials, #nd behind which we could retreat in case of necessity. The Line of Operations is the line or route along which we advance from the base, and it should be perpendicular to it. STRATEGY. 119 t The Objective Point is that point of the enemy's country which it is our object to strike,, such as the point where his forces are stationed, the capital of his country, or the grand depot of his- supplies. These three things must be maturely considered,, and settled upon with great circumspection and deliberation before we begin to act. We must form a distinct con- ception of what is to be done,, whence to set out, how to go, and where to go. If we propose an invasion, it may be that the geography of our country offers but one frontier from which we can advance upon the enemy, and then this will necessarily be the base of operations. On the other hand, we may have a choice of several, and we would select that one from which we could soonest reach the objective point, and could at the same time most easily keep open our communications. If two lines of our frontiers meet in a salient angle penetrating the enemy's territory, it would be well to begin the demonstration by assembling on the apex so as to create doubt in the enemy's mind as to which was to be our base of operations. If we should move from out a re-entrant angle, our flank would be secured during the earlier part of the march by the contiguity of portions of our base to the right and left ; but, on the whole, it is probable that a straight line per- pendicular to the line of operations is as good as any. When once we move from the base we should advance with the utmost speed upon the objective point ; for time, in war, is the most important of all things. Under no consideration must we expose ourselves to 120 MILITARY LESSONS. being cut off from the base ; amid all the varying phases which may appear during the campaign, this injunction must be borne steadily in mind. Should there be indis- pensable passes, fords, or bridges to be left in our rear, they must be fortified and held in sufficient strength. We should remember that every inhabitant of the country may be a spy or a messenger for the enemy. If the enemy is carelessly dispersed in cantonments or otherwise, it would be our policy to strike his center, and then, turning towards either wing, to beat his separate corps in detail. Thus being stronger than the enemy in any one combat, we should by acting with vigor and despatch be sure to crush in succession all his forces, and might termi- nate the campaign and the war at one blow. Should we, however, find the enemy on the alert, with his troops well in hand, and occupying a strong defensive position, we may make a feint or a real attempt to cut his communication with his base, and thus inflict great loss upon him, or compel him to abandon his strong position. In this way we will attack him under more favorable cir- cumstances, or, what may be found to be still more to be desired, compel him to attack us on ground of our choos- ing. But this movement is one of great hazard, because we must not sacrifice our own communications. There may be, however, circumstances under which a general would not hesitate to abandon completely his own communications, and throw himself upon those of his enemy. If he knew the enemy's troops to be greatly inferior to his own in numbers, discipline, or spirit, or that STRATEGY. 121 their general was wanting in decision, slothful or vacillat- ing, and that the population was an unwarlike one, upon whom he could subsist without creating an insurrection, he would not hesitate to do so. It would be an additional in- ducement to make this hazardous move, if by so doing he could throw back the enemy upon some impassable barrier, such as the sea, a mountain range without passes, or an impassable river. On the contrary, should the enemy's general be an able one, this attempt would almost certainly terminate in dis- aster ; and if the population were warlike and accustomed to arms, seeing an invader in this position, which in general must be regarded as a false one, and stung to resistance by his exactions, they would rise in mass to the assistance of their own army and overwhelm him. It requires a great genius to see distinctly all the elements entering into such a problem, to balance them together and combine them so as to eliminate the real truth, and to be able to decide whether such an attempt is feasible or not. It is much easier to write about such things than to do them. There is no rule in strategy which can be dogmatic and exact; any one will admit of great many exceptions. There were never two campaigns or two battles exactly alike. A general should be perfectly versed in the rules and principles of strategy, and at the same time be pro- vided with profound knowledge of men and things, and that sound and admirable discretion which would enable him to know when and how far to depart from those rules. Thus it was recommended above that, when a general 6 122 MILITARY LESSONS. * found the enemy's troops scattered, lie should throw him- self between them ; if he should find them scattered, but not sufficiently far apart, it would be the worst thing he could do. He must know when he attacks one fragment 'that he has time to beat it, and have his troops in hand again before succor can arrive. And here, by the way, is a distinction between grand tactics and strategy. To get between the enemy's divisions would in strategy be a most fortunate move, while as a matter of grand tactics it would almost surely result in ruin. Should the invader be successful, no rules are necessary as to what should then be done. It will be easy enough to carry out ulterior operations. But the case is quite differ- ent if he meets with a reverse so serious as to require a retreat. The invader will then be in a position calling for the very highest qualities of a tactician, a strategist, and a man. As a general rule the lines of operations now be- come the lines of retreat should be one. To divide the army into different columns would be to expose them to be beaten and destroyed in detail with great facility. The army should be held in as compact a mass as possible, and it should pursue a single line of retreat towards the most available point of the base. It should be conducted with the utmost speed compatible with good order, but it must not be allowed to degenerate into a rout or a flight. All available means must be employed to deceive the enemy as to the line of retreat, to destroy every facility for, and to throw all possible obstacles in the way of, pursuit. Where strong passes or defiles are found which are not STRATEGY. 