UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT LOS ANGELES THE Teaching of Geogkaphy BY WILLIAM J. SUTHERLAND, M. A, PRESIDENT STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, PLATTEVILLE, WISCONSIN SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY CHICAGO ATLANTIC NEY YORK Copyright 1009 BY SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY 2 54 V) s PREFACE. To all students of geography it is a lamentable fact that there is even yet a lack of respect for this branch of science. Though we have a "new geography" rich and vital in its possibilities to ^ contribute to twentieth century education, vet all l too many teachers are oblivious of the significance ^i* and value of the subject and, in the schoolroom, are rattling the dry bones of formal statement and definition. Their view of the subject, and their method of teaching it, restricts its value and >|. curtails the interest which it ought to enlist from pupils. The object of this volume is, first of all, to present and instill in the minds of teachers the true nature of modern geography. Therefore ^ Part I is devoted to the "Nature and Scope of 5? Geography." It is hoped that its careful study ^ will result in establishing a correct and broad view of a subject whose content is rich in edu- cative possibilities. Part 11 of the volume is devoted to "Methods of Teaching Geography." It is true that a better conception of the subject would, in itself, correct, to considerable extent, the old and irrational methods of presentation. And yet, the more ex- plicit suggestions and directions which are given I o 4 PKEFACE in Part II, may be of use to teachers generally in teaching' children the subject-matter. It may be quite proper to state that the general view as here held, together with the discussion of method, and the "Practical Suggestions," are the direct outgrowth of the author's years of experience in teaching the subject to children and to prospec- tive and active teachers. The method suggested is thought to be educationally sound in the light of present day educational progress. Part III is devoted to "Practical Suggestions." Instruction in geography should be concrete and real. Through excursions, illustrative materials, pictures and current literature, the vitalizing con- tact with life may be secured. Hence suggestions looking to this end are given. The bibliographies at the end of the various chapters will indicate the sources from which the author has secured inspiration and help. The author is especially indebted to Professor 11. L. Roberts of the Department of Geography and Geology, State Normal School, Cape Girar- deau, Missouri, for reading and criticising the manuscript; and to Professor AY. AY. Martin, head of the Training Department of the same institu- tion, for bints and suggestions. Acknowledgement for suggestions is made to Principal L. L. Rverly of the Teachers' Training School of St. Paul; to Professor Thomas Gentle of the Training Department, State Normal School, Plattoville, Wisconsin, for valuable sug- gestions and for testing materials and methods PREFACE 5 in actual class teaching; and to Professor C. M. Sanford, also of the State Normal School, Platte- ville, Wisconsin, for valuable assistance. Hoping that this volume will meet the needs of teachers anxious to do better work in a very rich and important subject of elementary educa- tion, it is respectfully submitted. William J. Sutherland. Platteville, Wisconsin, Sept. 25, 1909. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Preface 3 PART ONE: THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF GEOGRAPHY CHAPTER I Introduction : The Nature of Geography 17 General attitude toward the subject. "What a comprehensive treatment must recognize. Physiographic processes as explaining conditions of the earth 's surface. Geography includes a study of the earth's surface in its present condition. Physiographic processes and features as conditioning the life of the earth. Man's adjustment to favorable earth conditions, and his transformation of unfavorable. Social side of geography. CHAPTER II Geographic Conditions and Effects, or Controls and Responses 27 Importance of physical conditions and their relationship to life. The idea of geographic controls and responses. Classification and brief discussion of controls. (a) Temperature. (b) Moisture. (c) Soils and rocks. (d) The atmosphere. (e) ( Irganie controls. (f ) Topographic and barrier controls. (g) Human and social controls. Summary. 7 8 TABLE OF CONTENTS chapter irr Phases of Geographical Study Page . 38 The Phases stated. Observational geography. (a) Aim of. (b) Importance of basal ideas. (e) Nature study and observational geography not differentiated. (d) Teachers should cultivate an interest in observa- tional geography. Representative geography. (a) The character of representative geography: a form of expression. (b) Educative value of expression. J lescriptive geography. (a) A medium through which the child can secure earth knowledge beyond the circle of observed phenomena. (b) Descriptive geography finds a place in the inter- mediate grades. (c) Character of the knowledge gained through de- scriptive geography. Notion of the world as a whole reached inductively. Rational geography. (a) The causal (lenient introduced. (b) Importance of the causal or rational element. The social phase of geography. (a; What knowledge is of most worth to the child.' (b) The social phase dominant in commercial am! eco- nomic geography. The CHAPTER IV {elation ok (Jeogkaphy to the Sciences..... he relation of geography^to geology. he relation of geography to meteorology. he relation of geography to physical sciences. he relation of geography to biological sciences. he relation of geography to agriculture. TABLE Oh' COS TENTH 9 Page All science related to geography. .Much science rightfully belongs to geography; to eliminate it impoverishes the subject. CHAPTER V Tiik Relation of Geography to History G3 Geography the basis of history. The ''old'' geography ignored geographic influence. Illustrations of geographic influence in history. (a) Physiography and industrial history in New Eng- land. (b) A case of gcograr)hie influence in Illinois. CHAPTER VI The Aims of Geographical Study 80 The aims as defined by leading educators. The aims of the '' Paris Commercial Geography Society.'' Various aims discussed. Adjustment to environment as an aim. (a) Place adjustment. Distribution of population. (b) Economic adjustment. (c) Political or social adjustment. Introductory and correlative aims. The practical value aims. The culture value aims. < HAPTER VII II L'MAN AND SOCIAL GEOGRAPHY The human side of geography. (a) The true meaning of human geography. (b) Illustrations of. The social side of geography. (a) Geography and social efficiency. (b) The usefulness of geographical materials. (c) Geography involves principles of economies. (d) Study of geography contributes to rational citi- zenship. (c) Study of geography and nature contributes to the development of a humane sp'rit. 95 10 TABLE OF CONTEXTS CHAPTER vi rr Page Geography and Like 109 Life dependent upon environment. Man a response to physiographic conditions. (a) Man in tropical regions. (b) Man in arctic regions. (c) Man in temperate regions. Life a process of establishing an equilibrium with environ- ment. Re-creation of environment an evidence of civilization. Restricted and unrestricted habitable areas. Geography and history in England. Geography and history in Illinois. Many ways in which geography functions in life. PART TWO: THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY CHAPTER IX The Teacher \s Preparation 125 Diversified relationships of geography require a breadth of view in the teacher's equipment. Tests of geographical material. Danger of irrelevancy. Knowledge of principles of first importance. Brief discussion of the physiographic processes and their effects, (a) Ibastrophism and the part it plays in determining the contour and relief of land masses. (\>) Vulcanisui and its effects. (<■) Gradation and the cycle. General notions the best test of a teacher's intellectual equipment. Ability to interpret local environment essential. The teacher's preparation must include a knowledge of books, maps, and illustrative materials and their uses. The te;irher \s preparation should include an appreciation of ihe value of geography to society and the ability t « i make useful applications. TABLE OF CONTEXTS 11 CHAPTER X Page Better Method in Geography 137 General method determined by: (a) The nature of the subject. (b) The needs of the child. Suggested lines of improvement in teaching geography. The empirical method condemned. Subject-matter should be presented in the form of perti- nent problems. An illustrative lesson. CHAPTER XI Ax I xductive Lesson Mr> The theory: Organization of the subject-matter by the teacher. (a) Selection of the principle to be taught. (b) Assemblage of well-chosen data for bringing out the principle. (c) Selection of a problem for the pupil. (d) The choice of good preparatory experiences for adjusting pupil to problem. Realization of the plan of the lesson. (a) .Making the preparatory step. (b) Stating the problem. (c) The analysis of the first datum. (d) The comparison of the data analyzed. (e) The statement of the result of the comparison. The application: Explanatory statement. The working plan of the lesson on the "Cause for the lo- cation of cities. ' ' Some advantages of such a lesson over the traditional les- son. The deductive phase of this lesson. 12 TABLE OF COy TENTS CHAPTER XII Page A Deductive Development Lesson 155 Steps. (a) The problem stated. (b) Exercise to secure data. (<•) Review to recall principles, (d) Making the inferences. (e) Verifying the inferences. CHAPTER XIII Regional Geography 160 A proper unit of study assists in organization of mate- rials. Advantages of physiographic region as the unit for areal geography. Regional study correlates descriptive, causal, political, commercial and social phases into a systematic whole. Summary of advantages vf regional treatment. CHAPTER XIV Generalization and Organization of Geographical Mate- rials hit! The causal element-. Need of organization in teaching geography. The rationri] or causal (dement the organizing principle. Cnorga nized materials of little value and easily Inst. CHAPTER XV Tin: Csk ok Text I'.-kik.- 172 An undesirable use of the text. The importance of good assignments. What can lie secured through a wise use of the text bonk. S iggi -dons relative to assignments from text books. memorizing often the result of poorly assigned ti xi i i : . lesson*. Right attitude of teacher toward the text book. TABLE OF COX TENTS 13 PAKT TI1KKK: PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS CHAPTER XVI Page The Value of Magazine Articles and Government Publi- cations in Teaching Geography 183 Why magazine articles and official reports are valuable. (a) They supplement brief text book. (b) They are reliable and up to date, (e) They are usually well illustrated. (d) They emphasize the social side of geography. Summary. CHAPTER XVII The Value of Pictures in Teaching Geography 193 Why pictures are valuable. (a) They constitute an economic medium for convey- ance of ideas. (b) They furnish unity of impression. (c) They are accurate. (d) They are attractive and stimulate interest. Suggestions as to tise of pictures. (a) Make good use of the pictures in the text book. (b) Illustrations of the use of text-book pictures. (c) How to use stereoscopic views. (d) The value of the stereopticon. ( IIAI'TKK XVIII The Value vv Illustrative Materials and Field Work... HO- The School .Museum. (a) Directions for building. {},) Suggestive materials. The Industrial Excursion. (a) The value of. I't Suggestions relating to excursions. Physiographic Field Work. (a) The importance of. (b) Suggested field studies. 14 TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER XIX Page Suggestions on Weather Study 217 Suggested helps. Some simple apparatus and directions for making. Practical exercises. (a) With the helior. (b) To show atmospheric pressure. (<•) To show convection currents in air and water. Suggestions on the study of cyclonic storms. (a) Convection currents. (b) Lows. (c) The storm center. (d) The shifting of the winds. Exercises on the daily weather map. Exercises to show that air absorbs and deposits moisture. Exercises to show forms of heat energy. Suggestions on : (a) Wind velocities. (b) State of sky. (c) Weather record. CHAPTER XX Maps and Models and Theik Uses 235 General discussion of maps. Characteristics of good maps. Kinds of maps. Map drawing. Suggested map exercises based upon: (a) United states Geological Survey maps. (\>) On standard atlases. (c) On outline maps. The use of graphs. Models, and how to make them. (a J 1'apcr pulp models. i h) Suit and Hour. (<■) Sand models. (<\) Plasticine models. (<•) < Talk and pencil models. TABLE OF CONTENTS 15 CHAPTER XXI Page Suggestions on the Study ok Soils :i61 The origin of soils. Local soils characterized by underlying rocks. Law that controls deposition of sediments. The Blue Crass region. Transported soils. (a) Alluvial. (b) Glacial drift. (c) Loess. The .Mississippi delta. The prairie plains. The loess of Mississippi. Lava soils. Elements of soil fertility. Soils likely to be poor in: (a) Nitrogen. (b) Phosphorus. (c) Potassium. Methods of restoring. Suggestions for simple out-door study. CHAPTER XXI I Suggestions Relative to Placing Emphasis in Teaching Geography 274 Emphasis upon definite statements. (a) Pronunciation and spelling. (b) Definitions, as in mathematical geography. (e) General directions and locations. (d) Statements of physiographic and economic prin- ciples, facts, and laws. (e) Statistical units to serve as keys. Emphasis upon the rational phase of geography. APPENDIX Bibliography , 291 Of the pedagogy of geography. Of subject-matter. A small but valuable library for a country school. Suggested map equipment for a country school. Suggested equipment for a village or grammar school. Information relating to maps, globes, charts, etc. PAHT I. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION : THE XaTURE OF GEOGRAPHY. TOPICS TO RE CONSIDERED. The tendency of modern education; the nature of geography; its fitness to contribute to present day needs. The old conception of geography; the view of geographers of today; the relationships of the subject. What a comprehensive treatment must take into account; the physiographic processes; the value of facts; the higher value of relationships. Geography deals with relations; how man adjusts himself to the earth; conditions under winch he succeeds best; earth and man. The tendency of modern education is to lessen the gap that lias long existed between school and lite. To accomplish this aim materials of in- struction are receiving careful attention, and emphasis is placed on those subjects or phases of school work which give promise of useful expression in the life 1 of today. The hygiene of the country school should convince the pupil of the fact that the thorough cleansing of a wound may prevent blood-poisoning, and always tends toward 17 18 THE TEACHING OE GEOGRAPHY rapid healing. The study of elementary chemistry should inform pupils of the danger of typhoid fever that attends the use of contaminated drink- ing water, and the instruction should put them in possession of a few simple tests for detecting its impurities. Geography should make farmer boys realize the unwisdom of cultivating side-hill slopes as surface erosion will soon steal from the field the choicest part of the soil. Civilization is be- coming more and more complex, and this com- plexity multiplies the adjustments of the efficient citizen. Life is too strenuous and competition too strong to insure success to him who would learn in the school of life, or to him whose school training has ignored the "new duties which new occasions teach." This new educational situation has invited new subjects of study, eliminated parts of old subjects, while others, time-honored and familiar, seem to have been transformed and enriched many fold through a better understanding of their ability to contribute to present-day needs. Viewed in this light, the subject of discussion has proved its worth, established its claim to a prom- inent place in the curriculum of popular educa- tion and won the significant title of the "new geography." At the outset a brief survey of the nature of geography may be quite in order. The field of study with which geography is con- cerned is large indeed! Considered in its broad sense it touches many of the departments of TEE NATUEE OF GEOGRAPHY 19 human knowledge. It includes the conception of the earth in space, which for grandeur is sur- passed only by astronomy, a science which treats of entire systems of heavenly bodies with indi- vidual characteristics and relationships. Mani- foldness, then, is a chief characteristic of geog- raphy. An exhaustive study of the subject in its larger meaning would lend the student into the by-paths of many associated sciences, depart- ments of which are recognized elements of geography, and which, taken together, extend this field of study to almost unconquerable limits. As a science, geography may be called funda- mental. It is the meeting place of all the sci- ences. AVithin the envelopes of the earth abide every factor and force of physical science in either latent or dynamic, stable or unstable con- dition; while on the surface of the earth resides a world of life, which is comprehended through the biological sciences. In its truest sense the nature of geography is that of relationship. It is not the mere existence of towering mountains, wind-swept table-lands and fertile valleys that interest us most, but rather the reasons or explanations for their being; not the unrelated fact that the earth abounds with life, but rather the deeper signifi- cance of why there is life and why in successive regions there flourish "murmuring pines and hemlocks," fields of wheat full and fair, or giant cacti in undisputed supremacy. In its newer as- pect geography is concerned with multitudes of 20 THE TEACHING OE GEOGRAPHY relationships, a comprehension of which is of the highest value to the student. The pleasures of travel and the delights in nature study come not alike to all. It is to him who can comprehend cause and consequence that satisfaction and ap- preciation come. From the standpoint of inherent interest, geography, owing to its influence on life, ranks very high. It is concrete and can be studied on a broad scale. Having so many points of attack there are many opportunities to awaken the in- terests of pupils. Its application to life is made easily and directly; and pupils respond readily with genuine interest because its materials and principles are immediately useful. Whether it be at the brookside with its features in miniature, in field or forest where life responds to local condi- tions, in the factory where earth-products are transformed, or at the commercial center where the world's goods are exchanged, the interests are alike stimulated and the desire for knowledge developed. Notwithstanding its richness of content, there lias been in tin; past a decided lack of apprecia- tion of geography. This is due to a meager un- derstanding of the subject. Added respect can be secured only through a deeper and clearer knowledge. The impulse and inspiration which a few of our distinguished educators are lending to geography at the present time, make the out- look much brighter. It is certainly true that the subject deserves better teaching to merit so many TEE NATURE OF GEOGRAPHY 21 years of the pupil's time. Of course the same can be said with even added emphasis of some other subjects of the curriculum. There is but one solution in any case, and that is the economy which will result from better teaching. Because of indefinite limits and breadth of scope, geography may lie more difficult to or- ganize than some subjects, but it loses none of its richness. The fact that geography has been considered a composite science may have led some to feel that it is subordinate or unnecessary; or, that the overlapping of physics, chemistry, geol- ogy, astronomy, etc., really covers the ground and meets all demands for it. Prof. Davis denies that geography is more composite than physics or chemistry or physiology. Dr. Harris has also taken the same view. It can easily be shown that one science cannot be drawn away from its allies without annihilation. There is no need of tres- passing anywhere. The term geography is gain- ing in significance, ft is a broad, rich and dee]) subject, which has for departments geology, physiography, meteorology, astronomy, oceanog- raphy, and ontography. Let the teacher who feels that geography is a narrow or shallow field, test his knowledge in any of the above subjects. If ho can conduct a good test his respect for this department of science will be increased. He will find the subject matter exact, rational, difficult. far-reaching, and touching human experience at an infinite number of points, and in myriads of wavs. 22 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY Before further discussion let us consider the nature of geography. Any comprehensive treat- ment must take into account: 1. The forces which have made and sculptured the earth's surface. '2. The present condition of the earth's sur- face, so affected by the atmosphere and by water, that it forms a habitat for life. 3. The relationships, or responses, that obtaiu between the organic and inorganic worlds. •i. The manifold needs of mankind and the uses made of environment — organic, inorganic and social — to satisfy these needs. The study of the forces and processes by which the earth's surface has been given form leads to physiography and geology. To ignore these forces in geography is to teach fact without ex- planation or significance. The failure of geog raphy in the past is due to the fact that it has been made a mere memory drill on unrelated items and isolated facts. Comparatively, the fact side has been overdone; the rational side neg- lected. When pupils come to see that geography is a study of cause and effect, and not a study of fact without apparent cause, they will begin to have courage and interest. The teacher's knowl- edge must he broad and accurate. lie must cor- relate fart and force, and thus put his subject on a reasonable basis. The teacher must have a clear outline of the earth's history, and must under- THE NATURE OF GEOGRAPHY 23 stand the great physiographic processes that have wrought through the ages. The study of the earth as it is lias a practical value, and the information should be definite and exact. But when these facts are learned inde- pendently of their antecedent causes, and also independently of their consequent effects, one must realize that the fact side alone is uninterest- ing and insignificant. Geographic facts drawn away from these relations appeal only to the memory, and their mastery becomes almost wholly formal. Shorn of these relations there can be no organizing principle, and instead of well-arranged categories, we have a multiplicity of items. Geog- raphy has been subject to abuse in the past be- cause there has been little of organization dis- played in its treatment. Geography is science only when the units of its subject-matter are articulated for a purpose. Facts concerning the present crust should be studied, not as an end in themselves, but as data which explain organic adaptation. Surface, soil, temperature and rainfall are to be considered individually as conditions and causes, which con- trol organic responses. But it is easy, indeed, to wander about too much in this field. Matter may be interesting but quite irrelevant. The old prac- tice of looking up interesting facts concerning places is, in the end, of little value. No greater sin can be committed than that of sending chil- dren to encyclopedias without the careful guid- 04 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY ance of a teacher who knows what he wants and why lie wants it. Men succeed best when they apply their ener- gies in the direction that nature's force is exerted. Adjustment to inorganic conditions has often been tedious and slow, as is shown in the indus- trial history of Xew England; but gradually men have discovered the fields in which human en- deavor meets with the most generous reward. The attention now given to forestry, the improved methods of irrigation, the systematic study of agriculture, all emphasize the wisdom of a clearer" understanding of nature and a better adjustment to it. Geography deals also with the relations which exist between earth in a broad sense, and life. Higher forms of life can proceed only from a modification of conditions, or from the establish- ment of new conditions, secured through a re- arrangement of geographical factors. The prob- lem of farmer and gardener is to discover the best relationship between plants and soil. Pro- duction is increased and the period of diminish- ing returns set farther in the future, as a result of the best adjustment. Geography becomes, then, rational knowledge, and mere facts and sta- tistics are forced into subordinate positions. The prosperity of Kentucky is due largely to the raising of fine stock in the famous Blue Grass region. But this region exists because in an an- cient sea were deposited the calcareous remains of marine life, and the weathering of the lime- THE NATURE OF GEOGEAPIIY 25 stone which this deposition formed gave Ken- tucky the rich soil of which she is justly proud. And thus the life of the past ages determines the prosperity of the present. Quartz sand sorted from the till of the receding glacier by swiftly flowing waters, and deposited in western Penn- sylvania, has made Pittsburg the greatest city in the United States for plate glass. Again, a pros- perous industry is the result of a wise adjustment of human endeavor to natural conditions. Throughout the history of the race, man has struggled to discover and to master natural forces and to utilize the life of the earth to his advan- tage. He is in harmony with his surroundings only when he sees the significance of his environ- ment and understands the relation which he sus- tains toward it. The branch of education which touches the universe at the greatest number of points must be of the highest value in revealing to the individual the true meaning of life. His- tory and geography teach us how civilized nations have adapted manifold materials to their uses, and have made the forces of nature assist in their preparation — history dealing with time relations and geography with place relations. The exten- sive mastery and vast utilization of the materials and forces of the external world have reacted upon man. have multiplied his needs, have neces- sitated discovery and invention, in short, have evolved enlightened nations, which, in turn, seek to gain a better understanding and control of their environment. But this adjustment is not 26 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY confined to the physical side of life. Fundament- ally, man's interests are social. Geography deals with some of these social relations under the heads of commerce, education, religion and gov- ernment; hence, the aim of these phases of geog- raphy is the commercial, intellectual, religious and political adjustment. SUGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS. 1. Why is geography well adapted to further the aims of the new education ? 2. Compare geography with other studies in richness of content. .-',. What is the chief characteristic of the new geography ? 4. J n judging comparative values of school subjects what is the standard of estimating values? ;~. Which is more important in geography, knowledge or' facts or knowledge of relationships? illustrate. G. Of what value is a knowledge of the earth "s surface in its present condition? 7. Write six sentences which will characterize the nature of geography. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Davis. W. M. — "Descriptive and Physical Basis of Geography," Ivl. Rev. Vol. III. p. 417. Dryer, f'lias. R. — "What is Geography?" Pamphlet. Moore and Langen Press, Terre Haute. 1ml. <.;!].-. [)avi. Soil and Kock ( 'ontrols. 4. Atmospheric Controls. .">. ( hganic ( 'ontrols. (J. Topographic and Barrier Controls. 7, Human and Social Controls. CONDITIONS AND EFFECTS 29 1. The distribution of plant life, and to a con- siderable extent its form, are dependent upon temperature. If the temperature falls below the freezing point for much of the year, plant life is prohibited, and since animals are largely depend- ent upon plants for their habitat and food supply, terrestrial animal life disappears. The extreme tundra regions offer examples of this kind. Life in arctic regions is largely aquatic since land temperatures fall so low that life becomes extinct. The temperature of water, except at or near the surface, does not fall to the freezing point. Water is, therefore, a medium in which life may exist. According to temperature and the responses which follow, land masses naturally break up into climatic and life provinces, topics well treated by Russell.* That temperature is very important as a control over distribution of life is attested by Merriam* in the following words: ''It is now pretty generally conceded that temperature and humidity are the chief factors governing the dis- tribution of life, and that temperature is more potent than humidity." The physical condition and character of peoples are to a considerable degree responses to tem- perature. The monotonous cold of the arctic regions and the blazing heat of the equatorial, have deadening effects upon the inhabitants. Stature and complexion are changed and mental and moral qualities caused to deteriorate. In those regions, where there are sudden changes in * Sim' Riblinsrnphy. 30 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY temperature and a succession of seasons, man is stimulated in many ways, and here we find the highest degree of development. Further refer- ence to the influence of climate is made in the chapter on "Geography and Life." 2. The host portions of our country have an annual rainfall of 30 to 60 inches, such regions being well suited, so far as moisture is concerned, co agriculture. Farm crops cannot be produced successfully where the annual rainfall is much below 20, though the introduction of "dry farm- ing"' is overcoming to some extent the lack of moisture. ."Where the annual rainfall is below 10 the country becomes nearly barren, bunch grass and sage brush being common forms of the sparse vegetation. In regions of generous rainfall, for- ests abound. In Washington, where the annual precipitation is from GO to 100 inches, stand the majestic fir forests. Forests gradually disappear on approaching arid lands or deserts. In cold or arid regions, nature conserves the limited amount of moisture by decreasing the evaporation area of foliage. Hence the "needle" of conifers is a moisture adaptation, as is the total absence of leave- in certain desert species. Again, the roots of some desert plants attain a length equal to live times the height, so eager are they to secure moisture. Special responses are seen in animals also. Schirmer has pointed out that the camel's hum]) is a reserve from which nourishment is supplied during long privation from hunger. CONDITIONS AND EFFECTS 31 The nomadic habit of oriental people is a re- sponse to environment, chiefly to the arid condi- tions. Such people are compelled to go from place to place in order to secure pasturage and water for their herds, and hence they are alert, enduring, and generally intelligent. 3. The quality of the soil, in conjunction with temperature and moisture, determine the distribu- tion and character of plant life. Limestone and phosphate rocks yield the richest soils. The cot- ton industry of the inner lowlands of Alabama is a response to its excellent soils from decomposing beds of limestone, while the soils of the barren Cuesta or " Chunnenugga, " are from resistant sandstone, and, as a control, are negative. Popu- lation avoids this uninviting belt. Similar to the cotton belt is the bine grass region of Kentucky, with its meadows, pastures and high-bred stock. Soil responses, either positive or negative, can be seen anywhere. 'Wheat responds admirably to the lacustral soils of old Lake Agassiz; "corn is king''' in the drift soils of the prairie plains; and longleaf tobacco is the leading crop in the red sandstone valley of the Connecticut river. Rock is a term that may be applied to all in- organic materials and is referred to here because mineral resources of many kinds are controls of industries, growth of cities, construction of roads, immigration, and are often subjects of national discussion and legislative contention. 4. Were the atmosphere static it would hardly deserve mention as a control, except from the 32 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY standpoint of its component gases. But the atmosphere is always moving, the winds some- times attaining a great velocity and frequently shifting in direction, causing extreme changes in temperature and rainfall. Winds in themselves constitute important controls. Vegetation is often severely whipped and .sometimes torn from its moorings by gales and hurricanes. It is readily observed in our northern states that trees, ex- posed to the winds, lean to the east, and that the longer branches point in the prevailing windward direction. In dry areas strong winds drive sand and dust before them, often covering vegetation. Forests are buried in encroaching sand dunes, as in Dune Park, Indiana. Sea water is sometimes driven inland by unusual winds, causing death and destruction. The tidal wave catastrophe at Galveston, Texas, illustrates the power of the wind in causing the sea to invade low coastal plains. Soils are sometimes completely removed from bed rock by wind action, thereby making life impossible. 5. Not only do the inorganic features and the forces which play upon them condition and de- termine life, but often life forms react construct- ively or destructively upon the organic world itself. It may often be that in this sense a re- sponse becomes, in turn, a control. There is a constant warfare in the realms of plant and ani- mal life. ''Though a summer field," says .John Fiske. "seems at first to be a scene of unalloyed happiness, one has only to delve a little deeper to CONDITIONS AND EFFECTS 33 find it a scone of robbery utterly shameless and murder, utterly cruel." Again, since animals feed largely upon plants, the plant world has much to do in determining the distribution of animals. The abundance of fish off the coast of New Eng- land is due to the ample food supply — crustaceans and mollusks — which in turn thrive upon the lower forms of life swept in by the Gulf Stream and Labrador Current. The abandonment of the wheat industry in some of the western states has done much to exterminate the chinch bug. And so ex- amples could be multiplied. (!. Under the head of topographic and barrier controls may be classed relief features of all kinds — plateaus, mountains, valleys, plains, des- erts, gorges, canons, moraines, water-falls and water bodies. Some of the features here enumer- ated, as, for example, the plateau, offer no new consideration. The greater altitude causes a fall in temperature, which in turn precipitates the moisture on its more gentle elevations or at the escarpment which forms its margin. Hence ele- vation here resolves itself into a temperature and a moisture control. It may be also that a third component appears, viz., an atmospheric control, since the added elevation may permit winds to sweep the region with great carrying and destructive force. These new conditions, usu- ally brought about by an uplift of a portion of the rock crust, may have wrought a complete transformation from a salubrious and fruitful valley or low plain to a cool, dry, and wind-swept 34 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY plateau, for which Tibet will serve as an example. For centuries its dry, cold surface has been swept by the prevailing westerlies until it has yielded, in the form of line dust, the famous loess soils found in the lower valleys of China. Barriers in the form of inaccessible mountain ranges and large bodies of water are effective controls over distribution of life. Wallace has held that not only do natural barriers have much to do with the distribution of life, but that the origin of new species in general is due to changes in geograph- ical environment.* 7. Human and Social Control. No special case need be made of human control, since man re- sponds to organic environment and acts also as a control over it in exactly the same manner as do other forms of life. It is a matter more of degree and of perfection than of principle. The ability to reason gives man added advantages in his struggle for existence and supremacy. In pio- neer days men sailed np streams until falls were reached; here portages were made and camps were formed, which in time became cities. It was discovered that the swiftly flowing water offered advantages for power, so in time mills were built. The great flour mills of Minneapolis are located at St. Anthony's Falls, conveniently near the wheat fields of the west and at a focal point of great commercial lines to the south and east. But even here man is responding rather than con- * Island Life, tintl Studios Scientific and Social, Vol. I, Wallace. CONDITIONS AND EFFECTS 35 trolling, though the psychic element must be con- sidered. Man often, however, modifies his inorganic en- vironment in a way and to an end that might never be wrought by natural forces or physio- graphic processes. Instances of this kind are often seen in the construction of roads and waterways, well illustrated by the Panama project and the Drainage (/anal of Chicago. But in such cases man is guided and controlled by nature to a large degree. Had not an old waterway been discov- ered, in the latter case, showing that Lake Mich- igan once really did discharge its waters south- ward into the Illinois river, man probably never would have undertaken the great engineering feat of constructing a drainage canal. Scholars have shown that not only physical attributes of all life are responses to organic and inorganic environ- ment, hut further that the social institutions of civilized races are determined, very largely, in the same manner. From the foregoing the student should have reached the conclusion that — 1. A control is an element of environment that exerts a marked influence upon the development of a life form. It may prohibit, favor or deter- mine the particular trend of life. 2. A response is a characteristic of life forms, effected through its yielding to the continued in- fluence of a control or set of controls. In its best sense, then, geography is a study of controls and responses. Tt is a study of life — 36 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY men included — as related to environment. Physio- graphic features and forces constitute the major controls, with organic controls as minors. Says AY. M. Davis: "In its present modern phase, geography is essentially concerned with the ra- tional correlation of the items that fall under its two parts : on the one hand, the items of inorganic conditions that constitute the physical environ- ment of living forms; on the other hand, the items of organic response made by living forms to their environment." The richest and most significant phase of geog- raphy, then, must terminate in this relationship, and teachers of the subject must comprehend the importance of treating the subject scientifically. SUGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS. 1. What is meant by environment? By inorganic environment? By organic environment ? By social environment .' 2. To what extent is the distribution of plant and animal life due to temperature? Why is there little life in polar regions' .'!. What is the relative importance of moisture as a control? Are arid lands and deserts necessarily poor in plant foods? 4. What is the origin of soils? What formations yield rich soils? Poor soils? .". How do winds affect vegetation? Illustrate. G. Show how one form of life often controls other forms. Is this true of both the animal and plant kingdoms? 7. Name several instances in which topographic features have controlled the form and distribution of life. TOR FURTHER STUDY. 1. What is the annual rainfall in your locality? Ts it well dis- tributed? What crops need the most moisture? CONDITIONS AND EFFECTS 37 2. Write an essay describing the origin ami character of the soils of your locality. King's The Soil will be very helpful. ','>. Write an essay showing that ''The Life of the Present is Determined by the Life of the Past.'" Shaler's Nature and Man in America will be an excellent reference. 4. Write a description of a desert.' See VanDyke's The Desert. ~). Read the chapter in Brigham's Geographical Influences in American History entitled ''Tin 1 Appalachian Barrier'' and prepare a brief summary. If available, Dr. J. P. Turner's The Old West will be very useful and interesting. G. vVhat are the dominant controls in your own locality, and how do they influence life? Develop this topic fully. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Shaler, Nathaniel — Nature and Man in America. D'Alvilla. Albert Joseph — Saliara and Lapland. Goode, J. Paul — ''The Human Response to the Physical Environ- ment. 1 ' Jour, of Geography, Vol. ill. Reclus, Elisee — Earth and Its Inhabitants, Vol. II. Whitbeck. R. II. — "Response to Surroundings, a Geographical Principle." dour, of Gog., Vol. III. Hubbard, George D. — "A Case of Geographic Influence on Human Affairs. ' ' Pamphlet. Jefferson, .Mark S. W.— "Wind Effects." Jour, of Geog.. Vol. III. Piatt, Mary I. — "Climatic Control in the Desert,'' Jour, of Geog., Vol. IV. Buckle, Henry Thomas — History of Civilization. Allen, J. A. — "Geographical Distribution of Animals," Bui. U. S. Geol. Survey of Territories, Vol. IV. 1S78. Russell, b C — North America, Chaps, lib IV, V. Merriam. C. Hart — "Geographic Distribution of Life in Xorth America.' - Smithsonian Report, 1S91. CHAPTER III. Phases of Geographical Study, topics to be considered. The phases of geographical study. Observational geography; its relation to nature study; the require- ments of successful observational work; its value to the child. Representative geography; explanation of; how and when this phase should be introduced; pupils should express their own ideas. Descriptive geography; pupil's new method of securing ideas; observational method limited to local environment ; the idea of the world gained through descriptive geography. Rational geography; the meaning of the term; the causal or rational element: why it should be emphasized. The social phase; its importance; it evaluates the materials of geography and selects that which is of most worth in life. Geographical study has been separated into several phases as a result of psychological adjust- ment.* These phases are clearly defined, not be- cause there is any sudden change in the nature of mind activity, but because the subject is such tint it demands study in several distinct iields. and the order of succession is based upon the mental development of the child. The phases, together with the order, as agreed upon by some educators, are : * Report of tin Committu of Ten. 38 PEASES OF GEOGRAPHICAL STUDY 39 1. Observational or Home Geography. 2. representative Geography. 3. Descriptive Geography. 4. Rational Geography. 5. The Social Phase. The writer adds the fifth or "Social Phase," which parallels each of the other phases, as far as they differentiate themselves, throughout the course. Unlike the phases based upon mental de- velopment, it involves the very function of educa- tion, the life relationships of the individual to his fellows as seen from the viewpoint of the three great systems, viz., "sustaining," "transporting" and "regulating"* which for our purpose may be called the industrial systems. I. OBSERVATIONAL GEOGEAPHY. Geographical study actually begins when the child enters school, though it is not dignified with the formal name of geography until the elemen- tary book is begun in the fourth year. The intro- duction of the formal study is or should be made through the study of nature. The object of sys- tematic nature study in the lower grades is to put the child into full sympathy with his imme- diate environment. Advancement to the study of geography proper is then in full accord with the accepted principles of pedagogy. The child's circle of information is extended, not in a formal way. but in a manner that appeals to the child's * Small and Vincent : Introduction to Sociology. 