LIB n *.RY JNIV 3ITY OF CAi FORNIA EARTH SCIENCES LIBRARY u THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESENTED BY PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID HANDBOOK OP GEOLOGICAL TERMS " In this, as in every other field of labour, no man can put aside the curse pro- nounced on him that by the sweat of his brow he shall reap his harvest. Before he can reach that elevation from whence he may look down upon and comprehend the mysteries of the natural world, his way is steep and toilsome, and he must read the records of creation in a strange, and to many minds a repulsive language, which, rejecting both the senses and the imagination, speaks only to the understanding. But when this language is once learned, it becomes a mighty instrument of thought, teaching us to link together the phenomena of past and future times ; and gives the mind a domination over many parts of the material world, by teaching it to comprehend the laws by which the actions of material things are governed." SEDGWICK'S Cambridge Discourse. HANDBOOK GEOLOGICAL TERMS GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY BY DAVID PAGE, F.K.8.E. F.G.S. AUTHOR OK ' TEXT-BOOKS OF OBOLOOY AND PHYSICAL GKOfJRAPHY,' ' PASF AND PRBSBNT I.IFB UP THE OI.OBE,' ' PHILOSOPHY OF OBOIXX3Y,' KTC. SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS EDINBURGH AND LONDON MDCCCLXV The Right of Translation is reserved 7=3 5- EARTH SCIENCES LIBRARY PREFACE SHOULD it be asked why I publish this volume, I answer, along with many others, Because I believe such a Handbook to be greatly needed ; and under this conviction have done my best, within moderate limits, to render it useful. Go where you will to the popular platform, the public lecture- room, or the private parlour and yon hear immense interest professed in the science of Geology ; but the profession, for the most part, accompanied by the regret that its " hard words and forbidding technicalities" should render it so difficult of acquirement. Now, while deprecating, in the strongest manner, the introduction of unnecessary terms, it is quite evident that every science must have its own tech- nicalities and modes of expression : new objects require new names, and new facts new phrases to express their relations. There is no avoiding this necessity in any progressive branch of human knowledge, and the only thing that can be done to lessen the difficulty next to the rigid exclusion of whatever seems superfluous is to explain these terms in brief and simple language. This I have endeavoured to do, chiefly with a view to the requirements of the general reader, at the M363286 PKEFACE. same time appending such details as might render the volume an acceptable Handbook of Reference to the student and professed Geologist. Thus the ordinary reader will generally find the information he requires in the first and second sen- tences of a definition ; what follows is addressed more espe- cially to the professional inquirer to the student, miner, engineer, architect, agriculturist, and others, who may have occasion to deal with geological facts, and yet who might not be inclined to turn up half-a-dozen volumes, or go through a course of geological readings, for an explanation of the term in question. Such is the aim and object of this " Handbook of Geolo- gical Terms." I lay claim to little more than the arrange- ment of the matter, which has been gleaned and sifted from many sources care having always been taken to present the science in its newest aspects, and to express its facts in the clearest and simplest language. Sensible of many imperfec- tions, I would respectfully solicit corrections from those who may generally approve of the work, in order that any subse- quent edition may be rendered more worthy of the Science whose truths we are labouring to establish a science which, whether intellectually or economically considered, stands second to none on the roll of human acquirements. D. P. GILMORE PLACE, EDINBURGH, August 1859. SECOND EDITION IN preparing this edition, alterations rendered necessary by the progress of the science have "been freely made, and the more important terms introduced by recent discovery ex- tensively inserted. To have inserted all or nearly all would have increased the volume beyond the limits of a " Hand- book," and merely cumbered its pages with names, a great proportion of which are avowedly provisional, and many even of doubtful validity. As a new feature, the leading techni- calities of Physical Geography have been given along with those of Geology the Author believing that the two sciences are inseparably associated, and that the readiest way to a comprehension of the world's past is through the study of its existing phenomena. August 1865. CONTENTS i. TABULAR SCHEMES OF THE CHEMICAL, MINERAL, LITHOLO- GICAL, AND VITAL ASPECTS OF THE GLOBE. II. DICTIONARY OF TERMS AND TECHNICALITIES EMPLOYED IN GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. III. EXPLANATION OF SPECIFIC APPELLATIONS MADE USE OF BY BRITISH AND FOREIGN PALEONTOLOGISTS. NOTE. " It is, indeed," says Agassiz, in his recent 'Essay on Classifica- tion,' "a very unfortunate tendency, which prevails now almost universally among naturalists, with reference to all kinds of groups, of whatever value they may be, from the branches down to the species, to separate at once from one another any types which exhibit marked differences, without even inquiring first whether these differences are of a kind that justifies such separations. In our systems, the quantitative element of differentiation prevails too exclusively over the qualitative. If such distinctions are introduced under well-sounding names, they are almost certain to be adopted ; as if science gained anything by concealing a difficulty under a Greek or Latin name, or was advanced by the additional burden of a new nomenclature. Another objectionable practice, prevailing quite as exten- sively also, consists in the change of names, or the modification of the extent and meaning of old ones, without the addition of new information or of new views. If this practice is not abandoned, it will necessarily end in making Natural History a mere matter of nomenclature, instead of fostering its higher philosophical character." Influenced by this opinion, I have adopted in the following tabulations such arrangements of the Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal kingdoms as have been sanctioned by our leading naturalists which appear to be most intelligible to the general reader and on which, indeed, the greater portion of the nomenclature of Geology and Palaeontology has been founded. CHEMICAL SCHEME, Exhibiting the so-called "Elementary Substances" in alphabetical order, with their symbols and chemical equivalents Hydrogen being taken as 1. Elements. Symbols. Equivalents. Aluminium Al 13.69 Antimony (Stibium) Sb 129.03 Arsenic As 75. Barium Ba 68.64 Bismuth Bi 70.95 Boron B 10.90 Bromine Br 78.26 Cadmium Cd 55.74 Caesium Cs 133. Calcium Ca 20. Carbon C 6. Ceritim Ce 46. Chlorine Cl 35.50 Chromium Cr 28.15 Cobalt Co 29.52 Copper (Cuprum) Cu 31.66 Didymium 48. Erbium Fluorine F 18.70 Glucinium or Beryllium Gl 26.50 Gold(^l*mim) Au 98.33 Hydrogen H 1. Ilmenium II Iodine I 126.36 Iridium Ir 98.68 Iron (Ferrum) Fe 28. Lanthanum Ln 48. Lead (Plumbum) Pb 103.56 Lithium Li 6.43 Magnesium Mg 12.67 Manganese Mn 27.67 Mercury (Hydrargyrum) Hg 100.07 Molybdenum '. Mo 47.88 Nickel Ni 29.57 Niobium Nb Nitrogen N 14. Norium No 11 CHEMICAL SCHEME. Elements. Symbols. E Phytophagous. Fam. 3. Phalangistidse Phalangers. / Fam. 4. Peramelidse Bandicoots. \ Fam. 5. Didelphidae Opossums. I Rapa- Fam. 6. Myrmecobiidse ... Banded Ant- Eaters. Tcious. Fam. 7. Dasyuridae Dasyures. Fossil Forms. AmphitJierium, Phascolotherium, Droma- therium, Thylacotherium, Triconodon, Plagiaulax, Micro- lestes, Amphilestes, Nototherium, Diprotodon, Zygomaturus, Thylacoleo ; and sub- fossil species of existing genera. Order II. MONOTREMATA. Fam. 1. Ornithorhyncidse. . Ornithorhynchus. Fam.2. Echidnidse Porcupine Ant- Eaters. AVES, OR BIRDS. There is no other zoological form so slenderly represented in geological times as the Birds. The footprints of Runners and Waders are thought to occur on the slabs of the Trias ; one doubtful portion of bone is said to have been found in the Upper Trias of America ; an imperfect skeleton has been recently discovered in the Oolites of Germany ; one questionable bone has been detected in the Chalk ; and comparatively few bones and frag- ments in the Tertiaries. It is only in Post-tertiary times that bird-remains bones and eggs occur in anything like notable abundance. Whatever the cause, the paucity of ornithic remains is undoubted ; and hence the merest resume of the orders will suffice for palseontological purposes : Order I. EAPTORES or Seizers. Remains of vulturine birds in the Tertiaries; Lithornis, <&c. Order II. INSESSORES or Perchers. Remains of crow-like birds in the Upper Tertiaries. Order III. SCANSORES or Climbers. Remains of woodpecker-like birds in the Tertiaries. Order IV. COLUMRffi or Pigeons. Remains of several genera in Post- tertiary and recent accumulations some, like the dodo, solitaire, &c., of gigantic proportions. Order V. RASORES or Scrapers. Remains of quail-like and pheasant- like birds in the Tertiaries. Order VI. CURSORES or Runners. Remains of ostrich-like birds in the Tertiaries ; and gigantic genera, dinornis, cepiornis, palap- teryx, &c., in the Post-tertiaries. Order VII. GRALLATORES or Waders. Remains of waders occur in some abundance in the Tertiaries, gastornis, halcyornis, &c. ; and footprints (Brontozoum) are thought to be impressed on flagstones of Triassic date. Order VIII. NATATORES or Swimmers. Remains of this order (ducks, gulls, auJcs, divers, &c. ) occur in the Tertiaries and Post- tertiaries in some abundance. 30 REPTILIA. (After Professor Owen's arrangement of 1859.) Order I. GANOCEPHALA (Head composed of enamelled bones). Fossil Forms. Archegosaurus, Anihrakerpeton, Pholidogaster, &c. Order II. LABYEINTHODONTIA (Labyrinthine-teeth). Fossil Forms. Labyrinthodon, Mastodonsaurus, Odontosaurus, Capitosaurus, Trematosaurus, Zygosaurus, Anthracosaurus, Baphetes, Bathygnathus, &c. Order III. ICHTHYOPTERTQIA (Fish-finned saurians). Fossil Form. Ichthyosaurus. Order IV. SAUROPTEBTGIA (Lizard-finned saurians). Fossil Forms. Plesiosaurus, Pliosaurus, Simosaurus, Pisto- saurus, Nothosaurus, Polyptychodon. Order V. ANOMODONTIA (Irregular-toothed). Fam. 1. Dicynodontia Dicynodon, Ptychognaihus. Fam. 2. Cryptodontia Oudenodon. Fam. 3. Gnathodontia Rhynchosaurus. Fossil Forms. As given in the preceding examples. Order VI. PTEROSATJRIA (Winged saurians). Fossil Forms. Pterodactylus, Rhamphorhynchus, Dimorphodon. 31 ANIMAL SCHEME. Order VII. THECODONTIA (Sheath or socket-toothed). Fossil Forms. Thecodontosauriis, Stagonolepis, Prot&rosaurus, Palceosaurus, Cladydon, Belodon, &c. Order VIII. DINOSAURIA (Terrible saurians). Fossil Forms. Iguanadon, Hylceosaurus (Herbivorous), Mega- losaurus, Regnosaurus (Carnivorous), Scelidosauriis. Order IX. CROCODILIA (Crocodiles). Sub-order 1. Amphicoelia Having bi-concave vertebrae. Fossil Forms. Teleosaurus, Mistriosaurus, Macrospondylus, Massospondylus, Pelagosaurus, Steneosaurus, Suchosaums, Gfoniopholis, Pcecilcepleura, &c. Sub-order 2. Opisthocoelia Having convexo-concave vertebrae. Fossil Forms. Cetiosaurus, Streptospondylus. Sub-order 3. Procoelia Having concavo-convex vertebrae. Fossil Forms. Species of the existing genera Crocodilus, Alli- gator, and Gavialis. Order X. LACEKTTLIA (Lizards). Fam. 1. Scincidse Skinks. Fam. 2. Chalcidsa Fam. 3. Lacertidje Lizards. Fam. 4. Teidse Ameivas. Fam. 5. Varanidae Varanas. Fam. 6. Iguanidae Iguanas. Fam. 7. Geckotidse Geckos. Fam. 8. Chamaeleonidse Chameleons. Fossil Forms. Telerpeton, Dendrerpeton, Hylerpeton, Hylono- mits, Leiodon, Macellodus, Lacerta, Coniosaurus, Dolicho- saurus, &c. Order XL OPHIDIA. Fam. 1. Crotalidae Eattlesnakes. Fam. 2. Viperidse Vipers. Fam. 3. Colubridse Snakes. Fam. 4. Hydrophidae Water-Snakes. Fam. 5. Dendrophidae Tree-Snakes. Fam. 6. Boidae Boas. Fossil Forms. Palceophis, Laophis. Paleryx; detached bones and eggs of undetermined genera apparently related to the water-snakes and pythons. 32 ANIMAL SCHEME. Order XII. CHELONIA. Fam. 1. Chelonidae Turtles Marine. Fam. 2. Tryonicidae Soft Tortoises Fluvial. Fam. 3. Emydidse Box Tortoises Marsh. Fam. 4. Testudinidae Land Tortoises Terrestrial. Fossil Forms. Colossockelys, Pleurosternon, Protemys, Platemys; fossil footprints, as Chelichnus, &c. ; and species of the exist- ing genera Chelone, Testudo, Tryonyx, and Emys. Order XIII. BATEACHIA OR AMPHIBIA. Sub-order I. APODA. Fam. 1. Cceciliidae Blindworms. Fam. 2. Lepidotidse Lepidosiren. Sub-order II. UEODELA. Fam. 1. Proteidse Proteus. Fam. 2. Sirenidse Sirens. Fam. 3. Amphiumidae Amphiuma. Fam. 4. Salamandridae Tritons. Fossil Forms. Parabatrachus, Palceophrynos, Andrias, &c. Sub-order III. ANURA. Fam. 1. Pipidse Surinam Toads. Fam. 2. Bufonidse Toads. Fam. 3. Ranidae Frogs. Sub-fam. Hylinesa Tree-Frogs. Fossil Forms. Raniceps; Batrachopus, Sauropus, and other frog-like footprints. 33 PISCES, OR FISHES. (Chiefly from Morris's Catalogue of British Fossils, as modified from Miiller and Owen.) Order I. DERMOPTERI. [Cycloidei, Agass.] Sub-order I. Pharyngobranchii, seu Cirrhostomi. Fam. 1. Amphioxidse Lancelet. Sub-order II. Marsipobranchii. [Cyclostomi, Cuv.] Fam. 1. Myxinidae.... Myxine. Fam. 2. Petromyzontidae Lamprey. Order II. MALACOPTERI (Physostomi, Miiller). [Cycloidei, Agass.] Sub-order I. M. apodes. Fam. 1. Symbranchidse Cuchia. Fam. 2. Mursenidae Eel. Fam. 3. Gymnotidae Gymnotus. Sub-order II. M. abdominales. Fam. 1. Heteropygii Amblyopsis. Fam. 2. Clupeidae Herring. Fam. 3. Salmonidse Salmon. Fam. 4. Scopelidae Saurus. Fam. 5. Characinidse Myletes. Fam. 6. Galaxidse Galaxias. Fam. 7. Esocidse Pike. Fam. 8. Mormyridae Mormyrus. Fam. 9. Cyprinodontidae Umber. Fam. 10. Cyprinidae Carp. Fam. 11. Siluridae Sheat-fish. Order III. PHARYNGOGNATHI (Muller). [Cycloidei et Ctenoidei, Agass.] Sub-order I. Ph. malacopterygii. Fam. 1. Scomber-esocidae Saury-Pike. Sub-order II. Ph. acanthopterygii. Fam. 1. Chromidae Chromis. Fan:. 2. Cycloabridas Wrasse. Fam. 3. Ctenolabridse Pomacentrus. 34 ANIMAL SCHEME. Order IV. ANACANTHINI (Miiller). [Cycloidei et Ctenoidei, Agass.] Sub-order I. A. apodes. Fam. 1. Ophididae Ophidium. Sub-order II. A. thoracica. Fam. 1. Gadidae Cod. Fam. 2. Pluronectidae Plaice. Order V. ACANTHOPTERI (Miiller). [Cycloidei et Ctenoidei, Agass.] Fam. 1. Percidae Perch. Fam. 2. Sclerogenidse Gurnard. Fam. 3. Sparidae Sparus. Fam. 4. Sciaenidae Maigre. Fam. 5. Labyrinthobranchii Anabas. Fam. 6. Mugilidae Mullet. Fam. 7. Notacanthidae Notacanth. Fam. 8. Scomberidae Mackerel. Fam. 9. Squammipennes Chaetodon. * Fam. 10. Taeniodei Riband-fish. Fam. 11. Theutyidaa Lancet-fish. Fam. 12. Fistularidae Pipe-mouth. Fam. 13. Gobiidae Goby. Fam. 14. Blenniidse Wolf-fish. Fam. 15. Lophiidse Angler. Order VI. PLECTOGNATHI (Cuvier). [Ganoidei, Agass.] Fam. 1. Balistini File-fish. Fam. 2. Ostraciontidae Trunk-fish. Fam. 3. Gymnodontidae Globe-fish. Order VII. LoPHOERANCmi(Cuvier). [Ganoidei, Agass.] Fam. 1 . Hippocampidae Sea-horse. Fam. 2. Syngnathidae Pipe-fish. Order VIII. GANOIDEI, seu Goniolepidoti (Agass.; as restricted by Miiller). Fam. 1. Salamandroidei Lepidosteus and Polypterus. (Sauroidei, Agass.) Fam. 2. Pycnodontidae Pycnodus. Fam. 3. Lepidoidei Dapedius. Fam. 4. Sturionidae Sturgeon. (Acipenserini, Agass.) fe, . . . Fam. 5. Acanthodei Acanthodes. Fam. 6. DipteridaD Dipterus. (Sauroidei-dipterini, Agass.) Fam. 7. [Coelacanthi, Agass Ccelacanthus.] Fam. 8. Cephalaspides Cephalaspis, Pteraspis. Order IX. PROTOPTERI. [Ganoidei, Agass.] Fam. 1. Sirenoidei Lepidosiren. 35 ANIMAL SCHEME. Order X. HOLOCEPHALI. [Placoidei, Agass.] Fam. 1. Chimaeridae Chimaera. Fam. 2. Edaphodontidae Edaphodon. Order XL PLAQIOSTOMI. [Placoidei, Agass.] Fam. 1. Hybodontidae Hybodus. Fam. 2. Cestraciontidse Cestracion. Fam. 3. Notidanidae Grey Shark. Fam. 4. Spinacidse Piked Dog-fish. Fam. 5. Scylliadse Spotted Dog-fish. Fam. 6. Nictitantes Tope. Fam. 7. Lamnidae Porbeagle. Fam. 8. Alopecidse Fox Shark. Fam. 9. Scymniidse ' Greenland Shark. Fam. 10. Squatinse Monk-fish. Fam. 11. Zygsenidse Hammerhead Shark. Fam. 12. Pristidse Saw-fish. Fam. 13. Rhinobatidse Rhinobates. Fam. 14. Torpedinidae Electric Ray. Fam. 15. Raiidse Skate. Fam. 16. Trygonidse Sting Ray. Fam. 17. Myliobatidae Eagle Ray. Fam. 18. Cephalopteridae Cephalopterus. INSECTA. Frail and fragile as they may seem, the insect tribes are nevertheless pretty numerously represented in all the formations, from the Coal- measures upwards. The following outline of the leading Orders may assist the student in his discriminations : 1. Furnished with hard coriaceous jaws or mandibles. Order I. HYMENOPTERA, having four membranous veined wings, the anterior the larger ; as the Bee, Humble-bee, Wasp. Order II. NEUROPTERA, having four similar membranous reticulated wings, as the Dragon-fly, Termes, Caddis-fly, Day-fly. Fossil genera (Libellula, Ephemera, Phryganea, &c.) have been found in the Coal, Oolite, and Tertiaries. Order III. ORTHOPTERA, having the wings straight and the outer pair a little coriaceous, as the Locust, Grasshopper, Cock- roach. Fossil genera of this order (Blattina, Gryllus, Dictyoneura, &c.) have been found in the Coal, Oolite, and Tertiaries. Order IV. COLEOPTERA, having the outer wings wholly coriaceous and neatly meeting along the back, so as to form a sheath or shield for the inner pair when at rest, as in the various Beetles. Fossil genera (Carabus, Curculioides, Elater, &c.) have been found in the Coal, Oolite, Wealden, and Tertiaries. 37 ANIMAL SCHEME. 2. Furnished with sucking mouths and probosces. Order V. HEMIPTERA, having the outer wings coriaceous for about half t their length only, as the Squash-bug, or uniformly thin, as in the Crickets. Fossil genera are said to occur in the Oolite and Fresh- water Tertiaries. Order VI. DIPTEKA, having two membranous wings only, as the House- fly. Fossil genera (Asilus, Culex, Rhyphus, &c.) have been found in the Lias and Purbeck beds of England. Order VII. LEPIDOPTERA, having large wings covered with minute scales, as the Butterflies and Moths. Fossil genera are said to occur in the Tertiaries. CRUSTACEA. (Extinct Families and Genera are pi'inted in Italics.) Sub-Class I. ENTOMOSTRACA. Legion 1. LOPHYROPODA. Order 1. COPEPODA. Fam. 1. Cyclopidae. Order 2. OSTRACODA. Fam. 1. Cyprididae. Genus Cypris. Candona. Cypridea. Fam. 2. Cytheridae. Genus Cythere. Sub-genus Bairdia. Cytheridse. Cythereis. Cytherella. Fam. 3. Cypridinidse. Genus Cypridina. Cypridella. Cyprella. Daphnoidea. Legion 2. BRANCHIOPODA. Order 1. CLADOCERA. Fam. 1. Daphniadae. Genus Daphnia, &c. Order 2. PHTLLOPODA. Fam. 1. Linnadiadae. Genus Limnadia. Estheria. Leperditia. Beyrichia. Peltocaris. Fam. 2. Nebaliadaa. Genus Nebalia. Ceratiocaris. Hymenocaris. Kampecaris. Fam. 3. Apodidae. Genus Apus. Dithyrocaris. Fam. 4. Branchiopodidae. Genus Cheirocephalus, &c. Extinct Group. Trilobitce. Fam. flarpedidce. Paradoxidce. Proetidce. Asaphidce. Phacopidce. CalymenidcK. Licliadidce. Trinucleida. Acidaspidce. Cheiruridce. BronteidcK. Agnostidce. Legion 3. P(ECILOPODA. Fam. 1. Limulidse. Genus Limulus, &c. Extinct Fam. 2. Eurypteridce. Genus Eurypterus. Pterygotus. Slimonia. Stylonurus. Legion 4. SIPHONOSTOMATA. Sub-Class II. MALACOSTKACA. Legion 1. PODOPHTHALMIA. Order 1. DECAPODA. Fam. 1. Brachyura=Crabs, &c. Fam. 2. Anomura= Hermit Crab, &c. Fam. 3. Macrura= Lobster, ** Order 2. STOMAPODA= Squills, &c. Legion 2. EDRIOPHTHALMIA. Order 1. AMPHiPODA=Gammar- us, &c. Order 2. LCEMIPODA = Caprella, &c. Order 3. IsoPODA=Oniscus, &c. 39 MOLLUSC A. (Modified from Woodwards Manual, tlie fossil families and genera being printed in Italics.) CLASS I. CEPHALOPODA. Order T. DIBRANCHIATA = ACETABULIFERA (CUTTLE-FISHES.) a. OCTOPODA. Fam. 1. Argonautidse. Argonauta. Fam. 2. Octopodidse. Octopus, Pinnoctopus, Eledone, Cirroteu- this, PMlonexis. &. DECAPODA. Fam. 3. Teuthidae. Loligo, Gonatus, Sepioteuthis, Beloteuthis, Geoteuthis, Leptoteuthis, Cranchia, Sepiola, Loligopsis, Cheiro- teuthis, Onychoteuthis, Enoploteuthis, Ommastrephes. Fam. 4. Belemnitidce. Belemnites, Belemnitella, Acanthoteuthis, Belemnoteuthis, Conoteuthis. Fam. 5. Sepiadae. Sepia, Spirulirostra, Beloptera, Belemnosis. Fam. 6. Spirulidse. Sptrula. Order II. TETRABRANCHIATA=TENTACULIFEBA (NAUTILOID CEPHALOPODS). Fam. 1. Nautilidse. Nautilus, Lituites, Trochoceras, Clymenia. Fam. 2. Ortfioceratidce. Ortkocems, Gomphoceras, Oncoceras, Phragmoceras, Cyrtoceras, Gyroceras, Ascoceras. Fam. 3. Ammonitidce. Goniatites, Bactrites, Ceratites, Ammonites, Crioceras, Turrilites, Hainites, Ptychoceras, Baculites. CLASS II. PTEROPODA. a. THECASOMATA. Fam. 1. Hyaleidae. Hyalea, Cleodora, Cuvieria, Theca, Ptero- theca, Conularia, Eurybia, Cymbulia, Tiedemannia. Fam. 2. Limacinidse. Limacina, Spirialis. b. GYMNOSOMATA. Fam. 3. Cliidse. Clio, Pneumodermon, Pelagia, Cymodocea. 40 ANIMAL SCHEME. CLASS TIL GASTEROPODA. Order I. PROSOBRANCHIATA. a. SlPHONOSTOMATA. Fam. 1. Strombidae. Strombus, Pteroceras, Rostellaria, Seraphs. Fam. 2. Muricidse. Murex, Pisania, Ranella, Triton, Fasciolaria, Turbinella, Cancellaria, Trichotropis, Pyrula, Fusus. Fam. 3. Buccinidse. Buccinum, Pseudoliva, Anolax, Halia, Tere- bra, Eburna, Nassa, Phos, Ringicula (?), Purpura, Purpurina, Monoceros, Pedicularia, Ricinula, Planaxis, Magilus, Cassis, Oniscia, Cithara, Cassidaria, Dolium, Harpa, Columbella, Oliva, Ancillaria. Fam. 4. Conidae. Conus, Pleurotoma. Fam. 5. Volutidae. Voluta, Cymba, Mitra, Volvaria, Marginella. Fam. 6. Cypraeidae. Cyprsea, Erato, Ovulum. &. HOLOSTOMATA. Fam. 1. Naticidse. Natica, Sigaretus, Lamellaria, Narica, Vel- utina. Fam. 2. Pyramidellidae. Pyramidella, Odostomia, Chemnitzia, Eulima, Stylina, Loxonema, Macrocheilus. Fam. 3. Cerithiadae. Cerithium, Potamides, Nerincea, Fastigiella, Aporrhais, Struthiolaria. Fam. 4. Melaniadae. Melania, Paludomus, Melanopsis. Fam. 5. Turritellidae. Turritella, Aclis, Caacum, Vermetus, Sili- quaria, Scalaria. Fam. 6. Litorinidse. Litorina, Solarium, Phorus, Lacuna, Litiopa, Rissoa, Skenea, Truncatella (?), Lithoglyphus. Fam. 7. Paludinidas. Paludina, Ampullaria, Amphibola, Valvata. Fam. 8. Neritidse. Nerita, Pileolus, Neritina, Navicella. Fam. 9. Turbinidaa. Turbo, Phasianella, Imperator, Trochus, Rotella, Monodonta, Delphinula, Adeorbis, Euomphalus, Sto- matella, Broderipia. Fam. 10. Haliotis. Haliotis, Stomatia, Scissurella, Pleurotomaria, Murchisonia, Trochotoma, Cirrus, lanthina. Fam. 11. Fissurellidaa. Fissurella, Puncturella, Rimula, Emar- ginula, Parmophorus. Fam. 12. Calyptraeidse. Calyptraea, Crepidula, Pileopsis, Hippo- nyx. Fam. 13. Patellidse. Patella, Acmaea, Gadinia, Siphonaria. Fam. 14. Dentaliadae. Dentalium. Fam. 15. Cbitonidae. Chiton. Order II. PULMONIFERA. a. INOPERCULATA. Fam. 1. Kelicidse. Helix, Vitrina, Succinea, Bulimus, Achatina, Pupa, Cylindrella, Balea, Tornatellina, Paxillus, Clausilia. Fam. 2. Limacidae. Limax, Incilaria, Arion, Parmacella, Tes- tacella. Fam. 3. Oncidiadae. Oncidium, Vaginulus. 41 ANIMAL SCHEME. Fam. 4. Limnseidse. Limnsea, Cbilinia, Physa, Ancylus, Plan- orbis. Fam. 5. Auriculidse. Auricxila, Conovulus, Carychium (Siphon - aria). b. OPERCULATA. Fam. 6. Cyclostomidse. Cyclostoma, Ferussina (?), Cyclophorus, Pupina, Helicina, Stoastoma. Fam. 7. A.ciculidse. Acicula, Geomelania. Order III. OPISTHOBRANCHIATA. a. TECTIBRANCHIATA. Fam. 1. Tornatellidse. Tornatella, Cinulia, Ringicula, Globicon- cha, Varigera, Tylostoma, Pterodonta (?), Tornatina (?). Fam. 2. Bullidse. Bulla, Acera, Cylichna, Ampbispbyra, Aplus- trum, Scapbander, Bullsea, Doridium, Gastropteron. Fam. 3. Aplysiadse. Aplysia, Dolabella, Notarcbus, Icarus, Lo- biger. Fam. 4. Pleurobrancbida. Pleurobrancbus, Posterobranchsea, Runcina, Umbrella, Tylodina. Fam. 5. Pbyllidiadse. Pbyllidia, Dipbyllidia. b. NUDIBRANCHIATA. Fam. 6. Doridae. Doris, Goniodoris, Triopa, ^Egirus, Thecacera, Polycera, Idalia, Ancula, Ceratosoma. Fam. 7. Tritoniadae. Tritonia, Scyllsea, Tetbys, Bornella, Den- dronotus, Doto, Melibaea, Lomanotus. Fam. 8. uEolidse. uEolis, Glaucus, Fiona, Embletonia, Procton- otus, Antiopa, Hermaea, Alderia. Fam. 9. Phyllirboidse. Pbyllirhoe. Fam. 10. Elysiadse. Elysia, Acteonia, Cenia, Limapontia. Order IV. NUCLEOBRANCHIATA. Fam. 1. Firolidse. Firola, Carinaria, Cardiapoda. Fam. 2. Atlantidse. Atlanta, Porcellia, Bellerophon, Cyrtolites, Maclurea (?). CLASS IV. ACEPHALA = CONCHIFERA. a. ASIPHONIDA. Fam. 1. Ostreidse. Ostrea, Anomia, Placuna, Pecten, Lima, Spon- dylus, Pedum, Plicatula. Fam. 2. Aviculidae. Avicula, Posidonomya, Aviculopecten, Ger- villia, Pema, Inoceramw, Pinna. Fam. 3. Mytilidae. Mytilus, Myalina, Modiola, Lithodomus, Crenella, Dreissena. Fam. 4. Arcadse. ^Arca, Cucullsea, Pectunculus, Limopsis, Nu- cula, Isoarca, Leda, Solenella, Solemya. Fam. 5. Trigoniadse. Trigonia, Myophoria, Aximis, Lyrodesma. Fam. 6. Unionidae. Unio, Castalia, Anodon, Iridina, Mycetopus, ^Etheria, Miilleria. b. SIPHONIDA ; Integro-pallialia. Fam. 7. Chamidae. Cbama, Monopleura, Diceras, Requienia. 42 ANIMAL SCHEME. Fam. 8. ffippuritidce.Hippurites, Radiolites, Caprinella, Cap- rina, Caprotina, Maclurea (?). Fam. 9. Tridacnidae. Tridacna, Hippopus. Fam. 10. Cardiadae. Cardium, Hemicardium, Lithocardium, Ser- ripes, Adacna, Conocardium. Fam. 11. Lucinidse. Lucina, Cryptodon, Corbis, Tancredia, Dip- lodonta, Ungulina, Kellia, Montacuta, Lepton, Galeomma. Fam. 12. Cycladidse. Cyclas, Cyrenoides, Cyrena. Fam. 13. Cyprinidae. Cyprina, Circe, Astarte, Crassatella, Iso- cardia, Cypricardia, Pleurophorus, Cardilia, Megalodon, Pa- chydomus, Pachyrisma, Opis, Cardinia, Myoconcka, Hippo- podium, Cardita, Venericardia, Verticordia. c. SIPHONIDA ; Simu-pallialia. Fam. 14. Veneridae. Venus, Cytherea, Meroe, Trigona, Gratelou- pia, Artemis, Lucinopsis, Tapes, Venerupis, Petricola, Glau- comya. Fam. 15. Mactridse. Mactra, Gnathodon, Lutraria, Anatinella. Fam. 16. Tellinidae. Tellina, Diodonta, Capsula, Psammobia, Sanguinolaria, Semele, Syndosmya. Scrobicularia, Mesodes- ma, Ervilia, Donax, Galatea. Fam. 17. Solenidse. Solen, Cultellus, Ceratisolen, Machsera, Sole- curtus, Novaculina. Fam. 18. Myacidae. Mya, Corbula, Sphenia, Nesera, Thetis, Pan- opsea, Saxicava, Glycimeris. Fam. 19. Anatinidae. Anatina, Cochlodesma, Thracia, Pkola- domya, Myadtes, Goniomya, Ceromya, Cardiomorpha, Ed- mondia, Lyonsia, Pandora, Myadora, Myochama, Chamos- trea. Fam. 20. Gastrochaenidae. Gastrochaena, Chsena, Clavagella, As- pergillum. Fam. 21. Pholadidae. Pholas, Pholadidea, Jouannetia, Xylopha- ga, Teredo, Teredina. CLASS V. BRACHIOPODA. Fam. 1. Terebratulidae. Terebratula, Terebratella, Argiope, The- cidium, Stringocephalus. Fam. 2. Spiriferidce. Spirifera, Athyris, Retzia, Uncites. Fam. 3. Khynchonellidae. Rhynchonella, Camarophoria, Penta- merus, Atrypa. Fam. 4. Orthidce. Orthis, Strophoniena, Leptcena, Koninckia, Davidsonia, Calceola. Fam. 5. Productidce. Producta, Aulosteges, StropJialosia, Chonetes. Fam. 6. Craniadaa. Crania. Fam. 7. Discinidse. Discina, Siphonotreta. Fam. 8. Lingulidae. Lingula, Obolus. *+* All the Brachiopodous families occur largely in a fossil state ; the genera, species, and individuals, being much more abundant in Palaeozoic than in Mesozoic or Cainozoic times. 43 MOLLUSCOIDA. CLASS I. TUNICATA : doubtfully known in a fossil state. CLASS II. BRYOZOA or POLYZOA. Fam. 1. Escharidae. Eschara, Ptilodictya, Glauconome, Lunulites, Vincularia. Fam. 2. Celleporidae. Cellepora, Flustra Lepralia, Discopora, Escharina. Fam. 3. Reteporidse. Retepora, Fmestella, Polypora, Phyllo- pora, Ptilopora, Synocladia. Fam. 4. Crisidse. Crisia, Idtnonea, Hippothoa. Fam. 5. Myriaporidce. Fascicularia, Terebellaria, Theonoa. Fam. 6. Tubuliporidse. Tubulipora, Heteropora, Ceriopora, Ac- tinopora, Diastopora, Cricopora, Petallopora, Pustulo- pwa, Zonopwa. 44 ECHINODERMATA. (Fossil Families and Examples printed in Italics.) Order I. CRINOIDEA. Examples. Fam. 1. Comatulidse Comatula. Fam. 2. Marsupitidce Marsupites. Fam. 3. Apiocrinidce Apio(rinus,Bourgueticriniis,Mttlericrinus. Fam. 4. Pentacrinidae Pentacrinus, Extracrinus, Cainocrinus. Fam. 5. Cyathocrinidce Cyathocrinus, Poteriocrinus, Rhodocrinus, Taxocrinus. Fam. 6. Melocrinidae Actinocrinu^, Hexacrinus, Platycrinus. Fam. 7. Cupressocrinidce Cupressocrimis. Fam. 8. Polycrinidce JEucalyptoci-inus. Order II. CYSTOIDEA. Fam. 1. Cystidce Pseudocrinites, ffemicosmites, Caryotistites, Echinosphcerites. Order III. BLASTOIDEA. Fam. 1. Penlremitidce Pentremites, Codonaster, Elceacrinus. Order IV. OPHIUROIDEA. Fam. 1. Ophiuridae Ophiura, Amphiura, Aspidura, Ophio- derma, Protaster. Order V. AsTERoroEA. Fam. 1. Asteridse Asterias, Astropecten, Ooniaster, Or easier, Solaster, Uraster. Fam. 2. Crenasteridae Crenaster, Euryale. Order VI. PERISCHO-ECHINOrDEA. Fam. 1. Palcechinidce Palcechinus. Fam. 2. Archceocidaridoe ArcluKoddaris, Perischodomus. 45 ANIMAL SCHEME. Examples. Order VII. ECHINOIDEA. Fam. 1. Echinidse Echinus, CypJiosoma, Diadema, Discoidea, Echinopsis, Hemiaster, Hemicidaris, Sa- Fam. 2. Cidaridse Cidaris. Fam. 3. Galeritidce Galerites ) Dysaster,Holectypus,Hyboclypus. Fam. 4. EcMnoneidce EcMnocyamus, Echinarachnius. Fam. 5. Cassidulidae Nucleolites, Pygaster, Py gurus. Fam. 6. Ananchytidce Ananchytes, Cardiaster, Hemipneustes. Fam. 7. Spatangidae Spatangus, Micraster, Schizaster. Order VIII. HOLOTHUROIDEA. Fam. 1. Holothuridse Holothuria, Psolus. Fam. 2. Synaptidse Synaptis. 40' ZOOPHYTA. POLYPI = ANTHOZOA= CCELENTERATA. (Fouil Families and Examples printed in Italics.) Sub-class I. CORALLARIA = ACTINOZOA. Order I. ZOANTHARIA. Sect. a. APOROSA. Fam. 1. Turbinolidcu. Turbinolia, Cyathina, Cyclocyathus, Disco- cyaihus. Fam. 2. Oculinidse. Oculina, Diphelia, Synhelia. Fam. 3. Astraeidse. Astrsea, Cladophyllia, Montlivaltia, Paras- milia. Fam. 4. Fungidae. Fungia, Anabacia, Micrabacia. Sect. 6. PERFORATA. Fam. 1. Eupsammidaa. Balanophyllia, Stephanophyllia. Fam. 2. Madreporidae. Stereopsammia, Dendrophyllia. Fam. 3. Poritidse. ffolorcea, Litharcea, Pleurodictyum. Sect. c. TABULATA. Fam. 1. Milleporidse. Millepora, Astrceopora, Heliolites. Fam. 2. Favositidse. Favosites, Alveolites, Chaetetes, Halysites. Fam. 3. Seriatoporidse. Dendropora. Fam. 4. Thecidae. Thecia, Columnaria. Sect. d. RUGOSA. Fam. 1. Stauridce. Stauria, Polyccelia, Holocystis. Fam. 2. Cyathoxonidce. Cyathoxonia. Fam. 3. Cyatkophyllidce. Cyathophyllum, Acervularia, Amplexus, Clisiophyllum, Lithodendron, Lithostrotion, Zaphrentis, &c. Fam. 4. Cystiphyllidce. Cystiphyllum. Sect. e. CAULICULATA. Fam. 1. Antipathidae. Antipathes. 47 ANIMAL SCHEME. Order II. ALC YON ARIA. Fam. 1. Alcyonidse. Alcyonium, Cladochonus. Fam. 2. Tubiporidse. Tubipora, Stromatopora. Fam. 3. Gorgonidae. Gorgonia, Mopsea, Pyritonema, Virgularia, Protwirgularia. Fam. 4. Graptolitida.Graptolithus, Didymograpsus, Diplograp- sus, Rastrites. Fam. 5. Pennulatidae. Pennatula, Graphnlaria. Order III. POD ACTIN ARIA. Sub-class II. HYDROIDEA=HYDROZOA. Fam. 1. Hydridse. Hydra. Fam. 2. Sertularidse. Sertularia. Fam. 3. Corynidse. Coryne. Fam. 4. Calycophoridse. Fam. 5. Physophoridse. Fam. 6. Lucernidae. Lucernaria. Fam. 7. Medusidse. Medusa, Cyansea, Equorea. 43 PORIFERA = AMORPHOZOA = SPONGLE. (Sponge-like organisms occurring most abundantly in British formations.) Fam. AMORPHOSPONGIDJE. Gen. Acanthospongia. Achilleum. Plocoscyphia. Spongia. Steganodictyum. Talpina. Tragos. Fam. CALCISPONQID^:. Gen. Grantia. Fam. HALICHONDRID^;. Gen. Cliona. Cnemidium. Cceloptychium. Corn's. Coscinopora. Halichondria. Fam. LYMNOREHXE. Gen. Mammillopora. Fam. SPARSISPONGID^B. Gen. Chenendopora. Manon. Fam. SiPHONiD2B. Gen. Choanites. Hippalimus. Jerea. Paramondra. Polypothecia. Scyphia. Siphonia. VerticUlites. Fam. VENTRICULIDJE. Gen. Brachiolites. Cephalites. Guettardia. Ventriculites. 49 RHIZOPODA = POLYTHALAMIA = FOUAMINIFERA. (Foraminifera whose calcareous cases occur most a British strata}. Ord. 1. MONOSTEGIA. Operculina. Gen. Lagena. Planorbulina. Planulina. Ord. 2. CYCLOSTEGIA. Pyrulina. Gen. Orbiculina. Kobulina. Orbitalina. Kosalina. Orbitolites. Rotalina. Ord. 3. STICHOSTEGIA. Spirolina. Gen. Dentalina. Truncatulina. Frondicularia. Verneulina. Glandulina. Ord. 5. ENTOMOSTEGIA. Lingulina. Marginulina. Gen. Amphistegina. Robertina. Nodosaria. Vaginulina. Ord. 6. ENALLOSTEGIA. Webbina. Gen. Cuneolina. Globulina. Ord. 4. HELICOSTEGIA. Guttulina. Gen. Alvelolina. Anomalina. Bulimina. Polymorphina. Sagrina. Textularia. Cristellaria. Vulvulina. Eudothyra. Flabellina. Ord. 7. AGATHESTEGIA. Guadryina. Gen. Biloculina. Globigerina. Fusulina. Lituola. Quinqueloculina. Nonionina. Spiroloculina. Nummulites. Triloculina. %* The Polycystina, an allied group, are furnished with siliceous and not with calcareous shells. 50 GEOLOGICAL SCHEME. All our ideas of geological arrangement are founded on the fact, that in the earth's crust there are two great sets of rocks, the STRATIFIED and the UNSTRATIFIED the former the results of deposition in water, and hence also known as Aqueous and Sedimentary, the latter the products of igneous fusion, and consequently termed igneous and eruptive, thus : I. STRATIFIED, SEDIMENTARY, AQUEOUS, or NEPTUNIAN the results of deposition in water, and consequently arranged in layers or strata more or less persistent and regular, as sandstone, shale, limestone, coal, and the like. II. UNSTRATIFIED, ERUPTIVE, IGNEOUS, or PLUTONIC the products of igneous fusion, and cast forth, for the most part, in irregular and amorphous masses, as granite, greenstone, basalt, lava, and the like. The following arrangement of the STRATIFIED FORMATIONS is that which gave direction and consistency to the researches of British Geologists during the earlier portion of the present century is still, in part, retained in its nomenclature, and continues less or more to influence our ideas of succession and chronology : RECENT. All superficial accumulations, as sand, gravel, silt, marl, peat-moss, coral-reefs, &c. Contain the remains of existing plants and animals only partially fossilised or sub-fossil. TERTIARY. Local and limited deposits of regular strata occurring above the Chalk. Contain the remains of plants and animals not differing ividely in character from those now existing. SECONDARY. Embracing all the strata known as Chalk, Oolite, Lias, Coal-measures, Mountain Limestone, and Old Red Sandstone. Contain fossil plants and animals of species totally different from those now existing. TRANSITION. Strata of slaty and siliceous sandstones, known as "greywacke," calcareous shales, and limestones. Contain few or no fossil plants, and the remains of no higher animals than Crustacea, shell-fish, and zoophytes. PRIMARY. All slaty and crystalline strata as roofing-slate, mica- schist, and gneiss, very hard and compact, and totally destitute of organic remains. 51 GEOLOGICAL SCHEME. Although the Igneous rocks burst through and appear among the strati- fied without order or arrangement, it is customary to speak of them as GRANITIC, TRAPPEAN, and VOLCANIC ; meaning, by the term Granitic, the igneous rocks which, like granite, are usually found associated with the older strata ; by the term Trappean, the igneous rocks most frequently associated with the Secondary and Tertiary strata ; and by the term Vol- canic, those that have made their appearance during the current epoch. Classifying them according to this view, we have VOLCANIC. Lava, trachyte, tufa, pumice, scoriae, &c., associated with recent accumulations. TRAPPEAN. Trap-tuff, amygdaloid, greenstone, basalt, &c., as- sociated for the most part with Tertiary and Secondary strata. GRANITIC. Granite, syenite, porphyry, &c., associated in greatest force with Transition and Primary strata. By a more extensive examination of the strata in different countries, and especially by a more minute investigation of their fossil contents, the " formations " of the earlier geologists have, to a certain extent, become obsolete, and other subdivisions and groupings been adopted. This new arrangement has been founded either on mineral or on fossil distinctions such differences being sufficient to warrant the conclusion that each set of strata was formed during successive epochs, under different distributions of sea and land, and consequently under different conditions of climate and other modifying influences; and as geological investigation advances, it is more than probable that we must still farther abandon our Rock Forma- tions, and adhere to great Life Periods as the true exponents of the world's progress and history. In the mean time the following arrangement gives consistency to the researches of European and American geologists : Systems. Periods. Cycles. 1. Post-Tertiary. | CAINOZOIC 2. Tertiary. J (Recent Life). 3. Cretaceous. \ ) NEOZOIC. 4. Oolitic or Jurassic. V MESOZOIC 5. Triassic. j (Middle Life). 6. Permian. 7. Carboniferous. 8. Devonian or Old Eed. 9. Silurian. PALJEOZOIC (Ancient Life). 10. Cambrian. ^ PALEOZOIC. 11. Lauren tian. 12. Metamorphic, \ Crystalline, or V T Az< ? I T ., , Non-fossiliferous. f (Void of Life). 52 GEOLOGICAL SCHEME. BEITISH STKATIFIED SYSTEMS. The following tabulation exhibits the arrangement of the British stratified rocks, as accepted by our leading geologists minor and local deviations of superposition being subordinated for the sake of distinct comprehen- sion and ready reference : Systems. Groups. Periods. POST-TERTIARY, j * n P ro ^ ress - ( Recent. I TERTIARY. Pleistocene. Pliocene. Miocene. CAINOZOIC. 5:3 Eocene. CRETACEOUS. j halk ' ( Greensand. > o o Wealden. OOLITIC. Oolite. o Lias. , MESOZOIC. i ( Saliferous Marls. r*\ TRIASSIC. j Muschelkalk (?). 1 ( Upper New Red Sandstone. PERMIAN _f ^agnesian Limestone. ^ *. fej ( Lower New Red Sandstone. Coal-measures. ft. CARBONIFEROUS. Millstone Grit. 3 Mountain Limestone. 8 Lower Coal-measures. ^ Yellow Sandstones. Devonian Limestones and s ^ ^ Schists. 1 DEVONIAN. Red Sandstones, Conglom- PALEOZOIC. 6 1 erates, and Cornstones. o fc Grey fissile Sandstones (" flags tones") and Con- o ft? glomerates. 3 * ( Upper Silurian. SILURIAN. J Lower Silurian. 2 RQ CAMBRIAN. Schists and Grits. J| LAURENTIAN. Hard Gneissic Schists, &c.^ OH METAMORPHIC. Clay -slate, Mica -schist, ) A _ , , i f AzoiC) OK Gneiss, and Granitoid J HYPOZOIC Schists. 53 GEOLOGICAL SCHEME. TABLE OF EUROPEAN FOSSILIFEROUS STRATA. (After Sir Charles Lyell, 1865.) 1. Becent. 2. Post-Pliocene. 3. Newer Pliocene. 4. Older Pliocene. 5. Upper Miocene. 6. Lower Miocene. 7. Upper Eocene. 8. Middle Eocene. 9. Lower Eocene. 10. Maestricht Beds. 11. White Chalk. 12. Upper Greensand. 13. Gault. 14. Lower Greensand. 15. Wealden. 16. PurbeckBeds. 17. Portland Stone. 18. Kimmericlge Clay. 19. Coral Bag. 20. Oxford Clay. 21. Great or Bath Oolite. 22. Inferior Oolite. 23. Lias. 24. Upper Trias. 25. Middle Trias. 26. Lower Trias. 27. Permian. 28. Coal-measures. 29. Carboniferous Limestone. 30. Upper \ 31. Middle > Devonian. 32. Lower ) 33. Upper \ 34. Middle V Silurian. 35. Lower J POST-TERTIARY. PLIOCENE. MIOCENE. EOCENE. CRETACEOUS. 3 63 TRIASSIC. PERMIAN. 1 CARBONIFEROUS. DEVONIAN. SILURIAN. CAMBRIAN. LAURENTIAN. 54 GEOLOGICAL SCHEME. AGES GEOLOGIQUES. (After D'Orbigny, 1852.) Terrains. EPOQUE ACTUELLE. British Equivalent*. CURRENT EPOCH. 27. Subapennin Red and Coralline Crag of Suffolk. |26. Falunien TERTJARIES ] ^' -P a " s ^ en Upper and Middle Eocenes' \ 24. Suessonien Lower Eocene. \23.Danien 22. Senonien Upper White Chalk. 21. Turonien Lower White Chalk. 20. Ce"nomanien Upper Greensand. CRETACES. 19.Albien Gault. 1 8. Aptien Lower Greensand, in part. 17. Ne'ocomien Do. and Wealden. 16. Portlandien Portland Group. (15. Kimme'ridgien Kimmeridge Clay. 14. Corallien Coral Rag. 1 3. Oxf ordien Oxford Clay. 12. Callovien Kelloway Rock. JURASSIQUES. 11. Bathonien Bath Oolite. 10. Bajocien Inferior Oolite. 9. Toarcien Upper Lias. 8. Liasien Middle Lias; Marlstone. 7. Sinemurien Lower Lias. 6 . Salif Srien Salif erous Marls. TRIASIQUES. 1 5. Conchylien Variegated Sandstones, in part ; Upper New Red. 4. Permien Magnesian Limestone, &c. PAL^EOZOIQUES. -j 3. Carboniferien Coal-Measures. 2. Devonien Old Red Sandstone. SupeYieur Upper Silurian. GEOLOGICAL SCHEME. STRATIFIED ROCKS OF NORTH AMERICA. Stages. UPPER. LOWER. UPPER. MIDDLE. LOWER. UPPER. LOWER. UPPER. MIDDLE. LOWER. UPPER. MIDDLE. LOWER. UPPER. MIDDLE. LOWER. (After Marcou, Bigsby, and Logan.) Sections. ( Peat-Mosses and Savannahs. ) t River Alluvia and Deltas. \ Superficial Gravels and Raised Beaches. J J Boulder Formation of the Northern ^ \ States and Canada. ( Clays and Sands of North Carolina, &c. I \ Greensand and Marls of Maryland, &c. / j Limestones and Clays of the Carolinas, I 1 &c. J Yellow Limestone and Greensand of) New Jersey, &c. j Sandstones, Shale, and Coal of Rich-) mond, Virginia. J Red Sandstones of Connecticut, Mass. &c. ( Do. of Chatham, N. Caro- ) t Una, &c. I Coal-formation or Coal-measures. \ Lower Carboniferous Limestone. ( Sandstones and Conglomerates of Penn- V \ sylvania. ' \ Gypsum, Marls, and Conglomerates of V Nova Scotia. Old Red Sandstone. ( Chemung Rocks ; Portage Sandstone ; < Genessee Slate ; Tully Limestone ; ( Hamilton Rocks ; Marcellus Shales. /Carboniferous Limestone; Onondago < Limestone ; Schoharie Grit ; Caudi- ( galli Grit ; Oriskany Limestone. Ajpper Pentamerus Limestone ; Delthy- I ris shaly Limestone ; Lower Penta- 1 merus Limestone ; Waterlime Rocks ; \ Onondago Salt Rock ; Coralline Lime- j stone, Schoharie ; Niagara Shale and \ Limestone. ( Clinton Rocks ; Medina Sandstone ; ( Oneida Conglomerate. / Hudson-River Rocks ; Utica Slate ; ) Trenton Limestone ; Birdseye Lime- j stone ; Chazy Limestone ; Calcifer- ^ ous Sandstone ; Potsdam Sandstone. Huronian Sandstones ; Conglomerates ; ") Chloritic and Quartzose Schists ; Crys- > talline Limestones. J Laurentian Gneissoid and Hornblende } Schists ; Quartzites, Crystalline Lime- \- stones, and Serpentines. J 56 British Equivalents. POST-TERTIARY. TERTIARY. CRETACEOUS. OOLITIC (?). TRIASSIC (?). PERMIAN (?). CARBONIFEROUS. DEVONIAN. ) SILURIAN. CAMBRIAN. LAURENTIAN. GEOLOGICAL SCHEME. PALAEOZOIC KOCKS OF PENNSYLVANIA. (After Professor H. 1>. Rogers, 1859.) Appalachian New York British Equivalents, Series. Names. (Serai, < Umbral, ^CARBONIFEROUS. (.Vespertine, Ponent, Catskill Group. ^ Vergent, Chemung Group. Cadent, Hamilton Group. \DEVONIAN. Post-Meridian, ... Upper Helderberg Limestone, i Meridian, Oriskany Sandstone. Pre-Meridian, ... Lower Helderbei Scalent, Niagara Group. Pre-Meridian, ... Lower Helderberg Limestone. N Surgent, Clinton Group. ' SlLDRIAN - Levant, Medina Group. ( Matinal, Hudson and Trenton Riv. Gr. ( Blue River, Chazy, and Calci- I _ (Auroral, \ , /CAMBRIAN. ffirnns SnTinsinTio l-lrniina i ferous Sandstone Groups. Primal, Potsdam Sandstone. " These fifteen formations, or series of deposits," says Professor Rogers, " defined by their prevalent organic remains, and by the physical horizons which separate them as sediments, are called by names significant of their relative ages the words employed suggesting metaphorically the different periods of the day. Thus, beginning with the lowest or earliest, they mean respectively Dawn, Daybreak, Morning, Sunrise, Mounting-day, Climbing-day, Forenoon, Noon, Afternoon, Declining-day, Descending-day, Sunset, Evening, Dusk, and Nightfall. Some such nomenclature, based on time, is, for many reasons, preferable to the inexpressive ones which rest for the most part on geographical terms, only locally correct, or on narrow and inconstant palaeontological characters." 57 GEOLOGICAL SCHEME. CONTEMPORARY OR EQUIVALENT DEPOSITS. I. PO'ST-TERTIAKY OR QUATERNARY SYSTEM. HISTORIC. PREHISTO- RIC. British. Peat of Great Britain and Ireland, with human re- mains, &c. Fens, marshes, and river- deposits, with ancient canoes, implements, &c. Lake -silts, fresh -water marls, &c., with canoes, J metal implements, re- mains of domesticated animals, &c. Accumulations of sand- drift, shore- cave- and beach-deposits, consid- erably beyond the reach of existing tides. Peat- moss, Lake- silts, and other alluvia, with tree- canoes, pile-dwellings, and stone implements. Alluvia and river-deposits, with remains of Irish- deer, wild oxen, mam- moth, and other extinct mammals. Cave-deposits in part, with bones of extinct mam- mals, stone implements, and fragments of charred wood. 58 Foreign, Terrain quaternaire of French authors, in part. Modern portion of Deltas of Rhine, Nile, Ganges, Mississippi, &c. Marine strata enclos- ing temple of Serapis at Puz- zuoli. Fresh- water strata enclosing temple in Cash- mere. Tundras of Siberia ; Tarai or Jungle soil of In- dia ; Cypress swamps, &c. of America. Modern part of coral-reefs of Red Sea and Pacific. Travertine of Italy ; calcareous tufa of Guadaloupe ; and Lavas of Vesuvius and Etna, over- spreading objects of human art, &c. Terrain quaternaire of French authors, in part. Upper river-gravels of the Somme, Seine, &c., with flint imple- ments, and bones of extinct mammalia. Upper Alluvia of Tigris and Euphrates. River silt of Upper Egypt in part. Upper portion of cave - deposits of France, Belgium, Mediterranean, and Southern Europe, with stone implements and char- red wood. Plain of Holland in part ; plain of China in part ; and much of the river- alluvia of America. Din- ornis silts of New Zealand. GEOLOGICAL SCHEME. POST- GLACIAL. British. Shell - marl under peat, ^ and submarine forests of modern trees. Raised beaches at various heights, with species of shells more boreal than those of existing seas. Ancient alluvia and gra- vel of most of our carses, straths,dales,and holmes the "Brick Clay" of many authors. Contains \ remains of seals, whales, &c. ; and of extinct land mammals, as mam- moth, rhinoceros, urus, &c. Cave-deposits in part, with bones of extinct and liv- ing carnivora and her- bivora ursus, hysena, megaceros, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, &c. No human remains. Foreign. Loess of the Rhine, with recent fresh- water shells and mam- moth bones. Volcanic tufa of Ischia, with living species of marine shells, and with- out human remains or works of art. Newer boulder for- mation in Sweden. Bluffs of the Mississippi. Drift- wood and mammoth-gravel of the Arctic seas. Tchor- nozem or black-earth of the Aralo-Caspian plain. Up- per portion of great Chinese plain. Auriferous Drift, in part, of the Uralian, Au- stralian, and Californian gold-fields. II. TERTIARY SYSTEM. PLEISTOCENE or NEWER PLIOCENE. OLDER PLIOCENE. UPPER MIOCENE. Glacial drift or boulder for- mation of Norfolk, of the Clyde, of North Wales the "Boulder Clay" of many authors. Nor- wich Crag. Cave-depo- sits of Kirkdale, &c. with bones of extinct and living quadrupeds. Red Crag of Suffolk, Coral- line Crag of Suffolk. Marine strata of this age wanting in the British Islands. Ferruginous sands ofNorth Downs (?). Terrain quaternaire, diluvium. Terrain tertiaire suprieur. Glacial drift of Northern Europe; of Northern United States ; and Alpine erratics. Limestone of Girgenti Kunkur of India (?) ; Au- stralian cave-breccias. Sub-Apennine strata. Hills of Rome, Monte Mario, &c. Antwerp and Normandy Crag. Aralo-Caucasian de- posits, older part. Pampas Formation of South Amer- ica, &c. Falurien supe"rieur. Faluns of Touraine. Part of Bor- deaux beds. Bolderberg strata in Belgium. Part of Vienna Basin. Part of Mol- lasse in Switzerland. Sands of James River and Rich- mond, Virginia. Green- sands and marls of Mary- land, United States. GEOLOGICAL SCHEME. LOWER MIOCENE. UPPER EOCENE. MIDDLE EOCENE. LOWER EOCENE. British. Hempstead beds near Yar- mouth, Isle of Wight. Lignites and clays of / Bovey, in Devonshire. Leaf-bed of Mull. Lig- nites of Antrim. 1. Bembridge or Binsted Beds, Isle of Wight. 2. Osborne or St Helens series. 3. Headon Series. 4. Headon Hill sands and Barton clay. 1. Bagshot and Brackles- ham Beds. 2. White clays of Alum Bay, Isle of Wight. 1. London Clay and Bog- nor Beds. 2. Plastic and mottled clays and sands ; Wool- wich Beds. 3. Thanet Sands. Foreign. Lower part of Terrain terti- aire moyen. Calcaire lac- ustre superienr, and gres de Fontainebleau. Part of the Lacustrine strata of Au- vergne. Limburg beds,Bel- gium. (Rupelian and Ton- grian system of Dumont). Mayence Basin. Part of brown coal of Germany. Hermsdorf tile - clay, near Berlin. Lignites of New Zealand (?). ^1. Gypseous series of Mont- martre, and Calcaire lacustre supe'rieur. 2 and 3. Calcaire Silicieux. 2 and 3. Gres de Beauchamp, or sables moy ens. Laecken beds, Belgium. 4. Upper and Middle Calcaire grossier. fl. Bruxillien or Brussels Beds of Dumont. 1. Lower Calcaire grossier, or glauconie grossiere. 1. Caiborne beds, Alabama. 1 and 2. Nummulitic forma- tion of Europe, Asia, &c. 2. Soissonnais Sands, or Lits . Coquilliers. 1. Wanting in Paris Basin, occurs at Cassel in French Flanders. Limestones and Clays of the Carolinas (?). 2. Argile Plastiqueet Lignite. 3. Lower Landenian of Bel- gium, in part. III. CRETACEOUS SYSTEM. UPPER WHITE CHALK. Wanting in England. White Chalk, with flints. Danien of d'Orbigny. Calcaire pisolitique, Paris. Maestricht Beds. | Coi'alline limestone of Faxoe \ in Denmark. f Senonien of d'Orbigny. I Obere Kreide and Upper Qua- der-sandstein of the Ger- / mans. 1 La Scaglia of the Italians. I Yellow Limestone and Green- l sand of New Jersey, in part. GEOLOGICAL SCHEME. LOWER WHITE CHALK. UPPER GREENSAND. WEALDEN. British. Chalk without flints. Chalk Marl. Loose sand, with bright' Foreign. Turonian of d'Orbigny. Calcaire a hippurites, Pyre- n6es. Upper Planer Kalk of Saxony. Yellow Limestone and Green- sand of New Jersey, in part. Limestones of the West Indies and Colombia, S. America. of d'Orbigny. Marly stone, with Chert, Lower Quadersandstein of the I Isle of Wight. ) bermans - Albien of d' Orbigny. Glauconie Crayeuse. Dark-blue Marl, Kent. LOWER GREENSAND. Greensand of Kent and Sussex. Limestone (Kentish Rag). Sands and Clay, with cal- careous concretions and chert, Atherfield, Isle of Wight. Speeton Clay, Yorkshire. Clay, with occasional bands of limestone and sand- stone ; Weald of Kent, Surrey, and Sussex. Sand, with calcareous grit and clay ; Hastings, Cuckfield, Sussex. Gres Vert Infeneur. Neocomien SupeYieur. Aptien of d'Orbigny. H ils Conglom e rat of G ermany . Hils-thon of Brunswick. Neocomien InfeYieur. Formation Waldienne. Walderformation of North Germany. IV. OOLITIC OR JURASSIC SYSTEM. 1. PurbeckBeds. UPPER 2. Portland Stone OOLITE. Sand. 3. Kimmeridge Clay. 1. Calcareous Grit. MIDDLE ) 2. Coral Rag. OOLITE. \ 3. Oxford Clay. 4. Kelloway Rock. and Gl 1. Serpuliten Kalk and Wal- derformation of N. Ger- many, in part. 2. Portlan- dien of d'Orbigny. 3. Kim- meridgien of d'Orbigny. Calcaire a gryphees virgules, of Thirria. Argiles de Hon- fleur of de Beaumont. 1 and 2. Corallien of Beudant and d'Orbigny. Calcaire a Nerinnees of Thurmann. 13. Oxfordien SupeYieur. 4. Oxfordien Inferieur or Cal- lovien of d'Orbigny. GEOLOGICAL SCHEME. LOWER OOLITE. LIAS. British. Foreign. 1. Cornbrash and Forest \ Marble. J 1 and 2. Bathonien ; Grand 2. Great (or Bath) Oolite Oolithe ; Calcaire de Caen, and Stonesfield Slates. \ 3 and 4. Oolithe inferieur ; 3. Fuller's Earth, Bath. f Oolithe ferrugineux of Nor- 4. Calcareous Freestone I mandy; Oolithe de Bay eux; and Yellow Sands (In- Bajocien of d'Orbigny. ferior Oolite). ) 1. Toarcien of d'Orbigny. 2. Lias Moyen ; Liasien of i TT T d'Orbigny. o S PP i 6 ^ 4. Calcaire a gryphee arquee ; 2. Marlstone. / Sinemuri en of d'Orbigny ; 3. Lower Lias. \ Coal-field of Richmond, Vir- ginia (?) ; and Coal-fields of India (?). V. TEIASSIC SYSTEM. UPPER. LOWER. Bone - bed of Axmouth ; Dolomitic Conglomerate of Bristol ; Saliferous and Gypseous Shales and Sandstones of Che- shire. MIDDLE. < Wanting in England. Red and White Sandstones and Quartzose Conglo- merates of Lancashire and Cheshire. White sandstones of Lossie- mouth and Cumming- stone, Moray shire (?). Saliferien of d'Orbigny; Marnes irisees of the French; St Cassian or Rhaetic beds ; Keuper of the Germans. Coal-fields of Richmond, Virginia, and of Chatham, North Carolina. Conchylien of d'Orbigny, in part; Calcaire a C6ratites of Cordier ; Muschelkalk of Germany. Bunter Sandstein of the Ger- mans ; Gres bigarre" of the French ; Conchylien of d'Orbigny, in part ; Red Sandstones of Connecticut, U.S. VI. PERMIAN SYSTEM. MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE. RED SANDSTONE. 1. Laminated and Concre- tionary Limestones of York and Durham. 2. Brecciated Limestone do 3. Fossiliferous Limestone, 4. Compact Limestone, do, 5. Marl-slate of Durham. IRed Sandstones, Grits, and Marls ; Dolomitic Con- glomerate of Bristol, Exeter, Annandale, &c. 62 1. Stinkstein of Thuringia. 2. Rauchwacke do. 3. Dolomit or Upper Zech- stein. 4. Zechstein proper. 5. Mergel or Kupfer schiefer, Rothliegendes of Thuringia. Permian sandstones, conglo- merates, and magnesian limestones of Russia. Gres des Voyages of French. GEOLOGICAL SCHEME. VII. CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM. TTPPFR UPPER. MIDDLE. LOWER. British. Foreign. 1. Upper or True Coal-}!. Coal-fields of the United Measures. 1. Millstone Grit of Eng- land. 2. Mountain or Carboni- ferous Limestone. 1. Lower Coal - measures \ and " Calciferous Sand- stones" of Scotland. I Lower Limestone Shale, / Mendips. Carbonifer- 1 ous Slates of Ireland. I r- States. 2. Calcaire Carbonifere of the French. Bergkalk or Kohl- enkalk of the Germans. Pentremite Limestone, U.S. 1. Kiesel Schiefer and Jiingere Grauwacke of the Germans. Gypseous Beds and Encrin- ital Limestones of Nova Scotia. Cypridina Schiefer of Nassau, Saxony, &c. UPPER. VIII. DEVONIAN OR OLD RED SANDSTONE. f\. Yellow Sandstones of j Dura Den, Fifeshire ; Kilkenny Ireland : and , TT -^ Pilton and Petherwyn ( 1- Upper Devonians of Russia; / Groups Devonshire. ' > CyP"dina Schiefer of Ger- . 2. White and chocolate- L ^X. P art ' coloured Sandstones and 2 ' Catskm Grou P> Grits of Berwick and \ Roxburgh. J MIDDLE. LOWER. 1. Red Sandstones and Marls of Fife, Perth, Forfar, Hereford, &c. 2. Middle Schists and Limestones of Devon- shire. 3. Micaceous and Bitu- minous Flags of Caith- of 1. Lower Devonian North Devon. 1. Eifel Limestone ; and Up- per and Middle Devonians of Russia, in part. 2 and 3. Middle Devonians of Russia, in part ; Chemung, Genessee, and Hamilton Groups, North America. 1. Spirifer Sandstone and 2. Grey Flagstones of Slate. Perth andForfar. Great V 2 ' R^ian Devonian, lower Pebbly conglomerate of / P a f*' and Onondago and Scotland; Tilestones of Onskany Groups, North Hereford, in part. America. UPPER. IX. SILURIAN SYSTEM. 1. Upper Ludlow Rocks ; Lesmahago Tilestones. 2. Aymestry Limestone. 3. Lower Ludlow. 4. Wenlock Limestone and Shale. 5. Llandovery Rocks. 63 1-5. Upper stages of Bohe- mian Basin ; E to H of Barrande. 1-3. Pentamerus, Delthyris, and Onondago Groups, New York. 4. Schoharie Coral- line Limestone. 5. Medina Sandstone. GEOLOGICAL SCHEME. LOWER. British. 1. Caradoc Sandstone. 2. BalaBeds. 3. Llandeillo and Lingula Flags. 4. Longmynd or " Bottom Rocks." Foreign. 1 and 3. Lower stages of Bo- hemian Basin; C and D Barrande. 4. Primordial zone of Barrande ; Slates of Angers, France. 1-4. From Oneida Conglomerates to Potsdam Sandstone inclu- X. CAMBRIAN SYSTEM. f Fossiliferous Schists of } Alum Schists of Sweden ; UPPER. < Wicklow ; Schists and V lowest f ossilif erous rocks of ( Slates of North Wales. J Wisconsin and Minnesota. r Lower Grits and Schists "\ of Dumfries ; and Grits, Hiironian Sandstones and LOWER. < Schists, and Conglome- y rates of Northern High- I lands. Chloritic Schists. and Gneissic XL LAURENTIAN SYSTEM. UPPER. LOWER. / Gneiss and Crystalline "N Gneissic and horneblende J Schists of the Northern I Schists of the St Lawrence j Hebrides ; Hypersthene f and Adirondack Moun- V. rocks of Skye, &c. ) tains. /Gneissic Schists, quartzites, crystalline limestones and (?) \ serpentines of the Lauren- V, tide Mountains, Canada. 64 II. GENEEAL TEEMS AND TECHNICALITIES GENEBAL TEEMS AM) TECHNICALITIES. A ABN A. Tn words derived from the Greek, the prefix a is used privatively, or in a negative sense, and has the effect of the English word ^v^tkout, as apodous, without feet ; acephalous, without a head ; acotyledonous, having no seed-lobes ; and azoic, destitute of organic remains. A'bbeville Flints. Rude flint implements in the form of spear-heads, &c., found in great abundance in the Post- Tertiary sands and gravels of the Somme, in the neighbourhood of Abbeville. These were first discov- ered in 1847, by M. Boucher de Perthes, associated with bones of extinct mammalia in such a way as to lead him to the inference that the flint im- plement makers and the Mammoth (ElepJias primigenius), the Tichorhine Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus Major, Irish Elk (Megaceros ffibernicus), &c., had been contemporaneous an inference that has since been corroborated by similar discoveries in other parts of Europe. Abd6men (Lat. aldo, I conceal). In animals, the belly or cavity contain- ing the viscera. Abdominal. Pertaining to the belly. Abdominales (Lat. aldo, I conceal ; hence abdomen, the belly). In the zoological arrangement of Cuvier, a section of the Malacopterygian, or soft- finned fishes, which have their ventral fins placed on the abdomen, behind the pectorals. The section includes the carps, the silures, the salmons, the herrings, and the pikes. Aberrant (Lat. ab, and erro, I wander from). Applied in natural his- tory classification to those species (" aberrant species") which differ widely from the type of the natural group or family to which they belong, or rather under which they are usually arranged. Abietites (Lat. abies, the fir-tree). A genus of coniferse occurring in the Wealden and Lower Greensand. The genus has been founded chiefly on the fossil cones, which are often found in great perfection these cones being composed of scales that terminate in a point, and not in a rhomboi- dal disc as in Pinus, which see. Abnormal, Abnormous (Lat. ab, from, and norma, a rule). Without rule or order ; irregular ; in a condition differing from that produced in the regular course of nature ; deviating from the general type or form ; not 67 ABO ACA occurring in the usual order, or according to that which is generally con- sidered as the natural law. Abn6rmity. Irregularity, deformity. Aborigines (Lat. ab, from; origo, a beginning or origin). The first or primitive inhabitants of a country ; the original stock (flora or fauna) of any geographical area. Aboriginal. First, primitive, original. Abortive (Lat. abortio, a miscarriage). Failing to arrive at a state of perfection or maturity ; applied in botany and zoology to such organs as appear only in an imperfect or rudimentary state, or which stop short at a certain stage of their growth, and never attain to full or perfect develop- ment. Abranchiata (Gr. a, without, and branchia, gills). Applied to animals which have no apparant external organs of respiration, as the leech, earth- worm, &c., and which respire by the entire surface of the skin, or by inter- nal cavities. The Abranchiala constitute the third order of the Anne- lida of Cuvier. The term Abranchia has also been applied to certain amphibia, as the menopoma and amphiuma, which do not undergo meta- morphosis, but breathe by lungs during the whole of their existence. See BRANCHIA and its compounds. Abrasion (Lat. ab, from, and rasus, rubbed or scraped). The opera- tion of wearing away by rubbing or friction. Currents of water laden with sand, shingle, and other rock-debris are the chief abrading agents in nature. Abrason may also result from the passage of icebergs, the de- scent of glaciers, &c. ; hence the frequency of abraded rock-surfaces in connection with the Boulder-clay. Abrasion, as a geological result, presents some important distinctions, as compared with Denudation and Degradation, which see. A'brazite (Gr. a, without; brazo, to bubble). One of the Zeolite family, known also as zeagonite and gismondine, and so named from its not effer- vescing under the blowpipe. Its crystals occur in hemispherical bundles in the cavities of volcanic rocks ; are of a greyish-white to a reddish-brown or red colour ; and consist essentially of silica, alumina, lime, and potash. Absorbent (Lat. ab, and sorbeo, I suck in). Capable of sucking in fluids ; in geology, applied to soils, rocks, and minerals which have the quality of readily imbibing water into their pores and interstices. Abstergent (Lat. abstergo, I cleanse). Having a cleansing property ; fuller's earth is an abstergent. Acalephse (Gr. akattphe, a nettle). A zoological term for the soft gelatinous radiata known as medusae, sea-nettles, jelly-fish, &c. The term has reference to the property which many of them possess, of causing, when touched, a hot stinging sensation like that produced by the nettle. Acanthodes (Gr. akantha, a spine or thorn). One of Agassiz's genera of ganoid fishes occurring from the lower Old Red Sandstone to the Permian, inclusive, and characterised by its thorn-like ichthyodorulites or fin-spines. The type of the family A canthodidce, in which all the fins are furnished with strong spinous rays the dorsal and anal being single. Acanthopterygian (Gr. akantha, a spine or prickle, and pterygion, a winglet or fin). A term applied to fishes having the back or dorsal fin composed of spiny rays, as the perch, gurnard, &c. The Acanthopterygii constitute one of Cuvier's orders of osseous fishes. Acanthoteiithis (Gr. akdntha, a thorn, and teuthis a cuttle-fish). A genus of fossil cuttle-fishes occurring in oolitic strata} and so termed from the horny booklets that arm their tentacles, which appear to have been ten 63 ACA ACE in number. These booklets, the horny sucking-discs, and internal bones or osselets (belemnites), are'generally the only portions preserved. Acanticonite. An all but obsolete synonyme for pistacite, a sub-species of prismatic augite spar or epidote, which see. Is said to derive its name from Gr. aJc&nthis, a goldfinch, and konis, powder, because the colour of the powdered mineral resembles that of the plumes of the goldfinch. Acaridse or Acarea (Lat. acarus, a mite). The Mite family (so called from the typical genus acarus), to which the mite, the tick, the water-mite, and other minute arachnidans belong. They are chiefly of geological interest from the experiments of Crosse, who imagined he could produce some species (Acarus Crossei, &c.) at will, by passing long-continued cur- rents of electricity through certain siliceous solutions. Accipenseridse (Lat. accipenser, the sturgeon). The Sturgeon family, a well-known but limited group of ganoid fishes belonging to the sub-order Chondrostea or Loricata, and especially characterised by the almost total absence of an osseous vertebral column, and by the presence, in most species, of a strong dermal covering or exo-skeleton consisting of large bony tuberculated plates arranged in rows on the upper surface of the body, and shielding the head as if in solid piece. The existing sturgeons are chiefly of large size, and inhabit the sea, but ascend the larger rivers for the purpose of spawning : the fossil species seem to have been governed by a similar habit, and are found from the lower Tertiaries upwards. Accipitres (Lat. accipiler, a hawk ; from accipere, to seize). The ornitho- logical term for the rapacious birds, such as the eagles, falcons, hawks, c., which seize their prey with their talons. There are two subdivisions, the diurnal and the nocturnal. Their remains occur, though very spar- ingly, from the lower Tertiaries upwards. Acclimatise (Fr. acclimater). To accustom a plant or animal to a climate not natural to it; to accustom to the temperature of a new region. Plants and animals may, within certain limits, become acclimatised, and flourish and increase in a new country, though not indigenous to it. Ac- climated. Accustomed to a climate. Accretion (Lat. accrelio). Increase by external addition of new matter; applied strictly to mineral or inorganic increase. Plants and animals grow by alimentation, or the assimilation of additional matter ; minerals enlarge by accretion. Aceous. Terminations in dceous denote resemblance to, or partak- ing of the qualities of, a substance, as argillaceous, less or more clayey; carbonaceous, partaking of the qualities or appearance of carbon ; sapon- aceous, having a soapy feel. Acephala, Acephalous (Gr. a, without, and kephale, the head). Applied to those mollusca which, like the oyster and scallop, have no distinct head, in contradistinction from the JEncephalous, or those with a distinct head. The division AcepJiala comprehends most of the bivalve molluscs, and several that are destitute of shells in other words, the Irachiopoda, con- chifera, and tunicata. Acescent (Lat. acesco, to become sour). Slightly acid ; having a tendency to pass into an acid state ; applied to substances which, like vegetable and animal juices, become sour spontaneously that is, on exposure to the oxygen of the atmosphere. Acetabulifera (La$. acetab&lum, a sucker, and fero, I bear). Literally " sucker-bearers ; " that section of the cephalopodous molluscs whose arms ACE ACR or tentacles are furnished with rows of little cups or suckers, a character- istic peculiar to Neozoic genera. See tabulations, "MoLLUSCA." Acetabttlum (Lat. a sucker). Applied in zoology to such organs as the cup-like sucking-discs (acetabula) with which the arms of the cuttle-fish are provided. So far as yet known, the arms of the Palaeozoic cephalopods were void of sucking-discs organs abundantly common to Mesozoic and Neozoic genera. A'chmite (Gr. akme, a sharp point). One of the hornblende family oc- curring in the granites and syenites of Norway in long greenish-black pris- matic crystals, which terminate very acutely ; hence the name. It con- sists of 55.6 silica, 32 iron peroxide, and 12.4 soda. A'chroite (Gr. a, without, and chroa, colour). A term employed by Hermann to designate the colourless varieties of tourmaline, as distin- guished from the dark-coloured varieties (Schorl), and from the red (Rubellite). Acicular (Lat. acicula, a little needle). Mineral crystals occurring in slender needle-like prisms or prickles, as actynolite, are said to be acicular. Irregular aggregations of these slender prisms constitute the " acicular texture " of actynolite-rock and actynolite-slate. Aciculite (Lat. acicula, a needle). Needle ore ; a plumbo-cupreous sulphuret of bismuth occurring imbedded in quartz in long, thin, steel- grey crystals, strongly marked with vertical striae, and apparently in four or six-sided prisms. It consists of 35.8 lead, 11 copper, 36.7 bismuth, and 16.5 sulphur, and usually accompanies native gold. Acidaspis (Gr. akis, spear-point, and aspis, buckler). A genus of tri- lobites, so named by Murchison from the central lobe of the head-plate or cephalic shield projecting over the body in the form of a pointed stomacher. Acidulous, Acidulated. Slightly acid or sub-acid. Applied to certain waters and springs that hold in solution a small percentage of sulphuric or other acid. Acin6se (Lat. acinus, a seed or germ). Granulated ; applied to mineral textures and surfaces which have a granulated appearance like the fruit of the raspberry. Acotyledonous (Gr. a, without, and cotyledon, seed-lobe). Plants whose embryos have no seed-lobes or seminal leaves are so termed, in contra- distinction to Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons. See tabulations, "VEGE- TABLE SCHEME." A'crita (Gr. akrltos, indistinct). In some zoological classifications, a primary division of the animal kingdom, comprising the lowest classes of radiata, which are characterised by an indistinct, diffused, or molecular condition of the nervous system The Acrita constitute the Protozoa, the Cryptoneura, the Oozoa, and Globular zoophytes of other systematists. Acrocephalic (Gr. akros, raised to a point, high ; and kephale, the head). High-headed or pyramidal-headed ; e.g., the pyramidal or high- skulled tribes of the human family. A'crodont (Gr. akros, the summit, and odous, tooth). A term applied by Professor Owen to those squamate or loricated saurians whose teeth are anchylosed to the summit of the alveolar ridge. See THECODONT. A'crodus (Gr. akros, the ridge, and odous, tooth). Literally "ridge-tooth;" a genus of Cestraciont fish-teeth occurring abundantly in the Oolitic and Chalk formations, and characterised by their enamelled surface being 70 ACR ADA covered with fine grooves and strise which diverge from a central longi- tudinal ridge. They are known to collectors as fossil leeches, from a fanci- ful resemblance to a contracted leech. Acr6genous (Gr. akros, the top, and ginomai, I am formed). Applied to those cryptogamic plants which increase by growth at the summit, or "growing-point," as the tree-ferns. Acrogens are therefore separated as a great botanical division from Thallogens, Endogens, and Exogens. See tabulations, " VEGETABLE SCHEME." Acrognathns (Gr. akros, high, and gnathos, the jaw). Literally "deep- jaw ; " a genus of fishes from the Lower Chalk, and arranged by Agassiz under the Salmonidce, or Salmon-family. Acrosaurus (Gr. akros, the point or summit, and sauros, lizard). One of the extraordinary fossil reptiles discovered by Mr Bain in the supposed Triassic sandstones of South Africa. It has thirty or forty teeth on the alveolar ridge (hence the name), and a broad process of the cheekbone extending downwards over the side of the lower jaw. Acteosaurus (Gr. akte, the sea-shore, and sauros, lizard). A lacertian reptile of the Chalk period, with concavo-convex vertebrae, remarkably small extremities, and allied to Dolichosaurus (which see), but of consider- ably smaller dimensions. The genus was established by Von Meyer from a finely preserved specimen in the City Museum of Trieste, and so named from its having been found near the Istrian shore, and also from the belief that the creature when living had a littoral habitat. Actinia (Gr. aktin, a ray). The sea-anemone ; so called from the ray- like arrangement of its tentacles, which surround the mouth like the petals of a flower. The Actiniae belong to the class Polypi, or true polypes, and from their structure are sometimes named " Fleshy Polypes." It has been suggested by Dr Mantell that some of the minute siliceous spicules so abundant in Chalk, and commonly ascribed to sponges, may have belonged to Actiniae, in whose structure such organisms also occur. Actin6crinus, Actin6crinite (Gr. aktin, a ray or thorn). A genus of encrinites found chiefly in the Carboniferous limestone, and distinguished by the thorn-like side-arms which project from the main column or stalk at irregular distances. See ENCRINITE. Actynolite, Actin6te (Gr.aktinotos, radiated, and lithos, stone). A mineral occurring in the crystalline rocks, composed of radiating or thorn-like crys- tals of a dark or greenish hue, and in composition closely allied to horn- blende ; in fact, comprehends the glassy fibrous and granular varieties of that mineral. Actynolite-rock and actynolite-schist are the common forms in which the mineral appears the latter consisting of a basis of felspar with intermingled crystals of actynolite. According to Bonsdorf, speci- mens from Taberg consist of 59.75 silica, 21.10 magnesia, 14.25 lime, 3.95 protoxide of iron, with traces of manganese and fluoric acid. A'damant (Gr. adamas, adamantos, unsubdued, strong). An old term given to several minerals having the property of excessive hardness, as to the diamond. Adamantine and Adamantean. Hard as adamant ; exces- sively hard ; having the lustre of diamond. Adamantine Spar. The diamond spar of Werner ; a variety of corundum occurring in rough crystals, with very distinct cleavage, hair-brown colour, and adamantine lustre. Adamic. Of or pertaining to Adam ; Adamic earth, an old term for com- mon red clay, from the belief that the name "Adam" signifies red earth. 71 ADA AER A'dapis (Gr. a, not, and dapis, a carpet). Literally "no-carpet ;" a name given in allusion to its rough or prickly skin. An extinct Tertiary pachy- derm, somewhat resembling a hedgehog, but three times the size of that animal. It seems, according to Cuvier, to have formed a link connecting the Pachyderms with the Insectivora. Adhesion (Lat. ad, and hcero, to stick together). The force of cohesion acting between solid masses which come in contact at many points ; the more intimate the contact the greater the force. Adiautites .(Gr. adiantos, of a dry nature, membranaceous). A genus of fossil ferns found in the Coal-measures, and so termed from their resem- blance to the existing adiantum or maiden-hair. Adipocere (Lat. adeps, fat, and cera, wax). A light, waxy, fatty sub- stance, of a light-brown or whitish-grey colour, into which animal muscle is converted when buried in moist earth, or when subjected to long immersion in water. It is occasionally found in graveyards (hence "grave- wax"), in peat-bogs, and other similar situations ; and is frequently cast up in lumps on the shores of tidal estuaries. It is chiefly margarate of am- monia, and is obviously generated by the reaction of the ammonia upon the margarine and oleine of the animal substances from which it is produced. Adipocerite, or Adipocere Mineral. A fatty unctuous matter found in certain peat-mosses (the "creeshy clods" of the Scotch peat-digger); in connection with ironstone of the Coal-measures, as at Merthyr ; and with sandstone strata, as at Binny in Linlithgowshire. Adit (Lat. ad&tus, an approach or entrance). An underground horizon- tal gallery or tunnel, generally opening from the lower level of a ravine or hill-side into a mine for the purpose of carrying off its waters, or for the purposes of entrance, and removal of the ores. Adularia (Gr. adularos, sweetly-fair, in allusion to its soft lustre). A transparent or translucent variety of potash felspar, known also as ice- spar, with splendid lustre, and either colourless and white, or slightly tinged with grey, green, or yellowish-brown. Specimens with a bluish opalescence are termed Moonstones, which see. JE'chmodiis (Gr. aichme, a point, and odous, tooth). A genus of ganoid fishes belonging to the Lepidoid family, and so named from their small, sharp-pointed teeth. They are almost exclusively confined to the Lias formation, and are readily distinguished by their deeply oval contour their bodies being about as deep as long, and covered with transversely- arranged four-cornered oblong scales. Formerly ranked under the genus tetragonolepis, or " four-cornered scale." JEpy6rnis, 2Epi6rnis (Gr. aipus, immense, and ornis, bird). An extinct cursorial bird of gigantic dimensions, the eggs and a few scattered bones of which have been discovered in the alluvial deposits of Madagascar. The egg has six times the capacity of that of the ostrich ; but judging from the large size of the egg of the New Zealand Apteryx, Professor Owen does not believe that the Mpiornis exceeded, if indeed it equalled, the Dinornis in stature. The bones would seem to indicate a bird at least double the size of the ostrich ; and from their recentness, it appears not improbable that the creature may still be in existence in the interior of the island, which is almost unknown to Europeans. Aerial (Gr. a'er, the air). Of or belonging to the air or atmosphere ; fre- quenting the air ; growing in the air. Sab-aerial. Taking place under 72 AER AFF the air, or on the earth's surface, in contradistinction to Sub-aqueous, or under the water. Aeriform (Lat. a'er, the air, and forma). Air-like ; applied to gaseous fluids, from their resemblance to common air; hence we hear of solid, liquid, and aeriform bodies. Aerolite (Gr. aer, air, and lithos, stone). Literally air- stone ; a meteoric stone or mineral mass, which falls through the air, emitting light in its passage as if red hot, generally accompanied with a hissing or crackling sound, and occasionally with a report like thunder. Aerolites are by no means uncommon ; and according to Schroebers, the greater number of them have always the same general form, which is that of an oblique or slanting pyramid ; and they are also alike in external appearance, present- ing to view a black shining crust, as if the body had been coated with pitch. This crust or film is extremely thin, and is of the same composition with the mass, which, when broken, displays a semi-metallic ash-grey colour. So like are they to one another in colour and in external appear- ance, that Berzelius remarks, " We might believe them to have been struck out of one piece." In composition they are also remarkable for containing malleable metallic iron, nickel, and chrome metals which, in a native state, are rarely if ever found in terrestrial substances. Besides these ingredients, they contain upwards of a dozen others (silica, magnesia potash, cobalt, &c.) ; and their specific gravities range from 3.35 to 4.28. These common characteristics seem to indicate a common origin, and many ingenious arguments have been advanced to prove that they are not of terrestrial production. This is not the place to enter upon such specu- lations, but we may indicate briefly the leading hypotheses that have been advanced to account for the origin of these extraordinary bodies, which cannot in the mean time be associated with any known terrestrial minerals. It has been supposed 1st, That they are ejected from terrestrial vol- canoes ; 2d, That they are produced in the atmosphere, being generated from vapours exhaled from the earth, and containing volatilised metallic products ; 3d, That they are thrown from lunar volcanoes ; and 4th, That they are celestial bodies, revolving either about the earth or the sun, in the manner of planets, and being involved in the earth's influences are carried downwards by the force of gravitation. See METEORITE. .ZErugo (Lat. ces, ceris, copper). Literally copper-rust; verdigris; a sub-acetate of copper formed by the action of weak acids on its sur- face, as that produced naturally by the oxygen and carbonic acid of the atmosphere. .ZEstuary. See ESTUARY. .ffithiops (Gr. aitho, I burn, and ops, the eye or countenance). Applied to various chemical compounds in allusion to their black appearance, re- sembling that of the Ethiop. Thus we have jEthiops mineral, the black sulphuret of mercury ; jEthiops per se, the grey oxide of mercury, &c. JCtites or 2Etites Lapis (Gr. aetos, an eagle). A variety of nodular iron- stone or geode, consisting of concentric layers, and either hollow or contain- ing a loose central core. Is said to derive its name from a popular notion that it was found in eagles' nests, where it was supposed to prevent the eggs from becoming rotten. See EAGLE-STONE. Affinity (Lat. affinis, neighbouring, bordering on, related to). A term frequently, but often very loosely, used by writers on natural history. " Affinity," as first defined by Macleay in contradistinction from "analogy," 73 AFF AGN signifies the relationship which one animal bears to another in its structure, and is the closer as the similarity of structure is greater. Swainson illus- trates this idea by comparing a goatsucker with a swallow and with a bat : with the one its relation is intimate, with the other remote; the goatsucker has affinity with the swallow, inasmuch as the structural organisation of the one bird is intimately related to the other ; but it has only "analogy" to the bat, inasmuch as bird and mammal, though differing in structure, have the common function of feeding in the same manner on insects, and flying at the same hour of the day. See ANALOGY and HOMOLOGT. Affluent (Lat. ad, to, and fluens, flowing). Applied to any stream that flows directly into another the larger or more important being regarded as the recipient, and the smaller the affluent. See TRIBUTARY. After-Damp. Another name for " choke-damp," or carbonic acid, as occurring in coal mines after an explosion of "fire- damp," or light car- buretted hydrogen. Agalmatolite. (Gr. agalma, an image, and lithos, stone). A variety of altered clay or clay-slate (a silicate of alumina with potash), usually brought from China, and so called from its being carved into images and other figures. See FIGURE-STONE and PAGODTTE. Agaric Mineral (Lat. agaricus, a species of fungus). A soft variety of carbonate of lime found in clefts and on other surfaces of rocks, in light and loosely-cohering incrustations. It is so light as to float for a time on water, and obtains its name from its resemblance to a fungus in texture and colour. Agate (said to be from the river Achates in Sicily, where fine varieties occur, and by others from the Phoenician word nakadt, signifying spotted). A mixed, siliceous, semi-pellucid mineral usually found in veins, in nodules, and in geodes within igneous rocks. The geodes often consist of alternating bands or deposits of carnelian, calcedony, jasper, opal, quartz, &c. ; hence the varieties of the mineral are known by such names as ribbon-agate, fortification-agate, brecciated agate, moss-agate, and the like. When cut and polished, the ribbon-agates exhibit the calcedony, jasper, quartz, &c., in parallel stripes; the fortification-agates show the alternating bands in zigzag arrangements like the plan of a modern forti- fication ; the brecciated consist of irregular fragments of the two former imbedded in a matrix of amethyst ; and the moss-agates exhibit minute dendritic ramifications resembling fragments of moss, confervse, &c. ; hence their respective names. The finer varieties of agate are termed oriental ; the Arabian moss-agates are known to the jeweller as mocha-stones; and the most beautiful British varieties, being found in the traps of Scotland, are termed Scotch pebbles. The colouring matter of agates being due to metallic oxides, factitious colours of greater intensity can be produced by heat or by boiling in various chemical solutions. Agglomerate. A term employed by Sir Charles Lyell to designate those accumulations of angular fragments of rock which are thrown up by vol- canic eruptions, and showered to greater or less distances around the cone or crater of eruption. When they are carried to a distance by running water, and get worn and rounded, they become conglomerates. Agnostus (Gr. agnostos, unknown, obscure). A genus of minute trilo- bites supposed to be characteristic of, and peculiar to, the lowest Silurian zones. Little, however, is known of them either as to their zoological characteristics or geological distribution. 