123 likely to be turned, it may be well to seize and hold them, and then to await his assault. This will serve to rest the army, give an opportunity to restore its organization, and, by beating off the enemy, the spirits of the men. Then, while the enemy is still in the confusion of his repulse, the retreat must be resumed. Often it will be best to effect this at night, some light cavalry being left behind to keep up the camp-fires, and to make, as far as may be, the usual appearance of things about camp until the retreating force has got a good start : then they will rejoin the main body. Still, there may be occasions when it would be best to di- vide the force, and to pursue different and divergent lines of retreat. Should there be a strong probability of the dif- ferent columns reaching the base in safety, it will be best to divide. The columns being smaller could move with in- creased speed ; the pursuer would probably lose some time while hesitating which to pursue, and, at the worst, it might be that he could not overtake and destroy more than one fragment, and thus the others could be saved. Large bodies of light cavalry, such as the Cossacks, may retreat with great speed upon different points of a desert, continu- ally scattering and disappearing into it, safe from pursuit. This is frequently done by our border Indians. The in- fantry of the Scottish Highlands have frequently escaped after this fashion into their mountain fastnesses. The Defensive Plan. A defensive war may be carried on by remaining near our own borders and a 'little within them. Thence we sally into the enemy's country upon favorable occasions ; we have the advantage of short lines 124 MILITARY LESSONS. of operations, being near our own base ; in fact, the whole country will serve as a base to us. When the enemy enters our country, he will be continually weakened by detach- ments to hold the places he may take, to protect his con- voys of supplies, and to keep open his communications. The population, being unfriendly, will act as spies on his movements, and will inflict loss by cutting off stragglers, patrollers, etc., etc. The dispositions to be made in the defensive plan cannot be prescribed in a dogmatic manner. So many circum- stances come up for consideration, such as the nature of our own population, whether warlike or not ; the nature of the enemy, whether able and enterprising or the opposite ; the topography of the country, and a number of other cir- cumstances which ought to have weight in the decision, that none but the most general direction can be given. It is useless to attempt to defend the whole frontier; it is not practicable, and the attempt weakens our force by dispersion, so that it will have little or no effect on the enemy, and becomes liable to destruction in detail. It is best to seize and hold by a considerable force the points of penetration most favorable to the enemy, while the main body occupies a central position to the rear. With the main body the advanced posts must keep up a constant communication by means of swift couriers, signal- men, and telegraph. The enemy must be kept under con- tinual watch; and all his movements promptly reported to head- quarters. When he attacks any of the posts it must be stoutly defended to detain him there, until the main STRATEGY. 125 body and other detachments can be concentrated upon him. For this purpose an ample supply of the means of quick transportation must be kept in hand, ready at a moment's warning; such as railway-cars, wagons, etc. Should he succeed in penetrating the frontier, it may be well to lure him into the interior, where he may be attacked at disad- vantage. We should endeavor to fall upon his flanks while marching, or, still better, to cut his communications by getting in his rear. Everything which could be of use to him must be re- moved or destroyed. If he can be defeated in such a position, there is every probability of his total ruin. If this method of dealing with the enemy be not found practicable, we will know almost certainly what his lines of operations will be. Upon these we must have fortified and strengthened the narrow passes? or other strong places not liable to be turned, where we will receive his attack, and will expect to convert his repulse into total ruin. Should we be unsuccessful here, we must fall back, and concentrate on similar positions previously prepared, and so on in succession, rememberirg that it will never be too late to despair.- We will add but a few more remarks on this subject. The government should be extremely careful in selecting the general-in- chief ; and when he is once selected, they should not hamper him with minute instructions, but leave him a wide latitude of discretion. Nor should they be in great haste to remove him upon the first misfortune. Misfortunes and defeats have happened to the greatest mas- 126 MILITARY LESSONS. ters of war. Evidences of incapacity should be clearly per- ceived before a removal is resorted to. The fear of such a contingency may cramp the genius, and to a large extent in- capacitate -a really able general. Another thing to be borne in mind is, always to follow up a victory. How many great victories are recorded in history which have been without fruit from Hie supineness of the victors ! The army should be habituated to expect success, and to know that when the enemy is broken and driven from the field of battle their work has just begun. When he is retiring in dismay and confusion,, it will be ten times easier to break him up and annihilate him than to fight him another battle. Let the light cavalry and horse- artillery be launched upon his flanks and rear, incessantly pursuing and destroying. Let the remainder of the army follow as fast as may be ; the animation of success and the certainty of more success and greater success ought to destroy fatigue ; victors can afford to go hungry. An endeavor has been made in this chapter to point out some of the leading ideas of strategy : there are several treatises on this .subject; the elaborate one of Jomini being generally considered the best. The principles of strategy are not changeable j they are founded on human nature and the topographical features of the theater of war. These do not change. Tactics and even fortifications change with every new armament of the troops, but it is not so with strategy. Hence the best method of becoming acquainted with the subject is to closely study, assisted by good maps, the campaigns of the great masters, Alexander, Hannibal, Caesar, Napoleon, Wellington. CHAPTER VIII. THEORY OF FIRE AND TARGET PRACTICE. "T^TOTWITHSTANDING all the talk which we hear JL 1 about bayonet charges, it has long been recognized to be a fact, that the principal effect of infantry is to be found in their fire. And this is still more certainly the truth since the universal introduction of arms of precision, and the greater amount of target practice which obtains in the instruction of soldiers. It is proposed here to investi- gate to some extent the principles on which firing is done ; but beforehand to make some remarks upon the phenomena of the combustion of gunpowder in the barrel of a gun. When powder is inflamed in the barrel, an elastic fluid is developed which escapes- with violence from its confinement, and drives before it whatever is in its way. The velocity with which the ball is chased from the gun is the speed with which it moves. Velocity is space passed over in a unit of time. The initial velocity is that with which the projectile moves at the instant of leaving the gun. Powder does not bum all at once, but progressively ; the exterior grains burn first, and disengage a large volume of gas, which, moving with a high velocity, penetrates into the interstices of the remaining grains, setting them on fire, 128 MILITARY LESSONS. and so on until all the grains are