40 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY understanding and establishes a permanent in- terest. The child should get his early instruction at first hand; later, he will be compelled to trust to the observations of others to describe countries and conditions too remote for him to visit. Now, it is evident that the large part of his information must come to him through the medium of books, which he must have the ability to interpret. The most important result of observational work in geography is the establishment of basal ideas, concrete and accurate, which are not only to be the foundation of his knowledge, but which are •absolutely necessary to any reasonable conception of the earth through the medium of books. A cul- tivated imagination must enable the child to make the transition from the phenomena of the carefully observed roadside rill, to a conception of the same processes when supplied with the energy of a Mississippi. Observational geography and nature study furnish the rational extension of the child's mental horizon; it furnishes that training in per- ception, imagination and memory which a further >tndy of the subject demands; and it supplies the mind with typical basic ideas which are to aid in the interpretation of geographical literature. The period of observational geography proper does not require the preparation of a set lesson, but it does require — (a) ( >n the part of the pupil, the activity of sense- perception and— (b) On the part of the teacher, directive skill in PHASES OF GEOGRAPHICAL STUDY 41 questioning to the end that definite com- prehensible facts be established. In the early phases of geography there is no differentiation from nature study, and the nature lessons of first, second and third grades should form an integral part of the course in geography. Indeed, observational work should not cease at any stated time, but should be carried on through- out the school course. But the first three years are especially devoted to observational work be- cause sense-perception is active and sense-impres- sion necessary to the child's development; be- cause, at this age, being unable to read helpful science materials, the child must learn through direct contact with nature; and because a world, new and wonderful to childhood, is furnishing constant stimuli to responsive centers. It is, there- fore, the immediate function of school and teacher to bring child and nature into advantageous rela- tionships so that sense-impressions may be vivid and lasting. It often seems that teachers are afraid to attack the nature study work for fear they will not do the right thing, or that they may not use the right method. They should remember that eventually the child's facts of science will be classified, and that in his very limited geographical environ- ment there is little danger that any lesson taught will fail to be of use later; and further that the motive — the understanding and appreciation of environment — if realized, will iustifv the means 42 THE TEACHING OF GEOGEAPHY employed. This being true, teachers should then set about their tasks with courage and even bold- ness. Their own interests will deepen, and, it they are possessed of the teaching spirit, their use of books on both method and subject-matter can hardly fail to direct them into pedagogical paths. Latent interests may often be transformed and the possibilities of nature study and geographical topics be made clear through the reading of such literature as "The Story of a Salmon," "The Story of a Stone," "The Ascent of the Matter- horn," all by David Starr Jordan, and "The Des- ert," by YanDyke. Furthermore, the vast num- ber of bulletins and pamphlets published by schools, by experiment stations, and by the De- partment of Agriculture, will be of great use to teachers generally. II. REPRESENTATIVE GEOGRAPHY. Representative geography is a form of expres- sion through established symbols — of ideas al- ready comprehended. But soon it comes to mean the interpretation of symbols for the purpose of securing ideas. The observational work is oral. The pupil works only under immediate guidance of the teacher. The time soon conies when the process of education demands more expression from the child. So far, his geography has been learned directly from nature-, but soon he must resort to books. It is necessary that he then understand the use of maps, and the logical procedure seems PHASES OF GEOGRAPHICAL STUDY 43 to be that of mapping the home district or some part of it. Usually the pupil begins by mapping his school room. If seats do not face north, the pupil should occupy a chair facing the north, in this early study of maps. He now becomes active ; he must invent for himself. After making the map of the school house, the pupil maps the school yard, the district or the ward, locating the school, his home, the postoffice, or other building or loca- tion that touches his interest. The mapping of these areas not only makes the child somewhat familiar with the idea of scale and the meaning of maps, but the accompanying descriptions worked out by the child himself react upon his observations previously made, making them sharper and clearer. By use of the sand table, the pupil learns to represent plains, slopes, divides, hills, and mountains ; but this work should be a representation of observed phenomena in na- ture, and not a reproduction from books. Pupils, from the start, must be impressed with the fact that geography is a study of the earth and not of the book. The next step, that of reading a relief map, will not be difficult for the child who has comprehended the earlier work. Thus he gradu- ally comes into the use of symbols; but they closely follow concrete ideas. Indeed, the pictur- ing of an idea necessitates its disentanglement from a mass of information, often not fully organ- ized and assimilated, making its lines more dis- tinct, and adding to its significance. Frequently we do not realize how imperfect our notions are 44 THE TEACHING OF GEOGEAPHY until we attempt a written description or an illus- trative diagram. Two important results should follow the activity of this phase of study. It should clarify and intensify the basal notions of his observation work ; and it should introduce the child to the use of those symbols which are pre- requisites to the next stage, descriptive geog- raphy. III. DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. During the observational period the pupil is largely dependent. lie has not yet learned the use of the symbols through which lie can be inde- pendent. Neither docs he at this time possess any considerable mass of related knowledge. Hav- ing come into possession of a reasonable body of facts closely related to his own life and in- terests, lie proceeds in the second stage to adapt a set of symbols to this knowledge. Mis work is creative here, but still only partially independent. Much guidance is yet required by the teacher. The third stage places tbe pupil still more upon his own responsibility. He must now get his ideas from books of travel, from gazetteers, from maps, chart-, etc., always under strict direction of the teacher, depending upon imagination and con- structive conception to make these ideas strong and vivid. The tendency of geography in this period is to become abstract and to lack reality, a tendency which is obviated only by the pupil's exercise of his imagination, and by oral illustra- tions, pictures, lantern views and held excursions. PEASES OF GEOGRAPHICAL STUDY 45 Practice in constructing accurate mental pictures which shall accord with the word paintings of oral or written description is invaluable. The exercise leads to the acquisition of rich and well-defined information, and incidentally secures mental dis- cipline. Since the average pupil has little opportunity to learn of the world at first hand, it soon becomes necessary to get ideas and information second hand, or through the medium of books. Since commercially related countries do much for one another, the pupil must learn of other homes than his own and of the dependence of his own home life upon the home life of far away people. Descriptive geography, in general, covers the period of the intermediate grades. It is under- stood, of course, that there is no line of demarca- tion between these phases of geography, and that the descriptive phase, for example, will extend entirely through the succeeding work. Descriptive geography predominates at a time when memory and imagination are very active and before the time when relationships make the strongest a] 1] teals to the child-mind. During this phase the gathering of data, often of a detailed character. occupies much of the pupil's time. In courses based largely upon text-books.it constitutes the so-called "first round.' 1 Geographical readers, books of travel, and selected articles from current literature are highly in order, especially if well illustrated. The various necessaries and luxuries of our 4G THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY home life offer a natural approach to many topics widely enough distributed to lead inductively to a general view of the earth as a whole and to con- siderable detailed knowledge of it. TV. RATIONAL GEOGRAPHY. The observation of results and the acquirement of facts lead the child to look for reasons. Ex- planations of causal relations should be made at all times during the study, when they can be made to appeal. But the pupil must not be burdened with an explanation which he cannot comprehend. The study of rational geography is wisely de- ferred until the reason is active; when, as Dr. Harris says, the pupil forms the habit of looking upon one fact as the explanation of another. The child's whole life has been devoted to the acquire- ment of facts ; he is now to discover how facts are related to one another. It is true that the un- trained mind explains one fact by another having no relation to it, and therefore his notions of the world become distorted and superstitious. The rational element of geography is especially prom- inent in physiography. The pupil here compares and relates the facts of his earlier experience and from them deduces general principles. He learns to view all of the. earth's materials and natural forces as inter-related and adjusted. Through industrial geography he learns how civilized men have controlled forces and modified materials to subserve their needs. The introduction of the causal or rational priii- PHASES OF GEOGRAPHICAL STUDY 47 ciple into geography is duo to Carl Ritter. Later scholars have elaborated his notion, which as- sumes the form of relationship between environ- mental control and organic response. This is treated more fully in a succeeding chapter. Prof. Dryer recognizes the rational element of geography when he defines its function as follows: ''The business of geography is first to determine accurately the distribution of each and all of the factors of geography (land, water, air, plants, men) and, second, to discover the causes which have brought about the distribution of each ; and, third, to explain the relation of each factor or group of factors to all of the rest." Hence cause, relationship and consequence seem to merit special emphasis. Says Prof. Davis : "Another step of equal importance ... is the change from the empirical to the explanatory or rational or genetic method of treating the ele- mental facts that enter into geographical rela- tionships." A\ ni. T. Harris puts it this way: "Above all, I should wish to call to mind again, as the central reason for its place in the curricu- lum, the general value of geography in giving the pupil an insight into natural causes. In early periods of the history of mankind, and among all savage peoples that are contemporary with us, the facts of nature are explained by animism, that is to say. by the interference of evil spirits. A vast network of superstition covers the face of nature from the gaze of the savage. But the child who begins to study geography begins to find one 48 TEE TEACEING OF GEOGRAPEY fact behind another fact. He learns forces, and how forces make things, and how forces modify things. His knowledge constantly grows from the symbolic, which ignores the causal nexus, over to the scientific and prosaic view, which compre- hends the rationale of phenomena." V. THE SOCIAL PHASE. This phase of geography has more often been styled "human" geography, but in the light of the recent movement in education it seems very appropriate to refer to it as the social phase. As has already been said, this element pervades the whole course of elementary geography. In the nature study work, where a whole world of things confronts the teacher, his basis for selec- tion must be, How will this particular thing, if taught the child, function in his life? How will this knowledge contribute to his social efficiency? In pointing out suitable nature study materials Otis \V. Caldwell enumerates the following: "Nature study materials should also make pos- sible a large body of knowledge that is useful in the broadest sense of that term — knowledge of the domesticated animals, their ways (if living, their use by man. their histories, the selection and care of the best breeds, the regions where differ- ent ones thrive best; knowledge of house pots ; of wild animals, their relation to one another and to man; of helpful and injurious insects; knowledge of domesticated plants, house plants, vegetables and flowering plants and the gardens in which PHASES OF GEOGRAPHICAL STUDY 49 they grow, agricultural plants, orchard plants, nut and fruit trees of the woods, lumber and its sources and uses, poisonous, medicinal and liber plants; plants and animals and climatic conditions as soil makers; building stone, brick, lime, sand; minerals, coal, gas, oil ; knowledge of factors having to do with public and private health; knowledge of physical forces, of simple machines, of the applications of electricity; of the trans- formations of chemistry and their uses in indus- trial and household processes." Therefore it is knowledge useful in the broadest sense of that term: but what does useful mean? Things truly useful enable one to live better; and good living on the part of one individual presupposes a help- fulness that enables others to live better. And this consideration of others is always social. Is it not easy to discern that, in the above list, all of the to] »ics center about better living both of self and others ? In the study of home geography also, inter- dependence is the fundamental idea. When we study the means by which we ourselves and our neighbors arc fed, sheltered, and clothed, the idea of doing for others, of being socially helpful, again appeals to us. So butcher, baker, and candle- stick-maker, each in his own way. renders some social service, but the industry to be geographical must relate backward to the earth. The whole field of commercial geography in- volves the social factor. Commerce is the medium by which peoples widely separated assist each 50 THE TEACHING OE GEOGRAPHY other in living. The sustaining system of the English weaver extends to the Dakota farmer who raises his wheat; the Minneapolis miller who grinds it ; the transporting companies which carry the flour; and even to the British Parliament, the regulating power, which permits the flour to be landed duty free in Liverpool. How intimately associated, then, are the geographical and the social ! SUGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS. 1. What is the chief function of observational geography? Psychologically considered, is the observational phase the proper approach to the study of geography? 2. What importance attaches to the idea of expression in educa- tion? How does expression react on the basic notions gained through observation? 3. Of what importance are detailed accounts in the study of geography? How are they gained? Should they assist in developing general notions? 4. What is the meaning of rational geography? With what is it chiefly concerned, facts or principles? With what grade of pupils should the causal idea be emphasized? 5. What idea is at the basis of the social phase of education? How does geography lend itself to this aim of education? (Jive an illustration of the serial phase of geography. FOR FURTHER STUDY. 1. Distorted ideas and faulty notions are all too general in the learning process. Through what methods can correct notions be gained? L\ Why may descriptive work in geography fail? Is there a period in childhood when such work appeals strongly? '.',. To what extent do you think the causal element should enter into tin' teaching of geography in the elementary schools? •\. To what extent do you think geography contributes to social PHASES OF GEOGRAPHICAL STUDY 51 efficiency as an aim of education? (Read The Social Function of Geography, Trotter, Fourth Year Hook, Herbart Society, and Chapter III, Educative Process, Bagley.) BIBLIOGRAPHY. Committee of Ten — Eeport on Physical Geography. Davis, \V. M. — "Geography in the United States," Proc. of the Am. Ass'n. for the Advancement of Science, Vol. LI 1 1. 1904. Caldwell. Otis W. — "The Criteria of Selection of Materials for the Teaching of Nature Study and Geography," Pamphlet of the Northern Illinois Teachers' Association, Nov., 1907. Bailey, L. H— The Nature Study Idea. Harris, W. T. — "The Place of Geography in the Elementary School," The Forum, Nov., 1902. CHAPTER IV. The Relation of Geography to the Sciences. topics to be considered. Geography a composite science; science necessary to explain rela- tionships; specialized science to be avoided. Geology the basis of geography; dynamical geology, a study of physiographic processes; soils intimately related to life. Astronomy; how the sun's altitude determines temperature. Influence of the atmosphere and its movements; how storms and sudden weather-changes affect the commercial world. How physics and chemistry are involved in geography. The biological sciences; the products of animal and plant worlds the materials of commerce and manufacture. Mud) of agriculture in geography. Leading educators (united. Necessity of a knowledge of science iu teaching geography. The many-sidedness of geography relates it closely to various subjects of the curriculum. It is a nucleus at which the elements common to the three groat groups of science, viz., the physical, biological and social, seem to meet. In this sense, geography is a field of simple applied science. To divorce geography from these science relation- ships robs it of its richest content. For these rea- sons physiography is conceded to be the best cor- relating subject in the secondary group. But only such elemental science should enter into general geography as is necessary to explain its relation- ships. It' this principle is adhered to, the danger 52 RELATION TO THE SCIENCES 53 of drifting into the field of specialized science will be avoided. The very nature of the subject de- mands a broad sweep of knowledge on the part of the teacher, and the chief source of failure in geographical instruction is due to a lack of breadth in general scholarship. Geology, to which physiography belongs as its dynamical phase, is the very foundation of geog- raphy. It is inconceivable that good instruction can be given by one who has not grasped the full significance of the ''physiographic processes," and the elaboration of these processes builds up physiography and dynamic geology. There are also many minor principles and facts in geology that no comprehensive treatment of geography can omit. The value of a knowledge of these prin- ciples is discussed in the chapter on "The Teach- er's Preparation." The whole subject of rock weathering and soils belongs both to geography and geology. Indeed, it must be understood that geography is a much broader and more significant term than is geology, physiography, meteorology, agriculture, etc. So closely related are life and soils that our most helpful writers on "home geography" include chapters on the formation of soils. The change of seasons introduces the pupil to astronomical geography. The life zones of the earth are very largely dependent upon tempera- ture. A study of the sun's altitude at various seasons of the year is legitimate geography when studied as a control over the distribution of life; 54 TEE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY it is astronomy when studied as an end in itself. Meteorology, as a department of geography, is of great importance. Storms, droughts, and sud- den changes in temperature affect the whole com- mercial world. The daily weather map is the first thing to be considered by members of the Board of Trade. A continued strong south wind, by checking the outflow of water from Lake Huron, often delays the passage of the larger vessels through the straits at Detroit. The frequent de- struction of crops in the Dakotas by midsummer hail storms has led to the organization of in- surance companies to protect the producer of farm crops. Studied in this light, meteorology and geography are one and the same. Physics and chemistry are so involved with the great fields of organic and inorganic nature that argument and illustration to show their relation- shifts to geography seem quite unnecessary. ''Were it not for the magician chlorophyll con- juring with the sunbeams," as .John Fiske puts it, carbon-dioxide and water could not unite and make possible the major portion of the vegetable kingdom. Inertia and gravitation keep the earth swinging in its orbit, and the whole process of gradation and base-leveling is wrought through the force of gravity. The biological sciences are involved in geog raphy largely through the arts and industries, which employ animals and plants as the raw ma- terial- of commerce and manufacture. There are few things which civilized man has not utilized RELATION TO THE SCIENCES 55 for definite purposes. Much of school geography is found under the heads of agriculture, stock- raising, fishing, dairying, trucking, lumbering, etc., and the multitudes of products from this or- ganic side of nature are biological in origin, but geographical when they direct the industries, dis- tribution and welfare of mankind. Applied science is today at a premium. The great interest in agriculture seems to be an illus- tration of this fact. -V survey of the contents of texts on elementary agriculture reveals the fact that the subject matter is found largely in botany, zoology, and geography. There is certainly no innovation in the study of soils, roots, pollination, grafting, bee-culture, the cabbage worm, potato beetle, wheat, corn, moisture, and birds, simply because these topics are found in a book entitled " Agriculture for Beginners." The agricultural movement is in keeping with modern pedagogy, which maintains that culture and utility are in thorough harmony with each other. But it is a matter of application and degree rather than "newness" of the subject-matter. Reference is here made to agriculture simply to show that it bears a relationship, and a pretty close one, to geography. In discussing the correlations of geography, Dr. Charles Mc Mimy makes the fol- lowing statement : "In some of the principal schemes for corre- lating studies, geography has been regarded as the mother study, the one that would naturally be the center in any plan of concentration. . , 56 2ii£ TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY The natural sciences are usually thought of, not only as having many intimate relations to geog- raphy, but as actually furnishing a large part of the warp and woof of geography. The minerals, vegetables, animals, and all the physical objects and phenomena of earth, air, and water which make up the peculiar realm of natural science supply also the subject-matter of geography. Geography deals with all these tilings from a peculiar standpoint which we call the geograph- ical, but they are the same materials which the various natural sciences deal with, each from its own point of view." And James Bryce, in dis- cussing the geographical relationships of geog- raphy and science, says in part: "All branches of knowledge which have any- thing to tell us about the earth more or less hinge into or are connected with geography, or yon may if you like, say they diverge from it as specialized departments of that general knowledge which it presents in its connection with the whole. For instance, geography takes account of the solid crust of the earth. The solid crust of the earth is the special subject of three sciences, geology, mineralogy and pahrontology, which therefore diverge from geography as being specialized branches of the science which it presents in a general way. Then you have a second divergent branch in meteorology and oceanography, dealing with the phenomena of the air and vapor and the closely cognate phenomena of the great masses of condensed vapor which exist on the surface of the HE L AT IDS TO THE SCIENCES 57 earth in the form of oceans. A third branch is that represented by the sciences of botany and zoology, describing the living creatures which find their home and their sustenance on the earth. A fourth, a little more remote, consists of the sci- ences of physics and chemistry, which deal with the constituents of the globe and of the forces which move them. The forces which you see in operation on the earth belong to the science of physics, and the study of the constituent elements of the earth, the methods by which they are ana- lyzed and the combinations which they form, be- Fi. long to the science of chemistry. Even astronomy, although it carries us beyond the limits of our ter- restrial globe, is really closely connected with the science of the earth, inasmuch as many terrestrial phenomena are sensibly affected by the phenom- 58 TEE TEACHING OF GEOGSAPET ena which lie beyond the globe, and cannot be un- derstood without a comprehension of astronomy. "The whole of this great group of physical sciences, each of them redivided and specialized into numerous branches and departments, springs from geography as the center of the group." The experienced teacher is well aware of the correlations of geography and science. Scarcely a lesson but what some necessity arises for the explanation of science facts. The most common observations occasion discussions, and "the fos- tering of a spirit of inquiry" makes explanations imperative. In the community is an artesian well. The water comes from a depth of 1,800 feet and has a temperature of about 70 degrees Fahr. It is highly charged with hydrogen-sulphide, and emits a disagreeable odor. Gas is seen to rise in bubbles and escape from the surface. Iron, too, is in solution, and "rusts" containing vessels. Here, then, is an opportunity, and a rare one, for nature study and geography lessons. Even young- children will ask why the water gushes out of its own accord, why it is sc warm, why there are bub- bles in it, etc., etc. Again, the local coal mine, which figures so much in the lives of people, can hardly fail to pro- voke questions which lead us back to historical geology for satisfactory explanations. Then, too, some coal is hard and some is soft. What is hard coal, and why does it sometimes burn with a pale blue flame and sometimes with a bright red flame? Why is soft coal so gassy and smoky as compared RELATION TO THE SCIENCES 59 A"i til the hard ! etc., etc. A lime kiln may be in the ricinity, and an excursion may stimulate inquiry as to why the stone must "be burned,'* what change takes place, whore the stone came from, etc. Certainly, on every hand science is involved with human life and welfare, and much of geog- raphy is meaningless unless accompanied with scientific explanations. Much elementary science can be taught and of necessity must be taught in connection with geog- raphy. This science must not be considered irrel- evant, for it is an integral part of geography. Care must always be taken not to go beyond the proper limits of geography, and the facts pre- sented should explain earth relations, and so be of use to the individual in dealing with his phys- ical environment. To ignore the involved science in the study of geography tends to make the subject superficial, formal and empirical. If the teacher lias a well- defined notion of geography, the danger of irrele- vance will not be great. On the other hand, the added interest and significance which will come from an understanding of causal or scientific rela- tionships seem to warrant the more thorough treatment which a scientific method requires. If one pauses to consider how the facts and principles of science enter into the most common of life's experiences, especially those that seem to be earth-determined, he will readily admit its practical value. The production of a farm crop involves a whole round of science that is clearly 60 THE TEACHING OF GEOGEAFEY geographic. The enterprise first of all makes a consideration of climate fundamental. A crop must be selected that can mature during the grow- ing season and- which will thrive on the amount of moisture that may be expected. The whole problem of climate must at once be reckoned with, and any adequate understanding leads us to con- sider the facts of elementary science. Crop pro- duction, again, is largely dependent on soils, and the quality of soils, in turn, upon the character of underlying rocks. But rock-weathering is the re- sult of many forces, some physical and some chemical, that cooperate in the process of soil- making. Xext must be considered the drainage, which makes cultivation possible. Hence, topog- raphy plays its part. If the slope is insufficient to permit gravity to carry away accumulated water, then the farmer must resort to ditching or tiling. On the other hand, too great slopes may cause rapid dissection of the lands, which the in- genious cultivator must check. The soil must be sufficiently porous to absorb a goodly amount of moisture, and its capillarity must again bring it to the rootlets of the growing crop. By experi- ment the farmer must determine if his field is poor in phosphorus or nitrogen, and the lacking plant food must be restored. Careful study and experiment must determine the best time of plant- ing (quite regardless of the moon's phases), the depth at which the seed should be placed, together with the character and frequency of cultivation which the growing plants seem to demand. EEL AT 10 X 10 THE SCIENCES 01 And yet this is but the beginning of a homely illustration of how the- earth and natural forces, or science, enter into the life of man. The new education attempts to explain such science as functions in life, and the new geography is one of the media through which education may bring much that is practical and vital into the lives of those who study its content and comprehend its teachings. SUGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS. 1. Name all of the sciences that enter into geography. 2. Are any of the natural sciences sharply differentiated? Illus- trate. o. In Fig. 1, point out the knowledge that is common to geog- raphy and geology. 4. Select a topic from geography that is also important in meteorology. In which text is it more fully treated? Why? What is a specialized science? 0. Doe? the composite nature of geography prohibit its being a science.' Formulate a satisfactory definition of geography. FOR FUETHEK STUDY. 1. Make an excursion to observe evidences of rock weathering. Write an essay to show that facts and laws of chemistry and physics are here legitimate factors in geography. 2. Kxplain fully ''our summer season occurs during the sun's highest altitude.'' The helior will help in this explanation. Sre Chapter on "Weather Study." )'.. What do ymi think the term ''earth-science" should include? •1. Write in: essay to show how a £ 1 knowledge of geography can 1 f assistance to a farmer. F-TULTOCrJAPIIY. McMnrry. ("'litis. A.— Special Method in Geography, Chap. VIII. Keltie. ,T, S.mtI — Appli/d Geography. (J2 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY Mac-Kinder, II. J. — ' ' The Development of Geography Out of Nature Study." Ed. Foundations, Vol. 16, p. 194. Redway, J. W. — "Geographical Phase of Nature Study." Proc. N. E. A.. 1900, p. 411. Norton, W. II. — "Relations of Geology to Physical Geography," Proc. N. E. A., 1901, p. 79(3. De Garmo, Chas— " Correlation of Studies," Ed. Rev., May, 1893. Mill, Hugh R.— The Realm of Nature. Bryce, James — "The Importance of Geography in Education," Jour, of Geography, Vol. 1, Xo. 4. Tarr, R. S. — New Physical Geograpliy, Chaps. 17, 18, 19. CHAPTER V. The Relation of Geography to History, topics to be considered. How geography influences history; this influence ignored in the past ; importance of geographical influence in history. The case of New England; brief geological history; glaciation and its effects; coast line; capes, bays and islands. Soils of New England; agriculture, the first industry; fitness of the industry. Ship-building in New England; the maritime epoch; influence of the Embargo Act. New England becomes a manufacturing country; the cotton industry; the wool industry. Present outlook for New England. Geographic influence in Illinois; glaciation and its effects; the Illinois river; the location of LaSalle; the anticlinal fracture. Influence of the anticline on the industries of LaSalle; coal; St. Peter's sandstone; the resulting industries. Scenery near LaSalle; pioneer history; Starved Rock. Galena and Platteville; lead and zinc; the smelters of LaSalle; geographic influence. A field of study, profitable and fascinating - , is that of geographic influence in history. ''The unity of the science of geography is in geographic influence, i. e., in the relations borne by the phys- ical conditions of man, products, and industries, to the distribution of wealth, culture, and the various types of life"* Geography forms the basis of * Pamphlet : "Geographic Influence, a Field for Invcstiuntion." ' icorgc 1». Hubbard. 63 64 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY history and often determines its trend. Mountains and rivers direct the line of march of invading armies, and influence, at least, the destiny of bat- tles. Ocean currents and prevailing winds guide the courses of ships at sea. Mountain passes con- dition the settlement of distant plains. River val- leys indicate the lines of least resistance for com- mercial highways. Industrial centers take advan- tage of falling water, and castle and fortress seek the eminence of hills. Investigators in both history and geography have made marked progress in tracing the rela- tionships of geography and history. Numerous magazine articles have been written, and genuine contributions have been made by Albert Perry Brigham and Ellen C. Semple. The teacher of geography must pave the way for the teacher of history, by establishing a sub- stantial geographic basis. The geography, too, must be made significant through the study of its influence on human affairs. The teacher in the grade or rural school who conducts the recitations in both of these subjects has ;i line opportunity to develop the relationship, now from the side of history, and again from the side of geography. As a result of a wise correlation, both of these subjects can be much enriched. On both large and small scales the influence of ueou'raphy is seen. The writer remembers how, in the district school, the pupils were taught to asso- ciate industries with cities. " Lynn was noted for the manufacture of ladies' shoes;" "Bath, for RELATION TO HISTORY Q-> ship building - ;" "Lowell and Lawrence for cotton manufacture," etc. No thought ever occurred to either teacher or pupils to discover why these in- dustries were so distributed. The facts were purely empirical. The relationship that is now universally recognized between geography and history is one of significance, and is doing much to break down the old empirical method of instruc- tion. So in their own communities, teachers would do well to discover as many cases of geographic influence as possible, and so to introduce in a con- crete way the companionship of history and geog- raphy. .^ With the many illustrations of those who have specialized in this held, it would seem sufficient simply to point the way to good hooks. But one or two examples may lie permissible. I. PHYSIOGRAPHY AND INDUSTRIAL HISTORY IX NEW ENGLAND. That physiography controls industrial history — and often political — can be illustrated in any country. An illustration, though too brief to he good, may emphasize industrial adjustment better than argument. Much of Xew England was once a sea bottom. It received the sediment and waste of other lands. The lifting of this sea-floor made the province land, and the crushing and folding of the rock floor made the mountain-, the remnants of which are now the White Mountains of Xew Hampshire. the Green Mountains of Vermont, and the Berk- ,;(; THE TEACH IX G OF GEOGRAPHY shires of Massachusetts. Having been lifted to a great altitude, the ever-active work of water began to make even Alpine heights bow to the sea. Erosion caused deep dissections in the mountain slopes, and swiftly flowing water, tilled with mate- rial in suspension, deepened and widened the chan- nels by corrasion. The valleys widened, the cur- rents slackened, small tributaries backed up the divides, which, in turn, became narrower. The whole province had begun to show age, when the cycle of change was interrupted by a visitor from the icy north. The Great Glacier having its origin in Labrador and Greenland came slowly sliding southward. It was a sea of ice, thousands of feet thick. Slowly its edge advanced; it cared little for the hills and mountains, its great thickness burying all. Like a great dull plane, it cut and pushed the soils and rocks ahead of it, or it ground the boulders be- neath into rock-flour and clay. Sometimes it dipped into a depression, scooping it out still deeper, and again it ignored wide valleys or dropped its ponderous weight of rock, clay and sand into the old channels of streams. The glacier dipped into the sea. and, when it melted, deposited meat moraines of sand and till. Cape Cod, with its beautiful beaches and cranberry marshes, is new land, formed by the rearranging of glacial sands by off-shore currents. Martha's Vineyard, Xantucket, and Long Island are terminal mo- raines, and. when first formed, were great hills of drift on a narrow coastal plain. In many instances RELATION TO HISTORY 67 the topography was completely changed; but, again, at no remote distance, some granite hill, 44 rock-ribbed and ancient as the sun," lifted its scratched and shaven head above the thick mantle of drift. The receding glacier lent its water to fill depressions, and so were formed beautiful lakes, which have ever since given constant head to the rivers. Their overflow followed ancient valleys, where not completely obliterated, and cut new channels in the drift. The erosion of new surface was rapid, especially as coastal margin began to sink, causing greater fall and more rapid cur- rent.-. Thus were laid bare the rocks, torn, ground and crushed, which have ever characterized New England. Thus were born the glacial hills around Boston, Worcester and the lower Merrimac, and the beautiful drumlins of ^Massachusetts and New York. Frequently rivers found their way around these barriers of recent birth, and, tumbling down into old channels, formed beautiful falls, as at Lcwiston, Lowell and Holyoke. Here currents were swiftest and water power best; here the In- dians, ascending the streams in bark canoes, were compelled to stop; here their villages grew, and here, later, the English founded our modern cities. The coast line of Xew England has vastly influ- enced her history. The gradual submergence al- lowed the sea to enter the lower, wider valleys, drowning them and converting the river mouths into broad estuaries. Much of the coastal plain became a narrow continental shelf. Higher por- tions fringing the old sea became isolated, form 68 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY ing numerous islands, of which Mt. Desert is a type. The intrusion of the sea into the valleys made the water deep and harbors good. The high portions between river mouths became capes and promontories. The enduring rocks of Cape Ann preserved the site of Gloucester and pointed its daring fishermen to the sea. Maine's irregular coast, with its reentrant bays and spearhead promontories so numerous and intricate, has been increased tenfold. The soils of New England when first explored were thin, consisting of sand, clay and till, all well mixed with glacial boulders. Much of the country was well forested. The pine thrives well in sandy soil, well watered, and in latitudes where there are extremes of heat and cold. These conditions prevailed in northern Xew England, and here "the murmuring pines and hemlocks" said their incantations to the sleek moose and the painted savage. So was Xew England when found by English Puritans. They were slow to adapt them- selves to their geographic environment, and hence their prosperity was curtailed. Their industrial history is almost a direct result of physiographic processes. For a century they sought prosperity in vain, through the cultivation of thin, barren, rocky hillsides, and, says Kedway — "crops of glacial boulders alternated with crops of trouble." Ail these years, geographic barriers — the interior mountains and roadless forests — had confined the pioneers to the coastal belt. They at last con- ceived the idea of ship building, and. as a result, RELATION TO HISTORY 69 New England's deep, protected harbors began to buoy ii]) the stately pines of Maine. The Revolutionary War abolished English re- strictions, and this inaugurated New England's first industrial revolution. A merchant marine sprang into existence, and New England canvas floated on every sea. Days of prosperity followed. Bank accounts grew: religious bickerings and per- secutions ceased. But the era of maritime pros- perity was soon over. The war of 1812, with America's retaliatory measure, the Embargo Act, swept Now England's sails from the seas never to return; for. soon after the war was over, great vessels, driven by the expansive force of steam, were on hand ready to shriek defiance and derision at ships rigged with mast and sail. During Napoleon's invasion of Spain he confis- cated many estates, and sold many flocks of fa- mous Merino slice]) to America. These found pasturage on the Berkshire bills and Green moun- tains. Importation being prevented by the War of IMl!. New England's idle capital began to build mills. Woolen goods were made in large quanti- ties in Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Con- necticut. The people had discovered another of New England's chief resources— her water power. In the meantime the cotton industry had devel- oped in the south. New England took advantage of tiii-. and soon the cotton industry was para- mount. Lowell, Lawrence. Manchester and Con- cord owe their rapid growth to water power and brains in the north, and cotton and slaves in the 70 TEE TEACHING OE GEOGRAPHY south. Prosperity followed man's wise adjust- ment to physiographic conditions. Xew England is still a manufacturing country. The hemlock bark is used to tan leather. Boots and shoes come from Lynn and Brockton. She has little coal, but this is imported in sufficient quantities to make light metal goods, as bicycles at Chicopee Falls and clocks at Waterbury. The pulp of the spruce is used in making paper at Berlin. Ships arc still built at Bath, and the lumber of the Pine Tree State is shipped from Bangor. The ancient limestone of Vermont is now quarried as marble at Rutland. At Quincy they get the famous granite. Xew England has always taken advantage of good fishing. But this is possible only through nature's accident. The warm gulf current that circles Cape Cod meets a polar current, and the waters are tempered for cod. herring and mackerel. But many a cotton mill has ceased its noisy hum, and it is only a question of time; when New England must aban- don the industry which has made her famous for nearly a century. The rapid growth of cotton mills in the South tells us in silent language 1 that some new industrial adjustment awaits the toilers of the bleak Xew England shores. Truck-farming and gardening furnish employ- ment near the centers of population. Farming, proper, is decadent. Many interior farms are en tirely abandoned, especially in Maine and Xew Hampshire. Tobacco is grown in the Bed Sand- stone Vallev of the Connecticut. The hills of RELATION TO 111 STORY 71 Vermont furnish pasturage, and St. Albans is a dairy center. But the population is drifting to city and village, to harbor and factory. Phys- iographic factors have here, as elsewhere, deter- mined the distribution of population. The people have gone to river-valley and sea shore. Here are the best water power, excellent transportational facilities, easy access to fishing grounds, and here truck farmer and market gardener can ply their trades in more fertile valley or sandy beach and enjoy convenient markets, so essential to these industries. The inhabitants of Maine are well to the south; in New Hampshire they have settled on the Merrimac and the bit of coast; in Massa- chusetts, the shore line and the Connecticut valley support the densest population; while on the shores of Xarragansett Bay dwell over nine-tenths of the people of Rhode Island. The character of the soil has aided in determin- ing the distribution of population. The thin soils were soon exhausted. The destruction of forests assisted in devastating the lower valleys. The winter snows melted rapidly, and the deluge of water swept debris of all kinds into the lower val- leys, smothering the soil with heterogeneous ma- terial and driving the farmer away. The steeper slopes, once farmed, were so eroded by the same heavy rains and spring Hoods that all soils were carried away. The roots of struggling trees on such lands follow along the exposed rock strata, looking for places to fasten their tendrils in mother earth. 