CONVERTED Wi^t Sfatngbon 3&eligtoufi( Cbucatton (ETextsf Babtb ^. Botonep, (General Cbttot COMMUNITY TRAINING SCHOOL SERIES. NORMAN E. RICHARDSON. Editor Organization and Administration of Religious Education JOHN ELBERT STOUT Professor ot Administration in Religious Education Northwestern University tW«x»»»^>wi THE ABINGDON PRESS NEW YORK CINCINNATI 57 Copyright, 1922, by JOHN ELBERT STOUT AU Rights Reierved Printed in the United States of America First Edition Printed January, 192a Reprinted June, 1922 CONTENTS chapter page Editor's Introduction 7 Author's Preface 9 I. The Church as an Instrument of Social Service. . 13 The functions of the church — Religion conceived in social terms — Religion and life — ^The social task — Relation of the church to the task — The program of the church — Appeal of a program — Formulation of a program — Limitations of the present treatment. II. The Educational Function of the Church 25 Present emphasis upon education — Extension of public education — Interrelation of religion and edu- cation — Separation of church and state — Evidence of lack of religious element — Extension of religious instruction — More adequate program needed — Re- ligious education a function of the church — Service of the church to education — Service of education to the church. III. The Aims of Religious Education 37 Aims of education being redefined — Not defined in a single term — Two-fold piupose of religious education — Ultimate and immediate goals — Ultiniate aims stated in terms of dispositions and abilities — To maintain health and physical fitness — To use leisure time in right ways — To contribute to the work of the world — To sustain social relationships — To ac- quire and maintain church membership — Immediate aims conceived in terms of acquiring and developing — Acquiring fruitful knowledge— Developing atti- tudes, interests and appreciations — Developing ideals and motives — Acquiring habits and skills — ^Achieving character — Individual differences — Universal educa- tion. IV. A Program of Religious Education 60 Program standards — Principles of program making — Extent of the program — A commtmity task — Need of imified program — Program not identical for all churches — Two-fold aim — Extension of time — ^Week- day instruction — School credit for religious instruc- tion — Minimum time required — Curricula need re- 4922G0 CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE vision — Principles of curricula making — Specifications or guides — Sources of subject matter — Types of material — Mind of child determining factor — Im- portance of permanent and attractive form — Organ- ization of curricula — Two curricula — Correlation with the public school — Task of reconstruction. V. The Organization of the Community 85 Education conceived in social terms — Religious instruction an integral part of education — The com- munity Council — Two determining factors in organ- ization — Existing community organizations — Funda- mental characteristics of organization — Agencies in carrying out the program — Church Schools— Com- munity schools— Organization within the Council — Board of Religious Education — Qualifications and functions — Executive officer — Qualifications and func- tions — Financial support — Sources of funds — Impor- tance of permanent sources. VI. Community Week-Day Schools 113 Extending the influence of education — An educa- tional movement — Correlating work of home and school — Reorganization of outside activities — The Bible study movement — Plans of conducting this work — Fundamental principles — Necessity of week- day instruction — Factors involved in organization — Available resources — Time schedules — Religious in- struction and the public school program — Formulation of week-day programs — ^Organization of curricula — Gradation of pupils — Buildings and equipment — Use of public school buildings — Examples of community schools — Success of week-day schools. VII. The Church School 139 Church school standards — Influence of week-day schools — Program of the church school — Scope of work — Program not limited to instruction — Time schedule — The one hour session — Distribution of time — Church school curricula — Need of reorganiza- tion—Three types of material — Organization and administration — The church as an educational agency — Importance of the teaching function — Reorganiza- tion within the school — A single administrative tmit — A single administrative board. VIII. The Training of Teachers 157 Public school experience — Growth of teacher train- ing facilities — Standardizing agencies — Importance of teacher training — Aims of teacher training — Social 4 CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE and scientific attitudes — Important objectives in teacher training — Two classes of students — Courses grouped under two heads — Organized means of teacher training — Extension and improvement of means — Higher institutions — Local training schools — Community training schools — Examples of training schools — Church schools to supplement other means —-Coordinating the work — Church schools as the only means — Teachers' meetings — Reading courses — Meetings and conferences — Summer schools — Sys- tematic supervision — Organization, administration, and supervision of training schools — Lack of trained workers — Director of the work — Proper standards. IX. Selection and Supervision of Teachers 185 The task of selecting teachers — Definite standards needed — ^Application of standards — Practical difficul- ties involved — Qualifications of teachers — Special qual- ifications — Personal characteristics — Means of rating teachers — Supervision of teachers — Need and function of supervision of teachers — Relations in which super- vision is exercised — Supervision of class-room work — In matters of discipline — Social and recreational activ- ities — Physical conditions — Principles governing in supervision — Methods of supervision — Demonstration lessons — Teachers' meetings — Meeting the situation. X. Administrative Management of Pupils 211 Different conditions kept in mind — Importance of school enrollment — The school survey — Making the school accessible — Appeal to interest — Compulsory attendance — Enrollment in church and community schools — Survey necessary — Adequate facilities — In- terest of parents and pupils — Regularity and pimctual- ity in attendance — Interest again — Appeal of the school — Spirit of the school — Cooperation of parents — Cooperation of other schools — Gradation and pro- motion — Standards in grading pupils — Proper classifi- cation-;-Gradation and promotion in religious education — Means of improving conditions — Retarda- tion and elimination of pupils — Need of standards — The problem of elimination — Causes determined — Remedies applied — School discipline — Causes of poor discipline — The functions of school discipline — Nature of the problem. XI. Religious Education in Higher Institutions 247 Original purpose of denominational colleges — Pres- ent curricula — Causes of change in policy— Opportun- ity for a liberal education — The rehgious element — CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE Training for vocations — Training for avocations — Reconstruction of curricula — Need of fundamental change — Instruction in religion — Courses preparing for service — Needs of two classes of workers — Pre- requisites to courses in religious education — Minimum hours constituting a imit — Conspectus of under- graduate courses — Proposed list of courses — Providing majors and minors — Number and sequence of courses — Requirements of standardizing agencies — Graduate courses — Distinction between elementary and ad- vanced courses — ^Administration of courses — Separate Department — Courses administered by other de- partments. XII. Conclusion 272 The religious motive in education — Realization of the need — Demand for extension of program — Re- ligious education a public enterprise — The educational method in religion — Present enrollment in church schools — Buildings and equipment — Financial support — Lack of educational organization — Future develop- ment — Increasing importance of the Sunday school — Extension of week-day instruction. Bibliography 281 Index 285 EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION Upon the Christian Church of America there rests the responsibility of nurturing the religious life of the American people. This responsibility is created by the essential nature of the materials of which the church is the custodian and by the constitutional pro- vision by which the state is prevented from undertak- ing to transmit religion to the coming generation of citizens. Furthermore, the significance of this primary responsibility of the church is recognized by the leaders in the field of general education and by a rapidly in- creasing number of other forward-looking citizens who look upon religious illiteracy as a national menace. Brought face to face with this responsibility and at a time when the need of religion in our national life is particularly apparent, the church confronts the prac- tical necessity of formulating a clear conception of the objectives of its educational program and of the means by which these objectives can be reached most quickly and with the least expenditure of money and energy. The real leaders of the church will readily recognize the fact that this task must be conceived in terms of a gigantic educational project — one that involves a suit- able policy and technique. It is not enough to labor with prophetic passion to keep alive the souls of the adult members of the congregation. To reclaim thou- sands of adults while millions of children are allowed to grow up as moral and religious illiterates is not the present-day program of the church. To reclaim the 7 EDITOR'S IISITRODUCTION fag ends of misspent lives cannot be rationally justified as the chief business of a church into whose homes are born those little ones of whom Jesus said, "Of such is the kingdom of heaven." Conservation rather than reclamation is the church's first and primary obligation. It is this educational function of the church which Professor Stout has placed squarely before those who are responsible for its organization and administration. With the scientific insight of a trained educational administrator he has laid bare the problems of defining objectives, formulating policies and programs, organ- izing the personal resources, extending the present pro- gram so as to include week-day and vacation schools, selecting, training and supervising teachers, and the administrative management of pupils. It is fortunate to have brought to bear upon these problems the knowl- edge and technique of an experienced school admin- istrator. This book will be recognized by all who are conversant with modern educational practice as au- thoritative in this field. Norman E. Richardson. 8 AUTHOR'S PREFACE Whatever we would have in our national life we must first put into our program of education. This fundamental principle is universally accepted as ap- plied to civic, moral, and vocational life. It is no less valid as applied to religious life. We are now coming to recognize this application, and the result is wide- spread interest in the organization and administration of programs of religious education which will provide adequate religious instruction for American children and youth. This volume undertakes to deal with some of the chief factors involved in the organization and admin- istration of religious education programs. No claim is made either of completeness or finality. All the author has attempted to do is to treat in as much detail as the limits of the volume will permit, the funda- mental principles of educational organization and ad- ministration as applied to the particular problem in hand. It seems obvious that the only way to secure the proper functioning of the religious motive in education is to use effectively the educational method in religion. The various problems dealt with in the book have there- fore been treated from the educational point of view. The following are some of the fundamental assump- tions which have been made: 1. That religious instruction should be regarded as an integral part of the education of every child. 2. That religious education, like all other kinds, can 9 AUTHOR'S PREFACE be carried on successfully only under certain specified conditions as to aims, curriculum, method, teaching force, and supervision. 3. That these conditions cannot be secured unless schools are properly organized and intelligently ad- ministered. 4. That religious education should be regarded as a community enterprise in the sense that everybody in the community seeking the welfare of its childhood and youth ought to be interested in their proper reli- gious nurture and training. 5. That the churches of the community constitute the chief agencies for providing adequate religious instruction. 6. That public-school experience may be made a val- uable asset in our attempt to reorganize religious edu- cation. Two reasons for this assumption are appar- ent : ( I ) There are certain fundamental principles involved in the successful organization and adminis- tration of educational programs of all kinds; and (2) the public schools have worked out a successful tech- nique which, if properly adapted, will be found ex- tremely useful in the field of religious education. A large share of attention, relatively, has been de- voted to three topics, namely, the aims of religious education; selection, training, and supervision of teachers ; and the administrative management of pupils. Two outstanding purposes are conceived for reli- gious instruction: (i) To assist the public school in achieving its aims; and (2) to achieve certain aims peculiar to the functions of religion. This point of view led the author to consider the aims of education as a whole, of which religious instruction is a neces- sary, vital, and integral part. 10 AUTHOR'S PREFACE The relatively large portion of the book devoted to teachers and pupils seems justified on the ground of the great importance of these factors in any fruitful dis- cussion of educational organization and administration. One of the great advances made in modern educa- tion is the introduction of the scientific method in deal- ing with pupils. No less marked has been the emphasis upon the importance of trained teachers, proper stand- ards for use in their selection, and a scientific technique for their supervision. Those who work in the field of religious education will find this experience of public- school administrators and teachers a fruitful source of information and encouragement. Evanston, Illinois. J. E. S. II CHAPTER I THE CHURCH AS AN INSTRUMENT OF SOCIAL SERVICE What part is the church to play in the great task of social progress? This question is in the minds of a multitude not only within the church but without it as well. That there is general expectation that it will play a larger part than at present is apparent. The church is making extensive plans manifested by increasingly larger budgets and the setting up of administrative ma- chinery through which it hopes to render a more sig- nificant service. Outside the immediate leadership of the church many are hoping that it will come into a more definite position of influence in the solution of our great social problems. An increasing number of people are looking to the church for leadership with clearly defined goals and wisely selected means for reaching them. This evidence that the leadership of the church is conscious of larger responsibility is extremely encour- aging. The fact that its constituency is ready to re- spond to a competent leadership is equally significant. Lying back of these more objective manifestations of responsibility and expectation is something even more significant. This more significant thing consists of definite questions concerning the what and the how of the program of the church. People are insistingly asking, What contribution can the church make? and How docs it propose to make it? In what terms is 13 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION the task of the church conceived ? What are the objec- tives being set up? What are the plans and programs proposed ? These are vital questions, and upon the an- swers will depend the success or failure of the enter- prises of the church. The purpose of the present chap- ter is to direct attention to these questions. THE FUNCTIONS OF THE CHURCH A clear determination of the functions of the church in modern society lies at the heart of intelli- gent answers to the questions suggested above. The mere fact that its activities are being multiplied or that some of these activities are becoming intensified or enlarged does not in itself mean that its power in modern society is being increased and well directed. It is only when its objectives are clearly determined and means to attain these objectives wisely selected that its activities can be properly evaluated. What are the new demands, or age-long demands with new meanings and new emphases, being made upon the church ? This question can be best answered by directing our inquiry to religion itself. Religion conceived in sodal tenns. — Religion is being conceived largely in social terms. The emo- tional and intellectual factors are no less important than they have always been, but they are being called upon more and more to express themselves in concrete social situations where wrongs are to be righted, jus- tice secured, and righteousness promoted. A church which boasts of its intellectual freedom is only dis- playing its institutional vanity unless this freedom is directed toward the functioning of truth in social rela- tionships. Likewise a church which assumes authority 14 THE CHURCH AND SOCIAL SERVICE to deny its membership intellectual freedom and con- ceives its chief function to be the preservation of an ancient faith, must assume the responsibility of making this faith a great propulsive force directed toward social righteousness. The church which stresses the importance of emotional fervor manifests only its stu- pidity, unless this becomes a power directed toward bringing in the kingdom of God on earth. And, finally, any church, to whatever type it may belong, that finds its chief concern in establishing and maintaining insti- tutional machinery has failed to sense the modern de- mands upon the Christian religion. Religion and life. — That vital religion has not and is not now dominating the life of great masses of in- dividuals and of nations is perfectly apparent. And by vital religion is meant, religion as defined in the life and teachings of Jesus. What are the essential facts of Jesus' life and what did he really teach? For- tunately, men the world over are seriously and insist- ently asking this question as they have not done before. But they are not stopping here in their questionings. How can religion thus defined and conceived be made to function more effectively in the lives of individuals? What does it have to offer in the solution of modern social, political, and economic problems? The prim- ary function of the church is to answer these questions. If it fails at this point, it will ignominiously fail as an instrument of social service. The social task. — The great world task is social betterment. Men and women in increasing numbers are becoming conscious of the fundamental meaning and nature of this task. This explains in part at least why there is such widespread dissatisfaction with the present performance of institutions, including the 15 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION church, through which the process of social regenera- tion must be carried forward. They recognize that the things in which they have placed their faith and upon which they have built their hopes have in and of them- selves failed to create a satisfactory social order. Solemn treaties have become mere "scraps of paper/* laws are openly violated, and agreements ruthlessly broken. International agreements, peace conferences, constitutions, statute laws, supposedly accepted political and economic principles have all failed to prevent war and to curb greed and selfishness. They have failed to function properly in individual and corporate life and to control class hatred and strife. Even education it- self, upon which we had come to place chief reliance, has shared in the common failure to secure the new social order. There must be something more fundamental and powerful than these things, vital and indispensable as they all are. Hence the questionings of men con- cerning the values in religion and their challenge to the church. Relation of the church to the task. — The substance of the answer to the question concerning the function of the church has already been implied. It is to inter- pret truly and adequately the life and teachings of Jesus, cause his ideals and motives to dominate in the lives of individuals, and to make effective the func- tioning of these ideals and motives in all social relation- ships. The latter includes God as well as men. In the mind of Jesus the fatherhood of God was insepar- able from the brotherhood of man. Fellowship with God and men — all men — was the final terms in which Jesus conceived religion. His dual command was to love God and one's neighbors, and he declared that the i6 THE CHURCH AND SOCIAL SERVICE supreme evidence of this love is found in service to one's fellows. The forms which this answer takes are extremely important. It must be stated in terms that will enlist the interest, command the confidence, and justify the hopes of all those to whom the church would minister. Three things, at least, insistently demand attention. 1. The church, if it would get a hearing from modern men, must think and speak in a modern lan- guage.^ They are not thinking or evaluating life and conduct in terms of mediaeval theology. They are thinking and evaluating in terms of present-day life. Biology and psychology have revealed and are con- tinuing to reveal facts about human life which have not only great scientific interest but tremendous reli- gious import. Sociology has for its field social rela- tionships, and its contributions have great value for the modern church. Men as never before are thinking in social as well as scientific terms. The thought of our age can be interpreted adequately only in an appro- priate terminology. Sin and salvation, redemption and righteousness, saved and lost must be interpreted in a language that falls on understanding ears. Men both in their individual capacities and in their social rela- tionships of all sorts need to be called to repentance in a tongue they will understand. Jesus spoke in a lan- guage familiar to his hearers. Will the church in a larger measure than it is now doing follow the exam- ple? An affirmative answer is already assured. 2. The church must have a thoroughly modernized system of truth. ^ To abandon archaic language and to modify the form in which truth is stated does not iTittle, Ernest P., What Must the Church Do to Be Saved f pp. 13-14. *Ibid., pp. X4-22. 17 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION make it necessary to dispense with formulated truth which we are accustomed to call theology. It does mean, however, that this truth when so formulated must square at every point with the established and generally accepted facts of modern life. Any assump- tion presupposing that religious truth, unlike all other kinds of truth, is capable of no development or expan- sion is unwarranted. If a growing, developing, out- reaching world is to be undergirded, motivated, and directed by a religion, that religion must be one whose body of truth is of the same dynamic sort. Old forms may have to be discarded not only to permit the intro- duction of new truth, but also to make possible the functioning of the old. Biblical scholarship, scientific research, and sociological endeavor are making con- stant contributions of inestimable value. The attitude of the church as a whole toward this problem of social regeneration is encouraging. Mul- titudes of forward-looking men and women realize the great value that these contributions have for the work of the church. They know full well that the church cannot negate or even ignore the intellectual stimulus furnished by modern scholarship. Its message is al- ready taking such form as to stimulate thought on religious themes and to give men and women an intel- lectual life within the church. 3. Religious truth must enter more largely into and become an integral part of the whole body of truth. This means first of all that the church must deal with all truth as it relates to modern life. It must not only recognize and accept it from whatever source it may come, but must make it minister to the spiritual needs of all classes and conditions of men. Its mission is not only to teach but to interpret. The former func- 18 THE CHURCH AND SOCIAL SERVICE tion is naturally limited in its scope. Other agencies share in the responsibility. The latter rightfully con- ceived has no limitations except those belonging to truth itself. In its more inclusive ministry it should give the Christian interpretation to all truth. It is only thus that the Chrisian ideal can be made to function in the thought and conduct of men. This is an enormous task confronting the church. The field of science alone presents a great body of truth, yet largely untouched by the church in its min- istry of interpretation. Human nature as revealed by biology and psychology calls for explanation in terms of its spiritual meaning and significance. Social rela- tionships have become so complex that a body of knowl- edge and experiences is being formulated, dealing with these in a constructive way. Men and women are at- tempting to think in terms of these relationships in a degree they have never attempted before. All this vast complex of knowledge and experience with which men are attempting to deal calls for interpretations in terms of the life and teachings of Jesus. A Christian- ized social order must first of all exist in the personal ideals and aspiration of those who are to bring it about It must first animate the thought of a generation before it can become a reality in its social relationships. In this relation the church not only has responsibility in the present but for the future. Those who are now in our public schools and higher institutions of learn- ing are acquiring knowledge and experience of one kind and another which will determine in large measure their thought, life, and conduct when they assume the responsibility of adult membership in society. What is the church doing to help interpret the facts being learned and the experience acquired ? 19 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION If the study of science is leading to materialism whose fault is it? If a knowledge of the facts or fancies of psychology leads to belief in the ouija board, who is to blame? If a knowledge of and experience in the social life of our times results in theories destruc- tive to the stability of any properly conceived social order, what is the remedy? And, finally, if God is being forgotten and Christ rejected — in short, if a knowledge of and vital experience in religion is not a part of all knowledge and experience, what is the reason therefor? A vitally religious life means an interpretation of all phases of knowledge and experi- ence in terms of a vital religion. It is the supreme function of the church to furnish this interpretation. THE PROGRAM OF THE CHURCH A modern program commensurate with the task of the church is imperative. By program is not meant merely a statement of large objectives to be reached. The adding of one million or five millions to the mem- bership of the church is a worthy objective, assuming that this number is thereby added to the Kingdom. Raising funds aggregating millions or hundreds of millions to be used for worthy purposes is a laudable enterprise. Building up organizations anticipating the use of large numbers of consecrated men and women to carry forward the work of the church is commend- able. The federation of the churches is one of the most hopeful signs of the times. But none of these in and of themselves or all taken together constitute a pro- gram. It is not meant to imply that programs are not being worked out and formulated. The purpose is, rather, to point out the extreme importance of the fact that the value of the answer which the church makes 20 THE CHURCH AND SOCIAL SERVICE to the present challenge depends in the last analysis upon its detailed program of service. Appeal of a program. — The program is the matter in which people are primarily interested. They want to know not only the details concerning what is to be done but also how it is to be done. Any proposition, therefore, which is presented in the form of a program having in it the promise of being effective makes a suc- cessful appeal. Neither the bigness of an undertaking nor difficulties to be surmounted deters men and women of our generation. The thing that does fail to arouse interest and enlist support is hazy ill-defined objec- tives and ineffective means of accomplishment. People of our time and country do not lack faith. They are not afraid to venture forth on great enter- prises. If many seem to lack religious faith, it is not improbable that it is because they have not been chal- lenged. If the church would enlist the faith of men by directing that great propulsive force of life toward religious ends, it can do so only by furnishing a pro- gram whose objectives appeal to their imagination and the means of accomplishment to their judgment. Formulation of a program. — The formulation of a program must first of all take into account what needs to be done, which the church cooperating with other institutions or acting upon its own initiative can do effectively. Stated briefly, social reconstruction is the inclusive objective toward which we are striving. But this means also individual reconstruction. A new social order is conditioned upon the cooperation of in- dividuals who have both the disposition and ability to secure and maintain it. Any program set up by the church which does not recognize this as the funda- mental task, in the sense that first things must come 21 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION first, will not get very far. What, then, in detail are the objectives and methods of the program? I. The program must include provisions for enrich- ing and vitalizing the lives of individuals. The chief function of the church is to aid people in attaining to Christian standards of personal life and character. At the present time it is not doing this effectively. Multi- tudes are not touched directly by its influence. This is attested by the fact that more than half our popula- tion has no membership in the church and does not participate in its activities. More than this, approxi- mately three- fourths of the children and youth are not enrolled in Sunday schools or other schools of reli- gious instruction. Added to this is another fiact, namely, that many who are nominally within the church either because of lack of disposition or ability or both are not promoting the new social order. Still further, the children and youth who are enrolled in the schools are not receiving instruction adequate in amount or sufficiently vital in character. This is not meant to express lack of appreciation of what the Sun- day school is accomplishing. Neither is it intended as any reflection upon the good work being done by mul- titudes of officers and teachers. We might just as well face the facts, however, that the means of religious instruction now available are wholly inadequate to meet the imperative needs of our time. More will be said concerning this point in a subsequent chapter. The immediate question is concerned with the pro- gram of the church for vitalizing and making more effective the lives of individuals. It must undergird life with religious motives and ideals in a much more compelling way than it is now doing. That it must con- tinue to burn in the hearts of men and women the story 22 THE CHURCH AND SOCIAL SERVICE of the prodigal son and thereby win them back to decency and God is entirely obvious. Its program must continue to include means and methods to regen- erate life that has lost its vital contact with spiritual forces. But not less — aye, more — imperative is it that the church generate life — that it construct as well as reconstruct. The task of saving men when lost is a significant one; that of gripping life before it has be- come sin-stained and broken is both more significant and more fruitful. This should be conceived as the supreme task of the church. The final test of the effi- ciency of the program is found at this point. It must substitute knowledge for ignorance and make that knowledge a dynamic force in the formative periods of life. Attitudes, interests, and ideals of some kind are formed early in life. As these relate to religious life and experience, their inculcation, growth, and de- velopment must be one of the great objectives of the program of the church. 2. Any effective program will train for social service in far larger measure than is now being done. The ennobling and vitalizing of the lives of individuals has been pointed out as the supreme function of the church. A program which stops or even halts here will fail to meet the demands made upon it. It must also include provision for training men and women in various lines of social service and for directing them in this service. It must continue to train for the preaching ministry and more adequately than it is now doing. The sup- ply in this field is wholly inadequate to the demand. Not only this but the stress and strain brought on by the demands of modern life reveals that many now in the ministry are illy trained for the task. Some indeed do not seem to sense in an adequate way either 23 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION the extent or character of the task. Whatever the per- centage of ill-trained ministers may be, it is large enough to demand that the program for the training of the ministry be more vitally and intelligently con- ceived. When we turn to other fields of religious service comparatively few competent workers are found. What is more to the point in this connection is that the present program for training such workers is ex- tremely meager. There are, to be sure, special schools maintained for missionary and other fields of social service. But these schools are for the most part meagerly supported, some of them poorly equipped, and the attendance distressingly small. LIMITATIONS OF THE PRESENT VOLUME The limitations of the present treatment makes impossible a discussion of the entire program of the church. It includes reclamation of life that has lost its spiritual contacts. Great emphasis has been placed upon this, and rightly so. Its program of relief to those in need has been greatly extended in recent years. The ministry of the church to the hungry and sick and others unfortunately situated must be con- tinued and enlarged. It is not, however, within our province to consider these forms of its ministry. The educational function of the church is the only one that engages our attention in the present relation. The problem presented by the needs of both individuals and society is of such magnitude and difficulty that it re- quires extended treatment. The purpose of the fol- lowing chapters is to treat the problem in such detail as the limits of the volume will allow. 24 CHAPTER II THE EDUCATIONAL FUNCTION OF THE CHURCH The importance of the educational function of the church has been implied in the preceding chapter. In any fruitful discussion of the need for a clearly defined program of the church education must of necessity have a conspicuous place. The purpose of the present chapter is to make explicit and to discuss in some de- tail the opportunity and responsibility of the church in relation to education. PRESENT EMPHASIS UPON EDUCATION Education is being relied upon as never before as a means of securing individual efficiency and social bet- terment. As a people we have committed our destiny to education in a remarkable and hitherto unparalleled degree. We are educating for citizenship, for voca- tions, for avocations, and these types of education are being differentiated and worked out more and more in detail. The principle which we have adopted is in effect as follows : Determine what children should he- come in personal characteristics and in social disposi- tions and abilities and then educate for the accomplish- ment of these things. The state has fully committed itself to this principle. Extension of public education. — The increased and constantly increasing extension of public educa- tion is a matter of great significance. Multiplication 25 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION of schools, their more efficient organization and admin- istration, the extension and enrichment of curricula, compulsory attendance — these are some of the objec- tive evidences of the extreme importance we are attach- ing to public education. And in this effort we are not seeking to secure merely general intelligence. The ends sought are specific and clearly defined. Depend- ence is no longer being placed upon mere ''discipline'* of mental powers or upon a general "culture" con- sisting of a knowledge of a multitude of things. Health, the right use of leisure time, vocational and civic efficiency are some of the things being sought through knowledge bearing directly upon them. But we are not stopping here. This knowledge when ac- quired must be made to function by means of motives which have their sources in proper attitudes, ideals, interests, and appreciations. In short, the inclusive goal set up is the ability to live rightly through knowl- edge plus the disposition so to live through right mo- tives. This goal is wholly worthy and its achievement imperative. But the public school is now falling short and will continue to fall short of accomplishment in considerable degree because an absolutely essential type of knowledge is excluded from its curriculum and the inculcation of the deepest and most compelling motives in human life is neglected. Specific instruction in religion is given no place in the public-school program. This is a fatal defect and must in some way receive far more attention than it is receiving at the present. INTERRELATION OF RELIGION AND EDUCATION No argument is needed to establish the fact that reli- gion and education are mutually dependent. Looking at the matter historically, the above statement is thor- 26 EDUCATIONAL FUNCTION OF THE CHURCH oughly established. The history of both the church and the state bears abundant evidence. It is not the pur- pose here, however, to go into the history of the matter, but, rather, to point out that the religious element is necessarily excluded from the great program of public education in this country, and further, to show that this program must be supplemented by a program of reli- gious education far more effective than exists at the present and to suggest how such a program can be supplied. Separation of chtirch and state. — It is a matter of common knowledge that the growth and final consum- mation of the separation of church and state has re- sulted in the entire elimination of the religious element from public education. This does not mean that the public school is either in intent or practice irreligious. The teachers themselves constitute a refutation of any charge of this kind. No single group of social workers outside the ministry itself includes among its mem- bers a higher percentage of men and women thoroughly devoted to the Christian ideal than do the public- school teachers of America. The personal factor is also reen forced by an avowed attempt through the curriculum, general exercises, and other activities to give moral and ethical instruction of high order. The influence of both personality and instruction, however, is falling short of accomplishing in an ade- quate way even ethical and moral ends desired. Wholesale charges of immorality in the public schools sometimes indulged in are unjustified. On the other hand, their failure to grip the lives of children and youth in a compelling way and to motivate conduct adequately is, unfortunately, abundantly attested. This failure should not be charged chiefly to their ineffi- 27 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION ciency as educational agencies of the state, but rather to the limitations under which, of necessity, they carry on their work. They are nonreligious and cannot un- dergird life with religious ideals and motives. Evidence of lack of religious element. — The ab- sence of the religious element in the public schools is shown in two ways : 1. Religious instruction in general is prohibited in any tax-supported institution by constitutional provi- sion, legislative enactment, or court decision. In some States even the reading of the Bible in the public schools is absolutely prohibited. In others perfunc- tory reading of the Scriptures is permitted, but no one acquainted with the facts will claim that such reading, where practiced, constitutes an effective means of reli- gious teaching. No other form of religious instruc- tion, if, indeed, this perfunctory reading may be called such, is contemplated or permitted. 2. An examination of the subjects and subject-mat- ter taught in the public schools reveals clearly the ab- sence of religious teaching. This fact becomes even more apparent when a comparison with the curricula of the earHer schools is made. One does not have to go back very far to find textbooks which reveal that one of the distinct purposes was to teach religion. The New England Primer, Noah Webster's Spelling Book, and other texts in use bear evidence to the above statement. Some of the earlier high schools offered Christian Evidences and Butler's Analogy as subjects of instruction. The middle of the nineteenth century approximately marks the passing of these and similar subjects, and the public schools became wholly secular so far as their curricula are concerned. It is true that certain agencies other than the public 28 EDUCATIONAL FUNCTION OF THE CHURCH schools are attempting to supplement their work by way of providing religious instruction. These efforts, however, are feeble and on the whole ineffective. While secular instruction has been greatly extended and enriched, religious instruction, within Protestant connections at least, has steadily declined in compara- tive, if not in actual, extent and effectiveness. Extension of religious instruction. — Religious in- struction must be extended and made more effective. An awakening to this need is fortunately now taking place, and this is very encouraging to the cause of a more vital educational program. The leaders of the church and also public school administrators and teachers are giving voice to this need. In company with a multitude of other citizens of our common- wealths, they have come to recognize the respect in which our educational system is most defective, namely, in the lack of the distinctive religious element. There must continue to be a separation between church and state in matters pertaining to religion ; but this separation must not be allowed to result in a separation of religion and education. Nor can it longer be allowed even to subordinate religious instruction to the extent to which such subordination now exists. The church and state must consciously and purposely unite in a program of education which will secure to the fullest possible extent the development of all the powers and capacities of childhood and youth. They must he united as to ends and separate hut cooperative as to functions. More adequate program needed. — A more ade- quate educational program than now exists must be secured to give religion the necessary emphasis and a plan devised to make this program effective. How can 29 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION this be accomplished? Only by the church assuming its full responsibility. In the very nature of things the state cannot and should not attempt to teach religion. Legal limitations alone make this impossible. But if these were removed, there remains a more fundamental reason. If the state teaches religion, it must of necessity be a state religion. This would result not only in a union of church and state but in the absorption of the church by the state. No argument is needed to demonstrate that no such thing is desirable or even possible in America. The public school with its fine educational and social ideals and its splendid achievements must inevitably stop short of providing a complete educational program. Religious education a function of the church. — Religious education is not only a function of the church, but is its chief function.^ The word *'educa- tion" used here is in its usually accepted sense. It means the recognition of the full significance of the plasticity of childhood and youth in relation to the religion of adult life in the same degree that the state recognizes it in relation to citizenship. It means def- inite ends to be attained in the matter of personal char- acteristics and social dispositions and abilities, which ends are to be reached through a program of instruc- tion and activities. It means that this program shall be adequate both in character and extent to secure the fullest possible development of children and youth into what the church wants them to become. In short, it means that the church shall become committed wholly to the principle stated above, namely, "Determine what children should become in personal characteristics and »McGiffert, Arthur C, A Teaching Church. {Journal of Religious Education A»4oeiation), "Religious Education," vol. xvi, pp. 3-9. 30 EDUCATIONAL FUNCTION OF THE CHURCH in social disposition and abilities and educate for the accomplishment of these things." In so far as it fails in its performance at this point it fails in its service to individuals and society and to provide for its own life and perpetuity. This makes clear the opportunity of the church and the moral and social obligations resting upon it. What are the personal characteristics and the social dispositions and abilities we wish to secure ? They are none other than the things exemplified in the life, char- acter, and teachings of Jesus Christ. His ideals of per- sonal character, his devotion to the service of his fel- lows and his outreaching faith in and unfailing obedi- ence to the will of the Father are the objectives to be reached. These are the things to be attained through religious education and their accomplishment is the chief function of the church. Service of the church to education. — No such opportunity has ever come to the church to serve as an educational agency as now exists. The need of such service is compelling. The program of social recon- struction undertaken by the state through education will fail, unless religion has a larger place than it now occupies. The church is unfettered by state authority. It is limited only by its vision in grasping its oppor- tunity and by its wisdom in its choice of means. It can now go forward to the greatest educational achieve- ment in its history. The need no longer exists for the church to supply the child with the tools of knowledge. These are sup- plied by the public schools. It is not called upon to teach any of the secular subjects to provide a back- ground of intelligence. This is being done more gen- erally and more effectively by the state than ever 31 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION before. These conditions serve at once to define the educational function of the church and to lay upon it the obligation for the successful performance of that function. By performing this task adequately the church will render a service to education and through education to society that is unparalleled in all its history. It is the patriotic duty of the church deliberately and intelligently to assume this social responsibility. The great social, political, and economic problems that lie ahead endanger the very life of our nation unless reli- gious motives can be brought to bear upon their solu- tion. Merely increased intelligence will not be suffi- cient. Public education is making for greater effi- ciency along many lines. But it is not providing suf- ficiently for good will, respect for the rights of others, the application of the ideals of Jesus and the recog- nition of the demands of the Kingdom of God. The state needs to have these things done. The church can and must answer this call to duty. Service of education to the church. — It is ex- tremely important that the church should not only be perpetuated but that it should become increasingly effective as an instrument of social service. In order to do this its own life must be constantly renewed and strengthened. A program of religious education prop- erly conceived and administered will accomplish this more effectively than any other means. In fact, no other adequate means are available. Four needs of the church will be mentioned. I. One of the outstanding needs of the church is to secure a more sure and effective means of recruiting its membership. If the conclusions based upon recent surveys are correct, more than one half our population 32 EDUCATIONAL FUNCTION OF THE CHURCH are not members of the church. Whatever the exact proportion may be, the church everywhere is becoming increasingly conscious of this large number to whom it should minister. How to make successful appeal to these millions constitutes one of the acute problems of the church. It is attempting to reconstruct its pro- gram and modify its methods in such way as to secure as members of the church those adults who are either indifferent or antagonistic to it. That it should con- tinue to do this is entirely obvious. But both its pro- gram and its methods must take into account the ne- cessity of ministering to life in its formative period. Intelligence must be cultivated, loyalties established and life enriched when it is most easy and fruitful to do these things. The surest and most effective means of recruiting membership is the education of childhood and youth. This does not imply that other means cannot and should not continue to be used. It does mean, how- ever, that other means have proved inadequate and that chief reliance must be placed upon education. The church that would look to its own future with confi- dence will courageously face the fact of its need for a more effective means of ministering to children and young people. An educational program intelligently conceived and wisely administered constitutes the chief means of meeting this need. 2. The church needs an intelligent membership. This means not only that the members should be intel- ligent in general but that they should also be intelligent concerning religion. They need a more intelligent con- ception of the importance of the church as an institu- tion and its function and of their own relations to its program. The time to begin to secure such intelligence 33 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION is in childhood and youth. Children are being trained for citizenship, for vocations, for the home. Likewise must they be trained for the church. This is all the more important just because they are being trained for these other things. They are being educated into the relationships which they will finally be able to sustain successfully. These things are becoming increasingly worth while to them because they are becoming in- creasingly intelligent about them. Membership is meaningful and is not conceived merely in terms of joining something. If it is true as claimed in some quarters that many churches are regarded largely as social clubs where does the fault lie? The members of such churches are no doubt intelligent enough, but they lack intelligence of the right kind. They have little background either in sentiment or knowledge to respond to spiritual appeals or to cooperate in a program for the spiritual upbuild- ing of the community. That all available means should be employed to bring such people to a proper realization of spiritual values goes without saying. But at best it is a hard task and not very fruitful. A question of equal importance, at least, is whether the recruits of the church are to continue to be of this deficient kind. If so the future is not very promising. Seasons of reviving and vitalizing the religious life of spiritually lazy adults are important. A well conceived program of education to secure the growth of children and youth into a vital religious life, experience and conduct, is surely of equal importance. 3. The church needs to possess a more vivid sense of its own shortcomings. This institution like all others needs to have its faults corrected. There is now too much fault-finding but not enough fault correcting. 34 EDUCATIONAL FUNCTION OF THE CHURCH What is needed is more criticism of a constructive kind. Such criticism from without will be helpful, but if it can come from within it will be more fruitful. A ministry educated for the new duties and responsibili- ties of the church is essential. But it can accomplish little in the necessary social reconstruction unless lay- men are educated for the same task and are able to follow intelligently the leadership of the ministry. The church is now suffering not a little from a feeling within the church that something is wrong with it. What is needed is a knowledge of what is wrong and constructive effort to correct the faults. 4. The church needs an educated membership to provide for an expanding forward-looking program. The new and enlarged demands upon the church in the future can be met only by a constituency that is trained for service. Its objectives must be intelligently con- ceived, its agencies wisely selected and effectively ad- ministered. This will call increasingly for two things. First a leadership with differentiated training for the various types of work will be necessary. One of the handicaps under which the church is now laboring is a lack of sufficiently trained leaders to man its forces. The widely increasing demands for such leadership makes it imperative that means be provided to supply it. Second, the training of leaders is not enough. The church must look forward to securing an entire mem- bership committed to service through its agencies. This can be accomplished only by a program of religious instruction beginning in childhood and carried through the formative years of life. An abiding loyalty to the interests of the church can not rest upon ignorance of its opportunities and obligations and even less upon ignorance of the fundamental things of religion it- 35 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION self. The church should not spend less time in its efforts to educate its adult membership in the funda- mental things of religion. This is one of the impera- tive needs of the time. But it should spend far more time and effort in the religious development of the children and youth of the nation. 36 CHAPTER III THE AIMS OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION The manifest need of religious education and the imperative demand for an enlarged program render it necessary that the aims be clearly defined. It should be kept in mind in this connection that it is not at all improbable that the aims as now generally conceived are inadequate to serve as guides for the larger pro- gram. There are two indications that this is the case. The first is the lack of interest in religious education as manifested (i) by the millions of children who are not receiving formal religious instruction of any kind, (2) the meager program furnished by the Sunday schools as now conducted, and (3) the limited educa- tional programs being carried out by agencies other than the Sunday school. The second is suggested by the fact that religious education, even in its limited scope, has not kept pace either from the standpoint of subject-matter or method with that of the public schools. This comparative neglect, both as to its scope and quality, necessarily raises the question, at least, whether the aims may not be inadequately defined. AIMS OF PUBLIC EDUCATION REDEFINED When we turn to a consideration of public education we find that making education universal and enlarging its program has been accompanied by important read- justments in aims and values. This is a very natural result. The increased attention given to the subject 37 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION and the growing importance attached to it has led to a careful examination of its processes and goals. A systematic study of the demands of society upon edu- cation and to a scientific study of the children to be educated was inevitable. The result has been a rede- fining of aims, and it is one of the most important changes taking place in public education during the last twenty years. This demands our careful consideration for two reasons : ( i ) The experience acquired may be made to serve a very useful purpose in making neces- sary readjustments in religious education. (2) A clear understanding of the aims of public education is necessary in order that religious instruction may con- tribute to the fullest possible extent to their realization. Education not defined in a single term. — No attempt is made at present to give a final definition of education in a single word or phrase. To say that the aim of education is "character" or "social efficiency" or "preparation for complete living" is all well enough as far as it goes. But it does not go far enough. Hence the necessity for breaking up these general terms in order to discover the qualities of manhood or woman- hood we seek to produce and in the light of this decide intelligently the extent and kind of development neces- sary to secure these qualities. Ultimate and immediate goals. — The second thing noticeable in a study of modern educational aims is that they not only furnish final goals, but they also indi- cate the kinds of development conceived as more imme- diate goals. This means that the inclusive aims of education are grouped under two heads : ( i ) The ulti- mate aims or final goals; and (2) the more immediate aims which serve as guides in realizing the ultimate aims. This plan of conceiving aims in detail in such 38 AIMS OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION way as to furnish specific guidance in the selection of subject-matter and choice of methods has had a pro- found influence in enlarging the scope of public edu- cation and in making it more effective. These aims, specifically stated, serve as standards by which to meas- ure results both as to the final product and as to the daily work of the school. Religious education in many quarters at least has not had the same discriminative attention. It is now re- ceiving a new emphasis and it is extremely important that its aims be considered with respect to their ade- quacy in enlarging the program and in making it more vital. The development of public education in this regard furnishes an excellent background for this task. Religious education can no longer be conceived in terms less universal or less vital than public education. It must finally become universal and it must immediately be made to function more directly and more completely in the lives of the children who are receiving it. The first step in the process is clear definition of aims and purposes. Twofold purpose of religious education. — Religious education should be regarded as an integral part of all education. It therefore has two outstanding purposes : ( I ) To assist the public school to achieve its aims more completely by making effective the religious motive in life; and (2) to achieve certain aims peculiar to the functions of religion and the church. This twofold purpose will be kept in mind in the statement and dis- cussion of the aims of religious education. THE ULTIMATE AIMS If we were to state the ultimate aim of religious in- struction in a single phrase, it would no doubt be 39 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Christian life and character finding adequate expres- sion in all of lifers relationships. This is the ultimate goal toward which we should direct all educational endeavor. But we are compelled immediately to make an analysis to discover two things: (i) The concrete situations in which life is lived and in which character finds expression; and (2) the personal and social qualities required to meet the demands of these situa- tions. Looking at the matter first from the standpoint of the individual we think of qualities of life and char- acter in terms of dispositions and abilities. People must first of all be rightly disposed toward their oppor- tunities and obligations. This in itself is not enough. They must also have ability to utilize opportunities and discharge obligations. It is equally important that they should be intelligent concerning the situations in which these dispositions and abilities are to find fruit- ful expression. Certainly no intelligent conception of religious education can be had and no useful program devised in the absence of some such considerations. The ultimate aims may be stated in terms of dis- positions and abilities: To maintain health and physical fitness. — This is a matter of great importance not only to the individual, but to society as well. Life is conditioned in no small degree by bodily habits and conditions. A clean life is necessary to a moral, to say nothing of a Christian life. The disposition to regard one's "body as the temple of the soul," and the ability to make it such are matters of no mean importance. Many habits detri- mental to the higher life can be safeguarded against only by training children and youth for clean, health- ful physical living. The social evil itself, with all its degrading, demoralizing influences, can be eliminated 40 AIMS OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION only in this way. The responsibilities of parenthood which we want our young men and women to assume in a Christian spirit and discharge in the same spirit, requires such training. From the standpoint of self- interest and ethical consideration public education is accomplishing much and its success is a matter of great satisfaction. This splendid work, however, must be undergirded by religious ideals, motives, and values in a much more compelling way than is being done. The opportunity and responsibility of the home and the church in this relation are entirely clear. To use leisure time in right ways. — One of the most insistent problems in education at the present time is an adequate educational program for training children and young people in the right use of leisure time. This movement for avocational education has come about because of specific demands arising out of individual and social needs. If we view this matter from a moral standpoint, how people use their leisure time is of great significance. There is no very great danger of people going wrong while at work. It is, rather, during the play hours that the temptations come and character breaks down. The difficulty of the prob- lem is increasing because of the fact that through leg- islation and in other ways more leisure time is being provided for workers. It is no doubt desirable and necessary that children should be absolutely prohibited from working in certain industries, and that the hours should be limited in all industries. The same thing can be said concerning women. It is further true that men should be given adequate time for recreational and social activities. As has been pointed out above, however, the very fact that leisure time has increased results in some very troublesome problems. 