burned. In this way, at each successive instant more and more gas is developed, so that the ball, although it moves over the length of the gun-barrel in an extremely short time, yet acquires its velocity gradually, and attains its maximum velocity only when it has arrived at the muzzle of the bore. Any degree of dampness is injurious to gunpowder, so that its effect is less in rainy than in dry weather. The initial velocity of the projectile depends on the amount of the charge, the quality of the powder, the length of the bore, the size and density of the ball, and on the windage. The Windage is the amount of space between the sides of the bore and the surface of the ball ; or, it is the space by which it fails to fill the bore. For any given ball and given length of bore, there is a maximum velocity, beyond which it is useless to try to go. In smooth-bore cannon it is attained by a charge one third the weight of the ball. If there is no windage, as is the case in rifles, the experiments of different nations, though quite various in result, seem to indicate a charge about one tenth the weight of the modern balls. The longer the projectile is subjected to the accelerative force of the gas, the greater velocity will it require, which would indicate long barrels as the best ; but there is a limit to this, arising from various causes. In smooth-bore arms, there is, on account of the windage, shocks and friction of the ball against the sides of the bore, which rapidly diminish the velocity, and place a limit to the length of the barrel, which for such pieces is about forty inches. FIRE AND TARGET PRACTICE. 129 The more resistance the gas of exploded powder meets with the more force it develops ; consequently the heavier the projectile is the greater the amount of motion it re- ceives. A ball twice as heavy 'as another will receive more than half as much motion from the same charge. With a given charge small and light projectiles receive the highest velocity while within the bore, but as soon as they are out they rapidly lose it, because of their relative incapacity to overcome the resistance of the air. Recoil. There is no action without a corresponding reaction, and consequently we find that the greater the charge the more is the bottom of the bore driven back, and the action on the arm is greater than it is on the projectile, because the arm receives the whole of the reaction, while the projectile, on account of the windage, does not receive the whole of the action ; besides, the gas continues to react on the piece, even after the ball has left the muzzle. The velocity thus impressed upon the gun is called the recoil. With an initial velocity of 1,475 feet, the smooth-bore infantry musket would experience a recoil which, if it were expressed in velocities of the ball, would be 2,314 feet ; that is to say, that the ball would have to be moving with a velocity of 2,314, in order that it might strike the musket and communicate to it the velocity which it really has when the ball leaves it with only a velocity of 1,475 feet. But velocities are in the inverse ratio of the masses to be moved; and the musket spoken of weighs about 174 times as much as its ball, so that the backward velocity of the gun is Yr-T = 13-3 ^ ee ^- This velocity is sufficient to 6* i 130 MILITARY LESSONS. hurt the shoulder, unless the gun is pressed tight against it, joining the mass of the man's body to that of the gun. Now if we suppose the effective weight of the body acting in this manner is ten times that of the gun, the velocity of recoil would be only 1.3 feet, which is easily bearable. Moreover, this does not take in to account the crook or angle in the stock of the piece, which 'mitigates very much the effect of the recoil, because the force being thus de- composed into two components, only one of them is ex- pended against the shoulder; the other tending to rotate the gun upwards. The ball leaves the gun so quick that the recoil has not much effect on the accuracy of the fire ; still it has some, and in guns for very close target shooting we see very heavy barrels ; their force of inertia being great enough to nearly or quite destroy all inaccuracy from the recoil. AVhen the ball is not down in contact with the powder, the gas, moving with a high velocity, is suddenly arrested by the ball, and there is every probability of the barrel being burst ; and the farther the ball is from the charge, the greater the danger. Not only may such an accident arise from a ball above its proper position, but mud or frozen snow have been known to burst a gun in this way. Heating of the Barrel. This arises from rapid firing, and bright and polished barrels heat faster than others. Experience demonstrates that a gun cannot be handled after it is heated to more than 165 or 170 Fahrenheit; and as gunpowder requires a heat of about 400 to explode FIRE AND TARGET PRACTICE. 131 it, there can never be any danger from the heat of the barrel. There are three lines necessary to be known in a fire- Fig, i. JK \A arm with their relative positions, to wit : The line of sight) the visual ray A B E G which passes along the top points of the breech and muzzle,, and is directed upon the object to be struck ; second, the axis or line of fire, which is the axis of the bore prolonged CD X ; third, the trajectory D E' T G H, described by the center of the ball in its flight. The projectile, being fired along the direction of the axis CD X, would follow that line if it were not drawn by the force of gravity ; but under the influence of that force it is always below D X. If it did not encounter the resistance of the air, that is, were it fired in vacuo, the curve described would be a parabola ; but the resistance of the atmosphere modifies the shape of the curve, and modifies it the more as the velocity is greater. The shape of a gun, large or small, is larger at the breech than at the muzzle, so that the line of sight makes an angle BED with the axis, and cuts it at a short distance in the point E. The angle B E D is called the Angle of Sight. As the lowering of the ball in the earliest moments of its 132 MILITARY LESSONS. flight is but small, the trajectory cuts the line of sight in a point E 1 quite near ito E, especially in small arms, passes above it, and afterwards in the descending branch cuts it a second time at G, which is named the Point-Blank. The axis, the line of sight, and the trajectory all lie in the same vertical plane, called the plane of fire. This is quite natural, for there can be no reason, in the ordinary condition of things, why the ball should go to the right rather than to the left, when it is of homogeneous material and symmet- rical in shape. The Range is the distance to which the projectile goes ; B G is fas point-blank range. The Angle of Fire is the angle which the axis makes with the horizon, or a level line ; on a level plain the range in- creases as the angle of fire increases up to a certain limit, which depends on the size and velocity of the projectile. This angle is called the angle of greatest range, and is never greater than 45, which is the angle of greatest range of a projectile in vacno when supposed to be moving with a low velocity. The angle of greatest range for a musket is from 25 to 35. There are several causes which would make the range vary from the point-blank range, the chief being, first, the velocity of the ball ; second, its diameter and weight ; third, the inclination of the line of sight ; and, fourth, the shape of the barrel. 