72 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY Everywhere the observing eye can discern an industrial adjustment to physiography. Men are often slow to make this adjustment, but the strong- hand of nature whips them into line, or eventually drives them from a land where only half a tillage is possible. II. A CASE OF GEOGRAPHIC INFLUENCE OX INDUSTRIAL HISTORY IX ILLINOIS. The Illinois river follows the old, partially drift-filled channel of the pre-glacial Illinois. This last mentioned stream was of no mean size, being from one to two miles wide and carrying the over- flow of the once enlarged Lake Michigan. The Wisconsin Glacier, in its retreat, partially filled with drift the broad, deep channel of the pre- glacial Illinois, and, as if intent on obliterating the mighty river, it dropped the Valparaiso mo- raine in the form of a half moon, skirting the south end of Lake Michigan. It thus delied the lake waters to again reach the Gulf by this route. But the rains fell and the run-off of northern Illinois and Indiana carved post-glacial channels, steep-sloping and narrow, in the soft drift. Of this character are the Fox, Pes Plaines and Kan- kakee rivers, which now feed the Illinois. The present Illinois, with its greatly decreased volume, has been unable to remove the drift from it- ancestor's channel, and the river today flows rather lazily, swinging against the bluffs now on one side and then on the other. Streams are na- ture's hiuliwavs of commerce, alonu' which villages RELATION TO HISTORY ' t ;j and cities are located and begin their careers, be- fore the advent of railroad or canal. So along the Illinois, towns and cities found their locations, sometimes on the bottoms and sometimes well up on the bluffs, overlooking for miles the curves, bars and islands in the river below. On a site of the latter type La Salle. Illinois, found its location. But nature had done more to block out the industries which should employ the citizens of La Salle, long after the glaciers had retreated and the buffalo and Indian had been ex- terminated or driven far to the westward. It hap- pened that an upward fold, or anticlinal fracture, as the geologist would say, was formed across northern Illinois, beginning in the neighborhood of Freeport and extending in a southeastward direction, passing just east of the present site of La Salle, on into Indiana. This slow upward folding did not disturb the Rock and Illinois rivers, which cross it. They were abundantly able to corrade their channels deeper and deeper into the uprising strata, thereby causing no inter- ruption of their currents, but in the end flanking their banks with vertical cliffs of white sandstone, of which Castle Rock and Starved Rock are his- toric examples. This fold has served as a geographic condition or control, and has had much to do with the in- dustries of La Salle. Tt consisted of an upward bending or arching of deep-seated strata, forming a broad ridge. But through the scouring of glaciers and the erosion of water the ridire or fold 74 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY was planed off almost level with the surrounding country, the broken strata dipping both to the cast and west of the axial line of the anticline. The disturbance brought to the surface the coai measures, which were left exposed as outcrops, and, in an early day, attracted ''drift" miners to make settlements at and near La Salle. Also the uplift, which increased the vertical distance be- tween bluff altitude and water level in the river below, stimulated gradation, and, as a result, deep gulches and ravines in time communicated with the river, again exposing underlying seams of coal. Forced to the surface, also, was the St. Peter's sandstone forming the historic cliff — Starved Rock. This sandstone is the raw material from which glass is made, and because (1) the coal was immediately at hand to melt the sand, and (2) be- cause a great commercial city was developing to the northeast on Lake Michigan, men took ad- vantage of the situation, and La Salle became a center for the manufacture of bottles. The glass industry extended also to (Jttawa and Streator on the east slope of the anticline, practically repeat- ing the conditions.' Underneath the strata of St. Peter's sandstone lies the calciferous Potsdam. It, too, was arched upward and exposed here where the Illinois river cuts the anticline, it is a notable fact, too, that this formation is not exposed elsewhere in Illinois. * LeConte defines an anticline as ;i lino on either side of which the Htrata repeat one another, dipping away from the axis. See Compend of fit 'il'J'jy, p. 1 HH. BELATIOS TO HISTORY 75 From the calcifcrous Potsdam excellent Port- land cement is made, and to one who is in posses- sion of this bit of geology it is perfectly clear why The Chicago Portland Cement Works are located in La Salle. The geographic conditions are as follows : 1. Raw material, the Potsdam sandstone. 2. Abundance of coal. 3. Nearness to a great market, Chicago. 4. Ample shipping facilities, railroads and a canal. The above conditions are favorable to the in- dustry. To this may be added the fact that a wan- ton destruction of forests has made other build- ing material necessary. The use of concrete is one way in which man has adjusted himself to the changed conditions. From the summit of Starved Pock a number of cement plants can be seen. Their existence is due to one of nature's freaks, and in an industrial way it illustrates geo- graphic (geologic) influence on human affairs, or history. By another of nature's accidents, the north- western part of Illinois and the southwestern part of Wisconsin escaped the scouring and planing of glaciers. Eroding and denuding agencies, how- over, removed the later deposits and left exposed the Niagara limestone, Cincinnati shales and Galena limestone. Galena, or lead sulphide, is found in the crevices and pockets of this deposit. Even the earlv settlers on farms far to the south 7G THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY used to find profitable employment in winter by "drifting- into" the pockets exposed in the gulches of this deeply sculptured region. Galena, Illinois, was named for its mineral, and Platteville, Wis- consin, is always associated with zinc. Lut there was no coal in this region to be used in reducing the ore, and following the law that it is cheaper to take crude ore to the coal iields than to transport coal to the ore, the valuable ores of the southern part of the Driftless Area in an early day found their way to J. a Salle, where coal was plentiful and where communication by rail and water had been established with Chicago. Then, too, La Salle lay between Chicago and the productive zinc Iields of Joplin, Missouri, and those of eastern Kansas. The coal Iields soon attracted this ore, and La Salle's zinc-smelting and manufacturing industry grew as a result of geographic control. Nor was this all. The sulphur had to be removed from the zinc-sulphide, and this fact led to the establishment of large plants for the manufacture of commercial sulphuric acid as a by-product. The industries of La Salle are directly attributable to this diastrophic movement of the earth's crust, which lifted the coal measures several hundred feet and exposed the early Silurian deposits, making mining easier and more profitable, and furnishing abundant material for the manufacture of glass and cement. The abundance of coal at- tracted the zinc ore, and the smelting plants now in operation are among the largest in the Lnited States. So important are natural resources that RELATION TO HISTORY 77 several railroads and a canal at an early date com- peted for this traffic But geographic influence does not stop with in- dustrial history. Political history is largely shaped by resources and industries. La Salle's industries attracted foreigners of varied nation- alities. The question of municipal government even in a small city becomes an important social problem. There is, too, an esthetic shie to the La Salle problem. The deep dissection of the uplifted region across from La Salle has produced perhaps the most picturesque scenery in Illinois. It is of such marked beauty that it is now planned to pur- chase the region and set it apart for a state park. It abounds in hills, valleys, gulches, canons, water- falls and caves, making Deer Park a rare region for the student of nature. But here again geo- graphic influence is seen. The picturesque is a control over the economic. Railroads, trolleys, ferries, hotels and hacks are busy because an anti- clinal fracture and sculptural gradation gave to La Salle this region of beaut}'. The study of French exploration has firmly as- sociated the heroic La Salle and his devoted Tonti with this region, though the busy little city that bears the name of the indomitable Frenchman may be unknown to many. Even in savage times geographic conditions played their role in history. So Starved Lock — the inaccessible citadel, at- tracted the weakened tllini, and here they per- ished from hunger or were mercilessly butchered by the Pottowattamies in their effort to escape. ;y THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY The story of La Salle could be repeated, with necessary variations, for many another city. What better example of genuine educational work than that of teaching - in the fulness of their relation- ships, local history and geography? SUGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS. 1. What physiographic conditions make New England a good manufacturing country ? 2. What are the effects of glaciation in New England? Why is New England not well adapted to agriculture? ;;. Why do good harbors abound in New England? What led to the maritime epoch? Why was it so successful? 4. What natural conditions led to the introduction of the textile industries? '>. What part have rapids and water-falls played in the indus- trial history of New England? (S. What natural conditions favored the introduction of smelters at LaSalle? 7. Account for the Portland cement and glass industries in the vicinity of LaSalle. "5. How was Starved Hock formed and how has it figured in history? EOR FURTHER STUDY. 1. Account, if possible, for the first settlement in your locality. Was it determined by physiographic conditions? i'. Trace the course of some railroad through your county. Does it follow a stream or a divide? Why? :;. The early settlements in the prairie plains were usually made along the streams. Why? Does your local history verify this statement? -1. What part have mines played in determining the locations of settlements and cities? ~>. Did the county in which you live suffer glaciatioH? If so, what evidences of glaciation can you cite? RELATION TO HISTORY 79 (i. What determines the present industries of your locality? 7. Read the ''Story of a Stone,'" a fascinating science sketch by David Starr Jordan. See volume entitled Science Sketches. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Worthen, Amos Henry — Economic Geology of Illinois. I.e Conte, Joseph — Brief Course in Geology. Chamberlain and Salisbury — Chicago and Its Environs. Parkman, Francis — LaSalle and The Great West. Brigham, A. 1*. — Geographic Influences in American History. Semple. Fllen C. — American History and Its Geographic Con- ditions. Mather. \. F. — The Making of Illinois. 17. S. Geological Survey— "The Ottawa Sheet." Red way, J. W. — "Influence of Environment on the Development or U. S. History." Report X. F. A., 1S9S. CHAPTER VI. Aims or Geographical Study. TOPICS TO BE CONSIDERED. Aims as stated by leading educators; aims fall in two categories; which is tenable? Adjustment to environment as an aim in geography; place adjust- ment; economic adjustment; political or social adjustment. Introductory and correlative aims; geography holds a central posi- tion in science; it may be presented as an introduction to the natural sciences, or as a unifying or correlating principle fol- lowing the other sciences. How much practical value has geography; the broad meaning of practical. Culture aim of geography; travel as a means of gaining culture; (vhy geography can contribute to culture. I. AS DEFINED BY LEADING EDUCATORS. The very nature of tlie subject lias led to the ex- pression of many aims or ends to which an intel- ligent study should load. To begin with, any sub- ject must contribute to the general aim of educa- tion, whatever that may be, besides having specific values of its own. Geography, then, in its aims and purposes, must conform to a rational peda- gogy; it must lend itself in large measure, in con- junction with the other studies of the curriculum, toward the fitting of the individual to cope suc- 00 A IMS OF GEOGBAFHICAL STUDY 81 eessfully with his physical and social environ- ment. The "new geography" is a recognition of the relation between life and environment, and the aim becomes that of studying those tilings which contribute most to the highest development of the highest form of life. "The essential in geography is a relation be- tween the elements of terrestrial environment and the items of organic response; this being only a modernized extension of letter's view. Every- thing that involves such a relationship is to that extent geographic. Anything in which such a re- lationship is wanting is to that extent not geo- graphic The location of a manufacturing village at a point where a stream affords water power is an example of the kind of relation that is meant, and if this example is accepted, then the reason- able principle of continuity will guide us to in- clude under geography every other example in which the way that organic forms have of doing thing- is conditioned by their inorganic environ- ment.'' The foregoing statement by TV. M. Davis points us to the true meaning of geography. James Bryce, in the April, 1902, number of the "Journal of Geography," gives the following categories : 1. Geography is the foundation or starting point of '"human studies" — literature, his- tory, economies, sociology, etc. L ! . Practical Training in Observation. .'1. Training in Kellection. 82 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY 4. Pleasure which knowledge of the subject adds to travel. Richard Elwood Dodge, in '"Teachers' College Record" for March, 1901, gives the following aims : 1. Knowledge — understanding geographical conditions. 2. Power — ability to think clearly and ac- curately. 3. Interdependence — study of inter-relations of peoples and individuals, and inde- pendence of all. 4. Citizenship — ability to combat successfully with social and physical environment. In more general terms TV. T. Harris states the aims of school subjects as follows:" ''The branches of study pursued in the elementary schools are chosen for the purpose of securing two useful and reasonable ends. In the first place, they are chosen to give the child an ability to un- derstand his environment and to come into a mastery of it, so that he may make it useful to himself. He is taught arithmetic in order that he may divide and conquer; in order that he may measure the things and forces of his environment, and learn how to adapt one set of them to control and utilize another, fie is taught geography in order that he may understand the causal relations existing between his habitat, or the place in which » fJr-f "Forum." January, 1002. AIMS OF GEOGRAPHICAL STUDY s3 he lives, and other places, as well as other systems of things and events on the earth. On the other hand, a second reason for adopt- ing a branch in the course of study is that it de- velops some faculty or power in the child, and gives him possession of himself in that respect; for one of the primary objects is to develop the intellect, the memory, the judgment, or the heart. By the expression heart I mean the aggregate of affections and inclinations of the soul. Some dis- cipline in school, like writing, drawing, calis- thenics, or manual training, finds its place in the curriculum because of its power to develop the will, the tenacity of purpose, the ability to pay long and continuous attention to one thing, and to form habits of industry, cleanliness, regularity, and punctuality, and thus acquire those virtues which make a man a better citizen than he could possibly be without them — which make his service of more value to his fellow-men, and give him the ability to get a larger share of service from them than he otherwise could." Professor E. II. AYhitbock submits the following thesis:* "The primary aim in teaching ele- mentary geography is to give facts that are likely to be useful in practical life; to differentiate be- tween things which are fundamental and those which are only incidental; and so to impress the fundamental that they shall become a permanent possession of the pupil." The advocates of the "new geography" recog- * Proc x. [•:. a., ioiix, p. '.<:•_•. Si TEE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY nize its practical value. That geography can be useful in the life of an individual or race is evi- dently accepted by the Paris Commercial Geog- raphy Society, the aim of which according to its report is : 1. "To place science at the disposal of com- merce, and to put theory in practice; 2. u To aggrandize France by developing in- dustry and commerce abroad; 3. "To receive and sift information from all parts of the world, and store up facts which may be freely drawn upon by all who can turn them to good account, whether for commerce or for theoretical study; 4. "To extend the study of everything which promotes agriculture, manufacture or trade, both at home and in the colonies; 5. "To sliow the mass of the people that they are interested in the products, export and import, of their own and other countries, and that knowledge leads to foresight, and foresight lead.- to power." A consideration of the "aims" of geography teaching, as stated by educators, reveals the fact tl a1 they fall into two categories, viz: those who have for their object the disciplining of the mind, and. second, those whose purpose it is to acquaint the pupil with his environment and teach him its ii-c The aims which can be consistently included ':. the second category are rational and tenable; but those in the first, considered in the light of AIMS OF GEOGRAPHICAL Hl'L'Dl' 85 modern psychology, are irrational and untenable. If training in one field of learning could carry over and explain problems in new fields of an en- tirely different character, then, perhaps, we might justify mental training as an aim of any depart- ment of education, as. for example, geography. This not being the case, we can indorse only those aims which are directly and vitally concerned in pre] taring the child for active life. Mental train- ing must be incidental. In .lames Bryce's enumeration of aims, the value of geography as a foundation for history, literature, sociology and economics is at once ap- parent, as those subjects lead to an understanding of human institutions and human nature. We • •annot subscribe to the training of the perceptive and reflective powers per sc except in the sense above stated. The additional pleasure which a reader or traveler can obtain through a knowledge of the earth, its people and institution.-, is suffi- cient reason for its study. If more of the es- thetic entered into the education of the poor, espe- cially, their lives would not only be better but happier. The aims as stated by Professor Dodge can be interpreted so as to make them the legitimate ob- ject.- of geographical study. They are briefly but clearly set forth in the "Teachers' College Rec- ord" of March. 11)01. I >r. I larris make- the understanding of environ- ment an important aim of all studies, and espe- cially of the study of geography. [lis second m; the teaching of geography statement, however, seems to suggest rather too strongly the doctrine of formal discipline. The idea of individual efficiency to the end that one may be of service to his fellows is fully in accord with the modern movement of "social efficiency" as the aim of education. IT. GEOGRAPHY IN THE LIGHT OF ADJUSTMENT TO EN- VIRONMENT. The educational principle which determines all values must be more clearly recognized. It is the principle of ''adjustment," which means that the individual must be adapted to his environment; must be able to make use of it for protection, sus- tenance, fuller development, and happiness. This is the view of Spencer, G. Stanley Hall, M. V. O'Shea, Frederick E. Bolton, Edward L. Thorn- dike and others. On this principle must be deter- mined not only the value of geography but of every study in the school curriculum. No one is educated who has not a fairly good fund of geographical facts and a reasonably clear notion of the science necessary to their under- standing. The transactions of everyday life de- mand a knowledge of place. One must locate per- sons and places with a fair degree of accuracy, both with relation to himself and with relation to other fixed places, or his view of things will be much distorted. Every nation is dependent, and as such must know where other nations dwell, what of excess they produce, what they themselves cannot produce, what terms for exchange can be AIMS OF GEOGRAPHICAL STUDY g? effected, and what routes and modes of carriage can be resorted to. It is impossible to conceive of a civilized community without international rela- tions, and hence an educated people must under- stand these relations and have clear conceptions of foreign countries and foreign peoples. James Bryce emphasizes strongly the additional pleasure that comes to travelers who have made a study of the country through which they are passing. Tourists invariably study the geography of the region they expect to visit, before starting on their journey. Indeed, it is often said that one can gain a liberal education through travel. The truth of this lies in the fact that travel places the individual in so many and in such complex situa- tions that he learns to adjust himself to new con- ditions without great inconvenience or embarrass- ment. A place adjustment is one of the first to be noted, and this fact, no doubt, has led to the over- emphasis of locative geography. That physiog- raphy has much to do in determining the distri- bution of population can be instanced almost any- where. Salubrious climates, rich soils and natural roadways have had much to do in determining density of population. Cities thrive on seaboards where sinking coasts permit the ocean waters to encroach upon the lower river valleys, afford- ing deep and quiet waters for harbors. Lake cities develop rapidly where there are navigable waters from the lake to the sea, and where the topography, soils, temperature and rainfall favor 88 TEE IE AC JUS G OF GEOGBAFEY agricultural pursuits in the surrounding region, or where the lake shore rocks abound in valuable minerals. Chicago is an example of the first kind and Duluth of the second kind. Cities also find their location and owe their growth to breaks in transportation occurring, at the head of naviga- tion of rivers, or at the entrance of mountain passes. St. Paul is located at the head of naviga- tion of the Mississippi river, and Denver is often called a "mountain gate" city. Thriving cities often mid their location at river-falls, which offer excellent water power, and at the same time de- termine the head of navigation. In general, breaks in navigation determine the location and influence the development of cities. As already stated, soils, temperature and mois- ture have much to do in determining the distribu- tion of population. If all of these conditions are favorable, dense population may be expected. If, however, any one of these conditions is decidedly unfavorable, it may restrict very largely the density of population. Many parts of Arizona would be very productive if there were sufficient rainfall, but owing to a scarcity of moisture this condition outweighs all other conditions which in themselves may be favorable. The Prairie Plains support a dense population because the conditions individually seem to favor the life and activities of man. Soils, also, are very potent factors. The fine silt deposited in old Lake Agassi/ now forms the rich soils and level surface of the I\ed River Valley and forms tlie highly productive soils now AIMS OF GEOGRAPHICAL STUDY 89 sought eagerly by thousands of ambitious home- seekers. In contrast to this may be mentioned the abandoned farms of New Hampshire, where long cultivation has exhausted the productivity of the soils, or where the slopes have caused a run-off so rapid that the liner soils have been car- ried to the lower valleys or even to the sea, thus Leaving the hillside farms too unproductive to warrant their cultivation. The inhabitants in such cases have gone to the factory towns or cities, where their labor brings better returns. In this case, physiographic conditions play a double role: unfavorable conditions, on one hand, tend to drive the inhabitants from agricultural pursuits, while, on the other hand, a manufacturing industry made possible by navigable streams and waterfalls in- vites them to enter a new field of industry. In- stances could easily be multiplied. It is sufficient to say that, excluding the influence of economic geology and the economic relationship which pro- ductive areas bear to cities and other densely pop- ulated regions, place adjustment is determined almost wholly by physiographic conditions. There is an adjustment, geographical in its na- ture, which is brought about if not independently at least indirectly of physiographic conditions. It is that relationship which exists between pro- ductive and consumptive areas, and which seems to grow out of the needs and demands of a city or a densely populated region, as related to the needs and demands of the immediately adjacent coun- try. i't' course, the same principle works at 90 I'HE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY great distances, but since the operation of the principle can be seen more plainly at short range, our illustrations will be chosen accordingly. Rural communities adjacent to large cities usually devote themselves to supplying urban needs. Re- stricted areas demand intensified industries. In such cases the controlling principle is economic rather than physiographic. The region about Chicago, for instance, is given up largely to truck- ing and dairying. Elgin, Illinois, so noted as a dairy center, derived its original impulse from Chicago, though its product now is widely dis- tributed. A trip from Chicago to Milwaukee con- vinces us of the importance of trucking. Hence, we see readily that the industries are sometimes dependent upon population centers, and are not, in such cases, largely determined by physio- graphic factors. Regions remote from important markets and equally well adapted for the produc- tion of grain or stock usually market a much larger ratio of stock than of grain. The reverse is often true of similar regions located near great markets. Commercial geography concerns itself very largely with the operation of economic laws which are so important that valuable contributions to the subject are appearing under the caption of "Eco- nomic Geography." Thus it may be seen that one of the aims of geography is to trace out certain of these eco- nomic relationships or adjustments. In addition to the adjustments above men- AIMS OF GEOGRAPHICAL STUDY hy. If social efficiency is a legitimate aim in edu- cation, material should be selected that will con- tribute to its development: — material, a knowl- edge of which may be made to function in every day life. The richness of the subject-matter of geography permits of great selection and makes possible the useful expression of the lessons 102 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY taught. The present educational reform is that of pulling the schools away from a traditional past and aligning them with the living present. Every social being lives through inter-relation- ships with his complete environment — earth and stone, — wood and iron, — air and water, — plants and animals, — his friends and business associates — and to these he relates himself and of these he makes legitimate use, in his struggle for improved existence. Geography, then, deals with element- ary facts of agriculture, mining, manufacturing, economics and sociology, not as borrowed mate- rials but as legitimate parts of its own content; and, because it deals with numerous actual life conditions, its subject-matter is rich, significant, and pertinent in every day life. At the outset, geography teaches many facts concerning rural and urban life, directly useful to the individual in gaining a point of vantage in his struggle for a better existence. Agricul- ture and nature study will help in bringing use- ful information, but for a long time geography must continue to be the main source of knowledge and insight relating to community life. Some knowledge of the regular occurrence of cyclonic storms, and of the practical assistance of the weather bureau; elementary facts concerning the cultivation, fertility and means of maintaining productive capacity of soils; information concern- ing the reciprocal needs of city and country, sug- gesting advantageous industrial pursuits; authen- tic facts relating to regions somewhat remote and HUMAN AND SOCIAL GKOGliAl'IIl 103 serving in some measure to guide the course of emigration; such knowledge as this seems to be directly and practically useful, and is contributed very largely through the study of geography. Poverty is a great handicap to efficiency of life — and therefore, whatever tends towards prosperity brings opportunity for individual development. Hence practical instruction in geography contrib- utes to effective citizenship. Geography involves principles of practical eco- nomics. The practice of a true economy increases the productive capacity of the individual, which leads to increased prosperity, and makes possible greater social usefulness. Il is not meant that formal instruction in eco- nomics will l>e given, but that a full understanding of commercial geography, especially, will require some consideration of the laws that govern pro- duction, transportation and consumption. A commercial economy dominates modern agri- cultural life, because such economy brings the largest long-time net profit. Obviously, the prac- tice of the best farmers is the production of one or two commodities for the market, it having been previously determined what commodities will bring the largest profits, with a given outlay of labor and capital. With his proceeds the farmer buys many things which it is possible to produce on the farm. Most of the farmers in central Illi- nois buy their flour on the open market because they recognize the fact that the farmers i)\' Min- nesota and the Dakotas who are making a busi- 104 rnE TEACHING OF GEOGEAPEY ness of raising wheat, and the millers of Minne- apolis who are making a business of converting it into flour, can furnish the product at a less cost than the Illinois farmer (whose business is to raise corn and fatten stock) and the local miller can produce it. The principle applies to a score of things which the farmer could produce but does not. because he can buy them cheaper. Boys and girls in the upper grades can be in- terested in comparing with this commercial econ- omy the self-sufficing economy practiced by the early Xew England people, and the advantages of the modern system will readily be appreciated. The study of production, transportation and consumption, as involved in geography, are re- lated industrial and economic problems which will broaden the pupil's outlook and define his rela- tions to both his physical and social environment. As a response to environing conditions, the people of one region produce a certain useful product while the inhabitants of a remote region may pro- duce something equally useful. Through trans- portation, the surplus of each is conveyed to the other, and as a result each will have its productive capacity enhanced. The pupil may come to see that no individual or community can. independ- ently of other individuals or communities, live as well or produce as much, as is possible through the reciprocal helpfulness of exchange. Such an outlook, it would seem, will make the future citi- zen more rational in his industrial pursuits, and nH»re democratic in the exercise of his civil rights. HUMAN AND SOCIAL GEOGRAPHY 105 Geography is the best medium through which education can be shifted from the formal and symbolic to the rational and scientific. There cer- tainly is no school subject in which the relations of cause and effect are more clearly and more often apparent than they are in geography. The pupil may here find real explanations for real things. No longer need they accept things on formal statements. The great forces which domi- nate nature are typified at the very door of the school, and there pupils may study them in an undistorted condition. School-work and life-work here meet on common grounds. Xo improvised laboratory is needed to bridge the chasm between the symbolic and the genuine. Inductively the pupil reaches his conclusions and such a proce- dure encourages a scientific mental habit, fatal to tradition and superstition. Citizenship cannot he effective until the individual is rational, and is disposed to an impartial consideration of social and civic problems. Public spirit and civic pride are terms which suggest social helpfulness and community good. Are they not attributes of those capable of analyzing conditions and reaching log- ical conclusions. 7 If effective citizenship can any- where be taught directly, it would seem that a study of rational geography in the upper grades might serve in this capacity. Geography and nature study tend toward a de- velopment of a humanitarian spirit through the sympathy and interest which they beget for the 10$ THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY lower forms of life. The effective citizen must be humane and altruistic. He must live and let live. In genera], this spirit may be awakened and nourished through the observance of the universal struggle for existence. Children who have been well directed in nature study, do not wantonly trample upon wild flowers, mutilate the branches of trees, or destroy harmless life. They come to see, also, the use of much that is inanimate and inorganic, and finally they may arrive at a con- ception of life as manifold relationships and in- teractions with environment. Such an attitude toward nature is at once ethical and moral. Social efficiency depends very largely upon the ability to appreciate proper relationships and to estimate proper uses. The inventor calmly reflects upon the needs of society and then turns his attention to some material thing which he adjusts to human use, and so establishes a new relationship between man and nature. The effective citizen must have sufficient insight into geographical environment to discern adjustments and modifications that will benefit himself and the community; but such an understanding engenders an interest and sym- pathy which is quite akin to the humanitarian spirit of a purely social environment. Hence it may be said that any modification of physical or social environment that improves social condi- tions and enhances social welfare is a geographic control and belongs to the social phase of geography. HUMAN AND SOCIAL OLOGRAPH) 107 SUGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS. 1. Does the scientific view of geography permit its limitation to a study of the earth as the home of man? Show why. L'. To what extent can man modify his geographic environment! Give several instances. ;;. What are the qualities of an efficient citizen? What is there in the nature of geography that makes its study valuable in developing useful citizens? 4. How can a knowledge of geography enable a citizen to adapt his industry more advantageously? '>. How important is transportation to the nations of the earth? How does it enable nations to live better? Does it, then, satisfy social needs? G. What department of geographical study especially emphasizes the social phase ? FOR FURTHER STUDY. 1. Head Chap. T. Book III, in Small and Vincent's Introduction in thr Study of Society and write an essay to show why land is a social element. What, then, is the relationship of geography to sociology? J. Study your home environment to find examples of human adjust- ment to physical conditions. Are houses built at the foot of liiils.' Do farmers drive herds to rivers or springs for water? Are streams forded? Select and describe as many instances as possible. Are these adjustments indicative of the greatest prosperity? ','>. Select instances in your home environment to show reorgani- zation it natural environment. Does the near-by railroad follow a river valley? Hoes it cut through or tunnel a hill? In either case, explain why. 1. What crop system prevails? Why? ~>. Is the fresh meat slaughtered at home or shipped in? Why.' (i. Do you believe that the proper study of geography can make better citizens? Did the instruction given you contribute to your efficiency ? 7. What kind of economy is exemplified in Whittier's "Snow- Bound"? Does tin- same economy now prevail? What causes a cha ntre i n eeoiiomv ? 108 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY. Branford, Victor V. — "Science and Citizenship," Am. Jour. Soc, Vol. XI, pp. 721-726. Van Liew, Chas. C. — "Social Phase of Geography," Bui. Am. Bu. of Geog., Vol. II. Trotter, Spencer — "The Social Function of Geography," Fourth Year Book, Xat. Herbart Soc. Sinnott, Chas. I'. — "Development of the Child's Social Nature Through Geography and History," Bui. Am. Bu. of Geog., Vol. II, Xo. 4. Wolfe, Lloyd F. — "The Human Side of Geography," Proc. X. E. A., 1903, p. 14.3. Keltic, J. Scott — Applied Geography, Philip & Son. King, Chas. F. — "Concrete Geography," Bui. Am. Bu. of Geog., Vol. I. Bagley, W. C. — The Educative Process, Chap. III. CHAPTER VIII. Geography a\d Life, topic's to be considered. Life's struggle with environment; how animals and plants live, temperature, moisture ami soil conditions. The distribution of peoples; how man lives in the tropics; in the polar regions; in the temperate belts. Life a process of establishing an equilibrium with environment; re-creation of environment a proof of enlightened civilization. How industries are earth-determined; physiographic features restrict habitable areas; the life and character of peoples thus influenced. How industries are determined in populous countries; in sparsely inhabited countries; how geography influences political his- tory; England cited. How geography is related to life; how it can help people to live better; dignity of the subject. The leading consideration concerning all life is self-perpetuation. The inalienable right to live is the most impressive thought revealed in nature. Dearness of life is the sole cause of the universal conflict in the organic world. A superficial glance at nature reflects the harmony and tranquillity of a "daisied field in June," but a more careful scrutiny convinces us that the realm of nature is the scene of a warfare "utterly shameless and utterly cruel." "Long life and length of days" come only to the creature whose environment is 109 HO TEE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY favorable to its needs. Organisms either find de- sirable homes and congenial company, or vanish from the earth altogether. The security of life is contingent upon environment. The interesting adaptations of plants to secure sunlight, water, and food: and of animals to secure food, and for rivalry and defense, establish the fact that de- pendence characterizes every organism by deter- mining its nature. Animals derive food either directly or indirectly from plants, for they alone possess the important function of organizing inorganic materials. Since the two kingdoms must occupy the same domain, the struggle for existence is made more intense. But plants, in turn, are dependent upon proper conditions of temperature, moisture and soils. The temperature of any region leads to a con- sideration of the sun and its effect upon earth and atmosphere; moisture takes into account the aqueous envelope as affected by heat and winds; and soils result from the combined action of all these factors and forces upon the rock crust of the earth. Plants do not thrive in regions where the temperature remains long at or below .32°, as water is necessary to dissolve and transport nourishment. A meager precipitation of moisture, for a similar reason, stunts plant growth: hut with sufficient moisture and a sufficiently high temperature there is scarce a region in the world that would not ''blossom as the rose." A consideration of man's distribution and de- velopment reveals positive evidence of his re- GEOGRAPHY AND LIFE m spouse to physiographic conditions. Temperature and moisture are chief among these, not only be- cause they affect man directly, but because they determine the productiveness of habitable areas. A study of the progress of civilization leads to the conclusions (1) that range and variation in climatic conditions are favorable to civilization and culture, and (2) that extreme and uniform conditions are unfavorable to the advancement of civilization. Tropical regions support a luxuriant vegetation in response to high temperature, liberal rainfall and alluvial soils. The food supply is generous and were it not for other less favorable condi- tions a dense population might flourish. The range of temperature is scarcely more than ten degrees, and. in addition to the enervating influ- ence upon human beings, it permits an uninter- rupted plant growth, insuring abundant food with but little expense of human energy. The rank vegetation becomes a barrier which man declines to penetrate, partly because intertwining plants and vines obstruct his path, and partly because this tropical verdure harbors a dreaded animal and insect life. Resistance to life, so far as food and shelter are concerned, is reduced to the min- imum; the palm alone may furnish all that human life demands for mere subsistence. Excessive heat causes man to languish in the shade; ex- cessive moisture breeds disease and makes culti- vation difficult. The uniform climate and unlim- ited varieties in vegetation become monotonous 112 TUE TEACHING OF GEOGEAPEY and oppressive. Plant life holds the scepter ! Man is over-awed with the fierceness and regularity of environing - conditions. Long subjection has brought with it resignation and mental decadence. What wonder, then, that the primitive mind should reverence forces so irresistible as scorch- ing suns, angry skies, gigantic trees and ferocious beasts ! "What wonder that man should abandon a struggle for supremacy in which the odds are so against him ! Civilization is also in a low stage in the Arctic regions. The Eskimo's struggle for existence is so intense that all human effort is expended in extorting from nature a meager support. If we reflect on the conditions of his environment, we shall discover the most depressing monotony in the long silent night with only lurid gleams of light, in the illimitable expanse of glacial ice, in the absence of vegetation, in the desolate climate, and in the few species of animal life; surely his is a "universe of sky and snow." Here, again, nature outbalances man, and ambition is weighed down by conditions so monotonous that no excita- tions appeal to him except those for food and shelter. Even the food that he eats so lacks variety that the building up of a sensitive and susceptible organism is impossible. He is as stolid as the world in which lie dwells. Being driven for long periods to his home by the rigors of the clime, his emotional nature responds to enforced retirement and hence he manifests a strong love for home and familv. Snrelv his is a GEOGRAPHY AM) LIFE 113 case of arrested development, as growth in intel- ligence demands at least some surplus energy after a mere livelihood is insured. Temperate regions arc characterized by a great range of temperature and a varying supply of moisture. A rigorous climate demands well built homes and warm clothing; short summers demand great activity in order to mature crops; indigen- ous food-plants do not abound; soils produce only when carefully cultivated; woods are relatively scarce; metals are abundant but often difficult to obtain: and mountain barriers frequently sepa- rate productive areas. The variety of influences in environment demands versatile and symmet- rical development. Even sudden weather-changes stimulate mind and body. Life becomes abundant only when it establishes many relations. Intel- lectual life is quickened in the consideration of that which is economic and advantageous. Kivalry and competition make life strenuous. Just as the equable temperature of the tropics minimizes man's needs and leads to responses that are uni- form, so the temperate realm multiplies the neces- saries of life and brings a variety of responses. The hin'h temperature of summer, following a severe winter, is a powerful industrial stimulus, and the reactions which lessen the tension come in the form of linen clothing, electric fans, manu- factured ice. open cars, railroads to mountain re- treats and seaside resort*. So millions of men are hu>y because the su? 1 has mounted higher in the heavens. 