41 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Educational authorities have recognized this and the movement for avocational education has been given very great emphasis during the last few years. A heavy responsibility rests upon the church at this point. It must supplement the efforts being made by other agencies in order to provide adequate facilities for training children and young people in the right use of their leisure time. Recreational and social programs adequate to meet the needs must be provided by the church. It is not the function of the church to take this work over completely any more than it is to take over a program for vocational training. It is its func- tion and duty to supplement the work of the public school by providing opportunity for the inculcation of Christian motives and ideals which will function in the use of leisure hours and to assist in providing whole- some recreational activities. The right use of leisure time is a matter of great importance to the church itself. How those affiliated with it — children, youth, and adults — should spend the play hours of life is one of the persistent questions con- fronting the church. Denominations have differed in the past and still differ concerning the range of free- dom that should be allowed on the basis of individual choices. Some have placed few restrictions upon such choices, while others have done so to the extent of attempting a large measure of control. Whether a church should elect to exercise control in such matters by prohibitive measures and the extent to which it should attempt to do so are not matters for considera- tion here. In any case the influence of recreational activities upon the life and character of individuals re- mains a matter of great significance to the individuals themselves, to the church, and to society at large. For 42 AIMS OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION this reason the right use of leisure time constitutes one of the most insistent educational problems. Our ques- tion here has to do with the opportunity and responsi- bility of the church in the education of children and youth in the selection and use of leisure activities. Education through play is an accepted principle, and education for play is an acknowledged necessity. It is no longer regarded as a mere incident of life, but as a necessary and integral part of it. The use of leisure is, therefore, so vitally related to life that it is a matter of tremendous religious import. The church can neither disregard this fact nor delegate its responsibility to other agencies. How it shall best discharge this re- sponsibility is a question having to do with an educa- tional program which will receive attention in a later discussion. The point of emphasis here is that one of the important aims of religious education is to train children and youth in the right use of leisure time and that the church has a large responsibility for providing facilities for such training. Whether each church shall maintain a program of its own or in cooperation with other churches assist in carrying on a community enter- prise is not the question here. It should be made clear, however, that the church, whatever means it may employ, should assume a large measure of responsibility in the matter. To contribute one's share to the work of the world. — Prevocational and vocational education are receiving an unprecedented emphasis in public educa- tion. Intelligent choice of an occupation and the ability to sustain oneself in one's chosen field are ex- tremely important, both to the individual and to society. Much is now being done to secure intelligence in choices and to develop skills in occupational activities. 43 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION As a result of the training being given we shall have less unfits and misfits in industry viewed from the standpoint of skilled workers. The outlook in this respect is highly encouraging. One factor, how- ever, in this whole movement for greater voca- tional efficiency must not be neglected. We must not forget that right motives in making choices and in acquiring skills are absolutely essential. If the skilled worker is motivated only by selfish inter- ests both in the choice of his vocation and in the devel- opment and use of his skill, his education is fatally defective. He will live a dwarfed, selfish Hfe and society as well as himself will reap the harvest. The only hope of an industrial democracy lies in a Christian democracy. To achieve this goal means the long arduous task of securing the development and functioning of Christian ideals and motives in the lives of those who engage in industry. This principle ap- plies to employers and employees alike. Vocational training may mean only the disposition and ability to seek and maintain industrial advantage. It may mean that class consciousness will be intensified, the solidify- ing of industrial groups and a continuous struggle for group supremacy. In the absence of the dominance of the life and teachings of Jesus it will mean these things : and it does mean these things in so far as his life and teachings do not control the motives of men. It is not the function of religious instruction to train for vocational skills except for the vocations of the church. But it is its function to aid in developing right motives both in choices made and in the application of skills. Its more inclusive purpose is to secure choices on the basis of the largest social service and the appli- cation of skills to the same end. The state also recog- 44 AIMS OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION nizes the necessity of prevocational education. It rec- ognizes that foundations must be laid in attitudes developed, interests created, and knowledge acquired. Religious education must accompany both the pre- vocational and the vocational. In no other way can we hope to secure a Christianized industrial order. To sustain properly certain definite social relation- ships. — The social relationships which one sustains is a matter of great significance. It would be difficult to conceive of any fruitful educational program which did not take this fully into account. In secular educa- tion we are coming to recognize the necessity of pro- viding a program of instruction and activities which will furnish definite preparation for assuming intelli- gently and sustaining successfully, the various social relationships of life. This recognition has led to an emphasis upon the social aspects of education unpar- alleled in the history of educational endeavor. The frequent recurrence of such phrases as "social right- eousness," "social efficiency," and "social service" in current educational discussions is one of the evidences of this social emphasis. When one turns from these discussions to an exam- ination of educational practice, school curricula of all sorts bear testimony to the same emphasis. The in- crease is very marked in the amount of time devoted to the so-called social studies, including history, civics, economics, sociology, and other closely allied subjects. In comparison with the practice even ten years ago the emphasis now being given to these subjects is very marked. It is equally significant that types of subject- matter in these subjects have undergone changes of far- reaching importance. The old formal subject-matter, dealing largely with an array of historical facts, a 45 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION knowledge of which had little or no relation to the life of the world to-day, has been displaced. In its place have come types of subject-matter selected because of their value in preparing the learner for his social duties and responsibilities. The same thing has hap- pened in the other social studies. The whole purpose of this greater emphasis and in these changes in sub- ject-matter has been to secure fruitful knowledge which will result in social attitudes, ideals, and inter- ests, and in intelligence and good will which will func- tion in the concrete situations of life. This is all very encouraging and will no doubt result in better preparation for citizenship, using that term in its most inclusive sense. But religion and the church with its various denominational agencies have neces- sarily been left out of consideration in this more ade- quate social program of secular education. This leaves the program incomplete and it will be only partially successful even within the limits for which it is in- tended. Good citizenship rests upon something more fundamental than a knowledge of government and its functions even when we include instruction and activi- ties intended to inculcate moral and ethical ideals and to give these ideals opportunity for expression. We have still left out the most fundamental thing in motivating life, namely, religion. We have also left out of con- sideration the church, an institution which next to the home is the most fundamental to a Christian civiliza- tion. In spite of its faults and partial failures, it has stood throughout the centuries for a common brother- hood of men as no other institution has done, and to-day it embodies this ideal in greater degree than it ever has before in all its history. This is not only very significant for the church looking to its own life and 46 AIMS OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION perpetuity, and in the wider reaches of its influences, but also for society itself. In this country we have committed ourselves to the principles of democracy.^ In fact, the acceptance of these principles is becoming worldwide. Training for citizenship, therefore, means training for participation in a democratic society which attempts to secure not only equal opportunities for all, but also seeks to dis- tribute responsibilities according to the abilities of the individuals who discharge them. It is readily seen that both the disposition and the ability to sustain these relationships successfully are of primary importance. Ideals, attitudes, and motives must be of the right kind else the whole scheme will fail, and, if religion is left out, it will fail. The brotherhood of man is but an empty phrase in the minds of men unless they recog- nize the Fatherhood of God. No democracy, save a Christian democracy, can be either effective or perma- nent.2 It is, therefore, obvious that any social pro- gram of education which does not have religion as an integral part of it will fail. If the principles of a democratic society were only national in scope and application, the problem of educa- tion would be difficult enough. But they are wider than this. A Christian democracy is as inclusive as the world, and men and women must be trained for citizenship in it. This cannot be accomplished through secular education alone. It can give and is giving a fine background in knowledge of other lands and in humane sentiments toward other peoples. Farther than this the state cannot go in its educational program. It has its geographical limitations and along with these neces- »Dewey, John, Democracy and Education, chapter vii. Tittle, Ernest F.. What Must the Church Do to Be Saved? pp. 26-32. 47 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION sarily go the other limitations belonging to national ideals and life. The Christian Church, on the other hand, has no such limitations. It is not restricted by geographical boundaries or language or anything else save its own conceptions of the extent of its dominion. "The world is its parish" and the establishment of a universal brotherhood of men its ultimate goal. But it must do more than merely talk about these things and more even than insistently call men and women of the pres- ent generation to the task of their realization. At best the answer to this call will be pitiably small. Millions will not hear it because they live beyond the reach of its influences. Others will hear it, but will not heed it because they have not been trained to evaluate prop- erly the issues involved. Not abating its efforts in the present, the church must largely commit its hopes for a world citizenship to the future, and the education of children and youth is the means of realizing these hopes. To acquire intelligently and maintain effectively membership in the church. — The future of the Church is of such large import both to individuals and society that means of recruiting loyal, active, intelligent membership is a matter of grave concern. Any pro- gram of religious education which does not have this as one of its aims will fail. Children should not only be brought up in the church but they should be trained to serve through its various agencies. Only thus can it be made to minister to the spiritual needs of its mem- bership and render service to the community and the world. Two closely related and interdependent objectives are clearly indicated : 48 AIMS OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 1. One of the outstanding needs of men and women to-day is the spiritual ministry of the church. Because of lack of disposition or ability, or both, many people within the church, to say nothing of the multitudes without, are not utilizing the great sources of spiritual power. In far too many cases church attendance is occasional and perfunctory and the forms and spirit of worship are neglected. 2. The imperative call for trained men and women to serve in and through the church must somehow be met. The educational program should take into ac- count two types of service — vocational and avocational. Recruiting for the vocations of the church is one of its insistent problems. Its future leadership depends upon an adequate supply of trained leaders. But this prob- lem, as important as it is, constitutes only a part of the task of the church in training its membership for effective service through its various agencies. Much of the work must be carried on by those whose voca- tions lie outside the church. This is true of the Sun- day school, young people's societies, and various other organizations. The leaders in these organizations and the teachers and other workers must be adequately trained. Much of the success both in the formulation and carrying out of the educational program — instruc- tional, social, and recreational — depends upon the effi- ciency of this class of workers. This general subject will receive detailed treatment in subsequent chapters. The emphasis at this point is that the training of these workers constitutes one of the chief objectives of a program of religious education. THE PROXIMATE AIMS We have thus far considered only the more ultimate 49 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION or final objectives in religious education. It is neces- sary that some such conception of final aims be kept in mind. They serve as goals toward which our edu- cational endeavors are directed. There is only one pos- sible way of attainment so far as education is con- cerned and that is through the spiritual growth and development of individuals. Christ exemplified this principle in his own life and clearly recognized it in his teachings. "And the child grew, and waxed strong in spirit, filled with wisdom : and the grace of God was upon him." "First the blade, then the ear, then the full corn in the ear." It is this inner Hfe that must be nurtured and developed by all the spiritual forces at our command. The inclusive ultimate aim is conceived as Christian life and character expressing itself adequately in one's relations to God and to his fellows. This is to be the product of religious education. The more immediate aim is to secure growth and development toward this ideal. That is to say, we must now regard our task from the standpoint of education as a process. And this process must be essentially a spiritual one. The fol- lowing is suggested as an inclusive immediate aim or objective of religious education : To secure a continu- ous reconstruction of experience with an increasing sense of spiritual values, a growing consciousness of God and Christ in the life and an expanding disposition and ability to recognize and discharge one's obligations to God and to his fellows. These things must be in process of reaHzation day by day, year by year, until adult Christian character is attained and life is fully and irrevocably committed to service in and for the Kingdom. This inclusive more general aim implies growth and 50 AIMS OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION development toward goals which we have set up as standards by which to measure the final product of religious education. How can we secure reconstruc- tion of experience along the Hues indicated? How can the life of childhood and youth be nurtured, guided, and enriched so that the "full corn in the ear" may be the result of our teaching? It is obvious that a fruitful program of instruction and activities must constitute the answer to these questions. Such a program cannot be intelligently formulated or successfully administered in the absence of definite, specific aims which will serve as guides in the selection of means and methods. Ultimate goals have been stated in terms of disposition and ability to attain per- manently and successfully certain standards in the con- crete relationships of life. The more immediate aims which must serve as constant guides in making and administering programs are necessarily conceived in terms of growth and development, of acquiring and becoming. These may be stated as follows : Acquiring fruitful knowledge. — This constitutes one of the clearly defined aims of modern education. The old theory that it makes little difference what a child studies as long as the method of study results in "mental discipline" no longer controls in secular educa- tion. Knowledge is now regarded as one of the im- portant aims. More specifically, the aim is not knowl- edge for its own sake but for its functional value in life. Hence the enrichment of curricula by the intro- duction of subjects and subject-matter possessing such value. The three R's of the elementary school are now supplemented by hygiene, nature study, lan- guage, geography, and history. In the high school, science, the social studies and industrial and commer- 51 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION cial subjects have been added to the old humanistic curricula. This change in emphasis in secular educa- tion is very significant. It is expected that much of the knowledge acquired by children will be retained and will function in the social relationships of later years. But this is not all. Instruction is adapted to the developing needs, interests, and capacities of the child. Subject-matter is therefore selected with reference to this development. The child not only becomes more intelligent day by day, but his intelligence finds expres- sion in his everyday living. This means that the old distinction in education between living and preparing to live is disappearing. As the pupil acquires knowl- edge concerning the care of his body, the school under- takes to have this knowledge function in matters of health and physical fitness. The same is true of infor- mation and experience as related to leisure time, voca- tions, and social relationships. Useful knowledge is thus considered to be that which functions in the devel- opment of the whole life of the child. The processes through which it is made to function will be discussed presently. Since the whole ongoing life of the child is involved, information and experience having to do with religion cannot he left out or even subordinated. Religious development is so fundamental to the accomplishment of all the ultimate aims set up by secular education that they cannot be attained in any adequate way without it. And this particular kind of development is conditioned by the same laws of life as any other kind. Growth here, as elsewhere, is determined by knowledge and experience. The child must acquire these through instruction and activities adapted to his needs, interests, and capacities and selected with refer- 52 AIMS OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION ence to their functional values in right living. Igno- rance of great religious truths and lack of experience in their application cannot be expected to form the basis for living a religious life, either in the present or the future. Development of attitudes, interests, and apprecia- tions. — This constitutes one of the important func- tions of the information gained and experience ac- quired. Whether we will or no this is happening in school and out. The child is developing attitudes toward truthfulness, honesty, loyalty, and conduct in general. His interests are being formed and are find- ing expression in one way or another. Whether their range is wide or narrow, whether they are wholesome or otherwise; whether, if temporary, they serve as stimuli to right conduct; or, if permanent, whether they serve to hold the child steadily in right paths or wrong paths are all matters of great importance. The child is acquiring a set of values which govern him in his choices and find concrete expression in con- duct. An appreciation of religious, no less than of aesthetic and ethical values has its rise in this back- ground of feeling and emotion. If we expect the child to have right attitudes toward religion, the Bible, and the church, and that interests will be acquired which will serve as stimuli to right conduct, instruction and activities must be of a kind that will secure these results. He is forming his scale of values, and if religion and all that pertains thereto is to have its right- ful place, those who have his education in charge must give it that place. If young people are indifferent or antagonistic to the Bible and the church, and religion itself, it cannot be accounted for merely on a basis of youthful perversity. If their interests be wholly or 53 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION largely elsewhere, it cannot be charged up to way- wardness. It is due to neglect or misguided effort on the part of those who are responsible for their upbringing. If, in the scale of values acquired, we find that religion has a low rating, or none, the church and the home cannot rightfully place the blame upon the failure of the public school. All of these defects in attitude, interests, and appreciation of values are due in large measure to what the church and the home have not done to provide proper educa- tional facilities. It is true, of course, that mere knowl- edge of the contents of the Bible will not insure that a proper valuation will be placed upon it. Attendance upon church services is not enough in and of itself to create interest in the church and its mission in the world. Instruction in the Sunday school may have little to do with "growth in grace and knowledge of the Lord." In all these cases results depend upon whether the knowledge gained and experience acquired are of a kind that can function properly and are made to so function in the lives of children and youth. This prin- ciple is applied to all education, and religious education is therefore no exception to the rule. Development of right ideals and compelling motives. — Knowledge and experience find here a still higher fruition. Ideals of duty, of loyalty, of sacrifice and of service become the standards by which obliga- tions are measured and conduct evaluated. These are both personal and social in character. They constitute the standards by which we determine what we think the nature of the social order ought to be and for eval- uating it as it now exists. These ideals concerning society also serve as standards for self -evaluation. Our ideals concerning democracy — social, political, and 54 AIMS OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION industrial — reflect our ideals concerning persons in- cluding ourselves who should be counted as worthy of citizenship. Any effective system of education takes this fully into account. It, therefore, seeks to have the knowledge and experience acquired in school and out to function in the formation of right ideals. They cannot be expected to issue out of ignorance or to be left to chance. They are acquired through proper interpretations of knowledge and the expressions of it in daily living. These ideals thus become great propulsive forces in life which we call motives. It is only when educa- tional processes have attained this result that attitudes, interests, appreciations, and ideals themselves have per- formed their highest function. They have then reached the point of motivating life and conduct. Knowledge and experience now serve as guides to give proper direction to these great dynamic forces, and that is their chief value. Here, again, rehgion cannot be ignored or even subordinated in any adequate pro- gram of education. Ignorance of religion, of the Bible, of the church and its great enterprises, and of God and his kingdom and of Christ and his life and teachings cannot result either in ideals or motives which belong to the Christian life. If religion is to become a great dynamic force in the lives of men and women of the next generation, it must function more largely than it is now doing in forming the ideals and motives in the lives of the children of the present generation. In a word, compelling motives constitute what we call the will. This function of the mind, thus con- ceived, is not something that lies outside everyday ex- perience to be called into action only in crises. It 55 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION is, on the contrary, the guiding force of a life developed by experience in its daily contacts, and finds expression in these same contacts. It is not something external set over against self, but is the very essence of intelli- gent self-control. In the development of will, life be- comes increasingly unified in its purposes and goals and in its power to direct its forces to their attainment. A life that wills to do the will of God is the great objective of religious education. This calls for intelli- gence concerning what that will is and right attitudes toward the doing of it. Added to this must be the power of achievement. Development of right habits of conduct and useful skills in living. — Habit formation goes on whether we will or no. Every act and thought has a tendency to repeat itself and successive repetitions finally result in habits. *'Habits result in character and character in destiny." It is not necessary in this connection to discuss either the fact of habits or their importance in life. Our only question is the relation which educa- tion sustains to the forming of right habits and of securing their proper functioning when formed. More specifically our problem has to do with religious educa- tion. It is concerned first of all with the whole range of habits, both physical and mental, since they vitally affect one's daily living. Attitudes should become hab- itual, interests permanent and valuations fixed. Ideals should become dynamic and motives made to function. It is necessary, therefore, that all these shall not only be of the right kind, but that they shall be given oppor- tunity to function properly. This is accomplished through an environment providing adequate oppor- tunity for expression. It is the function of education S6 AIMS OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION in general to furnish this environment and therefore of religious education in particular. The child must not only be taught religion, but must be given opportunity to live it as an integral part of his daily life. Ideals of right living should become habits of right conduct. Unless they do, the ideals will probably function only occasionally if at all. More immediately religious in- struction and activities should have for one of their great objectives the formation of habits as they relate to worship, prayer, and definite acts of service. These are expressions of the inner life which should become a part of the permanent technique of fruitful living. Training for Christian service is not different from the psychological standpoint from any other kind of train- ing. Children must have proper ideals and compelling motives. But more than this they must develop skills in living and doing. These can be acquired only by repeated experience under proper guidance. ACHIEVING CHARACTER The foregoing discussion of immediate aims makes it clear that education is conceived as the means of achieving character.^ This achievement is a process of growth and development from infancy through child- hood and youth to adult life. It does not stop here, but goes on as long as the individual continues to have spiritual aspirations, and responds to spiritual forces. But infancy, childhood and youth constitute the plastic years during which character is largely determined. This period therefore furnishes the opportunity for the home, the school, and the church to build into life per- manently what they hope to have life give expression to in later years. «Coe, George A., A Social Theory of Religious Education, chapter xlv, 57 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION In selecting education as a means of achieving char- acter it is not meant to deny the reality and potency of great crises in which life takes on new purposes. To conceive religious life in terms of growth and develop- ment in no way controverts this fact. Children and youth pass through rather definite developmental stages and these are marked by changes more or less sudden. This is particularly true of the beginning and early years of the adolescent period. Religious education properly conceived does not ignore this fact. On the contrary, it anticipates these crises and prepares for them. The adolescent period, for example, is a critical period in the sense that choices are made and decisions reached which are far reaching in importance. Definite decisions to lead the religious life are made and a large number of conversions take place. The number who join the church is relatively large during this period. As pointed out above, religious education properly con- ceived, anticipates all this and seeks to make decisions both intelligent and permanent. Individual differences. — In this connection it should be said also that the educational method recog- nizes individual differences. It does not assume that all decisions will be reached in precisely the same way. The amount of emotional stress and strain is not the same in different individuals. In some the crisis is much less marked than in others. It therefore does not seek to secure the same or even strikingly similar manifestations. What it does seek is the same result for all, namely, intelligent and permanent choices. It seeks to secure growth and development which results finally in full commitment of individuals to Jesus Christ and his program of life. The fact might just as well be faced that a distressingly large number 58 AIMS OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION of decisions to lead the Christian life are not perma- nent. They are but for a day so to speak. They lack the sustaining power of permanent attitudes and ideals and compelling motives. Education seeks to secure this sustaining power. It seeks to secure a background in experience to serve as a foundation upon which deci- sions may permanently rest. Whether decisions are reached under great emotional stress and strain or as a result of deliberate choice is not in itself important. Whether they are a sudden culmination of experience or are reached more gradually as a result of contacts with home and church and school should not be a mat- ter of primary concern. Christian life and character is the goal which education seeks to attain. Universality of education. — Religious education has as a further aim the reaching of multitudes not now reached by the methods employed. It seeks to reach all the children of all the people in so far as this is possible. In doing this its purpose is not to displace other methods in so far as they are effective, but to sup- plement them. It seeks the growth and development of all children into men and women of positive Chris- tian hfe and character. In order to do this its program must be extended and made more vital. It must then be effectively administered and will become an agency in the upbuilding of the kingdom such as the Church has not had at its command since the early days of its ministry. 59 CHAPTER IV A PROGRAM OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION The aims of religious education can be realized only through a program intelligently conceived and wisely administered. The state recognizes this principle as shown not only by the establishment of schools but also by the systematizing of their work in such way as to furnish continuous educational opportunities from infancy through childhood and adolescence, and ex- tending finally to the earlier years of adult life. This constitutes what may be called a program of secular education. The church, at least the Protestant connec- tions, has no such program at the present time. That such a program needs to be formulated if the church would measure up to its opportunities and responsi- bilities, is entirely obvious. It is the purpose of the present chapter to suggest some of the principles cov- ering this matter, and also some of the more important details connected with it. PROGRAM STANDARDS The preceding chapters have contained implications of the necessity of proper educational and religious standards in formulating and administering programs. Religious education is a matter of such great import- ance that the instruction and activities provided should measure up in every way to the standards maintained by the best public schools. Sufficient time should be given to the work to make possible a vital program ade- 60 PROGRAM OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION quale for the proper nurture and training of childhood and youth. Lesson material and activities must be carefully selected. Competent teachers are a necessity and proper supervision is essential. These educational standards, important as they are, will not secure results in the absence of proper religious standards, The aim of religious education is the child's spiritual development. Its success is measured by the progressive changes that take place in the reli- gious experience of the pupil. This does not mean simply making additions to his fund of knowledge. It means a progressive reconstruction of experience re- sulting in an increasing sense of spiritual values, a growing consciousness of God and Christ in the life and the functioning of loyalties to religious ideals. These constitute the inclusive standards by which the results of teaching and learning are measured and hence the criteria to be used in program making. PRINCIPLES OF PROGRAM MAKING The following are suggested as the chief principles which should govern in program making : I. A program of religious education should he planned which will provide opportunity for universal religious instruction. This does not mean, of course, that instruction will be made compulsory. Such a result would be utterly impossible even if desirable. It does mean, however, that in every community in America a program of religious instruction should be instituted and maintained that will afford favorable opportunity for every child in the community to re- ceive adequate instruction in religion. If this principle is applied in the widest sense, it obviously means a very different program both in character and extent 6i ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION than now obtains. It means a vital, thoroughgoing co- operation of all the churches and homes in a com- munity in the enterprise of religious education. The public school and other community agencies will also need to cooperate in ways that will be discussed later, if an adequate program of religious education is pro- vided. In the absence of any such community plan each church should set up as its goal religious instruc- tion for every child in its constituency and for its pro- portion of the children in the community whose par- ents are members of no church. If each church will be governed by this principle, something worth while can be accomplished toward providing larger opportunity than now prevails. However, nothing short of a thor- oughgoing cooperative plan of some sort will meet the demands of the situation. 2. The program must he determined by definite reli- gious and educational standards. These will serve as criteria for formulating the program and for check- ing up on its results. It seems quite unnecessary to dis- cuss this principle in any detail. In the preceding chapter the aims of religious education have been set forth, and these or similarly clearly defined aims equally fruitful should function in determining the na- ture and extent of a program of instruction. 3. It should he of such extent and character that it will parallel and supplement puhlic education at every point. It must be coordinated with the program of public education and capitalize to the fullest possible extent the knowledge and experience gained by chil- dren and youth in public schools and higher institu- tions. In effect this will give us two programs of edu- cation, one maintained by the state and the other by the church. This means that the program of religious 62 PROGRAM OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION instruction shall cover the entire period included in the work of public schools and that of higher institutions. This should be the ultimate goal of the church, and it should not be satisfied until it is reached. 4. The program must he so worked out, and so ad- ministered, as to make religious instruction an inte- gral part of all education. As long as religious instruc- tion is regarded as a mere appendage, a something that is to be added to education as an after-thought, or as a matter of extra-instruction, it will never accomplish its full purpose. When religious education comes to be regarded in the same light as civic or moral, or voca- tional, then will it have been given its rightful place. The only way to do this is to provide for it in a pro- gram sufficiently vital and extensive to put it on an equality with other kinds of education. 5. Sufficient time must be provided in the program and this time properly utilized to secure the necessary emphasis upon each of the aim^ of instruction and activities. It is entirely obvious that one hour a week is wholly inadequate, and more time must be secured. If more time is provided, it will not be utilized prop- erly unless it is wisely distributed with respect to the aims to be accomplished. 6. The program must provide proper gradation of work with respect to the developmental periods of childhood and youth. Grade by grade, commencing with the kindergarten and extending through the high school, religious instruction should be as well suited to the needs, interests and capacities of children as is the work of the best public schools. The most of our "graded work" in the Sunday schools does not fully measure up to these requirements. A more thorough knowledge of child psychology, and particularly of the 63 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION psychology of religious development, needs to be ap- plied to the making of programs. 7. It must include adequate facilities for the training of teachers and administrators in the field of religious education. No large measure of success ,can be hoped for in extending the program for children unless the training of teachers is provided for. A subsequent chapter is devoted to this general topic. 8. Administration of the program must be provided in harmony with its extent and purposes. This means that in making a program available resources with respect to administering it must be taken fully into account. A careful study should be made by the church, or by the churches in cooperation in a com- munity, to determine two things: (i) the needs with respect to a program of religious instruction, and (2) the resources available as to funds, buildings and equipment, and personnel to carry the program out. These considerations are very important since no pro- gram can be successfully superimposed upon a church or a community. It must be determined both in char- acter and extent by local conditions and needs. The present organizations as represented by the Sunday school and young people's societies are not sufficient to administer the larger program. Other agencies are necessary to supplement these and plans of administra- tion more nearly adequate to the needs will be required. EXTENT OF THE PROGRAM The formulation of an inclusive program of religious education involves two things : ( i ) to provide adequate instruction and activities for all the children and youth of the community, and (2) to provide for the training of competent teachers and administrators for the 64 PROGRAM OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION schools which no\vr exist and others which may be or- ganized. A community task. — This comprehensive under- taking is a community task. It should be so regarded because a cooperation of all the religious, educational, and other social forces in the community is essential to the success of the enterprise. In what way this co- operation can best be secured is a question reserved for discussion later. The point at issue here is that reli- gious instruction should be conceived as a community problem, and its solution calls for a program which each organization providing religious in- struction should consider as its own regardless of how the details are carried out. The various agencies including the Sunday schools and week-day schools can accomplish something, each working inde- pendently. But it is very obvious that in such a plan there will be lack of coordination of work resulting in duplication and also neglect at certain points to pro- vide children with a well-conceived unified program of religious education. Need of a imified program. — The importance of thus conceiving a program of religious instruction for children and youth as a unified whole is made clear when we come to consider the nature of the twofold aim. The aim may be stated as follows: (i) To provide instruction for all of the children in a com- munity in the recognized and accepted universal values of religion. (2) To afford adequate opportunity for the children to receive differentiated instruction in the doctrine, sacraments, polity, history, missionary enter- prises and modes of worship of the various churches. The extent to which the several denominations wish to have the children of their respective constituencies 65 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION receive such instruction will determine the nature and extent of this part of the program. These two pur- poses cannot best be accomplished by two separate pro- grams each being formulated and administered inde- pendently of the other. On the other hand, they can be attained best by a single program composed of two well-defined parts, each being supplementary to the other. As pointed out above, the method of adminis- tering this twofold program is not to be confused with the character of the program itself. As an illustration of a typical situation, suppose a community has five churches representing as many dif- ferent denominations. In a cooperative enterprise each church will regard the twofold program as its own. The one part, designed to provide instruction in the accepted universal values of religion, will be identical for all five churches. The other part, which is de- signed to provide differentiated instruction in the doctrine, modes of worship, sacraments, and church history and polity, will be determined by each church without regard to any of the others. If two or more churches desire to give identical instruction, this can, of course, be done. The plan, however, leaves each church free to emphasize its own denominational char- acteristics to any extent desired. It might well be im- agined that the instruction identical for all the churches would be given in week-day schools and the differen- tiated instruction in the Sunday school. In fact, this plan is now being carried out in some communities. The principle announced here is identical with that prevailing in the public schools. The program is made up of subjects which all children study and of other subjects from which selections are made by individuals or groups. The former are called the common ele- 66 PROGRAM OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION ments, and the latter differentiated elements. Certain subjects are regarded as necessary and fundamental to the education of all the children. Others are provided so that the wishes of parents and the interests and capacities of children themselves may be taken into account. This principle is now fully established in educational practice. It is pedagogically sound and when looked at from the social point of view it is equally defensible. The application of this principle to religious educa- tion seems fully justified. If religion is to become an integral part of education and is to function properly in the various social relationships discussed in the pre- vious chapter, there must be common elements in reli- gious instruction in larger measure than now obtains. This can be secured only by a program which definitely provides for it. Common knowledge, attitudes, and ideals cannot be secured in any other way. The importance of this is self-evident. There is an imperative necessity that religion should function more effectively in cooperative enterprises such as govern- ment, industry, and in the church itself. This cannot be hoped for except on a basis of common interests and intelligence. To a common knowledge of science, of government, and of industry must be added a common knowledge of religion. It is true, of course, that no program of education has yet been devised that is per- fect in its results. But any program of religious edu- cation formulated in accordance with this principle is sound socially and will be justified by the results. Having provided these common elements in the pro- gram as a background for differentiated elements, the latter are also fully justified on social grounds. The church as an institution is a tremendously valuable 67 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION social asset. It is not the only agency through which religious ideals and character find expression, but it is an extremely important one. It is of such great sig- nificance that its continuance as an agency in social betterment and control is an absolute necessity. Any social order at all tolerable is inconceivable without the influence and ministry of the church. It serves better than any other institution in the religious nurture of individuals, in fostering and maintaining religio-social bonds and in affording opportunity for cooperative religious enterprises. Education must, therefore, take into account these indispensable functions of the church as a social institution and provide for intelli- gence concerning its mission and ministry. Program not identical for all churches. — Under present conditions it does not seem at all probable that an educational program identical in all respects for all the churches is feasible. In fact, such a program would not be acceptable to them even if desirable. We speak of the church universal, and rightly so. There is a sense in which this inclusive term is descriptive of the social institution which we call the church. But when we come to deal with the situation from the stand- point of the functionings of this institution, we find that its functions are performed in large measure through denominational organizations. We are deal- ing not with the church but with churches. In formu- lating an educational program this fact must be taken into account. Some of these denominations differ but little from one another in matters of doctrine, modes of wor- ship, sacraments, and the like. Others differ widely in these particulars. That these differences, lesser and greater, have been responsible for intolerable bigotry, 68 PROGRAM OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION mutual hatred and internecine conflicts is a matter of common knowledge. It is, however, a matter of great religious and social import that a better day is at hand. Differences are being composed, and where they still exist there is evidence that they are being made to function constructively along lines of cooperative en- deavor. Church federations of one kind and another in their cooperative enterprises indicate that differences are being conceived in terms of means rather than of ends. The apportionment of territory among the various denominations at home and abroad is one of the hopeful signs that antagonisms are giving place to cooperation. Certain common tasks in which a num- ber of churches in a community cooperate is another evidence that denominational units are coming to be regarded more and more as instruments for social service. Thus conceived, they are indispensable social agencies. It is the desire of many that denominational differ- ences should be further adjusted and that denomina- tional units decrease in number to a point where greater social efficiency will be possible. All, no doubt, agree that they should be made to function constructively in a larger way than they are now doing in promoting the common Christian enterprise of securing a new social order. One of the purposes of the program suggested is to help to bring this about. Denomina- tional integrity is not inconsistent with effective co- operation in this common task confronting the church. In this connection, denominational ideals and loyalties should not be confused with petty sectarian contentions and squabblings. The latter are a social menace and are subversive to the interest of religion itself. The former are a social asset and constitute one of the evi- 69 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION dences of a militant Christianity. Loyalty to one's church, no less than to one's home and to one's country, should be one of the objectives of an educational pro- gram. In all these relations it should be an intelligent loyalty made sacred and compelling by its significance in the wider reaches of the influence of the church. Twofold aim. — As already pointed out, the pro- gram for the education of children and youth, thus conceived, consists of two parts. The purpose of the one part is to afford opportunity for all the children in a community to receive instruction in the common values of religion without regard to sectarian bias or denominational interpretations of any sort. We are here seeking the inculcating of common knowledge, attitudes, and ideals. The other part of the program furnishes instruction and activities which will serve to make church membership intelligent and effective; to develop loyalties to the institution and to its enterprises. The question as to which of these aims should re- ceive the greater emphasis in the program is perhaps as yet merely a matter of opinion. It seems obvious however, that the part of the program which makes provision for the common values should receive an appropriate emphasis. In any event, in the process of program making, the common values should have first consideration. This should be the case if for no other reason than that of convenience. It would be very difficult to determine what the differentiated elements should be for this church, and that, and the other, until the common elements are agreed upon. But there is a more fundamental reason than this. The common elements in religious education should he regarded as fundamental to all other instruction, not only because of their intrinsic value but also because differentiated 70 PROGRAM OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION instruction must have this background to render it most effective. This enlarged and more vital program of religious education for children and youth calls also for more adequate facilities for the training of administrators and teachers. At the present time those who admin- ister church schools and those who teach in them have little or no training, academic or professional for their work. If religious instruction is to become a vital and integral part of the education of children and youth, this condition cannot continue. The task of training teachers and administrators will have to be taken seri- ously and adequate facilities provided. This is a com- munity problem for the same reasons that the educa- tion of children is a community problem. The entire program of religious education, therefore, must in- clude adequate facilities for the training of adminis- trators and teachers. It is inconceivable that any ap- preciable improvement can be hoped for until adequate facilities for training are provided. This question will be discussed in detail in a subsequent chapter. EXTENSION OF THE TIME SCHEDULE It is very obvious that more time is required for religious instruction. The traditional one hour on Sunday, which is now devoted to it, is wholly inade- quate. There is now general recognition of this fact, and various plans are being devised to secure more time. Three plans which are more or less in use will be mentioned. The Strnday school. — Extension of time to an hour and a half or two hours is taking place in a number of Sunday schools. In a few cases a three-hour ses- sion is being maintained. This extension of time 71 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION devoted to Sunday-school instruction is highly desir- able, and such extension should take place in every Sunday school in America. Those Sunday schools which have extended the time have almost without ex- ception found the venture entirely successful. It should be said, however, that the use of one day a week in religious instruction, regardless of the number of hours devoted to it, is not sufficient. Religious instruc- tion, if adequate, cannot be confined to one day in the week, whether it be Sunday or week day. Week-day instruction. — Time is being utilized dur- ing week days for religious instruction. This plan is now receiving attention throughout the country, and a number of communities have already organized week- day schools. The plan is highly commendable. It provides an adequate amount of time, secures proper distribution of work, and makes it possible to have more frequent meeting of classes. The latter is an extremely important consideration in any program of religious education. School credit for religious instruction. — One of the results of granting public school credit for Bible study is to increase the time devoted to it. This plan has been adopted in a number of cities, and several entire States have undertaken to encourage the move- ment. It is closely related to one or both of the other two plans. In some cases it results chiefly in raising the standards of the work being done in Sunday schools and other organized means of religious instruction. In most cases, however, it results in actual extension of time devoted to the work. It encourages and in most instances requires that a certain amount of time be spent in the preparation of lessons, and this, of course, results in an extension of time. On the whole, 72 PROGRAM OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION however, the various plans in use for giving credit are unsatisfactory. A more detailed discussion of this will be made later. It is clear that there is a widespread movement to secure adequate time for religious education. There is lack of uniformity concerning how much time should be devoted to it, but there is general agreement that considerable extension should be secured. It is the judgment of the writer that no plan is adequate which does not contemplate the use of time both on Sundays and week days. This will insure sufficient amount of time and will also make possible the carrying out suc- cessfully of the twofold program already discussed. Minimum time required. — Three and one half hours per week is suggested as a tentative schedule. It is probably true that no one is competent to say with any degree of certainty how much time is needed for adequate religious instruction. This will have to be determined by experience, and in the meantime we shall have to make experiments. A few such experi- ments are now being carried on and we are able to reach certain tentative conclusions as a result. In most cases these contemplate the use of from three to three and one half hours per week, and it is suggested that we regard the latter as a minimum time to be devoted to religious instruction. This contemplates that the time should be distributed between Sunday and week days as follows : One and a half hours on Sunday and two hours on week days. Whether this time should be extended will have to be determined by experience. As pointed out above, some communities are carrying out this schedule with what seems to be a high degree of success. On the basis of this ex- perience more definite conclusions can be reached. 