1. We have already remarked that the velocity depends on the charge, length of bore, etc. 2. The diameter and weight of the ball will produce changes in the range, because the larger and denser it is, FIRE AND TARGET PRACTICE. 133 the better will it overcome the resistance of the air, the longer retain its velocity, and the more accurate be its flight compared with another ball having the same or even a greater velocity, but which is smaller and less dense. 3. The inclination of the line of sight will make a dif- ference, but only when that inclination is considerable. When the gun is pointed upwards the force of gravity diminishes the velocity and brings the point-blank near ; on the other hand, when it is pointed downwards, gravity helps the ball onward and produces the contrary effect. But for inclinations within 15 above and below the level, this effect amounts to but little. 4. The greater the difference between the diameters of the breech and muzzle, the greater will be the angle B ED = X E G } and the greater the distance to the point-blank. On the other hand, the less the difference between those diameters, the nearer will the point-blank be brought. If this difference be continually diminished, the line of sight will finally become tangent to the trajectory, and there will be no point-blank; consequently, if the line of sight is parallel to the axis, there is no point-blank. In the same model of arms the forms are the same, con- sequently the angle of sight remains the same ; the charges are the same, and so are the balls ; the habitual elevations and depressions are within +15, so that we consider the points- blank and trajectories as practically invariable. It results from this that the line of sight and trajectory may be considered as having a constant relation to each other; and we would know the principles of fire if we knew the 134 MILITARY LESSONS. positions of the different points of the trajectory with re- spect to the line of sight. Figure 1 shows that, in order to strike an object at the point-blank, we must aim directly at it, that is at G ; that to strike an object P this side of the point-blank, we must aim under it by the space P M' = P M } which is the rise of the trajectory above the object Q, and, on the other hand, if we wish to strike an object Q, beyond the point-blank, we must aim above by the space N' Q = N'Q, the distance of the trajectory below the object. If we were to aim directly at Q, the ball would pass below it at ff. Now if we increase the angle of sight, the part of the trajectory E TH lying above the new line of sight, KH, will be greater ; the ball being fired under a greater angle will go farther, and the new point-blank If will be more remote than the former one G. The angle of sight may be augmented, and the diameter of the breech apparently in- creased by using a hausse, or hind-sight A K. (Fig. 2.) This hausse enables us to look directly at the object instead of aiming above it, which will be, of course, more accurate and more convenient. These hausses are often seen on the breeches of muskets, or near them, and either turn on hinges or are arranged to slide up and down upon upright pieces. To find the Hausse. Having directed the line of sight AB on the point n, raised above the object by the distance Fig. 2. FIRE AND TARGET PRACTICE. 135 q n, fix the arm in that position, then place a small stem or standard A K on the bore of the breech, and sight along it from B to q, and mark the point K where the prolongation of q B passes. It will readily be understood that the use of the hausse has the effect of augmenting the angle of fire, for it lowers the breech and raises the muzzle which increases the angle of fire. Construction of the Trajectory The line of the trajec- tory can be calculated from an equation which is approxi- mately true, and then constructed, but it is better done by experiment. Place on a line upon a level surface a number of screens made by stretching canvass upon frames and fire a number of shots, under the same condition as to aim, elevation, charge, etc., through them, and then find on each screen the mean position of the points struck or mean impact. These points of mean impact being connected, give the tra- jectory. One screen only may be used by placing it succes- sively in the different positions. After firing on 'it at each position, the screen may be covered with paper or cloth pasted on it. Causes of Deviation in the Projectile. 1. The barrel. Want of accurate construction or any crookedness here will prevent the ball following the proper direction. Any change in the position of the sights will change the range or the direction. Thus if the hausse, or hind-sight, is too much to the right, the ball will go too much to the right ; and the same for the left. 2. The windage. The ball 136 MILITARY LESSONS. being loose in the bore will ricochet from one side to the other as it passes out, and consequently will not follow the axis. This is not so in the rifle. This bounding may take place in any direction, but it usually occurs in a vertical plane, modifying the angle of fire by several min- utes of a degree. Combined Effect of the Action of the Air, and of Imperfec- tions in the Projectile. When a body is thrown out into the air it takes up a motion of rotation, and the point about which it rotates is its center of gravity. The center of gravity is that point by which the body must be sus- pended in order to remain in whatever position is given to it. The rotation is around an axis passing through the center of gravity. If there were no resistance of the air, the centre of grav- ity of the body would move as if the body were not turn- ing; but the fact is quite otherwise, on account of the resistance which the air makes to a body moving with a high velocity. This resistance, which when the round ball first leaves the gun is about 98 times its weight, causes so much greater effect as the motion is eccentric, that is, as the amount of air encountered is greater. In a ball of perfect sphericity and homogeneous material, the center of gravity and the center of figure coincide, and the only resistance is that of friction. But as balls are not perfectly round and homogeneous, these two centers will be separate ; now the force of the powder acting on the mass is applied to the center of grav- FIRE AND TARGET PRACTICE. 