74 AIG ALB Aiguille (Fr.) A needle ; applied in physical geography and geology to the sharp serrated peaks of lofty mountains. It is generally the crystalline rocks, such as gneiss, quartz, and the like, which weather into the aiguille or needle-top. Air-course. In coal-mining, a general name for the air-traversing work- ings where ventilation is going on. The fresh air descending into the mine is termed the " intake ; " and that which ascends after having passed through the workings is the "return." Aix, Aix Beds. A town in Provence, situated in a deep valley, the immediate flanks of which are composed of a thick fresh-water Tertiary formation, consisting of greyish- white calcareous marls, calcareo-siliceous grits, and beds of gypsum ; the whole being a perfect storehouse of fossil fishes, plants, and insects. A'kumite Series (Gr. akttmos, tranquil). According to Dr Fleming ('Lith- ology of Edinburgh'), the modern epoch, from the commencement of the Boulder-clay upwards, may be divided into three series viz., the Taragmite, the Akumite, and the Phanerite. The first embraces the Boulder-drift, or period of disturbance; the second, those laminated clays and sands which immediately overlie the Boulder-clay, and seem to indicate the assorting power of water under circumstances of comparative tranquillity; and the third, all those more superficial deposits whose modes and causes of for- mation are sufficiently evident. See MODERN or POST-TERTIARY EPOCH. Alabandine. Sulphuret of manganese or hexahedral glance-blende. It occurs crystalline, but usually massive, granular, and disseminated, of an iron-black colour and semi-metallic lustre. It is found in veins with foliated tellurium, blende, and quartz, in Saxony, Mexico, and Brazil ; and consists of 6.36 manganese, and 36.4 sulphur. Alabaster (Gr. alabastron). There are two well-known varieties of this marble-like mineral the gypseous and the calcareous. The former is a semi-transparent, granular - crystalline variety of gypsum, or sulphate of lime, of various colours, but most esteemed when of a pure snow-white, and usually compact enough to stand the turning-lathe ; the latter is a carbonate of lime (Oriental alabaster), usually white or yellowish-white, and found as a stalactite or stalagmite. Alabaster is a mineral of common occurrence in Secondary and Tertiary formations (Cheshire, Montmartre near Paris, Volterra in Tuscany, &c.) ; and being soft and readily turned by the lathe, is manufactured into statuettes, vases, and other domestic ornaments ; hence, perhaps, the term alabastron, an ink or perfume vase. Others derive it from Alabastron, a town in Egypt famous for the manu- facture of such vases. See GYPSUM. Albani Stone (Lat. lapis albanus). The peperino of the Italians; a well- known volcanic rock, much used at Rome before building with marble became common. See PEPERINO. Albert Coal, Albertite. The name given to a bituminous mineral oc- curring at Hillsboro', Albert County, in the province of New Brunswick, and within four miles of the Peticodiac river. It is an injected vein, cut- ting the associated strata almost vertically, and from one to sixteen feet in thickness. The accompanying rocks are highly charged with bitumen ; but the vein, though called a " coal," has none of the stratigraphical char- acteristics or accompaniments that distinguish coal deposits. The mineral is extremely brilliant, breaks with a conchoidal fracture, does not soil the fingers, and is strongly electric. It melts and drops in the flame of a 75 ALB ALL candle, and dissolves in naphtha and other solvents, forming a varnish. It has all the essential properties of asphalt, while it is void of those which constitute true coal. According to Gesner its composition is carbon 85.4, hydrogen 9.2, nitrogen 3.0, sulphur a trace, oxygen 2.2, and ash 12. Known also as Melanasphalt, which see. Albite (Lat. alba, white). A variety of felspar of a greyish- white or milky-white colour, composed of silex 70.5, alumina 19.5, soda 9.5, and traces of lime and manganese. It is a frequent constituent of granites, syenites, and greenstones, and is known also as Cleavlandite and soda felspar. Album Grsecum. The whitish hardened excrement of dogs, wolves, hysenas, and other carnivora partially feeding on bones. It consists of the earth-of -bones or lime, in combination with phosphoric acid. Dr Buckland (Reliq. Diluv., &c.) detected the substance in a fossil state in ossiferous caverns, such as those of Kirkdale and Kent's Hole, which are therefore concluded to have been, the dens of Tertiary carnivora. More recently, Dr Falconer has found it abundantly in the bone-caves near Palermo, and indicative of animals of greater size than any of the existing hysenas. Alc^onite. A general term for the spongiferous fossils so common in the Chalk formation. They are fossil alcyonia, and very frequently form the basis or organic nucleus round which flints have collected. It has also been surmised by Dr Mantell that some of the minute siliceous spicules so common in the Chalk may have belonged to alcyonia. Alethdpteris (Gr. alethos, true; pteris, fern). One of Sternberg's genera of fossil ferns, closely allied to pecopteris, and merged by Lindley into that genus. It abounds particularly in the lower Coal formation, but some of the species range up through the Oolite and Wealden. See PECOPTERIS. A'lgae (Lat. alga, sea-weed). Cellular aquatic plants, mostly of marine habitat, though many genera are strictly fluviatile or lacustrine. They are found fossil, less or more, in every formation from the Silurian up- wards : and are known by such terms as fucit.es, chondrites, palceochorda, &c., from their resemblance to the living fucus, chondrus, chorda, &c. Algodonite. A new mineral, consisting of copper 83.30, and arsenic 16.23, with a trace of silver ; found in the silver mines of Algodes, near Coquimbo, in Chili whence the name. Alkalies (Arabic, al, the, and kali, the name of a plant yielding the alkali). In chemistry, a class of bodies which possess a strong acrid and caustic taste ; exercise a corrosive action upon all animal matter ; turn vegetable blues green, and vegetable yellows brown, and which neturalise the acids by combining with them in definite proportions, and forming compounds called salts. The principal mineral alkalies are potass, soda, lithia, and ammonia. Alkaline Earths. A term applied to baryta, lime, magnesia, and strontia, in consequence of their possessing alkaline properties, as caus- ticity, action on vegetable colours, and the like. Allanite. A silico-aluminate of cerium, containing varying proportions of iron, lime, and magnesia, &c. It is named after the late Mr Allan, of Edinburgh, and is closely allied to, if not identical with, the cerine and orthite of other mineralogists. Alligator. The generic term for the crocodilians of the American con- tinent, which have abroad, obtuse snout, and the canine teeth of the lower jaw received into a pit of the upper. Kemains of closely allied forms have 76 ALL ALU been found in the Tertiaries of Europe; e.g.,A.Hantoniensis, from the Eocene beds of the Hampshire basin. All6chroite (Gr. allos, different, and cAroa, colour). A fine-grained, massive variety of iron-garnet, so called from the colours it exhibits when melted with phosphate of soda before the blowpipe. Allophane (Gr. allos, different, and phaino, I appear). One of the clay family, consisting essentially of silica, alumina, and water of crystallisation. It occurs in translucent, reniform, or encrusting masses, of a pale blue, white, green, or brown colour ; lustre resinous, and very brittle. All6tropy, Allotr6pic (Gr. allotrSpos, turning otherwise, of a different nature). A term employed by Berzelius to denote the fact that the same body may exist in more than one usual condition, and have different physical characteristics. Carbon is a good example of this condition, as it crystallises perfectly in the diamond, imperfectly in graphite, and is amorphous and quite distinct in anthracite and coal. All6y (Fr. aloi, mixture of one metal with another). A natural or arti- ficial compound of one or more metals ; as brass, an alloy of copper and zinc ; bell-metal, a compound of copper and tin ; bronze, an alloy of copper and tin ; type-metal, an alloy of lead and antimony. Alluvium, Alluvial (Lat. luere, to wash, and ad, together). Matter washed or brought together by the ordinary operations of water is said to be alluvial, and the soil or land so formed is spoken of as alluvivm. The soil of most of our river-plains (the " straths" and " carses" of Scotland, and the "dales" and " holmes" and "fens" of England) is chiefly of alluvial formation ; these low grounds having once been the sites of lakes, estuaries, and shallow arms of the sea. All mud-deposits, as silt, warp, and the like, when converted into dry land, constitute alluvium. See DILUVIUM. A'lmandine. A lapidary's term for the violet or violet-red varieties of the spinel-ruby ; for the noble garnet, which is also of a columbine red approaching to violet ; and for the pyrope or " Elie ruby," which see. Alpine. Pertaining to the Alps, or to any lofty mountain-range; ap- plied to plants and animals whose natural stations and habitats are the higher zones of lofty mountains like the Alps. Alstonite. The baryto-calcite of Johnston, a carbonate of baryta and lime, so called from occurring in the lead mines of Alston Moor, in Cumber- land. See BARYTO-CALCITE. Altaite. Hexahedral tellurium; a metallic ore occurring massive in granular aggregates of a yellowish- white colour, and consisting of 60.35 lead, 1.28 silver, and 38.87 tellurium. It is found mixed with tellur- silver in the Sawodinski mine in the Altai mountains ; hence the name. Alternate Generation. A mode of reproduction, not unfrequent among the radiata, in which the young do not resemble the immediate parent form but that of the grand-parent. The species is thus maintained by an alter- nating series of generations. Alum (Lat. alumen, Gr. als, alos, salt). Alum is a double salt, the sul- phate of alumina and potash, the crystals of which contain nearly 50 per cent of water. Mineralogists mention several varieties, differing slightly in external and other characters, according as one isomorphic element is replaced by another, as potash- alum (34 sulphuric acid, 18 alumina, 10 potash, and 46 water), soda- alum, ammonia-alum, magnesia-alum, andiron or feather alum. The alum of commerce is chiefly manufactured from certain transition slates (Norway), from coal shales (Lanarkshire, &c.), 77 ALU AMA lias shales (Yorkshire), from lignite shales (Germany), and it occurs also in the volcanic formations of Sicily, &c. ; hence the geological terms alum- slate, alum-shale, aluminite, alum-stone, &c. Eocks containing alum in notable proportion generally manifest its presence, when exposed to air and moisture, by emitting whitish or yellowish- white efflorescences of the salt ; and these as well as the water which trickles from the rocks are readily detected by their strong styptic taste. Alumina. The pure plastic principle of clay, which is usually a silicate of alumina. Alumina is, in fact, an oxide of the metal aluminium, consist- ing of aluminium 12, and oxygen 8. Alumina is rarely found in a pure state in nature, and occurs chiefly as the basis of the clays, boles, loams, and other argillaceous earths. In its pure crystallised state it constitutes the sapphire, corundum, and other of our hardest gems. Aluminite. The mineralogical term for the native hydrated sub-sulphate of alumina, which generally occurs in roundish or reniform masses of a white or yellowish- white colour. Aluminum, Aluminium, or Alumium. The metallic base of alumina; as calcium is the metallic base of lime, or sodium of soda. As a metal it is now being prepared to some extent, in France and England, from the Cryolite of Greenland ; and from its lightness and brilliant white colour has been employed, though as yet with very indifferent success, as a sub- stitute for silver. One of its most important applications is the manufac- ture of a bronze, consisting of from 90 to 95 of copper, and from 10 to 15 of aluminium. This bronze is extremely hard and tenacious, and bars of it may be worked hot as easily as the best quality of steel. A'lunite (Fr. alun, alum). Alumstone; occurring in minute rhombo- hedral crystals, but very frequently in fine, granular, earthy, or compact masses, intimately mixed with quartz or felspar. The mineral in its purity consists of about 37 alumina, 39 sulphuric acid, 11 potash, and 13 water ; but the compact rock varies largely in its proportions of silica, some kinds being so silicious as to be suitable for millstones. It is found in Hungary, the Greek Isles, and in many parts of Italy the Roman alum, valued on account of its purity, being chiefly obtained from this mineral by repeated roasting and lixivation. " In volcanic regions," says Nicol, " it is often formed by the action of sulphurous vapours on trachyte, and in other felspar rocks by the decomposition of iron-pyrites." Aliinogene (ahm, alum, and ginomai, I produce). A sulphate of alumina, known also as hair-salt or feather-alum. It occurs in fine capil- lary fibres forming crusts, and irregular botryoidal masses ; has a silky lustre, yellowish-white colour; tastes like alum; and consists of 36.05 sulphuric acid, 15.40 alumina, and 48.55 water. It seems to be, for the most part, a product of chemical changes now in progress ; often forms in volcanic solfataras, or in clays, and felspar rocks containing pyrites ; and is a frequent efflorescence on the walls of quarries and mines. Alveolus (Lat.) A little trough or hollow channel ; applied variously in natural history, as the alveolus or conical chamber of the belemnite. Alveolites. A genus of corals composed of concentrically arranged tables of short tubes, externally angular, and rounded within. Amalgam. A compound of mercury with other metals is termed an amalgam ; the union of any other metal with another, an alloy. Some derive the term from the Greek ama, together, and gameo, I wed ; others with more probability from malagma, a poultice or paste (from malasso, I 78 AMA AMB soften), in reference to the pasty nature of the admixture. A native amalgam (of 36 silver and 64 mercury) occurs in the mines of Sweden, Hungary, Spain, and South America, in fine silver-white plates, crusts, and arborescent forms ; and in America another, under the name of ar- querite, is worked as an ore of silver. Amalgamation. The process of making an amalgam of mercury with some other metal, for the purpose of separating the silver and gold they may contain. This operation is founded on the property which mercury possesses of dissolving these metals out of the minerals with which they are associated. Amazon-Stone. A variety of common felspar coloured green by the oxide of copper, and so named from its occurring in rolled masses near the river Amazon. See AXE-STONE. Amber (Arabic). A well-known fossil gum or gum-resin, usually found in connection with Tertiary lignites. It is hard, rather brittle, easily cut, of various shades of yellow, and semi-transparent. It is very light, becomes negatively electric by friction, and burns, like other hydro-carbons, with much smoke and flame. It consists of about 70 carbon, 12 hydrogen, and 8 oxygen ; and frequently encloses chips of leaves, insects, and the like showing that it must once have been in the state of a gummy or viscous exudation. It occurs in irregular nodules, from the size of a hazel-nut to that of a man's head, the latter size, however, being very rare. It is found in Sicily, Poland, Saxony, Siberia, and Greenland, in Tertiary clays ; on the Yorkshire coast of our own country ; but in particular on the Baltic coast of East Prussia, where it is thrown up after storms, and strewn like pebbles along the shore. It is also, but very seldom, obtained by digging down to the looser beds of the Tertiary lignites in Northern Germany ; and there it appears in connection with coniferous trunks and branches. These forests of Amber Pines (Pinites succinifer) seem to have been situated in the south-eastern part of what is now the bed of the Baltic (about 55 N. lat., and 37 to 38 E. long.), and were probably destroyed at the com- mencement of the Drift period. Ambergris (Fr. Grey -amber, in allusion to its amber-like character). An odorous solid substance, supposed by some to be a morbid secretion from the liver or intestines of the spermaceti whale, analogous to the biliary calculi ; and by others, to be merely the indurated faeces of the animal, perhaps somewhat altered by disease. It is usually found floating or cast on shore, in irregular lumps. No analogous fossil substance is yet known to geologists. Amblygonite (Gr. amblygonios, having an obtuse angle). A phosphate of alumina and lithia occurring in granitic rocks, either massive or in oblique rhombic prisms, which are rough externally and of a greenish- white or sea-green colour ; translucent ; with a vitreous lustre inclining to pearly. Amblypterus (Gr. amUys, blunt, and pteron, fin). Literally "blunt or broad fin ; " a genus of ganoid fishes belonging to the Lepidoid family, occurring in the Carboniferous formation, and characterised, as the name implies, by their very large and wide fins, composed of numerous rays. Scales rhomboidal and highly enamelled ; tail boldly heterocerque. Amblyiirus (Gr. amblys, blunt, and tnira, a tail). Literally "blunt or broad tail ; " a genus of Lepidoid fishes, found fossil in the Lias formation, and so named from the full development of the caudal fin. 79 AMB AMM Ambulacra (Lat. ambulacrum, an avenue or walking-place). The per- forated series of plates in the crust of the sea-urchins, through which the walking-feet are protruded, and which form marked bands or zones on the exterior when the crust is denuded of its spines. Ambulacra!. Applied to these plates in contradistinction to the imperforate qr interamlulacral ones. A'methyst. Quartz or rock-crystal, coloured by a minute portion of iron and manganese. The amethyst is a transparent gem of a purple or violet-blue colour ; it is sometimes naturally colourless, and may at any time be deprived of its colour by the action of heat. Some derive the name from its colour, which resembles wine mixed with water ; while others think it obtained its name (Gr. a, priv., and methystes, drunkard), from its supposed virtue of preventing intoxication, and hence worn by topers as an amulet. Amethystine. Possessing the properties of an am- ethyst ; having that violet-blue tinge or colour peculiar to the amethyst, as "Amethystine Quartz." Amethystoline. The name given to the volatile fluid observed by Sir David Brewster in the minute cavities of amethyst. AmiantMnite. A massive variety of actinolite, of a yellowish-grey or ash colour, and having a confusedly foliated and fibrous fracture, whence the name. Amianthus (Gr. a, priv., and miaino, to soil). This term, though often used as synonymous with asbestos, properly includes only the varieties which occur in delicate and regular silky fibres. The name is said to be derived from the incombustible nature of the mineral, which, when woven into cloth, admits of being cleansed by being thrown into the fire. That small fancy fabrics can be manufactured of amianthus is well known : it was occasionally so employed by the ancients, and is still used for that purpose in Siberia, Italy, and the Pyrenees. It is also employed as incom- bustible lamp- wicks ; for filling gas-grates the fibres remaining red-hot without being consumed ; and attempts have been made to manufacture it into an incombustible paper. Amianthus is found abundantly in many countries, particularly in primitive districts ; and occurs in veins in which the filaments or fibres are perpendicular to the surfaces of the vein, and of various lengths, according to the thickness of the vein, which is sometimes, though rarely, a foot. Like the Hornblendes, to which it belongs, it con- sists chiefly of silica (58), magnesia (25), lime (12), with traces of alumina, iron, manganese, and water. See ASBESTOS. Amianthiform and Amian- thoid. Having the form or likeness of amianthus. Ammite (Gr. ammos, sand). An old mineralogical term for roestone or oolite, and indeed for all those sandstones composed of rounded and loosely compacted grains like oolite. Ammonia. A transparent pungent gas, formed by the union of nitrogen and hydrogen, and named from sal-ammoniac (muriate of ammonia), of which it forms the basis. Ammonia is of geological interest, as being one of the products given off by active volcanoes. See SAL-AMMONIAC. A'mmonite. The fossil shell of a numerous and varied genus of cephalo- podous mollusca, coiled in a plane spiral, and chambered within like the existing nautilus ; so called from the resemblance of the shell to the horns on the statue of Jupiter Ammon. " Cornu Ammonis," " Whitby snakes," and "snakestones," are obsolete synonymes. See AMMONITID^S. In the ammonites proper, the shell is discoidal ; inner whorls more or less con- cealed ; septa undulated ; sutures lobed and foliated ; siphuncle dorsal. 80 AMM AMP The range of the genus is from the Trias to the Chalk inclusive ; and already upwards of 500 species have been described. These have been arranged by paleontologists (Von Buch and D'Orbigny) into six sections, according as the back of the shell is keeled, crenated, sharp, channeled, squared, or round and convex ; and these sections have been again divided into fifteen groups, according to form, armature, sutures, or other peculiarity. They are as follows : 1. Arietes. \ 2. Falciferi. V Back keeled. 3. Cristati. ) **- ted - 6. Disci Back sharp. 7. Dentati. Back channeled. 8. Armati. ") 9. Capricorni. V Back squared. 10. Ornati. ) 11. Heterophylli. \ 12. Ligati. 13. Annulali. \ Back round, convex. 14. Coronati. 15. Fimbriati. } Figures of these types or groups are given by D'Orbigny, and on the Palae- ontological Map of the British Islands in Johnston's ' Physical Atlas.' Ammonitidae. A numerous extinct family of tetrabranchiate cephalo- pods of which the well-known ammonite is the type. The family ranges from the Devonian to the Chalk inclusive, becoming extremely abundant and varied in form in the upper Secondary formations. It includes the goniatites, bactrites, ceratites, ammonites proper, criocerites, toxocerites, ancy- locerites, scaphites, heliocerites, turrilites, hamites, ptychocerites, and baculites, which see. In the Ammonitidse the shell is external and many-chambered ; body-chamber elongated ; aperture guarded by processes, and closed by an operculum ; sutures angulated, lobed, or foliated ; siphuncle ex- ternal (or dorsal as regards the shell). The shell has essentially the same structure as that of the nautilus a porcellanous layer externally, and a nacreous lining internally. In some species of ammonite the shell is armed with prominent spines or tubercles ; and in others the outer margin is furnished with curious projecting processes. The Ammonitid, in one or other of their genera, are perhaps the most remarkable of Secondary mollusca. See CEPHALOPODA. Amorphous (Gr. a, without, and morphe, form). Applied in geology and mineralogy to rock-masses and minerals that have no regular or determi- nate structure, in contradistinction from those which, like basalt and rock- crystal, always appear in some definite form. Void of structure ; massive. Amorphozoa (Gr. a, without ; morphe, form ; and 20071, an animal). The lowest class of the animal kingdom, containing the sponges and their allies ; so called from their want of regular symmetrical structure. Fossil remains of this class occur in notable abundance in the Chalk formation. A'mpelite (Gr. ampelos, the vine). A term used by Brongniart for alum- slate, which occurs both in the metamorphic and fossiliferous series. Amphi. A Greek prepositional prefix signifying about, on both sides, near to, or concerning ; and frequently used to imply doubt as to which of 81 P AMP AMY two sides, or to which of two things, the object in question belongs ; as amphibious, capable of living either in the water or on land. Amphibia (Gr. amphi, both, and bios, life). Applied to animals capable of living either in water or on land ; but in zoology more strictly to those batrachians or frog-like reptiles the axolotls, menobranchi, sirens, and proteus which have both lungs and gills, and consequently adapted for life in either element. Amphibichnites (amphibia, animals capable of living on land or in water, and ichnon, a footstep). The generic term for fossil footprints that seem to have been impressed by the feet of amphibious reptiles as they passed over the soft yielding beach to and from the waters. Amphibole and Amphibolite. The names usually given by French geologists to Hornblende and Hornblende Rock, which see. The terms are derived from the Greek amphibolos, ambiguous or equivocal, in allusion to the difficulty of distinguishing hornblende from augite, which is similarly constituted. Amphicyon (Gr. amphi, implying doubt, and Jcuon, dog). A large car- nivorous quadruped, found principally in miocene Tertiaries, and so termed from its intermediate position between the digitigrade and plantigrade families, as indicated by its tuberculated molars or carnassial teeth. A'mphigens (Gr. amphi, all around, and ginomai, I am formed). Plants which increase by the growth or development of their cellular tissue on all sides, as the lichens. See tabulations, " VEGETABLE SCHEME." Amphilestes (Gr. amphi, implying doubt, and lestes, beast of prey). A small quadruped of doubtful relationship, only the lower jaw of which has yet been found in the Stonesfield oolite, Oxfordshire. From the structure of its teeth the molars having three cusps, the large middle one of which has two small accessory tubercles or cuspules it is supposed to be an in- sectivorous marsupial, allied perhaps to amphitherium. AmpMpeltis (Gr. amphi, doubtful, and peltis, provided with a shield or buckler). A provisional genus of small crustaceans from the Devonian rocks of Nova Scotia, and so called from the doubtful affinity of its frag- mentary carapace and segments to any existing order. Apparently allied to the phyllopods. Amphistegina (Gr. amphi, on both sides, and stege, a roof). A genus of foraminiferous shells, occurring abundantly in the Tertiary basin of Vienna, and so termed from the flatly conical or roof-like aspect both of its upper and under surface. According to D'Archiac, it takes the same place among the foraminifera of the Miocene era which the nummulites occupy in the Eocene period. Amphitherium (Gr. amphi, implying doubt, and therion, wild beast). An insectivorous mammal of the Oolitic epoch, whose teeth and jawbones have been found in the Stonesfield slate of Oxfordshire. The doubt that hangs over the tme affinities of these remains (whether marsupial or placental) has necessitated the provisional name of amphitherium. Aniphoracrinus (Lat. amphora, a cup or goblet.) A genus or rather sub- genus of Carboniferous crinoids, chiefly distinguished by the arrangement of their radial plates. The "cup" or body of this genus is small and shallow as in actinocrinus, to which it is closely related. Amygdaloid (Gr. amygdalon, an almond, and eidos, appearance). This term is applied to certain igneous rocks containing small almond-shaped vesicular cavities, either partially or entirely filled with agate, jasper, calc- 82 ANA spar, and other minerals. These minerals being of a different colour from the mass of the rock in which they are imbedded, look like almonds in a cake ; hence the terms amygdaloid and amygdaloidal. The amygdaloids as "amygdaloidal trap-tuff," "amygdaloidal wacke," &c. are especially abundant in the Trap series, and many of them seem to have originally been open vesicular lavas, through which water charged with siliceous and calcareous solutions had percolated for ages, until, finally tilling up the cavities with the agates, calc-spars, &c., already alluded to, they became the amygdaloids in question. Anadromous (Gr. ana, upwards, and dromos, a flight or running). Liter- ally "running up;" applied in zoology to aquatic animals which, like the salmon and sturgeon, periodically forsake the waters of the ocean and ascend into fresh-water lakes and rivers for the purpose of spawning. Fishes are thus spoken of as marine, fresh-water, and anadromous, the two former never quitting their native elements, and incapable of subsist- ing in any other, and the latter possessing the power and habit already alluded to. Anal (Lat. anus). Pertaining to or situated near the anus, as the anal fin. The anal fin in fishes is that which is placed between the vent and tail, and expands vertically downwards. A'nalcime (Gr. a, without, and alkimos, strong). A zeolitic mineral found abundantly in trappean rocks, and so named by Haiiy on account of its feebly electric properties. A specimen from Kilpatrick Hills consisted (according to Connel) of silica 55.07, alumina 22.23, soda 13.71, potash and lime a trace, and water 8.22. A'nalogue (Gr. ana, with, and logos, reasoning). An object that has a re- semblance to, or correspondence with, another. "Analogue" has reference to similarity of function; "homologue" to identity of parts. Thus, the wing of a bird and the dermal expansion of a bat are analogues, because they each enable their respective possessors to fly or sustain themselves in the air ; but the wing-bones of the bird and the arm-bones of the quadruped are homologues, being anatomically identical. Analogue and homologue (which see), and analogo^ls and homologous, are contradistinguishing terms. Analogy (Gr. ana, with, and logos, reasoning). That relationship, re- semblance, or correspondence which one object bears to another in functional duty or performance. For the precise differences between analogy, affinity, and homology, see these terms. Ananchytes. A genus or subdivision of fossil sea-urchins belonging to the tribe Spatangidce, and especially characteristic of the upper Chalk formation. They are readily distinguished by their elevated helmet-like form, by their simple ambulacra converging towards the summit, and by the transverse mouth and oblong outlet situated on the inferior face of the flat base, and towards the margin. Known in the south of England as " shepherd's crowns," and "fairy-loaves." See SPATANGID^B. Andstomose (Gr. ana, and stoma, mouth). To inosculate, to unite the mouth of one vessel with that of another, as the arteries with the veins ; hence such vessels are said to be anastomosing, or running one into the other. A'natase (Gr. anatasis, stretching forth). Another name for pyramidal titanium ore, or octcedrite, which is all but a pure oxide of titanium. Anatase is remarkable for its electrical properties ; occurs in the granitic and crystalline rocks ; of a dark indigo blue, hyacinth red, or yellowish-brown colour; and in elongated pyramidal crystals whence the name. ANC ANI Anchorage or Anchor-ground. Any portion of a bay, estuary, channel, or arm of the sea, where the bottom is unimpeded by rocks, and the water of a suitable depth for ships riding at anchor. Ancyloceras (Gr. ankulos, incurved ; keras, horn). A genus of the Am- monitidse peculiar to the Oolite and Chalk, and so named from the singular shape of the shell, which is at first discoidal, with separate whorls, after- wards produced at a tangent, and bent back again like a hook or crosier. Andaliisite. One of the garnet family, found chiefly imbedded in mica- schist, or in druses in other crystalline rocks, and so called from its being- first discovered in Andalusia. It occurs for the most part in large pris- matic crystals ; is always coloured, grey to green, flesh of peach-blossom red, violet blue or reddish-brown ; and consists of 40 silica and 60 alumina, with traces of iron, manganese, and lime. A'ndesite. The name given by Gustavus Rose to a trachyte of the Andes, which contains the felspar called Andesine, together with glassy felspar (orthoclase) and hornblende disseminated through a dark-coloured Andrias. The generic name given by Cuvier to the great aquatic Sala- mander, from the Miocene fresh- water beds of GEningen, whose remains in 1700 were supposed to be human, and described by Scheuchzer as " homo diluvii testis." Anemometer (Gr. anemos, the wind, and metron, a measure). An instru- ment for determining the direction and measuring the force and velocity of the w inds, which see. A'neroid (Gr.) Literally without fluid. In the aneriod larometer the pres- sure of the atmosphere is measured by the elevation or depression of the surface of a closed metallic vessel partially exhausted of air. The pres- sure of the atmosphere being marked at a given time, any alteration is indicated by the movements of the surface of the thin corrugated metal, and communicated to wheels marking the change on a dial furnished with an index. Being easily carried about, the aneriod is extremely useful in enabling the geologist and traveller to approximate the relative heights of situations. Angiosperms (Gr. angeion, a vessel, and sperma, seed). Plants whose seeds are encased, or in seed-vessels, in contradistinction to gymnosperms. See tabulations, " VEGETABLE SCHEME." Anhydrite (Gr. a, without, and hydor, water). A transparent gypsum or sulphate of lime occurring in a crystalline form without water of crystal- lisation. Anhydrite occurs chiefly with rock salt and gypsum, or in the clays associated with these deposits. The fine crystalline varieties are known as muriacite the granular asvulpinite; and all are much harder and heavier than ordinary gypsum, into which, however, they become con- verted by the slow absorption of water. Anhydrous (Gr. a, without, and hydor, water). Without water ; applied to minerals which do not contain water as an ingredient. Without water of crystallisation. The opposite of Enhydrous. Animalcules (Lat., diminutive of animal). A general term in zoology for exceedingly minute animals which cannot be stiidied without the assistance of the microscope. Speaking of the fossil animalcules of the Chalk, Dr Mantell remarks that " for the most part the microscopic shells in chalk and flint are filled with amorphous mineral matter; but recent observations have shown that in numerous examples the shell contains the 84 ANN ANO body of the animal, in some instances silicified, but in others in the state of a dried animal substance like the ink-bag of the cuttle-fish in lias, the soft part of cephalopoda in clay, and the capsule of the eye, and the membranes of the stomach of certain fishes in chalk." Annealing. The process by which glass and porcelain are rendered less brittle, and by which the metals become tougher and more malleable. It is performed by placing the materials to be operated on in furnaces or ovens heated to a certain temperature, and then allowing them to cool gra- dually and slowly. During the process the molecular arrangement of the material undergoes a change analogous to what takes place in lava, which forms granular or glassy rocks according to the rapidity with which it is cooled the quicker the process, the glassier and more brittle the product. Annellida (Lat. annellus, a little ring). Annelids. One of the classes of the animal kingdom having their bodies formed of a great number of small rings like the earth-worm, a double-ganglionated nervous cord, and red blood. They have been variously subdivided ; but that arrangement which ranks them as Errantia, walking or swimming annelids, like the nereis; Tiibicola, those which inhabit solid tubes, like the serpula ; Terricola, those burrowing in the earth, as the earth-worm (lumbricus); and Suctoria, those furnished with a sucking cavity at each end, like the leech (kirudo), is perhaps the most intelligible. The casts, and tracks, and burrow-holes of annelids occur in all formations, arenicolites, scolites, &c. Annularia (Lat. anmilus, a ring). A genus of fossil herbaceous plants with verticillate foliage like asterophyllites, but having the whorls arranged on the same plane with the stems on which they grew. It is supposed that they were aquatic plants, and that the stems and leaves floated on the surface of the water. Annul6sa (Lat. anmilus, a ring). A designation given by Macleay to the Articulata, in allusion to their ringed or annulated bodies. The term in this sense is seldom employed by other zoologists. A'nodon, Anod6nta (Gr. a, priv., and odous, odontos, a tooth). The swan mussel ; a genus of the Unionidce or river mussels, deriving its name from the circumstance that its shell has no teeth or articular processes at the hinge. Recent and fossil. Anomalous (Gr. a, not, and omalos, like to, or similar). Irregular, deviating from a general rule, order, method, or analogy. Anomaly. Ir- regularity, deviation from the common rule. Anomodontia (Gr. anomos, irregular, and odous, a tooth). One of Pro- fessor Owen's orders of extinct reptiles, embracing three families the Dicynodonts, Cryptodonts, and Gnathodonts and apparently restricted to the Triassic period. The order is characterised by the teeth being either wanting, or confluent with tusk-shaped premaxillaria, or confined to a single pair in the upper jaw, having the form and proportions of canine tusks. The vertebrae are bi-concave, the pleura-pophyses of the trunk long and curved, the pelvic bones large, and the limbs formed for walking. Anom6pteris (Gr. anomos, without rule, and pteris, fern). Literally " anomalous fern," and so named because the plants differ from all recent and fossil ferns. In this genus, which is peculiar to the New Red Sand- stone, the leaves are very large, and deeply pinnate ; the leaflets long, linear, entire, and traversed by a distinct median rib ; the secondary veins are simple, perpendicular to the mid-rib, and thickening towards their free extremities. ANO ANT Anomoiira, Anomura (Gr. anomos, irregular, without rule ; and oura, tail). A family or sub-order of the decapod crustaceans characterised by their irregular tails e.g., the hermit-crab and so named in- contradistinc- tion to the brachyurous or short-tailed crabs, and the macrurous or long- tailed lobsters, &c. Anoplotherium (Gr. a, without ; oplon, weapon ; and therion, beast). A genus of quadrupeds found in European Tertiaries, and so called from being destitute of any organs of defence, as tusks, claws, or horns. The common anoplothere (A . commune) has been taken as the type of a small family, the ANOPLOTHEKID^;, which seem to constitute a sort of transi- tion from the pachyderms to the ruminants. There are several species, from the size of a hare to that of a dwarf ass ; and from the situations in which they are found, they appear to have lived in herds, in swamps and marshes. In some the tail is long and thick, as if it had assisted the animal in swimming, in others it is short and taper ; in all, the legs are slender, and the feet terminate in two large toes as in the ruminants, while their tarsal bones resemble those of the camel. Their dentition is peculiar there being six incisors in each jaw, on each side of which was a small canine, and behind these (without leaving any interval) seven molars, re- sembling those of the rhinoceros. According to Cuvier, the anoplothere stands in one respect between the rhinoceros and horse, and in another be- tween the hippopotamus, hog, and camel. An6rtliite (Gr. a, without, and orthos, upright). One of the felspar family ; and so called (without right angles) to distinguish it from orthoclase, two of whose cleavages are at right angles to each other. Anoiira (Gr. a, without, and oura, tail). Tailless ; a class of the batra- chian reptiles, including the frog, toad, &c., which are all anourous, or destitute of tails. See tabulations, "ANIMAL SCHEME." _ Antagonist Forces. Two powers in nature, one counteracting the other, and preserving a general equilibrium on or within the earth's crust ; e.g., fire and water. Antarctic (Gr. and, opposite, and arctic). Applied to the regions sur- rounding the South Pole, as being directly opposite to those of the Arctic or North Pole; hence we speak of the "Antarctic Circle," "Antarctic Seas," &c. Antholites or Antholithes (Gr. anthos, flower, and lithos, stone). The general term for the fossil inflorescence of plants, or rather the impress of their flowers. Such inflorescence occurs in the shales of the Coal-measures, and more abundantly in Tertiary strata. The affinities of the Palaeozoic antholites are altogether undetermined ; those of the Tertiary epoch seem related to the Liliacece and other existing orders. Anthophyllite (Gr. anthos, flower, and phyllon, a leaf). A species of hornblende (tremolite), of a clove-brown colour, occurring in radiating columnar aggregates ; and so named from the resemblance of its colour to that of the anthophyllum, or clove. A'nthracite (Gr. anthrax, carbon). A species of coal almost wholly de- prived of its bitumen. It may be regarded as a natural coke or charcoal, formed by subterranean or chemical heat. Ordinary bituminiferous coal is often found converted into a kind of coke by the contact of igneous rocks ; and in this way some anthracites may have originated, though the majority seem to be the result of that slow change or metamorphosis which all rock- masses seem to undergo in the course of ages. As a mineral, anthracite ANT occurs massive and amorphous (though portions have occasionally a slaty, columnar, or fibrous structure), has a sub-conchoidal fracture, less or more of a metallic lustre, or a greyish-black or iron-black colour, streak un- altered, conducts electricity perfectly, and burns open with a very weak or no flame. It varies greatly in composition, though good American sorts generally yield about 90 cabron, 3 hydrogen, 5 ashes, and the remainder oxygen and hydrogen. Submitted to the microscope, either in thin slices or in a state of ash, many varieties exhibit the vegetable structure, and leave no doubt as to the organic origin of all. Though not so convenient in an industrial point of view as ordinary coal, anthracite is gradually rising in importance for the manufacture of the metals, steam-raising, and even for household purposes the United States at present consuming annually about six millions of tons. " It is very common " (Nicol's ' Man. of Mineral.') "in many parts of the English, Scottish, and Irish coal-fields. It forms whole beds in the Alps, as in the Valais, Piedmont, Savoy, and Dauphine* ; in the Pyrenees ; and in various parts of France. In Germany it occurs in Silesia, Bohemia, Saxony, and the Harz, but not in very large amount. It is especially abundant in the United States, as in Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and above all in Pennsylvania, where it seems to be an altered portion of the common bituminous coal of the Western States." See COAL FAMILY. Anthraconite (Gr. anthrax, coal). A mineralogical term applied to those varieties of marble which, like the Kilkenny, have a coal-black lustre when polished. Most of the black marbles contain bitumen, and yield a sulphureo-bituminous odour when struck by the hammer ; and in this case, like other fetid limestones, are known as swinestones or stinksteins. Anthracopalaemon (Gr. anthrax, coal ; palcemon, prawn). A genus of macrurous crustacean, from the Carboniferous formation of Lanarkshire, and founded by Mr Salter on the carapace, and some other fragments from the Shotts coal-field. Carapace rectangular-oblong, serrate in front and along the sides, with a faint cervical furrow at the anterior third. Rostrum strong, projecting ; posterior ridge prominent, complete to the hinder margin, separated abruptly from the rostrum by the transverse furrow. See PAL^EOCRANGON. Anthracosaiirus (Gr. anthrax, coal, and sauros). Literally "coal- saurian ; " a large labyrinthadont saurian occurring in some abundance in the coal-fields of Lanarkshire, and founded by Professor Huxley, in 1862, on a beautifully preserved skull, with palatine surface, exhibiting all the teeth in situ, from the black-band ironstone of Airdrie. This skull (see ' Geological Journal') was 15 inches long, by 12 inches in width ; but frag- ments since discovered indicate individuals nearly double these dimensions. Anthracotherium (Gr. anthrax, coal, and therion, beast). A fossil pachy- dermatous animal, first found in the Tertiary lignites or wood-coals of Cadibona in Liguria; hence the name. So far as yet determined, the genus seems to stand intermediate between river-hog and hippopotamus. In the lignites of Savone, remains of carnivora, marsupialia, bats, birds, crocodiles, tortoises, and fish occur along with those of the anthracothere. Anthrakerpeton (Gr. anthrax, coal ; erpeton, lizard). A genus of rep- tiles, founded by Professor Owen, in 1864, on some remains (teeth, ribs, and portions of the cranial bones) from the coal-field of Glamorganshire. According to its describer, this small reptile "belonged to that low, pro- bably primitive, air-breathing type, which, with developmental condi- 87 ANT APA tions of the bones like those in some fishes, and very common in Devonian fishes, showed forms of the skeleton more resembling those in saurian reptiles than are attained by any of the more specialised batrachian air- breathers of the present day." Anthrop6graphy. That branch of physical geography which treats of the distribution of the human species, as distinguished by physical features, language, institutions, and customs. Anthropoid (Gr. anthropos, man, and eidos, form). Resembling the human form ; applied, for example, to those species of the monkey tribe (the "anthropoid apes ") that most closely approach to the form of man. Anthrdpolite (Gr. anthropos, man, and lithos, stone). A petrifaction of the human body ; a term which has been applied to the petrified human bones from Guadaloupe and other localities. These remains can scarcely be considered fossil, or even sub-fossil ; but must be regarded in the same light as any recent petrifaction produced by the incrusting action of calcareous waters. Anthropology. Literally a discourse or reasoning about human nature ; the science that treats of man in a natural history point of view ; the natural history of the human species, physiological, intellectual, and moral. Anthropological. Pertaining to the science or natural history of Man. Anticlinal (Gr. anti, on opposite sides, and klino, I bend). Applied to strata which dip in opposite directions from a common ridge or axis, like 'the roof of a house, and form what is termed an "anticline" or " saddle- back." Syncline and Synclinal are the opposite terms, which see. A'ntimony. One of the metals, of a tin- white colour, with a greyish or yellowish tarnish ; somewhat sectile, but so brittle as to be easily reduced to powder by trituration ; fuses at 900, and has a specific gravity of 6.712. The most abundant ore is the sulphuret of antimony, occurring in veins in the older Secondary and Transition strata. The metal is used in medicine, but principally to form alloys with other metals, as type-metal, which is a compound of lead and antimony. The name is derived by some from the Greek words anti and monos, signifying that it is never found by itself, but in combination with other metals ; and by others from antimoine, that is "anti-monk," in allusion to a ridiculous story told of Basil Valentine, its discoverer in 1620, who, observing that hogs fattened rapidly on receiving small doses of it, administered it to his fellow-monks, but unluckily in such proportions as to prove fatal to them ; hence the term anti-moine. Antipodes (Gr. anti, opposite, and pous, podos, foot). Applied to those who dwell on opposite sides of the globe, as having their feet opposed to each other. Those dwelling in New Zealand, for example, are the anti- podes of those in Britain. Antiseptic (Gr. anti, opposed to, and sepo, I putrefy). Substances which, like common salt and tannin, prevent putrefaction in animal and vegetable matter, are said to be antiseptics, or to possess antiseptic properties. Apateon (Gr. a cheat; deceptive). The name originally proposed by Von Mayer for the then imperfect remains of the arcliegosaurus ; because, so far as the fragments admitted of discrimination, "its head might be that of a fish, as well as that of a lizard or of a batrachian." See ARCHE- GOSAUEUS. Apatite (Gr. apate, deceptive). A genus of calcareous earths, composed of 55.75 lime, and 44.25 phosphoric acid ; hence known as phosphates of lime. In most varieties hydrochloric acid is also present, from a mere 88 APR APO trace up to 2.10 per cent. Apatites are of various colours, white, yellow- ish-white, greenish-white, brown, blue, &c., and occur both massive and crystallised. From their fracture, &c., they are spoken of as foliated, conchoidal, and massive the massive having an uneven fracture, and being generally known by the name of "phosphorite." Apatite occurs in connection with metalliferous veins in the metamorphic and granitic rocks, and is found in Cumberland, Devon, and Cornwall ; in Spain, Germany, Norway, and America. The phosphorites of Spain and Norway have recently acquired additional interest from the proposal to employ them in the preparation of phosphatic manures a purpose to which the phosphatic nodules of the English greensand have been applied with eminent success. According to Daubeny, the phosphorite of Estramadura consists of 81.15 phosphate of lime, 14.00 fluoride of calcium, 3.15 peroxide of iron, 1.70 silica, and 0.2 per cent chlorine. There is also a talc-apatite or magnesian- apatite, found in the Ural Mountains, which is probably a decomposed apatite the lime being replaced to the extent of from 6 to 8 per cent by magnesia. From their variety of colour, fracture, &c., the apatites are apt to be mistaken for other minerals ; hence the designation deceptive. A'phanite (Gr. aphanes, not discernible). A compact homogeneous rock of the Trap family, breaking with a smooth surface like some basalts, and consisting of hornblende, quartz, and felspar, in combination so intimate, that they are individually ^lndiscernible ; hence the name. It is known also as cornean (cornu, a horn), in allusion to its toughness and compact texture. Aphelion (Gr. apo, from ; kelios, the sun). The point in a planet's orbit at which it is farthest from the sun ; its perihelion being the point at which it is nearest. A'phrite (Gr. apkros, froth or foam). Known also as earth-foam and foam-spar. A fine scaly variety of calcareous spar or carbonate of lime, having a shining pearly lustre and somewhat greasy feel. Found in veins and cavities in various formations. Apiocrinite (Gr. apion, a pear, and encrinite, which see). A sub-genus of encrinites, distinguished by their pear-shaped receptacle, and peculiar to the Chalk and Oolitic formations. In the Pear Encrinite the roots seem to have been confluent, the stem round and of moderate length, the digestive cavity pear-shaped, the arms rather short than slender. "When living," says Dr Buckland (' Bridgewater Treatise '), " their roots were confluent, and formed a thin pavement or crust over the bottom of the sea, from which their stems and branches rose into a thick submarine forest, com- posed of those beautiful zoophytes. Its stems and bodies are occasionally found united, as in their living state ; the arms and fingers have almost always been separated ; but their dislocated fragments still remain cover- ing the pavement of roots that overspreads the surface of the subjacent Oolitic limestone." A'podal (Gr. a, without, pous, podos, foot). Literally without feet; ap- plied in zoology to those fishes which, like the eel, sword-fish, wolf- fish, &c., are destitute of ventral fins. The Apodes constitute the fourth order in Cuvier's arrangement, but merely a sub-order in more recent systems. A'pogee (Gr. apo, from ; ge, the earth). That point of the moon's orbit in which she is farthest from the earth ; her perigee being the point in which she is nearest the earth. Apophyllite (Gr. apophyllizo, to strip off leaves). One of the Zeolite APO ARA family, known also as ichthyopUkalmite or fish-eye-stone, and deriving its present name from its lamellar or leaf -like texture, and ready exfoliation under the action of ttte blowpipe. It consists of 52.7 silica, 26 lime, 4.4 potash, and 16.7 water. Ap6physis (Gr. springing from, of the same nature). A process of a bone, and part of the same bone; and in this respect differing from epiphysis, which is a process attached to a bone, and not a part of the same bone. A'pteryx (Gr. a, without; pteryx, a wing). Literally " wingless ;" a rare cursorial bird peculiar to New Zealand, and apparently approaching the verge of extinction. The existing apteryx, or "kiwi," of which there are two or three species, is little larger than a Guinea-fowl ; but an extinct species, the palapteryx, has been found in the ancient river-silts of New Zealand, rivalling in size the emeu and ostrich. A'ptychus (Gr. a, without, and ptyche, fold). A term applied by some authors to the shelly or horny organisms better known as trigonellites, which see. The name Aptychus refers to the plates or valves being with- out fold or hinge. Aquaf6rtis. Literally strong water ; a familiar term for nitric acid, in allusion to its power of dissolving the metals. Aqua Marine. A lapidary's designation for the finest beryls, in allusion to the varying shades of " sea-green" which they usually present. See BERYL. Aqua Regia. Literally royal water ; a designation of the alchemists for nitro-muriatic acid, from its property of dissolving gold, the "king of the metals." Aquatic (Lat. aqua, water). Relating to the water; having its habitat or usual position in water. Applied to plants which, like the water-lily, grow in water, and to animals which, like the diver and duck, live in or frequent the waters. ' A'queous (Lat. aqua, water). Watery ; pertaining to, or formed by, water. Usually applied to the sedimentary or stratified rocks, as having been formed by deposition from water, in contradistinction to the unstrati- fied, or those arising from igneous fusion. Sub-aqueous. Occurring under the water ; in contradistinction to sub-aerial, or under the open air. Aralo-Caspian. In physical geography this term is applied to the ex- tensive basin or depressed area occupied by the Aral and Caspian Seas, and which is a true " basin of continental streams," having no communication with the ocean. In geology, the name Aralo-Caspian formation has been given by Sir R. Murchison and M. de Verneuil to the limestone and asso- ciated sandy beds of brackish- water origin, which have been traced over a very extensive area, surrounding the Caspian, Azov, and Aral Seas, and parts of the northern and western coasts of the Black Sea. The fossil shells are partly fresh-water and partly marine ; partly belong to living and partly to extinct species ; but are in both cases related to species now inhabiting the seas and lakes of central Asia, rather than to oceanic types. The limestone rises several hundred feet above the sea, and is supposed to indicate the existence, in latter Tertiary times (Pliocene), of a vast sheet of brackish water as large or even larger than the Mediterranean. Araucarites. " This term," says Mantell, " is employed to designate the fossil wood whose structure is identical with that of the living Arau- cariee, having the same kind of medullary rays, and the woody fibre, studded with discs or areolse, which are polygonal, often hexagonal, and 90 ARB ARC disposed in several alternating series." This wood is common in the Chalk, Wealden, Oolite, and Lias of Britain ; and trunks closely resembling the existing A . excelsa have been found in the Carboniferous formation, as at Craigleith and Granton, near Edinburgh, and also in Fifeshire. The Araucarice are natives of the southern hemisphere, and are all more or less gigantic trees, growing from 150 to 200 feet in height, and often from 20 to 30 feet in circumference. It is an interesting fact, therefore, to find that trees closely resembling those of Australia and the adjacent islands should at one period have nourished extensively in the northern latitudes now occupied by Great Britain. Arborescence (Lat. arboresco). Literally growing like a tree ; applied to those dendritic or tree-like forms of crystallisation often observable in mineral productions. Area (Lat. a chest). A genus of conchifera having a world-wide distribu- tion, though most abundant in warm seas ; and occurring in many species, from the Lower Silurian upwards. The species are characterised by their equivalve, thick, strongly-ribbed, ventricose shells, which are smooth or dentated at the margin, have a straight hinge with numerous teeth, and their umbones anterior and separated by a flat, lozenge-shaped ligamental area. The ARCADE or ark-shell family embraces such genera as cucullcea, pectunculus, limopsis, nucula, isoarca, leda, Yoldia, and solanella. A'rcanite (Lat. arcamis, hidden, concealed). Sulphate of potash, occur- ring mostly in crusts and pulverulent coatings ; colourless or white ; having a saline, bitter taste, and soluble in water. It is found in volcanic lavas, and in solution in the water of some salt springs. Archseocidaris (Gr. archaios, ancient, and cidaris, a turban, hence the "sea-egg," from its turban shape). A genus of sea-urchins or cidaris, occurring in Carboniferous and Permian strata, and characterised by their small hexagonal plates, and long spines, which in some species are smooth, in others notched and sharply denticulated. Arch aeonf sens (Gr. archaios, ancient, and oniscus, woodlouse). A genus of fossil Isopods (equal-footed crustaceans) occurring in the Purbeck or uppermost Oolitic strata, and so termed by the Rev. P. B. Brodie, from their close resemblance to the common woodlouse. Archse6pteryx (Gr.) Literally " ancient wing or bird." A unique specimen of bird-remains from the Oolitic limestone of Solenhofen, and not, as was at first supposed, a creature intermediate between the birds and reptiles. This ancient bird, according to Professor Owen, was about the size of a rook, and differs from all known birds in having two free claws belonging to the wing, and also in having the vertebrae of the tail (about twenty in number) free and prolonged as in mammals each vertebra sup- porting a pair of quill-feathers which give to the tail a long and vane-like appearance. This unique specimen (now in the British Museum) exhibits in its tail a retention of structure which is " embryonal and transitory in the modern representatives of the class, Aves, and consequently a closer adhesion to the general vertebrate type." See ORNITHOLITES. Archegosaurus (Gr. archegos, beginning, and saurus, lizard). Literally "primeval lizard ; " a reptile of the Carboniferous era, having, according to Owen and Goldfuss, a near alliance to the proteus, lepidosiren, and other perennibranchiate reptiles of the present day. Archetype (Gr. arcke, beginning, and typos, type). An original model or pattern ; the type after which subsequent forms are moulded. 91 ARC ARG Archipelago. A term originally applied to the numerous islands that stud the JSgean Sea the Grecian Archipelago ; but now used to denote any similar cluster of islands e.g., the Indian Archipelago, or East India Islands. A'rctic (Gr. arctos, a bear). Relating to the North Pole or Polar Regions ; in reference to the constellations of the Great and Little Bears which occur in the northern quarter of the heavens, and point, as it were, to the North Pole. Arctic Regions, the high latitudes surrounding the North Pole ; Arctic Circle, an imaginary line extending round the North Pole 62 5 from the Equator, and parallel to it ; hence certain parts are said to " lie within the Arctic Circle." The term is also familiarly used as synonymous with cold, boreal, and frozen. Arctic Current. A well-known ocean current which originates in the polar regions of the north, and flows southwards towards the equator. The main current seems to originate to the north of Spitzbergen, takes a westerly direction, and thence runs southward along the eastern shores of Greenland, till it meets with a minor branch flowing from Davis Strait. The two then unite in one great current, which follows the Labrador coast, runs to the east of Newfoundland, and evidently loses itself in the " Gulf Stream ;" or rather perhaps, from its greater density, passes in part under the Gulf Stream in latitudes 45-47, and holds on towards the equator. It is to this current that we owe the phenomenon of icebergs in the Atlantic ; and as these are frequently laden with boulders, gravel, and other miscellaneous debris, together with the remains of arctic animals, there must be now forming along the bed of the North Atlantic a deposit analogous in many respects to the " Northern Drift " or " Boulder Clay " of a former epoch. Arendceous (Lat. arena, sand). Rocks composed of grains or particles of sand, or containing sand in any notable degree (as grits and sandstones), are said to be arenaceous. Compound rocks partaking of this quality are spr ken of as arenaceo-calcareous, arenaceo-argillaceous, and so on, as their composition may indicate. Arenicolites. A term applied to those circular holes or markings which appear in twos or twins on the upper surface of many sandstones, and which seem to have been worm-burrows like those of the Arenicola or lob- worm (arena, sand, and colo, I inhabit). Argentiferous (Lat. argentum, silver, and/ero, I bear). Applied to veins, rocks, and other matrices containing the ores of silver, or silver in the native or metallic state. Argentlte (Lat. argentum, silver). Sulphuret of silver; an important ore of silver, occurring crystallised, also in crusts, or massive and dissemi- nated ; of a blackish lead-grey ; feebly lustrous ; malleable and flexible. It is found in the granitic, porphyritic, and crystalline rocks of many countries, and is one of the most important of the ores of silver. Consists of about 86.5 silver and 13.5 sulphur. Argile Plastique. Towards the base of the Tertiary system in France are extensive deposits of sands, with occasional beds of clay used for pottery purposes ; hence the term argile plastique. See TERTIARY SYSTEM. Argillaceous (Lat. argilla, clay). Applied to all rocks or substances composed of clay, or having a notable proportion of clay in their composi- tion, as roofing-slate, shale, &c. Argillaceous rocks are readily distin- guished by the peculiar odour they emit when breathed on, and known in 92 ARG ARS mineralogy as the " argillaceous odour." Compound clayey substances are spoken of as argillo-calcareous, argillo-arenaceous, &c., as the case may be. Argillite (Lat. argilla, clay). A mineralogical term for clay-slate ; but very seldom used in geology. A'rkose. A name given by Brongniart to a compound of the same mate- rials as granite, from which its materials have evidently been derived by disintegration. " Tt is found/' says Lyell, " at the junction of granite with formations of different ages, and consists of crystals of felspar, quartz, and sometimes mica, which, after separation from their original matrix by disintegration, have been reunited by a siliceous or quartzose cement." In Sweden it immediately flanks the granite, and forms a coarse-grained sandstone or grit. Arm. In geography, any deep and comparatively narrow branch of the sea running inland, in contradistinction to gulfs and firths. Armadillo (Span.) A well-known genus of edentate quadrupeds peculiar to the American continent, and so called from their being armed with an external bony shield composed of separate plates like a coat of mail. The Glyptodon and other gigantic congeners of the armadillo are found in the Post-Tertiary deposits of South America. Arquerite. A silver amalgam occurring in small octahedral crystals and in arborescent crusts in the mines of Arqu6ros, near Coquimbo, in Chili, whence the name. It is ductile and malleable, and consists of 86.5 silver and 13.5 mercury. See AMALGAM. Arrdgonite. One of the calc-spar family, generally found in radiated and fibrous aggregates, in amygdaloidal cavities, and in fissures in basalt and basaltic tufas. It derives its name from Arragon in Spain, where it occurs in large macled crystals in gypsum. The coralloid varieties are usually known as flos-ferri, and the finely-fibrous and silky as satin spar. It differs from common calc-spar, or calcite, in containing from 1 to 3 per cent of stron tia ; but " is most readily distinguished frem it by falling to pieces at a low temperature which does not affect the latter, and also by its prismatic cleavage." A'rsenic (Gr. arsenikon^ masculine). The metal arsenic, so called from its possessing strong or powerful properties. Arsenic occurs chiefly in veins in the crystalline and transition strata, along with ores of antimony, silver, and lead ; and the purest specimens usually contain traces of anti- mony, iron, silver, or gold. As an ore it is generally found in granular irregular masses or disseminated ; is brittle ; has a whitish lead-grey colour when newly broken, but soon tarnishes on exposure to the atmosphere, and becomes coated with a black sub-oxide of the metal. When struck or heated it gives off a strong garlicky smell known as the " arsenical odour ;" and on being pulverised and moistened it undergoes spontaneous combustion. It has a strong tendency to combine with other metals, hence such natural compounds as arsenic-silver, arsenic-antimony ', arsenic-glance, &c. Arsenic is used in various pharamaceutical preparations and in metal- lurgic processes, but is usually injurious when mixed with ores. The metal and all its compounds are violent poisons. The white arsenic of the shops is arsenious acid ; realgar or red arsenic is the protosulphuret ; orpiment or yellow arsenic is the sesquisulphuret, and constitutes the colouring matter of the pigment called King's yellow ; and the well-known pigment Scheele's mineral green is an arsenite of copper. The metallic arsenic of commerce is chiefly obtained from arsenical iron pyrites or mispickel, which see. 93 ART ASC Artesian Wells. Wells sunk by boring perpendicularly through the solid strata, and in which the subterranean waters rise to the surface or nearly so a method long known and practised in the province of Artois (the ancient Artesium) in France. Many of the Artesian wells in London and Paris are of great depth that in the plain of Grenelle being about 1800 feet deep, bore 10 inches in diameter, discharge 517 gallons per min- ute, and temperature of water 82 Fahr. ; a depth exceeded by that at Columbus, in Ohio, which in 1860 was 2575 ft., the thermometer register- ing 88 Fahr., while the work was still proceeding. Artesian wells are generally situated in plains or in basin-shaped valleys, towards which the strata dip on one or more sides, and their principle depends upon the hydrostatic pressure of the water percolating through the inclined strata and forcing its way upward by the artificial orifice to the highest level of the water-containing strata. The greater the depth the higher the tem- perature ; and the lower the surface of the well compared with the outcrop of the water-yielding stratum, the higher will the jet d'eau rise above the orifice of the bore. Articuldta (Lat. articulus, a joint). One of Cuvier's great subdivisions of the animal kingdom, comprehending all the invertebrata with jointed bodies as insects, spiders, crustaceans, myriapods, and worms. See tabu- lations, " ANIMAL SCHEME." Articulated (Lat. articulus, a joint). Jointed ; composed of parts united by joint-like processes. Occasionally applied in geology to the columns of basalt and greenstone, which, like those cf the Giant's Causeway, are separable into blocks more or less regular, and thus seem jointed or articu- lated. Indeed, in some of the more perfect columns there is a regular ball- and-socket arrangement of the separable portions. Arundinaceous (Lat. arundo, a reed). Eesembling, or having the struc- ture of, reeds. Arundinaceous (that is, striated and jointed) stems are common in the Coal-measures. A'saphus (Grr. asaphes, obscure). A genus of trilobites, so called from the obscurity which long rested on the true natm*e of these crustaceans. In this genus the carapace is wide and much depressed ; the middle lobe distinct ; the head-shield rounded in front, and terminating posteriorly in a sharp process on each side. The eye of the asaphus is compound, and contains several thousand lenses. Asbestus, Asbestos (Gr. a, priv., and sbestos, consumable or extinguishable). Known also as amianthus and byssolite. Fine fibrous varieties of several of the hornblende family, as augite, tremolite, and actinolite, found chiefly in connection with serpentine. The fibres, often readily separable, elastic, and flexible, were used by the ancients in the manufacture of an incom- bustible cloth ; hence the name asbestos, inconsumable. There are many varieties, and these receive their names from their appearance and quality as rock-wood, rock-cork, mountain-leather, fossil-paper, fossil-flax, &c. In rock-wood the fibres are long, parallel, curved, and compact ; in rock-cork they have a felted texture, and so light as to swim on water ; in mountain- leather they form flat flexible pieces ; and in fossil-flax they are so loose and silky that Dolomieu used it for packing his other minerals. Asbestos thus passes from the silky flexibility of amianthus to a degree of compact- ness which admits of receiving a fine polish. See AMIANTHUS. Ascidia or Ascidians (Gr. askidium, a little leathern bottle). An order of the Tunicata or shell-less mollusca, so called from their resemblance to 94 ASP AST small leathern pouches. They are either social or solitary, and appear as pap-like gelatinous incrustations on rocks, dead shells, and other bodies. Asparagus-Stone. The name given to a translucent variety of apatite, from its greenish-yellow colour, which occasionally passes into wine-yellow. A'sphalt (Gr. asphaltos). This term is usually applied to a black, hard, brittle, and glossy variety of bitumen, which is distinguished from other varieties chiefly by its more difficult fusibility, and by its fracture being clean, conchoidal, and vitreous. It occurs in formations of all ages, and is associated with different kinds of rocks, though most frequently in connec- tion with sandstones and limestones. The asphalt found floating on the Dead Sea (Lacus A sphaltites) was well known to the ancients ; it was ob- tained from pits or springs near the Euphrates and Tigris, and used as mortar by the Babylonians ; it is still largely found in Persia ; it forms the principal feature of the " Pitch-lake" of Trinidad; an abundant com- mercial supply is obtained from Seyssel and other places near the Jura Mountains ; and it occurs sparingly in rents and cavities in the Carbonifer- ous limestones of Britain. See BITUMEN. Aspidiaria (Gr. aspis, aspidos, a shield). A genus of lycopodian-like Coal- measure stems, so called from the shape of the leaf- scars, which closely connect them with lepidodendron. Aspidorhynchus (Gr. aspis, aspidos, a shield, and rhynchos, a beak). Liter- ally "Buckler-beak;" a genus of sauroid fishes occurring in the Jurassic and upper Secondary formations, and distinguished by the tapering or beak-like prolongation of their upper jaws, which were armed with numer- ous sharp-pointed conical teeth. Aspidura (Gr. aspis, a shield, and oura, tail). A genus of star-fishes peculiar to the Muschelkalk of Germany. They are closely related to the existing ophiura, and are named from the buckler-like arrangement of the ossicles that protect the arms, which are four in number. Aspleni6pteris. A fossil fern from the Oolite and Lias ; so called from its resemblance to the existing asplenium ; but regarded by Lindley as identical with PTEROPHYLLUM, which see. Assdy (Fr. essayer, to try). In mining and metallurgy, the determination of the quantity of gold or silver contained in ores or alloys of these metals by cupellation. It differs from chemical analysis in merely furnishing the quantity of the precious metal contained in the sample examined, instead of the nature and proportion of all the ingredients. Assimilation (Lat. assimilo, I liken to). The process by which organ- ised bodies convert aliment into the various tissues of their own proper substance. Plants and animals increase by assimilation and transforma- tion, minerals by attraction and aggregation. Astacolite (Gr. astakos, the crayfish or lobster). Applied to fossil or petrified crustaceans like the crayfish and lobster. Asteracanthus (Gr. aster, star, and acantha, spine). Literally " Starry- spine ;" a genus of ichthyodorulites, so termed from having their surfaces richly ornamented with star-like tubercles. These fin-rays (often of large size) are common in the Lias, Oolite, and Wealden strata. Asteria (Gr. aster, a star). A variety of corundum or " star- sapphire," so called because, when cut en cabochon perpendicular to the axis of the prism, it shows a bright opalescent star of six rays corresponding to the other axes. Asterialite (Gr. aster, star, and lithos, stone). A term, now rarely used, for fossil or petrified asterias, or star-fish. 95 AST ATA Asteridse (Gr. aster, a star). The Star-fish family, of which the common five-rayed star-fish (asterias), so abundant on our own coasts, has been taken as the type. Representatives of the family occur, according to E. Forbes, so early as Upper Silurian strata (Uraster); but this has been questioned by others, who would restrict the family to Mesozoic and Neozoic strata in which such forms as tropidatser, solaster, and goniaster are unmistakable and abundant. Aster6ida (Gr. aster, a star, and eidos, resemblance). An order of polypes, so called from the star-like or rayed arrangement of their tentacles when fully expanded. The asteroid polypes are all compound animals, inhabiting a polypidom, which consists of a fleshy external layer, supported upon an axis more or less calcareous and compact. The order embraces the tubipo- ridce, or "organ-pipe corals;" the alyconidce, or " dead men's fingers ;" the Gorgonidce, or ' ' sea-fans ;" and the pennatuldice, or " sea-pens." Asteroids (Gr. aster, star; eidos, likeness). A term applied by Herschel to the minor planets or planetoids Ceres, Pallas, Juno, Vesta, &c. of which there are now upwards of seventy known to astronomers. Asterolepis (Gr. aster, star, and lepis, scale). Star-scale ; a gigantic ganoid fish of the Old Red Sandstone, so named from the stellate markings on the dermal plates of the head, which are of great size, and form a strong expanded buckler, the orbits of the eyes being situated near the anterior border. The mouth of the asterolepis was furnished both with rows of small fish-teeth, and a thinly-set row of huge reptile-teeth. The true affinities of the asterolepis are yet undecided, if indeed it is en- titled to rank even as a separate genus. See Hugh Miller's work, ' Foot- prints of the Creator, or the Asterolepis of Stromness.' Asterophyllites (Gr. aster, a star, and phyllon, a leaf). An assemblage of plants found abundantly in the Coal-measures, Lias, and Oolite ; and so called from the star-like whorls of linear leaves (verticillate leaves) which surround the jointed stems, as in equisetum, hippuris, and the like. " The genus asterophyllites is so vague," says Lindley, " that it will comprehend any fine-leaved verticillate plants, the basis of whose leaves do not run into an annular rim." Beyond this, and the fact that they are dicotyledonous plants, botanists have not yet determined ; so that many remains now classed under ( ' asterophyllites " may in reality belong to very different families. Astrseidse (Gr. astrcea, from aster, a star). The family of "star-corals," to whose stony calcareous secretions the formation of coral reefs is mainly owing. They differ from the cyathophyllidce or " cup-corals," and from the madreporidce or ' ' tree-corals," not only in their forms, but in the arrangement of their cell-rays, as well as in their mode of reproduction. The members of the family usually form thick stony masses ; have the rays of the cells exceedingly numerous the cells penetrating deeply into the mass of the coral ; and most of them appear to increase by spontaneous division. The common astrcea or "star-coral," and meandrina or "brain- coral," are familiar examples. Astringent (Lat. ad, to, and slringo, I draw tight). Applied to those substances which, like the gall-nut, oak-bark, alum, &c., have the property of contracting or drawing together the muscular fibre ; hence also such substances are spoken of as " astringents." A'tacamite. A native muriate of copper, so called from being found in the desert of Atacama, between Chili and Peru. It occurs in aggregates of small prismatic crystals, or massive with a granular structure. In the ATH ATE granular or arenaceous state it is known as "copper sand/' and consists of 72 copper protoxide, 16 muriatic acid, and 12 water. It often appears on copper long exposed to the atmosphere or sea- water, and is the aerugo nobilis seen on antique bronzes. Atherfield Point. On the southern coast of the Isle of Wight a locality of geological importance, as elucidating the nature and relations of the Greensand or lower group of Cretaceous system, and the subject of various papers by Fitton, Mantell, Ibbetson, Forbes, and others. See Table of " EQUIVALENT DEPOSITS." Atm6meter (Gr. atmos, vapour, and metron, measure). An instrument invented by Sir John Leslie for. measuring the amount of evaporation from any moist surface in a given time. It consists of a thin hollow ball of porous earthenware, in which is inserted a tube of glass with divisions. The cavity of the ball and the tube are filled with water, and the top of the tube closed. In this state the instrument is exposed to the free action of the air, when the water transudes the porous substance and is evaporated the scale on the glass tube marking the relative rapidity. Atmosphere (Gr. atmos, vapour, and spltaira, sphere). The gaseous envelope or volume of air which surrounds the earth on every side, and which is either directly or indirectly the cause of numerous geological operations, being the great laboratory in which all meteorological and electrical phenomena are elaborated, as winds, clouds, rains, snow, hail, and thunderstorms. As an air, it is composed of about 79 parts nitrogen and 21 oxygen, with variable traces of carbonic acid and other impurities. Calculating from its decreasing density, as well as from its diminished power of refracting light as we ascend from the earth, the height or extent of the atmosphere has been estimated at 45 miles ; and the pressure of the whole volume on every square inch of the earth's surface (at the ordinary sea-level) at 14.6 Ib. avoirdupois. This pressure is counterbalanced by a mercurial column of 30 inches in length ; hence a column of 60 inches will be equal to two atmospheres ; and it is customary to estimate the force of steam, of liquid lava, and other fluid pressures, by atmospheres that is, in round numbers, at the rate of 15 Ib. per square inch for every atmo- sphere. As a geological agent, it is indispensable to the life of plants and animals, and any change in its normal composition would at once affect their existence. Increasing in density as we approach the earth, it be- comes, as it were, the retainer and equable diffuser of the sun's rays. It is also the recipient and diffuser of all aqueous vapours arising from the earth; hence clouds, rains, snow, hail, &c. Its denser strata being heated in one region, they become lighter and ascend, and the colder and denser masses from other regions rush in to supply their place ; hence aerial cur- rents or winds ; and hence also, from the contact and friction of its cloudy masses, the discharges of thunderstorms, and other electrical phenomena. A' toll. The name given to a coral island of an annular form that is, consisting of a circular belt or strip of coral reef more or less continuous, with an enclosed lagoon. See CORA.L REEFS. A'toin (Gr. a, priv., and temno, I cut). In chemistry, an ultimate particle of matter incapable of further division or reduction. In geology, applied loosely to minute particles or molecules of solid matter. A'trypa (Gr. a, without, and trypa, a foramen). A genus of brachiopods closely related to rhynconella, and often mistaken for species of terebratula. They are rounded shells, not furrowed like spirifer, but ornamented with 97 a ATT AUR squamous lines of growth ; the beak is small compared with terebratula, often closely incurved, and the foramen either concealed or very small and round (hence the name) ; hinge-line very short, and shell not punctured as in terebratula. About a dozen species are found, from the Lower Silurian to the Trias inclusive. Attle. A Cornish term for rubbish thrown out of a mine, containing little or no ore. Attraction (Lat. ad, to, and traho, I draw). Literally a drawing towards; a term denoting the mutual tendency of bodies towards one another a power in nature which has been assumed as explanatory of many physical and chemical phenomena; hence such phrases as Attraction of Cohesion, Attraction of Gravitation, Attraction of Affinity, Capillary Attraction, Mag- netic Attraction, and so forth. See COHESION, GRAVITATION, CAPILLARY AND MAGNETIC. Attrition (Lat. attritus, worn or rubbed down). The act of wearing by friction or rubbing. In geology, the wearing and smoothing of rock- surfaces by the passage of water charged with sand and gravel, by the passage of sand-drift, the descent of glaciers, and the like. See ABRASION. Auchenaspis (Gr. auchen, the back part of the neck, and aspis a buckler). A provincial genus of Old Ked Sandstone fishes, closely allied to, and in all likelihood identical with, cephalaspis, but separated by Sir P. Egerton in consequence of the appearance of a post-cephalic or neck plate in a single specimen from the neighbourhood of Ludlow. Aiigite (Gr. auge, lustre). A mineral of the hornblende family, entering largely into the composition of many trap and volcanic rocks, as of basalt, greenstone, clinkstone, augite, porphyry, &c. In composition it is closely allied to hornblende proper, but differs in the form of crystal, contains less silica, is of greater specific gravity, and is also less fusible. Augite, known also as Pyroxene, has several varieties, which are distinguished by such names as diopside, sahlite, malacolite, Baikalite, Fassaite, coccolite, Hedenbergite, &c., which see. Augite, as it usually occurs, is of a greenish- black, pitch or velvet black, occasionally leek-green, but rarely brown ; lustre vitreous to resinous ; translucent or opaque ; fracture conchoidal and uneven : crystallises in six or eight sided prisms, terminated by dihedral summits. Its constituents, taking the average of several analyses, are 53 silica, 19 lime, 15 magnesia, 6 iron protoxide, 2 manganese protoxide, and 5 alumina. Augitic. Containing augite; resembling augite, as Augitic Porphyry, a rock with a dark-grey or greenish base, containing crystals of augite and Labrador felspar. Augitic traps are frequently spoken of in contradis- tinction iofelspathic traps and claystones. Auricle (Lat. auricula, a little ear). In natural history, any appendage or projection resembling ears. Anricled. Furnished with such appendages. Auriculated. Ear-shaped. Auriferous (Lat. aurum, gold, and fero, I yield). Yielding or containing gold ; applied to rocks and veins containing the precious metal, as " auri- ferous veins," "auriferous sands," &c. Auriform (Lat. auris, the ear, and forma, shape). Ear-shaped ; having a form resembling the human ear. as the haliotis or ear-shell, the otopteris or ear-fern, &c. Aurora Borealis (Lat.) Literally the "Aurora of the North;" known also as the Northern Lights, Polar Lights, Streamers, &c. A luminous AUIl AVA meteor, generally appearing in the northern heavens, and so called from its resemblance to the aurora or morning twilight. It is usually referred to electrical agency in the upper regions of the atmosphere. Changing from the purest and softest white to all the colours of the rainbow, and flickering and flitting from the horizon to the zenith with inconceivable rapidity, the aurora borealis is one of the most attractive of celestial phenomena. Auroral (Lat.) Appertaining to the early morn ; the second of the fi fteen series into which Professor Rogers subdivides the Palaeozoic strata of the Appalachian Chain the " Daybreak " of the North American palaeo- zoics, and the equivalent in part of our Middle Cambrians. See PALEO- ZOIC FORMATIONS. Aut6malite (Gr. automolos, inconstant). Octahedral corundum. A variety of corundum containing oxide of zinc, found crystallised (some- times simple, sometimes as a made) in talc schist, and associated with zinc-blende and galena. Its constituents, according to Abich, are 57.09 alumina, 34.80 zinc oxide, 4.55 iron oxide, 2.22 magnesia, 1.92 silica, and traces of manganese. Autumn (Lat. ) The third quarter of the year, which commences when the sum enters Libra, that is, about the 21st or 22d of September, when the days and nights are equal; hence the term Autumnal Equinox or Autumnal Point, referring to the descending point of the ecliptic. Auvergne. A district in central France celebrated for its extinct vol- canoes, its fresh-water limestones, lacustrine formations, and other ancient alluvia. The subject of Mr Scrope's valuable monograph, ' The Volcanoes of Central France.' Avaldnche (Fr. avalange, lavange, lavanche). An accumulation of snow, or of snow and ice, which descends from precipitous mountains like the Alps into the valleys below. Avalanches originate in the higher regions of mountains, and begin to descend when the gravity of their mass be- comes too great for the slope on which it rests, or when fresh weather destroys its adhesion to the surface. They are usually distinguished as Drift, Rolling, Sliding, and Glacial 'Drift are those caused by the action of the wind on the snow while loose and powdery; rolling, when a detached piece of snow rolls down the steep, licks up the snow over which it passes, and thus acquires bulk and impetus as it descends ; sliding, when the mass loses its adhesion to the surface, and descends carrying everything before it unable to resist its pressure ; and glacial, when masses of frozen snow and ice are loosened by the heat of summer and precipitated into the plains below. See GLACIER. Avdnturine or Aventurine. A variety of quartz deriving its peculiar play of colour from imbedded spangles of mica, or merely from the inter- section of minute fissures. Also, a variety of felspar or sunstone (which see), whose play of colour, according to Scheerer, arises from minute im- bedded crystals of iron-glance. "The name Avanturine," says Jackson ('Minerals and their Uses'), "is said to be derived from the following cir- cumstance : A French workman having by accident, or par aventure, dropt some copper filings into a vitreous mixture in fusion, gave the name Avan- turine to the sparkling mass which was thus produced; and it is still by a similar process, though greatly improved, that the artificial produc- tion is now manufactured, to be employed for various ornamental purposes. The artificial far exceeds in brilliancy the natural avanturine. A species of avanturine is also produced by heating pieces of quartz to a certain ATI AZO degree and suddenly cooling them ; this occasions a number of minute fissures in the mass, which, by the unequal refraction of the light, gives the stone the desired appearance." Avicula (Lat. a little bird). A free, unequal-valved shell, fixing itself by a byssus, the hinge without a tooth, and rather callous, valves some- what gaping near the beaks. The type of the Aviculidce, which embraces avicida, posidonomya, aviculopecten, gervillia, perna, inoceramus, and pinna. " The living shells or pearl-oysters," says Woodward, " are natives of tropical and temperate seas : there are no living species in northern lati- tudes, where their fossil forms are very numerous." Avicula Contorta Zone. A series of beds characterised by the presence of the Avicula contorta, and by some regarded as the upper portion of the Keuper, and by others as the basement of the Lias. From recent researches it would seem that the facies of the fauna of this zone has more affinities with the Trias than with the Lias, and may, therefore, be considered as the capping of the former system. See RHAETIC BEDS. Aviculopecten. The avicula-like pecten, an extensive genus of mon- omyarian bivalves peculiar to the Carboniferous Limestone, and often so well preserved that even the colours of the living shell are retained. The form in the several species is more elongated than in pecten ; valves slightly xmequal, and hinge without a tooth. Axe-Stone. A sub-species of jade, of a deep sea-green or leek colour, used by the New Zealanders, and other natives of the Pacific, for making hatchets, hangers, &c. It is sometimes called Amazonian stone, from its being found on the banks of the river Amazon. According to Dr Wake- field, it occurs largely in the middle island of New Zealand. See JADE. A'xinite (Gr. axine, an axe). One of the Garnet family, so called from the axe-like form of its crystals ; the Thumerstein of Werner, who found it at Thum, in Saxony. " The crystals are attached singly, or united in druses ; it also occurs massive in laminar or broadly radiated aggregates, lustre vitreous, colour clove-brown, inclining to smoke-grey or plain blue. According to Wiegmann it consists of 45 silica, 19 alumina, 12.5 lime, 12.25 iron peroxide, 9 manganese peroxide, 2 boracic acid, and 25 magnesia. It is not very abundant, and occurs chiefly in fissures, veins, or subordinate beds, in granite and the metamorphic schists, associated with quartz, felspar, asbestus, &c. The finest crystals are from Dauphine", and from Cornwall." (Nicol's 'Man. of Mineral.') Axis (Lat. axis, a pole or axle-tree). A word used largely and variously in natural science ; applied to the line about which objects are symmetrical, about which they are bent, around which they turn, or to which they have some common relation ; hence " vertebral axis," " axis of elevation,'' " synclinal axis," " axis of rotation," " axis of a crystal," &c. Axotomous (Gr. axon, axis, and temno, I cut). Applied to minerals cleavable in one particular direction. A'ymestry Limestone. The middle member, according to Murchison's sections, of the Ludlow group of Silurian strata ; so named from the village of Aymestryin Herefordshire, where it is well exposed. See SILURIAN SYSTEM. Ayr Stone. A soft variety of whet-stone, used also for polishing .marble, copper-plates, and the like ; and so called from its being found near the Water of Ayr. Sometimes called Snake-stone, from its mottled appearance. See HONE. Azoic (Gr. a, without, and zoe, life). Without life, void of life ; a term 100 AZO BAG applied to the lowest or deepest-seated strata in the crust of the globe, such as gneiss, mica-schist, and other crystalline schists, which have yet yielded no fossils or traces of life to the palaeontologist. The term is merely provisional, and founded on negative evidence, as rocks at one time regarded azoic have since been found to yield fossils. Used by many as synonymous vtithHypozoic, Non-fossiliferous, audMetamorphic, which see. Azote (Gr. a, priv., and zoe, life). An early, and still used, chemical term for nitrogen, because of its fatal effects (when breathed) on animal life. See NITROGEN. Azure Stone (so named from its colour). A familiar term for Lapis Lazuli, which see. A'zurite (from its colour). Prismatic azure-spar, or lazulite. A mineral usually occurring in mica-schist, and consisting of alumina, silica, magnesia, lime, and oxide of iron. B Babel Quartz. A variety of rock crystal. " Instead of tapering gradually towards their extremities," says Mr Bristow, " as is the case with many crystals of quartz, these diminish suddenly at intervals, and are built up, as it were, of a series of short steps, which, from their fanciful resemblance to the successive storeys of the Tower of Babel, have given rise to the name." Babingtonite (after Dr Babington). One of the hornblende family; the " axotomous augite-spar" of Mohs. It occurs chiefly in beds of magnetic iron ore, and in veins of quartz and felspar, in small, black, attached crystals ; and consists essentially of silica, iron protoxide, and lime. Bacillaria (Lat. bacillum,& little stick). A genus or rather group of Dia- toms, consisting of simple siliceous frustules of a prismatic shape (whence the name), and forming a brilliant chain, which often appears in zigzag, in consequence of incomplete self-division. They abound in all waters, fresh and marine ; and fossil species are equally abundant in all the so-called infusorial or microphy tal earths. Back. A miner's term for "joints ;" hence "backs and cutters" applied to jointed structure ; the backs running in lines less or more parallel to the strike of the strata, and the cutters crossing these generally at right angles. Applied also in mining phraseology to that part of a mineral lode which is nearest the surface. See JOINTS. Bactrltes. According to Sandberger, a genus of straight, subconical- chambered shells, peculiar to the Devonian epoch ; apparently the Steno- ceras of D'Orbigny. Baculite (Lat. baculum, a staff). A straight, many-chambered, conical shell of the Chalk epoch, somewhat compressed, with marginal siphuncle, and much elongated ; and so named from its straight, tapering, staff-like shape. Like other Ammonitidce, it consists of numerous chambers divided by transverse sinuous septa, the outer or inhabited chamber being much larger than the others, and guarded by a dorsal process. The baculites, though not specificallj' numerous, were individually abundant, and highly characteristic of the Cretaceous epoch. From its prevalence in the Chalk of Normandy, that rock is sometimes termed the Baculite Limestone. 