BIOLOGY LIBRARY G THE ROYAL NATURAL HISTORY THE ROYAL NATURAL HISTORY EDITED BY RICHARD LYDEKKER, B.A., F.R.S., ETC. WITH PREFACE BY P. L. SCLATER, M.A., PH.D., F.R.S., ETC. SECRETARY OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON ILLUSTRATED WITH Seventy-two Coloured Plates and Sixteen Hundred Engravings BY W. KUHNEBT, F. SPECHT, P. J. SffiT, G. MUTZEL, A. T. ELWES, J. WOLF, GAMBLER BOLTON, F.Z.S.; AND MANY OTHERS VOL. in. LONDON FEEDEEICK WAENE & CO. AND NEW YORK 1894-95 [All Hights Reserved] MORRISON AND GIBB, PRINTERS, EDINBURGH CONTENTS MAMMALS CHAPTEK XXIX. CETACEANS, Order Cetacea. General Characters Distribution Habits Classification The Whalebone Whales (Balcenidce) Eight Whales (Catena) Greenland Whale Southern Whale Fossil Species Pigmy Whale (Neobalcena) Grey Whale (Rhachianectes) Humpback Whale (Megaptera) Fin-Whales, or Rorquals (Balcenoptera) Lesser Fin- Whale Rudolphi's Fin-Whale Common Fin- Whale Sibbald's Fin- Whale Fossil Fin- Whales, CHAPTER XXX. CETACEANS, continued. TOOTHED WHALES (Odontoceti). Distinction between Toothed and Whalebone Whales Sperm-Whales and their Allies (Physeteridce) The Sperm- Whale (Physeter) Ex- tinct Sperm-Whales Lesser Sperm-Whale (Cogia) Bottlenose-Whale (Hyperoodon) Cuvier's Whale (ZipJiius) Beaked Whales (Mesoplodon) Sowerby's Whale Layard's Whale Arnux's Whale (Berardius) Ancestral Sperm- Whales (Physodontidce) Fresh- water Dolphins (Platanistidce) Gangetic Dolphin (Platanista) Amazonian Dolphin (Inia) La Plata Dolphin (Stenodelphis) Allied Extinct Dolphins The Porpoises and Dolphins (Delphinidce) The Narwhal (Monodori) White Whale (Delphinapterus) Porpoises (Phocce.no} Common Porpoise Porpoise - Hunting Indian Porpoise Heaviside's Dolphin (Cephalorhynchus) Irawadi Dolphin (Orcella) Killer, or Grampus (Oreo) Lesser Killer (Pseudorca) ~Blackfish(Globiocephalus) Risso's Dolphin ((rram/ms) Short-Beaked Dolphins (Lagenorhynchus) White-Sided Dolphin Pacific Dolphin White-Beaked Dolphin True Dolphins (Delphinus) Common Dolphin Allied Species Bottle-Nosed Dolphins (Tursiops) Rough- Toothed Dolphins (Stem) Long- Beaked River Dolphins (Sotalia) Chinese Dolphin Squalodonts and Zeuglodonts (Squalodontidce and Zeuglodontidw), ....... 23 252333 vi CONTENTS CHAPTER XXXI. THE RODENTS, Order Rodentia. PAGE General Characteristics of the Order Teeth Mouth Distribution and Habits African Flying Squirrels (Anomaluridce) The Squirrel Family (Sciuridce) Groove-Toothed Squirrel (Rhithrosciurus) Spiny Squirrels (Xerus) True Squirrels (Sciurus) European Squirrels Distribution North American Squirrels Oriental Squirrels Ground- Squirrels, or Chipmunks (Tamias) Susliks, or Gophers (Spermophilus) Prairie- Marmots (Cynomys) True Marmots. (Arctomys) Distribution Old World Species American Species Allied Extinct Rodents Flying Squirrels Lesser Flying Squirrels (Sciuropterus) Distribution and Habits Larger Flying Squirrels (Pteromys) Woolly Flying Squirrel (Eupetaurus) Pigmy Squirrels (Nannosciurus) The Sewellels (Haplodontidce) Common Sewellel (Haplodon) Californian Sewellel The Beavers (Gastoridce) European and American Species (Castor) Distribution of the European Beaver Range of the American Species Habits Fses and Trapping of Beavers Extinct Beavers, . .Go CHAPTER XXXII. RODENTS, continued. THE MOUSE-LIKE RODENTS. The Dormice (Myoxidce) Common Dormouse (Muscardinus) Squirrel-Tailed and Garden Dormice (Myoxus) Tree-DormouseExtinct Dormice Jumping Mice and Jerboas (Dipodidce) The Jumping Mouse (Zapus) The Five-Toed Jerboas Kirghiz Jerboa (Alactaga) Afghan Jerboa Yarkand Jerboa (Euchoretes) Broad -Tailed Jerboas (Platycercomys) Three -Toed, or True Jerboas (Dipus) Habits of Egyptian Jerboa African Jumping Hare (Pedetes) The Sminthus (Sminthus) The Mouse Tribe (Muridce) Australian Water - Rat (Hydromys) Queensland Rat (Xeromys) Malabar Spiny Mouse (Platacanthomys) The Gerbils (Gerbillus) Philippine Rat (Phlceomys) Hamsters and White-Footed Mice (Cricetus) Common Hamster and Its Habits Species of White-Footed Mice The Fish -Eating Rat (Ichthyomys) Grooved -Toothed Mice (Rhithrodontomys and Rhithrodon) Wood-Rats (Neotoma) African Crested Rat (Lophiomys) The Voles (Microtus) Water- Yole Short- Tailed Field- Vole Bank- Vole- Alpine Vole Other Species Lemmings (Myodes) Banded Lemming (Cuniculus) Musquash (Fiber) Mole-Like Voles (Ellobius and Siphneus) Rats and Mice (Mus) Brown Rat Black Rat House - Mouse Long - Tailed Field - Mouse Harvest - Mouse Other Species Bandicoot Rats (Nesocia) Bush-Rats (Golunda) Spiny Mice (Acomys) Jerboa-Rats (Hapalotis) Lichtenstein's Rat (Mastacomys) Mole-Rats (Spalacidce) Great Mole-Rat (Spalax) Bamboo-Rats (Rhizomys) Cape Mole-Rats (Bathyergus) Naked Sand-Rats (Heterocephalus) American Pouched Rats (Geomyidce) Pocket- Gopher (Geomys) Northern Pocket - Gopher (Thomomys) Kangaroo -Rats (Dipodomys) Pocket -Mice (Perognathus and Heteromys), . . . . . . . .104 CHAPTER XXXIIL RODENTS, continued. THE PORCUPINE-LIKE RODENTS. General Characters of the Group The Octodont Tribe (Octodontidce) The Gundi (Ctenodactylus^The Degu (Octodon) The Tucotucos (Ctenomys) The Coypu (Myopotamui)The Hutias (Capromys Plagiodon The Cane-Rat (Aulacodus) Other Genera The Porcupines (Hystricidce) Canadian Porcu- pine (Erethizon) Tree-Porcupines (Synetheres) Brazilian and Mexican Species Thin- Spined Porcupine (Chcetomys)^?^ Porcupines (Hystrix) Brush-Tailed Porcupines (Atherura) Giinther's Porcupine (Trichys) Chinchillas and Viscachas (Chinchillidce) True Chinchillas (Chinchilla) Common Species Short-Tailed Species Cuvier's Chinchilla (Lagidium) The Viscacha (Lagostomus) Description of a Viscachera Agutis and Pacas (Dasyproctidce) The Argutis (Dasyprocta) Common Species Aguchi The Pacas (Ccelogenys) Branick's Paca (Dinomys) The Cavies (Caviidce) True Cavies (Cavia) Restless Cavy Cutler's Cavy Guinea-Pig Bolivian Cavy Rock- Cavy Patagonian Cavy (Dolichotis) Carpincho, or Capivara (Hydrochcerus), . .154 CONTENTS vii CHAPTER XXXIV. RODENTS, concluded. THE HARE-LIKE RODENTS. Distinctive Features of the Group The Picas (Lagomyidce) Distribution arid Habits Hares and Rabbits (Leporidce) Common Hare (Lepus) Mountain - Hare North American Hares Asiatic Hares African Species The Rabbit Its Distribution and Acclimatisation Domesticated Rabbits, . .189 CHAPTER XXXV. THE EDENTATES, Order Edentata. Characteristics Distribution Mode of Life The Sloths (Bradypodidce) Three-Toed Sloths (Bradypus) Two- Toed Sloths (Cholcepus) Extinct Ground-Sloths (Megatheriidce) The Ant- Eaters (Myrmecophagidce) Great Ant-Eater (Myrmecophaga) The Taman- dua (Tamandud) Two-Toed Ant-Eater (Cycloturus) The Armadillos (Dasypodidce) The Pichiciago (Chlamydophorus) Six-Banded Armadillos (Dasypus) Their Structure and Mode of Life Broad-Banded Armadillo (Lysiurus) Giant Armadillo (Priodori) Three-Banded Armadillo (Tolypeutes) Peba Armadillo (Tatusia) Other Species The Extinct Glyptodonts (Glyptodontidce) The Pangolins (Manidce) Asiatic Species African Pangolins Aard-Varks (Orycteropodidce), ..... 202 CHAPTER XXXVI. THE POUCHED MAMMALS, OR MARSUPIALS, Order Marsupialia. Distinctive Characters Teeth Mode of Suckling Young Distribution The Kangaroos and Their Allies (Macropodidce) Kangaroos and Wallabies (Macropus) Rock- Wallabies (Petrogale) Spur- Tailed Wallabies (Onychogale) Hare- Wallabies (Lagorchestes) Dorca Kangaroos (Dorcopsis) Tree-Kangaroos (Dendrolagus) Banded Wallaby (Lagostrophus) Rat-Kangaroos Common Rat- Kangaroo (Potorous) Brush-Tailed Rat- Kangaroo (Bettongia) Rufous Rat-Kangaroo (^Epyprymnus) Five-Toed Rat- Kangaroo (Hypsi- prymnodori] Extinct Kangaroo-Like Marsupials The Phalanger Tribe (Phalangeridce) Long-Snouted Phalanger (Tarsipes) discuses (Phalanger) True Phalangers (Tricho- surus) Crescent- Toothed Phalangers (Pseudochirus) Great Fly ing- Phalanger (Petaur- oides) Striped Phalanger (Dadylopsila) True Fly ing- Phalangers (Petaurus) Lead- beater's Phalanger (Gymnobelideus) Dormouse-Phalangers (Dromicia) Pigmy Flying- Phalanger (Acrobates) Pen-Tailed Phalanger (Distcechurus) Koala (Phascolarctus) Great Extinct Phalanger (Thylacoleo) The Wombats (Phascolomyidce) The Bandicoots (Peramelidce) True Bandicoots (Perameles) Rabbit-Bandicoot (Peragale) Pig-Footed Bandicoot (Chceropus) The Dasyure Tribe (Dasyuridce) Thylacine (Thylacinus) Tasmaniaii Devil (Sarcophilus) Dasyures (Dasyurus) Phascologales (Phascologale) Common Pouched Mouse (Sminthopsis) Jerboa Pouched Mouse (Antechinomys) Banded Anteater (Myrmecobius) The Pouched Mole (Notoryctidce) The Opossums (Didelphyidce) True Opossums (Didelphys) Water -Opossum (Chironectes) Extinct Marsupials, .......... 235 CHAPTER XXXVII. EGG-LAYING MAMMALS, OR MONOTREMES, Order Monotremata. Distinctive Features The Duckbill (Ornithorhynchidce) Its Structure and Habits The Echidnas (Echidnidce) Allied Extinct Mammals, ..... 283 viii CONTENTS BIRDS CHAPTER I. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. PAGF, Distinctive Characters of Birds Skeleton Skull External Characters Plumage Change of Plumage Eggs Migration Distribution Classification, . . 289 CHAPTER II. PERCHING-BIRDS, Order Passeres. CHARACTERS OF THE ORDER. The Crow Tribe (Corvidce) Ravens and Crows (Corvus) Rook Jackdaw Nutcrackers (Nucifraga) Magpies (Pica) Azure-Winged Magpies (Gyano- pica)~Blne Magpies ( Urocissa) Indian Tree- ~Pies, 9 (Dendrocitta) Jays (Garrulus) Siberian Jay (Perisoreus) Long-Crested Jay (Cyanocitta) Urraca 3zy(Cyanocorax) Struthidea Piping Crows (Gymnorhina) Choughs (Graculus) Chough - Thrushes (Podoces) Huia-Bird (Heteralocha) Birds of Paradise (Paradiseidce) Twelve- Wired Bird of Paradise (Seleucides) Allied Genera Gorget Bird of Paradise (Astrapia) Wattled Bird of Paradise (Paradigalla) Typical Group (Paradisea) King Paradise- Bird (Gincinnurus) Wilson's Bird of Paradise (Diphyllodes) Six -Plumed Bird of Paradise (Parotid} Standard- Wing (Semioptera) Superb Bird of Paradise (Lophorhina) Bower-Birds (Ptilonorhynchidce) Satin Bower -Bird (Ptilonorhijnchus) Spotted Bower-Bird (Chlamydodera) Gardener Bower-Bird (Amblyornis) Starlings (Sturnidce) Typical Group (Sturnus) Rose - Coloured Starling (Pastor) Other Genera Ox- Peckers (Buphaga) Glossy Starlings and Grackles (Eulabetidce) African Glossy Starlings (Larnprotornis and Lamprocolius) Grackles or Hill Mynas (Eulabes) Asiatic- Glossy Starlings (Calornis) Drongos (Dicruridce) Orioles (Oriolidce) Cassiques and Hangnests (Icteridce) Cassiques (Ostinops and Gassicus) True Hangnests (Icterus) Rice-Birds (Dolichonyx) Cow-Birds (Molothrus) Red-Shouldered Starling (Agelceus) Troupials (Quiscalus) Weaver-Birds (Ploceidce) Ox-Birds (Textor) White-Headed Weaver (Dinemellia) True Weaver-Birds (Ploceus) Masked Weaver (Hyphantornis) Paradise Whydah Birds (Vidua) Bishop -Birds (Pyromelana} Sociable Weavers (Philceterus) Cut -Throat Weaver -Finches (Amadina) Muiiias (Munia) Blood Weaver-Finches (Estrilda) Tanagers (Tanagridce) Violet Tanager (Euphonia) Scarlet Tanagers (Pyranga) White - Capped Tanager (Stephanophorus) Honey - Creeper (Cwrebidce) West Indian Honey-Creepers (Certhiola) Banana-Quit, . . 305 CHAPTER III. PERCHING-BIRDS, continued. FINCHES (Fringillidce) Grosbeak Group (Coccothraustince) Greenfinches (Ligurinus) Haw- finches (Coccothraustes) Rose-Breasted Grosbeak (Hedymeles)Hed Cardinals (Gardin- alis) True Finches (Fringillince) Chaffinches (Fringilla) Siskins (Chrysomitris) Linnets (Linaria) Snow-Finches (Montifringilla) Desert Finches (Erythrospiza) Rock-Sparrows (Petronia) True Sparrows (Passer) Serin Finches (Serinus) Oanary Rose-Finches (Carpodacus) Bullfinches (Pyrrhula) Pine - Grosbeak (Pinicola) Crossbills (Loxia) Laysan Finch (Telespiza) The Buntings (Emberizince) Snow- Bunting (Plectrophenax) Lapland Bunting (Calcarius) Typical Group (Emberiza)- Reed Bunting Common Bunting Black-Headed Bunting Yellow-Breasted Bunting Yellow Bunting Cirl Bunting Ortolan Bunting Meadow Bunting Allied Genera, ........... 377 CHAPTER IV. PERCHING-BIRDS, continued. THE L&-RKs(Alaudidce) Skylarks (Alauda)Woodl&Tk(Lullula) Crested Larks (Galerita) Desert -Lark (Alcemori) Short-Toed Larks (Calandrella) Calandra Larks (Melano- corypha} Horned Larks (Otocorys) The Wagtails and Pipits (Motacillidce) Wagtail* CONTENTS ix (Motacilla) White Wagtail Yellow-Headed, Grey, Blue-Headed, and Cape Wagtails Pipits (Anthus)Tru& Pipit Meadow Pipit Richard's Pipit Tawny Pipit The Creepers (Gerthiidce) Wall Creeper (Tichodroma) Australian Straight Claws (Or- thonyx~)The Nuthatches (Sittidw)^}^ Honey-Eaters (Meliphagidce) Parson-Bird (Prosthemadera) Stitch-Bird (Pogonornis) White-Eyes (Zosterops) The Sun-Birds (Nectariniidw) Typical Group (NedanVim) The Honey- Peckers (Dicceidce)The. Tits (Paridce) True Tits (Parus) Crested Tits (Lophophanes) Long- Tailed Tits (Acredula) Bearded Tits (Pcwmrws) New Zealand Creepers (Gerthiparus) Allied Types The Shrikes (Laniidce) Shrike Tits (Falcunculus) True Shrikes (Lanius) Great Grey, Lesser Grey, Bed-Backed, Woodchat, Masked and Hooded Shrikes Miiiivets (Peri- crocotus) Other Genera The Waxwings (Ampelidm) Cedar Bird, . . . 417 CHAPTER V. PERCHING-BIRDS, continued. THE THRUSHES AND WARBLERS (Turdidce) True Thrushes (Turdus) Missel-Thrush Song- Thrush Redwing Fieldfare Blackbirds(MerWa) Rock-Thrushes(Mow^'coZa) Blue- Birds (Sialia) Chats (Saxicola) Wheatear Blackchat Whinchat Stonechat Fork- Tails (Henicurus) Redstarts (Ruticilla) Black Redstart Blue-Throated Warbler (Erythacus) Redbreast Rubythroat Nightingales New Zealand Robins (Miro) Dhyal Birds (Gopsychus) Shamas (Gittocincla) Grey Warbler (Gerygone) True Warblers (Sylvia) Whitethroats Subalpine, Spectacled, Sardinian, Orphean, and Garden Warblers Blackcap Barred, Dartford, and Willow Warblers Icterine Warbler (Hypolais) Reed Warblers (Acrocephalus) Grasshopper Warbler (Locustella) River- Warbler Savi's Warbler Pheasant-Tailed Warbler (Stipiturus malacurus) Cetti's Warbler (Bradypterus) Fan-Tailed Warblers (Gisticola) Accentors (Accentor) Hedge-Sparrow Goldcrest (Reyulus) Firecrest Rubycrest The Wood Warblers (Mniotiltidce) The Dippers (Cindidce) The Wrens (Troglodytid(e)Trne Wrens (Tro- glodytes') Cactus -Wrens (Campylorhynchus)^^ Mocking - Birds (Mimidce) The Babblers (Crateropodidce) Typical Babblers (Crateropus) Green Bulbuls (Chloropsis) True Bulbuls (Pycnonotus) Liothrix The Flycatchers (Muscicapidce) True Fly- catchers (Muscicapa) Spotted, Pied, White-Collared, and Red-Breasted Flycatchers Paradise Flycatchers (Terpsiphone) Fantail- Fly catchers (Ehipidura) The Swallows (Hirundinidw) True Swallows (Hirundo) Chimney and Red-Rumped Swallows Martins (Chelidon) Sand-Martins (Cotile) Purple Martins (Progne\ . . 468 CHAPTER VI. PERCHING-BIRDS, concluded. THE AMERICAN FLYCATCHERS (Tyrannidce) Tyrant Flycatchers (Tymnnus) Bienteveo Tyrant Ant-Birds (Formicivora) The Chatterers (Cotingidce) Umbrella-Bird (Ceph- alopterus) Bell -Birds (Chasmorhynchus) Cotingas (Cotinga) Manakins (Pipra) Cocks of the Rock (Eupicola) The Plant-Cutters (Phytotomidce)T}iQ Broadbills (Eurylcemidce)^^ Pittas (Pittidce) The Wood-Hewers (Dendrocolaptidce)0\en- Birds (Furnarius) Spine-Tails (Synallaxis) The Lyre-Birds (Menuridce), . . 527 CHAPTER VII. THE PICARIAN BIRDS, Order Picarice. GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE ORDER The Jacamars (Galbulidv) True Jacamars (Galbula) Broad-Billed Jacamars (Jacamerops) The Puff-Birds (Bucconidce) The Woodpeckers (Picidce) Ground Woodpecker (Geocolaptes) Bright - Shafted Wood- peckers (Colaptes) Golden- Winged, and Pampas Woodpeckers- -Green Woodpeckers (Gecinus) Grey - Headed Woodpecker African Green Woodpeckers (Chloron- erpes) Red - Headed Woodpeckers (Melanerpes) Sap - Suckers (Sphyropicus) Pied Woodpeckers (Dendrocopus) Three-Toed Woodpeckers (Picoides) Crimson Headed Bay Woodpecker (Lepocestes) Rufous Woodpeckers (Micropternus) Ivory - Billed CONTENTS Woodpeckers (Hemilophus) Great Black Woodpecker (Picus) Piculets (Picumnus)- Rufous Piculets (Sasia) The Wrynecks (lyngidce] The Honey-Guides (Indicatoridce) The Barbets (CapitonidcK) Tooth-Billed Barbets (Pogonorhynchus) Tinker Barbets (Barbatula) Brown Barbets (Colorhamphus) Great Barbets (Megalcema) Crimson- Headed Barbet (Xantholcema) The Toucans (Rhamphastidce) Toco Toucan (Rham- phastus) Aracari Toucans (Pteroglossus), ...... INDEX, LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS COLOURED PLATES MAMMALS THE RED KANGAROO, ........ Frontispiece THE GREENLAND WHALE, ....... Facing page 8 FLYING SQUIRREL, ........ ,,89 HARVEST MOUSE, ........ ,,144 CRESTED PORCUPINE, ....... .. 168 THE TWO-TOED SLOTH, ........ ,,208 BIRDS GLOSSY STARLINGS, ........ Facing page 349 WEAVER-BIRDS, ......... 362 DESERT FINCH AND DESERT LARK, ...... 380 BUNTINGS, .......... ,,408 WHEATEAR, STONECHAT, AND WHINCHAT, ..... 480 DIPPER, PIED-WAGTAIL, AND YELLOW- WAGTAIL, .... 507 PAGE PLATES MAMMALS HUMPBACK WHALES DISPORTING, ....... Page 15 A COLONY OF BOBAC MARMOTS, .... . 85 BEAVERS AT WORK, .......... 97 PHILIPPINE RATS, ........... 121 A SCENE IN SOUTH AMERICA WITH RHEAS AND PATAGONIAN CAVIES, . 183 A HERD OF CARPINCHOS, ...... 187 CAPE AARD-VARKS AT HOME, ......... 232 BIRDS GROUP OF CROWS, ......... Page 307 GROUP OF FINCHES, .....,... 376 GROUP OF TITS, ............ 448 GROUP OF THRUSHES, .......... 469 GREAT BLACK WOODPECKERS EXPLORING, ....... 550 Xll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS TEXT ENGRAVINGS MAMMALS PAGE Sibbald's Fin-Whale, . . 1 Skeleton of Greenland Whale, . . 2 The Greenland Whale, . . 7 Section of Skull of Greenland Whale, . 8 Skeleton of Fin- Whale, . 18 The Lesser Fin- Whale, . . .19 The Common Fin- Whale, ... 21 Skeleton of Sperm-Whale, . . 24 The Sperm- Whale, ... 26 Skull of a Bottlenose- Whale, . . 30 Bottlenose- Whale, . . . .32 Skull of Sowerby's Whale, . . 34 Skull of the Physodon, ... 36 The Gangetic Dolphin, . . 38 The Amazonian Dolphin, . . .40 Skeleton of Dolphin, . .41 A School of Narwhals, . . .42 The White Whale, . . 44 The Common Porpoise, . . .46 Porpoise Diving, . . . .47 Heaviside's Dolphin, . . .49 Teeth of the Killer, . . .51 The Killer, .... 52 The Blackfish, .... 54 Bisso's Dolphin, . . . .56 The Pacific Short-Beaked Dolphin, . 57 The Common Dolphin, . . .59 Bed-Bellied Dolphin, ... 60 The Slender Dolphin, ... 60 Bottle-Nosed Dolphin, . . 61 The Bough-Toothed Dolphin, . . 62 The Pale River-Dolphin, . . 63 Skull of Prairie-Marmot, . .66 Skeleton of Squirrel, . . .69 The Fulgent Flying Squirrel, . . 69 The Abyssinian Spiny Squirrel, . . 71 The European Squirrel, . . .73 The Irawadi Squirrel, . . .76 The Common Chipmunk, . . .78 The Common Suslik, . . .80 The Prairie-Marmot, . . .82 The Alpine Marmot, . . .88 American Flying Squirrel, . . 91 Skeleton and Jaws of Beaver, . . 96 Skeleton and Molars of Dormouse, . 1 04 The Common Dormouse, . . .105 The Squirrel -Tailed and Garden -Dor- mouse, . . . . .107 Skeleton of Garden Dormouse, . .109 Skeleton of Jerboa, . . .110 The Kirghiz Jerboa, Egyptian Jerboa, . The African Jumping Hare, Skeleton of Jumping Hare, Skeleton and Molars of Brown Bat, Jaw and Teeth of Gerbil, . Egyptian Gerbil, . The Hamster, Teeth of Vole, The Water- Vole, . The Continental Field-Vole, The Alpine Vole, . The Norwegian Lemming, The Musquash, The Brown Bat, . The Black Bat, The House Mouse, The Barbary Mouse, The Great Mole-Bat, The Common Pocket Gopher, The Common Kangaroo-Bat, Skeleton of the Cane-Bat, . The Degu, . The Magellanic Tucotuco, The Coypu, The Hutia-Couga, . The Cane-Bat, . . . . Skeleton of Porcupine, The Canadian Porcupine, . Brazilian Tree-Porcupine, . Mexican Tree-Porcupine, . Common Porcupine, African Brush-Tailed Porcupine, . The Chinchilla, . The Short-Tailed Chinchilla, Cuvier's Chinchilla, The Viscacha, A Viscachera. Skeleton and Skull of Aguti, The Common Aguti, Skull of Paca, The Paca, . The Guinea- Pig, . Skeleton and Teeth of Hare, Siberian Pica, Hare in its Form, . Common Hare, Mountain- Hare, Babbit, Lop- Eared Babbit, 113 114 115 116 118 119 120 123 129 130 131 133 135 137 140 142 143 145 ]48 151 152 154 156 157 158 160 161 163 164 165 166 167 168 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 181 189 190 192 194 195 198 200 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xin PAGE Half- Lop Rabbit, . . 201 The Great Ant-Eater, . . . . 202 Skeleton of Three-Toed Sloth, . . 204 The Common Three-Toed Sloth, . . 206 Skull of Extinct Ground Sloth, . . 209 Skeleton of Great Ant-Eater, . . 210 The Great Ant-Eater, . . .211 The Tamandua, . . . .213 Two-Toed Ant-Eater, . . .214 Skeleton of Armadillo, . . .216 The Pichiciago, . . . .218 The Weasel-Headed Armadillo, . . 220 The Giant Armadillo, . . .223 The Three-Banded Armadillo, . . 224 Carapace and Skeleton of Glyptodon, . 225 Sheath of Tail of Glyptodont, . . 226 Skeleton of Pangolin, . . .227 The Indian Pangolin, . . . 228 The Short-Tailed Pangolin, . . 229 White-Bellied Pangolin, . . .230 The Ethiopian Aard-Vark, . . 233 Bennett's Wallaby, . . .235 Jaws and Teeth of Rat-Kangaroo, . 237 Skeleton of Kangaroo, . . . 238 Skull of Lesueur's Rat-Kangaroo, . 239 The Great Grey Kangaroo, . . 240 The Pandamelon Wallaby, . . 242 Yellow-Footed Rock- Wallaby, . . 245 The Common Hare- Wallaby, . . 246 The Black Tree-Kangaroo, . .248 Common Rat- Kangaroo, . . . 250 Brush-Tailed Rat-Kangaroo, . .251 Skull of Diprotodon, . . . 253 Skeleton of Phalanger, . . . 254 PAGE The Long-Snouted Phalanger, . . 255 Spotted Cuscus, .... 257 Common Phalanger, . . . 259 Squirrel Elying Phalanger . . 261 Pigmy Flying Phalanger, . < . 262 The Koala, .... 263 Skull of Extinct Phalanger, . . 264 Skeleton of Wombat, . . .265 Wombats, . . . . .266 Skull of Tasmanian Devil . . 268 Skeleton of Thylacine, . . .269 The Thylacine, . . . .270 The Tasmanian Devil, . . .271 Common Dasyure, . . . 272 Yellow-Footed Pouched- Mouse, . . 273 Brush-Tailed Phascologale, . 274 Jerboa Pouched-Mouse, . . . 275 The Banded Ant-Eater, . . 275 Pouched-Mole, . .276 Feet of the Pouched-Mole, . . 276 Skull and Foot-Bones of Pouched-Mole, . 277 Common Opossum, . . .278 Philander Opossum, . . 279 Water-Opossum, . . . .281 Lower Jaw of Triconodon, . . 282 Lower Jaw of Amphilestes, . . 282 Lower Jaw of American Jurassic Mammal, 282 Echidna Walking, . . .283 Skeleton of Duckbill, . . .284 The Duckbill, . .285 Skeleton of Echidna, . . 287 Under-Part of the Skull of a South African Secondary Mammal, . 288 Lower Jaw of Plagiaulax, . . . 288 BIRDS A Rookery, Pelvis of Kiwi, .... Skeleton of Vulture, Skeleton of Parrot and Skull of Cockatoo, Skull of Teal, . Vertebra of Moa, .... Shoulder and Breast-Bone of Flightless Bird, Metacoracoid of Flying Bird, Humerus of Gull, .... Leg-Bones of Moa, Tibia of Crane and Ostrich, Skulls of Capercaillie, Duck, and Raven, . Diagram of a Bird's Plumage, Thick-Billed Raven, White-Bellied Crow, PAGE 289 290 291 292 292 293 294 294 295 295 296 297 298 309 310 Rook. Nutcracker and Siberian Jay, Magpies, . Azure-Winged Magpie, Red-Billed Blue Magpie, . Indian Tree-Pie, . Common Jay, Mexican Long-Crested Jay, Urraca Jay, Grey Struthidea, . Black-Backed Piping Crow, Red-Billed and Alpine Chough, Pander's Chough-Thrush, . Huia Birds, Twelve- Wired Bird of Paradise, Gorget Bird of Paradise, . PAGE 311 313 315 316 317 318 319 321 322 323 324 325 327 328 331 333 XIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Great Bird of Paradise, . . . 334 Ked Bird of Paradise, . . 335 Wilson's Bird of Paradise, . . 337 Head of Six-Plumed Bird of Paradise, . 338 Satin Bower-Birds, . . .341 Spotted Bower-Birds at Home. . . 342 Common Starling, .... 343 Common and Black Starling, . . 345 Rose-Coloured Starling, . . . 346 Red-Billed Ox-Pecker, . . .348 Superb Glossy Starling, . . .350 Southern Grackle, . . . .351 Black Indian Drongo, . . . 353 Golden Oriole, . . . .354 Crested Cassique, .... 356 Common Cow-Bird, . . . 359 Red-Shouldered Starling, . . .360 Purple Troupial, . . . .361 Nest of Sociable Weavers, . . . 362 Common and White-Headed Ox-Birds, . 364 Abyssinian and Masked Weaver-Birds, . 365 Sociable Weaver-Bird, . . .367 Java Sparrow, .... 369 Violet Tanager, .... 370 West Indian Hone}' -Creeper, . . 373 Red Cardinal and Rose-Breasted Grosbeak, 380 Brambling, .... 384 \& they are now taken mainly for their oil, although the skin is also sometimes used. The leather commonly known as porpoise-hide is, however, as we have already had occasion to mention, generally made from the skin of the white whale. On parts of the coast of North America, porpoise-shooting is regularly practised by the Indians ; and this pursuit affords to the Passamaquody tribe their chief means of support. The average yield of oil will be about three gallons, and in a good season an Indian may kill from one hundred to one hundred and fifty porpoises. "To make a successful porpoise-hunter," writes Mr. C. C. Ward, " requires five or six years of constant practice. Boys, ten or twelve years of age, are taken out in the canoes by the men, and thus early trained in the pursuit of that which is to form their main support in after years. Porpoise-shooting is followed at all seasons and in all kinds of weather in the summer sea, in the boisterous autumn gales, and in the dreadful icy seas of mid-winter. In a calm summer day, the porpoise can be heard blowing for a long distance. The Indians, guided by the sound long before they can see the game, paddle rapidly in the direction from which the sound comes, and rarely fail to secure the porpoise. They use long smooth-bored guns, loaded with a handful of powder, and a heavy charge of double-B shot. As soon as the porpoise is shot, they paddle rapidly up to him and kill him with a spear, to prevent his flopping about and upsetting the canoe after they have taken him aboard. The manner of taking a porpoise on board is to insert two fingers of the right hand into the blowhole, take hold of the pectoral fin with the left hand, and lift the creature up until at least one half of his length is above the gunwale of the canoe, and then drag him aboard. This is comparatively easy to accomplish in smooth water, but when the feat is performed in a heavy sea, one can hardly realise the skill and daring required. In rough weather, with a high sea running, the Indian is compelled to stand up in his canoe when he fires, otherwise he could not see his game. In such work as this, one would suppose that upsets would be unavoidable ; but, strange to say, they seldom happen, and only under circumstances where the Indian's skill or foresight is unavailing." Although Mr. True believes that there are two other species of Indian Porpoise. . . . porpoise with back-fins inhabiting American waters, it will be unnecessary to allude further to them here ; and we accordingly pass on to the Indian porpoise (P. phoccenoides). This species is readily distinguished by the absence of the back-fin, and the reduced number of the teeth, of which there are about eighteen on each side of the jaws. Of small size, it is less than 4 feet in length, and is of a uniform black colour. It inhabits the shores of the Indian Ocean, from the Cape of Good Hope to Japan ; and has been taken in many of the tidal rivers of India, and in the Yang-tse-Kiang, at a distance of nearly one thousand miles from its mouth. The following account of the habits of this species is given by Mr. F. W. Sinclair, who states that it "frequents the tidal creeks ; PORPOISES AND DOLPHINS. 49 not ascending very far, and the sounds among the reefs and islands. It feeds chiefly on prawns, also on small cephalopods and fish. It does not appear to herd in schools, more than four or five, being rarely, if ever, seen together. Usually it is solitary ; the pairs seem to consist of female and calf, more often than male and female. The young (one in number) are born, apparently, about October. The roll of this porpoise is like that of P. communis. It does not jump or turn somer- saults, and is, on the whole, a sluggish little porpoise." It appears to be found only in shallow water. HEAVISIDE'S DOLPHIN. Genus Cephalorhynchus. Heaviside's dolphin (Cephalorhynchus heavisidei), from the Cape of Good Hope, is the typical representative of a genus which, according to Mr. True, includes four species, all inhabiting the warmer seas of the Southern Hemisphere. These dolphins are of small size, and remarkable for their peculiar coloration. HEAVISIDE'S DOLPHIN. (From True, Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum, 1889.) The head is conical, without any distinct beak ; and the teeth are small and sharp, varying in number from twenty-five to thirty-one on each side of the jaws. The back-fin is triangular or ovate ; and, except in one species, the flippers have a characteristic elliptical form. The coloration is black above and white below ; the white of the under-parts terminating posteriorly in a trident-shaped form, with the lateral prongs of the trident extending obliquely upwards on the sides. The total length of Heaviside's dolphin is about 4 feet ; the number of teeth being from twenty-five to thirty. The white-fronted dolphin (C. albifrons), from New Zealand, is a rather larger species, with thirty-one teeth on each side. Nothing seems to be recorded as to the habits of these species. THE IRAWADI DOLPHIN. Genus Orcella. The upper waters of the Irawadi River are tenanted by a rather large dolphin or porpoise (Orcella fluminalis), which, together with a closely allied species, or variety (0. brevirostris), from the Bay of Bengal and its estuaries, as well as Singapore and Borneo, constitutes a distinct genus. These dolphins are characterised by their globe-like head, without beak, and their comparatively few and small teeth, which occupy nearly the whole length of the jaws, and number from thirteen VOL. in. 4 5 o CETACEANS. to seventeen in the upper, and from twelve to fifteen in the lower jaw. In form the teeth are conical and pointed, and they are set close together ; those in the front of the jaws of old animals being directed outwards. The back-fin is small and hook-like, while the nippers are of moderate size, broad at the base, and subovate in form. These dolphins attain a length of from 7 to 7J feet, and are of a slaty or blackish colour. In the Irawadi dolphin the colour is pale slaty above and whitish below, with numerous irregular streaks on the sides ; but in the one inhabiting the Bay of Bengal the colour is uniformly blackish without any streaks. The latter form, whether it be specifically distinct from the dolphin of the Irawadi, or merely a variety, appears never to ascend the rivers beyond the distance influenced by the tides, while the Irawadi dolpl^in never descends to the estuaries. The following account of the habits of the Irawadi dolphin is taken from Dr. J. Anderson, who writes that it "has much the character of its marine fellows, being generally seen in small schools, which frequently accompany the river steamers, careering in front and alongside of them, as is the custom of the dolphins of the sea. Occasionally, however, a solitary individual may be observed, but this is the exception, as two or three are usually associated together, hence this may be considered as a gregarious form. In the defile below Bhamo, where the river runs for ten miles over a deep bed forty to sixty fathoms in depth, and from two hundred to five hundred yards in width, and defined by high, wooded hills on either side, numerous troops of dolphins may be observed passing up and down, rising every minute or two to the surface to emit the short blowing sound, which ends in the more feeble one of inspiration, and all night through this sound may be heard. They never leave the deep water ; and when they rise to breathe (which they do in periods varying from sixty to one hundred and seventy seconds, although occasionally exceeded) the blowhole is first seen, then at the end of the inspiration the head disappears and the back comes into view, and is gradually exposed as far as the dorsal fin, but the tail- flippers are rarely visible. The act of breathing is rapid, so much so indeed that it requires a very expert marksman to take aim and fire before the animal disappears. I have observed some of them disporting themselves in a way that has never yet been recorded of Cetacea, as far as I am aware. They swam with a rolling motion near the surface, with their heads half out of the water, and every now and then fully exposed, when they ejected great volumes of water out of their mouths, generally straight before them, but sometimes nearly vertically . . . On one occasion I noticed an individual standing upright in the water, so much so that one-half of its pectoral fins was exposed, producing the appearance against the background as if the animal was supported on its flippers. It suddenly disappeared, and again, a little in advance of its former position, it bobbed up in the same attitude, and this it frequently repeated. The Shan boatmen who were with me seemed to connect these curious movements with the season spring in which the dolphins breed." The food of this dolphin apparently consists exclusively of fish. Dr. Anderson adds that " the fishermen believe that the dolphin purposely draws fish to their nets, and each fishing-village has its particular guardian dolphin, which receives a name common to all fellows of his school ; and it is this superstition which makes it so difficult to obtain specimens of this Cetacean." PORPOISES AND DOLPHINS. 