73 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION It seems important in this connection to repeat some- thing that has already been said, namely, that there should not be two distinct programs, one for Sunday and one for week days. On the contrary, there should be a single program consisting of two parts, one for Sunday and one for week days. Each church should establish an educational program of this sort regard- less of whether it administers the entire program itself or whether the week-day instruction is carried on in community schools, established and main- tained by cooperative effort. In either case the week- day instruction will provide the common elements agreed upon by the cooperating churches. The Sun- day schools will give instruction in the doctrines, modes of worship, sacraments, church history and polity if such is desired. As pointed out in the preceding para- graph, the nature of this Sunday program is to be determined entirely by each church according to its own wishes. The point made here is that if instruction is to consist of doctrines, modes of worship, and the like, the Sunday school is the proper place for giv- ing this instruction. PRESENT CURRICULA This larger program of religious education and ex- tension of time makes necessary some far-reaching changes in curricula. In fact, we shall have three cur- ricula, one for each type of school, namely, week-day school, the Sunday school, and the training school. Each will perform its own functions, not independent of the others, but supplementary to them. This discus- sion will not include any reference to the training schools, that being reserved for a subsequent chapter. Present curricula imsatisfactory. — It is a matter 74 PROGRAM OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION of common knowledge that present curricula are not satisfactory in the following particulars: 1. The amount of material is not adequate. 2. Much of the subject-matter being used is not well adapted to the needs, interests, and capacities of the children. 3. Its organization into units of instruction is not satisfactory. 4. The curricufa themselves are loosely organized and do not secure proper gradation of work. Viewed from any of these standpoints, the instruc- tion being offered in the field of religious education is inferior to that being provided by the public schools. This is not said with the intention of discrediting reli- gious instruction as now being carried on or of under- estimating its value. The fact, however, of the inferi- ority of religious instruction as now carried on might just as well be faced. Nothing is to be gained by ignoring the facts or by attempting to explain them away. There are certain definite, well-defined princi- ples in making curricula of all sorts which have to be observed if fruitful results are expected in any large measure. Religious education is, of course, no excep- tion to this rule. Specific aims as guides in reconstruction. — The specific aims of instruction must guide in the selec- tion of material. These aims have already been dis- cussed in Chapter III. It was there pointed out that there are certain definite ultimate aims in religious edu- cation which are to be attained through the attainments of more immediate aims. It is the latter which furnish the more specific criteria for selecting subject-matter. These more immediate aims are conceived in terms of fruitful knowledge, right attitudes and ideals, compel- 75 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION ling motives, right habits of conduct, and useful skills in living. When the material now used in religious instruction is measured by these standards, much of it is found to be sadly deficient. Other material will have to be sub- stituted for this which more adequately meets the re- quirements. It should also be said, in this connection, that the extension of the program of religious educa- tion necessitates the selection of a large amount of additional material. All material should be selected with extreme care and with the same scientific pre- cision as now obtains in the field of public education. Sources of subject-matter. — Sources of subject- matter must be adequate to supply the demand of the more comprehensive program. The two general types of subject-matter have already been indicated, the one for use in the week-day schools and the other in the Sunday schools. The former is wholly nonsec- tarian in character and provides the recognized uni- versal values in the Christian religion. The latter fur- nishes instruction in the doctrines, modes of worship, sacraments, enterprises, and the like of the various denominations in so far as such instruction may be desired. This twofold program is rather comprehen- sive in its scope and calls for adequate sources of material. Two general sources are available — biblical and extra-biblical. One cannot well conceive of a curricu- lum of religious education that does not include con- siderable biblical material. The Christian religion is in a very real sense the religion of a Book. This fact cannot be ignored in selecting material for any pro- gram of religious instruction. But the principle gov- erning the selection and use of material is not different 76 PROGRAM OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION as applied to the Bible than it is when applied to any other source. These have already been implied in the discussion of aims in a previous chapter. They may be summarized by saying that no material is worthy of a place which does not yield fruitful knowledge which results in right attitudes, ideals, and motives. If this standard is applied, it is clear that there is much in the Bible that is not well adapted particularly for the instruction of younger children. It has to do with another time and with people whose conditions and circumstances of life were very different from ours. Another fact should not be lost sight of in this connection. The Bible was not written for children. Much of its terminology is not suited to their needs and capacities. No misunderstanding should arise here. The use of the Bible is indispensable in any vital program of religious instruction. But this use, to be most fruitful, must be in accord with sound psycholog- ical and pedagogical principles. The application of these principles enhances its value and increases the impor- tance of its use. It is the great source of spiritual values. But these cannot be superimposed upon the child. He must acquire these values and the subject- matter must be adapted to his capacity to learn. For this reason much of the material is improved when rewritten in language adapted to his ability to under- stand and assimilate. The Christian religion is, however, more than a religion of a Book. It is a religion of life. Many contributions have been made since biblical times to both its life and to its literature which reflects that life. Its music and its art deserve far more considera- tion than is being accorded them. Their intrinsic values make them worthy of a larger place, and they 77 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION magnify the importance and illuminate the spiritual message of the Bible itself. These all furnish impor- tant sources of material which should be used in far larger measure than is generally being done at the present time. Tjrpes of material. — The types of material selected should be such as to give vitality and breadth to instruc- tion and activities. Literature, history, biography, geography, art, music, composition, handwork and other expressional activities constitute the more im- portant inclusive subjects. The following is an enu- meration of some of the more important types: Old Testament literature, history, and biography; New Testament literature and biography with emphasis on the life and teachings of Jesus. The lives of the apostles, including accounts of their missionary enter- prises; biblical and missionary geography; missionary enterprise, home and foreign; nature studies empha- sizing the religious factor ; music and art, including pic- tures and drawings; dramatization of biblical and other stories; expressional activities. These types enumer- ated are merely suggestive of the general character and scope of the material to be used. Organization of material. — The material must be organized into properly adapted units of instruction. In public education, units of instruction are conceived in terms of subjects, and also a further refinement of units is secured through organizing subject-matter with respect to given units of time. For example, we regard the first year of the child in school, and each succeeding year, as constituting a unit of time. In many schools a half year is regarded as a unit. This is the basis upon which the gradation of pupils takes place. The child completes a unit of work, consisting either of a 78 PROGRAM OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION half year or a whole year of instruction. He is then promoted to the next higher grade if the work has been satisfactorily done. Both the amount and character of work constituting a unit are determined by the needs, interests, and capacities of the child. An at- tempt has been made to secure some such organization of the material used in religious instruction, but with only partial success. The proper organization of subject-matter involves also another problem, namely, the arrangement of the subject-matter constituting a unit. This means the subdivision of large units into as many small units as there are periods of instruction during the year or the half year. These smaller units constitute the lessons studied and recited upon day by day. These should be of proper length and this is to be determined by the amount of time that can be given to recitation and the degree of difficulty of mastery involved. This mate- rial in turn must be organized with reference to teach- ing and learning points in the lessons. Mind of child determining factor. — Throughout this whole process of organization of material the mind of the child is the determining factor. The amount of material constituting any one of these larger or smaller units, the degree of its difficulty, the experi- ence of the child in mastering subject-matter, and the order in which a child naturally learns a thing, must all be taken into account. This all means that what we call the psychological rather than the logical method of organization should be used. How the mind of the child learns, as well as what and how much it can learn, must control in the organization of subject-matter. Importance of permanent and attractive form. — Subject-matter should be put into permanent and at- 79 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION tractive form. The present form in which the most of the material of religious instruction is presented is unsatisfactory. The ordinary lesson leaflet is one of the great sources of waste and inefficiency. It is fre- quently badly printed, the paper used is poor in quality, and its whole appearance is cheap. The illustrations in general are inferior in quality and many of them ill adapted to their intended uses. When this whole situa- tion is contrasted with that of the public school, the practice stands out in a very unfavorable light. The material in religious instruction should be printed in textbook form. These texts should be printed on good paper, in clear type, and the illustrations should be high grade from the artistic standpoint. The books should be well bound and attractive in appearance. They should in every respect measure up to the high- est standards attained in the making of public-school texts. "Religious truth should not suffer the indignity of being printed the mechanical inferiors of the patent medicine folder."^ Organization of curricula. — The various subjects or units constituting the subject-matter to be taught must be organized into well articulated curricula. This is absolutely essential to any suitable gradation of pupils. Any well-graded school has as its foundation a series of subjects or units arranged in proper sequence in ac- cordance with the developing interests and capacities of children. Well-organized curricula, therefore, means well-graded curricula. The public schools furnish examples which will be very useful in the reconstruc- tion of curricula to be used in religious instruction. Two curricula will be required, one for the week-day » Betts, G. H. The Curriculum of Religious Education. Occasional Papers No. a. Department of Religious Education, Northwestern University. 80 PROGRAM OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION school and one for the Sunday school. The prob- lem is somewhat simplified by the fact that a single curriculum for each type of school is all that is re- quired. All the children in each of the grades of these schools will take the same work. No attempt at pres- ent, at least, will be made to provide elective subjects as is done in the public schools, particularly for the pupils in the higher elementary grades and the high school. Proper correlation of curricula. — The two curric- ula, one for the week-day school and the other for the Sunday school, should be closely correlated. It is not a question of which is the more important of the two. Both are essential in any adequate, well-planned pro- gram of religious education. Each will perform its own functions as supplementary to the other. In the very nature of the case, however, the standards for cor- relation will be determined by the week-day curriculum in the case of the community school. This will provide the common elements of instruction, and its character and extent will have to be determined first in any plan of curriculum-making. The instruction which it pro- vides will be wholly nonsectarian in character, and it will constitute the part of the whole program common to all the cooperating churches in the community. In effect, this means that the curricula of the various Sunday schools of the cooperating churches will have to be reorganized with reference to the character and extent of the week-day curriculum. They may differ much or little among themselves, but they must all be correlated with the instruction and activities provided by the common curriculum. Influence of enlarged program. — Any enlargement of the program of religious education to the extent of 8i ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION including week-day instruction, whether community schools are established or not, will call for considerable reorganization of curricula. The mere extension of the work of the Sunday schools will not be sufficient. None of the series of lessons now in use are adequate. If a church elects to extend the work of its school to include week-day instruction, the problem is somewhat simplified. But the task of reorganizing its present curriculum still remains and the necessity for a correla- tion of Sunday and week-day instruction is not re-' moved. The task is rendered somewhat less difficult but no less important. Correlation with the public school. — One of the problems confronting the makers of curricula for week-day schools is the correlation of the work with that of the public school. If religious instruction is to become an integral part of the education of the child, proper correlation of the work of the two schools is imperative. It is extremely important in the inter- ests of the work of both schools. If religious instruc- tion is to make more vital the work of the public schools, their program of instruction and activities must be taken fully into account. Two parallel pro- grams cannot be maintained irrespective of each other without injury to the work of both. The problem of correlation belongs to the administrators and teachers of both types of schools. The curricula of the public schools are already well established and those of week- day schools are only in the process of formulation. This places a large measure of responsibility for se- curing proper correlations upon the administrators and teachers of the latter. Any effective cooperation of public schools and week-day schools is impossible in the absence of proper correlation of work. 82 PROGRAM OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Task of reconstruction. — The problem of recon- struction is one of the most important ones in the whole field of religious education. Nothing will be gained by underestimating the magnitude or the diffi- culty of this problem. The proper extension of the program alone calls for additional material in large amounts. This large body of material for the most part remains to be selected and this in itself is a for- midable task. In fact, much of the kind of material needed does not exist in usable form, and will have to be produced. In the meantime selections will have to be made from all available sources and the material organized into curricula. It is entirely clear that the mere expansion of present curricula will utterly fail to meet the needs. Fundamental reconstruction is called for, and this involves much construction along lines not hitherto followed in religious education. This pioneer work requires experimentation, guided by clear reli- gious and educational ideals. The experience of public school administrators and teachers in reconstructing curricula in response to the demands of a rapidly expanding educational program is available. This experience during the last decade is particularly suggestive. The process of reconstruc- tion is by no means completed. Important readjust- ments still need to be made, but enough has been ac- complished to furnish valuable aid to those who have the responsibility of a similar task in the field of reli- gious education. This experience has proved conclusively that a pro- gram cannot be expanded merely by adding new sub- jects to the curricula already established. At first the plan was tried and it failed. It resulted in an unbal- anced program and led to confusion and cross purposes 83 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION in the work of the school. It was seen that a properly conceived curriculum does not consist of an aggrega- tion of more or less unrelated subjects. Some principle of unity must govern, and this was found in the needs, interests, and capacities of the child. It became appar- ent that a thorough reconstruction was demanded, and this process is still going on. This involves elimina- tion of obsolete material, the addition of new material, certain shifts of emphasis in instruction and a thorough correlation to secure unity in the work. Familiarity with what has been done and is now being done in this respect in the public schools is a valuable asset for those who are attempting to reconstruct curricula in religious education. 84 CHAPTER V THE ORGANIZATION OF THE COMMUNITY In the preceding chapter religious instruction was conceived in terms of a community program in the sense that every child should be given the opportunity to receive adequate religious instruction. Cooperative action is required for carrying out such a program. This cannot be accomplished unless the community is properly organized as an educational agency. Universal religious instruction is not possible in any community unless two conditions are met: (i) Ade- quate facilities must be provided, and (2) the interest of the community as a whole must be enlisted and caused to function in such way as to secure a response on the part of parents and children to the largest pos- sible extent. In the beginning of this larger movement in any community, organization is necessary in order to secure leadership and to arouse interest on the part of the people in general. When .such leadership is secured and the interest aroused, the continuance of the organization is essential for carrying on the work. It is very important, therefore, that this matter receive due attention. EDUCATION CONCEIVED IN SOCIAL TERMS Education can no longer be conceived merely in terms of individual concern or as belonging to any one particular group or groups considered apart from the community as a whole. Secular education bears abun- dant evidence to these facts. It was once regarded as 8s ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION being the concern of the individuals or of groups, each acting rather independently of the other. This, how- ever, has all passed and we have come to regard educa- tion as a community function. As a result of this we have community organization through which the work of the public schools is carried on. Religious instruction an integral part of all ed- ucation. — The home, of course, has a great responsi- bility for the religious nurture and instruction of the children. The church likewise as a religious institution has a large measure of responsibility. To which of these institutions belongs the larger responsibility is not the question for discussion here. As social institutions each must play an important part in the education of children. Parents and church members, however, are not the only ones concerned in the religious instruction of children. Everybody in the community, regardless of their relations to either home or church, has a share of responsibility. The home and the church are very much concerned about what kind of men and women children are to become. Others are likewise concerned and therefore have responsibility in the matter of an educational program. If the above conclusions are correct, it cannot be said that religious instruction is not a matter in which the community as a whole is interested any less than it is in civic, moral, vocational, and avocational instruc- tion, all of which are intended to fit the child for useful citizenship. Let it be said here that this point of view in no way relieves the home and the church of their responsibilities and does not take from them the duty of performing any functions which of right belong to them. The whole purpose of this discussion is to make clear that an adequate program of religious in- 86 ORGANIZATION OF THE COMMUNITY struction depends upon the cooperation of all the forces in the community which are interested in the develop- ment of childhood and youth into men and women who will serve their day and generation effectively. If this is accepted the only question remaining is, How can the community be organized in such way as to carry on the work of religious instruction the most successfully? The general answer to this ques- tion is found in the kind of program which has been suggested. It was there pointed out that we shall have in effect a threefold program. One part will provide for the training of teachers and other religious and social workers. A second section will provide week- day religious instruction in which the common values of religion are taught and from which all sectarian instruction is eliminated. The third will provide for intelligence concerning the doctrines, sacraments, his- tory, and polity of the various churches. The com- munity as a whole should be vitally interested in car- rying out each part of this program. It needs both good churchmen and good citizens. THE COUNCIL The particular kind of organization in any com- munity will depend in large measure upon local condi- tions. Some kind of effective organization which will secure the hearty cooperation of all of the constructive forces of the community is absolutely essential. Or- ganizations of one kind or another for the purpose of carrying out this larger program already exist in a number of communities. In some of these the term "Community Council" is used, and in others the organ- ization is called "Church Council." Either term may be used to designate the community organization. 87 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Two things considered. — (i) The functions which the organization will perform are a determining factor. (2) The size, homogeneity, and other characteristics of the community enter into a determination of the best kind of organization to carry on a community enterprise. One of the more general functions of this Community Council is to promote interest in the enter- prise, secure the intelligent functioning of this interest, and give stability to it. The more specific functions will depend for their character and extent upon two things: (i) The needs of the community which this particular organization will seek to supply. (2) The resources for carrying on the work which will be at the command of the organization. Existing conuniinity organizations. — Some exam- ples will be given of the overhead organizations of communities where Community Councils have been formed. The titles of these organizations are not identical, but the general functions are very much the same. In Evanston, Illinois, a Council of Religious Edu- cation was formed in October, 1919. The plan of organization has been changed since that time. It seems desirable, however, to give a brief description of it, since the program was carried on for about a year and a half under this plan. The Council as now organized will receive attention in a subsequent para- graph. A group of citizens who were interested in extending the program of religious education and who felt the need of a more unified plan for carrying on other community enterprises, called a public meeting for the discussion of the whole matter. At this meet- ing committees were appointed to consider the vari- ous phases of the subject and were directed to report 88 ORGANIZATION OF THE COMMUNITY their conclusions at a later general meeting. This was done and resulted in the formulation and adoption of a constitution under which a more unified com- munity program could be carried on. The constitu- tion provided that this Council "shall be composed of one hundred or more leading citizens who are repre- sentative of the churches and the major educational, social, political, welfare, and economic interest of the city." The Council was self -perpetuating and mem- bership was constituted by nominations and elections at the annual meetings. The Council elected the usual officers, president, vice- president, secretary and treasurer, at its annual meet- ings. These officers were ex officio members of the Executive Committee. Six other members were elected as follows : two for a term of one year, two for a term of two years, and two for a term of three years. At each annual meeting it was provided that two mem- bers should be elected to serve for a term of three years. The Council also elected the Board of Reli- gious Education consisting of seven members. The constitution contemplated that the Council should pro- vide for a larger program than that of religious in- struction. In order to do this certain commissions were provided for, namely: "(i) Finance Commis- sion; (2) A Commission on Americanization; (3) Commission on Interchurch Play and Recreation; (4) A Commission on the relationship of Public, Church, Parochial and Synagogue Schools; and such other commissions as the majority of the Council deem necessary." Reorganization has recently taken place which limits somewhat the scope of the work and changes the form of organization. It is now called "The Evanston 89 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Church Council of Religious Education," and is con- stituted as follows: '*(i) Pastors of the cooperating churches; (2) Sunday school superintendents of the cooperating churches; (3) Appointed laymen of these churches, one for each three hundred communicants or less, and one additional representative for each three hundred members above the first three hundred in each church, with a limit of three representatives from each; (4) **A fourth class of membership in the Coun- cil shall be constituted of people elected by the Execu- tive Committee, not to exceed five in number." The Council elects the usual officers, who perform the cus- tomary duties of their respective offices. An Executive Committee consisting of fifteen members is appointed by the Council. This Committee performs its duties through subcommittees as follows: "(i) Committee on Teachers; (2) Committee on Curriculum; (3) Committee on Finance; (4) Committee on PubHcity; (5) Committee on Buildings and Equipment." An organization somewhat similar to the one in Evanston was formed about the same time in the re- gion known as the Calumet District, situated in Lake County, Indiana. The title of the organization is "The Calumet District Council of Religious Educa- tion and Social Service." The Council was organized not by a single community, as in the case of Evanston, but by several communities desiring to cooperate in the promotion of religious education and other social interests. Indiana Harbor, East Chicago, Whiting, and Hammond are included and provision is made for other nearby communities to come into the organiza- tion if they so desire. The organization as first constituted provided that all members of the Council should be elected at its 90 ORGANIZATION OF THE COMMUNITY annual meetings, elections being limited to nomina- tions made by the Executive Committee and the par- ticipating churches. The former was composed of not less than ten members, four of whom were officers of the Council, and the remainder appointed by the Cal- umet District Church and Mission Federation. This mode of procedure in selecting Council members has been changed recently. At present the several coop- erating churches in each community appoint a specified number of persons to serve as members of the local Board of Religious Education. These boards, four in number, constitute the District Council, which ap- points an Executive Committee to perform its admin- istrative functions. Matters of general interest are taken care of by this committee. The local boards have full power in all matters of detail. A third example of community organization is found at Maiden, Massachusetts, in the *'Malden Council of Religious Education." This contemplates two types of organization which are very similar. "When a Community Council incorporates under the laws of the State, it will have a Board of Directors, through which it will carry on the work of the corporation, and the Council will create an Executive Committee for the same purpose. This Board is in fact a city Board of Religious Education." The following commissions are provided for: (i) Commission on Community Music, Pageantry and Art; (2) Commission on Sur- veys; (3) Commission on Week-Day Bible School; (4) Commission on the Relation of Public, Church, Synagogue, and Parochial Schools. It will be seen that the functions of this Council include more than providing and administering a program of religious education. 91 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION The smaller and more homogeneous communities will not need to have an organization constituted in such detail. The type of organization required will be suggestive in a general way of the steps to be taken in forming it and some of the details for initiating and carrying out a more extensive program of religious education. Administrative machinery is not, of course, an end in itself, but only a means to an end. It should, therefore, be constituted in such way as to serve a particular community in the most effective manner. Fundamental characteristics of successful organi- zation. — I. It should be representative of all the constructive social forces of the community. Reli- gious education should be a community enterprise, as has already been pointed out. It becomes such only when it is a matter of community interest and coopera- tion. Any organization, therefore, that seeks to pro- mote religious education for the community as a whole must be a representative body. The churches will, of course, bear a large share of the responsibility and should have adequate representation. Other organiza- tions, industrial, commercial, philanthropic, and social, being interested in the general welfare of the com- munity and particularly in the matter of education, should assume their due share of responsibility in car- rying on a program of religious education. These various organizations will no doubt secure proper rep- resentation in any community, but opportunity should also be provided for public-spirited individuals to par- ticipate in the community enterprise. One of the func- tions of this organization is to arouse public interest and secure its functioning in the most effective way. It is not, therefore, desirable to have an organization so restricted in its makeup as to give the appearance of 92 ORGANIZATION OF THE COMMUNITY doing something for the community rather than as serving as an agent through which the community as a whole can carry on its own enterprise. In the smaller communities the Council might well include a large proportion of the people in its membership. In the larger communities the proportional number will have to be much less, but its membership should be thor- oughly representative. 2. It is very important that the organization be made permanent. The marvelous growth of the public school in this country is largely due to the fact that the constructive forces of society have a permanent organization through which to function. Until that was accomplished the whole program of public educa- tion was on a precarious foundation. Carrying out educational programs must not be subject to the fluctu- ating interests and abilities of individuals or to groups temporarily organized for promoting educational pro- jects. Permanent success cannot rest merely upon good will or general philanthropic interest. These are neces- sary assets, but they have to be maintained through permanent organization, and their successful function- ing depends upon the stability of such organization. A keen sense of responsibility for the permanent suc- cess of educational endeavor must be lodged somewhere in an organization which is as permanent as the desired permanency of the work to be carried on. 3. In order to make this organization permanent, it must itself rest upon permanent organizations in the community. Churches and other organizations al- ready cited furnish examples. It is a matter of great importance that the former in particular shall give whole-hearted support to the community program. The function of the church peculiarly fits it for sup- 93 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION porting and successfully functioning through an organ- ization of this kind. It is true that permanence cannot be secured in a day. Churches are not accustomed in many communities to regard religious instruction as a community enterprise or with rare exception to think of it as being carried on by other agencies. The same thing is true of other organizations and individuals whose interest should be enlisted and cooperation se- cured. 4. Both interest and cooperation must rest finally upon intelligence made to function through a sense of responsibility. At the very outset, therefore, a pro- gram should be carefully planned and executed by the leadership in this movement to educate the community concerning the needs of more adequate religious instruction. Foundations should be laid for this pro- gram by making a careful survey of the community. This should reveal the number of children not receiv- ing formal religious instruction, the number enrolled in the Sunday schools, the interest of parents in the project, and the available resources for carrying on the work. It is also desirable to gather information from other communities where community projects are in operation. Agencies at the command of the Council. — Other functions than that of promoting a program of reli- gious education will no doubt be performed by this Community Council, but its chief function will be to promote such a program. In order to do this it may function through agencies already established or through other agencies created, or both. In any case one of the functions of the Council is to secure a more adequate program of religious instruction carried on as a community enterprise from the standpoint (i) of 94 ORGANIZATION OF THE COMMUNITY securing opportunity for universal religious instruc- tion and (2) to enlist the interest and cooperation of all the constructive forces of the community in this enterprise. How these two ends can be accomplished will no doubt depend itself upon two things: (a) the extent and character of the program to be carried out and (b) the local conditions in the community. It is clear that instruction will have to be more ade- quate than is being provided by the Sunday school or than can be provided by that institution. Week-day instruction is a necessity and no program will be ade- quate that does not make provision for it. The ques- tion before us has to do with the most effective agencies at the command of the Council or which may be cre- ated for carrying on this work. It is not the purpose to consider here the various types of schools. These will be reserved for later discussion. The point of emphasis here is that the Council should have at its command the most effective agencies which now exist or which may be created for carrying on the enterprise. The church schools may constitute such agencies in so far as they are able and willing to maintain and carry out a community program of religious instruc- tion. Let it be said here that the writer is not advo- cating that this Community Council should have any jurisdiction over or control of any form of religious instruction which any church may desire to give to children concerning the doctrines, sacraments, forms of worship, or polity of that church. Our reference here is entirely to instruction in the commonly accepted universal religious values upon which agreement may be secured. This probably means that our discussion is wholly confined to week-day instruction, since it is likely that most churches will desire to provide Sunday 95 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION programs which will be differentiated somewhat from those of other churches and from the community program itself. This would mean the extension of the church-school program to include week-day instruction conducted by the various churches under the auspices of the Community Council acting through a body cre- ated by itself. It may be desirable to organize community schools of week-day religious instruction. These would not be church schools, although they might be held in church buildings. They would be community schools not only with respect to carrying out a community program, but also in the sense that no denominational lines of any sort would be drawn in the enrollment of the children. In this case the children would attend the school most convenient without regard to any denominational connections. So far as the writer has information, this is the type of school established in a majority of the communities which are attempting to carry out a community program of week-day instruc- tion. The details of this organization will be dis- cussed later. The type of organization is mentioned here because it is important in the organization of the community that this agency shall be taken into account in working out detailed plans. ORGANIZATION WITHIN THE COUNCIL It is necessary to have some responsible body within the Council which shall have direct charge of the work. A Board of Religious Education, by whatever name it may be called, is therefore, essential. The Board should be small, consisting of probably five or seven members. In a general way its functions are very similar to those of a public-school board. Some of 96 ORGANIZATION OF THE COMMUNITY these will be delegated in large measure to its execu- tive officer and to committees composed of its own members or of other citizens engaged in religious and educational work whose assistance is desired. But all of these functions should be regarded as belonging to the Board, and it should be held responsible for their successful performance. It is apparent that a unified program in which all of the community can participate cannot be secured except by the creation and func- tioning of some such board. Board of Religious Education. — The selection of members of the Board of Religious Education is a matter of great importance. Upon this body rests the responsibility for formulating and carrying out a pro- gram. Inefficiency at this point means disaster to the entire enterprise. I. Qualifications of Board members. A Board of Religious Education should be composed of men and women who are representatives of the religious, edu- cational, and other social interests of the community. They should be vitally interested in promoting the reli- gious life of the community, and it need not be said that they should be persons of unquestioned character. In all cases they should be actively identified with the religious, social, civic, and other substantial organiza- tions of the community. It is not their function to represent these organiza- tions as such, and they should not be appointed merely for the sake of giving such representation. But it is important that they should be actively identified with these organizations in order that they may bring to bear upon the work of the Board permanent inter- ests necessary to its success. It will be desirable to provide for representation 97 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION from the various churches on this Board, and there is every reason why this should be done. The churches are the institutions upon which chief reliance should be placed for initiating and carrying out a community program of religious education. It is, therefore, nec- essary that the churches should be fully represented. No person, of course, should be appointed to member- ship merely for the sake of providing such representa- tion. The only legitimate reason for any appointment is that the particular person in question is qualified to serve the community acceptably. 2. Functions of the Board. In addition to the gen- eral function of this Board stated above, some of the more specific ones are as follows : (a) To have charge of all of the schools which are carrying out a community program of week-day reli- gious instruction. It is assumed, of course, that each church will maintain its Sunday program rather inde- pendently except in so far as it may wish to coordinate its work with that of other Sunday schools or with that of the week-day schools. This Board has no jurisdic- tion over or control of the work of the Sunday schools, but may act in an advisory capacity, particularly through its executive officer in so far as individual churches may desire. (b) The selection and organization of the curricu- lum for use in the week-day schools. This is one of the most important functions of the Board, and the task should not be regarded lightly. It is rendered especially difficult by the fact that subject-matter for week-day schools is not abundant and but little of it has been put into permanent form. When a public- school board decides what it desires to have taught in the schools, little remains but to select the most suitable 98 ORGANIZATION OF THE COMMUNITY textbooks available and choose appropriate supplemen- tary material which is available in permanent form. This is a very important task, but not nearly so diffi- cult as it would be if the material were fragmentary, had to be selected from numerous sources and organ- ized for teaching purposes, as is the case with the subject-matter of religious instruction. It is entirely probable that this task connected with curriculum-mak- ing will be delegated in large measure to its executive officer and a committee composed of its own number or others in the community qualified for such work. This is a wise procedure, but in no way relieves the Board of its responsibility to the community in providing a curriculum having equal educational value with the work being done in the best public schools. (c) The selection of teachers. This constitutes a vital problem and at present a difficult one because of the limited supply of teachers who are adequately quali- fied for this work. Teachers should be selected with extreme care, and if choice has to be made between limiting the work of week-day instruction or accepting teachers who are not qualified, the former course should be decided upon. This function like that of providing a suitable curriculum would be performed largely through the executive officer of the Board. But here, again, this does not relieve the Board in any way of its responsibility to the community. Qualifica- tions of teachers will be discussed later. (d) Training and supervision of teachers. The Board through its executive officer should exercise careful supervision over the work of its teachers. It is essential, of course, that religious values, for which the subject-matter is intended, should be realized to the fullest possible extent and this can be accomplished 99 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION only by adequate supervision. In these community schools careful supervision is also required to prevent the entrance of any sectarian bias into the instruction given. In a matter so vitally personal as religion there vv^ill be some teachers who will have a tendency, with- out intending it, to give certain interpretations which are sectarian in character. These teachers need careful oversight and guidance in order to avoid any such interpretations. Supervision is also required if viewed from the pedagogical side. The selection and use of methods and devices requires the oversight of a com- petent person. Responsibility for the training of teachers should also rest with the Board of Religious Education. We have conceived such training to be an integral part of the community program and for a Board to undertake to administer schools without also controlling the means of teacher training would be an anomaly. (e) Providing and administering a budget. The budget will be discussed later in some detail. The mat- ter is of such importance as to call for more adequate treatment than can be given to it in this connection. The point of emphasis here is that securing and admin- istering funds are necessary functions of the Board. Without direct responsibility for securing the budget and full power in its distribution, the Board will be greatly handicapped in its work. It may well delegate matters of detail to committees composed of its own members or composed in part or wholly of persons outside its own membership. The responsibility for securing adequate funds, however, and full power for distributing them should rest with this body. The experience of some communities in which this responsi- bility has been delegated to other agencies by the Coun- 100 ORGANIZATION OF THE CCMMUNiTY cil seems to make it clear that the position taken above is correct. It will be pointed out later that one of the most difficult problems, if not, in fact, the most difficult at present in properly maintaining community schools is the matter of financing the enterprise. To give this important function to any other body than the one responsible for conducting the schools will prove a mistake. (/) Providing buildings and equipment. As pointed out in a previous discussion, with rare excep- tions no buildings as yet have been erected for use in the week-day instruction. This means that, tempo- rarily at least, other buildings will have to be secured for carrying on the work, and when secured will have to be properly equipped. The responsibility for secur- ing suitable buildings and adequate equipment belongs to the Board. Divided responsibility here, as in the case of providing and administering a budget, is likely to prove disastrous. The Board will no doubt need to rely upon expert advice of its executive officer or some other qualified person, but the Board itself is responsible to the community. (g) Coordination of week-day instruction with that of the Sunday school. It was pointed out in a previous discussion that a program of week-day instruction should rightly constitute a part of a larger program of religious instruction in the community. If this is to be realized, it is necessary to provide for proper co- ordination of the work of week-day schools and that of the Sunday schools. This does not mean that a Community Board should exercise control over the Sunday schools in the various churches or that the church officials, as such, should exercise any control over the work of the week-day schools. lOI Organization OF religious education It does mean, however, that both the Board and the officials of the churches should fully realize that the success of both types of schools depends in large meas- ure upon mutual understanding and intelligent coopera- tion in carrying out the larger program. A committee should, therefore, be composed of representatives of the Board and of the Sunday schools to work out coordinated programs to the best advantage. As pointed out in another connection, the Board can also render valuable assistance to the Sunday schools by offering its services in an advisory capacity in the attempt to make necessary adjustments in the larger interests of the whole program of religious instruction. This service will be rendered largely through its execu- tive officer whose training and experience will make his assistance particularly valuable. (h) The coordination of the work of the week-day schools and that of the public schools. There should be no conflicting interests between these two types of schools. They have a common purpose, namely, that of providing opportunity for the highest possible devel- opment of childhood and youth from the standpoint of personal characteristics and that of disposition and ability to serve society. This purpose calls for such coordination of effort that each may make its fullest possible contribution. The public school is already established, and no one who has its interests at heart would wish to interfere in any way with the successful performance of its task. Its program is already formulated and is fully occupy- ing the time of the child during school hours. If religious instruction is to become a vital factor in the education of the child, sufficient time will have to be secured for giving such instruction. This means that 102 ORGANIZATION OF THE COMMUNITY some time will have to be taken out of the public-school program for this purpose or that instruction will have to be given outside of school hours. That the former is desirable, and, indeed, quite necessary, seems entirely- obvious. In any event, the public-school program has to be taken fully into account, in setting up a program of week-day religious instruction. Public-school officials are naturally hesitant in changing their programs or in making other adjustments to meet the requirements of week-day schools. Pressure is being brought to bear upon them from various sources to allow time for this or that or the other thing in the name of educa- tion, recreation, and what not. The obligation, there- fore, rests upon the Board of Religious Education to present their program to public-school officials in such way as to command their attention and to commend it to their favorable consideration. This function of the Board is a matter of great importance. The obligation rests heavily upon the Board of Religious Education to secure the cooperation of public school officials in this community enter- prise. The experience of the writer in several com- munities justifies the belief that they are vitally inter- ested in the matter of religious education. They have manifested a most friendly spirit toward the work of the week-day schools and have shown every disposition to make adjustments so far as conditions permit. There may be communities in which this is not the case, but on the whole we think that public-school offi- cials will be found friendly to the movement. They have their obligations to discharge, both to the children and to the community, and should not be expected to violate these obligations. If public-school officials be- 103 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION lieve that religious instruction has equal or superior value to some of the secular work being done and that it will be properly organized and supervised, it is very- likely that Httle opposition will be encountered. It is the task of the Board of Religious Education to secure proper cooperation, and its success in this particular will be an important factor in the final success of the whole movement. Executive officer of the Board. — In order to per- form its function successfully the Board should employ a trained executive officer. The usual title is "Director of Religious Education." In some cases the officer is called executive secretary. His qualifications and func- tions are discussed in this relation because he should be regarded as an integral part of the community organ- ization. The need of the services of such an officer is entirely obvious. The members of the Board will not have the time to devote to the details of the work, and they will also, probably, lack the necessary training and experience in educational matters required for the suc- cessful administration and supervision of schools. Knowledge concerning educational matters, vital inter- est in religion, and business experience are necessary assets. They do not, however, take the place of train- ing and experience in the organization, administration, and supervision of schools. Public-school officials have come to realize this and now perform some of their most important functions largely through a trained executive. Religious education, no less than public education, requires a type of service which can be rendered successfully only by a person whose training and experience fits him for it. In many com- munities this officer would probably devote part time 104 ORGANIZATION OF THE COMMUNITY to teaching, and in such cases, ample time should be reserved for the administrative work. I. The executive should possess the requisite per- sonal and professional qualifications. The position is that of an educational expert, as in the case of teachers, and a sudden increase of demand for leadership in the field of religious education makes it difficult in many communities to secure the training and experience desired. This, however, does not obviate the necessity of competent leadership, and little success can be hoped for in its absence. The following minimum qualifica- tions are essential: ( 1 ) No person should be selected for this responsi- ble position who does not possess a vital religious life and character. This requirement is so self-evident that no comment is necessary. (2) From the standpoint of academic and profes- sional preparation and experience, it is highly impor- tant that directors should possess qualifications equal to those of well-trained public school administrators. In addition, preparation for and experience in religious education work are extremely desirable. Some experi- ence in public-school work is a valuable asset. The educational problems involved in conducting week-day schools are similar to those of public schools. Further than this in working out necessary coordinations with public schools an intimate knowledge of the programs and schedules of these schools serves a valuable pur- pose. 2. The director of religious education should sus- tain to his Board relations similar to those of public- school superintendents to Boards of Education. (i) He is the executive officer of the Board and carries out its policies. 105 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION (2) He acts in the capacity of expert advisor to the Board in all matter pertaining to educational policies. It should rely upon him in this capacity in the follow- ing particulars : (a) Recommendation of teachers to be selected by the Board. The importance of this function has al- ready been discussed and it is very clear that expert judgment is required. He will be able to judge of per- sonal and professional qualifications much better than those who have not been especially trained for this work. (b) As pointed out in another connection, he will render the expert service necessary in the selection of subject-matter and the organization of curriculum. This work should be done in cooperation with a com- mittee of the Board or a committee composed of per- sons outside of its membership chosen because of their qualifications. (c) The supervision of the work of the schools should be delegated to him. This work should have his personal attention and he should be relieved of other duties — teaching, clerical, and other details — sufficiently to allow ample time for careful, systematic supervision. (d) Closely connected with the work of supervision is that of training teachers in service. This may be done through the training school by holding teachers' meeting and in other ways. In any case, one of the great needs of religious education at the present time is the better training of teachers in service, and the directors should be responsible for this work. (e) In the task of coordinating the work of week- day schools with that of the Sunday schools and public schools, the duties of the director are important. He io6 ORGANIZATION OF THE COMMUNITY not only sustains vital relations to these schools but also to the community in securing and maintaining pub- lic interest and cooperation. In small communities where only one or two teachers are employed, the problem of administration and super- vision is much simplified. If, however, these teachers are not well trained and lack teaching experience, they will need assistance in carrying on their work. In such cases it might be possible to secure some oversight by the superintendent of public schools or by an experi- enced teacher. Religious instruction given by a teacher lacking training or experience, or both, without some supervision is a precarious experiment. Adequate supervision of the work of the community schools is a matter of public concern and should, therefore, be taken fully into account in any adequate discussion of community organization. ORGANIZED FINANCIAL SUPPORT One of the functions of the Board of Religious Edu- cation is to administer the budget. This would be a far more simple matter than it is if funds could be secured through taxation or from the income of perma- nent funds, as is the case of public schools. Neither of these sources, however, is available, and the task of securing adequate financial support is a difficult one. Sotirces of funds. — Two things have to be taken into account: (i) the securing of adequate funds for initiating and carrying on the work in its initial stages ; and (2) to secure permanent sources of support. Both of these require the hearty cooperation of the com- munity, and this can be secured only by a carefully planned organization of its forces. Since the com- munity school is a cooperative enterprise, the com- 107 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION munity should be regarded as a unit in financing it. It is desirable, further, to make an analysis of this unit to ascertain methods of approach in making the appeal for financial support. This will result in a general classification of sources of funds into organizations and individuals. The churches are represented in the former. Each coop- erating church should be asked to assume its rightful portion of the entire budget. If a church cooperates to the extent of regarding the week-day work as a part of its own program for providing adequate reli- gious instruction for its constituency, the assumption of the church that it has its share of responsibility for the community budget is entirely legitimate. Other organizations, social, philanthropic, and indus- trial, make up another source of financial support. The extent of support afforded by these organizations will vary in different communities. In some their contribu- tions will be practically nil, either because of the lack of such organizations or because of the failure of the leadership in them to cooperate in the community enter- prise. In other communities such organizations may be depended upon to lend valuable financial assistance. A worth-while program, if properly presented, will make a successful appeal to their sense of community responsibility. Individual contributions may well be relied upon as one of the sources of financial support. It is possible that all individuals who are both able and willing to support such a program will not hold membership in the organizations to which appeal is made. Others who do give financial aid through some organization will desire to make personal contribution to the com- munity enterprise. Some parents whose children are io8 ORGANIZATION OF THE COMMUNITY receiving instruction will desire to do this as shown by the experience of the communities now carrying on the work. These communities have also found that others who have no children enrolled in the schools are willing to contribute as individuals. These considera- tions should be taken into account in organizing the community for financial support. The problem is far more difficult than merely that of securing funds for immediate use. If a community program of religious instruction is to be made per- manent, it must have permanent source of funds. Any plan, therefore, of organization should take this fact fully into account. Precarious financial founda- tions result in continual worry and embarrassment to those who are directly responsible for the enterprise. Added to this is a spirit of uncertainty pervading the community which interferes with permanent plans. What has been said concerning the characteristics of community organization applies in full force in this connection. Financial "drives" unsatisfactory. — This means of raising funds may be advantageous for enterprises which are more or less temporary. It is being found more and more difficult, however, to make successful appeal for funds in this way. The "drive" always requires for its success considerable emotional back- ground. If this does not already exist, to produce it calls for expenditure of time and energy which should be devoted to the main purpose. Education of any sort is a permanent enterprise and cannot depend upon a doubtful recurrence of a proper emotional attitude for its financial support. The problem in any case is not one of a few people in a community assuming the responsibility of inducing the many to give financial 109 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION support. The securing of funds is not a solicitor's job. It is, rather, a task of financial organization which will secure the permanent support of the community. Permanent sources of funds. — The need of perma- nent sources of funds is one reason why stable organ- izations already established are more dependable than individuals or groups of individuals organized specifi- cally to provide financial support. A finance committee appointed by the Council to aid the Board in securing funds may be desirable. But it cannot in and of itself constitute an organized source of permanent financial support. Its chief function should be to secure finan- cial cooperation of churches and other stable organ- izations in the community. This does not mean that individuals should not be solicited and that parents should not be given opportunity to contribute to the education of their children. But it does mean that it is not the chief function of this committee, or the Board itself, to take up an annual collection from those who contribute with more or less reluctance. Support of cooperating churches. — Every cooper- ating church should make its support permanent by including the amount of its contribution in its budget. This is not only important from the financial standpoint but also from that of securing the interest and coopera- tion of the entire membership of the church. If a church assumes responsibility for a community pro- gram of religious education to the extent of providing for continuous financial support, it will also give sup- port in other ways equally important. The schools will be supported by enrollment of pupils, regular and punc- tual attendance, sustained interest in the work, and in- telligent cooperation in the details of carrying out the program. Without the hearty support and cooperation no ORGANIZATION OF THE COMMUNITY of the churches in a permanent way, a community pro- gram cannot succeed permanently. Permanence will be secured if the churches incorporate adequate finan- cial support in their respective budgets. This is also a matter of distinct advantage to the churches themselves. It constitutes a recognition that religious instruction is one of their important functions and is evidence that they have seriously assumed responsibility for its performance. The teaching min- istry is thus assigned its rightful place along with the preaching ministry. The influence of the respective churches as instruments of social service becomes greatly extended and the confidence of the community correspondingly increased in the sincerity and effective- ness of their ministry. Other sources of permanent support. — Religious education is primarily the function of the home and the church in the sense that it must be provided directly or indirectly by these institutions. This does not mean, however, that the responsibility for financial support rests solely upon these institutions. Education in gen- eral is a community enterprise. Religious education is no exception to this principle. The community as a whole is concerned with the question whether its chil- dren and youth are receiving adequate religious instruc- tion as an integral part of their education. The rea- son for this is that whether they receive such instruc- tion determines to a very large extent the kind of citizens they will become. Other organizations in the community therefore, even if they perform no specific educational function, sustain relations of responsibility to its children and youth. Industrial, civic, and social organizations thus con- stitute permanent sources of support. Appeal should III ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION be made to their leadership on a basis of community interest and welfare. It is not a question of mere phil- anthropic interest but of civic responsibility. In the very nature of things the burden must rest heavily upon the churches because of the function to teach religion. But in discharging this function in the inter- ests of the whole community they are entitled to the hearty support of all of its organized life. A worth- while educational program which promises permanency and insures service to the community will make suc- cessful appeal. 