101 BAG BAR Bagshot Sands. A series of Lower Tertiary beds, consisting chiefly of siliceous sand, and occupying extensive tracts round Bagshot in Surrey, and in the New Forest, Hampshire. They are the equivalents of the Bracklesham beds, and may be separated into three divisions, the upper and lower consisting of light yellow sands, and the middle of dark-green sands and brown clays, the whole reposing on the London Clay. Baikalite. A light green, finely-crystallised variety of augite, occurring in acicular prisms, and found in granite in the vicinity of Lake Baikal in Siberia. Bala Limestone. (Bala in Merionethshire). A series of dark-coloured, slaty, and sub-crystalline limestones, alternating with black slaty shales, the whole rarely exceeding twenty feet in thickness, and forming a subordi- nate group of the Lower Silurian, as developed in Wales. See SILURIAN SYSTEM. Balsenidse (Gr. phalaina, Lat. lalcena, a whale). The Whale family. According to Owen, " the remains of great whales, referable to existing genera or species, have been found in Britain, in gravel adjacent to estu- aries or large rivers, in marine drift or shingle, and in the newer Pliocene beds." The remains of the great Airthrey whale, discovered in 1825, and of those found in the Clay-pits of Stirling in 1858 and 1864, were all im- bedded in fine plastic marine silt, varying from twenty to thirty feet above the present medium tide-level of the Firth of Forth. Balaenodon (lalcena, and odous, odontos, tooth). Sub-fossil teeth of whales not exactly referable to any known species ; e.g., B. physaloides, which most nearly resembles the tooth of the cachalot (Physeter inacro- cephalus). See Owen's 'Fossil Mammals.' Balanite (Lat. baltlnus, a barnacle). The name given to fossils of the barnacle family, whose shells in general consist of six principal valves arranged in conical form. The cirripeds or barnacles are scarcely, if at all, known till the commencement of the Oolitic era. Balas or Balass Kuby. The ruby of Balaksh or Balakshan. A lapidary's term for the fine rose-red varieties of the spinel ruby, which see. Balistes (Gr. laleso, I strike as with a dart). The file-fish, so called from its rough, jagged, and dart-like fin-spines ; a cartilaginous fish belonging to the sclerodermatous or hard-skinned division of the Plectognathi. The genus is characterised by its sub-globular body, hard, scaly, or granular dermal covering, solid teeth implanted in the jaws, and somewhat resem- bling the front teeth of man, and by their strong denticulated fin-spines. Speaking of fossil fin-spines or ichthyodorulites, Dr Buckland remarks " that the spines of balistes and silurus have not their base, like that of the spines of sharks, simply imbedded in the flesh, and attached to strong muscles ; but articulate, with a bone beneath them. The spine of balistes also is kept erect by a second spine behind its base, acting like a bolt or wedge, which is simultaneously inserted or withdrawn by the same mus- cular motion that raises or depresses the spine." Banwell Cave. An ossiferous cavern situated in the Carboniferous Limestone of the Mendip Hills in Somersetshire, and celebrated for its having yielded a number of mammalian remains characteristic of the Pleistocene period. See OSSIFEROUS CAVERNS. Barbadoes Tar. A commercial term for petroleum or mineral tar, which is found in several of our West India islands. Baregine. The name given to a curious infusorial deposit occurring in 102 BAR certain thermal waters, and so termed from its being first discovered in the hot springs of Bareges in the Western Pyrenees. When these waters are allowed to rest for some time, the barlgine falls to the bottom as a greasy, amorphous, gelatinous substance, consisting (as shown by the mi- croscope) of the exuviae of infusoria, and emitting an odour when cast on a fire like that of burnt horn. The origin of such organic deposits has not yet been satisfactorily accounted for by geological science. Barilla (Span.) The ashes left by the combustion of salsola, salicornia, chenopodium, and other maritime plants. It consists chiefly of an impure carbonate and sulphate of soda, and is used in the manufacture of soap and glass. Like British barilla or kelp (obtained from the burning of sea- weed), barilla has fallen in demand since the introduction of Le Blanc's method of obtaining soda from common sea-salt. Barium (Gr. barys, heavy). The metallic basis of baryta, discovered by Sir Humphrey Davy in 1808. Like sodium and potassium, it is known only to the chemist ; is of a whitish-grey colour ; possesses little lustre ; and on' exposure to air or water becomes rapidly converted into its oxide, baryta. Barnacle (Sax. learn, child, and aac, oak). Literally "child of the oak," expressive of the old belief that the barnacle or acorn-shell grew on trees. Whether sessile or peduuculated, the barnacles are now well-known articulated animals, either found on rocks or shells at a depth ranging from eight to ten fathoms, or affixed to bottoms of ships and other floating bodies. They belong to the Cirripeds or "curl-footed" order of the Articulata. See CIRRIPEDA. Bar elite (Gr. barys, heavy, and lithos, stone). Heavy stone ; carbonate of baryta, or Witherite (which see). According to its discoverer, Dr Wither- ing, it consists of 80 barytes and 20 carbonic acid. Barometer (Gr. baros, weight, and metron, measure). A well-known in- strument for measuring the weight or pressure of the atmosphere by balancing a column of air against a column of mercury;; and by this test determining variations in the state of the air, foretelling changes in the weather, as dependent on the conditions of the air, and measuring heights and depths as indicated by the proportional pressure of the air. Baroselenite (barys and selenite ; selene, lustre). Heavy spar; native sulphate of baryta. It occurs both massive and crystallised ; generally of lustrous foliated texture, hence the name. Consists of 66 baryta and 34 sulphuric acid. Barrier-Reef. A name given by voyagers to those coral-reefs which run parallel (barrier-like] to the shores of islands and continents, but separated therefrom by a lagoon-channel more or less extensive. The barrier-reefs of Australia and of New Caledonia, owing to their enormous dimensions, have long attracted the attention of voyagers. See CORAL-REEFS. Barystr6ntianite (barys and strontian). Known also as Stromnite, from its occurring at Stromness in Orkney. It occurs in greyish or yellowish- white semi-translucent masses, with a faint pearly lustre and crystalline structure ; consists, according to Dr Traill, of 68.6 carbonate of strontian, 27.5 sulphate of baryta, 2.6 carbonate of lime, and a trace of oxide of iron ; and seems a mere mechanical mixture and not a true mineral species. Barytes, Baryta (Gr. barys, heavy). One of the simple earths, deriving its name from its great specific gravity, which is about 4.2. As determined by Davy in 1808, it is a protoxide of the metal barium. In nature it occurs chiefly as a sulphate or carbonate ; and both of these traversing the older 103 BAR BAS formations in veins are spoken of as " heavy-spars." The native sulphate (65.63 baryta and 34.37 sulphuric acid) is generally known as cawTc or heavy-spar; the carbonate (77.59 baryta and 22.41 carbonic acid) as With- erite, after its discoverer Dr Withering. There is also a sulphate-carbonate described by Dr Thomson. About 10,000 tons of the sulphate and 1500 tons of the carbonate are annually raised in Great Britain Derbyshire being the principal seat of the former, and Northumberland that of the latter. Bar^to-Calcite. Known also as Alstoniie, from its occurring as a gangue or vein-stone in the lead-mines of Alston Moor in Cumberland ; a mineral consisting of 66 carbonate of baryta, and 34 carbonate of lime. Basalt (Gr. and Lat. basaltes, but of unknown origin, some deriving it from a Syriac word, basil, baked or burnt ; others from an Ethiopia word, basal, iron ; and others again from als, salt, in allusion to its usually crys- tallised or columnar structure). A well-known igneous rock occurring in the Trap and Volcanic series, but most abundantly in the former. Basalt belongs to the augitic division of trap-rocks, and consists essentially of augite and felspar the former predominating. It is close-grained, hard, usually black, and frequently columnar ; the columns or rather prisms being three, five, or more sided, regular and jointed. The columnar structure seems to be the result of cooling, and the columns always lie at right angles to the cooling surface ; but the columnar structure is by no means essential to basalt, which also occurs tabular and massive, and passes insensibly through basaltic clinkstone and basaltic greenstone to greenstone proper. The typical basalt (like that of Giant's Causeway, Fingal's Cave, Samson's Ribs near Edinburgh, &c.) generally contains crystals of the olive-green mineral divine, disseminated iron-pyrites, and other substances. The most remarkable basaltic columns are perhaps those of Mont Bonnevie near Murat in Auvergne, where they can be ob- tained from 50 to 60 feet in length unbroken by joint or flaw, and not more than 8 or 10 inches in diameter. See TRAPPEAN ROCKS. Basaltic. Composed of basalt ; containing basalt. Basaltiform. Re- sembling basalt in its columnar structure. Basaltine. The name given by Kirwan to crystallised hornblende, be- cause it is " mostly found in basalts and lavas." Basanite (Gr. basanizo, to test ; hence basanos, a touchstone). Lydian stone or touchstone ; a variety of schistose hornstone formerly, and still occasionally, used for testing the purity of gold. Consists of upwards of 75 silica, with lime, magnesia, carbon, and iron. Also a name given by Brongniart to a rock having a base of basalt, with more or less distinct crystals of augite disseminated through it. Basilosaurus (Gr. basileics, a king, and saurus, lizard). Literally "King of the Saurians," the name originally given by Dr Harlan to the huge skeleton (between 70 and 80 feet long) discovered in the Eocene beds of Alabama, from the belief that it was of saurian affinity. Now known to be a cetacean or whale, and termed ZEUGLODON, which see. Basin. In geology, any dipping or disposition of strata towards a com- mon centre or axis is termed a basin, trough, or syndine. As the natural disposition of strata is less or more horizontal, such basins must have been formed by upheaval and subsidence of the earth's crust; and just in pro- portion to the intensity of the disturbing causes, so we find basins of greater or less extent, and in which the beds dip at all angles towards the 104 BAS BAT axis of depression. The Tertiary formations often occupy limited areas, and fill up such depressions in the older rocks ; hence the use of such phrases as "London Basin," "Paris Basin," "Vienna Basin," &c. Ill geography, the term applies to the whole extent of valley-shaped or basin- shaped country drained by any river and its tributaries, as the "Basin of the Forth," &c. In a wider sense, also, to the depression or receptacle of seas and lakes and the areas from which they receive their waters, as the "Basin of the Caspian," the "Basin of the Mediterranean," &c. Basset or Basset Edge. A miner's term for the outcrop or surface-edge of any inclined stratum. See OUTCROP. Bastard (Fr.) Spurious ; not genuine. Often applied by workmen to rocks and minerals that are impure, or contain such admixture of impu- rity as to render them economically worthless ; as " bastard limestone," an impure siliceous limestone incapable of being converted into quicklime when burnt in the kiln. Bath-Brick. A well-known material used for cleaning and polishing metal goods and utensils. It is manufactured at Bridgewater from a tidal deposit of fine siliceous silt, deposited in the river Parret in Somerset- shire, at the junction of the fresh and salt water. " The peculiar proper- ties of this material," says Ansted, " are probably owing to the siliceous cases of infusorial animalcules destroyed by the salt tidal- water where it meets the fresh water of the river." Bath-Stone. A familiar term for the "Great Oolite," which is exten- sively quarried for building purposes in the neighbourhood of Bath. When raised from the quarry the Oolitic freestones are soft and easily dressed, but become hard on exposure to the atmosphere. See OOLITE. Bathymetrical (Gr. bathys, deep, and metron, measure). Applied to the distribution of plants and animals along the sea-bottom, according to the depth of the zone (measuring from the shore) which they inhabit. See ZONE. Batrachia (Gr. Idtrdchos, a frog). A subdivision of the Reptilia, com- prising the frog, toad, salamander, and siren. Regarding the Batrachia as an order, Professor Owen (1859) specialises some as having biconcave vertebrae (Siren), some concave before and convex behind, as the frog (Rana), and others as concave behind and convex in front, as Ripa. In all, the pleurapophyses are short and straight ; the occipital condyles two ; two vomerine bones mostly dentigerous ; no scales or scutes. True batra- chians are found chiefly in Tertiary and Post-Tertiary strata. See REP- TILIA. Batracholites (Gr. MlrXchos, frog, and lilhos, stone). Fossil remains of true batrachians or animals of the frog kind. " The skeletons, vestiges of the soft parts, and imprints of the feet of several genera of true batrachi- ans," says Mantell, "occur in a fossil state in Tertiary deposits, all of which, like existing races, appear to belong to fresh- water or terrestrial species. In the Pliocene or newer Tertiary strata, on the banks of the Rhine at GEningen, and in the papier-kohle of the Eifel, several species of frog, toad, and newt have been discovered. Fossil frogs of a small species, very similar to the recent, occur in numbers in a dark shale, overlaid by basalt, in the vicinity of Bombay." Batrichnis (Gr. bdlr&chos, a frog, and iclmon, footprint). A provisional genus of batrachian or frog-like footprints occurring in the New Red or Triassic sandstones of Corncockle Muir, Dumfriesshire, and described by Sir W. Jardine in his ' Ichnology of Annandale.' 105 BAY BEL Bay. Any bending of the ocean into the land, less sudden and con- tracted than a creek or harbour, and communicating more openly with the main ocean than a sea or gulj '; "Bay of Biscay," "Bay of Bengal." Geo- logically, bays are the grand recipients of marine drift, and are usually fringed or headed by belts or expanses of sand-drift or sand-dunes. Bay Salt. A general term for coarse-grained salt, but properly applied to salt obtained by spontaneous or natural evaporation of sea-water in large shallow tanks or bays, Beach. The shore of the sea ; the strand. Strictly that space along the margin of a tidal sea over which the tide alternately flows and ebbs. See RAISED BEACHES. Beatricea. A remarkable fossil occurring in the Middle Silurians of Canada, and at first supposed by Mr Billings to be the stem of a tree-fern. The appearance of vegetable structure has since, however, been ascertained by Dr Hooker to be deceptive, and due to crystallisation. Mr Salter believes that the Beatricea, though thirty feet long, may be a gigantic annelide tube allied to Cornulites. The living Amphitrite has a shelly tube several feet in length. Bechera. One of Brongniart's genera of fossil plants with tumid articu- late stems and verticillate leaves ; now merged into ASTEROPHYLLITES. Bed. This term is usually applied both by geologists and quarry men to a stratum of considerable thickness, and of uniform homogeneous texture e.g., "bed of sandstone," "bed of clay," &c. Originally and strictly, however, the term bed referred to the surface-junction of two different strata, and seam to the line of separation between them. Thus the upper surface of a stratum may be smooth, or it may be rough and irregular, and the under surface of the stratum deposited on it must partake of this smoothness or this irregularity this is bedding; the line that marks the separation between two strata is the seam. Beekites. After Dr Beeke, Dean of Bristol, by whom they were first noticed. Concretionary forms of chalcedony found encrusting fossil sponges, corals, shells, and the like ; and occurring for the most part in the conglomerates of the New Red Sandstone. They resemble in form the pebbles among which they are imbedded, but are readily distinguished by their composition and tubercular surface. They are frequently hollow, the organic nucleus being entirely decomposed. Abundant in the pebbly conglomerate of Torbay. Beetle-Stone. A name given to coprolitic nodules of ironstone, &c., from the fanciful resemblance (when the nodule is split up) of the enclosed coprolite, and its radiating films of calc-spar, to the body and limbs of a beetle. The finest specimens are found in the ferriferous shales of the Coal-measuresmany of them being susceptible of a fair polish, which materially assists in bringing out the beetle-like aspects of the fossil nucleus. See SEPT ARIA. Belenmite (Gr. belemnon, a dart). An abundant Cretaceous and Oolitic fossil, apparently the internal bone or shell of extinct naked cephalopods allied to the squid and cuttle-fish. Belemnites are usually found as straight, solid, tapering (dart-like) fossils ; but occasionally the upper or chambered portion is attached, and even in some instances the colouring matter of the ink-bag has not been altogether destroyed. The pen of the common squid (loligo) is a slender and insignificant organ compared with the belemnite and its extinct congeners, which seemed to have thronged 106 BEL the seas of the upper Secondary period. Upwards of eighty species have been described, and nearly one half of these occur in British strata. "A belemnite," says Dr Buckland ('Bridgewater Treatise'), "was a compound internal shell, made up of three essential parts, which are rarely found together in perfect preservation, first, A. fibro-calcareous cond-shaped shell, terminating at its larger end in a hollow cone. Secondly, A conical thin horny sheath or cup, commencing from the base of the hollow cone of the fibro-calcareous sheath, and enlarging rapidly as it extends outwards to a considerable distance. This horny cup formed the anterior chamber of the belemnite, and contained the ink-bag and some other viscera. Thirdly, A thin conical internal - chambered shell, called the alveolus, placed within the calcareous hollow cone above described. This cham- bered portion of the shell is closely allied in form, and in the principles of its construction, both to the nautilus and orthoceratite. It is divided by thin transverse plates into a series of narrow air-chambers or areolce resembling a pile of watch-glasses, gradually diminishing towards the apex. The transverse plates are outwardly convex, and are perforated by a continuous siphuncle, placed on the inferior or ventral margin." Belemnoteuthis (Gr. belemnon, a dart, and teuihis, the squid or cuttle- fish.) A genus of the Belemnite family of cephalopods occurring in the Lias and Oolite, and occasionally so well preserved that the receptacle and ink-bag have been found in their natural relative positions, together with the remains and impressions of the mantle, body, tentacles with their hooks, and the fins ! According to Mr Woodward, the belemnoteuthis had eight nearly equal arms, each furnished with twenty to forty pairs of hooks, forming a double alternating row ; and the tentacles, which were not longer than the arms, were similarly provided. In all essential points of structure it is most nearly related to the existing calamaries ( Teuthidce), but in consequence of its posteriorly-pointed shell, its fins were lateral in- stead of terminal, whilst the chambered structure of its shell and the cha- racter of tentacles show that it must be regarded as a type distinct from and equal in importance to the existing calamaries. Belemnoziphius (Gr. belemnon, dart, and xiphos, sword). A genus of solid-beaked dolphins occurring in upper Tertiary strata, and so named by Professor Huxley from their long straight snouts, the only portions of their skeletons which have yet been detected. Bellerophon (a fanciful appellation from Bellerophon, n fabulous hero of Grecian antiquity). An extensive genus of fossil nautiloid shells, consisting of a single chamber like the living argonaut. They occur in the Silurian, De- vonian, and Carboniferous strata, upwards of twenty species being met with in the mountain-limestone. The Bellerophontidce are most generally regard- ed as belonging to the Heteropoda, and allied to the Glass-shell (carinaria) ; though by some they are considered to be a simple form of Cephalopod. Bell-Metal. A well-known alloy of copper and tin, to which small pro- portions of other metals (zinc, lead, &c.) are occasionally added, according to the quality of the tone required the larger the proportion of copper the graver the tone. Bell-Metal Ore. A Cornish miner's term for STANNINE or sulphuret of tin, in allusion to its brilliant bell-metal colour. As an ore it consists essentially of tin and copper-pyrites. Bel6ptera (Gr. belos, a dart, and pteron, wing). A curious belemnite- looking organism occurring in Tertiary strata, and evidently the internal 107 BEL BER bone of a cephalopod, but less pointed than the belemnites, and having a wing-like projection or process on each side; whence the name. As a genus it holds a place intermediate between the Cuttle-fish and the Spirulirostra. Belosepia (Gr. belos, a dart, and sepia, the cuttle-fish.) A provisional genus of short, flattened, belemnite-looking organisms occurring in Terti- ary strata, and evidently the internal bone or shell of a cephalopod allied to the existing Sepia ; hence the name. Beloteiithis (Gr. belos, a dart, and teuthis, a squid or calamary). A genus of flattened, spear-head-shaped belemnites occurring in the Lias, and so termed from their apparent affinity to the squids or calamaries of existing seas. Berengellite. One of the mineral resins, occurring, according to Profes- sor Johnston, in large amorphous masses, having a conchoidal fracture, dark-brown colour inclining to olive, a resinous unpleasant odour, and bitter taste. It consists of 72.40 carbon, 9.28 hydrogen, and 18.31 oxygen. It is said to form a lake in the province of St Juan de Berengela in South America, and is used at Arica to caulk vessels. Berg (Swedish berg, a mountain.) An abbreviated term for iceberg, which see. Berg-Mahl, Berg-Mehl (Swedish). Literally " mountain-meal ; " a re- cent infusorial or rather microphytal earth of a whitish colour and mealy grain ; hence the name, and hence also the term "fossil farina" by which it is occasionally designated. Such earths are of common occurrence in bog and ancient lake-deposits (as in Finland, Iceland, San Fiora in Tus- cany, &c.), and consist almost exclusively of the siliceous shields of micro- scopic plant-growths (Diatoms) and of Infusoriae. In times of scarcity the Finns and Laps are said to mix the berg-mahl with their food, just as the Indians swallow similar clays to appease the cravings of hunger ; but be- yond mere traces of organic matter, analysis does not seem to indicate the presence of any nutritive principle. Beryl (Persian belur, Lat. beryllus). A lapidary's term for the less bril- liant and colourless varieties of the emerald this want of colour arising from the absence of chromium, which gives to the emerald its deep rich green. The finest beryls or aqua marine are found in Siberia, chiefly in druses or veins in granite, along with rock-crystal or tourmaline and topaz. Some crystals exceed a foot in length, but others of still larger dimensions have been found in the United States. Esteemed gems also occur in the granites of Wicklow and Aberdeen ; in Norway, Bavaria, the tin-mines of Bohemia, Brazil, and other localities. " Pebbles of quartz," says Mr Bristow, " are sometimes taken for beryls, and vice versa. The two may be distinguished by observing that the crystals of beryl are striated longi- tudinally, while those of quartz are striated transversely, or at right angles to the axis of the prism. Moreover, the fracture of the two minerals is widely different, for the beryl breaks in smooth planes, the faces of which are at right angles to the axis of the crystals, whereas the fractured sur- face of quartz is invariably conchoidal." See EMERALD. Beryx. A genus of ctenoid fishes belonging to the Perch family, the living species of which inhabit the seas of Australia. A number of species have been obtained from the Chalk of the south-east of England, where it is one of the most common ichthyolites, and known to the quarrymen by the name of "Johnny Dory." The specimens are short, robust, perch- 108 BER BIM like fishes from four to twelve inches long, having very large heads, large eye-orbits, broad opercular pieces covered with sculptured rays, and the margins of the jaws furnished with a broad band of brush-teeth. The body is covered with large round scales having several concentric rows of denticles, and the single dorsal fin has several spinous rays in front of the soft rays. Berzeline (after Berzelius, the chemist). Seleniuret of copper, occurring in crystalline dendritic crusts in fissures of calc-spar in the copper-mines of Sweden and Saxony. Berzelite (after Berzelius). A name given to several minerals in honour of the great Swedish chemist. The Berzelite of Kiihn is a honey-coloured, massive arseniate of lime and magnesia ; the Berzelite of LeVy a muriate of lead a very rare mineral, generally known as Mendipite, from its occur- ring in the Mendip Hills, Somersetshire. Bethersden Marble (from Bethersden in the Wealds of Kent). A fresh- water limestone of the Wealden formation, and better known as Sussex or Petworth Marble, which see. BeyricMa (after M. Beyrich). A genus of minute phyllopodous crusta- ceans belonging to the family Limnadiadce, of which the existing Limnadia has been taken as the type. They are bivalved, and their minute three- lobed-like coverings occur in profusion both in lower and upper Silurian strata, but more abundantly in the latter where hundreds, from the size of pin-heads and upwards, may be seen attached to the crusts of Euryp- terites, as if they had led, like many of their existing congeners, a para- sitic life on crustaceans and fishes. Bezoar Stones. A term occasionally employed to designate those stony concretions which are usually composed of several crusts, one within an- other, and having these crusts closely cohering without any internal cavity. Bi (Lat. bis, twice). A frequent prefix signifying two, twice, or in twos; as bimana, two-handed ; biennial, living for two years, or occurring every second year ; bifurcate, two-forked, and so on. Bicuspid (Lat. bis, and cuspis, a spear). Two-pointed ; two-fanged; two-pronged. The "false molars" or pre-molar teeth in the human sub- ject are frequently termed the bicuspids. Biennial (Lat. bis, and annus, a year). In botany, enduring through- out two years and then perishing ; applied to plants which do not bear flowers and seed till the second year, and then die. Bifid (Lat. bis, twice, and findo, fidi, I cleave). Cleft or cloven into two ; opening with a cleft, but not deeply divided. Bifurcated, Bifurcation (Lat. bis, and furca, a fork). Forked ; divided into two heads or branches. Bilateral Symmetry (Lat. bis, both, and latus, the side). That con- struction in veterbrate animals by which the organs of the body are arranged more or less distinctly in pairs on each side of the body. Bildstein (Ger. bild, shape, and stein, stone). A German term, some- times used in English works for agalmatolite or figure-stone (which see). Called steatite-pagodite by Brongniart, from its coming from China in gro- tesque figures and pagodas. Bimana (Lat. bis, twice, and manus, hand). Literally two-handed. In zoology, the order of mammalia of which Man is the sole representative ; the apes and monkeys being quadrumanous, or four-handed. See tabula- tions, " ANIMAL SCHEME." 109 BIN BIS Bind. A minor's term for tough, argillaceous, or clayey shales ; but, like many other local terms, not very precise in its application. Bing (Scot, a heap). A miner's term for a certain amount of output of ore or of other mineral. In the Alston Moor district the bing of lead ore is 8 cwt. Bin6mial System (Lat. bis, two, and nomen, a name). That system in zoological nomenclature, according to which every animal receives two names one indicating the genus to which it belongs, the other being its own specific appellation. Thus, the genus Felis includes the cat, tiger, leopard, panther, lion, &c. ; but these being different species, are each distinguished by a second term, as Felis callus, the common cat ; Felis tigris, the tiger ; Felis leopardus, the leopard, and so forth. Biology (Gr. bios, life, and logos, doctrine). The science of Life, whether vegetable or animal, embracing botany and zoology in their widest accep- tation. Biological. Relating to the science of life ; life in all its multi- farious manifestations and developments. Biotite (after M. Biot, who first pointed out the optical differences between various kinds of mica). Hausmann's term for the rhombohedral talc-mica of Mohs, and the magnesia-mica of other mineralogists. See MICA. Birds-eye Limestone. A well-known member of the Lower Silurian of North America, deriving its name from the dark circular markings which stud many portions of its mass. These markings have been referred to the impressions of a fucoid (Phylopsis cellulosus) ; but Mr Salter, from a comparison with British specimens, regards them as the filled-up burrows of marine worms. Bird-tongues. A familiar term in the north of England for the fossil teeth of lamna, which are somewhat flattened and tongue-shaped. Bise. A cold and cutting north-east wind which descends from the snow- covered Alps in spring and early summer; often ravaging the south of France. Biserial (Lat. bis, twice, and series, a row or order). Arranged in two courses or series ; e.g., the " biserial " footprints of a quadruped as com- pared with the "uniserial" line of a biped. Bismutli (Ger. wismuth). One of the metals, having a reddish silver- white colour, very sectile, non-malleable, and readily fusible, even in the flame of a candle. Its specific gravity is 9.727 ; hardness from 2 to 2.5 ; and fusing point at 476 Fahr. It occurs native, associated with the ores of cobalt, silver, and tin ; and also as an oxide, under the name of bismuth ochre; as a sulphuret, called bismuthine or b^sm^t,th-glance ; as a sulphuret with copper, known as copper bismuth ore ; with copper and lead, called aciculite or needle ore ; and in several other less important combinations. See FUSIBLE METAL. Bismuth-blende. Silicate of bismuth, or rather a mixture of silicate of iron and bismuth, with phosphate of alumina. Known also as EULYTINE, which see. Bismuthine. Sulphuret of bismuth or bismuth-glance ; occurring chiefly in the granitic and metamorphic rocks, either in longitudinally-striated prismatic crystals, or massive, or disseminated in granular or columnar ag- gregates. It is rather soft, sectile, of a greyish tin colour, and consists of 81.5 bismuth, and 18.5 sulphur. Bismuthite. A yellowish-grey ore of bismuth, occurring disseminated or in investing incrustations, and consisting essentially of carbonate of 110 BIT BLA bismuth, with a little of the sulphate, and mixed with traces of iron, copper, and sulphuric acid as impurities. Bitterspar. Known also as Rhomb-spar ; a mineralogical term for the larger-grained, distinctly-crystallised, and cleavable varieties of dolomite, which see. " Biterspar, it has been well remarked, bears the same rela- tion to dolomite and magnesian limestone that calcareous spar does to common limestone." Bitumen (Gr. pitus, the pine or pitch-tree). Mineral pitch or tar. As a genus, the Bitumens belong to the family of " Mineral resins," or hydro- carbons, are highly inflammable, and burn like pitch with much smoke and flame. They occur in numerous localities, and are associated with almost every formation from the Silurian upwards. They appear to be natural distillations or chemical conversions from substances of organic origin (animal as well as vegetable), and present themselves most abun- dantly in volcanic districts. At the same time it must be noted, that bituminous exudations take place among Lower Silurian or even Cambrian strata, formations in which only a few scattered sea-weeds and zoophytes occur; and hence the ingenious surmise of M. Abich, that in such cases bitumen is a primitive compound, engendered in the interior of the earth, whence it arises like carbonic acid and nitrogen, of which the real origin is also unknown. Be this as it may (though the occurrence of anthracites in these early formations would seem to negative the notion), there can be no doubt of the organic origin of bitumen in a majority of instances. In its purest and most fluid state it constitutes naphtha (86 carbon, 14 hydro- gen) ; when of the consistence of oil, it is known as petroleum (1 to 8 per cent of nitrogen, oxygen, and ashes) ; in its next stage of inspissation it is called maltha, or slaggy mineral pitch ; then elaterite or elastic bitumen ; and ultimately it becomes indurated into asphalt, which varies considerably in purity some specimens yielding from 8 to 14 per cent of oxygen and nitrogen, and from 4 to 6 per cent of inorganic ashes. Bituminous, &c. (See BITUMEN). Containing bitumen, or having the properties of bitumen ; bituminiferous, yielding bitumen naturally, or by distillation ; bituminated, impregnated or prepared with bitumen ; bitumin- ise, to prepare or coat with bitumen ; and bituminisation, the natural pro- cess of being converted into bituminous matter, as vegetable debris into coal. Bivalve (Lat. bis, and valvce, folding doors). Applied to mollusca that have two valves or shells, as the cockle and mussel ; in contradistinction to those that are one-shelled (univalve) and many-shelled (multivalve). Black Amber. The name given by the Prussian amber-diggers to jet, because it is found accompanying amber, and when rubbed becomes faintly electric. Black-Band. A Scotch miner's term for those ironstones (clay carbon- ates) of the Coal-measures which contain coaly matter sufficient to calcine the ore without any artificial addition of fuel. See IRONSTONE. Black-Chalk. A soft black or bluish black clay or shale, occurring in subordinate layers in several formations, and owing its colour and softness to the presence of from 10 to 15 per cent of carbon ; e.g., Italian Chalk, German Chalk, &c. Black- Jack. A miner's term for the sulphuret of zinc ; the Blende of the mineralogist, which see. Blacklead. A familiar term for GRAPHITE, from its resemblance to the metal lead ; called also, for the same reason, Plumbago, which see. Ill BLA BOG Black- Wad. An earthy ore of manganese, more commonly known as Wad, which see. Bladed. Applied in mineralogy to crystals composed of long and nar- row plates, like the blade of a knife ; laminated ; arranged in thin slender laminae. Blanching (Fr. Uanche, white). The process of whitening the leaves and stems of plants by excluding the light. See ETIOLATE. Blastoidea (Gr. Uastos, bud, and eidos, form). A small group or order of palaeozoic echinoderms, typified by Pentremites, which see, and deriving its name from the bud-like disposition of the plates of the receptacle. Blende (Ger. blenden, to dazzle). A term applied by mineralogists to several minerals having a peculiar lustre or glimmer, as horn-blende, zinc- blende, ruby-blende, &c. ; but now chiefly applied to a metallic ore of zinc the sulphuret or " black-jack" of the English miner. This ore in its normal state consists of 67 zinc and 33 sulphur ; but usually contains a certain proportion of the sulphide of iron, which imparts to it its black colour, whence the name of " Black-jack." As usually found in British mines it consists of 62 zinc, 4 iron, and 33 sulphur. See ZINC. Blind-Coal. A miner's term for anthracite, and for those varieties of common coal which have been in a great measure deprived of their bitu- men, and hence burn away blindly, or without flame and light. Bloodstone. Known also as heliotrope; a jaspideous variety of Calce- dony of a dark-green colour, and sprinkled with deep-red spots ; hence its name. See HELIOTROPE. Blowers. In coal mining, the puffs or jets of carburetted hydrogen given off by fissures in the coal during the operations of the miner. These discharges are frequently emitted with considerable force, and many are of long continuance, evincing that certain coal-seams are still undergoing the chemical process of mineralisation or metamorphosis. Blue-John. A miner's term for fluor or Derbyshire spar, which see. Bluestone. The Australian miners' term for the basaltic lava through which they have to sink in search of the auriferous drift large areas of which in Victoria, &c., are covered up frequently by one and sometimes by two beds which must have flowed over the gold-bearing gravels during the later Tertiary periods. Blue- Vitriol A familiar term for sulphate of copper, in contradistinc- tion to green-vitriol, or sulphate of iron. Bluffs. An American term for high banks presenting a precipitous front to the sea or to a river, as the Bluffs of the Mississippi. Bog (Celtic, soft). In Scotland and Ireland the common designation for a wet spongy morass, chiefly composed of decayed vegetable matter. Bog- earth, soils consisting in the main of decomposed vegetable matter, with a considerable portion of light siliceous sand. Bog-Butter. A name given to fatty spermaceti-like masses, occasionally found in the peat-mosses of Ireland and Scotland, apparently varieties of adipocerite, which see. Bog-Iron Ore. A porous ferruginous deposit occurring at the bottom of many bogs and peat-mosses, and occasionally in such quantities as to be of industrial importance. In general, bog-iron forms a thin cake or pan of iron-peroxide, and evidently results from the decomposition and precipita- tion of the carbonates and oxides of iron held in solution by the waters of the morass, and which have been carried thither by springs and other dis- 112 BOG BOL charges of water. By the decay of the vegetable matter, certain acids (carbonic, crenic, &c,) are formed, and a number of chemical changes and interchanges are set agoing, which result in the precipitation of the ore in question. It varies much in composition containing from 20 to 78 per cent of peroxide of iron, with varying quantities of protoxides of iron and manganese, phosphoric and organic acids, together with a considerable percentage of water. Ehrenberg has detected numerous infusorial forms in bog- iron, but these can only be considered co-ordinate with, and not the primal cause of the formation in question. For an account of the chemical actions and reactions concerned in the formation of bog-iron, and for con- siderations connected with its formation, as bearing on the origin of iron- stone in general, see Bischof s ' Physical and Chemical Geology,' vol. i. Bog- Wood. The trunks and larger branches of trees dug up from peat- bogs. The term is usually applied to the "black-oak" obtained from the bogs of Ireland and Scotland, and which derives its ebony colour from an impregnation of iron. Bohemia, in central Europe, rendered classical in geology from its con- taining one of the most complete and intelligible known developments of Silurian strata, which have been made the subject of an admirable mono- graph by M. Barrande 'Systeme Silurien de Bohe'me.' Boiling Point. The precise temperature at which a liquid begins to boil or bubble up under the influence of heat. The boiling points of liquids are constant under precisely the same circumstances. The causes which induce variation are increased or diminished atmospheric pressure, the greater or less depth of the liquid, and the nature of the vessel in which it is contained. Thus, the boiling point of water under ordinary circum- stances, at the level of the sea, is 212 Fahr. ; but it will boil and bubble up at a much lower temperature on the top of a high mountain, in conse- quence of diminished pressure ; it will also boil sooner and more quietly in a rough-surfaced vessel than in a smooth and polished one ; and also more quickly in a shallow vessel, in consequence of the less resistance by the superincumbent water to the escape of steam. The boiling point is also raised considerably by saline admixture, so that pure water, which boils at 212, requires 285 when fully saturated with salt. As water boils at 212 Fahr. when the barometer stands at 30 inches, and every rise and fall of one-tenth of an inch alters the boiling point 0.176 of a degree, it leads to a convenient method of ascertaining the heights of mountains. In vacuo, all liquids boil at a temperature 124 lower than in the open air, at the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere. From these facts the reader may readily infer the enormous temperature to which water may be heated in the depth of the earth without boiling or passing off in vapour, and may also judge of the terrific force with which it must explode or pass off in steam as it approaches the vents and orifices of volcanoes. Bolder oerg Beds. The sands and gravels of the Bolderberg hill, about forty miles E.N.E. of Brussels, are the Belgian representatives of the Middle or Eocene Tertiaries, and often referred to by geologists. Bole (Gr. bolos, a clod or lump of earth). A term somewhat loosely applied by geologists to friable clayey earths, usually highly coloured by peroxide of iron; hence their yellow, yellow- red, and brownish-black colours, which render them fitted for pigments. In mineralogy, the term is applied to certain hydrous silicates of alumina and iron peroxide, in varying proportions, e.g., 32 silica, 26 alumina., 21 peroxide of iron, 17 water, 113 H BOL BOH with traces of lime and magnesia. When the magnesia is in notable pro- portion, the boles become greasy or soapy in feel ; hence the terms "moun- tain-soap," the "fett-bol" of the Germans, and the "Sinopian" and "Lemnian earths" of antiquity, which see. Bol6gnian or Bolognese Stone. A radiated variety of sulphate of barytes, found in rounded masses near Bologna, which, after being heated and placed in the sun's rays, phosphoresces in the dark. Bone Bed. A term applied to several thin strata or layers, from their containing innumerable fragments of fossil bones, scales, teeth, coprolites, and other organic debris. One of the best known is that which caps the New Red Sandstone or Trias in the south of England. It is found at Ax- mouth in Devonshire, and at Westbury and Aust in Gloucestershire places fully sixty miles apart the bed itself never being more than two or three feet thick, and frequently only as many inches. Another occurs at the junction of the Upper Silurian and Old Red Sandstone in Hereford- shire. This is rarely more than a foot thick, and often only one or two inches, and has been traced at intervals over a space of forty-five miles, from Pyrton Passage to the banks of the Teme near Ludlow. Bone Breccia. A conglomerate, or rather admixture of fragments of limestone and bones, cemented together into a hard rock by a reddish calcareous concretion, and occurring in caverns, fissures, and the like, of later Tertiary date. This breccia is found in almost all the islands on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, as at Gibraltar, Cette, Nice, Corsica, Palermo, &c. ; in many of the ossiferous caverns of Europe ; and similar admixtures occur also in the bone caves of England. Bone breccias of analogous date, but containing the bones of marsupial animals only, have been found in the caves of Australia. See OSSIFEROUS CAVERNS. Bone Earth. The earthy or mineral part of bones, which consists chiefly of the phosphate of lime. Boracic Acid. The Sassoline of some mineralogists ; a compound of boron and oxygen, occurring in minute pearly scales, in crusts, or stalactitic aggregates, in the neighbourhood of hot springs and volcanoes. Upwards of 200,000 lb. are annually obtained from the hot springs or lagoni of Tuscany, by evaporating the water. B6racite. Borate of magnesia ; an anhydrous compound of magnesia and boracic acid, consisting of 30.2 magnesia and 69.8 boracic acid. It is usually associated with gypsum ; but a compact variety occurs in Germany, forming beds with rock-salt and gypsum. Borax. Native borate or bi-borate of soda, found associated with rock- salt in loose crystals in the elay on the shores of certain lakes in Tibet and Nepaul, in South America and in Ceylon. In its rough or impure state it is known as tincal, and from this the pure borax of commerce is derived. It is also made in large quantities from the boracic acid of the Tuscan lagoons. Borax forms the most valuable reagent for blowpipe experiments ; is used in the preparation of fine glass and artificial gems, in medicine, and in South America as a flux for smelting copper. Bord. A miner's term for the face of coal parallel to the natural fis- sures, in contradistinction to End, which is at right angles to the natural fissuring. Bore. A violent rush of tidal water; the advancing edge or front of the tidal wave as it ascends a river or estuary; e.g., the "bore" of the Hooghly, the Garonne, the Severn, the Tsientang, &c. The bore of the 114 BOR EOT Tsientang is said to advance up that river, at Hangchau, like a wall of water, thirty feet in height, and at the rate of twenty- five miles an hour, sweeping everything before it. Boreal (Lat. Boreas, the north wind). Of or belonging to the north; e.g., Boreal Regions, Boreal Fauna, &c. The shells of the " Clyde Beds " re- sembling those of Greenland and other existing arctic seas, these beds are said to have been deposited under cold or " boreal conditions." Bornia. Sternberg's term for a genus of Coal-measure plants with ver- ticillate leaves ; the same as the Asteropkyllites equisetiformis of Brongniart and Lindley, which see. Bornite. The "purple copper" and "variegated copper" of some mineralogists ; an ore of copper of a reddish pinchbeck colour and pale- blue tarnish ; mostly found massive and disseminated in rocks of various ages, as in the copper-slate of Germany, the crystalline schists of Norway, &c. ; and consisting of about 60 copper, 14 iron, and 26 sulphur. See COPPER. Boron. In chemistry, one of the elementary substances ; the indecom- posable base of boracic acid, from which it was obtained by Davy, by the action of the voltaic battery. It occurs in the form of a fine mealy-white powder, and has a weakly bitter taste, but not at all acid. Bort or Boort. A kind of diamond, forming from two to ten per cent of the rough diamonds imported from Brazil. "It is generally," says Mr Bristow, "of a spherical shape, and appears to be formed of a confused mass of interlaced and twisted parts, like the knots in a piece of wood. For this reason it cannot be cleaned like ordinary diamonds,' and is only of use as a material for polishing other stones, for which purpose it is broken and reduced to powder in a mortar. Its colour is mostly greyish-white, and its specific gravity exceeds that of ordinary diamonds." Bos (Lat.) In zoology, the technical generic term for the Ox kind, of which there are several existing species taurus or common ox, urus or aurock, bison, bubalus or buffalo, grunniens or yak, mosdtatus or musk-ox, &c. The genus occurs fossil, or rather sub-fossil, in the Upper Tertiaries * and Post-Tertiaries of Europe and Asia. See BoviDM. Boss (Fr. bosse). A knob or protuberance; a convenient term in geology for rounded masses of rock that have resisted denudation, for sudden mound-like swellings of quaquaversal strata, and for sudden protrusions of trap or other igneous rock. Bothrodendron (Gr. lothros, a pit or cavity, and dendron, a tree). A genus of Coal-measure stems with dotted surfaces, and distinguished from sigillaria and stigmaria by two opposite rows of deep oval concavities which appear to have been made by the bases of large cones or seed- bracts ( Fossil Flora,' vol. ii.). In the Ulodendron (which see) the pit-like scars are rounder and more closely placed, while the surface of the stem is covered with tesselated scales like the lepidodendron, and not dotted. Botryoidal (Gr. botrys, a bunch of grapes). Applied to certain concre- tionary forms, as those dccurring in the magnesian limestones of Durham, the haematites of Westmoreland, &c., which resemble clusters of grapes. Botryolite (Gr. botrys, a bunch of grapes, and lithos, stone). A variety of Datholite, or borate of lime, occurring in small botryoidal or reniform crusts in the magnetic iron-ore of Arendal in Norway. Bottle-Track. The name given to the course pursued by bottles which are thrown overboard with a note enclosed of the longitude and latitude 115 EOT BOV where and the date when they are dropped in the ocean. By this means the set-in and velocity of currents are rudely indicated. Bottom Beds. A term occasionally employed by English geologists to designate those partially or doubtfully fossiliferous strata which imme- diately underlie the Silurian system in Wales. They constitute the Lower Cambrian formation of Sedgwick, and embrace the Bangor slates, Harlech grits, and Llanberis schists. Boulders (Sax.) Any rounded or water- worn blocks of stone, which would not, from their size, be regarded as pebbles or gravel, are termed boulders. The name, however, is usually restricted to the large water- worn and smoothed blocks ("erratic blocks") found imbedded in the clays and gravels of the Drift formation of the Pleistocene epoch, which covers the northern hemisphere, in both worlds, down to the 40th or 42d parallel of latitude. Boulder-Clay. A term in frequent use by British geologists to desig- nate those stiff, tenacious, unlaminated clays of the glacial or " Drift " epoch, which are widely spread over Great Britain, and easily distinguish- able from other clays by the numerous boulders and pebbles interspersed throughout their mass. These water-worn blocks have evidently been dropt in deep water from floating ice, and have settled in the clayey silt, without regard to specific gravity, or anj* other arrangement. The clay itself usually partakes of the colour of the formations from whose imme- diate waste it has been derived : red in Old Red Sandstone tracts, dark- blue in Coal-bearing districts, and creamy or chalky white in Oolite and Chalk areas. See DRIFT. Bourguetlcrinus (after M. Bourguet). A genus of encrinites occurring in the Chalk and Lower Tertiaries, and much resembling Apiocrinus, under which it was at one time included. Bournonite. A plumbo-cupreous sulphuret of antimony, named after Count Bournon, who first discovered it at Endellion in Cornwall, and hence known also as Endellionite. It is of a steel-grey colour, and occurs in thick tabular crystals or massive in granular aggregates, and consists of 41.8 lead, 12.9 copper, 26 antimony, and 19.3 sulphur. Bourrans. The name given to the fierce snow-storms that blow from the north-east over the steppes of Russia, and which often rage for twenty- four hours at a time. Bovey Coal. A local designation for the Tertiary lignite or brown coal which occurs at Bovey in Devonshire, where it is worked for the potteries. There are several beds, varying from two to sixteen feet in thickness, and interstratified with clays the whole forming a local deposit of limited extent. The lignite appears in every degree of purity, from the woody- looking " board coal " of the miner to a soft earthy mass almost undistin- guishable from peat. See LIGNITE. B6vidse (Lat. bos, bovis, an ox). -The Ox tribe ; a well-known family of ruminants, whose remains are not known to occur in deposits of older date than the Pliocene and Pleistocene Tertiaries. " At those periods," says Owen, " there existed in Britain a very large species of bison (Bison priscus), and a large species of ox (Bos antiquus) from fresh-water Pliocene beds ; whilst a somewhat smaller but still stupendous wild ox (B. primi- genius) has left its remains in Pleistocene marls, both in England and Scot- land. With this was associated an aboriginal British ox of much smaller stature, and with short horns (B. longifrons), which continued to exist un- 116 BRA til the historical period, and was probably the source of the domesticated cattle of the Celtic races before the Roman invasion. A buffalo not dis- tinguishable from the musk kind (Bubalus moschalus), now confined to the northern latitudes of North America, roamed over similar latitudes of Europe and Asia, in company with the hair-clad elephants (Mammoths) and rhinoceroses." (' British Fossil Mammals.') Brachiolites (Gr. Irachion, an arm, and lithos, stone). A fossil zoophyte or bryozoon occurring abundantly in the Chalk of the south of England, presenting a puckered or folded fungiform appearance, and furnished with radical and lateral processes ; whence the name. See Mr Toulmin Smith's 'Memoir on the Ventriculidae.' BracMopoda (Gr. Irachion, an arm, and pous, podos, a foot). A numer- ous order of mollusca, including equal and unequal valved genera, and having one shell placed on the back of the animal, and the other in front. They have no special breathing organs, but the mantle performs that office : they take their name from two long, spiral, ciliated arms, de- veloped from the sides of the mouth, which they can uncoil and protrude, and with which they create currents that bring them food e.g., terebratula, spirifer, prodwda, &c. The Brachiopods were more abundant, generally and numerically, iu Palaeozoic than in Neozoic epochs, and have been much studied by palaeontologists. See MOLLUSCA and PALLIOBRANCHIATA. Brachy. A Greek word signifying short, and frequently made use of in scientific compounds; as brachyurous, short-tailed; brachypteiyx, short- winged ; brachycera, short-horned, &c. Brachycephdlic (Gr. brachys, short; fe^a^, the head). Literally "short- headed ; " applied in scientific descriptions to the form of the head in animals e.g., the brachy cephalic or short-headed tribes of the human family. Brachyphyllum (Gr. brachys, short, and phyllum, leaf). A coniferous- looking plant occurring in terminal twigs and branches in the Oolitic formation, and so called from the short, ovate, ribless, scale-like leaves which surround the branches. Judging from its leaves and general aspect, Lindley would ally it with the Araucaria, Callitris, and Dacrydium,. Brachyiira (Gr. brachys, short, and oura, tail). A sub-order of the Decapod crustaceans, in which the abdomen is always converted into a short jointed tail, quite destitute of terminal appendages, and bent round so as to fold closely under the breast, as in the common edible crabs. The brachyura are not known in a fossil state earlier than the Lower Cretaceous or Greensand period. Bracklesham Beds. A series of Lower Tertiary sands and clays immedi- ately overlying the London Clay, and so called from being well exposed at Bracklesham Bay, near Chichester, in Sussex. They contain the gigantic cerithium, volutes, cowries, bones of fishes, crocodiles, and sea-serpents ; and thus seem to favour the idea of a warm climate having prevailed in these latitudes during the period of their deposit. Bradford Clay. A member of the Oolitic system, equivalent with, or immediately overlying, the Great Oolite. It is well developed near Brad- ford, and consists of a pale greyish clay, slightly calcareous, and enclosing thin slabs of tough brownish limestone. It rarely exceeds sixty feet in thickness, and is remarkable for the number of its Apiocrinites, which are consequently sometimes termed the "Bradford Encrinite." BrancMa (Gr. a gill). The branchiae or gills are the respiratory organs 117 BKA BKE of those animals that breathe water instead of air. They vary greatly in their structure and position in different animals. Branchidstegal, Branchi6stegous (Gr. Iranchia, gill, and stego, I cover). Gill-covering ; applied to certain bones or bent rays that support the membrane which covers and protects the gills of fishes. The branchiostegal rays are often very beautifully preserved even in Palaeozoic fishes. Brard's Process. A method adopted by M. Brard to discover in a short time the relative resistance offered by different kinds of rock to the action of damp and frost, and therefore to determine their durability with re- ference to exposure. It consists in boiling small cubes of the stones to be tested in a saturated solution of sulphate of soda (Glauber's salts), and then suspending them for four or five days in the open air. As they dry they become covered with an efflorescence of crystals, which must be suc- cessively washed off till the efflorescence ceases. If the stone resists the decomposing action of damp and frost, the salt does not force out any portions of the stone with it ; on the other hand, if it yields to this action, small fragments will be perceived to separate themselves, and the cube will gradually lose its angles and sharp edges. The amount of this disinte- gration affords, according to the author of the process, a criterion of what would be produced in course of time by the action of the weather. Ac- cording to other authorities, the expansion of water under frost, and the almost inappreciable expansion of Glauber salt while crystallising, are so very different things, that the one cannot by any means be taken as a test of the effects of the other. Brash. " In almost every country," says Sir Charles Lyell, " the allu- vium consists in its upper part of transported materials, but it often passes downwards into a mass of broken and angular fragments, derived from the subjacent rocks. To this mass the provincial name of ' rubble ' or ' brash ' is given in many parts of England. It may be referred to the weathering or disintegration of stone on the spot, the effects of air and water, sun and frost, and chemical decomposition." See CORNBRASH. Brattice. In coal-mining, an underground wall or partition made of wood, or faced up with wood, to prevent the escape of gases or water, or to alter the current of ventilation. Brannite (in honour of M. Braun of Gotha). An abundant ore of man- ganese, consisting, according to analyses of Indian specimens, of 73.79 binoxide of manganese, 12.91 peroxide of iron, 8.30 silica, with magnesia, oxygen, and water. See MANGANESE. Brazilian Ruby. The name given by lapidaries to light rose-coloured spinelle, and pink-coloured topaz. Brazilian Sapphire. The name given by some authors to light-blue topaz, and by lapidaries to indicolite. Brazilian Tourmaline. The name given by lapidaries to Brazilian emerald. Breast. A miner's term for the face or front of a coal-seam at which he is working. The term is also applied to the wood en. partition that divides a shaft, from bottom to top, into two compartments the one forming an "upcast " the other a "downcast " current of ventilation. Breccia (Ital. a crumb or fragment). A term applied to any rock com- posed of an agglutination of angular fragments, as "volcanic breccia," " osseous breccia," "calcareous breccia," &c. A breccia, or brecciated rock, differs from a conglomerate in having its component fragments irregular 118 BRE BRO and angular, whereas the pebbles of the latter are rounded and water-worn. The origin of many breccias and breccio-conglomerates is extremely puzzling to geologists. Many of them seem to point to the action of frost on exposed rock-surfaces, and to the transporting power of ground and river ice for their deposit in water ; e.g., the Permian Breccias of Devon and Annandale. Breeze. The general term for a wind of some briskness, but of limited extent and duration ; less violent than a gale. Breithauptite (after Professor Breithaupt of Freyberg). Antimonial nickel ; occurring in the Hartz with ores of cobalt, lead, zinc, and pyrargy- rite ; either crystalline, arborescent, or disseminated ; of a light copper-red, with a violet-blue tarnish ; and consisting of 31.4 nickel, and 68.6 antimony. Brewsterite (after Sir D. Brewster). One of the Zeolite family, occur- ring in short prismatic crystals of a greyish white or yellowish colour and vitreous lustre, formed by several vertical prisms, and consisting of 54 silica, 17 alumina, 8.7 strontia, 6. 4 baryta with lime, and 13.5 water. Brewstoline (after Sir D. Brewster, by whom the first accurate researches were made into the nature of the liquids and gases which occur in the cavities of rock-crystal and other gems). Brewstoline is a transparent, colourless fluid, occurring in the minute cavities of rock-crystal, amethyst, topaz, &c. ; is thirty-two times more expansible than water, and is said to be liquid carbonic acid. See AMETHYSTOLINE. Brick-Clay. The familiar term for any clay used in the manufacture of bricks, tiles, and the like. A good brick-clay consists of a tolerably pure silicate of alumina, combined with sand in various proportions, and free from lime and other alkaline earth, of which there ought not to be more than 2 per cent, more than this acting as a flux in the brick-kiln. A little iron is also present in most varieties ; hence the red colour of the bricks as the iron passes into the state of peroxide. Brick-clays are gene- rally superficial deposits, but may also be obtained from any of the strati- fied formations. In geological classification, the term "Brick-clay" is frequently used in contradistinction to that of " Boulder-clay " meaning thereby those finely-laminated clays of the Pleistocene epoch which imme- diately overlie the true Boulder-clay, and have evidently been derived from it by the wasting and re-assorting agency of water. Bristol-Stone, or Bristol-Diamond. A familiar term for small brilliant crystals of quartz or rock-crystal, occurring in the limestones of Clifton, near Bristol. Brittleness. That quality of minerals and other solids by which they admit of being easily broken into fragments. The opposite of tough or tenacious : thus a substance may be hard yet brittle, be soft and yet tenacious. Brocatello (Span.) A species of brecciated marble, the component frag- ments of which are of various colours white, grey, yellow, and red. Brocatello is of Tertiary age, and makes a curious rather than an elegant ornamental stone. Bromine (Gr. bromos, a stench). One of the non-metallic elements, dis- covered by M. Balard of Montpelier in 1 826. It occurs in the state of a deep-red liquid, having a fetid odour somewhat resembling chlorine, and is usually obtained from the uncrystallisable residuum of sea water called bittern. It is found, however, not only in sea water, but in several salt springs, as well as in certain marine plants and animals. Bromite. Bromic- silver, an ore of silver occurring in olive-green grains, 119 BEO BKU and consisting of 57.5 silver and 42.5 bromine. It is often mixed with carbonate of lead, peroxide of iron, and clay, and is found in the silver mines of Mexico and South America, where it is termed verde plata, or " green silver." Br6ngniartin (after Brongniart), known also as Glauberite. A double sulphate of soda and lime a rare salt, occurring in connection with rock- salt and clay. Brdntes (Gr. Ironies, a giant). A genus of Devonian trilobites, especially characterised by their broad, radiating, fan-like tail, and so termed from their great size compared with the other genera of the family. Little is known of the true form of the head or disposition of the eyes. Brontozoum (Gr. brontes, a giant, and zoon, an animal). A provisional name given by Professor Hitchcock to certain gigantic bird-like footmarks discovered in the New Bed Sandstone of Massachusetts and Connecticut. Some of these footmarks, as those of the B. parallelum, are fully 20 inches in length, with a corresponding breadth or divarication of the toes. (' Silliman's Journal' for 1847.) Bronze (Fr.) A well and anciently known alloy of tin and copper the proportions of the admixture varying according to the purposes to which it was to be applied, and the hardness and toughness depending more on the mode of tempering than on the relative quantities of the ingredients. Ancient bronze usually contains from 4 to 15 per cent of tin. Modern bronze, when used for statues, medals, and the like, usually contains a small percentage of zinc and lead ; but that for bells, cannon, and other articles subjected to great strain, is injured by such admixture. The best "gun-metal," it is said, consists of 91 copper and 9 tin; the best "bell- metal," of 78 copper and 22 tin. Bronzite. A variety of diallage or schiller-spar, so called from its metallic lustre and pinchbeck or clove-brown colour. It differs from dial- lage and schiller-spar in being less fusible, and also by its greater hardness and specific gravity. See SCHILLER-SPAR. Brookite (after Brooke). Same as Analase, which see ; an ore of titan- ium occurring in rhombic prisms of a brownish-yellow or reddish colour, with a brilliant lustre inclining to metallic. Consists of oxide of titanium or titanic acid, with traces of iron peroxide and alumina. Brown Coal. Another name for Tertiary lignite, in allusion to its colour, as distinguished from the clear, shining, or crystalline black of true coal. "Wood-coal," "bituminous wood," and " board- coal," are occasional local synonymes. See LIGNITE. Brown Spar. Siderite, sphserosiderite, or sparry carbonate of iron ; an abundant ore of iron, consisting generally of from 50 to 60 per cent of iron protoxide, and from 30 to 40 carbonic acid, with traces of lime, manganese, and other minor impurities. The name is also given to the brown crystal- lised varieties of Dolomite, whose colouring matter is derived from a small percentage of iron. See IRON. Brucite (after Dr Bruce of New York, by whom it was discovered and described). A native hydrate of magnesia, consisting of 69 magnesia and 31 water ; a synonyme also given to C'ondrodite or Chrysolite, which consists of silica, magnesia, fluorine, and iron. Bruckmannia (after Bruckmann). Count Sternberg's term for certain closely-jointed stems with verticillate leaves which occur in the Coal-meas- ures, now ranked under the general head ASTEROPHYLLITES. 120 BEY BUR Bryoz6a (Gr. bryos, moss, and zoon, animal). This term embraces all the minute mollusca which inhabit compound structures, and which were formerly regarded as zoophytes or corallines e.g., retepora, fenestella, polypora, kc. The term (introduced by Ehrenberg) has reference to their branched and moss-like aggregation. See POLTZOA. Bubalus (Lat. a buffalo). Remains of the Musk-buffalo (B. moschatus), a well-known living inhabitant of arctic regions, have been found in the glacial drift of England, Germany, and other European localities thus indicating the climatal conditions that prevailed over these latitudes during the close of the Tertiary period. See BOVID^E. Bucholzite (after Bucholz, the German chemist). Known also as fibro- lite ; a term for the finely-fibrous varieties of Andalusite or Sillimanite, which see. Bucking (in mining). Crushing ore. A bucking-iron is the tool (a flattish hammer) with which the ore is crushed by the hand ; a bucking-plate is the plate on which the ore is bucked. Biicklandite (after Dr Buckland). A variety of epidote or prismatoidal augite-spar, occurring in small black vitreous crystals in the granitic rocks, and described as a pure iron epidote. Buddie (in mining). A pit, trough, or frame filled with water, by means of which ores are separated from earthy substances by washing. Blifonite (Lat. bufo, a toad). Literally toad-stone ; a name given to the fossil teeth and palatal bones of fishes belonging to the family of Pycno- donts (thick-teeth), whose remains occur abundantly in the Oolitic and Chalk formations. The term bufonite, like those of " serpent's eyes," " batrachites, " and "crapaudines," by which they are also known, refers to the vulgar notion that those organisms were originally formed in the heads of serpents, frogs, and toads. Bumastus (Gr. a bunch of large grapes literally each large as a cow's nipple, bou and mastos). A genus or sub-genus of Silurian trilobites, so called from their oblong-oval or grape-like form, and known to collectors as the "Barr Trilobite," from their plentiful occurrence in the limestone of Barr, in Staffordshire. In bumastus, which may be regarded as a sub- generic form of Ilcenus, the general form is oblong-oval and very convex ; the head, thorax, and abdomen are of nearly equal length ; the head and tail plates much rounded ; the eyes smooth and not granulose ; the thorax of ten narrow segments, in which the trilobation is scarcely discern- ible ; and in most species the crust studded with minute punctures. Bunch. A miner's term for an irregular lump of ore more than a stone, and not so much as a continuous vein. A mine is said to be bunchy when the yield is irregular sometimes rich, sometimes poor. Bunter (Ger. variegated). The German term for the New Red Sandstone of English geologists, in allusion to its variegated colour; the lowest group of the TRIASSIC SYSTEM, which see. Buprestis. A genus of coleopterous insects remarkable for their bril- liant metallic tints ; chiefly inhabitants of warm and intertropical climates, and frequenters of woods and pine-forests. Their elytra or wing-sheaths have been long known in the Oolitic flags of Stonesfield, near Oxford. Burdiehouse. About three miles south from Edinburgh, situated on the Lower Coal-measures, and celebrated for its estuary or fresh- water lime- stone, which has yielded many fine fishes (palceoniscus, amblypterus, megal- ichthys, rhizodus, holoptychius, &c.), and beautifully preserved plants, as 121 BUR CAD splienopiens, calamites, aster ophyllites, stigmaria, lepidodendron, lepidostro- bus, &c. See Dr Hibbert's paper in 13th vol. 'Trans. Royal Soc. of Edin- burgh/ and Page in 'Brit. Assoc. Reports' for 1855. Burrh or Burr-Stone. A name given to certain siliceous or rather siliceo- calcareous rocks, whose dressed surfaces present a burr or keen-cutting texture ; hence their use as millstones. The most esteemed varieties are obtained from the upper fresh- water beds of the Paris basin, and from the Eocene strata of South America. The French burrhs are porous, or rather vesicular, in texture, and of a whitish or cream colour. They are exten- sively used in this country. Byssolite (Gr. byssos, fine flax, and lithos). A somewhat indefinite term applied to fine fibrous varieties of amianthus, tremolite, actinolite, and other filamentous minerals. The Byssolith of Hausmann is a fine, trans- parent, azure-coloured variety of actinolite, consisting, according to Du- frenoy, of 26.98 oxide of zinc, 4.17 oxide of copper, 26.69 lime, and 39.16 water and carbonic acid. Byssus (Gr. byssos, tine flax). In conchology, the fine silky filaments by which the pinna, mussel, and other bivalves attach themselves to the rocks and sea- bottom. In botany, the silky tufts of mould or fungus-growth which spring from damp and decaying substances. Cabocle. The name given in Brazil to a compact brick-red mineral found in the diamond sand of the province of Bahia. It resembles jasper, but con- tains phosphoric acid, alumina, lime, and water. Cachalong. A milk or bluish white variety of opal, so called from its being found in great beauty on the borders of the river Cach in Bucharia. In the Kalmuc language, cholong is said to signify a precious stone. Ac- cording to Forchammer, a cachalong from the Faroe Islands yielded 95.32 silica, 3.47 water, iron peroxide a trace, .07 potash, .06 soda, .06 lime, .40 magnesia. See OPAL. Caddis- Worms or Case-Worms. The larvae or grubs of the trichopterous (hairy- winged) insects, and so called because they are enclosed in a case or sheath, composed of agglutinated extraneous substances, such as fragments of straw, twigs, shells, &c. Some pass their larval state under water (e.g., the May-flies), and are thus sometimes found fossil in such masses as to constitute layers of fresh- water limestone. See INDUSIAL LIMESTONE. Cadent (Lat.) Falling ; the tenth of the fifteenth series into which Pro- fessor Rogers subdivides the Palaeozoic strata of the Appalachian chain the " Declining Day" of the North American Palaeozoics, and the equivalent of our Lower-Middle Devonian. See tabulations, " GEOLOGICAL SCHEME." Cadmium. A bluish-white metal, discovered in 1818 by Stronmeyer and Hermann in several of the ores of zinc, and named from cadmia fossilis, an old term for zinc ore. Cadmium greatly resembles tin in appearance, but it is harder than that metal ; it is ductile and malleable ; melts a little be- 122 CAE CAL low 500 Fahr., or under a red-heat, and is about as volatile as mercury. Its scarcity prevents its use in the arts, but its oxide has been used as a pigment. Caen Stone. The French equivalent of our " Great or Bath Oolite," an Oolitic limestone so termed from its being extensively quarried in the neigh- bourhood of Caen in Normandy, where it is developed in thick nearly horizontal beds. As a building-stone it is of admirable quality ; soft in the quarry, of a delicate uniform cream colour, and extreme fineness of texture, but hardens on exposure, and is found to be exceedingly durable. Cainozoic <>r Csenozoic (Gr. kainos, recent, and zoe, life). Applied to the upper stratified systems holding recent forms of life, as distinguished from Mesozoic (holding intermediate) and Palaeozoic (holding ancient and extinct forms). As a palseontological division, the Cainozoic embraces the Terti- ary and Post- Tertiary systems of British geologists. See tabulations, " GEOLOGICAL SCHEME." Cairngorm. A brownish-yellow or amber-coloured variety of rock- crystal, so called from its being found in great perfection in the Cairngorm Mountains, Aberdeenshire. " It was formerly much valued," says Pro- fessor J. Nicol, " for ornamental purposes, and an Edinburgh lapidary cut nearly 400 worth of jewellery out of a single crystal." See QUARTZ. Caithness Flags. A well-known series of dark-coloured bituminous flaggy beds, slightly micaceous and calcareous, of great toughness and durability, and largely employed for paving. They belong to the lower- middle portion of the Old Ked Sandstone as developed in Scotland, and are celebrated for their abundance and variety of fossil fishes as coccosteus, pterichthys, dipterus, diplopterus, cheiracanthus,asterolepis, &c. See Agassiz, ' Poisons Fossils des Vieux Gres Kouge,' and Miller's Old Red Sandstone. ' Caking Coal. The name given to certain varieties of bituminous coal, which, like those of the Newcastle coal-field, cake or run together in the act of combustion. See COAL. Calaite. A mineralogical term for the turquois, from its being supposed to be the precious stone alluded to by Pliny under the name of Callais. Calamine. The common name for the carbonate of zinc, which occurs, massive or crystallised, in beds and veins in the crystalline and transition rocks, and also in the Carboniferous and Oolitic formations. It is most abundant in limestone, and is often associated with calc-spar, quartz, blende, and ores of iron and lead. The name is said to be derived from calamus, a reed, because during the process of smelting it adheres to the bottom of the furnace in the form of reeds. Calamites (Lat. calamus^ a reed). A genus of fossil stems occurring abundantly in the Coal-measures, and so termed from their resemblance to gigantic reeds. Their true affinities, however, are not well known, and all that can as yet be said of them is, that they were tall hollow articulated stems, furnished with leaves or branches at the joints, possessing a dis- tinctly separable wood and bark, and readily disarticulating at the nodi. The surface of their wood was marked with numerous parallel furrows, which gives to the fossil stems their striated or channeled appearance ; the leaf or branch scars are observable at all the joints, and their substance seems to have been so soft as to offer little or no resistance to pressure. According to some, they seem analogous to reeds, but this opinion is not well founded. Brongniart would ally them to the equisetums ; but Lindley and others regard their true affinities as yet undiscovered. This much seems 123 CAL certain, that they were both numerically and specifically abundant ; that their habitat was the soft marshy silt of the river edge and estuary ; and that they contributed largely to the formation of our coal-seams. Calamodendron (calamus, a reed, and dendron, tree). Literally " reed- tree ;" one of Brongniart's genera of Coal-measure plants, often of consider- able thickness, and having their surfaces or outer barks smooth, their stems solid, and containing a deeply striated, articulated, reed-like pith ; hence the name. Their real nature and affinity to the ordinary catamite are by no means satisfactorily determined. Calamophyllia (calamus, a reed, and phyllon, a leaf). A genus of Meso- zoic or Oolitic corals, so called by Milne Edwards from their being com- posed of masses of radiating tubes, with striated reed-like surfaces.' Indi- vidual masses have been found several feet in diameter the progeny, like the existing brain-coral, of a single germ. Known also as EUNOMIA. Calcaire Grossier (Fr., literally coarse limestone). An important mem- ber of the Eocene beds of the Paris basin ; usually co-ordinated with the Barton, Bagshot, and Bracklesham beds of the English Tertiaries. Calcaire Silicieux. A designation of the French geologists for a compact siliceous limestone of the Paris basin, which sometimes takes the place of the Calcaire Grossier. Calcareous (Lat. calx, calcis, lime). Composed of or containing a con- siderable portion of lime. Thus we speak of calcareous spar or Calcite, which is a pure carbonate of lime, and of calcareous shale or calcareous sandstone, which only contain a portion of lime. Geologists also compound the term, as calcareo-argillaceous, calcareo- siliceous, &c. Calcariferous. Literally " lime-yielding." A term occasionally applied to springs charged with carbonate of lime, and which on issuing into the air deposit incrustations of calcareous tufa. The "petrifying springs" of ordinary language. Calcedony (Lat. calcedonius, found at Calcedon, in Bithynia). A semi- transparent siliceous mineral, of the quartz family, closely allied to the opal and agate, and often found associated with them in geodes and vein- bands. It is usually uncrystallised, of a uniform milky-white or pale yellow, and, when occurring as an incrustation or sinter, has a wavy inter- nal structure and peculiar mammillated surface. Calceola (Lat. a little shoe or slipper). A fossil brachiopod, so called from its under or ventral valve, which is flatly conical, or compressed like the point of a shoe, and fitted with an opercular or lid-like upper valve. It is characteristic of the Middle Devonian period, and so abundant in the schists underlying the Eifel limestone, that these are known to German geologists as " Calceola-schiefer." Calciferous (Lat. calx, lime, and/ero, I bear). Producing or containing lime ; applied to groups of strata containing subordinate beds of limestone ; e.g., " calciferous grits," " calciferous sandstones" the latter term being usually applied to the Lower Coal-measures in the neighbourhood of Edin- burgh, after Mr C. Maclaren, who first made use of the designation ; the equivalents of the Carboniferous slates of the Irish geologists. Calcine (Lat. calx, calcis, lime). To reduce a substance, by heat, to a calx or friable state, by the expulsion of some volatile matter either combined with it or forming its cementing principle, as the carbonic acid from lime- stone, or the water of crystallisation from salts. To oxidise as a metal ; to reduce to a metallic calx. Calcination. The process of reducing any ore 124 CAL or mineral to a calx by the application of heat. Thus chalk by burning is reduced to quicklime, and gypsum to plaster-of- Paris. Calcite (Lat. calx, lime). A common mineralogical term for the crystal- lised varieties of carbonate of lime, which are known also as Calcareous or Calc-spars, which see. The calcites are among the most universally diffused of mineral crystals. Calcium (Lat. calx, quicklime). The metallic basis of lime, originally discovered by Sir Humphrey Davy in 1808. It is a whiter metal than strontium and barium, and is extremely oxidable, rapidly becoming the protoxide, or quicklime, on exposure to the atmosphere. Calc-Sinter (Ger. sintern, to drop). This term is usually applied to compact stalagmitical or stalactitical deposits from calcareous waters. The gradual increment of calc-sinter is usually marked by lines or layers of varying hardness and colour. See SINTER and CALC-TtJFF. Calc-Spar or Calcareous Spar. The general term for crystallised car- bonate of lime or calcite, which occurs in a vast variety of forms, and in various degrees of purity from the pure pellucid rhombs of Iceland spar to the confusedly crystalline aggregates of the ordinary marbles. The primitive crystal of calc-spar is rhombohedral, with obtuse angles of 105 8' and 74 52'. The derivative forms and combinations are said to exceed 800 ; they are all easily cleavable, and when irregular are readily distinguished from quartz by being easily scratched, or by effervescing under acids. Calc-spar, in its purest form, consists of 44 carbonic acid and 56 lime ; or 40 calcium, 12 carbon, and 48 ^oxygen. See LIMESTONE. Calc-Tuff or Calcareous Tufa. A porous or vesicular carbonate of lime, generally deposited near the sources and along the courses of calcareous springs, in crusting and binding together moss, twigs, shells, and other objects that lie in the way. Occasionally, when such springs discharge themselves into lakes and seas, beds of considerable thickness are formed, producing a light calcareous rock like the travertine of Italy. When slowly formed in the open air, compact incrustations are the usual result, and these are known by the name of calc-sinter. In these calcareous springs, commonly known as "petrifying springs," the lime is held in solution by an excess of carbonic acid, or by heat, if it be a hot spring, until the water in issuing from the earth cools or loses part of its acid, and then the cal- careous matter is precipitated in a solid state. See TRAVERTINE. Caldera. A Spanish term for the deep caldron-like cavities which occur on the summits of extinct volcanic mountairs and islands, and evi- dently the extinguished craters of ancient volcanoes. Caledonite. A mineralogical term for a cupreous sulphato- carbonate of lead, occurring in long prismatic crystals, or in acicular tufts of a fine verdigris or mountain-green; transparent or translucent, and having a resinous lustre ; consists, according to Brooke, of 55.8 sulphate of lead, 32.8 carbonate of lead, and 11.4 carbonate of copper. So called by Beudant from its being found at Leadhills in Scotland (Caledonia). Calliard (Gr. challis, Fr. caillon, a flinty pebble). A local name for any hard siliceous stone ; often applied by English miners and quarrymen to beds of cherty or siliceous limestone. Callimus. The name given to the loose and movable central core of the Aetites, or Eagle-stone, which see. Calomel (Gr. kalos, fair ; melas, black or Ethiops mineral). Chloride of mercury (15.1 chlorine and 84.9 mercury), a rare mineral, occurring in the 125 CAL CAM quicksilver mines of Europe in pyramidal crystals or tubercular crusts, of a greyish- white colour, occasionally translucent, and sectile. A prepara- tion of mercury (the submuriate or dichloride), much used in medicine. Calp. A provincial Irish term for an impure argillaceous limestone, or rather argillo-ferruginous limestone ; hence the name Calp-slates, adopted by Mr Griffiths for a considerable thickness of shale, argillaceous lime- stone (calp), and flaggy sandstone, which occurs between the two great bands of Carboniferous limestone, as developed in Ireland. The Calp-slates lie above the lower band, the Carbonifemis slates beneath it. Calymenfi (Gr. Jcekalymene, concealed, obscure.) A genus of trilobites deriving its name from the obscurity which long hung over the real nature of these crustaceans; the " Dudley Trilobite" or " Dudley Locust" of col- lectors. The genus occurs throughout the Silurian system, but more especially in the Ludlow rocks of England, and is distinguished by its ovate, convex, and deeply-trilobed shell or crust, which is found either expanded or coiled up like the oniscus or wood-louse. The common Calymene Elumenbachii, or " Dudley Trilobite,'' is found from one to five inches in length ; has the head or cephalic shield large, convex, rounded in front with a well-marked border, boldly three-lobed, and having the two compound facetted eyes set widely apart on the sides of the shield ; the thoracic portion consists of thirteen segments, and the pygidium or tail- plate is small and nearly semicircular. Cambrian (Cambria, the ancient name for Wales). Belonging to Wales. In geology, a term employed by Professor Sedgwick to designate the lowest fossiliferous rocks as developed in North Wales. As originally employed, the term embraced several series of strata (the Caradoc or May Hill sand- stone, the Llandeilo flags, and the Bala limestone) which have since been ranked as Lower Silurian. As now received by geologists, the " Cambrian System" embraces the Lingula flags of North Wales, the Stiperstones of Shropshire, the lower Greywacke of the south of Scotland, and the lowest fossilferous rocks of Wicklow in Ireland, and is regarded as the equivalent of the ffuronian System of North America, which see. See also tabula- tions, " GEOLOGICAL SCHEME." Camelidse (Lat. camelus, a camel). The Camel family, which includes the true camels of the eastern hemisphere and the llamas of the western. They are the only ruminants having incisors in the upper jaw, and are now a limited family, though remains of an extinct species have been found in the Tertiaries of the Siwalik hills in India, and of allied genera, such as Sivatherium from the same deposits, and Macrauchenia from the later Tertiaries of South America. Cameo (It. cammeo). A precious stone engraved in relief, as opposed to an intaglio, which is cut into the stone. The earliest cameos appear to have been cut upon the onyx, and subsequently upon the agate. The true cameo is formed upon a stone of two or more layers differing in colour, and the art of the engraver consists in so cutting as to appropriate these differ- ent coloured layers to distinct parts or elevations of the figure to be pro- duced. Porcelain and glass have been employed with indifferent success as a substitute for the natural gems ; and the shells of various mollusca are now chiefly used to produce cheap and not inelegant imitations. Campilodiscus (Gr. kampylos, bent, and discos, a quoit or disc). A genus of Tertiary infusorial organisms ; so called from their form, which is that of an oval disc, somewhat incurved or bent inwards upon itself. 