5I THE KILLER, OR GRAMPUS. Genus Orca. One of the largest, and at the same time the most ferocious, of all the dolphin family is the killer, or killer whale, frequently also known as the grampus (Orca gladiator). It is characterised as a genus by its large size, and the conical and depressed head, devoid of a beak. The back-fin is of great length, especially in the males; and the flippers are large and broadly ovate. The teeth (as shown in our figure) are comparatively few in number, varying from ten to thirteen on each side of the jaws, and are much larger than in any dolphins yet noticed, being often an inch or more in diameter, and having an oval-section. The coloration is striking, the upper-parts and fins being black, IHE HRST SIX DPPEE IEETH OF THEKILLEE . while the lower jaw, chest, and under-parts are (From Sir w. H. Flower.) whitish. The white area of the under-parts does not, however, extend to the flukes, but ends posteriorly in a trident, of which the lateral and shorter prongs extend obliquely upwards on the flanks. There is a large white streak above and behind the eye ; and frequently at least a purple crescentic area extends across the back behind the fin. The killer attains a length of at least 20 feet. D> In spite of many nominal species having been recognised, there can be little doubt that the killer has a cosmopolitan distribution ; ranging from Greenland in the north to the coasts of Australia in the south. Although chiefly keeping to the open sea, killers occasionally ascend tidal rivers ; and three specimens were observed in the Thames in the spring of 1890. These individuals entered the river during the night, and on the following morning were seen swimming up and down the reach between Battersea and Chelsea Bridges. After continuing there for several hours, they at length headed for the sea, which they probably reached, as there is no record of their having been attacked. . When at sea, killers may always be recognised by their tall and nearly vertical back-fin. They generally associate in small parties ; and subsist not only on fish, but likewise on the flesh of other members of their own order, as well as on that of seals. Captain Scammon writes that " the killers exhibit a boldness and cunning peculiar to their carnivorous propensities. At times they are seen in schools, undulating over the waves, two, three, six, or eight abreast, and, with the long, pointed fins above their arched backs, together with their varied marks and colours, they present a pleasing and somewhat military aspect. But generally they go in small squads, less than a dozen, alternately showing themselves above the surface of the water, or gliding just below, when nothing will be visible but their projecting dorsals ; or they disport themselves by rolling, tumbling, and leaping nearly out of the water, or cutting various antics with their flukes. At such times, they usually move rapidly over the surface of the sea, and soon disappear in the distance." It appears that at times both the 52 CETACEANS. long-finned males and the shorter-firmed females may be found in the same school, while at other times the two sexes keep apart. The swiftness of the killer is very great, as it is able to overtake the smaller dolphins, which it swallows alive. Its voracity is apparently insatiable ; Eschricht stating that one of these animals was known to swallow four porpoises in succession, while from the stomach of another individual, whose length did not exceed 16 feet, were taken fourteen seals. Whales attacked Like the other larger members of the order, the Greenland whale by Killers. j s sometimes attacked by a party of killers. Writing on the subject of these attacks Captain Scammon says that " three or four of these voracious animals do not hesitate to grapple with the largest baleen- whale ; and it is surprising to see those leviathans of the deep so completely paralysed by the presence of their natural, although diminutive enemies. Frequently the terrified animal comparatively of enormous size and superior strength evinces no effort to escape, but lies in a helpless condition, or makes but little resistance to the assaults of its merciless destroyers. The attack of these wolves of the ocean upon their THE KILLER. (From True, Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum, 1889.) gigantic prey may be likened in some respects to a pack of hounds holding a stricken deer at bay. They cluster about the animal's head, some of their number breaching over it, while others seize it by the lips and draw the bleeding monster under water ; and when captured, should the mouth be open, they eat out its tongue. We once saw an attack made by three killers upon a cow whale and her calf, in a lagoon on the coast of California in the spring of 1858. The whale was of the California grey species, and her young was grown to three times the bulk of the largest killers engaged in the contest, which lasted for an hour or more. They made alternate assaults upon the old whale and her offspring, finally killing the latter, which sank to the bottom, where the water was five fathoms deep. During the struggle the mother became nearly exhausted, having received several deep wounds about the mouth and lips. As soon as their prize had settled to the bottom, the three killers descended, bringing up large pieces of flesh in their mouths, which they devoured after coming to the surface. While gorging themselves in this wise, the old whale made her escape, leaving a track of gory water behind." On the 9th of September 1893, when off the coast of Minas Geraes, Brazil, at no great distance from the islands of Los Abrolhos, in long. 39 W., lat. 18 S., the attention of the present writer was attracted by the appearance of a whale and some other creatures at a distance of apparently something less than a quarter of PORPOISES AND DOLPHINS. 53 a mile from the ship. The whale was a firmer, or humpback, of no very great size, and was seen spouting, and again descending. Immediately after its first descent there appeared above the surface of the sea what seemed to be the tail-fin of some animal unknown. This supposed fin was raised in a vertical position, where it remained vibrating for some seconds and then suddenly disappeared. In colour it was a pure glistening white ; while in form it appeared to be laterally com- pressed, with sharp edges and an acute termination. It gave the impression of belonging to some animal which was engaged in attacking the whale beneath the surface ; and I should estimate its height above the water approximately at 5 or 6 feet. Soon after the disappearance of this strange white object, the broad black head of what I presume to have been a killer was seen above the water ; and in a few seconds the whale itself again rose to spout. That these black animals, which appeared to be harrassing and attacking the whale, were killers, I have no reason- able doubt ; but the question arises as to the nature of the animal to which the strange white tail-like object seen standing above the water could have belonged. My impression at the time was that it must be the upper lobe of the tail of some enormous shark allied to the threshers (Alopecias) ; and this impression has been confirmed by a subsequent examination of the stuffed specimens of that genus in the British Museum. The thresher is, however, a black shark ; while the minute size of its teeth seems to discredit the common accounts of its attacking whales. Unless, however, it could have been the flipper of a humpback, I am at a loss to imagine to what other animal the aforesaid white tail-like object could have belonged, save to some gigantic shark allied to the thresher, but of a white colour, and probably armed with much larger teeth. THE LESSER KILLER. Genus Pseudorca. An adventitious interest attaches to the Cetacean known as the lesser killer (Pseudorca crassidens) owing to its having been originally described on the evidence of a skull dug up in the Lincolnshire fens, which was for a long time regarded as pertaining to an extinct species. This animal is distinguished from the killer by its smaller back-fin, the pointed flippers, and the cylindrical roots of the teeth, as well as by certain features in the structure of the skull. In colour the lesser killer is entirely black ; and it attains the length of about 14 feet. There are generally eight teeth in the upper jaw on each side, and ten in the lower jaw. This species appears to be cosmopolitan, having been met with in small herds on the coast of Denmark, and also in Tasmania. Its habits are probably somewhat similar to those of the killer. THE BLACKFISH. Genus Globiocephalus. The blackfish (Globiocephalus melas) derives its English name from its nearly uniform black coloration, while its generic title refers to the characteristic globular 54 CETACEANS. form of the head. In size this species is one of the largest representatives of the family, attaining a length of about 20 feet. In addition to its beakless globular head, the blackfish is characterised by the long, low, and thick back-fin, the long and narrow nippers, and the small size and number of the teeth, which are confined to the front of the jaws. The usual number of the teeth is from eight to twelve on each side of the jaws, but in a distinct variety or species from the Bay of Bengal they are rather fewer. The skull is very broad and much depressed ; and the union between the two branches of the THE BLACKFISH (3*5 nat. size). lower jaw very short. In the typical form there is a large spear-shaped white area on the chest, extending from the comers of the mouth to the nippers. This white area is, however, absent in certain forms, which have been regarded as indicating distinct species. The ordinary blackfish has a wide distribution, having been obtained from the coasts of Europe, the Atlantic coast of North America, the Cape of Good Hope, and New Zealand. Mr. True considers, however, that the blackfish of the North Pacific (G. scammoni), and also the one found on the Atlantic coast to the south of New Jersey, are distinct species : and there is also some evidence of the existence of a fourth in the Bay of Bengal. In Europe Distribution. PORPOISES AND DOLPHINS. 55 the blackfish or, as it is often called, the pilot- whale, or ca'ing whale, is a frequent although irregular visitant to the British coasts ; and it occasionally extends as far north as Greenland. In the Mediterranean it appears to be rare. The blackfish is the most gregarious of all the Cetaceans, assembling in herds which frequently comprise from two hundred to three hundred individuals, and occasionally include as many as one thousand or even two thousand. The members of a herd always blindly follow a leader, after the manner of a flock of sheep, and from this strange habit the species derives its names of pilot-whale and ca'ing ( = driving) whale. Curiously enough, if the leader of a herd happen to run into shoal- water and become stranded, the other members follow suit ; and in this way large numbers are often captured by the inhabitants of Iceland and the Faroe, Orkney, and Shetland Islands. In disposition this species is mild and gentle, and thus offers a marked contrast to the killer. Its chief and favourite food is cuttle-fish, but it is said also to eat fish. The young, of which there is generally but one at a birth, are said to be born in the late summer, and suckled throughout the winter. Regarding their capture in the islands of the North Sea and Atlantic, the late Prof. Bell writes that, on the appearance of a herd, " the whole fishing squadron of the neighbourhood is put into requisition, each boat being provided with a quantity of stones. The first object is to get to seaward of the victims, then the boats are formed into a large semicircle, and the whole herd is driven into some bay or creek. The stones are thrown to splash and frighten the whales if they try to break back ; and in Faroe ropes are stretched from boat to boat, with wisps of straw hung at intervals. Should one whale break through the line all is lost, as the rest will follow it in spite of every exertion of the fishermen. But if they are forced into shallow water, they plunge wildly on till they strand them- selves, and then the whole population rush upon them, armed with harpoons, spears, hatchets, picks, spades, any weapon that comes to hand, and the cries and dying struggles of the poor animals, the shouts of the men, the clash of the weapons, and the bloody and troubled sea combine to form an extremely exciting, if somewhat revolting scene." It is stated that in this manner no less than 1110 blackfish were captured in Iceland in the winter of 1809-10, while upwards of 2080 were taken in Faroe within a period of six weeks during the year 1845. Risso's DOLPHIN. Genus Grampus. Risso's dolphin (Grampus griseus) is a rare and rather large species, which appears to be the only representative of its genus, and is easily recognised by the peculiar striped character of the skin ; the arrangement of the stripes and the general coloration presenting a large amount of individual variation. It is dis- tinguished from all other dolphins, except the female narwhal, by the total absence of teeth in the upper jaw ; while in the lower jaw there are only from three to seven small teeth on each side, and these confined to the anterior region of the jaw. In general external characteristics Risso's dolphin approaches very closely to the 56 CETACEANS. blackfish, but the front of the head is less completely globe-like, and the length of the flippers somewhat less. The mouth is obliquely placed, and the lower jaw shorter than the upper ; while the back-fin is high and pointed. The flukes are very narrow. The general colour is slaty grey, mottled, and very irregularly streaked. As a rule, the back, with its fin, and the flukes are dark grey or blackish, more or less tinged with purple ; while the flippers are blackish, mottled with grey. The head and fore-half of the body are light grey, of varying tint, and more or less tinged with yellow ; the under-parts are greyish white ; and the whole body is marked with a number of irregular and unsymmetrically arranged light striae In the young the colour is dark grey above, and greyish white below, with the head yellowish white; and the flukes marked with five or more narrow and nearly vertical lines, placed at almost equal distances from one another. In length the animal measures about 13 feet when full grown. Bisso's dolphin appears to have an almost world- wide distribution, Distribution. , , . . . . . , , T , , -, -i i r> although not occurring in the polar seas. It has been recorded from EISSO'S DOLPHIN. (From True, Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum, 1889.) the North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans, the North Sea, the Mediterranean, the Cape of Good Hope, and Japan. Several examples have been taken on the British coasts. One of these was killed at Puckaster, Isle of Wight, in 1843 ; while a second was captured in a mackerel-net near the Eddystone Lighthouse in 1870. A third specimen sold in Billingsgate market in the latter year was probably taken in the Channel ; and a fourth, also caught in the Channel, near Chichester, was kept alive for a day in the Brighton Aquarium in 1875. The fifth example was caught in 1886 in the same manner, and near the same locality as the second. In the autumn of 1889 a shoal of nine of ten or these Cetaceans were observed off Hillswick, Shetland, of which six were captured by fishermen ; and in 1892 a single specimen was taken in the Sol way. Beyond the fact that its chief food consists of cuttle-fish, nothing definite appears to be known as to the habits of this species. THE SHORT-BEAKED DOLPHINS. Genus Lagenorhynchus. Under the general title of short-beaked dolphins may be included a group of several small species, serving to connect the beakless forms with those furnished PORPOISES AND DOLPHINS. 