1M TILE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY According - to Herbert Spencer life is the process of establishing an equilibrium with environment. The more intricate and complex the equilibria! processes become, the higher the degree of life and the higher the scale of civilization. In low forms of life the adjustments to environment are simple, and the accommodations are largely ef- fected by the organisms themselves. Every ani- mal must either respond to the demands for food and protection from enemies, or become extinct. The tropical inhabitant adjusts himself to his surroundings almost completely; he lives in caves or in the shelter of trees, wears little clothing and subsists on fruits, roots and insects. He is a direct response to an equable climate and a highly productive soil abounding with indigenous food- plants. Provision for the future is unnecessary, hence irresponsive and indolent habits are conse- quent reactions. Inactivity and stupidity are direct responses to conditions that make life easy. So nature, here violent and monotonous, outbal- ances a manhood that places little value upon an existence that is so generously bestowed. Re-creation of environment is the test of en- lightened civilization. In the lower stages of civilization, man stooped to adjust himself to na- ture and so became enslaved; but in highly civil- ized races, men have developed tastes and needs which nature, alone, cannot satisfy. So human ingenuity and discovery are summoned to trans- form material resources, and the work of nature is consummated with an artificial touch, which GEOGRAPHY AND LIFE H;, makes it serve more perfectly a fastidious people. All arts and industries, all crafts and trades, have, in the end, a single function to perform, viz., the promotion of natural resources to greater usefulness. But all modifications of material re- sources demand an intellectual alertness which marks progress in civilization. It is interesting" to trace out the history of localized industries, and one is soon convinced that favorable productive conditions, coupled with advantageous means of distribution, are the de- termining factors. To one who has studied geog- raphy aright, it is unnecessary to explain why cranberries are grown on Cape Cod. tobacco in the Red Sandstone Valley of the Connecticut. rice in South Carolina, or wheat in Minnesota; or why locomotives are made in Philadelphia, plate glass in Pittsburg, furniture in Grand Rapids, cotton goods in Birmingham, or pottery in Tren- ton. Suffice it to say, that industries slowly but, surely spring up in the regions well suited to their development. Frequently, where conditions are adverse, men triumph over nature's barriers to civilization, as when they tunnel mountains, con- nect oceans with watery threads, turn the course of rivers and moisten arid lands. Nature deals out her wealth with moderation in temperate zones and to them only who would '"subdue and have dominion" over her. Life is dear because it has been purchased by incessant toil, and it is versatile and abundant because in the struggle it 11G THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY acquired knowledge, sympathy, judgment and mercy. The trend of industrial history is determined by physiographic conditions. Man can modify his environment but he cannot annihilate it. In gen- eral, prosperity is coincident with a wise adjust- ment to geographic conditions. Chief among these art' climate and soils, of which much has been said. But land forms, themselves, exert impor- tant controls over industrial life. A general dis- tribution of mountain ranges parallel to seas makes narrow coastal plains; close parallel ranges enclose inter-montane valleys ; in the midst of the sea volcanic disturbances project habitable lands; the subsidence of continental margins is responsible for numerous head-lands and adjacent islands; and great rivers build and moisten far-reaching food plains. Hence it is that these earth processes fashion restricted hab- itable areas, while unrestricted areas result from the evaporation of large water bodies, or from the diastrophic tilting or lifting of extensive sea- floors. Broadly speaking, habitable lands are re- stricted or unrestricted and a review of industrial life makes the following inductions possible: (V ^Restricted habitable areas determine industries in which a maximum of labor is expended in the production of a minimum of material. (-) Con- versely, unrestricted habitable areas determine in- dustries in which a minimum of labor is expended in the production of a maximum of material. The operation of this principle is reflected in GEOGRAPHY AND LIFE 117 the character of the people. The Norwegians, hemmed in between the mountains and the ocean, were long dependent upon the fishing industry, and years at sea developed them into the boldest and most famous of seamen. When a yard of Belgian hand-made point lace is sold, ninety-five per cent, of the purchase price is for labor; the value of the raw material used is insignificant. In order that nearly five hundred people may live on a square mile, the highest pos- sible utility must be given every production, by the expenditure of much labor upon little mate- rial, in Switzerland, where metals and woods are scarce, hand-made watches and ingeniously carved toys illustrate how limited quantities of raw material may be transformed into great value through the application of much industry. Un- usual skill, strict economy and extreme persever- ance are the characteristic responses in the people. Restricted tillable areas near Boston and Xew York stimulate truck-farming, because an acre so employed furnishes a maximum of labor, the com- pensation for which comes when a limited quan- tity of choice seasonable vegetables finds a ready market. Xot only to industrial life does the principle relating to restricted areas apply: it extends also to political history with most decisive results. As England's tillable lands are much restricted, Tier own soils have lonu' boon unable to support her rapidly increasing population. Tn 1815 the Corn l.aw was passed to protect the English land- H8 TIJI - TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY lord. Under this obnoxious measure, the price of wheat in 1817 reached $3.25 a bushel, and the same year the weekly wage of a weaver was $1.02. The struggle for free trade soon followed. The exorbitant price of wheat added to the misery of the under-fed laborer, and the tariff interfered with commerce. Manufacturers demanded free trade because they saw clearly that a more abun- dant food supply would increase the spirit and efficiency of the workmen, and would also tend to keep labor cheap. Had England's territory been sufficient to furnish food for her millions, the great political struggle that wrenched the very life of England might have been averted. The misery, suffering, and abject poverty of the people enlisted the sympathy of noble hearts, who condemned the evil condition where "wealth ac- cumulates and men decay." Poets, reformers, and statesmen championed the cause of suffering humanity, and finally, in 1846, Robert Peel, through motives altruistic or otherwise, deserted the Tories and introduced the bill which sealed the doom of the Corn Law and marked the begin- ning of free trade in England. So in America, geography is peculiarly interwoven with history. The coastal plains, with their rich soils and warm, moist climate, must answer for the Civil War, says Prof. Davis, for these conditions made slavery profitable. Ultimately, the economic resources of thf South were responsible for the direful indus- trial situation there following the war. In areas where the resources are less restricted. GEOGRAPHY A XI) LIFE ny the industrial problem is very different. In con- trast to tiie Swiss, who makes a few ounces of metal into a watch worth ten dollars, or the Bel- gian, who converts a handful of tlax into a yard of point lace worth its weight in gold, the Penn- sylvanian makes from his almost unrestricted re- sources, iron and coal, locomotives and steel rails. The problem of the Illinois farmer is the produc- tion of a maximum yield with the minimum in- vestment of labor. A load of corn which brings $25 shows at least a return of $20 for material and the balance for labor. Dealing, as he does, with produce in great bulk, he becomes wasteful and extravagant. If. instead of Illinois' eighty people to the square mile, it had Belgium's four hundred and ninety, no longer could "half a til- lage stint" our prairie plains. Xo half-tilled farms, no weedy fence 1 corners, no peaty swamps or alkaline tracts could then exist. Agriculture in the past has been easy. Owing to its great possi- bilities '•man lias had only to tickle the soil with the plow and it has laughed with a harvest." But in his greed to get bountiful returns with little outlay of labor and capital, man is fast reaching a point of diminishing returns. Because of re- duced fertility, a point is reached at which a given outlay of labor and capital fails to produce a pro- portionate yield. Here the study of geography touches life most directly. It is only through an understanding of soils, and a knowledge of the treatment by which their fertility can be main- tained, that this point of diminishing returns can 120 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY be pushed farther into the future. So the agri cultural college becomes a necessity, and the call- ing' of the scientist is dignified by his reduction of farming to scientific agriculture. lias too much been said concerning the influ- ence of geography upon life, and too little con- cerning the value of the study of geography as presented in our schools? The educational tend- ency is emphatically toward a training that touches life in practical, rational, and vital ways; hence the value of any study must he measured by its contribution to fulness of life. That man is best educated who best understands his environ- ment, who most clearly recognizes his relation- ships and responsibilities to all other life, and who best uses his resources to promote the com- mon weal. Every science deals with some phase of man's environment, and geography, which is a department of science, deals in a general way with the same subject-matter. Any study which aids in giving man the correct view of his place in nature is of great value either from the prac- tical or the cultural point of view: for. indeed. culture, to be worthy the name, must manifest itself in the every day life of a people. The revelation of truth is one of the chief func- tions of all education. Superstition and tradition have ever blocked progress. Geography has as- sumed its share in the task* of disseminating knowledge. A Genoese visionary, starting out to prove the rotundity of the earth, discovered a new world; Magellan consummated the unfinished task GEOGRAPHY AND LIFE 121 of circumnavigating the globe. The next great triumph of truth came in the middle of the six- teenth century, when Copernicus bequeathed to science a solar system. "With the contributions of Herschel, Laplace, Ritter, and Guyot, we might think the work of geography complete. But again conies the question more pointed and specific: "How can I, at the country cross-roads, influence life and character through geography ? " Seek the answer in this : if men and women of the next gen- eration shall be filled with "wisdom and under- standing": and if they shall be free from the bondage of superstitions that distort and terrify life, then must the children of today be convinced that moons neither help nor hinder the growth of plants, nor affect the amount of rainfall; that soils, the chief source of man's wealth, are the re- positories of plant-foods which unwise use may exhaust all too soon; that cyclones possess decided economic value since to them we are chiefly in- debted for our copious rains; that the "magician chlorophyll, conjuring with sunbeams,"' breathes life into dead matter and makes an animal king- dom possible; that birds and bees labor inces- santly in making man's harvest abundant; that the chief use of the earth-worm is not to veneer a fish-hook, but to enhance the resources of the soil by keeping it rich and porous; that even invisible organisms render the highest service to man, as when bacteria accomplish the fixation of nitrogen in leguminous plants; and finally, that the forest, the nature-given heritage which man has so wan- 122 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY tonly devastated, serves man directly in a score of ways, and indirectly enriches and protects the soils, prevents disastrous floods, secures constant heads to our streams, breaks the biting blasts of winter, and makes beautiful, landscapes that otherwise would be barren and monotonous. Even above the value of practical knowledge, the student of nature may discover the steadfast- ness and immutability of God's law. He may be convinced that retribution follows its transgres- sion, in the physical as in the spiritual world, with unfailing certainty; and finally, that to him who is in harmony with nature, and therefore most likely to be "in tune with the Infinite," shall come ''length of days, riches, and honor." SUGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS. 1. Why are the temperate z. What principle predominates in the industry of :i western fa rmer ? H. Summarize the relations of geography and life. FOR FURTHER STUDY. 1. Tin Oaan Atmosphere and Life, by Elisee Reclus, is unusually strong and inspiring. Tt is an excellent reference to the student who desires to comprehend the relation- of earth- forces and factors on the development of life. Read, for GEOGRAPHY AXD LIFE 123 instance, Chapter XV, "Influence of Climate," in the volume named above, and prepare an argument to show why highly civilized races occupy temperate regions. 2, The life of the pioneer was self-sufficing; the economy of today is commercial. Compare. '!. To illustrate thai the life of the earth engages in a universal conflict, read A Summer Field ami What It Tells Us, by .John Fiske. 4. Shaler's Xaturt and Man in America is an excellent volume to study in connection with the foregoing chapter. .Select a pertinent chapter and write a brief review of it. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Keclus, hTisei — • ' The Earth and lis Inhabitants," WJ. entitle.! Ocean Atmosplu re and Life. Mill, II. li.—lntt r national G( ography. Shaler, X. H.—Xature and Man in Xorth Ann run. Webster, \V. V..— History of Commnre. Merriam, C. Hart — "Laws of Temperature-Control of Grographu Distribution of Animals and Plants,'' Xat. Gong. Mag., Vol. VI. [1. l'L'<). Taylor. II. ('. — Agricultural Economics: Walker, Fra in-is — Folit ical Economy. Trotter. Spencer — Geography of Conuntret. Fiske, John — Cosmic Philosophy. Wallace, Alfred Russell — Studies Scientific and Social. Wallace, Alfred Russell— Island Lift. PART II. CHAPTER IX. The Teacher's Preparation. topics to be considered. Why geography demands broad scholarship on the part of the teacher; teacher must know limits of the subject; a knowl- edge of principles, of first consideration. Importance of an understanding of physiographic processes; brief discussion of diastrophism, vulcanism anil gradation; the cycle, teacher's scholastic equipment commensurate with the number of generalizations made. A knowledge of local environment important; illustrations. Knowledge of 'nooks, maps and apparatus necessary to success; teaching ability presupposed. In discussing' the teacher's preparation in geography, only the subject-matter side and a few pedagogical points peculiar to this subject, will be considered. The appreciation of general peda- gogical principles is presupposed. Because of the diversified relationships of geog- raphy, which overlap on its physical side, the fields of geology, astronomy, zoology, botany, meteorology, physics and their allied specialized 125 x^G THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY departments ; and on its social side, history, civicfe, economics and sociology, it is evident that a liberal education will aid greatly in presenting the sub- ject of geography. The same argument, how- ever, may be advanced for many other sub- jects, though of all elementary-school subjects, geography requires the greatest range of insight and information. It should be clearly kept in mind that the marginal subject-matter which ar- ticulates geography with these various subjects, is as truly geographical as it is physical or so- ciological, and therefore geography ''borrows" no more from these subjects than they "borrow" from it. (See Fig. 1, p. 57.) The tests which de- termine whether material is geographic are : (a) Does it contribute in any way to the corre- lation of life with physical environment or. as Pro- fessor "W. M. Davis puts it, of the physiographic and ontographic factors of the subject ? (b) Is it necessary to an understanding of con- trols and responses? (c) Is the material in question directly or in- directly ' ' earth-determined ? ' ' Such tests are necessary to keep the teacher from unconsciously drifting into a discussion of irrelevant matter, a dangerous tendency which even very earnest teachers sometimes lind difficult to avoid. It is a matter of extreme importance, however, for the teacher to be constantly on his guard against this common weakness. One of the first requisites, then, is that the TEE TEACHER'S PREPARATION 127 teacher shall recognize the limits of the geographi- cal held, and thereby always direct his teaching to purposeful ends. If we look now to the subject-matter within tin. proper limits of geography, we shall find it made up of countless facts and details from which schol- ars have induced laws and principles. It is with this material that the teacher must deal, using the facts not alone as ends in themselves, but as the raw material or data from which general princi- ples are to be derived. I. A knowledge of the great physiographic processes is fundamental to the teacher's equip- ment. Without their comprehension he sees only "as through a glass darkly." It is often observed in normal-school classes and in institutes, that many teachers are wholly ignorant of these processes, and since this is true, no comprehen- sion of the life history of continents is possible. For the benefit of those whose opportunities have been somewhat limited, a short exposition of these processes is given. Experienced teachers should always keep them within the field of conscious knowledge and use them as directive and correla- tive factors. The physiographic processes are (a) diastrophism, (b) vulcanism, and (c) grada tion. In addition to these and as a result of their in- teraction, we have the unit of terrestrial life-his- tory, the cycle. * For fuller discussion of the comparative value? of facts and prlr cuil.'s see Chapter XIV. 128 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY (a) Diastrophism is the uplift or subsidence of any portion of the earth's crust, or lithosphere. The earth's crust under the influence of gravity, tends to invest the contracting centrosphere, or central core. This tendency causes the crust to subside slowly in various regions, and the subsi- dence is often accompanied by arching or folding in other regions. Either movement is dias- trophic. If a sheet of paper be laid on the table top and held at both ends with some "fulness," any attempt to smooth out the fulness, will cause it to a})] tear in a different place. So when sub- sidence occurs in one region, uplift may appear in another. It is through this process of diastrophism that sea-bottoms are lifted and large land masses born. All parts of the earth have at some time been under water, and many portions have oscillated from land to sea many times, as is attested by the rocks and sediments exposed at the surface. Plateaus and mountains are often the result of the arching, folding, and faulting of the earth's crust. But this process is not a matter of history only; it is a dynamic force now operating slowly in many portions of the earth. Time was when our own continent was an elongated island reaching from Labrador to Georgia. The Rocky mountains were then lifted; and by slow upward movement and numerous subsidences, the bed of the Paleo- zoic sea finally came to the surface, causing its waters to recede respectively toward the Arctic THE TEACHER'S PREPARATION 129 ocean and Gulf of Mexico. A subsidence of 975 ft. would again unite these bodies of water and split the continent. Continental oscillations are best observed at the margins of continents.* Examine a good map of North America and note the eastern edge of the continental shell ; this was once the margin of our continent. Again observe the fall-line sepa- rating the Piedmont from the Coastal plains. This was once the continental margin. Is it not easy to comprehend that sufficient subsidence would again permit the surf to reach Washington, Rich- mond and Columbia? Let us now see the practical significance of the sinking or the rising of coasts. The coast of eastern North America is at present slowly subsiding. The movement is more pronounced north of Cape Ilatteras. South of this point, the characteristics are those of a recently uplifted coast, though a slight subsidence is now observed. Xote the irregularity of the coast line, the numer- ous drowned river valleys and more pronounced bays. Compare with the coast of South Carolina and Georgia, and note the evenness of the coast- line and the absence of important bays. In which division are good harbors more numerous? The great commercial cities of the northern division are inland, at the bay-heads; in the south they are on the coast. "Which type of coast has been more favorable to industrial development! In general, there are two types of coasts — the See The Margin of Ow Continent , Xorlh Amrr-'-n, Russell. 130 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY rising and sinking, of which the sections pointed out will serve as examples. Also, in a general way, a ragged contour with deep inlets, suggests subsidence, and even shore lines, like the east coast of South America, suggest uplift. But rag- ged and indented coasts may now be rising, and even coasts may be sinking, the reverse movement in each case having preceded. Pupils can infer from maps the great movements that have oc- curred. Thus the lands in general, with their mountains, plateaus, lake basins and typical shore lines, are often determined by diastrophism alone; sometimes by this process working in con- junction with the others mentioned. (b) Vulcanism is the ejection of the interior ma- terials of the earth upon the surface. The causes of this action are not very clearly understood. The process assists diastrophism in building land masses. The inner materials are ejected either through craters or through fissures in the earth's crust. When through craters, volcanic cones are formed; when through fissures, dykes or vulcanic plateaus. Mt. Shasta is an example of the former, Columbia Plateau of the latter. Vulcanic action often occurs in the sea. when islands are formed. The Philippines, the islands of the Japan Empire, and the Hawaiian Islands are of vulcanic origin. Hence vulcanism also tends to make lands and in- crease altitudes above the level of the sea. The general elevation of large regions of the west has been increased in this manner. Successive lava Hows in Washington and Oregon have produced TEE TEACHER'S PREPARATION 131 vulcanic rock of great thickness, as is shown in the canon of the Snake River in southeastern Wash- ington. Diastrophic uplift and vulcanism tend to make lands and increase their altitudes. Subsidence tends to submerge the lower lands. (c) Gradation is that process by which winds, water, and glaciers, assisted by other physical and chemical forces, tend to restore the lands to sea level. Gradation, then, works against diastrophic uplift and vulcanism, and establishes, on a magnifi- cent scale, a universal conflict. Slowly mountains and hills yield to the action of weather, the loose materials are carried by gravity, winds, glaciers or water, toward and into the sea, thus reducing the altitude and sculpturing the land surface with valleys, gorges and canons. The moisture that falls on mountain crests is always planing away the slopes and ultimately only a gentle divide will mark the location of the old range. This degrad- ing process ends when the rivers cut their chan- nels to sea-level and so lose their ability to do the work of transportation. The cycle * is a term inclusive of all of the changes wrought by the physiographic processes in uplifting a region and subsequently reducing it to sea level. ]ts conception is the most significant in the whole physiographic side i^\' geography, and no teacher has made a beginning until the idea is grasped in its entirety. The teacher's intellectual equipment, then, will • Spp Physical GrnorapJnj, Dryer. 132 TEE TEACHING OF GEOGBAPEY vary directly according to the number of induc- tions or generalizations made, and in saying this, we incidentally give the detailed fact-side of sub- ject matter its rating. For further illustration, several inductions are here given. If the teacher can elaborate fully, and apply these and many similar ones, it will speak well for his geographical equipment. 1. Cyclonic storms are of economic value to the Upper Mississippi Valley. 2. Rivers are enemies of lakes. 3. Increased population necessitates intensi- fied industry. 4. Rotation of crops does not increase fertility of soil. 5. In our latitude, west coasts are warmer. 6. Glaciated areas abound in lakes. 7. The temperature varies with the altitude of the sun. 8. Cities are located at breaks in transporta- tion. 9. The driftless area has a perfect drainage system. 10. Industries arc earth determined. 11. Forests preserve soils, and prevent floods. 12. Illinois and Iowa are rivals in corn produc- tion. Illinois markets much more corn. II. A good preparation must include the ability to interpret geographical features in one's own en- vironment. How often people are wholly oblivious to the interesting features and processes of the THE TEACHER'S PREPARATION 133 neighborhood. This is sometimes true of teachers whose "book knowledge" is fairly adequate. But of what value is any science unless it be applied? Geography and nature study should never dete- riorate into mere formalism. Their content is concrete and their worth depends upon their ap- plication. The wise teacher has an opportunity to socialize the materials of geography. Lessons on soils may be carried home and the parents taught by the children. The farmer may learn of the value of legumes in restoring nitrogen to his fields, and in this and other ways, the school may become a true social center. Should a rural teacher, on his way to school, observe that the corn in a cer- tain field is of light green or yellowish color, he might interpret it to mean insufficient nitrogen in the soil, and so advise with the farmer. Should ho examine the clover roots and find no tubercles he could suggest inoculation. The teacher who has no love for the stories which "Mother Nature" tells and who cannot "read as he runs," at least some of the more com- mon ones, is not prepared to interest children in outdoor geography. On board of train, as one passes the dunes in Indiana, cuts through the moraines of Illinois or Wisconsin, rounds lakes and drumlins, and finally enters a valley walled in by the terraced slopes of the Driftless Area, what chapters of earth lore should pass through his mind and make travel truly a pleasure! Suppose again that one passes a stream in Towa and notes that the banks are nearlv on a level with 134 TEE TEACHING OF GEOGRAVHY the water as shown in Fig. 2; or crosses the Illinois and observes its bluffs and banks as in Fig. 3; and finally crossing the Fox observes the features of Fig. 4\, what interpreta- tions will he make explanatory of these varying characteristics. 1 And these are familiar and typi- cal aspects of the Upper Mississippi valley. III. The teacher's preparation must include a knowledge of books, maps, helps and simple ap- Typical Young Valley 'Iowa;. Ideal section of Illinois river. (Pre- glacial chan- nel.) Ideal section cf Fox river Illinois. i Sub glacial channel.) paratns, useful in his daily work. In order that this volume may be helpful, short bibliographies arc given at the close of each chapter, and occa- sional references in the context itself. The teacher THE TEACHER 'S PEE PAR A TIOX 135 must not only know the sources of information — but must know how to use them, as well. The chapters on Maps and Models, and Weather Study, it is hoped, will be suggestive. ''One of the most valuable parts of the geog- raphy training is the ability to use reference books accurately, easily and effectively. This training can readily be given through the use of reference books accessible in the school library. Only a few reference volumes should be used, and the best should be selected not merely because they are in- teresting, but primarily because they are geo- graphically sound, information giving, and really supplementary to the class-room lessons," * Without referring especially to teaching ability as a part of a teacher's necessary equipment, this being quite fully treated elsewhere, two other {(liases must be noted. These are the life side, and the social and economic side. The first could be best summed up by saying that the prepared teacher should know something of the theory of evolution to serve as a guide in dealing with or- ganic responses; and from the social side of geog- raphy, which includes commercial geography, it seems that some knowledge, at least, of political economy is absolutely necessary. Production, transportation and consumption involve principles of economics, an understanding of which adds much to the teacher's efficiency. Both of these phases of geography are treated at some length in other chapters. if <; _ r ra | ihy, 13G THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY SUGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS. 1. What characteristic of geography makes broad scholarship of the teacher necessary? 2. Why should the teacher clearly recognize the limits of geog raphyf 3. What are the tests that determine whether facts and materials are geographic? 4. What knowledge is fundamental in the teacher's preparation? Why? 5. How best test the teacher's scholastic, equipment? 6. Why is the teacher's ability to interpret local environment an important acquisition? 7. What knowledge of books ought a competent teacher to possess? BIBLIOGRAPHY'. Redway, J. W. — "The Teacher's Preparation, New Basis of Geography," Chap. XII. Emerson, Philip — "Training of Teachers for Study of Home Geography," Journal of Geography, Vol. I, p. 391. Frye, A. E. — How to Teach Primary Geography, Ginn & Go. McMurry, < '. A. — Special Method in Geography, The Macmillan ( 'ompany. Parker, P. W. — How to Teach Geography, D. Appleton Go. CHAPTER X. Better Method in Geography. topics to be considered. General method; how determined; how better method in geography may be attained. The empirical method in geography; no lack of inherent interest in the subject; the value of well selected problems. An illustrative problem; what its solution involves; advantages of such procedure. If the general method be good, the special method can hardly be bad; indeed, the teacher's own "way of doing" things, his personality, must count, else he becomes a mere machine and his in- struction becomes purely formal. Considerable liberty must be assumed in the technique of daily lesson plans. Again general method should be an outgrowth of the nature of the subject. Too often educators distort school subjects to exploit some conceived method of presentation. But these warped defini- tions constitute no panacea for educational prog- ress, and surely they do not change the nature of school subjects ! Whatever is eliminated in school subjects must be discarded on the basis of utility, not in the narrow sense, but rather of utility as a life process. 137 138 THE TEACHING OF GEOGTi IPHY General method in geography, then, is a result- ant of three components, viz., 1. The intrinsic nature of the subject. 2. The needs of the individual in his life rela- tionships. 3. The educative process through which the pupil comes into possession of these rela- tionships. Granting the above theses, reform in general method must be wrought through instruction whose guiding principles require that — 1. Formal fact teaching be replaced by con- crete and significant principles. 2. The rational or causal element be more gen- erally recognized. 3. Materials be more fully evaluated and use- ful types selected. 4. The social phase receive more emphasis. 5. Subject matter be presented in form of per- tinent problems which pupils are to solve. Only the last point will be discussed since the first four deal with the selection and emphasis of materials rather than presentation of matter. That the teaching of geography suffers much as a result of unscientific method is readily admitted by all thoughtful students of the subject. A more genera! use of geographical readers and maga- zines, of well selected illustrative materials, to- gether with the vividness and eonereteness result- ing from well conducted excursions, are of great BETTER METHOD IN GEOGRAPHY 139 value in giving new life and interest to the work. The old and established method of telling the facts of the science in the laconic statements of the brief text-book, is at best but a mild way of stimu- lating mental activity. This latter method pours a great profusion of generalized statements into the mental hopper, but furnishes little motive for their screening, milling and sifting. To receive and to retain are the assumed aims of this un- scientific or empirical method. To make the above clear, one or two parallels are drawn. What interest would the study of arithmetic excite, should the author solve all of the problems and present the written solutions for pupils to study/ What demands would such pro- cedure make upon the mind of the pupil ? The best teachers of mathematics condemn the time-hon- ored custom of authors of geometry because too much of the work is done for the student. What of the method of teaching geography? Even with the recent awakening to the possibili- ties of the subject and the somewhat improved methods of presentation, the results are not com- mensurate with the expense of time and effort. Ought not the same general method to apply to geography as applies to mathematics and science! Cannot the essentials be brought to the pupils in the form of pertinent problems which they are to solve.' In their life experience, all are interested in geography. Problems of production, transporta- tion and consumption — one or ab — affect every 140 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY individual. Problems of agriculture, forestry, ir- rigation and road-building command universal in- terest and attention, yet, withal, the study of geog- raphy is generally formal and empirical. The dif- ficulty lies in the fact that the presentation is un- pedagogical; surely the subject matter is interest- ing. If pertinent problems could be so presented to pupils, that their solutions would necessitate the interpretation of good maps, charts and graphs ; the reading and sifting of selected articles in newspapers and periodicals ; the comparison of statements in texts and reference books and the selection of a " consensus of opinion"; and the expression of results by means of maps, models, graphs and written essays, it seems that the whole situation might be changed for the better. Instead of being mere recipients, pupils would then be forced to read carefully; to reason, interpret, infer and to express. The true spirit of a student might be engendered by a procedure that rejects brief and unqualified statements and requires pupils to compare authorities, to examine "the planes of cleavage" and, therefore, to modify first impressions. A suggestive problem suitable for the higher grades is here given. It is the outgrowth of actual experience in teaching. Problem: "What water body furnishes much of the moisture of the corn and wheat states? A sixth grade class worked this problem with fairly satisfactory results, reaching the conclusion through the steps indicated by the questions. No BETTER METHOD IN GEOGRAPHY 141 teaching was done except that necessary to lead to an understanding of the particular problem in hand. The only materials used in this case were the Natural Advanced Geography and the daily Weather Maps. The small maps in the geography were very helpful. 1. What transports moisture from seas to the land? Why does it often rain on the windward sides of the mountains? What causes precipita- tion? How, then, does the upward movement of the air affect its temperature? 2. What is the general direction of the wind in the regions of the corn and wheat states ? (Chil- dren are referred to the wind charts in the geog- raphies, and to proper sections of the text. A motive has been furnished for the understanding of each.) 3. Can the prevailing westerlies transport moisture from the Pacific Ocean to the corn and wheat states? Why? (Verbatim written answer of pupil: "The prevailing westerlies do not carry moisture to the wheat and corn growing states be- cause as they cross the Rocky Mountains they get chilled and drop their moisture before they get to the wheat and corn growing states.") 4. If the winds blow in their normal direction, can the Atlantic Ocean furnish moisture to these states? Why? The Arctic Ocean? The Gulf of Mexico? Why? 5. Determine from the rainfall chart the an- nual rainfall in the Great Plains. The Prairie Plains. 14 Illinois with great regularity, especially in winter months, Real conditions should be observed. 10. What indicates approach of storm from west.' Observe temperature. Condition of sky, rainfall ( if any) that accompany a southeast wind. Observe same conditions as winds shift to west. Repeat observations. What winds bring most rain .' "What water body does this wind cross? 11. What water body, then, is of the greatest value in furnishing moisture to the wheat and corn states ? How did the cyclone help in bringing the moisture ? The introduction of problems in geography serves to focalize the attention for some time upon an important question. It furnishes definite mo- tives which guide the pupil in his study. The solu- tion of problems assists much in the organization of geographical facts, reduces formal work to a minimum, emphasizes the value of ideas, sub- stitutes active investigation for passive reception, and. in a general way, trains the pupil in genuine habits of studv. SUGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS. 1. Of what importance is the selection of material in geography? What i< thf true basis for selection? 2. What is the empirical method as applied to geography? Can you justify such a method? 3. What must any good method take into consideration? 4. Of what advantage is the solution of well selected problems in teaching geography? 5. Why has :he teaching of geography often been inefficient? 144 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY. Hinsdale, B. A.— The Art of Study. Salisbury, Eollin D. — "The Teaching of Geography — -A Criticism and a Suggestion." Educational Bi-Monthly, June, 1909. Chamberlain, J. F. — "Geography and Life," Elementary Teacher, October, 1897. Shaler, X. S. — "Practical Methods of Teaching Geography," Proc. N. E. A., 1903, p. 848. Redway, J. W— " Text Books of Geography," Ed. Rev. Vol. V., p. 153. "Geographical Text Books and Geographical Teach- ing," Journal of Geography, A'ol. 11, p. 360. CHAPTER XL An Inductive Lesson in Geography, topics to be considered. How the inductive procedure applies in geography; danger of waste in use of data; induction may require time; relation of induction to deduction. A lesson planned; problem; preparation; presentation; compari- son : generalization. The lesson taught; steps taken by pupils; results obtained. The lessons in geography are largely inductive. This is particularly true of the work in the inter- mediate grades. It may he observed, however, that the method is not strictly scientific. The movement is slow. Often data, in the form of detailed fact or item, is gathered and held for some time before comparison and generalization can be accomplished. Often, too, in the text books of geography, much information of rather diverse nature, is presented with no very clearly defined end in view. It is incumbent upon the teacher to gather this material about definite centers and to use it in inducing general laws or principles. Often, however, months elapse before children shall have gathered sufficient data around some center, to make an induction safe. Teachers should realize that much of the observational and 145 14G THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY descriptive work has for its motive the collection of data, the assemblage of facts, the recollection and comparison of last month's or even last year's materials, for the express purpose of establishing general principles. Otherwise the work is pur- poseless and empirical, that is, it is done on the assumption that somehow, somewhere, sometime, it will fit into the child's experience in a helpful way. And. indeed, it may, but it will be by mere accident in some particular case. It is safe to saj that, unless it be the conscious purpose of the teacher to use this material to a wise end, a great waste in education will result. Although the chief movement in lower grade geography is inductive, there are not many lessons that can be consummated by the more direct in- ductive process. For instance, the notion of the world as a whole is reached inductively, but only after a whole year of reconnoitering journeys to different parts of the globe. These .journeys are suggested by home needs, and the industries and materials by which the needs are satisfied, furnish motives for an introductory study of Brazil as a coffee-producing country; of France as a silk- producing country; of the Philippine Islands as a manila hemp and sugar-producing region; and of South Africa as a diamond-producing country. Thus, little by little, the pupil comes into posses- sion of a series of conceptions, the last of which is the "world as a whole." Induction, then, seems to be the natural pro- cedure in the early work of geography. But this INDUCTIVE LESSON IN GEOGRAPHY Wi process of learning is no end in itself. Neither can it be separated from deduction, which may be termed the inverse inductive procedure. The writer conceives these educative processes to be reciprocally related; that is, the inductive method narrows down to the general, while the deductive spreads out to cover the particular. Many Particulars v enter into the Genera] Pnnnp Hr'incipte Induction ; Deduction ,/^The Fhr.ciple - vers t^T- Marry Reticulars Application It is not thought that special effort will be made by teachers to make the lessons in geography show the ear-marks of method, but it is believed that skillful teaching will naturally follow these methods of procedure. Indeed, the teacher's method will become an unconscious guide, if the principles of teaching have 1 been fully assimilated. Deduction, then, is the fruit of the inductive process. It can hardly be called a process by itself, but is rather the application of the general principle to which induction led. Without deduc- tion the process of learning might become very slow and tedious. Its application is a more direct method of securing results, and is, therefore, an economical procedure in the learning process, ft seems to be a natural mental movement. 148 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY In any development lesson the art of question- ing is of fundamental importance, for through the questions the whole method-movement is deter- mined. The questions not only point the way, but they must be put in a manner that will relate new and old data, suggest likenesses and differences and weld together all statements pertinent to the problem in hand. Again the movement of either inductive or de- ductive lessons must be such as to call for some original thinking. All apt questions in develop- ment lessons will call for initiative on the part of pupils. The central problem for the teacher is "how best to stimulate the constructive thinking of the pupils of the class; how to induce in them the most educative self-activity."* This getting together of data for the discovery of a principle, or later, the application of the principle to new cases, involves the comprehension of relationships, which are the essential elements of problems. The following lesson illustrative of the inductive lesson is not given as a ''model." It was planned and taught, at the suggestion of the author, by Professor Thomas II. Gentle, for the sole purpose of testing the inductive method. The condition and the class were average only. The observation of the lesson illustrated one thing clearly, viz., that a well planned lesson in the hands of a good teacher can stimulate a large amount of original EUm< ntnru Education -Ki»ith. INDUCTIVE LESSON IN GEOGRAPHY 149 thought ; involve a large amount of significant sub- ject-matter ; and direct the minds of pupils to the understanding of an important generalization. A short synopsis of the plan is here given. AX ILLUSTRATIVE INDUCTIVE LESSOX. (Planned for a Seventh Grade.) Geographical principle to be induced: "The location of cities is often caused by breaks in transportation." 1. PRE PAR ATI ox. What is the chief product of our home region! To what place is it shipped/ How! South- western Wisconsin once produced much lead. AVhere was it taken? Why taken to Galena? How? What did the people of Galena do with the lead ? Where is Galena ? Show it on the map. On what river is it located? Why not located at the mouth of La Fevre river? Why not at its source? What determined how far up the river Galena should be located? Then what determined the location of Galena? What supplies were needed in the region of Platteville in early days? Where did the supplies come from ? By what route ? Trace the route. What was done with the supplies when they had been taken as far by boat as possible? What might this transferring point become? A few days ago we learned that New York is the richest city in America. Where is Xew York City located? Point to it on the map. 150 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY Pupils' problem No. 1. Let us find out how New York City came to be located at the mouth of the Hudson river. PRESENTATION. From what place did the first settlers of New York come ? How did they come ? Were their ships large? Could they easily sail up the river? Why not? Who inhabited this region when the white men came ? How did the Indian get his living? Did he have any products which the white men might want? What? Where could the white man sell the furs ? What could he give the Indian in exchange for them? Where were the ''trinkets'' secured? How could the Indians get their furs to the white men? Could the white men reach the Indians in the ocean ship? Could the Indians reach the ocean ships in their canoes? Where, then, could the white men and Indians best meet to trade? What might you call such a point? What do we find there today? Then what deter- mined the location of New York City? II. PREPARATION. How many have ever been to the Mississippi river? What did you see while there? (Steam- boat.) Where was it going? Es St. Paul a large city? With what was the boat loaded.' Did yon notice any railroads near the river? How many? Did they have anything to do with the decrease INDUCTIVE LESSON IN GEOGRAPHY 151 of river traffic? How so? Where is St. Paul located ? Point to it on the map. Pupils' problem No. 2. Let us find out why St. Paul is located where it is. PRESENTATION. Who formerly lived in the region about St. Paul? Why? What attracted white people? From what direction did the white fur traders come ? Did the white traders and the Indians have definite meeting places? Point out one on the map. Why there? What might we call this point? How did the traders procure the furs? What did they give the Indians in return ? Show on the ma}) how the traders returned from the region. Later, lumbermen and settlers came into the country about St. Paul. What did these people need to carry on their work? How could the sup- plies reach them? Trace the route on the map. What might you call the transferring point? How, then, was this point located? III. PREPARATION. How many have ever visited Chicago? Name interesting things you saw there. Here is a large map of Illinois. Find the Chicago river. Locate the city. Pupils' problem Xo. 3. Let us find out why Chicago was located at this place. 