112 CHAPTER VI COMMUNITY WEEK-DAY SCHOOLS It is obvious that much more time is required for religious instruction than is available through the Sun- day school. This means that week-day instruction will have to become a part of the whole program if we are to meet in any adequate way the demands for an extension of the work. The nature and extent of the program, and the conditions under which it must operate will determine the kind of organization needed. Neither the program nor the organization intended to carry it out can be successfully superimposed upon a community regardless of the needs of that particular community. The community organization discussed in the preceding chapter will be suggestive in a general way of the machinery necessary for organizing and maintaining community schools of week-day instruc- tion. It seems clear that the minimum organization should consist of a Board of Religious Education, by whatever name it may be called, and its executive offi- cer. These are of primary importance because of their functions. What should lie back of these by way of community organization will depend upon local conditions. EXTENDING THE INFLUENCE OF EDITCATION The extension of education as a means of prepar- ing for life is a matter of common knowledge. We educate for both work and play. Different types of education such as civic, moral, vocational, and avoca- 113 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION tional are recognized and provided for. The recent emphasis being placed upon religious instruction is in harmony with the whole movement to extend the influ- ence of education. An educational movement. — The extension of a program of religious instruction is a religious move- ment of great significance. But it is more than this. It is one of the most significant educational movements since the educational revival of the second quarter of the nineteenth century. The movement is, therefore, of great interest not only to the church but to society itself. The complete separation of the church and the state has resulted in a separation of religion and educa- tion so far as the public schools are concerned. An attempt has been under way for some time to get reli- gion back into education. This cannot be done best by introducing religious instruction into the public school, if, indeed, it can be done in that way at all. At least it will not be done in that way at pres- ent. The most the public schools can do is to recognize the educational value of religious instruction provided by some other agency and give credit for the work done. Correlating work of home and school. — Public school officials have always recognized the necessity of correlating the work of the school with that of the home. Not until recently, however, have they been able to work out a plan whereby effective co- operation can be secured. A beginning at least of suc- cessful cooperation of work has been made by recog- nizing the educational value of certain types of home work and allowing credit therefor. More recently this practice is being extended to include community agencies other than the home. Credit for scout work 114 COMMUNITY WEEK-DAY SCHOOLS and various other activities, including certain indus- trial types, is being allowed. Recognition of outside activities. — The practice of recognizing the educational value of instruction given and activities carried on outside the school is now well established. It is pedagogically sound provided the instruction and activities are properly conceived and adequately supervised. It means, in effect, a practical recognition of the fact that there should be a coordina- tion of the work of all the agencies in the community which have to do with the education of children and youth. The church is, of course, one of these agencies. Giving credit for religious instruction provided by the church is, therefore, in full accord with the principle. Whether the work is done in the Sunday school or the week-day school, is not important in this connection. Neither is it important whether the week-day schools be maintained separately by the several churches or as community schools through cooperative effort. The important thing is that the instruction offered shall be worthy of credit on the basis of its educational value. The principle as it is actually being worked out in practice will receive attention in the next section. CREDIT FOR BIBLE STUDY A movement to encourage Bible study has been in progress for a number of years.^ It had its rise in the conviction on the part of public-school officials and other citizens that, since religious instruction has been entirely eliminated from our public school program, something should be done to give proper recognition to the educational value of a study of the Bible. Viewing this matter from the standpoint of the public schools, iWood, C. A., School and College Credit for Outside Bible Study, chapters i, ii. ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION as has already been pointed out, it is only part of a larger movement to give school credit for work done outside of the school. For example, in Poughkeepsie, New York, credit for a long list of home duties is allowed in the elementary schools. Topeka and Sa- lina, Kansas, each allow a total of three credits toward graduation from their high schools for work done out- side. In Wyoming, credit is given for industrial work and manual training done outside of school hours. At Westbrook, Maine, students in the high school may spend one half day each week doing work in the local mills for which they receive credit. Johnson City, Kansas; Webb City, Missouri; Rockford, Illinois; Grand Rapids, Michigan; and Birmingham, Alabama, are a few of the many towns and cities throughout the country which allow credit for instruction in music received outside the school. These few examples are cited out of a very large number which might be given to show that there is a widespread practice which has been growing rapidly in recent years to allow school credit for various types of work done outside. It will thus be seen that credit for Bible study is a part of this larger movement. Points of similarity in plans. — Various plans are in vogue for giving credit to high school students for Bible study. These plans differ somewhat in detail, but are practically identical in the following particu- lars: I. The school authorities recognize the cultural value of Bible study. It is rather interesting to note that emphasis is placed on the literary and historical values of the Bible. No attempt is made to secure reli- gious interpretations of any sort. The various plans for testing results show clearly that this is the case. ii6 COMMUNITY WEEK-DAY SCHOOLS 2. In cooperation with the officials of the Sunday- schools or other religious organizations, syllabi are pre- pared which supply a list of topics in general outUne. In many cases, however, such syllabi are not prepared, and credit is given for completion of any approved course of Bible study such as the Uniform or Graded Series of International Lessons. In Lewiston, Idaho, the Senior Graded Series is prescribed for junior high- school students and the Constructive Series, or its equivalent, for the students in the senior high school. At Tacoma, Washington, a special course has been prepared by the local ministerial alliance. 3. The interpretation of the Bible is left to the church, or in case the work is done by the individual without formal instruction the interpretation is left to him. 4. The students are required by formal examination, or, in some other way, to satisfy the school authorities that the work has been satisfactorily done. There is obviously no uniformity in plan of administering credit. 5. The credit toward graduation is allowed ranging in amount from one fifth to one unit. In some cases credit is allowed only for work done in the last two years of high school. In others no specification is made concerning the matter. Several plans in use for giving credit for Bible study. — No attempt will be made here to discuss the matter of credit in detail. The North Dakota plan was inaugurated at a meeting of the State Educational Association in November, 191 1. A committee was ap- pointed at this meeting to perfect a plan for giving credit in the high schools of the State for Bible study and to prepare a syllabus. The report of this commit- "7 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION tee was approved the following year both by the An- nual Conference of High School Principals and City Superintendents, and by the State High School Board of North Dakota.^ Fundamental principles. — Two fundamental prin- ciples were laid down in this report which governed in the preparation of the syllabus. 1. The justification for credit for Bible study so far as the schools are concerned is found in the great value of a knowledge of its history and literature as broadly cultural subjects. 2. Sectarian interpretation, or anything suggesting it must be avoided. Accordingly, no textbook except the Bible itself shall be prescribed. The syllabus, briefly stated, is as follows: (i) Studies in Old Testament geography. (2) The great Old Testament narratives. (3) A brief outline of Hebrew history. In this connection a Bible dictionary of Hebrew history may be consulted for dates. (4) The list of the Old Testament books for memo- rizing. ( 5 ) Memory passages from which the student is to select five to be learned. (6) Studies in the life of Christ. The reading re- quired includes the entire book of Luke, and certain passages from the other Gospels. (7) Studies in the history of the early church. This requires the reading of the book of Acts, including maps, and the missionary journeys of Paul. (8) The list of the books of the New Testament for memorizing. ^Wood. C. A.. School and CoUege Credit for Outside Bible Study, chapter v. COMMUNITY WEEK-DAY SCHOOLS (9) Selected memory passages from the New Tes- tament. PLAN OF ADMINISTRATION^ The work is pursued entirely outside of school hours and is carried on privately or in special outside classes, usually in connection with Sunday schools or young people's societies. The teachers or the students them- selves, if they carry on the work privately, are at lib- erty, of course, to include in their study much more than the syllabus required, but the examinations do not take into account anything except the work as outlined in the syllabus. The State High School Board conducts these examinations at the same time as the regular State high school examinations. A total of one-half unit credit is allowed. The Colorado plan. — The Colorado plan had its beginning in the State Teachers' College in 19 10. It had its origin in what is known as the Greeley plan which is simply a system of cooperation between the churches of Greeley and Teachers' College. In 191 2 the Colorado Sunday School Association brought this plan to the attention of the Educational Council of the State Teachers' Association. The Council passed a resolu- tion calling for the appointment of a committee con- sisting of six members, three from the State Teachers' Association and three from the High School Depart- ment of the Sunday School Association, to work out a course of study. In November, 19 13, this committee made its report. The plan provides for a four years' course of Bible study for high-school students. The instruction is to be given by the respective churches under the direction of qualified teachers. It is contem- iWood, C. A.. Schod and College Credit for Outside Bible Study, chapter v. 119 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION plated that this instruction shall be given in the Sunday schools. Forty recitations of forty-five minutes each are required each year, and the work is to extend over a period of four years. A total of one credit is allowed and fractional credits may be allowed on the same basis. The character of the examination and the plan for giving it, and the passing grades are all determined by the officials of the local high school. Bible study in high schools. — A number of other plans adopted for entire States, and very similar to these two, are in vogue. State Teachers' Associations and State Sunday School Associations in many of the States, have worked out cooperative plans whereby credit may be allowed under certain conditions very similar to the two States referred to above for Bible study carried on by high-school students. In some of these. State Boards of Education have also cooperated in devising and putting the plans into execution. In a large number of towns and cities, credit is al- lowed by the high schools for Bible study. In Des Moines, Iowa, a plan was inaugurated in 191 5 in each of the three high schools of the city. Students may elect Bible study for one hour a week. Instruction is given in the school buildings by high-school teachers, assigned for the purpose, who serve without compensa- tion. The classes recite after school hours and the period of instruction is fifty minutes. In Topeka, Kansas, under a general ruling made by the Board of Education in 19 14, credit toward gradu- ation from the high school to the amount of three units may be allowed for creditable work done outside the school. It is provided, however, that not more than two units shall be granted in any one sub- ject. Since that date a practical plan has been 120 COMMUNITY WEEK-DAY SCHOOLS worked out whereby a student may receive two units for work done in Bible study under certain stated conditions.^ The work may be taken either in the Topeka Training School for Sunday School Work- ers, with an approved Sunday-school teacher, or, under the direction of one of the Christian Associations. This requirement, however, is not absolute, credit being allowed for work done under other direction; but it must be approved by the school authorities. Ex- aminations are conducted, when work is completed, by "a competent disinterested student of the Bible." Sev- eral schools in Michigan have adopted the North Dakota plan, among which is Grand Rapids. Pawnee, Nebraska, high school gives credit for work done in the International Sunday School lessons with supple- mentary lessons from the Bible. These examples are sufficient to indicate the wide- spread practice of giving high-school credit for Bible study done outside of school. It will be observed that the instruction is confined entirely to the Bible, and there is little uniformity even in the general outlines of the work. The emphasis, so far as the public schools is concerned, is entirely upon the literary and historical values. Very little supervision of the work is at- tempted on the part of the public schools, and the ex- aminations are almost the sole test of the efficiency of the work done. This movement to secure recognition of the educa- tive value of the Bible should not be underestimated. It is a very significant step in the direction of calling attention to the neglect of the Bible in our present pro- gram of education. Its limitations, however, are en- tirely obvious. An adequate program of religious iWood, C. A., School and College Credit for Outside BibU Study, pp. 103-108. 121 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION instruction cannot be based solely upon the literary and historical values of the Bible, nor even upon the Bible itself. The plan is further limited because confined to high-school students. No plan of religious instruc- tion is adequate which does not parallel at every point the work of the public schools. It is also clear that more adequa1:e organization, administration and super- vision of work than contemplated by any of the plans now in vogue is absolutely necessary. ORGANIZATION OF WEEK-DAY SCHOOLS^ The organization of week-day schools of religious instruction is an absolute necessity. Whether these shall be organized and maintained as a community en- terprise or by the individual churches is a question which will have to be answered by each community for itself. The church school is discussed in the fol- lowing chapter. The present discussion deals entirely with the community school.^ It should need no argument to establish the fact that successful week-day instruction is not possible without properly organized schools conducted in the same man- ner as other well-organized educational institutions. There is nothing connected with the aims, means, or methods of religious instruction which warrants the expectation that it will be successful under less favor- able conditions than instruction of any other kind. Institutions or organizations which at best are only quasi-educational in character cannot carry this work on successfully. Week-day instruction cannot be made iPor detaUed discussion compare Cope, H. F., The Week-Day Church School; and Squires, W. A., The Week-Day Church School. »Stout, John E., Week- Day Religious Instruction Under Community Auspices. Occasional Papers, No. 3, Department of Religious Education, Northwestern Uni- versity. 122 COMMUNITY WEEK-DAY SCHOOLS merely an additional function through expansion of a social program. It must be carried on in a school or- ganized for the sole purpose of educating children and youth and conducted solely with this end in view. Factors involved in organization. — Several factors determine the kind of organization. The details in the organization of community schools will have to be determined by local conditions. Several communities have already organized such schools, and these will furnish valuable suggestions. But each community must be governed in large measure by the conditions with which it has to deal. It should, therefore, secure the services of a competent person to make a careful survey to obtain full and accurate information upon which to proceed. This information when collected should be interpreted with respect to the following points : The number of children who will probably enroll in the schools. These should be classified as to age and present enrollment in the public schools. This will give a basis for determining the number of grades to be maintained, and the number and size of the classes to be maintained. The number of teachers to be em- ployed, the number of classrooms and the amount and character of equipment required will have to be de- termined by the needs. Available resources. — The resources which are available or which can be made available to organize and maintain the schools must be taken into account. Included among the resources, actual and potential, is the attitude of the churches toward the project in gen- eral and their ability and willingness to cooperate in the enterprise. No program of any considerable extent can be carried out without their hearty support 123 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION and cooperation. The interest of the community ex- pressed through other institutions and organizations should be carefully ascertained. The attitude of public school officials is a matter of great importance. The sources of funds and the amount that can be depended upon permanently should be determined as definitely as possible. Buildings which are available or can be made available is another important question. Finally the available persons in the community who are both competent and willing to assist in organizing and maintaining the schools should be ascertained. Outside assistance will in most cases have to be relied upon more or less, but the community itself should be thor- oughly canvassed. Much of this information will no doubt have been secured in perfecting the community organization already discussed. It will need to be interpreted, however, with special reference to organ- izing and maintaining week-day schools. Time schedules. — Time schedules are determined by several factors. As pointed out in another connec- tion, community schools usually provide opportunity for each child to receive two hours of instruction per week. This does not mean, of course, that the schools are in operation only two hours a week. The schedules of classes should be so arranged as to distribute the instruction over four or five days a week and during as many hours per day as possible. This is necessary in order to provide instruction for the largest possible number of pupils with the employment of a minimum number of teachers. Unless part-time teachers can be secured, which is done in some communities, a large part of the school day must be available for work. It should be said in this connection that the matter of the amount of time per week and the distribution of 124 COMMUNITY WEEK-DAY SCHOOLS that time are still open questions. In most cases where week-day instruction is being carried on, two sixty- minute periods are being used for each child. It is very likely that this was first inaugurated because of administrative convenience and not because of any pedagogical considerations. It is not at all improbable that this arrangement is only a temporary expedient, and that some other time schedule will be found by experience to be more desirable. One thing favorable to the present plan is that in communities where it is being used it is found acceptable and satisfactory work is being done. In making out a schedule for week-day religious in- struction the first thing that needs to be taken into account is the program of the public schools. With some variations, the daily public-school program is from 9 A. M. to 3 :30 or 4 p. m. for five days per week. Unless some adjustment is made, the only time avail- able for religious instruction is before nine or after three-thirty or four o'clock. This means that the child must secure his instruction outside of and in addition to his full public-school program. Such is the usual practice at the present t;me in the few communities carrying on week-day instruction. That is to say, the children receiving religious instruction are doing the work in addition to their regular public-school pro- gram, using time wholly outside of public-school hours. There are some exceptions to this general rule which will be noted later. Religious instruction in addition to public school program. — Requiring children to receive religious instruction as work wholly additional to their public- school program is not desirable for two reasons : I. Under these conditions it is not put on a par from 125 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION the standpoint of its importance, with other school work. Parents and pupils are very apt to regard it as an appendage to, rather than an integral part of edu- cation. It seems clear that it will be difficult to build up a vital and permanent program on such a basis. One of the important things involved in education of any kind is the attitude which parents and pupils have toward the work. 2. If week-day instruction is to become an important factor in the education of children, the extent and char- acter of the program will become burdensome if it is made additional to the work which they are already doing in the public schools. This will finally result in overloading the child with work or in the neglect of either his public-school work or that of religious in- struction. In all probability it will be the latter that will be neglected, since, in the very nature of things, less pressure can be brought to bear upon him concern- ing it. The public-school work must be done, and failure to do it means failure in promotion. No such results will follow the failure of the pupil to do the work in religious education. In view of the above considerations, it is extremely important that some adjustment be made with public- school officials which will secure time out of their regu- lar school program which may be devoted to religious instruction. In harmony with the practice now pre- vailing in a majority of week-day schools, the amount of time required is two hours per week. A notable example of such an arrangement is found at Gary, Indiana, and further reference to this experiment will be made later. Definite formulation of week-day program. — A program should be carefully formulated in accord- 126 COMMUNITY WEEK-DAY SCHOOLS ance with its purpose. The purpose of community week-day instruction as distinguished from that of the church school may be stated broadly as follows: To provide educational opportunity of such character that the children of all denominations or of none may re- ceive religious instruction that possesses universal reli- gious values. If this purpose is realized, it is obvious that the program will have to meet the following con- ditions : 1. It must provide vital religious instruction based upon the recognized universal values in the Christian religion. This is a matter of great importance, not only to society in general, but to the church itself. The great universal values of the Christian religion should be a common possession of all the children and youth of America. The program of the week-day school must, therefore, be of such character as to secure the interest of all whom we desire to reach. The com- munity school is particularly well calculated to do this, provided its program is of the right sort. 2. Instruction in these community schools must be wholly nonsectarian in character. It is obvious that sectarian instruction will defeat the purposes of the school. To provide the universal values in religion upon which all are agreed and to appeal on this basis to all classes of the community regardless of sectarian affiliations, require that all sectarian interpretations be carefully avoided. It is the conviction of the writer that such matters as doctrine, sacraments, modes of worship, and church history and polity have a rightful place in religious instruction. They have no place, however, in a community school. In selecting material, therefore, and in its presentation all sectarian bias should be eliminated with extreme care. Those who do 127 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION not believe that religious instruction can be given unless it is cast in a denominational or sectarian mold will not agree with this contention. Those of us, on the other hand, who believe that there are common values in the Christian religion which should become the possession of all children and youth will agree that the community school offers an opportunity for secur- ing these values. 3. Instruction must possess educational value equal to that of any work being done by the public school. This means that material must be selected with regard to the needs, interest, and capacities of children in their various stages of development. It also means that the social value of instruction must be taken fully into account. If we expect that religion shall function in a larger way in the lives of men and women, the educa- tion of children in matters of religion must be governed by the situations in which life expresses itself. ORGANIZATION OF CURRICULA The principles governing curricula making and some of the more important details connected therewith have already received attention. The only task remaining in this connection is to make application to week-day instruction. This has been partially done in the pre- ceding section. To provide instruction vitally reli- gious, wholly nonsectarian in character, and equal in educational value to that of the public schools indicates the nature of the problem. Types of subject-matter. — These requirements con- stitute the criteria for selecting material from the types of subject-matter already suggested. Both biblical and extra-biblical should be used. All such as contain any suggestion of sectarian interpretation will have 128 COMMUNITY WEEK-DAY SCHOOLS to be rejected. It also seems clear that but little of the organized subject-matter now in use in Sunday schools, even if free from denominational bias, can be used for week-day instruction. A discussion of the various "lessons'' and "series" will be found in the chapter immediately following. If the conclusions reached are correct, these, taken as series, will have to be rejected. It should be said, however, that much valuable mate- rial is found in some of the series of texts, and this might well be selected for use. The lessons, in some cases, are too long and require shortening. In some cases, too, sectarian allusions, even if they do not amount to sectarian interpretations, require the rejec- tion of these lessons or elimination of objectionable matter. The subject-matter used in some of the early schools was in the form of printed leaflets. In others the material used was selected from various sources and put into the hands of the pupils in mimeograph form. The material, whether printed or mimeographed, was bound by the use of cover papers. Some such device was necessary in the absence of suitable texts, and is still in use wholly or in part in a number of week-day schools. This practice is, no doubt, only temporary, awaiting the completion of suitable textbooks. The need of textbooks. — The making of curricula for use in week-day schools is only in the beginning. The pioneer efforts referred to above are to be com- mended and will furnish valuable experience to others who take up the task. Textbooks are needed which are designed especially for week-day schools. Some texts are already in process of making and will be avail- able soon. They will then have to be tested by actual experience in their use before intelligent judgment can 129 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION be passed upon them. It will no doubt be considerable time before enough suitable texts will be produced to meet the needs of all the various grades in the schools. In the meantime selections of subject-matter will have to be made from the various available sources and put into form for temporary use. GRADATION OF PUPILS The general topic is discussed somewhat at length in a subsequent chapter. Nothing more will be attempted here than to indicate the general practice prevailing in the few communities where week-day schools are already established. The general practice is to group the pupils as fol- lows: Grades i and 2 of the public schools constitute Group I; Grades 3 and 4, Group II; Grades 5 and 6, Group III; Grades 7 and 8, Group IV. If instruc- tion is provided for high-school pupils, Grades 9 and 10 constitute Group V and Grades 11 and 12, Group VI. This means that there are four groups or grades instead of eight for the elementary school and two groups or grades instead of four for the high school. This plan of grading in the week-day school is due to practical rather than to pedagogical considerations. It was first inaugurated no doubt because of the fact that but a small number of the public-school pupils of any one grade were enrolled in the week-day schools. This made it necessary to put two grades together in order to secure a sufficient number to make a group suffi- ciently large for successful class work. This plan is more economical in that it requires less room space and fewer teachers. It is also probable that the depart- mental plan still prevailing in many Sunday schools had some influence in the matter. 130 COMMUNITY WEEK-DAY SCHOOLS Practical considerations have to be taken into ac- count, but the plan should not be considered for per- manent use. It is at best but a temporary makeshift and should not be used where the public-school plan of grading is possible. BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT With rare exceptions, one of the great handicaps under which week-day instruction is being carried on is the lack of suitable buildings and adequate equip- ment. This, of course, is to be expected in the early days of the movement. Buildings other than public schools are not as a rule designed for educational pur- poses. Churches ordinarily are ill suited for this work. The average church has never considered its Sunday school with sufficient seriousness to provide for it either in building the church or in supplying equip- ment. The writer has recently inspected a number of church buildings for the purpose of ascertaining whether they were suitable for carrying on week-day instruction. In every instance he was compelled to reach the conclusion that they were not suitable unless important modifications were made. In most cases the disposition on the part of church officials to remodel their buildings and provide equipment was most encour- aging. Unfortunately, in other cases, the necessity for remodeling was not recognized sufficiently to secure any relief. Suitable buildings. — If week-day schools are to become an effective means of religious instruction, suitable buildings will have to be provided. Whether this can be accomplished best by the use of public- school buildings, or by remodeling church buildings, or 131 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION by erecting separate edifices will have to be determined by local conditions. In any event, the fact might just as well be faced that buildings will have to be provided which in every respect measure up to the most modern public-school buildings. Temporarily, no doubt, build- ings will have to be used which are not suitable, but this should not be accepted as a permanent policy. Unfav- orable housing conditions constitute a serious handicap to successful work. One of the requirements of any successful endeavor in education is that of providing favorable physical conditions. Suitable seats are required, specifically designed for and properly adjusted to the various ages ; adequate light, properly distributed, is essential; good ventilation is imperative; and, in general, comfortable and attractive surroundings are required. Even in the name of religion we have no right to impair eye- sight and jeopardize the health of children. These things cannot all be provided at once, and in the mean- time, we shall have to accept what is available. But any community undertaking week-day instruction should make plans immediately looking toward pro- viding adequate housing facilities for its schools. Use of public-school buildings. — The use of pub- lic-school buildings is not feasible in most communities, particularly if religious instruction is given during the regular school day. There are certain legal limitations placed upon the use of public-school buildings for this purpose, and if these hmitations were removed, we still have the matter of public sentiment which must be taken into account. Laying aside all of these lim- itations, however, a practical difficulty still remains. In most communities, the buildings are now taxed to their full capacity and no rooms are available for reli- 132 COMMUNITY WEEK-DAY SCHOOLS gious instruction to be given during school hours. This means that in most cases buildings other than public schools will have to be used. One requirement concerning the location of such a building is that they shall be as near as possible to the public school. This is of great importance even if religious instruction is given entirely outside of the pubHc-school program. One of the conditions upon which the success of week-day instruction depends is that children shall be able to get from one building to the other with the minimum loss of time and without undue exposure in inclement weather. The buildings, therefore, should be located adjacent to the public- school buildings where such arrangement is possible. The matter of equipment should require little dis- cussion. It is taken for granted that the equipment of these schools should in every particular be equal to that of the best public schools. The material used as texts should be put into permanent and attractive form. Supplementary material should be properly selected and adequate in amount. Blackboard space needs to be adequate and the material used suitable and all other equipment measure up to these same standards. Here, again, we cannot hope to accomplish all of this imme- diately. For the present we shall have to accept some conditions not altogether desirable, but immediately set ourselves to the task of improving these conditions as rapidly as possible. EXAMPLES OF COMMUNITY SCHOOLS It need not be said that very few such schools have been established up to the present time. Those which have been established are in their formative stages and it is very likely no one would claim that conclusive 133 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION results have been reached. This in no way detracts from an appreciation of the splendid work being done by the workers in these schools. They are pioneers in an educational movement and the work is neces- sarily largely experimental in character. They should not be regarded, therefore, as furnishing plans to be followed in detail. These plans are, however, very suggestive and any community contemplating establish- ing a school will do well to secure as complete infor- mation as possible concerning the various projects being carried on. Week-day schools were established about six years ago at Gary, Indiana.^ This work was first carried on in church schools, several churches undertaking to offer religious instruction two days a week. The immediate results were promising, but various diffi- culties were encountered and some of the churches gave up the attempt. Others persisted, but at the close of the school year of 191 7 it had become clear to most of those continuing that individual churches could not carry the work on successfully. This led to an attempt to organize the work as a community enterprise, which was finally undertaken. During the summer of 19 17 a Board of Religious Education was organized. Each cooperating church was represented by its pastor, the Sunday school superintendent, and two additional lay- men who were selected in such manner as each church should determine. A smaller body, composed of mem- bers of the Board, constituted an executive committee having immediate oversight of the schools. The Evanston Plan of community organization has already been discussed. The Board of Religious Edu- ^ Religious Education. October, 1918, pp. 338, 389; also February, lOiSt PP. 42-45- COMMUNITY WEEK-DAY SCHOOLS cation established week-day schools in the latter half of the school year igig-20. Instruction was provided for the first six grades of elementary public schools. Two terms of eight weeks each — one fall, the other spring — were conducted during 1920-21. The plan of grouping is the usual one, namely, grades one and two constitute one group, three and four another, five and six the third. Classes are held five days a week in the elementary school buildings of the city. Instruction is given from 8:15 to 8:45 each morn- ing, five days a week. Approximately three fourths of the teachers are public-school teachers. The Board of Education of the city granted the use of the build- ings at a stipulated rental mutually agreed upon and gave their consent that any of the public-school teach- ers who so desired might participate in this work. The teachers are regularly employed by the Board of Religious Education and paid a stipulated salary. The enrollment has varied during the three terms from approximately six hundred to one thousand. A week-day school was established in Hobart, In- diana, in the fall of 19 19. This school was held in the Methodist church and a teacher was employed by that church. It was a community school, however, in the sense that it was open to all the children of the com- munity and several denominations were represented. The work was conducted four days a week, each child enrolled receiving two hours of instruction per week. Classes were held before and after school hours and also during the noon hour. Two schools were established by the Calumet Dis- trict Board at Indiana Harbor, Indiana, in February, iQ2o.^ One of the schools was held in a Methodist Quires, W. A., The Week-Day Church School, pp. lOO, 133. ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION church and the other in the Baptist Community House. One teacher was employed in the former and two in the latter. The enrollment of pupils was approximately three hundred in the two schools. Instruction was given five days a week, each child receiving two hours of instruction per week. The classes were held outside of school hours. One session of the school met from 8:15 to 9:15 and another from 3:15 to 4:15. These buildings are both located near public-school buildings and therefore the children can readily get from the public-school building to the place where religious instruction is given, and vice versa. Ten minutes was allowed children in getting to or from the public-school buildings, and this reduced the time of instruction to about fifty minutes. The same general plan is being carried out during the school year 1920-21, except the classes meet four thirty-minute periods per week instead of two one-hour periods. The Calumet District Board extended its work dur- ing the present school year to include Whiting and Hammond. In both places classes meet outside of school hours in the public-school buildings. Each child receives four thirty-minutes periods of instruction per week. Approximately three hundred fifty children are enrolled in Whiting and sixteen hundred in Ham- mond. In each case work is provided only for the pupils of the first six grades. At both Whiting and Hammond the records show that enrollment held up well throughout the year and the percentage in regu- larity and punctuality of attendance was high, hold- ing rather steadily around ninety per cent. Another example of week-day school is found at Van Wert, Ohio.^ This school was established in the > Religious Education, Febmary, 1920, pp. 26-32. 136 COMMUNITY WEEK-DAY SCHOOLS fall of 191 8 and during the past year enrolled approxi- mately eighty per cent of the children attending the public schools. The public-school program is so ad- justed that some of the classes are held in the public- school buildings. Others are held outside. In general, the plan of conducting the work here is similar to the plan employed at Gary. The plan of conducting the work at Batavia, Illinois, is different from the other plans discussed in several important particulars.^ Each Thursday throughout the school year the children of the first eight grades are excused from attendance at the public schools for an hour and fifteen minutes. They go to their respec- tive churches and receive such instruction as deter- mined upon by each church. Grades one, two and three meet from 9:00 to 10:15; Grades four, five, and six from 10:45 to noon; and Grades seven and eight from 1:15 to 2:15. It will be seen that the work is well distributed throughout the school day. All ex- cept fifteen of the seven hundred and twenty-five chil- dren enrolled in the public school are enrolled in these classes. Week-day schools were established in Oak Park, Illi- nois, in the fall of 1920.^ Instruction is offered for pupils in the public school beginning with the sixth grade and extending through the high school. By action of the Board of Education of the elementary schools, pupils whose parents so desire are excused two periods per week to receive religious instruction. These two periods of religious instruction are substituted for two periods per week in the sixth, seventh and eighth grades. High-school pupils take the work in addition ^Ibid., December, 1920, pp. 307-309. »Cope. H. F., The Week-Day Church School, pp. 41, 47, 84, 95, 163. ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION to their regular schedule and receive no school credit for it. The classes in religious instruction meet in the churches and are conducted throughout the school day. This makes possible the employment of full-time teachers for the work. Success of week-day schools. — The success of week-day schools wherever in operation is a matter of great encouragement. In all cases they are carrying on their work under severe handicaps. Among these are the necessity of having to hold classes outside of school hours, lack of suitable buildings and equipment, and the use of subject-matter which has not been thor- oughly tested out in practice. In spite of these unfa- vorable conditions, they have fully justified their exist- ence. They have demonstrated beyond question that many parents desire more adequate religious instruc- tion for their children and that week-day schools meet a real community need. The few schools already established. clearly indicate a probable means of secur- ing and carrying out an adequate program of religious education for the children and youth of America. 138 CHAPTER VII THE CHURCH SCHOOL The chapter title is used as descriptive of a school organized within a church and controlled by it. The program may be confined entirely to Sunday or may be extended to include week-day work. It may be limited to classroom instruction or may include social and rec- reational activities. Any school, whatever its program may be, which is supported and controlled by a church is regarded as a church school. The term '^Sunday school" is the one now in com- mon use, although by no means universal. If the school continues to confine its instruction and activities to the single session held on Sunday, this term may survive. Extension of its program to include all the educational agencies of the church seems to require some other designation. The plan now in vogue in some places, which includes the Sunday school and other agencies of the church, such as boys' and girls' clubs and young people's societies in a single adminis- trative unit, is resulting in the use of the more inclu- sive term "church school." If week-day instruction and activities are included in the program, it is clear that this designation is desirable. The use of the term "Sunday school" in this discussion will be con- fined entirely to the single session held on Sunday. The limits of the present volume prevent detailed treatment of the church school. Several topics have already been discussed which otherwise would require 139 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION attention here. The training, selection, and supervi- sion of teachers and the administrative management of pupils are considered in subsequent chapters. Only- two things are attempted in this chapter : ( i ) To indi- cate in a general way the place of the church school in the whole scheme of religious education; and (2) to consider briefly some of the more important factors peculiar to this type of school. The discussion is fur- ther limited for the most part to the single session commonly called the Sunday school. Chtirch school standards. — The success of any kind of school is impossible in the absence of proper stand- ards governing procedure. A church school does not, of course, constitute an exception to this rule. In Chapter IV reference was made to the importance of proper educational and religious standards. What was said there applies with full force in this connection. Influence of the week-day school. — Week-day instruction is becoming an important factor, and wher- ever it exists must be taken into account. This is true whether the week-day work is carried on by individual churches or by a community organization. However effective the program may be, when it is enlarged to include week-day work some reorganization would naturally result. This does not mean that the impor- tance of the Sunday school is reduced. On the con- trary, the result should be the opposite for two rea- sons: (i) The increased interest of the community in religious education should result in increased interest in the Sunday school. This result is already apparent in some communities where week-day schools are main- tained. (2) The educational standards set by the com- munity schools should serve as a stimulus and guide in securing more effective work in the Sunday school. 140 THE CHURCH SCHOOL This result is also already apparent in some communi- ties which maintain these schools. It is true, of course, that the weakness of an ill- adapted program and ineffective organization and man- agement is made more evident by the greater success of the week-day schools. The programs of the latter are usually better conceived from the pedagogical standpoint, supervision is usually more effective, and the work of the teachers more successful. All this has a tendency to place in contrast the work of the poorer Sunday schools. Two such cases have come to the attention of the writer recently. Children in the Sunday schools who were also attending week-day schools noticed the dif- ference with respect to regularity and punctuality in attendance, the more interesting character of the sub- ject-matter, and the more effective teaching. They were also impressed by the better discipline maintained in the week-day schools. Comments of the children on these differences came to the attention of the pastors and the officials of the Sunday schools. All, however, accepted the criticisms in the proper spirit and imme- diately set to work to raise the standards in the Sunday schools. In these cases the more successful appeal to the children made by the week-day schools served as a stimulus to those having the work of the Sunday school in charge. This should be true in all similar cases, pro- viding the officials and the Sunday school teachers are alive to the interests involved. Many Sunday schools, no doubt, need some such stimulus to secure proper reorganization. THE PROGRAM OF THE CHURCH SCHOOL The character of the educational program of the 141 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION church has already been discussed in Chapter IV. It is very obvious, as there pointed out, that there is needed a much more extensive and vital program of religious education than is now furnished by the church school. Whether a particular church desires to carry out this larger program through its own school, or prefers to have part of it carried out through the community week-day schools, is a matter which it decides for itself. In any case, the larger program is an imperative necessity and every church should set itself to the task of providing such a program. Scope of work. — The scope of the work of the church school will be determined by the function which it is desired to have it perform. If it is to furnish all the educational opportunity for the children who attend, then its program will have to be conceived ac- cordingly. On the other hand, if it is to furnish only part of such opportunity and the rest be left to the community school, then this will limit the scope of its work. It is evident that week-day religious instruc- tion is necessary, and if the church does not desire to commit this task to the community school, then its own program should be extended to include it. The scope of the work, therefore, of the church school is largely determined by whether it confines its activities to Sunday instruction or includes week-day instruc- tion and activities as well. Program not limited to instruction. — It should be said, however, that any effective program of religious education cannot be limited merely to instruction. The social and recreational activities of children and young people must come in for a large share of attention. The necessity for this has been pointed out in a pre- vious chapter. The point of emphasis here is that these 142 THE CHURCH SCHOOL needs must be taken into account in formulating and administering a church-school program. Time schedtile. — Time schedules need to be ex- tended. The extension of the work of the church school to include week-day instruction means, of course, an extension of time. One hour a week would not be more productive of results if the instruction should be given on a week-day instead of on Sunday. One of the crying needs of religious education at pres- ent, as already pointed out, is more time. The work of the Sunday school has received much adverse criti- cism because we have expected it to accomplish the im- possible, taking into account the limitations under which it carries on its work. One important limitation is the rpatter of time. Three and one half sixty-minute hours per week has been suggested as the minimum time to be devoted to religious instruction. This suggestion is based on the assumption, that, for the present, at least, a mini- mum of two hours of week-day instruction will be pro- vided where week-day schools are established. This means that any additional instruction will have to be given on Sunday. The time schedule for week-day schools has already been discussed, and it will be as- sumed that if the church school carries on week-day instruction, the time schedule already indicated will serve. Further discussion under this section will be devoted to the Sunday school. The one-hotjr session. — The present one-hour ses- sion of the Sunday school is unsatisfactory. It has demonstrated its limitations beyond any question. If full sixty minutes could be devoted to the actual work of teaching and learning, the work would be much more fruitful. But when time is taken out for open- 143 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION ing and closing exercises, for announcements, special pleas, brief "talks to the children," and various other things, the few minutes which remain do not furnish any opportunity for effective teaching. Another seri- ous defect with the present time schedule is that no opportunity is given the pupils for a study of the les- sons. Successful work on the part of any teacher is quite impossible if pupils do not make preparation of the lessons assigned. Under present conditions Sun- day-school teachers have to choose among three alter- natives : ( I ) They have to devote the time allotted them to directing the pupils in the study of a lesson which they will not have time to recite upon; (2) attempt to secure a discussion of a les- son by the pupils which they have not studied; or, (3) talk to the pupils about a lesson which they have not prepared. For a teacher to be compelled to accept any one of these situations is intolerable. The fact that some Sunday-school teachers are successful in spite of this system is no argument for the system. It is sim- ply an evidence of what these teachers can accom- plish even under adverse circumstances. The attempt which the Sunday school makes to fur- nish opportunity for experience and training in wor- ship is rendered largely unsuccessful by the same lim- itation. This should be one of the important functions of the Sunday school, and adequate time should be provided for it. This is not possible if but a single hour is devoted to the whole session. It is true, of course, that lack of time is not the only reason for failure. But it is one of the handicaps under which the work is being carried on, and there is no reason why it should not be removed. Distribution of time. — The three purposes of the 144 THE CHURCH SCHOOL Sunday school program have already been indicated. They are : ( i ) To provide adequate time for the study of the lessons under the direction and supervision of the teachers; (2) to give opportunity for recitation and discussion of the lessons; and (3) to provide suffi- cient time, if properly utilized, for instructing and drilling pupils in modes of worship. The following distribution of time and arrangement of program is suggested: (i) Thirty minutes for study; (2) thirty minutes for worship; and (3) thirty minutes for reci- tation and discussion. The precise amount of time devoted to each of the three parts of the program and the order assigned to each is secondary in importance. The important thing is that each of these purposes shall have proper emphasis. If a distribution of time somewhat different is found more desirable, it should be adopted. Public schools have been experimenting for some time on the distribu- tion of time between study and recitation. The general practice now is to divide the time equally. It may also be found desirable to change the order indicated. This order is suggested in the belief that an unbroken period of one hour of study and recitation is rather long for the best results. The period of worship, if inter- spersed, will provide variety, help in securing a proper religious atmosphere, and relieve pupils from any un- due strain incident to the uninterrupted study and recitation periods. In any case the above program would have to be modified somewhat for the beginners and primary pu- pils. No such clear distinction can be made between study and recitation as here indicated. In spite of this, however, the principle still holds that a program should provide both for the preparation of a lesson and for 145 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION discussion and recitation. It also holds true regardless of the age of children that a period of worship should form an integral and vital part of every Sunday school program. Study, recitation, and worship, with proper emphasis upon each and in whatever order proves best, are necessary if a Sunday school is expected to perform its rightful function. CHURCH SCHOOL CURRICULA The curricula for week-day instruction have been discussed in Chapter VI and will not be considered here. Discussion, in this connection, will be confined entirely to the Sunday session. The underlying prin- ciples are not different from those in the case of the week-day schools. Material must be selected with specific reference to the aims and must be adapted to the needs, interests, and capacities of the children. It is not possible to state, in any conclusive way, what the details of the curriculum should be. Curricula will differ in different churches. While we might expect a high degree of uniformity in week-day schools, especially in com- munity schools, we cannot expect anything like this uniformity in the work of the Sunday schools. If one of the aims of the Sunday school is to give instruction, in matters pertaining to doctrine, modes of worship, sacraments, church history, and polity, the subject- matter will differ considerably in the different denom- inations. It is probable that some church schools will desire to provide little or no instruction of this kind. On the other hand, in some of the denominations, consid- erable emphasis will be placed upon this type of instruc- tion. Those wishing to give little instruction in these 146 THE CHURCH SCHOOL matters, but desiring to give opportunity for pupils to receive instruction and gain experience in matters of worship, will accomplish this by using the period set apart for worship and general exercises. This will leave them free to devote the rest of the hour and a half to instruction, either identical or very similar in character to that given in the week-day schools. Each church will, of course, determine its own policy. It is obvious, in so far as the Sunday session offers opportunity for differentiated instruction from a de- nominational standpoint, that there will be consider- able variation in the kind of subject-matter used. Any detailed discussion of the different types of subject- matter is, therefore, impossible because of the neces- sary limitations of the treatment of the subject here. Let it be repeated that the principles governing the choice of subject-matter, its organization into units of instruction, and the organization of these into curric- ula, are the same as in the case of week-day schools or public schools. The same children are to be taught, and their needs, capacities, and interests have to be taken fully into account. The aims may be somewhat different, but the same pedagogical principles prevail in their application. Need of reorganization. — Sunday-school curricula need fundamental reorganization. It is evident that an extension of the time of the Sunday school and the establishment of either community or week-day schools will call for considerable modifications of Sunday- school curricula. These schools, however, exist now in very few places, and even though their growth should be very rapid, as promised, the Sunday school for some time to come will still remain the most im- portant agency giving formal religious instruction. It 147 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION is, therefore, necessary to give careful consideration to the matter of the reconstruction of its curricula. If the conclusions, concerning the aims of religious education set forth in Chapter III are to control in the selection of subject-matter, and if the principles of program-making set forth in Chapter IV are to serve as guides, considerable reorganization is required. This is true regardless of whether the Sunday school is the only agency in the community providing reli- gious instruction or only one of the agencies main- tained to carry out the program. These curricula will in the very nature of the case be quite different in communities where no week-day instruction is pro- vided from what they are where week-day schools are maintained. If the common elements of instruction referred to in Chapter IV are provided in week-day schools con- ducted either as a community enterprise or by the churches themselves, a very important part of the pro- gram is already taken care of. This leaves the Sunday school free to devote its attention entirely to more of the same kind of instruction or exclusively to matters pertaining to denominational interests, or to a com- bination of these two with such emphasis as is desired. On the other hand, if the Sunday school is the only agency, then it has to make a choice as to what part of the program it will carry out, leaving the rest of the work undone. In either case, as pointed out above, rather fundamental reconstruction will have to take place. Three types of material. — Present curricula consist of three types of material.