137 ity, and the air acting on the surface is applied to the center of figure ; hence will arise a motion of rotation of the center of figure around the center of gravity, the lighter part of the projectile around the heavier part; a motion which will be greater as the two centers are farther apart, and the resistance of the air greater. The effect of the resultant of the resistance of the air would nearly always be to push the ball out of the plane of fire, for it would be an accident for it to happen to be directly in the path of the center of gravity. The trajectory would thus become a curve of double curvature. If the axis of rotation should be perpendicular to the plane of fire, and the center of gravity be in that plane, there would be no deviation. If the center of gravity should be in the plane of fire, and the heaviest part in front, there would be no rotation at all. The motion of rotation just spoken of, in connection with those of the shocks in the barrel, gives rise to very irregular trajectories. The greater, then, the resistance of the air, the greater the deviation ; and of balls of the same size, the lighter will be farthest driven from its path. And it is to be remarked, that balls of the same material and less diameter will be deviated in a greater proportion. Thus a ball one half the diameter of the musket- ball would weigh ^ as much ; the resistance of the air due to its weight would be 92 X 8 ; but since the surface of the little kill is only | that of the larger one, the resistance would be 98 4 = 98 X 2 ; double as much as that of the larger ball in proportion. 138 MILITARY LESSONS. All things else then being equal, the largest, densest, and best shaped balls are those which are least driven from the natural path. 4. The temperature and degree of dampness of the air, and amount of dampness of the powder, will influence the range and trajectory. 5. The wind blowing across the path of the ball will cause it to deviate more or less, according to the strength of the wind. If it is a strong wind blowing directly across the trajectory, it has been found to deviate the ball about |- inch in 1GO yards. It acts like an accelerative force, the deviation being proportional to the squares of the distances; thus at 320 yards the deviation would be ^ X 4 = 2 inches. The wind may also throw a ball up or down as well as sidewise. Inaccuracy may also arise from the unevenness of the ground over which we fire deceiving the sight. When firing at a moving object it is necessary to aim at the point where we suppose the object will be when the ball has gone over the distance. For instance, a horseman crossing the line of sight at the distance of 160 yards at a gallop say with a velocity of twenty -two feet per second will advance eleven feet in half a second. The ball will arrive there in that time. The horse is about nine feet long, so we should aim about three to four and a half feet in front of his head. Deviation from Unskillfulness of the Marksman. The greatest cause of deviations are in the marksman himself. A soldier after having taken a good aim often destroys it FIRE AND TARGET PRACTICE. 139 by a sudden jerk on the trigger. Soldiers should be taught to take aim with an empty gun, at first with a rest and then offhand. The visual ray must pass from the bottom of the notch of the hausse, or hind-sight, to the top of the front-sight, and thence to the object. If the eye is raised above the proper position, the gun will shoot too high. They should be practiced in snapping caps at a lighted candle, so as to learn to pull the trigger gradually, keeping the line of sight on the flame. If placed three and a half feet from the muzzle, it will be blown out by a correct aim. From this they should advance to firing blank cartridges, and afterwards firing ball cartridges, carefully at a target. They should be taught to plant their feet firmly ; the left foot thrown to the front, and the right foot at a dis- tance of one pace to the right, and pointing in that direc- tion. The sights must be exactly on top ; should they be revolved over towards the right, the ball will go too much to the right ; and the converse. Target practice should be frequent and conducted with the utmost painstaking. The men should be taught to judge of distances promptly and with accuracy. To this end men should be stationed at different distances, which should be known to all, and the soldiers taught to note what features or parts of the dress are distinguishable by the eye at the different distances. Afterwards men should be stationed at unknown distances, and the troops prac- ticed in guessing them ; they should be subsequently measured. Stadia. This is a little instrument carried by the 140 MILITARY LESSONS. officers and non-commissioned officers, which is used to determine distances. It is an oblong piece of brass out of which is cut an isosceles triangle,, the base of which is much smaller than its altitude. The stadia when used is held at an uniform distance (the length of the arm) in front of the eye ; the altitude of the triangle being horizontal. It is graduated with a number of vertical lines, on which are marked certain numbers. These numbers are the dis- tances in yards at which a constant object, like the height of a footman from top of cap to sole of foot, can just be seen through the triangular slit at those marks. On the other side it is graduated for a horseman. To keep it at a constant distance from the eye a string is attached with a knot at the loose end, which is placed between the teeth when the instrument is in use. The string is attached to a slide, which moves right and left over the triangular slit, and assists in taking sight. To calculate the initial Velocity. Let two vertical disks of paper or cloth be placed at a known distance apart on a hori- zontal axis, and set to revolving uniformly with considerable velocity. Place the muzzle of the gun close to one of the disks, being parallel to and immediately over the axis of the machine; fire the gun, FIRE AND TARGET PRACTICE. 141 and note the position of the two points through which the ball passed. Suppose the disks were nine feet apart, and the machine mak- ing eight revolutions per Siuto : one revolution would be made in g- = 0".125. The ball first passed at 0, which was then in a ver- tical line, and through the second disk at F, which by that time was on the vertical line. Measure the angle VAC: suppose it = 30 = ^ the whole circumference. Hence the wheels were revolving 0". 125 12 104 If the ball goes nine feet in ^^ of a second, how far will it go in : 8 65 feet; and 10000 or a whole second ? 104 : 9 : : 10000 : x = 10000 ioooo v that was the initial velocity. CHAPTER IX. SMALL- AEMS. IT is proposed to mate a slight historical sketch of small- arms^ commencing with a hasty glance at those which antedated the invention of gunpowder. It is not pos- sible to find out what arms were first invented, nor when nor by whom. The exigencies of men in the simplest form of savage life would demand weapons of some kind for the purposes of hunting, and for defense against wild beasts. Almost simultaneously wars would arise having their origin in the passions of men or the necessities of self-defense. Unable to cope successfully with those whom nature had endowed with superior strength, the weak would seek to supple- ment their deficient power by the artificial aid of weap- ons. The first weapons undoubtedly were clubs and goads, or sharpened poles. As the stronger would still be the victors in this kind' of strife, the weak would resort to fighting from a distance by hurling stones. At first, no doubt, this would be done by hand, and soon after by slings. Then would follow arrows shot from bows, giv- ing an opportunity for skill to triumph over mere force. SMALL-ARMS. 143 The discovery of metals at a late date would induce the invention of lances, swords, helmets, and defensive ar- mor for the body. We are told in the Book of Genesis that Abraham, when he went to the rescue of his kins- man Lot, "numbered of the servants born in his house three hundred and eighteen well appointed and pursued them (the enemy) to Dan/'' It is very remarkable that we should find in the Bible so little distinct and valuable information on the subject of weapons, for the Israelites were a very warlike people, and they were almost continually engaged in war with their neighbors. These wars are recorded with their re- sults ; but almost nothing is given in detail of the nature of their arms. Eome, Greece, Egypt, and Assyria have all left us sat- isfactory records on this subject in the way of descrip- tions, inscriptions, pictures, bas-reliefs, and specimens either handed down or dug out of ruins; but the case is different with Palestine. And yet we are far more fa- miliar with the history of the Israelites than with that of any of their contemporaries. Something, however, -can be gleaned by minute atten- tion to this subject. The earliest mention of the sword is in Genesis xxxiv. 