152 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY PRESENTATION. A long time ago a missionary visited the Missis- sippi valley. lie died where Chicago now stands. You learned about him in the fourth grade. Who was he? Tell about his journey to the Mississippi river. Some years after, a French trader came to the mouth of the Chicago river and bought a cabin which he found there. Was it an excellent place for fur trade? Why? From what region could he collect furs? How could the Indians bring them to him? Where could he dispose of them? How could he send them away? What did this make of the point where the trader lived? W nat made the post grow larger? From what regions do railroads now enter Chi- cago? Why are they needed? What do they carry to the city? "What do they take away ] Does this trade make the city grow? Why? IV. COMPARISON AND GENERALIZATION. Let us now compare these three places which we have studied, to see if we can find one thing true of all of them. In the case of Xew York what were the white men forced to do with the supplies and trinkets they brought to the region for the settlers and the Indians? (Land them.) What did the Indian have to do with his furs? Could he carry them further than the mouth of the Hudson river? In this regard examine both St. Paul and Chicago, What do we find true of all? INDUCTIVE LESSON IN GEOGBAPEY 153 At this point the pupils will give a crude general statement, possibly something like this: 11 In each ease we see that the white trader brought his things as far as he could without unloading and that the Indian brought his furs as near the trader as he could without unloading. These points were near together. Between them a trading post was made and later a town grew." The following questions may be asked about the general statement in order to throw it into the technical form : AY hat obstruction, then, intervened in the routes of transportation for the white man's goods ? The Indian's routes? (Breaks.) AVhat do breaks in transportation cause? AVhat determined the loca- tion of New York City? AVhy has it since become so large? AVhat determined the location of St. Paul .' Of Chicago ? AVhy have they become large cities? AVhat sometimes determines the location of cities ? If it is decided (and it is almost mandatory) to carry this principle through its deductive phase, the mode of procedure may be seen in the Deduc- tive Lesson in the next chapter. SUGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS. 1. To what extent is the inductive procedure practical in geog- raphy .' i!. What importance attaches to data in geography? ,'■!. How may waste occur in teaching geography? 4. How would you plan an inductive lesson? ■">. How is induction related to deduction? (5. Discuss the illustrative lesson. 154 TEE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY. Bagley, W. C. — The Educative Process, Chapter XIX. Roark, T\. N. — Method in Education, p. 32. Mt-Murry, C. A. — The Method of the Recitation, Chapter Xi. CHAPTER XII. A Deductive Development Lesson. Torres to be considered. The deductive development lesson; steps: (a) the securing of data, (b) the recalling of principles, (c) the making of inferences, and (d) the verifying of inferences. A deductive lesson presupposes the possession of genera] notions or principles, for without their use a deductive procedure is impossible. Hence deductive lessons follow the inductive and form the application of the induced principle. The gen- eral notion plays an important role in geographi- cal study since it is a sort of "try square" by which we take the measure, as it were, of the new material. If the "lit" seems fairly satisfactory, we make an inference which is quite likely to be correct. Verification can be made by reference to text or reference books. The deductive lesson is a short cut and therefore rapid and economical. It incidentally affords drill on already comprehended principles. A careful study of the following lesson will show clearly the movement of a deductive lesson. Problem: Why is the winter temperature on the coast of Washington and Oregon so warm? 155 156 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY I. EXERCISE TO SECURE DATA. 1. Locate these states on a good political map. What is the latitude of Portland, Oregon? Com- pare with latitude of Portland, Maine. Compare the latitude of Seattle with the latitude of Duluth, Minnesota. AVith Moscow, Russia. 2. From an isothermic chart (if not found in the geography, Longman's New School Atlas will furnish the data) find the January isotherm for Portland, Oregon? For Portland, Maine? Which is warmer? How many degrees? In like manner compare Seattle, Washington, with Duluth, Min- nesota. Compare the January temperatures of Seattle and Quebec. Of Seattle and Moscow, Rus- sia. Of Duluth and Moscow. 3. From a good relief map of United States, determine the altitude of Seattle. Compare with the altitude of Duluth. Compare with the altitude of Portland, Oregon, and Portland, Maine. In either case is there much difference? What is the altitude of Moscow? 4. From a good temperature chart find the an- nual range in temperature for Seattle, for Port- land, Oregon, for Duluth, and for Portland, Maine. Compare the July temperatures of Seat- tle and Duluth. Of the two Portlands, which has the greater differences between .January and July temporal ures .' 5. From a rain chart determine the annual pre- cipitation in cadi of the above cities. What is the annual rainfall in Seattle.' In Duluth? In Que- DEDUCTIVE LESSON IN GEOGRAPHY 157 bee? Head your text to determine, if possible, if the moisture iu Portland, Oregon, and Seattle is distributed throughout the year or precipitated in a certain season? (The rainfall lessons may here be recalled.) Is the rainfall distributed through- out the year in Duluth? In Portland, Maine? From the relief map show that the conditions favor heavy winter rains at Seattle. G. What are the prevailing winds of Portland, Oregon, and of Seattle? Of Duluth? Of Quebec 1 Of Portland, Maine? Of Moscow? 7. Note carefully the location of each of these cities with reference to large water-bodies. II. REVIEW TO RECALL PRINCIPLES. 1. Other things being equal, do changes in lati- tude cause changes in climatic temperature? In this case can you attribute differences in winter temperature to differences in latitude? 2. What effect does altitude have upon tem- perature? Could the difference in winter temper- ature between the Portlands be due to altitude? Could the difference in the case of Seattle and Duluth be due to altitude? Answer for Seattle and Moscow, in comparing the winter tempera- tures of Seattle and Portland, Oregon, with Du- luth, and Portland, Maine, respectively, can you attribute differences to variations in altitude? .'}. What effect do water bodies have on the winter temperatures of adjacent lands? What medium transports heat in winter from sea to land? Make a small sketch map of AVestern Ore- 158 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY gon and Washington including the region of the Cascade Mountains. Show by arrows the direc- tion of the winter winds that blow from the Pacific Ocean over this region. Are the conditions favor- able for making the winter climate warmer ? Make small sketch maps of Duluth and Portland, Maine, and insert the arrows to show wind direc- tions. In the case of Duluth do the conditions favor a higher winter temperature? In the case of Portland, Maine ? For a comparatively high winter temperature in the latitude of Seattle should a region be on the east or west side of a water body ? 4-. How does condensing steam affect adjacent bodies? Where does the heat come from? How do freezing water bodies affect adjacent lands? When the moisture of clouds condenses, is heat set free? What effect, then, will daily rains have on the temperature of a region? III. MAKE THE INFERENCES. The comparatively high winter temperature on the coast of Washington and Oregon is due: J. To the warm winds from the Pacific Ocean that bathe the region during the winter months. 2. To the heat that comes from the rapid con- densation of moisture, rain falling almost daily. IV. VERIFY THE INFERENCES. Consult your text books and select as many statements as possible that seem to verify your inferences. Pefer to a text, book on meteorology, if possible. DEDUCTIVE DEVELOPMENT LESSON 159 (The ordinary geography, especially the older editions, are still teaching- the almost preposter- ous theory that the Japan current is responsible for the high temperature of the Pacific Coast win- ters. This theory is untenable as is also its ap- plication to the Gulf stream's influence on the western coast of Europe. Prof. Henry Gannett of the U. S. Geological Survey denies that the Japan current even touches Xorth America, and states that such a current, even if it did bathe the continent, would not be warm after a journey of 6,000 miles in polar seas. See "Journal of Geography," vol. I, p. 157.) SUGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS. 1. What does a deductive lesson presuppose? l'. Fur what purpose is data secured? ,'i. How is tho inference made? 4. Through what means can the inferences be verified? .1. To what extent ran deductive procedure be employed? BIBLIOGRAPHY. Emerson, Philip — ''Training of Teachers for Study of Home Geography,*' Jour, of Geography, Nov., 1902. Redway, .1. W. — The New Basis <laced upon reason and relation- ship. AVithout taking cognizance of the causal idea, it would be quite impossible to organize the subject-matter of geography. Careful selec- tion and arrangement of data must precede induc- tion, inference, conclusion. The rational element is llif thread upon which the facts are strung. The empirical facts of the old geography were lost as readily as beads from a broken string, but perhaps the loss was not great because facts learned after such manner are insignificant. Sig- nificance conies when order is established, when, as Dr. Harris says, one fact is made to explain an- other to which it is related. An arrangement of facts to show logical sequence is organization. It assists the memory, clarifies and intensifies the meaning, and leads toward a classification of geo- graphic material. Men succeed best in industrial life when they best adjust themselves to their environment. To GENERALIZATION AND ORGAN 1ZAT10\ 169 some degree man may modify an unfavorable condition ; that being done, the best adjustment is effected when human effort is applied most har- moniously to the remaining natural conditions. Failure to succeed follows a failure to interpret natural conditions aright. The poor success of the early Puritans is an apt illustration of a poor adjustment to physiographic conditions. The in- fluence of geography on political and industrial history is now generally conceded. It is to this theme that Prof. Brigham and Miss Semple have so successfully lent themselves, and scores of ex- amples could be given to show how natural re- sources and environment have eventually deter- mined man's residence and occupation. The study of adjustment is one of the most interesting and fruitful phases of geography, and emphasizes strongly the rational element. It is held by some that in seeking causes there is danger in going beyond the limits of geography proper and enter- ing the domain of pure science. If a bit of science, is here or there necessary to explain a condition, then let it strike sharply against the geographical fact of which it becomes a legitimate part, stand- ing in the relation of cause to effect. Modern educational methods react against formalism. The repetition of rules and formula? is now subordinate and incidental to a comprehen- sion of ideas. The laboratory method in science has substituted for the "letter that killeth" the "spirit which maketh alive." Even the study of a language, with its multiplicity of forms, is sue- 170 THE TEACHING OF GEOGEAFHY cessfully approached from the thought side. Why should facts in geography be taught arbitrarily? The whole subject of physiography has to do with cause, and the responses of the organic world are results or effects of certain local sets of condi- tions. Thus, the causal, or the rational, is prom- inent throughout the subject of geography. Is not, then, this element the logical basis for organ- ization ? The value of types is manifest here as in other departments of science. But a type is only a concrete illustration of a general principle which obtains, in slightly modified form, in a mul- titude of instances. Its value lies in the fact that the student, through cursory examination and hasty comparison of the new example, recognizes the principle and classifies his information. Unorganized geographical material has but lit- tle value and significance. The educational value of geography increases as the rational element is recognized. The work of the earlier geography is, indeed, to observe, to learn facts, and to gather material ; though to some extent, even in this phase, the causal idea may be recognized. When, however, considerable information along various lines has been gained, it seems to be the true func- tion of geography to induce from this information as data definite principles. The student may still continue to gather and learn facts, but the time has come when he should have a place to put these facts in orderly arrangement. This comparing and relating of data to strengthen and clarify meaning and to establish general principles which GENERALIZATION AND ORGANIZATION 171 shall serve as categories for the reception of new material constitute organization as applied to geography. A student who has mastered a few general principles may then proceed to some ex- tent in a deductive way. Knowing a few general truths relating to a region, he should he able to deduce with considerable accuracy the details of life conditions that prevail, and, looking back- ward, he should be able to read in outline its geo- logical history. Is it not obvious, then, that the rational element, viz., reason and relationship, should be the major organizing principle of geog- raphy and that with the recognition of this prin- ciple will increase the educational value of the subject .' SUGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS. 1. Why is the process of generalizing important in education? 2. What has been the chief cause of failure in geography teaching? o. Why is organization especially important in geography? 4. How can formalism Vie avoided in teaching geography? ;". What is the organizing principle in geography? G. How can generalizations once made be used in succeeding les- sons .' Illustrate. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Davis. W. M. — ''The Rational Element in Geography," Nat. Gcog. Mag.. Vol. X. Sutherland. W. J. — ''The Rational Element as an Organizing Principle m Geography, - ' Jour, of Geog., Mar., 1905. CHAPTER XV. The Use of Text Books. TOPICS TO BE CONSIDERED. What constitutes a wise use of text books; a bad use; the char- acter of text books; the importance of good assignments; danger of committing meaningless statements; effect on pupils. Illustrative assignments; the value of problems; how to secure initiative on the part of pupils; objections offered by teachers. Text book method or special plans, which? Plans necessary for results; subject-matter and method not to be condemned simply because found in text books; the text book a back- ground of geography teaching. It lias been pointed out in another chapter that the introduction of problems in the teaching' of geography would do much to bring about a wiser use of the text book. Perhaps the greatest im- provement in geographical teaching would follow of necessity the reforms of vicious text-book habits. "What constitutes a wise and reasonable use of the text .' First let the question be answered negatively: A very bad though very common practice, it is feared, is the assignment of a definite portion of the text-book material, without any definite idea in mind as to what there is in that portion of the rext that is valuable, reliable and pertinent for 172 THE USE OE TEXT BOOKS 1?3 the particular class in hand. This statement no doubt seems to be an innocent platitude; but it is so important that it would bear underscoring sev- eral times. Let us analyze the case. To begin with, teachers must appreciate the fact that text books are compendiums of very brief statements and condensed treatments. This is no criticism of the texts, however. The great won- der is that so vast a subject as the earth and its life can be so interestingly treated in such meagre volumes. Poor teachers usually find fault with the text books. Do not forget that every text pre- supposes a teacher. Probably no author of geog- raphies was ever satisfied with his books. The very nature of the case has compelled a "hop, skip and jump" treatment. The Earth and Its Inhabitants, by Elisee Rectus, requires eighteen encyclopedic volumes, and even this excellent work gives no extended account of very many of the topics treated. The author of the school text confronts the difficult task of making his subject interesting without being permitted to develop his topics to any reasonable degree. The first failure in the use of the text is de- tected in unpurposeful assignments. Pupils are directed to study "so much," but no hint is given as to why they should study the lesson. Their at- tention is not centered on any -particular facts that should be considered, and the reading of the les- son sometimes is quite akin to reading the dic- tionary — "the subject changes too often." No adequate interest is aroused. 174 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY The second failure grows out of the one just stated. Without purpose there is no discrimina- tion of the laconic statements. Each statement is equally important to the pupil. There is no cen- tral theme, hence no focalization of consciousness on any text statement. What concentration can follow such procedure? Again, such irrational study results in commit- ting meaningless statements. They have no mean- ing because they are unrelated in the pupil's mind. And it has already been pointed out and emphasized that the element of relationship, the causal element, constitutes the basis for organiz- ing, or tying together geographical materials. Therefore such an unpedagogical method cannot lead to the organization of subject matter. All of this being true, what of the interest in the study? Will the lessons not "simmer down" very soon into a monotonous, lifeless grind! As already shown, such method, or lack of method, tends to passivity on the part of the pupils. They are recipients merely of text statements. There are no demands for real thinking or for initiative in study. Hence it may be stated, positively, that a wise use of the text must secure quite the oppo- site results of those mentioned, viz.: (a) The assignment must be characterized In- definite purpose. (b) Defmiteness of purpose leads pupils to dis- criminate, to evaluate statements and to choose the pertinent. THE USE OF TEXT BOOKS J.75 (c) A definite aim or purpose serves as a nu- cleus or center about which related ideas are to be grouped. This relating of ideas is fundamental to organization. (d) Definite aims or purposes secure variety in daily lessons. (e) The adaptation of the book to the purpose of the pupil awakens genuine thought-ac- tivity and stimulates some degree of initi- ative. So far as the mass of teachers is concerned, there is no inclination on the part of the author to make it appear that a vast amount of planning and skirmishing is necessary to secure at least fairly good results. In the following illustration the practical rather than the ideal will be sug- gested. Let us suppose that the North Central States are to be studied, and that the text treats the states separately, by political rather than by regional units. Instead of saying, "You may study Illinois, Iowa and Missouri for tomorrow," the teacher assigns as follows: 1. Pupils, the Corn Belt extends from Ohio through Indiana, Illinois, Iowa and Missouri into Kansas and Nebraska. For your lesson, select all of the statements from your book that seem to tell why corn thrives well in these states. "Write a paragraph in your own language that will tell these facts. 2. Select all of the statements that tell of the production of corn in these states. Tn your own 176 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY language write a paragraph that will tell these facts. 3. Make a sketch map of these states and write across it, "The Corn Belt States." This is no ideal assignment. It is one, however, that the rural teacher, who has a long program, will find practicable. However much this assign- ment may be open to criticism, it is purposeful, and it necessitates the discrimination of text-book statements. It must be an improvement on the assignment that calls only for an aimless reading of the same text-matter. In making the suggestion the writer has in mind a sixth grade class, using the advanced geography of a two-book series. Please understand the position here taken. The assignment has to do with the pupil's use of the text book. It is not thought that the assignment will in any sense do justice to the topic ''Corn and the Corn Belt." The second lesson might be of this character: 1. Ascertain from your text the boundaries of the Corn Belt. On your sketch of yesterday draw a dotted line around the region and color it light yellow with water color. 2. Study your text to learn if there are corn markets in these states. ]f so, indicate the loca- tion of these markets or cities on your map. .'). Review your text to learn of the uses made of corn. Tn your own language write a paragraph which tells these text-book facts. 4. Review your text to learn if corn is shipped THE USE OF TEXT BOOKS I?? out of the Corn Belt. Write a paragraph that tells the facts gathered. 5. Make a sketch ma}) to show the commercial route of corn from some city mentioned as a mar- ket in the Corn Belt, to some distant city market. These prohlems or exercises will about exhaust the contribution of the text book on this subject, though "distribution maps," if found in the text, and excellent pictures, may form the basis of fur- ther exercises in comparisons and inferences. It should be understood that the above sug- gestive method of using the text leads in no sense to a systematic treatment of the topic ; the "rounding out" falls to the teacher, and through development and supplementary exercises much can be done of real interest and value. Here are a few suggestive problems : (a) What temperature, moisture and soil con- ditions are most favorable to the produc- tion of corn ? (b) Of what importance is corn as a commer- cial commodity.' Where shipped? Why? (c) What are the uses of corn? What products are made from corn?* AVhere? (d) How docs the corn industry help the farmer? The transporter? The manufac- turer? The consumer? (e) I low docs the production of corn affect the stock industry? The coal industry? The starch and sugar industries? The manu- * I!. !>• ilu> value of the museum is apparent. 178 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY facture of implements ? The growth of cities ? (f) How does corn compare with other cereals as a food? What countries make large use of corn products? Why! (g) Compare the United States with other countries in corn production. The development of topics of this kind is quite dependent upon the teacher. But the significance and general richness of the study is contingent upon the development of topics beyond the point of exposition in the ordinary text. The use of geographical readers in this connection is of much value. In making even a brief study of corn, chil- dren will be delighted to read the section on corn in Carpenter's Industrial Reader, Foods, or to read some chapter from The Book of Corn. Learning by rote has little place in geography, and probably the chief error is that of committing condensed statements which, without elaboration and assimilation, cannot possibly be of much value either as knowledge or as educative mate- rial. Prof. C. Tl. Leete, who has prepared a small volume of Exercises in Geography, says: Through proper exercises ''pupils are led to collate facts for themselves and to write their own descrip- tions. They learn as they work: their interest arises from the processes of acquisition and ex- pression; the result is the power of perceiving es- sential facts and of recording what is seen." To THE USE OE TEXT BOOKS 179 this the writer would add that the interest will grow out of the self-activity of the pupils. In the above discussion it has been assumed that the text is about all the teacher has to use. This attitude is assumed and suggestions made accordingly, to the end that no teacher can say, as he might if an elaborate plan were suggested, "I haven't the books and maps and time to teach that way." But every teacher can refrain from the senseless rote work and can substitute simple problems for the meaningless empirical teaching. If, however, the teacher in graded schools has more facilities and reasonable time, more elab- orate plans can be executed with profit. In this event more exercises based on atlases and maps should be introduced, and the text used largely to verify inductions and inferences. An illustra- tion of the use of the text in this case is given in another chapter under the caption, ''An Illus- trative Exercise Based upon Longman's Xew School Atlas." In a recent article* Prof. Salisbury contends that better results would accrue from a closer fol- lowing of text books, as few teachers are compe- tent to make better plans than are found in the books, and further that the teacher's energy is often spent in making plans rather than in realiz- ing them. This may be true; but we must not fail to recognize that a text book is a sort of balance struck between the requirements of widely differ- ing regions and interests; that classes of pupils » "Educational Ki-Muiithly," June, 1009. 180 THE TEACHING OE GEOGRAPHY vary greatly, even within the limits of a medium- sized city, and that teaching facilities and general conditions often make this "struck balance" plan inadequate and uninteresting. The idea often held that pupils must never look into their books while in class is old-fashioned and traditional. Quite often the recitation period may very profitably be spent with books open and pupils intent on answering questions from maps, interpreting pictures, verifying inferences, or getting correct meaning from difficult sentences. Every teacher who secures good results must find such "study-recitations" necessary. Too often pupils are put to tasks without preparation; waste of time, mental confusion and discourage- ment are quite sure to follow. The author is in no sense condemning the use of text books. He is, however, making a strong plea for a wiser use of them. But a wiser use cannot be accomplished without a consideration of (a) the needs of pupils together with their already acquired knowledge; (b) the subject-matter as presented in the text book, and whether it is per- tinent, capable of satisfying the pupils' needs and within their grasp; and (c) the best method of bringing the pupil and the subject-matter into the most harmonious relation' 5 . And what is this hot plan ? Anything short of this at once reduces geography teaching to the old formal and em- pirical method. The successful teacher must plan ; but it docs not follow that because the text book ha-- selected and arranged certain subject-matter TEE USE OF TEXT BOOKS 181 that such material must of course be condemned, and new matter selected and arranged to show the ''linger marks" of the teacher. And yet good schools can be pointed out in which a sentiment has been created that anything found in text books of geography, at least the adopted texts, is of little consequence, either from the standpoint of subject-matter or method. Text books are wisely handled when — (a) assignments from them take the form of problems, (1)) the solution of problems furnishes a mo- tive to consider and discriminate between text-book statements, (c) subject-matter satisfies the pupils' needs, (d) only generalizations satisfy the demands of the problem, (o) independent work is necessitated by the problem, and (f) much use is made of maps and graphs. The teacher should recognize the text book as the background of the work. Where other courses of study are not provided, it serves as an elabo- rated course of study. But it is not to be swal- lowed whole. For many reasons the order of les- sons may need to be changed. Some lessons may profitably be studied pretty thoroughly: some only carefully read; and some may need to be omitted. That text books are abused does not condemn them; it rather reflects upon the intelli- gence of the teacher. 182 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY SUGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS. 1. What is the teacher's first problem in the use of a text book? '2. How can assignments be made to prevent formal rote work in the preparation of lessons? 3. What are the requisites of good assignments ? 4. How can expression enter into the preparation of lessons? 5. What value should be attached to maps and graphs? 6. Should the teacher make formal plans? When? Can a lesson be well taught without a plan? 7. How ought the teacher of geography to regard his text book:' BIBLIOGRAPHY. Hinsdale. B. A.— The Art of Study. Salisbury, Rollin D. — "The Teaching of Geography — A Criticism and a Suggestion. ' ' Educational Bi-Monthly, June, 1909. Chamberlain, J. F. — ''Geography and Life," Elementary Teacher, October, 1S97. Shaler, N. S. — "Practical Methods of Teaching Geography," Proc. N. E. A.. 1903, p. S4S. Redwav. J. W.— " Text Books of Geography," Ed. Rev. Vol. V, p.' 153. Genthe, Martha Krug — "Geographical Text Books and Geograph- ical Teaching," Journal of Geography, Vol. II, p. 360. Calkin.s, R. D. — "Text and Teacher," Journal of Geography, Vol. IV, p. 104. PART III. CHAPTER XVI. The Vaeue of Magazines and Government Pub- lications in Teaching Geography. topics to be coxsidehed. The value of magazine articles in teaching geography; text books necessarily brief; magazines are unconventional; they appeal strongly. Subject-matter of standard periodicals and government reports reliable. Magazines well illustrated; [dace emphasis on social side of sub- ject; illustration of the richness of current publications in geographical information. Sources from which helpful material can be secured. Educative material of high grade often appears in magazines, and since magazines are now so widely circulated there seems to be no serious ob- stacle in the way of bringing them into the school. As to government publications, it is their func- tion to educate, and as goodly numbers of the government issues are free, there certainly is no valid reason why they should not be drawn upon, together with the popular and technical maga- zines, to serve often as helps and sometimes as bases of school-room lessons. 183 184 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY The materials drawn from these sources are of distinct value in teaching geography because: 1. They serve as valuable supplements to brief school texts. 2. The subject-matter is authentic and up-to- date ; it gives a living touch to the instruc- tion. 3. The articles are usually well illustrated. 4. They afford the best media for emphasiz- ing the social phase of the subject. 1. Text books are laconic in their styles. This is necessarily the case, since they deal mainly with the principles of the subject. They are mere out- lines at the best. Hence the imperative need of supplementary material. This we have in gen- erous quantity, in the form of geographical read- ers, but many schools are not provided with such reference books. The magazine article is usually of much greater length than articles in geograph- ical readers, a fact that offers an advantage in type study exercises where the elaboration should be rather comprehensive. Still another advantage lies in the fact that the magazine article is not the conventional source from which to supplement the lesson. Like the occasional school visitor, it causes the pupils "to sit up and take notice." The few supplementary and reference books that the average school has (if it has any) are often worn, torn, dilapidated and emit the ancient odor of dusty school rooms. TTow welcome the fresh, clean, beautifully illustrated magazine! Unlike the school book, it was not invented especially for THE VALUE OF MAGAZINES 185 the school room, but is cosmopolitan and related "to other worlds than ours." 2. The subject-matter of standard magazines is far more reliable on most topics than is the text. Boundaries, populations and trade relations are always changing. Maps and texts, as a result, are ever in danger of becoming obsolete. The use of current literature assists in making needed cor- rections. Their use also saves the energy and time which might otherwise be devoted to some topic now untrue by bringing the information of wholly new conditions. The intelligent and re- fined depend upon current literature to keep in- formed. The magazine performs the definite function of supplying the recent and reliable world-information, and for this reason it seems wise to welcome it into the school room. .'). Reference has already been made to the pictorial side of the magazine. This feature is of no little moment, and nearly all of the argument advanced for the use of pictures in school applies with equal validity to the illustrations of our best magazines. An instance in which the illustrative value of a magazine is unusually great is found in the ''National Geographic Magazine."* This publication is so well illustrated that it seems to deserve a place on the school reading tattle if for no other reason than that of its pictures. Many other cases of equal merit might be mentioned. 4. The magazine article emphasizes the social * Xat'iHial Geographic Society, Hubbard Memorial Hall, Washing- ton, l'. c IXQ TEE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY side of geography. Information gleaned from its source makes more impression. The school suffers from isolation. The magazine brings into the school a little of the big, teeming world. Its para- graphs have no set-to-school-order arrangement, and the content no suggestions that it was pro- duced for the school alone. The magazine is a cosmopolitan book, not a school book, and in this lies its particular power. Through such media the school materials can best be socialized. The more our schools can draw upon the actual world for its educative materials, the more will be the prog- ress toward uniting school and life interests. Can there be any doubt as to the wisdom of using magazine articles in the teaching of geog- raphy? The practical question of securing the magazines still confronts the teacher. Perhaps the children can be interested sufficiently to con- tribute a few cents each in order to secure the "National Geographic Magazine," the "World's Work," or the "World Today," for their school room. But this question of expediency Is one not to be argued here. Should the teacher happen himself to be a sub scriber to the "Journal of Geography," * he will find many articles quite readable by the upper grade pupils. Then, too, the monthly summary of "Current Articles on Commerce and Industry" which this excellent magazine gives will be of help to the teacher in locating useful geographic - ".Tmirnnl of Geography," Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. THE VALUE OF MAGAZINES 18? material. Other magazines compile similar sum- maries. In order to impress young teachers with the idea that there is really much material applicable to the school room to be gleaned from magazine sources, a part of a compilation for one year, made by Prof. IT. S. DeVelde,* is here given. "The Pacific: Most Explored and Least Known.' 1 ' National Geog. Magazine; Aug., '08 — L. G. Blackmail. "Buenos Aires (City of Good Airs)." Scrib- ner's; May, '08— A. Ruehl. "A Country of Natural Bridges (S. Utah)." Technical World; Sept., '08— II. Culver. "Quebec — Britain's French Empire in America." Review of Reviews; Dec, '08 — L. A". Norman. "The China That Is." Review of Reviews; Feb., '09— I). Lambuth. "Sicily — Battlefield of Nations and Nature." National Geog. Magazine; Jan., '09 — G. C. Bosson. "In Quaint, Curious Croatia." National Geog. Magazine; Dec, '08— F. J. Koch. "Buried Cities of Asia Minor." National Geog. Magazine; Feb., '09— E. L. Harris. "Kaleidoscopic La Paz (City of the Clouds)." National Geog. Magazine; Feb., '09—11. C. Adams. "The Land of the Boer and Its Railroads." World Today; Dec, '08— C. Pierson. * "Educational Bi-Monthlv." June, 1900, Chicago Normal School Fret:.;. 188 TEE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY "Alaska and Its Wealth." World Today; June, 'OS— Dr. W. W. Atwood. "Real Venezuela." World Today; Jan., '09. "Changing Conditions in the Caribbean." World Today; Feb., '09— R. A. Wilson. "My Discoveries in Thibet." Harper's Monthly; Aug., '08— Sven Hedin. "The French Peasant in His Fields." Outing; Aug., '08 — V. Thompson. "A Trip Through Africa." World's Work; Oct., '08— S. P. Verner. ' • Across Africa by Boat. ' ' World's Work ; April, '08— E. A. Forbes. '•Lineaments of the Desert." Popular Science; Jan., '09— C. R. Keys. ' • Where East Meets West ( Dalmatia)." National Greog. Magazine; May, '08. •• Persia — The Awakening East." National Geog. Magazine; May, '08. So far the discussion has referred to magazines only. Since education and enlightenment is the function of government publications, and since they are largely for free distribution, little argu- ment is necessary to commend them to school use. These publications are highly authentic, a quality of much importance. Careful selection and adap- tation are of course necessary. Some of the cir- culars, bulletins and monographs are too techni- cal for public school use; others are readable even by the pupils of higher grades. As in the case of THE VALUE OF MAGAZINES 189 magazines, they are usually illustrated and deal with great diversity of subjects. For use in geography, the publications of the United States Geological Survey; of the Depart- ment of Commerce and Labor; of the Treasury Department, and the Department of Agriculture, are most useful. In addition to the publications of the general government, there are many valu- able state publications, notably those of the state geological surveys, the experiment stations, and agricultural colleges. The United States Geological Survey has a long list of publications. Teachers should address the Director U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C, for the "List of Publications of the U. S. Geological Survey." Reports and bulletins, some free and others at nominal cost, are available. The various state geological surveys issue an- nual reports, many of which are very useful to teachers. The following recent publications of the Illinois State Geological Survey will serve as an illustration : Bulletin Xo. 3 — "Composition and Uses of Coal," by S. AY. Parr. Bulletin Xo. 4 — "Report of the Co-Operative Topographic Survey,"' by JL M. Wilson. Educational Bulletins Xos. 1, 2, 3 and 4 Xo. 1 treats of the region along Lake Michigan. Xo. 2 treats of the valley of the Des Plaines river. X~o. 3 treats of the Illinois Valley from Henne- pin to Pekin. 190 TEE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY Xo. 4 treats of the region about East St. Louis. A Monthly Summary of Commerce and Labor is published by the Bureau of Statistics, Treasury Department, and often contains monographs of value in commercial geography, especially : e. g. Grain Trade in the United States. Cotton Trade in the United States. Coal Trade in the United States. Lumber Trade in the United State.-. Production and Consumption of Sugar. Commercial Porto Pico. Commercial Philippines. Great Canals of the World. Steamship Lines Between U. S. and Foreign Countries, etc. These may be obtained by addressing The De- partment of Commerce and Labor. Wash- ington, I). C. The Consular Reports may be mentioned in this connection. They are free daily or monthly, and a trial will convince teachers of their practical use in the geography lesson. Address Bureau of Foreign Commerce, Washington, D. C. Census Reports. Volumes on Manufactures. Agriculture and the Statistical Atlas are of spe- cial value. Address, Bureau of Census. Washing- ton, I). C. The publications of the Department of Agricul tare are numerous, useful and pertinent at this time, when agriculture is of so much interest. THE VALVE OF PICTURES 191 Duplicate copies of selected papers might well be studied in class and then given to the pupils for home use. The "Year Book" of this department is of special value. Topics of the following nature are treated : "Rice Culture in the United States." "Life Zones and Crop Zones of the United States." "The Fruit Industry." "Agricultural Resources of Hawaii." "Milk Supply of Boston and Other Cities." "Forest Conditions of AYisconsin," etc., etc. The re] torts of Experiment Stations, and the Annual Reports of Farmers' Institutes, are of interest to teachers, who should apply to the di- rectors of these institutions for information. The State Railway and Warehouse Commissions often distribute useful maps of their respective states. SUGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS. 1. Why should geographical text books especially need supple- menting ? 2. Why should current magazine articles appeal strongly to pupils? .">. What advantage has the unconventional source of information over the conventional ? 4. What features of text hooks are most likely to become obsolete.' 5. What phase of geography is emphasized in current magazines? BIBLIOGRAPHY. DeVelde. II. S— "The Value of Magazine Articles in the Teach- ing of Geography." Ed. Hi Monthly. June. 1909. .Tom-. Edward D. — "Sources of Literature for Commercial Geog raphy, " Jour, of Geog., April. 1902. CHAPTER XVII. The Value of Pictures in Teaching Geography. topics to be considered. Why pictures arc valuable in teaching geography; excellent medium to convey ideas; pictures quickly and easily read. Pictures give unity of impression; printed statements more likely to confuse. Pictures are accurate and attractive. Suggestions as to use of pictures; text book pictures not to be neglected; how to read a picture; illustrations. Collections of pictures; how to use stereographs; value of stere- optieon. Good pictures constitute one of the most valu- able helps in teaching geography. Fortunately in these later years the popularity of the camera has wrought wonders in making good pictures cheap. The public's taste has improved. More and better pictures are demanded. Many of our magazines have come to be veritable picture books. The ad- vertise]- resorts more and more to the efficacy of pictures to herald his wares. And is it not psy- chologically sound to do so? Let us examine the case. 1. A picture is particularly valuable, first of all, because it is a highly economical medium through which ideas can be conveyed. It econ- omizes both time and effort. Through the picture VJ2 TEE VALVE OF PICTURES 193 the complete situation is projected. There is no time spent in building up, constructively, the idea from words, phrases and sentences. The picture is a literal reproduction, that brings into focal consciousness the required idea as quickly and easily as the original would if exposed to view. Indeed, the picture may sometimes even surpass the original, from the fact that the artist may have selected wisely, omitting from the field many details which would obscure the central theme. In nature, the observer is often compelled to pause, to select, and to cast out, before he can see exactly what he wants to see. At first he " cannot see the town for the houses." That pictures are often better than the originals is attested by the fact that few persons are satisfied with pictures that are exact "likenesses." So far as the efficacy of pictures is concerned in teaching geography, a wise selection of a central theme or, to put it negatively, the elimination of irrelevant details, is of much importance. The camera picks out for the observer, and saves him the trouble. In getting ideas from the printed page the superiority of the picture is beyond question. Words not only bring the idea by degrees and slowly, but in comparison with pictures they necessitate more mental effort. Word symbols must be translated into concrete images, and the gap between word symbols and the desired image is rather great. The building of a picture through reading is a synthetic process, which in itself sug- gests labor and time. In reading pictures the 194 THE TEACHING OE GEOGRAPHY process is reversed ; the picture, if a good one, presents a unity at first sight, and in a farther study of the picture we analyze, and eliminate details, if necessary. 