^ ( i ) A series of ungraded »Betts, G. H.. The Curriculum of Religious Education. Occasional Papers N9. 9, Department of Religious Education, Northwestern University. 148 THE CHURCH SCHOOL Bible lessons; (2) a series of graded lessons, the mate- rial of which is selected chiefly from the Bible; and (3) several textbook series, the material of which is selected from both biblical and extra-biblical sources. The basic material in the first two of these series is selected by the International Lesson Committee and is, therefore, interdenominational in character, so far as the general outline of the work is concerned. Each denomination, however, may publish its own lesson material, employing writers to supply the lessons with pedagogical helps for teachers and pupils. The two series thus presented are used by a large majority of the Sunday schools. The third group of material is in textbook form, and no uniformity exists in these texts. Certain denom- inations publish texts of their own. Among these are the Episcopal and Unitarian. The former texts are known as "Christian Nurture Series," and the latter as the "Beacon Course." Other textbook series are being published independent of denominational control. Examples of these are "Constructive Studies in Reli- gion," and "Completely Graded Series." These are used comparatively in a very limited number of Sun- day schools. Statistics are not very conclusive, but it is probable that at least fifty per cent of the children enrolled in the Sunday schools are using the ungraded material and that a large majority of the remainder are using the graded lessons. When one examines these various types of material it becomes obvious that radical reconstructions are necessary. It seems conclusive that the Uniform Les- sons should be entirely eliminated. The fact that they are "uniform" condemns them without further hear- ing. Whenever any series of lessons used in any 149 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION school pleads guilty to uniformity, there is little that can be said in defense of its use. The ungraded school of any kind has no place in the category of edu- cational institutions. Modern education has so com- pletely committed itself both in principle and practice to the grading of the work to fit the needs and capaci- ties of the child that the question is no longer open to argument. From the standpoint of gradation some modifica- tion of the ungraded lessons is secured in what are called Departmental Lessons. This type of so called gradation is based on the practice in many Sunday schools of dividing the school into departments. This means that all the children in the primary department, for example, use one set of lessons, those in another department, called the junior, use another set, and those in the intermediate department another set, and so on. Material, graded on the basis of departments, is more usable than if not graded at all, but its use is highly unsatisfactory. In Sunday schools where the enrollment is so small that it is impossible to organize classes, except by including all the children in a de- partment in one class, the only practicable thing is to use some form of departmental lessons. This arrange- ment, however, calls for exceptional ability on the part of the teachers if successful results are secured. The International Graded Lessons are so far su- perior to either the Uniform or Departmental lessons that they should supersede them in every case where the choice lies among these three. It should not be assumed, however, that the International Lessons are entirely satisfactory from the standpoint of grading. An examination of the material from the viewpoint of its organization reveals that the grading has been 150 THE CHURCH SCHOOL done too much from the standpoint of subject-matter itself. That is to say, we have a logical rather than a psychological standpoint for grading. As suggested by Dr. Betts, this may be due in part to faulty psychology. It is probable, however, that it results mainly from the assumption that certain types of biblical material must be taught, whether or no, at a given period and within a given time. This leads us to a criticism of all the material con- sidered thus far from the standpoint of its content. The material is selected almost wholly from the Bible, and any series of lessons thus constituted is faulty. This was discussed in some detail in Chapter IV and need not be further enlarged upon. The limitations upon the biblical material, both psychological and social, were there pointed out. Full recognition should be given to the importance of the Bible as a source of material for religious instruction. But the purpose of instruction, after all, is not to teach the Bible, but to teach religion. Another serious objection which is common to the uniform departmental and graded lessons is the form in which they are published. The leaflet form is un- satisfactory, and it seems that no argument is necessary to sustain this point. For the most part, also, the printing is bad and the paper is poor, and the whole aspect of the leaflet makes an unfavorable impression upon the child. The material of religious instruction should be high grade, the printing clear, binding should be permanent and attractive, and the textbooks should measure up in every respect to the standards set by the best public school textbooks in use. The various textbooks series commend themselves from three standpoints. In the first place, the mate- 151 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION rial is presented in textbook form. The binding in some cases is not desirable and it should be changed. Second, attempt is made in all of these series to secure careful gradation of subject-matter with respect to the capacities and interests of the child. This has been accomplished with varying degrees of success. The third commendable feature is found in the fact that more extra-biblical material is included. Here, again, there is considerable difference in the relative amount of such material. It is apparent at once that the texts published by the denominations would not probably be acceptable for Sunday schools outside of those denominations. On the other hand, those which present no particular denominational point of view would not be satisfac- tory for the use of a Sunday school which has as one of its aims the presentation of denominational values from the standpoint of its own church. These texts, however, constitute a serious attempt to secure im- provement in the particulars already pointed out. They furnish valuable suggestions for the reor- ganizing of Sunday school work from the standpoint of material used, the organization of the subject-mat- ter, and the form in which it is published. ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION The organization of the work of the church school has already been discussed from the standpoint of the program. We now turn, more specifically, to the prob- lem of the machinery and personnel employed in con- ducting the school. It is matter of common knowledge that many Sunday schools are poorly organized, and that the administration is ineffective. Clearly defined aims will not function of themselves. Subject-matter, 152 THE CHURCH SCHOOL if properly selected and organized, has to be taught by competent persons. More than this, the organization of the school itself must be in harmony with its pur- poses and the administration must be such as to secure favorable conditions under which the work is carried on. We have come to realize this very clearly in the case of public schools and are giving more and more attention to matters of organization and administra- tion. The church as an educational agency. — If the church school is to become a real and effective agency in education, a different attitude on the part of the church toward the school is, in most cases, absolutely essential. Apparently, the church at large is much interested in religious education, as evidenced by the efforts being put forth by the various denominational educational boards. When we come to look at the mat- ter, however, from the standpoint of individual churches, the situation in many cases is radically differ- ent. They are not organized for effective educational work. Buildings are unsuitable and poorly equipped; in fact, many have no equipment at all. The funda- mental cause underlying these conditions is indiffer- ence on the part of the members of the church. In the case of many churches, parents who are mem- bers do not send their children to the church school. Many others who do send their children do not seem to take very much interest in what is going on. They are apparently not concerned about what their children study or the kind of building in which the work is car- ried on or the equipment for the work. Attendance is frequently irregular, cases of tardiness are numerous, and the not infrequent indifference to these delinquen- cies on the part of the children reflects the indifference 153 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION of parents. It is true, of course, that many parents do not belong to this class. But the evidence is suffi- ciently conclusive to v^arrant the statement that indif- ference is a great hindrance to success. What a church says about its Sunday school fails to convince. What it does to make it effective is the only evidence in this connection that has any weight. The whole matter of enrollment, attendance, punctuality, and gradation of pupils is considered in a subsequent chapter. Importance of the teaching function. — The out- look for the church school is not promising in any church which does not take its teaching ministry seri- ously. When a church comes to the full realization that one of its great functions is to teach religion, not merely to preach it, then we shall have a right to expect results. The educational function of the church has been discussed in detail in Chapter II, and reference to it is here made only by way of emphasis. The organization of the church as an educational agency is absolutely essential to the success of the church school. This means intelligent interest and hearty cooperation in an educational enterprise on the part of its entire membership. It must, in fact, be made a cooperative enterprise. The conduct of the school must of necessity be left to a small body acting in an administrative capacity. But this organization must have the support of an inter- ested and intelligent public opinion. This it does not now have in most churches. If public schools lacked the support of the communities in the same degree that most Sunday schools fail to receive the support of the church, public education would be at low ebb. As long as indifference prevails in the church, the Sunday school will be correspondingly ineffective. The remedy 154 THE CHURCH SCHOOL for present conditions is an awakening of the church accompanied by a thorough reorganization which will cause it to function as an educational agency. In the average church, how many people who do not have children are interested in the Sunday school? How many of such contribute to its support or have any concern whether it succeeds or fails? The number is so small as to indicate that interest in and a sense of responsibility for the success of the work of the Sunday school are sadly deficient. Reorganization within the school. — Effective ad- ministration and supervision of a school of any sort require that it be properly organized. A school is not merely a matter of teacher and pupil. It is in effect an organization of all the factors which consti- tute a modern school. These include physical features of the school, including building and equipment, the daily program of work, and the planning for various class groups engaged in study and recitation. A church school if efficient in its work must fulfill these conditions with respect to organization the same as any other school. When properly organized, the task of administration and supervision still remains to be performed. This is best accomplished by the same per- sonnel responsible for the details of the organization of the school. This body must, however, be com- posed in such manner as to permit it to function most effectively in administrative and supervisory capacities. Single administrative unit. — The church should be so organized as to make possible the administering of the entire educational program of the church — instruc- tional, social, and recreational. Further, the program should be conceived as a single administrative unit including all week-day as well as Sunday activities. 155 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION The Sunday school is, of course, included, but its work constitutes only a part of the entire program. Young people's societies, boys' and girls' clubs, chil- dren's missionary societies, and all other groups and organizations which have for their purpose the reli- gious nurture and development of children and youth should constitute an integral part of the church school. Added to these would be teacher-training classes and all other organized means designed to prepare for vo- cational or avocational service within the church. Single administrative board. — If the nature and functions of a church school are thus conceived, it requires a single administrative body to organize and administer its program. This body should be small, consisting of five or seven members, and its members selected on a basis of their fitness for the task. The qualifications and functions of this board should be similar to those already indicated in Chapter V for boards of religious education. An executive officer, director, superintendent, or by whatever name desig- nated is, of course, essential to give detailed direction to the work. Only when a church school is properly organized and its work unified, adequately equipped, and its activities intelligently and systematically super- vised, can it be expected to serve the educational inter- ests of the church and community. iS6 CHAPTER VIII THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS It should be said at the outset that in teaching reli- gion nothing can take the place of vital religious life and character. And, further, that nothing can be substituted for personal consecration to the great task of enlarging and enriching the spiritual lives of chil- dren and youth. Personality — both in the sense of what the teacher is and in the motive that lies back of what she does — is absolutely essential. Let no mis- take be made at this point. Any attempt to substitute a knowledge of educational technique for spiritual values will end in utter failure. On the other hand personal religious experience and consecration to the task of teaching do not in and of themselves fit one for the teacher's work. Successful teaching is a highly specialized art and in the light of modern psychology and pedagogy is becoming a sci- ence. Teaching religion constitutes no exception to this general fact. It calls for clear definition of aims, intelligent evaluation of means, and a high degree of skill in the selection and use of methods. Personality and teaching ability are both essential. The latter can have little meaning in the absence of the former. The former functions by means of the latter. Vital reli- gious experience and teaching skill constitute the nec- essary combination. PUBLIC SCHOOL EXPERIENCE In considering the matter of training teachers in the 157 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION field of religious education a brief reference to public education is desirable. Here we have standardized experience which may be utilized to very great advan- tage. No attempt should be made to take over with- out necessary modifications the aims, means, and methods of training public-school teachers. A knowl- edge of these is, however, highly useful in our attempt to provide an adequate program of teacher training in the field of religious education. Growth of teacher training facilities. — One of the most significant things in the development of public education is the growth in facilities for training teach- ers. The normal-school movement, which had its rise about 1840, has gradually spread throughout the entire country, and at the present time every State in the Union has from one to several normal schools the func- tion of which is to train teachers particularly for the elementary schools. Accompanying this movement in the training of elementary teachers has been the estab- lishment of departments or schools of education, not only in State universities, but also in universities and colleges established and maintained by extra-govern- mental agencies including denominational institutions. As distinguished from the normal school, these depart- ments or schools of education have for their chief function the training of educational administrators and teachers in secondary schools and higher institutions. It is equally significant that facilities for training teachers constitute an integral part of the educational programs which have been set up under governmental direction in the countries outside of our own boun- daries where we have undertaken to inaugurate educa- tional systems. The Philippine Islands and Porto Rico are examples. It was recognized at the very out- 158 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS set that social and political reorganization of any per- manent sort was impossible without well-organized school systems and that the latter in turn were not pos- sible without adequate facilities for training adminis- trators and teachers. Hence normal schools from the beginning of our efforts became an integral part of these systems. Standardizing agencies. — ^Another evidence of the emphasis which we are placing upon teacher training is found in legislative enactment and in rules and regu- lations of various educational boards. Specific require- ments are now made in the majority of our States con- cerning the character and extent of academic and professional training which candidates for teachers' certificates must secure before they become eligible for certificates. In some of the States the amount of time specified which must be spent in preparation is inade- quate and the professional standards are low. But the fact that an absolute requirement is made that persons seeking to become teachers shall have a certain amount of professional work, although that amount be small, is a matter of great significance. In committing ourselves to the task of universal education we have also committed ourselves to the principle that the teaching function is of so great im- portance that no one should be permitted to undertake to perform it who has not been specifically trained for it. The really significant thing involved in the atten- tion being given to teacher training, particularly for elementary and secondary schools, is the relation of the movement to the new conception we are coming to have of education itself. In a word, this conception is that the purpose of education is to develop the powers and capacities of children and youth with reference to 159 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION certain great social purposes which as a people we have set out to accomplish. Those who teach must be intel- ligent concerning these purposes, and must understand the relation which education sustains to their accom- plishment. Importance of teacher training. — Teachers of reli- gion need the same scientific and sympathetic knowl- edge of children as do public-school teachers. A knowledge of their needs, interests, and capacities is necessary to successful teaching of any kind. Teachers must also know the social as well as the psychological factors which govern in educational procedure. Both these factors are equally important for religious and secular education. Consecration to the work on the part of teachers is essential, but even when supported by high-grade native ability it cannot take the place of intelligent social outlook and scientific information. The training of administrators and teachers in the field of religious education is one of the most important tasks confronting the church. The success of the great movement now under way to extend and vitalize reli- gious instruction depends in large measure upon whether adequate facilities are provided for training the workers. AIMS IN TEACHER TRAINING The aims in the training of teachers of religion are not different from the aims in training teachers in gen- eral. The inclusive purpose is to develop right atti- tudes and ideals, to cultivate intelligent interests, to impart fruitful knowledge and to develop useful skills. It is true that the subject-matter of arithmetic differs from that of religion, and that the aim in the one case is different from that of the other; but the fact«remains i6o THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS that the teacher's attitudes and ideals, intelligence and skill are equally important in either case. These are not the result of accident. On the contrary, they are the product of experience and training. A teacher's interest in his work and the value which he attaches to it determine in no small measure the probability of suc- cess. The specific aims of training teachers of religion may be stated somewhat as follows : The development of right attitudes. — Right atti- tudes toward one's work is a matter of great impor- tance. The work of teaching religion forms no excep- tion to the rule. In fact, the very nature of the work makes it far more important that interest and intelli- gence shall control than is the case in many other kinds of work. A person who accepts the responsibility of teaching a Sunday school class merely from a sense of duty to the church will not succeed. Or if this responsibility is assumed only because no one else can be found to take the class, effective work is highly improbable. The work should be entered upon with full knowledge of its significance and with full appreciation of the importance of success. Added to this must be an appre- ciation of the fact that success is possible only when the conditions are met which are essential to all ef- fective teaching. It is assumed, of course, that teachers of religion must have the religious attitude toward life and their work. More specifically, the Christian attitude is abso- lutely essential. But this in itself is not sufficient. They must possess what we are accustomed to call the professional attitude. Whether teaching should be regarded at present as a profession is perhaps an open question. It is certainly coming to be regarded as a i6i ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION highly specialized vocation. The term used to desig- nate the occupation of teaching is not important. The nature of the task, however, should be fully understood by all who assume the responsibility of undertaking to perform it. The word "professional" is useful as descriptive of the attitude which teachers should assume toward their work and in preparation for it. This attitude is com- plex, consisting of two very closely related attitudes which may be designated as social and scientific. The former has to do with the conception of the social meaning and importance of religious education. The latter is descriptive of the conception which teachers should have of the essential nature of educational pro- cedure. 1. Teachers of religion must possess intelligent social attitudes. Religious education has a far larger mean- ing than rendering a perfunctory service to a church to which one may happen to belong. As a matter of fact it is a highly important social enterprise. In common with other kinds of education it is a means of social control. And in comparison with certain other kinds, it is far more important in this respect. Teachers must therefore know the social values of education in gen- eral and of religious education in particular. Social demands must be understood and evaluated with re- spect to the functions of religious education in meet- ing these demands. Training is essential both to a proper understanding of the demands and to a knowl- edge of how instruction may be used to function in meeting them. 2. Teachers need the scientific attitude toward their work. It has already been pointed out that teaching is coming to be regarded as a highly specialized voca- 162 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS tion. A clearer conception of the meaning and func- tion of education and an increasing body of scientific knowledge concerning the needs and capacities of chil- dren has brought this about. The person who would become a successful teacher should realize at the outset that success depends upon accurate knowledge and a high degree of skill. Good intentions cannot take the place of either. This view is fully accepted as related to the physician who ministers to the needs of the body. It is equally valid as it relates to the teacher who ministers to the needs of the mind and soul. Both the physician and the teacher must consecrate their lives to the service of others. But service in either case is conditioned by knowledge and skill. It is not possible to acquire these except by persistent, systematic effort. One who does not fully realize this is not competent to enter upon the high calling of teaching religion. Other important objectives in teacher training. — These will be discussed in detail in the section dealing with curricula. Teachers must have a clear under- standing of the aims of religious instruction. An intelligent use of subject-matter requires not only academic knowledge but also an understanding of its pedagogical values. Teachers need thorough training in the selection and use of methods of teaching. They must have accurate and sympathetic knowledge of the minds of the learners. The development of modern methods of teaching has been made possible by a con- stantly increasing body of scientific knowledge con- cerning the needs, interests, and capacities of children. No well-informed person would claim that knowledge in and of itself insures success in teaching, but it makes possible intelligent insight, provides a foundation for 163 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION fruitful experience, and furnishes guidance in the de- velopment of skills. CURRICULA FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS In planning courses the needs of two classes of stu- dents should be taken into account : 1. Teachers in service need opportunity for sys- tematic study. Comparatively few of the teachers in either Sunday or week-day schools have made definite preparation for their work. Many teachers are inex- perienced and every effort should be made to provide opportunity for them to receive training. Experienced teachers also need the stimulus and direction which can be secured through pursuing systematic courses of instruction. 2. Training of prospective teachers must be pro- vided for. A considerable number of people in every community could be enlisted in service if they could be given opportunity to prepare for the work. Courses should be planned to meet their particular needs. Keeping in mind the needs of these two classes, train- ing schools will serve to secure improvement of teach- ers in service and will constitute important sources of teacher supply. Aims determine ctirricula. — The aims of teacher training determine the subjects and subject matter used in instruction. This means that the training of teachers is governed by the same general principle that con- trols in education in general. The application of the principle more particularly to the vocation or profes- sion of teaching is the same as its application to other vocations or professions. Having the aims in mind, subjects and subject-matter are determined by the amount and kinds of knowledge and experience neces- 164 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS sary to realize these aims to the fullest extent possible. Attitudes and interests must have their source in intel- ligence, and knowledge is required in acquiring skills and in their fruitful use. Courses grouped under two heads. — The courses may be conveniently grouped under two heads, general and professional. 1. General courses designed to furnish a foundation in knowledge and in attitudes and interests are neces- sary to an understanding of the more specialized courses. Thorough courses in the Bible and in general psychology are minimum essentials. The former should provide instruction in the life and teachings of Jesus and in the content and spirit of the Old Testa- ment. These courses are fundamental in teacher train- ing not only because the Bible is an important source of the material used in instruction but also because the spirit of its teachings should permeate and control all religious instruction. Courses in psychology are necessary prerequisites to the more strictly professional courses. The knowledge gained is essential to an understanding of the psycho- logical factors involved in all teaching and learning. This knowledge is also necessary to a fruitful study of the psychology of childhood and adolescence, of sub- ject-matter used in instruction, and of methods of teaching. Without this background any attempt to acquire professional skill through a study of specialized courses is rather unfruitful. 2. Professional courses furnish opportunity to se- cure the knowledge, and as far as possible the experi- ence necessary to successful teaching. Some such classification of these courses as the following is use- ful: 165 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION ( 1 ) A course dealing with the principles of religious education should constitute an introduction to all other professional courses. The use of the word "principles" as descriptive of this course is quite general and is so used here for that reason. The phrase "introduction to the study of religious education," however, is more nearly descriptive of the nature of the course. The chief purposes of this fundamental course should be to acquaint the student with the aims of religious edu- cation, to give a general knowledge of the means to be employed, and to provide opportunity to make a study of recent practice in this field. (2) Systematic knowledge of child and adolescent psychology is indispensable to successful teaching. Mere opinion or fragmentary information cannot take the place of a scientific knowledge of the minds of those whom we attempt to teach. That some teachers suc- ceed who have not made a formal study of psychology does not alter the fact stated. Every successful teacher adapts instruction, both as to matter and method, to the mind of the learner, and this is impos- sible without a knowledge of the learner's mind. The most sure and economical method of securing this knowledge is by wisely directed, systematic study. Far less waste of time and energy occurs if experience is guided by knowledge than if knowledge has to be acquired wholly by experience. Learning by experi- ence in this relation is always necessary. But to ac- quire knowledge by this means without chart or com- pass is a long process and is tremendously expensive to those whom we teach. The trial and error method in learning anything is always productive of great waste of material. (3) Thorough courses dealing with the subject- 166 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS matter of religious instruction are necessary. For purposes of clearness in discussion two kinds or types of knowledge to be acquired should be designated: (a) academic knowledge, that is, knowledge of the con- tent of the subject-matter; and (b) pedagogical knowl- edge, that is, a knowledge of the educative value of the subject-matter to be used in instruction. This dis- tinction was made in discussing one of the aims of teacher training and is referred to here only for the purpose of making clear the purpose and content of the course dealing with the curriculum. The extent of this course should not be limited to the particular unit of subject-matter, such as first grade, second grade, and so on; or primary, junior, intermediate, if this organ- ization of the school prevails. For example, a teacher of the fourth grade needs to know the material used in the preceding grades and also that which will be used in the grades that follow. What the child has learned and what he is expected to learn both enter into a determination of what he can learn with profit now. The teacher who knows little or nothing about what has preceded or what follows her own particular unit of work is at a great disadvantage. The course in curriculum should give the oppor- tunity, first of all, to acquire a general knowledge of the subject-matter constituting the curriculum as a whole. Added to this should be a knowledge of the principles governing in the selection and organization of the material used in instruction. When this foun- dation is laid a more intensive study of the subject- matter constituting a particular unit should be made. For example, an intensive study of fourth grade mate- rial should follow a study of the curriculum as a whole and the principles which govern in the selection 167 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION and organization of material in general. This makes special courses dealing with the various units of the curriculum highly desirable where facilities are ade- quate for carrying out such a plan. By means of these special courses the teachers become intimately familiar with the particular units of subject-matter which they teach. This secures the requisite detailed knowledge essential in making adaptations to the pecu- liar needs and capacities of pupils of different ages and degrees of ability. Such knowledge is essential to suc- cessful work. (4) A course in general method constitutes an im- portant factor in teacher training. A knowledge of the aims and of the material used in instruction can be intelligently applied only when the teacher has a knowl- edge of the most fruitful methods of teaching. This course should deal with the principles which underlie all true method. A knowledge of these principles and their application enables the teacher to discover methods in the sources from which they must be de- rived. All methods of teaching have their sources in the aims to be attained, the subject-matter used, and the mind of the learner. Those who are preparing to teach need training in the formulation and use of methods derived from these sources. It need not be said that teachers of religion need training in methods of teaching, the same as teachers of anything else. This course in general method furnishes a founda- tion for special method courses, and these should be provided where it is possible to do so. For example, teachers of primary grades need to use methods of instruction differing considerably from those used by the teachers of the higher grades. While it is chiefly a matter of adaptation rather than the use of wholly 168 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS different methods, the ability to make these adapta- tions is a matter of great importance. Differentiated courses for the teachers of the respective departments or grades of the school is a very fruitful means of accomplishing this. (5) Observation of classroom work and practice teaching may be made to constitute a very important means of teacher training. Observation of the work of others, however, requires direction and guidance. Likewise practice teaching is apt to result in very little benefit unless the cadet works under careful supervi- sion. Whether a separate course should be offered or the work made an integral part of one or more of the courses in method is not of first importance. The important thing is to give prospective teachers oppor- tunity to observe competent teachers at work and to teach pupils under proper guidance and direction. This cannot be accomplished alone by observing the work in the classroom. The work must be on a basis of organised teaching and learning, the classroom fur- nishing the laboratory facilities. The laboratory work must be adequately supplemented by instruction in methods of observation and teaching and by exercises calling for evaluation of the work observed and its results. Unless this is done, observation will result in an imitation of the weaknesses as well as the points of strength in the work of the teacher being observed. Practice teaching unless thus supplemented will result in a repetition of mistakes made by the cadets and in fixing wrong habits of procedure. In a word, observa- tion and practice teaching serve useful purposes if properly safeguarded, otherwise the advisability of their use in teacher training is extremely doubtful. The use of this means of teacher training is discussed in 169 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION further detail in connection with supervision treated in the next chapter. ORGANIZED MEANS OF TEACHER TRAINING The facilities for training administrators and teach- ers in the field of religious education are wholly inade- quate at present. Until recently the actual demand for trained workers has been limited. A good deal has been said and written concerning the importance of the training of leaders, but these general discussions accomplished but little by way of creating a real de- mand, which in turn would have resulted in increasing training facilities. It is not strange, therefore, that the actual demands for trained workers now coming from every part of the country in constantly increasing num- bers cannot be supplied. One of the most important tasks confronting the church is to provide adequate facilities for training. The performance of this funda- mental task far more completely than it is now being performed is absolutely essential to any adequate ex- tension of the educational influence of the church. Extension and improvement of organized means. — In Chapter IV it was pointed out that teacher training must form an integral part of the program of religious education. This calls for a reorganization of existing agencies to provide for the larger program. The development of schools for teachers must keep pace with the development of schools for children. Reor- ganization of Sunday schools and the establishment of week-day schools call for similar attention and effort to provide adequately trained administrators and teachers for these schools. Higher institutions. — Denominational higher insti- tutions must assume large responsibility. The impor- 170 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS tance of the functions which these institutions should perform requires fuller treatment than the limits of the present chapter will allow. Detailed treatment is accorded the subject in Chapter XL Other means of training are necessary, but the universities and colleges of the church must assume a large share of responsi- bility in providing facilities for training for the voca- tions of the church. Local training schools. — Facilities for training must be made available for all. In order to accom- plish this, schools will have to be established within the reach of all. It is hoped that many young people who attend higher institutions will choose their courses with respect to preparing for religious educational work. Every encouragement should be given young men and women to do this. For the immediate pres- ent, however, other agencies will have to be relied upon chiefly to supply workers. Local training schools of one kind or another will supply the need, and they will always constitute an important agency in the training of workers. Local training schools are essential in any adequate teacher training program. There are two reasons for this: I. These schools will furnish the only means of train- ing for many of the workers. Sunday-school teach- ing is an avocation and will probably remain so for a considerable time at least. In the very nature of the case young people cannot be expected in any consider- able number to receive their preparation for this work in higher institutions. The time and expense involved makes any such plan highly improbable. Opportunity for making preparation will have to be made easily available. 171 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 2. This type of school is necessary to provide for training in service. Administrators and teachers, whether doing their work as a vocation or as an avoca- tion, need to continue a systematic study of their prob- lems under proper guidance and direction. The only way to make this work effective is by means of an organized school readily accessible to all the workers in any given church or community. The particular kind of organization and the extent and nature of the program will have to be determined by local needs and conditions. Many churches are now attempting to provide opportunities for both classes mentioned above. In a few instances the churches of a community are uniting in maintaining a single school. In a far larger number of cases, each individual church is attempting to provide for its own workers. No general rule can be laid down concerning the plan of organization and administration of local training schools. Local conditions must be taken fully into ac- count and details worked out in accordance with these conditions. Commtinity training schools. — A community school has certain inherent advantages over schools maintained by individual churches. 1. It has the advantage of being more easily financed. It is far more economical for all the churches of a community to unite in maintaining one school than for each church to maintain its own school. A single school can provide the same range of courses with less teaching force than can several schools. Outlay for equipment, light, heat, and janitor service will be much less. 2. A community school has the distinct advantage of a larger number of students. For example, if one 172 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS hundred is the total enrollment, it is much better to have this number assembled in one school than to have the students distributed among a number of schools. The advantages of the former plan are obvious. A wider range of courses is possible. Even if a single church having twenty-five or thirty students can finance an extensive program, the small enrollment will limit the number of courses. Successful class work is very difficult, if not quite impossible, with an enrollment of three or four students. For example, classes in depart- mental work cannot be maintained in a church school unless the number of teachers is much larger than is usually the case. If, however, these teachers from the several depart- ments of the various church schools are enrolled in a single training school, classes of sufficient size to do good work can be provided. Another distinct advan- tage in the community school is that numbers generate enthusiasm. This is a matter of common knowledge to all those who are familiar with cooperative social groups. It is certainly true in a marked degree of student groups. A small group is very liable to disin- tegrate and almost invariably lacks enthusiasm while it lasts. This is not only true of class groups but of the student body as a whole. 3. A very potent advantage of the community train- ing school is that it provides opportunity for effective cooperation of all the religious forces in a community. The school is an objective evidence of unified effort, and its influence in this respect upon the community as a whole is a matter of a good deal of importance. The influence of these schools where established in unifying the religious forces of a community is very marked. 4. It should be said finally that a community training 173 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION school is quite indispensable if community week-day schools are maintained. Those who are preparing to teach in these schools cannot receive their training in schools maintained by the various churches, granted that each church could provide an adequate program. Neither can teachers in week-day schools receive their training while in service except in a school maintained by the same cooperative body that maintains the week- day schools. As already pointed out, the extent and character of the program of a community training school will be determined by the needs and conditions of the com- munity. It is not possible, therefore, to outline a pro- gram in any detail which would be suitable for use in a particular community. The aims of teacher training have been discussed and the range of courses indicated in previous sections of this chapter. These will serve in a general way as suggestions in formulating a pro- gram. It is not to be expected that all the courses indicated can be offered by every community school. Selection will have to be made on a basis of the courses most needed and which can be provided taking into account the limitations as to faculty and equipment under which the school must carry on its work. The organization for instituting and maintaining community training schools was discussed in some de- tail in Chapter IV. Examples were given there of the organizations in two communities for carrying on week-day instruction. In both of these communities training schools were instituted and maintained by these organizations. In each case the Board of Reli- gious Education was responsible for the organization and administration of the school. The program of each of these schools is briefly indicated below. 174 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS EXAMPLES OF TRAINING SCHOOLS The Calumet District Board maintained a school at East Chicago during the spring of 1920. The length of term was eight weeks, the classes meeting on Friday evening of each week. The school was conducted in one of the public school buildings. The time schedule was as follows: 7:20-8:15, class period; 8:15-8:40, assembly and devotional exercises; 8:40-9:25, class period. The following limited range of courses was offered: Old Testament History, Life of Jesus, Ele- mentary Psychology, Aims of Religious Education, Methods of Teaching, and Organization and Ad- ministration of Sunday Schools. The classes were so arranged, as will be seen by reference to the time schedule, that each student could enroll for two courses. The Board continued this work during the school year 1920-21. In order to accommodate the students, three schools were maintained at different places in the district, instead of having one central school. The work continued for two terms of eight weeks each. The schedule remained practically the same with minor modifications in the courses offered. The Evanston Training School is another exam- ple of a successful community school. A three-year program is provided. The school opened in January, 1920, and covered the work of only one term of twelve weeks. The time schedule was practically the same as the one used in East Chicago. The program, however, provided a much wider range of courses. Those listed last year were divided into three groups as follows: I. Biblical: The Life of Jesus; *01d Testament 175 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION History^; Prophets and Their Messages; *The Apos- tolic Age. 2. Departmental: *Beginners (Kindergarten); Primary Methods ; The Junior Child and His World ; Intermediate-Senior; * Young People. 3. Professional: Organization and Supervision of the Church School; Method in Teaching Religion; Childhood Religion; Religious Education of Ado- lescents; * Stories and Story Telling; Psychology and the Daily Life; Standards in Social Service. Church school may supplement community school. — The community school does not necessarily supplant the church training school. Each church is still left free to maintain its own school. Its work, however, should supplement, not duplicate, the work of the com- munity school. If the churches maintain a common week-day program, carried on either by individual church schools or community schools, the teacher- training work should be taken care of by the com- munity school. The function of each church training school is to provide instruction in the doctrines, sacra- ments, and modes of worship peculiar to that church. That is to say, the Sunday-school teachers should be trained by each church in the use of subject-matter peculiar to the curriculum of its own Sunday school. This constitutes but a small part of any adequate teacher-training program, but it is a necessary part and should not be neglected. Coordinating the work. — A satisfactory coordina- tion of a community training school with that of the church school is a matter of the proper division of labor. The former should provide for fundamental »Courses marked thus (*) were not offered last year, but are Included in the curriciilum which is now being put in final form. 176 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS courses in Bible, general psychology, child and ado- lescent psychology, principles and aims ; methods, gen- eral and special; week-day curricula, the common ele- ments in Sunday-school curricula, organization and administration, and the like. These courses rightly con- ceived constitute the major part of the training neces- sary for Sunday-school workers. This leaves to each church the task of providing such additional training as is needed to meet the peculiar requirements of its own teachers. Church schools as the only means of teacher training. — Church schools frequently constitute the only available means of teacher training. Many churches are now maintaining such schools of one kind or another. A church having a large number of workers can successfully maintain a training school if it so desires. The enrollment is large enough to make possible an adequate program and the school can be properly financed. In such a case the program should be very similar to that of a community school plus the special courses referred to in the preceding paragraph. It should be said, however, that comparatively few churches are able to provide adequate facilities for training their educational workers. The limitation as to number and in financial ability makes the task a very difficult one. The imperative necessity of providing some organ- ized means of teacher training does not permit any summary dismissal of the present topic. For the pres- ent, at least, many churches will find it necessary to train their teachers in their own schools, and they should set themselves courageously to the task. In the smaller churches the program will be very limited, but it can be made vital if properly conceived and car- 177 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION ried out. Reducing the essentials to the minimum, teachers must have clearly defined aims in their work, know the subject-matter used in instruction, and use the most fruitful methods in teaching. These funda- mental needs of teachers suggest the nature of a pro- gram, however limited it may be. If the program has to be meager, it is all the more necessary that effort be concentrated upon doing that which needs to be done most. A time schedule somewhat similar to the one indi- cated for the community school is desirable. Class work should be planned which requires definite prepar- ation on the part of students and which provides for recitation and discussion. The work in this school, although the enrollment may be small and the num- ber of courses very limited, should be carefully planned and directed by competent leadership. If those en- rolled, including both teachers and prospective teach- ers, are willing to devote sufficient time and effort to the task, a good deal can be accomplished in securing better preparation for their work. Teachers* meetings. — These meetings constitute the simplest form of organization and may differ but little from an organization which we call a training school. In fact, the line of demarcation is not clearly defined in many cases and it is difficult to make any clear distinction between the two forms of organiza- tion. The purposes of each are obviously the same, and each represents an organized effort to provide training for prospective teachers and those already in service. No real purpose is served, perhaps, by the use of the term teachers' meetings in this connection. But it is in common use to designate the more in- formal kind of organization, and cannot, therefore, 178 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS be left out of consideration in the present discus- sion. The success of teachers' meetings depends upon the same factors as determine the success of the training school. These are a definitely planned program, careful preparation on the part of those enrolled, and compe- tent leadership. The program should provide oppor- tunity for discussion of the problems arising in the work of the classroom. But a regular order of pro- cedure should be followed so as to avoid waste of time and to prevent the meetings from degenerating into profitless discussion. Part of the time of every meet- ing should be devoted to carrying out a prearranged program of instruction. Definitely planned reading courses. — The first essential of the success of these courses is competent supervision. This extends to the selection of the mate- rial, direction in carrying on the work, and a definite system of checking up on results. Teachers' reading circles have proved successful only when careful supervision has been exercised. These reading courses may well be combined with teachers' meetings. Where group direction of this sort is not possible individuals could receive assistance through enrollment in corre- spondence courses conducted by Sunday school boards or higher institutions which maintain departments of religious education. Occasional meetings and conferences. — These are conducted from time to time by various agencies and serve a useful purpose. They cannot take the place of regular courses of instruction and are not designed to do so. Their purpose is both informational and inspirational, but they can accomplish little unless foundations are provided by other agencies. A confer- 179 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION ence held once a year extending over two or three days, or even a week or ten days cannot be depended upon except as a supplemental agency in the gaining of teachers. Summer schools and teacher training institutes. — Higher institutions in increasing number are offering summer courses in religious education. The sessions vary in length from six to twelve weeks and academic credit is given for the work. Many who would not be able to attend during the regular academic year thus find it possible to spend a few weeks each year in the stimulating environment of a college or uni- versity. The constantly increasing enrollment in these schools affords abundant testimony of the growing ap- preciation of their value. The teachers' training institutes maintained by the various denominational boards are making a very val- uable contribution. They differ from the schools above mentioned in length of session and in details of pro- gram provided. The length of session varies from one to two or three weeks and instruction is somewhat less formal. They are held more or less throughout the year, but usually during the summer. While the work done in these is not a substitute for the work done by the regularly organized schools, it is highly important and should receive every encouragement. Systematic supervision. — The only point for con- sideration here is that one important function of super- vision is to secure improvement on the part of teach- ers. Systematic investigations of the work of public- school teachers reveal that many teachers not only do not improve in service but actually deteriorate when not properly supervised. On the other hand, it is very clearly shown that competent supervision is one of the i8o THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS most fruitful means of increasing the efficiency of teachers. Discussion of the aims, principles involved, and technique of supervision is reserved for the next chapter. ORGANIZATION, ADMINISTRATION, AND SUPERVISION OF TRAINING SCHOOLS The first essential is, of course, a competent faculty. Instructors should be chosen with special reference to their qualifications to meet the needs of the students, and their needs are of the practical sort. For exam- ple, courses in Bible should not be designed primarily for critical study, but, rather, to provide for the fruit- ful use of the Bible in teaching children and youth. Technical courses in psychology should be avoided. The same principle should control in all other courses. It is, therefore, necessary that instructors be governed by the educational point of view. The successful train- ing of teachers requires that those who train them keep in mind their needs as related to their work in Sunday and week-day schools. Lack of trained workers. — One of the difficulties in maintaining training schools is to secure competent persons to carry on the work. The demand for this class of workers is so recent that the supply of those specifically trained is very limited. Until this supply is more nearly adequate, selection will have to be made largely on a basis of ability to adapt general training to the particular needs of those who teach in Sunday and week-day schools. The following classes of per- sons constitute the chief sources of supply for training school work : ( i ) The ministers in the various churches of the community; (2) directors of religious educa- tion; (3) Sunday-school teachers of training and expe- 181 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION rience; (4) public-school administrators and teachers. In case a college or university is located in a com- munity or at a convenient distance, this will afford an important source of supply of competent workers. Direction of the work. — The work of a training school, like that of any other school, requires proper guidance and direction. As stated in another connection, the school should be conducted under the auspices of the Board of Religious Education. Its executive officer, or some other competent person, should have direct charge of the school. He should prepare the program, select the faculty, and supervise the work, subject to the approval of the Board. It is important that def- inite plans and policies be formulated and carried out. Syllabi of courses should be made out in advance by the instructors and submitted to the executive officer of the school for such revisions as may be necessary. If a conference can be held with the instructors prior to the opening of the school, it is helpful in making clear the definite purposes of the various courses and in unifying the work. Conferences held from time to time during the school term are also advisable. In this way each instructor may keep in touch with the work as a whole, and will thus be able to make his particular contribution more successfully. Viewing the work of the school from the standpoint of the students, courses should be arranged in proper sequence. For example, courses which are intended as prerequisite to other courses should be so designated in the program. The proper arrangement of courses, however, is not enough. Students need direction in making selections. Their interests, needs, and abilities should be ascertained and assignments made accord- ingly. A program, however well calculated it may be 182 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS to meet the needs of the various classes of teachers and prospective teachers, will not accomplish its purpose unless a proper selection of work is secured. Proper standards. — One of the most important fac- tors in the success of a training school is the main- tenance of proper standards. Regularity and punctuality in attendance are absolutely essential. At the very outset it should be understood that enrollment carries with it the obligation to attend regularly and punctually. Those who will not assume the obligation should be dropped from the rolls. Accurate records should be kept and delinquent cases given prompt at- tention. The same standards should be maintained in this respect as are found in any well-regulated school. The establishment and maintenance of academic standards is no less important. It has been found help- ful in doing this to provide for three classes of per- sons: (i) Those who desire to visit the school from time to time but are not able to attend regularly. These may be called visitors. They should be required to en- roll on cards provided for that purpose, and a record should be kept of their attendance. It should be under- stood that frequent visiting is to be discouraged. If a person desires to receive the benefits of the school, a more permanent relationship should be established. (2) Persons who desire to attend regularly, but are not able to make definite preparation for the work. It is customary in some schools to call these auditors. They are expected to attend regularly and promptly and to assume all other obligations except that of car- rying out a systematic program of study. (3) The third class is composed of students. Definite assign- ments of work are made and lessons are regularly pre- pared. It is in connection with this work that academic 183 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION standards must be established and maintained. Fre- quent tests should be given and examinations of a more formal nature held at the close of the term. Chief reli- ance has to be placed upon the students to give char- acter and permanency to the work of the school. Permanent success of a school is very doubtful if the first two classes mentioned are relatively large. It is difficult to secure regular and punctual attendance and neither class makes any contribution in estab- lishing and maintaining academic standards. There are some in every community who are vitally interested in the work of a training school but who do not have the time to devote to systematic study. These should be encouraged to attend as auditors. But the fact still remains that those who make no preparation for the classroom work also get comparatively little out of it. If they constitute a majority in a class, or even a con- siderable number, the morale of the class suffers. Every effort should be made, therefore, to impress upon all those who enroll the importance of doing sys- tematic work. It should be said in conclusion that teacher training, whatever may be the form of organization, requires careful and systematic supervision. Programs will not work automatically. Many details require painstaking attention. These cannot be left to the individual in- structors. Some one person who possesses adequate training and who can devote the necessary time to the task should be responsible. Only in this way can fruit- ful results be secured and the work be placed on a permanent basis. 