25, where, in the account of the massacre of Shechem, it is stated that " Simeon and Levi took each man his sword and came upon the city boldly and slew all the males/'' Frequent mention is af- terwards made of the sword, b it we know nothing of its shape, weight, and mode of use. It was called a ckereb ; 144 MILITARY LESSONS. and as David,, who was not remarkably large and strong, was able to use with facility the chereb of the giant Goliath, we may infer that the ordinary sword was much less in proportion to a man than is the modern sword. We also infer that it was worn in a scabbard and slung from the waist by a belt, from the expressions, "girding on the sword/' " men that drew the sword/' etc. There are different kinds of spears mentioned, the lar- gest of which was the chanith. Of this sort was Goliath's, with its handle like a weaver's beam, and its iron head weighing 600 shekels, about 25 pounds. There was also the cidon, which is supposed to have corresponded with the javelin. A third kind was the ro- macli, which was a spear in common use. Bows and ar- rows are mentioned in Genesis, while the earliest mention of slings is made in the Book of Judges, chapter xx. Occasional reference is made to breastplates, helmets, and shields. Battering-rams are mentioned in Ezekiel iv. 2, and elsewhere in the same book. These implements of war were well known to the Egyptians and Assyr- ians. At a very early period cities were protected by walls, from which arrows and stones were fired upon the assail- ants, and from which chariots, armed with scythes, issued to carry, by the speed and strength of horses, dismay and havoc amid the ranks of the enemy. Soon came the use of cavalry acting by their shock, and elephants, on the backs of which were towers filled with archers ; then cars carrying catapults and balistse ; and then cross-bows, mus- SMALL-ARMS. 145 kets, cannons, repeating rifles,, mitrailleuses. Who can foresee the end of these mechanisms? Courage and skill, strengthened by military discipline and a knowledge of the art of war, are potent elements of victory; but the effect due to the nature of the arms is incontestably great. Thus the use of cuirasses at one time gave the prepon- derance to physical strength; but the invention of fire- arms removed this distinction. You will readily recall to memory the saying that " gunpowder makes all men equally tall." Even when both parties use the same arm, the difference of quality, shape, and method of use is of high importance. Witness the speedy and pa-ralyzing defeat of the Sadowa campaign, due more than to any other cause to the difference between the Austrian rifle and the Prussian needle-gun. The greatest of generals have ever been solicitous to secure the best improved arms. The Romans, those great masters of the art of war, never hesitated to abandon their own arms or mili- tary devices, and to adopt those of their enemies, when they found them of superior quality. Arms may be classified into those requiring for their use more than one man, or artillery, and those suscep- tible of being used by a single individual, or small-arms. Let us confine our attention, for the present, to the lat- ter. Small-arms are of two kinds, those with which we strike the enemy immediately and directly, such as the sword, the saber, and the lance or bayonet, and, secondly, protective arms, used for fighting at a distance. Of this 7 J 146 MILITARY LESSONS. kind are the musket, rifle,, and pistol in modern times, and among the ancients the bow, the sling, and the cross- bow. The first class were those first in use. They were made of wood, having points and edges of bone or flint ; after- wards they were manufactured out of copper and bronze, as these were metals more easily worked than iron. The precise epoch at which weapons of iron and steel were introduced among the Komans cannot be ascertained, but it is highly probable that the short Spanish sword which they adopted was of iron, tempered or converted into steel, inasmuch as iron ore abounded in Spain. The arms of the ancients were pikes, swords, sabers, and axes. The pike, according to its dimensions, was called by different names. The sarissa of the Greeks was a pike from 16 to 26 feet long, and was borne by the infantry; the lance, which was neither so long nor so heavy, was the weapon of the cavalry ; and the hasta, of medium pro- portions, was used by both kinds of troops. The pilum of the Romans was about seven feet long ; it could be used as a pike, but ordinarily it was hurled against the enemy. The javelin was a half-pike, and served the same purpose as the Eoman pilum. The Franks used an arm called the angon, which was a javelin, but the point had beards turned towards the rear, like those of a fish-hook, which when buried in the flesh or in a buckler was extremely difficult to be extracted. The javelot was a long and very sharp dart thrown by the hand. The lance carried by the knights of the Middle Ages was from 13 to 20 feet in SMALL-ARMS. 147 length, and had a heavy shoe on the end to make it more manageable. Somewhat akin to the pike was the sponton and the demi-sponton, which was between 6J and 7 feet long, and was in use during the times from Louis XIII. to Louis XY. ; the halberd and partizan, which, beside the pike-head, had on each side a little ax, or an ax and a point, or two crotchets or hooks. They were in the hands of the officers of the foot troops only. Swords and sabers were of various shapes and dimen- sions. The Roman sword was broad, short, and straight, being very suitable for thrusting; that of the Gauls was long, straight, and keen, but was liable to break during a combat. The scimitar is a heavy saber sharply curved towards the point. The dagger is a heavy poniard. The ax is a very ancient arm, and has had a variety of sizes and shapes. The Franks used a small ax or hatchet, called the francisk, which they threw at the enemy. Then came battle-axes, marteaus (a species of hammers), and masses d'armes, calculated for breaking and crushing armor. Among protective arms the Sling is the most primitive. It is a sack, or bed of leather, sustained by two thongs, one larger than the other, and wrapped around the hand, the other retained under the thumb until the moment of pro- jecting the stone which lies in the sack, when it is allowed to escape. By a rapid motion of rotation a strong cen- trifugal force is impressed upon the stone, which can be hurled more than 300 yards. 