2. The second value of the picture has, then, been pointed out, viz., unity of impression. If descriptive composition be somewhat complex in order to be exact, it often happens that the mental pictures do not differentiate themselves clearly. This can be tested as follows : Ask a class of seventh or eighth grade pupils to read a page of description and select the important pictures. It is likely that there will be considerable variation as to the number of pictures formed by different pupils, and this is probably due to the fact that the printed symbols, in yielding to this transla- tion, failed to call, in all cases, the same ideas into focal consciousness. 3. Pictures are accurate. But little need be said on this point, except again by way of com- parison with the printed page. A strange word may be a stumbling block in constructive concep- tion, whereas in the picture we see the unity in familiar words of our own vocabulary. However, it is no doubt true that in reading a picture, that is, in reducing it to language, visual perceptions are made clearer and more significant through a correlation with language. 4. Pictures are attractive, even .beautiful, in our best text books. Recall the illustrations in Harold YY\ Fairbanks' Home Geography. The well -selected nnd clearly printed pictures make IRE VALUE OF PIC TERES 195 this little volume truly artistic. Indeed, it is through the attractiveness of pictures very largely that beginners are taught the printed symbols. It would seem that there is little need of arguing the use of pictures in teaching. 5. The first suggestion offered is that you make good use of the pictures in the text book. Do not trust the pupils to read the pictures for themselves. True, they will get much from them without the teacher's help, and they will enjoy them ; but they cannot be expected to get the best lessons without guidance. At any rate, it is the teacher's business to know, and the knowledge is secured by testing the pupils on picture reading as you would test them on context reading. The writer has before him a picture of a whale- back steamer passing through the "Soo" locks. As a class exercise the pupils may be directed to open their books at this picture. They are given a little time for silent reading. Each pupil is then required to read something from the picture. If the points are not all brought out, questions from the teacher will lead the class to see the additional significance in the illustration. 1. Why is the ship called a "whaleback" ? What sort of cargo is it built to carry? Show why. What arc its advantage.-.' 2. Examine the lock. Why is it necessary? Which of the lakes has a higher water level .' Can you determine from the picture some- thing of the manner of operating the lock? 1 ( JG THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY 3. "With what kind of cargo is the whaleback loaded? "Where is it probable that it loaded? What sort of country, then, is accessible to Duluth ? What of the soils ? The topog- raphy? The rainfall? If this region ex- ports wheat, what do yon think it imports? Why? 4. Where is the ''whaleback" going! Why? .ake Transportation. A Whaleback Freighter Passing Through the "Soo" Locks Between Lake Superior and Lake Huron. Do you think Buffalo lias flour mills .' Why should Buffalo manufacture flour? Where will the flour go from Buffalo? How? Why will if go to New York? A further illustration, suggesting a practical method of using pictures, and incidentally empha- sizing the value of government publications, else- THE VALUE OF PICTUBES 197 whore discussed as sources of information, is taken from a valuable paper by Marian Weller.* ''The picture lesson should be one to secure the activity of the child, and not one merely to hold his attention. This point may be illustrated by a couple of lessons with a class which was study- ing 1 the Philippine Islands. "Some extra copies of two or three of the illus- trated volumes of the Eeport of the Philippine Commission were gotten by the teacher, and the pictures and printed matter bearing upon certain selected topics were cut out and arranged for the use of individual pupils in the class. Such topics as the cultivation of rice, the hemp industry, the water buffalo, native methods of transportation, the construction of a native house, were found well illustrated, and each topic was assigned to some pupil to be presented before the class. In connection with some of the topics museum ma- terial was brought in to supplement the pictures, such as a bundle of hemp liber prepared by the nativo. and a protective covering made from dry palm 'caves, illustrating the manner in which the roofs of the houses are thatched to shed the rain. "The way in which the 'rice' topic was pre- sented will serve as illustration. The topic was assigned a day or two before it was to be reported on. and the pupil prepared his exercise from the printed references and pictures which had been •"Nature Study nnc] Orography." Pamphlet <>:' the Northern 1 111- n< lis Ti ;u hers' Association. 198 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY collected. In the presentation of the topic it was explained with the pictures, using a picture with each step, how the ground was prepared with the help of the native plow and harrow and the water buffalo; how the fields were surrounded with levees and flooded; how the rice was planted by hand and later harvested with a small hand sickle, and then threshed, by being trampled on, either by the natives themselves or by the water buffalo. Then with pictures it was explained what is being done on a government farm with more modern methods. Each picture was shown to the class, and in it a definite thing was called attention to, which was to be seen by the class. After the dis- cussion of the topic some stalks of rice in the head, threshed rice, rice with hull removed, rice polished, and rice flour and bran were shown." Collect pictures to supplement the text book. Many hue booklets profusely illustrated arc dis- tributed by transportation companies. Often whole page photographic reprints are given. Watch the announcements of these companies in daily papers. Send for free booklets. The larger views can be mounted on cardboard for conveni- ence in class use. Label each picture and put in its proper class. An active teacher can soon col- lect several hundred pictures on geography, his- tory and art : such a collection, properly used, is of great value.* Railroad companies often give away fine views — sometimes mounted or framed— * Certain publishers furnish, at reasonable cost, pictures singly nr in sets, illustrating travl, commerce and industrial arts. Sec Bib- liofiraphj . THE VALUE OF F1CTUEEX 199 which are not only useful for geographical illus- tration but ornamental as well. As above suggested, the value of pictures de- pends much on their classification and arrange- ment for immediate use. If no better system is possible, large manila envelopes may be used to good advantage. An index of the enclosed pic- tures should be written on the face of the en- velope. STEREOGRAPHS. The stereoscopic views (stereographs) are very convenient for use in geography. Certain com- panies are making specialties of educational views. The photographs are taken by experts, and by use of the stereoscope are made to stand out in bold relief. These views are excelled only by the stereopticon views, which, of course, are beyond the reach of most schools. The stereographs are selected and arranged in sets, each treating of some particular subject. These sets can be used to excellent advantage in type studies. Almost every subject is treated. Some important industries are illustrated in all of their phases by as many as twenty-five to fifty views. Taken in order, they represent every phase of great industries. Some companies have employed educational ex- perts to write descriptions to accompany the viows. Usually the descriptions are on the backs of the pictures, and make 1 the views doubly valu- able. Thev can be used in two wavs: OQO THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY 1. The views and stereoscope may be placed upon a table and each pupil in the class required to go in turn, look at the views, and read the de- scriptions, as a preparation for the recitation. 2. The stereoscope with an appropriate view may be started through the class during a recita- tion, it being understood that each pupil shall have a half minute to look at the view. The recitation, in this case, does not stop. When all selected views have gone around, each pupil may be handed a particular view and given a minute or two to prepare the gist of the description, which he then recites to his classmates. Everything considered, the stereographic pic- tures are the most practical, since they are com- paratively inexpensive and always ready for in- stant use. The stereopticon is of great value as an educa- tional help. In the past it has been too expensive for many schools. Xow, however, good lanterns are much cheaper and better. The electric lantern is the most practical whore a current is available. Gasoline lanterns that work well may be purchased for a comparatively small amount, and village schools can easily afford one. Slides are some- what expensive, but this difficulty may largely be overcome by renting them. For full information concerning lanterns, lantern slides, stereographs and stereographic views, apply to any of the com- panies whose addresses are given in the bibliog- raphy, Chapter XXII. THE VALUE OE PICTURES 201 SUGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS. 1. Enumerate the values of pictures in teaching geography. 2. What are the characteristics of a good picture? 3. Which conveys the clearer ideas, pictures or printed descrip- tions? Why? 4. How can text book pictures be used to good a'dvantage? 5. Why are stereographic views of much value in teaching geog- raphy? BIBLIOGRAPHY. Wood, J. A. — "Pictures in the Teaching of Geography, ' ' Bull. Am. Bu. of Geography, Vol. I, No. 4. Jefferson, Mark S. W. — "Stereoscopes in Schools," Jour, of Geog., Pre., 1907. Grosvenor, Gilbert II. — "Scenes from Every Land," National Geographic Society, Washington, P. C. Purlin, C. C. — "The Stereopticon in the High School," Wisconsin Journal of Education, May, 1908. Ilobbs, William Herbert — "The Use of Lantern Views with Science Lectures," Jour, of Geography, April, 1909, p. 180. CHAPTER XVIII. The Value of Illustrative Materials and Field Work. topics to be considered. The school museum; directions for making; its value in teaching; useful materials it should contain; the museum not an end in itself. The industrial excursion; the phase of geography it emphasizes; what excursions to make; preparation for excursions; subse- quent review of observations. Physiographic field work; the value of the field trip; suggestive field studies. I. SCHOOL MUSEUM. The text books on reading, language and geog- raphy constantly refer to objects and phenomena that, as yet, are outside the children's experiences. A large part of the process of education consists in familiarizing the child with new things. In order that pupils shall know things and not merely names of things, other means than text books must be employed. The teacher can bring the pupils face to face with the new material or phenomena. 1. By means of the School Museum. 2. Through the School Excursion. By a school museum, no pretentious "collection of monstrosities," but rather a modest collection 202 204 THE TEACHING OF GEOGEAPHY • of significant things, is meant. Geography espe- cially refers to many articles of commerce which in their raw condition many people have never seen, and the ideas of which are vague and in- correct. There will be needed for the exhibit : 1. A case or cabinet. This will furnish work for manual training. The pupils will bring needed tools and lumber. 2. Bottles in which to preserve grains, seeds, berries, sands, soils, etc. The pupils will bring many bottles from home. These can be classified, and answer the purpose. "Wide mouthed bottles are best. 3. Labels. These can be bought, or white paper slips will answer, if a bottle of library paste is in the room. 4. Boxes. Small pasteboard, wood and cigar boxes will serve as specimen trays for rocks, min- erals, etc. Boxes, bottles, etc, can be picked up as needed. All materials should be neatly labeled, as: 1. Macaroni Wheat, Commissioner of Immigration, AVinnipeg, Canada. 2. Fossil Fern. Collected by Edward Roberts. Cape Girardeau, Missouri. Illustrative materials to be useful must be con- veniently arranged, so that no time need be lost in presenting them to the class. A piece of granite VALUE OF ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIALS 205 from some monument works ; a specimen of iron pyrites — ''fool's gold"; a piece of obsidian from the Rockies, or a sample of red hematite from the Superior region, passed about the class at just the proper moment, will add reality to the teaching. There are numerous manufacturing companies that furnish gratis, or at small cost, fine exhibits, showing processes through which raw materials pass in becoming finished products. Some of these are not only very attractive but possess much educative value. Not infrequently companies have published pamphlets descriptive of their manufacturing processes, and these, of course, are correct, and are the very best sources of informa- tion. Through the alertness and activity of wide- awake teachers, some schools have line museums of illustrative materials. Almost every day a teacher can draw on the museum for an article to illustrate some point in reading, language, liter- ature, history or geography. In just so far as such materials can be used to illustrate new ideas will school work be redeemed from the formal and meaningless grind. SUGGESTIVE MATERIALS. Minerals: Red Hematite, Zinc-sulphide, Iron- sulphide, Cast Iron, "Wrought Iron, Slag, Steel, Lead-sulphide, Solder, Galvanized Iron, Copper, Brass, Mercury, Aluminum, Corundum, Tin, Xickel. Rocks: Gneiss, Obsidian, Breccia, Coquina, Quart site, Anthracite Coal, Bituminous Coal, 206 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY Coke, Marble, Granite, Limestone, Shale, Rock- phosphate. Grains: Corn, Oats, Eve, Wheat, Flax, Barley, Peas, Kaffir Corn, Broom Corn (brush with seeds). Rice on Straw, Buckwheat. Seeds: Timothy, Clover, Millet, Turnip, Rad- ish, Lettuce, Beet, Beans, Coffee, Berries, Cocoa Beans. Vegetable Fibers: Manila Hemp, Sisal, Flax, Raphia, Hemp, Jute, Cotton, Rattan, Bamboo, Pineapple Filter, Bast Fiber. Spices: Pepper, Allspice, Caraway, Cloves, Ginger, Cinnamon, Nutmegs. Woods: Pine, White and Yellow, Cedar, Cy- press, Birch, Oak, Maple, Ash, Walnut, Rosewood, Mahogany, Hickory, Elm, Basswood, Whitewood, ( merry, Corkwood. .MISCELLANEOUS EXHIBITS. Petroleum Products Portland Cement Silk Furs Wool Leathers Cotton Nuts Cocoa Corundum Wheat and Flour Sands Corn Products Shells Coffee Pebbles Spice Feathers Grasses Etc. The collection of materials for school museum furnishes a motive to become familiar with many VALVE OF ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIALS 207 strange materials, and to discriminate and select for a purpose. Through a movement of this kind pupils are frequently awakened, and the formal hum-drum of school may for a time give way to genuine interest. But, after all, a movement of this kind is secondary to the real work of the school. It should not be spasmodic; any interest enlisted should be made permanent and applied to the substantial work of the school. Recently, in a certain school known to the writer, the collec- tion of woods led to the learning of every tree that grew in the district, an accomplishment of no little moment. This spirit might extend to other fields of observation. The teacher who undertakes the building of a museum will find considerable assistance in "Commercial Raw Materials"* an inexpensive volume "descriptive of the origin, processes of preparation and uses of the most important com- mercial materials." In discussing geographical museums AVillis E. Johnson writes as follows: "The cabinet may not only contain materials of every conceivable kind illustrating products and industries, but may contain pictures and slides illustrating people and natural and artificial scenery. The central museum should be equipped with apparatus, an auditorium for optical projec- tion, and in proper grades the magnifying glass and microscope should find a place. The loan and exchange idea should pervade every cabinet col- * Seo Bibliography. 208 TEE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY lection, and every child and home should be glad to assist and contribute. Exchanges may be made not only among schools of the same city, but ex- changes and loans may extend to different cities and may be national or even international in character." Certain companies furnish geographical mu- seums or cabinets ready for use. They are valu- able helps in teaching commercial geography. However, the writer feels that the adoption of the " ready made" cabinet sacrifices the opportunity to stimulate interest and to teach lessons in geog- raphy by building a museum through the activi- ties of the school itself. A poorer collection thus made stands for more educationally than a better one secured by direct purchase. On two occasions the writer has had members of his classes do the planning, conduct the correspondence, and make personal visits and excursions to secure mate- rials ; and, having secured contributions, the pupils wrote descriptions of the objects, products, industries, etc., with such care that they became reliable sources of information. Such initiative, guided by definite motives, is indicative of an interest that brings results. TT. TXDrSTPJAT. EXCTRSIOXS. Through the school excursion, teachers should take advantage of every opportunity to study the physical phenomena and industrial activities in the vicinity of the schools. Unless actual obser- vations be made and concrete materials used, VALUE OF ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIALS 209 geography and nature study soon deteriorate into a mere study of words, barren of all elear ideas. The object of the excursion is bringing together at short range the pupil and the materials to be studied. The world of industry is the only genu- ine laboratory. The industrial excursion emphasizes the human or social phase of geography. Much of economics and sociology can be brought out through the study of industries. Even intermediate pupils will comprehend many of the simple social rela- tionships made apparent through the study of home geography. Through this phase of geog- raphy some contribution to moral training may be made. In general, the study of industries emphasizes the need- of individual men, and industrial plants are social organizations whose function it is to satisfy these needs. Modern nations practice a commercial economy, and sharp contrasts can be made between this economy and the simple self-sufficient economy of primitive peoples, and of our New England grand- parents. Manufacture and commerce depend upon "commercial" economy. Hence the consideration of commercial needs leads to the study of indus- tries and plants as follows : NEED OF FOOD SUPPLY. Butter and Cheese Mak- Flour Mills iug Canning Factor)' 210 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY A Bakery Pickling Works Meat Packing Plant Cereal Mills, etc. Corn Products Co. NEED OF A CLOTHING SUPPLY. Shoe Factory Woolen Mills Cotton Mills Glove Factory Lace Factory Hat Factory NEED OF BUILDING MATERIALS. Saw Mills Xail Factory Planing Mills Concrete Works Stone Quarry Brick and Tile Works Paper Mills Sheet Metal Works NEED OF FARM IMPLEMENTS. Wagon Works Plow Factory Machine Shop Foundry Harvester Works Thresher Works NEED OF TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES. Locomotive Works Rolling Mills Steel Plate Industry Canal Projects Subways Elevated Roads Tunnels Terminal Stations Ship Building Dry Docks, etc. In making an excursion the teacher should al- ways have clearly in mind exactly what he wishes the pupils to observe. Pupils may pass by inter- esting and educative phenomena daily, but with- out the guidance of the teacher mav fail to see the VALUE OF ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIALS 211 essential features. So a well-formulated plan of procedure is essential to good results. Illustra- tion of this is seen in the precise and systematic way that the guides of certain large concerns show visitors through their plants. Not a little of the value of an excursion depends upon the reviews, explanations and discussions which should always follow in the class room. Here imperfect observations may be supple- mented and misunderstood processes explained. The reduction to writing should be the final step in th>s work, the summaries being valuable in unifying and associating such materials as pos- sess true educative value. TIT. niVSTOGRAPHIC 1MELD WORK. Much has been said about field work in geog- raphy, but as yet little is done in the public schools. Excuses are made by grade teachers on the ground that there is not sufficient time, that it cuts into other work, and that they have two classes in the room, and therefore cannot take one class on an excursion. This is probably all true, but underneath the argument there is an as- sumption that sonic 1 other work is of greater im- portance than the iield work in geography. AYe shall not argue relative importance, but simply state that if geography is worth doing at all. it is worth doing right. And let us repeat that geog- raphy in the past has been a formal study because teachers have kept away from earth and life and have clung tenaciously to the text book. Schools 212 THE TEACHING OE GEOGRAPHY of the best type do not assume to teach chemistry or physics, unless they have some sort of labor- atory and a workable amount of apparatus. This equipment costs considerable, but it is supplied. Then, too, double periods must be arranged for laboratory practice, but again the program yields to the pressure. When grade teachers become convinced that field work is highly profitable, and when they become resourceful enough to interest boys and girls out of doors, then we may expect better things. Superintendents recognize the value of this phase of geography. The writer has often experienced the recoil of otherwise willing teachers when they were asked to do some field work. It is also said that the discipline is diffi- cult, but the teacher who lacks in resources finds it equally difficult to keep order inside. The school garden, agriculture, nature study, geography — these all make new demands upon the teacher; he must be equal to the occasion — must arise to the opportunity. It may be said of nature study that it has not been systematic, but the difficulty lies not in na- ture. It may be some time before the great body of teachers become proficient in the study of sci- ence at first hand, but the only alternative is to walk in the light we already have and pray for more Would one become proficient in physiography, then what can take the place of a well-directed trip 1" Dune Park. Indiana; to Blue Mounds in the Driftless Area of Wisconsin; to the Baraboo VALUE OF ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIALS 213 Ranges and Devils Lake ; to Fort Snelling, at the junction of the Minnesota and Mississippi rivers, St. Paul, Minnesota; to Minnehaha Falls in Min- neapolis; or to Starved Rock on the Illinois river? These are a few of the places of much physio- graphic interest in the Upper Mississippi Valley. A score of others almost as inviting could be named. And if the teacher is more ambitious, the National Park, Grand Canon, the Park and the Selkirk Mountains are yet his to explore. But field work is not beyond the possibility of any city, village or country school. The outlook may be less inspiring and the proportions com- paratively mean, but it is quite safe to assert that within a single mile of most schools, nature dis- plays phenomena as truly valuable and equally as illustrative as are those more picturesque and stupendous works of nature. "Despise not, then, the little things." Here are some of the physio- graphic features common to most rural schools. Visit any that are near. 1. River, creek, or brook. The excursion should be made for the purpose of studying one or two definite features, and just at a time when the concrete material is needed. The purpose of the trip might be to study one or more of the fol- lowing: flood plains; deltas; terraces; corrasion; meanders, etc. 2. Hills and valleys, as results of erosion. .'■). Gullies and ditches — along country high- ways. Methods of checking. 4. Hills, showing effects of erosion when un- 214 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY dor cultivation-. Compare cultivated hillside with meadow or pastures of similar slope. 5. Soils. Collect specimens of soils from dif- ferent fields. Compare. Preserve samples of sandy soils, clay soils, loam, vegetable mold, etc. 6. Visit a gravel pit. Collect specimens of rocks and glacial pebbles for your museum. 7. Coal mine or coal bank. Study method of mining. Teach lessons on coal. Collect fossils for museum. 8. Stone quarry. Collect specimens. Study stratification, faulting, etc. 9. Clay pit. Preserve specimen. 10. Lake shore. Study shore features, wave action, etc., etc. All schools will not have the same or equal ad- vantages for field work, but each should make the most of its opportunities. The rural teacher who can take his whole school to the roadside to study wild flowers, insects, birds, the action of frost or the work of running water, has an advantage over a city teacher, who with a larger school must make a longer journey to come in contact with nature at first hand. But all cities and many towns offer good advantages for the study of manufacturing industries and commerce. The superintendent should assist his teachers in select- ing for study those tilings which can he made interesting and profitable, and every earnest teacher who will try repeatedly will grow and in the end will succeed. VALUE OF ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIALS 215 SUGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS. I. Why are museums and excursions necessary to the best geog- raphy teaching? Without them what would probably be the character of the instruction? •J. What effect on the pupil's interest would the formation of a museum have ? Is it possible for any school to secure a museum? ;i. What are the opportunities for industrial excursions in your vicinity? 4. How would you plan and conduct an excursion? •~>. Enumerate the field trips conveniently near your school that would be of value to your pupils. 6. Characterize the knowledge gained through excursions with that gained from books alone. FOR FURTHER STUDY. 1. Select some field or plot of ground that is conveniently located for study. -. Study the soils during their preparation for planting. Are they clay, loam or .sand? Do they permit of easy cultivation? 3. Observe the growing crops. Do all parts of the field equally favor the growth of plants? 4. Do the soils maintain moisture well? Is the cultivation con- ducive to preservation of moisture? •">. Is the plot subject to ''wash''? How does this affect the fer- tility of its parts? Examine soils in different places. (J. Are there different crops on the plot? Which seems to thrive best? 7. Does the season's temperature seem to be right for the grow- ing crops ? V Is the rainfall just adequate? '.'. Do the winds affect the growing crops? In what way? 10. Have the growing crops animal or plant enemies? II. Observe the crop until maturity. Is the crop consumed by the producer or is it marketed? If sold, at what market? How transported? Was the product ready for use. or did it have tc undergo manufacture? If it required manufacture, where and how wa.< it accomplished? 12. Write an essay discussing the factors that enter into crop product ion in your locality. 216 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY. Chamberlain, J. F. — How We Arc Clothed, Sheltered and Fed. 3 Vols. Carpenter, F. G. — An Industrial Header, Foods. Chase and Clow — Stories of Industry. McMurry, C. A. — Type Studies from United States Geography. Eoeheleau, W. F. — Great American Industries, Vol?. I, II and III. Lane, M. A. L. — Industries of Today. Lyde — Man and His Work: Man and His Markets. 2 Vols. Spon, E. & F. N. — Encyclopedia of Industrial Arts. 3 Vols. King, C. F. — Geographical Headers. Carpenter. F. G.- — Geographical Headers. Redway, J. W. — Commercial Geography. Trotter, Spencer — Geography of Commerce. Iline,' L. W. — "Function of the School Excursion,'' Journal of Geography, Dec, 1905. Ridgley, D. C. — "Excursions and the School Museum as Aids in Teaching Geography," Journal of Geography, Sept., 1904. King, C. F. — "Methods and Aids in Geography, - ' Sources of Geographical Pictures, pp. 251-3. Jefferson, M. S. W. — "Outdoor Work in Geography,'' Proc. N. E. A., 1904. Fairbanks, H. W. — Home Geography. Gulliver, E. P.— "Outdoor Class Work," Proc. X. E. A., 1903, p. S56. McMurry, C. A. — "Home Geography Excursions."' Special Method in Geography, Chap. III. PeRiemer, Alicia — "Value of Geographical Exhibitions," Jour, of Geog., March, 1903. Hubbard, Geo. D— " On the Field Trip," School Science, Vol. Ill, p. 395. Eidgley, Douglas ('. — "Leaflets from the Commercial Museum." Nos. 1-7 out, others in preparation, Normal, Illinois. CHAPTER XIX. Suggestions on Weather Study, topics to be considered. Of what value is weather study; helps for the teachers; how to make simple apparatus; suggestive exercises with the helior; exercises to show atmospheric pressure; how to show convec- tion currents in air ami water; hints on the study of cyclones; suggestive exercises based on the daily weather map; exercises to show that air absorbs and deposits moisture; the two forms of heat energy. Suggestions on the study of wind velocities, state of sky, and rain- fall; how to keep a weather record. "Weather study may he made a part of the na- ture study or of the geography proper. It should he kept up throughout the year. Often a few min- utes — two or three minutes daily — are sufficient. There is no phase of geography more practical than weather study. There are many ridiculous signs and superstitions relating to weather changes, and the teacher has a fine opportunity to do much good by teaching a few scientific facts in elementary meteorology. The following mate- rials and helps, most of which are free, are recom- mended. Teachers are urged to secure them for their schools : 1. The Daily Weather Map. This should come to every school, especially if on a rural de- 217 218 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY livery route. Send a request to the nearest Weather Bureau, stating that you are a teacher. A file for holding the maps can be had on application. 2. Cloud Chart. Frame if possible. Keep it before the pupils. 3. "Amplification of AVeather Forecasts." Circular by Alfred J. Henry. •4. Circular. Explanation of AVeather ATap. 5. Climate: Its Physical Basis and Controlling Factors. AVillis L. Aloore. 0. Circular. The AVeather Bureau. 7. Circular F. Barometers. C. F. Marvin. 8. Inst ructions for Voluntary Observers. AVil- lis L. Aloore. Where other addresses are not given, apply to "The AVeather Bureau," U. S. Department of Agriculture, AVashington, I). C. Some simple apparatus will also be very help- ful and some of it, at least, can be made in the school. 1. A Thermometer. Every school should have a thermometer for the purpose of regulating the school room temperature. A chemical thermom- eter will answer a double purpose. '2. A Mercurial Barometer. This instrument costs several dollars, but a fairly good one can be made for 75 cents. Its construction will furnish a motive for manual training work. A home-made barometer would be a valuable contribution to a school. Stndv Circular F. SUGGESTIONS ON WEATILEE STUDIES 21& ' i Directions for making. Close one end of a glass tube 42 inches long and l /± inch in diameter, using a gas or alcohol flame to soften the glass. About 34 inches from the closed end make a "U" shaped bend. Slowly pour in mercury (about 2 pounds will be required) until both arms of the tube are filled.* A piece of rubber tub- ing, one end of which is fitted to the open arm of the glass tube and the other attached to a funnel, affords a conve- nient method for introducing the mer- cury. Incline the glass tube toward a horizontal position while pouring in the mercury. When both arms are filled, place the tube in a vertical position and mount on a smooth board on which is a scale in inches and centimeters. The true reading of the barom°ter will be the difference between the heights of the two mercurial columns. Hang the instrument in a safe place. Read it daily. 3. A Helior or Sun Board. This little instrument can be made by the ng. g. teacher or older pupils of the class. It is a good piece of work for manual training, and can be used fo excellent advantage in establishing basal ideas of temperature. Directions: From 1 './' wood make a square tube 3 // x3' / inside meas- urement and 10" long. Prepare a base-board * If advantages permit, the mercury in the tube may be boiled to drive out any bubbles of air. 220 THE TEACHING OF GEOGEAPHY 36"x4", using 1" material. To its edges attach a 1 •>" vertical strip o6"xo". By means of light hinges attached to one end of the tube, fasten it to the middle of the base-board. The tube should be so adjusted that when moved its side will just touch the vertical strip. Secure a cheap protractor, or make one from light card-board, and fasten it to the side of the helior tube as shown in Fig. 7. A short plumb line properly attached to the protractor will, as it crosses the arc, indicate the inclination of the tube. A light metal strip, one end of which is fas- tened to the tube and the other to the sliding block [see cut], will hold the tube at any desired angle. 4 Fig. 7. 4. A Hygrometer, or "Wet and Dry Bulb Ther- mometer. Two cheap thermometer tubes attached side by side to a small board will answer if a better form cannot be had. Around the bulb of oik; thermometer wrap one end of a lamp-wick, immersing the other end of the wick in water held in a small bottle, also attached to the board. The other bulb will be exposed to the moisture of the SUGGESTIONS ON WEATHEB STUDIES 221 atmosphere only. A table from which the relative and absolute humidities can be obtained may be found in a book on meteorology. 5. A Rain Gauge. A can with perpendicular sides set "in the open" will answer the purpose of a rain gauge in approximating the rainfall. Circular No. 250, "Instructions for Voluntary Observers," gives full information. (See p. 218.) SIMPLE EXERCISES WITH THE HELIOR. 1. Set the helior in the sun at noon in a level, north-south position, and so adjust the tube that all sides are lighted directly by the sun. This position is secured when shadows are absent. If the tube is too high, a shadow will appear on its upper surface; if too low, on its lower surface, etc. Now the angle shown between the lower edge of the tube and the base-board will represent the noon altitude of the sun. If the middle point of the protractor arc be designated zero, the mar- ginal number at the intersection of the plumb-line and arc will indicate the numerical value of the sun's altitude. 2. With the helior tube in the position indi- cated in 1. note the lighted rectangular area within the shaded boundary lines. Determine the length and width of this area. The beam of sun- light that enters the tube will be projected upon a surface as wide as the tube, and will vary in length with the altitude of the sun. Xow if the sun's ravs were vertical, a surface 222 THE TEACH I XG OE GEOGEAPHY of 9 square inches would receive all of the light and heat entering 1 the mouth of the helior tube. The altitude of the sun would in this case be 90°. As the sun never reaches this altitude north of the Tropic of Cancer, the light and heat entering the tube will be distributed over a rectangular surface somewhat larger than 9 square indies. Thus on September 23 — the autumnal equinox — the noon altitude of the sun at Platteville, Wis- consin, is approximately 47°. At noon on this date the helior. with dimensions as given above, will show a lighted area of 13^ square inches. It is evident that the intensity of light and heat will then be two-thirds as great at -4.3 d north lati- tude as at the equator.* From the above exercise, pupils will under- stand why the more nearly vertical rays between the tropics make that region hotter than other re- gions, and why it is called the Torrid Zone. 3. Properly adjust the helior tube to show the area heated and lighted at nine o'clock. Compare with area heated and lighted at twelve o'clock, and again at four p. m. At what hour do we re- ceive the more nearly vertical rays? The earth is receiving the maximum of heat at this hour, but the thermometer will register higher at two or three p. m.. as more heat at that time will be radi- ated by the earth into the atmosphere. 27 1R 27 3 1S » K'.i.j ; !l =- ; • = - of — ; since at an altitude of IT 1 a l,i n m of lijrht and boat is distributed over | the area that it would be were the altitude 90'', it follows that the intensity will be only z as Cleat. SCGGESTIONS ON WEATHER STUDIES 22.' Those generalizations will be very useful in understanding the temperature of different parts of the earth's surface. SAMFLE- HELIOFZ RECOfZD Date Attitudes o f Sctn C rots Sect /'on of LJgktBeom A raa of Beam Distribution Ratio of Area,? Rotro O-f Saf*23 17 IS s ■ib 4-3 SIMPLE EXERCISES TO SHOW ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE. 1. Fill a basin with water. Press a bottle, mouth downward, into the water. AYhy does not the bottle fill.' Hoes this show air pressure? 2. Fill a bottle with water. Hold the hand over the mouth and invert. Lower the mouth of the bottle into water and remove the hand. Why does the water remain in the bottle.' Does this show aii- pressure ? If so. in what direction? 3. Fill a bottle (level full) with water. Press with the palm of the hand a piece of heavy writing paper evenly over its mouth. Holding the hand in this position invert the bottle and carefully remove the hand. "Why does not the water run? Dees this show air pressure? In what direction? EXERCISES TO SHOW CONVECTION CURRENTS. 1. TTeat a beaker of water in which a little sawdust has been placed, by applying a flame to 224 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY the bottom of the glass near one side. In what direction does the water directly over the fiame move ? In what direction is it moving on the other side of the glass? Why? Is a circuit established? How will all of the water become heated? 2. School rooms heated by stoves illustrate convection currents. Show by experiment that the air above the stove rises ; that the air on the floor flows toward the stove. With the school thermometer, take the temperatures on the floor and near the ceiling. Trace some of the circuits of the air in the school room. CONVECTION CURRENTS IN THE ATMOSPHERE ; CYCLONES. The great storms that pass over the country with considerable regularity are cyclones. Cor- rect the current notion that the violent de- structive storms are cyclones; they are tornadoes. Cyclones, or cyclonic storms, are shown on all weather maps of the United States. But in order to teach the use of the Daily Weather Map, one rather difficult notion must be developed, viz., the idea of atmospheric or barometric pressure. The teacher even without the mercurial barometer will lie able, little by little, to establish the idea. Air surrounds the earth to a depth of two hun- dred miles or more, but almost half of it is within throe miles of the earth's surface. Xow when the air is considerably heated over a large urea, it rises in the same manner that it does over SUGGESTIONS ON WEATHER STUDIES 225 the stove in the school room. The upward move- ment of air reduces the downward pressure below it and may be, therefore, one cause of a low.* But Fig. 8. the air having- risen, forms a swell down the sides of which the upper portions slowly flow. Thus the horizontal motion of the upper currents is away from the low, toward areas over which the air is less disturbed by heat; here it slowly settles, the weight of the added upper layers pressing' the lower ones into thinner and thinner strata. This increased mass and downward motion of the air cause greater pressure. Atmospheric regions of this kind are highs or anticyclones. Owing to the earth's rotation, surface currents always flow spirally upward from regions of greater to regions of less pressure. These incom- ing spiral currents form a great whirl or eddy in which the air slowly rises, its velocity increasing as the confer is approached. Such an upward whirl is generally a low or cyclone. Tn the cy- clonic whirl, the movement is always to the right, * It is not to bo inferred that temperature disturbances explain the orkiin of cyclones. Sec Abuui tin Wiutlicr, Harrington, p. 117. 226 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY in [lie northern hemisphere. Upward currents of air always expand and cool, hence it usually rains in low pressure areas. A falling" barometer sig- nifies low pressure and therefore a storm. Downward currents of air are always being warmed as a result (1) of their approach to land or water which is wanner than the upper air, and (2) of the increased air pressure at lower levels. The increased pressure condenses the air and as it is condensed, heat is set free. A large area of slowly settling air is called a high. As the tem- perature of such air rises, its capacity for mois- ture increases. Precipitation is not likely to occur and, in general, highs indicate fair weather. Older students can be taught the meaning of isobars and isotherms from the weather map. Our prevailing winds are westerlies. A sudden shift of the wind to the east indicates the ap- proach of a storm from the west. The shift will be accompanied also by a falling barometer, and it can easily be noted that the temperature is rising. Correct the prevalent notion that a hu- mid, cloudy, or foggy atmosphere is heavy. Mois- ture settles when the air is unable to buoy it up. Xo more practical lesson can be learned than that of forecasting the weather a day or two ahead. Pupils in the upper grades can do this by observing direction of winds, state of sky, tem- perature, and pressure. Teach children that the long-range forecasts seen so often in the local newspapers are unreliable. Teach the children how to tell whether the SUGGESTIONS ON WEATHER STUDIES 227 storm ccntci's pass north or south of their locality. Since winds blow toward the low or storm, if the wind is east, the storm is west. If the wind is south, the storm is north. If the wind is south- west, the storm is northeast. If the wind is west, the storm is east. Hence, in this instance, the storm center passed north of the observer. Hence — 1. If the wind shifts from the east to the west by way of the south, the storm center passes north of the observer. 2. If the wind shifts from the east to the west by way of the north, the storm center passes south of the observer. Teacher and pupils should observe the shifting winds and make inferences relative to the paths of cyclonic storms. Since winds flow in spirally to the storm center it follows that- East winds start in the south. South winds start in the west. West winds start in the north. North winds start in the east. SIMPLE SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES FOR STUDY OF CYCLONIC STORMS. 1. Cut a 2" square from transparent paper. Lay the square directly over the word ''Low" on a weather map. Trace the word "Low" and the arrows about it that indicate wind directions. Transfer the square to another "Low" and make 228 TEE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY the two words coincide. Trace in the arrows again. Repeat for four or five lows. "What do you conclude as to wind directions near lows] 2. On an outline map of the United States show by an isobar the location of a low on succes- sive days as it crosses the continent. Make a heavy dotted line to show the storm track. Meas- ure, by means of the scale, the distance traveled each 24 hours. Average a dozen measurements to secure the approximate velocity of cyclones. 3. Trace several isotherms through lows found in the Mississippi basin. Xote the bends which the isotherms make. In what direction do they bend in front of the low? In the rear? [See Fig. 9.] Remembering what has been said about wind directions, account for these bends. Why are our west winds cool in summer and cold in winter .' SUGGESTIONS ON WEATHER STUDIES 229 4. Observe the cloud and rain areas as lows cross the country. In which direction from the cyclonic center is the largest cloud and rain area? Which wind brings the most moisture? "Why? From what source does most of our moisture come ? 5. Note the clouds frequently. Learn the dif- ferent classes by reference to the Cloud Chart. 6. Take the whole school on an excursion. Observe the general direction toward which the trees lean. What is this direction? On which side of trees are the branches usually longer? Why? 7. Watch the direction of the little whirlwinds so often seen in spring' and summer. Account for their general direction. SIMPLE EXERCISES TO SHOW THAT AIE DEPOSITS AXD ABSORBS MOISTURE. 