184 CHAPTER IX SELECTION AND SUPERVISION OF TEACHERS The importance and means of training teachers have been discussed in the preceding chapter. The problems of their selection and supervision are now to be considered. In the field of public-school educa- tion definite standards have been worked out for select- ing teachers. Principles and methods of supervision are also being applied. The standards and technique cannot, of course, be applied without modification. But they can by proper adaptation be made to serve the interests of religious education in far larger measure than is now the case. THE TASK OF SELECTING TEACHERS The task of selecting teachers is one of the most important functions connected with school organiza- tion and administration. The success of instruction depends finally in large measure upon the personality and academic and professional fitness of those who teach. This is so fully recognized in educational cir- cles in general that certain definite safeguards against the employment of incompetent teachers have been pro- vided. These may be classed under two general heads. Definite standards in determining qualifications. — These have in part been implied in the discussion of the training of teachers in the previous chapter. The 185 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION standards are designed to determine the fitness of ap- plicants from three points of view: (i) Personal char- acteristics, (2) academic preparation, and (3) profes- sional training. The criteria used in judging qualifica- tions are, of course, not arbitrarily determined. They have gradually evolved out of the increasing impor- tance attached to education and a better understanding of the processes of teaching and learning. Much has been accomplished in securing useful standards by sys- tematic observation of teachers at work. Their suc- cesses and failures are noted and attempts made to connect these with their causes in so far as they are to be found in the teachers themselves. Score cards have been prepared on a basis of these observations for use in the employment of teachers to determine as accur- ately as possible what degree of success may be ex- pected. Application of standards. — Persons who select teach- ers should be fitted by training and experience to apply the standards intelligently. It is obvious, of course, that a person who has no knowledge of the necessary qualifications or who does not know how to discover whether or not the applicant possesses them, is not fitted to select teachers. It is true that some people possess greater natural ability than others in the mat- ter of selecting teachers. This is equally true with respect to selecting workers of all kinds. In any case accurate judgment depends upon a knowledge of two things : ( i ) The nature of the work to be done and (2) the qualifications required on the part of those who are responsible for the success of the work. In the se- lection of teachers the person who performs this task must understand education from the standpoint of the teaching and learning processes. He must know the 186 SUPERVISION OF TEACHERS qualifications necessary to success in teaching and be able to discover and evaluate these in performing the task of selecting teachers. It need not be said that the selection of teachers for Sunday and week-day schools is governed by the same fundamental considerations as those which obtain in the selection of teachers in general. Teaching corps cannot be constituted by accident if any appreciable degree of success is expected. Children enrolled in classes for religious instruction have the same right to have their teachers selected with care and intelligence as in the case of the public school. If teachers cannot be secured for the Sunday schools who measure up in all cases to the standards established, we shall have to make the best of the situation for the present. But this does not mean that every effort should not be made to secure teachers who are at least the best obtainable. Practical difficulties involved. — There are certain practical difficulties which have to be taken into ac- count, especially in securing Sunday-school teachers. The source of the supply at present is limited to the community in which the school is located and in a vast majority of cases to the denomination maintaining the school. This often makes it extremely difficult to secure a sufficient number of teachers to carry on the work of the school. The most obvious remedy for this situation is to increase the supply, and this is pre- cisely what has to be done. This has already been discussed in the previous chapter. The point of emphasis here is that one method of increasing the supply is to discover to the last person every one whose interest may be enlisted in teaching a Sunday-school class. If a careful census were taken in many communities it would reveal a much larger 187 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION potential supply of teachers than is now even thought possible. Some of these will be found to be former Sunday or public-school teachers. Others may not have had such experience but by a course of training and careful supervision will be able to render effective service. Very few typical American communities lack a potential supply, at least, of people who by proper training and supervision will make successful teachers. QUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHERS The qualifications of teachers have already been dis- cussed by implication in Chapter VIII. To train teachers successfully means that those who plan and administer the work must know what qualifications are necessary and how to develop them by means of train- ing. The aims governing in the selection of curricula indicate what these qualifications are. Certain of these are fundamental to successful teaching of any kind. Special qualifications. — In addition to these, there are certain special qualifications which are absolutely essential in the teaching of religion. The qualifications of teachers either for Sunday or week-day schools may be summed up briefly as follows : ( i ) From the stand- point of academic and professional preparation and that of experience, teachers in these schools should be as well qualified as the best teachers in the public schools. (2) Anyone employed to teach religion should possess a vital religious life. In addition to this per- sonal religious experience they should have an abiding, intelligent interest in this form of Christian service and have special academic and professional prepara- tion for it. Boards of Religious Education whether of the community or of individual churches wherever 188 SUPERVISION OF TEACHERS possible should secure teachers who have had experi- ence in religious education and other lines of religious work. Personal characteristics. — The necessity for aca- demic and professional qualifications in no way lessens the importance of personal qualifications. The work of the teacher is such that nothing can take the place of the personal factor. The kind of person who teaches has much to do with the permanent effect that teaching has upon the learner. This is true of any kind of teaching and particularly so in the teaching of religion. It is so intimately a personal matter that any- one who assumes to teach another its great funda- mental principles and practices must possess a person- ality which can give adequate expression to them. Personality, however, is a complex made up of qualities each of which enters into the success one at- tains in his personal relationships. And it is a matter of common knowledge that teaching involves personal relationships of a most vital sort. The qualities which make it effective are determined by the very nature of the teaching process itself. What these are and the order of their importance are questions which have received a great deal of discriminative attention from public-school administrators. Score cards referred to in a previous section have been prepared and used both in the selection of teachers and in rating them while in service. Means of rating teachers. — An account of how one of these was made up is given in Bagley's School Discipline (pp. 30-33). In brief, one hundred expe- rienced superintendents and principals were asked to make lists of ten specific qualities which in their opin- ion make up good teaching personality. The replies 189 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION include a wide variety of these specific qualities. But there were ten quaHties which were given a place in a large number of lists and in the order of their fre- quency were as follows : I. Sympathy. 6. Enthusiasm. 2. Personal appearance. 7. Scholarship. 3. Address. 8. Vitality. 4. Sincerity. 9. Fairness. 5. Optimism. 10. Reserve and dignity. The above classification indicates the order of im- portance from the standpoint of frequency or the num- ber of times each received mention. Thus sympathy stands first in the list and reserve and dignity last. The frequency of appearance of these qualities in the lists and the order of their importance might, how- ever, represent merely opinions concerning what ought to be included rather than actual qualities revealed by unusually successful teachers. Some means must be employed to avoid the acceptance of mere opinion. In order to check up on this, the investigator then resorted to the following device: He asked approxi- mately one hundred fifty school administrators to list their six best teachers first in the order of "general teaching personality," ranking as number one the teacher with the best personality, as number two the next best, and so on. Then he asked them to list these same teachers in the order of their "sympathy," "per- sonal appearance," and so on through the list of the ten qualities which his first investigation had revealed. In this way he was able to secure the actual judgment of these administrators concerning the relative importance of these qualities as revealed by the teachers whom they had selected as the six best in their respective schools. 190 SUPERVISION OF TEACHERS The result of this was to change the order somewhat as the following list will show : 1. Address. 6. Fairness. 2. Personal Appearance. 7. Sincerity. 3. Optimism. 8. Sympathy. 4. Reserve or Dignity. 9. Vitality. 5. Enthusiasm. 10. Scholarship. There would no doubt be considerable difference of opinion concerning whether all these ten qualities should be selected out of the large number which might go into a more extended list. But the fact that these were mentioned most frequently by one hundred expe- rienced school administrators indicates their impor- tance. It is very probable also that if accepted as being the ten most important qualities there would be lack of unanimity concerning the order of importance. But here, again, we have the result of the application of the list by those experienced in judging qualities of suc- cessful teachers whom they selected out of their own schools. A score card suggested by Dr. Betts in his book How to Teach Religion (pp. 19-21) will be found highly useful. The list is much longer than the one given by Dr. Bagley. In fact, there are two parallel lists, one of "positive qualities" and one of "opposite" or "negative qualities." The qualities listed are numer- ous, those which are similar being grouped together. Being thus grouped there are forty listed under each of the captions "positive qualities" and "negative quali- ties." No order of importance is attempted in making up the lists. Only ten groups in each list, selected more or less at random, will be given here, which will serve the purpose of illustration. 191 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Positive Qualities 1. Open-mindedness, in- quiring, broad. 2. Judicious, balanced, fair. 3. Decisive, possessing convictions. 4. Patient, calm, equable. 5. Face smiling, voice pleasing. 6. Religious certainty, peace, quiet. 7. Taste in attire, cleanli- ness, pride. 8. Self-controlled, deci- sive, purpose. 9. Courageous, daring, firm. 10. Interest in Bible and Religion. Negative Qualities 1. Narrow, dogmatic, not hungry for truth. 2. Prejudiced, led by likes and dislikes. 3. Uncertain, wavering, undecided. 4. Irritable, excitable, moody. 5. Somber expression, voice unpleasant. 6. Conflict, strain, uncer- tainty. 7. Careless in dress, frumpy, no pride. 8. Suggestible, easily led, uncertain. 9. Overcautious, weak, vacillating. 10. Little concern for Bi- ble and religion. These two examples of score cards will indicate the systematic attempt being made to judge "teaching per- sonality." Personal characteristics are so vital that they should be judged as accurately as possible by those who have the responsibility of selecting teachers. No device is, of course, of any significance unless used by a person who knows how to use it and to estimate the value of results obtained. Keeping this in mind, the use of well-defined standards in judging "teach- ing personality" is indispensable in selecting teachers. It is obvious that efficient teachers are just as indis- pensable in teaching religion as they are in teaching 192 SUPERVISION OF TEACHERS any other subject. The inevitable consequences of poor teaching are far more disastrous in such a vital matter as religion than in the case of some other things. It should be said, therefore, that poor teachers of religion are to be avoided with even more care than is being exercised in our attempts to protect children against poor teachers in the public schools. This cannot be done in the absence of proper standards and without the exercise of competent judgment in their use. The standards which have been proposed in our dis- cussion are entirely reasonable and should be main- tained wherever possible. It is true that, with the pres- ent unfortunate lack of adequate facilities for training teachers, the supply of properly qualified persons is not sufficient to meet the demands. The increase in demand incident to the rapid development of week-day instruction only serves to render the situation more acute. In the very nature of the case boards of reli- gious education cannot expect in every instance to se- cure teachers who fully meet the requirements of the standards desired. In spite of this, however, certain minimum standards should be rigidly applied. Every person accepted as a teacher of religion should possess a vital religious life and experience. Some knowledge of the subject-matter to be taught and of methods of teaching should be insisted upon. And finally all teachers should be required to utilize the means provided for their improvement. If these mini- mum standards are rigidly applied, careful and sys- tematic supervision of the work both in Sunday and week-day school can be made to overcome in some degree at least, the lack of adequate training and expe- rience on the part of the teachers. It is very encouraging to note that the matter of 193 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION raising the standards of teaching is receiving increas- ingly serious attention. Those responsible for both Sunday and week-day schools are coming more and more to recognize that religious instruction cannot be given its rightful place as an integral part of all educa- tion unless better qualified teachers are secured. We must set ourselves persistently and systematically to the task of increasing the supply of well-qualified teachers. One way of accomplishing this, as has already been pointed out, is by competent supervision of teachers now in service. THE SUPERVISION OF TEACHERS The supervision of teachers has received compara- tively little attention in the field of religious educa- tion. On the other hand, this constitutes one of the most important problems now occupying the attention of public-school administrators. It is here recognized that oversight of teachers is absolutely essential and that no school can be expected to achieve satisfactory results without it. The kind of school can make no difference from the standpoint of the necessity of intel- ligent supervision. The best way in which to get the matter before us as it relates to religious education is by an analysis of the situation. The causes making supervision necessary in the public schools are also present in Sunday and week-day schools. In fact, some of the causes are even more compelling in the latter types of school. The need and functions of supervision. — Why does the work of a school need supervision? When a curriculum has been provided and teachers employed, why is it necessary that some one should be responsible for the direction of the work of the school ? Why can- 194 SUPERVISION OF TEACHERS not teachers of both Sunday and week-day schools carry on their work successfully independent of any oversight and control ? These and other similar ques- tions are best answered by considering in some detail the need and function of supervision. 1. The inclusive function of supervision is to direct and correlate all of the forces relied upon to attain the objects for which the school is maintained. The importance of coordinating the work of the school with that of the home and the public school has already been discussed. Plans have to be worked out to secure this, but they will not work automatically. Some one has to work the plans, and this is a day-by-day, week- by-week task. Other plans which have to do with in- struction, discipline, recreation, and the like require some one to guide both teachers and pupils in carrying them out. A school to be at its best requires not only that each teacher be successful in doing her particular work well but that all the teachers work together as a unit. To secure this cooperation requires a directing mind which is capable of seeing the necessity of unity of effort and also capable of securing it. This reveals the need of supervision and its more inclusive function. 2. Supervision is needed because many teachers lack adequate training and experience. If all teachers were highly efficient, the need of supervision is still appar- ent for the reasons stated above. Unfortunately, many of them, because of lack of training or experience or both, are quite helpless without the aid of intelligent and sympathetic direction. The training of teachers in service has already been discussed in the previous chapter. It was there pointed out that well-planned supervision is one of the effective means of training teachers. The discussion here is from another point 195 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION of view, namely, that these teachers require careful supervision in order to carry on the work of the school successfully. As long as we are compelled to have such a large proportion of teachers who are not quali- fied for their work, careful supervision is the only means of maintaining anything like reputable educa- tional standards. 3. Supervision furnishes a stimulus to regularity and uniformity of work. Teachers, like all other work- ers, need this. To know that some competent and sym- pathetic person is passing judgment upon our work for the purpose of making it more effective stimulates us to do our best unaided and to keep our work up to a high level of efficiency. We like to have a part in a common endeavor where unified effort is accomplish- ing more than could be accomplished by each working independently. The right kind of supervision helps to give a social meaning to the work of the school. 4. Teachers should be classified in accordance with their needs. All teachers need more or less super- vision to secure unity in the work of a school. Those belonging to the first class mentioned below require little supervision except for this purpose. A good classification is furnished in Cubberly's Public School Administration (p. 232). (a) Superior teachers whose training, experience, and personality enable them to do their work with very little oversight. Their work serves as standards to be attained by other teachers and furnishes a stimulus to them. (b) Teachers who possess good natural ability and have been rather successful, but who have gotten into ruts and resist innovations. A larger vision of the meaning of religious education is needed and more 196 SUPERVISION OF TEACHERS effective methods are required. They need construc- tive, sympathetic supervision in order that they may become forward looking and efficient. (c) Teachers who lack scholarship or practical skill or both and are unconscious of their failure. They do not know they need help and this fact makes the task of supervision rather difficult. If a school has many of this kind, it stands in need of vigorous overhauling. (d) Teachers who lack scholarship or practical skill or both and are conscious of their shortcomings. They are self-conscious and timid. Their energies are dissi- pated in worrying over their failures. Their work is carried on perfunctorily and naturally lacks vitality. They need help to standardize their work and sym- pathetic direction in preparing themselves for it. (e) Beginning teachers who have had little or no training. This class is relatively large in many Sun- day schools and supervision of their work is absolutely essential if anything like successful teaching is expected of them. One of the results of efficient supervision will be to get many of these teachers into class a de- scribed above. In the absence of supervision there is danger that they will recruit classes b, c, and d. There are, of course, no exact lines of demarkation which divide teachers into precisely the five classes here indicated. This classification, however, will be helpful in making clear the functions of supervisions and in defining the nature of the task. 5. Supervision provides expert service in directing the work of the school. It makes possible immediate and accurate diagnoses of instructional and disciplinary difficulties. Remedies can be wisely selected and intelli- gently applied. The lack of adequate time for the work of the Sunday school makes efficient supervision 197 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION imperative if for no other reason than that it saves time and prevents waste of effort. A directing mind is able to see the work of the schood as a whole and to secure proper cooperation of all the forces. RELATIONS IN WHICH SUPERVISION IS EXERCISED One of the important tasks of a supervisor is to make a study of the school to ascertain the points at which supervision is most needed. A successful super- visor does not wait for some outstanding difficulty to arise before he makes suggestions or gives directions. He discovers potential needs and difficulties and thereby prevents acute situations from arising. He pre- vents conditions of disorder and ineffective teaching by anticipating their causes. "An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure." Supervision of classroom work. — Poor classroom work means a poor school. A Sunday school is no exception to this rule. The recitation is the vital point of contact between teacher and pupil. Here is where lessons are assigned, instruction given, and methods of testing and drilling applied. Some of the points at which teachers need help are as follows : I. The first requisite of good teaching is clear, well defined aims. The aims of religious instruction have been discussed in Chapter III. These aims must be realized largely through the work of the classroom or not at all. Teachers need help in keeping these aims before them as definite objectives in their teaching. They also need to keep clearly in mind that each recita- tion has certain definite immediate objectives in real- izing one or more of the final objectives. For, exam- ple, every well-planned recitation has for its aim instruction, drilling, or testing. In fact these all enter 198 SUPERVISION OF TEACHERS more or less into every recitation. But one of them should receive the emphasis. The teacher needs to de- termine in advance whether the recitation shall be de- voted primarily to teaching the pupils something new or to drilling them or testing them upon something al- ready learned. One function of supervision is to help the teacher to determine which of these should he emphasized in a particular recitation. 2. Teachers need help in the choice and right use of methods in conducting the recitation. There are three chief methods, each of which has its value. They are usually designated as follows: (a) The teUing or lec- ture method, {h) the question method, and (c) the topic method. The first method has its value but it is used far too much in the Sunday school. Teachers are inclined to talk too much. The conditions under which they carry on their work, already referred to in Chapter VII, are partly responsible for this. But the conditions should be improved and teachers should not only do less talking but should talk more to the point. The teacher should make her contribution to the recita- tion by telling something that has interest and value. But she should know what to tell, how much to tell, and how to tell it. In the majority of those classes where the teacher does the most of the talking not much is being accomplished. A liberal use of the question method is indispensable to good teaching. This method, however, requires con- siderable skill on the part of the teachers. Untrained and inexperienced teachers particularly need careful supervision in its use. They need help in making their questions pertinent, so that the main points of the les- son may receive proper emphasis. An enormous waste of time results from trivial questions on the part of 199 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION both teachers and pupils. Teachers need help in learn- ing how to formulate questions so that they will be clear and definite. Pupils should not be required to spend their time in guessing at the answer to the ques- tion because of lack of clearness. This may result from ambiguous language or the use of language which the pupils do not understand or the use of long, involved sentences. Poor questioning resulting from any and all of these causes means poor teaching. The use of the topic method is likewise subject to great abuse. It too frequently degenerates in indis- criminate talking on the part of the pupils. This method is successful only when the topics are selected with reference to the main points in the lesson and the discussions are skillfully guided by the teacher. Pupils should be encouraged to express themselves, but they should not be allowed to consume the time of the class by talking about irrelevant matters. Inexperi- enced teachers are apt to be deceived by appearances. Animation on the part of the class and an apparent interest in indiscriminate talking are not substitutes for genuine interest in the lesson in hand and intelligent expression of the truths to be learned. 3. Teachers need supervision in assigning lessons and in directing pupils in their study. The proper assignment of a lesson is the first requisite of a good recitation. The length of the lesson must be deter- mined by its degree of difficulty from the standpoint of the ability of the pupils, and by the amount of time available for study and recitation. The printed "les- sons" in the form of leaflets or in books often need considerable modification. At best they serve only as suggestions to the teacher as to the amount and char- acter of the work to be assigned for any one lesson. 200 SUPERVISION OF TEACHERS And in any event, lessons are not assigned by merely placing the material in the hands of the pupils. An assignment of a lesson means that the pupils know what is expected of them and how to go about it to prepare for the recitation. It will be seen that the assignment of a lesson is very clearly related to a study of it. Directed study is one of the present needs of the Sunday school. In discussing in another connection the necessity of lengthening the time at least to one hour and thirty minutes this was pointed out. Home study cannot be depended upon in most cases to secure adequate prep- aration of the lesson. This means that the pupils must devote some time in school to the study of assignments and this should be done under the direction of the teachers. Inexperienced teachers and others who have not been trained for their work will require supervision in giving proper direction to pupils in the preparation of lessons. Supervision in matters of discipline. — In no sin- gle respect do teachers need help more than they do in matters of discipline. This is not only true of Sun- day-school teachers but of teachers in general. It is a matter of common knowledge that teachers fail in discipline more frequently than in any other particular. The failure is perhaps not quite so obvious in the case of Sunday-school teachers as of public-school teachers, due to lack of standards in the Sunday schools. But this only makes supervision all the more necessary and the task all the more difficult. Teachers need help in raising the standards and in maintaining these stand- ards when established. Supervision of social recreational activities. — The program of religious education is coming to include 201 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION more and more of these activities. In no other respect are children and young people so much in need of intel- ligent and sympathetic direction. This task cannot be left to individual teachers. There must be a definite policy for the school as a whole and it must be wisely administered. The great need at this point is a con- structive policy which recognizes the social and reli- gious values of these activities and supervision of a kind that will secure to children and young people the largest possible degree of freedom and initiative and at the same time provide the necessary sympathetic, in- telligent direction. Supervision as related to physical conditions. — Schools providing religious instruction, whether Sun- day or week-day schools, require favorable conditions under which to carry on their work. Systems of ven- tilation, adequate lighting and heating facilities and the like do not work automatically. Neither can their proper functioning be left to the initiative of janitors or individual teachers. They must be held responsible for proper physical conditions by the supervising of- ficer of the school. PRINCIPLES GOVERNING IN SUPERVISION The following principles help to define the task of supervision and are suggestive of modes of procedure. Supervision in order to be effective must be pur- poseful and systematic. — It should be consistent so that teachers and pupils may know what is expected of them. They should feel that the school is being con- ducted in accordance with definite policies, and they should know what these policies are. This is the only basis upon which cooperation can be secured. Help should be given when and where it is most 202 SUPERVISION OF TEACHERS needed. — The supervisor must, therefore, be a good diagnostician. Teachers and pupils alike need to have their attention directed to the causes of failure and should receive aid at the point of greatest weakness. Weak spots in a school are like weak links in a chain. Disorder in one classroom is soon reflected in the assembly and is apt to spread throughout the school. A few unruly pupils soon become centers of infection. Inefiicient work on the part of a single teacher will eventually lower the standards of the work of other teachers. It is the function of the supervisor to strengthen the weak spots. Criticism should he constructive. — A positive sug- gestion is usually more effective than a negative criti- cism. Teachers must, of course, learn what not to do, and causes of failure must be pointed out. But their attention needs to be directed particularly to causes of success. The negative criticism is very easily inter- preted by sensitive teachers and pupils as fault-finding. If overindulged in, it very readily degenerates into nagging. The more one plays on an instrument out of tune the more discord is produced. The remedy is to tune up the instrument. Commendation should he given when deserved, — Indiscriminate commendation is destructive of good school morale. It may be and frequently is misleading to those who are commended. Inexperienced teachers particularly are apt to take it at its face value and form wrong estimates of their work. The practice is also demoralizing to the school as a whole because of the lack of discrimination shown in evaluating work and conduct. In the case of those who take it seriously its result is to give false impression concerning the real conditions in the school. No incentives are furnished 203 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION to improve classroom work or conduct if things are considered to be all right as they are. To those who are wiser, fulsome praise on all occasions serves only to convince them that the supervisor is either insin- cere or incompetent. On the other hand, commendation when deserved and properly expressed is a very fruitful method of securing cooperation. It establishes friendly relation- ships, serves as a stimulus to those who are doing well and as an incentive to others who are thus made con- scious that they have failed to measure up to the stand- ards of the school. Nothing is more encouraging to earnest, conscientious teachers and pupils than to know that those in authority recognize success. The super- visor who passes judgment only when something goes wrong always fails to establish the sympathetic rela- tions necessary to fruitful supervision. Knowing when and how to praise successful effort is an important factor in the fine art of directing the work of any school. Successful supervision allows the fullest possible measure of freedom and encourages initiative and originality. — The personal factor is a most important consideration in education of any sort. In religious education this is especially true. Supervision of teach- ers should result in increasing ability on their part to carry on their work unaided. They should become increasingly self-reliant and have an increasing sense of personal responsibility for the results of their teach- ing. The results should be the same in the case of pupils. They should become increasingly responsible for regularity and punctuality in attendance. Prob- lems of discipline, both for supervisor and teacher, should grow less as pupils gain experience in self-con- 204 SUPERVISION OF TEACHERS trol. Preparation of lessons should be made with less and less strain upon the teachers. None of these re- sults are possible for either teachers or pupils unless they are encouraged to achieve freedom through an increasing ability to carry on their work unaided. Matters of routine should be mechanised. — This principle is in no way contradictory to the one just dis- cussed. Habit saves time and energy, makes skill pos- sible, and leaves us free to direct our attention to those things which require conscious effort. Passing of classes, responses to signals, collecting and distributing material are some of the matters of routine in which there should be uniformity. Uniform ways of doing these things should therefore be insisted upon and per- sisted in until they become established. Such a plan is conducive to good order, economizes time, and re- sults in habits of cooperation in a social enterprise. METHODS OF SUPERVISION The practical question which the supervisor con- stantly faces is, How can I direct all the forces of the school to the best advantage? Effective supervision requires time both on the part of supervisor and teachers. The former must be in contact with the work while it is going on, and both he and the teachers must devote considerable time to details outside of the classroom. This makes the problem particularly diffi- cult in the case of the Sunday school. It meets but once a week, and the time it is in session is wholly in- adequate to allow for proper supervision. In fact, the most of the work must be done outside this time. As already pointed out, supervision is one means of train- ing, in service and a program for the former serves as means to secure this training. 205 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATrON Demonstration lessons. — These bring the super- visor in direct contact with the teachers. He observes them at work either in directing study or in conducting recitations. Their needs are revealed and assistance can be given by suggestions or by demonstrating how the work should be conducted. This method has to be used very wisely and even sparingly in most instances. If resorted to frequently, it is apt to discredit the teacher in the eyes of the pupils. It consumes time which should belong ordinarily to the teacher. Fre- quent interruptions of the routine of work tend to break down the morale of the class. The method, how- ever, has its place in a well-formulated plan of super- vision. Written directions and suggestions. — These should apply to the amount of work to be covered, the assignment of lessons, supervised study, conducting the recitation, matters relating to worship and disci- pline and to other matters pertaining to the general oversight of the school. This method requires careful and explicit formulation of suggestions and directions which must be in sufficient detail to serve as guides to the teachers. It enables the supervisor to adapt his in- structions to the needs of individual teachers much the same as personal conferences. Written communica- tions cannot, however, wholly take the place of con- ference, though they can be utilized in many instances. If the written directions are preserved as they should be by the teachers, they serve more or less as permanent guides. Teachers* meetings. — These constitute one of the most effective methods of supervision if rightly used. It is true that teachers' meetings require considerable time, and they are proverbial time-wasters. It is not 206 SUPERVISION OF TEACHERS an easy problem to find a convenient time when all the teachers can assemble at one place for conference and discussion, but it is absolutely essential that this be done, and it can be done if teachers have the right atti- tude toward their work. It is more difficult to accom- plish this in the case of the Sunday school than that of the week-day school. It does not help matters to underestimate the difficulty of the problem. But let it be repeated that frequent teachers' meetings are essen- tial and that real desire and honest effort on the part of all concerned will largely overcome the obstacles. The hour or more spent each week in these meetings should be regarded as a part of the schedule of every teacher. When this is once established difficulties will be more easily overcome. Causes of failure. — The charge that teachers* meet- ings are far too frequently little better than mere time- wasters is unfortunately true. There are three main causes for this. 1. The teachers are included in a general meeting of the whole Sunday school force. The assemblage, in fact, in many cases is not a "teachers' meeting" at all, although it is so regarded and an attempt is made to have it function as such. This situation precludes any possibility of success. 2. Wrong attitudes toward the meetings on the part of teachers and sometimes on the part of supervisors as well. It is felt that the meetings form no integral part of the whole educational program of the church. Attendance is regarded as a duty not well defined or as a matter of no importance which may be neglected without loss either to the individual or the school. 3. No plan or purpose to serve as a basis for a fruitful meeting is discernible. The first requisite for 207 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION a successful teachers' meeting is a carefully prepared program. The supervisor's preparation of the pro- gram and his methods of carrying it out should be such as to serve as a guide to the teachers in their own work. Or if a committee of teachers prepare the pro- gram and are responsible for presenting it, it should serve as a model to the other teachers. Such a pro- gram means well-defined aims clearly revealed by the program itself and the use of methods which will ac- complish the results intended. The remedies. — The remedies for these several causes of failure or only partial success of teachers' meetings are obvious. A teachers' meeting should be composed only of teachers and prospective teachers who are in training for service. It may be desirable for these to attend the more general meetings of the entire Sunday school force, but they cannot take the place of teachers' meetings which if properly conducted will serve as one of the most fruitful methods of school supervision. The attitude referred to is no doubt due, in part at least, to the failure to segregate the teachers and to the kind of program or lack of program which too frequently characterizes these meetings. The reme- dies in both cases are clear. Anyone who is competent to supervise a school of any kind is also competent to plan for and conduct teachers' meetings. The remedy for failure at this point is for the supervisor to set himself earnestly to the task of making teachers' meet- ings worth while by providing a suitable program for each meeting held. DEMAND FOR TRAINED SUPERVISORS The tasks of selecting and supervising teachers are not easy ones. It is clear that neither can be per- 208 SUPERVISION OF TEACHERS formed successfully by persons who are not qualified for the work. The qualifications and functions of the officer responsible for their successful performance are referred to in Chapters V, VI, and VII. The supply of such persons is not equal to the potential demand. One of the ways in which the supply can be increased is by making the potential demand an actual one. Churches are already calling for trained directors for their church schools and the establishment of com- munity schools is still further increasing actual de- mand. This is a very hopeful sign. It reveals an awakened interest in religious education and is calling attention to the need of trained workers in this impor- tant field of service. This, in turn, is resulting in an increasing number of men and women who are plan- ning to enter the work. Facilities are being increased to train them and the outlook on the whole is encour- aging. Meeting the situation. — One of the practical questions which we are facing is. What can be done in the meantime by boards of education of church and community schools? The general answer is that they should do the best they can. Secure the most com- petent persons available either locally or elsewhere and help to create the most favorable conditions possi- ble in which to carry on the work of the school. As pointed out in another connection, the discovery of people in our communities who have had some educa- tional training and experience is one method of increas- ing the supply. Public-school administrators and teachers will in many cases be able to render useful service at least temporarily. An earnest desire, properly manifested, to enlarge and make more vital our programs of religious educa- 209 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION tion will stimulate an interest on the part of those who are most competent to supervise the work. If a persist- ent effort is made by those in authority to secure the most competent persons available to select and super- vise teachers, the supply of such persons will be larger than even the most hopeful imagine. Securing the serv- ices of these persons as supervisors will almost imme- diately result in better Sunday schools and week-day schools. Meanwhile the number who seek special preparation for this work will greatly increase and the facilities for training them will keep pace with demand for training. Everything cannot be done in a day. But this is no reason why we should not do our best and this is more than we have been doing. Better supervision of reli- gious education is imperative. It can be secured if we approach the task intelligently and courageously. 2IO CHAPTER X ADMINISTRATIVE MANAGEMENT OF PUPILS The center of interest in religious education as well as in all other kinds of education is the pupils. En- rollment, attendance, punctuality, gradation, classifi- cation and discipline are the more significant things included in the term *'school management." Unless these have proper attention, the extension of time devoted to religious education v^ill not bring fruitful results. If these things continue to be neglected, im- proved curriculum, better-trained teachers, and more adequate equipment will be of little comparative value. Because of the supreme importance of proper manage- ment of pupils the matter will be discussed in consider- able detail. The difference between conditions surrounding the work of public schools and that of Sunday and week- day schools must be kept clearly in mind throughout the entire discussion. Failure to do this would be ex- tremely unfortunate. In many important respects these conditions are different and will continue to be so at least for a considerable time. On the other hand two things should be emphasized at this point: (i) There are certain fundamental principles which under- lie the successful management of any school. These principles cannot be ignored except at the expense of the success of the school. (2) The public school has accumulated a fund of experience which can be 211 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION utilized in securing and enforcing better standards in Sunday and week-day schools. It is true, of course, that this experience is valuable only in case proper adaptations are secured. Any attempt to model reli- gious instruction wholly after the plan of the public school will inevitably end in failure. Intelligent adaptation rather than servile imitation points the v/ay to success. Religious education must stand on its own feet and work out its own destiny. But this should not blind us to the fact that the public school through long expe- rience has worked out valuable standards and a success- ful technique in school management. In the belief that this experience can be utilized to great advantage, considerable stress is placed upon it for purposes of giving concreteness to the discussion. SCHOOL ENROLLMENT Other things being equal, the school which secures the largest percentage of enrollment serves its constit- uency best. The first great task, therefore, is to se- cure the enrollment of those for whom schools are established and maintained. Educational opportunity provided either by the church or the State means nothing to the boys and girls who are not enrolled. It has been found that compulsory support of schools is not in itself sufficient to insure educational oppor- tunity to all the children of all the people. Only when parents because of interest or compulsion see to it that their children attend school can it be said that education is universal. The State has come fully to recognize the necessity of securing the largest possible percentage of enroll- ment of the entire population of school age. In the 212 MANAGEMENT OF PUPILS effort to accomplish this four lines of endeavor have developed. One of these will not be applicable in the case of Sunday or week-day schools and the others will require adaptation. A careful study, however, of these means of securing public-school enrollment will afford a valuable background for an intelligent considera- tion of the problem before us. The school survey. — The first thing necessary in any successful attempt to secure school enrollment is to obtain accurate information concerning the total number of children who are of school age. This is accomplished by means of a survey or census.^ The purpose of the survey is to secure full and accurate information, against which to check the records of enrollment and attendance. It should therefore be of a kind and in sufficient detail to furnish a basis for securing full enrollment and regular attendance. I. Public school officials have come more and more to rely upon the use of surveys. In the earlier years not much was attempted in this regard. The census was taken, but its purpose was little more than to ascertain the number of children of school age in order that the school district might receive its share of the income from permanent school funds. In other words, the purpose of the census was not to furnish a basis for school procedure but merely to add so many dollars to the school fund. The census takers simply ascertained the number of children of school age in the district and their respective ages. These facts are essential but are wholly insufficient for the purpose under discussion. If a child is not enrolled in school, what is the reason ? Is the cause to be foun d in the home or in the school or both? Are 1 Bliss, D. C, Methods and Standards for Local School Surveys. Chapters I, VI. 213 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION the parents merely indifferent? Is the child kept out of school to work ? If so, is his assistance necessary to the support of the family? If he has dropped out of school is it because of dissatisfaction with the school? If so, what are the detailed facts in the case? These are a few of many similar questions which should be answered by the school census. Many public schools are now successful in securing this more complete in- formation upon which to base procedure. 2. The second line of development consists in more effective methods for securing information. It takes into account first of all a clearer conception of the kind of information needed. This has now been worked out in such detail by many schools that the information itself suggests the method of procedure for securing enrollment and regularity in attendance. It should be said in this connection that experience has shown that the personnel employed to gather and interpret information of this kind requires careful at- tention. Invading homes to secure information con- cerning not only the children but the parents themselves is a delicate matter. Sanitary conditions, economic status, attitude of the parents toward the school, and other similar things constitute the necessary facts to be learned. If parents are at all reluctant to give infor- mation, it requires sympathetic insight and rare skill to secure the necessary responses. This requires per- sons of training and experience, and public school offi- cials are coming more and more to realize this fact. In consequence the selection of persons to take the census is receiving far more consideration than for- merly. 