126 CAN CAR . Their siliceous shields occur in profusion in the tripoli or polishing-slate of Bohemia and other regions. Cancellated (Lat. cancelli, a grating of bars, lattice-work). Latticed; anything which is cross-barred, or marked by lines which cross each other at right angles. This cancellated arrangement is common in leaves, in bones of certain mammals, in the bryozoa, and other organic structures. Cangaua (Span.) A South American term for the volcanic mud of the Quitenian Andes. This mud is compact, slightly argillaceous, and more or less saline, and occurs in rock-like masses, yielding very slowly to atmos- pheric agency, or even to running water. Canine, Canines (Lat. canis, a dog). Dog-like ; partaking of the nature of, or exhibiting the characteristics of, the Dog tribe. The "canines" or canine teeth in mammals are those strong, sharp-pointed teeth (one on each side in either jaw), inserted between the incisors and premolars ; and are so termed from their well-marked development in the dog, for whom, as for other animals possessed of them, they perform the function of cutting and tearing. See TEETH. Cannel Coal. A compact, brittle, jet-like variety of coal, sonorous when struck, breaks with a conchoidal fracture, and does not soil the fingers when handled. It is said to derive its name from the candle-like light it yields when burning ; and is known to the Scotch miners as " parrot-coal," from the crackling, chattering noise it emits when first thrown into the fire. It occurs interstratified in the Coal-measures of certain districts along with ordinary coal, and often forms, in the Scotch coal-fields, the upper portion of a seam of splint-coal, or even of a bed of black-band ironstone. Occa- sionally these ironstones become so bituminous as to pass into a cannel coal more or less pure ; and vice versa, a cannel coal often becomes so ferriferous as to afford an available ironstone. Cannel coal appears to have been formed either by the greater maceration of the vegetable mass, or under such conditions as permitted a more equable and thorough bitu- minisation than in ordinary coal. It is used chiefly in the manufacture of gas, for which it is admirably fitted ; and some of the more lustrous and tougher varieties are worked, like jet, into ornaments and curiosities. Canons (Span.) The name given in western America to the profound gorges or river-channels that occur in the region of the Rocky Mountains. Many of these chasms (e.g., those of the Colorado) are wall-sided and cut through stratified rocks as well as granites to the enormous depth of 3000 and 4000 feet. Cantalite. A variety of pitchstone containing crystals of glassy felspar, of a green colour, slightly translucent, and so named from its occurring in the Cantal. Capillary (Lat. capillus, a hair). Hair-like. Applied to amianthus, certain zeolites, and other minerals whose crystals occur in filaments or fine hair-like masses ; also to fine tubes less than the twentieth of an inch in diameter, and capable of sustaining or attracting any liquid considerably above the level at which they may be immersed. This capillary attraction, as it is termed, is a phenomenon which occurs less or more in all porous bodies the minute interstices acting as capillary tubes, and "drawing" or " attracting " any liquid considerably above the level of its mass. Caradoc Sandstone. The upper member or series of the " Lower Silurian " formation, as it occurs in the hilly range of Caer Caradoc in Shropshire, from which it takes its name (Caractacus, king of the ancient 127 CAR Britons, corrupted Caradoc). In the typical district, the Caradoc group consists of sandy shales, courses of shelly sandstone occasionally passing into bastard limestone, and light-coloured siliceous sandstones and grits. They are worked as freestones ; and notwithstanding their soft and sectile character, these Caradoc sandstones are laden with a profusion of fossils of the same species as occur in the slaty argillaceous rocks of large tracts of W a i es e.g., Snowdon and Bala. See SILURIAN SYSTEM. Carapace (Gr. Tcardbos, a crustaceous animal like the crab and lobster). A general term for the crustaceous and horny coverings of certain classes of animals, which, like the plates of the armadillo, the horny shell of the tortoise, and the calcareous crusts of the crab, protect the internal parts from injury, and become, as it were, a sort of external skeletons. The term, however, is mainly applied to the shields of the tortoises, Crustacea, and infusorial animalcules. Carbon (Lat. carbo, the inflammable matter forming charcoal). Carbon is one of the elementary substances, and in its pure form exists only in the diamond. By combustion in oxygen it forms carbonic acid gas. In its impure or mixed forms carbon occurs largely in nature, as in the substance of all wood plants ; in the tissues of animals ; and abundantly in many minerals, as in the coals, bitumens, mineral resins, &c. Carbonaceous (Lat. carlo, coal). Coaly ; applied to rocks containing abundant traces of fossil carbon, or vegetable debris ; hence " carbona- ceous shales," "carbonaceous sandstones," &c. Carbonate. In chemistry, any compound of carbonic acid with a base ; as carbonate of lime, carbonate of iron, &c. Carb6nic Acid. An acid formed by the chemical union of carbon and oxygen. It is the gas given off during the effervescing of soda-water, champagne, and other similar liquids. It occurs largely in nature, being given off by volcanic vents, by fissures in mines, caves, and wells, by many mineral waters, by the respiration of animals, and during the decay of vegetable substances. It is an essential ingredient of all calcareous rock- masses (carbonate of lime), and an active agent of disintegration, whether combined with the atmosphere or with the waters that deeply percolate the rocky strata. Carboniferous (Lat. carbo, coal, and fero, I bear). Coal-bearing ; coal- yielding. The term is usually applied to that system of Palaeozoic strata from which our main supplies of coal are obtained, or to the respective groups or members of that system ; hence we speak not only of the " Car- boniferous system," but of the "Carboniferous limestone," the " Carboni- ferous slates," and so forth. Carboniferous System. That formation, or system of fossiliferous strata, which, in order of time, succeeds the Old Red Sandstone, and is in turn surmounted by the Permian or New Red Sandstone of the earlier English geologists. As a system, it constitutes the younger or upper portion of the Palaeozoic cycle, and derives its importance from being, in Britain, North America, and other countries, the great repository from which are obtained the chief supplies of COAL, so indispensable to the industrial arts and manufactures of modern civilisation. Lithologically, the system con- sists of alternations of sandstones, shales, clays, limestones, coals, and ironstones, in every degree of admixture and purity, and of every condi- tion of formation terrestrial, fresh-water, estuary, and marine. Palceon- tologically, there have been discovered in its strata representatives of all 128 CAR the great forms of life, with the exception, perhaps, of true dicotyledonous plants in its flora, and of birds and mammals in its fauna. As its name implies, the most striking peculiarity in the formation is the profusion of fossil vegetation, which marks less or more almost every stratum, and which in numerous instances forms thick seams of solid coal. Although this coaly or carbonaceous aspect prevails throughout the whole, it has been found convenient to arrange the system into three groups the Lower Coal- measures or Carboniferous Slates, the Mountain or Carboniferous Lime- stone, and the Upper or True Coal-measures ; or more minutely, as is generally done by British geologists, into 1. Upper Coal-measures. 2. Millstone Grit. 3. Mountain Limestone ; and 4. Lower Coal-measures. Other subdivisions have been attempted according to the local peculiarities of different coal-fields ; but it is enough for the purposes of the general reader to know, that all these minor arrangements can be readily co- ordinated with one or other of the above four series. Thus Sir R. Griffiths, in his Geological Map of Ireland, gives the annexed subdivisions : a. Coal-measures, upper and lower, . 1000 to 2200 feet. b. Millstone Grit, . . . 350 1800 c. Mountain Limestone, upper, middle, and lower, .... 1200 6400 d. Carboniferous Slate, . . . 700 1200 e. Yellow Sandstones (of Mayo, &c.), with shales and limestones, . . " 400 2000 Now, here there is this little difficulty in co-ordinating, as we have first the usual members of the system, a, b, c, and d, and a subjacent series, which lies fairly open to the question whether it is not the equivalent of the " yellow sandstones " which form the uppermost portion of the Old Red Sandstone or Devonian system in other localities. Again, the Carboniferous strata of the south of England (on the Avon near Bristol) are given in the 4 Geological Survey's Memoirs' as consisting of: a. Millstone Grit here mostly a hard reddish grit- stone, the grains often almost confluent, as in what are called quartzites and quartz-rocks, . . 950 feet. I. Alternations of Limestone, red or grey, compact or granular, with shales, red, dark, or grey, and sand- stones. Most of the strata fossiliferous, and Pro- ducta gigantea abundant near the base, . . 400 c. Scar Limestones grey, reddish, mottled, brown, and black ; compact, shelly, crinoidal, and oolitic, in beds varying in thickness, and partially divided by shales, . .... . 1440 d. Lower Series, enclosing many alternations of lime- stones and shales, the former often black, brown, yellowish, sometimes impure, and in one part charged with fish-remains and cyprides in abun- dance, . . . . . . 500 %.* The upper part of the Old Red shows yellow and grey sandstones and marls. In this case there can be no difficulty in at once assigning 6 and c to the great series of the Mountain Limestone ; while d is evidently the equiva- 129 I CAR lent of the " Lower Coal-measures" of Scotland, with a few of its beds graduating, it may be, into the yellow sandstones of the underlying Devo- nian. In Fifeshire, on the other hand, we have a. True Coal-measuresconsisting of numerous alter- nations of coal, shales, sandstones; ironstones, and occasional beds of impure limestone, . 2500 feet. J. Several strata of crinoidal and producta limestone, with intervening beds of shale, sandstones, and thin seams of coal, .... 300 ,, c. A vast thickness of whitish fine-grained sandstones, bituminous shales, a few thin seams of coal, mussel-bands or shell-limestone, and fresh-water limestones abounding in cyprides, . . 2000 In this instance there is no development of Millstone Grit the whole system resolving itself, as it does in many other regions, into Upper Coal, Mountain Limestone, and Lower Coal. In Nova Scotia, again, we have in the lower series a vast development of gypseous beds, which look some- what puzzling at first sight to an English geologist ; but which, when taken in connection with the associated shales and coals and fossils, admit of easy co-ordination on the large scale with the main subdivisions estab- lished by British geology. How far these subdivisions may indicate separate life-periods, or only portions of one great epoch, has yet to be de- termined by a more minute and rigorous comparison both of vegetable and animal species. In the mean time, existing evidence rather favours the latter opinion, and geologists are nearly at one in regarding the Car- boniferous system as a great life-period, characterised from all others by many forms of a varied marine and estuary fauna its gigantic sauroid fishes, ci-ustaceans, encrinites, and corals ; but in particular by the vast profusion of its endogenous flora its stigmaria, sigillaria, lepidodendra, favularice, Knorrice, bothrodendra, ulodendra, catamites, aster ophy II rtes, and filicites plants which rose, culminated, and died out with the period, never again to be repeated in the onward phases of vegetable development. Carbuncle (Lat. carlunculus, a little coal, from carbo). The name given by jewellers to the variety of precious garnet (Pyrope] which is set en ca- lochon. It is of a deep red colour, with a mixture of scarlet, and when held up to the sun becomes exactly of the colour of a burning coal. Carchdrodon (Gr.) Literally "jagged tooth;" a genus of Tertiary sharks, so termed from their notched or jagged teeth, which are often of great size, and indicating dimensions more than double that of the largest existing species. The living genus Carcharias comprises the large sharks with cutting triangular teeth, crenated or notched on their margins, and having a broad base. In the extinct Carcharodon the teeth differ from those of Carcharias in being solid in the centre, while in the latter they are hollow; but in both genera the teeth exhibit the same reticulated structure of medullary and calcigerous tubes. Carcharopsis (Gr.) Literally "shark-like;" a genus of Carboniferous shark-like fishes, founded by Agassiz on their teeth the only portions yet discovered. Theso teeth occur in the Carboniferous Limestone ; are compressed, triangular, crenated on the edges, with large plaits or folds in the enamelled surface, towards the base of the crown. Cardiglio Marble. A grey, clouded variety of marble obtained for ornamental purposes from the island of Corsica. 130 CAR CAS Cardinal (Lat. cardo, a hinge). A term implying importance, and sug- gestive of the hinge or point on which a thing turns or depends. Thus the cardinal points of the compass are the North, South, East, and West ; the cardinal signs of the zodiac, Aries, Cancer, Libra, and Capricorn. Cardiocarpon (Gr. kardia, the heart, and karpos, fruit). A genus of small heart-shaped seeds occurring in groups on the shales of the Coal- measures as if they had grown in clusters. Supposed by Brongniart to be Li/copodiaceous ; by others, to have fallen from some species of Asterophyl- lites; and by Lindley, to have, like other genera of the Coal era, no very positive modern analogy. Cardium (Gr. kardia, the heart). The cockle-shell, so named in allu- sion to its heart-like form ; a well-known dimyarian bivalve occurring in many specific forms, both recent and fossil, in almost every sea, and from the Lias upwards. The cockle-like bivalves occurring in palaeozoic forma- tions are Cardiola, Cardiomorpha, and similar provisional genera : Cardita, Cardinia, Cardilia, &c., are chiefly mesozoic and neozoic forms, and be- long to the family CYPRINIDJS. Carnelian (Lat. caro, carnis, flesh). Applied originally to a flesh-colour- ed variety of calcedony ; but now a lapidary's term for the more trans- parent varieties, whether brown, blood-red, yellow, white, or almost black. Carnelian is uniform in colour, or it may be less or more clouded, but it is never figured or striped like the agates. The colouring matter seems to be peroxide of iron, which may be acted upon by heat so as to convert specimens originally yellow into a fine deep red, as is done with those found at Cambaya, near Surat. The finest carnelians are found in India, Arabia, Surinam, and Siberia ; but fair specimens are also obtained from Bohemia, Saxony, and Scotland. According to Heintz, a Chinese variety yielded silica, 99.37 ; alumina, .081 ; iron peroxide, .050 ; mag- nesia, .028 ; potash, .004 ; soda, .075 ; carbon, .003 ; and water, .391. Carnivora (Lat. caro, carnis, flesh, and voro, I devour). One of Cuvier's orders of the mammalia (hyaena, tiger, &c.), so called from their subsist- ing solely on flesh. Carnivorous. Living on flesh, in contradistinction to herbivorous, frugivorous, &c. See tabulations, " ANIMAL SCHEME." Carpolithes (Gr. carpos, fruit, and lithos, stone). The general term for fossil fruits, such as those found in the Tertiary clays of the London basin, in the Coal shales of Newcastle, &c. Carrara Marble. A pure white, semi-transparent saccharoid marble obtained from the mountains of Massa Carrara in Italy, and highly valued for statuary purposes. It is an altered or metamorphic limestone of the Oolitic period. Cary6caris (Gr. Jcaryon, a nut, and bar is, shrimp). A small crustacean, from the Lower Silurian slates of Skiddaw, having a long, pod-shaped, bivalved carapace, rounded anteriorly, sub-truncate behind, and with the back and front sub-parallel. The surface is smooth, or with only oblique wrinkles near the margins, but with no parallel lines of sculpture. Body, telson, and appendages unknown. Caryophyllia (Gr. karyophyllon, a clove). Literally "clove-shaped;" a genus or section of lamellated Anthozoarian corals occurring from the Upper Silurian to the Chalk inclusive. The polyparium or calcareous axis is turbinated or cylindrical, simple or branched, longitudinally striated, fixed at the base ; the cells boldly lamellated. Cascade (Fr. from Ital. cascare, to fall). A waterfall ; usually applied in 131 CAS CAV geography to waterfalls on streams and rivulets, in contradistinction to the falls or cataracts on larger rivers. Cascalho (Span.) The name given in Brazil to the auriferous or gold- bearing detritus of the country. " The common cascalho," says Ansted, "is an indurated soil in which gold is contained, and seems to consist of the fragments of veins which have been by some means broken up, rolled about by the action of water, and buried by it among the clays which have composed its bed." The cascalho is also the principal repository of the Brazilian diamonds. Cassiterite (Gr. Jcassiteros, tin). A mineralogical term for the oxide of tin, or ordinary tin-ore, which consists of 79 tin and 21 oxygen, but often mixed with impurities of iron peroxide, silica, manganese, and the like. Most of the tin of commerce is derived from this ore. Castoroides (Gr. Icastor, beaver, and eidos, like). A large rodent allied to the beaver and capybara, and found, along with the remains of mastodon, in the post-glacial deposits of North America ; e.g., the Castoroides Ohioen- sis of Foster and Wyman. Cataclysm (Gr. kataklysmos, inundation). Any violent flood or inun- dation that overspreads or sweeps over a country ; deluge ; debacle. Cataclysmal. Applied to the effects or destructive power of such violent inundations. Catenip6ra (Lat. catena, a chain, and pora, cell). Chain-pore coral ; a genus peculiar to palaeozoic strata, and so termed from the chain-like arrangement of its pores or cells in polished specimens. In catenipora the polyparium is hemispherical, composed of vertical anastomosing lamellae ; cells tubular, oval, terminal, and united laterally, so that in transverse sections they present a chain-like arrangement. Often found in hemi- spherical masses more than a foot in diameter. Known also by the Greek synonyme, Halysites, which see. Cat's-Eye. A variety of chalcedonic quartz, of a greenish-white or grey, olive-green, red, brown, or yellow colour, and containing parallel fibres of amianthus, which produce a peculiar play of light ; hence the name. For this peculiar play of light the French use the term clurioyant. The finest varieties of this mineral are brought from Ceylon and Malabar. Catlinite (after Catlin, the American traveller). A reddish variety of claystone from the C6teau des Prairies, west of the Mississippi, which is carved into tobacco-pipes by the North American Indians. Caudal (Lat. canda, the tail). Belonging to or connected with the tail ; as " caudal fin," the tail fin ; " caudal vertebrae," vertebrae of the tail. Caudex (Lat. caudex, a stem or stock). In botany, usually applied to the upright stem of ferns, the leaves of which are technically termed fronds, and the root-like or underground stem a rhizome. Caulopteris (Gr. kaulos, stem, and pteris, fern). Literally tree-fern ; a genus of stems or trunks found in the Coal-measures, and by Lindley re- garded as decidedly the stems of tree-ferns, in consequence of their shal- low sinuous furrows, and spirally-arranged long oval leaf-scars. Caves, Caverns (Lat. cavus, hollow). Caves occur less or more along the rocky shores of all free-flowing seas, and are the results of abrasion by waves laden with gravel, &c., and acting upon pre-existing fissures or the softer portions of the exposed rocks. They occur chiefly in trap-rocks and in limestone strata the former from structural and irregular wasting, the latter from infiltration and chemical erosion. The most celebrated 132 CAW CEP caverns, however, occur in limestone strata, and appear to be the results partly of fissuring by subterranean disturbance, and partly of waste by the percolation and passage of carbonated waters. They are sometimes ar- ranged into four kinds " 1. Those which have arisen from fissures in the rock, and are therefore wedge-shaped crevices, widest at the opening. 2. Those that face the sea-shore, and are merely holes that have been worn out by the dashing of the waves against the cliff. 3. Those which open to the face of an inland cliff, and give egress to water. 4. Those whose en- trances are holes in the ground opening very wide beneath, and having the appearance of water having at one time flowed in from above." (J. E. Woods, 'Geol. Observ. So. Australia.') Some are celebrated for their great extent and subterranean ^waters (Kentucky) ; others for their gorgeous stalactites and stalagmites (Antiparos) ; and many, of late, for their treasures of sub-fossil bones (Kirkdale, Kent's-hole), and consequently known as "Bone Caves," or " Ossiferous Caverns," which see. Cawk. A familiar term for heavy-spar or native sulphate of barytes, which see. Celestine (Lat. ccelum, the sky). A mineralogical term for sulphate of strontian, in allusion to its colour (sky-blue), which usually ranges from bluish-white to indigo blue, and is rarely reddish or yellow. Celestine occurs in rocks of all ages, but more frequently in the newer formations. Its average composition is 56.5 strontia, 42.5 sulphuric acid; with traces of iron, baryta, lime, and water. Cement (Lat. ccementum). In building, literally chips for filling up the interstices between the larger blocks ; now applied to mortar or any simi- lar substance used for uniting other materials, and which ultimately hardens and binds them together. Roman cement, a mortar made of lime and puozzolano (volcanic tufa) ground to fine powder ; hydraulic cement, any mortar that sets rapidly and hardens under water (which see). There are numerous builders' or architects' cements in the market, some for facing walls in imitation of stone, others for setting under water, some for resisting fire, and others for the exclusion of damp (as Gibb's, Parker's, Keene's, Pew's, Martin's, &c.) ; but in all of them lime, silica, and alumina in various proportions, and in different states of calcination, are the prime ingredients. Centres of Creation. " When the fauna or flora of a province (we quote the late Edward Forbes) has been thoroughly investigated, the diffusion of the individuals of the characteristic species is found to indicate that the manifestation of the creative energy has not been equal in all parts of the area ; but that in some portion of it, and that usually more or less central, the genesis of new beings has been more intensely exerted than elsewhere. Hence, to represent a province diagrammatically, we might colour a nebulous space, in which the intensity of the hue would be exhi- bited towards the centre, and become fainter and fainter towards the cir- cumference. This feature of zoological and botanical provinces gives rise to the term centres of creation ; and in none, except one centre of creation, do we find the same assemblage of typical species ; in other words, no species has been called forth originally in more areas than one." See SPECIFIC CENTKES. Cephalaspis (Gr. Teephale, the head, and aspis, a shield). A fish of the Lower Old Red or Devonian period, so called from having the bones of the head united into a single shield-like case, and terminating posteriorly 133 CEP in three pointed spines or prongs one on each side below, and a third in the mesial or dorsal ridge. The body also seems to have been protected by osseous bands and quadrangular scales, leaving the tail, pectorals, and other fins free as in the living trunk-fish. There are several species, all having the head large in proportion to the body, and none exceeding ten or twelve inches in length. The dentition, and even the position of the mouth, is unknown, though evidently placed beneath the head, and in all likelihood suctorial, as in the living sturgeon. The Cephalaspidce form a very limited family, and embrace such provisional genera as Cepfhala&pis proper, Auchenaspis, Pteraspis, and others of which very little is yet known. Cephaldpoda (Gr. kephale, the head, and pous, podos, foot). The highest class of mollusca, so called from the principal organs of locomotion being attached to the head in the form of muscular arms or tentacles, as in the cuttle-fish and nautilus. In addition to their tentacular organs of motion, many have fin-like processes, and all can propel themselves by the forcible expulsion of water from their respiratory chamber. Of living forms one or two, like the nautilus, have external shells ; all the others, like the cuttle-fish, are "naked" or shell-less, but possess an internal bone or " pen," the representative of the shell. On the other hand, most of the fossil forms, as orihoceratite, ammonite, &c., have external shells, either straight, coiled in a vertical plane, or curved variously; though a large section also of the extinct forms were naked, and possessed internal " pens" or shelly organs which occur abundantly in Secondary strata, and are known as belemnites, belemnoteuthites, and the like. Having numerous organs of prehension, powerful jaws like the mandibles of a parrot, spiny tongues, large eyes, acute senses, active locomotion, and a more concen- trated nervous system than other mollusca, the cephalopods, both now and in former ages, appear to have been the tyrant scavengers of the waters. They are all marine and predatory, living on shellfish, crabs, and fishes. They occur fossil in all formations, and appear to have culminated in point of numbers and power during the Oolitic period each great period having its own peculiar and characteristic forms. It is usual to divide the Cephalopods into two orders the TETBABRANCHIATA and the Di- BKANCHIATA, the former having four branchial plumes, two on each side, and the latter only two branchial plumes, one on each side. The tetra- branchs or Nautiloids form two families, the Nautilidce, and Ammonitidce the former including the existing nautilus (the only living representative of the order), the orthoceratite, lituite, and others having external cham- bered shells with plain partitions, or sutural junctions and siphuncle more or less central; the latter the extinct ammonites, baculites, and others having also external chambered shells, but these with foliaceous complex sutures, and siphuncle dorsal, or on the back of the chambers. The dibranchs or cuttle-fishes, on the other hand, have almost always internal shells or which signifies that there are 4 incisors in either jaw, with 1 canine, 2 premolars or false molars, and ft molars on either side of these incisors, both in the upper and in the lower jaw. In other words, the incisors being taken as the centre, the upper figures refer to the upper jaw in either side, and the lower figures to the lower jaw. See TEETH. 171 DEN DES Dentine (Lat. dens, tooth). The tissues that compose the teeth inverte- brate animals are arranged by anatomists into dentine, which forms the body of the tooth ; cement, which forms the outer crust ; and enamel, which (when present) is situated between the dentine and cement. Dentition (Lat. dens, a tooth). The period at which the teeth of mam- malia makes their first appearance through the gums ; also the character and arrangement of the teeth in different families, which becomes a most important aid to the paleontologist in the discrimination of fossil species. Denudation (Lat. de, down, and nudus, naked). Laying bare by re- moval. The removal of superficial matter, so as to lay bare the subjacent strata, is an act of denudation ; so also the removal by water of any for- mation, or part of a formation. We thus speak of denuded rock-surfaces, and of strata destroyed or removed by denudation. Before a current of water can lay down a quantity of matter in one place, it must manifestly take it up from another ; hence, as a geological operation, denudation must accompany and precede deposition. Deoxidised, Deoxidated. Literally, " deprived of oxygen;" disunited from oxygen. Deposit (Lat. de, down, and positus, placed). Applied to matter which has settled down from suspension in water. Mud, sand, &c., are deposits, so also are the shales, sandstones, &c., of older date. Deposits are usually distinguished by the positions in which they occur, or by the agencies con- cerned in their formation, as fluviatile, lacustrine, estuary, marine, &c. The deposition of rock-matter is going forward less or more rapidly in all waters on the surface of the globe. Derby-Spar. A familiar name for fluate of lime or fluor-spar, from its occurring abundantly in the Derbyshire limestones^ See FLUOR-SPAR. Dercetis (Gr., a sea-god, so termed from his glittering scales). A ganoid, eel -like fish of the Chalk formation, belonging to the family of Plectognathi, and known to the quarrymen as "petrified eel." In Dercetis the body is very elongated (often two and three feet long) ; the head short, with a pointed beak, the upper jaw being a little longer than the lower ; and both jaws armed with long, conical, elevated teeth, and several rows of very small ones. On each side of the fish there are three rows of osseous scutes like those of the sturgeon the rest of the body being also covered with small scales. Dermal (Gr. derma, the skin). Belonging to the skin ; hence we speak of the dermal or enveloping integuments of plants and animals. Dermo-Skeleton (Gr. derma, the skin). The hard integument which covers and affords protection to most invertebrate, and also to many verte- brate animals ; the external or " exo-skeleton," in contradiction to the in- ternal or true bony skeleton of the higher animals. It makes its appear- ance as a tough coriaceous membrane, as shell, crust, scales, horny scutes, &c. ; but never as true bone. Desert. In geography, applied somewhat loosely to any waste and un- inhabited tract of land ; but strictly and more especially to wide, open, and comparatively barren tracts, as the Deserts of Africa, Arabia, and Central Asia, which are arid, sandy, and shingly ; the desert steppes of Northern Asia, which are partly barren and partly covered with rough grasses ; and the desert plains of Australia, which are scrubby and waterless. Desiccation, Desiccation Cracks (Lat. de, and siccus, dry). The drying of solid bodies by the evaporation of whatever moisture they may contain. 172 DET DIA Thus clay and clayey beds are desiccated by the sun's heat, and as they be- come dry they shrink and crack in all directions. Were such beds to be overlaid by a new deposit of mud or other soft matter, portions of it would, enter these cracks, and the two strata, on being separated (after consolida- tion) would present the lower the "mould," and the upper the "casts" of these fissures. Such appearances are frequent among the strata of all formations, are known as desiccation cracks, and. are not to be confounded with "joints," "cleavage," and similar phenomena. Detritus (Lat. de, down, and tritus, rubbed or worn). An appropriate term for accumulations arising from the waste or disintegration of exposed rock-surfaces. Detrital matter may thus consist of clay, sand, gravel, rubbly fragments, or of any admixture of these, according to the nature of the rocks and the amount of attrition to which their particles have been subjected. Devil's Toe-nails. A familiar term in some districts of England for the Liassic shell, Gryphcea incurva, whose form somewhat resembles a distorted toe-nail. Devonian. A common, but not always appropriate synonyme of the Old Red Sandstone, portions of which are extensively developed in Devon- shire. The term was introduced by Sir R. Murchison (and harmonises with his " Silurian," " Permian," &c.), "because the strata of that age in Devonshire lithologically very unlike the Old Red Sandstone of Scotland, Hereford, and the South Welsh counties contain a much more copious and rich fossil fauna, and were shown to occupy the same intermediate position "between the Silurian and Carboniferous rocks." See OLD RED SANDSTONE. Devonite. A name given by Dr Thomson to Wavellite, a phosphate of alumina originally discovered by DrWavel in the north of Devonshire. See WAVELLITE. Dextral (Lat. dexter, belonging to the right hand right-handed). This term is usually applied to spiral shells whose whorls, when the mouth is placed towards the observer, turn from left to right ; and this is the general course in nature. Sinistral or reversed shells are those whose spires turn from right to left. In other words, when spiral shells are placed vertically with the spires uppermost, and the mouth towards the observer, the aper- ture in dextral shells is towards the rigkt ; in sinistral it is towards the left. Diabase. A term adopted from the French, and occasionally applied to those greenstones whose constituents are hornblende and felspar; same as Diorile. Diaclasite (Gr. dia and Jdao, to cleave through). A laminated or bladed mineral with the pale colours of diallage passing into brass yellow, but in composition intermediate between diallage and hypersthene. Diallage (Gr. diallage, interchange). A siliceo-magnesian mineral, hav- ing a laminated or bladed cleavage, and so called from its changeable colour forms diallage rock, and enters into the composition of serpentine. Closely related to Schiller-spar, which see. Diallogite. Manganese spai*, or red manganese; a carbonate of man- ganese, occurring in crystallised druses, in columnar aggregates, or in granular masses ; having a rose-red or flesh-red colour, and glassy pearly lustre. It is found in various formations, but chiefly in veins in gneiss and porphyry along with silver, galena, blende, haematite, and other ores. Diamond (Gr. adamus, unsubdued). The diamond ; so called in allusion 173 DIA to its unparalleled hardness. The diamond is the most precious of known gems ; and, chemically speaking, is carbon or charcoal in its pure and crys- tallised form. This form is primarily that of a regular octahedron, but of this there are numerous modifications ; and the crystals having often curved faces, they more or less approximate to spheres. They occur loose in alluvial sands and gravel ; or singly imbedded in a matrix of sandstone in India, and of mica-slate in Brazil and South America. Geologically, they have been found chiefly in India and Borneo, and the Brazils ; more sparingly and in minor crystals in the Urals, in the Carolinas, and in Mexico. The "Diamond Sandstone" of India, and which furnishes the detritus in which most of the specimens are found, is apparently of Ter- tiary or recent origin ; the age of the micaceous schists which yield the diamonds of Brazil and the Urals is unknown. Diamonds are found of all colours ; those which are colourless, or which have some very decided tint, are most esteemed ; those slightly discoloured are the least valuable. Diamonds are cut and polished only by their own dust or powder an art known from remote antiquity in the East, but introduced into Europe only about the end of the fifteenth century. They are cut chiefly into three forms table, rose, and brilliant; the latter having the finest effect, but requiring a greater sacrifice of bulk some crystals being reduced nearly one half in weight by the operation. Respecting the origin of the diamond, neither chemistry nor geology has thrown much light on the subject. We know that it consists of carbon in its purest and most concentrated form ; but whether this carbon is of vegetable or of animal origin, or whether it may not be a purely chemical elimination altogether apart from organic growth, science has not yet de- termined. It is true that some observers have thought they detected traces of vegetable structure in the ashes of the diamond, but their observations have not been confirmed ; and none of the specimens containing foreign matter have as yet given any hint of their origin. It has been remarked that their occurrence in mica-slate does not favour the idea of their immediate vegetable origin ; nor does their occurrence in a soft quartzose sandstone indicate the operation of excessive heat. Indeed, their com- bustible nature forbids the idea of intense heat in connection with their formation ; and yet high heat under pressure, or a long- continued low heat manifesting itself in chemical change, may have effected the crystallisation of carbon in decaying organic matter. Unlike amber, however, diamonds are never found in connection with vegetable or animal substances ; so that the primary source of their carbon, as well as the cause of its subse- quent crystallisation, remains a mystery. Diamond Spar. A familiar term for corundum, which next to diamond is the hardest known mineral. Diaphanous (Gr. dia, through, and pkano, I appear). Applied to gems and minerals that may be seen through ; transparent ; pellucid. Diatoms, Diotomdcese (Gr. dia, through, and temno, to cut asunder). In botany, a group of microscopic organisms, referred by Ehrenberg to the animalcules, but by most naturalists of the present day to the algte ; and so named from the genus dialonta, whose frustules are connected to- gether by the angles so as to form a zigzag chain, which looks like a stem cut into several portions. These frustules consist of a single cell, and are invested with a siliceous epidermis ; hence deposits of these minute 174 DIG growths, or " microphytal earths," are siliceous, and unlike those of the foraminifera, which are calcareous. See TKIPOLI, MICROPHYTES, &c. Diceras (Gr. di, two, and Jceras, horn). A massive bivalve of the Upper and Middle Oolites; belonging to the Chamidce or Clam-shells; and so termed from its prominent umbones or beaks, which are twisted backward in ram's-horn fashion, and furrowed externally by ligamental grooves. There are several species in which the beaks are more or less spiral and horn -like, and the valves less or more unequal. Diceras Limestone. A division of the Oolite in the Alps, regarded by most geologists as the equi- valent of the English "coral rag," and so called from its containing abun- dantly the shells of the diceras. Dichobune (Gr. dicha, divided in two, and bounos, a ridge). A genus of anoplotheroid quadrupeds whose remains occur chiefly in the Eocene or Lower Tertiaries of Europe ; so called from the deeply-cleft ridges of the upper molars. Dichodon (Gr. dicha, in two parts, and odous, odontos, a tooth). A Middle Tertiary artiodactyle (even-toed) mammal, showing affinities, according to Owen, to the Hog tribe among the non-ruminant section, and to the Camel tribe among the ruminants; so called from the double crescent-shaped lines of enamel on the upper surface of its true molars. Dichroism (Gr. dis, twice; chroa, colour). The property by which a crystallised body assumes two or more colours, according to the direction in which light is transmitted through it ; hence the Dichroiie of Cordier, a silicate of alumina and magnesia which exhibits three or more colours along its chief axis. Dicotyledonous (Gr. dis, double, and cotyledon, seed-lobe). A grand divi- sion of the vegetable kingdom, comprising all those plants whose seeds are composed of two lobes or seed-leaves. They are exogenous, or in- crease by external layers of growth, and the venation of their leaves is reticulated or net-like, and not in parallel order, as in monocotyledonous endogens. See tabulations, "VEGETABLE SCHEME." Dictyophyllum (Gr. dictyon, a net, and phyllon, leaf). Literally "net- leaf ; " a provisional genus erected for the reception of all unknown fossil dicotyledonous leaves which exhibit the common reticulated structure. Dictyophylla have been found as low as the Trias and Permian. Dicty6pteris (Gr. dictyon, net ; pteris, fern). A genus of Carboniferous ferns established by Gutbier, for those forms possessing the general habit of Neuropteris, but differing from it in having a somewhat radiate-retwi- lile venation and no distinct midrib. Dictyopyge (Gr. diktyon, net, andpyge, anus). A genus of ganoid fishes, with smooth rhomboidal scales, heterocercal tails, and broad flowing fins, from the Triassic coal-field of Virginia, and so named by Sir P. Egerton from the net-like appearance of the large anal fin. The species vary from four to six or eight inches in length. Dicynodon (Gr. di, two; cyon, dog; and odous, tooth). Literally "two canine teeth ;" a provisional genus of very peculiar reptiles occurring in a sandstone, supposed to be of Triassic age, in Southern Africa. The princi- pal remains yet found are the bones of the head, which seem to indicate a gigantic type between the lizards and turtles. The eye orbits are very large, the cranium flat, with nostrils divided as in lizards ; and the jaws toothless, with the exception that the upper jaw possesses a pair of long 175 DID DIM tusks, implanted in sockets and turned downwards like those of the walrus hence the name dicynodon. Didelphys, Didelphidse (Gr. dis, two, and delphys, womb). The opos- sum family, so termed from their external abdominal pouch or marsupium, in which the foetus is placed after a very short period of uterine gestation, and where it remains (as if in a second womb), suspended to the nipple by its mouth until sufficiently matured to come forth to the open air. Re- mains of didelphine animals occur as early as the Oolitic if not Triassic formation. Did^mium. One of the rarer metals, of whose properties little is yet known, found along with lanthanum, in the ores of Cerium, which see. Didymograpsus (Gr. didymos, twin or double, and grapsus). The twin or double graptolite ; a common form in the Silurians of Wales and Scot- land, having the stems or axes united in pairs. The cells are arranged in single rows as in the common graptolite, but the axes are in twins, or two- branched. Die-Earth. A local term at Coalbrook Dale for the Wenlock shale, because this stratum lies beneath all the mining ground of the district the minerals " dying out," as it were, at this stage of descent. Differentiate, Differentiation. In zoology, the vital functions are said to be more and more "differentiated," when, instead of several functions being performed by the same organ, each function is performed by an organ specially devoted to it. " Differentiation " is, therefore, a mark of higher organisation the higher the animal in the scale of being, the more specialised is its organisation. Digitate (Lat. digitus, a finger). Finger-shaped. Applied to bodies whose parts expand in finger-like process ; e.g., the alcyonia, or " dead- men's-fingers" of the sea-shore; the scorpion strombus, whose outer lip is armed with strong finger-like spines ; the leaves of the horse-chestnut, &c. Digitigrada (Lat. digitus, the toe, and gradus, a step). An extensive tribe of the Carnivorous animals, as the lion, tiger, cat, weasel, &c., whose feet are constructed for walking on the toes, and therefore capable of a swift bounding motion, as compared with the slow shuffling walk of the Plantigrades (bear, badger, &c.), that set down the entire phalanges of the foot. Diluvium, Diluvial (Lat. dis, asunder, and luere, to wash). Alluvium (which see) has been described as the term usually applied to matter brought together by the ordinary operations of water ; diluvium, on the other hand, is regarded as implying the extraordinary action of water. In this sense it was at one time restricted to those accumulations of gravel, &c., supposed to have been the result of the Noachian deluge ; but it has now a wider signification in geology, being applied to all masses apparent- ly the result of powerful aqueous agency. Diluvialists. Theorists who regard the boulder-clay, abraded and polished rock-surfaces, ossiferous gravels, and similar superficial pheno- mena, as the result of the Noachian deluge ; in other words, those who ascribe to a universal deluge such superficial results as they cannot readily reconcile with the ordinary operations of water now going on around them. Dimorphism (Gr. dis, two, and morplte, form). "It is sometimes sup- posed," says Nicol ('Manual of Mineralogy'), "that each particular sub- stance can crystallise only in one particular form or series of forms. 176 DIM DIP Mitscherlich has, however, shown that this is only partially true, and that sulphur, for instance, which usually crystallises in the rhombic system, when melted, may form monoclinohedric crystals. This property is named dimorphism, and has been explained by its discoverer on the principle that the form, and with it the other physical characters of a body, depend not merely on the chemical nature of the atoms, but also on their relative position. Hence the same chemical substance may form two, or even more, distinct bodies or mineral species. Thus carbon in one form is the diamond, in another, graphite ; and carbonate of lime appears as calc-spar or as arragonite. Even the temperature at which a substance crystallises influences its forms, and so far its composition, as seen in arragonite, Glauber salt, borax, &c." Dimyaria (Gr. dis, twice, and mus, a muscle). That division of the con- ch if erous bivalves whose shells are closed by two adductor muscles, as the common edible mussel. See CONCHIPERA. Diopside (Gr. did, through, and opsis, appearance ; in allusion to its oc- casional transparency). A variety or sub-species of augite, occurring in various shades of greyish-green, and crystallised in broad columnar or concentric lamellar aggregates. A similarly crystallised body has been pro- duced by fusing silica, lime, and magnesia in due proportion. See AUQITE. Dioptase (Gr. , capable of being seen through, in allusion to the natural joints being visible by transmitted light). Emerald copper, or rhombo- hedral emerald malachite ; occurring in fine emerald-green, transparent, or translucent crystals, and consisting of 38.7 silica, 50 copper protoxide, and 11.3 water. It is found in limestone veins in Tartary, and when first brought to Europe was sold as emerald ; but may be distinguished by its inferior hardness, and greater specific gravity. Diorite (Gr. dioros, a clear distinction). A variety of greenstone, com- posed of hornblende and felspar, and of a dark colour in consequence of the disseminated plates of hornblende. It receives its name from being unmistakable, in contradistinction to dolerite. Dip. The inclination or angle at which strata slope or dip downwards into the earth. This angle is measured, of course, from the plane of the horizon or level, and may be readily ascertained by the common spirit- level and plummet, or, as is usual among geologists, by a small pocket instrument called the clinometer (which see). The opposite of dip is the term rise; and either may be used, according to the position of the observer. Thus, standing on the surface, we speak of a bed of coal dipping to the south-; while at the bottom of the pit, the miner, looking at the same bed, would say that it rose to the north. It is usual, on geological maps, to indicate the direction of the dip by an arrow, and the line of outcrop or strike of a stratum by a bold line the one being at right angles to the other. See STRIKE. Diplograpsus. Literally " double graptolite." That section of grapto- lites in which the cells are arranged in two rows one on each side the central axis, like the feathers on a quill. The diplograptolites have a foliaceous appearance, and are presumed to resemble the existing Pen- natula and Virgularia. See GRAPTOLITE. Diplostylus (Gr.) Literally "double tail ;" a genus of small shrimp-like crustaceans, from the Coal formation of Nova Scotia, and so named by Mr Salter from the two pairs of appendages to the last segment, telson, or tail-plate. 177 M DIP DIS Diprion (Gr. dis, two, and prion, a saw). Literally "double saw." A synonyme of diplograpsusthe serrated cells on each side the central axis giving the organism the appearance of a double saw. Dipr6todon (Gr. dis, two ; protos, first ; and odous, tooth). A gigantic pachydermoid marsupial mammal from the Pleistocence or Upper Tertiary beds of Australia ; and so termed from the large scalpriform character of its incisors or front teeth. The head of a specimen now in the British Museum measures three feet in length, and gives some idea of the immense size of the creature, which, while nearly related to the kangaroo, has, according to Owen, "osculant relationship with the herbivorous wombats." The hind limbs are shorter and stronger, and the front limbs are longer and stronger than those of the existing kangaroos. Dipyre (Gr. dis, andpyr, fire). One of the Scapolite family, usually im- bedded in slate or limestone, and occurring in rounded eight-sided prisms. Consists of 55.5 silica, 24.8 alumina, 9.6 lime, and 9.5 soda; and is said to derive its name "from its twofold susceptibility to the action of fire. When heated before the blow-pipe it first becomes phosphorescent, and then fuses." Dirt-Beds. The name given to certain dark-coloured loam-like beds that occur interstratified with the Oolitic limestones and sandstones of Port- land evidently the soils in which grew the cycads, zamias, and other plants of the period. " At the distance of two feet," says Mr Bakewell, lt we find an entire change from marine strata to strata once supporting terres- trial plants ; and should any doubt arise respecting the original place and position of these plants, there is over the lower dirt-bed a stratum of fresh- water limestone, and upon this a thick dirt-bed, containing not only cycadese, but stumps of trees from three to seven feet in height, in an erect position, with their roots extending beneath them. Stems of trees are found prostrate upon the same stratum, some of them from twenty to twenty-five feet in length, and from one to two feet in diameter." Discous, Discoid (Gr. discos, a quoit, and eidos, likeness). Quoit- shaped; in the form of a disc ; e.g., the shell of the planorbis. Discrase, Discrasite (Gr. dis, twofold, and krasis, admixture). Antimon- ide of silver, a rare ore, consisting of 76 silver and 24 antimony, and so called in allusion to its composition. It occurs in hexagonal prisms, radiat- ed forms, massive, disseminated, and in grains ; is of a silver and tin- white colour ; metallic lustre, lamellar, brittle, but slightly malleable. It is found in veins in the granitic and crystalline rocks, along with galena, silver, iron-pyrites, and other ores. Disintegration (Lat. dis, asunder, and integer, whole). The breaking asunder of any whole or solid matter. The disintegration of rocks is caused chiefly by the slow action of frosts, rains, and other atmospheric influences ; and the facility with which some kinds are acted upon by these influences depends partly on their chemical composition, partly on the aggregation of their particles, and partly on the readiness with which they absorb moisture. Dislocation (Lat. dis, asunder, and locus, place or position). A general term for any displacement of the stratified rocks from their original hori- zontal or sedimentary position. Slips, Faults, and the like, are " dislo- cations." Disrupting (Lat. dis, asunder, and ruptus, rent or broken). When igneous matter forces its way through the stratified rocks, and fills up the 178 DIT DOD rents and fissures so made, it is termed disrupting ; when, having passed through the strata, it spreads over their surface in sheet-like masses, it is said to be overlying ; and when these discharges have taken place at the bottom of the sea, and have been in turn covered over by new deposits of sediment, they then appear as interstratified. Dithyr6caris (Gr. dithyros, having two valves, and cam, shrimp). A genus of phyllopod crustaceans, first discovered by Dr Scouler in the coal shales of Lanarkshire, and so named from its being enclosed, like the existing genus apus, in a thin flattish bivalved carapace. The abdominal portion, which is not enclosed in the carapace, consists of five or six segments, and terminates, in a trifid tail like Ceratiocaris. Divaricating (Lat. dis, asunder, and varico, I stride). Applied to roots, branches, and other members that spread widely and decidedly from each other. Divining-Rod, Known also in Cornwall and Wales as the Do^osing-Rod. A hazel-rod by the aid of which some persons pretend to be able to tell where water and minerals lie below the surface by a process of divination. The rod is balanced in the hands of the diviner in a peculiar way, and is supposed to indicate the position of the substance sought, by turning towards it with a slow rotatory motion. This superstition is occasionally still practised, and passes under the learned names of Metalloscopy, Hydroscopy, or JRhabdomancy the last of which see. Divisional Planes. A technical term for those lines of separation which traverse rock-masses, and divide them into blocks or fragments, more or less regular. It is usual to speak of them as congenital, or those which, like lamination and stratification, are formed at the same time as the rocks themselves ; resultant, or those arising, like joints, from consolidation and contraction ; accidental, such as fissures, faults, and veins ; and superin- duced, or those which, like cleavage and foliation, are accompanied by a change in the internal structure of the rocks themselves. Doab. The name given in India to the tongue of land that lies between the confluence of two or more rivers, as the doabs of the Punjab, or plains that lie between the rivers of that region. Dodo. An extinct gigantic bird belonging, as has been shown by MM. Strickland and Melville in their monograph 'The Dodo and its Kindred' to the order Columbse or Pigeons, and constituting the type of a new family (the Dididce), to which several fossil species have been ascribed. At the discovery of the island of Mauritius in 1598, the Dodo was still abundant there, and formed a principal portion of the food of the inhabit- ants ; but in the course of a few years it was completely extirpated by the sailors, and its bones are now found only in the silt and tufaceous deposits of that island. A few specimens were, however, brought to Europe in the period which intervened between its discovery and its final destruction, and from these several paintings were made, which, with two heads, a foot, and a few feathers, are now the only proofs of the existence of a large bird which was certainly living within the last two hundred years. The Dodo is described as having been considerably larger than a swan, weighing sometimes fifty pounds ; of a very bulky and heavy form ; having a strong predaceous bill, hooked at the tip ; face or front of the head covered with a naked skin ; feet short and stout, but resembling those of a pigeon ; wings short, incapable of flight, and composed of soft tufty plumes like those of the ostrich. The Solitaire, and other kindred species said to have 179 DOG DRE recently existed in the islands of the Mauritius, are in like manner extinct ; and the nearest living approach to the family now known is the little Didunculus of the Navigators' Islands. Dog's-tooth. Spar. A familiar name given to to certain crystals of cal- cite or calc-spar, from their fanciful resemblance to the tooth of a dog. Doldrums. A sailor's term for the tropical zones of calms and variables belts in which they are often detained for weeks by baffling calms, storms, and rains. Dolerite (Gr. doleros, deceptive). A variety of greenstone, composed of felspar and augite ; so called from the difficulty of discriminating these compounds. See DIORITE. Dolichocephalic (Gr. dolichos, long, and Jcephak, the head). Long-headed ; e.g., the dolichocephalic or long-skulled tribes of the human family. Dolichosaurus (Gr.) Literally "long lizard;" a snake-like reptilian, whose remains, found in the Chalk formation, indicate a creature from two to three feet in length, and probably of aquatic habits. According to Pro- fessor Owen, the Dolichosaurus presents somewhat of the ophidian charac- ter in the number and size of its cervical vertebrae, in the size and shape of its ribs, and in the slender proportions of its trunk and head ; but with these partial exceptions, its affinities are truly lacertian. Dolomite (after the French geologist Dolomieu). A crystalline, or granule-crystalline, variety of magnesian limestone, occurring largely in many Secondary formations, and often in the vicinity of igneous rocks, whose heat seems, in most instances, to have been the proximate cause of the superinduced crystalline texture. Ordinary magnesian limestone, though occurring in all stages of compactness, is void of this crystalline texture. See MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE. Domite. A granular arenaceous-looking variety of trachyte found in the Puy de Dome, Auvergne : hence the name. Dorsal (Lat. dorsum, the back). Appertaining to the back; as the dorsal vertebrae, or vertebra? of the back ; the dorsal fin, or back-fin, &c. Douk, Dank, or Daugh (Sax. deaggan, to knead). Applied in mining to beds or bands of hard, tough clay or clayey admixture ; generally without lamination, and more or less compact and homogeneous, hence the idea of daugh or dough. Downs (Brit, dune, a hillock). Applied in the south of England to the rounded, dry, and unwooded chalk hills of Kent, Surrey, Sussex, and ad- jacent counties. These " downs " are described as " covered with a sweet, short herbage, forming excellent sheep-pasture, generally bare of trees, and singularly dry even in the valleys that wind for miles between them." Applied also to the low hills of blown sand which skirt the shores of many countries. Dragons' Skin. A familiar term among miners and quarrymen for the stems of Lepidodendron, whose rhomboidal leaf-scars somewhat resemble the scales of reptiles in their form and arrangement. Dreelite (after the Marquis de Dree). One of the heavy spars, generally occurring as a whitish crystallised gangue or vein-stone in the lead-mines of the mountain-limestone, and consisting essentially of sulphate of barytes and sulphate of lime. According to Dufrenoy, a specimen from the lead- mines of Nassiere yielded 61.73 sulphate of barytes, 14.27 sulphate of lime, 8.05 carbonate of lime, and 9.71 silica, with alumina and water. Dressing. In mining, the " dressing of ores" consists in breaking, 180 DRI DYK stamping, and washing them so as to separate as much as possible of the stony matrix from the metallic ore. Drift. Literally, "that which is driven ;" as sand-drift, sand driven and accumulated by the wind; drift-wood, wood carried down by rivers and driven by tides and currents to distant shores. In geology the word is frequently used as an abbreviated term for the "Glacial Drift," "North- ern Drift," or " Dilluvial Drift" of the Pleistocene epoch. See GLACIAL DRIFT. Drift-Currents. The name given to oceanic currents which mainly de- pend on the winds. The monsoons which prevail in the Indian Ocean give rise to drift-currents, which set alternately in one direction and then in another, according to the season of these winds. Dromatherium (Gr. dromaios, swift- running, and therion, beast). The name given to a small mammal, teeth, jaws, and detached bones of which have been discovered by Mr Emmons in the Red Sandstones of Virginia and North Carolina strata which, by some, are regarded as Triassic, and by others as the equivalents of our European Permians. Supposed to be, like amphitherium and phascolotherium, of marsupial affinity. Drosdmeter (Gr. drosos, dew; metron, measure). Laterally "dew-meas- urer ; " any apparatus or instrument for determining the amount of dew deposited during a single night. "The most simple process," says Pro- fessor Kaemtz, ' l consists in exposing to the open air bodied whose exact weight is known, and then weighing them afresh after they are covered with dew. According to Dr Wells, locks of wool, weighing five deci- grammes, are to be preferred, which are to be divided into spherical masses, of the diameter of about five centimetres." Druse (Gr. drosos, dew). A mineralogical term for any hollow space in veins of ore, or vesicular cavity in igneous rocks, like amygdaloid, that is lined or studded with crystals literally " dewy with crystals ; " hence we speak of drusy and sparry cavities. Dryopithecus (Gr. dryos, a wood, and pithekos, ape). Literally "tree- monkey ;" the generic term applied by M. Lartet (1856) to a large species of monkey found in the Miocene beds of the south of France, and appa- rently related to the modern long-armed apes (hylobates). It is supposed to have been a frigivoreus, tree-climbing ape, equalling Man in stature. Ductility (Lat. ductus, drawn out). The property which certain metals possess of being drawn out into wire or thread-like filaments more or less slender. Platinum, gold, and silver, are the most ductile of the metals a single grain of gold being capable of being drawn into a wire nearly 600 feet in length ! Dune (Brit., a hillock). Usually applied to hillocks of blown sand. Sand-dunes, sand-drift, like that which, in so many places, skirts the shores of our own island, Holland, and other countries. Dunstone. A local term for certain magnesian limestones of a yellow- ish dun or cream colour, occurring in the valley of the Derwent, near Matlock, in Derbyshire. They are of a granular texture, extremely hard, and rich in lead and calamine, for which they have been extensively mined. Dyke (Scot., a wall or fence). Applied to those wall-like intrusions of igneous rock which fill up rents and fissures in the stratified systems. In general they burst through and displace the strata, though occasionally they merely fill up pre-existing rents and fissures. In dykes composed of 181 DYS EAR basalt and basaltic greenstone, the columnar structure is horizontal or at right angles to the stratified walls of the rent or fissure which they occupy. When the matter of the dyke is harder than the intersected strata, and these have been subjected to waste and denudation, the igneous wall-like mass may be traced for miles across a country ; and, on the other hand, where the rock-matter of the dyke has been softer, its course may also be traced by narrow wall-sided fissures and linear ditch-like depressions. Both phenomena are well exhibited in the island of Arran. Dysodile (Gr. dysodes, fetid, and ilys, mud). The name given to a bitu- minous shale or Tertiary mud of a greenish-grey colour, composed of thin papery laminae, and frequently containing the impressions of fish and dicotyledonous leaves. Its bitumen is evidently of animal origin ; it burns slowly with much smoke and flame, and emits a highly fetid odour ; hence the name. E Eagle-Stone. The celites lapis of the ancients, fabled to have been hatched in the nest of the eagle. A variety of nodular argillaceous iron- ore, having a concentric structure, and occasionally so decomposed within as to have a loose kernel which rattles on being shaken. This kernel was known by the name of callimus, and was supposed to be the young in the womb of the parent nodule ; hence the fable of the cetites bringing forth young. When there is no internal kernel the nodule becomes simply a geode, which see. Ear-Bones. The tympanic or petro- tympanic bones of the higher osseous and cartilaginous fishes, as well as those of whales, are of frequent occur- rence in a fossil state in the Crag of Norfolk, and other Tertiary strata. They are termed otolithes or otolites, that is, "ear-stones;" and though varying greatly in size and configuration, are readily distinguished from other bones by their greater density and smooth unattached forms. See OTOLITES. Earth. In chemistry, a solid, opaque, friable substance, without lustre, and incombustible ; it is thus distinguished from metals on the one hand, and from carbon and other combustible substances on the other. The primitive earths are thus said to be baryta, strontia, lime, magnesia, alumina, glucina, zirconia, yttria, donaria, and thorina. The first four are termed alkaline earths, from their partial solubility in water, their alkaline taste, and their action on vegetable colours ; the remainder constitute the earths proper, are insoluble in water, and only imperfectly neutralise the acids. In geology, as well as in familiar language, the word EARTH is often loosely employed the earths of the agriculturist being the soils he cultivates, while fuller's earth (an absorbent clay), bone-earth (phosphate of lime), and the like, are everyday terms. The epithet earthy refers more strictly to the character and consistency of a rock, as an ' earthy lime- stone, " meaning thereby that it is soft, friable, and non-crystalline. In geography, the distinctive name for our planet, as associated with the Sun, 182 EAR Moon, and other bodies of the solar system ; hence such phrases as the " Earth's mass," " Earth's orbit,'' " Earth's axis of rotation," and so forth. Earth's Crust. That external rind or shell of our planet which is acces- sible to human investigation ; in contradistinction to the internal mass, of which we can know nothing by direct observation ; the Erd-rinde of the German geologist. See TEMPERATURE OF THE EARTH. Earth of Bone. A phosphate of lime, sometimes termed " bone phos- phate," existing in bones after calcination. Earth-Foam. A fine, light, scaly variety of calcite or calc-spar, techni- cally known as aphrite, which see. Earthquake. The familiar as well as technical term for any shaking or tremor of the earth's crust produced by subterranean agency. As the name implies, an earthquake consists of an agitation of some particular portion of the earth the shock or convulsion being less or more violent, and extending over a less or greater area, according to the intensity of the motive power, and according to conditions of internal structure, with which we are but slenderly acquainted. The conditions accompanying earth- quakes are by no means uniform, and though science has recorded a great many facts in connection with their occurrence, it is by no means in a position to enunciate any law either as regards their premonitory warnings, their intensity, their duration, or the direction of their movements. In some instances they are preceded by an unusual stillness of the air, by an unnatural agitation of the waters, and by hollow subterranean rumblings. In others, the shock comes on at once with or without noise the earth is violently agitated by perpendicular lifts or heaves rolls from side to side or undulates with uneasy motion as if it were floating away from beneath the feet of the observer. The single shock of an earthquake seldom lasts more than a minute often for a few seconds only ; but they frequently follow each other after short intervals, and for a considerable length of time, and these paroxysms occur at certain periods more intensely than at others. Of course such movements of a solid, unelastic, and variously composed mass like the earth's crust as if it were extensively cavernous or floated on a sea of molten matter must be followed by fractures, fis- sures, and chasms ; by upheavals and depressions ; by elevations of the sea's bed into dry land, and the submergence of dry land beneath the waters of the ocean. Of all these we have abundant evidence and record within the historical period ; and the further testimony, that these fissures often emit smoke and flame, and more frequently discharge fragments of stone and torrents of water. From these and similar circumstances, as well as from their greater frequency in volcanic districts, there can be little doubt that earthquakes are intimately associated with volcanoes in fact, are but varied expres- sions of the same primal agency. They produce modifications of the earth's crust chiefly by fracture, subsidence, and elevation. During their convul- sions the level plain may be thrown into abrupt heights or rent by chasms and ravines ; lakes may disappear and rivers change their courses ; islands may be submerged or elevated and joined to the mainland ; and maritime tracts may be sunk beneath the waters, or the adjacent sea-bed raised into dry land. Their geological function is therefore, like that of vol- canoes, to diversify the surface of the globe, and to render irregular what aqueous agency is perpetually striving to render smooth and uniform. 183 EAR ECH Presuming on the uniformity of nature's operations, in subordination to the higher law of Creational Progress, the effects of earthquakes must have been similar in all time past, and to them, therefore, must be ascribed many of the fractures, dislocations, and contortions, so prevalent among the earlier rock-formations of the globe. See SEISMOGRAPHY. Earthquake- Waves. The name given to those huge and sudden waves, or rather walls of water, which during earthquake convulsions are some- times thrown with tremendous impetus upon the land. That rolled in upon the coasts of Portugal, during the great Lisbon earthquake in 1755, was estimated at 60 feet high. Eboulement (Fr. fouler, to tumble down). A term adopted from the French for sudden rock-falls and earth-slips in mountainous regions. Ebullition (Lat. ebullitio, a boiling or bubbling-up). The boiling or bub- bling-up of liquids after they have been heated to the boiling-point, which varies, of course, according to the altitude of the situation above the level of the sea. Many thermal springs are in a state of constant ebullition. See BOILING POINT. Ecculioinphalus (Gr., unrolled navel). An obscure Lower Silurian shell, thin, curved or discoidal, with a few widely- separate whorls, slightly un- symmetrical and keeled. Usually placed among the Gasteropods, but by some regarded as a peculiar form of Pteropod. Echinida, EcMnoidea (Gr. echinos, the sea-urchin). A well-known family of the Radiata, comprehending those marine animals commonly known by the name of sea-eggs or sea-urchins, and constituting, according to zoologists, the third order of the class Echinodermata, which see. The Echinida are found fossil in all formations, but are most abundant and beautifully preserved in the Chalk. E'chinite. The general palseontological term for any fossil, sea-urchin, or cidaris, or portion thereof. Echinites are common in many formations, and wherever they occur give evidence of true marine conditions. EcMnobrissus (Gr. echinos, sea-urchin ; brissos, sea-urchin). An echino- derm of the Oolite and Chalk periods, so called from its closer resemblance to the. existing sea-urchin in the form and arrangement of its spines. Echinocyamus (Gr. echinos, and kyamos, bean). A minute echinoderm of the Pleiocene period, so termed from the bean-shaped form of its crust or shell. Echinodermata (Gr. echinos, and derma, the skin). A numerous class, recent and fossil, of Radiata like the star-fish and sea-urchin all less or more covered with a firm coriaceous or crustaceous integument, which in many instances is densely armed with spines. It embraces, according to recent zoological arrangements, the following orders : 1. The Crinoida, or those species, almost exclusively fossil, which are fixed by a long jointed stalk, and have branching articulated tentacula extending from around the abdominal cavity, as in the common encrinite. 2. The Asterida or Stellerida, comprising the free, flexible, and star- shaped species, which are destitute of stalk or peduncle, as the common star-fish (asteria). The asterida are recent as well as fossil hi all forma- tions. 3. Echinida, in which the body is inflexible, and composed of a solid articulated crust, the exterior surface of which is covered with movable calcareous spines, as in echinus. Recent as well as fossil in all formations. 4. The Holothurida, in which the axis of the body is placed horizontallv, 184 ECH EFF and there is a soft coriaceous skin, seldom protected with spines, as in /toio^iria. Found in the glacial clays of the Clyde. Or including fossil genera, we have the further subdivisions given in the preliminary tabulations, "ANIMAL SCHEME." Echinosphaerites (Gr. echinos, and sphaira, a ball). Literally "prickly ball ; " a genus of echinoderms characterised by their small size and globular form, and restricted apparently to the Lower Silurian and Upper Cambrian periods. Echinostdchys (Gr. echinos, and stachys, a head of flowers). A term applied to a singular fossil occurring in the New Ked Sandstone ; ap- parently a spike of inflorescence, beset on all sides with sessile, contiguous, sub-conical flowers or fruits. Supposed to be akin to the Typhacece or reed-maces. E'clogite (Gr., select). The name given to a coarse or fine grained mix- ture of green smeragdite with red garnet a rock apparently of metamor- phic origin. Some varieties take a good polish, and are coming into use as ornamental stones. Ecume de Mer, or Meerschaum. Literally " foam of the sea ; " a light white earthy silicate of magnesia, much esteemed for the bowls of tobacco-pipes. See MEERSCHAUM. Eddphodon (Gr.) Literally "pavement- tooth ; " a genus of Lower Ter- tiary fishes, founded chiefly on the jaws and dental apparatus, which resem- ble those of the existing chimcera, but yet differ so much as to have induced Professor Owen to erect the Edaphodonts (JEdaphodontidee) into a separate family. Known also as Passalodon (peg-tooth), and Psittaeodon (parrot- tooth). Eddy (Sax. ed, water, and ea, backwards). Any rotatory motion of water caused by the meeting of opposing currents. Eddies generally occur in estuaries where the tide meets the current of the river ; and in seas where currents from different quarters meet, or where tidal currents are thrown back on themselves by opposing obstacles. See WHIRLPOOL. Edentata (Lat. edentula, toothless). The sixth order of mammalia in Cuvier's arrangement, or quadrupeds agreeing in the unimportant charac- ter of being destitute of front or incisive teeth. It comprehends the Eden- tata proper viz., ant-eaters, armadilloes, &c. and the Tardigrada or sloths. Many of the huge Tertiary mammals of South America belong to the Edentate order. See tabulations, "ANTMAL SCHEME." Edingtonite. So called after its discoverer. A member of the Zeolite family, found implanted in minute crystals on Thomsonite in the Kilpat- rick Hills, but very rare. Edriophthalmous (Gr. edraios, sessile, and ophthalmos, the eye). Applied to those crustaceans which, like the sandhopper and woodlouse, have im- movable sessile eyes ; in contradistinction to those which, like the crab and lobster, are stalk-eyed or podophthalmous. The group Edriophihalma comprises the amphipods, leemidopods, and isopods. See tabulations, "ANIMAL SCHEME." Effervescence (Lat. effervesce, I boil or bubble up). The bubbling, hiss- ing commotion which takes place in fluids when gas is generated and given off with rapidity. The effervescence of a Seidlitz powder, and of limestone under the action of muriatic acid, are familiar examples. Efflorescence (Lat. effloresce, I put forth flowers). Applied in mineral- ogy to those saline excrescences which cover certain minerals, like alum- 185 EGG ELE shale, sulphuret of iron, &c., when exposed to the action of the atmosphere the air decomposing the saline crystals and abstracting their water of crystallisation. Efflorescence is caused by the removal of moisture, just as deliquescence is caused by the absorption of it. Eggs, Fossil. The eggs of turtles occur in a sub-fossil, or rather in a petrified state in the shore-deposits of Ascension and other islands ; those of snakes in fresh-water limestones of comparatively recent origin in Ger- many ; those of birds (dinornis and epiornis) in the ancient river-silts of New Zealand and Madagascar; and those of unknown animals (birds, pterodactyles, or other reptiles) so early as the Oolitic formation. Such remains are termed Oolithes and Ovulites, which see. Egyptian Jasper, Egyptian Pebble. "A variety of jasper occurring in roundish pieces, scattered over the surface of the desert between Cairo and . the Red Sea. The surface of these masses is rough, and of a yellowish chestnut-brown colour, but internally the brown colour forms irregular concentric zones, between which are black spots and small black dendritic markings in a base of pale yellowish-brown colour " (Bristow). When cut and polished these jaspers are used as gem-stones. Eifel. A district on the Lower Rhine, celebrated in geology for its re- cent volcanic rocks, its brown-coal, and other Tertiary deposits, as well as for its highly fossiliferous Devonian and Silurian strata. The subject of papers in the geological journals by Lyell, Scrope, Homer, Hibbert, Ham- ilton, and others, as to its Tertiary phenomena ; and the fertile field of research to Sandberger, Rb'emer, Von Dechen, and others, in its Paleo- zoic aspects. Eisleben in Saxony ; a locality well known for its finely-preserved palceo- nisci, and other fishes peculiar to the Carboniferous and Permian formations. Elaeolite (Gr. elaion, oil; lithos, stone). A mineral of the Scapolite family, having a dull opalescent or fatty resinous lustre ; the Fetistein or fatstone of Werner. Composition, 45 silica, 32 alumina, 15 soda, 5 potash, and traces of lime, magnesia, and iron peroxide. Elaterite. Known also as elastic " mineral pitch " and " mineral caoutchouc." A variet} 7 of bitumen possessing a certain degree of elas- ticity, and generally found in the crevices of Carboniferous limestone, as in Derbyshire and Fifeshire. On exposure to the atmosphere, elaterite gra- dually loses its elasticity, and becomes hard and brittle like asphalt. According to Johnston, it consists of about 85 carbon and 13 hydrogen, with traces of oxygen and nitrogen. E'lberseuth, near Bareuth, in the N.E. of Bavaria; celebrated for its Devonian strata, which abound in the shells of Clymenia upwards of thirty species having been found there, and the greater number of them peculiar to the locality. Electrum. A term of the ancients for argentiferous gold-ore, and still applied to those varieties which contain more than 20 per cent of silver, and of a light brass or bronze-yellow colour. Element. A simple substance; one which chemistry cannot resolve into other component substances. Iron, for example, is a simple substance or elementary body ; rust of iron, a compound, consisting of metallic iron and oxygen. Elements are spoken of as proximate or intermediate, and ulti- mate. Thus, limestone consists of lime and carbonic acid these are its intermediate elements ; but the lime is still further resolvable into calcium and oxygen, and the carbonic acid into carbon and oxygen the calcium, 186 ELE EME oxygen, and carbon being ultimate elements. Upwards of sixty elemen- tary substances are known to the chemist, and of these all the countless combinations and matters in the mineral, vegetable, and animal world are composed. See CHEMISTRY, and tabulations, "CHEMICAL SCHEME." Elevating Causes. Under this head are comprehended those agencies which refer to the operation of volcanoes, earthquakes, and gradually elevating forces. The operations of the volcano and earthquake are sudden and violent, and depend proximately on the presence of subter- ranean heat ; gradual elevation, on the other hand, may arise from slow secular movements in the earth's crust, with the proximate causes of which geologists are yet unacquainted. The elevatory power of the volcano is seen partly in the upheaval of portions of the earth's crust into mountain chains and ridges, and partly in the accumulation round some centre of eruption of ejected lava, scoriae, and other materials. The power of the earthquake is manifested both by subsidence and elevation subsidence, as in the sinking of the Allah Bund at the mouth of the Indus in 1819 ; and elevation, as in the uprise of the coast of Chili in 1822. Gradual elevation manifests itself in such uprises as those of the Scandinavian peninsula (to the extent of some three or four feet in a century), and appears to depend on movements in the earth's mass with which we are yet unacquainted. Elie Euby. A variety of pyrope found in small garnet-like grains in the trap-tuff of Kincraig Point, near Elie, in Fifeshire. Elutriation (Lat. eluere, to wash out or cleanse). In chemistry and metallurgy, the process of washing by which the lighter earthy parts are separated from the heavier and metallic. Elvan, Elvan Courses. A Cornish name for a felspathic rock or porphyry occurring in dykes in the mining districts of that county. Elytra (Gr. elytron, a sheath). The hard crustaceous case or sheath which covers the membraneous wings of coleopterous insects like the beetle ; the wing-sheath. The elytra of beetles are found fossil from the Coal formation upwards. Embouchure (Fr.) The mouth of a river, or that part where it dis- charges itself into a lake or sea. Emerald (Fr. emeraude; Ital. emeraldo ; Lat. smaragdus). One of the gems, and generally of a rich deep-green colour ; the less brilliant and colourless varieties being known as beryls. The crystals occur in hexa- gonal prisms, rarely in columnar aggregates, and usually marked with vertical strise. The emerald is found either imbedded or in druses in some countries in the crystalline schists, but in the most celebrated modern locality (Muzo, in New Grenada), in a Secondary limestone abounding in ammonites. The finest specimens are brought from South America, but fair varieties have been found in Bavaria, India, and Siberia. According to Vauquelin, vrho, in analysing the emerald, first discovered the earth glucina, the purest specimens consist of 65 silica, 14 alumina, 13 glucina, 2.56 lime, and 3.50 oxide of chromium, to which last the gem was supposed to owe its fine green colour. According to the more recent researches of M. Levy, however, the colouring matter is considered to be a carburet of hydrogen, and of animal origin a supposition to which the fossiliferous limestone of Muzo gives great support. The colour of the emerald can easily be destroyed by heat a circumstance which does not occur in those gems that are coloured by oxide of chromium. See BERYL. Emergence, Emergent (Lat. emergo). Rising out of that by which it was 187 EME END covered ; applied to islands and shores gradually rising from the ocean. Emergence and Subsidence are contradistinguishing terms. Emery. A massive, nearly opaque, greyish-black, or indigo-coloured variety of rhombohedral corundum, consisting of alumina, with a small percentage of silica and peroxide of iron. It occurs in Spain, the Greek Islands, and other localities, and derives its name from Cape Emeri, in the island of Naxos, from which most of the emery of commerce is derived, and where it occurs in large blocks in the soil, and sometimes in white marble. Triturated, sifted, and attached to paper or cloth, it forms the emery-paper and emery-cloth of the polisher. Einmonite (after Professor Emmons of Massachusetts). A snow-white variety of Strontianite, with an obscurely foliated structure, and a scaly appearance not unlike some varieties of gypsum. Consists of 82.7 car- bonate of strontia and 12.5 carbonate of lime. E'mydse (Gr. emys, the fresh-water turtle). Fresh-water turtles or mud- tortoises; a family of chelonian reptiles intermediate between the marine turtles and the land -tortoises. In form they are flatter than the land- tortoises ; their toes are longer and webbed, but not so long as those of the marine turtles. Fossil species have been found in the Wealden and Terti- ary strata. See REPTILIA in preliminary tabulations, "ANIMAL SCHEME." Enaliosaiiria (Gr. enalios, marine, and sauros, lizard). Literally sea- saurians ; a group of fossil reptilians, including the aquatic forms ichthyosaurus, pliosaurus, plesiosaurus, &c. See SAURIANS. Enamel. In anatomy, the smooth, hard, glossy substance which in various forms constitutes the outer surface of the teeth ; seen also on*the scales of the fossil ganoid or enamelled- scale fishes. Encephalous (Gr. en, in, and kephale, the head). Applied to those mol- lusca which, like the limpet and periwinkle, have a distinct head. The division JEncephala comprehends the cephalopods, gasteropods, and ptero- pods in other words, all the univalves. See ACEPHALOUS. E'ncrinite, Encrinites (Gr. krinon,a, lily). The original and general term for the Crinoidea or lily-like echinoderms an extensive and chiefly fossil class, characterised by their long many -jointed stalks, surmounted by lily- shaped bodies or receptacles, which were furnished with numerous finger- like rays capable of closing and expanding. The internal calcareous skele- tons of the encrinites (in scattered joints and fragments) are so abundant in some Carboniferous limestones as to compose the greater portion of the mass ; hence the term encrinal or encrinital limestone. The minuter joints of the fingers and rays are usually termed entrochi or wheel-stones, and these, when abounding in certain limestones, confer on them the title en- trochal limestones. The stalk having been perforated by a canal which kept the whole in vital union, the separated joints present a bead-like appearance ; hence such familiar terms as " St Cuthbert's beads " and " wheel-stones " for the solid pieces ; and "pulley-stones" and "screw- stones " for their hollow casts in limestones. It is usual, in a general way, to apply the term ENCRINITES to the genera having rounded stalks, and PENTACRINITES to those which are angular or pentangular. See CRINOIDEA. Endo (Gr. endon, within). A common prefix in geology, as well as in other of the natural sciences ; as endogens, plants increasing in growth from within ; endosiphonites, a genus of fossil cephalopods having the siphuncle placed at the inner side of the whorls, &c. 188 END ENT E'ndocarp (Gr. endon, within, and Jcarpos, fruit). The stone or shell which, in fruits like the peach and cherry, encloses the embryo or kernel ; the outer skin being the epicarp, and the fleshy edible substance the sarcocarp. E'ndogens (Gr. endon, within ; ginomai, I am formed). That division of the vegetable kingdom palms, grasses, rushes, and liliaceous plants whose growth takes place from within, and not by external concentric layers as in the Exogens.QQ MONOCOTYLEDONOUS, and tabulations, " VEGETABLE SCHEME." Endogenites. Fossil stems and fragments exhibiting the endogenous structure are so termed. " It is merely," says Brongniart, "a provisional assemblage of objects to be further examined." Endosiphonites {Gr. endon, within). A synonyme of Prof. Ansted's for the nautiloid shell clymenia, whose siphuncle is on the inner side of the whorls, therein differing from the ammonite, whose siphuncle is on the outer side or dorsal, and from the nautilus, in which it is central. Engis, Engihoul. The caverns of Engis and Engihoul the former on the left bank, and the latter on the right bank, of the Meuse, about eight miles from Liege have become celebrated in the question of man's an- tiquity, from their containing human remains imbedded in the same muds and breccias with those of mammoth, rhinoceros, cave-bear, reindeer, and other mammalia now extinct in Europe. Enhydrous, Enhydrite (Gr. en, within, and hydor, water). The name given to crystals and minerals containing water ; the opposite of an- hydrous. E'nsiform (Lat. ensis, sword, and forma, likeness). Sword-shaped ; straight, flat, and pointed, like the leaf of the iris ; slender and more tapering forms being lanceolate; and those less or more recurved, falciform. Ent6molite (Gr. entoma, insects, and lithos, stone). The general term for a fossil insect, or any part or fragment thereof. Entomolithus Paradoxus (Gr. entoma, insects). The term given by the earlier palaeontologists to the trilobite, which was long confounded with insects in consequence of the segmented aspect of its body. Entomology (Gr. entoma, insects, and logos, reasoning). The science of insects ; that branch of natural history that treats of the history and habits of insects. Entomological. Pertaining to the science of insects. Entomologist. One devoted to the study of insects. Entom6phagous (Gr. entoma, insects, andphago, I devour). Insect-eat- ing ; applied to those animals which chiefly subsist on insects. Same as Insectivorous, which see. Entom6straca (Gr. entomon, insect, and ostrdkon, shell). Literally " shelled insect ; " an extensive sub-class of Crustacea, generally of small size, covered with a delicate skin, and usually protected by a broad shield or sort of bivalve shell. The branchiae, when present, are attached to the feet, which, with the antennae, are generally furnished with bristles that render them efficient organs of locomotion. Occur recent, and fossil in all formations, as cypris, ceratiocaris, dithyrocaris, &c. See CRUSTACEA in pre- liminary tabulations. E'ntrochi, Entrochites, and Trochftse (Lat. trochus, a wheel). Names given to the wheel-like joints of the encrinite, which are frequently scattered in great profusion through certain limestones ; hence entrochal marble. See SCREW-STONES, PULLET-STONES, and ST CUTHBERT'S BEADS. 