1. Fill a cup or glass pitcher with ice water. Xote the moisture that collects on the outer sur- face. Where did the moisture come from? Why did it collect? 2. Into similar shallow dishes place equal quantities of water. Set the dishes near each other — one in the sunshine and the other in the shade. Compare the times required for evapora- tion. K.\ plain. What causes water to evaporate? 3. Place equal volumes of water in two dishes, one broad and shallow, the other narrow and deep. Compare the times required for evaporation. 230 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY SIMPLE EXERCISES TO SHOW FORMS OF HEAT ENERGY. 1. Set an open dish of cold water on the stove or place it over an alcohol flame. Introduce the bulb of a thermometer and take the reading. Have pupils note the rise of mercury as the water heats. Take the reading when the water boils. Continue to apply heat. Does the mercury con- tinue to rise after the water boils? Can water be heated beyond the boiling point in open ves- sels? Is evaporation rapid at this temperature? Hold a piece of cold glass above the vessel and note the collection of vapor on it. What becomes of heat energy after the water boils. Is there much heat, then, in vapor? If the vapor be condensed, can this heat (latent) be set free? Which burns more severely, boiling water or steam? Why? When vapor condenses into clouds, is heat set free? Is it usually warm when it rains? 2. Set a dish of water containing ice over a flame. Introduce the thermometer bulb. Xote the reading. Watch the mercury as the melting ad- vances. Does it rise? What is the heat energy doing? Why does not the water heat ? Is there heat in the water that comes from melting ice? Xote the mercury at the moment the ice is all melted. Does it rise from that time, on? What is the heat energy now doing? Is there heat (latent) in all water? When water freezes is heat set free? What effect have freezing water-bodies on adja- cent lands? 3. Pour a few drops of ether, alcohol, or am- SUGGESTIONS ON WEATHER STUDIES 231 monia in the open palm of each pupil. What becomes of it? Why does the hand feel cold? For the convenience of teachers who have no references at hand some information concerning wind velocities, state of sky, and precipitation is given below. WIND VELOCITIES (ACCORDING TO II. A. HAZEN, UNITED STATES WEATHER BUREAU ). 0. Calm. 1. Light breeze ; just moving leaves of trees. 2. Moderate wind ; moving branches. 3. Brisk wind; swaying branches; blowing up dust. 4. High wind; blowing up twigs from ground; swaying whole trees. 5. Gale; breaking small branches; loosening bricks on chimneys. 6. Hurricane or tornado; destroying every- thing in its path. STATE OF SKY (ACCORDING TO WARD). A Sky 3-10 or less cloudy is marked on weather map Clear. A Sky .'MO to 7-10 cloudy is marked Fair. A Sky over 7-10 cloudy is marked Cloudy. If the teacher follows the suggestions concerning the securing of a cloud-chart, the pupils will soon learn the principal kinds of clouds, and a column can be added to the weather record under the heading, " Kinds of Clouds." 2 3 2 V (J v TEE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY RAINFALL. Under this term are included rain, hail, sleet, and snow. Precipitation is the term usually em- ployed. Rainfall is measured in inches. About ten inches of snow give one inch of water, but there is much variation in the density of snow. THE WEATHER RECORD. Rule a large sheet of paper, as suggested below, for a "Weather Record." Fill in daily with ob- served data. Each pupil in the upper grades should "rule off" pages in his geography note book, and keep an individual weather record. SAMPLE WEATHER RECORD. XOX-IXSTRUMEXTAL OBSERVATIOXS. riot n ' n™. Tempera- ' Wind | Wind Date i uour ture | r)i roction Velocity State of Sky Precipi- tation Remarks Dec. 18 !) a. m, Very Cold , N. W. Dec. IS 4 p. in. Very Cold ' X. W. 1 Brisk Brisk Clear Clear None None Every- thing Frozen Same Condition A column headed "Barometric Pressure" may well be added to the weather record. Schools that teach ninth and tenth grade work would do well to make the barometer, and also a hygrometer. If the latter be made, a column headed "Humidity" may appear in the weather record." In order that pupils, especially in rural districts, may apply the knowledge gained in weather study, such phenomena may well be associated with social * Ward'- 1'ractienl E tin I'm. - rn-nti-iiMMl in M< tciirolori!) V.i very helpful along SUGGESTIONS ON WEATHER STUDIES 233 events and industries. Professor Willis L. Moore suggests the following as items of record : Time of plowing in the spring. Time of planting and seeding various crops. Time of appearance of same above ground. Time of flowering of strawberries, currants, raspberries, apples, plums, and other fruit. Time of commencement of haying. Time of commencement of harvesting cereals. Time of ripening of various fruits. The time of migration of wild fowl and birds. The time of leafing and fall of leaves in decidu- ous forests. The date of breaking up of ice in large rivers. The date of greatest rise and lowest water in important streams. SUGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS. 1. Of what importance to the pupil is a study of the weather? 2. Is there any excuse for simply talking about the weather? What should the teacher do? 3. What pieces of helpful apparatus can be made in the school? Is there any value in making them rather than buying them? 4. How can you measure the altitude of the sun? How can you show children that the more nearly vertical rays of the sun yield more heat and light than rays less nearly vertical? f>. What is a convection current ? Why should we develop this idea with pupils? What relations do convection currents bear to planetary winds? Explain fully. the areas of tinted States engaged in truck-farming. Show how these areas are related to thickly populated areas. 4. On an outline map show with different colors of ink three trunk railroads that reach Chicago from the east. Show two lines that extend from Chicago to the Pa- ri lie ( )cean. 5. Shade with rather dark color that part of North America that was covered by the Great t/Jacier. 248 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY 6. Color with rather deep green those regions of North America where the altitude is 500 feet or less. Color with light green the areas that are 500 feet to 1,000 feet in alti- tude. Color with light yellow the areas that are 1.000 feet to 2,000 feet high ; with deeper yellow areas 2,000 feet to 5,000 feet high; and with deep brown all areas over 5,000 feet in height. Nothing will deaden the interest and reduce the geography to mere memory work more surely and quickly than exclusive daily study and oral rehearsal of text-hook statements. Such work re- duces the pupil to a state of passivity. All state- ments look equally important on the printed page. The material of a text on geography is to be read, weighed and sifted for the ultimate purpose of reaching and applying the broad general princi- ples of the subject. The text should never be learned merely for the sake of reciting it literally. STATISTICS. Large numbers never bring clear ideas. The teaching of statistics is time poorly spent. Teach areas of states approximately. Illinois, for exam- ple, may be learned exactly. With a map of United States before the class, require pupils to refer to taltles of statistics to find area of Illinois. Now look at the map. Find other states about the same size as Illinois. Name these states. The pupils can be led to pick Wisconsin, Towa, New York, Alabama, etc. MAPS AXD MODELS 249 These states fall in the 50,000 square miles class, differences of 1,000 to 5,000 square miles being ignored. Estimate area of Colorado. Compare closely with Illinois on a United States ma}). Check by referring to table of statistics. Now find other states nearly equal in size. Wyoming, Xew Mex- ico, Utah, Nevada, etc., will be named. Select all that are from 90,000 to 110,000 square miles, and classify with Colorado. Knowing the areas of Massachusetts, Illinois and Colorado, pupils in the upper grades never need to hesitate in approxi- mating areas. The map is a graphic representa- tion of comparative areas. It is always wise to use some convenient area as that of Colorado as a measure for foreign countries. In referring to France, pupils should say: "France is twice as large as Colorado, or 200,000 square miles in area." in comparing populations, productions, wealth, exports, imports, etc., graphic representations should be used. Illustration: In 1901 the production of pig-iron in the three leading countries was approximately: United States 16,000,000 tons Great Britain 8,000,000 tons Germany 8.000,000 tons Hence a line - inches long would represent United States output, and a line 1 inch long would represent each of the others. 250 TEE TEACHING OF GEOGEAPHY Production of Pig Iron in 1901. -^— — — — — ^— — — United States ^— — — — — Great Britain — — — - — — — Germany By the use of cross-section paper (ordinary pa- per can be ruled into centimeter squares) very significant graphs can be made, which will show not only productions, etc., for a given year, but the relative increase or decrease of several countries through a series of years. For illustrations of such graphs teachers should consult one of the standard commercial geographies. Drill on pertinent statistics can be secured by making problems for the arithmetic lesson, which involve the selected values. Illustration: 1 . What per cent of the world's output of pig- iron is supplied by the United States.' 2. Germany's out] tut of pig-iron is what per cent of United States'? Of the World's? etc. Outline maps are not expensive and can be filled in and used to excellent advantage by schools des- titute of map equipment. The "Standard Atlas" of the last census has valuable double page maps showing distribution of products, density of population, etc., etc. These maps can be removed, mounted on card board and be ready for instant use. The Atlas is valuable and can be had free. MAI'S AND MODELS 251 MAP EXERCISES. A little study on the part of the teacher will suggest numerous problems which the pupils can answer by reference to maps. Such exercises are recommended strongly since it is the conviction of the writer that pupils make too little use of maps generally. The following exercises suggested by Prof. A. \Y. Andrews will be found helpful:* " From a map without names showing elevation by shade.- of color, such as the Diagram Hand Map of the London District, to find the position of the chief towns at the gaps of the North Downs. From a similar map of France to find the possi- ble lines of march of Ca>sar. From a similar map of India to show the regions of excessive rainfall. From a similar map of South America to show the direction of the rain-hearing winds in the Ama- zon valley. From maps of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans showing prevailing winds in January and July, to work out the winds likely to reach the land with an excess or deficiency of moisture, or to show the route of ( 'olumbus. From maps of Africa showing rainfall in Janu- ary and July to show the regions of permanent tropical forest, of savanna with an area extended or diminished according to rainfall, and of perma- nent desert. •Journal of Oeography, March, 1002. 252 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY From a series of maps showing climate and ele- vation to find the regions likely to produce rice. From maps showing the density of population of Wales to find the coal mining districts. From a map of Australia showing rail and tele- graphs to show the area of densest population. From a contour map of the North Sea or the Banks near Newfoundland, to find the main fishing centres. From a map showing the amount of Africa ex- plored in 1788, consisting of a rim round the coast, to work out the special difficulties presented by the configuration of the land. But we would go further; carefully selected series of typical views lend themselves to the prob- lem method quite as readily as maps. It would be easy to multiply instances. From two views of the northern and southern slopes of the Alps, to find the points of the com- pass from a consideration of the presence and ab- sence of snow." MODELS. The making of models is an excellent means of securing better notions of surface features. Printed descriptions lose force with children. Even if* geographies contain good relief maps, the construction of a model will necessitate a more careful study of the relief map, and the mechanical work will deepen the impression. Better still, all such work makes the pupils doers rather than passive receivers. MAPS AXD MODELS 253 PAPIKR MACIIE MODELS. "Excellent models can he made from papier luaclie. Secure a good bundle of old news] tapers. A Paper Pulp Model. Have the children tear them into small bits. Place in a jar or pail and cover with water and allow to 254 TEE TEACHING OF GEOGEAPET stand for two or three days. Drain off excess water. Then thoroughly work with a sharpened wood paddle until mixture becomes a thick, pliable mass. If thoroughly worked it is now ready for modeling. The outline of the map should previ- ously have been made. Paper pulp models will keep well. Blue water-colors may represent bodies of water. Varnish or shellac will enable the model to resist moisture. SALT AXD FLOUR MODELS. Good models can be made from a mixture of two parts of common salt and one of flour. Mix well (dry) between thumb and lingers. Add water very slowly, mixing all of the time. Continue until mix- ture has the consistency of wet sand. It is now ready for use. The outline of the country should previously have been prepared. An easy way is to trace the outline from a text-book map, using transparent paper. This can be done quickly. Xow lay this copy on a piece of cardboard (pasteboard boxes in every home can be had), and trace again with hard pencil or stylus. This imprints the outline on the cardboard, upon which the model is to be made. Apply the salt and flour mixture, spread- ing very thin, and covering completely over the area to be modeled. Xow add more of the mix- ture to build plateaus and mountains. A flexible case knife is convenient to spread mixture. The thumb and fingers are good tools for mountain building. Relief maps from which to model a7-e MAPS AND MODELS 255 found in all of the better geographies. Shiny card- board may be brushed over with library paste before applying the mixture. This insures ad- hesion. Before children make models, the teacher should A Salt and Flour Model. discuss the surface with them. Mountains, plateaus, and lowlands should be pointed out. ] livers can be scratched in with a pencil point while mixture is moist. Do not use too much of the mixture. The cardboard will absorb the moisture and become so weakened that model may 256 TEE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY crack in handling. Light pine hoard may he used for the hase. Water bodies adjacent to continent may he shown with blue water colors. After the first time, children can prepare models at home. South America is a good continent with which to begin. Keep the models dry. A coating of shellac will help preserve them. This exercise is very practical and highly com- mended. Observe the model of North America made from the calt and flour mixture. SAND MODELS. There is no excuse for not modeling land forms. A modeling board 2 feet x 3 feet or 3 feet x 4 feet, with a rim 2 inches or 3 inches high, and two or three pails of sand, completes the requirements. Sand models can be made quickly and, as the mate- rial costs nothing, larger models can be made than was practicable with other material. PLASTICINE MODELS. Plasticine is a commercial modeling material. Circulars describing it and giving directions as to its use can be had on application.* Plasticine can be used ever and over again. It can be used in geographical, historical and manual training work. Procedure: "Flatten pieces of gray plasticine between linger and thumb, and press upon the pa- * For ruMressi's of companies that furnish modeling materials, see Chapt-r XXII. MAPS AND MODELS 251 per to the shape of the coast line or country (a slight pencil outline may be used if desired). To make mountains, roll pieces of paper into a ball and cover with thin flattened plasticine; add more for elevation of headlands, cliffs, etc. Depress the valleys by linger, and channels of rivers and gorges by tool. . . . The plasticine has to he applied by pressure, not spread like butter. Take the needle tool and, holding it like a pencil, draw round the outline, cutting through to the paper, strip the paper off the back, and model stands clear; place it upon the clean surface of slate, board, or tin tray, go again round your contours with tool and linger to secure greater accuracy and detail.'' '"The colored plasticine can be introduced at this stage for the natural characteristics, such as lakes, mountains, etc." "Introduce chips or real stone, chalk, coal, etc., imbedded in the plasticine to express the geologi- cal formation of the neighborhood, and account for the character of the beaches and river-beds by the disintegration of adjoining strata. These ex- ercises give great life and interest to local map- making. Cut out ponds, lakes, and reservoirs, and insert blue plasticine, mirror or tin-foil for water. Chalk, cotton, wool or silk can also be pressed into service to show snow mountains, water falls, or volcanoes. Water does not affect plasticine; it can be poured over the model in the tray to show ac- tion of tides, fountains and rivers." 258 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY CHALK AND PENCIL MODELS. Chalk and pencil models are relief maps. They are readily made with crayon on blackboard, or on paper with soft pencil. This method of show- A Pencil Modi inu' relief is otic of the most practical, as the pupil's equipment is so simple. Children love to work with the hands and very soon acquire the ability to make excellent iiirht and shade maps. In performing the work the crayon or pencil is held in an almost horizontal position between MAPS AND MODELS 259 the thumb and forefingers. When the pencil is used it should be very soft, with long "lead" exposed. Rub the pencil back and forth on rough paper until it is somewhat flattened. Ordinary drawing paper is a good surface upon which to make the pencil model, though scratch paper or light brown wrapping paper does well. Xo de- tailed directions for executing the work can here be given. A few suggestions may help the be- ginner : Avoid lines with point of pencil ; the strokes should be with the side of the lead. Successive strokes should blend. Horizontal strokes will represent level surfaces; oblique strokes, sloping surfaces, and ver- tical strokes, vertical surfaces. Successively higher altitudes are shown by rela- tively deeper and deeper shadings. Mountain ridges are usually represented with rather heavy strokes on one slope and light strokes on the other slope. The heiuht of mountain chains is represented by the length of the oblique strokes. Rela- tively longer and shorter strokes will rep- resent relatively higher and lower moun- tain ridges. Land at or near sea-level is very lightly shaded. Xote the illustrative pencil model of South America. '•Chalk Modeling," by Ida 0. Iloffron," is a * Soo r.Uilio-iraphy. 200 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY most helpful volume, containing numerous illus- trations and clear directions for modeling the various types of topography and land forms. SUGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS. 1. What is a map? A model? A relief map? An outline map? 2. How many ways of showing relief on a flat map? Of these ways which is the most practical for public school pupils? 3. What constitutes a good map drawing exercise? 4. Why are U. S. Geological Survey maps of special value? In what phase of geography are they most useful? 5. How can school atlases be used to advantage? 6. To what extent can graphic representation be employed in geography? By what method? 7. What use can be made of outline maps? 8. What advantage have models over relief maps? "What caution is necessary in the use of models? 9. What is the educational value of modeling as a school exercise? BIBLIOGRAPHY. Dryer, Chas. R. — "Surveying and Mapping," Inland Educator, June. 1S98. Retlway, J. W. — The Reproduction of Geographical Forms, D. C. Heath & Co. Davis, King and Collie — The Use of Government Maps in Schools, Henry Holt & Co. Holway, R. S— "Modeling Mt. Shasta," Bui. Am. Bu. of Geog- raphy, Vol. I, Xo. :;. Andrews, A. W. — "The Use of Maps in the Teaching of Geog raphy," Jour, of Geog.. March, HMi2. Gillan, S. Y. — Tracing ami Sketching Lessons in Geography, S. Y. Gillan ,V Co. Heffron, Ida {'.—Chalk Modeling, Educational Publishing Co. G le. .1. I'aul- -" I'rte Hand Map Work." Bui. Am. Bu. of Geog- raphy, Vol. I. CHAPTER 1 XXI. Suggestions ox the Study of Soils. topics to be coxs1deked. The study of soils; the origin of soils; character of soils de- pendent largely on aqueous beil-rock; law of deposition; the case of the Blue Grass region. Transported soils; alluvial, glacial drift, loess; short descrip- tions of each; the Mississippi delta; the prairie plains; the loess of lower Mississippi valley. Importance of maintaining the productive capacity of soils; ele- ments of soil fertility; the new interest in agriculture. The teacher of elementary geography should have some knowledge of soils. Any technical study of soils belongs, of course, to agriculture; but there are considerations wholly within the province of geography, a knowledge of which is quite essential to one who essays to teach gram- mar school geography. Many text hooks of geography make formal statements concerning the soils of a state or region, hut the necessity for brevity forbids any explanation of why the soils of said state or region are good or poor. It rests with the teacher to supplement and make significant the brief denota- tive statements of the text. Teachers should know that soil is rock waste mixed with more or less organic matter. This 261 2G2 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY being true, no adequate understanding of soils is possible without some consideration of the rocks whose decomposition yields the soils. By far the larger portion of soils is the product of sedimen- tary rocks. Jf, perchance, we know the condi- tions under which the rocks were deposited, we shall have a key to the character of the soils which the rocks will yield. Sedimentary rocks are aqueous rocks ; that is, they were formed from materials deposited in a body of water. But a body of water, be it lake or sea, will be either shallow or deep; or, the same body of water may be shallow in one part and deep in another. In general, water is shallow near shore lines and deep some distance out. The waste of the adjacent lands is carried by streams into the water body. Xow it is evident that heavy materials will settle quickly to the sea bottom and therefore such deposition will be along the shores. As liner waste of the lands settle more slowly sea- currents carry such materials farther out from shore before deposition occurs. When an old sea- bed is lifted and drained we should therefore ex- pect to find the line grained rocks at some distance from the old shores, and the coarse textured rocks near them. Jt appears therefore that there is a sorting of the sediments, the order of deposition beginning with the coarsest and ending with the finest. These aqueous deposits will in time become rock through tlie agencies of pressure and cementation. But should the sea-bed be lifted, the rocks in time will THE STUDY OF SOILS 263 decompose and the resulting soils will be charac- terized by .them. We should hardly expect good soils from the rocks and gravels which come from the conglomerate rocks along the shore. Neither would the coarse sandstone farther out yield rich soils, for sand crystals are not easily dissolved and the rootlets of plants cannot feed upon undis- solved materials. The soils resulting from the liner sandstone will be somewhat better. The mud deposits will, of course, yield line soils; and since muds contain much organic material, these sods will be rich. Dee]) sea ooze hardens into limestone. Soils resulting from the decomposition of deep-water deposits are rich, for the ooze contains the cal- careous remains of marine life forms, diatoms, globigerina, etc., which are rich in phosphates and lime. The disintegration of such solidified de- posits produces line rich soils. In general it may be said that (a) Shallow sea-deposits yield sandy and grav- elly soils of low fertility. (b) Deep-sea deposits yield line soils rich in or- ganic substances and therefore of high fertility. The application of the law of aqueous deposits explains the character of soils in many regions. The soils of the Blue (irass region of Kentucky, for instance, are very rich. The teacher should be able to explain such an empirical statement. There is a chain of associations which carries one in thought from the fields of hemp, tobacco and 26± THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY blue grass, to the Paleozoic sea that once occupied the Mississippi valley; to its marine life with microscopic limy shells ; to the deep-sea ooze somewhat west of the old Appalachian shore ; to the beds of limestone which the ooze helped to form; to the diastrophic uplift which caused the sea water to retreat southward ; and finally to the rock-weathering which converted the limestone into rich soil. This fertile Blue Grass region enticed Finley and Boone through Cumberland Gap into a land of "wonderful fertility and beauty. In its rivers, its plains, its forests, its gentle eminences, its bright skies and salubrious clime, it presented then, as now, as attractive a residence for man as this globe can furnish."* And all of these things are associated, in the mind of one who has made an intelligent study of the region in question. What has been said refers to local soils. There are, however, large regions of transported soils and these will need to be understood by the teacher. Transported soils include alluvial, gla- cial drift and loess soils. I. ALLUVIAL SOILS. Alluvial soils are fine and of high fertility. They abound in river valleys and delta forma- tions. The Mississippi delta affords a good illus- tration. The great wedge-shaped area with its base southward and its apex extending northward * Abbott's "l mnii'l P.oonc." THE STUDY OF SOILS 261 CO Illinois, constitutes the Mississippi delta. The delta proper is three hundred miles long and has an area of twelve thousand three hundred square miles. Its soils are composed of deep, rich allu- vium brought down by the Mississippi river and its great tributaries. Along the Mississippi, on either side, southward from the Ohio, terrestrial deposits are found, while farther back the fossils are marine in character. From borings exposing these deposits the extent of the delta has been determined. Much of the lower Mississippi is aggrading, and its overflows have deposited much material just outside of the banks, causing the land to slope gently away from the river. A cross- section of the river at Donaldsonville, Louisiana, illustrates this well.* "When floods occur suf- ficiently high to overflow, great sheets of shallow water are imprisoned back of these natural levees, where they contribute their loads of waste to the building up of alluvial plains. A large part of Louisiana and Arkansas, and part of Mississippi, are deeply covered with alluvial deposits. From Cairo, Illinois, the river swings back and forth in a Hood plain which extends from fifteen to twenty miles on either side of its channels. Oxbow lakes are common, and terraces of alluvium and bluffs of loess often overlook the valley. II. GLACIAL DRIFT SOILS. Xo one can teach the geography of our northern continents well unless he knows something of the Donaldsonville Sheet, U. S. Geol. Survey. 2GG TJIE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY fundamental facts of glaciation. The topography and soils of northern United States have received their character largely through the work of gla- ciers. As many good books have been written on glaciers and glaciation interesting science sketches await the perusal of teacher and pupil. Not alone have surfaces and soils been determined by glaci- ation ; but commercial highways, industries and population have responded in turn to surface and soil condition. Long, long after the great changes that made our country first land, then sea, came the great glacier from the north, grinding the shales and rocks to powder, scattering and spreading the rock-flour smoothly over the undisturbed rocks, leveling the hills, and ''wiping out rivers as easily as a schoolboy wipes out chalk marks." This great glacier was hundreds — perhaps thousands — of feet in thickness, and it pushed and dragged the fine muds, sands, and clays, rich in lime and phosphorus, from the north and finally spread them evenly over our upper Mississippi valley, forming soils so productive that they have only "to be tickled with the plough to bring forth a harvest."' We call them glacial drift soils, and every schoolboy should realize how much we owe the glacier for making and bringing in our soils. Indeed the finest fields of corn often feed on limy foods scraped from the Niagara limestone or Cin- cinnati shales of northern Illinois and southern Wisconsin, and laid down in the corn belt of the prairie plains. Who is not proud of this prairie THE STUDY OF SOILS 267 country with its great fields of corn, oats and grass; with its orchards and gardens; and with its luxuriant pastures where graze white-faced Here- fords and dappled Percherons ? This prairie country is level. There are no hills, just here and there miniature valleys and ravines, carved by waters of frequent storms. An occasional boulder lies sleeping by the roadside, but to him who is in tune with nature it whispers the interesting story of the Great Ice Age. Xo mountains and scarce a lake or waterfall break the monotony of its level expanse; but there is a rare beauty in the country road lined with elms and maples, in the cultivated fields of dark rich mold, and in the peaceful homes of plenty that dot a landscape whose surface and soils are products of glaciation. III. LOESS SOILS. The loess and loam in the Mississippi valley are flood-plain deposits of glacial debris. The melting of the Great Glacier, the southern margin of which corresponded roughly to the courses of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, furnished floods which carried the liner morainic materials south- ward into Mississippi and Louisiana. The loess is of great thickness, which shows that it could not be a disintegration of the underlying recks. Its vertical extent sometimes reaches one thou- sand feet. It does not show stratification, a fact which distinguishes it from the underlying rocks on which it lies. The absence of lime distin- 268 TIIE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY guislies it from the bluff formation along the Mississippi river. The loess is often deeper as rivers are ap- proached, a fact which shows that such channels were preexistent. Increased thickness is observed near the Mississippi, the Black and the Tombigbee rivers. The erosion of these loess surfaces now assists in the transfiguration of the country. Loess and loam are continuous in Missis- sippi, though the latter is absent in the bluffs. They pass each other by insensible gradations.* The so-called loess-loam was deposited while the region was at sea-level and its position shows that no submergence has since occurred. As the great gulf into which the fine materials were deposited was not deep, the heavily loaded streams carried the line sediments far outward. The later reces- sion of water permitted winds to modify the po- sition of the materials, hence both wind and water as agencies have assisted in their formations. The yellow loam is unstratified as a result of slug- gish, overloaded streams, or of consequent modifi- cations. Xo old shore lines are visible in these formations. The yellow loam is the latest deposit in northern Mississippi, extending fifty miles east of the Yazoo bluffs, and is described by TTilgard as the non-calcareous division of the loess. The loess proper is a fine calcareous clay, containing a great variety of land and fresh-water shells. Loess soils the world over are verv rich. The * Tli'> irooln^ist rharnctorizps thorn as "hnmotaxial" ami "syn- hronoiiB." THE STUDY OF SOILS 269 loess deposits of eastern China are of great thick- ness and of rare fertility. Among the regions of the United States covered with loess, either wind- blown dust deposits or water-sorted glacial mate- rials, are Nebraska, Kansas, and Oklahoma. The modified drift (the siftings of glacial drift re- deposited from water) is found in considerable quantities along the Mississippi river, in parts of Iowa, Wisconsin, Illinois, and elsewhere. Lava soils are the result of the decomposition of trap rock. Great fissures have been formed in the newer portion of our country, and from them much molten rock has been ejected; this volcanic material has flowed into the valleys and over the plains, sometimes for considerable distances. On cooling it solidified; but the resulting rock in time yielded to the processes of weathering and soils were formed from it. These soils are fertile, but lack of moisture often renders them unproductive. The study of the origin of soils is interesting and profitable and the methods of maintaining their productive capacity is of immediate impor- tance. Simple facts and principles, relating to the home neighborhood, are typical and may be taught in connection with geography. It is not difficult to classify the soils and to associate the various types with physiographic regions. Their origin may then be recalled. The general types of soil in the following re- gions may prove suggestive: Atlantic Coastal Plains, sandy soils. o;o THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY Gulf Coastal Plains, sandy, alluvial and loess soils. Lake Plains, lacustral * soils. Prairie Plains, drift soils. Northern Appalachian valleys, limestone soils. Columbia Plateau, lava soils. Basin Region, lacustral soils. Etc There are seven elements in the soils that are necessary to the growth of plants. These are: calcium, iron, magnesium, sulphur, phosphorus, potassium and nitrogen. Of these, the soils con- tain in large amounts, all except the last three. Nitrogen is a gas and constitutes about four- fifths of the atmosphere. Teachers should make themselves familiar with the interesting science story that explains how bacteria live upon the roots of leguminous plants and how they gather nitrogen from the air and store it up as nitrates in the nodules of rootlets. If clover be pulled up by the roots and carefully washed, these nodules, if present, can be easily seen. Agricultural col- leges furnish free bulletins relating to this prac- tical department of science. Now that so much attention is given to agriculture such knowledge should be familiar to all elementary teachers. Phosphorus is of great value to soils. It is removed through the sale of nearly all products of the farm. Much phosphorus is needed to produce the seeds of grains. It also goes into the bone structure of animals, hence any farm product is * Fine deposits of nnHent lakes. THE STUDY OF SOILS 271 likely to make a drain upon this important ele- ment of the soil. Soils deficient in phosphorus can be replenished through the application of rock- phosphate Hour or bone meal. Beds of phosphate rock are found in Tennessee and Florida. These rock deposits are of high commercial value, the rock being quarried, ground and shipped even to foreign countries. If soils are lacking in potassium it, too, should be added. Crude potash mineral can be pur- chased on the market under the name "kainit." Teachers would do well to secure bulletins from agricultural colleges, and to study selected por- tions of them with the children. Through the children the parents may become interested and, in this maimer, the school will perform its highest service. ILLUSTRATIVE EXERCISES. Through outdoor study pupils can learn, (a) To distinguish the various types of soil as clay, loam, sand, loess, etc. (b) The depth of loam by actual measurement. (c) The relative fertility of soils by observing growing crops. (d) The porosity of soils by observing their ability to hold water upon their surfaces. (e) The comparative depth of soils on hillsides and level tracts. (f) The rapidity of erosion and the laws that govern the same. (g) The soils that best maintain moisture. 272 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY (li) The soils that are poor in nitrogen from the color of growing plants, (i) The influence of different kinds of fertilizers through the observation of growing crops, (j) The bad effects of cultivating soils when too wet. (k) The spread of roots in different crops, and the kind of cultivation required. (1) The adaptation of crops to soils, etc. Teachers will find Hunt's How to Choose a Farm helpful as a reference in the study of soils in any part of the United States. "With the ever increasing demands of the teacher he should still be optimistic. A little accom- plished may be of great value, and an honest endeavor will surelv bring its reward. SUGGESTIONS AM) QUESTIONS. 1. What is soil? How is soil formed? 2. What arc aqueous rocks? How are they formed? Name the various classes. 3. Why are the soils that result from the weathering of lime- stone rich? Explain fully. Illustrate by reference to the Blue Grass region. 4. Why arc sandy soils less fertile than limestone soils? ~>. What is loess? What do you understand by "modified drift ?" 6. Tell the story of the Great Glacier. Describe the soils of the I'rairie Plains. 7. Discuss the formation (if lava soils. 8. What elements of the soil are most likely to be exhausted! J. How can nitrogen be restored to the soil? 10. How can phosphorous be replaced? 11. Characterize the soils of the different regions of the United States. THE STUDY OF SOILS 273 BIBLIOGRAPHY. Brooks, W. P. — Agriculture, Vol. I, Soils: Formation, Physical ami Chemical Characteristics and Methods of Improvement, The King Richards < 'o. Bailey. L. II. — Principles of Agriculture, Chaps. I to VI., The Macmillan Co. Bennet, I. D. — The Flower Garden, Chap. II, McClure, Phillips & Co. Fairbanks, II. W. — Practical Physiography, pp. 11G, 125, Allyn & Bacon. Hilgard, K. \V.— Soils, The Macmillan Co. Hilgard. E. W. — " The Relation of Soils to Climate," Bulletin Xo. 3, l\ S. Dept. of Agriculture, Weather Bureau. Hopkins. Cyril G. — Bulletin No. 67, "How to Maintain the Pro- ductive Capacity of Soils.'' Illinois Experiment Station, Urban a, Illinois. Hunt, Tin s. F. — IIoic to Choose a Farm, The Macmillan Co. King, F. U.— Th, Soils, The Macmillan Co. King. F. II. — '■The Principles and Conditions of the Movement of Ground Water," U. S. Geol. Survey, Nineteenth Annual Report. Ft. 2. Merrill, A. P.— Socks, Sock Weathering and Soils, The Macmillan < o. Snyder. II. — Soils and Fertilizers, The Macmillan Co. Stover — Agriculture in Some of Its Stlations With Chemistry, Chas. Seribner s Sons. Warington, R. — Physical Properties of Soils, Oxford Press, Oxford, England. Whitney — ''Sonic Physical Properties of Soils in Their Relations to Crop Production," U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Weather Bureau. Bulletin No. 4. Reports and Bulletins of the Bureau of Soils. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, especially Bulletins 4. 10, 15. 17. lfl and 22 an 1 Reports on the Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils, beginning with year 1S99. CHAPTER XXII. Suggestions Relative to Placing Emphasis in Teaching Geography. topics to be considered. Pronunciation of geographical names. Drill on spelling of names. The significance of geographical names. Illustrations. Definitions. Some statements should bo definite and should be learned. Latitude and longitude as illustrations. Facts of location and direction should receive some drill. Illus- trations. Ideational facts of little value; of much value. Statements of principles and laws should be accurate. Not many should be taught. The value of some facts has been overestimated. Examples. Summaries to illustrate what pupils should know. Relational or rational geography needs little drill. In order to secure satisfactory results from the study of any subject, definite aims must be in the mind of the teacher. So far as geography is con- cerned, no educator or group of educators lias, as yet, clearly set forth definite standards of attain- ment, generally accepted by the elementary school. In a way, courses of study set up such standards, but usually they are so comprehensive and inclusive that, so far as pointing out the abso- lutely essential is concerned, they are of little worth. To take seriously everything found in the ordinary course of study, means no emphasis of essentials. It is a case where "too many intensives fail to intensify." ?;i EMPHASIS IN TEACHING 275 Still there is a general feeling among educators that the results of geographical teaching are not commensurate with the time and effort expended. In the light of this fact, it would seem that indefi- nitcncss of aim and method is a vulnerable point of attack. Geography is essentially a content study — a fact that complicates the problem. h\ the more formal subjects there is an element of definiteness that springs from their very nature. The ques- tion of organization and ends concerns the teacher of foreign language but little. In general, geog- raphy as a school subject is informational, explan- atory^ significant, relational. Desired results, how- ever, fall into two categories: (1) acquisitions requiring concise expression to be valuable, and ('!) acquisitions of connotative or significant char- acter, and not requiring equal exactness in expres- sion. .VII ideas of whatever kind should be clear and definite: but the truths in the first category should be clearly and concisely stated, while those in the second category need not be reduced to equal accuracy of form to be valuable. i. Tn tin 1 first category belong all statements of fact or principle that are directly useful in deter- mining empirical results or in reaching logical conclusions. Definiteness of thought and state- ment should attend — - a. Pronunciation and spelling of geograph- ical names. 276 TEE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY b. Definitions, as in mathematical geography, e. General directions and locations. d. Statements of physiographic and economic principles, facts, and laws. e. Statistical units to serve as keys. "While it is not to be inferred that large numbers of geographical names are to be memorized, it is very desirable that accuracy in spelling and pro- nunciation of important names be secured. Alto- gether too much careless work is permitted in this regard. Accuracy is not urged as an end in itself, but for its usefulness and value generally. Many geographical names have historical significance, and whatever of mastery is gained in geographical drill will function immediately in history, litera- ture, etc. Drill should be given on those names only that have become "settled" and are in common usage. Try pronouncing the names of the states of the Union. Look up the correct pronunciation of any about which you are in doubt. ITow many pro- nunciations of "Illinois." "Arkansas," and "Mis- souri, '' can be heard in our school-rooms! Ts it not worth while to have correct pronunciation be- come a habit early in school life! The stirring sunn'. "Xot without thy wondrous story, Illinois, Illinois. " will be more beautiful if the name is pronounced IU-i-no'f '; and the song itself may offer good opportunity for drill.* * See Tntrrnaiinnal Oconrapliy, Mill, p. 33. EMPHASIS IN TEACHING 277 Test yourself and your pupils on the pronuncia- tion of: Alabama Spokane Louisiana Seattle Colorado New Orleans Hawaii Sierra Nevada Missouri Vienna Asia Los Angeles Persia Nagasaki Roumania equator, etc. If the teacher is alert, no great amount of time need be taken to have a reasonable number of important geographical names well fixed as to spoiling and pronunciation. Short, lively drills are usually enjoyed by pupils, and they should be given frequently. Li rural schools the exercise may be general, as it may also in graded schools where two or more classes occupy one room. Equal attention should be given to the spelling of selected names. Try these : Delaware Gibraltar Philip] line Alleghany Cincinnati Mediterranean Manila Arctic, etc. Tn this connection, also, the meaning of geo- graphical names should receive some attention. As there is really no limit of what could be accom- 278 THE TEACHING OF GEOGEAPHY plished in this direction, it is wise to select a few of special significance. Illustration: Spanish — San Salvador — Holy Savior. Rio Negro — Black River. Buena Vista — Good View. German — Schwarzwald — Black Forest. Konigsberg — King's Hill. Rotterdam — Dam (or dike) of Rotter River. English — Gloucester — Bright fortress. Edinburgh — Edwin 's town. Norwich — Xorthern town. Suffolk— South folk. French — ■ Eau Claire — Clear water- La Havre— The Harbor. Detroit— The Strait. Swedish — ■ Bergen — Mountains. Stockholm — City on stakes. Karls-Krona — diaries' ( Yown. Indian — Minneapolis — City of Minnehaha. Pueblo— Village. ' Wisconsin — Hushing channel. EMPHASIS IN TEACHING 279 Asiatic— liindoostan— District of the Indus. Yang-tse — Son of the Sea. Fusiyama — Great mountain. .Mesopotamia — Middle of the rivers. By constant reference to maps, some cardinal points may be well lixed in the mind through this drill. And frequently helpful associations with history can be effected through the significance of names. In the study of Washington and Oregon, for example, the local names are full of historical suggestion. Vancouver Island named for the English explorer; Puget Sound for Peter Puget, who accompanied Vancouver; Columbia River after Captain Gray's ship; Astoria after John Jacob Astor, who established a fur-trading sta- tion there; Cape Disappointment, because the Spanish explorer Meares was outstripped by Cap- tain Gray in rounding the bar to enter the Colum- bia River; Gray's Harbor after Captain Gray; St rail of Juan de Fuca after the Greek navigator sailing in Spanish service under the sobriquet, ".I nan de Fuca." etc.