3. The third line of development has to do with methods of tabulating the information and of keeping 214 MANAGEMENT OF PUPILS the records. The facts must be properly interpreted, made readily available, and put into permanent form. The form in which the records are kept must, in effect, constitute a continuing census so that the card index or other method of keeping the record will permit it to be kept strictly up to date. Making the school accessible. — The State has un- dertaken to bring the school to the children. This has been accomplished by multiplying schools and by lo- cating them in such manner as to make them readily accessible. A further step has recently been taken which provides means of transportation at State ex- pense. Conditions in many communities are not alto- gether desirable, but on the whole great progress has been made in making school privileges accessible to all the children. This is the first step essential in any program of education which undertakes to make edu- cational privileges universal. Appeal to interest. — The public school has made successful appeal to the interest of parents and chil- dren. It has been long recognized that providing ade- quate school facilities and making them available is not sufficient. Favorable public sentiment is absolutely essential. Interest in education must be aroused and maintained. Recognizing this, public-school officials and teachers have for many years been endeavoring to arouse and maintain widespread and permanent in- terest. This has been done in two ways : ( i ) Officials have kept the schools before the people. The benefits of education have been discussed in the press and from the pulpit and platform. In various other ways the attention of the people has been centered upon the work of the schools. As a result of these efforts, 215 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION there has been a growing interest in education and an increasing appreciation of its benefits. This develop- ment furnishes one of the most significant chapters in the history of American education. (2) Education has been made increasingly worth while. This has been accomplished by constant enrichment of curricula and by adapting the work to the needs, interests, and capacities of children. School officials and teachers have not only advertised the benefits of the schools, which is essential, but they have delivered the goods. They have not only talked about the benefits of edu- cation in season and out of season, but have made it increasingly beneficial. Furthermore, they have made it more and more attractive to the children themselves. Both parents and children have thus been appealed to and an increasingly large number of parents have come to regard it as their duty to send their children to school. The minority, who are more or less indifferent, are powerfully influenced by the majority. The children themselves are an important factor in this relation. If the work seems worth while to them and if they find satisfaction in it, they commend it to other children who are not in school. The steadily growing popularity of the American public school is due in no small measure to the increasing interest on the part of the children. They have been responsible in no small degree for an increasing enrollment from year to year. Compulsory attendance. — Compulsory attendance laws have been enacted to insure full enrollment. Thes-e laws have been slow in their development and their enforcement in many communities is more or less neg- lected. In fact, in a very large number of communi- ties such laws are quite unnecessary except in dealing 216 MANAGEMENT OF PUPILS with exceptional and isolated cases. In larger centers of population, where a multitude of industries employ child labor, these laws are necessary and their enforce- ment is a matter of great aid in securing school enroll- ment. The success of the public school, however, does not rest upon these laws. They are merely an aid in extreme cases of indifference and neglect. Public opinion — and this includes children as well as adults — is the only sure foundation upon which rests the suc- cess of the public school. In fact, this is the only sure foundation upon which the success of any school can rest in a democracy like ours. ENROLLMENT IN CHURCH AND COMMUNITY SCHOOLS The foregoing discussion regarding public schools suggests the nature of the problem and also something of the technique for dealing with it. It need not be said that the program of religious education should reach literally millions of children who are not now receiving formal religious instruction of any kind. It cannot do this unless they are enrolled in schools maintained by the church or other agencies. One of the outstanding problems confronting all those who have the administrative responsibility for religious edu- cation is to secure the enrollment of large numbers who are now wholly untouched by the influence of reli- gious instruction. In so far as the methods used by public-school administrators are applicable they should be vigorously applied. Compulsion through legal procedure of any sort is, of course, impossible, and, in any event, it is not desir- able. As pointed out, public-school officials recognize that the benefits of compulsory attendance laws are extremely limited. They have their place in a demo- 217 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION cratic scheme of education, but their function is rela- tively unimportant as compared with other and more effective methods of securing the presence of children in the schools. The lack of such means to secure at- tendance upon religious instruction is not a severe handicap and the advantage of the public school in this particular is not as great as it may seem to be at first thought. Other means, all of which are available in the field of religious education, if they are intelligently and vigorously applied, will secure finally an enroll- ment which will include multitudes of children and youth who would otherwise receive no religious train- ing. The technique employed by the public school if properly adapted will be found extremely valuable. This is in brief as follows: (i) A survey or census to secure full and accurate information concerning the pupil population of the community, (2) providing ade- quate facilities for instruction and making these facili- ties readily available, and (3) arousing interest on the part of both parents and children in religious education. Survey necessary. — It should need no argument to show that a survey or census to get the facts is abso- lutely necessary. Enrollment in schools of religious instruction can make little progress until this informa- tion in detail is available to the administrators and teachers of these schools. They should know how many children and youth in the community are not enrolled and the reasons therefor. It is true, of course, that some of the causes of indifference or antagonism may be beyond the control of those who are responsi- ble for securing enrollment. But it is equally true that causes cannot be modified or removed until they are known. How many pastors or superintendents of 218 MANAGEMENT OF PUPILS Sunday schools or directors of religious education know the number of children not enrolled, let alone their names and residences? How many know the causes of indifference or antagonism? In how many cases has intelligent effort been made to find out the facts? It is safe to say that few know the facts and that many have not even given serious attention to their significance. The interests of the church and the larger permanent interests of the community demand that this matter shall have the attention it deserves. Adequate facilities. — ^Inadequate facilities is without doubt one of the reasons why many children are not re- ceiving religious instruction. The membership of the church is widely scattered throughout the city or sur- rounding country and the church is not easily accessible. In many cases if children should come they could not be enrolled because there is no place for them. Class- rooms are overcrowded and no serious attempt is made to make room for those already enrolled, to say nothing of those who should be. The policy of the public school to take educational opportunity to the children and to provide for all of them is one which should be adopted by the church. As already pointed out, when the pub- lic school cannot take school to the children it trans- ports them to the school. The important point is to make the school easily accessible. This the church must do in far larger measure than it is now doing. Interest of parents and pupils. — Interest must be aroused and maintained in religious education. The comparative lack of interest is very obvious. This is attested not only by the enormous number of children not enrolled, but also the high percentage of irregu- larity in attendance. It is impossible to estimate the actual enrollment, both because of the lack of informa- 219 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION tion concerning the number not enrolled and accurate methods in keeping records, but it is no doubt much less than the reports indicate. The results of investigation reveal that there are approximately twenty million children in the United States of school age. Of this vast number, approxi- mately five million, or only twenty-five per cent, are receiving formal religious instruction. The percentage of irregularity of attendance is equally difficult to ascertain. Enough facts are obtainable, however, to show that it is enormously high. A study based upon obtainable data shows that the average attendance of the children enrolled is less than thirty one-hour periods per year. Lack of interest in and appreciation of the value of religious instruction is the fundamental cause of both these deficiencies. The first step in arousing interest on the part of both children and parents is to present a more worthy pro- gram of religious instruction. Like the public-school program, it must make a more compelling appeal to the children themselves. It must be better adapted to their needs and capacities, taught by more competent teachers, and the instruction given under more favor- able conditions. Only in the degree that these results are accomplished do we have a right to expect any great enthusiasm manifested on the part of the chil- dren. Exhortations to attend Sunday school or to be prompt and regular in attendance are not nearly as effective as is a Sunday school which commends itself to the children as being worth while. The second thing needed is to get this program to the attention of parents and to the people of the com- munity in general. So many things now demand the attention of people that education, like everything else, 220 MANAGEMENT OF PUPILS has to be properly advertised. This is particularly true of religious education. Parents are now generally committed to the policy of seeing to it that their children secure an education. But this was not ac- complished in a day. It has been a development rather rapid in recent years and not yet wholly consummated. Religious instruction has been left out of the general scheme and by many is regarded as of secondary im- portance, if, indeed, of any importance at all. This situation cannot be changed immediately, but it can and must be changed if the multitude of children not receiv- ing religious instruction are to receive it. Interest in any type of education and belief in its value on the part of parents and the public in general is fundamental in any attempt to secure increased enrollment. This is true whether the type of education be civic, voca- tional, or religious. The development, then, of intelligent public opinion concerning the value and necessity of religious instruc- tion is imperative. As pointed out, the program must be worthy and must be presented to the people insist- ently and continuously if it is hoped to create and main- tain intelligent interest. It is the business of the church to do this either through its own agencies or through other agencies maintained by cooperative effort. These agencies were discussed in previous chap- ters and the matter need not receive further attention here. REGULARITY AND PUNCTUALITY IN ATTENDANCE The necessity of regularity and punctuality should require little discussion. So fully is this recognized in the field of public education that it is conceded with- out argument. Attention there is wholly directed to 221 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION means and methods of securing the highest possible percentage of regularity and punctuality. Great pro- gress has been made in this respect in recent years. The average daily attendance as compared with enrollment has constantly increased. Irregularity and lack of punctuality. — The same cannot be said of the church schools. Records are not very reliable and are frequently not preserved from year to year. It is therefore not possible to secure exact data of comparison. This can be said, however, in the case of many Sunday schools : If attendance were ever more irregular than now and if the cases of tardi- ness were ever more numerous, it is quite impossible to conceive of a school being held together at all under such conditions. How some of these schools survive under present conditions it is difficult to see. The only possible explanation is that the program so lacks vitaHty and the work which the children lose is of so little importance that absence or tardiness is relatively a matter of little concern. Perhaps this is not the ex- planation, but it seems to be the only possible one. One thing is certain, and that is that no vital, worth- while program of education can long stand the strain of persistent irregularity and lack of punctuality on the part of any considerable number of pupils. That some Sunday schools do seem to be able to stand the strain, only makes for their condemnation. Be- cause of the intolerable conditions prevailing in many Sunday schools in the matter of irregularity and lack of punctuality, it is necessary to emphasize the impor- tance of changing these conditions. Such schools can accomplish but little in the way of vital religious in- struction. Their chief result is to encourage the for- mation of bad habits in the children, develop attitudes 222 MANAGEMENT OF PUPILS of indifference, if not of contempt and hostility to the church and its agencies, and to confirm parents in their indifference or antagonism. The cause of reHgious ed- ucation can ill afford to have such schools continue to misrepresent its interests. If reform cannot be se- cured, the value of their continuance is doubtful. But reform is possible if sufficient interest and intelligence can be brought to bear upon the situation. The remedies for irregularity and lack of punctuality have already been enumerated in part and discussed in the previous section. The problems involved in se- curing enrollment and regularity and punctuality in attendance are closely related. The causes for failure to attend school at all and to attend regularly and punctually are in part identical. Interest again. — ^Lack of interest on the part of parents and children is one of the chief causes. If parents do not regard the work of the church or Sun- day school important enough for their children to at- tend regularly not much helpful home influence can be expected. If children do not find the work interesting and attractive, in the absence of parental compulsion, they will be irregular and finally drop out. Attitude of officers and teachers. — The attitude and example of officers and teachers is frequently an- other cause. If they are irregular in attendance and careless in the matter of punctuality, pupils are encour- aged to be irregular and careless. It not infrequently happens that Sunday school classes are taught quite as often by supply teachers as by the teachers assigned to the classes. This can have but one result — irregu- larity on the part of the pupils. Teachers should either assume their responsibilities or resign. If they do neither, the superintendent should take appropriate ac- 223 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION tion. The fact that these teachers take the work under protest and that they have other duties which claim their time and attention does not constitute vaHd rea- sons for chronic deHnquency. In the name of the cause of rehgious education and in the interests of the boys and girls involved they should do their work effectively or sever their relations as teachers. Appeal of the school. — The largest factor in secur- ing regularity and punctuality is the appeal which the school makes to the interest and loyalty of the children. This is in part determined by the work of instruction and in part by the spirit of the school as a whole. If the child is not conscious that he loses something by being absent or tardy, he is not much impressed by exhortation even if oft repeated. In the public school he finds that missing one or two lessons makes con- siderable difference in his progress. When he returns assignments are more difBcult to master and examina- tions which lie ahead will be sure to vex him. If no such practical considerations obtain in the Sunday school or week-day school, one of the most effective incentives to regularity is absent. Or if lessons are not interesting and he obtains little or no satisfaction in their mastery, he is not apt to be very particular about missing some of them. The sense of duty is not so compelling with him as the sense of loss or of satisfaction. The spirit of the school. — ^The spirit of the school as a whole is a matter of great importance. If the standards set are high, individual conduct will be largely influenced thereby. When regularity in attend- ance is the rule, pupils inclined to be delinquent will not be so apt to furnish exceptions. But in case irregu- larity is the rule pupils not inclined to be delinquent will 224 MANAGEMENT OF PUPILS also be less apt to furnish exceptions. It will be a long, hard task for some schools to establish right standards, but in no other way can success be obtained. Children have formed habits of irregularity, and still worse, if possible, teachers and officials have done like- wise. The only way to break these habits is to secure reform first of all on the part of officers and teachers, tone up the work of the schools by making its pro- gram more vital and attractive, and then set about it vigorously and persistently to secure habits of regular- ity and punctuality on the part of pupils. Cooperation of parents. — The cooperation of par- ents is essential in securing regularity and punctuality in attendance. This principle is fully recognized in the field of public education. Public schools use vari- ous devices for securing effective cooperation, but in all cases the success of these rests primarily upon the interest of parents. This is secured, first of all, by interest being manifested by the school in such way that the home is convinced of its genuineness. Par- ents should, of course, be notified promptly in case of delinquency on the part of the child. Mere notification, however, is not sufficient. In most cases, so far as Sunday school attendance is concerned, parents know that their children are absent. The notification serves as a reminder and also indicates the interest taken in the child by the Sunday school officers and teachers. These are its chief values. These formal notifications must be supplemented by personal visits and other means of getting into sym- pathetic relation with parents. Public schools are em- phasizing the importance of employing one or more visiting teachers , the number of such persons depend- ing upon the need. This function is sometimes per- 225 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION formed by teachers who devote part of their time to instruction. In other cases their full time is employed in visiting the homes and in keeping in touch with them in other ways. The purpose is to secure full informa- tion concerning causes of delinquency and to establish cordial and sympathetic relationships. Remedies can thus be determined intelligently and applied wisely. The need of some such plan is obvious in the case of church or community schools. The interest of home and school must be mutual. One of the important fac- tors in securing the interest of parents in the school and its work is for the school to manifest an intelligent and sympathetic interest in the home and its problems. Successful cooperation is impossible without mutual interest and understanding. Cooperation of other schools. — Cooperation of public and week-day schools is essential. The organ- ization of church or community schools for week-day instruction involves the necessity of close cooperation in the matter of regularity and punctuality in attend- ance. If time is granted out of the public school pro- gram for children to receive religious instruction, as has been done in Evanston, Oak Park and Batavia, Illinois, Gary, Indiana, and other places, such coopera- tion is imperative. This time is granted on the as- sumption that it will be used advantageously. The loss of some time in passing from one school to the other is unavoidable, but the amount thus consumed should be reduced to the minimum. The time schedule for passing from one school to the other should be care- fully worked out and strictly adhered to. Dismissals should be prompt to the minute, and prompt arrivals should be insisted upon by each school. The problem of securing regularity in attendance 226 MANAGEMENT OF PUPILS also requires cooperation. There will be a tendency on the part of some children to play truant, and this can be avoided only by a close checking up system. Since the church or community school will probably be at- tended by only part of the public school children, these will be more apt to attempt to play truant than in the case of the public school. If for example they are excused from the public school for one hour to attend the church or community school, and then return to the former, there will be a tendency on the part of some children to use the hour in some other way. In case this is the last hour of the school day the tendency will be increased. In any event, close sympathetic coopera- tion will be required at all times between the admin- istrators and teachers of both schools. GRADATION AND PROMOTION^ The ungraded school is a thing of the past so far as educational theory is concerned. The question whether a school should be graded is no longer debatable. The only question is how to grade the work so that it will best meet the varying needs, interests, and Capacities of children.^ This presents a rather complex problem and a great deal of attention is now being directed to its solution. In the field of religious education the problem is peculiarly difficult, especially in relation to week-day instruction, because so little experience is available as a guide. Much attention has been given to the matter in the Sunday school and in many schools the work is still poorly graded. In both week-day and Sunday schools, work is being carried on under conditions 1 Bennett, H. E., School Efficiency, Chap. XIII. 'Cubberly, E. P., Public School Administraiion, Chap. XVIII. 227 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION which would be regarded as intolerable by the public schools. It is imperative that these conditions be changed, and not much success in these schools can be hoped for until this is accomplished. Proper grading. — Two things are involved in the proper gradation of any school : I. The curriculum must be graded on a basis of adapting the work to the various stages of child de- velopment. This is accomplished, first of all, by estab- lishing units of instruction corresponding to the school or pedagogical age of children. The first grade thus corresponds to the first year in school, the sec- ond grade to the second year, and so on. This ar- rangement assumes that children who are spending their first year in school belong together, and that those spending the second year or any subsequent year likewise belong in the same instructional group. This also involves the assumption that the children in the same instructional group are approximately of the same chronological age. At most not more than one- year spread is contemplated. The following shows the age groupings in the public school : Grade Ages Grade Ages I ^7 7 12-13 2 7-8 8 13-14 3 8-9 9 14-15 4 9-IO lO 15-16 5 lO-II II 16-17 6 II-I2 12 17-18 This plan is now quite universally accepted and is carried out in practice wherever conditions will permit. It is assumed that children who have been in school two years do not belong in the same group with those who 228 MANAGEMENT OF PUPILS have been in school but one year, or three years. Like- wise, those who are eight years of age do not belong with those who are six or ten. This principle, which recognizes the importance of both age and school ex- perience, is firmly established. 2. Provision must be made to adapt the work to the needs and capacities of individuals and groups within the larger group constituting the grade. To assume that all children of the same age and school experience are capable of doing the same amount or kind of work, or both, is an error. No two children have exactly the same capabilities, but individual in- struction is impossible even if desirable, and some kind of regrouping must be resorted to in order to secure proper adaptation. This is accomplished by a classi- fication of pupils of each grade into two or three groups. This kind of classification is now being se- cured in the public schools where such a plan is possi- ble. The reason for this is that a careful testing of pupils shows clearly that they fall into three rather well-defined groups. The methods of testing will be discussed later. These tests, which have been used in a large number of schools, show that the work is fairly well adapted to a majority of the children, and we may well call this the normal group. This we may designate as the B group and usually constitutes about sixty per cent of the children. They are doing the work satisfactorily without any undue strain, and we may therefore con- clude that it is fairly well adapted to their capacities. A considerable number of the children are found for whom the work is not well adapted because too difficult, and we may designate these as the C group. They constitute about twenty per cent of the entire grade. 229 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION The remaining twenty per cent are found to be above normal in ability, and these constitute the A group. This attempt to classify pupils within each grade ac- curately and systematically is already showing splen- did results in reducing the number eliminated from the schools and also the number retarded in their work. Standards in grading pupils. — The standards or criteria for grading pupils and also for classifying them within the grades are now being worked out on a scientific basis and may be regarded as fairly reliable. They are as follows : 1. The chronological age of children. We assume, for example, that the child six to seven years of age belongs to the first grade if he is normal. It is neces- sary, however, to determine as definitely as possible who belong in this group and also those who constitute the groups below and above normal. We also need to know the causes responsible for the fact that some are below and others above the average ability of the grade. 2. The physical or anatomical age} This in many cases does not correspond to the chronological ages. We should not be concerned with this matter here ex- cept for the fact that a child who is retarded or accel- erated physically is also frequently retarded or accel- erated mentally. Anatomical age can easily be deter- mined by certain tests which are now being success- fully used by public schools. 3. The mental age.^ This is a matter which fortu- nately is receiving much attention at the present time. Real differences exist in children, not only in kinds of ability which they possess but also in amount of what »Cf. Woodrow, Herbert, Brightness and Dullness in Children, Chap. VI. «C£. Tennon. L. M., The Intelligence of School Children, Chap. I. 230 MANAGEMENT OF PUPILS we call native ability. In other words, there are differ- ent degrees of intelligence. This is due in part to dif- ferences in mental age. A pupil, for example, may be twelve years of age chronologically speaking, but does not manifest a degree of intelligence higher than a normal child of nine years. It is entirely clear that adaptation of work is not possible in the absence of accurate knowledge of mental abilities of children. In- telligence tests of various sorts are now being used with considerable success in securing this knowledge. They are not entirely perfected, and they must be ap- plied by people who know how to use them. But they are being found useful and will no doubt be relied upon more and more in determining differences in de- gree of native ability. 4. The achievements of pupils in their school work. It is necessary not only to find out the native abilities of pupils, but also to ascertain accurately what they have actually achieved in their school work. Various standardized tests have been worked out for this pur- pose. Tests in reading, both oral and silent, spelling, writing, arithmetic, language and the like are now being used to determine as accurately as possible the abilities of pupils as shown by their success in perform- ing assigned tasks. These tests are proving useful in determining questions of gradation and promotion and in making proper adaptation of the work to needs and capacities of pupils. 5. Personal characteristics of pupils determined by the teacher s judgment. The personal equation is al- ways a large factor in education regardless of the angle from which we are viewing its processes. There are certain qualities of personality which are best found out by sympathetic personal contact with children. 231 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Both mental and achievement tests are useful in this relation, but they must be supplemented by daily obser- vation of the pupil at work upon the actual tasks of the school and in play activities during leisure hours. Teachers are best qualified to do this both because of their contact with the pupils and their training and experience. Public-school administrators have come to recognize the importance of the teacher's judgment provided she knows what kind of information is use- ful and how to secure it. General impressions secured in a haphazard way, colored more or less by the teacher's moods and preju- dices, are of little value. What is needed is accurate information based upon sympathetic observation guided by definite objectives to be attained. In view of this, teachers are now being trained in securing specific information relating to certain characteristics of pupils. The list is rather long, but the following are among the most important: a. Attitude toward the school and more particularly the work of the class room. Does the pupil like school or dislike it? Is he interested in his work or indifferent toward it? b. Degree of independence and initiative manifested. Can he work independently or does he rely largely upon imi- tating the teacher and other pupils ? Does he attack an assignment when made or waste time in getting under way ? c. Degree of industry and persistence displayed. Does he work or dawdle ? Is he steady in his work or does he go by fits and starts? Does he persist in the face of difficulties or is he easily discouraged by them? d. Dominant interests in and out of school. What are the subjects and activities in school which make the most successful appeal? Do the outside interests in- terfere with success in school or promote it ? 232 MANAGEMENT OF PUPILS These are some of the things upon which the teacher's judgment is desired in order to supplement the information secured by the various tests already- discussed. Public-school administrators thus secure information concerning the pupil's native ability, his degree of success in the work of the school which he is attempting to do, and his personal characteristics which promote or interfere with his success. Gradation, classification, and promotion cannot be secured intelli- gently in the absence of such information. Proper classification. — The fact that pupils are grouped according to their ages has already been pointed out. This plan takes care of the majority of the pupils who constitute the normal group. Those whose ability falls below or rises above the norm are then provided for by making such adaptations in the work as may be necessary. They are allowed to go more slowly or proceed more rapidly; the amount of work covered by group a is greater in a given time than the amount covered by group b and a less amount is cov- ered by group c; or the character of the work assigned to group a is more difficult and to group c less difficult than the work of group b} It is not desirable here to go into the details of this matter. The important thing is the great significance now being attached to the proper gradation of pupils and to the matter of their promotion from one grade to another. Proper adaptation of the work to the needs, interests, and capacities of pupils is sought at all times. Public- school administrators realize that much of the success of the school depends upon the degree of success at- tained in securing necessary adaptations. iDutton, Samuel F., and Snedden, David, Administration of Public Education in tht United States, Chap. XIX. 233 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Application to religious education. — The use of objective standards for determining not only the men- tal abilities of children but also their dominant inter- ests and personal characteristics marks a great forward movement in education. Accurate information con- cerning children enrolled in Sunday and week-day schools is on file in many public schools and can be made available. In case such information is not avail- able, those who are responsible for the religious in- struction and nurture of children should make use of these standards. Adaptations will have to be made in their use, but there seems to be no reason why this can- not be done successfully. Additional standards needed. — The standards dis- cussed above should be supplemented by other tests which will aid in determining the moral and religious needs, interests, and capacities of children. We have too long merely guessed at what these are. Most peo- ple no longer hold that children are inherently bad. Few would contend that their original natures are such as to render them incapable of moral and religious im- provement through education. But some of the as- sumptions concerning the moral and religious status of children which are determining our practice in dealing with them may be quite as erroneous as some of the doctrines we have discarded. These assumptions may be quite as wide of the truth as the doctrine of natural depravity and the contention that morals and religion cannot be taught. We need to know far more accurately than now ob- tains the actual moral and religious needs, interests, and capacities of children. Fortunately, efforts are already being made to formulate adequate standards for use in ascertaining the facts. Some measure of 234 MANAGEMENT OF PUPILS success has already been achieved in this direc- tion. This work must be carried forward if we hope to enlarge and vitalize our programs of moral and religious education. It can be carried forward suc- cessfully only by those whose own religious life and experience will insure sympathetic treatment and whose training will secure scientific mode of procedure. Re- ligion and science are in no way opposed at this point. One without the other can accomplish little. Both working together can make a significant contribution not only to the church but to the whole program of moral and social progress. Gradation and promotion in religious education. — It is obvious that many Sunday and week-day schools are not properly graded. The usual practice in the lat- ter is to place the pupils coming from the first and sec- ond grades of the public schools in group I, those from the third and fourth grades in group II, and so on. This may be and no doubt is necessary in some cases as a temporary expedient. The reasons for this have already been pointed out in a previous chapter. Such an arrangement should not be regarded as perma- nent. Experience has already proved the impossibility of any degree of permanence in such a plan. This is particularly true as it applies to the lower grades of the public schools and more particularly to the first two grades. The difference in the abilities of children of these grades is g^reater than that of any other two grades of the school. When it is at all pos- sible to secure it the plan of gradation obtaining in the public schools should be followed. This statement ap- plies to the whole plan of gradation either in the Sunday or week-day school. A departure from the plan, however, in case of the children enrolled in the 235 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION upper grades is less objectionable than in the lower grades. Much improvement has been secured in the grading of Sunday school pupils in the last few years. The results of this good work should not be underestimated, neither should they blind us to the actual situation. A great many are poorly graded, and many, indeed, have only a mere semblance of gradation of pupils. The departmental plan cannot take the place of a more minute separation of pupils into groups which in- clude only those of approximately the same school age and experience. The departmental plan and proper gradation are not mutually exclusive. The point here is that the former does not and cannot pro- vide the latter. This, beyond question, has been proved by experience. Means of improving conditions. — The first step in securing improvement is to recognize more fully its imperative need and that it is possible to secure it. Until those who are responsible for the lack of proper gradation of the schools realize that conditions are both intolerable and unnecessary not much will be ac- complished. The need for radical readjustments is entirely obvious to those who are at all conversant with modern educational practice. Those who are unfa- miliar with the prevailing practice in respectable edu- cational institutions of all sorts are not competent, of course, to organize and supervise religious instruc- tion. The difficulty in many cases, however, is not lack of information concerning educational practice in general, but in the failure to apply the standards to the Sunday school. Those in charge of the school either do not take its work seriously or believe that success is possible un- 236 MANAGEMENT OF PUPILS der conditions which violate every pedagogical principle which controls practice in every other kind of edu- cational institution. Full recognition of the imperative need of reorganization must be accompanied by a real- ization that it is in all cases possible. Conditions are rarely so unfavorable in any school that a considerable degree of improvement is not attainable. In many schools where conditions are now very unfavorable much improvement is possible. Small numbers, irregu- lar attendance, inadequate classrooms, and lack of prop- erly graded subject-matter are all severe handicaps. They can, however, be largely overcome if we set about the task courageously to secure proper gradation of our schools attempting to give religious instruction. This change of attitude with respect to the need of reor- ganization and the possibility of securing it is essential. But there are certain specific means of improving con- ditions. Public-school practice in matters of gradation and classification suggests a basis of procedure to both Sun- day schools and week-day schools. Plans cannot be taken over and used without some modification in many cases. But the grouping of children should not and need not be radically different from the prevailing prac- tice in public schools. The criteria used by the public schools for determin- ing gradations and promotions are also available for use in the Sunday and week-day schools. In the bet- ter class of public schools information is kept on file concerning the physical condition and mental abilities of children which can be readily secured. In this way administrators and teachers of religious education may become as thoroughly informed as are those having charge of the work of the public schools. It is not to 237 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION be expected that the various tests employed by the pub- lic schools can at present be used without modification and adaptation by the Sunday and week-day schools, but the results obtained by their use in the public schools are available, and this is the important thing. An intelligent basis may thus be secured for making such readjustments as are needed in so far as read- justments are possible. The present ill-adapted and badly organized subject- matter being used in many schools need not be perma- nent. The public schools have finally secured much improvement in the adaptation of work, and progress in this direction is still being made. There is no reason why equally well adapted material may not be pro- vided for the Sunday and week-day schools. This can- not be completely consummated immediately. Much progress has already been made and still further prog- ress is entirely possible. The outlook in this respect is very promising. In case that classrooms are not available in sufficient number to permit the isolation of groups by grades, and two or more grades have to occupy the same room, it is still much better to secure proper gradation. But insufficient classrooms in most cases need not be a permanent handicap. Churches can and will provide adequate room facilities when they have come to take the work of religious instruction seriously. This will come all the more quickly if the proper gradation of the pupils makes the need apparent. Small enrollment in a Sunday school composed of pupils of all ages presents a real difficulty in securing proper gradation. The best remedy for this is to secure increase of enrollment, and in many cases this is entirely possible. This has been discussed in a pre- 238 MANAGEMENT OF PUPILS vious section. Where this is not possible one of two alternatives is open: The consolidation of two or more small schools in case two or more churches main- tain schools in the same community. This cannot be done, of course, except by mutual agreement. It seems that such an arrangement is entirely feasible unless great differences exist in matters of doctrines, sacraments, and the like. The other alternative — and this will probably be chosen in most cases — is to secure superior teaching of a group too small to divide and composed of pupils of various ages and abilities. No teaching, however superior it may be, can take the place of proper grada- tion of pupils. But it goes a long ways in the direction of securing adaptation. The smallness of the group makes this possible in much greater degree than would be possible in case of a larger group. RETARDATION AND ELIMINATION OF PUPILS One of the problems with which public schools have to deal is the large percentage of pupils who are re- tarded in their work. This means that children who should be found in grade six, for example, are in grade five or four. They have failed to be promoted and have fallen one or more years behind their class- mates. The most potent cause of this is lack of adap- tation of the work to their needs and capacities. This constitutes a real problem and the effort is widespread and persistent to reduce the number of retarded pupils to the minimum.^ Unfortunately many Sunday schools have no such problem. It might seem, therefore, that the subject would need no discussion. If the cause of the absence ^Woodrow, Herbert, Brightness and Dullness in Children, Chap. VII. ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION of this problem were found in the perfect adjustment of work to the needs and capacities of all the children, then no discussion would be necessary. But this is not the case. The reason why we have no failures in pro- motion, or comparatively few, is that we have no well- defined standards of work. In the public school def- inite tasks are assigned and pupils are carefully tested to ascertain how well the tasks have been performed. Certain standards of work must be met. Failure to meet these standards means that the pupils are not qualified to do the work of the next higher grade and they are not promoted. It also means that they have failed to master something which would be of such value to them if mastered that they must be required to repeat the work. It is highly desirable, of course, to reduce the number of failures to the minimum. But the remedy for the high percentage of failures is not to abandon standards, or even to lower them. It is found, rather, in better adapting the work and in better teaching. Need of standards. — Sunday school standards are so indefinite and so carelessly applied that either success or failure is largely undetermined. Neither the ease nor the difficulty of the work is checked up in any def- inite way, and little or no adjustment of tasks to needs and capacities is possible. The bright and the dull, the industrious and the lazy, those who achieve something and those who do not, are thus kept indiscriminately together in the same class. This practice can result only harmfully to all the pupils concerned. Since the work is not standardized it is too easy for some and therefore receives neither attention nor effort. For others it is too difficult, and in the absence of any adequate stimulus to make a 240 MANAGEMENT OF PUPILS trial we get the same result. In the meantime the teacher is largely in the dark concerning the whole situation. It is not desired, of course, to increase the number of those who fail of promotion. But it is imperative that the work be standardized and that ade- quate tests to determine achievement be worked out and appHed. Only thus is it possible to adapt religious instruction to the needs and capacities of the children. The problem of elimination. — The problem of elimination is one in which Sunday school administra- tors and teachers are vitally interested. The necessity of securing a much larger enrollment has already been discussed. The immediate discussion is concerned with keeping the children when once enrolled. Unfortu- nately, anything like exact data is not available. But it is a matter of common knowledge that the number who drop out of our Sunday schools is enormously large. This fact is so well established that no com- ment is needed. The only question for us is how to keep a larger number of children and youth in our Sun- day schools. The mode of procedure seems reason- ably clear. Causes determined. — The causes of elimination should be accurately determined. It is highly probable that the same causes which account for failure to enroll and for irregularity and lack of punctuality are largely responsible for dropping out of school. They have already been considered in some detail, and if causes other than these exist, they should be discovered. The most potent reason why children drop out of Sunday school is no doubt lack of interest either on their part or on the part of their parents, or both. The causes responsible for this should be clearly ascertained and removed if possible. 241 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Remedies applied. — Better means of securing the continuance of children in the schools need to be de- vised. This is a subject which requires careful and persistent study on the part of officers and teacher s^ Causes of elimination must be dealt with sympathetic- ally and intelligently. Curricula should be made more vital and interesting. Parents should be appealed to on the basis of the welfare of their children. The whole life of the school may need reorganization to secure greater loyalty on the part of both teachers and pupils. What we call a proper school spirit is the largest single factor to be taken into account. SCHOOL DISCIPLINE No problem connected with the management of pupils is more important than that of discipline, A school in which bad conditions exist as to order is a poor school. Nothing can compensate for disorder. Regular attendance, properly selected curricula, and use of correct methods in teaching are of little avail in a school where disorder prevails. Judged by this standard, many Sunday schools fail in large measure to meet the requirements of a good school. Noise and confusion are so prevalent that orderly procedure is quite out of the question. There are, of course, ex- ceptions, but for a large number of schools this state- ment holds true. Such conditions are intolerable and wholly unnecessary. The public schools deal with the same children, and for the most part these schools are orderly. The rea- son for this is that they take pains to be so. On the contrary, many Sunday schools do not. They appear to accept disorder as a matter of course. 242 MANAGEMENT OF PUPILS Causes of poor discipline*. — The chief causes of the prevalent disorder in Sunday schools are as fol- lows : ( I ) Frequently several classes occupy the same room and pupils and teachers enter into a competitive struggle to be heard. (2) Unskilled teachers fail to command the attention and respect of their pupils. (3) Seats are poorly adapted to the comfort of children. Loose benches and chairs are frequently used and are fruitful sources of distraction. (4) General exercises are adapted neither to the interests nor capacities of the children. (5) A "fashion" of disorder prevails throughout the school. This condition is too often ac- cepted without protest. If protest is made by the pre- siding officer, it is usually formal, perfunctory and only adds to the prevailing confusion. (6) Lack of under- standing on the part of administrators and teachers of the meaning and importance of school discipline is a fruitful source of disorder. These causes can all be removed, or at least modi- fied so that conditions will become greatly improved. We can secure classrooms in sufficient numbers and properly equip them. Trained teachers will be avail- able if we provide adequate training facilities. Gen- eral exercises can be so planned and carried out as to promote order instead of inviting disorder. The "fashion" of good order is entirely possible.^ There is absolutely no reason why it should not prevail in Sun- day schools as well as in public schools. The accom- plishment of all these things, however, is conditioned upon a proper understanding of the meaning and im- portance of a well-disciplined school. This becomes clear when we consider the function of discipline. »Baglcy, W. C. School Discipline, Chaps. II, III. *Jhid., Chap. I. 243 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION The functions of school discipline. — School disci- pline has two chief functions : 1. To secure and maintain favorable conditions un- der which the work of the school may be carried on successfully. Those who are responsible for the suc- cess of the school are under moral obligations to secure such conditions. If its work is as important as we profess to believe it to be, no excuse is valid for accept- ing a situation which makes impossible the achieve- ment of results for which the school is maintained. One of the outstanding purposes of the Sunday school is to inculcate ideals of reverence and worship. These ideals not only have to be taught but they have to be put into practice. They can neither be taught nor prac- ticed effectively in the midst of confusion and disorder. 2. To prepare the pupils for effective participation in an organized social order. Society grants many lib- erties and allows much individual freedom, but re- quires that desires be inhibited which are inconsistent with social welfare. Children have to learn this lesson, and it is one of the important functions of a school, whatever kind it may be, to teach them. This can be done in no other way so effectively as by having them become members of a school in which the ideals and practices of well-organized society prevail. Here they learn not only what is required of them, but also gain experience in meeting the requirements. In an unruly and disorderly school they form wrong conceptions of social requirements and gain bad habits of social con- duct. Nothing that the school can do by way of in- struction — granting that successful teaching can be done under such conditions — can compensate for the wrong ideals formed and bad habits acquired. One of the most important lessons to be learned in 244 MANAGEMENT OF PUPILS this connection is that of self-control. This lesson can- not be learned where impulses are uncontrolled and momentary desires determine conduct. It certainly cannot be learned in an environment of social disorder. In such environment there is lacking the suggestion of individual responsibility and the stimulus to respond to any such feeling if it were present. A disorderly school furnishes about the worst environment imagin- able for acquiring either ideals or habits of self-con- trol. The nature of the problem. — School discipline is clearly an educational problem. It cannot be solved, therefore, by the use of methods inconsistent with the nature of the problem. Government cannot be auto- cratically superimposed upon a school. Police methods will fail. Neither self-control nor social control is secured by such methods. Children have to learn how to cooperate with their fellows, and it is the business of the Sunday school to help the home and the public school to teach this lesson. The relation between teachers and pupils is no different here from what it is in teaching and learning in general. What is to be learned has to be clearly presented, and incentives to learn have to be provided. The motivation of right conduct is certainly one of the aims of religious education. Self-respect, a sense of duty and obligation, respect for the rights of others, and reverence for God and his house, are all involved. These constitute motives which must be acquired by the child through experience in an environment where such motives control the conduct of others. The Sun- day school should furnish such an environment. To secure this requires insight into child life and a sympathetic understanding of its needs and capacities. 245 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION It requires knowledge of how to organize and manage a school. This kind of knowledge is not a part of one's native equipment. It has to be acquired by train- ing and experience. And, finally, a well-disciplined school is secured by persistence and patience. The problem of maintaining such a school is as constant as the necessity for children to learn day by day, week by week, the lessons of self-control and of cooperating with their fellows in a social enterprise. 246 CHAPTER XI RELIGIOUS EDUCATION IN HIGHER INSTI- TUTIONS The direct control of secular education has largely passed to the state so far as Protestantism is con- cerned. The church has withdrawn quite completely from the field of elementary education, and its control of secondary education has almost entirely ceased. A few academies under denominational control still exist. But they are few in number, and these bid fair to go out of existence in the near future. If the present policy is continued, the church will soon cease to maintain either elementary or secondary secular schools. The field of higher education presents quite a differ- ent situation. The growth of state schools has been rapid and widespread, but this has not resulted in any considerable reduction in the number of denomina- tional higher institutions. They no longer dominate the situation as they have done until recently. The competition with state schools is sharp and for the most part the church schools are not meeting the com- petition altogether successfully. Their enrollment while on the increase is not, on the whole, keeping pace with their competitors. The difficulty in financing these institutions is a matter of common knowledge. The increased and constantly increasing cost of main- taining educational institutions of all sorts is putting a very heavy strain upon denominational schools. Fac- 247 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION ulties are being kept up to standard with increasing difficulty. Deficits are becoming larger in many of these schools and the financial outlook is not encour- aging. The financial strain is becoming so heavy in some cases that two or more schools are being merged in order to maintain existence. In still fewer instances schools are ceasing to exist without survival in any modified form. It is not meant to imply that the denominational college is doomed to early extinction. Its roots run too deep for any such fate. Tradition is powerful in sup- port of its continuance as a factor in higher education. The question now before us, therefore, is not whether these schools will continue to exist. It has to do with the functions which they should perform. If their function is merely to compete with state schools, the most of them are engaged in an unequal and unfruitful struggle. A few of the larger denominational or quasi-denominational schools will probably continue to compete successfully. But the present outlook for successful competition for a vast majority of colleges is not promising. On the other hand, if these schools can be made to perform in far larger measure than they are now doing the function for which they are pri- marily intended, they have a field of usefulness un- paralleled in the history of the Christian Church. THE ORIGINAL PURPOSE OF THE DENOMINATIONAL COLLEGE The original purpose of these schools was to train young men and women in the religious life and fit them for Christian service. This is a matter of history and needs no discussion. They were founded by men and women of supreme religious faith and supported cour- 248 HIGHER INSTITUTIONS ageously out of poverty and deprivation in the belief that they v^ere indispensable instruments in the upbuild- ing of the kingdom of God. These founders believed that youth needs to be taught religion and that the world needs a considerable number specifically trained for service in the church. How far the colleges have departed from these ideals and the extent to which they are not performing their original function is revealed by a study of their curricula. And here is where the evidence of what a college is really doing must in the last analysis be found. Present curricula. — Present curricula of the college reveal clearly the extent to which the colleges have de- parted from their original purpose. This is indicated in three ways : ( i ) From the standpoint of the number of courses offered, little value is attached to a knowl- edge of the Scriptures, church history, Christian ethics, or missionary enterprises. (2) Where such courses are offered in considerable number, their relative value frequently ranks very low. In many of these institu- tions, which require for graduation foreign language, science, social studies, mathematics, and what not, no requirement is made in the field of religion. In other institutions, which such requirements are made, they are so meager that one gets the impression that they are quite perfunctory and for the purpose of placating their denominational constituencies. (3) The cur- ricula further show even more conclusively that little or no opportunity is offered for preparation for the vocations within the church. The colleges avowedly attempt to train chemists, public-school teachers, insur- ance agents, bankers, and for secretarial positions. But they neglect to train for the vocations of the church. This is not a matter about which we need to have any 249 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION doubt. All we need to do is to make a study of cur- ricula. Our colleges are not seriously undertaking to prepare men and women for definite lines of service within the church. Causes of change in poKcy. — What are the causes of this departure from the original purpose of these colleges ? Has the need ceased for systematic instruc- tion in religion and for training for the vocations of the church? Or, if these needs still exist, is the church failing to make proper demand upon the colleges ? Or are college administrators and faculties neglecting to meet the demands because they feel that other func- tions are more important? Whatever the causes may be, the results are obvious. There is very little difference between the curricula of these colleges and those offered by the colleges of lib- eral arts in State institutions. It is entirely clear that the former are devoting their energies chiefly to com- peting with the latter on their own ground, namely, providing opportunity for young people to secure a type of education wholly secular in character and which provides for a considerable degree of specializa- tion. Many of the courses are either distinctly prevo- cational or vocational, with the vocations of the church receiving little or no attention. These are the facts in the case regardless of presuppositions to the contrary. It is with the facts that we have to deal in any fruitful discussion of the reorganization of the curricula of denominational schools. FUNCTIONS OF DENOMINATIONAL HIGHER INSTITU- TIONS Curricula of schools of all sorts must be determined by the functions which they undertake to perform. It 250 HIGHER INSTITUTIONS is necessary, therefore, to have these clearly deter- mined. The Christian college must perform three closely related functions. Opportunity for a liberal education. — The college must provide opportunity for a liberal education equal in value to that offered by the State schools. No mis- understanding should arise at this point. Young peo- ple have a right to an opportunity to receive a thorough modern education. Any school which does not furnish such opportunity should not receive their patronage. There are certain kinds of knowledge and experience which are vital in the preparation of young people for lives of usefulness. Knowledge of science, mathe- matics, history, economics, sociology, and psychology is essential to intelligent participation in the life of the modern world. It is necessary to a mastery of self and of material and social environments. Nothing can compensate for lack of such knowledge. The Chris- tian college is under the most binding obligation to provide curricula, equipment, and teaching force un- surpassed in any other kind of school in America. Let it be understood that other functions, however impor- tant they may be, should not interfere with this func- tion. It should be understood, further, that other functions need not interfere in any way with the per- formance of this one. On the other hand, they cannot be performed successfully if this one is neglected. The religious element. — Adequate provision must be made for the teaching of religion. This function is now being neglected in large measure. The evidence of this has already been pointed out. Our colleges so far as their curricula are concerned have become almost wholly secularized. A knowledge of religion in its various aspects is not a part of the life equipment of a 251 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION large number of those who go out from our college halls every year. Nothing is gained by ignoring the facts or trying to explain them away. On the con- trary, we should face them and take them fully into account in determining educational policy and proce- dure. It is true that colleges lay claim to a Christian atmos- phere secured or maintained through the personnel of their faculties and extra-curricula organizations and activities. Granted that these agencies are more or less effective, they cannot take the place of wisely se- lected, well-organized and effectively taught courses dealing with the great fundamental principles and prac- tices of the Christian religion. The State does not attempt to train its citizens wholly or even largely through the influence of a civic atmosphere, nor does business rely upon a similar means to secure intelli- gence and skill. We are persistently and systematically attempting to teach young people to become good citi- zens through the use of the properly selected subjects and subject-matter. Similarly, we are making the attempt to fit them for vocations and avocations. Shall we not also attempt to teach them in a much larger way than we are now doing by the same means to become citizens of the Kingdom, and interested and intelligent workers therein? Further comment concerning the atmosphere of a school seems pertinent. Who creates it and how is it created? Every school has its traditions, and these constitute a factor of more or less importance in deter- mining the atmosphere or spirit of a school. It is a fact well known to all who are intimately responsible for creating and maintaining a proper school spirit that the points of emphasis in the curriculum are what, more 252 HIGHER INSTITUTIONS than anything else, give tone, meaning, and character to the Hfe of the school as a whole. No attempt will be made to evaluate these factors in detail. It is important, however, that we place the proper relative value upon each of the sources of school spirit. Tradition always has its rise in actual condi- tions, although it may survive after the causes which produced it have passed away. But it cannot survive indefinitely and exerts a decreasing influence as time goes on. Tradition alone probably exerts but little influence to-day in determining the life and character of our American colleges. It is not in very good repute anywhere and college students are not the ones who respect it most. What the school was and what it stood for a hundred or fifty or ten years ago doesn't impress them much. Religious traditions in and of themselves exert relatively little influence on the campus. The influence of teachers who possess a vital reli- gious life and character should not be underestimated. Without such teachers no school can inculcate ideals and inspire life. The spirit which determines all ad- ministrative acts and which expresses itself in the per- sonal contacts between administrative officers and stu- dents is extremely significant. Student life, social and athletic, constitutes an environment, the influences of which for good or ill are incalculable. There is no dis- position to underestimate the importance of any of these sources of school spirit. But they cannot be pro- ductive of large results in creating and maintaining a religious atmosphere unless at the very heart of things the religious purposes of the school and of education itself are clearly revealed. What a school teaches in its classrooms is the first test of what is regarded of 253 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION largest value. If the teaching of religion is excluded from classrooms, or even subordinated to other things, it is obvious that it is regarded as having no educative value or little value in comparison with other things. It is true that denominational colleges offer oppor- tunity for the study of religion. But it is usually ex- tremely limited in two ways: I. With a few exceptions, nothing in the field of religion is required for graduation. A rather wide range of other subjects is required. The following is a typical example of requirements stated in terms of semester hours: Foreign language, twenty; English, six; science, eight; social studies, eight; philosophy, eight; mathematics, four; physical training, two. In every one of these, except philosophy and physical training, entrance requirements are set up consisting of from one to three years' work in a secondary school. Requirements differ somewhat in kind and number in the various colleges both for entrance and graduation, but the principle is adhered to in all of them as applied to some or all the subjects named above. On the other hand, the application of the principle to religion is the exception, and when required the number of hours con- stitute a very small part of the total requirements. Why is religion not one of the required fields of knowledge in a Christian college? Is it because of imitation of State schools which make no such require- ment? Or is it because of the belief that it possesses less educative value than English literature or science or foreign language? If it is required, why are not the number of hours equal to those of other subjects? Is it supposed there is an insufficient body of knowledge in this field? Is the field of religion so limited in its educative values that two or four semester hours will 254 HIGHER INSTITUTIONS suffice to master its great truths? Whatever the an- swers to these questions may be, the fact remains that from the standpoint of requirements, rehgion has Httle or no place in the category of highest educative values in our colleges. 