189 ENV EPI Envelope (Fr. envelopper, to roll or wrap up). A wrapper ; a cover ; any investing integument ; applied to superficial soils, clays, and gravels that mask or cover up the subjacent rocky strata. Eocene (Gr. eos, the dawn, and kainos, recent). A term introduced by Sir Charles Lyell to designate the Lower Tertiary strata, from the idea that the very small percentage of living testacea contained in these strata (ac- cording to Deshayes only 3g per cent) indicates what may be regarded as the dawn or commencement of the existing or current condition of creation. See TERTIARY SYSTEM. Eolian (Eolus, the god of wind). A term given by Nelson to loose material (sand and the like) drifted and arranged by the wind. As we have aqueous formations, so we may have eolian or sub-aerial, which is the term most frequently employed. Eosaiirus (Gr. eos, dawn, and sauros). A provisional genus of Enaliosau- rians, occurring in the Nova Scotian Coal formation, and founded on some vertebrae which indicate, according to Mr Marsh their discoverer, " a rep- tile of large size, air-breathing, carnivorous, and aquatic, probably marine." Eozoic (Gr. eos, dawn; zoe, life). A term recently introduced to express the oldest fossiliferous rocks, such as the Laurentian and Huronian of Canada, from their containing the first or earliest traces of life in the stratified systems. In this case Eozoic signifies older than the Palaeozoic, and takes the place of Azoic and Hypozoic, which were formerly applied to such metamorphic strata. Eozodn (Gr. eos, dawn, and zoon, animal). A foraminiferal organism occurring in the Laurentian limestones of Canada, and so named by Prin- cipal Dawson from its position in the oldest stratified rocks yet known to geology. It is found in large sessile patches, after the manner of Carpen- teria ; and though greatly mineralised, yet reveals to the microscope a structure resemoling that of other foraminiferal forms. According to Drs Carpenter and Dawson, its affinities are towards the Nummuliiie group. Epi (Gr. epi, upon). A prefix adopted from the Greek, and having, as the case may be, the signification of upon, over, outer, all through, besides. Epicarp (Gr. epi, and karpos, fruit). The outer skin or husk of certain fruits ; the fleshy or edible portion being the sarcocarp, and the stone the endocarp. Epidermis (Gr. epi, and derma, the skin). The outer skin, scarf-skin, or cuticle. Used in many branches of natural history, as in conchology, to the membranaceous horny cuticle that covers many shells ; in botany, to the membrane or outer bark that covers the stems of plants ; and in zoo- logy, to the pellicle or scarf-skin that covers the true skin of animals. In general the epidermis can be peeled or rubbed off without injury to the underlying parts, and in many instances it peels and falls off with the in- creasing size and age of the plant or animal. E'pidote (Gr. epi, and didomai, I give or add to). A member of the Gar- net family, known also as prismatic augite-spar, pistacite, and Arendhal- ite ; and said to derive its name from its crystals, which always appear horizontal-prismatic, but are prolonged (or added to, epididomai) at the base of the prism in one direction. It is generally of a green or greyish colour, and occurs regularly crystallised in druses, or in granular, pris- matic, and fibrous concretions. It is found in granite, diorite, and other crystalline rocks, and has many sub-species or -varieties, as zoisite, Thallite, 190 EPI EQU Bucklandite, manganese-epidote, &c. It consists of 38 silica, 28 alumina, 14 lime, 17 peroxide of iron, and traces of manganese and magnesia. Epigastric (Gr. epi, and gaster, the belly). Belonging to the upper por- tion of the belly, or epigastric region. Epimera (Gr. epi, and meros, a part or portion). Those parts of the seg- ment of an articulate animal which lie immediately above the joint of the limb ; e.g., the epimera or side-segments of the lobster. Epiornis. A gigantic extinct bird of Madagascar. See JEriORNis. Epiphyte (Gr. epi, and pliylon, a plant or shoot). A term for those plants which grow upon others, adhering to their bark, and rooting among the decaying portions of their epidermis. Generally restricted to those orchids that grow upon trees. Epoch (Gr. epoclie, a pause in the reckoning of time). A term literally signifying a stop or fixed point of time from which succeeding years are numbered, but somewhat loosely used in geology as synonymous with age or era ; as the " Silurian epoch," "epoch of gigantic reptilians." E'psomite, Epsom Salt. Sulphate of magnesia, consisting of 16.26 mag- nesia, 32.523 sulphuric acid, and 51.22 water. It occurs in botryoidal masses and capillary efflorescences in many mines, veins, and old coal- workings, and is a common ingredient in many mineral waters, like those of Epsom and Surrey. The greater portion of the Epsom salts of com- merce, however, is manufactured from magnesian limestone. Equator (Lat. aquus, equal). The great circle on the earth's surface, every point of which is equally distant from the poles ; such a circle cuts the globe into two equal parts or halves, in other words, into hemispheres viz., the Northern and Southern. When the sun is in the line of the equator, day and night are of equal duration, hence it is also termed the equinoctial line (nox, the night). Equat6rial. Belonging to, or in the region of the equator; as the "equatorial diameter" of the earth, the "equatorial current" of the Atlantic. Equatorial Current. That great current which manifests itself within the equatorial region of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. In either ocean it has a decided westerly flow, is warmer by several degrees than the adjacent waters, and spreads over many degrees of latitude. It is influ- enced in its course and character partly by the trade-winds, and partly by the earth's rotation, and being unobstructed by islands is most decidedly felt in the Atlantic. In the Atlantic, as it strikes the South American shores it bifurcates into the Brazil and Guiana currents ; in the Pacific, as it nears the Asiatic islands it separates into the Australian and Japan currents ; and in the Indian Ocean, as it impinges on the African coast it is mainly deflected southward into the strong flow of the Mozambique current. Equi (Lat. cequus, equal). A common prefix in scientific terminology signifying equal or alike ; as equidistant, equally distant ; equilateral equal- sided ; equivalved, having both valves alike. E'quidse (Lat. equus, a horse). The Horse tribe ; the family of solidun- gulous pachyderms, having only one apparent toe and a single hoof to each foot. It includes the horse, ass, zebra, &c.; and members of the family, differing slightly from the existing species, occur fossil in the middle and upper Tertiaries. Equine (Lat. eqmts, a horse). Pertaining to the horse ; belonging to the Horse family. 191 EQU EKI Equisetacese (Lat. equus, a horse, and seta, a hair or bristle ; whence the English name horsetail). An extensive order of marsh or boggy crypto- gams or flowerless plants, well represented by the common "horsetail" of our bogs and ditches. They occur in every region from Lapland to the equator, but acquire their greatest magnitude and abundance in moist warm regions. They are also found fossil in all formations, the most gi- gantic specimens occurring in Carboniferous and Oolitic strata. The equisetums are readily distinguished by their erect hollow stems, which are striated and jointed, frequently with whorls of small attenuated leaves at the joints, and all less or more rough from the quantity of silex con- tained in their cuticle. Equisetites (Lat. equisetum, the plant horsetail). Fossil plants resem- bling the equisetum of our pools and marshes, and found in all formations from the Devonian upwards. In equisetum the stems are jointed, and sur- rounded by closely-fitting cylindrical sheaths, which are regularly tooth - letted, and which leave their impress on the stems ; but the stems are not channeled throughout as in Catamites, for which they are apt to be mis- taken. See CALAMITES. Equivalent. A term freqiiently employed by geologists to designate strata or series of strata that have been formed contemporaneously in distant regions, or which, palseontologically speaking, are characterised by similar suites of fossils. Thus the "Ketiper" of Germany, and the " Marnes Irishes" of France, are said to be the equivalents of the saliferous and gypseous sandstone and marls of Cheshire ; the " Calcaire de Caen," or celebrated building-stone of Caen, the equivalent of our Great or Bath Oolite. See Table of Contemporary or Equivalent Strata, in preliminary tabulations, " GEOLOGICAL SCHEME." Era (Lat.) In chronology, a fixed point of time, at which the computa- tion of ensuing years is commenced, as the "Christian era." In geology the term is somewhat loosely employed, not only to denote the commence- ment of a new "system " or " formation," but the entire duration of that system or formation ; as " the plants of the Carboniferous era," "the era of gigantic reptiles." Erbium. One of the rarer metals, of which very little is known. Ac- cording to Mossander, the earth called yttria is a mixture of the oxides of three metals yttrium, erbium, and terbium, which differ in the character of their salts, and some other particulars. Eremacausis (Gr. ereme, slow, and Icausis, burning). Slow- burning ; decay. Liebig's term for that slow chemical change brought about by the action of the oxygen of the atmosphere on moist organic bodies, by which they are consumed or burnt without any sensible increase of temperature ; e.g., the conversion of vegetable substances into humus. E'rinite (Erin, the ancient name of Ireland). The name given by Haid- inger to a beautiful green arseniate of copper (59.5 protoxide of copper, 33.5 arsenic acid, 5 water, and 2 alumina), from its being found in the county of Limerick, in Ireland, where it occurs in mammillary crystalline groups. Also the name given by Thomson to a dull brownish-red variety of bole found in the amygdaloid of Antrim, and which consists of 47 silica, 18.5 alumina, 6.5 iron peroxide, 25 water, with traces of lime, salt, and magnesia. Erismacanthus (Gr. erisma, subject of dispute, and acantha).A. provi- sional genus of fish-spines belonging to the Coal period, and so called from 192 ERO ESO their doubtful character that is, whether a distinct genus or merely a species of ctenacanthus. Er6sion (Lat. erosus, gnawed or worn away). The act of gradually wearing away; the state of being gradually worn away; e.g., "Valleys of erosion," or those valleys which have been gradually cut out of the solid strata by the long-continued action of the river or rivers that flow through them. Most of the ravines and glens and river- channels in the British Islands are the result of erosion; for, whatever inequalities of surface may have originally directed the waters into their channels, all the subsequent deepening, and scooping out, and widening of the valleys, have been owing to the erosive force of running water laden with sand, gravel, and other triturating debris. Erpet6logy (Gr. erpetos, reptile, and logos, reasoning). That branch of natural science which treats of the structure, habits, and history of reptiles. Erratic Block Group. A synonyme of the Boulder Clay, so called from the large transported blocks which are thickly strewn through it. See PLEISTOCENE and DRIFT FORMATION. Erratic Blocks, Erratics. A term frequently applied to those large water-worn and ice-borne blocks of stone (boulders) which are scattered so generally over the higher and middle latitudes of the northern hemisphere. Eructation (Lat. eructatio), A violent bursting forth of gaseous and liquid matter from any orifice or opening, as from the crater of a volcano or geyser. Eruption (Lat. e, out of, and ruptus, burst forth). A violent and for- cible breaking out of enclosed matters ; as the outburst of lava, ashes, mud, hot water, or steam from an opening in the earth's crust. Erupted. Forcibly thrown forth, as stones, scoriae, &c., from the crater of a volcano. Eruptive. Applied to such igneous rocks as have evidently burst through the sedimentary strata, in contradistinction to those which have gently overflowed, and become inter stratified. Erythrine (Gr. eruthros, red). The name given to cobalt-bloom, which occurs in small botryoidal masses and acicular diverging crystals, generally of a fine carmine or peach-red colour. As an arseniate of cobalt, its normal composition is 38.43 arsenic acid, 37.55 oxide of cobalt, and 24.02 water; but most specimens contain oxide of nickel and protoxide of iron. Erythrite (Gr. eruthros, red). A flesh-coloured variety of felspar, oc- curring in the amygdaloid of the Kilpatrick Hills, and so named by Thom- son from its colour. Escarpment (Fr. escarper, to cut steep). The abrupt face or cliff of a ridge or hill-range. EsMrs or Escars. The name given in Ireland to the elongated and often flat-topped mounds of post-glacial gravel which occur abundantly in the greater river- valleys of that country. Known as Kaims in Scotland and Osars in Sweden, which see. Es6cidse (Lat. esox, the pike). The Pike family; represented by the well-known fresh- water fish of that name. The pikes are extremely vora- cious fishes, and for this purpose have their mouths abundantly armed with formidable teeth. Fossil species are said to occur from the Chalk period upwards. Esdphagus or (Esophagus (Gr. olo, oiso, I carry, and phago, I eat). The canal through which the food passes (or is carried) from the mouth to the stomach. 193 N EST EUK E'stuary (Lat. cestuscestuo, I boil the tide ; so called from the troubled boiling- up of the water-line, which marks its approach in river-mouths). Estuaries are, properly speaking, tidal river-mouths, like those of the Thames, Severn, Solway, &c. ; whose fauna and flora are mixed fresh-water and marine, or composed of such species as are peculiar to brackish waters. From these peculiarities, the geologist is enabled to determine that cer- tain formations, such as the Wealden, have been deposited in estuaries, and not in fresh-water lakes, nor in the open ocean ; and hence also the frequent use of such phraseology as " estuary limestones," " estuary mud- stones," and the like. Etesian (Gr. etesios, annual). The Etesian Wind of Europe is a northerly, or rather north-easterly wind, that prevails in early spring all over the continent. The word is applied, in Greek and Koman authors, to the periodical winds in the Mediterranean, from whatever quarter they blow. Ethmoid (Gr. ethmos, a sieve, and eidos, like). Sieve-like; perforated like a sieve. Generally applied to the bone of the nose, which is perforated like a sieve, for the passage of the olfactory nerves. Ethn6grapliy (Gr. eihnos, a race, and graphe, a description). An account or description of the origin, dispersion, connection, and characteristics of the various races of mankind. Ethnology. The science of races, in all that relates to physical features, language, manners, religion, and other charac- teristics. Etiolate (Fr. etioler). In gardening, to grow up long-shanked and colourless ; to blanch or make white, by concealment from the light. The inner leaves of lettuce and cabbages become etiolated by exclusion from the light ; and the blanching or etiolation of celery is produced by earthing up, so as to exclude the actinic or colouring effect of the sun's light. Euchroite (Gr. eu, beautiful, and chroa, colour). A rare arseniate of copper of a fine green colour ; hence the name. Euclase (Gr. eu, easily, and klasis, fracture). The prismatic emerald of Mohs ; a very rare mineral, found chiefly in Brazil and Peru, in trans- parent crystals of a pale bright green colour. It consists, according to Berzelius, of 43.22 silica, 30.56 alumina, 21.78 glucina, with the oxides of iron and tin. Its form is an oblique prism, variously modified. It is characterised by great brittleness (whence its name), the facility with which it becomes electric by heat, and the length of time it retains this property. These characters distinguish it from the true emerald and beryl ; and its brittleness prevents its being employed as a gem. Eiidialite (Gr. eu, easily, and dialyo, I dissolve). The rhombohedric almandine-spar of Mohs, one of the Haloid family, and so named from its easy solubility in acids. A rare mineral from Greenland, occurring in octahedral crystals of a soft reddish-lilac or hyacinthine colour, and con- taining zircon with silica and soda. It much resembles almandine or noble garnet, but is distinguished by its crystalline form, its lower specific gravity, inferior hardness, and action under the blow-pipe. Euelephas (Gr. eu, well, and elephas). Founding chiefly on their denti- tion, Dr Falconer proposes to divide the Elephants into three sub-generic groups the Stegodons, the Loxodons, and the Euelephants the latter term having reference to the typical elephants most familiarly known. Eukairite (Gr. euJkairos, convenient, well-situated). A cupreous seleni- uret of copper, found disseminated in the calcareous rocks of Smoland in Sweden. Consists of 39 silver, 26 selenium, 23 copper, and 8 alumina. 194 EUN EUR Eunotia (Gr. eu, well, and notos, back). A genus of Diatoms or micro- scopic plant-growths, having a siliceous simple or bivalve shield, flat below, and convex, and often richly dentated above ; whence the name. Occurs in the mountain-meal of St Fiora, and in similar accumulations. Euomphalus (Gr. eu, well, and omplialos, navel). A whorled discoidal shell, ranging from the Lower Silurian to the Trias inclusive, but specially abundant in the Carboniferous limestone. In the euomphalus, which be- longs to the family Turbinidae and order Gasteropoda, the whorls are angular or coronated, the aperture polygonal, the umbilicus very large, and the shell frequently of gigantic dimensions. Euosmite (Gr. eu, well, and osmos, odour). The name givem by Dr G umbel to a fossil resin occurring in thelignites of the Upper Palatinate, Bavaria ; and so termed from its strong, peculiar, and pleasant odour. The miners give it the name of "Kampferharz," its odour resembling that of camphor, and at the same time partaking of that of rosemary. It occurs either in semi- pulverulent masses of a brownish-yellow, or firm, and of the colour of cherry-gum. It is brittle, electric when rubbed, dissolves readily in alcohol or ether, and consists of 81.89 carbon, 11.73 hydrogen, and 6.38 oxygen. It is evidently the produce of the coniferous trees which con- stitute the bulk of the lignite. Euphorbites. Artis's term for the Sigillaria pachyderma, from its sup- posed affinity to the Euphorbias. Eiiphotide (Gr. eu, well, and pfios, photos, light). A crystalline rock consisting essentially of Labrador felspar and diallage, with subordinate intermixtures of hornblende or augite. So called from irridescent lustre or quality of reflecting light. The Gabbro of the Italian artists. Elirite. The whitestone or weiss-stein of Werner. A term of the French mineralogists for a variety of granite in which felspar predominates so as to give it a uniform white colour ; generally small-grained, with a few crystals of quartz, and occasional scales of white silvery mica ; sometimes porphyritic from the interspersion of larger crystals of felspar. Euryndtus (Gr. euros, breadth, and notos, the back). Literally "broad back ; " a genus of Lepidoid fishes'occurring in the Carboniferous forma- tion, and differing from Palceoniscus, with which they were at one time united, in their high bream-like back, stronger crenulated scales, and generally larger size. Eurypterite. A convenient Anglicised term for any of the Eurypterus family, or for any undetermined portion or specimen thereof. Introduced to harmonise with Trilobite ; hence we speak of the trilobites of the Silurian and the eurypterites of the Devonian epoch. Eurypterus, Eurypteridae (Gr. euros, breadth, and pteron, wing or fin). A genus and family of extinct crustaceans, ranging from the Upper Silu- rians to the Lower Coal-measures inclusive, and so termed in allusion to their broad oar-like swimming feet. The family embraces eurypterus proper, pterygotus, and others all characterised by their long lobster-like forms, which consist (in the dorsal aspect) of an oblong-oval cephalo- thorax or carapace, with marginal or sub-central eyes ; eleven abdominal or thoracico-abdominal segments, free and devoid of appendages ; and a telson or tail-plate more or less elongated, and usually pointed. The carapace (in the oral or ventral aspect) is furnished with three pairs of five- or six-jointed members the two first variously formed in the different genera (some furnished with spines, others with prehensile pincers), and 195 EUR EXO the posterior forming the broad swimming feet which give name to the family. The oral apparatus consists, as in the King-crab, of the serrated basal joints of the limbs, and is protected by a broad heart-shaped meta- stome or mouthpiece. In all the genera the exterior crust is ornamented with a peculiar scale-like sculpture, which becomes bolder and stronger on the free or exposed margins. The relations of the Eurypteridse to other crustacean families are by no means well determined, and geologists must in the mean time rest satisfied with mere hints as to affinities with Copepods, Pcecilipods, and other existing orders. See PTERYGOTUS, CRUSTACEA, and tabulations, " ANIMAL SCHEME." Eurytherium (Gr.) Literally "broad beast;" a provisional genus of mammalia, apparently pachyderm and aquatic, from the Eocene and Mio- cene Tertiaries of Europe. Allied to Halitherium, which see. Euthacanthus (Gr. euthys, straight, acantka, spine). A genus of fishes (apparently placoid) occurring in the Lower Old Ked of Forfarshire, rang- ing from seven to eighteen inches in length, and thus characterised by its discoverer, Mr Powrie : Head small, rather compressed ; body rather elongated ; branchial arches numerous and exposed ; tail heterocercal ; fins membranous, preceded by conical spines two dorsals, two pectorals, two ventrals, one anal ; several pairs of intermediate dermal scutes ; spines straight, and ridged longitudinally ; scales smooth and minute. Evaporation (Lat. evaporo, I send off in vapour). The act of convert- ing into vapour such liquids as water, either by natural or by artificial means, the former being termed ' ' spontaneous evaporation." Heat is the grand evaporating agent in nature, and its effects are greatly facilitated by the removal of the vapour as soon as it is formed either by currents of wind, by absorption, or by other analogous means. See VAPOUR. Excavation (Lat. ex, out of, and cavus, hollow). Any cavity or hollow, whether natural or artificial. Eocks are excavated naturally by the action of waves, by subterranean springs, by rivers, and other currents of water. E'xcrement (Lat. ezcrementuni).Tha,t which is separated from the food after digestion, and ejected from the body of animals by the intestinal canal. Excrementitious or fsecal matter is found abundantly in a fossil state, and known as coprolite, which see. Excrescence (Lat. ex, out of, and cresco, I grow). Any body or sub- stance growing upon or out of another in an unusual manner ; any pre- ternatural growth of a substance, mineral or organic. Excretion (Lat. excretus, thrown out of, separted). The act of separat- ing or voiding excrementitious matter from the blood and food ; also the substances excreted, as perspiration, fsecal matter, &c. Exfdliate (Lat. ex, from off, &&& folium, a leaf). To separate or fall off in laminse or scales. Exfoliation, by weathering, is very perceptible in some varieties of greenstone which disintegrate, coating after coating (leaf after leaf), till the whole of the rock-face looks like a pile of concentric concretions in various stages of decay. Exhalation (Lat. exhalatio, a breathing out of). Any vapour or gaseous matter arising from substances or surfaces exposed to the atmosphere ; as the (< sulphurous exhalations" from a volcanic crater, the "poisonous ex- halations " or miasm from a putrid bog or fen. Exogenites. Any fragment of fossil wood exhibiting the exogenous structure, and otherwise of unknown affinity, is so termed. E'xogens (Gr. exo, without, and ginomai, I am formed). That division 196 EXO EYE of the vegetable kingdom whose growth takes place by external concentric layers of annual increment, like the beech, ash, elm, &c., in contradistinc- tion to the Endogens, or those whose growth is not indicated by concentric layers. All the trees in cold climates, and most of those in hot latitudes, are exogenous, and are easily distinguished from the endogenous by the reticulated venation of their leaves. See DICOTYLEDONOUS. Exogyra (Gr. exo, outward, and gyros, a twist or turn). The sub-generic term employed by Sowerby and others to designate the Chama-shaped species of Gryphcea having the umbones sub-spiral, and turned outwards or towards the posterior side. These shells are now usually included in the wider genus Gryphsea, though some still retain gryphcea and exogyra as sub-genera of the more typical genus Ostrea or oyster. Exotic (Gr. exotikos, thence, from a strange country). Applied to plants and animals, but chiefly to the former, that have been introduced into a country from other regions that is, from without. Used in contradistinc- tion to indigenous, or naturally belonging to a region, which see. Expansion (Lat. expansus, spread out). The increased bulk which bodies assume when heated. All substances, solid as well as liquid, when chemi- cal change does not take place, expand by heat and contract by cold. Water presents an apparent exception to this rule, inasmuch as it attains its minimum volume at 40, expands and is converted into steam above this temperature, and also expands as it falls below it, till converted at 32 into ice, a solid crystalline mass, which being lighter (or occupying a larger volume) floats on the surface. Clay also, from its losing its water of plasticity, shrinks or contracts by heat ; but such contraction applies to the compound mass only not to separate substances per se. Explosion (Lat. explosio). The sudden and violent expansion of any object, by which its constituent parts are burst asunder. Explosion differs from expansion inasmuch as it is always sudden and of momentary dura- tion, whereas the latter is gradual, and more or less continuous. Explosion is also for the most part accompanied by chemical change ; expansion, on the other hand, is mainly mechanical. Explosion has reference chiefly to gaseous substances ; expansion, to solids and liquids. Exsiccation (Lat. ex, out of, and siccus, dried up). The drying up of solid bodies ; the expulsion of moisture from their structure by heat, by pres- sure, or by any other means. Extracririus. A sub-genus of Pentacrinus, and separated from that genus by Major Austin, in consequence of the more frequent bifurcation or subdivision of its tentacular arms. It occurs in tangled masses, forming beds of considerable extent in the Lower Lias of Dorset, Gloucestershire, and Yorkshire. "This Crinoid," says Lyell, "with its innumerable ten- tacular arms, appears to have been frequently attached to the drift-wood of the Liassic Sea, in the same manner as barnacles float about at the present day." Exuviae (Lat., cast clothes). In zoology this term is applied to the moulted or cast-off coverings of animals, such as the skin of the snake, the crust of the crab, &c. ; but in geology it has a wider sense, and ap- plies to all fossil animal matter or fragments of whatever description. Eye-Stone. The name given to those varieties of circle-agate which show, in the centre, a spot or spots more highly coloured than the concentric layers. Also given to varieties of stalactite which, when cut across, show a dark-coloured or hollow central portion, fancifully resembling an eye. 197 FAB FAL Faboidea (Lat. faba, a bean). A term applied by Mr Bowerbank to certain bean-shaped leguminous seeds found in the London, or Lower Ter- tiary, clays of the Isle of Sheppey. Face. In crystallography, one of the planes which form the surface of a regular solid. A cube has six such " faces," or plane surfaces. Facet (Fr. facette, a little face). Applied to the small terminal faces of crystals and cut gems. Precious stones cut into numerous faces are said to be facetted, in contradistinction to being polished into rounded forms, or cut, as lapidaries term it, " en cobochon." Fades (Lat.) A convenient term in natural history, introduced to ex- press any common resemblance or aspect among the rocks, plants, ani- mals, or fossils of any area or epoch. Thus we speak of the " facies of the Carboniferous flora " as distinct from the floras of other epochs ; and of the " facies of the Australian fauna " as distinguished from the animals of other regions by their common marsupial characteristics. Factitious (Lat. factus, made). Made or fashioned by art, in contradis- tinction to that formed by nature. We have thus factitious waters and fac- titious stones made to resemble the natural products. Faeces, Faecal (Lat. fcex, pi. fceces, excrement, worthless sediment). The fossil faeces of fishes, saurians, &c., are known as coprolites ; the hard- ened excrement of dogs and wolves, album grcecum, ; that of mice, album nigrum. The preservation of faecal matter is common in all the geological formations. Fahlore, Fahlerz (Ger. falil, ash-coloured, and erz, ore). The mineral- ogical term for ' ' grey copper-ore," and the type of a family of minerals containing that important metal. See tabulations, " MINERAL SCHEME." Fdhlunite. A sub-species of octahedral corundum, found in talcose rocks at Fahlun in Sweden, hence the name. See AUTOMALITE. Fahrenheit. Fahrenheit's thermometer is that arrangement of the ther- mometrical scale in which the space between the freezing and the boiling points of water, under a medium pressure of the atmosphere, is divided into 180 ; the freezing point being marked 32, and the boiling 212. See THERMOMETER. Faikes or Fakes. A Scotch miner's term for fissile sandy shales, or shaly sandstones, as distinct from the dark bituminous shales known as "blaes" or "blaize." Fairy-Stone. A name given by the peasantry in the south of England to the flinty fossil sea-urchins found in the Chalk ; also a term used by geolo- gists for recent concretions of hardened clay or clay-ironstone occurring near the sources of certain chalybeate springs. In some districts the term " Fairy loaves " is that most frequently applied to the Chalk ananchyles. Falcate, Falcated (Lat. falx,f aids, a reaping-hook). Sickle-shaped, bent, or shaped like a reaping-hook. Falciform (Lat. falx, a reaping-hook, and forma). Shaped like a scythe or reaping-hook ; e.g., certain bivalves and fish-spines. 198 FAL FAT Falling-Stones. A familiar term for aerolites or meteoric stones, which see. Faluns. A French provincial term for the shelly Tertiary (Upper Miocene) strata of Touraine and the Loire, which resemble the " Crag " of Norfolk and Suffolk. Though generally composed of shelly sand and marl, in some districts they form a soft building-stone, chiefly composed of an aggregate of broken shells, bryozoa, corals, and echinoderms, united by a calcareous cement. Family. In natural history classifications this term denotes the group next in value and comprehensiveness above the genus. As species con- stitute a genus, so genera constitute a family. The word, however, is often used in a loose and general way, as equivalent to kind, tribe, or group. Farewell Rock. The familiar term in the South Welsh coal-field for the Millsto'iie Grit, because on striking it the miner bids farewell to all workable seams of coal. In Wales, some beds of this grit possess the valuable pro- perty of resisting, for a long time, the action of the most intense heat, and are therefore used for the " hearths " of iron furnaces. Farina (Lat. far, corn). Meal or flour, obtained by grinding and sifting wheat or other corn. Fossil Farina. A mealy-looking infusorial or micro- phytal earth the Berg-mahl of the Swedes and Laplanders. Farnham Beds. A portion of the Upper Greensand, near Farnham in Surrey, which yields phosphate of lime in such abundance as to be largely used by agriculturists as a fertiliser. " It is doubtless of animal origin," says Lyell, " and partly coprolitic, derived from the excrement offish and reptiles." See COPROLITES. Fascicular (L&t. fasciculus, a little bundle). United or growing together in bundles or tufts, as the needle-shaped crystals of some of the zeolites, or the leaflets of the larch, pine, and other coniferse. Fascicularia (Lat. fasciculus, a cluster or little bundle). A genus of polyzoa occurring in the Coralline Crag of Suffolk, and so named from its clustered or globular form. It belongs to the family of Tubuliporidce. Fasciolaria (Lat. fasciola, a swathing band or stripe). A genus of gasteropods belonging to the family Muricidce, and so termed from the smooth band-like surface of their windings. They are thus distinguished from Murex, whose windings are rough with '* varices" or wrinkle-like swellings, and from Fusus by their spirally-plaited columella. The exist- ing species are found chiefly in warm and southern seas ; the fossil occur in the Chalk and Upper Tertiaries. Fassaite. A variety or sub-species of augite, occurring in fine sharp crystals of high lustre, and dark or pistacio-green colour, in traps, altered limestones, and magnetic ores. It derives its name from Fassathal, in the Tyrol, where it is found in great perfection. Fata Morgana. The phenomenon of the mirage at sea. It arises from two currents of air of different density or temperature coming suddenly in contact ; and as at sea the upper is generally the warmer and the lower the colder, the former becomes condensed at the place of contact, and forms, as it were, a mirror for the objects which are in the lower current, so that their images are inversely reflected. As the surface of separation is not level throughout, various refractions and distortions result, which often impart to the whole a singular and fantastic appearance. On land, where the warmer current of air is on the surface of the ground, the aerial mirror 199 FAU FEL is formed beneath the eye of the observer, by which the same phenomenon is produced that results from the reflection of objects on the surface of the water. The name is said to be of Breton origin mor, sea, and gana, fine lady the fairy mermaid of our popular legends. See MIRAGE. Fault. The term for any fissure accompanied by a displacement of the strata on either side. On one side the strata may be thrown down many fathoms, on the other, thrown up; and at the same time may be altered in their dip or inclination. Strata so fissured and displaced are said to be "faulted." blip, slide, shift, heave, hitch, throw, trouble, and the like, are familiar and synonymous terms. See THROW. Fauna (Lat. rural deities). A convenient term for the animals of any given epoch or area ; e.g., the " fauna of South America," the " fauna of the Permian Era." As the Animals of an area or epoch constitute its FAUNA, so the plants constitute its FLORA. Favosites (Lat. favus, a honeycomb). A genus of sessile-spreading corals common to the Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous systems ; and so called from the regular polygonal arrangement of their pore-cells. Favularia (Lat. favosus, honeycombed). A genus of Coal-measure stems, so called from the aspect of their leaf-scars, which resemble in closeness and regularity the arrangement of a honeycomb. The Favularia have furrowed stems, with square-shaped leaf-scars on the ridges the scars being of a breadth with the ridges. The stems seem to have been clothed with a densely imbricated foliage, the leaves running in parallel rows, which were separated by narrow intermediate furrows. Felidse (Lat. felis, a cat). The Cat kind; a family of carnivorous mam- malia, characterised, like the lion, tiger, cat, &c., by their short powerful jaws, retractile claws, and the peculiar adaptation of their teeth for cutting (trenchant). Geologically, the Felidse are of recent origin, their remains not occurring prior to the Pleistocene cave-period ; e.g., the Machairodus. See tabulations, " ANIMAL SCHEME." Felspar (Ger. feldspath, rock-spar). An important rock-constituent or simple mineral, consisting essentially of silica and alumina, with potash or soda, and traces of lime, magnesia, and peroxide of iron. It is the representative of a family the Felspar family whose species enter largely into the composition of all igneous rocks granite, porphyry, greenstone, and trachyte. It occurs crystallised, disseminated, massive, or amorphous ; is colourless, but usually of shades of greyish- white, reddish, yellow, or green ; when crystallised, breaks into rhomboidal fragments, whose flat surfaces have a peculiar pearly- vitreous or resino-vitreous lustre ; and its crystals have a hardness about 6, with a specific gravity varying from 2.5 to 2.75. In ordinary granite it is readily distinguished from the quartz, with whioh it is associated, by its flat lustrous fracture, and by its being scratched by the knife while the quartz resists it. The more abundant and better-known species are Orthodase or potash-felspar, with its varieties adularia, common felspar, glassy-felspar, and felstone or compact felspar ; Albite or soda- felspar, known also as Cleavelandite ; La- bradorite; Oligodase ; and Amorphous felspar, with its varieties obsidian, pumice, pearlstone, and pitchstone all of which are noticed under their respective names. Mineralogically and geologically, the felspars are most important minerals, and industrially they have also their value some, as adularia, being used by the lapidary ; others, as common felspar, for enamels, artificial teeth, and the like ; and the decomposable varieties yielding in 200 FEL FER nature the finest kaolin, or china clay, to the potter. Mineralogically, the interchanges of soda, potash, and lime in the several varieties, are curious and instructive ; and geologically, the fact that potash abounds in the more siliceous felspars of the older Plutonic rocks, whereas soda and lime prevail in the less siliceous or volcanic, is not without its significance and value. The following exhibits their range of composition, and conse- quently accounts for their varying external or physical characteristics : Silica. Alumina. Potash. Soda. Lime. Iron. Orthoclase... 64-70 1520 714 1-4 13 12 Felstone ... 7180 11-15 47 01 12 Albite 6771 1420 14 7-11 1-3 0-1 Labradorite . 4855 2630 01 14 912 13 Anorthite ... 4246 3237 01 01 1018 01 Oligoclase ... 6064 1824 1-3 2-10 25 0-1 Obsidian ... 7284 411 610 3-5 14 13 Pumice 7077 1218 0-4 04 24 14 Pitchstone... 6676 814 26 2-5 14 Felspathic. Of the nature of felspar ; containing felspar. Any mineral or rock in which felspar greatly predominates is said to be felspathic ; as, " felspathic claystone," " felspathic greenstone," &c. Felstone. The term now generally employed by geologists to designate compact felspar which occurs in amorphous rock-masses, and used in con- tradistinction to felspar proper which occurs in more or less definite crys- tallised forms. The term Felsite was at one time employed for the same purpose, but is now all but obsolete. Fen (Sax.) In geography, low land overflowed, or covered wholly or partially with water, but producing reeds, sedges, coarse grasses, and other aquatic plants ; low marshy tracts like the fens of Lincolnshire, Kent, and Cambridgeshire. Fenestella (Lat., a little window). An extensive genus of polyzoans, resembling the retepora or flustra of existing shores, and found in all the Palaeozoic strata, from the Silurian upwards. In fenestella the cells are very small, indistinct externally, with minute prominent openings ; and the polypary or coenoecium composed of branches which unite by growth and form a cup. Fermentation (Lat. fermentatio). The spontaneous decomposition of the proximate principles of organic bodies, under the joint influence of warmth, air, and moisture, and the reunion of their elements forming new com- pounds ; e.g., the conversion of the expressed juice of the grape into wine, or a solution of malt into alcohol or spirit. The simplest case of fermenta- tion is that of must, or the expressed juice of the grape, which, when ex- posed, either in close or open vessels, to a temperature of about 70, soon begins to give off carbonic acid, and to become turbid and frothy ; after a time a scum collects upon the surface, and a sediment is deposited ; the liquor, which had grown warm, gradually cools and clears, loses its sweet taste, and is converted into wine. This is the " vinous fermentation ; " but if the wine be further exposed to air, and a due temperature, a second fermentation ensues, which is called the "acetous fermentation," and which terminates in the production of vinegar or acetic acid. In other words, the oxygen of the air converts the hydrogen of the alcohol alcohol consisting theoretically of carbon, water, and hydrogen into water, and leaves in the acetic acid an indestructible or permanent residue of carbon and water 201 PER FIG only. Fermentation } or putrefaction, thus differs from eremacausis, or decay, in being limited to changes occurring in and beneath the surface of water, the effect being a mere transposition of elements or a metamorphosis of the organic body. Eremacausis, on the other hand, refers to the decom- position of moist organic matter, when freely exposed to the air, by the oxygen of which it is gradually burned and destroyed, without any sensible elevation of temperature. In the economy of nature as well as in the arts of life, fermentation or putrefaction is an agency of the highest interest and importance. "Like the labours of a scavenger," says Dr Cooley, from whom we abridge, " it speedily removes from the surface of our globe those matters which would otherwise remain for some time without under- going decomposition. It either dissipates in air, or reduces to more fixed and useful forms of matter, those organic substances which by their presence would prove noxious, or at all events useless, to the animal and vegetable kingdoms. It is the great power that cleans the Augean stable of nature, at the same time that it provides some of the most esteemed articles of utility and luxury (the fermented liquors, &c.) for the wellbeing and enjoyment of man." Ferricalcite (Lat. ferrum, iron, calx, calcis, lime). A term occasionally applied to those varieties of limestone which contain a notable percentage of iron, from seven per cent and upwards. Ferriferous (Lat. ferrum, and fe.ro, I yield). Applied to veins, strata, and other matrices that yield or contain iron. Ferruginous (Lat. ferrum, iron). Impregnated or coated with oxide of iron ; rusty-looking. Ferruginous Quartz, or Iron Flint. A variety of quartz occurring in various formations ; containing from 4 to 7 per cent of iron as an admix- ture, and forming the transition into jasper. Very hard. Fettstein (Ger., fat-stone). Same as elcnolile (oil-stone) or nepheline. One of the Scapolite family, so called from its fatty or resinous lustre. Consists of silica 45, alumina 32, soda 15, and potash 5, with traces of lime, magnesia, iron, and water. Fibrolite. A term occasionally applied to the fine fibrous varieties of Andalusite. They consist of from 38 to 46 silica, 50 to 58 alumina ; and .75 to 2.5 iron peroxide ; and are known also by the name of Buchohite. See ANDALUSITE. Fibrous (Lat. fibra, a thread or fibre). Applied in geology and miner- alogy to rock and mineral textures which consist of or resemble fibres, as amianthus or asbestos. Fichtelite. A fossil resin occurring chiefly in the form of yellowish transparent scales between the annual rings of growth of a species of pine which have separated from each other in the process of decay. So named from being found in the turf -beds of the Fichtelgebirge, North Bavaria. Ficoidltes (fig-like). The generic term used by Artis, in his 'Antedilu- vian Phytology,' for the Stigmariaficoides, which see. Figuline (Lat. figidus, a potter, from Jingo, I fashion). A term occasion- ally applied by mineralogists to potter's clay. See CLAY. Figure-Stone. A variety of talc-mica or steatite ; known also as Agal- matholite. Its usual colour is white or red, or both colours intermingled in bands and patches. The finest are brought from China, where it is cut into various figures, pagodas, &c. ; hence the names figure-stone, pagodite, and the like. 202 FIL FIS Piles. A familiar term among the peasantry of the south of England for the striated and tuberculated spines of Cidaris. Pilices (Lat. filix, a fern). In botany, the Fern tribe the Filicales or Filical Alliance of Lindley. See tabulations, "VEGETABLE SCHEME." Pilicites (Lat. filix, a fern). Sclotheim's generic term for the fern-like plants now called neuropteris and pecopteris ; used also as a general term for any fossil fern or filicoid plant. Filicoid (Lat. filix, fern, and eidos, likeness). Applied to plants, recent or fossil, which resemble or partake of the nature of the fern tribe. Filiform (Lat. filum, a thread). Thread-like ; slender as a thread. Filtration (Lat. filtrum, an instrument for straining liquids). The separ- ation of liquids from substances mechanically suspended in them, by pass- ing them through the pores of media sufficiently fine to keep back the particles of solid matter. Gravel, sand, sandstone, and other porous strata, are the great filtering media in nature. Fiorite. Pearl-sinter ; a variety of siliceous sinter found incrusting vol- canic tufa at Santa Fiora in Tuscany, whence the name. It is not un- common in the vicinity of hot springs and volcanoes, and consists chiefly of silex, with a little alumina, iron-peroxide, and water. Fire-Clay. Any clay capable of resisting a great heat without slagging or vitrifying. This property arises from the absence of any alkaline earth to act as a flux. Fire-clays abound in the Coal-measures of Great Britain, and are largely employed in the manufacture of furnace and grate bricks, retorts, chimney-flues, and the like. The celebrated Stourbridge clay (Worcestershire) is said to consist of about 64 silica, 24 alumina, and 2.0 oxide of iron the rest being water and traces of carbonaceous matter. Fire-Damp. A miner's term for light carburetted hydrogen, which, when diffused in the atmosphere of the coal-workings to the amount of one-thir- teenth by volume, becomes explosive. The most explosive mixture is said to be seven volumes of air to one of fire-damp. When the proportions vary considerably either above or below that of seven to one, the mixture is not explosive. See AFTER-DAMP and CHOKE-DAMP. Fire-Opal, or Girasol. A fine lustrous variety of opal, which see. Fire-Stone. Any stone that stands heat without injury ; generally ap- plied to certain Cretaceous and Oolitic sandstones employed in the con- struction of glass-furnaces. In geological classification, a calcareo-aren- aceous member of the Upper Greensand, so called from its yielding stone of this description. Fissile (Lat. fissilis). Capable of being split; applied to rocks which, like clay- slate, can be split or divided in the direction of the grain or cleavage. Fissility. The quality or characteristic of admitting to be split in thin leaves or laminae. Fissiparous (Lat. fissus, split or divided, and pario, I produce). Gen- eration, or rather multiplication, by the self-division of the individual into two or more parts, each of which becomes a perfect creature similar to its parent-original. Generation may thus be fissiparous (by division), gemmiparous (by buds), oviparous (by eggs), or viviparous (by living young). Fissiparism is confined, of course, to the lower vegetable and animal forms. Fissure (Lat. fissus, split asunder). A crack, rent, or open crevice in rocks ; strata or rock-masses so rent are said to be fissured. Fistnlous, Fistular (Lat. fistula, & pipe). Hollow like a pipe; tube-like. Applied to the stems of grasses, umbelliferous plants like the hemlock, &c. 203 FIX FLI Fixed Air. A name formerly given by chemists to carbonic acid gas, from its being the air or gas fixed, as it were, in lime, magnesia, and the alkalies. Flabellaria (Lat. flabellum, a fan). A provisional genus intended to em- brace all those broad, flabelliforin, palm-like leaves which occur particu- larly in the Coal formation and Tertiary lignites. Flabelliform (Lat. ftabellum, a fan, and forma, likeness). Fan-shaped ; applied to the broad spreading leaves of certain palms, such leaves being found in many lignites as well as in the older Coal formations. Flagstone. A quarryman's term for any fissile sandstone which " beds," or splits up into flags, like the Arbroath and Caithness paving-stone. Flaggy. Applied to the laminar strata capable of being split up. Flenu Coal. A peculiar variety of bituminous coal occurring abundantly in the Belgian coal-fields. It burns rapidly with much flame and smoke, not giving out an intense heat, and having a somewhat disagreeable odour. It resembles some of the seams found at Swansea in Wales. See COAL FAMILY. Flexible Sandstone. A fissile variety of sandstone, thin slabs of which have a certain amount of flexibility. This property, 'in some instances, arises from the dissemination of minute scales of mica, and in others from a peculiar arrangement of the particles, which stand apart as if some in- gredient had been removed by percolation. Flint Implements. The general term for spear -heads, arrow-heads, knife-like flakes, and other implements, whether for war, the chase, or domestic purposes, which are formed of flint, and are used or have been used by rude tribes unacquainted with the use of the metals. In Europe these implements are found abundantly in Post- Tertiary or Upper Pleisto- cene drifts and caverns, and belong to what is termed the " stone age " of archaeology ; and in some instances, as at Abbeville (which see), seem to have been imbedded contemporaneously with the bones of Mammoth, Irish Elk, and other extinct mammalia thus bespeaking a vast antiquity for the people who fashioned them. Flints (Sax.) The familiar as well as technical term for those siliceous nodules and concretions which occur so abundantly in the white chalk of England, in many limestones, and other calcareous strata. Flints are com- posed almost entirely of silex, with traces of iron, clay, and lime ; and where lime is present in any notable proportion, or when limestones be- come so siliceous as to be incapable of conversion into quicklime, the admix- ture is known as Chert. In the Chalk formation, flints are usually aggre- gated round some nucleus of sponge, shell, coral, or other organism ; and there is little difficulty in conceiving the silex to have been originally in solution in the waters of deposit, and subsequently segregated by some chemical process into layers and nodules as we now behold it. Being so frequently collected round spongiform organisms, it has been ingeniously surmised by Dr Bowerbank, " that the geological office of the Sponges in creation is that of inducing the deposit of siliceous matter held in solution in the ocean, just as the corals assist in the consolidation of the calcareous matter." Economically, fliut is of considerable importance, being largely used (when calcined and ground) in the manufacture of china, porcelain, flint-glass, and the like. It is also employed, in absence of other material, as a building-stone ; and before the invention of percussion-caps and lucifer- matches, was in universal use for gun-flints and fire-production. 204 FLO FOH Float-Stone (Ger. Schwimmslein}. A variety of earthy silica, of a coarse porous aspect, soft and often friable, and of a yellow or greyish-white colour. Being porous, it swims on water till saturated ; hence the name, float-stone or spongiform quartz. According to Ehrenberg it consists chiefly of the siliceous coverings of infusoria, and is thus closely related to tri- poli, polishing-slate, and other earthy silicas. An analysis by Schaffgotsch gives 85.9 silica, 0.7 alumina, 9.1 carbonate of lime, and 3.3 water. Flocculent (Lat. floccus, a lock of wool). Applied to solutions or mechan- ical suspensions of impalpable mineral matter the particles aggregating in light cloudy " flocks " during the act of deposition. Flookan or Flucan. A miner's term for a soft clayey substance occa- sionally found in cross-courses and slides ; a cross-course or transverse vein composed of clay. A cross-floolan is a slide or fissure filled with clay which runs across a lode and heaves it. Flora (Lat., the goddess of flowers). A convenient term for the vegeta- tion of any given epoch or area as " the flora of the Coal-measures " " the flora of South America." As the plants of a country or epoch con- stitute its FLORA, so the animals constitute its FAUNA. Flos-Ferri (literally, flower-of-iron). A fine radiated or corralloid variety of arragonite, common in the iron mines of Styria, and also in some lime- stone beds. Known also as Needle-spar; and differs from Satin-spar, which is a fine fibrous silky variety of the same mineral. See ARRAGONITE. Flbtz (Ger., a layer). A term applied by Werner to the Secondary strata, because they were flotz, or flat-lying, compared with the Primary and Transition rocks. Fluor-Spar (Lat. fluere, to flow ; so called from being used as a flux). Fluate of lime, or fluoride of calcium, consisting of 67.75 lime, and 33.25 fluoric acid. It occurs chiefly in veins either crystallised in cubes, foliated, in granular crystalline masses, or compact and earthy. Its colours are various, the more common being violet-blue, honey -yellow, green, and purplish-blue passing into red. Beautiful crystals are found in the lead mines of Alston Moor and Derbyshire, and the concretionary crystalline masses of Castleton in Derbyshire (known as Blue- John or Derbyshire spar) are wrought into various ornamental articles. Fliiviatile (Lat. flumus, a running river). Belonging to a river ; pro- duced by river action ; growing or living in fresh-water rivers. Fluvio-Marine (Lat. fluvius, a river, and marc, the sea). Applied to stra- tified deposits which seem to own a mixed river and sea origin ; in other words, to deposits brought into the sea by river-currents, loaded with the detritus of the land : hence the occurrence in the same beds of terrestrial, fresh-water, and marine remains. Flux (Lat. fluere, to flow). In chemistry and metallurgy, any substance added to facilitate the fusion of metals or minerals. Alkaline fluxes are generally employed ; they render the earthy mixture fusible by converting it into glass. Salts of potash and soda, lime, borax, and the like, are well- known fluxes. In hydrography, the flow of the tidal wave the Flux being the rise, the Reflux the ebb of the tide. Flysch. A provincial Swiss term for a series of Tertiary strata consist- ing of dark-coloured slates, marls, and fucoidal sandstones immediately overlying the nummulitic limestone. According to Lyell, the flysch occu- pies a middle place in the Eocene or older Tertiaries. Fohn. The name given in Switzerland to the hot southerly winds of 205 FOL FOU summer (the sirocco), which, arising from the northern tracts of Africa, cross the Mediterranean, and impinge on the snow-clad Alps, thereby annually causing a rapid diminution of the lower glaciers. " Were the desert tracts of Africa again covered, as they once were, by the ocean," says Prof. Phillips, "the wind would lose its excessive dissolving power, snows would gather on the Alps above, and glaciers extend below to levels and distances now quite unattainable without some great physical change." Foliated (Lat. folium, a leaf). Resembling a leaf; composed of thin leaf-like layers. Thus certain shells are said to be foliated, when their surfaces are covered with leaf-like projections, as the rose-bush murex ; the substance of a shell is also said to be foliated when composed of thin flat layers overlapping each other, as in the oyster ; and we speak of foliated gypsum, when the texture is scaly or leafy, and not granular or compact. Foliation (Lat. folium, a leaf). In botany, the manner in which the young leaves of plants are arranged in the leaf-bud ; synonymous with vernation. In geology, the laminae or plates into which gneiss, mica- schist, and other crystalline rocks are divided. " Cleavage" says Mr Darwin, " may be applied to those divisional planes which render a rock fissile, although it may appear to the eye quite or nearly homogenous ; foliation may be used for those alternating layers or plates of different mineralogical nature, of which gneiss and other metamorphic schists are composed." The subject of foliation has given rise to a great deal of unsatisfactory speculation and hypothesis, some associating the pheno- menon with cleavage, contending that the planes of both are generally coincident, and attempting to account for both by the same metamorphic process ; while others maintain that foliation is identical with the lines of bedding, and is a structure conferred on stratified rocks by their original deposition. While leaning to the latter hypothesis, Sir Charles Lyell, at the same time, " fully admits that the alternate layers of quartz, or of mica and quartz, of felspar, or of mica and felspar, or of carbonate of lime, are more distinct in certain metamorphic rocks than the ingre- dients composing alternate layers in most sedimentary deposits, so that similar particles must be supposed to have exerted a molecular attraction for each other, and to have congregated together in layers more distinct in mineral composition than before they were crystallised." Foralites (Lat. foro, I bore). Applied to certain tube-like markings which occur in sandstones and other strata, and which seem to have been the burrows of annelids having the habits of the common lob- worm. Foraminifera (Lat. foramen, an orifice, and fero, I bear). The name given by D'Orbigny to a group of minute, many-chambered shells, or rather many-celled organisms the calcareous cells (loculi) of which are pierced, like a sieve, with numerous pores or foramina. The Foraminifera were supposed by D'Orbigny to be cephalopods, but more recent observa- tion (Dujardin) has shown that they are not mollusca, but compound Pro- tozoa, whose cellular aggregation produces the many-chambered aspect in question the numerous pores being for the protrusion of their delicate filaments. Physiologically speaking, and according to Owen, a Foramin- ifera may be regarded either as a series of individuals organically united ; or as a simple aggregate-being, compounded according to the law of vege- tative repetition. They occur in rocks of all formations, from the Lauren - tian upwards their microscopic remains constituting the greater bulk of the Chalk and Tertiary limestones. See RHIZOPODA and POLTTHALAMIA. 206 FOR FRA Forest-Bed. The name given by English geologists to a stratum which underlies the Glacial Drift at Cromer in Norfolk, because it imbeds abun- dant stumps, trunks, and branches of trees. This bed can be traced for miles between high and low water mark, and contains numerous erect stumps and prostrate trunks of trees, such as the Scotch fir, spruce, yew, alder, oak, &c., together with remains of elephant, rhinoceros, hippopo- tamus, horse, pig, and other mammals. The whole, in fact, exhibits both the flora and fauna of a forest of the preglacial era. Forest Marble. An argillaceous laminated shelly limestone, alternating with clays and calcareous sandstones, and forming one of the upper por- tions of the Lower Oolite. It derives its name from Whichwood Forest in Oxfordshire, where the finer bands are quarried as a marble. See OOLITE. Formation. "The term formation," says Lyell, " expresses in geology any assemblage of rocks which have some character in common, whether of origin, age, or composition. Thus, we speak of stratified and unstrati- fied, fresh-water and marine, aqueous and volcanic, ancient and modern, metalliferous and non-metalliferous formations." In this wide sense, how- ever, the word is often loosely and inaccurately used ; and when speaking of the stratified rocks, it is better to restrict the term to such an assem- blage of strata as are connected by mineral composition, by unbroken succession in point of time, and by continuity of fossil species. In this sense we have such assemblages as the "Chalk formation," "Coal forma- tion," &c., whose members, though differing in minor particulars, have evi- dently been formed or deposited under a continuance of similar conditions. Fossil (Lat. fossus, dug up). Literally anything dug out of the earth ; hence the earlier geologists spoke of native fossils or minerals, and extra- neous fossils or the bodies of plants and animals accidentally buried in the earth. The term is now generally restricted to "organic remains," or the remains of plants and animals imbedded in the earth's crust, and more or less altered in structure and composition by mechanical and chemical agencies. When these remains are only partially petrified, and occur in superficial or recent deposits, the term sub-fossil is employed. Fossiliferoas (Lat. fossilis, and/ero, I bear). Applied to rocks and rock- systems containing organic remains, in contradistinction to non-fossil- iferous, or those which contain no such relics. Fossilisation, Fossilised, &c. The conversion of vegetable and animal remains into fossils, by impregnation with mineral or metallic matter. See PETRIFACTION. Fossil-Paper, Fossil-Wool, Fossil-Flax, Fossil-Cork, &c. Familiar terms applied to certain varieties of amianthus, according as these appear in thin papery flakes, in flax-like fibres, in loose woolly floes, or in tough cork- like fragments. See ASBESTOS. Fracture (Lat. fractus, broken). When a mineral breaks up into deter- minate forms with smooth regular surfaces, such surfaces are said to con- stitute its cleavage; but when a rock or mineral breaks up irregularly under a blow of the hammer, the appearance of the fresh surface so exposed is termed its fracture. Thus the fracture is said to be even when it forms a face or plane of some extent ; uneven, when the surface is rough and unequal ; conehoidal, or shell-like, when concave on one side and convex on the other ; splintery, when the surface presents the appearance of numerous thin-edged scales ; and hackly, when covered with numerous sharp points or inequalities. 207 FRA FRO Fragmentary (Lat. fragmentum, a chip or portion broken off, from frango, I break). Applied in geology to rock-masses composed of the fragments or debris of other rocks ; rocks not homogeneous in texture ; nearly synonymous with breccias or breccio-conglomerates, which see. Frangibility. In geology, the degree of facility with which a rock yields to the hammer. Franklinite (after Benjamin Franklin). An ore of iron occurring in grains or in granular masses of an iron-black colour and metallic lustre, and found in veins, often of great thickness, as those of New Jersey in the United States. It consists of from 56 to 66 peroxide of iron, the remainder being composed of peroxide of manganese and oxide of zinc in varying proportions. The oxides of manganese and zinc are said to exercise a very favourable influence upon the iron manufactured from this ore, increasing its tenacity, rendering it less liable to rust, and fitting it for easy conver- sion into the finest steel. Freestone. Any rock which admits of being freely cut and dressed by the builder ; generally applied in Scotland to the varieties of sandstone. French Chalk. A white or greyish- white variety of steatite, used for removing stains from silk, for slate-pencils, and, in powder, for lessening friction. Freshet. A river-flood or inundation, occasioned by the sudden melting of the ice and snow in spring ; the predominance of fresh water in tidal estuaries, during periodical rainfalls and land-floods. Friable (Lat./rt'o, I grind or crumble). Easily broken into small pieces; easily crumbled or reduced to powder. The opposite of tough or tenacious. Fringing-Reefs. A class of coral-reefs, known also as " shore-reefs," from their fringing or encircling islands at a moderate distance from shore. "They differ from barrier-reefs," says Darwin, "in not lying so far from shore, and in not having within a broad channel of deep water." The reefs which fringe the island of Mauritius form a good example of the class. See CORAL-REEFS. Frith, Firth (Lat. /return). An arm of the sea, as the Frith of Forth, the Frith of Tay, &c. Originally applied to any strait narrow passage, or inlet. Frond (Lat. frons, a branch). In botany, the term applied to the foli- aceous or leaf-like part of ferns and other flowerless plants. The frond differs from a true leaf both in structure and function, and combines as it were branch, leaf, and fructification in one organ. Frost (Sax.) In meteorology, the freezing, or conversion into ice, of water and watery vapours by the influence of cold. In ordinary circum- stances water passes into ice when the temperature of the air falls to 32 of Fahrenheit ; but as the cold increases the frost becomes more intense, and substances (such as oils, mercury, &c.) which remained liquid at 32, gradually lose their caloric and pass into the solid state. As a geological agent, frost exerts a purely mechanical influence, but this influence is of prime importance in disintegrating rocks and soils, moulding the contour of mountains, and assisting in the dispersion of boulders and other debris, not only from higher to lower levels, but from the land over the bottom of the ocean. Thus, the rain and moisture that enter the fissures of cliffs, and between the particles of all rocky matter, are often frozen during winter, and in this state of ice expand and force apart these rocks and particles. When thaw comes, the particles, having lost their cohesion, fall 208 FUG FUN asunder ; and thus, under all latitudes and at all altitudes, where frost occurs, vast waste is every winter effected and this in proportion to the intensity of the cold, which may range from freezing to 60 below freezing, and according to the rapidity and frequency of the alternations from fresh to freezing. It is also by the action of frost that avalanches, glaciers, and icebergs are formed on mountains above the snow-line and in arctic regions : the avalanche of snow and ice, which, losing its coherence, is launched from the mountain-side, carrying masses of rock and soil and trees before it the glacier, or ice-lake, that gathers in the mountain-glen above, and slowly grinds its way to the valley below, smoothing the rocks in its passage, and leaving as it melts away its lateral and terminal ridges of gravel and debris, technically termed "moraines" and the iceberg, detached by fracture from the projecting glacier of some arctic shore, that floats its burden of rock and gravel to warmer latitudes, there to drop them as it melts away on the bottom of the ocean. In the study of frost- operations, whether among the cliffs and gorges of mountains like the Alps and Himalayas, or along the shores of the Arctic Ocean, the observer discovers at once an important cause of present change and a key to the solution of some of the most interesting of geological problems. See ICE, ICEBERG, &c. Fucivorous (Lat. fucus, sea- weed, and wro, I devour). Literally "fucus- eating;" applied to animals that subsist on sea- weeds, e.^.,the "fuci- vorous mollusca," the " fucivorous cetaceans," &c. Fucoides (fucus, sea- weed, and eidos, likeness). The generic term for any fossil fucus or fucus-like organism of unknown affinity. Fucoids (fuciis, sea- weed, and eidos, likeness). Fucoids, or fucus-like impressions, occur in strata of every epoch, from the Lower Silurians to the Upper Tertiaries. Such terms, therefore, as " fucoidal sandstones," fi fucoidal shales," &c., are not unfrequent in geological descriptions. Fulgurite, Fiilgorite (Lat. fulgur, lightning). Any rocky substance that has been fused or vitrified by lightning. More strictly applied to a bore or tube produced by the passage of lightning into a sandy soil, which it sometimes penetrates to a depth of twenty feet, fusing and vitrifying the sand and gravel in its downward progress. Fulgorites are occasionally dug up in the sandy plains of Silesia and Eastern Prussia. Fuller's Earth. A term applied to certain soft unctuous clays (hydrous silicates of alumina) of the Oolite and Chalk systems, from their being employed in the fulling of woollens. Good fuller's earth is usually mas- sive, opaque, soft, dull, with a greasy feel and an earthy fracture ; scarcely adheres to the tongue, and when placed in water falls down to an impalp- able powder without forming a paste with it. So important at one time was this earth to the woollen manufacture of England that its exportation was prohibited by act of Parliament. Its place is now mainly supplied by soap and other detergents, though considerable quantities are still dug and prepared for the fuller in Surrey and Bedfordshire. In geological classifi- cation the term is applied to an argillaceous stratum ("the Fuller's Earth") which lies between the Great and Inferior Oolites, near Bath. Fumarole (Ital. fumare, to smoke). An opening or orifice, in a volcanic district, from which smoke and other gaseous fumes are emitted. Fungia, Fungida. A genus and family of single lamellated corals, so called from the resemblance of their stony' structure to that of a fungus or mushroom. They are of a depressed form, have the under surface scab- 209 o FUN GAD rous, and are divided above by numerous lamellae or plates, which radiate from a central oblong depression. The original genus Fungia of Goldfuss is now broken up into micrabacia, a form peculiar to the Chalk and Green- sand, anabacia to the Oolite, and palceocyclus to the Silurian system. Fungoid, Fungiform (Lat. fungus, a mushroom, and eidos, likeness V Applied to nodular excrescences and petrifactions which resemble the clustering tubercular growth of the fungus ; also to single structures (e. 1 | known as "Tilestones." (In part, base of Devonian System). ~ ' / Micaceous grey sandstone in beds of varying thickness. series, | Argillaceous limestone (Aymestry limestone). \Shale with concretions of limestone (Lower Ludlow). f Concretionary limestone (Wenlock limestone). Wenlock J Argillaceous shale in thick beds (Wenlock shale). Series, j Shelly limestone and sandstone (Woolhope and Mayhill). (.Gritty sandstones and shales (Upper Llandovery). LOWER SILURIAN. ferits and sandy shales (Lower Llandovery). JThick-bedded whitish freestone (Caradoc sandstone). (Bark calcareous flags and slates (Bala beds), j Slaty flags and bands of limestone (Llandeilo and Lingula flags). |Gritty flags and slates (Longmynd or "Bottom Rocks"). In other regions the nature of the rocks may differ from the above ; but in all whether Scotland, Scandinavia, Bohemia, Russia, or North America the same facies of Life prevails, and the Silurian as a SYSTEM is distinc- tively characterised by its graptolites ; its corals, heliolites, favosites, &c. ; its echinoderms, actiniocrinites, cystidece, &c. ; its brachiopods, lingulce, terebratulaz, and orlhidce ; its chambered shells, lituites and Maclurea ; its serpulites and cornulites ; its Crustacea, calymene, asaplms, trinucleus, and other trilobites, most of which are never found beyond the limits of Silurian strata. Its fauna is eminently marine, and exhibits most of the great forms of invertebrate life ; but as yet few fishes have been detected, and these chiefly in the uppermost beds of the system. Its flora is still imperfectly known -scattered and fragmentary sea- weeds, indistinct stems of aquatic plants, and a few pinnules and spore-cases of lycopodaceous, and twigs of lepidodendroid land-plants, being all that has yet been dis- covered in strata unmistakably Silurian. Silvas, Selvas (Lat. silva, a wood). A term applied to the woodland region of the great Amazonian plain. Low-lying, damp, fertile in soil, and under the influences of a tropical sun, these sil-vas present the rankest luxu- riance of primeval forest-growth. 408 SIL SIV Silver. An early and well-known metal of a peculiar white colour (silver-white), brilliant lustre, malleable, ductile, and soft when pure. Its specific gravity is from 10.5 to 11 ; it melts at about 1000 Fahr. ; it is not altered by air or moisture, but is readily tarnished or blackened by sul- phuretted hydrogen. It occurs native in the older rocks, in threads and strings, in arborescent, moss-like aggregates, and in plates and nuggets often of considerable magnitude. In its native state it often occurs as an alloy with gold, platina, copper, or arsenic more frequently perhaps with platina than with any other metal. It is also largely obtained from ores, generally as a sulphuret or sulphide, and often in intimate union with ores of lead, antimony, bismuth, &c. so that the ores yielding silver are, strictly speaking, ores of other metals. These ores are found chiefly in the primary and transition strata ; though argentiferous lead ores occur abundantly in secondary strata. Simoom. An Arabic term signifying poison, and applied to a hot suffo- cating wind, which occurs in most countries bordering on sandy deserts. Coming from the arid desert, and laden with the minutest particles, it often gives a red or reddish-dun colour to the atmosphere, and thus fore- warns the traveller to take shelter from the approach of its pestilential breath. In Turkey it is called the Samieli ; in Egypt, Khamsia (fifty), because it usually continues fifty days ; and on the western coast of Africa, Harmattan. Sinter (Ger. sintern, to drop). Compact incrustations from siliceous or calcareous springs are known as siliceous-sinter and calc-sinter. The term is used in contradistinction to tuff or tufa, which is open and porous, and wants the hard ringing sound of sinter when struck by the hammer. Siphonia (Gr.) A genus of fossil sponges occurring abundantly in the Chalk and Greensand of Europe. The Siphoniae consist of a pear-shaped body, more or lesslobed, and mounted on a slender stalk, which terminates below in several rootlets for attachment to the rocks or other bodies on which they grow. Those occurring in the Upper Greensand of Farnham are infiltrated with phosphate of lime, and have (along with other phos- phatic nodules from the same strata) been used in agriculture. Siphuncle (dim. of siphon, a tube). Any small tube or tubular passage ; usually applied to the tube-like perforation which passes through the septa and chambers of such shells as the nautilus, ammonite, and ceratite. Sirocco (Arab.) The name given to the hot parching wind which oc- casionally passes over Sicily and adjacent districts during the latter part of summer and autumn, and which is supposed to originate in the Sahara or Great Burning Desert of Africa. Sivalic or Sewalick Hills. A range of minor mountains skirting the southern base of the Himalayas, and celebrated in geology chiefly through the discoveries of Dr Falconer and Colonel Sir Proby Cautley. " It has proved," says the former, " more abundant in genera and species than any other region yet explored. As a general expression of the leading features, it may be stated that it appears to have been composed of representative forms of all ages, from the oldest of the Tertiary period down to the modern, and of all the geographical divisions of the Old Continent grouped together into one comprehensive Fauna in India." Sivatherinm (Siva, an Indian goddess, and therion, beast). The generic term applied by Dr Falconer to the skull and bones of a gigantic mammal 409 SKO SME found in the Sivalic Tertiaries, and forming, as it were, a link between the ruminants and large pachyderms. " It was larger than a rhinoceros, had four horns, and was furnished with a proboscis ; thus combining the horns of a ruminant with the characters of a pachyderm. When living it must have resembled an immense antelope or gnu, with a short and thick head, and an -elevated cranium crested with two pairs of horns the front pair being small and the hinder large, and set quite behind, as in the Aurochs. With the face and figure of the rhinoceros, it had small lateral eyes, great lips, and a nasal proboscis." See ' Fauna Antiqua Sivalensis,' by Falconer and Cautley. Skorodite (Gr. skorodon, garlic). A hydrous arseniate of iron, of a leek- green colour, inclining to brown ; and supposed to be a secondary produc- tion from the decomposition of ores containing arsenic and iron. It fuses before the blowpipe, giving out a strong smell of garlic ; whence the name. Slate (Sax.) Any thin plate of rock ; any rock that can be split (schlittsen) into thin liminae or plates, like roofing-slate. This term is now generally, and should be, restricted to argillaceous rocks, like common roofing-slate, whose lamination is not produced by bedding, but is due to a metamorph- ism called cleavage, which often traverses the rock at right angles to the lines of stratification. Foliated rocks, like gneiss and mica-schist, are termed schists, not slates ; and thinly-bedded sandstones are flagstones and tilestones. See CLAY -SLATE and CLEAVAGE. Slate-Spar. A variety of calcareous spar ; so called from its occurring in thin slaty lamellae, often with a shining white pearly lustre, and greasy feel. See CALC-SPAR. Slaty. Resembling slate ; having the cleavable or fissile structure of clay-slate. Somewhat loosely applied to all hard thinly-laminated rocks ; as " slate-clay" or slaty clay, a hard fissile shale ; "slate-coal" or slaty coal, a hard laminated variety of bituminous coal. Slide. A miner's term for a minor slip or dislocation of the strata, the fissure being usually filled with fine unctuous clay, which makes the one side appear to slip or slide away from the other. Slikensides. In mining, the smooth striated surface of a fault or fissure apparently produced by convulsive friction, and subsequently coated with a siliceous or calcareous glaze by the passage of water or heated vapours. Also provincially applied to an ore of galena occurring in Derbyshire. Slime (Sax., akin to the Lat. limus, mud). The familiar as well as scientific term for all soft adhesive mud ; hence the slimy silt of compara- tively stagnant waters, the slimy oaze or ooze of the deep sea-bottom brought up by the sounding-rod. Slip. A familiar term for a faitlt or dislocation, as if the one portion of strata had slipped or slid away from the other. See FAULT. Slope and Counter-Slope. The majority of mountain-chains present on one side a long and gentle slope, and on the other a short and rapid one the former is termed the slope, the latter the counter-slope. Thus the slope of the Andes is towards the Atlantic, the counter-slope or steep side towards the Pacific. Smaltine. Arsenide of copper; one of the most important ores of Cobalt, being, along with cobaltine, that from which the greater part of the Smalts of commerce is derived. See COBALT. Smerdis (Gr.) A genus of ctenoid fishes often occurring in shoals in the Tertiary marls of Aix in Provence. They are of small size rarely exceed- 410 SMI SOD ing three or four inches in length and the species are generally charac- terised by their dorsal fins and widely-forked tails. Smithsonite (after the chemist Srnithson). Silicate of zinc, occurring in detached crystals, and in stalactitic, botryoidal, granular, and compact masses, of various colours, vitreous lustre, brittle, phosphorescent when rubbed, and electric by heat. Consists of 67.4 oxide of zinc, 25.1 silica, and 7.5 water. See KALAMINE. Smudge-Coal. An English miner's term for coal that has been partially de-bituminised, or converted by contact with trap-dykes, &c., into a sort of natural coke or impure anthracite. Known also as " blind-coal," " stone-coal," and other similar provincial designations. Snow- Blanket. The name given by farmers and others to any consider- able thickness of snow which covers the ground during winter, and helps to protect its vegetation from the severity of the frost. In continental countries, like central and northern Europe, this blanket is of essential ser- vice during severe and long-continued frosts in early spring. Snow- Light or Snow -Blink. The name given by Voyagers and travellers in the arctic regions to the peculiar reflection that arises from fields of ice or snow. An experienced seaman, it is said, can readily distinguish by the Uink whether the ice is newly formed, heavy, compact, or open. The blink or snow-light of field-ice is the most lucid, and is tinged with yellow; of packed ice it is pure white ; ice newly formed has a greyish blink ; and a deep yellow tint indicates snow on land. Snow-Line. That line or limit of elevation at which the air permanently attains the temperature of freezing water, and at and above which the surface is perpetually covered with snow and ice. The snow-line is, of course, highest towards the equator, and gradually descends as we approach either pole. It has also its summer and winter limits, coming lower in winter, and rising higher in summer. Soapstone. A soft sectile variety of steatite ; so called from its soapy or saponaceous feel when rubbed between the fingers a characteristic possessed by most magnesian minerals. See STEATITE. Soda. The oxide or rather protoxide of sodium ; one of the alkalies, obtained from the ashes of marine plants, and largely and inexhaustibly from sea-salt. Several of its compounds are well-known constituents of the earth's crust ; as the muriate (common or rock salt) ; the cabonate (natron); the nitrate (nitratine) ; the sulphate (Glauber-salt); the borate (borax), &c. Its compounds also occur as notable ingredients in many rocks and minerals ; e.g., the felspars and zeolites. Sodium. The metallic basis of soda, discovered by Davy in 1809. Sodium has a bright lustre, and a white silvery colour, with a tinge of red. It is soft and readily moulded at 60, melts at 194, and rises in vapour at a red heat. It is lighter than water, its specific gravity being only 0.972. It is rapidly oxidised on exposure to the air, and on being thrown into water floats about upon the surface and quickly disappears being con- verted into soda, which is dissolved in the water. Its affinity for oxygen prevents its occurrence in nature as sodium ; but the compounds of soda are sufficiently abundant forming rock-masses in the solid crust, occur- ring in the ocean and other saline waters, entering into the composition of many rocks and minerals, being present in all marine and many land plants, and appearing likewise in the structure of the higher animals, which all instinctively swallow large quantities of its chloride. See SODA. 411 SOI SPA Soil (Lat. solum). The usual term for that superficial earthy covering of our planet, in which plants grow and flourish, and which we cultivate, for their artificial growth, in our fields and gardens. It is an intimate admixture of disintegrated rock-matter (clay, sand, &c.) with decomposed vegetable and animal substances; and is readily distinguishable by its dark loamy colour from the inorganic " subsoil" of clay, sand, or gravel that lies beneath. Agriculturists distinguish soils partly by their pre- vailing constituents, as loamy, sandy, clayey, &c. ; and partly by their fitness for the growth of certain crops, as turnip soils, clover soils, and the like. Solano (Lat. sol, the sun). A hot south-west wind which occasionally visits the Spanish peninsula, and, blowing from the direction of the African deserts, is regarded as a modified sirocco, which see. Solenhofen, near Aichstadt in Germany, a locality celebrated for its fine lithographic slate, which has yielded to the palaeontologist many of the rarest and most perfect specimens of reptiles and mammals peculiar to the upper Oolites. Solenites (Gr. solen, a tube or pipe). A genus of Oolite stems or leaves, so called from their fistular or tubular nature. They occur in matted masses, are narrow, regularly striated, taper-pointed, and not unlike, in general aspect, the leaves of the common quill-wort, isoetes lacustris. Solfatara (Ital. solfo, sulphur). A volcanic fissure or other orifice from which sulphureous vapours, hot mud, and steam are emitted. Akin to thefumaroles, hornitos, and salses that occur in most volcanic areas. See VOLCANOES. Solstices (Lat. sol, the sun ; sto, I stand). The two extreme points of the sun's apparent course north and south of the equator, and where he appears to make a stand, going neither northward nor southward. These are the first points of Cancer and of Capricorn, and the two corresponding seasons of the year are known as the Summer and Winter Solstices. Sombrero Guano. Sombrero, one of the West India Islands so called from its resemblance to a "sombrero," or low-crowned Spanish hat, and situated about 130 miles east of Porto Rico is about two and a half miles long, one-half to three-fourths of a mile wide, and rises from 20 to 30 feet above the level of the ocean. It is a barren rock, and appears to be entirely composed of the rich phosphatic mineral known in commerce as Sombrero Guano. This substance imbeds numerous bones of turtles and other marine animals ; and from its composition, which resembles bones deprived of their cartilage, it has been supposed (with every degree of probability) that the island was once a shoal swarming with turtles and other vertebrate animals, whose accumulated remains of ages have been cemented together, and gradually elevated above the ocean level to the present position of the island. See OSITE. Spalacotherium (Gr. spalax, mole; therium, beast). A mole-like insec- tivorous marsupial, whose teeth and jaw-bones have been found in the Upper Oolites (Purbeck Beds) of England. Spar (Ger. spath).A mineralogical term applied to those crystals or minerals which break up into rhombs, cubes, plates, prisms, &c., with smooth cleavage faces. Hence we have calc-spar, felspar, brown-spar, Iceland-spar, and the like. The term is often used as synonymous with crystal, as "sparry cavities," " sparry fosures," &c., meaning thereby that the cavities and fissures are studded with crystals. 