* Definitions, to be of the highest value, must be very accurate and concise. However, definitions should not be taught dogmatically, but should be developed inductively. The idea or conception is always of lirst consideration. Neither are many definitions essentia] or desirable. But there are * Soc ' * Orvpon — Am. Commnmvoultli Ser. — Barrows, p. -13. 2S0 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY some that are so fundamental that to learn them, well is a matter of convenience and economy. Definitions of latitude and longitude are of this kind. A large percentage of pupils define latitude as the "'distance north and south of the equator." Such a definition indicates inaccuracy of thought, and surely reflects upon someone's teaching. Cor- rect the fallacy of the definition by changing and to or, and then strengthen it by adding the phrase, "measured on a meridian." When pupils see the full meaning of the definition, "Latitude is dis- tance north or south of the equator measured on a meridian," it is good pedagogy and surely good economy to have it learned once for all. Similarly, longitude is "distance east or west of a prime meridian measured on a parallel." The examination of normal students reveals a poor conception of "equator." The old notion of "an imaginary line around the earth" is preva- lent. This definition is both worthless and dan- gerous as contrasted with the terse and strong statement, "The equator is a great circle of the earth perpendicular to its axis." But this defini- tion must follow the true conception of great circle, together with the conception that there can be only one such circle perpendicular to the earth's axis. Such old and faulty definitions as "A volcano is a mountain that sends forth fire, smoke, and lava" should be abandoned. A volcano is an opening in the earth's crust through which inter- nal materials are ejected; whenever a mountain EMPHASIS IN TEACHING 281 is present, it is incidental to the true phenomenon, having been built up by the ejected materials.* ]\It. Shasta is a good example. The mi -take of formulating set definitions for the features and phenomena studied in the first or observational phase of geography, is often made 1 . That a pupil in the third or fourth grade knows no set definition of a hill, is no argument that lie does not know bill. Definitions at this stage of learning are very likely to be stumbling- blocks. How many educated adults are in posses- sion of set definitions of "hill," "valley," "river," "delta," etc.? For the sake of definite- ness it is probably not unwise to expect pupils in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades to know the generalized statements given as definitions or summaries, for the day only. Outside of mathe- matical geography, however, there are compara- tively few definitions that merit memorizing. Xot only should there be a very clear conception developed of the earth in space, but there should be drill on a limited number of locational facts. Drill may well be given on imaginary journeys around the earth on three or four of the following suggested circles : 1 . The Equator. 2. The Tropics. .">. The Fortieth Parallel North. 4. The Sixtieth Parallel North. Sec Iv'roJuction to Gcolony. Scott, p. 34. 282 TEE TEACEING OF GEOGEAPEY 5. The Hundredth Meridian West from Greenwich. 6. The Hundredth Meridian East. 7. The Twentieth Meridian East. 8. The Sixtieth Meridian West. With a few locations and directions thus well established, pupils will be able to approximate distances and locations for practical needs. To insist on the exact location of all countries by latitude and longitude would be to place emphasis upon the unessential and unfruitful. Principles, inductively developed and therefore understood, can well be memorized. The number of such principles will not be large, and their statement should be terse and exact. However, such statements are generalizations the value of which has already been discussed in Chapter IX, p. 132. Principles are quite as likely to be eco- nomic as physiographic. Reference to the impor- tance of economic principles has been made on pp. 89-90. Indeed, it is with them that commercial geography is ultimately concerned, and all repre- sentative texts on the subject devote consider- able space to the exposition of these laws and principles. Definiteness also should attend the teaching of statistical units which should serve as keys in the interpretation of text materials and in compari- sons. So far as notions of distant lands are con- cerned, they will be of necessity only approxi- mately correct. If our standards of interpretation and comparison are quite wrong to begin with, we EMPHASIS IN TEACHING 28? shall be far from the truth in our final concep- tions. In saying that standards should be correct, it is meant that they should be correct within reasonable limits ; e. g'., mountains should be measured in miles, certainly not more accurately than in even thousands of feet; areas of countries in round numbers of thousands, etc. Thus, Pike's Peak is three miles high and Mt. Washington one mile high; Illinois has an area of 50,000 square miles, and Texas an area of L'50,000 square miles; the distance in a straight line from Chicago to Boston is approximately equal to the distance from Chicago to Denver; from Chicago to Xew Orleans; from Chicago to Jacksonville, Florida. The population of Cincinnati is approximately equal to that of ^Milwaukee; of Antwerp, Belgium; and of Alexandria, Egypt. In like maimer, statistics of production should be reasonably accurate. A limited number only should lie learned to serve as standards of com- parison, but these should be learned thoroughly, (Reference to the use of statistics has been made on p. 248.) The somewhat questionable results now attained in geography are the result of the educational sentiment that has underestimated the knowledge of facts. Some facts, some laws, must be learned in the study of geography, or the whole intellectual structure will be without sub- stantial framework. So the completion of the course should presuppose the knowledge of a limited number of generalized facts of current interest and general usefulness. It matters little 284 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY to just what these facts relate, so long as the above requisites be satisfied. For example, sugar is a staple food product and figures in every tariff schedule of the United States. A well-trained grammar school pupil should have some idea of the rank of the United States as a sugar pro- ducing country, if later as a citizen he shall be entitled to an opinion on the justice of a tariff on this commodity. Hence the pupil should have learned something of the leading sugar producing regions of the world and should know how his own country compares with them in its produc- tion. In like maimer, rather definite notions should be gained relative to the production of iron, coal, copper, gold, corn, wheat, cotton, to- bacco, live stock, etc. In a negative way it may lie well to point out some phases that have, in the past, been over- emphasized. There is little value, in the long run, in "bounding" countries, and as soon as the regional unit is generally recognized, there will be less occasion for spending energy in this direction. So, too, the description of rivers is not very fruit- ful. Knowledge of this sort should be learned incidentally through the sketching of maps and in that study of maps in which mere form is not the object of attainment. Too much effort should not be given to the learning and locating of cities. A limited number of commercial, manufacturing, and historical places should be; carefully located and thoroughly fixed in mind. Liverpool, Sail Francisco, Rio EMPHASIS IN TEACH IX G 285 Janeiro, and New Orleans; Cleveland, Grand Rapids, Lyons, Manchester, and Birmingham; Manila. Bennington, Waterloo, Gettysburg, Luck- now, and Richmond are examples of cities that for obvious reasons should be well fixed and properly associated in the mind. In general, also, there is little reason for learn- ing capes, bays, straits, etc., for any intrinsic value that these names possess. But whenever such features function as economic or strategic points, they should be learned. Gibraltar, because it controls the en- trance to the Mediterranean; Hong-Kong, because it is an important British coaling and trading station; the Hawaiian Islands, because of their location in the midst of the Pacific Ocean, and their consequent economic and strategic value to the United States; and the Suez Canal, because of its commercial importance, all illustrate true locational values in geography, and so point to facts that should be emphasized and well known by pupils on their completion of the elementary school. In a larger way, also, pupils should be able to image the continents in their relative positions on the globe, and should be able to make rapid free- hand sketches of them, showing the major features of their outlines. They should have clear mental pictures of the salient relief features and appre- ciate their influence upon climate, upon distribu- tion of population, commerce, etc. For example, pupils, at the completion of the elementary school, 2SC THE TEACHING OF GEOGEAFHY should be able to sketch South America from memory; to show the Orinoco, Amazon, and La Plata rivers; to show the location or trend of the Guiana and Brazilian Highlands and the Andes Mountains; to locate a half dozen impor- tant cities — e. g\, Rio Janeiro, Buenos Aires, Val- paraiso, etc.; to be able to explain the effects of the mountain ranges on climate and rainfall, e. g., the causes for heavy precipitation in western Brazil and for the aridity of northern Chile; to associate with the larger regions of the country their sources of wealth, industries, etc. It is not desirable or reasonable to expect pupils to be able to indicate the exact boundaries of political divi- sions, or even locate their capitals, though the gross outlines of the countries should be acquired. That Chile, e. g., is a long, narrow country west of the Andes and bordering the Pacific Ocean; that the precipitation is heavy in the south and very light in the north ; that its leading exports are woo], hides, wheat, sodium-nitrate, and guano; that its trade is chiefly with Grea + Britain and Germany: and that Valparaiso is its leading port; these facts, if understood, would indicate good results from the teaching of this particular coun- try. Taking South America as a whole, a resume like the following, taken from Dodge's Advanced Geo graph]}, would seem adequate, if the indi- vidual statements can be explained and made meaningful by the pupils: "South America is, on the whole, unprogressive, except in the countries of the temperate belt and EMPHASIS IN TEACHING 287 in Brazil. The governments are unstable, revo- lutions are frequent, and business cannot there- fore be carried on successfully. The continent is deficient in railroads and highways, and hence the native riches are not developed. The exports are mostly mineral and cattle products, except in the few scattered agricultural regions. The imports are chiefly foodstuffs and manufactured goods, especially textiles and steel. It is anticipated that when the Panama Canal is completed, so that commerce can be readily carried on between the western coast and the large commercial centers of the United States, the continent will develop rapidly. ' ' ii. Ultimately, the richest phase of geography is that which is explanatory and significant, i. e., the rational.* It is this phase which leads to an appre- ciation of physical environment. Xo instruction in geography that stops short of this acquirement can be considered fruitful. Often large numbers of formal facts are learned by pupils, but no genuine appreciation awakened: no permanent interest aroused; no oneness with Nature ever felt. Geog- raphy, broadly considered, is humanitarian. The real test of its worth lies in the inclination and power to interpret. A ramble through the meadows, a walk by the brook, a quiet hour by * See Generalization and Organization of Geographical Mate- rials, Chap. XIV. 288 THE TEACHING OE GEOGEAPHY the lake-shore or sea-side, is delightful — yes, fasci- nating to him whoso eyes are fully open and "to him who in the love of Nature holds communiou with her visible forms." Pupils in the grammar grades can catcli some- thing of this deeper moaning, if rightly taught. And the most fruitful method is that which brings pupils and earth phenomena into direct contact. Often, very often, cold formal statements are the only agencies employed by teachers, and the results obtained are fragmentary and unvital- ized. But excursion, experiment, and museum are agencies through which a genuine awaken- ing can be effected. It would be very difficult to designate the exact number or kind of "earth friendships" that any class of pupils should make. Indeed, it matters little just what they are, if only a reasonable number are estab- lished. The kind should be determined very largely by the immediate environment of the particular pupils in question. Since all of the relationships of geography point to a relatively small number of laws for their explanation, it is often imma- terial what relationships are considered, so long as the basal conception is gained. Tims, for ex- ample, the slow uplift of the continental margin in South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, has caused a retreat of the sea-water and a consequent shal- lowing of the embayments, which otherwise might have afforded good natural harbors. Occasionally a downward oscillation in some locality, as at Mobile, Alabama, has preserved an advantageous EMPHASIS IN TEACHING 289 harbor; but this phenomenon on the coasts of Maine and Norway has drowned the river-mouths and converted the continental margins into typical horded coasts. The same physiographic process lifted the Colorado Plateau and, by increasing the difference between land and sea levels, established conditions which favored rapid vertical corrasion by streams, resulting in the formation of canons so gigantic and wonderful that the mind of man views with amazement the stupendous work of Nature. Conceptions of this bind need never be memo- rized, need not be drilled upon or reduced to particular form. They are great truths, and, once fully conceived, become nuclei of important apper- ceptive systems. There is no danger that too much thinking, inter- preting, explaining, and relating will be at- tempted by pupils in geography. It is in work of this kind that growth and development occur. Grammar school geography should lend itself largely to this explanatory and rational phase. Do not raise the objection that such conceptions are too difficult — that pupils cannot think! The essence of all good teaching is found in the ability to make pupils think. Geography contains rela- tively little of form-value, relatively much of thought-value. But the ideas and conceptions are so pertinent, so significant, and so individually serviceable and explanatory, that they establish a pre-eminence among intellectual acquisitions. 290 TUB TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY SUGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS. 1. History lias a geographical basis. Literature, also, may involve the geographical. ". In connection with the study of Gloucester, Massachusetts, as a fishing station, read "Skipper Ireson 's Ride"; in connec- tion with Mobile, read "The Bay Eight"; in connection with Sebastopol, Crimea, read "The Charge of the Light Brigade, ' ' etc. 3. Suggest several good drill-exercises for geography. 4. To emphasize everything, means no emphasis at all. Dis- criminate sharply between the important and essential, and that which is interesting only. 5. How often in your daily experience do you find it advan- tageous to know that Mt. Kilimanjaro is 19,000 ft. high? What value would you assign to this fact? BIBLIOGRAPHY. Tarr, "Whitbeek, Genthe, and Jefferson — "Results to be Expected from a School Course in Geography," Journal of Gcog., April, 190.1. Redway, J. W.— "Final Results in the Study of Geography," Journal of Geog., Dec., 1904. Emerson, Philip — "Results of an Elementary Course in Geog- raphy,'' Journal of Geog., Dec, 1904. Farnham, A. W. — "What a Child Should Know of Geography :it the F'hid of II is Grade Course," Journal of Geog., Nov., 1904. APPENDIX. Bibliography of the Pedagogy of Geography. Brigham, A. P., "Physical Geography in Secon- dary Schools," Proe. N. E. A., 1897. Brigham, .V. P., "The New Geography," Popular Science Monthly, Vol. 4-S. Bryce, James, " Importance of Geography in Edu- cation," Geographical Teacher, Vol. I, p. 4!). Chamberlain, J. F., "Geography as a Basis of Correlation," Bulletin of the American Bu- reau of Geography, Vol. I. Chamber] in, T. C. — lie port of Geographical Con- ference. American Book Co. Collie G. L., "Physiography in the Schools." Bul- letin of the American Bureau of Geography, Vol. 1. Davis, W. M., Progress of Geography in the Schools, First Year Book, Herbart Society. Davis, \Y. M., "Teaching of Geography," Edu- cational Review, Vols. Ill and IV. Davis, W. M.. "The Rational Element in Geography," National Geographic Magazine, Vol. X. Frye. A. F., Jlnir to Teach Primary Geography, Giim & Co. 2'J1 )>VZ ZEE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY Frve, A. E., Brooks and Brook-Basins, Ginn & Co. Frye, A. E., The Child and Nature, Ginn & Co. Frye, A. E., Teachers' Manual of Geography, Ginn & Co. Geikie, A., The Teaching of Geography, The Mac- millan Co. Gibbs, David, "The Pedagogy of Geography," Pedagogical Seminary, March, 1907. Hall, G. Stanley, "Love and Study of Nature," Worcester Hist. Soc. Pam. 1898. Harris, W. T., "The Place of Geography in the Elementary School," Forum, Vol. 32., p. 759. Jefferson. M. S. W., "Outdoor Work in Geog- raphy," Proc. X. E. A., 1904. Keltic, J. Scott, "Function and Field of Geog- raphy," Smithsonian Report, 1897. Keltic, J. Scott, Applied Geography, Philip & Son, London. King, ('has. F., "Concrete Geography," Bui. of the Am. Bureau of Geography, Vol. T. King. ('has. F., Methods and +Lids in Geography, Lee & Shepard. Kummel, II. B., "Laboratory "Work in Physiog- raphy," Bui. of the Am. Bureau of Geog- raphy, Vol. I. McCormick, Henry, "What to Teach in Geog- raphy," Bui. of the Am. Bureau of Geog- raphy, Vol. T. McCormick, Henry, Suggestions on Teaching Geography, Public School Publishing Co. BIBLIOGRAPHY 293 MacKinder, IT. J., "Development of Geography Out of Nature Study," Educational Founda- tions, Vol. XVI, p. 194. McMurrV, C. A., Special Method in Geography, The Macmillan Co. Mill, IT. P., Geography in European Universities. Mill, II. 11., Hints to Teachers on Choice of Geo- graphical Hooks for Reference and Heading, Longmans, Green & Co. Miller, E. L, "Educational Value of Geography Study," Bui. of the Am. Bureau of Geog- raphy, Vol. I. Potter, .J. 11., "History of Methods of Instruction in Geography," Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. I, Pec. 1891.* Powell. J. AV ., "Geographical Instruction in Pub- lic Schools," Xat. Geog. Mag., Vol. I, p. 137. Kedway, J. AV., Reproduction of Geographic Forms, D. C. Heath £ Co. Pt (1 way. J. \\\, "Status of Geography Teaching," Educational Review, Vol. VII. Kedway, J. A\'.. The New Basis of Geography, Macmillan Co. Iiitter, Carl, Comparative Geography, Van Ant- werp. Bragg & Co. Hitter, Carl. Geographic Studies, American Book Co. (translation by W. L. Gage). Tarr, li. S.. "The Use of Physiography in Geog- raphy Study." Bui. of the Am. Bureau of Geography, Vol. I. Trotter. Spencer, "The Social Function of Geog- 294 THE TEACH I XG OF GE0GEAFI1Y raphy, " Fourth Annual Year Book, Herbart Society. Trotter, Spencer, Lessons in the New Geography, D. C. Heath & Co. "Ward, Effie May, "Geographic Interests of Chil- dren," Education, Vol. XVIII. Whitbeck, R. IT.. "Geography in the Elementary Schools," Proc. N. E. A., 1908, p. 971. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SUBJECT-MATTER. Adams, C. C, Commercial Geography, D. Apple- ton Co. Ball, P., The Cause of an Ice Age, D. Appleton Co. Ball, P., The Earth's Beginnings, D. Appleton Co. Beazley, C. K., The Dawn of Modern Geography, The Clarendon Press. Bonney, T. G., Ice Work, Past and Present. D. Ap- pleton Co. Bonney, T. G., Volcanoes, G. P. Putnam's Sons. Brigham, A. P., Geographic Influences in Amer- ican History, (Jinn & Co. Britton, X. L., Xorth American Trees, Henry Holt eV: Co. Carpenter, F. G., Geographical Headers, Amer- ican i >ook ( 'o. Chamberlain, J. F., How We Are Clothed, The Macmillan Co. Chamberlain, J. F., How We Are Fed, The Mac- millan < 'o. Chamberlain. .1. V .. How We Are Sheltered, The Macmillan Co. BIBLIOGRAPHY 295 Chamberlin & Salisbury, Geology, ilcnry Ilolt & Co. Chase and Cloe, Stories of Industry, Vols. I and I T, Educational Publishing Co. Channing & Lansing, Story of the (treat Lakes, The Macmillan Co. Chisholm, C. G., Commercial Geography, Long- mans, Green cV: Co. Cobbold, R. P., Innermost Asia, The Macmillan Co. Coe, Fannie E., Our American Neighbors, Silver, Burdette & Co. Conway, \V. M., The Alps, The Macmillan Co. Cook, Joel, America, Picturesque and Descriptive, John C. Winston Co. Dall, AV. JL, Alaska and Its Resources, Lee & Shepard. Darwin, Charles, Corals and Coral Islands, Dodd, Mead & Co. Davis, \\ . M., Elementary Meteorology, Ginn & ( 'o. Davis, \V. M., Elementary Physical Geography, Ginn & Co. Dawson, AY. H., German Life in Town and Country, G. P. Putnam's Sons. Dexter & Garlick, Object Lessons in Geography, Longmans, Green & Co. De AYindt, IP. Through Savage Europe, J. B. Lippincott. Dodge, R. E., A Reader in Physical Geography, Longmans, Green & Co. Dryer, C. R., Physical Geography, American Book Co. Dutton, C. I' 1 ... Earthquakes, G. P. Putnam's Sons. 296 TEE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY Edwards, W. S., Into the Yukon, Jennings & Graham. Edwards, W. S., On the Mexican Highlands, Jennings & Graham. Edwards, W. S., Through Scandinavia to Moscow, Jennings & Graham. Fairbanks, II. W., Practical Physiography, Allyn & Bacon. Fairbanks, II. W., Rocks and Minerals, Educa- tional Pub. Co. Ford, I. X., Tropical America, Scribners. Foster, J. W., A Century of American Diplomacy, Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Freeman, E. A., Historical Geography of Europe, Longmans, Green & Co. Fricker, C. F., Antarctic Regions, The Macmil- lan Co. Frye, A. E., Child and Nature, Hyde Park Pub- lishing Co. Frye, A. E., Geography and Sand Modeling, Bay State Pub. Co. Gannett, Garrison, and Houston, Commercial Geography, American Book Co. Geikie, A., Geography of the British Isles, The Maemillan Co. Geikie, A., Outline of Field Geology, The Mac- millan Co. George, II. I>., The Relations of Geography ind History, Silver, Burdette & Co. Gifford, J. (,'., Practical Forestry. BIBLIOGRAPHY 297 Gilbert and Brigham, Introduction to Physical Geography, L). Appleton Co. Green, Homer, Coal and Cool Mines, Houghton, Mifflin & Go. Green, S. B., Principles of American Forestry, John Wiley & Sons. Grosvenor, G. II., Scenes From. Every Land, Na- tional Geographic Society, Washington, D. C. Guyot, Arnold, Earth and Man, Charles Scribner's Sons. Heilprin, Arnold, Distribution of Animals, I). Appleton Go. Heilprin, A., The Earth and Its Story, Silver, Bur- dette & Co. Henry. A. J., Climatology of the United States, l'. S. Weather Bureau. Herbertson, A. J. and P. I)., Descriptive Geogra- phy From Original Sources, Central and SoutJi America, The Macmillan Co. Herbertson, A. J. and F. I)., Man and His Work, The Macmillan Co. Hickson, S. J., The Fauna of the Deep Sea, I). Ap- pleton Co. Iligginson, T. W., Tales of the Enchanted Isles of the Atlantic, The Macmillan Co. Hill, G. W., Planetary Motion, G. P. Putnam's Sons. Ilornaday, W. T., American Natural History, ( 'has. Scribner's Sons. Huntington, P., The Pulse of Asia, Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 298 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY Jacobs, J., Story of Geographical Discovery, D. Appleton Co. Johnson, C, The Isle of the Shamrock, Harper & Bros. Johnson, C, The Land of Heather, The Macmil- lan Co. Jordan, David Starr, Fishes, Henry Holt & Co. Jordan, David Starr, Science Sketches. Kellogg, V. L., American Insects, Henry Holt & Co. Kellogg, V. L., Australia and the Islands of the Sea, Silver, Burdette & Co. Keltie, J. S., Ed. Statesman's Year Book, The Macmillan Co. Lankester, E. Ray, Extinct Animals, Henrv Holt & Co. Lankester, E. Ray, The Kingdom of Man, Henry Holt & Co. Le Conte, Jos., Compend of Geography, American Book Co. Leete, C. H., Exercises in Geography, Longmans, Green & Co. Lloyd, A., Everyday in Japan, Cassell & Co. Lockyer, J. N., The Movements of the Earth, The Macmillan Co. Lncas, F. A., Animals Before Man in North America, D. Appleton Co. MoMurry, C. A., Larger Type Studies in United States Geography, The Macmillan Co. McMurry, C. A., 'Type Studies from United States Geography, The Macmillan Co. BIBLIOGRAPHY 299 MacFarlane, Jos., An American Geological Rail- way Guide, I). Appleton ( !o. Maury, M. F., and Simonds, F. W., Physical Geog- raphy, American Book Co. Mendenhall, C. T., The Measurement of the Earth, G. P. Putnam's Sons. Merrill, G. P., Rocks, Rock-Weathering and Sods, The Macmillan Co. Merrimau, II. C, Life Areas of North America, G. I*. Putnam's Sons. Merrimau, II. C, Mammals of the Adirondack' Region, Henry Holt & Co. Merrimau, H. C, Wild Mammals, Henry Holt & Co. Mill, Hugh P., The New International Geography. Milne, J., Earthquakes, D. Appleton Co. Moore, Geo. T., Seedless Plants, Henry Holt & Co. Morgan, A., Elementary Physiography, Long- mans, Green & Co. Muir. John, Mountains of California, Century Co. Newell, F. II., Irrigation in the United States, Thomas Y. Crowell. Nicholson, II. A., The Ancient Life History of the Earth, 1). Appleton Co. Osborn, C. S., The Andean Land, A. C. McClurg & Co. Palmer, F. II. E., Russian Life in Town and Country, G. P. Put nam's Sons. Patton, J. H., Natural Resources of the United States, D. Appleton Co. Peary, R. E., Nearest the Pole, Doubleday, Page & Co. 300 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY Perry, Mason & Co.- — The Companion Series: Our Country: East. Our Country: West. By Land and Sea. Talks About Animals. Northern Europe. Under Sunny Skies. Toward the Rising Sun. Pinehot, Gifford, Primer of Forestry, Depart- ment of Agriculture. Powell, J. TV., Canons of the Colorado, Flood & Vincent. Powell, J. TV, and Others, Physiography of the United States, American Book Co. Powell, J. TV, The Arid Region, United States Geological Survey. Rectus, Elisee, Ocean, Atmosphere, and Life, Harper & Bros. Reclus, Elisee. The Earth and Its Inhabitants, Harper & Bros. Redway, J. TV., Commercial Geography, Charles Scribner's Sons. Redway, J. TV., Physical Geography, Chas. Scrib- ner's Sons. Redway, J. TV., Physical Geography of the Mis- sissippi River, J). C. Heath & Co. Redway. J. TV., The New Basis of Geography, The TIacmillan Co. Bitter, Carl, Comparative Geography, American Book Co. Rocheleau, TV. F., Great American Industries, Minerals, A. Flanagan Co. BIBLIOGRAPHY 301 Roclieleau, \Y. P., (treat American Industries, Manufactures, A. Flanagan Co. Russell, I. C, Glaciers of Xortli America, Ginn & Co. Russell, I. C, Lakes of Xorth America, Ginn & Co. Russell, I. C, Xortli America, I ). Appleton Co. Russell, 1. C, ifrrers 0/ Xorf/i Amer'ua, (J. P. Put- nam's Sons. Salisbury. II. I).. Physiography for High Schools, Henry Holt & Co. Slialer, X. S., Aspects of the Earth, ('has. Scrib- ner's Sons. Slialer, X. S., First Book in Geology, 1). C. Heath lV: Co. Slialer, X. S., Xature and Man in Xortli America, Cbas. Seribner's Sons. Slialer. X. S., Outlines of the Earth's History, ('has. Seribner's Sons. Slialer, X". S., Sea and Laud, Chas. Seribner's Sous. Slialer, X". S., Story of Our Continent, Chas. Seribner's Sons. Slialer, X. S., United States of America, 2 Vols., ( 'has. Seribner's Sons. Shaw. E. R., Big People and Little People of Other Lands, American Book Co. Shinn. C. II., The Story of the Mine, D. Apple- ton Oo. Skinner. R. P.. Ahyssinia of Today, Longmans, ( Ireen & ( 'o. Starr. Frederic, Strange Peoples, Harper & Bros. 302 THE TEACHING OE GEOGEAPEY Tarr, B, 8., Economic Geology, The Macmillan Cc Tarr, B. S., Elementary Geology, The Macmil- lan Co. Tarr, E. S., First Book in Physical Geography. The Macmillan Co. Tarr. E. S., Physical Geography of New York State, The Macmillan Co. Tarr and McMurry, Europe and Other Continents, The Macmillan Co. Tarr and McMurry, North America, The Macmil- lan Co. Tarr and McMurry, The Home Geography, The Macmillan Co. Taylor, Bayard. Boys of Other Countries, G. P. Putnam's Sons. Thornton, J., A Primary Physical Geography, Longmans, Green & Co. Thornton, J., Elementary Physiography, Long- mans, Green & Co. Thwaites, E. G., Historic Waterways, A. C. Mc- Clurg & Co. Thwaites, E. G., Racing Mountain Explorations, I). Appleton Co. Trotter, Spencer, Lessons in the New Geography, I). C. Heath & Co. Tyndall, J., Essays on the Floating Matter in Air, I). Appleton Co. Tyndall, J., Forms of Water, Clouds, Rivers, Glaciers, D. Appleton C<>. Verne, J., Exploration of the World, Chas. Scrib- ner's Sons. BIBLIOGRAPHY 303 Vincent, F., Actual Africa, or the Coming Conti- nent, I). Appleton Co. Waldo, F., Elementary Meteorology, American Book Co. Wallace, Alfred 11., Island Life, The Macmillan Co. Wallace, Alfred R., Travels in the Malay Archi- pelago, The Macmillan Co. Ward, R. D., Practical Exercises in Meteorology, Ginn & Co. White, Richard Grant, England Within and Without, Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Young, L., Heal Hawaii, Doubleday & McClure Co. A SMALL BUT VALUABLE GEOGRAPHICAL LIBRARY YOU RURAL SCHOOLS. 1. A New International Geography, Mill, D. Appleton $3.50 2. Commercial Raw Materials, Toothaker, Ginn & Co 1.25 3. A New Sdiool Atlas, Longman, Longmans, Green & Co.. . 1.50 4. Geographical Influences in American History, Brigham, ( !inn & Co 1.25 5. Starland, Ball, The Cassell Co 1.00 6. A Reader of Physical Geography, Dodge, Longmans, Green & Co 70 7. One Standard Commercial Geography selected from the following list : (a) Commercial Geography, Adams, D. Appleton 1.10 (1)) Geography of Commerce, Trotter, Macmillan Co.... 1. 10 (<•) Commercial Geography, Redway, Charles Scribners.. 1.25 (d) Handbook of Commercial Geography, Chisholm, Longmans, Green & Co 4.30 (e) Geography of Commerce and Industry, Rocheleau, Educational Publishing Co 1.00 S. One set of Geographical Readers chosen from the fol- lowing: .304 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY (a) Carpenter, American Book Co.: North America 60 South America GO Europe 70 Asia GO Australia, Our Colonies and Other Islands of the Sea 60 Africa 60 Industrial Header, Foods 60 (b) The World and Its People, Silver, Burdette & Co.: Our Own Country 50 Our American Neighbors GO Modern Europe GO Life in Asia GO Views in Africa 72 Australia and the Islands of the Sea G8 Hawaii and Its People G8 South A merican Republics GO (c) Picturesque Geographical Readers — Charles F. King, Lee & Shepard: Home and School 58 This Continent of Ours 83 The Land We Live In, Part I 64 The Land We Live In, Part II G4 The Land We Live In, Part III 64 i). How We Are Clothed, How We Are Sheltered, and How We Are Fed, Chamberlain, 3 Vols., ]\Iaciiiillan Co, each. .40 10. Home Geography, Fairbanks, Educational Publishing Co. .00 11. About the Weather, Harrington, D. Appleton Co 05 A MAP EQUIPMENT FOR A RURAL SCHOOL. Xo school, however small, should have less than the following equipment of maps: 1. World Mercator's Projection. 2. Eastern and Western Hemispheres. o. United States, Canada and Mexico. 4. Eurasia. BIBLIOGRAPHY 305 5. North America and South America. 6. State Map. 7. A Globe of some description. The following more complete map equipment for a rural school can be had so cheaply that there seems to be little excuse for not having it rather than the one just suggested. 1. "World Mercator's Projection. 2. Eastern and Western Hemispheres. 3. United States, Canada and Mexico. 4. Europe. 5. Asia. 6. Africa. 7. North America. 8. South America. 9. State Map. 10. A Globe of some description. The above maps, with the exception of the state map, can be secured in a single spring-roller oak case from the following companies, namely: Atlas School Supply Co., 315 Wabash Ave., Chicago 111. — Johnston Maps $12.50 A. Flanagan Co., 2GS Wabash Ave., Chi- cago. 111. — Johnston Maps 12.50 Hall & MeCreary, 261 Wabash Ave., Chi- cago, 111. — .Johnston Maps 12.50 M, A. Donolme & Co., 407 Dearborn St., ( Mii- casro, ill.— lied Line Series 10.00 306 THE TEACHING OE GEOGRAPHY W. M. Welch & Co., 179 Illinois St., Chi- cago, J II 11.00 Any of the above maps may be purchased singly as follows : A. C. McClurg lV: Co., Wabash Ave. and Adams St., Chicago $ 1.70 W. M. Welch & Co., 179 Illinois St.. Chicago 2.00 M. A. Donahue & Co., 407 Dearborn St., Chicago 2.25 Atlas School Supply Co., 315 Wabash Ave., Chicago 2.00 A. Flanagan & Co., 268 Wabash Ave., Chi- cago 2.00 J. L. Hammett Co., 250 Devonshire St., Boston, Mass 2.33 Rand, McNally & Co., Chicago, 111. (Kiep- ert's Imported) 0.00 Hall & Mc< 'reary, 201 Wabash Ave, Chicago 2.00 Excellent state maps may be secured from almost any of the above companies at about $2.00 each. IDEAL MAP EQUIPMENT FOR A RURAL SCHOOL. 1. One set of eight up-to-date authentic political maps showing latest geographic discoveries and political changes. Sec lisl and prices given in (i Minimum Equipment for Rural Schools." 1 2. A blackboard outline map of Enitod States. A. II. Andrews & Co., 178 Wabash Ave., Chicairo $ 2.00 BIBLIOGRAPHY 30? A. Flanagan & Co 1 .50 A. ('. McClurg & Co. (in Diamond roller case) 4.50 J. L. Hammett lV Co. (in roller case) 3.75 3 One physical wall map of North America and one of Europe. Rand, McNally & Co. (imported), Kiepert's $ 9.00 Rand, McNally & Co. (imported), Sydow-llabeniclit 15.00 4. One suspension globe. Necessary, as hemi- sphere maps distort directions, divide oceans and sever ocean cables, ocean currents, iso- therms, etc. The Sturgis Co., 1030 Warren Ave., Chicago, 111. IS 1 , / [ 1L globe $1(5.75 Rand, McNally & Co. 181 r, i n . oi () i J0 18.00 12 in. globe 6.25 A. Flanagan & Co. 12 in. globe 8.00 Hall & McCreary. IS in. globe 16.00 A. C. McClurg & Co. 1 S in. globe 1 ?.o' ' 5. One large scale indexed state ma]). Rand, McXaliy & Co. (in Diamond case) $4.80 (I. Reversible map, 1". S. on one side, the World on the other. Shows railroads, large cities, steamship and cable lines and ocean currents. A. ('. McClurg ifc: Co $1.80 308 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY 7. One blackboard outline map of the state. A. Flanagan & Co $1.50 8. One Politico-Relief Map of United States (a model). Atlas School Supply Co $17.00 EXCELLENT EQUIPMENT EOE A VILLAGE GRADED SCHOOL. All that is included in an ideal equipment for a rural school with the following additions: 1. A physical map of each of the continents, either Kiepert's or Sydow-IIabenicht's. 2. One complete set of Politico-Relief maps (models), [is follows: 1. North America. 2. South America. 3. Europe. 4. Asia. 5. Africa. G. United States. 7. World Mercator's Projection. Atlas School Supply Co '. $100.00 Central School Supply House, Chicago. . . . 100.00 Should the very best be desired, secure the E. E, Howell Series, Washington, I). C. LANTERNS AXD LANTERN SLTDES. Bausch & Lomb Optical Company, Rochester, N.Y. The Buckeye Co., Cleveland, Ohio. The Mackintosh Stereoptieon Co., Randolph St., Chicago, 111. T. IT. McAllister Co., 40 Nassau St., New York, N. Y. BIBLIOGRAPHY 309 Williams, Brown & Earle, Philadelphia, Pa. The Badger Stereopticon Co., Platteville, Wis. Moore, Bond & Co., 106 Franklin St., Chicago, 111. PICTURES. The Nature Study Publishing Co., 521 Wabash Ave., Chicago, 111. MODELING MATERIALS. J. L. Ilammett, 110 West 14th St., New York. STEREOSCOPIC VIEWS. Keystone View Co., Meadville, Pa. Underwood & Underwood, New York City. The H. C. White Co., 770 Monon Bldg., Chicago. GENERAL INDEX, Adjustment te environment, 24 ; Davis, W. M., quoted, 21; 30; 28. 1 lit; ; (in aims of geography, .si. Adjustments, in geography, place, Deductive lesson, 15(5-15!). 87-9; economic, 80-00; polit- Descriptive geography, 44-4G. ical or social, ill. De Veide, II. S.. quoted on value Agassiz, old lake of, 51 ; S8. of magazine articles, 1ST. Agriculture, 55. Diastrophism discussed, 128-130. Aims of geography, 80-9.1 ; as de- Dodge, H. K., quoted on aims in lined by educators, 80-80; as Geography, 82; on regional adjustment to environment, SO- geography, It;.'!. ill; correlative aims, 91-92; Drainage canal an illustration of practical aims. 92; culture aim, human control. 35. 92-93. Dril'tless area, 74-70. Alabama, soils of, 31. Alluvial soils, 204-205. Economic adjustment. 89-90. Altitude as control, :;:'.. Economics involved in geography, Andrews, A. W., quoted on use of 102-105. mails, 251. Emphasis, necessity of. 274-289; Anticline in Illinois. 7-'!. on pronunciation and spelling, Appreciation of geography, lack 275-277; on meaning of names, of, 20. 277-279; on geographical delini- Arguments in favor of a regional lions, 279-2.S1 ; on Ideational treatment. 103-104. facts and statistics. 2S1-2S4 ; Assignments, unpurposeful, 173; danger of over-emphasis. 284- purposeful, li 1-175; illustra- 287; emphasis on rational tive, 1 T * '» 177; text assign- phase, 287-2S9. nients, 181. Excursions, school, 208-214; why Astronomy, as related to geogra- valuable, 209; suggestive in- phy, 57. dustrial excursions, 'Jin; field Atmosphere as a control, 32. excursions, 211-211; 288. Barometer, how to make. 218-219. Field work. 211 ; preparation for, liiologv, as related to geography, 212; suggestive Held studies, 54-55. 213-211. Blue Grass Region. 2 1. Fiske, John, reference to, 32; Bryce, .lame-, quoted, 50; on lop. aims of geography, Sl-83. Formalism in education, reaction againsl. lt','.)-l 70 ; bow avoided, Caldwell, Otis \\\. quoted on ISO; 205. nature study values, 4S-1P. Fox river, sub-glacial channel, Causal element in organization. 131. lOs-10'.t. Cause and eii'eei in geography, 23. Galveston catastrophe, .".2. Civilization, its test. 111. Generalization, importance of to Climatic provinces. 29. teacher, 131-132 ; 100-171. Controls, defined. 35; tempera- Geography, as a science, 19; a lure as, 29; harriers as. 33; study of relationships, 19-21; moisture as. :;o ; soil as. ::i. lis inherent interest, 20; its Coin law of England. 117 lis. breadth of scope. -j\ • its rich- Correlative aim- of geography, 01. ness, LI 1 ; comprehensive treat- Cotton industry of Alabama. 31. nieiit includes. 22; a science, Culture aim of geography, 92-03. L'.; ; concerned with controls, cyeio, 'pin.. i::i. ;;r, : with nature study, 41; its i : ues, |I2. manifoldness, 52; as applied 310 INDEX 311 science, 55; central position in of corn ami wheat states, 140- group of sciences, 58 ; cannot 1 13 ; on use of pictures, 195- ignoro science, 59-00; relation 190. to history, 07-78 ; as a prepa- Life as a response to environing ration for citizenship, 101. conditions, 24. Geographic materials, the test of, Loess soils, 207-269. 120. Geographic influence in history, Magazines, use of in geography, 03-00; case of New England, is.J-l'.ll ; whv valuable, 184- 0«>-i2; case of Ea hallo, <_-<8. 130 ; kinds of. Geology, its relation to geogra- 2n7 . dl . ;nvill ^ „,. 238 . c . s'. P». v ' •'•'• ,,, .. ,o^-,,^ <<■ S-. 2:;'.t ; bibliography of. Government publications, 189-190. .",04-309 Gradation, the process discussed, McMurry,' C. A., geography the 131-1. >L. mother studv, 55. Merriam, ('. liart, quoted, 29. Harris, W. T., on nature of geog- Meteorology, its relation to geog- raphy, 21; on aims of geogra- raphy, 54. phy 'teaching. 82-8.">. Method in geography, a better, Ilelior, instructions for making, 137-143; basis of, 138; Im- 219; exercises with, 221-22.'!. provement of, 138 ; empirical, Elistorv, as related to geography, 139-140; inductive, 145-153; 03-78; 117-11!!. deductive. 155-15:). Hubbard, G. i>.. quoted on goo- Minneapolis, how located, 34. graphic' influence on human Models, 252-2(50 ; paper pulp. affairs. 6:'.. 253; salt and flour, 254-255; Human control of geographic fac- sand. 250; plasticine, 250-257; tors. .",1. chalk and pencil. 258-259. Human development in tropical Moisture adaptations in plants, regions. 111-112; in Arctic re- :;o ; nomadic habits of people, .uions, 112-11:'.; in temperate a moisture response, 31. regions, 113-114. Moisture of corn and wheat Human geography. 95-106; do- states, 140-143. lined, '.m; ; illustrations of, 97- Mountains as barriers, 34. Illinois farmer. 119. Nature studv. teachers' attitude toward. 41-4: Observational geography Illinois river, i_. Xew educational situation, 18. Indiana. .»_. Xew England, industries deter Induct m^ lesson in geography, milu . d 1)y physiography, 05-72 Industrial excursions, 208-209 preparation for. 210; subse- " "cussed '"3'M quent us,, of. 211. 0hi ',,.' ; Vaphv"'27 Industrial history. 110-119; in Organic controls 32. New England. 05-72 ; of La Organization of 'geographic mate- •ville. ,1-,,: of England, Hi- riaN 3 c,«>- IT 1 lis; of Belgium 119. ^ Organizing principle of geogra phy. 10 Outline maps. 2 10. Industries, how determined, 74- 7s ; 1 15 : how localized. 115. Influence of climate on people, 29. influence, geographic, in history, i» anamfl cnna l as illustration of ''••-O.i. man's control over environ- ment, 35. Passive work by pupils. 174. 1 '. da .'•:: v , if geography, bibli< ig- raphy.' 291-3o}, I'hases of nongraphic study. 38- 5ii. i bservat iona !. 39 ; repro- siuita t ive. 12 : il. 'script ive. t t ; :■■: ■ : inal . 10 : social, is. I'hvsies, its relation to geography, e t. IMiysi igra pli : ; •: --■■ -. 1 27-132, .Yohiison, Willis E.. quoted on school cabinets, 207. Kentuck' r. 24. Km w led portan I. a Saile ire of environment , eil v of. 7-".. i Hi- Less,. n. inductive. 1 19-153 : de- duet iv ., 155-159; on moist lire '312 INDEX Pictures, value, 192-195; how to 270-271; illustrative exercises, use, 195 ; stereographs, 199 ; 271-272. storeopticon, 200. Spencer, Herbert, quoted on life, Place adjustment in geography, 114. 87-89. Starved Rock, 74; 75; 77. Plant life, the distribution of, 29. Statistics, graphic representation, Plateau, as a control, 33. 248-250. Platteville, Wisconsin, 70. St. Paul, how located, 150-151. Portland cement works of La Salle, 75. Teacher's, opportunity in geog- Principles, value of, 132. raphy, 121-122; .reparation, Problem, The. value of in teach- 125-1.".5; knowledge, 127-135. ing, 140; solution of type, 140- Temperature controls, 29. 14.'5. Temperature, influence Of. range Rain gauge. 221. of, 111. Rainfall, 232; as a control. 30. Tendency, modern education, 17. Rational element of geography, Text hooks, use ( ,f. 172-1M ; had 107-168. use of. 17.".; what constitutes Rational geography. 40-48. good use of, 174-175; illustra- Re-creation of environment. 28. tion of good use, 177-178; Regional geography. 100-104; ad- summary, 181. vantages of, 1 (;;!-! 04. Topographic controls, 33. Relations of animals and plants, nn. Unit of geography study, 100. Relation, of geography to sci- Use of hooks in the recitation, ences. 52-01; 125-120 ; shown 180. by diagram, 57 ; of geography *.se of maps and models. 235-200. to history. 03-78. * Use of text hooks, 172-181. Representative geography, 42-44. Response defined, 35, Value, of magazine articles in Hocks, sedimentary, 202; result- teaching geography, 183-191; ing soils. 203-20 1. of pictures in teaching geog- Russell, 1. C, reference to, 2:). raphy. 102-200. Value of observational geography, Salisbury, p. I)., quoted on use of 40 - text, 170. Vulcanism discussed, 130-131. School atlas, how to use. 244-240. Wallace, Alfred Russell, quoted, School museum, 202-208; how 34. make, 204 ; suggestive mate- Washington, rainfall in 30 rials. 205-200; value of, 207; Weather record "3" Johnson quoted on, 207. Weather study, 217-233' su- Sky state of, 231. jested helps.' 217-21N- anpara- fcoclal control over environment, tits suggested. 210-220 ; illus c , ". ■, , . trative exercises on atmospheric Bocia geography. 100-100 pressure, 22:;: on convection Social phase of geography, 20; currents, 223-225; on cyclonic <■• '.,•''• storms. 227-228 ; on heal en- Sod, as a control, 31; 201-272- ergy -30 ?n^tl l0 fl"! :k % ;U; ° f ^ ( ; W ™b«'ck, , { . n „ quoted on aims J-.nglan_d, 08 ; of corn belt, in geography, 83. 200-20, ; of Mississippi delta, Wind direction's near lows. 22" -, r '•'■. , . . Wind, effects on vegetation, 32; sons, knowledge of. necessary to winds on plateaus :;i t«;acher, 201; alluvial, 204; Wind velocities, 231 glacial drift. 2*;.-,; j (l e ss , 207; Winds, westerlies, 141. lava, 200; (lements of fertility r,- ~,. x> d u i'mui}, Zinc mines, 1 0. K.r.ri. This book is DUE on the last date stamped below Mfij $ 1935 JUN 1 4 1WS m 2 4 i960 1 •' ' St; «eCD MLD *AR 1 3 t964 ¥ JIM 7 ;pl A.-r:' /nil I. !) -10/1/ 'J, *A*f7fr UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY AA 000 131 135 6