2. The teaching of religion is subordinated, as shown by the limited number of courses. In many of the col- leges not enough courses are offered to occupy the time of one teacher. A combination is made with phil- osophy, psychology, or courses from this department or that are tacked on to fill out a teacher's schedule of hours. Or, still worse, perhaps, courses in religion are tacked on to other departments for the same purpose. In these same schools we find that three or more teachers are giving full time to teaching in the other important fields of knowledge. In such cases it is ap- parent that teaching force and students are not well distributed. For example, in a school where three teachers give full time to teaching a single foreign lan- guage and one teacher devotes only part of his time to teaching religion, it indicates that things are rather badly out of proportion. In the aggregate a large number of college students are enrolled in Bible courses. But we must not be misled by these figures. Relatively speaking, the num- ber is not large. No data are available upon which to base exact estimates, but it is evident that a very large number of students in our colleges receive no classroom instruction in the Bible. In the case of many who go to make up the aggregate of those receiving such in- struction, the amount of time devoted to the work is very small. Measured in terms of semester hours, the amount of time devoted to the study of the Bible is very meager. 255 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Other courses in the great field of religion are almost negligible. Christian ethics, problems of personal life, missions, and other great social enterprises of the church have little or no place in college curricula. Church history, polity, and doctrines are in the same category. It is not the purpose of this paragraph to make an argument, but to state the plain facts. These are the facts as shown by the courses actually offered and by the number of teaching hours devoted to the courses. The statements do not apply to an excep- tional school here and there, but they do apply to a vast majority of our denominational colleges. Training for vocations of the church. — College students should have opportunity to train for the voca- tions of the church. The absence of any systematic and serious attempts to train for these vocations is made apparent by a study of college curricula. Prevo- cational training even is almost entirely lacking. The objection may be made that this is not the function of the college. There are two answers to this objection. The first is that the college is already performing this function as it relates to a number of vocations. It is training public-school teachers in large numbers through well-organized departments of education, and courses in science are definitely planned to train for various lines of industrial work. The same thing is true in the field of social studies. Courses in banking, insurance, and accounting are now well established in undergraduate curricula. The other answer is that the church must depend largely upon the colleges for its trained workers. This is especially so for lines of work outside the preaching ministry. Some of these lines of work are avocational in the sense that they do not offer opportunity for 256 HIGHER INSTITUTIONS full-time Service, and young people cannot be expected to attend graduate schools to prepare for them. Sun- day-school administrators and teachers are examples of such workers. They need training, and the only possible way to provide it is to do so in connection with the college courses of young people who will later assume the responsibility for the success of the Sunday school. The rapidly increasing attention now being given to the necessity for more adequate facilities for religious instruction for children and youth is resulting in the establishment of week-day schools. This type of school has already been discussed in Chapter VI. The prep- aration of administrators and teachers of these schools was referred to in that chapter and discussed in more detail in Chapter VIII, It was indicated that the means for training teachers are not adequate. In fact, com- munity or church training schools cannot be organ- ized and their work carried on successfully without trained leaders and workers. The higher institutions must furnish these leaders. Here again, for the present at least, undergraduate courses chiefly must be relied upon. It is desirable as rapidly as possible to raise the standard of qualifica- tions for directors and teachers of religious education. But in the meantime we shall have to depend in large measure upon undergraduate training. The same thing is true of other lines of work under the auspices of the church. The graduate school for the training of the preach- ing ministry is already established. Fortunately, graduate departments in a few of the universities for the training of workers in other lines of service are now being established. Other institutions are con- 257 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION templating establishing such departments. But where are they to get their students? Take, for example, a graduate department of religious education. If the department maintains the same standards as other graduate departments, an undergraduate major in the same field is a prerequisite to graduate work. Except for their own undergraduate courses the only sources of supply are the colleges. Just as they are now pre- paring students to pursue graduate work in science, the social studies, and in other fields, so must they prepare ior such courses in the vocations of the church. The functions of the college must be determined in the light of the greatest service it can render to in- dividuals and society. This cannot be determined by the demands of a generation ago. The demands of the present must have right of way. These demands are becoming clearly defined and more and more insistent. The church is calling for trained workers, and the call must be answered by the Christian colleges. If these colleges are declining in importance, it is not because their contribution is less needed than it has ever been. It is, rather, because they are not making the contribu- tion which both the church and society have a right to expect them to make. Training for the vocations of the church is a social obligation which cannot be denied except at tremendous loss to the church and to the cause to which it has committed itself. Training for avocations of the church. — Students should have opportunity to train for the avocations of the church. The work of the church outside its preaching ministry must continue to be carried on largely by volunteer workers. The Sunday schools, young people's societies, and the whole recreational and social program of the church need trained workers of 258 HIGHER INSTITUTIONS this sort. This does not obviate the necessity of em- ploying full-time workers with special training. On the contrary, it is the only way in which their work can be made fruitful. One person devoting full time to the educational program of the church must have the assistance of several who devote only a few hours each week to the task. The latter must be trained for their work, otherwise they will not be able to utilize intelligent leadership. While the college is training for public-school teach- ing as a vocation it should also train for Sunday- school teaching as an avocation. The same should be said of those who are preparing for other vocations. The great body of young men and women who go out from our colleges every year should go out with the disposition and ability to serve the church regardless of what their vocations are to be. One of the great responsibilities now resting upon the Christian college is to provide opportunity for these young people to pre- pare for this much needed kind of service. RECONSTRUCTION OF CURRICULA Examination of college catalogues shows very con- clusively that fundamental reconstruction of curricula is imperative. Extra-curricula instruction and activi- ties have their value. Voluntary noncredit courses carried on through Y. M. C. A., Y. W, C. A., and other similar organizations are useful. But none of these can take the place of regular classroom instruction where standards of scholarship are maintained and a sense of responsibility on the part of both teachers and students obtains. Need of fundamental change. — Fundamental re- construction of curricula is demanded in those subjects 259 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION and fields which are designed to provide for secular instruction. As pointed out in a previous section, the college should provide for a thoroughly modern edu- cation. Reconstructions are necessary to bring the type of school up to a point of highest efficiency. This is due the church in whose name it carries on its work, to the young people who commit themselves to its care and to society in which they will function and make their contribution in later years. Both the na- ture of the present treatment and lack of space forbid any detailed discussion at this point. Instruction in religion. — Curricula must provide for adequate instruction in the principles and practices of Christianity. Our young people need to be educated in religion. Many of them come out of the college ignorant of the Bible and of the history, function, and enterprises of the church. Not only this, but they lack religious conviction and outlook, are antagonistic or indifferent to the church, and lack in large measure both the disposition and ability to connect religion with life. Not many of them perhaps are irreligious, but far too many of them are nonreligious. Their education has not made religion an integral part of life. One of the principles of making a program of edu- cation is that religious instruction should constitute an integral part of all education. Only thus can reli- gion become an integral part of life in so far as educa- tion affects life. College curricula must provide for such instruction. The details of courses cannot be entered into here. Two functions should be performed by these courses. I. They should provide for adequate systematic instruction in the great fundamentals of religion. One result sought is a thorough knowledge of the Bible. Old 260 HIGHER INSTITUTIONS Testament literature and history, and the life and teachings of Jesus, should be the outstanding points of emphasis from the knowledge side. The inclusive aim is to secure knowledge and appreciation of the great spiritual message which the Bible has for the modern world. It was stated in an earlier chapter that the Christian religion is more than a religion of a Book. It is a rehgion of life. Hence instruction should go beyond the Book and include Christian ethics, psychology of religion, church history, doctrine, and polity. Considerable emphasis should be placed upon the extent and significance of the great enter- prises of the church. A department of religion equal in every respect to other important departments should be maintained by every college. 2. The second function of this department is to pro- vide opportunity for a Christian interpretation of all truth. In Chapter I attention was called to the impor- tance of this. The knowledge gained through instruc- tion should be made to function so that the world of thought and of things, of people and their relation- ships, may be interpreted in the light of God and his purposes. Certainly, this is the great inclusive func- tion of Christian education. But 'it cannot be accom- plished alone by atmosphere, or organization, or non- credit courses, or all of these combined. It cannot be accomplished even by two or four semester hours of a superficial study of the Bible. The relating of reli- gion to life in so far as education can accomplish it is too big a task to be undertaken in any such super- ficial ways. It is quite as important that a knowledge of biology and psychology and all .the rest be properly interpreted as it is that a knowledge of these subjects be acquired. 261 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Courses preparing for service. — Curricula must provide for adequate preparation for the vocations of the church. Only two of these will be considered here. The training of administrators and teachers of Sun- day and week-day schools and of teachers of religious education in higher institutions are the ones selected. Provision must be made for courses which will pre- pare for the avocations of the church. These are numerous, but only those relating to the educational program of the church, and more particularly that part of the program carried out by the church school, will receive consideration. In fact preparation for voca- tional and avocational service is very similar in char- acter. The difference is chiefly in the amount of work required. Vocational preparation requires a greater extension of courses and a more specialized type of work in some of these courses. Needs of two classes of workers. — Two general assumptions will be made at this point: 1. It will be assumed that those who seek teacher training in religious education will fall into two gen- eral classes. The first will include those who will serve as administrators and teachers in church and com- munity schools of elementary and secondary grades. More specifically some of these will take up the work as a vocation in connection with Sunday or week- day schools. Others will look forward to the work as an avocation, expecting to devote part of their time to some form of religious educational work. The second class will consist of those who are preparing specifically to offer courses in higher institutions for the training of those constituting the first class indicated above. 2. The second assumption is that two types of insti- tutions, broadly speaking, should be taken into ac- 262 HIGHER INSTITUTIONS count. First, the schools which will from necessity or choice provide only undergraduate work; and second, those which offer considerable graduate work. In the first class are included institutions at the one ex- treme which will offer but few courses (some^now offer but one or two), and at the other extreme those which will provide under graduate majors and minors in religious education. Between these two extremes various numbers of courses will be provided and ad- ministered under various plans. PREREQUISITES TO COURSES IN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Certain prerequisites to professional courses should be required. Such requirements should consist at least of courses in Bible and general psychology. Other pre- requisites will depend upon the number and character of the courses classified as courses in religious educa- tion. It is obvious, for example, that some knowledge of genetic psychology and also some background in the principles, curriculum, and method of public edu- cation are essential. How much of this should be made prerequisite and how much included in the courses themselves is a matter that must be determined in part at least by administrative convenience. In any event the person who would teach religion effectively must have some scientific knowledge concerning the nature of the child and some information relating to the aims, materials, and methods of religious education. Minimum hours constituting a unit. — In the judg- ment of the writer one- and two-hour undergraduate courses are not desirable. Three hours should consti- tute the minimum for any course, and this will be assumed in the present discussion. Since the organiza- tion and administration of unit courses and not the 263 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION number of units is the immediate problem, the posi- tion taken here will in no way affect the main question. CONSPECTUS OF UNDERGRADUATE COURSES In listing courses in religious education it is recog- nized that many institutions will not be able to attempt very much at present in this field. The supply of quali- fied teachers is wholly inadequate to meet present lim- ited demands and expansion into a new field will be further restricted by lack of funds. It seems wise, however, to consider what seems desirable to offer if a school attempts to prepare teachers, and then give special consideration to the limitations under which many schools will of necessity carry on their work. Proposed list of courses. — A conspectus of courses in religious education has been prepared recently by two committees, one representing the Religious Edu- cation Association and the other the Sunday School Council of Evangelical Denominations. These com- mittees are in entire accord concerning the number and character of courses to be offered in undergradu- ate work. The list and the number of hours devoted to each is as follows : Bible (content values), 6 hours. Bible (curriculum values), 3 hours. The Christian Religion, 3 hours. Genetic Psychology, 3 hours. Introduction to the Study of Religious Education, 3 hours. Curriculum, 2 hours. Method, including observation and practice teach- ing, 4 hours. History of Religious Education in America, 3 hours. Organization and Administration, 3 hours. 264 HIGHER INSTITUTIONS It will be seen that this totals thirty hours, or about one fourth the number of hours required for a bache- lor's degree. The courses in Bible and the Christian religion are not regarded as prerequisites but as consti- tuting an integral part of religious education. The number of hours is considerably larger than the re- quirement for a major in most institutions. It, there- fore, seems desirable to suggest a plan of organiza- tion which will permit institutions to offer majors and minors in this field. Providing majors and minors. — If a school desires to provide a major and minor, it is assumed that the former will consist of from eighteen to twenty-one hours and the latter from nine to twelve hours. The minimum prerequisites in all cases are understood to consist of courses in Bible and in general psy- chology. Certain fundamental courses in Education are also highly desirable, administered either as prere- quisites or as constituting an integral part of the list provided. The following is the list suggested from which se- lection might well be made: i. Introduction to the Study of Religious Education. 2. History. 3. Genetic Psychology or Psychology of Conduct. 4. Curriculum. 5. Method. 6. Practice Teaching. 7. Organisation and Administration. Some differentiation is desirable, particularly in curriculum and method. Two courses might well be offered in each of these— one elementary and one secondary — to meet the special needs of teach- ers in these two closely related but somewhat distinct fields of work. Other courses including the following might be offered : 8. The Religious Education of Chil- dren and Adolescents. 9. Social and Recreational Leadership. 10. Psychology of Religion. 265 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION NUMBER AND SEQUENCE OF COURSES The sequence of courses will in part depend upon the number offered and upon the possibilities of elec- tion provided. This brings us to a consideration of the minimum number of courses regarded as essential in the training of teachers in religious education. No generally accepted standards have as yet been set up, and we have just begun to establish standardizing agencies. In consequence there is little background in theory or in practice for a determination of this ques- tion. The requirements of public-school officials and other standardizing agencies should furnish a point of departure, at least, for the present discussion. There is lack of uniformity in these standards but some gen- eral principles are available. Requirements of standardizing agencies. — The North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools requires that teachers in schools accredited by it, shall have completed courses in education aggregat- ing not less than eleven semester hours. Similar asso- ciations in other sections of the country maintain simi- lar requirements in this respect. The minimum requirements, however, in most of them range from twelve to thirty hours. About fifteen hours, exclu- sive of general psychology, seems to be a fair statement of requirements. This is no doubt a higher standard than we can hope to maintain immediately, but it does not seem unreasonable to propose this as the stand- ard toward which to direct our efforts in the training of teachers in religious education. Assuming that fifteen hours of work will consist of five courses of three hours each, what should these be and in what sequence should they be offered? Five 266 HIGHER INSTITUTIONS of the courses listed in the major, namely, Introductory Course, Genetic Psychology, Curriculum, Method, and Organisation and Administration are suggested to meet the requirement of fifteen hours. If practice teaching is included, it should be correlated with the course in method. It is extremely important that laboratory facilities be provided, and this work should be required when- ever it is possible to provide such facilities. Many institutions will not at present be able to maintain lab- oratory schools, but they should look forward to and definitely plan for them. In the meantime Sunday schools and such other facilities as the community may afford should be utilized. In case a school is not able to provide a separate laboratory course a definite amount of such work should be included wherever possible in the courses in curriculum and method. The minor, consisting of nine hours already indicated, should constitute the minimum amount of work offered by any school attempting to train teachers. If this cannot be done, then nothing should be attempted ex- cept as a beginning which will at the earliest practicable time reach the minimum stated. The following are the suggested courses and sequence: i. Introductory Course. 2. Curriculum. 3. Method. If four courses are provided, genetic psychology, or the psychology of conduct, should follow the introductory course and in turn be followed by curriculum and method. It will be seen in all cases that the Introductory Course is regarded as fundamental, and that the course in method is placed last. This order is indicated because it seems obvious that a student should be intro- duced to the field of religious education through a study of the aims and purposes of instruction. One of 267 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION the purposes of the introductory course is to do this. Intelligent selection and use of material is not possible in the absence of a clear comprehension of the imme- diate and ultimate ends sought. And it is equally im- possible to choose methods and devices without such knowledge. The course in method should follow cur- riculum because the subject-matter used is one of the sources of methods and devices. Any attempt to teach method in education, in the absence of a clear under- standing of aims and a knowledge, both academic and pedagogical, of subject-matter, will be disappointing in results. It is not the purpose to discuss in any detail the con- tent of courses, but the reason for their indicated se- quence should be made clear. In this connection it needs to be said if an institution is limited to the three courses named above, considerable material in child and adolescent psychology will have to be included. It is believed that such an arrangement constitutes a better organization than a separate course would se- cure in view of the limited time available. If only nine hours are available, three units are preferred to four. In any event this plan is not impracticable since the teaching of applied psychology in direct connection with its application is a fruitful method of procedure. Distinction between elementary and advanced courses. — The selection and organization of courses in the graduate field present quite a different problem. On the one hand, at certain points no clear distinction can be made between graduate and undergraduate work. If, for example, an undergraduate major is provided, some of the more advanced courses might well be open to both graduate and undergraduate stu- dents. On the other hand, a clear distinction must be 268 HIGHER INSTITUTIONS maintained between elementary and advanced work. This is true, of course, in the undergraduate work as well. Having students in a course ranging in classi- fication from freshmen to senior is wholly unsatisfac- tory. When this practice is carried so far as to include graduate students the condition becomes intolerable. This lack of proper distinction between elementary and advanced work is undesirable from the standpoint of fruitful teaching and learning. It violates a prin- ciple which should control in all graduate work, namely, that its purpose is to provide opportunity for specialization. With this consideration in mind the general character of graduate courses is clearly indi- cated. The following suggest some of the types of graduate work : ( i ) More advanced courses which will secure specialization in the lines already indicated, particularly in (a) principles, (b) curriculum, (c) method; (2) general and special administrative prob- lems; (3) problems in childhood and adolescent reli- gion; (4) courses involving the use of laboratory schools and opportunity for field experience; (5) his- torical research. It is obvious in any brief theoretical treatment such as this is that definite determination of the character and sequence of courses in the graduate field is quite impossible. The following are some of the conditions which will be determining factors: (i) The facilities for offering graduate work. It is probable that com- paratively few institutions should attempt it at present in this new field. (2) The amount and character of undergraduate work completed by the students who seek to do graduate work. (3) The particular lines of specialization which the institution, either from choice or necessity, undertakes. 269 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION ADMINISTRATION OF COURSES No uniformity exists in plan of administration. In some cases a school maintains a separate department of religious education. The prevailing practice, however, is to have the courses administered by some other de- partment. The departments which usually perform this function are Bible, Education, Psychology or Phil- osophy, and members of these departments offer the various courses. This practice is no doubt dictated largely by administrative convenience, but this con- sideration must not continue to control if religious edu- cation is to be given its rightful place in college and university curricula. It is obvious, of course, that the work in religious education should not be administered primarily to strengthen some other department or to fill out the time of a teacher whose preparation and interest lie elsewhere. Least of all is any institution justified in tacking a hodgepodge of courses onto some department chiefly to placate its denominational constituency. Separate department. — -When a school main- tains a department of religious education, the term is used in a broad sense to include two closely re- lated but somewhat different types of work: (i) courses whose purpose is informational and cultural, and (2) professional courses the purpose of which is to prepare for the educational vocations and avoca- tions of the church. It is probable that many colleges will adopt this plan of administration. Courses administered by other departments. — In those colleges and universities where the courses are administered by another department, many schools will no doubt have the Department of Education per- 270 HIGHER INSTITUTIONS form this function. Because of the necessity for closely correlating the work of religious education with that of public education this department seems to be the logical one to do this. It is true that there must also be proper correlation with the work in other closely related fields. But in the view of the writer, this can be secured effectively by such an administra- tive arrangement. It need not be said, of course, that such an arrangement presupposes that the religious education courses shall be administered with the same degree of intelligence and interest as other courses in the department. This implies competent teachers who are selected specifically because of their interest in reli- gious education and their preparation in this field. The whole matter of organizing and administering courses in religious education is in the formative stage. One cannot therefore be dogmatic in statement con- cerning plans for administering the work. Three things, however, are clear : ( i ) The courses in religious education must be formulated and administered by persons whose interests and training qualify them for the task. (2) Proper correlations with other closely related fields of work are absolutely essential. (3) Local conditions will necessarily constitute an impor- tant factor in determining administrative plans and policies. In no case, however, should expediency be the determining factor. Any successful plan must be determined on the basis of securing the most effective administration of the work. 271 CHAPTER XII CONCLUSION The problems involved in organization and admin- istration in the field of religious education have been presented briefly in the foregoing chapters. No at- tempt has been made to treat these exhaustively. The most that was contemplated was to state them in suffi- cient detail to indicate their character and to suggest methods of procedure in their solution. In fact, only general problems can be indicated, since specific prob- lems have to be discovered in actual church and com- munity situations. The detailed methods to be used in initiating and carrying forward programs depend to such a large extent upon local conditions that about all that could well be done in a volume of this kind is to point out guiding principles. Experience has clearly demonstrated that a program cannot be successfully superimposed upon a church or a community. The extent of the program, method of financing, the matters pertaining to building and equip- ment, and the whole question of organization and ad- ministration are all determined largely by local con- ditions. There are, however, certain fundamental con- siderations which must always be taken into account. Two of these will receive special attention by way of emphasis and review at this time. THE RELIGIOUS MOTIVE IN EDUCATION The religious element has been left out of public education. In fact, in so far as the religious motive 272 CONCLUSION itself functions in American education it does so quite apart from the public-school system. Not only this, but even in higher institutions controlled by the church it has very little direct influence upon the type of edu- cation which they furnish. This is not said in a spirit of criticism so far as the public schools are con- cerned. They are not teaching religion and should not be expected to do so. The functions which the higher institutions should perform in this relation have al- ready been discussed in the previous chapter. Two things relating to the outlook for religious edu- cation seem to be entirely clear : ( i ) The religious mo- tive must function more powerfully than it is doing now in the education of American children and youth. (2) This will have to be accomplished through some agency other than the public school, and the church is the only logical agency upon which we can rely. The opportunity and responsibility of the church for reli- gious education are not as fully recognized as they should be, and until they are recognized and the re- sponsibility assumed not much progress will be made. Before the religious motive will express itself ade- quately in American education certain changes must take place. The realization of the need. — Until the American people become aroused to the need of religious instruc- tion for their children we shall not get very far. If seventy-five per cent of our children and youth of school age were receiving less than thirty hours of in- struction per week in public school subjects, deep con- cern would be manifested. The American people have set out to provide education for their children in almost everything else except religion. They seem to have little concern in the matter of adequate religious in- 273 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION struction for the great mass of American children and youth. Demand for extension of program. — An educa- tional motive, whether it be civic, vocational, moral, or religious, cannot function properly in the absence of an adequate program. Aims must be clearly de- fined and conceived in terms sufficiently definite to serve as guides in the selection and organization of subject-matter and activities. The time schedule must be in harmony with the task in hand. One hour per week is certainly inadequate. More time is needed and such distribution required as will secure the realization of the aims of instruction. The program must be or- ganized and administered in such way as to secure proper emphasis upon instruction, worship, recitation, and other forms of educational procedure. In short, a program of religious education is measured by the same standards as is any other kind of educational program. Religious education a public enterprise. — In a previous chapter it was held that religious education is a matter of public concern. Until this fact is recog- nized it will not receive the attention essential to the formulation and carrying out of the kind of program referred to above. The social nature of this educa- tional enterprise should not be confused with the type of organization used in carrying out the program. Here we are discussing the nature of the problem in- volved in religious education without reference to the means used in dealing with the problem. Let it be repeated that everybody in a community interested in the upbringing of its children and youth ought to be interested in their religious nurture and training. If this principle is accepted, the particular kind of organ- 274 CONCLUSION ization can be determined on a basis of local needs and conditions. THE EDUCATIONAL METHOD IN RELIGION The religious motive in education cannot be realized in the absence of an effective use of the educational method in religion. The value of this method in deal- ing with childhood and youth is fully recognized in other lines. We know it is essential to good citizen- ship, to preparation for vocations and avocations, and for the development of moral and ethical life. We do not recognize its value in religion except in a very lim- ited way. This statement might not be accepted by many people as valid. They will say that the church has always recognized the importance of this method and that it is now using it effectively. The controversy at this point can best be settled by going to the sources of information. There are certain objective evidences of the use of the educational method and we shall now turn our attention to these sources. Present enrollment in church schools. — An out- standing evidence that the educational method is not being used successfully is a fact which has already been cited, namely, that three fourths of the children of America are not now receiving formal religious in- struction. It is obvious that the method is failing in so far as these millions are concerned. A further fact, namely, that the attendance upon the schools is irregu- lar, that lessons are poorly prepared or not prepared at all, and that no adequate means of checking up re- sults are employed, demonstrates the ineffectiveness of the method as now employed. Buildings and equipment. — A fruitful use of the educational method is impossible in most churches be- 275 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION cause of their architecture. They were not built for educational purposes. They meet none of the require- ments of a school. In many cases they have no class- rooms and no educational equipment. A school of any kind cannot be carried on successfully except under certain favorable conditions. In the average church building, reading and writing and arithmetic could not be taught successfully, and neither can religion. The conditions are such that successful teaching and learn- ing of any kind are impossible. More than this, many of the churches that are now being built do not contemplate the use of the educa- tional method in religion. The writer has recently seen the plans for a new church in which provision is made for the preaching service and for social gather- ings. Even kitchen service is well provided for, but the plans leave out of account entirely the educational needs of children. No doubt the builders of this church expect to have a Sunday school, but, strangely enough, they have made no provision for it. We might just as well face the facts when we are discussing the use of the educational method. Schools cannot be successfully conducted .unless buildings and equipment are provided. To have anywhere from five or six to ten or twelve classes occupy a single room, however large it may be, makes impossible successful instruction of any kind. If the church cannot provide for the education of its children and youth, then let us have done with it and say so. But it accomplishes no purpose to blind ourselves to actual needs and refuse to recognize their existence. Church architec- ture will have to be materially changed if the educa- tional method in religion is to be made effective. Financial support. — Another evidence of the lack 276 CONCLUSION of the use of the educational method or of its ineffec- tive use is the absence of financial support given by the church to religious education. The writer has recently inspected a church budget calling for the ex- penditure of nearly $40,000, and approximately one fortieth of this amount was to be devoted to religious education. That is to say, the educational method was to be supported to the extent of one dollar to every thirty-nine dollars devoted to other methods. It should be said, however, that this church should be commended in one particular, namely, that it re- gards the support of its school as one of its financial obligations. Most churches do not include the support of the Sunday school in their budgets at all. Some churches boast that their Sunday schools are self- supporting. Two objections are registered against the self-supporting Sunday school. The first is that support of this kind is both precarious and inadequate. The second objection is even more important, namely, that the Sunday school should not be regarded in any sense as a money-raising institution. On the contrary, its function in this relation is to afford opportunity for children to be trained in the art of sacrifice and service by contributing systematically and permanently to one or more of the great causes of the church. Lack of educational organization. — A church or- ganized for educational purposes is the exception. There has been great improvement in the business organization and management of many churches. Organization for social purposes has also witnessed much improvement. These lines of improvement are a source of much encouragement and there is no dis- position on the part of the present writer to underesti- mate their significance. But the fact remains that a 277 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION great majority of our churches are not organized to take care of the educational needs of children and youth. The evidences of this are found in the meager program, lack of trained teachers, and the absence of any semblance of effective supervision. FUTURE DEVELOPMENT While conditions relating to religious education are far from what we would have them, the outlook is very encouraging. It is apparent that a great awakening is taking place. Churches are becoming increasingly conscious of the importance of the task and, fortu- nately, they are not alone in this recognition. Public- school officials and teachers, and other citizens who are viewing the matter primarily from the standpoint of education in general, are coming to realize that the absence of the distinctive religious element in the pub- lic schools makes it imperative that this defect in our educational system be in some way corrected. Agen- cies other than the public school will have to be relied upon to do this. Naturally, the responsibility rests heavily upon the church. Whether this responsibility shall be met by each denomination acting as a unit through its individ- ual churches or by a coordinated effort of denomina- tions through the cooperation of the various churches in a community, is not in itself of primary importance. The important thing, viewed both from the standpoint of the interests of the church at large and of society as a whole, is that an adequate program of religious instruction be provided and that it be administered effectively. Fortunately, a spirit in accordance with this principle is being widely manifested and is express- ing itself satisfactorily in many communities. 278 CONCLUSION Increasing importance of the Strnday school. — The Sunday school is destined to become increasingly efficient under the stimulus of the larger interest being manifested in religious education. Its work needs to be conceived in more vital terms, its program to un- dergo thoroughgoing reconstruction, and its organiza- tion radically modified to secure more effective admin- istration. These things are already beginning to take place, and the readjustments will be accelerated as the church comes to realize more fully that education is, in fact, its chief function. That the church will continue of necessity to reform life which has lost its spiritual contacts is entirely obvious. That it must place its emphasis more and more upon the proper instruction and guidance of children and youth in mat- ters pertaining to the great vital truths of religion is equally clear. Any program designed for service to individuals and society will therefore place increasing emphasis upon the educational agencies now at its command and those which may be created and oper- ated either by itself or through community cooperation in a common program of religious instruction. Extension of week-day instruction. — The Sun- day school at best cannot provide adequate religious instruction. The work must be extended in some way so that week-day instruction will be included. The plan of organization and administration of week-day schools will differ in different communities as local conditions may require. Uniformity in mode of pro- cedure is not of primary importance. It is of first importance, however, that we have uniformity in aim, namely, that every community in America shall provide opportunity for every child in that community to receive adequate religious instruction as an integral 279 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION part of his education. In this sense, universal religious instruction should be the objective of all who are in any way identified with the movement. Community week-day schools of religious instruction constitute one of the most important means of attain- ing this objective. These schools, where established, are securing results, in most cases, far beyond the ex- pectations of those responsible for their organization and maintenance. The response of both parents and children to the opportunities provided, the coopera- tion of the churches, the public schools, and the people in general, are most encouraging. That ill-advised pro- jects will be undertaken and some mistakes made in formulating and executing plans is not at all improb- able. This will be only incidental, however, to the great forward movement now under way for the estab- lishment of an adequate program of religious instruc- tion as an integral part of our American system of public education. aSo BIBLIOGRAPHY Athcam, Walter S. : The Church School, Chaps. I, II, III. The Pilgrim Press, 1914. Bagley, W. C: Craftsmanship in Teaching, Chaps. IV, V. The Macmillan Company, New York, 191 1. School Discipline, Chaps. I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII. The Macmillan Company, New York, 1914. Bardner, Lester : "The Gary Plan," Religious Education, February, 191 5, pp. 42-45- Bennett, Henry E. : School Efficiency, Chaps. XII, XIII, XIV, XX, XXIII, XXV. Ginn & Co., 1917. Betts, G. H. : The New Program of Religious Edu- cation, Chaps. IV, VII, VIII. The Abingdon Press, 1 92 1. Social Principles of Education, Chaps. Ill, IV, V. Charles Scribner's Sons, 19 13. The Curriculum of Religious Education, Oc- casional Papers, No. 2, Department of Reli- gious Education, Northwestern University, 1920. How to Teach Religion, Chaps. II, III, VII, VIII. The Abingdon Press, 191 9. Bliss, D. C: Methods and Standards for Local School Surveys, Chaps. I, II, VI. D. C. Heath & Co., 1918. Bobbitt, Franklin : The Curriculum, Chap. XIII. Hough- ton Mifflin Company, 19 18. Burton, Ernest DeWitt and Mathews, Shailer: Prin- ciples and Ideals for the Sunday School, Part I, Chap. I; Part II, Chaps. I, II, III, IV, VIII. University of Chicago Press, 1903. Coe, George A.: A Social Theory of Religious Educa- tion, Chaps. V, VI, VII, VIII, XIV, XVI, XVII. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1917. ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION "Correlating Religious Education with Public Edu- cation," Religioics Education, April 1916, pp. 109- 122. "Religious Education Finding Itself," School and Society, January 20, 191 5. Conrad, Henry M. : "The Lake Avenue (Rochester, N. Y.) Plan of Religious Education," Religious Education, December, 1920, pp. 312-314. Cope, Henry F. : Efficiency in the Sunday School, Chaps. I, III, V, VI, VII, XX. George H. Doran Com- pany, New York, 1912. Religious Education in the Church, Chaps. I, II, IV. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1918. "The Church and Public School in Religious Edu- cation," Religious Education, December, 1916, pp. 566-574. The School in the Modern Church, Chaps. I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, X, XVI. George H. Doran Com- pany, 1919. The Week-Day Church School, George H. Doran Company, 1921. Cowles, Mary K. : "The Van Wert Plan of Week-Day Religious Instruction," Religious Education, Feb- ruary, 1920, pp. 26-52. Cubberly, E. P. : "Public Education in the United States," Chap. II. Houghton Mifflin Company, New York, 1 919. "Public School Administration," Chaps. VII, VIII, IX, X, XIV, XV, XVIII, XIX, XX, XXI, Houghton Mifflin Company, New York, 1916. Davis, Dora A. and Stockwell, J. S. : "Developments in Week-Day Religious Instruction," Religious Edu- cation, June 1 91 9, pp. 193-207. Dennen, Ernest J.: The Sunday School Under Scien- tific Management, Chap. IV. The Young Churchman Company, 19 14. Dewey, John: Democracy and Education, Chaps. I, 282 BIBLIOGRAPHY II, III, IV. The Macmillian Company, New York, 19 1 6. Dutton, Samuel T. and Snedden, David : The Administra- tion of Public Education in the United States, Chaps. XV, XVI, XIX, XXX. The Macmillan Company, 191 6. Haas, J. A.: "Week-Day Religious Instruction and the Public School," Religious Education, February, 1 9 14, pp. 26-29. Hall, A. J.: Religious Education in the Public Schools of the State and City of New York. University of Chicago Press. Harris, W. T. : "The Separation of the Church From the Public School," Proceedings National Educa- tional Association, 1903, pp. 351-360. Hartshorne, Hugh: Worship in the Sunday School, Chaps. II, III, IV; Teachers College Publica- tions, 1913. Henderson, E. N. : Text-Book in the Principles of Edu- cation, Chap. I. The Macmillan Company, New York, 1 9 18. Hoag, Victor : "Week-Day Instruction in Batavia, Il- linois," Religious Education, December, 1920, pp. 307-309. Hogan, W. E. : Plans for Religious Education of Pupils in State Schools, Bulletin of the Board of Educa- tion of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, February, 191 5, pp. 202-209. Knox, W. J.: "The Public School as a Factor in Reli- gious Education," Religious Education, February, 191 5, pp. 60-68. McGiffert, Arthur C. : "A Teaching Church," Religious Education, February, 1 921, pp. 3-9. Mudge, E. Leigh: "The Psychology of the Week-Day Religious School," Religious Education, Decem- ber, 1920, pp. 305-307. Seaman, W. G. : "Gary's Week-Dey Community School 283 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION for Religious Instruction," Religious Education, October, 1918, pp. 338-339- Sears, J. B. : Classroom Organisation and Control, Chaps. I, II, V, VI, IX, X. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1918. Shawkey, M. R and Snow, Walter A. : Bible Study Syl- labus and Lesson Helps for High School Students in West Virginia. The James and Law Company, Lynchburg, West Virginia, 1920. Smith, W. W.: Religious Education, Chaps. I, XXIV, XXV. The Young Churchman Co., 1909. Squires, W. A.: The Week-Day Church School. Pres- byterian Board of Publication, 192 1. Stout, John E.: "Community Projects in Religious Edu- cation," Religious Education, December, 1920, pp. 310-311.^ Week-Day Religious Instruction Under Community Auspices, Occasional Papers No. 3; Department of Religious Education, Northwestern University. Terman, L. M.: The Intelligence of School Children, Chaps. I, II. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1919. Tittle, Ernest F.: What Must The Church Do To Be Saved?, Chap. I, The Abingdon Press, New York. Wilson, H. B.: "High School Credits for Bible Study in Kansas," Religious Education, December, 1905, pp. 574-578. Wood, C. A.: School and College Credit for Outside Bible Study, Chaps. I, II ; Appendixes A. B, C, D. World Book Company, 191 7. "Week-Day Religious Instruction," Religious Edu- cation, August, 19 1 7, pp. 259-264. Woodrow, Herbert: Brightness and Dullness in Chil- dren, Chaps. I, II, III, VI, VII. J. B. Lippin- cott Company, 191 9. 284 INDEX Adolescence, 58 Aims of Religious Education, 37 Bible Study Examples of credit for, 119- 121 Plans of administering, 119- 122 Relation of Public School to, 116 School credit for, 115 Board of Religious Educa- tion Composition of, 97 Executive officer of, 104 Functions of, 98 Qualifications of, 97 Budget Method of securing, 109, iio Permanent support of, ill, 112 Provisions for, 100 Sources of funds, 107, 108 Character Development of, 57 Relation of education to, 57 Church An instrument of service, 13 Avocations of, 258 Demands upon, 13, 14, 16 Educational function of, 24, ^ 25. 153 Educational organization of, 277 Fimctions of, 14, 24 Language of, 17 Leadership of, 13 Preparing for service in the, 262 Program of, 20, 21 Recruiting membership of, ^ 32-33 Relation of to state, 29, 30 Separation of state from, 27 Service of education to, 32 Teaching function of, 154 Vocations of the, 256 Church Membership Preparation for, 33-34, 48-49 Relation of education to, 33- 34, 48-49 Church School Curricula of, 74, 75, 146-152 Definition of, 139 Factors determining program of, 142, 145 Fimctions of, 30, 31, 32-35, 39, 65, 70. 76 Influence of Week Day School upon, 140, 141 Organization and administra- tion, 152, 153 Program of, 141 Relation of the Church to, 153, 154 Reorganization of, 155, 156 Scope of work of, 142 Standards of, 140 Time schedule of, 143 Classroom Work Supervision of, 198-200 Community, Organization of, 85 Community Council Agencies at the command of, 94-95 Factors determining organiza- tion of, 88 Organization of, 87 Organization within the, 96 Community Organizations Examples of, 88-91 Fundamental characteristics of, 92-94 Community Schools Buildings for use of, 131, 132 Curricula of, 128, 129 Examples of, 133-137 28s ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Community Schools— Cont'd Factors involved in organiza- tion of, 123, 127 Financial support of, 107 Formulation of program of, 127 Gradation of, 130 Securing funds for use of, 1 10, III Success of, 138, 280 Time schedules of, 124, 125 Curricula Aims determining, 75-76 Correlation of, 81 Organization of, 80 Reconstruction of, 83-84 Unsatisfactory character of, 75 Education Relation of to church member- ship, 32-35 Religious motive in, 28, 272 Service of Church to, 31 Social character of, 85-86 Universality of, 59 Health, Relation of education to, 40, 41 Higher Institutions, 247 Changes in policy of, 250 Fimctions of, 250, 251 Present curricula of, 249 Leisure Time Preparation for use of, 41, 42 Relation of education to, 41, 42 Parents Cooperation of, 225 Interest of, 219 Program Adaptation of, 63 Administration of, 64 Appeal of, 21 Extent of, 64 Formulation of, 21-23 Principles of making, 61-64 Standards determining, 60, 61, 62 Twofold aim of, 65-68, 70, 71 Unified character of, 65 Public Education Aims of, 26, 37, 38 Dependence upon, 25 Emphasis upon, 25 Extension of, 25 Lack of religious element in, 28 Pupils Attendance of, 216 Classification of, 233 Elimination of, 241 Enrollment of, 212 Gradation of, 227, 228, 229, 235, 236 Interest of, 219 Management of, 211 Promotion of, 227, 235 Punctuality of, 222 Retardation of, 239 Use of standards in grading, 230-233 Religion Educational method in, 275 Relation of to education, 26 Relation of to life, 15 Relation of to truth, 18 Social character of, 14-15 Religious Education Administration of courses in, 270, 271 Aims of, 37, 39 Board of, 97 Courses in, 264-266 Department of, 270 Function of in training leader- ship, 35, 36 Future development of, 278 In higher institutions, 247 Lack of clear definition of aims, 37 Lack of interest in, 37 Neglect of, 29 Program of, 60 Proximate aims of, 49-57 Relation of church to, 30 Relation of state to, 30 Two-fold purpose of, 39 Ultimate aims of, 39-49 Universality of, 61-62 School Discipline Causes of failure in, 243 Functions of, 244 Importance of, 242 286 INDEX Schools Church training, 176 Community training, 172 Local training, 171 Social Relationships Preparation for, 45 Relation of education to, 45- Social Task Nature of, 15 Relation of the church to, 16 State Relation of to church, 29, 30 Separation of church from, 27 Subject Matter Determining factors in selec- tion of, 79 Organization of, 79 Sources of, 76-77 Types of, 78 Sunday School Curricula of the, 146 Distribution of time in, 144, 145 Gradation of work in, 150, 238 Increasing importance of, 279 Organization and administra- tion of , 152, 155-156 Reorganization of, 147 Scope of work of, 142 Time schedule of, 71, 72 Use of term, 139 Supervision Functions of, 194-196 Methods of, 205-207 Principles of, 202-205 Teachers Aims in training of, 160-163 Classification of, 196, 197 Importance of training, 160 FaciUties for training, 158 Means of rating, 189-192 Means of training, 165-170 Personal characteristics of, 189 QuaHfications of, 185, 186, 188 Selection of, 185 Supervision of, 180, 185 Training of, 157 Training of in higher institu- tions, 170 Teachers' Meetings Causes of failure of, 207 Time Schedules Extension of, 71-72 Minimum, 73 Vocations Preparation for, 43, 44 Relation of education to, 43, 44 Week-day Schools Curricula of, 128, 129 Demand for, 113 Extension of, 279, 280 Gradation of, 130 Organization of, 113, 122, 123 Principles governing, 127 Program of, 127 Time schedules of, 124 287 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY BERKELEY Return to desk from which borrowed. This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. 16Ma/5IWK RES P OCT 2 1955 Lii 280d'S6f« LP 21-100m-ll,'49(B7146sl6)476 OCT 14 me jUN29t984 4: ciR MAY 25 198i LSs:x YB 29(63 U.C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES €005347710 492200 ^ UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY aarhiitr^ .ii itt-v , -i&