412 SPA SPH Spatangidse. A tribe of fossil echinites or sea-urchins peculiar to the Chalk and Greensaud, and distinguished by the following characters : Case oblong or heart-shaped ; mouth elongated traversely and destitute of proper jaws, situated in front of the centre of the base and near the anterior border of the periphery ; ventral outlet towards the posterior margin ; tubercles and spines all very small. The tribe has been sub- divided into spatangus proper (in which the ambulacra are petaloid, the external row of pores slightly elongated, and the inner rows round), ananchytes, micraster, and holaster, which see. Spathic (Lat. spatha, a blade). Applied in mineralogy to minerals having an even-lamellar or flatly-foliated structure. Spathose (Gr. spathe, a flower-sheath). Occurring in broad plates or lamellae, foliated in texture, as some varieties of gypsum, and other cal- careous minerals. Species (Lat.) In natural history, an assemblage of individuals whose likeness to one another is sufficient to justify the conclusion that they all have sprung, or may have sprung, from a common stock. According to this notion, one species is distinguished from another species by sound de- finite characters, which are transmissible from generation to generation, and only liable to such unimportant changes as constitute temporary varie- ties. According to other notions, a species, if at all liable to variations, may vary indefinitely, and thus in course of time pass into an altogether new and different species. Specific Centre. "The term specific centre " (we quote the late Edward Forbes) "has been used to express that single point upon which each species had its origin, and from which its individuals become diffused. Tn the course of their diffusion, and during the lapse of time, the species may become extinguished in its original centre, and exist only on some one or several portions of the area over which it became diffused. Groups of the individuals of a single species may thus become isolated, and if they be placed far apart, may present the fallacious aspect of two or more centres for the same species. To get at the causes of such phenomena, we must trace the history of the species backwards in time, and inquire into its connection with the history of geological change ; in other words, endeavour to connect its history in space with its history in time." Specular (Lat. speculum, a mirror). Having a smooth brilliant surface that reflects light more or less perfectly ; hence "specular iron ore," and the like. Speeton Clay. A deposit frequently alluded to by English geologists. It occurs at Speeton, near Scarborough in Yorkshire, and appears by its fossils to represent the Lower Greensand of the south of England, but is exceptional in its appearance, as it consists of a dark-blue laminated bed, with nodules of clay ironstone. Sphsereda (Gr. sphaira, a sphere or globe). The name given to certain vegetable organisms from the Oolite, consisting of a striated stem bear- ing numerous branchlets, each of which is terminated by a globular berry- like body hence the name. Sphse'rodus (Gr. sphaira, a sphere, and odous, tooth). Literally "globe- tooth ; " a genus of Oolitic fishes belonging to the Pycnodont family, and so called from the globular shape of their teeth. Sphseroid or Spheroid (Gr. sphaira, a sphere). A figure having a shape nearly resembling that of a perfect sphere or globe. The earth, being 413 SPH SPI flattened at either pole to the extent of some thirteen miles, is not a per- fect sphere, but an oblate spheroid. Spheroidal. Having the outline or figure of a spheroid ; globular. Sphserosiderite (Gr. sphaira, a globe, and sideros, iron). A mineral ogi- cal term applied to the botryoidal or reniform concretions of siderite, or sparry carbonate of iron, in allusion to their rounded forms. The " Kid- ney iron-ore " of the miner. See SIDERITE. Sphsemlites (Gr. sphaira, sphere, and lithos, stone). A genus of thick sub-conical chalk shells, externally striated, and furnished with a concen- trically arranged opercular-looking upper valve. They belong to the Hippurite family, from which genus they differ in having only one internal longitudinal ridge, and in having the external surface roughened by irre- gularly raised sheathing-plates of successive growths. Same as RADIO- LITES, which see. Sphenacdnthns (Gr. sphen, a wedge, and akantha, a thorn or spine). A provisional genus of ichthyodorulites or fin-spines belonging to some unknown cestraciont of the lower Coal-measure period. Occur abundantly in Scotland. Sphenophyllum (Gr. sphen, sphenos, a wedge, and phyllon, leaf). The Rotularia of Sternberg ; a genus of Coal-measure plants having verticillate (or whorled) wedge-shaped leaves the leaves dilating at the apex, and being furnished with dichotomous veins. From these characteristics, Dr Lindley "has scarcely any doubt that Sphenophyllum was one of those plants which in the ancient world represented the Pine tribe of modern floras." M. Brongniart, on the other hand, regards them as herbaceous plants related to the Marsiliacese or Pepper- worts. Sphen6pteris (Gr. sphen, a wedge, and pteris, fern). A genus of fossil ferns, so named from the prevailing form of the leaflets ; occurring pro- fusely in the Carboniferous system, less abundantly in the New Red Sand- stone and Oolite, and dying out in the Greensand. The genus is charac- terised by its twice or thrice pinnated leaves ; leaflets contracted at the base, not adherent to the rachis, lobed ; lower lobes largest, diverging and somewhat palmate ; veins one or more strongly marked in each leaflet. Spiculum, plural Spicula (Lat.) Literally, a point or sting; in zoology the term is usually applied to those minute needle-shaped siliceous or calcareous particles which are imbedded in the fibrous mass of sponges, recent and fossil. They occur in the gelatinous sarcode or investing vital membrane of living sponges, or frequently project beyond the mass, as if intended for organs of defence. According to Owen, some of the rag- stones of the Greensand are so full of siliceous spicules as to irritate the hands of the workmen employed in quarrying them. Spider. Remains of the Spider order (Arachnida) have been found in the lower Oolites ; and circumstances render it probable that they existed as early as the Carboniferous era. Spiniferites (Lat. spina, a spine, and/ero, I bear). A term employed by Dr Mantell to designate those minute spherical bodies beset with spines, which occur in the chalk and flint, and which were at one time regarded as identical with the microscopic xanthidia of Ehrenberg. " The real nature of these fossils," says the author of the term, " must be regarded as still undetermined." Their prevalence in the chalk-flints, whose forms are derived from zoophytes, seems to countenance the supposition that the Spiniferites are the gemmules or early state of animals of this family ; but 414 SPI SPR I have never detected any organic connection between them and the Pori- fera with which they are associated." Spirifer (Lat. spira, a spire or coil, and fero, I bear). A genus of bra- chiopods whose broad-hinged deeply-striated bivalves occur abundantly in Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous strata. The Spirifers occur in many specific forms, and are so termed from the spiral calcareous processes which in the living state supported the ciliated brachia or arms. These processes being internal, are only observable by carefully laying open finely- preserved specimens. Spirolina, Spirolinite (Lat. spira, a coil or spire). A genus of minute many-chambered foraminiferal organisms occurring in the Chalk ; and so termed from the spiral or whorl-like termination of their crosier-like forms. Splint or Splent Coal. A Scotch term for a hard laminated variety of bituminous coal, intermediate in texture between cannel and common pit- coal. The name is derived from its splitting (or splenting] up in large flaggy or board-like laminae. The Splints form a very valuable variety their hardness fitting them for any kind of carriage, and their "dryness" enabling them to burn open, with great heat, and without caking together. Spongillopsis. Literally spongilla-lilce ; a genus of spongiform organ- isms belonging to the Permian of Germany, and so named by Dr Geinitz from their near alliance to the living Spongilla flumatilis, or fresh- water sponge of Blainville. Spongltes. This term, says Mantell, is applied generically to those fossils which appear to be identical in structure with the ordinary marine sponges that consist of a fibro-reticulated porous mass, destitute of regular tubes or canals ; the form exceedingly various. In the living sponge, the mass consists of a framework of horny interlacing fibres, in which are im- bedded numerous " spicula" or needle-shaped calcareous or siliceous par- ticles, the whole being invested by a glairy gelatinous "sarcode" or vital membrane. The outer surface is studded with "pores" which imbibe water, and convey it by numerous "canals" to the interior, whence it is ejected by larger and more prominent orifices termed " oscula. " Existing sponges are usually divided into the homy, flinty, or limy or "ceratose," " siliceous," and " calcareous " according to the substance of their hard sustaining parts, which are commonly "spicules." The siliceous abound in the Oolite and Chalk, attaining their maximum of development in the latter formation ; and are now almost extinct, or are represented by other families with calcareous spicula. The horny, on the other hand, appear to be more abundant now than in ancient seas but their remains are only recognisable in those instances where they were charged with siliceous spicula. Spoondrift. During storms at sea, the violence of the tempest is some- times so intense as to quell the billows, and scatter the water in a heavy shower, called by the sailors spoondrift. On such occasions saline particles have impregnated the air to the distance of fifty miles inland. Spore, Sporule (Gr. spora, seed). The reproductive germ of crypto- gamic plants, as the ferns and club-mosses. Such spora are often found attached to their fronds, as in the Devonian Cydopteris Hibernica ; or in drifted masses as in the Coal-measures ; and even (according to Dr Hooker) as early as the Ludlow rocks of the Upper Silurian era. Springs. In geography, discharges of water from the earth's crust, and 415 SQU STE so called from their "springing/' as it were, from below to the surface. They are usually distinguished as perennial and intermittent, surface and deep-seated, Iwi and cold, pure and mineral, and so forth, according to their more obvious characteristics. As geographical agents they are of vast importance in administering to the wants of vegetable and animal life, and in fertilising the districts through which they flow ; and as geo- logical, they are ever dissolving and transporting mineral matter, and are intimately connected with the formation of veins, crystallisation, and the metamorphism of rock-masses. Squaloid (squalus, shark, and eidos, like). Shark-like ; resembling, appertaining to, or having something in common with, the Shark family. The Squaloids embrace the True sharks or Squalodonts, having sharp-edged teeth and the mouth on the under surface of the head ; the Hybodonts, having teeth nearly like the preceding, but with edges less acute ; and the Cestraciouts, having a rough pavement of bony and usually enamelled pieces in the mouth, and the mouth situated at the extremity of the head, like the cestracion or " Port- Jack son " shark of Australia. Squamous, Squamose (Lat. squama, a scale). Scaly ; covered with scales ; having a scale-like aspect, structure, or arrangement. Staarenstein (Ger.) Literally " star-stone ;" the popular German designation of Psarolites or silicified fern-stems, in allusion to the star-like markings produced by sections of the vessels that compose their tissues. See PSAROLITES. Stahlstein, Steelstone. The German name for some pure crystalline carbonates of iron, because a kind of steel is readily made from such ores without passing through the process of cementation. Such carbonates, though rare in Britain, abound in some parts of Europe. Stalactite (Gr. stalasso, I drop). Applied to those icicle-like incrusta- tions of lime, chalcedony, &c., which often fret the roofs of caverns and fissures, and which arise from the dropping of water holding these rock- matters in solution. Stalagmite (Gr. stalagma, a drop). The same mineral matter as stalac- tite, but applied to the incrustation that covers the floor of the cavern. The stalactites and stalagmites frequently meet each other, and form pillar-like masses in limestone caverns ; and occasionally a linear fissure in the roof, by the direction it gives to the dropping of the lapidifying water, forms a perfectly transparent curtain or partition of purest ala- baster. Stalagmitic. Having the texture or structure of stalagmite. Applied to limestones which, like those of the Tertiary fresh-water basins of Au- vergne, have an open, porous, and somewhat concretionary structure. Stanniferous (Lat. stannum, tin). Yielding or containing tin ; applied to veins, rocks, and superficial deposits containing the ores of tin ; hence we have " stanniferous gravels," as well as " stanniferous vein-stones." Station. The region occupied by any particular plant is called its station, and that of any particular animal its habitat each being the locality which presents the conditions most favourable to its growth and development. Steatite (Gr. stear, fat). A soft magnesian or talcose mineral having a smooth, soapy, or greasy feel ; hence the name. It is a mere massive talc or talc-stone, occurring in subordinate beds in serpentine and chlorite- schist ; usually of a greyish or yellowish-green colour ; having a fibro- laminated texture ; soft and easily sectile. Soapstone, potstone, and other 416 STE talcose rocks (silicates of magnesia), are mere varieties. Steatite has been recently employed in France in the manufacture of buttons, cameos, &c., by exposing it after its fabrication for several hours to a white heat. By this strong calcination it acquires sufficient hardness to strike fire with steel, and to resist the hardest file. It can be polished, however, with emery, tripoli, &c., and may likewise be coloured by different organic and mineral substances. Stegodon (Gr. siege, roof, and odous, tooth). One of the sub-genera into which Dr Falconer divides the Elephants, fossil and existing. The term has reference to the gable-end form presented by a section of their molars taken longitudinally through the ridges of the crowns. " The Stegodons " (Dr Falconer in ' Geological Journal,' vol. xiii.) ' ' constitute the intermedi- ate group of the Proboscidea, from which the other species diverge, through their dental characters, on the one side into the Mastodons, and on the other into the typical Elephants." Stellated (Lat. stella, a star). Star-like ; having the fibres, crystals, or other members diverging in all directions from a common centre. Stemples. In Derbyshire, says Professor Jukes, the shafts of the vein mines are often ascended and descended, not by ladders, but by pieces of wood, called stemples, fixed in the side of the shaft. Steneosaurus (Gr. stenos, narrow, and sauros, lizard). A genus of Cro- codilians found in the Chalk and Greensand, and characterised by their long, narrow, beak-like muzzles ; whence the name. They are closely allied to Teleosaurus, but differ in the nasal orifices (which are situated at the extreme tip of the muzzle) being semicircular instead of widely- circular. Stephanite. Sulphide of silver and antimony; a brittle sulphuret of silver, occurring principally in veins in the older rocks, either in crystals, massive, or disseminated. It is a valuable ore of silver ; consists of 70.4 silver, 14 antimony, and 15.6 sulphur ; and is named after the Archduke Stephan of Austria. Steppe Limestone. A Pliocene limestone of brackish-water origin, and so named by Sir R. Murchison and M. de Verneuil, because, with its asso- ciated sandy beds, it underlies large areas of the steppes of eastern Europe and Asia. See ARALO-CASPIAN FORMATION. Steppes. A Tartar term, adopted by geographers for those extensive flats or plains which occupy so large a portion of northern Asia and Siberia. In summer they are largely covered with long rough grass, are but partially wooded, and consist of alluvial deposits (sand, gravel, black- earth, bog-earth, &c.), all of comparatively recent formation. Though the Steppes form the great pasture-grounds of the nomade Tartars, they are in many parts barren and shingly, and in others so flat and boggy that during winter these portions become frozen and inhospitable morasses. Stereodus (Gr. stereo, solid; odous, tooth). Literally "solid-tooth ;" a provisional genus of cycloid fishes with "sauroid" dentition, from the Mio- cene Tertiaries of Malta. In this genus, which somewhat resembles pachyrhizodus in the circular scales covered with minute asperities, the teeth are rounder, more strongly conical, and set more widely apart, with a slight curvature towards the inner side of the jaw. Sternbergia (after Sternberg). An assemblage of singular stems occur- ring in the sandstones of the Coal-measures, and presenting the appear- ance of a vast number of plates or short joints held together by a central 417 2D STE STI axis. Some of them are striated longitudinally, others not ; and many are evidently the detached central piths of other plants, and not independent stems. Sternum (Lat.) The breast-bone ; whose form in most vertebrate families is a good anatomical criterion. Sternal. Of or belonging to the breast. Sterno-costal. Belonging to the region of the ribs attached to the sternum. Stibnite (Lat. stibium, antimony). Tersulphide of antimony, consisting of 72.88 antimony, and 27.12 sulphur. " This ore (we quote the ' Glossary of Mineralogy ') usually occurs crystallised in variously modified and ter- minated rhombic prisms, which are sometimes closely aggregated laterally ; also disseminated ; massive, with a long columnar structure ; and fibrous, with a plumose, woolly, or felt-like appearance. Colour and streak lead- grey, inclining to steel-grey ; sometimes blackish and dull externally, and with an irridescent tarnish. Lustre, metallic, sectile ; very brittle ; yields to the pressure of the nail ; and leaves a mark like black-lead when rubbed on paper." This ore is the source of most of the antimony of commerce ; and may be distinguished from a similar ore of manganese by its easy fusibility, crude antimony being obtained from it by simple fusion. See ANTIMONY. Stigmaria (Lat. stigma, a dot or puncture). An extensive assemblage of root-stems, characteristic of and peculiar to the Carboniferous system, and so named from their regularly pitted or dotted surfaces each punc- ture or areola representing the attachment of a long, slender, succulent radicle. For a long time the true nature of stigmaria was unknown, and as there is nothing analogous in existing nature, the earlier observers busied themselves with ingenious speculations, which ended only in a name ; hence the numerous designations ficoidites, variolaria, phytolithus, lithophyllum, &c. by which the organism has been successively known. Stigmaria is now ascertained to be the root of sigillaria, lepidodendron, &c. , and usually occurs in the shale or ancient mud in which it grew, as an underground stem less or more cylindrical, generally compressed, studded with circular pittings or areolse arranged in spiral order round the stem ; these areolse often denuded, but frequently having the long succulent tubu- lar radicals attached. In most instances the main roots have central or sub-centrical piths, or woody axes, and where the matrix is sufficiently pre- servative, a thick finely-corrugated bark makes its appearance though generally converted into a film of coal. When found in attachment with the sigillaria trunk, four or more main roots strike down into the soil, these speedily bifurcate and spread out horizontally, bifurcating again and again, till they terminate at a distance (often of 20 or 30 feet) in an obtuse-growing point. Where the underground root and aerial stem meet, the peculiar markings both of stigmaria and sigillaria'are usually indistinct, and it is not till beyond the first bifurcation that the regular areolse and their attached radicles make their appearance. As there are several species of sigillaria and lepidodendron, so we are presented with several stigmaria the specific distinctions consisting chiefly in the forms of the areolse and the attached radicles. In some the areolae are distinctly stel- late or star-shaped ; in others they are so elevated as to become tubercular (hence Brongniart's term mammillaria) ; and in all there is a central speck which passes inwards and connects the succulent radicle with the central woody axis. - 418 STI STE Stilbite (Gr. stilbe, lustre). A mineral of the Zeolite family occurring in fissures or druses of granite and primary rocks, but most frequently in traps and amygdaloids. Occurs in broad pyramidal crystals, often in fas- cicular or diverging groups ; also massive, in radiating broad columnar aggregates; or macled. Has a vitreous lustre; is colourless, or more frequently white, red, grey, yellow, and brown. Consists of silica 55.07, alumina 16.58, lime 7.58, soda 1.30, and water 19.30. Stinkstone (Ger. stinkstein}. A name given to fetid limestones that is, those which, on being struck or rubbed, emit an odour of sulphuretted hydrogen. They are usually of a dark colour, and are often less or more bituminous. Known also as Swi'Mstone. Stiper Stones. A celebrated ridge in Shropshire, whose stony masses, says Murchison, " appear to the artist like insulated Cyclopean ruins jut- ting out upon a lofty moorland, at heights varying from 1500 to 1600 feet above the sea." They are fragments of a thick band of siliceous sandstones, which, though in parts veined, altered, and fractured, and occasionally passing into crystalline quartz rock, yet form an integral portion of the overlying schistose formation, and contain fragments of lingulae. They belong to the Primordial or Protozoic Zone of palaeontologists. See SILU- RIAN SYSTEM. Stomapoda (Gr. stoma, the mouth, and pous, podos, the foot). An order of Crustaceans, so called from the arrangement of their thoracic or true feet in connection with the mouth, which is usually furnished with one or more pairs of jaw-feet the whole of the thoracic segments being covered or enclosed by the carapace. It includes three families, the Phyllosomidce, the Squillidce, and the Mysidce. Stone Lilies. A popular term for the Enerinites, in allusion to the resemblance which their rayed receptacles mounted on slender columns bear to the flower and stalk of the lily (Gr. krinon, a lily). Stonesfield Slate. A member of the lower Oolites, occurring immedi- ately beneath what is known as the "Great Oolite," and celebrated for its being the rock in which English geologists first detected mammalian remains (Phascolotkerium, &c.) of Secondary epoch. It is a thin calcareous flagstone occurring in two beds, separated by a calcareous sandstone, and is worked for pavement and tiles near the village of Stonesfield in Oxford- shire. Stourbridge Clay. A celebrated fireclay occurring in the Coal-measures of Stourbridge in Worcestershire, and largely employed in the manufac- ture of fire-bricks, pipes, retorts, furnaces, and the like. It is found in a bed about 4 feet thick, and consists of about 64 silica, 23 alumina, 2 oxide of iron, and 10 water. Strahlstein (Ger.) Literally "ray-stone;" the German synonyme of A ctinote or Actinolite (which see). A variety or sub-species of Hornblende, so called from its occurring in long prismatic crystals, or in radiated columnar masses. Stratification (Lat. stratum, and facio, I make). The general arrange- ment or condition of all rocks or other matters deposited from suspen- sion in water this arrangement being in layers or strata more or less hori- zontal and parallel to each other. Inclined, vertical, or contorted strati- fication is the result of convulsions subsequent to the deposition and con- solidation of the originally flat strata, and though altering their position, does not aflect their character as stratified masses. Stratification is thus 419 ' SIR a mere mechanical arrangement, and not to be confounded with jointing 1 , cleavage, foliation, crystallisation, or other structure arising from the action of chemical or other subtle forces. What is termed "false stratifica- tion " (that is, when a thick stratum is made up of minor layers, either placed obliquely, waving, or thinning out and thickening irregularly) is a structure arising from currents in the water of deposit the sedimentary matter being here and there shifted and redeposited, being carried over the sloping edges of submarine banks, layer after layer, or, it may be, blown about and redistributed in minor layers, as we see in sub-aerial sand- hills, or on the shifting banks of rivers and tidal estuaries. See LAMINA- TION. Stratum, plural Strata (Lat. stratum, strewn or spread out). When rocks lie in layers, one above another, each layer forms a stratum, the whole a series of strata. The term evidently implies the idea of being strewn or spread out by some smoothing, levelling, or equalising action, as that of water. Rocks lying in parallel layers are said to be stratified; those among which there is no appearance of this arrangement, unstratified. Layer, bed, seam, band, &c., are less or more used as synonymous with stratum ; but strictly speaking, each has its own proper significance in correct geological description. Streak. In mineralogy, that appearance which the surface of a mineral presents when scratched by a hard instrument ; or that appearance which a mineral leaves on a rough porcelain slab when forcibly drawn or stroked along its surface. The streak, often differing from the colour, and being pretty persistent, supplies the mineralogist with an easily applied physical characteristic. Stream-Tin. A term applied to the rolled fragments of tin-stone or oxide of tin, which occur mingled with gravel and other stony detritus in the gullies and water-courses of Cornwall. See Tra-STONE. Stream- Works. The usual designation for metalliferous workings in the loose clays, sands, gravels, and general " drift " which covers the valleys of a country, and from which the metal or ore is obtained by repeated " washings," in contradistinction to "mine- works," which are carried on in the veins that traverse the solid rocks. These metalliferous drifts are but the debris worn down in course of ages from the veins of the higher hills. Streptospond^lus (Gr. streptos, turned back or reversed, and spondylos, vertebra). A crocodilian saurian of the Wealden epoch, so called in allusion to the peculiar articulating surfaces of the vertebrae. In existing crocodiles the bones of the back or vertebrae are concavo-convex, that is, united to each other by a ball-and-socket joint, the convexity being be- hind. Some of the fossil crocodiles of the Tertiary have also this structure of the spinal column ; but in every crocodilian of the Secondary formations the articulating surfaces of the vertebrae are either flat or concave, except in the streptospondylus, whose vertebrae are convexo-concave ; that is, the convexity is directed forwards a position the reverse of the ordinary type. Striated (Lat. stria, a streak). Streaked or marked with fine thread-like lines running parallel to each other. When the striae become very marked and decided, the surfaces are said to be grooved, furrowed, or channeled. Strike (Ger. streiclien, to stretch or extend). The direction or line of outcrop of any stratum. The strike of a stratum is always at right angles to its dip, and vice versa. Thus, if the strike of a stratum run east and 420 STE west, it must dip either to the north or south ; or if we find any stratum dipping to the east, we may be sure that its outcrop has a north and south direction. String. In mining, a small narrow branch of a metalliferous vein ; hence certain ores are spoken of as occurring in "threads and strings." Strobilites (Gr. strobilos, a fir-cone). A generic term for certain coni- ferous cones, with tapering truncated scales, occurring in the Coal, Lias, and other formations. The term may be held, in the mean time, for the reception of all fossil fruits that are evidently coniferous. Stromat6logy (Gr. stroma, stratum). A term proposed to embrace "the history of the formation of the stratified rocks," with all that relates to their succession and organic remains, in contradistinction to PETRALOGT and LITHOLOGY, which see. Str6mnite. Known also as Barystrontianite ; a variety of Strontianite or carbonate of strontian, so called from Stromness in Orkney, where it occurs in yellowish-white, semi-translucent masses, with a faint pearly lustre and crystalline structure. Consists of 68.6 carbonate of strontian, 27.5 sulphate of baryta, and 2.6 carbonate of lime. Supposed to be a mere admixture of strontianite and barytes. Strongyl6ceros (Gr. strongylos, rounded, and keras, horn). A species of gigantic deer, found in Pleistocene Tertiaries and bone-caves, rivalling the megacerosi or gigantic Irish deer, in bulk ; but having, as the name indicates, antlers not palmated, but of the type of the existing red-deer. Str6ntia, Strontian, Strontites. One of the alkaline earths of which strontium is the metallic base. It occurs in a crystalline state, as a car- bonate (strontianite) in the lead-mines of Strontian in Argyleshire, whence the name. It was discovered by Dr Hope in 1792 ; but has since been found in other countries, though strontitic minerals are rather rare. Jt is a greyish-white powder, infusible in the furnace; nearly as heavy as baryta ; has an acid burning taste, but not so corrosive as baryta. Stron- tianite is the carbonate, and celestine the sulphate, of strontia, which see. Strontianite. Carbonate of strontia, so called because first found at Strontian in Argyleshire. It occurs "in variously-modified hexahedral prisms ; also in fibrous, globular, and granular masses ; colour apple- green, white, and yellowish-brown ; lustre shining, pearly ; streak white, yields readily to the nail, and brittle, with uneven fracture. Usually consists of about 94 carbonate of strontia, 6 carbonate of lime, with a small trace of iron. Strontium. The metallic base of strontia, procured from the carbonate of strontia (strontianite) by Davy in 1806. It is analogous to barium, but has less lustre ; is fused with difficulty, and is not volatile. When exposed to the air it attracts oxygen, and becomes converted into strontia or prot- oxide of strontian. Strontium is harmless, while barium and all its com- pounds are poisonous. Str6phodus (Gr. strophao, I twist, and odous, tooth). A genus of large flat, oblong cestraciont fish-teeth, much resembling Psammodus, but hav- ing a twisted instead of a punctated or sandy appearance on the grinding surfaces. They are common in the Lias, Oolite, and Chalk. Structure. A term applied in geology and mineralogy to denote the form or condition in which the component parts of rock-masses are arranged. Thus we say that certain sandstones have a fissile or laminated structure, that certain basalts have a columnar structure, and that the 421 STU SUB structure of granite is tabular or cuboidal. Structure, in fact, refers to the mode in which a rock is aggregated in the mass ; texture, on the other hand, refers to the manner in which its component particles are internally arranged. Thus, on examining a granite quarry, we find the rock arranged in large tabular or square-like masses this is its structure ; on breaking one of these blocks we find it hard, close-grained, and crystalline this is its texture. Stucco (Ital.) When the white powder of calcined gypsum (plaster-of- Paris) is mixed with thin glue instead of water, it forms stucco, which is extensively used for casts, mouldings, statuettes, &c. Stufa. Anlcelandic term for those fissures or orifices in volcanic districts (like Hecla), from which jets of steam issue often at a temperature much above the boiling-point of water. Stylastritse (Gr. stylos, a column, and astron, star). Literally "column- stars ; " the name suggested by Mr Martin of Derbyshire for the Encrin- ites, in allusion to their form, which is that of a feathery star-fish sur- mounted on a long jointed stalk or column. The term was rarely or never used, and may now be regarded as obsolete. Stylontirns (Gr. stylos, a writing-style, and oura, the tail). A genus of Crustaceans occurring in the passage-beds between the Upper Silurian and Lower Old Red Sandstone, and exhibiting forms intermediate between the xiphosurous and phyllapod families. They belong to the family Eurypter- idce; have the cephalo- thorax much rounded ; the eyes centrical or sub- centrical ; are furnished with four or five pairs of organs for swimming and prehension ; those organs springing from the basal joint of the jaw- feet are long and slender in the two swimming pairs, and short and covered with spines in the prehensile pairs. The thoracico-abdominal seg- ments (twelve in number) are destitute of appendages, and the last termi- nates in a long caniculated pointed (or style-like) tail ; hence the name. The only specimens yet discovered are from the Upper Silurian beds of Lesmahagow, and the flagstone beds of the Old Bed in Forfarshire. Stythe (Sax.) A miner's term for fire-damp, or rather for the stifling, suffocating odour of choke-damp that follows an explosion of the former. Sub- (Lat* sub, under). In geology, as in other branches of natural science, the prefix sul) is employed to denote a less or inferior degree; as sub-crystalline, less than crystalline ; sub-columnar, not distinctly col- umnar ; sub- calcareous, somewhat calcareous. It also applies to position, as sub- cretaceous, under the chalk ; sub-aqueous, under the water ; sub- aerial, under the open air, &c. Sub-aerial. Literally "under the air;" applied to phenomena which take place on the earth's surface or under the open air, in contradistinc- tion to sub-aqueous, or under the water. Sub-aqueous (Lat. sub, under ; aqua, water). Applied to phenomena that take place in or under the water, in contradistinction to sub-aerial, or those that take place under the open air. Sub-Apennines. An extensive suite of Older and Newer Pliocene beds, which are amply developed along the whole extent of Italy on both flanks of the Apennines, and form a line of low hills between the older chain and the sea. They consist of light-brown and blue marls, covered by yellow calcareous sand and gravel, and frequently attain a thickness of from 1500 to 2000 feet. They were first described by Brocchi under the term " Sub- Apennines ; " and though chiefly composed of Older Pliocene strata, the 422 SUB SUL numerous shells they contain demonstrate that they belong in part both to older and newer members of the Tertiary series. Submarine (Lat. sub, under, and mare, the sea). Under the sea; applied to objects that have their place at some depth in the waters of the sea, at the bottom of the ocean, or covered by the waters of the ocean ; as " sub- marine forests," "submarine volcanoes," and other analogous pheno- mena. Submergence (Lat. submerge, I plunge under water). Applied in geology to all sinkings of the land whereby its surface is brought under the waters of the ocean. Thus we have "submerged forests," " submerged islands," and so forth. Subsidence (Lat. sub, under, and sido, I sink or settle down). The act of sinking or settling down to a lower level. Applied in geology to sinkings of portions of the earth's crust, which may be either gradual and scarcely perceptible over a long lapse of years, or sudden and destructive as arising from earthquake convulsions. Subterranean, Subterraneous (Lat. sub and terra). Lying under the surface of the earth ; imbedded at some depth in the earth, as subterranean forests ; concealed beneath the surface of the earth, as subterranean pas- sages, &c. Subterposition (Lat. subter, under, and positus, placed). The order of arrangement in which strata are placed below each other, as stiper-positiou is the order in which they are arranged above one another. Suchosaurus (from suchus or suchis, the name given by Strabo to the sacred crocodile of the Nile). A provisional genus of Crocodilians founded on certain teeth occurring in the Wealden strata of Tilgate Forest, and distinguished by their form, which is about an inch long, slender, pointed, gently recurved, and compressed laterally with a sharp edge in front and behind. Sugar Limestone. A local term, applied in Yorkshire to the metamor- phosed mountain limestone that rests on the thick trappean mass of the " Whin Sill." " It is in fact," says Phillips, "converted to a crystalline white rock of very large grain, which easily disintegrates into loose crys- talline sand." Sulcated (Lat. sulcus, a furrow). Furrowed ; deeply furrowed or chan- neled ; having a deeply-furrowed surface. Sulphur (Lat.) One of the elementary substances, occurring in nature as a greenish-yellow, brittle solid ; crystalline in structure, and exhaling a peculiar odour when rubbed. It has a specific gravity of from 1.98 to 2.12 ; is insoluble in water, but dissolves in other liquids, as oil of turpentine and the fixed oils, and especially in the bisulphuret of carbon. It is a non- conductor of electricity, but acquires negative electricity by friction. It melts at a low temperature (234) ; and burns with a bluish flame and most suffocating odour. Sulphur occurs abundantly in a free state, chiefly in volcanic districts, where it appears in veins, amorphous masses, in drusy cavities, or mingled with clay and other earthy impurities. It is also extensively diffused throughout the globe in combination with other substances. With the metals it forms their principal ores, as sulphurets or siilphides of silver, lead, zinc, antimony, iron, &c. ; and with the earths, as sulphates of lime or gypsum, of baryta, magnesia, soda, and the like. It is largely diffused throughout the waters of the ocean in combination with soda, magnesia, &c. ; and is present in the structure both of plants 423 SUM SUT and animals. It is largely and variously employed in- the arts, for which it is obtained from volcanic districts in a crude state ; from deposits such as those of Poland and Gallicia, where it occurs as an ore in combination with clay ; or from pyrites, in which it is in chemical union as a sulphuret of iron. Sump. In coal-mining, that portion of the shaft or pit which extends downwards beyond the seam to be worked, and consequently forms the receptacle to which the waters of the mine flow, and from which it is pumped by the engine. The "sump" may vary from a few feet to sev- eral fathoms in depth. Sunstone. A familiar term for Avanturine felspar ; a resplendent variety of Oligoclase, deriving its play of colours from minute imbedded flakes or crystals of iron-glance. Superficies, Superficial (Lat.) The external surface of anybody; the exterior parts ; hence the term " Superficial Accumulations" is applied to those loose and irregular accumulations of soil, sand, gravel, clay, peat- moss, and other detritus, which cover the solid and regularly stratified crust of the earth. See tabulations, "GEOLOGICAL SCHEME." Superposition (Lat. super, above, and positus, placed). The order of arrangement in which strata and formations are placed above each other. Thus, we speak of the Chalk occurring above the Oolite "in order of superposition," and of the Muschelkalk being in order of superposition above the Bunter-Sandstein. The idea intended to be conveyed is, that every formation is more recent than that on which it lies, and that there is a certain sequence of formations which is never reversed or found out of order, though occasionally some of the members may be absent or wanting in certain localities. Supra- (Lat. supra, above). A prefix occasionally made use of to denote mere position above; as SUPRA-CRETACEOUS, above the Chalk, a term employed by Sir H. de la Beche to embrace all the stratified deposits which occur above the Chalk, and equivalent to TERTIARY, which is now universally adopted. Surbed. In architecture, to set stones on edge, or contrary to their natural bedding in the quarry. Many stones, when surbedded, yield to the weather, and fall off in thin plates or laminae. Surf. The name given to the " broken water " of waves that roll and break on comparatively flat shores. The surf along certain shores in the southern hemisphere is often very violent and almost incessant. Surgent (Lat. ) Mounting up ; the fifth of the fifteen series into which Professor Rogers subdivides the Palaeozoic strata of the Appalachian chain the " Mounting Day" of the North American Palaaozoics, and the equiva- lent in part of our Middle Silurians. See PALAEOZOIC FORMATIONS. Surtur-Brand. An Icelandic term for a peat-like variety of brown-coal or lignite occurring in the Pliocene deposits, and sometimes under the volcanic overflows of that island. Sussex Marble. A fresh-water limestone of the Wealden formation, occurring in thin bands in various parts of Sussex (whence the name), and almost wholly composed of the shells of Paludiyice, or river-snails. Known also as Petworth Marble, which see ; and occasionally also as Bethersden Marble, from its occurring in that locality in the Wealds of Kent. Sliture (Lat. sutura, a seam ; from suo, I sew). A seam ; a line of junc- tion. Applied in anatomy to the lines of junction between the several 424 SWA SYR portions of the cranium these lines presenting a jagged or zigzag appear- ance like the cross stitches of a seam. Sutural junctions are common in the hard structures of animals ; e.g., the bones of the head, the chambers of cephalopod shells, &c. Swamp. In geography, low, spongy land generally saturated with moisture, and unfit either for agricultural or pastoral purposes. The term is commonly used as synonymous with bog and morass ; but a swamp may be here and there studded with trees, like the Dismal Swamp of Florida, while bogs and marshes are destitute of trees, though frequently covered with grasses and aquatic vegetation. Swamp Ore. A familiar term for bog- iron ore, which occurs in swampy tracts, in bands or cakes of considerable thickness, but of inferior quality as an ore, from its containing phosphoric acid, which renders the iron made from it brittle or of slender tenacity. Swanage Crocodile. The popular term for the Goniopholis, whose re- mains were first discovered in the Purbeck beds of Swanage. See GONIO- PHOLIS. Swiuestone. The name given by Kirwan to those fetid varieties of limestone better known as STINKSTONE, which see. Syenite (from Syene in Upper Egypt). A granitic rock composed of felspar, quartz, and hornblende ; and so called from its being obtained by the ancient Egyptians for their monumental purposes from Syene. Any granitic rock in which hornblende predominates is termed syenitic, as syenitic or primitive greenstone. Syepoorite. A sulphuret of cobalt, of a steel-grey or yellowish colour, found in primary rocks along with pyrite and chalcopyrite at Syepoor, near Rajpootanah, in North- West India. It consists of 64.64 cobalt, and 35.36 sulphur; and is employed by the Indian jewellers to give a rose colour to gold. Sylvanite. The name originally given to native Tellurium, from its being first found in Transylvania. Also a valuable ore of gold and silver ^X e telluride of gold and silver consisting of 13.8 silver, 20.5 gold, and 59.7 tellurium, with traces of copper, lead, and antimony. It is found in veins in the older rocks, and occurs in indistinct and minute circular crystals, of a steel-grey or brass-yellow colour, metallic lustre, soft, and very sectile. S^nchronal, Synchronous (Gr. syn, together, and chronos, time). Occur- ring at the same time ; contemporaneous ; of the same date or epoch. Sy^icline, Synclinal (Gr. syn, together, and clino, I bend). Applied to strata that dip from opposite directions inwards, like the leaves of a half-opened book ; or which incline to a common centre, forming a trough or basin-shaped hollow. Synclinal axis, the line of direction in which such a trough or basin trends ; the converse of Anticlinal axis, which see. Syringodendron (Gr. syringx, a pipe or channel, and dendron, tree). The generic term applied by Sternberg to the Sigillaria (which see), in allusion to the channeled or pipe-like flutings of its trunk. Syringop6ra (Gr. syringx, a pipe, and pora, pore). Literally "pipe- pore ; " a genus of palaeozoic corals abounding in the Carboniferous lime- stone, and bearing a general resemblance to the Organ-pipe Coral of Australian seas. The polypidom consists of a cluster of long, cylindrical, vertical tubes, distant from each other, and connected by transverse 425 SYS TAB tubular processes ; the cells are deep and radiated by numerous lamellae. Formerly known as Tubipora or Tubiporites. System (Gr. syn, together, and stemi, to stand). Groups of objects or occurrences, having such relations as permit them to be classed together, constitute a system. In geology, the term is usually applied to such series or groups of strata as are in intimate relation, chronologically speaking, and are characterised in the main by a marked similarity of fossil forms. Thus the various groups Lower Coal, Mountain Limestone, Millstone Grit, and Upper Coal which compose the Carboniferous System, though each lithologically very distinct, are yet intimately connected in .unbroken sequence ; and though each has forms of life peculiar to itself, yet over the whole there runs such a facies of resemblance that there can be no doubt of their all belonging to one great Life period or System. Tabasheer (Persic). Literally "bamboo milk;" a siliceous secretion occurring at the joints of the bamboo, and so called from its being occa- sionally found of a white milky consistence. It occurs more frequently in starch-like concretions (called by the Indians " bamboo camphor"), and is a pure silex, like the thin pellicle which forms the outer coating of the bamboo and many of the grasses. Table-Land. In geography, any flat or comparatively level tract of land considerably elevated above the general surface of a country. While plains and valleys are low-lying expanses but little broken by elevations and depressions, table-lands and plateaux are similar tracts, often of great altitude ; as the table-land of Mexico, rising about 6000 feet above the sea ; the table-land of Central Spain, 2200 feet in height ; and the plateaux of Central Asia, rising successively from 3000 to 6000, 12,000, and 16,000 feet above the sea-level. Such elevated plains are accompanied by im- portant physical and vital results, conferring on areas under the tropics the climate, flora, and fauna of temperate regions, and bequeathing to temperate areas all the phenomena of arctic regions. Table-Layers. That peculiar structure in certain granites, greenstones, porphyries, and other igneous rocks, which gives to their sections the appearance of stratification, and which is termed by some geologists pseudo-strata, and by others the stratiform structure. In many instances this division into parallel planes seems to be the result of jointing, or some analogous structure, on a large scale ; in others, it is merely the mark of the successive overflows of igneous matter which constitutes the mass. Tabreez Marble. A beautiful transparent limestone, composed of in- numerable laminae, thin as paper, and formed by deposition from a cele- brated calcareous spring near Maragha. Tabular. Composed of, or arranged in, square blocks or table-like masses, as many granites and greenstones. The " tabular " frequently passes into the " columnar" structure, and vice versa. 426 TAB TAL Tabular Spar. The prismatic augite spar of Mobs, the Schaalstein of Werner, and Wollastonite of other mineralogists. See WOLLASTONITE. Tachylite (Gr. tachys, quick, and lithos). A black vitreous mineral of the hornblende family, occurring in amorphous fragments in the softer trap-rocks, and nearly related to obsidian and isopyre. The name has reference to the ease with which it fuses under the blowpipe ; same as the hyalomelan or black -glass of Hausmann. Tac6nic. A term applied by the late Professor Emmons to the rocks east of the Hudson (from the Taconic range lying along the western slope of the Green Mountains), and which consist of slates, quartz-rock, and lime- stones of Lower Silurian or perhaps more properly of Upper Cambrian age. Taeni6pteris (Gr. tainia, a ribbon, and pteris, fern). A genus of elegant ferns occurring in the Lias and Oolite, and so named from their long, narrow, tapering, riband-like leaves, which are furnished with a strong midrib, and have secondary bifurcating veins almost at right angles to the midrib. On some specimens the sori or seed-specks are still visible, thus bringing them in pretty close affinity with the simple-leaved aspid- iums and polypodies of our own day. Talc (Ger. Talk). A. common magnesian mineral occurring in masses, composed of thin crumpled laminae or folise, or in scaly aggregates like mica, which it also often resembles in colour. It is easily distinguished, however, from mica in being much softer, and, though flexible, not elastic. Like other magnesian minerals, it feels greasy ; and, though varying in colour, its prevalent hue is a greenish or yellowish white, lustre pearly, transparent in very thin plates, and infusible. Its chemical composition is, 63.9 silica and 36.1 magnesia ; but a part of the latter is often replaced by iron protoxide. Talc occurs not only as a simple mineral, but enters with quartz, mica, chlorite, and felspar into the composition of many of the crystalline rocks, as talc-schist, chlorite-schist, steatite, serpentine, &c. Common talc is used for crayons, for polishing stones, for crucibles, as a fulling material or absorbent of grease, and also in porcelain mixtures. See the following compounds, and STEATITE. Talcite. An occasional synonyme of Phollerite or Nacrite, a hydrated silicate of alumina, occurring chiefly in granitic veins. See NACRITE. Talcose. Applied to rocks which have a talc-like aspect, or which con- tain talc as a notable ingredient of their composition ; e.g., chlorite-schist, talc-schist, steatite, serpentine, potstone, and the like. Talcose Granite. A granitic rock composed of felspar, quartz, and talc or chlorite ; known also as PROTOGENE, which see. Talc-Schist. A glistening schistose rock of the metamorphic series, consisting of talc and quartz, arranged in foliaa more or less crumpled ; of various colours, but greenish hues prevail ; has a greasy feel, and gene- rally associated with mica-schist, chlorite-schist, steatite, and serpentine. Tallow, Mineral. One of the mineral resins, or hydrocarbons ; a light, soft, fatty substance of a greenish-yellow colour, and usually known as HATCHETINE, which see. Talpa. The mole; remains of species of this well-known insectivorous mammal have been found from the Miocene Tertiaries upwards. Talus (Lat.) In fortification, the outside of a wall or rampart which slopes inward and upward, the wall diminishing in thickness as it rises in height. Adopted in geology to designate the sloping mounds of detritus which accumulate at the bases of cliffs and precipices, being derived from 427 TAM TAR their weathered and wasted surfaces. In many instances, where the cliffs are high and the rocks of a wasting nature, the talus in the course of ages assumes gigantic dimensions, and its long sloping surface becomes a char- acteristic feature of the landscape. Tamping. A term employed in rock -blasting to signify the clay, sand, or other rubbish rammed or stamped down on the powder in the bore-hole for the purpose of preventing the charge from being blown from the hole as from a gun-barrel, and thus compelling it to burst the rock in which it has been lodged. Tannin. Impure or crude tannic acid, occurring in the bark of oak and other trees. It is a powerful antiseptic, hence this property in peal-mosses, &c., derived mainly from the accumulated decay of vegetable substances. Tantalite. Known also as columbite; the ore of the metal tantalum or columbium, occurring in prismatic crystals, or in granular masses, in the granites of Finland. When recently broken, tantalite is of a dark bluish- grey or iron-black colour ; has a specific gravity from 7 to 8 ; and con- sists of about 84.5 tantalic acid, 14.5 iron protoxide, and 1 protoxide of manganese, with a trace of oxide of tin. Those varieties which contain upwards of 5 per cent tin oxide are termed Cassitero-tantalites. Tantalum. The metal extracted from tantalite and yttro-tantalile. It is of a dark-grey colour, very dense, and difficult of fusion. Said to derive its name from the insolubility of its oxide in acids, in allusion to the fable of Tantalus, who, though up to the chin in water, could not drink. Tapiridae. The tapir family ; a group of pachydermatous animals, hav- ing thick massive bodies, short semi -prehensile trunks, three pair cutting and one pair canine teeth, very .short tails, four-toed fore-feet and three- toed hind-feet ; having much the aspect of a pig, but about the size of an ass ; and represented by the tapir of South America. They are sometimes marked as a sub-family of the Elephantidce, under the term Tapirina, which includes only two or three living species, but embraces numerous fossil congeners from the Tertiaries of Europe, as Palceotherium, Lopkiodon, Coryphodon, &c. Tapirotherium. Literally "tapir-beast;" a gigantic quadruped of the Eocene period, having intimate structural relationship to the existing tapirs, whence the name. Tap-Boot. In botany, the main root of a plant, which passes directly downwards, as a continuation of the aerial stem or trunk. Tar, Mineral. A variety of bitumen or inspissated petroleum, found oozing from the rocks of different formations, but often from limestones in connection with lignite or coal, and occasionally in volcanic districts. See BITUMEN. Taragmite Series (Gr. taragma, disturbance). A term employed by Dr Fleming in his ' Lithology of Edinburgh,' to embrace the Boulder Clay, or lowest stage of the modern epoch, as " having been formed when violent aqueous movements were taking place, and probably at a period when the state of our island was widely different from the pre- sent." The Brick-clays which lie above he terms the Alcumite or tran- quil series ; and the more superficial deposits, the P/ianerite or evident series. See MODEEN EPOCH. Tarai. "This name," says Dr Hooker in his 'Himalayan Journal,' "is loosely applied to a tract of country at the very foot of the Himalayas : is Persian, and signifies damp. Politically the Tarai generally belongs to the 428 TAR TEB hilly states beyond it ; geographical!}- it should belong to the plains of India ; and geologically it is a sort of neutral country, being composed neither of the alluvium of the plains nor of the rocks of the hills, but for the most part of alternating beds of sand, gravel, and boulders brought down from the mountains. The Tarai soil is generally light, dry, and gravelly, and varies in breadth from 10 miles along the Sikkim frontier, to 30 and more at the Nepaulese. The gravel-beds extend uninterruptedly upon the plains for fully 20 miles south of the Sikkim mountains, the gravel becoming smaller as the distance increases, and large blocks of stone not being found beyond a few miles from the rocks of the Himalaya itself, even in the beds of livers, however large and rapid. Throughout its breadth this formation is conspicuously cut into flat-topped terraces, flanking the spurs of the mountains, at elevations varying from 250 feet to nearly 1000 feet above the sea. These terraces are of various breadth and length, the smallest lying uppermost, and the broadest flanking the rivers below. The isolated hills beyond are also flat-topped and terraced. This deposit, which is of recent formation, contains no fossils; and its general appearance and mineral constituents are the only evidence of its origin, which is no doubt due to a retiring ocean that washed the base of the Sikkim Himalaya, receiving the contents of its rivers, and wearing away its bluff spurs." Tardigrada (Lat. tardus, slow, and gradus, a step). Literally "slow walkers;" a term variously employed by zoologists, but first used by Cuvier to designate the Sloths of South America, in allusion to their slow and difficult mode of progression while on the ground. See BRADYPID.E. Tarnowitzite. A variety of Arragonite from Tarnowitz in Upper Silesia, containing from 3 to 4 per cent of carbonate of lead. Tastes of Minerals. As a means of distinguishing many of the soluble minerals, the taste has been employed ; hence mineralogists speak of the astringent, like vitriol ; sweetish astringent, like alum ; saline, like common salt ; alkaline, like soda ; cooling, like saltpetre ; bitter, like Epsom salts ; sour, like sulphuric acid, and so on. Taxites (Lat. taxus, the yew-tree). The generic term for such conifer- ous remains as are evidently allied to the yew-tree. They occur in the Oolite, but chiefly in the Tertiary lignites. Taxodites. Fossil plants found in Tertiary deposits, and allied to the Taxodium, or deciduous cypress of North America ; a tree which often attains most gigantic dimensions in the southern swamps of that country. Tax6xylon (Lat. taxus, and xylon, wood). A name given by Unger to certain yew- like twigs and branches from the upper Tertiaries of Europe. Tchornozem or Tchornen Sem (Tart.) Literally, "black mould ;" a local name for the black earth of the south of Russia, which covers the whole of the Aralo- Caspian plain a range of country embracing not less than 100,000,000 acres. It varies from 4 to 20 feet in thickness ; is remarkable for its fertility ; and consists chiefly of silica with a little alumina, lime, and oxide of iron, and about 7 per cent of carbonaceous or vegetable mat- ter, of which no less than 2.45 is nitrogen gas ! This remarkable deposit covers every other in the district, and is evidently of alluvial origin. Tebbad (Pers.) Literally, " fever- wind ;" the name given to the hot, scorching winds that sweep across the dry sandy plains of Central Asia, carrying clouds of impalpable sand along with them, which are said to fall like " flakes of fire" on the skins of the unfortunate travellers. 429 TEE TEL Teeth (Teut. tunth; allied to the Latin dens, and Greek odous). From their hardness and durability the teeth of animals are generally well pre- served in stratified deposits, and are not unfrequently the only fossilised remnants of the creatures to which they belonged ; hence their importance to the palaeontologist. They consist of three tissues dentine, which forms the body of the tooth ; cement, which constitutes the harder outer coating ; and enamel, which lies between the dentine and cement, and is the hardest of all known animal tissues. The teeth of different classes differ in composition, size, form, structure, and so forth, according to the habits and requirements of the animal ; some being fitted for cutting and tearing flesh, others for gnawing and crunching bones ; some for grinding and pounding the harder vegetable substances, others for crushing softer tissues ; some for seizing and retaining such slippery prey as fishes, while others are fitted for rasping and nibbling the bark of trees, transfixing insects, crushing shell-fish, or it may be serving as organs of offence and defence, or assisting in progression, climbing, anchoring, and the like. Whatever their function, it is usual to divide them into incisors or front cutting teeth, canines or side seizing and tearing teeth, premolars and molars, or true grinding teeth ; and according to the requirements of the animal, one or other, or even all, of these divisions may be suppressed, or one set enormously developed into " tusks," at the expense of the rest. This idea of answerable teeth in the different classes of animals has given rise to what is termed "dental formulae" for each class; i standing for incisor, c for canine, p for premolar, and m for molar. Thus in man, the number of these teeth on each side of the jaws is represented by the 22 11 22 33 following brief formula : i ^- c r^ ; p .rr ; m ~ = 32. Hence, know- 2..L 1.1 Z.'2 6.6 ing the functional characteristics the size, form, structure, &c. of each class of animals, the palaeontologist can often, by microscopic sections and rigid comparisons, arrive at sound conclusions as to the affinity of extinct animals, whose sole remains consist of a few teeth, or, it may be, even the fragment of a single tooth. Thus fish teeth are readily separable from reptilian teeth, and reptilian from mammalian ; while each great family of fishes, reptiles, and mammals have their permanent dental characteristics which the skilful odontologist can easily detect. For the specialties of the subject see Owen's 'Odontography,' and his article 'Odon- tology' in 'Encyclopaedia Britannica.' Tele6logy (Gr. teleos, complete, brought to an end, and logos). The doc- trine of final causes. Teleologist. One who seeks for the final causes of phenomena. Teleosaurus (Gr. teleos, complete, and sauros, lizard). A genus of Cro- codilian reptiles belonging to the Oolitic period, and characterised by their having (like the recent Gavial) long slender muzzles, with numerous pointed teeth, but differing in having the nasal apertures terminating in two orifices in front of the nose, and not blended into one opening as in the recent species. The osseous scutes of the dermal covering, the skull and jaws with teeth, the vertebral column, and many other bones, have been found, indicating four or five species at least, the individuals of which varied from three to fifteen or eighteen feet in length. See STENEOSAURUS. Telerpeton (Gr. tele, afar off, remote, and herpeton, reptile). A small lizard-like reptile from the white sandstones of Lossietnouth in Morayshire, and so named in allusion (palaeontologically speaking) to its remote anti- 430 TEL TEM quity. Its osteology seems to denote a blending of Lacertian characters with those of the Batrachians. The Triassic affinities of telerpeton, stag- onolepis, and other reptilian remains from the sandstones of Lossiemouth, have recently suggested the possibility of these strata being Triassic or Liassic, and not Old Red Sandstone, as has hitherto been supposed. The lithological evidence is still, however, incomplete, though tending gene- rally towards the idea of their Triassie origin. Tellurium (Lat. Tellus, the goddess of the earth). A rare metal of a brilliant tin-white colour ; very easily fusible, and usually found massive and disseminated along with quartz, gold, and iron-pyrites, in some of the mines of Germany and Hungary. It was discovered and named by Klap- roth in 1782, but has not been applied to any useful purpose. The native metal is rarely found pure, but contains a minute percentage of gold or of iron, and the ores enumerated by mineralogists are complex and uncertain admixtures, as graphic tellurium, consisting of tellurium, gold, silver, and lead; white tellurium, of tellurium, gold, silver, lead, and sulphur; and black tellurium, of copper in addition to the preceding constituents. Temperature of the Earth. As one of the orbs of the solar system, the Earth has a variable and irregular surface temperature ; it has also a tem- perature peculiar to the rocky crust ; and judging from volcanic action, hot springs, and the like, there is also a higher and more remarkable interim" or central temperature. Without entering upon any questions as to the exact proportions that exist between the solid rocky crust accessible to our investigations, and the inaccessible interior, of which we can know nothing by direct observation, we know enough of the Earth's Tempera- ture to warrant the following general conclusions : 1. That the surface temperature is mainly derived from the sun, and that, though variable and irregular during any one season, it is, on an average of many seasons, capable of being laid down with considerable certainty ; 2. That the tem- perature of the crust, as depending on external heat, is also variable to the depth of from 60 to 90 feet, but that at this limit it remains station- ary ; 3. That downwards from this invariable stratum the temperature in- creases (as has been proved by experiments in mines and Artesian wells) at the ratio of one degree for every 60 feet, and that at this rate a tempera- ture would soon be reached sufficient to keep in fusion the most refractory rock-substances ; 4. That this high internal temperature is apparently the cause of hot springs, volcanoes, earthquakes, and other igneous pheno- mena, which make themselves known at the surface ; and, lastly, That intense as the interior heat may be, the surface of the globe is scarcely, if at all, affected by it (according to Fourier, only iVth of a degree), owing to the weak conducting properties of the rocky crust. Temperature of the Ocean. Respecting the temperature of the ocean, though as yet few observations have been made, we know it is more equable than that of the land ; that at the depth of 60 fathoms or so it is pretty constant ; that it is colder in summer than the surrounding atmo- sphere of any contiguous district, while in winter it is always several de- grees higherthus exercising the function of a great storehouse of heat for modifying and equalising the climates of the adjacent lands. Its mean temperature, from such experiments as have been made, is estimated at 39^ or 7-i above the freezing-point of pure water, and as nearly as pos- sible at the point of its mean density. Its surface temperature varies of course with the latitude shading off from about 80 or 82 at the equator 431 TEN TER to 40 at the 56th parallel, and thence down to perpetual ice at either pole ; that is, laying aside the problematical existence of an open sea surround- ing the north pole, as has been affirmed by some of our arctic voyagers. Tenacity (Lat. tenaz, tough, capable of holding together). The degree of force with which particles of bodies cohere or are held together. Ap- plied especially to metals which can be drawn into wire, as gold, silver, copper, iron, &c. Tennantite (after Mr Tennant, the London mineralogist). A variety of grey copper ore (sulphuret of copper) occurring in the mines of Cornwall along with common copper-pyrites. It is distinguished perhaps by its large percentage of arsenic ranging from 10 to 20 per cent of the whole. Tentacula (Lat. tentaculum, from tento, I feel by touching frequently, and that from Undo, I stretch forth). Feelers ; slender, flexible, and often jointed organs, possessed by many tribes of animals, and used for the purposes of feeling, exploring, prehension, locomotion, or for attach- ment to other bodies e.g., the tentacula of polypes, sea-anemones, cuttle- fishes, and the like. Tentaculites (Lat. tentacula, feelers). A genus of annulated feeler-like organisms occurring in Silurian strata ; of annelid origin, and probably allied to Serpula. " They were annulated, shelly tubes, of a highly com- plex structure," says Mr Salter, " and not jointed tentacles or stems." See COBNULITES. Tephroite (Gr. tephros, ash-coloured). Anhydrous silicate of mangan- ese, occurring in distinct crystalline and granular masses, of an ash-grey colour (whence the name), and consisting of 30 silica and 70 protoxide of manganese, with traces of iron and lime. Teratosaurus (Gr. teras, teratos, a prodigy, and sauros, lizard). Literally " wonderful lizard ;" a singular reptile from the Upper Keuper Sandstone of Stuttgart, figured and described by Von Meyer in his ' Palseonto- graphica.' The only remains of the genus at present known are a portion of the head (consisting of the maxillary, nasal, and orbital bones), two detached teeth, and probably a coracoid. The teeth resemble those of Megalosaurus, but, according to Von Meyer, the remains indicate, on the whole, a true Lacertain type, having some affinities to the existing genera Stellion and Uromastix. Terebratella. A genus of brachiopods resembling terebratula; having the shell smooth, or radiately plaited ; dorsal valve longitudinally im- pressed ; hinge-line straight or not much curved ; beak with a flattened area on each side of the deltidium ; foramen large ; deltidium incomplete ; loop attached to the septum. About twenty species are found fossil from the Lias upwards, and about the same number still exist in the seas of the higher latitudes in both hemispheres at from 90 to 95 fathoms' depth. Terebratula (diminutive of terebratus, perforated, in allusion to the per- foration of the beak). A genus of brachiopod bivalves, of which about 100 species have been enumerated from the Silurian system upwards, and a few species of which are still existing as deep-sea molluscs (from 90 to 250 fathoms). The genus has been taken as the type of the .family Tere- bratulidce, which is characterised by the shell being minutely punctate ; usually round or oval, smooth or striated ; ventral valve with a prominent beak and two curved hinge-teeth ; dorsal valve with a depressed umbo ; a prominent cardinal process between the dental sockets, and a slender shelly loop. The family embraces such genera as Terebratula, Terebratella, 432 TER Argiope, Thecidium, and Stringocephalus, together with many doubtful sub-generic or merely specific forms. Teredina. An extinct genus of boring molluscs, whose perforations are common in the drift-wood of the London Clay. " The calcareous tube of the teredina was united, and, as it were, soldered on to the valves of the shell, which cannot therefore be detached from the tube, like the valves of the recent Teredo," which see. Teredo (Gr. teredon, from tereo, I bore). A genus of marine bivalves belonging to the Pholas family, and so called from their habit of boring into and taking up their lodgment in wood. The animal is elongate and worm-like ; hence the familiar designation of ' 'ship- worm ;" and the shell is somewhat globular, open in front and behind, and lodged at the inner extremity of a tubular, straight, or flexuose burrow, partly or entirely lined with shell. About twenty living species of teredines are known ; and about the same number have been found fossil from the Lias upwards. Fragments of drift-wood drilled by the Teredina, (an extinct genus) are common in the London Clay. . Terra Cotta (Ital.) Literally "baked earth ;" a term applied to a kiln- burnt ware prepared from the purest kinds of fire-clay, and usually employed for vases, mouldings, and other architectural ornaments. " The best terra cottas," says Ansted, " are made in France, and the manufacture has there attained a high state of perfection. Various attempts in Eng- land have met with partial success ; the unequal contraction of the mate- rial being a difficulty rarely surmounted." Terra Ponderosa (Lat.) Literally "heavy earth," another name for heavy-spar or Barytes, which see. Terra Sienna. A yellow-coloured ochraceous earth or bole, used as a pigment ; and so called from its being brought from Sienna, in Italy. In its natural state it is known as Raw Sienna ; and when roasted and ren- dered redder in colour it is called Burnt Sienna. Terrace. Any shelf or bank of land having a uniformly flat or level sur- face. Such terraces are produced by the operations of water, and are either ancient sea-margins (raised beacJtes), formed by gradual upheaval of the land ; or lake and river terraces that point to a time when the valleys in which they occur were either occupied by lakes at these heights, or had their whole surfaces at these levels, and before their rivers had worn their channels down to lower depths. In this way we may have terraces of depo- sition as well as terraces of denudation. Terratolite. Glocker's term for Hard litkomargethe terra miraculosa Saxonice of old authors. See LlTHOMARGE. Terricola (Lat. terra, the earth, and colo, I inhabit). An order of Anne- lids which, like the earth-worms, burrow in the earth ; hence the name. How far some of the "annelid tracks" and "annelid burrows" of the stratified systems may have resulted from the operations of terrestrial worms, palaeontology has not yet determined. Tertiary (Lat. tertius, third). Of or belonging to the Tertiary system the third or upper great division of the stratified systems, as distinguished from Secondary and Primary; hence we speak of "Tertiary epoch," "Tertiary fossils," "Tertiary strata," &c. See TERTIARY SYSTEM. Tertiary System. --The earlier geologists, in dividing the stratified crust into primary, secondary, and tertiary formations, regarded as Tertiary all that occurs above the Chalk. The term is still retained, but the progress 433 2E TES TET of discovery has rendered it necessary to restrict and modify its meaning. Even yet the limits of the system may be said to be undetermined some embracing under the term all that lies between the Chalk and Boulder- drift, others including the Drift and every other accumulation in which no trace of man or his works can be detected. Palseontologically speaking, much might be said in favour of both views ; but the difficulty of unravel- ling the relations of many clays, sands, and gravels, makes it safer to adopt, in the mean time, a somewhat provisional arrangement, and to regard as TERTIARY all that occurs above the Chalk till the close of the Drift, and as POST-TERTIARY every accumulation which appears to have been formed since that period. Adopting this view, we have the following intelligible synopsis : nr\am rr-rir>mT * T> v f RECENT and SUPERFICIAL ACCUMULATIONS OCClir- TERTIARY. - rin aboye the Bou ] der _drift. TERTIARY. PLEISTOCENE... Boulder or Glacial Drift. PLIOCENE Mammaliferous, Red and Coralline Crag of Suffolk, &c. MIOCENE Faluns of Touraine, Molasse of Swit- zerland, and part of Vienna Basin. EOCENE Strata of London and Paris Basins. As in other systems, so in the Tertiary, the fossils of the older strata differ considerably from those of the newer ; and thus the whole might be con- veniently grouped into Lower, Middle, and Upper. Palaeontologists, how- ever, have chosen a somewhat different nomenclature, and, taking the per- centage of fossil shells as their guide, have adopted the scientific divisions above tabulated. Thus Eocene (eos, the dawn, and Tcainos, recent) implies that the strata of this group contain only a small proportion of existing species, which may be regarded as indicating the dawn of existing things ; Miocene (melon, less) implies that the proportion of recent shells is less than that of extinct ; Pliocene (pleion, more), that the proportion of recent shells is more or greater than that of the extinct ; and Pleistocene (pleiston, most), that the shells of this group are mostly those of species inhabiting the present seas. This nomenclature is now in general use by English geologists, though it must be confessed that the progress of fossil dis- covery has long since rendered the divisions lower, middle, and upper, more appropriate, and much less liable to mislead. For further details and foreign equivalents, see tabulations, " GEOLOGICAL SCHEME." Tessellated (Lat. tessela, dim. of tessera, a cube or small square of wood used in chequer-work). Divided into squares or chequers, either by differ- ent colours, or by the crossing of striae ; chequered ; arranged in square or lozenge-shaped compartments. Testacea (Lat. testa, a shell). A general designation for those molluscous animals that are furnished with a shelly covering, as the oyster, peri- winkle, &c., in contradistinction to those which are naked or merely covered with a tough coriaceous tunic (tunicala). Tetra (Gr., four). A frequent prefix in scientific nomenclature, as tetra- gonal, four-cornered ; tetradactylous, having four toes, &c. Tetracaulodon (Gr. tetra, four ; caulos, stalk ; and odous, tooth). Liter- ally "four tusk-teeth ;" a name proposed by Dr Godman as a generic distinction for some elephantine jaws of the Tertiary period, which have two short tusks in the lower jaws in addition to the long tusks of the 434 TET THE upper jaws. Professor Owen and others regard the tetracaulodon of Dr Godman as the immature state of the MASTODON GIGA NTEUS the lower tusks being merely milk-teeth, which were lost as the animal became adult. Some palaeontologists, however, still retain the distinction, and enumerate several species of the genus Tetracaulodon. Tetrddymite (Gr. tetradymos, fourfold). Sulphotelluride of bismuth ; so called from the quadruple macles in which its crystals usually appear. It also occurs massive and granular foliated ; of a brilliant steel-grey colour ; and consists of 60.00 bismuth, 34.60 tellurium, and 4.80 sulphur. Tetragonolepis (Gr. tetra, four ; gone, corner ; and lepis, scale). Literal- ly "four-cornered scale;" a Liassic fish somewhat similar to the DAPEDIUS (which see), but differing in the characters of its scales and teeth, and be- longing to the Pycnodont family. Tetralophodon (Gr. tetra, four, and lophos, ridge). Literally "four- ridged ;" one of Dr Falconer's sub-genera of Mastodons, which he divides into trilophodoti and tetralophodon, according as the crowns of their molar teeth exhibit three or four pap-like transverse ridges with intervening depressions. Tetrapodichnftes (Gr. tef.ra, four; pom, podos, foot ; and i-chnon, a foot- print). The footprints of four-footed creatures, as batrachian reptiles, and other terrestrial saurians. See ICHNITES. Tetrdpterus (Gr. tetra, four, and pteron, wing or fin). Four-finned ; a genus of fossil fishes peculiar to the Chalk formation, and characterised, according to Agassiz, by the close apposition of their pectoral and ventral fins. Thalactroides. Fossil fruits belonging to plants of the order Ranuncu- lacece, and related to Thalictrum (Meadow- Rue) ; hence the name. They have been found in the Eocene strata of France and England. Thalassiophytes (Gr. thalassios, belonging to the sea, and phyton, a plant). Literally "sea-plants;" a term occasionally employed to embrace the entire vegetable productions of the ocean its deep waters, its rocks, and its shores. Thecodont (Gr. iheke, a sheath, and odous, odontos, tooth). In express- ing the leading modifications in the mode of attachment of the teeth among the inferior or squamate saurians, Professor Owen makes use of the following terms : viz., acrodont (akros, the summit), those which have the teeth anchylosed to the summit of the alveolar ridge ; pleurodont (pleuron, the side), those which have them anchylosed to the bottom of an alveolar groove, and supported by its side ; and thecodont, those which have the teeth implanted in sockets, either loosely or confluent with the bony walls of the cavity. Thecodontia (Gr. iheke, a case or sheath, and odous, tooth). One of the thirteen orders into which Professor Owen proposes to arrange the- Reptilia, living and extinct. The name has reference to the implantation of the teeth in distinct sockets ; and the genera of the order seem peculiar to Permian and Triassic strata. In the Thecodonts the vertebrae are biconcave ; the ribs long and bent, the anterior ones with a bifurcate head ; the sacrum consists of three vertebrae ; and the limbs ambulatory, the femur having a third trochanter. The teeth have the crowns compressed, pointed, with trenchant and finely serrated margins; and implanted in distinct sockets. Tliecodoutosaurus (Gr. theke, a sheath or socket, and odous, odontos, 435 THE THO tooth). Literally "socket-tooth saurian;" a type of reptile apparently peculiar to the Permian epoch ; and so called from having the teeth im- planted in distinct sockets, as in the crocodile. The remains were first discovered by Dr Kiley and Mr Stutchbury in the dolomitic conglomerate of Somersetshire, and consist of jaws, teeth, vertebrae, and bones of the extremities ; but similar forms have since been obtained from the Per- mians of Russia, Germany, and Chatham in North Carolina. " The teeth," says Dr Mantell, "are pointed, compressed laterally, trenchant, and finely serrated on the edges. These reptiles, in their thecodont type of dentition, biconcave vertebrae, double-headed ribs, and proportionate size of the bones of the extremities, are nearly related to the Teleosaurus of the Oolite ; but combine a lacertian form of tooth and structure of the pectoral arch with these crocodilian characters ; and the bodies of the vertebrae have a series of ventricose excavations for the spinal chord, in- stead of a cyclindrical canal." Thelodus (Gr. thele, a little nipple, and odous, tooth). A fish of the Silurian bone-bed ; so called from its peculiar mammillated teeth. No- thing is yet known of its true affinities. Thenardite (after M. Thenard). Anhydrous sulphate of soda occurring in crystalline crusts, of a vitreous white colour, at the salt-springs of Espartinas, near Madrid, where it is deposited from the waters during the summer months. It occurs also in Peru, and is used for preparing soda. Thermal (Gr. therme, heat). Warm; applied to hot springs and other- waters whose temperature exceeds 60 Fahrenheit. The term HYDRO- THERMAL is frequently used to express the action of heated waters and steam in contradistinction to that of volcanoes or of dry combustion. Thermondtrite (Gr. therme, heat, and natron, crude carbonate of soda). Haidinger's term for prismatic carbonate of soda, consisting of 50.1 soda, 35.4 carbonic acid, and 14.5 water, with slight earthy impurities. It occurs with natron in the lakes of South America, the Egyptian desert, &c., and is deposited from their waters during the warm season ; whence the name. According to Haidinger, a saturated solution of soda at a tem- perature of 77 to 99 Fahr., and cooling slowly, forms crystals of thermo- natrite ; whereas a less saturated solution at a iosver temperature forms crystals of natron. Thin-out. A stratum is said to "thin-out" when it becomes thinner and thinner, as you trace it in any direction, till it finally disappears, and its place is taken by some other stratum. A thin-out is, in fact, the natu- ral termination of every stratum, unless its edge has been brought to the surface by subterranean disturbance, and then it is said to crop-out. Th6msonite (after Dr Thomson, the well-known chemist). A mineral of the zeolite family, occurring in rectangular prisms in druses, in fan- shaped or in radiated aggregates of a whitish colour ; and found with calc-spar and other zeolitic minerals in cavities in amygdaloid, basalt, greenstone, and old lavas. Known also as Comptonite, and consists of silica 38.5, alumina 30.6, lime 12.6, soda 4.8, and water 13.15. Thorina. The protoxide of the metal thorium, an earth discovered by Berzelius in the mineral thorite ; thorium being named after the Scandina- vian deity Thor. Th6rite. A hard, brittle, reddish-brown, massive mineral occurring in the Syenites of Norway, and yielding to analysis about 58 per cent of the earth thorina. 