57 with distinct beaks, and remarkable for their strongly-contrasting coloration. They are generally characterised by the head having a short and not very well-defined ploughshare-like beak, although in one species the head is pointed and beakless. The fin and flippers are of moderate size ; and the tail has very prominent ridges. The teeth are variable in size and number ; the beak of the skull is flat, and not longer than the hinder part of the same ; and the union between the two branches of the lower jaw is short. The coloration takes the form of two light-coloured areas of variable size on the sides, separated from one another by irregular, oblique dark bands. Representatives of this genus are found in most of the temperate and tropical seas, and two species have been taken off the British coasts, wwte-sided Of the two British species, the white-sided dolphin (Lageno- Doiphin. rhynchus acutus), is blackish grey above, and white beneath, with a broad band of yellowish brown between the two, in the middle of which is a large white patch ; while a narrow black band extends from the flukes nearly to the line of the back-fin, and another runs from the base of the flipper to a point THE PACIFIC SHORT-BEAKED DOLPHIN. (From True, Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum, 1889.) between the eye and the mouth ; the eye being surrounded by a black ring. The length varies from 6 to 8 feet. This species inhabits the North Atlantic and the North Sea. It is very rare on the British coasts, although said to be not uiifre- quently seen off the Orkneys. Pacinc Short- The species figured to represent this genus (L. crucigera) is one Beaked Dolphin, f rom the Pacific, which is selected on account of the marked contrasts of black and white. It has a short beak, only slightly marked off from the skull. In colour, the muzzle, the forehead, the back, and the fin, flippers, and flukes are black ; while a broad black band runs from the eye and the base of the flipper along each side to the flukes ; the other parts of the body being a more or less pure white. White-Beaked The second species of this genus which has been met with on Dolphin. the British coasts is the white-beaked dolphin (L. albirostris) ; this species resembling the white-sided dolphin in general form, but having a more swollen head, a narrower and more sloping back-fin, and longer flippers. It takes its distinctive name from the fact of the muzzle, including the extremities of both jaws, being white, more or less tinged with grey. The upper-parts are black, the sides greyish, and the under-parts white, frequently of a creamy hue ; while there are three more or less distinctly defined whitish areas on the flanks, placed one 5 8 CETACEANS. behind the other, and more or less mottled with darker tints. There is also a similar light area behind the blowhole on the back, and another near the root of the flukes. There is, however, considerable individual variation in regard to the coloration. When freshly-stranded specimens come under observation, the black of the back is often seen to be shot with a rich purplish tint, and the whole coloration is then exceedingly beautiful. There are usually about twenty-six teeth on each side of the jaws; and the length attained by adults is from 8 to 9 feet. The white-beaked dolphin inhabits the North Atlantic, the North Sea, and the Baltic, ranging as far northward as Greenland and Davis Strait. Between the years 1834 and 1885, a total of nineteen specimens of the dolphin had been taken in British waters ; and since the latter date a specimen was taken on the Irish coast in 1887, and a third in the river Colne in 1889. THE TRUE DOLPHINS. Genus Delphinus. The true dolphins bring us to the first genus of the second great group of the family, which includes all the forms with distinct beaks, except the short-beaked dolphins just described. The beak is generally distinctly marked off from the forehead by a V-shaped groove ; and in the skull the beak considerably exceeds the brain-cavity in length. In the skeleton the first two vertebrae of the neck are united, but the other five remain separate. All the members of the group are of comparatively small size, most of them not exceeding 10 feet in length. Dolphins associate in shoals, and feed mostly on fish, although some of them at least also consume crustaceans and molluscs. The common dolphin (Delphinus delphis), which apparently frequents all temperate and tropical seas, is the typical representative of the genus Delphinus, which presents the following characteristics. The beak is long, and the back-fin and flippers are elongated and falcate. In the skull the bony beak is long and narrow, and generally about twice the length of the region of the brain -case. The jaws are furnished with a numerous series of teeth, varying from about forty to sixty-five on each side, which are sharply pointed, with their bases oval in section. The bony union between the two branches of the lower jaw is short. The common dolphin has a slender body and small head ; the beak being long and narrow, and the flippers about three times as long as broad, with their extremities pointed. There is considerable individual variation in colour, but usually the back is dark grey, the under-parts white or whitish, and the flanks marked by varying bands of grey or fulvous. The length of the animal is about 7J feet, and there are from forty-one to fifty teeth in the upper, and from forty- five to fifty-one in the lower jaw. There seems no doubt that this species is the dolphin of the ancients, although the pictorial representations on old coins, and the descriptions of the habits of the animal which have come down to us from the writers of antiquity, are alike untrue to nature. The species is occasionally met PORPOISES AND DOLPHINS. 59 with around the coasts of Britain, but it is much rarer off Scotland than in the south. It is not uncommonly captured in fishing-nets, and examples have from time to time been exposed for sale in Billingsgate market. Like the other dolphins, this species associate in shoals. " The excessive activity and playfulness of its gambols," writes Bell, " and the evident predilection which it exhibits for society, are recorded by every mariner. Large herds of these animals will surround a ship in full sail with the most eager delight, throwing themselves into every THE COMMON DOLPHIN (h nat. size). possible attitude, and tossing and leaping about with elegant and powerful agility, for no apparent purpose save mere pastime." In the British seas the chief food of this species is formed by herrings and pilchards. The dolphin is said to utter a low murmuring sound. A single offspring is produced at a birth, and is tended by the female parent with assiduous care. Formerly the flesh of the dolphin was eaten in England and other European countries. There are several other species more or less closely allied to th 16S ' common dolphin, although some of them are still very imperfectly known. Such are Dussumier's dolphin (D. dussumieri), from the Malabar coast of India, and the Cape dolphin (D. capensis), from the Cape of Good Hope, The red-bellied dolphin (D. roseiventris), from the Moluccas and Torres Straits, is a 6o CETACEANS. small species, not exceeding 4 feet in length, with forty-eight teeth on each side of the jaws, which has a skull intermediate between that of the common dolphin and the next species. The slender dolphin (D. attenuates) may be taken as an RED-BELLIED DOLPHIN. (From True, Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum, 1889.) example of a group of several species, distinguished from the common dolphin and its allies by the palate being nearly flat, instead of deeply hollowed on eacli side in its posterior portion. Most of them are further distinguished by the skin THE SLENDER DOLPHIN. (From True, Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum, 1889.) being either spotted, or marked with longitudinal bands. The slender dolphin is a spotted species from the Atlantic and the Cape of Good Hope ; while the Malayan dolphin (D. malayanus), from the Indian Ocean, which attains a length of 6 J feet, is uniform ashy grey. THE BOTTLE-NOSED DOLPHINS. Genus Tursiops. The bottle-nosed dolphin, or, as it is often incorrectly called, porpoise (Tar mops tursio), is the best known of three or four species constituting a genus distinct from Delphinus. The general form of these dolphins is stout, with the beak shorter and more tapering than in the true dolphins, and the number of teeth considerably less not exceeding from twenty-two to twenty-six on each side of the jaws. The bottle-nosed dolphin attains a length of from 9J feet to 12 feet. In colour it is usually purplish grey above, passing gradually into pure white on the under- parts ; but some specimens are black above and pale grey below, while others are grey all over. PORPOISES AND DOLPHINS. 61 This species appears to range over all temperate and tropical seas, Distribution. x . ,, r ... ' ... being occasionally met with on the British coasts. An example was taken at Holyhead in the autumn of 1868; a second was stranded in 1888 on the coast of Kirkcudbrightshire ; while two entered the river Humber in 1889. Till recently very little was known as to the habits of this species, but the establishment of a fishery for its capture at Hatteras, in North Carolina, has enabled Mr. F. W. True to gather some information on this subject. It appears that these dolphins are abundant off the coasts of Hatteras, and associate in schools of considerable size. On the 19th of May fourteen of these animals were secured at one haul of the nets in the morning, while in the afternoon of the same day no less than sixty-six were taken. In the spring the schools generally comprise a nearly equal number of individuals of each sex, and include animals of all ages ; but later on in the season they are more uniform as regards sex and age, some herds consisting only of old males. It is believed that these dolphins migrate northward in the spring, and southward in the autumn, although a few remain at BOTTLE-NOSED DOLPHIN. (From True, Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum, 1889.) Hatteras throughout the year. The breeding-season commences in the spring, but in the more northerly districts appears to be continued on into the summer. When the old ones were captured in the nets, the young would remain close alongside. The largest specimen caught at Hatteras measured 12 feet in length and yielded twenty-four gallons of oil ; but the average product during the winter is only about eight gallons. Some idea of the number of these dolphins frequenting the Carolina seas may be gathered from the fact that between 15th November 1884 and the middle of the following May, no less than twelve hundred and sixty-eight of them were caught at Hatteras. THE ROUGH-TOOTHED DOLPHINS. Genus Steno. The rough-toothed dolphin (Steno frontatus), from the Indian and Atlantic oceans, is the representative of a genus comprising several more or less nearly allied species, mostly confined to the warmer seas. They are distinguished by the great length of the beak, which is distinctly marked off from the head, and in the dried skull is very narrow and compressed ; and also by the length of the bony 62 CETACEANS. union between the two branches of the lower jaw, which exceeds one-quarter the total length of the jaw. The teeth vary in number from twenty to twenty-five on each side of the jaws ; and are of rather large size, with the crowns often marked by vertical groovings. The colour is variable. The rough-toothed dolphin attains a length of 8J feet; and takes its name from its coarsely-fluted teeth. The colour of the upper-parts is purplish black, the sides being marked with rather large star-shaped spots, and the snout and under- parts white, tinged with purple and rose-colour, and ornamented with purple spots. The plumbeous dolphin (S. plumbeus) of the Indian Ocean, has an extremely long THE ROUGH-TOOTHED DOLl'lilN. (From True. Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum, 1889.) beak, and is of a uniform leaden-grey colour, with the exception of the extremity and under surface of the lower jaw, which are white. A third species from the Indian seas is the speckled dolphin (S. lentiginosus), which above is of a leaden- grey colour, with numerous long, drop-shaped spots, most of which are pure white, but others slaty or black ; while below it is white, more or less mottled with grey. LONG-BEAKED RIVER-DOLPHINS. Genus Sotalia. Under the above title may be included several species of dolphins closely allied to those of the preceding genus, but distinguished by their fluviatile or estuarine habits, and the smaller number of joints in the backbone. Their teeth are always smooth ; and the flippers very broad at the base. They must not be confounded with the fresh- water dolphins of the family Platanistidce. Amazonian Dolphins of this group are abundant in the upper portions of the Dolphins. Amazon, but there is still great uncertainty as to whether these belong to one or to three species, or whether all or any of these are distinct from the Brazilian dolphin (Sotalia brasiliensis) of the bay of Rio de Janeiro. There is also a closely allied form (S. guianensis) from Cayenne. Of the Amazonian dolphins one is commonly known as the tucuxi ($. tucuxi), a second as the pale river-dolphin (S. pallida), and a third as (S. fluviatilis), which differ chiefly in coloration, the relative length of the fins, and the number of teeth. The pale dolphin, which is figured in the accompanying illustration, has the upper-parts and flukes yellowish white, and the under-parts and flippers white. A notice of some of the habits of the tucuxi has been given above on p. 39. SQUALODONTS AND ZEUGLODONTS. 