148 MILITARY LESSONS. The inhabitants of the Balearic Islands formerly had a great reputation as slingers. The Bow, likewise,, goes back to a very high antiquity. The bow is usually made of the yew-tree, which is both tough and elastic, and varies in length from 5 to 8 feet for battle purposes, although it must be noted that the Ameri- can Indians make use of much shorter bows, which are deadly at short range. It is not unusual for them to drive an arrow through the body of a buffalo, and the combina- tion of rapidity of firing with accuracy of aim is superior to that of the revolver. But the quiver is soon ex- hausted. In ancient times the Cretans were renowned as archers, and in times more recent the bow was the toy, the pride, and the triumph of England. According to the stories of certain authors, the man who could not put one dozen arrows into the target in one minute was no soldier at all. They report also that the arrows would pierce through a two-inch plank at a distance of 250 yards. Bows are sometimes made of steel, and, whether made of wood or metal, it is the elasticity of the material which gives the bow its power; and the larger, tougher, and heavier it is the more powerful the weapon becomes. The Arrow, as is well known, is a long and slender stalk or shaft of wood, armed with a sharp head of . steel, and having some feathers arranged on either side near the rear end. The sharp and long head of the arrow easily cleaves the atmosphere, and the feathers, meeting with more resistance from the air, are compelled to remain in SMALL-ARMS. 149 the rear, thus insuring the point moving in front and striking the target. By this simple and ingenious mech- anism the superiority of the bow over stone-slinging ma- chines was speedily demonstrated. The Parthians also were famous archers, and probably owed to their bows their independence from the Roman yoke. You will remember how helpless the Roman legions were, even though commanded by so able a general as the Emperor Julian, when pursued and harassed by the mounted archers of Parthia. The crossbow was a more formidable arm than the bow even, since more powerful bows could be used, and the accuracy of the fire, for the average man, was much superior. It was introduced into England from the East by Richard Coeur de Lion at the .'time of the Crusades, but it was not adopted by the Erench till a somewhat later period. The Crossbow consisted of a bow mounted crosswise upon a stock shaped something like a gun-stock, with the butt arranged to fit against the shoulder, and permit accurate aim to be taken by the eye. Along this stalk was a channel in which was laid the arrow. Towards the rear, and about in the position of the hammer of a modern gun-lock, was a small wheel, in a notch on the rim of which was the bow-string when drawn back for a shot. To this wheel was attached a trigger; and when the trigger was drawn, the wheel revolved, releasing the string which chased the arrow before it along the channel. 150 MILITARY LESSONS. When the bow was very strong, there was attached a reel and crank for hauling back the bow-string to its place. The Arquebuse (from arqui, or arc, and buse, a nozzle or tube) was a crossbow in which the open channel was replaced by a tube or barrel, to contain the pro- jectile, which was generally a lead ball. This barrel was slit on either side to allow the bow-string to traverse back and forth. The sling, bow, and crossbow had the disadvantage of spreading the troops out so that their formation was not suitable for receiving charges of cavalry, and, besides, their range was not very considerable. Hence we are not surprised that a low value was set upon them in the ancient armies compared with the kand- arms, like swords and pikes, which permitted a close order and the shock of heavy lines or columns. When firearms were first introduced, although very much superior to the ancient protective arms, they were not adapted to the kind of formation then in vogue. Men armed with them could not act in the interior of solid squares which were used to resist cavalry ; but after the fire of artillery had abolished the practice of deep formations, and when the musket had become both a hand- arm and a projective arm, the infantry found their prin- cipal force was in their fire. The use of defensive armor was general in ancient warfare. The infantry of the line wore helmets, cui- rasses, steeled half-boots and bucklers; and the heavy SMALL-ARMS. 151 cavalry were cuirassed by bands of leather covered with sheet-brass. Coats of mail were worn in the time of Charlemagne, but continuous armor was not yet intro- duced. In France Louis VII. first adopted that kind of armor. It was improved and rendered heavier from time to time, so that at last a knight could only be killed by the battle-ax or morteau, which could crash through his habiliments of steel. But the fire of artillery, which soon after came into general use, changed this fashion. Firearms. When firearms were first introduced as a military weapon, they were not what we now call portable firearms, that is, such as are easily handled by one man, but were much heavier. The culcerin,, the hand-cannon, the baston, and bom- bard', were the various names of certain arms which were much the same, consisting essentially of an iron or brass tube which was mounted on a trestle when it was to be fired. They were loaded with gunpowder and a ball of lead, and fired off by means of a burning match. They required two men for their service, as they weighed from 25 to 70 pounds. Although such machines would now- adays be regarded as ridiculously clumsy and inefficient, they had a very decided effect, since there was no cuirass that could withstand their projectiles. Accordingly they multiplied rapidly; introduced first about 1350, by the year 1380 they were in general use.* * It is said_ by some that the English had five cannon placed on a hill near the village of Crecy in 1340, during the famous battle there under Ed- ward III. 152 MILITARY LESSONS. Breech-loading weapons also were invented and tried about this era some of these cannons having a movable breech or chest to contain the charge,, which could be taken out and replaced, being fastened in position by an iron key or wedge ; but as these arrangements were not sufficiently secure, and gave rise to numerous accidents, they were soon abandoned. As the culverins were heavy and awkward to handle and point, they were soon replaced by a smaller gun resting on trunnions, which per- mitted them to revolve on a horizontal axis, and the inclination was given by an elevating screw placed under the breech. The whole was supported by a tripod. By this means the gun could be turned in any direction, and the necessary elevation or depression given to it. The breech terminated in a handle, which was held in the left hand while the match was applied by the right. These guns were denominated arquebuses, without any very good reason that we can see. Soon after this was invented