436 THE TIL Thrisson6tus (Gr. thrix, thrissos, bristle, and notos, back). Literally " bristle-back ; " a genus of fishes peculiar to the Lias and Lower Oolite, and characterised by the peculiarity of their dorsal fin. Thrissops (Gr. thrix, bristle, and opsis, appearance). One of Agassiz's genera of fossil fishes, occurring in the Lias and Oolite, and so named from the long bristle-like character of their fin-rays. Throw. A miner's term for fault, because of its displacing the strata " throwing " them up on one side and down on the other. The " throw " is the amount of vertical displacement occasioned by a fault ; hence the fault is said to be an upthrow or downthrow, an upcast or downcast, accord- ing to the side from which it is viewed. Thrust. Applied in mining to the breaking-down of the roof of a gallery or any similar opening, by the pressure or thrust of the superincumbent rocks. See CRUSH and CREEP. Thuites. A genus of coniferous plants occurring in fragments in the shale and coal of the Oolite, and so called from the resemblance of their imbricated stems and terminal twigs to those of the modern Thuja or Thuya, better known as the Arbor-vitce. Thiilite. A rare variety of epidote of a rose or peach-blossom colour, occurring in granular masses in the granites of Svuland in Norway. Thummerstone or Thummerstein. The Axinite of other mineralogists ; so called by Werner from its occurring in the crystalline rocks of Thum in Saxony. Thunderbolts. A familiar term of the English peasantry for Belemnites, the majority of which are straight, round, and tapering, or of a bolt-like form. Th^lacoleo (Gr. thylakos, pouch, and leo, lion). Literally "pouched lion ; " a carnivorous marsupial mammal from the Pleistocene or upper- most Tertiaries of Australia ; and so called from the trenchant dentition of its skull (the only portion yet found), which rivals that of the lion in size. Thylacotherium (Gr. thylakos, a pouch, and therion, animal). A small marsupial mammal of the Oolite. Apparently the same as Amphitherium, which see. Tides. The name given to those regular oscillations, or risings and fallings of the water of the ocean, which are occasioned by the attraction of the moon and sun, and which occur twice in the course of the lunar day (24 hours, 50 minutes). The flow, or rising towards the shore, is called flood tide, and the falling away ebb tide. The highest point to which the flood tide attains is called high-water, and the lowest to which the ebb tide sinks is low-water. During high and low water there is a short period of rest, or no current either way, and this is called slack-water. When the sun and moon act in the same direction (that is, at full moon), the greatest tidal rise will take place, and these are known as spring-tides ; but when these luminaries are in opposition (that is, during the third and first quarters of the moon), the rise is least, and then we have neap-tides. As geological agents, the tides are of vast importance in scouring away, trans- porting, and reasserting the debris of the ocean. Tile-Ore. A variety of red oxide of copper, of a reddish-brown colour, occurring massive or incrusting, earthy or more or less indurated. It consists of sub-oxide of copper, mixed with much peroxide of iron and other substances. Tilestone. Any thinly- laminated sandstone suitable for roofing; applied 437 TIL TIN specially to the flaggy beds at the base of the Old Ked Sandstone. The " Tilestones " as a group are regarded as the " passage or transition beds '' between the Silurian and Devonian systems ; and have been ranked by some geologists with the one system, and by others with the other. As developed in Hereford, Lanark, and Forfar, lithologically and palseontologically, we are inclined to consider them as the true basis of the Old Ked Sandstone. Tilgate Forest, in Sussex, situated on the clays, sandstones, and calci- ferous grits of the Wealden formation ; a district rendered classical by the discoveries of the late Dr Mantell. See his ' Fossils of Tilgate Forest,' 1 vol. 4to, 1827. Till. A provincial Scotch term for the stiff unstratified clays of the Boulder formation ; and now beginning to be used by geologists for any thick unstratified alluvia. Tilted Up. Applied to strata that are suddenly or abruptly thrown up at a high angle of inclination. Tilts of this nature are usually accom- panied by fractures and crushings of the strata. Tin (Lat. stannum], A well-known metal of a silver-white colour, slightly tinged with grey, having a peculiar taste, and an odour which may be readily recognised when held for a while in the warm hand. It is considerably harder than lead ; has a specific gravity of 7.3 ; and fuses at 442 Fahr. a temperature 170 below the melting point of lead. It is very malleable when heated to about 200, and is readily beaten into leaf or tin-foil : but it is not very ductile, though it may be drawn into wire of feeble tenacity. It is flexible, bending with a crackling noise, apparently the result of its crystallised structure the fused metal crystallising in regular octahedrons. As a metal that does not readily tarnish, it is employed for coating sheet-iron (tin-plate) and copper ; and its foil, alloyed with quicksilver, forms the reflecting surface of glass mirrors. It also unites with other metals and forms valuable alloys, as bronze, bell-metal, specidum-metal, and the like ; and its salts, dissolved in muriatic acid, are used in dyeing and calico-printing. It has not been found native (or at least very doubtfully so), but it is obtained from cassitei'ite, pyramidal tin-ore or oxide of tin, which occurs in veins in the granitic and crystalline rocks of Cornwall, Saxony, Spain, the East India Islands, and other localities. Tin-Ore, Tin-Stone. The familiar name given to the oxide of tin, or Cassiterite, as being the only ore from which the tin of commerce is derived. It occurs in veins in the granitic and crystalline rocks, and is xisually associated with wolfram, copper, iron-pyrites, and other minerals. It is found either in blackish-brown pyramidal or prismatic crystals ; or massive in granular aggregates ; and not unfrequently in rounded fragments in gravelly detritus. The name wood-tin is given in Cornwall to the kidney- shaped masses which have a finely fibrous or radiated structure ; toad's-eye- tin, to the same variety when the concretions are small and berry-like ; and stream-tin, to the gravel-like ore found with detritus in the gullies and water-courses of metalliferous districts. As an ore, it consists of 77.50 tin, 21.50 oxygen, with traces of iron and silica ; and being disseminated through the veinstone, the rock must be pounded and washed before the ore can be smelted. As a geological generalisation, it is asserted that in Cornwall tin usually occurs in the upper portion of the veins, while copper is found below. Tin-Pyrites. Known also as Slannine or Bell-metal ore; a sulphuret of copper, tin, and iron the iron sometimes replaced by zinc. It is a 438 TIN TOP mineral of a steel-grey or sometimes of a coppery-yellow colour : occurring massive, granular, and disseminated, rarely crystallised ; and is usually associated with tin -ore in the veins of Cornwall and Bohemia. See STAN- NINE. Tincal, Tinkal (the Oriental term for borax). Crude borax, as it is imported from the East Indies in dirty-yellow crystals. When refined it constitutes the Borax of commerce, which see. Tirolite (occurring in many parts of the Tyrol). Known also as Copper- froth ; a fine verdigris-green or azure-blue carbonate of copper and arsenic, occurring in reniform or mammillary aggregates, with a radiating foliated texture and drusy surface. It is found in beds and veins with other copper ores. Titaniferous. Containing or yielding titanic acid and titanium ; as titaniferous cerite, a blackish-brown mineral, consisting of the oxides of cerium, iron, manganese, and titanium ; titan-schorl, known also as rutile or ingrine, a mineral consisting of oxide of titanium and peroxide of iron ; titaniferous iron-sand, or iserine, occurring in roundish grains generally in connection with Tertiary volcanic districts, and sometimes in such abun- dance as to be used for the production of steel, of which it produces a tough and very superior kind. Tltanite. Prismatic titanium ore; a silico-titanite of lime; better known to English mineralogists as SPHENE, which see. Titanium (Gr. titanos, falling to a calx or lime). One of the elementary substances, discovered by the Rev. Mr M'Gregor in 1789 ; it is of a dark copper-red colour, with a strong metallic lustre, which readily tarnishes on exposure to the air. As titanic acid, it is a constituent of several minerals, as Menekite, Sphene, Brookite, Rutile, and Anatase. Titanotherium. Literally "gigantic beast ; " a large herbivorous mammal occurring in the Lower Miocene beds of the Missouri district, and having some relations to the modern Tapirs, but more perhaps to the extinct Palseotheres of Europe. Judging from the teeth and jaws, it probably attained a size about twice that of the existing horse. Tiza. The name by which borate of lime (Nayesine) is called in southern Peru, where it occurs on the dry plains or salinas in the neighbourhood of Iquique in white reniform masses, in size from a hazel-nut to a potato. loadstone. A term applied by the Derbyshire miners to certain trap-rocks which occur interstratified, or in connection, with the moun- tain limestones of that country. Some of these toadstone beds are com- pact and basaltic, others are earthy, vesicular, and amygdaloidal. By some (and with every degree of probability) the term is said to be from the German todt-stein or dead-stone the rock being dead or unfruitful of lead- ore as compared with the associated limestones ; according to others, the rock obtains its name from the resemblance of its amygdaloidal spots to those on a toad's skin. Topaz (Gr. topazion, though it is doubtful whether the topazion of the ancients were the same as our topaz). One of the gems ; occurring in finely striated prismatic crystals, massive with indistinct crystalline struc- ture, or disseminated in rounded fragments ; transparent, vitreous, electric when heated or rubbed, and of various colours or colourless. It is found chiefly in the granitic and crystalline rocks, and frequently associated with rock-crystal, tourmaline, beryl, and euclase, or with fluor-spar and other minerals containing fluorine. It is harder than quartz, has a specific 439 TOP TOU gravity of about 3.5, consists of alumina, silica, and fluoric acid, and is hence a fluo-silicate of alumina. Topaz is highly valued as an ornamental stone, and the chief supplies are obtained from Brazil and Siberia, though found in many other countries. Those from Brazil have deep yellow tints, but became pale pink or red on exposure to heat ; those from Siberia have a bluish tinge ; the Saxon topazes are of a pale wine-yellow, but become limpid by exposure to heat ; and those found in the Scotch Highlands are of a sky-blue colour. The purest from Brazil are termed Goutte d'Eau (drops of water), and, when cut in facets, closely resemble the diamond in lustre and brilliance. A common or coarse columnar topaz named Pyrophy- salite is not to be confounded with the Precious Topaz above described. Topazolite. A pale yellow, nearly transparent, variety of garnet, found in Piedmont, and consisting of 37 silica, 2 alumina, 29 lime, 4 glucina, 25 iron, and 2 manganese. Topaz-Hock. The name given to a granular slaty mixture of quartz, schorl, and topaz, occurring at Schneckenstein, near Auerbach in Saxony. Top6graphy (Gr. topos, a place, and grapho, I describe.) A particular account of any locality, city, town, or village ; in contradistinction to the general geography of the country in which it is situated. Tornado (Span, tournar, to turn). A whirlwind ; any violent storm or hurricane of wind, usually accompanied with thunder, lightning, and rain. Tornadoes, though excessively violent and destructive, are for the most part limited in area and of short duration. T6rrelite (after Dr Torrey). A red-coloured variety of Columbite or Niobite from New Jersey, consisting of niobic acid, protoxide of iron, and manganese. Torrid Zone (Lat. torridus, burning, scorching). The middle zone or belt of the earth's surface, extending on each side the equator to the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn respectively ; and so called from its high tempe- rature. See ZONE. Tosca-Rock. A name given by the inhabitants of Buenos Ayres to a marly arenaceous rock found imbedded in layers and nodular masses among the ai'gillaceous earth or mud of the Pampas. The term is used by Mr Darwin in his interesting descriptions, and has been adopted by sub- sequent observers. See PAMPEAN FORMATION. Touchstone. A variety of. flinty slate, so called from its being used for testing the purity of gold the quality of the metal being judged of by the colour of the streak which it leaves on the stone. See LTDIAN STONE. Tourmaline. A mineral occurring in the granitic and metamorphic rocks of most countries, and so complex and variable in composition as to be usually divided into three groups Schorl, Achroite, and Rubellite. It occurs in long prismatic crystals, generally striated vertically, and im- bedded or attached. It is most frequently black, but is found of various colours, and occasionally colourless ; is about the hardness of felspar ; spe- cific gravity 3.3; and becomes electrical by heat or by friction. Tourma- line is ranked under the Gem family, though not greatly prized as a precious stone the red varieties being known as Rubellites or Siberites (from Siberia) ; the dark-blue as Indicollites ; the black opaque varieties as Schorl; and the white or colourless as Achroite. "Though a wide- spread mineral, tourmaline,'' says J. Nicol, "is not of high geological importance, as it only forms an essential constituent of schorl-rock and topaz-rock, both very limited masses. It has hitherto been found only in 440 TOX TEA the older plutonic and metamorphic rocks, and never either in the newer stratified or in the recent trap or volcanic formations. It is very com- mon in granite, where it sometimes replaces the mica, and is frequently associated with quartz, orthoclase, albite, mica, lepidolite, chlorite, topaz, and beryl, either in druses or in subordinate beds, or with their crystals enclosed or intermixed with each other." Tox6ceras, Toxoceratite (Gr. toxon, a bow, and keras, horn). A genus of the Ammonite family, peculiar to the Green sand or Lower^Chalk forma- tion, and so named from the bow-shape of its shell like an ammonite uncoiled. " Between toxoceras, crioceras, and ancyloceras," says Wood- ward, " there are numerous intermediate forms." Toxodon (Gr. toxon, a bow, and odous, tooth). A large quadruped, of unknown affinity, from the Upper Tertiary or Pampean formation of South America, and so named by Professor Owen from the singularly curved form of its two outer incisors. Th^ skull is twenty-eight inches long and sixteen broad, and presents a blending of the osteological charac- ters of several existing natural orders, as the Rodents, Pachyderms, and Cetacea. Toxdster (Gr. toxon, bow, and astron, star). A genus of fossil sea-urchins peculiar to the Neocomian or Lower Chalk formation, characterised by their somewhat semicircular contour (hence the name) ; by their unde- pressed ambulacra, which converge towards the summit of the case ; by their horizontally-elongated pores ; by the odd ambulacrum being in a deep groove, the mouth transverse, and the vent in the posterior face. Trachyte (Gr. trachys, rough). The name given to the felspathic class of volcanic rocks which have a coarse cellular paste, rough and gritty to the touch. " This paste," says Lyell, "has commonly been supposed to con- sist chiefly of albite, but according to M. Delesse, it is variable in compo- sition, its prevailing alkali being soda." Through the base are dissemin- ated crystals of glassy felspar, mica, and sometimes quartz and hornblende, although in the trachyte properly so called there is no quartz. The varie- ties of felspar which occur in trachyte are trisilicates, or those in which the silica is to the alumina as in the proportion of three atoms to one. Trachytic Porphyry. This rock, according to Abich, has the ordinary composition of trachyte, with quartz superadded, and without any augite or titaniferous iron. ' Transition (Lat., going between, intermediate). The passage from one state or period to another ; hence we speak of the Tilestones as "transition beds" between the Silurian and Devonian systems that is, partaking in some measure of the character of both systems. Transition Rocks or Strata. In the classification of Werner and his school the transition strata were separated from the primary as being less crystalline, affording unmistakable evidence of their mechanical or sedi- mentary origin, and containing occasional remains of plants and animals. For these reasons it was assumed they were deposited at a period when the earth and sea were passing into a state fit for the reception of organ- ised beings ; and hence the term Transition. It comprised the Greywacke formation of the older geologists ; which has since been subdivided into the Cambrian and Silurian systems. Transliicency (Lat. trans, through ; luceo, I shine, from lux, light). Literally " shining through ; " that property of minerals and other sub- stances which permits light to pass through them, but not in sufficient 441 TEA quantity to show distinctly the forms and colours of objects placed on their other side. A mineral is therefore said to be translucent when light evi- dently passes through its substance, though objects cannot be distinguished through it by the eye. See TRANSPARENCY. Transmutation (Lat.) A change from one place to another, or from one thing into another. A term adopted by Lamarck and his followers to express their hypothetical views of the derivation of existing species from preceding species, by slow and gradual Transmutations of one form of organisation into another form, independent of the interference of any creative agent, and merely by the influence of external or physical condi- tions, or by the internal impulses of the organism as affected by extraneous caiises. Transparency (Lat. trans, through, and pareo, I appear). Literally " appearing through ; " that property of bodies which permits light to pass through them so freely that the forms, hues, and distances of objects can be distinctly seen on the other side. Air, water, the purer kinds of glass, and many minerals, are therefore said to be transparent; and this property varies in intensity till it passes into mere translucency ; and trans- lucency also varies in degree till no light pass through, and the substance is said to be opaque. Trap, Trappean (Swedish trappa a stair). Tabular greenstone and basaltic rocks, from their rising up in step-like masses, were originally so termed ; but the name is now extended to all igneous rocks which are not either strictly Granitic or decidedly Volcanic. Others derive the origin of the term from the terrace-like aspect of Secondary hills, generally com- posed of interstratified greenstones, basalts, amygdaloids, &c., which stand out in ledges from the softer strata that have yielded to denudation. What- ever the original idea, the term is now employed by geologists to embrace all the multifarious igneous rocks that belong to the Palaeozoic and Secon- dary epochs, as distinct from the more ancient granites on the one hand, and the recent volcanic rocks on the other. The Trappean series thus embraces basalt, clinkstone, basaltic clinkstone, greenstone, greenstone- porphyry ; compact felspar or felstone, felspar- porphyry ; hornstone, pitch- stone, pitchstone- porphyry ; claystone, claystone porphyry ; amygdaloid, trap-tuff, wacke, trap-breccia, and the like. As a class, they are mainly composed of felspar, augite, and hornblende, the varieties differing accord- ing to the predominance of one or other of these ingredients. Trass, Tarass. A provincial German term for a Tertiary tufaceous alluvium or volcanic earth, which occupies wide areas in the Eifel district of the Rhine. Its basis consists almost entirely of pumice, in which are included fragments of basalts and other lavas, pieces of burnt shale, slate, sandstone, and numerous trunks and branches of trees. Tt seems to have originated either as a volcanic mud, like that thrown out by the craters of the Andes ; or as volcanic dust and ashes deposited in the fresh- water lakes of the period. When pulverised it is used as a hydraulic cement, like the pozzolana of Italy. Travertin. A whitish concretionary limestone deposited from the water of springs holding lime in solution ; abundantly formed by the waters of the Anio, at Tibur, near Rome ; hence the name Tiburtinus, Travertinus, or Travertin. It is usually compact, hard, and semi-crystalline, and in this respect is distinguished from Gale-tuff or tufa, which is a loose and porous surface-deposit. 442 TEE TRI Tremadoc Slates. A series of coloured slates and grits about 1000 feet thick, occurring at Tremadoc in North Wales, and constituting a portion of the Cambrian system of Sedgwick or the Lower Silurian of Sir Koderick Murchison. Trembldres. The name given by the Spanish settlers of South America to the surf ace- tremors which, in some volcanic districts, are almost of daily occurrence. Tremolite (named from Val Tremola). A variety or sub-species of horn- blende, known also as grammatite and calamite, of a white or greenish-grey colour, occurring in long prismatic crystals or in columnar aggregates the crystals often bent and striated longitudinally, pearly and semi- transparent. Is found in dolomite, granular limestone, and other subor- dinate beds in the crystalline rocks. Tretosternon (Gr. tretos, perforated, and sternon, the breast-bone). The generic term applied to the fossil bones of a turtle-like animal from the Wealden and Purbeck beds. It seems to be related to the river-turtles (Trionyx and Emys) of the hotter regions of Asia, Africa, and America. Tri- (Gr. treis, Lat. ires, three). A frequent prefix of scientific terms signifying thrice, or in threes ; as tripartite, divided into three parts ; tri- sected, cut into three segments ; trilobate, three-lobed ; tripinnate, three times pinnate, &c. Trias, Triassic System. This system derives its name Trias or triple series from its being composed in Germany, where it is very fully deve- loped, of three main members : viz., the Keuper, the Muschelkalk, and the Bunter-sandstein. These, as far as they can be compared, are lithologi- cally and palaeontologically the equivalents of the Upper New Red Sand- stone of England, and may be intelligibly co-ordinated as follows: 1. KEUPER. 2. MUSCHELKALK. 3. BUNTER SAND- STEIN. Germany. ( Saliferous and gypseous ) shales, with beds of varie- ) gated sandstones and car- \ bonaceous laminated clays. J" Compact greyish limestone, < with beds of dolomite, gyp- ( sum, and rock-salt. ( Various coloured sandstones, < dolomites, and red clays ; ( occasional pisolites. England. Saliferous and gyp- seous marls, with grey and whitish sandstones. (Wanting.) Reddish sandstones and quartzose con- glomerates. Or extending the co-ordination to France, we have the following rela- tions : England. Variegated Marls. Variegated Sandstone. Germany. Keuper. Muschelkalk. Bunter Sandstein. France. Marnes irise*es. Calcaire coquillier. Gres bigarre". Gres des Vosges. The TRIAS is thus in all its relations the Upper New Red Sandstone of the earlier English geologists, and has been separated from the Lower New Red or PERMIAN, because its flora and fauna are essentially Mesozoic, and akin to those of the Oolite and Chalk, while those of the Permian are essen- tially Palaeozoic in their facies, and related to those of the Carboniferous . 443 TRI below. In England the system is sparingly fossiliferous, but in Germany and France, as well as in Southern Africa and North America, where there is a large development of Red Sandstones, supposed to be of Triassic age, there is a fuller (though by no means exuberant) exhibition of Life, vege- table as well as animal. The flora embraces equisetums, calamites, ferns, cycadaceous and coniferous plants; the fauna, corals, star-fishes, shell- fish, crustaceans, reptiles, numerous footprints of reptiles and birds, and indications of marsupial mammals. Economically, the system is the great repository of rock-salt and brine-springs in England and Ireland. See NEW RED SANDSTONE, and tabulations, " GEOLOGICAL SCHEME." Tributary. Applied to any stream which, directly or indirectly, contri- butes water to another stream. One stream falling directly into another stream becomes an affluent to that stream ; but both may be tributaries to some larger current. An affluent is thus necessarily a tributary, but a tributary is not necessarily an affluent. Tricarpellites (Gr. treis, three, and karpos, fruit). Fossil nut-like fruits from the London Clay, so called from their consisting of three carpels or seed-cells. Trichecodon. A provisional genus of marine mammals, founded by Mr E. R. Lankester on some tusks from the Red Clay of Suffolk, which show affinities to the Walrus (Trickecus) though apparently of much larger dimensions. Triconodon (Gr. ) Literally "three-coned tooth;" a provisional genus of small marsupials, founded on some remains of teeth and jaws from the Purbeck or Upper Oolitic beds of England. Nothing is yet known of these Oolitic marsupials (plagiaulax, triconodon, &c.) beyond their teeth and lower jaws. Trigonellites (Gr. treis, three, and gone, corner). A shell -like organism consisting of two plates or valves, and so called from its triangular form. " The real nature of the shell," says Lyell, " of which there are many species in Oolitic rocks, is still a matter of conjecture. Some are of opinion that the two plates formed the gizzard of a cephalopod ; for the living Nautilus has a gizzard with horny folds, and the Bulla is well known to possess one formed of calcareous plates." Trigonia (Gr. treis, three, and gone, corner). A dimyariau bivalve of the Oolite and Chalk, so called from its three-cornered shape. The fossil trigonia} are thick, tuberculated, ribbed shells the ribs either radiating or arranged concentrically : but the shell having been almost entirely nacreous, it is generally wanting, and only the cast remains the ' ' horse- heads " of the Portland quarrymen. About 100 species are catalogued from the Trias to the Chalk inclusive ; none have yet been found in Tertiary strata, but one or two species occur in Australian seas. Trigoniadse. A family of conchiferous molluscs, of which Trigonia is the type, having equivalve, close, three-cornered shells, with the umbones directed backwards ; interior nacreous ; ligament external ; hinge-teeth few and diverging. The family is chiefly fossil, and includes trigonia, myophoria, aximis, and lyrodesma. Trigonocarpon (Gr. treis, three ; gone, corner ; and carpos, fruit). A genus of thick-shelled fruits occurring in the Coal-measures, and so called from the three projecting ribs or corners which mark the surface of the shell. They vary considerably in size, and are regarded as palm-nuts, to which they bear a striking resemblance. 444 TKI TRO Trilobite, Trilobitidse (Gr. treis, three, and lobos, lobe). An extensive family of Palaeozoic crustaceans, deriving- their name from the obvious three-lobed-like aspect of their bodies. The trilobites, in numerous generic forms, as asaplius, ampyx, calymene, homalonotus, ilcenus, ogygia, olenus, phacops, trinucleus, &c., are especially characteristic of the Silurian system ; about a dozen genera range through the Devonian epoch ; only three or four make their appearance in Carboniferous strata ; and not a single specimen has been found in any later formation. The skeleton of the trilobite consists of a cephalic shield or plate (cephalo-thorax), furnished with prominent many-facetted sessile (very rarely pedunculated) eyes on the upper or dorsal aspect, and beneath a labrum or " hypostome" which would indicate foot-jaws; a three-lobed body in segments less or more numerous ; and a caudal plate or appendage (pygidium) variously termi- nated. As yet no indications of antennae or limbs have been detected ; " still," says Owen, "there can be no doubt they enjoyed such locomotive power as even the limpet and chiton exhibit when requisite." Many of them are extremely minute, and in all likelihood the larval forms of larger so-called genera ; a considerable number attain a size of from one to six inches ; and it is rarely indeed that fragments are found indicating species exceeding twelve or fifteen inches long. For the subdivisions of the group, and its place among the Crustacea, see tabulations, " ANIMAL SCHEME." Trilophodon (Gr. treis, three, and lopkos, ridge). Literally "three- ridged ; " one of Dr Falconer's sub-genera of Mastodons, which are divided by him into trilophodon and tetralophodon, according as the crowns of their molar teeth exhibit three or four pap-like transverse ridges with inter- vening depressions. Trionyx (Gr. treis, three, and onyx, claw). Literally "three-clawed ;" a fossil tortoise or chelonian occurring in Tertiary strata ; and doubtfully (from three-clawed imprints of footsteps) in any earlier formation. Trlplite (Gr. treis, three). A phosphate of manganese occurring in mas- sive or coarsely granular aggregates, and so called from its being cleav- able in three directions, at right angles to each other. Consists of 34 iron protoxide, 33 manganese protoxide, and 33 phosphoric acid. Tripoli. A polishing powder originally brought from Tripoli in Africa, but newfound in many other places. It is a kind of "rotten-stone," composed of the siliceous shields of microscopic infusoria, and diato- macese ; an infusorial or microphytal earth of a whitish-grey or yellow colour ; soft, light, and friable. Tristychius (Gr. treis, three, and stychos, row). A genus of cestraciont fin-spines or ichthyodorulites from the Carboniferous formation, indicative of shark-like fishes of great size ; and so called from the triple row of barbs or tooth-like processes with which they are armed. Trochitse (Gr. trockos, a wheel). A name given by the earlier palaeon- tologists to the small detached joints of the encrinite. See ENTROCHI. Trochdceras (Gr. trockos, a hoop, and keras, horn.) A genus of nauti- lites found in the Upper Silurians of Bohemia. Shell nautiloid, spiral, depressed. Troclras (Lat. trockus, a hoop). An extensive genus of living and fossil univalves belonging to the family Turbinidce, and characterised by their pyramidal-shaped numerous-whorled shells, which are nearly flat at the base, and have an oblique rhombic aperture which is pearly inside ; hence 445 TRO TUN the common designation of "silver shells." They are found fossil from the Devonian upwards, the fossil being more numerous than the existing Trogontherium (Gr. trogo, I gnaw, and therion, beast). Literally " gnawing beast ;" an extinct rodent found in the fresh-water Pleistocenes or uppermost Tertiaries of Europe, and so closely allied to the existing beaver that it is by some palaeontologists regarded as a mere specific or sub-generic form. Its bones indicate a size about a fourth larger than the largest known species. Trona (Arabic). A crude carbonate of soda, occurring in crystalline in- crustations in the deserts of Africa and Asia, and in the dried-up lakes and river-courses of South America. Consists of about 38 soda, 40 carbonic acid, and 22 water. Tropics, Tropical (Gr. tropikos, from trepo, I turn). Those two circles on the earth's surface over which the sun seems directly to pass when he is at the greatest distance from the equator viz., 23 g degrees ; hence the one is called the northern tropic or Tropic of Cancer, and the other the southern or Tropic of Capricorn. The zone or belt of the earth within these circles is said to be " within the tropics " or " tropical" and constitutes the Torrid Zone of climatologists. Plants, animals, climate, and other phenomena occurring within this region, are said to be Tropical ; those on the extreme temperate verges of the region, Sub-tropical. Trdpifer (Gr. tropis^ keel, and fero, I bear). A minute crustacean from the Lias bone-bed of Aust Passage ; so called from its keeled carapace. Trouble. A mining term for any faulting or shifting of the strata of a coal-field by which the regular and continuous working of its minerals is interrupted. A field so faulted is said to be troubled. See FAULT. Trough. A familiar term for any sudden depression of strata by which they are made to assume the basin-shaped or synclinal arrangement. Generally used as synonymous with basin or syncline. Trough- Joint. The fissure or joint which frequently accompanies the abrupt bending of strata passing through the middle of the curvature. Tubbing. The technical term for the lining of a shaft with wood or iron, for the purpose of preventing the falling in of loose incoherent strata or of excluding the water that may flow in from the sides. In many instances this casing requires to be of iron, water-tight, and of the most substantial description. Tubiporites (Lat. tubus, a tube, and porus, a pore). Parkinson's term for a genus of fossil corals composed of closely-united calcareous tubes each tube having been the abode of an individual polype. Now known as Syringopora, which see. Tuff, Tufa (Ital. tufo, Gr. tophos). Originally applied to a light porous rock composed of cemented scoriae and ashes ; but now used for any porous vesicular compound, as calc-tuff, trap-tuff, volcanic tufa, &c. ; which see. Tungsten (Swedish, heavy-stone). A hard brittle metal, of a light steel- grey colour and brilliant metallic lustre, having a specific gravity of 17.5. It is barely fusible at the greatest heat of the smith's forge, but when heated to redness in the open air it is converted into the peroxide (tungstic acid). Its ores, tungstates of lime, iron, and manganese, are very fre- quently associated with those of tin, which they greatly injure. These are wolfram, tungstate of iron and manganese ; stolzite, tungstate of lead ; scheelite, tungstate of lime ; and t^lngst^c ochre. The metal is not used in 446 TUN TUR the arts ; but tungstic acid is employed in dyeing. It was discovered by Scheele in 1781 ; hence the occasional early synonyme of Scheelium or Scheelite. Tunicate (Lat. tunica, a coat or tunic). A class of headless molluscs, which have no shells, but are protected instead by an elastic, leathery- looking tunic ; hence the name. The tunicaries have no organs of locomo- tion, but are found floating freely in the ocean, or fixed to rocks, shells, sea- weeds, and the like. They are hollow, and have two orifices from which they squirt the water after it has served the purposes of respiration and nutrition, and this forcible ejection assists in propelling those that are free floaters. They are divided into two great groups the fixed or Ascidians; and the free-floating or Salpians, which see. Turbinated (Lat. turbo, a whipping-top). Top-shaped ; generally ap- plied to those univalve shells which, like the winkle and garden-snail, have a spiral top-like form. Turbinidse (Lat. turbo, a whipping-top). An extensive family of gastero- pod molluscs, of which the common turbo or " top-shell " has been taken as the type. The Turbinidae (which include the genera turbo, phasianella, trochus, euomphalus, &c.) have spiral, top-shaped, or pyramidal shells; more or less pearly inside; and furnished with a calcareous or horny operculum. They are marine, littoral in their habits, feed on sea-weeds, and have a world-wide distribution. Turbo (Lat., a whipping-top). The common top-shell, a genus of gaster- opod molluscs, embracing about 60 living species found in all seas ; and upwards of 360 fossil species (including littorina) found from the Lower Silurian upwards. See TURBINID^:. Turin Nuts. A familiar term for the fossil fruits of a species of Walnut which occurs in the newer Tertiary deposits in the neighbourhood of Turin. "The ligneous envelope," says Mantell, "has perished, but the form of its surface, and of the enclosed kernel, is preserved in calcareous spar. Turkey-Slate, Turkey-Stone. A familiar term for whetslate, novaculite, or honestone, some of the best varieties being imported from Turkey, where it occurs of a remarkably fine and even grain, and of a greenish-grey or slightly yellowish colour. Turquois. The uncleavdbk azure-spar of Mohs, and the Calaite of other mineralogists ; a phosphate of alumina with a little phosphate of iron and copper ; occurring amorphous, reniform, stalactitic or incrusting ; and usually of a beautiful sky-blue or greenish-blue colour. It takes a fine polish, and is highly prized as an ornamental stone. It is found in veins in flinty slate, but many of the finest Oriental turquoises are gathered as pebbles from the alluvium of Persia and Syria ; and it is said that fossil teeth and bones coloured by hydrated copper oxide or phosphate of iron from Nuash in Siberia and Trevaux in France, and known as Odontolite, are often substituted for the true mineral. See ODONTOLITE. Tiirrilite (Lat. turris, a tower, and lithos). An extinct genus of cham- bered shells belonging to the Ammonite family, and characterised by their straight, spiral, turreted contour. They seem restricted to the Chalk formation, in which from twenty to thirty species have been detected. Turritella (Lat. dim. of turris). A genus of marine gasteropods, the type of the family Turritellidce, and so called from their turriculated shape, the shell being elongated, many-whorled, spirally striated ; aper- ture rounded, margin thin ; operculum horny, many-whorled ; with a 447 TUR UMB fine briated margin. The living species, familiarly known as screw-shells, are about fifty, in number, and have a world-wide distribution; the fossils, more than one hundred and fifty, are found from the Lower Greensand upwards. They are inhabitants of deepish water ranging from three to one hundred fathoms. Turtle-Stones. A familiar appellation for those nodular concretions commonly known as Ludi ffelmontii, septaria, and the like. See SEPTARIA. Tympanophora (Gr. tympanon, a cymbal, and phoreo, I bear). A term applied to certain fossil plants, chiefly from the Oolite, having minute branching stems, each branchlet being terminated by a rounded or globu- lar appendage resembling a seed-vessel. Nothing is known of their nature, or of that of Sphcereda, which they somewhat resemble. Typhoon (Gr.) Literally, a tempest or whirlwind. Typhoons, the name given by navigators to the hurricanes that visit, generally from June to November, the seas of Southern China, and the adjacent archipelagoes of the Philippines and Moluccas. Tl U'lmannite (after Ulmann). An ore of nickel and antimony found chiefly in the copper-mines in the transition rocks of the Westerwald. It is of a bluish-grey colour, and consists of 26.8 nickel, 58.6 antimony, and 14.6 sulphur, but part of the antimony often replaced by arsenic. Ulodendron (Gr. hule, a wood, and dendron, tree). A genus of Coal- measure trunks, often of considerable size, and characterised by their stems not being furrowed, but covered with rhomboidal scales, and having on opposite sides two vertical rows of large circular scars, to which cones had been attached. In Bolhrodendron (which see) the stem is dotted ; and the cone-scars are obliquely oval. Ulna, Ulnar (Lat. ulna, the cubit or large bone of the fore-arm). The two bones that form the fore-arm, or that portion between the wrist and elbow, are termed the ulna and radius, the ulna being the larger of the two. Ultramarine. Literally "beyond the seas ; " a well-known blue pigment of great beauty and permanence, and until lately prepared from the lapis lazuli the finest specimens of which were brought from China and Further Asia ; hence the name. It is now artificially prepared by the chemist, after a mode originally discovered by Gmelin. The artificial, which can be made cheaply and in any quantity, consists of 46.60 silica, 3.83 sul- phuric acid, 23.30 alumina, 21.48 soda, 1.06 peroxide, with traces of lime, magnesia, and sulphur. See LAPIS LAZULI. Umber (Lat. umbra, shade, hue). A well-known pigment of various shades of brown ; occurring either naturally in veins and beds, or pre- pared artificially from various admixtures. The " umber" proper of the mineralogist is a soft earthy combination of the peroxides of iron and manganese, with minor proportions of silica, alumina, and water. It is usually found in veins in the transition and crystalline strata, and appears 448 UMB UNI to be a product of decomposition. Much of the umber of commerce, how- ever, is a mere ochraceous admixture ; and that from Cologne is said to be only brown-coal finely pulverised. Umbo, plural Umbones (Lat.) A boss or protuberance. In conchology, that knob-like point of a bivalve shell which is situated immediately above the hinge. Umbonated. Bossed ; knobbed in the centre. Umbral (Lat. ) Shady, belonging to the dusk; the fourteenth of the fifteen series into which Professor H. D. Rogers subdivides the Palaeozoic strata of the Appalachian chain the ' ' Dusk " of the North American Palaeozoics, and the equivalent, in part, of our Carboniferous Limestone and Lower Coal-measures. See PALEOZOIC FORMATIONS. Unconformable. Strata lying parallel on each other are said to be con- formable ; but when one set is laid on the upturned edges of another set, they are un conformable. Unconformability is generally taken as evidence of a break in geological sequence the underlying set having been depo- sited, consolidated, and upturned, before the deposition of the unconform- able or overlying strata. U'nctuous (Lat. unctus, anointed, greasy). Many minerals, such as steatite, talc, serpentine, and the like, when rubbed between the fingers, have an unctuous or greasy feel a character which is often useful in dis- criminating species. Most of the naagnesian minerals have ihisfeel, which is altogether different from that produced by mere smoothness. Underclay. A term now generally applied to those argillaceous beds which immediately underlie seams of coal. These underclays are usually tenacious, more or less bituminous, and almost always interpenetrated by stigmaria roots. Every seam of coal has not an underclay ; but where they exist they seem to have been the ancient soil or mud on which the vegetation of the coal-bed flourished. Undercliff. The term applied to a cliff when the upper part has fallen down along a considerable line of coast, and forms a subordinate terrace between the sea and the original shore. Underlie, Underlay. In mining, the dip or inclination of a mineral vein viewed from above downwards. Under-tow. A nautical term for any decided under-current of water. Thus, in the ordinary breaking of waves, the wave advances, crests, makes its plunge, and then its waters flow back beneath those of the next wave in general, producing a strong under-current or under-tow. Undulation (unda, a wave undula, a little wave). Alternate elevations and depressions of strata are spoken of as undulations ; ridged or wavy surfaces are said to be undulated. Ungulite Grit. A series of greenish-coloured shales and grits occurring near St Petersburg (probably of Lower Silurian age) ; and so termed be- cause their prevailing shell is the Obolus or Ungula, a nail-shaped brachio- pod of the Lingula family. Uniclinal. In most instances when strata are bent or curved a syncline or trough accompanies an anticline or saddle ; but in some instances there is simply one great elevation or depression, after which the rocks regain their normal inclination, and to this solitary bending the term uniclinal has been applied by Mr Darwin and others. Uniformitarian. In geology, one who holds the doctrine that the laws of nature have acted uniformly throughout all time past, and that the appearances in the earth's crust, however difficult of solution, are to be 449 2F UNI URA ascribed to the uniform action of these laws, and not to revolutionary or cataclysmal operations. Unionidse (Gr. unio, a pearl). The family of River-mussels, found in the ponds and streams of all parts of the world. They have a solid, pearly shell, with two principal and two lateral teeth on the hinge ; and their umbones or bosses are generally smooth or longitudinally laminated. Those which have no cardinal teeth are arranged under the genus Anodon. Of the Unio, which is taken as the type of the family, there are about 250 living species; and about fifty species have been found fossil from the Carboniferous formations upwards. There is considerable doubt, how- ever, whether the Carboniferous shells really belong to the genus Unio ; some geologists refer them to Cardinia, and commence the Uniones with the Wealden. Univalve (Lat. unus, one, and valva, a lid or valve). Applied to mollusc- ous animals or " shell-fish " whose shell consists of a single piece, as the periwinkle, limpet, &c.; in contradistinction to bivalves, like the cockle and mussel, whose shell consists of two valves or pieces. According to the Linnean arrangement shells consisted of three orders, univalves, bivalves, and multivalves; but these divisions are now little attended to except in popular description. The univalves are usually spoken of as " turbinated " or those having a spire, and those without a spire. Palaeontologically, the gasteropods or true univalves have been on the increase since palaeozoic times, till now in the current epoch they constitute the most numerous class of mollusca both in genera and species. Unstratified. Applied to rocks which do not occur in layers or strata, but in amorphous masses ; and as this is a feature of igneous rocks, the term is usually regarded as synonymous with igneous. Hence we speak of aqueous or stratified rocks, and of igneous or unstratified rocks ; though, strictly speaking, many igneous products, as flows of lava and trap, showers of dust and ashes, &c., occur in stratiform or sheet-like accumu- lations. " The terms stratified and unstratified," says De la Beche, " have been commonly considered as respectively synonymous with aqueous and igneous. Practically this division is highly valuable ; but theoretically it is not so satisfactory, at least if we are to infer that all rocks divided into tabular masses, one resting on another, must have been deposited either chemically or mechanically from water. We should be careful not to couple too far stratification with aqueous deposition, as sheets of igneous rocks may cover pre-existing sheets of similar rocks, and the result be stratification." Upheave, Upheaval, Uplift. A lifting up of strata by some expansive or elevating power from below. The terms upthrow and downthrow are more generally used to designate such subterranean movements. U'ranite. Known also as uran-mica, uran-glimmer, and lime-uranite ; a mineral occurring in flat tabular crystals of a sulphur-yellow to siskin- green colour, and consisting, according to Berzelius, of 15.5 phosphoric acid, 62.6 peroxide of uranium, 6.2 lime, and 15.7 water. It is found chiefly in granitic rocks, and occasionally in veins and beds in the crystal- line strata with other ores. It is a calcareo-phosphate of uranium, and differs from chalcolite, which is a cupreo-phosphate, only in containing lime instead of copper. Uranium. A metal discovered by Klaproth in 1789, and so named by him after the planet Uranus, which was discovered in the same year. It 450 URA VAL is obtained from several mineral species, and is, when separated, a pow- dery substance of a greyish black colour, with a metallic lustre, very com- bustible, and burning with a white light. It is separated with great diffi- culty ; is infusible ; and has a specific gravity of 9.0. Preparations of uranium are used for imparting fine orange tints to glass and porcelain enamel ; and the uranite of potash affords a splendid orange to the artist. The various minerals containing uranium are in general easily distin- guished by the hues of yellow they communicate to glass. The following are the principal : 1. Uranium ore, pechurane, or pitchblende; 2. Uranite, wan-mica, uran-ghmmer, or lime-uranite ; and, 3. C/ialcolite, or copper- uranite. Uran Ochre or Uranium Ochre. Earthy oxide of uranium, occurring in soft friable masses, disseminated or encrusting, along with pitchblende or protoxide of uranium, in the granites of Saxony and France. It has vari- ous hues of yellow and orange, and seems derived from the decomposition of the protoxide. Urao. A native term for the carbonate of soda found in crystalline crusts on the dried-up lakes and river-courses of South America ; same as the Trona of the Arabs, which see. Urchin (Lat. erinacem, the hedgehog). The name of " sea-urchin" has been given to the echinus, on account of its prickly ambulacra! spines. See ECHINIDA. Urosthenes (Gr.) Literally " strong- tail ;" a genus of fishes from the Carboniferous strata of New South Wales, and so named by Professor Dana from its powerful heterocercal tail. In general form of the body, the large size and backward position of the dorsal and anal fins, the genus resembles Pyqopterus ; but differs in having these organs placed directly opposite to each other, in their being shorter and nearer the tail, and also in having the scales smooth. See PTGOPTERUS. U'rsidse (Lat. ursus, a bear). The Bear tribe ; a well-known family of carnivorous mammals, having a wide range both in the old and new worlds, and particularly in the northern hemisphere. The remains of several species (U. spelceus, priscui, &c.) have been found in the caves breccias, and alluvia of the Pleistocene period. Urns. The Ure-ox or Bos iirus, described by Caesar in his ' Commenta- ries,' and stated to abound during his invasion in the forests of Gaul and Germany. It has been long quite extinct in all parts of Europe, and is supposed to be the same as the Bos primigenius, whose remains occur in Post-tertiary deposits. Often confounded with the Auroch or Bison of northern Europe, which still lingers in a protected state in the Imperial forests of Russia. Valentinite (after Valentine). White oxide of antimony; a mineral oc- curring crystallised, or massive and disseminated in granular, columnar, and foliated aggregates ; usually of a whitish-grey colour, and consisting of 84.32 antimony and 15.6*8 oxygen. It is found in veins in the primary rocks along with other ores of antimony, lead, and zinc. 451 VAL VAR Valley (Lat. vallis).A.ny hollow or low-lying tract of land bounded by hill or mountain ranges ; and usually traversed by a stream or river which receives the drainage of the surrounding heights. We have thus " circular valleys," " longitudinal valleys," and " cross valleys," according to the configuration and disposition of the bounding heights ; though, generally speaking, longitudinal valleys, taking their names from the rivers which flow through them, are the most characteristic and common. A level tract of great extent, and traversed by more rivers than one, is, properly speaking, not a valley, but a plain ; and deep narrow river-courses, on the other hand, are more correctly designated glens, ravines, and gorges. Geologically speaking, valleys take their rise from original inequalities of the surface produced by subterranean movements ; or they are the result of long-continued erosion by river-currents, and thence known as " Valleys of Erosion." (See EROSION.) Occasionally we meet with such terms as " Valley of Elevation," and " Valley of Denudation " the former being a huge fracture or rent produced by subterranean upheaval, and from which the strata dip away on either side ; the latter being a mere valley of ero- sion scooped out by the action of water without disturbing the original position of the strata, which are continuous on both sides. Vanadinite. The vanadiate of lead, a rare mineral occurring in crusts of small hexagonal prisms, of a yellowish-brown colour and resinous lustre, chiefly along with other ores of lead, as at Wanlockhead, Matlock, Wicklow, and in auriferous veins in Siberia and Mexico. It consists, ac- cording to Thomson, of 66.3 oxide of lead, 7.06 lead, 23.44 vanadic acid, and 2.45 chlorine. Vanadium. A rare metal of a greyish silvery colour, discovered by Sefstroem in 1830, in the iron prepared from the iron-ore of Taberg in Sweden, and named after Vanadis, a Scandinavian deity. It has since been found in the form of vanadiate of lead or vanadinite, a mineral occur- ring in many localities. As a metal, the properties of vanadium are yet little known. Variables. Near the equator the trade- winds, north and south of it for a certain distance, completely neutralise each other, and the zone of calms and light breezes so formed is known as the Variables. Variegated Sandstone. The New Red Sandstone of English geologists ; the gres ligarre of the French ; and the bunter sandstein of the German. It is also termed by some 1 the Poikilitic (variegated) System, in allusion to its mottled and particoloured shales and sandstones. Variety (Lat. varius, changeable). In natural history, a subordinate division of a species, distinguished by some accidental or unimportant dif- ferences, not considered essential to the main and permanent characteristics of the species. Some slight difference in colour, in size, or in the greater or less development of some particular organ, may constitute a variety, while it may not affect the permanent characteristics of the species. Variolite (Lat. variola, small spots). The name given to those varieties of compact amygdaloid or amygdaloidal porphyry, in which the enclosed crystals are numerous, small, and round, giving to the rock a spotted appearance. This appearance is often rendered more striking from the matrix of the rock being of a different colour from the enclosed crystals. Variolitic. Spotted ; thickly marked with small round specks. Ap- plied to rocks having the aspect of Variolite, or small-grained amygdaloidal porphyry. 452 VAS VEI Vascular (Lat. vasculum, a little vessel). Composed of small vessels, like the woody tissue or substance of flowering plants ; and used in con- tradistinction to cellular, which denotes that the substance is built up of uniform cells, and consequently softer and less durable in structure. Vascularity indicates a higher degree of organisation than simple cel- lularity. Vasodentine (Lat. vas, a vessel, and dens, tooth). An anatomical term employed to express that modification of dentine (see TEETH) in which capillary tubes of the primitive vascular pulp remain uncalcified, and carry red blood into the substance of the tissue. They form the so-called vascular or medullary canals, arid are usually more or less parallel in their course. A large proportion of the central part of the tooth of the sloth and megatherium consists of vaso-dentine, and a smaller proportion of the same part of the tusks of the elephant and of the chisel-like incisors of the rodents. Vauquelinite (after Vauquelin the chemist). A chromate of lead and copper occurring in veins with other ores, in minute tabular crystals, or in mammillary crusts, of a dark olive-green colour, and resinous lustre. Consists of 60.87 lead protoxide, 10.80 copper protoxide, and 28.33 chromic acid. Vein (Lat. 'vena). Applied in geology to all fissures and rents in the earth's crust filled with mineral or metallic matter, differing from the rock-mass in which they occur these subsequently filled fissures tra- versing and ramifying through the solid rock, like the veins through the living system. When such fissures are filled with granite, greenstone, claystone, or with other massive rock-matter, whether igneous or other- wise, they are all usually termed "dykes ;" but when containing metalli- ferous ores or crystalline minerals, they receive the name of "veins" or "lodes;" and "false veins" when they are merely rents or fissures filled with debris from above. The subject of veins is one of the most difficult and complicated and interesting because difficult and complicated with- in the whole range of geology. It embraces the following questions or branches of research : 1. The nature of the substances occurring in min- eral veins ; 2. The mode or modes in which these substances were aggre- gated ; 3. The situations of their occurrence, and the nature and age of the rock formations in which they occur ; 4. Their frequency in any given district, and the directions they take that is, whether they all trend in one way, or cross and intercross ; 5. Their relative ages, so as to erect them into separate " Systems," and thus be enabled to apply such knowledge to their economical exploration. Such an inquiry involves, of course, much patient observation in geology, an intimate acquaint- ance with mineralogy, and, above all, a knowledge of those chemical and electrical forces which are continually acting, and must have simi- larly acted in all time past, in decomposing, dissolving, segregating, and reconstructing the mineral and metallic constituents of the earth's crust. For a brief and intelligible review of the theory of mineral and metallic veins, see Professor Phillips's ' Manual of Geology,' in ' Ency- clopedia Metropolitana,' together with the various authorities therein referred to. Veined. Streaked ; marked, like some marbles, with lines or veins of colour, either parallel to, or crossing each other. Veinstone. The stony or mineral matter occupying a vein, in contra- 453 VEI VER distinction to the metallic or metalliferous ores of which it forms the matrix. Known also as Veinstuff. Veinstuff. The usual mining term for the rock-matter technically the matrix or gangue which fills a vein, and through which the ore is dis- seminated in crystals, nests, strings, ribs, and other forms. This vein- stuff or matrix may be either crystalline or amorphous. Ventral (Lat. venter, the belly). Of or belonging to the belly; e.g., the ventral or belly fins of fishes, as distinguised from the dorsal or back fins. Ventricose (Lat. venter, the belly). Bellying ; swelling or bulging out in the middle ; generally applied to hollow bellying forms. Ventriculite (Lat. ventricultis, a ventricle or sac). The name given to certain fossil zoophytes of the Chalk, usually appearing as fungiform flints, and well known to the inhabitants of Kent and Sussex as " petrified mushrooms." Palaeontologists are not agreed as to the precise nature of the ventriculites, which seem to have been of a spcngiform flexible texture, and to have consisted of a hollow cup-like expansion, tapering to a point below, and attached by fibrous rootlets to other bodies. Verd Antique (Ital. verde antico). A clouded green marble, consisting of an admixture of serpentine and limestone, found at Genoa and in Tuscany, and much prized for its beauty. Verde di Corsica Duro. A rock found in the island of Corsica, of a changing green colour, composed of Diallage and Labrador felspar, and used for vases, inlaying, and other ornamental purposes. Verdigris (Fr. verde-gris, green-grey). A sub-acetate of copper, formed by bringing the surface of the metal in contact with acetic acid ; and so called from its peculiar green colour. A rust of copper, or jErugo, which see. Verditer. A blue pigment, prepared by adding finely- levigated chalk or "whiting" to a solution of copper in aquafortis. Vergent (Lat.) Drawing to a close ; the eleventh of the fifteen series into which Professor Rogers subdivides the Palaeozoic strata of the Appa- lachian chain the "Descending Day" of the North American Palaeozoics, and the equivalents of our middle Devonians. See PALAEOZOIC FORMA- TIONS. Vermiculite (Lat. diminutive of vermis, a worm). A minerai substance composed of minute micaceous plates disseminated through a mealy mag- nesian matrix, and having a soapy lustre and greasy feel. It consists of silica, magnesia, iron peroxide, alumina, and a trace of manganese. When heated to redness it swells out with a vermicular motion, as if it were a mass of small worms ; hence the name. Vermicnlites (Lat. vermis, a worm). Applied to the smaller and shorter worm-tracks which appear on the surfaces of many flaggy sandstones. Vermiform (Lat. vermis, a worm, and forma, shape). Worm-like ; worm-shaped. Vermiform casts and impressions occur in the sandstones of various formations ; some apparently the true rejectamenta of annelids, like the earth- and lob-worm ; others their tortuous tubes and burrows ; and many their mere superficial tracks or trails. See ARENICOLTTES, FORA- LITES, SCOLITES, &C. Vermilion. A well-known brilliant red pigment, prepared by pulveris- ing the red sulphuret of mercury, or Cinnabar, which see. Vertebra (Lat., from verto, I turn). A single bone of the backbone or 454 VER V1V spinal column. The different vertebrae comprising the backbone are usually divided into cervical or those of the neck, dorsal or those of the back, lumbar or those of the loins, and caudal or those prolonged into a tail in many classes of animals. Important distinctions are also founded upon the mode in which the several vertebrae are attached or jointed to each other some being concave before (procceliari), others being concave at both ends (amphiccelian), and others flat in front and concave behind (platycoelian). Vertebrata (Lat. vertebra, the joint of a backbone). One of the two grand divisions of the animal kingdom, including all those animals fur- nished with vertebrae or backbones. In Cuvier's arrangement the Verte- brata embrace the Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, and Fishes; the Inverte- brata the Articulata, Mollusca, and Radiata. See tabulations, "ANIMAL SCHEME." Vesicular (Lat. vesicula, a little bladder). Full of bladder-like cavities ; composed of cells or vesicles. Applied to rocks full of little cavities, as vesicular lava, vesicular trap-tuff, &c. these cavities having arisen from the disengagement of gases when the rock-matter was in molten a state. Vespertine (Lat.) Of or belonging to the evening; the thirteenth of the fifteen series into which Professor H. D. Rogers subdivides the Palaeo- zoic strata of the Appalachian chain the "Evening'' of the North American Palaeozoics, and the equivalents of our Lower Coal-measures or Carboniferous slates. See PALEOZOIC FORMATIONS. Vesuvian. A reddish-brown mineral of the Garnet family ; so called from its being found in volcanic rocks, and in particular those of Vesuvius. Same as pyramidal garnet or Idocrase, which see. Vibratile Organs (Lat. vibro, I move quickly or vibrate). A common designation for those hair-like organs of motion with which so many of the lower aquatic animals are furnished ; and termed CILIA, which see. Vitreous (Lat. vitrum, glass). Having the lustre or aspect of glass ; glassy. Vitrify. To melt or convert into glass. Vitrified. Having the surface coated with or partially converted into glass by the action of heat. Vitrification (Lat. vitrum, glass, and^o, I become). The conversion of any mineral substance into glass ; hence we speak of " vitrified forts," of the " vitrification of rocks," &c., when by the action of heat their surfaces are covered with a glaze or glassy coating, produced, as glass is, by the fusion of silica along with an alkaline flux. Vitriol (Lat. vitrum, glass). A term applied by the earlier chemists to all crystalline bodies having a certain degree of transparency, but now mainly restricted as a familiar designation for the following substances : viz., blue vitriol, sulphate of copper or cyanose ; green vitriol, sulphate of iron, copperas, or melanterite ; white vitriol, sulphate of zinc or goslarite ; red vitriol, sulphate of the proto -peroxide of iron and magnesia or botryo- gene ; and oil of vitriol, or sulphuric acid, so called because originally distilled from green vitriol or copperas. Vivianite. A mineralogical term for phosphate of iron, which occurs in prismatic crystals, in fibrous reniform crusts, also massive, disseminated, and earthy ; usually of a fine indigo blue ; found in metalliferous veins, as well as a recent formation in connection with decomposed animal matter. It is sometimes used as a pigment. Viviparous (Lat. vivus, alive, and pario, I bring forth). Animals 455 VOL which bring forth their young alive and perfect, are said to be viviparous, in contradistinction to the oviparous, or those which produce their young in the egg. Volcanic ( Vulcanus, god of fire). Igneous action apparent at the surface of the earth, in contradistinction to Plutonic (which see), or that taking place at great depths in the interior. Volcanic, as applied to rocks, em- braces all igneous products of recent or modern origin, as distinct from Trappean and Granitic. Cosmically speaking, volcanic activity seems to have been most manifested in the northern hemisphere. See IGNEOUS ROCKS. Volcanic Bombs. Bomb -like masses of lava, frequently occurring in great numbers in the vicinity of active volcanoes. Speaking of those on the island of Ascension, Mr Darwin remarks : " They vary in size from that of an apple to that of a man's body ; they are either spherical or pear-shaped, or with the hinder part (corresponding to the tail of a comet) irregular, studded with projecting points, and even concave. Their sur- faces are rough, and fissured with branching cracks ; their internal struc- ture is either irregularly scoriaceous and compact, or it presents a sym- metrical and very curious appearance, which is very simply explained, if we suppose a mass of viscid, scoriaceous matter to be projected with a rapid rotatory motion through the air" Volcanic Cones. The name usually given to volcanic hills of active or of recent eruption. These cones are generally spoken of as lava cones, having a gentle slope and pit-like crater of eruption ; tufa cones, having a steep slope and saucer-shaped crater ; cinder cones, having a still steeper slope and narrow crater ; and mixed cones, formed partly of lava and partly of tufa and cinders, and varying in aspect according as one other ingredient predominates or has been the latest erupted. Volcanic Foci (Lat. focus, a fire, the point of greatest intensity). Subterranean centres of igneous action, from which minor exhibitions diverge. Volcanic Mud, The foetid sulphureous mud discharged by volcanoes, especially those of South America. See CANGANA and MOT A. Volcano (Lat. Vulcanus, the god of fire). A volcano has been described by Sir Charles Lyell as " a more or less perfectly conical hill or mountain, formed by the successive accumulations of ejected matter in a state of incandescence or high heat, and having one or more channels of communi- cation with the interior of the earth, by which the ejections are effected." Mr Scrope, who has directed much attention to volcanic phenomena, re- marks that "a volcanic 'cone of eruption,' in its normal form, with a ' crater ' or cup-shaped hollow at its summit, is the result of the accumu- lation round the volcanic orifice or vent of the scoriae, and other fragmen- tary matters projected into the air by the series of explosive discharges of elastic vapour and gases which usually characterise an eruption. The fragments which fall back into the vent are, of course, thrown up again and again, and triturated into gravelly sand or fine ashes by the friction attendant on this violent process. Those which fall on the outside of the vent are heaped up there in a circular bank, the sides of which, both within and without, slope at an angle rarely exceeding 33. And this bank, viewed externally, has of course the shape of a truncated cone the crater being a hollow inverted cone contained within it." Volkmaimia (after Volkmann). A provisional genus of Coal-measure 456 VOL WAG stems having verticillate or whorled leaves, and bearing cones on their extremities. They are regarded as asterophyllites in fructification. V6ltzia (after Voltz of Strasburg). A genus of coniferous plants peculiar to the Permian and Triassic formations. They greatly resemble araucarla in the form and imbrication of their leaves, which are inserted all round the pinnated branches, are sessile, slightly dilated at the base, and almost conical. Fruit in spikes or loose cones. V6ltzine or Voltzite (after Voltz). Oxysulphuret of zinc, occurring in small hemispherical incrustations, in quartz veins, and usually coloured brown or brownish-red by the presence of a small percentage of iron per- oxide. V6raulite. An occasional synonyme for the ferro-magnesian silicate of alumina, better known as blue-spar, azurite, or lazulite from its occurring at Vorau in Styria. See LAZULITE. Vulcanism or Vulcanicity (Lat. Vulcanus, the god of fire). A general term adopted by Humboldt, and made use of in his 'Cosmos,' to embrace "the entirety of those telluric phenomena which are to be ascribed to the constantly active reaction of the interior of the earth upon its external crust or surface" Thermal springs, gas and mud volcanoes, burning springs and salses, and the large burning mountains or volcanoes proper, are thus brought under one category ; and he regards it "as advantageous to avoid the separation of that which is casually connected, and differs only in the strength of the manifestation of force and the complication of physical processes." The term has not yet been adopted by English geologists ; and it must be confessed that there is considerable difficulty in associating phenomena which seem to depend on some deep-seated source of heat within the globe, with those that may arise from heat, chemically or other- wise generated, in the mere exterior or superficial crust. Vulcanists. Applied to those geologists who opposed the Wernerian or Neptunian doctrine, that all rocks were of aqueous origin, and who con- tended for the presence of igneous action in the formation and modification of the earth's crust. Vulcanite. An occasional synonyme of Pyroxene or Volcanic garnet, from its occurrence in ejected blocks and lavas. Viilpinite. A granular variety of anhydrous sulphate of lime or gypsum, so called from its being found at Vulpino in Italy, where it is polished for ornamental purposes, under the name of marmo bardiglio. W Wacke". A German miner's term for a soft earthy variety of trap-rock, resembling indurated clay, but generally containing crystals peculiar to the Trap series. It is usually of a greyish-green colour, from the amount of earth it contains, is sometimes amygdaloidal, and readily crumbles down when exposed to the weather. It seems to be, in some instances, a com- pacted mass of volcanic dust and ashes ; in others, an indurated volcanic mud. See GREY WACKE. 457 WAD WAT Wad or Wadd. A miner's term for an earthy oxide of manganese, occurring in beds and in crusting veins and fissures in the older rocks. It is used chiefly as a coarse pigment in oil-painting ; for colouring and glazing pottery ; and in the manufacture of glass. When mixed with lin- seed oil, the ochrey variety often takes fire spontaneously. Wignerite (after Dr Wagner). The fluophosphate of magnesia, a trans- parent mineral, having a vitreo-resinous lustre, wine-yellow or honey- yellow colour, and at one time confounded with the Brazilian topaz. It is very rare, and has been found only near Werfen in Salzburg, in quartz- reins in the Clay-slate formation. Wdlchia (after Walch). A genus of coniferous plants occurring in the Carboniferous and Permian systems. According to Sternberg, who erected the genus, they have numerous closely-set, regularly-pinnated branches, resembling those of Araucaria excelsa, and which are thickly beset with foliage. In many instances the branches are terminated by oblong cones, composed of imbricated, oval, or lanceolate pointed scales. Warp. A provincial term for the muddy deposit from waters artificially introduced over low lands, as those adjoining the Trent, Ouse, &c. The process of warping consists in causing water loaded with silt to enter low flats at flood-tides, there to remain till it has deposited its mud, and after- wards allowing it to run off clear when the tides are low. It is an im- portant means of fertilising, as well as of raising the general level of large low tracts. Waste. In mining, the old neglected workings of a coal-mine ; so called from their being unattended to in ventilation, drainage, and other par- ticulars. Water. In chemical nomenclature water is the protoxide of hydrogen, consisting of two volumes of hydrogen and one of oxygen, or of eight parts of oxygen to one of hydrogen by weight 88.9 oxygen, and 11.1 hydrogen. When pure and at ordinary temperatures, it is fluid and amorphous, with- out taste or smell, colourless in small quantities, but in large masses of a peculiar green or blue. The specific gravity of pure or distilled water, at 62 Fahr., is assumed at 1.000, and is taken as the standard of gravity for all other bodies ; but sea-water varies according to locality, and the depth from which it is taken, from 1.027 to 1.029. When heated to the temperature of 212 Fahr., at the level of the sea and under the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere, water boils and is converted into steam ; and this boiling-point (as it is termed) becomes less in proportion as we ascend above the sea-level. At 40 Fahr. water is at its minimum volume, expanding as it rises above that temperature till it is wholly converted into vapour, and also, as it falls below it, till it is converted into ice a transparent, brittle, crystalline solid. Water, as found on the earth, is never absolutely pure, but contains more or less of vari- ous substances, as atmospheric air, carbonic acid, nitrogen gas; silica, alumina, and salts (carbonates, sulphates, nitrates, phosphates) of lime, magnesia, soda, potash, protoxide of iron and manganese ; or chlorides and fluorides of their metallic bases ; and in the sea and some saline springs, also iodine and bromine. As a geological agent, water may be regarded in three main lights viz., vitally, as indispensable to the life and growth of plants and animals ; chemically, as entering less or more into the composition of, all inorganic or mineral bodies ; and mechanically, as abrading, transporting, and reasserting the materials of 458 WAT WEA the earth's crust, by its operations in rain, rivers, waves, tides, and other currents. Water of Crystallisation. Many substances, in passing from a state of solution to the solid crystalline form, combine chemically with a certain portion of the water, which in a dry state forms an essential part of their crystals, and seems, in some cases, to give the peculiar determina- tion to their constituent molecules ; the amount of this water is the "water of crystallisation." Watershed. In physical geography, the ideal line which separates two river-basins or systems of natural drainage all the springs and streamlets " shedding off," like the roof of a house, as it were, to their respective basins. The watershed is not necessarily a mountain-chain, and in some rare instances it is broken by a water-communication connecting two great river-systems. Waterspout. " The waterspouts so frequently seen in the ocean origi- nate," says Mrs Somerville, " in adjacent strata of air of different tempera- tures, running in opposite directions in the upper regions of the atmo- sphere. They condense the vapour and give it a whirling motion, so that it descends tapering to the sea below, and causes the surface of the water to ascend in a pointed spiral till it joins that from above, and then it looks like two inverted cones, being thinner in the middle than either above or below. When a waterspout has a progressive motion, the upper and under part must move in the same direction and with equal velocity, otherwise it breaks, which frequently happens." Water- worn. Worn away, smoothed and rounded by the action of water, as the "shingle" in the bed of a river, or the "pebbles" on the sea-shore. Water-worn blocks are generally smooth and rounded in form ; weat/ier-wom, rough, and more or less honeycombed. Wavellite (after Dr Wavel, its discoverer). Phosphate of alumina ; a transparent yellowish-grey or greenish-grey mineral, occurring in minute acicular crystals, which unite in hemispherical masses, with a radiated fibrous texture and drusy surface. It is found in various formations, but chiefly in clay-slate and other older rocks ; and is sometimes confounded with Hydrargillite, which is a pure hydrate of alumina. Wayboards. A mining term, now pretty generally employed by geolo- gists to designate any thin layers or bands that separate or define the boundaries of thicker strata ; thus we speak of thick beds of limestone separated by "wayboards" of slaty shale, of sandstones separated by "wayboards" of clay these thin layers indicating the lines of junction at which the strata separate or give way. Weald (Sax. wold, a woodland). The low country lying between the North and South Downs of Kent and Sussex ; and from this locality being the chief area in Britain of a formation that lies between the Oolite and the Chalk, the term Wealden or Weald has been applied to the strata of that formation. See WEALDEN GROUP. Wealden Group. In the tabulations of English geologists, that series of strata which occurs between the uppermost beds of the Oolite and the lower ones of the Chalk formation. By some it is regarded as a fresh-water or estuarine group of the Oolitic system ; by others it is classed as the lowest member of the Cretaceous system ; but as a subordinate "group," litholo- gically and palseontologically, it is sufficiently distinct from either. Dr Mantell, to whom we are indebted for the most detailed account of the 459 WEA WEN Wealden, describes it as "a series of clays and sands with subordinate beds of limestone and shale, containing fresh-water shells, terrestrial plants, and the teeth and bones of reptiles and fishes ; univalve shells prevailing in the upper, bivalves in the lower, and saurian remains in the intermedi- ate beds ; the state in which the organic remains occur manifesting that they have been subject to the action of river-currents, but not to attrition from the waves of the ocean." As a group, the Wealden is of limited ex- tent in England and on the continent of Europe, while in other regions its precise equivalents have not yet been detected. As typically developed in Kent and Sussex, it seems to occupy the site of an ancient estuary, which received the clay and mud of some gigantic river, whose waters occasion- ally bore down the spoils of land plants and land animals, to be entombed along with those of aquatic origin. Regarding it as the upper group of the Oolitic system, it may be said to consist of two main members the Weald Clay and Hastings Sands, which, when analysed, exhibit the follow- ing particulars, taken in descending order : Weald Clay. Thick blue clays, having in the upper part septaria of argillaceous ironstone, and in the lower parts beds of the shelly fresh-water limestone (paludina limestone) known as " Sussex, Pet- worth, or Bethersden marble." Hastings Sands. Fawn-coloured sand and friable sandstone (Horsham beds) ; calciferous sandstones, alternating with friable and conglome- rate grits (Tilgate beds) ; white sand and friable sandstone alternating with clay (Worth Sandstone) ; bluish limestone alternating with blue clay and sandstone shale, and some beds of calciferous sandstone ( Ash- burnham beds). See tabulations, " GEOLOGICAL SCHEME." "Weathering. The wasting or wearing away of rock-surfaces by exposure to the atmosphere or weather. Geologists speak of the " fresh fracture " in contradistinction to the " weathered surface," which is often merely discoloured or covered by a pellicle of lichens. Weather-worn. Applied to rocks and cliffs whose faces are less or more wasted and worn away by the action of the water. Many rocks being of unequal hardness, their weather-worn surfaces present very fantastic shapes, and are often deeply pitted and honeycombed. Websterite (after Dr Webster). Hydrous subsulphate of alumina ; known also as Aluminite; a snow-white or yellowish-white earthy mineral occurring in soft reniform masses, with a very fine scaly or fibrous structure. It seems to arise from the decomposition of clays in recent formations, and consists of 30.26 alumina, 23.37 sulphuric acid, and 46.37 water. Wenlock Limestone and Shale. A characteristic group or section of the Upper Silurian strata, typically developed near Wenlock, in Shropshire. Near Wenlock the limestone (formerly well known to collectors as the "Dudley Limestone") consists of thick masses of grey sub-crystalline strata, replete with corals and encrinites. It is essentially of a concretion- ary nature, the concretions being locally known as " bell-stones," and con- sisting of pure carbonate of lime. The shale, which is a mass of fine argil- laceous matter, imbedding numerous calcareous concretions, is by far the largest member of the group, ranging from 600 to 1000 feet in thickness, and replete with corals, encrinites, trilobites, shells, and other marine exuviae. Near Coalbrookdale the shale is known as " die-earth," because it lies beneath all the mining ground the minerals "dying out," as it were, at this stage of descent. See SILURIAN SYSTEM. 460 WER WIL Wernerite (after Werner). A rare mineral, occurring in long prismatic crystals, translucent, colourless, pale-grey or greenish-yellow ; and found chiefly in veins in the crystalline rocks. Chemical and crystallographic constitution somewhat uncertain, but now regarded as a variety of SCAPO- LITE, which see. Wetherellia (after Mr Wetherell). One of Mr Bowerbank's genera of fossil fruits from the London Clay. They seem to have been pulpy fruits divided into two lobes by the expansion of the ripe seeds ; and from the appearance which their section presents, are popularly known as "petri- fied coffee-berries." Wheal. In Cornwall a very frequent designation for a mine; being a modern form of the old Cornish word Hud, a mine. Whet-stone. Known also as " Whet-slate" and " Novaculite ;" a very hard, fine-grained siliceous slate, used for sharpening knives, joiners' tools, and other instruments. See HONE. Whim. In mining, a machine consisting of a winding barrel or cylinder, usually worked by horse or water power, and used for raising ore, coal, or other stuff from a mine. Whin, Whinstone. Used in Scotland as synonymous with greenstone ; but applied by miners and quarrymen to any hard resisting rock that comes in the way of their operations. Whirl or Whorl. In conchology, a wreath or single turn of the spire of a univalve shell, such as the helix or garden snail. The axis of revolution is termed the columella, and the turns of the spiral are denominated whirls or whorls. In some shells the whirls are few, in others they are numerous and distinct ; in some they are arranged in a long, tapering, screw-like spiral ; in others they form a short, pointed cone ; while in many they are coiled round each other on a horizontal plane in wheel- like or discoid form. In most univalves, when the aperture is turned towards the spectator, and the apex upwards, the whirls run from left to right to the apex ; in a few this order is reversed ; hence we speak of reversed or sinislral shells. Whirlpool. Any rotatory or circular motion of water produced by op- posing winds and tides. The whirlpool of Maelstrom, on the coast of Norway, is occasioned by the meeting of tidal currents round the islands of Lofoden and Moskoe. It is a mile and a half in diameter, and so violent that its roar is heard at the distance of several leagues. Whirlwind. The name given to aerial currents that assume a rotatory, whirling, or spiral motion. They are often of great violence, but fortu- nately of short duration, and are most frequently caused by the meeting of two contrary winds, though sometimes by obstructions of the land, as precipitous mountains, narrow gorges, and the like. Their occurrence at sea produces waterspouts ; on the loose sands of the desert, sand-pillars and kindred phenomena. Whitby Snakes. A provincial, and now obsolete, term for the coiled-up snake-like shells of the ammonite, found abundantly in the Lias of Whitby, in Yorkshire. Whitestone. A variety of felspathic granite ; the Weiss-stein of Werner ; and the Eurite of French mineralogists. See EURITE. Wichtisite or Wichtyne. One of the Garnet family, nearly allied to Glaucophane (which see) ; and so called from its being found at Wichtis in Finland. Williamite (after Prof. Williams). A siliceous oxide of zinc, nearly 461 WIN WOL related to Galmei or electric calamine, and usually found along with it. See ZINC. Wind (Sax.) The general name for aerial currents caused by the unequal heating of the atmosphere the heated and more rarefied portions ascend- ing, and the colder and denser flowing downwards to supply their place. Winds are divisible into three great categories permanent, like the trade- winds ; periodical, like the monsoons and the sea and land breezes ; and accidental, when the times of their occurrence cannot be determined. Windward. In nautical phraseology, all objects on the weather-side of a vessel, or that against which the wind blows, are said to be to the wind- ward that is, in the direction from which the wind blows. See LEEWARD. Win, Winning. In mining phraseology, the term "winning" is applied to the whole series of operations boring, sinking, excavating, &c. by which any mineral is actually procured or " won " from the crust of the earth. Most frequently used in coal-working. Wings. In mining phraseology, the sides or slopes of an anticline or saddle-back. Wissenbach Slates. A series of slaty schists, impure limestones, and quartzose beds, which lie at the base of the Devonian system as developed in the country along the Rhine. Withamite (after Dr Witham). A variety of epidote, found in porphyry in Glencoe, and occurring in minute bright- red crystals. See EPIDOTE. Witherite (in honour of Dr Withering, its discoverer). Carbonate of barytes (80 barytes, 20 carbonic acid) ; known also as barolite, and found abundantly in veins traversing the older formations. It occurs massive of a somewhat fibrous structure, or in distinct crystals ; whitish or yellowish grey, and strongly translucent. See BARYTES. W6hlerite (in honour of Wohler the chemist). A translucent, vitreous, yellowish-brown mineral, occurring in tabular crystals, or in strongly stri- ated six- or eight-sided prisms in the zircon- syenite, near Fredericksvarn and Brevig in Norway ; and containing, according to Scheerer, 30.62 silica, 14.47 niobic acid, 15.17 zirconia, 26.19 lime, 7.78 soda, and the protoxides of iron and manganese. t Wolchite. The prismatoidal copper-glance of Phillips ; a mixed ore of copper, lead, antimony, arsenic, and sulphur, occurring in the iron mines of Wolch, in Carinthia. Wolchonskoite, Volchonskoite. A variety of chrome-ochre, occurring as an emerald-green or blackish-green massive mineral, and containing from 20 to 35 per cent of chrome-oxide. Wolfram (Ger. wolf, wolf, and rahm, froth). The name given by Wer- ner to the tungstate of iron and manganese, a mineral occurring in short prismatic crystals, or in granular froth-like aggregates of a blackish- brown colour, metallic adamantine lustre, and having a specific gravity of from 7 to 7.5, and a hardness about 6. It occurs, for the most part, asso- ciated with ores of tin in the primary and transition rocks, and occasion- ally in such abundance as to render the tin-ore worthless. According to Berzelius, it consists of 74.67 tungstic acid, 18 protoxide of iron, and 6 manganese, with a trace of silicia. Wolfsbergite. Antimonial copper ; a double sulphuret of copper and antimony, found crystallised, massive, or granular, in quartz at Wolfsberg, in the Harz Mountains. Wdllastonite (after Wollaston the chemist). The tabular spar of Phillips; 462 WOO XAN a silicate of lime, with traces of magnesia and iron, occurring chiefly in granular limestone, but also in the trap and volcanic rocks. It is ranked as one of the Hornblende family, but is rarely crystallised occurring mostly in broad prismatic or tabular masses, of a greyish-yellow or reddish- brown colour, having a vitreous or pearly lustre. Specific gravity, 2.8 ; hardness, 4.5. Wood-Coal. A synonyme for Lignite or Broicn-coal, in allusion to its woody texture, which is often as distinct and well-preserved as the texture of recent timber. See LIGNITE. Wood-Opal. A variety of opal, known also as litkoxylon or opalised wood, in which the form and texture of the wood is still distinctly visible. Beau- tiful specimens are obtained from Hungary, and from near Hobart Town in Van Diemen's Land. Woodstone. A familiar term for silicified wood, such as that from An- tigua, the Desert of Cairo, and Van Diemen's Land. Wood-Tin. Fibrous oxide of tin ; a variety of tin-ore so called from its fibrous texture resembling that of wood. It is usually of a brown or yel- lowish-grey colour, and occurs in rounded fragments, having an internal fibro-radiating texture. It is found in Cornwall, Mexico, and other tin- yielding countries ; and consists, according to Vauquelin, of 91 oxide of tin, and 9 peroxide of iron. See TIN. Woolwich Beds. A name occasionally employed by English geologists to designate those beds of plastic and mottled clays, sands, and rolled flint- pebbles which lie between the " Thanet Sands " and the " London Clay." Next to the Thanet Sands they form the lowest beds of the London Terti- ary Basin. Wrae Limestone. A limestone of the Lower Silurian series, occurring at Wrae Hill, near Innerleithen, in Peeblesshire. Wulfenite. A mineralogical term for the molybdate of lead ; a mineral of a wax or orange-yellow, occurring in short prismatic or pyramidal crys- tals collected in druses, and found in beds and veins in Secondary and tran- sition limestones. Consists of 60 protoxide of lead, and 40 molybdic acid. Wych or Wich. A Celtic word signifying salt spi'ing; hence the termi- nation of such English towns as Droitwich, Nantwich, Middlewich, &c., where salt springs exist. Xanthidium (Gr. xanlhos, yellow). A genus of Diatoms, whose micro- scopic case or fristule consists of a hollow, siliceous globe, beset with spines ; and whose endochrome or colouring matter, in recent species, is of a deep yellowish-green ; whence the name. They abound in recent, Tertiary, and upper Secondary formations ; and from their increase by self-division, usually appear as twin spherules. Xdnthite (Gr. xanthos, yellow). A mineral of the Garnet family, occur- ring in small, greenish-yellow, translucent, loosely-connected grains, in a bed of limestone near Amity in New York. It seems, from its compo- sition, to be a variety of idocrase, which is found in the same locality. 463 XAN YEL Xdnthokon. A sulpho-arsenite of silver, occurring in rhombohedric crystals, or in small reniform masses ; and so called from its orange-yellow or yellowish-brown colour. It consists of 63.4 silver, 14.7 arsenic, and 21.9 sulphur. Xanthophyllite (Gr. xanthos, yellow ; phyllon, leaf; and lithos}. The rhombohedric pearl-mica of Mohs, occurring in mica and talc schists, and so named from its yellowish colour and foliated texture. Xiphosura (Gr. xiphos, a sword, and oura, a tail). Literally "sword- tail ;" a division of the entomostracous crustaceans, in which the last seg- ment of the body forms (in the adult animal) a long, three-edged, sharp- pointed weapon, as in thelimulus, or king-crab. The xip/iosura differ from other crustaceans in having the basal joint of their thoracic feet furnished with spines which serve as masticatory organs (foot-jaws) ; in having their branchiae or gills composed of membranous folds attached to the basal portion of the abdominal legs ; in having the head and breast united into one buckler-like plate (the cephalo-thorax) ; and in having the abdominal buckler terminating in the long sharp-pointed spine which gives them their name. The thoracic feet, which generally terminate in pincer-like claws, are used for prehension and mastication ; the abdominal, which are foliaceous or leaf-like, subserve the purposes of swimming and respir- ation. The existing species are all marine, and inhabitants of warmer regions ; the fossil species range from the Upper Silurian and Lower Old Red, and appear to have been of much more gigantic dimensions than their living congeners. X^lite (Gr. xylon, wood). A mineralogical term for those varieties of amianthus which have a woody-like texture ; and better known, perhaps, as " mountain-wood," "rock-wood," &c. They consist essentially of silica, magnesia, and iron protoxide. Xyl6bius (Gr. xylon and bios). Literally " timber-liver ;" a small chilognathous myriapod discovered by Dr Dawson in the interior of sigil- larise in the Lower Coal-measures of Nova Scotia ; and so termed from its supposed habit of burrowing in the decayed trunks of trees, such as those in which its remains were found petrified. If indeed a myriapod, it is the earliest of its kind yet known to palaeontology. Xyldretine (Gr. xylon, wood, and retine, resin). Literally " wood-resin ;" a sub-fossil resinous substance occurring in connection with the pine-trunks of certain peat-mosses, and evidently the slightly-altered resins of these Ydnolite. The name given by Lametheric to the Thummerstein of Wer- ner, and the Axinite of Haiiy. One of the Garnet family, consisting of silica, alumina, lime, iron, and manganese. Yellow Earth, Yellow Ochre. A massive earthy mineral of the Clay family, of an ochre-yellow colour, somewhat greasy feel, adheres to the tongue, and pulverises in water. It seems to be a mixture of hydrous 464 YEN ZAF silicate of alumina, with hydrous peroxide of iron ; and is perhaps a decom- posed clay-ironstone. When burnt and prepared it is sold by the Dutch as a pigment under the name of " English Red." Yenite. A double silicate of lime and iron, occurring in crystalline strata, along with quartz, magnetic ironstone, copper pyrites, and other ores ; and known also as Lievrite or Ilvaite. It was named Yenite in com- memoration of the battle of Jena, in 1806 ; Ilvaite, from Elba, where it occurs ; and Lievrite, after its discoverer, Le Lievre. Yoredale Eocks. The name given by English geologists to the upper group of the Carboniferous Limestone, as developed in the north-western parts of Yorkshire the Scar Limestone forming the lower group. The Yoredale Rocks consist of several beds of limestone alternating with free- stones, flagstones, shales, and thin seams of coal, and attain a thickness of about 1000 feet. You-Stone. A familiar term for Chinese Jade, or Nephrite, which see. Y'ttria. The name given by Ekeberg to a new earth discovered by Gadolin, in 1794, in the quarry of Ytterby in Sweden ; hence the name. It has also been called Gadolinite (which see), after its original discoverer. Y'ttria-Spar. According to Hartmann, this occurs as a white incrusta- tion, as Gadolinite, and other minerals from Ytterby in Sweden. Yttrium. The metallic basis of the earth yttria. When separated from the silica, lime, iron, and manganese with which it is associated in yttria, it appears as a fine white powder, tasteless, inodorous, infusible, and insoluble in water. Yttro-Cerite. A rather rare mineral substance, occurring in granular incrustations of a violet-blue to a whitish-grey colour ; and consisting, according to Berzelius, of about 47 lime, 18 peroxide of cerium, 10 yttria, and 25 hydro -fluoric acid. Yttro-Columbite. The name given by Brochant and Dana to yttrious oxide of columbium ; Yttro-tantalite, which see. Yttro-I'lmenite. Same as Lamarskite, which see. Yttro-Tantalite. Yttrious oxide of tantalum ; a mineral occurring in kidney-shaped masses, of a shining metallic lustre, at Ytterby in Sweden. Berzelius distinguishes the black, brown, and yellow varieties ; which consist of somewhat varying proportions of tantalic and tungstic acids, yttria, lime, and peroxides of uranium and iron. Yttro-Titanite. Known also as Keilhauite; a blackish-brown translucent mineral, having a resinous fracture, and much resembling garnet, but distinguished by its greater specific gravity. It is a silicate of lime, iron, and alumina, with titanic acid and yttria ; and occurs in the granitic and crystalline rocks of Norway. Zaffire. In mineralogy, the impure oxide of cobalt, being the residuum of the native arseniuret of cobalt, after the arsenic, sulphur, and other volatile matters have been expelled by calcination. Melted with silica and potash, and reduced to powder, it becomes the "powder-blue" of commerce. 