63 Chinese White Another representative of this group is the Chinese white dolphin Dolphin. ($ sinensis), from Quemoy Island, in the harbour of Amoy, and the Foochow and Canton rivers. It is said to be characterised by its general milk- white colour, pinkish fins, and black eyes. Camerun The most interesting member of this group is, however, the Dolphin. recently described Camerun dolphin (S. teuzsi) from the estuaries and THE PALE RIVER-DOLPHIN. (From True, Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum, 1889.) rivers of the Camerun district of Western Africa, which is reported to be of herbivorous habit. If this alleged habit should be confirmed, this dolphin will differ not only from all the other members of the family to which it belongs, but likewise from all other living Cetaceans. SQUALODONTS AND ZEUGLODONTS. Families SQUALODONTID^l and ZEUGLODONTID^E. In addition to numerous extinct representatives of the existing Cetacean families, to some of which reference has been made above, there are two extinct groups which cannot be included in either of the existing families ; one of these differing very much indeed from all modern Cetaceans. The name of squalodonts (Venus Squalodoii) is applied to the Squalodonts. f r members of the first of these two groups on account of the somewhat shark-like structure of their cheek-teeth. In the general characters of their skulls these Cetaceans approximate to the modern dolphins, from which they are, however, at once distinguished by the teeth being of different characters in different parts of the jaws, as in ordinary mammals. They have a total of fifteen teeth on each side of both the upper and lower jaws. Of these the first four are of simple structure, and correspond to the incisors and canines of other mammals ; the next four, which are also comparatively simple, appear to represent the premolars ; while the last seven have two roots, and laterally-compressed triangular crowns, with sharp cutting edges, upon which there are a number of cusps arranged in a saw- like manner. The squalodonts, which are found in Miocene and Pliocene forma- tions, both in the Old and New World, clearly form one step between modern Cetaceans and ordinary mammals. And, so far as the structure of their teeth can be relied upon, they appear to suggest a kinship between Cetaceans and Carnivores. 6 4 CETACEANS. Zeuglodonts. Very different from the above are the still earlier forms known as zeuglodonts (genus Zeuglodon), which appear to be mainly or entirely confined to the Eocene Tertiary, and have been obtained from regions as far asunder as North America, Western Europe, the Caucasus, and Australia and New Zealand. So different, indeed, were these animals from all existing Cetaceans, that it has even been doubted whether they can be included within the limits of the same order. Some of them rivalled the larger whales in point of size, while the Caucasian species was not larger than an ordinary dolphin. The zeuglodonts had teeth of the same general type as those of the squalodonts, but those of the cheek-series were fewer in number, the premolars and molars together being apparently only five on each sidg. The skull differs from that of ordinary Cetaceans in having elongated nasal bones, and the cavity of the nose placed more forwardly, as well as in certain other features ; all these points of difference being in the direction of ordinary mammals. Unfortunately, we know but very little of the structure of the limbs. The humerus, or bone of the upper arm, is, however, proportionately much longer than in modern Cetaceans, although it has flattened articular surfaces at its lower end, showing that the bones of the fore-arm had scarcely any free motion, and thus indicating that the fore -limbs were modified into nippers. So far as they can be determined, the general characters of these zeuglodonts are such as we should expect to find in an ancestral group of Cetaceans ; but it is remarkable that the body appears to have been protected by an armour of bony plates. CHAPTER XXXI. THE RODENTS, Order RODENTIA. SQUIRRELS, MARMOTS, AND BEAVERS. UNDER the common title of Gnawing or Rodent Mammals are grouped that extensive assemblage of small or medium-sized species which, like rats, porcupines, beavers, squirrels, and hares, are characterised by their habit of gnawing. At the present day these creatures are more numerously represented than in any other Mammalian order, both as regards individuals and species; the number of the latter being probably fully one thousand, while the swarms of individuals by which some species are represented are too well known to need more than passing mention. Nearly all the Rodents are inhabitants of the dry land, and a large proportion of them seek protection from enemies by living in subterranean burrows which they construct for themselves, and wherein they generally associate in larger or smaller colonies. Some, however, like the water-vole and the beaver, are aquatic ; while others, like the squirrels and tree-porcupines, lead an arboreal life. A few, again, have acquired the power of spurious flight through the development of folds of skin along the sides of the body and limbs, by the aid of which they are enabled to take long flying leaps. The Rodents are some of the most easily defined of all mammals, and are best characterised by the number and nature of their teeth especially those in the front of the jaws. They are distinguished by the presence in each jaw of a pair of large chisel-like front or incisor teeth, which grow continuously throughout the life of their owners. As a rule, no other incisor teeth, save these two pairs, are developed, but in the hares and rabbits and their allies a second smaller pair occur behind those of the upper jaw. There are no tusks or canine teeth in either jaw, and in the cheek-series the number of premolars is always reduced below the normal four, very generally only one of these teeth being present, while in some cases even this may be wanting. In consequence of the reduced number of incisor teeth, coupled with the absence of canines and the reduction in the premolars, the skull of a Rodent is always distinguished by the presence of a long gap between the front and the cheek-teeth. Indeed, the presence in all Rodents of only a single pair of chisel -shaped and permanently -growing lower incisors, opposed to a corresponding pair in the upper jaw, the total absence of canines, the long gap between the incisors and the cheek-teeth, and the reduction in the number of the premolars, are of themselves sufficient to distinguish the Rodent order from all other mammals, with the exception of the aye-aye among the lemurs. Among other distinctive characteristics of the group, the following may be VOL. in. 5 66 RODENTS. mentioned. The feet are usually furnished with five toes, which generally terminate in sharp claws, although they sometimes have broad nails. In walking, either the whole or the greater part of the sole of the foot is applied to the ground, so that these animals may be described as entirely or partially plantigrade. Rodents are nearly always furnished with collar-bones (clavicles), although these may be more or less imperfectly developed, and are thereby broadly distinguished from all living Ungulates. Their skulls are characterised by the condyle of the lower jaw being elongated from front to ]jack, instead of from side to side, and thus permitting of that backwards-and- forwards motion of the lower upon the upper jaw, which is so noticeable when we watch a rabbit feeding; this char- SIDE VIEW OF THE SKULL OF THE PRAIRIE-MARMOT. acter serving to distinguish Rodents alike from Ungulates and from Carni- vores. Another point in connection with the skull is that the cavity for the eye is not separated behind by a bar of bone from the temporal fossa ; this feature serving to distinguish the Rodents from the aye-aye, in which the eye-socket is surrounded by a bony ring. The teeth being so important in the definition of the Rodents require somewhat fuller consideration. With regard to the incisors, it may be observed that these teeth are of great length, and curved nearly in the arc of a circle ; their inserted portion extending far backwards in the jaws, so that in the upper jaw it comes nearly in contact with the base of the first of the cheek- teeth, while in the lower jaw it runs beneath the whole of the cheek-series. The lower incisors form a small segment of a very large circle (roughly speaking), while the upper ones constitute a much greater segment of a far smaller circle. In the great majority of Rodents the enamel on the incisor teeth is confined almost exclusively to their front surface, and is generally thicker on one side than on the other; but in the hares and rabbits it also extends somewhat on to the lateral surfaces. In cross-section these teeth are somewhat triangular ; the front enamel- covered surface being broad and flattened, and the two lateral surfaces gradually converging to a rounded posterior edge. Whereas, however, the inner surface, which comes in contact with the tooth on the opposite side of the jaw, is nearly flat, the outer surface is convex. As a natural result of the front surface of these teeth being composed of the hard enamel (which is very frequently of an orange or reddish colour), whereas the remaining portion consists of much softer ivory, it follows that the effect of wear is to produce a sharp chisel-edge at their summits. Indeed, the structure of an incisor tooth of a Rodent is precisely analogous to a chisel ; the hard enamel corresponding to the steel with which the latter is faced, and which forms the cutting edge, while the ivory represents the soft iron forming the support to the thin plate of steel. As these incisor teeth are continually grow- ing, they always present the same chisel -like edges, which are worn away by use at a rate commensurate with that of the growth. It follows from this that if one GENERAL CHARACTERS. 67 of these teeth be broken away during life, the corresponding tooth in the opposite jaw, having nothing to check its growth by wear, will continue to grow on 'un- interruptedly till it forms nearly a circle, when its point will enter the jaw of its unfortunate owner, and probably lead to a lingering death. Most museums possess specimens of the skulls of Rodents with such abnormally -developed teeth. The cheek-teeth of Rodents may be either provided with distinct roots, or may grow throughout life and never develop such roots. In the cases of those with distinct roots, the crowns may carry mere simple tubercles; but in other instances they may have their summits or sides penetrated by infoldings of the enamel, thus producing a more or less complicated pattern when worn. On the other hand, the permanently -growing rootless molars always have complex crowns, which are sometimes interpenetrated by lateral infoldings of the enamel, and at others are divided into a series of parallel transverse plates. There is, indeed, a precise parallelism in this respect between the molar teeth of the Rodents and those of the mastodons and elephants; the molar tooth of a mouse, which has distinct roots, and a low crown with simple cusps, being exactly comparable to that of a mastodon, whereas the high-crowned, laminated, and rootless molar of a guinea-pig corresponds as closely with that of a modern elephant. Rodents are always furnished with milk-teeth, which, however, in some instances are shed before birth. The Rodents present a peculiarity in the structure of the mouth, which is quite unknown in any other mammals. In examining the mouth of any one of these animals say a rabbit it will be found that behind the upper front teeth the outer hairy skin of the face is continued inwards into the sides of the mouth, which by this means is divided into two distinct chambers, communicating with one another through a comparatively narrow orifice ; the first chamber containing only the front teeth, while the cheek-teeth are included in the second chamber. It appears that this arrangement is designed to prevent the entrance of extraneous substances into the true cavity of the mouth when the creatures are engaged in their characteristic operation of gnawing. In addition to this peculiarity, the whole of the inside of the cheeks in the hares and rabbits is covered with hair ; while the pouched rats and hamsters have large pouches inside the cheeks, which are also lined with hairy skin. On the other hand, the gophers have pouches in the cheeks which open externally instead of internally. Distribution and The Rodents have a wider distribution than any other group of Habits. terrestrial mammals, being found in all parts of the globe except the extreme polar regions. With the exception of the bats, they include the only representatives of the placental mammals which are undoubtedly indigenous to Australia. They are, however, but poorly represented in that country, and likewise in the great island of Madagascar. On the other hand, the order attains an extraordinary development in South America, where its largest representatives occur, and which may be looked upon as its headquarters. In time, the Rodents certainly date from the upper portion of the Eocene division of the Tertiary period ; but the whole of the extinct forms hitherto discovered present all the essential peculiarities of the existing representatives of the group, and we are, therefore, at present almost completely in the dark as to their relationship to other orders, 68 RODENTS. although it has been suggested that they are derived directly from the Marsupials. The number of genera of Rodents is great, that in a work like the present it is only possible to notice some of the leading and more generally interesting types. The whole of the Rodents are almost entirely herbivorous in their habits ; and they all of them obtain their food by gnawing. We have already noticed that while the majority are terrestrial and burrowing, some are arboreal, others aquatic, and a few endowed with the power of spurious flight ; and it may be added that of the terrestrial forms the hares are among the fleetest runners of all mammals, while the jerboas and chinchillas are distinguished by their leaping powers. They are mostly harmless and inoffensive creatures, fleeing with the greatest terror and precipitancy from the smallest of foes ; but a few, like the common rat, when driven to bay, will defend themselves desperately, and will then inflict comparatively severe bites with their powerful front-teeth. Many Rodents yield furs which are very largely used in commerce, although of less intrinsic value than those of many other mammals. The flesh of hares and rabbits is largely consumed in Europe, while that of other members of the order is also eaten in various parts of the world ; but the strong odour which characterises many Rodents renders their flesh more or less un- palatable. As a whole, Rodents are characterised by their dull and frequently uniform coloration, although there are many exceptions to this. Indeed, many of the squirrels from the warmer regions of the globe, as well as one of the species of marmot, are among the most brilliantly coloured of all animals. In the brighter-coloured forms it does not appear that any rule can be laid down as to the plan of coloration. Thus while in many of the squirrels the brilliant colours take the form of distinct patches, distributed over various parts of the body, in the palm-squirrels and ground-squirrels there are light longitudinal stripes on a dark ground, and in the pacas there are light-coloured spots. It appears, however, that no Rodent exhibits transverse bars of different colours on the body, and in none is the tail ornamented with alternate light and dark rings. The tail is very variable ; being totally wanting in the guinea- pig, while in the jerboas it attains an enormous relative length. THE AFRICAN FLYING SQUIRRELS. Family ANOMALURID^. The true flying-squirrels are confined to Asia, Europe, and North America, but Africa possesses a group of somewhat similar animals, which differ so decidedly in structure that they are assigned to a distinct family. Before considering these animals in detail, a few words are necessary as to the leading characteristics common to all the Rodents treated of in the present chapter, which are collectively spoken of as the squirrel-like Rodents, or, technically, as the Sciuromorpha. Together with the mouse-like Rodents described in the following chapter, all these animals are characterised by the angular process of the lower SQUIRRELS. 