a lighter kind of arquebuse, fitted on to a stock that could be raised to the shoulder. The vent was pierced in the side of the breech, and there SMALL-ARMS. 153 was a pan provided near to and under it, to hold the priming powder. The marksman held up this arquebuse with his left hand, at the same time pressing it against the shoulder, and with the right hand applied the lighted match to the powder in the pan. Still this arm was too heavy to be used without a rest, which was accordingly provided in the shape of a fork stuck in the ground. The improvement of firearms rapidly brought on their adoption. They were used by the Burgundians to defend Arras against Charles VI. in 1414, and in 1449 twenty thousand men armed with arquebuses marched from Milan to raise the siege of Mariquan. At a time somewhat subsequent, the people of Brabrant used 300 small bombards in the siege of Bruges. Firearms were slow in making their way among the French, owing to the attachment of that people to the institutions of chivalry ; but they began to come into use under Charles VII. and Louis XI. At that epoch they were quite common in Switzerland, Flanders, and Italy. Ten thousand hand- cannons were employed by the Swiss in the battle of Morat ; and in the expedition of Charles VIII., one tenth of the infantry were armed with arque- buses, and in the time of Francis I. they had become common in France."* Although the arquebuse had been manufactured so light that it could be fired without the use of a rest, it was * They were introduced into the English army in 1471, when Edward IV. landed at Ravenspur, having 300 Flemings in his train, who were armed with portable firearms. 7* 154 MILITARY LESSONS. impossible to attain much accuracy in the fire, on account of sighting while touching off with the match. This in- convenience was remedied by the two following inventions. The first was made in 1380,, and consisted of a kind of sweep, or vertical piece revolving on a horizontal axis,, the lower end occupying the position of a trigger, and being pressed by the finger in the same manner. The upper end was composed of two jaws enclosing a piece of burning slow-match ; when the finger was pressed on the trigger, this upper end approached the priming-pan and inserted the end of the match into the powder. The second kind of mechanism, called the wheel-lock, was perfected at Nuremberg in 1517. It consisted of a small wheel made of steel, having its circumference cut into little channels and ribs, like the edge of a milled dollar. This wheel was placed in the priming-pan, to the bottom of which it reached in the midst of the powder. The wheel was connected on the interior with a small chain, which chain was attached to a spring, after the manner of the machinery of a watch. Behind the pan was the dog or cocky holding between its jaws a composition of iron and antimony, which was called pyrites. A spring pressed the dog down, bringing the composition in contact with the periphery of the wheel. SMALL-ARMS. 155 To put this lock into action a crank was fitted on the end of the shaft of the wheel,, and by turning the crank the chain was wound up around the axle and the spring drawn taut. When wound up,, a small pin was slipped in to hold the wheel in place, and then the crank was re- moved. The gun was now ready to fire, or cocked, as we would say nowadays. To fire it off the cover of the pan was turned on its hinges, disengaging the pin; immediately the spring set the wheel to turning, and its rough edge whirling in contact with the composition created sparks of fire, which exploded the priming. Small arquebuses with this kind of lock were made about the year 1545 for the use of cavalry. They were short, and the stock terminated in a gripe for the hand, being intended to be fired with only one hand, the arm being extended. They were first fabricated at Pistoie, a town in Tuscany, and hence were named pistols. The diminution of the caliber of the arms rendering their effect too slight, some arquebuses of a heavier caliber were made, the stock at the rear departing from the line of direc- tion of the bore at a considerable angle. This was done to diminish the shock from the recoil; which was effected still further by placing the butt of the piece against the plastron of the cuirass, thus spreading the influence of the recoil over a greater surface. They were called petrinals, or poitrenials, from the French word for breast. They were, however, very awkward pieces, and were soon aban- doned. We may as well explain the word caliber, or cotober, 156 MILITARY LESSONS. which we have just used. The caliber of an arm is deter- mined by the weight of its projectile in aliquot parts of a pound ; thus a gun is of the caliber of twenty when twenty of its balls weigh a pound. The Spaniards, under the Emperor Charles V., used at the battle of Pavia the mousquit, or musket,, which was a heavy arm of the caliber of eight, and required a fork for a rest. These pieces were soon after successfully reduced in caliber down to eighteen or twenty to the pound, and this caliber has reached down to our days. Rifled arms, that is, pieces with spiral grooves cut on the interior of the bore, were known as early as the end of the fifteenth century. The invention of firearms did not bring about the im- mediate disuse of the sling, the bow, and the crossbow. They were not finally abandoned as military weapons until about 1560, while the English, owing to their superiority as archers, clung to the bow until 1627. Notwithstanding the advantages presented by the new arms, they possessed the same drawback as the old ones in preventing that kind of formation necessary for resistance to the onset of cavalry. Such was the condition of firearms after three centuries of experiment and improvement, when the invention of the flint-lock brought about an entire revolution. The matchlock required the soldier to keep on hand a supply of slow-match and to keep it burning, which betrayed ambuscades and night marches; besides it was almost impossible to use them in damp weather, and quite SMALL-ARMS. 157 out of the question in the rain. The wheel-lock, although somewhat better, was complicated, costly, and often missed fire. The flint-lock was introduced, and speedily it went through a number of modifications, until it attained the form which all are familiar with, wherein the trigger, being pulled by the finger, gives play to the main-spring, the main-spring dashes forward, the cock having the flint in its jaws; the flint strikes against the steel face of the battery, peeling off little fragments of the metal, which by the friction and velocity of the flint develop heat sufficient to become red-hot, forming sparks. The shock throws back the battery, exposing the powder in the priming-pan, and the sparks, falling into the same, explode it. This superior arm required a considerable time to drive out the match-lock, which was so extremely simple, from that dread of complicated machinery which militates at the pres- ent time against the adoption of improved arms. The flint-lock was introduced into the English service in 1692, under William of Orange. The musket was finally recognized as by far the best protective arm ever known amongst mankind, but it was not yet a ^