465 2 a ZAM ZEU Zami6strobus. The generic term applied to fossil cone-like fruits, appar- ently those of plants allied to the zamia and cycas. They occur chiefly in the Upper Oolite, Wealden, and Chalk formations. Zamites. The general term for all fossil plants apparently allied to the existing zamia. They make their appearance in the Upper Oolites, and continue throughout the Secondary and Tertiary formations. The existing zamias (see order Gycadacece) being natives of the tropical parts of Asia and America, and of the Cape of Good Hope and Australia, their occur- rence in ancient formations gives evidence of tropical or sub-tropical con- ditions of climate in the areas of deposit. Zeagonite (Gr. zeo, I swell or bubble up, and gone, an angle). A mineral of the Zeolite family, and so named from its tetragonal crystals, which are chiefly arranged in spheres or bundles. Known also as Gismondine and Abrazite ; but not very decidedly separable from the lime or potash harmo- tomes or cross-stones, to which it is often referred. Zechstein (Ger.) Literally "mine-stone;" because it has to be mined or cut through to reach the copper-slate (Kupfer-schiefer) which lies imme- diately beneath it. Von Buch suggests that the word was probably de- rived from the Italian zeccMno or sequin, formerly a well-known coin in Germany, because this calcareous rock was the cover which, being pierced, led to the bed of ore from which the miner derived his profit. The German " Zechstein " upper and lower is the equivalent of the Permian or Mag- nesian Limestone of England. See PERMIAN SYSTEM. Zellania. A sub-genus of Terebratulse occurring in the Oolitic forma- tion, and characterised by their small, triangular, distinctly punctate shells, which are rounded in front, taper towards the beak, are thickest at the umbo, and have the sides somewhat flattened. Zenith (Arabic.) In astronomy, that point in the heavens which is ver- tically or right above the bead of the spectator ; the term nadir being that which denotes the opposite point, or that perpendicularly or right under his feet. In popular language, the term Zenith is used to denote the high- est or culminating point of any subject referred to ; as the " zenith of the poet's fame," the " zenith of saurian development." Zeolite (Gr. zeo, I boil or bubble up, and lithos, stone). An extensive family of minerals silicates of lime and alumina so called from their frothing or intumescing into a whitish spongy enamel under the blowpipe. The family includes hexahedral zeolite or analcime, prismatic or natrolite and mesotype, prismatoidal or stilbite, hemiprismatic or Heulandite, pyra- midal or apophyllite, rhomboidal or chabasite, diprismatic or laumonite, paratomous or harmatome, &c., all of which are noticed under their respec- tive names. The zeolites occur most abundantly in the amygdaloidal trap- rocks ; frequently in basalt and greenstone ; occasionally in the granitic and crystalline rocks ; and more rarely in the trachytes and lavas. Zero. A word of Arabic origin signifying emptiness or extreme depri- vation, and usually represented by a cipher or 0. It is variously used in science ; but may be generally defined as the neutral point between any ascending and descending scale or series. In familiar language it is used as synonymous with nothing, or the extreme point of depression. The zero of Fahrenheit's thermometric scale is 32 below freezing ; the real or abso- lute zero would be the point at which caloric was entirely exhausted. Zeuglodon (Gr. zeugos, a yoke, and odous, tooth). Literally "yoke- tooth ; " a Tertiary mammal of the whale kind, so called by Professor Owen 466 ZEU ZIR from the peculiar form of its molar teeth. Remains of a skeleton between seventy and eighty feet in length were first discovered in the Eocene strata of Alabama and Arkansas, and described by Dr Harlan under the title BASILOSAURUS (king of the lizards], under the supposition that they be- longed to an enormous reptile a belief that has since been set aside by the more correct investigations of our great English anatomist. Zeiixite (Gr. zeuxis, connection or union, because found in the united mines, Cornwall). A mineral of the Scapolite family, occurring in fibrous masses of acicular crystals of a greenish-brown colour, and evidently allied to Prehnite. Chemically, it is a ferro-silicate of alumina. Zianite. Werner's synonyme for kyanite or cyanite, one of the Garnet family, which see. Zinc (Ger. zink). One of the simple or elementary bodies ; a metal of a bluish-white colour, with a fine granular fracture, foliated structure, spe- cific gravity about 7, harder than lead, but may easily be cut with a knife. At common temperatures it is tough and intractable under the hammer ; but when heated to between 220 and 320 it becomes malleable and duc- tile, so that it can be beaten into plates, or rolled into sheets and leaves, and drawn into wire. If heated, however, to 500 or so, it becomes brittle, and fuses at 770. It tarnishes on exposure to the air, but is little oxidated, the first-formed film of oxide long resisting the action of air and water, and thus preventing further decay. Being a cheap and light metal, zinc is largely used as a substitute for lead ; alloyed with copper, it forms the well-known compound brass; and its salts are extensively used in medicine and the arts. As a metal, zinc does not occur native ; and its chief ores a,recalamine, or the carbonate, occurring most abundantly in limestones along with calc-spar, ores of lead and iron, and other ores of zinc ; blende, or the sulphuret, found also in veins with other ores ; Goslarile, or the sul- phate, arising apparently from the decomposition of blende ; zincite, or the red oxide ; and galmri or the siliceous oxide, usually found in connection with calamine. The ores of zinc are readily determined by first roasting and then fusing by the blowpipe on charcoal with copper filings. If zinc is present the copper will be converted into a button of brass. Zincite.- The mineralogical term for the native ferriferous oxide of zinc, which see. Zlnckenite, properly Zinkenite. A native sulphuret of antimony and lead (35 lead, 43.4 antimony, and 21.6 sulphur), occurring in narrow ver- tically-striated prisms, or in massive and columnar aggregates in veins, along with sulphuret of antimony and quartz, at Wolfsberg, &c., in the Harz, and so named after its discoverer, Zinken. Zircon. One of the gems ; a heavy, hard, sparkling mineral, more or less transparent ; doubly refractive ; and occurring colourless, or of vari- ous colours, as yellow, green, and reddish-brown. It is found in prismatic crystals, or in rounded grains, chiefly in the granitic and crystalline rocks; and consists, according to Berzelius, of 33 silica and 67 zirconia. The colourless varieties named jargon are often sold for diamonds ; the brilli- antly-coloured are termed hyacinth, though many "hyacinths" are merely garnets, and easily detected by their inferior gravity, hardness, fusibility, and want of double refraction. Zirc6nia. The oxide of zirconium; a white tasteless earth, discovered by Klaproth in 1789, in zircons from Ceylon zircon being a silicate of zirconia more or less highly coloured by oxide of iron. 467 ZIR ZON Zirc6nium. The metallic basis of zirconia, obtained in the form of a black powder, resembling that of charcoal, but lustrous when rubbed. Zoantharia (Grr. zoon, animal, and anthos, flower). Animal -flowers ; in De Blainville's arrangement, the third class of zoophytes, including the hydras, coral-polypes, sea-anemones, and the like, whose bodies or digestive sacs are furnished with tentacula, which radiate from the mouth like the petals of a flower. Zodiac (zodion, a little animal). The name given by astronomers to the zone within which the apparent motions of the sun, moon, and all the greater planets are performed. It constitutes a belt nine degrees on either side of the ecliptic, and is so named from its containing the figures of the animals, &c., which represent the twelve signs. Zoisite. A variety or sub-species of epidote, or prismatoidal augite spar, of a yellowish or light-grey colour, occurring in granite, diorite, and other crystalline rocks, and named after its discoverer, Baron von Zois. Zone, in geography (Gr. zona, a girdle). One of the five great belts into which the earth is supposed to be divided in respect to temperature ; viz., the torrid, two temperate, and two frigid zones. The torrid includes all the space that lies between the tropics, or 23^ degrees on each side of the equinoctial line ; the temperate from that limit to the arctic circle (66g degrees) in each hemisphere ; and the frigid zones from the arctic circles to either pole. Zone, in botany. With a view to generalise their observations on the geographical distribution of indigenous plants, botanists are in the habit of dividing the horizontal range of vegetation into zones, bounded by annual isothermal lines, as 1, the equatorial ; 2, tropical ; 3, sub-tropical ; 4, warmer temperate ; 5, cooler temperate ; 6, sub-arctic ; 7, arctic ; and, 8, the polar. These zones, being applicable to either hemisphere, express the climatic facies of vegetation within more precise limits than the three great zones torrid, temperate, and frigid of the geographer. Zone, in zoology. Every zone, from the shore daily covered by the tides to the greatest vital depths, being characterised by its own peculiar sea- weeds and shell-fish, in a manner very analogous to the changes in the forms and species of vegetation observed in the ascent of a tropical moun- tain, zoologists are in the habit of speaking of certain bathymetrical zones or "zones of life regulated by depth." Thus, in the British seas, naturalists (following the late Edward Forbes) point out four great belts of life the Littoral, the Laimnarian, the Coralline, and the Coral (which see) ; or, applying the principle to the life of the ocean in general, they distinguish five belts of depth viz., 1, the Littoral; 2, Circum-littoral ; 3, Median ; 4, Infra-median ; and, 5, the Abyssal or Deep-sea zone. " The life-forms of these zones," says Professor Owen, "vary, of course, according to the nature of the sea-bottom ; and are modified by those primitive or creative laws that have caused representative species in distant localities under like physical conditions species related by analogy. Very much (he continues) remains to be observed and studied by naturalists in different parts of the globe, under the guidance of the generalisations thus sketched out, to the completion of a perfect theory ; but in the progress to this the results cannot fail to be practically most useful. A shell or a sea-weed, whose relations to depth are thus understood, may afford im- portant information or warning to the navigator. To the geologist, the distribution of marine life according to the zones of depth has given the 468 ZOO ZYG clue to the determination of the depth of the seas in which certain forma- tions have been deposited." Zo61ogy (Gr. zoon, an animal, and logos, discourse). The science of liv- ing beings in all that relates to their structure, habits, distribution, and classification. Zoological, appertaining to the science of animal life ; zoologist, one devoted to the study of zoology, or the knowledge of animal forms in all their relations structural, functional, and gradational. For systematic arrangements, see tabulations, " ANIMAL SCHEME." Zo6nomy (Gr. zoon, an animal, and nomos, law). The science which treats of the laws of organic life, in as far as these relate to the A nimal kingdom. Zoophagous (Gr. zoon, an animal, and phago, I eat). Animal-eating ; applied to certain tribes of animals (e. g., " zoophagous molluscs") which prey on other animals : in contradistinction to those that are phytopftagous or vegetable-feeders. Z6ophyte (Gr. zoon, animal, and phyton, plant). A nimal- plants ; an early and popular division of the animal kingdom, including the sponges, corals, and other allied aquatic creatures, which, from their manner of growth and appearance, were supposed to be intermediate between plants and animals. Being wanting in scientific precision, the term is only loosely and popularly applied to those polypes, polyzoa, &c., which secrete plant-like substances, as sponges, corals, corallines, and so forth. Zoophyt6logy (Gr. zoophyton, a zoophyte, and logos, discourse). That department of natural history which treats of the structure, mode of growth, habits, and distribution of zoophytes. Zosterites. A genus of fluviatile plants occurring in the Wealden and Lower Greensand formations, and so called from their resemblance to the existing zostera marina or sea-wrack. In zosteriies the leaves are linear, marked with few veins, and these not connected by transverse veins. Ziindererz (Ger.) Tinder-ore ; an ore of antimony occurring in the Saxon mines in soft, flexible, tinder-like masses, of a blackish-red colour and little lustre. From analysis it appears to be an admixture of silver, lead, iron, antimony, arsenic, and siilphur. Zwieselite. A fluo-phosphate of iron and manganese, so called from being found at Zwiesel, in Bavaria. Zygomaturus. A large marsupial mammal the most extraordinary yet discovered in the Post-tertiary deposits of Australia, and so named from the great width of the zygomatic arches of the skull. Judging from the size of the head, which was the only portion found in 1858, it seems to have been as large as an ox, and to have had a face somewhat resembling that of the existing wombat. It also appears to make a near approach to, though differing generically from, the Diprotodon, another large marsupial from the same ancient alluvial beds. III. SPECIFIC APPELLATIONS NOTE. THE following List contains the greater portion of those terms employed by palaeontologists to distinguish their so-called species of fossil plants and animals.* Most of them are Latin, or Latinised forms, and refer chiefly to external aspect ; not unfrequently to the name of the discoverer, or other individual eminent in the branch of natural history to which the object belongs ; and in many instances to the locality where it was first detected, or in which it is exclusively found. Thus, Pecten quinqiwcostatus, the five-ribbed pecten ; P. Woodwardii, after S. P. Woodward, the eminent conchologist ; and P. PurbecJcensis, a species apparently peculiar to the Purbeck beds of the Oolite. Whatever their origin (and it is greatly to be desired that describers would in every instance endeavour to adopt such terms as refer to some palpable characteristic), these designations follow the usual inflexion of Latin words ; rotundus, rotunda, roturidum pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum or brevis, brevis, breve, being respectively applied just as the generic word to which they refer may be masculine, feminine, or neuter ; while the names of discoverers, &c., are thrown into the possessive case, as Lyellii, Murchisoni; and those of localities converted into adjec- tives, as Hibernians, Purbeckensis, and the like, but this, it must be con- fessed, not always in the most classical or most euphonious forms. Our present business, however, is more with their meanings than with their origin, and these we have endeavoured to render in the simplest and brief- est language, consistent with the comprehension of the fact or character which the original term was intended to express. * We say " so-called species ; " for, in the emphatic words of Professor Carpenter, " there are still too many who are far too ready to establish new species, upon variations of the most trivial character, without taking the pains to establish the value of these ditferences, by ascertaining their constancy through an extensive series of individuals, thus, as was well said by the late Prince of Canino, ' de- scribing specimens instead of species,' and burdening science not only with a use- less nomenclature, but with a mass of false assertions. It should be borne in mind that every one who thus makes a bad species, is really doing a serious detriment to science ; whilst every one who proves the identity of species previously ac- counted distinct, is contributing towards its simplification, and is therefore one of its truest benefactors." SPECIFIC APPELLATIONS. A 'celensis, is, e; found at Aalen in Wirtemberg. abbrevidtus, a, um; shortened ; comparatively short. abductus, a, um; removed. aVies;' the fir-tree ; fir-tree-like. abjectus, a, um; worthless. abndrmis, is, e; out of the usual order ; abnormal. abrfiptus, a, um; abrupt ; terminating suddenly. Acadianus, a, um; of, or belonging to, Nova Scotia. acd^dis, is, e; stalkless ; stemless. acciptnseroldes; sturgeon-like ; resembling the sturgeon. acerdsus, a, um; of the maple-tree ; resembling the maple. acetdbulum; slightly concave, like a cup or calyx. aciculdtus, a, um; needle-pointed ; furnished with sharp points. aciedentatus, a, um; needle-toothed ; sharp-toothed. acinaci/6rmis, is, e; scimitar-shaped. actinura; star- tailed ; prickly- tailed. aculedtus, a, um; prickly ; armed with sharp points. acumin&tus, a, um; pointed ; terminating sharply. acutdngulus, a, um; acute-angled ; sharp-cornered. ac&tifolius, a, um; sharp-leafed ; having pointed leaves. acutirdstris, is, e; sharp-nosed;- sharp-beaked. acuiiusculus, a, um; rather sharp ; somewhat acute. adelphinus, a, um; brotherly ; in brotherhoods ; closely related. aduncdtus, a, um; hooked ; formed like a hook. aduncus, a, um; crooked ; shaped like a hook or claw. cegagrdpilo'ides; shaggy ; like the wild goat's hair. cequilaterdlis, is, e; equal-sided ; having equal sides. cequiseptdtus, a, um; equally divided by septa or partitions. cequisulcdlus, a, um; equal-furrowed ; having furrows of equal size. cequivalvis, is, e; equal- valved ; valves of the same size. djfinis, is, e; adjoining ; contiguous. agaridf6rmis, is, e; shaped like a mushroom. agaricoldes; mushroom-like. Agassizi; in honour of Agassiz, the distinguished naturalist. agglutindns; glued to, or joined to one another. agrgstis, is, e; belonging to the fields ; field-dwelling. 473 ALA API aldtus, a, um; winged ; having wing-like appendages. albo-gdtitrus; white-hat ; white-helmet shape. aliformis, is, e; wing-shaped ; in the form of wings. Allani; after Mr Allan, of Edinburgh, mineralogist. Alnwicensis, is, e; found at Alnwick in Northumberland. alpfetris, is, e; alpine ; growing at great elevations. alternans; alternating ; following one after another. alterndlus, a, um; alternating ; following at intervals. alutdceus, a, um; tanned ; like tanned leather. alveoldris, is, e; hollowed like a trough or channel. ambiguus, a, um; ambiguous ; doubtful. ammono'ides; ammonite-like ; curved like a ram's horn. amphibius, a, um; amphibious ; living on land or in water. amphSra; a flaggon ; flaggon-shaped. amplidtus, a, um; enlarged ; spread out. amplus, a, um; full ; full-sized. ampulla; a flask or flagon ; flask-shaped. ampulldceus, a, um; bottle-shaped ; flagon-like. ampullosus, a, um; puffed out ; flagon-like. amygdalceformis, is, e; almond-shaped. amygdaloldes; almond-like ; in the form of almonds. anastomosans; veined ; running one into another like the veins of a leaf. andstomdsus, a, um; anastomosing ; running one into another like the veins of a leaf. (tnfltlnus, a, um; duck-like. ancfys; doubtful ; undetermined. ancyloldes; shield-like ; formed like a shield. Andersdni; after the Rev. Dr Anderson of Newburgh, Fife. angeioldes; vessel-like ; flagon-shaped. Angftcus, a, um; English ; found in England. anguilla; an eel ; eel-like in form. angust&tus, a, um; narrowed ; constricted. angustidens; narrow- toothed ; compressed tooth. angustifolius, a, um; narrow-leaved. angustifrons; narrow-fronted ; having a narrow forehead. annfclens; connecting ; approaching ; akin to. Anningice; after Miss Anning of Lewes, collector of fossils. annuldtns, a, um; annular ; ring-shaped ; ringed. an6malus, a, um; anomalous ; irregular. anomolopdra; having unusual pores. anthrac6philus, a, um; coal-loving ; found chiefly in the Coal-measures. anserinus, a, um; goose-like ; of or pertaining to the goose. Anstedi; after Professor Ansted of London, geologist. anthracinus, a, um; coaly ; found in or belonging to coal. antiquior, or, us; more ancient ; of earlier date. antiquus, a, um; ancient ; of early date. aperturdtus, a, um; full of apertures ; fissured. apicdlis, is, e; sharp-pointed ; tapering to a slender point. apicicurvdtus, a, ^lm; curved at the top or apex. 474 API AXI apiculdtus, a, um; pointletted ; slender-pointed. approximdtus, a, um; approximating ; close upon one another. aqulla; an eagle ; curved like an eagle's beak. ardchnoldes; cobweb-like ; cobwebby. ardchnoldeus, a, um; in the form of a cobweb ; in slender meshes. ardneus, a, um; spider-web-like ; lightly netted. arborescens; arborescent ; branching like a tree. archetfipa; original ; the original type. ardgerens; arch or bow bearing ; bow-shaped. arctos; belonging to the arctic regions ; northern. arcudrius, a, um; arched ; bent like a bow. arcudtus, a, um; bent ; arched ; bow-shaped. arculdtus, a, um; coffer-like. arendrius, a, um; sandy ; belonging to the sand. arenicolus, a, um; sand-dwelling ; burrowing in the sand. areoldtus, a, um; areolate ; divided into a number of irregular squares or small angular spaces. arguttis, a, um; clear ; decided ; pretty. armdtus, a, um; armed ; furnished with defences. arthriticus, a, um; jointed ; furnished with joints. articuldtus, a, um; articulated; closely jointed. articuldsus, a, um; jointed ; full of joints. arvensis, is, e; field-inhabiting ; belonging to the fields. asper, a, um; rough ; rough-surfaced. aspergillifdrmis, is, e; brush-shaped. asjxrgillus; a brush for sprinkling holy water ; brush-like. aspGrrimus, a, um; extremely rough ; harsh with points. asperulus, a, um; roughish ; somewhat rough. astacoldes; lobster-like; crayfish-like. asleriscus, a, um; star-like ; in the form of an asterisk. asthenodeirus, a, um; weak-necked ; slender-necked. qstro'ides; star-like ; rayed like a star. astrdphorus, a, um; star-bearing ; starred. auloporoldes; pipe-pore-like ; resembling the aulopore coral. a^ll6ticon; pipe-shaped ; pipe-like. aurdntium; an orange ; like an orange. auricula; an ear ; like an ear. auriculdris, is, e; ear-shaped. auriculdtus, a, um; eared ; having ear-like appendages. auritus, a, um; long- eared ; decidedly eared. Austtni; after Mr Godwin Austen, geologist. avelldna; filbert; like a filbert. avenifdrmis, is, e; oat-pipe-shaped ; like an oaten straw. aviculo'ides; bird-shaped ; in the form of a little bird. axincef6rmis, is, e; axe-shaped ; axe-like. 475 BAG BOV B baccdtus, a, um; berried ; furnished with berry-like excrescences. lacilldris, is, e; staff-like ; straight like a staff. bacillum; a staff; staff-like. baculiformis, is, e; staff-like ; staff-shaped. baltedtus, a, um; belted. Bdlticus, a, um; from the Baltic shores ; belonging to the Baltic Sea. Banksii; after Mr Banks of Kington, Ludlow. barbdtus, a, um; bearded ; having hair-like appendages. Barrandei; in honour of M. Barrande, geologist and palaeontologist. Bechei; after Sir Henry de la Beche, geologist. BecJclesii; after Mr Beckles, geologist and palaeontologist. bellicinctus, a, um; beautifully bound or wound round. bellistriatus, a, um; beautifully striated ; covered with fine striaa. bellulus, a, um; pretty ; neat. Mllus, a, um; beautiful ; elegant. Beudantii; after M. Beudant, French geologist. bicalcardtus, a, um; two -spurred ; armed with two spurs. bicarindtus, a, um; having two keels or ridges. bicatenatus, a, um; marked with two chain-like lines or ridges. bicorddtus, a, um; in the form of two hearts ; twin-hearted. bicordna; double-crowned ; twin-crowned. bicostdlis, is, e; having two ribs, or rib-like processes. bidens; having two teeth ; bidentate. bidorsdtus, a, um; having a double back. bifascidtus, a, um; doubly banded ; two-striped. bifrons; doubly fronted ; two-fronted. bifurcdtus, a, um; bifurcated ; branching in two ; forked. bilinedtus, a, um; two-lined ; marked with two lines. Ulobus, a, um; two-lobed ; bilobed. Binneyi; after Mr E. W. Binney of Manchester, geologist. linus, a, um; double ; in pairs ; twinned. bioculdtus, a, um; double-eyed; twin-eyed. bipartitus, a, um; bipartite ; divided into two ; two- cleft. biplex; double ; two-fold. bipunctdtus, a, um; doubly punctured. bispin6sus, a, um; doubly spined. bisujfarciandtus, a, um; doubly stuffed ; swollen. Blainvillii; after Blainville, the French zoologist. Blumeribdchii; in honour of Blumenbach, German naturalist. Bollensis, is, e; found at Boll in Wirtemberg. b6ops; ox-eyed ; large or full-eyed. boredlis, is, e; boreal ; belonging to northern latitudes. botuliformis, is, e; sausage-shaped. Bouchardiamis, a, um; after M. Bouchard, palaeontologist. bovinus, a, um; ox-like ; allied to the ox family. 476 BOW CAN Bou-erbanki; after Dr Bowerbank of London, microscopist. brachycephalus, a, urn; short-headed. brachydeirus; short-necked. brachypy&opterus, a, um; short sub-dorsal finned. brachyurus, a, um; short-tailed. breviceps; short-headed. brevicollis, is, e; short-necked ; closely attached. brevifolium; short-leaf; short-leaved. brevir6stris, is, e; short-nosed ; short-beaked. brevis, is, e; short. brevispinus, a, um; short-spined. JSridreus, a, um; many-armed, like the fabled Briareus. Bristovii; after Mr Bristow, mineralogist, Geological Survey. JBroderipii; in honour of Mr Broderip, geologist. Brodiei; after Mr Brodie, author of ' Fossil Insects.' Brongniarti; after Brongniart, the French fossil botanist. Brownii, Browniana; after R. Brown, the celebrated botanist. bucdrdium; ox-heart ; shaped like an ox-heart. buccinHus, a, um; trumpet-like. buccinoldea; like the shell buccinum. Bucklandi; after Dr Buckland, geologist. bulldtus, a, um; bossed ; round like a nail-head ; studded with small round knobs. bulloldes; shaped like the shell bulla. bursa; a purse ; purse- or pouch-shaped. byssdceus, a, um; having a " byssus," or appendage of fine filaments, like flocks of wool. cceldtus, a, um; carved in relief; sculptured. ccespit6sus, a, um; turf -like ; turfy. calcardtus, a, um; spurred ; spur-shaped ; furnished with spurs. calcarifdrmis, is, e; spur-shaped ; in the form of a spur. ceUcfofaj sandal ; like a sandal or slipper. calligramma; beautiful writing ; beautifully marked with lines. calopt>ra; beautiful-pored. cdlvus, a, um; bald ; smoothly bare. calyculdris, is, e; cup-like ; like the calyx of a flower. calfaulus, a, um; like a little cup ; calyx-like. Cambrensis, is, e; of or belonging to Wales ; occurring in Wales. campanuldtus, a, um; bell-shaped. campy~lodon; curved or crooked tooth. canaliculdtus, a, um; channeled ; grooved. canaliferus, a, um; furnished with channels or canals. cancelldria; latticed ; furnished with cross-bars. cancelldtus, a, um; latticed ; cancellated. cancriformis, is, e; crab-formed ; crab-like. 477 CAN C1N cdndidus, a, um; white. cannceformis, is, e; cane-shaped ; having a cane-like stem. canteridtus, a, um; railed ; staked. caperdt^(,s, a, um; shrivelled ; puckered in wrinkles. capilldceus, a, um; hairy ; covered with fine hairs. capilldris, is, e; hair-like ; capillary ; in tubes like hairs. capistrdtus, a, um; haltered ; muzzled. capitdtus, a, um; headed ; furnished with small heads. cdprZSlus; the roebuck ; roebuck-like. caput-serptniis; shaped like a serpent's head. carbondcens, a, um; carbonaceous ; found in the Coal-measures. carbondrius, a, um; of or belonging to the Coal-measures. cardio'ides; cardium- or cockle-like. carindria; having a keel or ridge. cariiidtus, a, um; keeled ; furnished with ridges more or less elevated. carintlla; a little keel or ridge. cariniferus, a, um ; keel-bearing ; furnished with a keel or projecting ridge. -carpom6rpha; fruit-shaped ; in the form of a fruit. caryophyllus, a, um; clove-like ; clove-leaved. cassinoides; helmet-like. cdssis; a helmet ; in the form of a helmet. castdnfus, a, um; chestnut-like. catendtus, a, um; chained or connected together. catSnifer, a, um; chain-bearing ; linked like a chain. catenuldtus, a, um; chained ; formed of little links. cathedrdlis, is, e; spire-like ; tapering and spire-like. catillus; a little dish. cdtus; the cat ; cat-like. cauda-galli;-\ik.e the tail of a cock ; arranged like the plumes in a cock's tail. j cauddlis, is, e; tailed ; having a prominent tail. cauddtus, a, um; tail-pointed ; furnished with a tail. caulincefolia; stalk-leaved. cavdtus, a, um; hollowed out ; hollow. caitifrons; hollow-fronted. celluldris, is, e; cell-like ; cellular ; full of cells. cellulosus, a, um; full of cells ; abounding in cells. centrdlis, is, e; central ; in the middle. centrochir; goad-hand ; goad-fin. centrStus, a, um; knotted ; having prominent tubercles. cepcefdrmis, is, e; onion-shaped ; like an onion. cervicornis, is, e; shaped like a stag's horn. cervinus, a, um; deer-like ; allied to the deer kind. chamceformis, is, e; cockle-shaped ; like the shell chama. champsoides; crocodile-like ; allied to the Nilotic crocodile. ckarceformis, is, e; like the fresh-water plant chara. Cliarlesworthii; after Mr Charlesworth of London, naturalist. dnctus, a, um; girdled ; encircled with lines. cintreus, a, um; ash-coloured ; ashy. 478 CIN CON cinguldtus, a, urn; girdled ; encircled with lines. circindtus, a, um; compassed ; encircled ; whorled. circumvhtens; surrounding some other object. circumsulcdtus, a, um; furrowed all round. cirrhosus, a, um; cirrhous ; terminated by a curled filiform appendage. cirrofcdes; cirrus-like ; having a curled appendage. citharSlla; little lute. clathratulus, a, um; slightly latticed ; slightly cross- barred. clathrdtus, a, um; cross- barred ; latticed. datkroldea; bar-like ; lattice-like. clava; a knotty branch ; knob-like. davaroides; club-like. davdtula; little club. davdtus, a, um; club-like ; club-shaped. daviculdris, is, e; collarbone-shaped ; clavicle-like. ddvlge>', a, um; club-bearing. disioides; chamber-like ; separated into small chambers. duniculdris, is, e; haunch-like. dypedtus, a, um; shield-like ; furnished with a shield. coddearella; little screw ; spiral-shaped. coddedtus, a, um; screw-shaped ; spiral. C6lei; after Lord Cole, now Earl of Enniskillen, paleontologist. colubrinus, a, um; snake-like. columUlla; a little dove. columelldris, is, e; little-pillar-like. combtistus, a, um; burnt up ; parched ; withered-like. communis, is, e; common ; of frequent occurrence. comdsus, a, um; bushy ; shaggy like hair. complandtus, a, um; smoothed ; smooth-surfaced. compUxus, a, um; complex ; in many folds ; not simple. compressir6stris; flattened beak ; pressed together. compressus, a, um; flattened ; flattened as if by pressure. comptus, a, um; elegant ; adorned. concdvus, a, um; hollow ; depressed ; concave. concGntricus, a, um; arranged in concentric lines. conchiticus, a, um; shelly ; shelly in aspect. continnus, a, um; handsome ; pretty; neat. cdnfluens; confluent ; running together ; running into one. coi&cus, a, um; conical ; tapering to a point. conifer, a, um; cone- bearing ; bearing cones like a fir-tree. conjungens; immediately joining ; approximating. cono^dens, a, um; shaped like a cone ; somewhat conical. conophthalmus; conical eyed ; the eye projecting like a cone. consobrinus, a, um; a cousin ; nearly allied. constrictus, a, um; bound closely together ; constricted. contiguus, a, um; near ; close to. contwtidens; twisted tooth ; twist-tooth. contdrtuplicdt'its, a, um; folded and much twisted. contdrtux, a, um; twisted. 479 CON CRE contractus, a, um; contracted ; drawn together. conitlus; a little cone. convfaus, a, um; convex ; bent round. convolutus, a, um; convoluted ; rolled as it were together. Conybearii; after the Kev. Dr Conybeare, English geologist. corallo'ides; coral-like ; having the aspect or structure of coral. corbWa; a little basket. corddtus, a, um; heart-like ; heart-shaped. cordiformis, is, e; heart-shaped. cornZus, a, um; horny ; having a texture like horn. corniculdtus, a, um; horned ; furnished with horn-like processes. cornu; a horn ; horn-like in form. cornu-arietis; ram's horn ; curled like a ram's horn. Cornubicus, a, um; of, or belonging to, Cornwall. cornu-bovis; ox-horn ; ox-horn-like. cwnu-pastoris; shepherd's horn. cornutus, a, um; horned ; having horn-like appendages. corolldris, is, e; corolla-shaped ; blossom-like. cordna; a crown. cwdn&la; little crown. corrugdtus, a, um ; corrugated ; much wrinkled. corticdtus, a, um; having a coat of bark ; coated. coi-tilum; darling ; term of endearment. corymbdsus, a, um; ivy-berried ; in clusters. coryphcenoldes; diadem-like. costdtus, a, um; ribbed ; having prominent ridges. costeldtus, a, um; having very faint ribs. costelliferus, a, um; marked with little ribs ; bearing faint ribs. costuldtus, a, um ; having little ribs. Cotteswoldice; from the Cotteswold Hills, Gloucestershire. crassatinus, a, um; thickish. crassicatida; thick tail. crassicaulis, is, e; thick stalked or stemmed. crassiconus, a, um; thick-coned; bluntly-tapering. crdssldens; thick-tooth; thick-toothed. crassin$rvus, a, um; thick-nerved ; fleshy-nerved. crassirostris, is, e; thick-beaked ; thick-snouted. crassispinus, a, um; thick-spined ; strong-spined. crassissimus, a, um; very thick ; the thickest. crassiusculus, a, um; thickish ; somewhat thick. crassiventer; thick-bellied ; deep-bellied. crassosteum; dense-boned ; thick-boned. crdssus, a, um; thick ; stout. crateriformis, is, e; goblet-shaped. crendto-stridtus, a, um; convex- striated ; marked with convex lines. crendtula; having small convex teeth. crendtus, a, um; having convex teeth ; crenulated. crenuldris, is, e; marked like the lines of a battlement. crenuldtus, a, um; slightly crenulated ; zigzagged. 480 CRE DAV crepidula; a slipper ; slipper-like. cretdceus, a, urn; chalky ; belonging to the Chalk formation. cribrosus, a, um; sieve-like ; full of openings. crispus, a, um; curled. crista-gdlli; cock's comb ; like a cock's comb. cristdtus, a, um; crested ; peaked. ci*ist$lla; little crest. cruentdtus, a, um; bloody. crumetia; a purse. crustuttntus, a, um; thin-crusted ; wafer-like. cryptopdra; hidden-pored ; having the pores concealed. cubicSdon; solid tooth ; cubical teeth. cuculldea; hood ; hood-like. cuculldtus, a, um; hooded ; furnished with a hood. cultridefis; knife-tooth ; knife- or sharp-toothed. Cummingce; after Lady Gordon-Gumming of Altyre, Morayshire. cunedtus, a, um; wedged ; wedge-shaped. cuneiceps; wedge- headed. cuneiformis, is, e; tapering in the form of a wedge. cuniculus; the rabbit ; cony-like. cupressif6rmis, is, e; cypress-shaped ; like the cypress-tree. cupuliformis, is, e; cup-shaped ; like an acorn. curtansdtus, a, um; shortened ; curtailed. curtdcerus, a, um; short-horned. curtus, a, um; short. curvicdrnis, is, e; bent-horned. ctirvidens; bent-toothed ; having the teeth bent inwards. curwn6dusi a, um; bent at the joints. curvirostris, is, e; bent-beak ; bent-jaw. cuspiddtus, a, um; pointed like a spear. Cuvieri; in honour of Cuvier, the celebrated French naturalist. cyathiformis, is, e; cup-shaped ; goblet-shaped. cyclostdma; circular-mouthed ; circle-mouth. cyclus; a circle ; round or circular-shaped. cygrilpes; swan-footed ; like the swan's foot. cylindricSdon; cylindrical tooth. cyllndricus, a, um; cylindrical ; cylinder-shaped. cymlifdrmis, is, e; boat-shaped ; like a skiff. cambium; a skiff or boat. cy-mbZla; a little skiff. cyphus, a, um; crooked ; humped ; convex. Doed&leus, a, um; beautifully worked, as if by Daedalus. dama; the fallow-deer ; fallow-deer-like. damcecornis, is, e; deer's-horn-like. Davidsonii; after T. Davidson, palaeontologist. 481 DEC DOL decaddctylus, a, urn; ten-fingered ; ten-rayed. decipiens; deceptive ; doubtful. declivis, is, e; sloping ; bending downwards. decordtus, a, um; decorated ; ornamented with figure-work. decurrens; running down along ; extending. decussdtus, a, um; arranged in pairs that alternately cross each other. definUus, a, um; definite ; determined. defdssus, a, um; deeply buried ; sunken. Delabechii; after Sir Henry Delabeche, geologist. delicdtulus, a, um; rather delicate ; slender. deltoldea; shaped like the Greek letter A, delta ; trowel-formed. dendrius; a coin ; in form of a coin. dendrinus, a, um; tree-like ; branching like a tree. dendropkyllo'ides; tree- leaf-like ; reticulated like the leaf of a tree. dent&lium; resembling the tooth-shell or dentalium. dentdlus, a, um; toothed ; notched. denticuldtus, a, um; denticulated ; small-toothed. dentifer, a, um; toothed ; furnished with teeth-like processes. depttxus, a, um; wound round ; folded round. deprissus, a, um; depressed ; slightly hollow. Derbiensis, is, e; of or belonging to Derbyshire. Deslongchampsii; in honour of M. Deslongchamps, geologist. desmophflllus, a, um; bundle-leafed ; in leaf-like clusters. destructor; a destroyer ; feeding on others. D' Urlani; in honour of D' Urban the naturalist. Dev6ni$nsis, is, e; of or belonging to Devonshire. dicMlomus, a, um; dividing into two ; branching into two ; forked. dwrandcerus, a, um; having two-forked horns. dictyota; set with netting. didymus, a, um; double ; twinned. difformis, is, e; shapeless ; ill-formed. digitalifdrmis, is, e; finger-like ; fingered. digit&lus, a, um; finger-like, as the leaves of the horse-chestnut. digona; two-cornered. dilatdtus, a, um; dilated ; widened ; spread out. dimididlus, a, um; halved ; divided in two. discoideus, a, um; quoit-shaped ; disc-like. discretus, a, um; divided. discus; a quoit ; in the form of a quoit. dispar; unlike; unequal. diss&tus, a, um; dissected ; cut asunder. dissimilis, is, e; unlike ; unsymmetrical. distans; distant ; standing apart. distichus, a, um; in two rows ; double-rowed. distdrtus, a, um; distorted ; irregular in shape. divaricdtus, a, um; straggling ; wide apart. Dixoni; after Dixon, the author of ' Fossils of Sussex.' dtilabra; an axe ; in the form of an axe. dolalriformis, is, e; axe-shaped. 482 DOL EUG dolidris, is, e; tun-shaped ; barrel-like. dolickodeirus; long-necked. dolium, a cask ; doliSlus, a little cask. donax; a reed. dorsdlis, is, e; belonging to the back ; dorsal ; having a dorsal ridge. dorsdtus, a, um; high-backed. draconoc&phala; dragon's head. dulius, a, um; doubtful ; uncertain. dumet6sus, a, um; bushy ; tufty. duplicates, a, um; doubled ; folded in two. duriusculus, a, um; rather hard ; hardish. E elurneus, a, um; ivory-like ; having the texture of ivory. echindtus, a, um; spiny ; covered with spines like the hedgehog. echin6phorus, a, um; thorny ; bearing spines. edtntulus, a, um; toothless. editus, a, um; lofty. edulinusy a, um; edible ; capable of being eaten. ediilis, is, e; edible ; used as food. effossus, a, um; dug out. Egertonl; after Sir Philip Egerton, fossil ichthyologist. Eggensis, is, e; from the Isle of Egg, Hebrides. EhreribSrgii; after Ehrenberg, the great German microscopist. Eifelensis, is, e; from Eifel, in Germany Lower Rhine. elitphus; the stag or red-deer ; stag-like. eUgans; elegant ; handsome in form. elephantoldes; elephant-like. ElginZnsis, is, e; found at or belonging to Elgin, in Morayshire. ellipticus, a, um; in the form of an ellipse (oval). elongdtus, a, um; lengthened ; drawn out. emargindtus, a, um; emarginate ; having a notch at the end, as if a piece had been taken out. empleura; full-sided. enormis, is, e; enormous ; unusually large. ensifer, a, um; sword-bearing ; having pointed processes. ensis; a sword ; tapering like a sword. eoccenus, a, um; found in the Eocene or Lower Tertiaries. ephippium; a saddle ; like a saddle. equisetif6rmis, is, e; mare's-tail-shaped ; like the marsh plant equisetum. erindceus, a, um; hedgehog-like ; resembling the hedgehog. ermineus, a, um; like the ermine or weasel. er6sus, a, um; gnawed ; bitten away. erugdtus, a, um; not wrinkled ; smooth, from marks having been worn away. escha.ra'ides; like a chafing-dish ; grate-shaped. esodnus, a, um; pike-like ; relating to the pike-fish. euglj/phus, a, um; well-carved ; distinctly marked. 483 EUO FIL euSdus; well-toothed. eudmphalus, a, urn; well centred or bossed. eupterygius, a, urn; well finned or winged. eurygndtkus; wide-jawed; broad-jawed. evulsus, a, urn; torn out. exaltdtus, a, um; raised ; prominently elevated. exardtus, a, um; defaced as to marks previously existing ; worn off. excavdtus, a, um; hollowed out ; scooped out. exdlsus, a, um; lofty ; high in stature. excisus, a, um; cut off; cut out ; erased. exertus, a, um; projecting. exesus, a, um; corroded ; worn in holes. exolttus, a, um; worn out ; defaced. expdnsildbrum; broad-lipped ; spreading out at the lip. expdnsus, a, um; widely spread ; spread out. explaitdtus, a, um; spread out ; clearly seen. exsculptus, a, um; deeply sculptured ; sculptured out. extenudtus, a, um; thinned away ; drawn out into a thin edge. exutus, a, um; stripped off ; removed. F f&ba; a bean ; like a bean. fabagtlla; little bean ; like a little bean. falcdtus, a, um; falcate or sickle-shaped. fdlcifer, a, um; sickle-bearing ; armed with sickle-like processes. fallax; fallacious; deceptive. fasci&rius, a, um; bandage-like ; band-shaped. fasicdtus, a, um; bandaged ; striped. fasciculdtus, a, um; faggot-like ; in bundles. fasciculus; a faggot or bundle ; in tufts. fastigidtus, a, um; pointed ; peaked like a roof. favoso'ides; honeycomb-like. favosus, a, um; arranged like a honeycomb ; honeycombed. fenestrdtus, a, um; window-paned ; reticulated. flrox; fierce ; fitted for fierce work ; sharp-pointed. ferMis, is, e; fertile ; bearing seed. fibrdsus, a, um; fibrous ; full of fibres. fibuldtus, a, um; broach- like. ficoldes; fig-like. ficulneus, a, um; belonging to the fig-tree. Julicula; a little fiddle or kit. filiciformis, is, e; fern-shaped ; fern-like. Jiliformis, is, e; filiform ; thread-like. filipendris, is, e; thread-finned or winged ; having thread-like fins. filitextus, a, um; woven like threads ; formed of interlacing filaments. filogrdnus, a, um; thread-grained ; fine-grained. fildsus, a, um; thread-like ; thready. 484 FIM GAL fimbridtus, a, um; fringed. fissicostdtus, a, um; having divided ribs ; cleft- ribbed. fissura; a cleft ; having a cleft. fissurttla; a little cleft. fistula; a pipe or tube. fisluldsus, a, um; pipe-like ; composed of small tubes. Fittoni; after Dr Fitton, the geologist. flabelldtus, a, um; spread out like a fan. flabelliformis, is, e; fan-shaped ; flabelliform. flaUllulus; a little fan. flabellum; a f an ; fan-like. flagelliformis, is, e; whip-shaped ; thong-like. Flemingii; after Professor Fleming of Edinburgh, naturalist. flezicostdius, a, um; bent-ribbed. flexu6sus, a, um; bent ; crooked. jtocc6sus, a, um; wool -like ; fleecy. floredlis, is, e; flowery ; flower-like. fl6riceps; flower-headed ; like a head of flowers. florigemma; flowery-gemmed. fluctudtus, a, um; waving ; wavy. fddiens; digging ; burrowing in the earth. folidceus, a, um; leaf -like ; leafy. folidsus, a, um; leafy ; abounding in leaves. fdlium; a leaf or thin plate. fonticola; fountain-dwelling ; living in springs. fontindlis, is, e; of or belonging to fresh-water springs. foramin6sus, a, um; full of small holes. Forbesii; in honour of the late Edward Forbes. formicdtus, a, um; ant-like. formdsus, a, um; fair, beautiful. fornicdtus, a, um; arched. fossUis, is, e; fossil or extinct, in contradistinction to recent or living. foveoldtus, a, um; pitted ; covered with pit-like markings. fronddsus, a, um; branching ; branchy. frontdlis, is, e; having a large front or forehead. fundlis, is, e; rope-like ; rope-shaped. fungifdrmis, is, e; fungus-shaped ; mushroom-like. fungoldes; fungus-like. funiculdtus, a, um; cord-like ; corded. furcdtus, a, um; forked ; branching in two. furcilldtus, a, um; marked with slightly bifurcating lines. fuscdtus, a, um; dark ; tawny. fusiformis, is, e; spindle-shaped ; tapering at both ends. gagateus, a, um; agate-like ; formed of agate. gdttus; a helmet ; helmet-like. 485 GAL GYR galivides; like the plant galium, or "ladies' bed-straw." Gaultianus, a, um; of or belonging to the Gault. Gaultinus, a, um; belonging to, or peculiar to, the Gault. geminans; doubling ; twin-form. gemindtus, a, um; doubled ; in twins. gemmdtus, a, um; studded with gems ; beaded. geomStricus, a, um; arranged in geometrical order. gibMrrulus, a, um; somewhat humped ; convex, or gibbous.' gibb6sus, a, um; gibbous ; humped ; tumid. Gibbsii; after Mr Gibbs, collector to the Geological Survey. gibbus, a, um; humped ; having a hump or sudden rise. gigdnteus, a, um; gigantic ; unusually large. gigas; a giant. gl&ber, a, um; smooth. glabrispinus, a, um; smooth-spined. gldndifer, a, um; acorn-bearing ; gland-bearing. globiceps; globe-headed ; round-headed. globdsus, a, um; globular ; globose. globuldris, is, e; globular; globe-shaped. glomerdtus, a, um; gathered in a mass ; wound up like a clue. glyphurus, a, um; carved tail ; sculptured tail. Goldfussi; after Goldfuss, the celebrated naturalist. gongyloldes; knob-like. gonioddctylus, a, um; corner-fingered. Gothlandicus, a, um; of or from Gothland (Sweden). grdcilis, is, e; slender ; slight in form. graddtus, a, um; step by step ; graduated. graminoldes; grass-like ; resembling the grasses. grandispinus, a, um; great-spined ; having large spines. grandcevus, a, um; ancient ; of great age ; primeval. grandis, is, e; great. Grantoni; from Granton quarry, near Edinburgh. granuldtus, a, um; granulated ; having the surface dotted with small grains. granuldsus, a, um; covered with small granules ; granular. grdphicus, a, um; written on ; inscribed with lines like writing. Grdyii; after Dr Gray of the British Museum. Greenockii; after the Earl of Greenock, mineralogist. Greenoughii; after Mr Greenough, English geologist. gregdrius, a, um; gregarious ; occurring in flocks, or masses. Griestoniensis, is, e; from Grieston quarry (Silurian) in Peeblesshire. Griftkii; after Sir Richard Griffith, the Irish geologist. grossic6nws, a, um; thick-coned. grumdsus, a, um; grumous ; in the form of small clusters of grapes. gryphceo'ides; gryphsea or gryphite-like ; like the beaked shell gryphsea. guttdtus, a, ^lm; studded with guttse, or small drops. gyr6sus, a, um; circular ; twisted-like ; greatly twisted. 486 HAL HUT haliotoldes; shaped like the haliotis or ear-shell. Hallianus, a, urn; after Professor J. Hall of New York. haldcyon; sea-dog ; sea-dog-like. hamdtus, a, um; hooked ; hooked-like. Hantoniensis, is, e; belonging to or found in Hampshire (Hants). harpceformis, is, e; harp-shaped ; in the form of a harp. harpftla; a little harp. hastdlis, is, e; spear- like ; spear-shaped. hastdtits, a, um;' formed like a dart or spear. hastifdrmis, is, e; dart-shaped. Hastingsice; after the Marchioness of Hastings, collector. hausUllum; a little bucket ; bucket-like. hebetdtus, a, um; blunt. Hebi-idicus, a, um; of or belonging to the Hebrides. helianthella; like a little sunflower said of certain corals. helianthvides; sunflower-like ; rayed like the sunflower. helicinus, a, um; whorled like the snail-shell (helix). heUeoldes; snail-shell-like. helicteres; ear-rings ; ear-drops. helecter aides; ear-ring-like ; ear-drop-like. helvellwdes; cabbage-like ; shaped like a head of cabbage. hemicidaroldes; hemicidaris-like (a fossil sea-urchin). kemisphericus, a, um; hemispherical in form. hemisldma; half- mouthed. Hensldvii; after Professor Henslow of Cambridge, botanist. heterddon; irregular- toothed. heterogSneus, a, um; irregular in composition or parts. heteromdrphus, a, um; irregular in form. heterophl/llus, a, um; irregular-leaved. ketei-urus, a, um; irregular-tailed. hexdgonus, a, um; six-cornered or six-sided. hians; gaping. HibMrtii; after Dr Hibbert of Edinburgh, geologist. Hiternicus, a, um; found in, or belonging to Ireland ; Irish. hierogltfphicus, a, um; marked as if with hieroglyphics. hippoc&stanum; horse-chestnut. hippocrepis; horse-shoe. hippopddium; horse-hoof ; like the horse-hoof. hippSpus; horse-hoof (in the form of). hirudo; a leach ; leach-like. hispidulus, a, um; somewhat rough or bristly. hispidus, a, um; rough ; covered with long rigid hairs. hiulcus, a, um; gaping. humer6sus, a, um; broad-shouldered ; humped. Huttoni; after Dr Hutton, the celebrated Scotch geologist. 487 HUT JUB Huttonianus, a, um; after Mr Hutton of Newcastle, fossil botanist. hyalatus, a, um; glassy ; having the lustre of glass. hyltridus, a, um; hybrid ; intermediate between two species. hymenophylld'ides; membranous, leaf-like. hypocraterifdrmis, is, e; salver-shaped. hypnaides; hypnum-like ; like the common moss hypnum. hystrix; a porcupine ; covered or beset with spines. Ibbetsoni; after Captain Ibbetson, geologist. icosiddctylus, a, um; twenty-fingered. imbricatdrius, a, um; covered with tiles ; tile-like. imbricdtus, a, um; imbricated ; overlapping like tiles. impar; unequal ; having unequal parts. impressus, a, um; impressed ; stamped. incequdlis, is, e; unequal ; not having equal parts. incequicostdtus, a, um; unequally ribbed. indnis, is, e; void ; empty. indsus, a, um; incised ; cut in ; slashed. inconslans; inconstant ; not always of one size or form. incrassdtus, a, um; thickened. incrustans; incrusting other substances, as coral-growth, &c. inc&rvus, a, um; incurved ; bent in. infldtus, a, um; inflated ; swollen, as if blown up. infdrmis, is, e; shapeless ; without form. infundibulifCrmis, is, e; funnel-shaped. ingens; huge ; unusually large. inter cellulosus, a, um; intercellular ; cell within cell. intermtdius, a, um; intermediate (in size or form). inter stinctus, a, um; divided. intertextus, a, um; interwoven ; ramifying. intortus, a, um; twisted inwards. intumescens; swelling up. irrddians; not radiating from a common centre. ir>-eguldris, is, e; irregular ; not disposed in regular order. isocdrdia; equal heart (regularly heart-shaped). isogonotdes; equiangular-like. jac&lum; a dart ; dart-shaped. Jamesii; after Colonel James of the Government Survey. Jamesoni; after Professor Jameson of Edinburgh, geologist. Jardinii; after Sir William Jardine, naturalist. Jewettii; after Mr Jewett, American geologist. jubdtus, a, um; maned ; having a mane-like fringe. 488 JUG LEI jugdlis, is, e; yoked together ; conjoined. jugosus, a, um; yoked together ; closely conjoined. Julcesii; after Mr Jukes of the Geological Survey of Ireland. junceus, a, um; rush-stem-like. juniperinus, a, um; juniper-like ; like the juniper-berry. Kenperinus, a, um; belonging to the Keuper, or Upper Trias. Konigii; after Konig, the Belgian palaeontologist. labidtus, a, um; labiate ; having lips. Ldbraddricus, a, um; of or belonging to Labrador ; occurring in Labrador. Idbyrinthicus, a, um; labyrinthine ; full of intricate windings. Idcerus, a, um; torn ; ragged. lacini&lus, a, um; slashed. lacleus, a, um; milky ; white as milk. Iacun6sus, a, um; having deep depressions. Iceviceps; smooth-head. Iceoigdlus, a, um; smoothened ; polished. Icevis, is, e; smooth ; polished. lavissimus, a, um; very smooth ; exceedingly smooth. Iceviusculus, a, um; slightly smooth. Lamdrckii; after Lamarck, French naturalist. Iamell6sus, a, um; in very thin plates. lamindtus, a, um; laminated ; in thin plates. lanceoKttus, a, um; lanceolate ; spear-shaped. Landsburgii; after the Rev. Dr Landsborough, algseologist. laquealus, a, um; carved ; adorned with fretted work. latecduda; broad-tailed. lateseptdtus, a, um; widely divided ; having septa or partitions wide apart. laticostdtus, a, um; broad-ribbed. Idtidens; broad-toothed. latifolius, a, um; broad-leaved. latifrons; broad front ; broad-fronted. latim&nus, a, um; broad-handed ; broad-finned. latipSnnis, is, e; broad-finned or winged. latissimus, a, um; broadest ; very broad. latiusculus, a, um; broadish ; somewhat broad. lotus, a, um; broad. lautus, or lavdtus, a, um; washed. laxus, a, um; loose ; loosely arranged. leiodus; smooth- tooth. leiopleurus; smooth-ribbed. leiosdmus; smooth-bodied. 489 LEM LON lemniscdtus, a, urn; labelled. lenticuldris, is, e; lenticular; lens-shaped. lenticuldtus, a, urn; lens-shaped, having a double-convex surface. lenticulinus, a, um; lentil-like. lentifdrmis, is, e; lens-shaped ; in the form of a lens. lentus, a, um; slow. lepiddtus, a, um; leprous ; covered with small peltate scales. leporinus, a, um; resembling; the hare ; hare-like. leptocephalus, a, um; slender-headed. Uptodus; slender-tooth, slender- toothed. Iept6gndthus; slender-jawed. Iept6pterus, a, um; slender-finned. leptorhinus, a, um; slender-nosed ; slender-snouted. leptbsoma; slight-bodied ; slender-bodied. leptbsteus, a, um; slender-boned. Liasianus, a, um; of or belonging to the Lias formation. Lidsswus, a, um; of or belonging to the Lias formation. lichenoldes; lichen-like. ligndrius, a, um; wood-like ; of wood. liguldtus, a, um; ligulate ; strap-shaped. lima; a file (like a file). limbdtus, a, um; bordered. limularus, a, um; limulus-tailed ; having a pointed tail like the king-crab. linctus, a, um; licked ; smoothened as if by licking. Lindleyi, Lindleyanus, a, um; after Dr Lindley, the eminent botanist. linedtus, a, um; marked with lines, striated. lineoldtus, a, um; marked with little lines. lingua; the tongue ; tongue-like. Iingua-b6vis; ox-tongue ; shaped like an ox's tongue. linguiformis, is, e; tongue-shaped. linguldtus, a, um; in the form of a tongue. liratus, a, um; lyre-shaped ; in the form of a lyre. Listeri; after Dr Lister, geologist. litter&tus, a, um; lettered ; marked as if inscribed with letters. lituifdrmis, is, e; trumpet-shaped. loMtus, a, um; lobate ; divided by a determinate number of segments. lobifolius, a, um; lob-leafed. loculosus, a, um; partitioned. Logani; after Sir William Logan, State Geologist for Canada. lonchiodon; long tooth, slender-toothed. lonchitis; the fern "adder's tongue;" like the adder's tongue. longibractedtus, a, um; furnished with long bracts. longiceps; long-headed. Iongic6llis, is, e; long-necked. I6ngidens; long tooth ; long-toothed. longifdlius, a, um; long-leafed ; having long leaves. longimanus; long-handed. longirbstris, is, e; long-beaked ; long-snouted. timus, a, um; the longest ; of unusual length. 490 LON MAR longitudin&lis, is, e; lying lengthwise ; long and narrow. Lonsdaleii; after Mr Lonsdale, palaeontologist. lophiodon; crested- tooth. loricdtus, a, urn; loricated ; resembling a coat of mail. Ludensis; from or belonging to Ludlow, in Shropshire. lundtus, a, urn; moon-shaped ; crescent-formed. lunuldtus, a, um; lunulate ; half-moon-shaped. lycopodoldes; lycopodium-like ; club-moss-like. LySKi; after Sir Charles Lyell, the geologist. lyrdtus, a, um; lyrate ; lyre-shaped. M'Coyamts, a, um; after Mr M'Coy of Melbourne, geologist. M'Clintocki; after Sir L. M'Clintock the Arctic voyager. macilentus, a, um; lank ; meagre ; scraggy. macrocaulis, is, e; long-stemmed ; long-stalked. macrocheirus, a, um; long-handed ; having long pectoral fins. macroddctylus, a, um; long-fingered. macrodiscus, a, um; long-disked ; having long leaf-scars. mdcrodus; long tooth ; long-toothed. macrolepiddtus, a, um; long-scaled ; large-scaled. mda-omus, a, um; long shoulder-blade ; slender-shouldered. macr6nyx; long claw; long-clawed. macrophthdlmus, a, um; long- or large-eyed. maa'ophgilus, a, um; long-leaved. macropdmum; long cheek ; long-jawed. macrdpterus, a, um; long-winged ; long-finned. macropyg6pte / )'us } a, um; long tail-finned. maci'ospondl/lus, a, um; long- backboned ; long-spined. macrostSmus, a, um; long- or large-mouthed. macrdtus, a, um; long- or large-eared. macfurus, a, um; long-tailed. mactro'ides; like, or having the form of the shell mactra. maculdtus, a, um; spotted ; mackled. major, or, us; the greater. Malcolmsoni; after Dr Malcolm of Elgin, Morayshire. mdlleus; a mallet, or hammer ; the shell malleus, mammilldris, is, e; mammillated ; pap-shaped. mammilldtus, a, um; nipple-shaped ; mammillary. mammillifei-us, a, um; pap-bearing ; covered with pap-like points. mancus, a, um; imperfect ; defective. mandibuldris, is, e; beaked ; bill-like ; mandibular ; furnished with man- dibles. mandibuldtus, a, um; bill-shaped ; furnished with a mandible. Mantelli; after Dr Mantell, the geologist. Marcoudnus, a, um; after M. Jules Marcou, geologist. margaritdceus, a, um; pearly ; having the lustre of pearl. 491 MAR MON margaritulus, a, urn; little pearl ; seed-pearl. margindtus, a, urn; bordered ; having a distinct border. marginalia; little margin (a genus of shells). Martini; after Martin, the palaeontologist of Derbyshire. mastod6nteus, a, urn; nipple-toothed ; teeth with tubercles. maximus, a, urn; greatest ; the largest. meandrinus, a, um; meandering ; serpentine. meandroldes; like the meandrina or brain-coral. medium, a, um; intermediate ; middling. medulldris, is, e; medullary ; having a pith. megdlodon; large tooth ; large-toothed. megalophi/ttus, a, um; large-leaved. megaldtis, is, e; great-eared ; great ear. melacactoldes; melocactus-like ; resembling the melocactus. mel&nia; black (a genus of shells). melanoldes; like the shell melania ; black-like. Melitensis, is, e; of or belonging to the island of Malta. membrandceus, a, um; membrane-like ; formed of membrane. menisco'ideus, a, um; meniscoid ; concavo-convex. mespili/6rmis, is, e; medlar-shaped. micans; shining ; glistening with enamel. micdstron; little star. micracdnthus, a, um; small-spined. microctphalus, a, um; small-headed. microdus; small tooth ; minute tooth. microlepid6tus, a, um; small-scaled. microphyllus, a, um; small-leaved. micropleurus, a, um; small-sided. micropdrus, a, um; small-pored. Milleri; after Mr Hugh Miller, geologist. minimus, a, um; the least ; very small. minor, or, us; the less, less. minutulus, a, um; very minute ; minutely small. minutus, a, um; minute, small. mioccenus, a, um; found in the Miocene or Middle Tertiaries. mirdbilis, is, e; wonderful ; admirable. mitrceformis, is, e; mitre-shaped ; mitriform. mitrdtus, a, um; mitre-like; in the form of a mitre. modiola, modiolus; a bushel-measure (a genus of shells). modioldris, is, e; bushel-shaped. molendindceus, a, um; mill-sail-shaped. MonGnsis, is, e; belonging to the Isle of Man (Mona). monile; a necklace ; bead-string-like. monileformis, is, e; necklace-shaped; bead-like. moniletectus, a, um; necklace-covered. moniliferus, a, um; beaded ; necklace-like. mon6ceros; one-horned ; the narwhal. monticuldtus, a, um; having many small projections ; covered with conical points. 492 MOO NIT Mooreii; after Mr C. Moore of Bath, geologist. MmYuii; after Professor Morris of London, geologist. mosdicus, a, um; tessellated like mosaic work ; patterned. mucrondtus, a, um; sharp-pointed ; dagger-like. multicarindtus, a, um; having many keels or ridges. multiceps; many-headed. multidigitdtus, a, um; many-fingered. multifidus, a, um; many-cleft ; having many segments. multigrdnuldtus, a, um; many-grained ; dotted with numerous grains. multilorqiiatus, a, um; many times twisted ; often twisted. multinervdtus, a, um; many-nerved. multinddus; many-knotted. multiradidtus, a, um; many-rayed. multisulcdtus, a, um; many-furrowed. Munsteridnus, a, um; after Count Munster, geologist. MurchisCni; after Sir Roderick Murchison, the geologist. muricdtus, a, um; like the shell murex. Murraydnus, a, um; after Dr Murray of Yorkshire. muscarifdrmis, is, e; brush-shaped. musculus; a little mouse ; mouse-like. mutdbilis, is, e; mutable ; changeable. muticus, a, um; without a beard ; beardless. m$a; gaper (a genus of shells). mysticetus, a, um; sperm-whale-like. myliloldes; like the mytilus, or mussel-shell. N ndnus, a, um; dwarfish. napifdrmis, is, e; turnip-shaped. nasutus, a, um; having a prominent nose. nautiloldea; resembling the shell nautilus. nautilus; a little sailor (a genus of chambered shells). navicula; a little ship ; boat-shaped. naviculdris, is, e; ship-like. ndvis; a ship. negUctus, a, um; neglected ; overlooked. nemordlis, is, e; frequenting woods ; of the grove. Neocomiensis, is, e; of or belonging to the Neocomian or Lower Greensand formation. nephrocdrpus, a, um; kidney-fruited ; fruit kidney-shaped. nervdsus, a, um; full of nerves. nexilis, is, e; entwined ; interlaced. Niagarensis; of or belonging to the Niagara district. Nicoli; after Professor Nicol of Aberdeen, geologist. nitens; bright ; shining. nitidulus, a, um; rather neat. nitidus, a, um; neat ; pretty. 493 NIV ORB niveus, a, um; snowy ; white as snow. ndctulus, a, um; belonging to the twilight ; of twilight habits. nod6sus, a, um; knotty ; knobbed. noduldsus, a, um; in small knots. NVgger&thii; after Dr Noggerath, German fossil botanist. normdlis, is, e; normal ; according to rule ; following the usual structure. Nwn&gicus, a, um; of or belonging to Norway. notdtus, a, um; marked ; stamped with a mark. nucleus; a kernel ; kernel-like. nucula; a little nut (a genus of bivalve shells). nudus, a, um; naked ; uncovered. numismdlis, is, e; coin-like (round-lenticular). nummdrius, a, um; coin-like ; coin-shaped. nummi/6rmis, is, e; coin-shaped ; in the form of small coins. nummuldrius, a, um; nummulus-like in form. ntimmulus, or little coin (a genus of foraminiferous shells, so called from their form). nutans; nodding ; bent downwards. obcdnicus, a, um; rather conical ; slightly conical. obesus, a, um; fat ; plump in form. obldtus, a, um; oblate ; broader than long ; broadly-round. obliqudtus, a, um; oblique ; slanting. obliquus, a, um; oblique ; leaning to one side. oblongus, a, um; oblong ; rather long ; longer than broad. obovdtus, a, um; egg-shaped ; with the broad end uppermost. obsoUtus, a, um; obsolete ; scarcely distinguishable at the margin. obtusilobus, a, um; obtuse-lobed ; having blunt lobes. obvolutus, a, um; folded ; tied about. ocelldtus, a, um; furnished with little eyes, or eye-specks. ochrdceus, a, um; ochrey ; having the colour of ochre. octoplicdtus, a, um; eight-folded. oculdtus, a, um; full of eyes, or eye-like dots. oculinus, a, um; eye-like ; spotted with eyes. Oldhami; after Professor Oldham of Dublin. olivdceus, a, um; olive-like ; olive-coloured. 6lla; a pot ; pot-shaped. onl/chius, a, um; shaped like a little claw. oocephalus, a, um; egg-headed ; broad end up. Ooliticus, a, um; of or belonging to the Oolite. opalinus, a, um; opal-like ; having the lustre of opal. operculdris, is, e; furnished with an opercular bone ; opercular. oppdsitus, a, um; opposite ; placed on opposite sides. orbicula; rounded ; little orb (a genus of shells). orbiculdris, is, e; orbicular; orb-shaped. Orbignyi; after D'Orbigny, the celebrated French savan. 494 ORD PAT ordiiiarius, a, um; ordinary ; common ; frequent. 6rganum; an organ ; arranged like the pipes of an organ. omatissimus, a, um; most ornamented ; highly ornamented. orndtus, a, um; ornamented ; adorned. ornithocephalus, a, um; bird-headed ; like a bird's head. oryza; a grain of rice ; like a rice-grain. dsculifer, a, um; having a little mouth. 6sseus, a, um; bony ; composed of, or armed with, bone. ostreceformis, is, e; oyster-shaped. ovdlis, is, e; oval ; in the form of an egg. ovdtm, a, um; ovate ; egg-shaped. ovif6rmis, is, e; egg-shaped ; ovate. ovoldea; egg- like ; in the form of an egg. ovula; a little egg (a genus of shells). O'weni; after Professor Owen, the celebrated naturalist. packyderma; thick-skinned; thick-barked. pachygndthus; thick -jawed ; strong-jawed. pach$omus; thick shoulder-blade ; thick-shouldered. pachydpterus, a, um; thick-finned ; thick- winged. paledtus, a, um; chaffy. pdllidus, a, um; pale-coloured. palmdtus, a, um; palmate ; having five lobes like the fingers of the human hand. palpebr6sus, a, um; having large eyelids ; deeply fringed. pandurdtus, a, um; fiddle-shaped. pdndus, a, um; bent downwards. paniceus, a, um; bread-like ; in the form of a cake of bread. papaverdceus, a, um; poppy-like. papiliondtus, a, um; butterfly-shaped. papilldtus, a, um; nipple-like ; covered with papilli. papillosus, a, um; covered with numerous tubercles. paraddxicus, a, um; paradoxical ; puzzling ; questionable. paraddxus, a, um; questionable ; extraordinary. parasiticus, a, um; parasitic ; living on or attached to another. pardoldes; panther-like ; allied to the panther. Parisiensis, is, e; belonging to Paris ; found near Paris. Parlcinsonis, is, e; after Parkinson the palaeontologist. pdrvidens; small-toothed. pdrvulus, a, um; very small ; diminutive. parvus, a, um; small. patella; a small plate ; the knee-pan ; the limpet-shell. patelldris, is, e; limpet-shaped. patttliformis, is, e; patella or limpet-shaped. patens; spreading; exposed. patu'dsus, a, um; broad; expanding. 495 PAT PHR p&tulus, a, urn; broad ; spread out. pducidens; few-toothed ; having few teeth. paucifolius, a, um; few-leafed ; having few leaves. paucisulcdtus, a, um; having few furrows or depressions. pauperdtus, a, um; impoverished ; meagre. paxillosus, a, um; resembling a little stake. Peachii; after Mr Charles Peach, collector and discoverer. pecten; a comb (the scallop-shell) ; comb-like. pectindtus, a, um; pectinated ; toothed like a comb. pectinifer, a, um; comb-bearing. pectinoldes; comb-like. pectunculus; little comb (a genus of shells). pectestris, is, e; furnished with feet ; footed. pgdum; a shepherd's crook. pedunculdtus, a, um; furnished with a footstalk or peduncle. peldgicus, a, um; belonging to the deep sea. pSllis serpgntis; serpent's skin. pellucidus, a, um; quite transparent ; pellucid. peltdtus, a, um; buckler or half-moon shaped. peltiformis, is, e; in the form of a half-moon buckler. pen&llus; a brush or pencil. PengHlyi; after M. Pengelly of Torquay, geologist. penncefdrmis, is, e; feather-like ; feather-shaped. pennic6stis, is, e; feather- ribbed. pentdgonuj, a, um; five-cornered ; pentagonal. pentremataides; like or resembling the pentremite. perdmplus, a, um; very large ; unusually large. perarmdtus, a, um; completely armed. perattenuatus, a, um; much attenuated ; very slender. peregrinus, a, um; foreign ; wandering. perfortttus, a, um; perforated ; full of holes or pores. perldtus, a, um; very broad ; very wide ; unusually wide. Permidnus, a, um; of or belonging to the Permian system. perorndtus, a, um; highly ornamented ; unusually ornamented. perovdlis, is, e; very oval ; almost round. perreticuldtus, a, um; highly reticulated ; reticulated all over. perrugdtiis, a, um; very full of wrinkles ; extremely wrinkled. person&tus, a, um; personate ; mask-like. pertusus, a, um; pierced ; struck through. pes-diiseris; goose-foot ; shaped like a goose's foot. pes-rdnce; frog-foot ; shaped like a frog's foot. petaliferus, a, um; bearing petal-like appendages. petallifdrmis, is, e; shaped like the petals of a flower. petioldtus, a, um; furnished with a petiole or leaf-stalk. petricolus, a, um; stone- dwelling ; living in stone. 2)haseolmus, a, um; kidney-bean-shaped. phaseolus; in the form of a kidney-bean. Pkillipsii; after Professor Phillips of Oxford, geologist. phrtigmiger, a, um; separated by thin partitions ; partitioned. 496 PIC POL pictus, a, urn; painted. piledris, is, e; in the form of a peaked hat or cap. pileopsis; like a peaked hat (a genus of limpet-like shells). piliferus, a, um; hair-bearing; hair-pointed. pillula; a little ball or pill. pinaster; like the pine-tree, pinaster. piniformis, is, e; pine-shaped ; pine-tree-like. pinna; a fin ; the bivalve shell pinna. piriformis, is, e; pear-shaped, pyriform. piscatdrius, a, um; fishing ; fish- catching. piscatorum; of fishermen ; used by fishers. pisiformis, is, e; pea-shaped. pistiUiformis, is, e; pestle-shaped ; in form of a pestle. pisum; a pea ; like a pea ; pea-shaped. placentiformis, is, e; placenta- or cake- shaped. plandlns, a, um; smoothed ; plain. pldniceps; smooth-headed; flat-headed. planicostdtus, a, um; smooth-ribbed. planorbis; even-whorled ; having the spires lying in the same plane (a genus of spiral- circular shells). planuldtus, a, um; rather smooth ; somewhat flat. platycephalus, a, um; broad-headed. pldtyceps; broad head ; broad-headed. platyn6tus; broad back. platljodon; broad-toothed. platyphljllus, a, um; broad-leafed ; expanded like a leaf. platljpterus, a, um; broad-finned. platypus, a, um; broad-footed. platyrachis; having a broad rachis or stalk. pleiodon; pleiodus; the larger- toothed. plica; a fold or plait. plicat&lla; a little fold or plait. plicdtilis, is, e; slightly folded, in small folds. plicdtus, a, um; folded, plaited. plic6mphalus, a, um; folded in the middle or navel. plioccenus, a, um; found in the Pliocene or Upper Tertiaries. pluma; a feather or plume. plumdrius, a, um; plume-like ; feathery. plumfisus, a, um; feathery. pluriradidlis, is, e; many-rayed, as in certain corals. poculiformis, is, e; cup- or goblet- shaped. poculum; a cup or goblet ; cup- shaped. podocarpo'ides; like the podocarpus, one of the yews. politus, a, um; polished ; smoothed ; not figured. Pollexfeni; after the Rev. Mr Pollexfen, naturalist. polydactylus, a, um; many-fingered. polygon&tus, a, um; many-angled ; many-cornered. polljgyrus, a, um; many-twisted ; many-circled. polymdrphus, a, um; many-shaped ; of many forms. 497 2 1 POL PUR poll/odus, a, um; many-toothed. polydmmata; many-eyed. polyphyilus, a, um; many-leaved. polypodivides; like the fern polypodium or polypody. polyspotidyluS) a, um; having many vertebrae. polystdchya; many-spiked ; many-eared. poltftoma; cut into many parts. ponder6sus, a, um,; heavy ; bulky. porosus, a, um; full of pores ; porous. porrectus, a, um; stretched out. Portlockii; after Major-General Portlock, geologist. posterogenius, a, um; later-born ; not the first of its kind. prceacutus, a, um; very acute ; thin and sharp. prcem6rsus, a, um; jagged as if bitten off. prat&nsis, is, e; inhabiting meadow or river-land. Prestvici; after Mr Prestwich of London, geologist. Prevostii; after M. Constance Prevost, French geologist. primcevus, a, um; primeval ; very ancient. primigenius, a, um; original ; first-born. primordidlis, is, e; primordial ; first in order. priscus, a, um; ancient. pristoddntus, a, um; saw-toothed ; jagged like a saw. Pritchardi; after Mr Pritchard, the microscopist. proitvus, a, um; ancient ; belonging to the first ages. problemdticus, a, um; problematical ; doubtful. proboscoideus, a, um; proboscis-like. proliferus, a, um; putting forth a new shoot. propinquus, a, um; neighbouring ; related to. propter$gius, a, um; fore-finned. prostrdtus, a, um; prostrate ; creeping on the ground. protensus, a, um; stretched forth ; stretched out. prunifdrmis, is, e; prune-shaped. psilopora; having smooth pores ; smooth-pored. psittaceus, a, um; parrot-like ; hooked like a parrot's bill. psittadnus, a, um; parrot-like ; bent like a parrot's bill. pterdcera; winged-horn ; a genus of univalves ; like the shell pterocera. pteroldes; wing-like ; fern-like. ptycho'ides; wrinkle-like. puUscens; downy ; covered with fine hairs. pucillus, a, um; very small. pulcMllus, a, um; lovely ; minutely pretty. pulcher, a, um; beautiful. pulcherrimus, a, um; fairest ; very beautiful. pulverulentus, a, um; covered as with small dust ; powdery. pulvindrium; a cushion ; cushion-shaped. pulvindtus, a, um; cushioned. pumXlus; a dwarf or pigmy. punctdtus, a, um; punctured ; marked with dots ; dotted. pupa; a swathe or bandage ; a genus of univalves. Purbeclcensis, is, e; from the isle of Purbeck in Dorsetshire. 498 PUS RET pvsillus, a, um; very small ; diminutive. pustuldtus, a, um; pustuled ; covered with pustules. pustuliferus, a, um; bearing pustules ; marked with pustules. pustuldsus, a, um; full of or all over with pustules. pygmceus, a, um; diminutive in size ; pigmy-like. pyramiddlis, is, e; pointed like a pyramid. pyriformis, is, e; pyriform ; pear-shaped. t quadratiguldris, is, e; quadrangular ; four-sided. quadrdtus, a, um; square-shaped. quadricostdtus, a, um; four-ribbed. quadrifidus, a, um; cleft or split into four. quadrigeminus, a, um; four times doubled. quadriplicdtus, a, um; four- folded. quadrisulcdtus, a, um; four-furrowed. quadrivittdtus, a, um; having four chaplets. quinquecostdtus, a, um; five-ribbed. quinqueddctylus, a, um; five-fingered. R racf,m6sus, a, um; full of bunches, bunchy. racemus; a bunch or cluster of florets. radidtus, a, um; radiating from a point ; ray-like. rddicans; rooting ; branching out like roots. radicif6rmis, is, e; root-shaped ; root-like. radio-punctdtus, a, um; marked with radiating or star-like punctures. ramdsus, a, um; branching ; having many branches. Ramsayii; after Professor Ramsay of the Geological Survey. ramulosus, a, um; branchy ; full of little branches ; slightly branching. Eankinti,; after Dr Rankine of Carluke, in Lanarkshire. raphiodon; needle-toothed; prickle-tooth. raricostdtus, a, um; having few rib-like processes. rarispinus, a, um; having few spines. rarist&lla; having few star-like pores. rastellum; a little rake ; rake-like. r&ctus, a, um; straight ; without bend. recurvirdstra; bent beak or jaw. recurvus, a, um; bent back. remif6rmis, is, e; oar-shaped. reniformis, is, e; kidney-shaped. repdndus, a, um; repand ; slightly waved at the margin. replicdtus, a, um; folded back upon itself. resupindtus, a, um; upside down. retidrius, a, um; netted ; meshed like a net. reticuldius, a, um; reticulate ; like network. 499 EET SCO retrdrsus, a, um; turned backwards ; bent back. retrusus, a, um; thrust back ; -hidden ; concealed. retusus, a, um; blunt. reversus, a, um; reversed ; turned or bent back. revolutus, a, um; turned back ; curled back. rhapkiodon; club-tooth ; shaped like a club. rhdmbus; a rhomb or lounge ; lozenge-like. rhombo'ides; like a lozenge ; diamond-shaped. Richardsoni; after Mr Richardson of London, geologist. rigidulus, a, um; somewhat stiff ; stiffish. rigidus, a, um; rigid; stiff; not flexible. rimdsus, a, um; full of chinks. ringens; gaping ; having an open orifice. Robertsoni; after Mr Robertson of Edinburgh, geologist. rostralinus, a, um; having a little beak. rostrdtus, a, um; beaked. rostro-minor, or, us; minor-beaked ; lesser-snouted. r6ldtus, a, um; wheel-shaped ; wheel-like. Rothomagensis, is, e; from or belonging to Rouen. rdtifer, a, um; wheel-bearing. rdtulus, a, um; slightly rounded. rotunddtus, a, um; rotund ; rounded. rudis, is, e; not worked or fashioned ; rude. wiffdtus, a, um; wrinkled. rugdsus, a, um; full of wrinkles. rugulosus, a, um; somewhat wrinkled ; minutely wrinkled. runcindius, a, um; hook-backed. s sagittdtus, a, um; arrow-shaped ; barbed like an arrow. sagittida; a little arrow ; like a little arrow. salmdneus, a, um; salmon-like ; pertaining to the salmon. sarcinuldtus, a, um; having a wallet or pouch. sauropUsius, a, um; most closely allied to the lizard family. saxdtilis, is, e; stony. saxeus, a, um; stony ; stony in texture. scaber, a, um; rough ; rough-surfaced. scabriculus, a, um; rough. scabriusculus, a, um; somewhat rough ; roughish. scaldrif6rmis, is, e; ladder-shaped. scarabceus; a beetle ; beetle-shaped ; beetle-like. scaraboides; beetle-like ; like the scarabaeus. scaridsus, a, um; scarious ; having a dry shrivelled appearance. schizurus, a, um; split-tail ; rent-tail. scissus, a, um; split ; marked by a line of division. scobriculdtus, a, um; pitted. scopiformis, is, e; tufted ; tuft-shaped. Scolticus, a, um; Scottish ; found in Scotland. 500 SCO SOW Scouleri; after Dr Scouler of Glasgow, naturalist. scrofa; a sow ; sow-like. scrolifdrmis, is, e; pouch-shaped. scutdtus, a, urn; shield-like ; buckler-shaped. scutelUformis, is, e; buckler-formed. scutifdrmis, is, e; scute- or shield-shaped. sectus, a, urn; cut or cleft. secunddrius, a, urn; secondary; second in order ; inferior. securif6rmis, is, e; hatchet- shaped. Sedgvnckii; after Professor Sedgwick of Cambridge, geologist. selaginoides; selago-like ; leafed like the plant selago. Selwyni; after Mr Selwyn of the Geological Survey. semiflaMlliffirmis, is, e; half fan-shaped. semigl6bus; half-globe; hemispherical. seminiferus, a, um; seed-bearing ; marked with small seed-like granules. semiorndtus, a, um; half -ornamented. semipldnus, a, um; half-smooth. semiplicdtus, a, um; half-folded. semiserrdtus, a, um; half-serrated. semistridtus, a, um; half-striated. semisulcdtus, a, um; half-furrowed. semiteres; half-taper. semiverruc6sus, a, um; half -warty. senticdsus, a, um; covered with prickles ; prickly. septdtm, a, um; divided by septa or partitions. septemplicdtus, a, um; seven-folded. septdsus, a, um; full of septa or partitions. seridiis, is, e; in rows or series. serxceus, a, um; silky. serpentinus, a, um; serpentine ; winding. serpuldrius, a, um; serpula-like ; worm-like. serpulus, a, um; creeping ; worm-formed. serra; a saw; saw-like. serratissimus, a, um; highly serrated ; excessively serrated. serrdtus, a, um; saw-edged ; serrated. sernfet'us, a, um; bearing serrations. serruldtus, a, um; minutely serrated. sertus, a, um; bound ; joined together. sigmouleus, a, um; sigma- shaped ; like the letter S. siliqudria; pod-like. Sillimani; after Professor Silliman, American geologist. Siluriensis, is, e; belonging to the Silurian system. simillimus, a, um; most like ; most closely allied to. simplex; simple ; undivided ; not branching. siuistrCrsus, a, um; left-handed ; turned to the left. sinudtus, a, um; marked with depressions ; wavy. socidlif, is, e; living in groups ; social. soldrium; sun-dial ; like the flattened univalve solarium, solenoldes; like the razor-shell, solen. Sotoerbyi; after Mr Sowerby of London, conchologist. 501 SPA SUB spatuldtiis, a, um; spatula- shaped ; spatulate ; blade-shaped. specidsus, a, ^lm; beautiful. spectdbilis, is, e; notable ; worth seeing. spelceus, a, um; belonging to a cave ; cave-dwelling. speluncdrius, a, um; cavernous. sphwicus, a, um; spherical ; round-bodied. sphcero'idelis, is, e; spherical. spictdtus, a, um; spiked ; in spikes like an ear of corn. spiniger, a, um; spiny ; bearing spines. spinipes; spine-footed ; having the feet armed with spines. spindsus, a, um; spiny ; covered with many spines. spinuldsus, a, um; full of little spines. spirdtus, a, um; having spires ; spiral. " spirorbis; spiral- whorl (shell of an annelid). squamdtus, a, um; scaly ; furnished with scales. squdmiger, a, um; carrying scales ; faintly scaled. squamdsus, a, um; scaly ; covered with scales. stelldris, is, e; starred ; rayed like a star. stelldtus, a, um; starred ; covered with star-like dots. Sternbergii; after Count Sternberg, fossil botanist. stramineus, a, um; as if covered with straw. striatellus, a, um; minutely striated ; slightly striated. stridto-punctdtus, a, um; spotted in striae or parallel lines. stridtulus, a, um; somewhat striated. stridtus, a, um; striated ; minutely fluted. StricTclandii; after Mr Hugh Strickland, English geologist. slrioldtus, a, um; very minutely striated. strombo'ides; resembling the shell strombos. Stutchburii; after Mr Stutchbury, geologist. styttphora; mark-bearing ; impressed with a mark. subanguldtus, a, um; somewhat cornered. subardtus, a, um; somewhat defaced (literally, ploughed up). subarcudtus, a, um; slightly bow-shaped or bent. subarmdtus, a, um; somewhat armed. subcarindtus, a, um; somewhat keeled ; furnished with slight ridges ; in- distinctly ridged. subconv$xus, a, um; somewhat convex. siibcristdtus, a, um; rather crested. subdeprssus, a, um; somewhat depressed. subfimbriatus, a, um; slightly fimbriated. subfusifdrmis, is, e; somewhat spindle-shaped. subnoddsiis, a, um; somewhat knotted ; marked witL slight projections. subnudus, a, um; somewhat naked. subreticuldius, a, um; somewhat reticulated. sitbrotundus, a, um; sub-rotund ; somewhat round ; roundish. subserrdtus, a, um; slightly serrated. subteres; somewhat tapering. subtfigonus, a, um; somewhat three-cornered. subturbiiidtus, a, um; somewhat top -shaped. subuldtus, a, um; awl-shaped ; subulate. 502 SUB TOL svbulidens; awl-toothed ; having awl-shaped teeth. succulens; succulent ; soft and not woody. succulosus, a, urn; very soft and succulent. SitffolciGwu, is, e; of or belonging to Suffolk. sidcdtus, a, um; furrowed. sulcifer, a, um; bearing furrows ; marked with furows. sulcostdmus, a, um; having a mouth deeply furrowed. supSrbus, a, um; superb ; magnificent. Sussexiensis, is, e; found in or belonging to Sussex. sylvestris, is, e; belonging to the woods ; inhabiting the woods. tabvMtus, a, um; boarded ; planked. tceni&nus, a, um; tape-worm-shaped. tardndus; the reindeer ; reindeer-like. taxinus, a, um; belonging to the yew-tree ; yew-like. tdxus; the badger ; badger-like. tentllus, a, um; very tender ; delicate. Tennanti; after Professor Tennant of London, mineralogist. tenuwaulis, is, e; slender-stemmed or stalked. tenuiceps; slender head ; slender-headed. Unuidens; slender tooth ; slender-toothed. tenuifascidtus, a, um; slender-banded. tenuifdlim, a, um; slender-leaved. tenuilamelldsus, a, um; having slender lamellae, or thin plates. tenuirdstris, is, e; slender-beaked ; slender-snouted. tenuis, is, e; slight; slender. tenuiseptus, a, um; slightly divided ; slender-partitioned. tenuispinus, a, um; slender- spined. tenuistridtus, a, um; finely striated ; slightly striated. terebra; a borer or auger. terebrdlus, a, um; bored ; perforated. tZres; rubbed to a point ; tapering. teretiusculus, a, um; slightly tapering ; somewhat taper. tesselldtus, a, um; tessellated, like the squares of a dice-board. tesseracontadactylus, a, um; forty-fingered. testacella; little shell. testudinifdrmis, is, e; turtle- or tortoise-shaped. tetrdgonus, a, um; four-cornered. telrdsticha; in four rows. texftlis, is, e; woven ; like a web. thujoldes; like the thuja, or arbor-vitae, one of the coniferse. ihymifdlius, a, um; thyme-leaved ; leaves like the thyme. thyreosp6ndylus; having perforated vertebrae. tichorhinus, a, um; partition-wall-nosed ; applied to a fossil rhinoceros, in allusion to the structure of the nose- or snout- bones. tintinndbulum; a little bell ; like a little bell. tolidpicus, a, um; pestle-like ; from the Isle of Sheppey. 503 TOM UMB tomentdsus, a, um; thickly covered with short stiff hairs. Tommasinii; in honour of Tommasini, the podesta of Trieste. torqudtus, a, um; twisted round. tortudsus, a, tim; tortuous ; twisted. Trailli; after Dr Traill of Edinburgh, naturalist. transversus, a, um; transverse ; cross-wise. trapeziformis, is, e; four-sided ; trapezium-like. triacontaddctyhis, a, um; thirty-fingered. triangularis, is, e; triangular- shaped ; three-cornered. tricMtomus, a, um; divided into three. triddclylites; three-fingered ; three-fingered -like. trifidus, a, um; cleft or divided into three. trifolidtus, a, um; three-leafed. trifurcdtus, a, um; three-forked. trigontllaris, is, e; triangular ; three-cornered. trig6niceps ; triangular-headed. trigonoc&nthus, a, um; three-cornered spine. trigondcenis, a, um; three-cornered or triangular horn. trigonopsis; three-cornered-like. trigonus, a, um; three-cornered. trilobdtus, a, um; three-lobed ; in three main parts. triiiervis, is, e; three-nerved ; having three veins. trinodus, a, um; three-knotted ; consisting of three knots or knobs. trochiformis, is, e; trochiform ; like the trochus or wheel-shell. trockledris, is, e; pulley-shaped. trocholdes; like the trochus or wheel-shell. tropceus, a, um; twisted or turned round. truncdtus, a, um; truncated ; cut short. tubceformis, is, e; trumpet-shaped. tuberculdtus, a, um; covered with tubercles ; warty. tuberdsus, a, um; tuberose ; composed of tuber-like parts. tubipdra; organ- piped ; tubular-pored. tubuldris, is, e; hollow like a pipe ; tubular. tubuldtus, a, um; furnished with pipe-like pores or passages. tubuUsus, a, um; abounding in tubes ; made up of tubes. tumldulus, a, um; slightly swollen. tumidus, a, um; tumid ; swollen out. TunstalUnsis, is, e; after Tunstall Hill in Durham. turbindtus, a, um; top-shaped. turbinttlus, a, um; little top-shaped. turbinoides; shaped like a top. turgidus, a, tim; turgid ; swollen out. turris; a tower ; tower-shaped. U umbella; an umbrella ; umbrella-like. umbilicdtus, a, um; navel-shaped ; umbilicated. umbondtus, a, um; bossed ; protuberant. umbraculif6rmis, is, e; umbrella-shaped. 504 UMB VES umbrdsus, a, urn; shadowed. uncdtus, a, urn; hooked ; hook-shaped. uncifolius, a, urn; hook-leafed ; hook-like leaf. uncindtus, a, urn; hooked ; furnished with hooks. undans; waving ; in waving lines. unddtus, a, um; wavy. undosus, a, um; wavy ; full of heights and hollows. unduldtus, a, um; undulating ; in wavy lines. unguiculatus, a, um; claw-like ; furnished with claw-like processes. unguifdrmis, is, e; claw-shaped, unicarindtus, a, um; having one ridge or keel. unicdlor; one-coloured ; of uniform colour. unilinedtus, a, um; one-lined ; marked with one line. uniplicdtus, a, um; once folded. urceoldtus, a, um; pitcher-shaped ; pitcher-like. Urii; after the Rev. Dr Ure of Rutherglen. urophyllus, a, um; tail-leafed ; tapering like a tail. utriculfiris, is, e; bag-like. v&gans; wandering. vagina; a sheath. Valdensis, is, e; belonging to the Wealden formation. vdlidus, a, um; strong ; stoutly built. Vanuxemi; after Vanuxem, American geologist. varidbilis, is, e; variable ; not always the same. varians; variable ; changing. varicdsus, a, um; varicose ; having swollen veins. variocostdtus, a, um; differently ribbed ; having ribs of different sizes. varioldris, is, e; spotted with pimples. vasculdris, is, e; vascular ; having little vessels. Vecliensis, is, e; of or belonging to the Isle of Wight. veldmen; a covering or veil. vtticans; sail-like ; with sail-like fins. velox; swift ; fitted for rapid motion. velutinus, a, um; velvety; soft. ven6sus, a, um; full of veins. ventricdsus, a, um; bulging out ; bellying. ventropldnus, a, um; smooth-bellied. venustus, a, um; fair ; elegant. vermiculdris, is, e; worm-shaped ; vermicular. vermiculo'ides; worm-like; vermicular. Verneuilidnus, a, um; after M. Verneuil, geologist. verructisus, a, um; warty ; covered with wart-like projections. vertebr&lis, is, e; vertebra-like. verticill&tus, a, um; whorled ; verticillate. verus, a, um; true ; genuine. vesiculdris, is, e; vesicular; bladder-like. vesiculdsus, a, um; full of vesicles ; bladdery. 505 VET ZIN vetustus, a, um; ancient. villdsus, a, um; villous ; covered with soft short hairs. vimineus, a, um; osier-like ; withy. violdceus, a, um; approaching to a violet hue. virgdtus, a, um; twig-shaped ; rod-like. virgula; a rod or twig. mrgul&tus, a, um; rod-shaped ; like a bundle of rods. vitreus, a, um; glassy ; like glass in lustre. vittdtus, a, um; banded or bound with a fillet. vdmer; a ploughshare ; ploughshare-like. vulgdris, is, e; vulgar ; very common. vulgdtus, a, um; common. vulpiceps; fox-headed ; having a head like a fox. mdturensis, is, e; vulture-like ; belonging to the vultures. w WaterJiousii; after Mr Waterhouse of London, zoologist. Wetherelli; after Mr Wetherell, botanist and geologist. Whitbignsis, is, e; from Whitby on the Lias in Yorkshire. Williamsonis; after Dr Williamson of Scarborough, botanist. Withami; after Dr Witham of Edinburgh, palaeontologist. Woodii; after Mr Searles Wood of London, geologist. Woodwardii; after Mr Woodward, conchologist. Wrightii; after Dr T. Wright of Cheltenham, palaeontologist. Wymani; after Professor Wyman of Canada. X xiphodon; sword-tooth ; having a sword-like tooth. zamiotdes; zamia-like ; resembling the plant zamia. zebra; the zebra ; striped or banded like the zebra. zic-zac, zig-zag; slanting in straight lines from side to side. zingiberiformis, is, e; ginger-root-shaped. PRINTED BY WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS, EDINBURGH. WORKS ON GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. BY DAVID PAGE, F.RS.E, F.G.S. Introductory Text-Book of Geology. With Engravings on Wood and Glossarial Index. Sixth Edition. Is. 9d. 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The Volumes are sold separately, Is. 6d. ; and may be had of most Booksellers, in Six Volumes, handsomely half-bound in red morocco. CONTENTS. VOL. I. The Glenmutchkin Railway. Vanderdfecken's Message Home. The Floating Beacon. Colonna the Painter. Napoleon. A Legend of Gibral- tar. The Iron Shroud. VOL. II. Lazaro's Legacy. A Story without a Tail. Faustus and Queen Eliza- beth. How I became a Yeoman. Devereux Hall. The Metempsychosis. College Theatricals. VOL. III. A Reading Party in the Long Vacation. Father Tom and the Pope. La Petite Madelaine. Bob Burke's Duel with Ensign Brady. The Headsman : A Tale of Doom. The Wearyful Woman. VOL. IV. How I stood for the Dreepdaily Burghs. First and Last. The Duke's Dilemma: A Chronicle of Niesenstein. The Old Gentleman's Teetotum. " Woe to us when we lose the Watery Wall." My College Friends : Charles Russell, the Gentleman Commoner. The Magic Lay of the One-Horse Chay. VOL. V. Adventures in Texas. How we got Possession of the Tuileries. 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