69 SKELETON OF SQUIRREL. jaw 1 taking its origin from the root of the sheath of the incisor tooth. The squirrel-like Rodents are especially distinguished by having the two bones of the lower leg (tibia and fibula), as shown in the accompanying figure of the skeleton of the squirrel, quite distinct from one another. They are further characterised by the zygomatic or cheek-arch of the skull being slender, and mainly formed by the jugale or cheek-bone itself. 2 These distinctive characters, which are some- what difficult for those not versed in anatomy to understand, may appear trivial and unimportant ; but the fact is that all Rodents are so alike in general structure, that it is only by such slight points of difference that the various groups can be satisfactorily distin- guished from one another. The African flying squirrels (Anomalurus) are distinguished from the true flying squirrels by the parachute-like membrane running along the sides of the body being supported in front by a rod of bony cartilage arising from the elbow-joint (instead of from the wrist) ; and also by the presence of a row of overlapping horny scales on the under surface of the root of the long and thickly-haired tail. Their skulls also differ from those of the true squirrels by the absence of a bony projection from the frontal bones defining the hinder border of the socket of the eye. They have, moreover, but a single pair of premolar teeth in each jaw. Most of these flying squirrels are confined to Western Africa, but one species (A. pusillus) occurs in Equatoria, while another is found on the east coast near Zanzibar. The fulgent flying-squirrel (A. fulgens), from the Gabun is one of the largest species, measuring 21 inches in total length, of 1 This is the projecting process seen at the hinder extremity of the lower jaw in the skull figured on p. 66. 2 In the same figure the zygomatic arch is the bar of bone beneath the socket of the eye, of which the front portion is formed by the jugale or cheek-bone. THE FULGENT AFRICAN FLYING SQUIRREL. 7 o RODENTS. which a third is occupied by the tail ; its colour is bright tawny orange, with a white spot between the ears, and another on each side of the muzzle. On the other hand, in the pigmy African flying squirrel the mboma of the natives the length of the head and body is only 11 inches, and that of the tail 5J inches; the colour of the upper-parts being dark grizzled grey, while beneath it is yellowish white, with the tail uniform pale brown. The habits of these animals appear to be very similar to those of ** v their Asiatic allies. In climbing tree-stems, preparatory to taking their flying leaps, it is said that they use the scales at the root of the tail to aid in obtaining a hold on the bark. THE SQUIRREL FAMILY Family SCIURID^E. The Squirrel family, which includes the true flying squirrels, ordinary squirrels, marmots, and susliks, is distinguished from the last by the absence of scales on the tail, and the presence of distinct bony (postorbital) processes defining the hinder border of the upper half of the socket of the eye. Moreover, when a parachute- like membrane is present, it is supported by a rod of cartilage arising from the wrist. The palate is broad ; and there are generally two pairs of premolar teeth in the upper, and one in the lower jaw ; but the first upper premolar is small, and may be shed or wanting. The molars have roots, and in the young state at least have their crowns surmounted by tubercles, but in the adult they often have deep wavy enamel -folds, forming transverse plates extending partially across the crown. Till quite recently the members of the family were divided into two groups, or subfamilies, according as to whether they are arboreal or terrestrial in their habits ; the first group including the true squirrels and flying squirrels, and the second comprising the susliks and marmots. From a careful study of their dentition, Dr. Forsyth-Major has, however, come to the conclusion that this arrangement is an artificial one ; he accordingly classes them under three groups, of which the first includes the true squirrels, susliks, and marmots, the second the flying squirrels, and the third the Oriental pigmy squirrels. THE GROOVE-TOOTHED SQUIRREL. Genus Rhithrosciurus. According to the above-mentioned scheme, the first representative of the family is the Bornean groove -toothed squirrel (Rhithrosciurus macrotis), which is the sole member of a genus easily characterised by the presence of a number of vertical grooves on the front of the incisor teeth. Much larger than the common squirrel, this species has an enormous bushy tail, long tufted ears, and black and white bands along the flanks. The molar teeth are of a simpler type than in any other member of this family. SQUIRRELS. 7I THE SPINY SQUIRRELS. Genus Xerus. In addition to being the home of a considerable number of true squirrels, Africa is the sole habitat of a group of squirrels constituting a distinct genus of the family. The typical representatives of these Ethiopian spiny squirrels are characterised by their coarse and spiny hair, the small size or total absence of the external conchs of the ears, and the comparative straightness of the long claws. According to the new classification, certain other Ethiopian species, formerly included among the true squirrels, may however find a place in this genus, which will be best characterised by the skull and molar teeth. As regards the skull, this is distinguished by its THE ABYSSINIAN SPINY SQUIREEL (J nat. size). elongate form, which is especially shown in the frontal bones, and the extreme shortness of the (postorbital) processes forming the hinder border of the upper part of the sockets of the eyes. The molar teeth, in place of the low-crowned, basin- shaped form characterising those of the true squirrels, have somewhat taller crowns, with more or less well-marked transverse plates ; thus approximating to the corre- sponding teeth of the porcupines, and evidently indicating a specialised type. Distribution and The genus now includes a very large number of species, ranging Habits. from Abyssinia to the Cape ; its typical representatives differing from the true squirrels in being entirely terrestrial, taking refuge either in clefts and holes among rocks, or in the burrows excavated by themselves. The Abyssinian spiny squirrel (Xerus rutilus), which is the species represented in our illustration, is of a uniform yellowish red colour, with distinct conchs to the ears ; its size being comparable to that of the English squirrel, but rather larger. Mr. Blanford states that these animals may be commonly seen in the neighbourhood of Annesley Bay in rocky places, associating in parties of five or six individuals. The striped Abyssinian 7 2 RODENTS. spiny squirrel (X. leucoumbrinus) agrees with the last in having external ear- conchs, but differs in its longitudinally -striped body ; in the latter respect it re- sembles the Cape spiny squirrel (X. setosus), of South Africa, in which, however, the conchs of the ears are wanting. The small spiny squirrel (X. yetulus), which is also striped, is the most diminutive member of the group, and in size and appear- ance much resembles the Indian palm-squirrel. A fossil species of this genus occurs in the Miocene deposits of France. THE TRUE SQUIRRELS. Genus Sciurus. The common squirrel is the sole representative in Western Europe of an ex- ceedingly large and widely-distributed genus, of which the following are the leading characteristics. The tail is very long and bushy; the ears are in most cases of considerable size, and may be surmounted with tufts of long hair ; and in the fore- limbs there are only four functional toes, owing to the rudimental condition of the one corresponding to the human thumb. The claws are long, curved, and sharp ; while the female may have either four or six teats. From that of the spiny squirrels the skull differs by its shortened form and the elongation of the backwardly- directed (postorbital) processes defining the hinder border of the sockets of the eyes. The molar teeth are low-crowned and of a simple type, those of the lower jaw having the grinding surface basin-shaped, with a longitudinal wall on the inner and outer side, and no transverse plates formed by infoldings of the enamel ; and the first upper premolar, if present, is small, and may be shed at an early age. While the common squirrel is of a uniform brownish red colour on the upper- parts, many of the tropical species are most brilliantly tinted with orange and other bright colours, while others, like the little Indian palm-squirrel, have their bodies ornamented with longitudinal light stripes on a dark ground. One of the Malayan species, which is ordinarily grey, assumes a brilliant orange-coloured dress during the breeding-season; and some of the North American species also undergo a seasonal change of coloration, one of them having a dark stripe along the sides of the body in summer, which completely disappears in winter. There is great differ- ence in the size of the various species, the large Malayan squirrel (Sciurus bicolor) from India and the Malay region, measuring about 40 inches or more in total length, while the Indian palm-squirrel does not exceed a weasel in size. The true squirrels inhabit the temperate and tropical portions of the whole globe, with the exception of Madagascar and the Australasian region. The number of species probably does not fall far short of fifty or sixty, and these are most numerous in the Malayan region, which may be regarded as the headquarters of the group. There is, however, great difficulty in deciding as to the real number of species, since a large number of squirrels, especially those from North America and Africa, exhibit extraordinary local variation in coloration, so that it is almost impossible to say where varieties end and species begin. European The common squirrel (8. vulgaris), as being the best known squirrel. representative of the genus, may be selected for special notice, as the SQUIRRELS. 73 habits of all the species appear to be very similar. Belonging to a group in which the first upper premolar is present, this little animal is so well known by appearance to all, that but few words need be devoted to its description. The general colour of the head and body is brownish red above, and white beneath ; the whole tail being of the same hue as the back. In summer, the edges of the ears are smooth, but in winter they are tipped with a thick fringe of hair. In winter the squirrel in England is greyer than in summer ; and in the more northern and eastern parts of its habitat, the grey tint, especially in winter, becomes much more marked, while in Japan the colour is nearly black. Drab-coloured squirrels occur in Siberia ; and white or pied specimens are occasionally met with. In some parts of England the tail is not unfrequently cream-coloured in autumn. The total length of the animal, Distribution. THE EUROPEAN SQUIRREL (\ nat. size). exclusive of the hairs at the end of the tail, is about 15 J inches, of which 7 inches are taken up by the tail. The geographical range of the European squirrel is very exten- sive, comprising almost the whole of Europe, Northern Africa, Asia Minor, and Asia north of the Himalaya, as far eastward as Japan. Indeed, Ireland and Japan respectively mark the western and eastern boundaries of its range ; while its extreme northern and southern limits are indicated by Lapland and the north of Italy. In the south of the latter country, and likewise in the Caucasus and the Crimea, the squirrel is, however, quite unknown. Like other members of the genus, this species of squirrel is mainly diurnal and arboreal in its habits, but seldom descending to the ground, and when aloft leaping from bough to bough with surprising agility. The extent of these flying leaps shows that the " flight " of the flying squirrels is but an ultra development of this mode of progression. Its chief food consists of nuts, Habits. 74 RODENTS. beech-mast, bark, buds, and young shoots of trees ; but there is evidence that it is also not averse to a diet of birds' eggs, and perhaps insects. In feeding, all squirrels sit up on their hind-quarters, and hold their food to their mouths with the fore- paws. The shells of nuts are pierced by the sharp front teeth, and every fragment removed before the kernel is consumed. Stores of food are laid up by the common squirrel for winter use, but instead of being deposited in a single place they are hidden in several repositories. In England and the whole of its more northerly habit, the squirrel partially hibernates during the winter, but it wakes up at intervals to feed when the weather is mild, and again retires to slumber. Probably in more southern regions it is active throughout the year, as are the species inhabiting the warmer parts of the globe. Squirrels associate in pairs, apparently for life, and generally frequent the same tree or clump of trees from year to year. The nest, or " drey," in which the young are produced, is built either in the fork of a branch, or in some hole of the stem of a tree, and is composed of leaves, moss, and fibres, carefully intertwined. When placed in a fork, it so closely resembles the boughs in colour that its detection from below is difficult. In England the blind and naked young are born in June, and are usually three or four in number. They remain with their parents till the following spring ; and if captured at a sufficiently early age form docile and affectionate pets. The squirrel can swim well ; and its flesh is said to be good eating. Squirrel -fur is extensively used for boas, linings, and trimmings. The quantity formerly imported into England was very great, the total number of skins in 1839 reaching 2,730,826 ; but of late years the imports have declined, the chief seat of the industry in this fur being now in Germany. The darker bluish grey skins are the most valued, most of these being obtained from Okhotsk by the Alaska Company ; the number imported by that company into London being, according to Mr. Poland, 43,235 in 1891, but it is sometimes double as many. North American In North America the place of the European species is taken by Squirrels. the red squirrel, or chickari (S. hudsonianus), and the grey squirrel ($. carolinensis) ; the former frequenting forests of all kinds, while the latter is chiefly restricted to those composed of deciduous trees. Dr. Hart Merriam, describing the habits of the red squirrel in the Adirondack Mountains, near New York, says that this species exhibits but little fear of man, and is the least wary of all its tribe. It is on the alert from dawn to sunset, and sometimes, especially when there is a moon, continues its rambles throughout the night ; while whenever abroad it enlivens the solitudes of the forests with its continual chatterings. " Though an expert climber, delighting in long leaps from bough to bough, which he executes with grace and precision, he spends far more time on the ground than the other arboreal squirrels, sometimes even making his home in holes in the earth. Old logs, stumps, wood-piles, and brush-heaps, are favourite places of resort, and, by excavating burrows beneath, he converts them into the securest of retreats . . . As might be inferred from the boreal distribution of this animal, he is the hardiest of our squirrels. Not only does he inhabit regions where the rigours of Arctic winter are keenly felt, but refusing to hibernate, he remains active throughout the continuance of excessive cold ; when running upon the snow he often plunges down out of sight, tunnels a little distance, and, reappearing, shakes the snow from SQUIRRELS. 75 his head and body, whisks his tail, and skips along as lightly and with as much apparent pleasure as if returning from a bath in some rippling brook during the heat of a summer's afternoon." This squirrel is fond of a variety of fruits, and also sucks the eggs and kills the young of the smaller birds. The young are generally born early in April, and usually include from four to six in a litter. This species is of small size, with a relatively short tail, and short tufts to the ears in winter ; its usual colour being greyish, more or less mixed with yellowish or reddish above, and generally white below. It shows dusky markings on the back, and sometimes also on the under-parts. Its geographical range includes the northern half of North America. The grey squirrel is a more southerly species, extending from the south of Canada to Mexico and Guatemala. In size it is superior to the last, and its tail is proportionately longer, while there are no ear-tufts. Its usual colour is whitish grey above, varied with fulvous, and white below ; the flanks being marked with a pale fulvous line. There are, however, numerous varieties, one of which is dark olive-brown above, and grey beneath. In habits this species seems to be more like the common squirrel, being extremely wary and alert, and partially hibernating during the winter. It buries its stores of food just beneath the surface of the ground in various parts of the woods. In confinement these squirrels form charming little pets. There are at least seven other well-defined representatives of the genus in North and Central America, and several others in the southern half of the same continent. Oriental As already mentioned, squirrels attain their maximum develop- squirreis. me nt of size and species, as well as their most brilliant coloration, in the Oriental region, and especially in its Malayan portion. In India and Burma Mr. Blanford recognises no less than twenty species of squirrels, three of which are of large size, measuring not less than a foot from the nose to the root of the tail, while eleven vary from 10 to 7 inches in length, and all the remainder are small striped species, averaging from 5 to 7 inches in length. The medium and smaller species retain the first premolar tooth of the upper jaw, which is usually lost in those of the largest groups. Among the two first groups some of the better known are the large Indian squirrel (8. indicus), with tufted ears, which is not known to the east of the Bay of Bengal, the large Malayan squirrel (S. bicolor), ranging from the eastern Himalaya to Borneo, the golden- backed squirrel (8. caniceps), already alluded to as the one which assumes a special breeding-dress, although this is confined to one variety of the species, and the nearly allied Irawadi squirrel (8. pygerythrus), in which the length of the head and body is about 9 inches, and the ears have no tufts. Of the -smaller striped species, the best known is the Indian palm-squirrel (8. palmarum), so commonly distributed in open districts throughout India and Ceylon, but unknown to the eastward of the Bay of Bengal, and never found in forests. The length of the head and body of this species is from 5J to 6 inches, and that of the tail rather more. The general colour of the upper-parts is some shade of brown, with three narrow whitish or slightly rufescent longitudinal stripes on the back ; the under-parts varying from white to grey. This pretty little squirrel is one of the most familiar of Indian mammals, exhibiting scarcely any fear 7 6 RODENTS. of man, and uttering its bird-like chirp in every Indian garden. It is commonly found in groves and on the rows of trees bordering the roads in most Indian stations ; but, according to Mr. Blanford, exhibits no especial predilection for palms. It generally feeds on the ground in the neighbourhood of trees, and when alarmed seeks refuge in their boughs by darting up the stems with lightning-like rapidity. Dogs newly imported into India invariably take to hunting palm - squirrels, but usually give up the pursuit in a short time as being utterly hopeless. These squirrels fre- quently take up their abode in the roofs of houses, and will freely enter the rooms. In addition to the usual food of its kindred, this species will also consume white ants and other insects. The young two to four in a litter are produced in a large bulky nest of grass or wool, usually placed either in a tree or among the rafters of a house. Extinct The European Squirrels. squirrel dates from the deposition of the Norfolk " forest-bed," belonging to the earliest series of the Pleistocene period ; but extinct species of the genus are found in formations of Tertiary age down to the upper division of the Eocene. THE IRAWADI SQUIRREL. After Anderson. THE GROUND-SQUIRRELS, OR CHIPMUNKS. The ground-squirrel of Siberia, portions of Eastern Europe, and North America, together with several other closely-allied North American species com- monly known as chipmunks, constitute a group serving to connect the two squirrels with the susliks. Having molar teeth of the same type, the chipmunks are indeed so closely allied to the true squirrels that Dr. Forsyth-Major proposes to include them in the same genus. They differ, however, from both the spiny-squirrels and the true squirrels in the possession of pouches inside the cheeks ; on which account they may, for the present at least, be allowed to stand under the generic title by which they are commonly known. They are further characterised by the sides, or the back and sides together, being marked by longitudinal white or greyish white stripes bordered by black bands. The ears are of medium size or small, and are never tufted with long hair ; while the tail is shorter than the head and body, SQUIRRELS. 77 flattened, and rather wide. The skull is generally like that of the true squirrels, but rather narrower and more slender ; and the first premolar tooth in the upper jaw is either absent or very minute. The common American chipmunk (Tamias striatus), together with its numerous varieties, is distinguished by having two white stripes, each bordered with black, and a simple black stripe running down the middle of the back ; and has also two white stripes, separated by a black one, above and below the eye. It is about the size of the European squirrel, with which it also agrees approximately in the general ground-colour of the fur. There is, however, great local variation in this respect, specimens from the southern portions of the chipmunks' range being lighter in colour than those from the north. The distribution of this species extends from Canada and Manitoba to Georgia and Western Missouri. The long- eared chipmunk (T. macrotus), from California, differs from it in the much greater length of its ears. On the other hand, the Siberian chipmunk (T. asiaticus), which, as we have said, is common to the Old and the New World, together with some other North American species, differs by having four light-coloured and five black stripes on the body. The tail is also relatively longer. In the Old World this species ranges from the shores of the Sea of Okhotsk westward over the whole of Northern Asia, extending in Russia as far as the river Dwina, and along the whole course of the Amur. Including under the specific name a large number of varieties, which some writers are disposed to regard as distinct species, the Siberian chipmunk ranges in North America from Lake Superior and the neighbourhood of the Barren Grounds to New Mexico and Arizona, and extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific seaboard. Chipmunks are among the commonest of North American Rodents, and their habits are consequently thoroughly well known. As those of all of the species are probably nearly similar, the excellent account given by Dr. Hart Merriam of the habits of the common chipmunk will suffice for all. These animals are migratory, and may be very abundant in a certain district in one year, while in the next comparatively few will be seen; their relative abundance being dependent upon the supply of food. Chipmunks feed not only on nuts and beech-mast, but likewise on various kinds of corn and roots ; and they are also partial to the larvae of insects. When beech-mast is abundant in the Adirondack Mountains, it may be safely predicted that swarms of chipmunks will make their appearance in the autumn. In such seasons the forerunners arrive in September, while by October the woods are alive with these creatures. " Finding an abundance of food," writes Dr. Merriam, " they immediately establish themselves for the winter, and begin at once to hoard up large stores. They are the least hardy of our squirrels, commonly going into winter-quarters before the middle of November, and rarely appearing again in any numbers till the warm sun, in March or April, has caused plots of bare ground to appear between the snow-banks. Early thaws sometimes bring them out in February; and after having once emerged they often make little excursions over the snow during pleasant days, though the temperature may be several degrees below freezing. In running from tree to tree, even when not pursued, the length of their bound varies from twenty- five to thirty-four inches a long leap for so small an animal." They commonly 78 RODENTS. leave the Adirondack region in July, since it is but seldom that there is a good crop of beech-nuts in two successive years. The young are born in the spring, and leave the nest by June. Chipmunks collect an astonishing quantity of food for the winter, which is carried to its place of deposit in their capacious cheek-pouches. In addition to regular storehouses, these animals lay up a portion of their winter supply here and there beneath the leaves of the forest. In a hole tenanted by four chipmunks, Audubon and Bachman relate that in the nest itself they found about a gill of corn, and in the communicating galleries upwards of about a quart of nuts, a peck of acorns, about two quarts of buckwheat, and a small quantity of Indian corn and grass seeds. Generally the chipmunk keeps to. the ground, although it will often run some few feet up the trunk of a tree, and when pursued, if its hole be not THE COMMON CHIPMUNK (g liat. size). accessible, will take refuge among the branches. Instances are, however, on record where these animals have been observed regularly ascending tall trees in search of food ; and they seemed perfectly at home among the boughs, although they never leapt from branch to branch after the manner of the true squirrels. In regard to its general mode of life, Dr. Merriam observes that " the chip- munk establishes his headquarters in some log or stump, or in a hole excavated by himself in the earth, generally among the roots of a tree. He is partial to brush- heaps, wood piles, stone walls, rail fences, accumulations of old rubbish, and other places that afford him a pretty certain escape, and at the same time enable him to see what is transpiring outside. For, though by no means wary, he delights in these loosely sheltered hiding-places, where he can whisk in and out at will, peep unobserved at passers-by, and dart back when prudence demands. If suddenly surprised, he utters a sharp chip-per, r, r, r, and makes a sudden quick dash for his retreat, which is no sooner reached than, simultaneously with the disappearance of SUSLIKS. 79 his tail, out pops his head, his keen dark eyes gazing intently at the source of alarm. If not pursued farther, he is very apt to advance towards the supposed enemy, betraying his excitement by a series of nervous starts and precipitous retreats, till finally, making a bold rush, he dashes by the object of his dread, and in another instant is peering out from a hole beneath the roots of a neighbouring tree." The chipmunk does not appear to make an agreeable pet, as it is apt to be sulky and morose, and disposed to bite the fingers of any one who offers it food. THE SUSLIKS, OR GOPHERS. Genus Spermophilus. The suslik or sisel of North-Eastern Europe and Northern Asia, and the striped gopher of North America are the best known representatives of the fourth genus of the Squirrel family. Both in this and the two following genera the incisor teeth are not compressed, while the form of the body is generally stout, and the tail either short or of moderate length ; the molar teeth being of a simple type. The whole of the species are confined to Europe, Asia Minor, Asia north of the southern flanks of the Himalaya, and North America. The susliks, as the members of the genus Spermophilus may be collectively termed, are characterised by their somewhat slender and squirrel-like form, and the presence of large cheek-pouches. The external ears may be very small, or comparatively large and tufted ; and the tail varies from a mere stump to 8 or 9 inches in length. In the fore-feet the first toe is rudimentary, but its nail is sometimes present. The skull approximates to that of the squirrels, but the first upper premolar is relatively larger ; and the two rows of upper cheek-teeth are nearly parallel to one another. The coloration may be either uniform or striped, but never resembles that of the chipmunks. The susliks are mainly confined to the colder regions of the Northern Hemisphere, and have very nearly the same distribution as the chipmunks, although there is no species common to the Old and the New World. With the exception of Eversmann's suslik (S. eversmanni) of North- Eastern Asia, all the Old World species have short tails, while those of the New World are nearly all long-tailed, and approach more closely in form to the chipmunks. In North America no representatives of the genus occur to the east- ward of the plains and prairies forming the centre of the continent, but they range westwards to the coast of the Pacific. In latitude the range of the genus extends from the shores of the Arctic Sea to the plains of Northern Mexico. The common suslik (S. citillus), which is the species depicted in our illustra- tion, is common in Central and Eastern Europe and Siberia, and is a uniformly- coloured animal, scarcely as large as the European squirrel, with a very short tail, and minute external ears. In America the commonest representative of the genus is the striped gopher (S. tridecemlineatus), which is some 7 or 8 inches in length, with a tail of about two-thirds that length, and small ears. In colour it is typically dark reddish brown above, with six to eight longitudinal light stripes, alternating with from five to seven rows of light spots ; the under-parts being yellowish brown 8o RODENTS. in the middle line, bordered on the sides with yellowish, with a narrow black band running between the two tints. This species ranges from the Red River in Canada to Texas. The long-eared gopher (S. grammurus), ranging from Colorado to California, may be cited as an example of another group of the genus, in which the ears are very large, and often fringed with long hairs, while the tail is very long and bushy. Fossil remains show that susliks were more widely distributed in Europe during the Pleistocene period than they are at the present day ; some of their remains having been discovered in the brick-earths of the Thames Valley. All the susliks are social and burrowing animals, generally selecting open plains, with a sandy or clayey soil, for the construction of their domiciles, and studiously avoiding forests or swampy districts. The burrows of the common suslik are as much as from six to eight feet in depth, and have each Habits. THE COMMON SUSLIK (J nat. size). but a single entrance. When, however, these animals retire to the depths of their burrows for their winter sleep, they excavate a second passage from the sleeping- chamber to within a short distance from the surface of the ground. On awakening in the spring, an exit is made through this second passage, and the original entrance blocked up ; and hence the length of time that a suslik-burrow has been occupied is indicated by the number of these deserted entrances around it. Within the burrow a large quantity of food, such as roots, seeds, berries, etc., is accumulated in the summer and autumn for winter use. Susliks will, however, also eat mice and small birds and their eggs. The young are born in the spring, and usually comprise from four to eight in a litter. If captured sufficiently young, susliks can be easily tamed ; and their flesh is much esteemed by the peasants of North-Eastern Europe and Siberia. In America all the more northern species pass the colder portion of the year in a state of hibernation, but in the more southern portion of their range the period MARMOTS. 8 1 of sleep is considerably shortened, while the species in the extreme south remain more or less active throughout the winter. The striped gopher seems to be more decidedly carnivorous in its habits than the common suslik, devouring not only field-voles and other mice, but also some of the smaller species of squirrels, which cannot even live in a district abounding with gophers. Dr. Hoy states that, when a squirrel is put into the same cage with a striped gopher, the latter " will in a moment be all animation and activity, darting at the intruder, inflicting a wound, and flying back with such rapidity as to leave but little chance of defence. As soon as it has disabled its antagonist, it seizes it by the back of the neck and instantly kills it." The gopher during the combat utters a low snarling growl, and after the death of its victim feasts on the brain and blood. This gopher also frequently robs hens' nests, while other species have been detected in carrying off young chickens and turkeys. More remarkable is the circumstance that Richardson's gopher (S. richardsoni) was formerly in the habit of feeding on the flesh of the innumerable carcases of bison left by the hunters on the prairies. Writing of the habits of Parry's suslik (S. empetra), from the neighbourhood of Hudson Bay and Behring Strait, a species closely allied to Eversmann's suslik of Siberia, Sir J. Richardson observes that " it is found generally in stony districts, but seems to delight chiefly in sandy hillocks amongst rocks, where burrows, in- habited by different individuals, may be often observed crowded together. One of the society is generally observed sitting erect on the summit of the hillock, whilst the others are feeding in the neighbourhood. Upon the approach of danger, he gives the alarm, and they instantly betake themselves to their holes, remaining chattering, however, at the entrances, until the advance of the enemy obliges them to retire to the bottom." THE PRAIRIE-MARMOTS. Genus Cynomys. In addition to being the home of several species of true marmots akin to those of the Old World, North America also possesses a closely allied, but somewhat more specialised genus of Rodents, which may be designated prairie- marmots, although they are often most inappropriately termed prairie-dogs, while they are likewise known as barking squirrels. In size these animals hold a position intermediate between the susliks and the true marmots. They have small ears, and generally short tails, while their cheek -pouches are much less capacious than those of the susliks. In their fore-feet the first toe is well developed and furnished with a claw nearly as large as that of the fifth. The skull is massive, with the large postorbital processes directed nearly outwards (as shown in the figure on p. 66) ; and the molar teeth are very stout, with three grooves on their grinding-surfaces, in place of the two characterising those of the other two genera of the group. A further peculiarity in connection with the upper molar teeth, is that the two series, in place of running nearly parallel, are convergent behind. There are three species of prairie-marmots, two of which are confined to the prairies of the Rocky Mountain plateau, while the third inhabits Mexico. The common prairie-marmot (Cynomys ludovicianus) is confined to the drier districts VOL. in. 6 82 RODENTS. to the east of the Rocky Mountains, and is entirely an inhabitant of open plains. The length of the head and body usually varies from 11 J to 12 \ inches, and that of the tail, inclusive of the hairs at the tip, from 4 to 5 inches. In colour the upper-parts are reddish brown varied with grey, and the under parts yellowish or brownish white, the tail being coloured like the back, but with a brownish black tip. The Columbian prairie -marmot ((7. columbianus) is a smaller species dis- tinguished by its much shorter tail, which is entirely white, and by the more yellow tinge of the fur of the body. It occurs in the regions to the west of the Rocky Mountains, ranging at irregular intervals from Columbia through Colorado THE PRAIRIE-MARMOT (j liat. size). and Arizona to the Sierra Nevada, and is a more mountain-dwelling animal than the preceding, occurring at elevations of as much as ten thousand feet above the sea. The Mexican prairie-marmot (C. mexicanus) is the largest of the three, and is distinguished from the common species of the plains by its much longer tail, in which the black at the tip is darker and extends for a greater distance. In general habits the prairie-marmots very closely resemble the true marmots, but it is stated that there is a distinct difference in this respect between the common and the Columbian species ; the burrows of the latter being unprotected by a raised funnel-shaped entrance which is so characteristic of those of the former. The following account of the habits of the Columbian prairie -marmot is taken from the travels of Lewis and Clark, who write that Habits. MARMOTS. 83 " these animals form large companies, like those on the Missouri, occupying with their burrows sometimes two hundred acres of land. The burrows are separate, and each possesses perhaps ten or twelve of these inhabitants. There is a little mound in front of the hole, formed of the earth thrown out of the burrow ; and frequently there are three or four distinct holes, forming one burrow, with their entrances around the base of these little mounds. These mounds, sometimes about two feet in height and four in diameter, are occupied as watch-towers by the inhabitants of these little communities. The marmots, one or more, are irregularly distributed on the tract they thus occupy, at the distance of ten, twenty, or some- times from thirty to forty yards. When anyone approaches they make a shrill whistling sound, somewhat resembling tweet, tweet, tweet, the signal for their party to take the alarm and to retire into their intrenchments. They feed on the roots of grass, etc." In Kansas the common prairie -marmot appears only to retire for a few days at a time during the most inclement portion of the winter, having been observed in January as active as in summer. Farther to the north these animals doubtless, however, retire to their burrows for longer periods. Some of the burrows of the eastern species are commonly tenanted by a small kind of owl, while others are occupied by rattlesnakes ; and it is a common popular error that all these three animals live together in mutual association and harmony. This, however, is far from being the true state of the case. The owls, indeed, take up their abode in some of the deserted burrows, and do no harm to their former owners, their food consisting mainly of insects and crayfish. On the other hand, the rattlesnakes resort to the colony for the purpose of feeding upon the young marmots ; and although they usually dwell in one burrow, from which they have expelled the rightful occupants, they enter others in search of food. THE TRUE MARMOTS. Genus Arctomys. All who have travelled in the higher Alps or Himalaya, are familiar with the shrill, piercing, whistle-like screams of the marmots, uttered when they first catch sight of an intruder on their lonely domains, and preparatory to taking refuge in the security of their burrows. The true marmots, which are the largest members of the present group, are distinguished from prairie-marmots by their still stouter build, the absence of pouches in the cheeks, and the rudimentary condition of the first toe of the fore-foot, which has only a flattened nail in lieu of a claw. Their skulls are, moreover, still broader, with the two rows of upper molar teeth nearly parallel, and each molar tooth marked only by a pair of transverse grooves. The ears are small, like those of the prairie-marmots ; and the tail is generally short, although occasionally equal to half the length of the head and body. In size marmots vary from about 15 to 25 inches in length, exclusive of the tail ; the measurements of the latter ranging from 3 to about 12 inches. In general appear- ance, the stoutness of their bodies and the shortness of their limbs are their most obvious features. The head is wide and short, the small ears are more or less 84 RODENTS. rounded, the eyes large and full, and the tail bushy. Their fur is of moderate length and rather coarse and stiff; and their colour is some shade of golden or reddish brown, shading more or less decidedly into black along the middle line of the back and on the tail, the tip of the latter being invariably dark. Marmots inhabit the northern portions of both the Old and New World, but in the former have a much more extensive distribution than either susliks or chipmunks. In the more southern portions of their range in the Old World, these animals are found only at considerable elevations above the sea-level, but in more northern districts, like the Siberian steppes, they are found on the lowland plains. In North America the common marmot, or wood- chuck, inhabits low elevations in districts whe^e the winter climate is severe ; but a second species is exclusively a mountain-dweller. None of them are found in forest districts ; and, whether in the mountains or on the plains, they generally select open spaces with a sandy soil, and within easy distance of water, for the construction of their burrows. Old World In Europe there are two representatives of the genus, of which Marmots. ne fl rs ^ anc [ larger is the Alpine marmot (Arctomys marmotta), now confined to the three disconnected mountain-ranges of the Pyrenees, Alps, and Carpathians; although, as attested by its fossil remains, during the Pleistocene period, when the climate was different, it was an inhabitant of the lowlands of Germany and other parts of the Continent. The length of this marmot is about 20 inches, exclusive of the comparatively short tail. The bobac (A. bobac), of which a group is represented in our plate, is a smaller species, measuring only about 15 inches from the nose to the root of the tail, and with a much wider geographical range. This species has its present westerly limits on the frontier of Germany, and thence ranges eastwards through Galicia and Poland, across the steppes of Southern Russia, and so on to Amurland, Kamschatka, and Siberia ; the climate of these regions being sufficiently cold to admit of the existence of marmots at low elevations. In Lapland and Scandinavia, marmots are quite unknown; but the southern limits of the bobac do not yet appear to be ascertained. Central Asia and the higher ranges of the inner Himalaya are inhabited by numerous species of marmots, but the genus is quite unknown to the southward of the latter range. Of these Asiatic species, one of the best known is the short-tailed Himalayan marmot (A. himalayanus), which is nearly allied to the bobac, but of somewhat larger size. Its. range extends from the mountains of Yarkand and other parts of Turkestan to Ladak and Eastern Tibet, where it is usually found at elevations of from twelve thousand to thirteen thousand feet. The largest and handsomest of the whole Old World group is, however, the long-tailed red marmot (A. caudatus), in which the length of the head and body is about 24 inches, and that of the tail fully half as much. This marmot is readily recognised, not only by its large size and the great length of the tail, but also by the deep rufous tinge of the fur, and the large amount of black in the region of the back. This fine marmot may be met with on the mountain-ranges to the north of the valley of Kashmir, and thence to Gilgit in one direction, and parts of Ladak in the other, while it is also said to extend far into Central Asia. Other kindred but smaller A COLONY OF BOBAC MARMOTS. MARMOTS. 87 species are the Cabul marmot (A. dichrous) from Northern Afghanistan, and the golden marmot (A. aureus) from the mountains to the west of Yarkand. The districts inhabited by all the marmots of the Old World are desolate and barren ; being in most cases scorched with fierce heat in summer, while in winter they are subject to intense cold. In the Himalaya, these animals are not met with until the traveller has crossed the wooded outer ranges, and entered the bleak Tibetan districts. The barren nature of the Siberian steppes is too well known to need more than passing mention. The occurrence of fossil remains of the Alpine marmot in many parts of Europe, such as Germany, the south of France, Italy as far south as Mentone, and Belgium, naturally leads to the conclusion that Western Europe had at one time a more or less steppe-like climate. As milder and more genial climatic conditions supervened, the Alpine marmot gradually retreated to the nearest mountain-ranges ; and we thus have a complete explanation of its present isolated distributional areas. The habits of all the marmots of the Old World appear to be very similar; all the species of these animals living in large companies, and excavating burrows in which they pass the whole of the winter buried in profound slumber. Indeed, marmots seem to be the most thoroughly hibernating of mammals, since their sleep is apparently unbroken, and they lay up no store of winter food. All the species are diurnal in their habits ; and their food is purely of a vegetable nature, consisting mainly of roots, leaves, and seeds of various plants. In the Himalaya the burrows are very generally constructed beneath the shelter of a plant of wild rhubarb ; and the tenants on a fine day take up their station on the mound at the entrance, or journey for a short distance in search of food. At the least alarm, they rush at once to the entrance of their burrow, when they sit up on their hind-quarters to survey the scene and detect the clanger. If the enemy approach too close, the loud whistling scream is uttered, and the animal dives headlong into its burrow, to reappear after a time and see if the coast is clear. Both in the Alps and Himalaya marmot- warrens are situated in exposed situations, generally where there is a considerable open space, and which in winter are deeply buried in snow. In the case of the Alpine species, the winter- quarters are made in large burrows, each with a single entrance, and terminating in an extensive chamber lined with grass; such chambers, according to Prof. Blasius, frequently containing as many as from ten to fifteen occupants during the winter, all lying closely packed together. From two to four young appears to be the usual number in a litter of the Himalayan species. The flesh of marmots is said to be of good flavour, and is largely consumed by the inhabitants of the Siberian steppes, who as soon as the bobac reappears in spring, after its winter sleep, organise a regular system of hunting. In shooting marmots it is essential that they should be killed at the first shot, as the sportsman is only able to come within range when they are sitting at the mouths of their burrows, and if only wounded, no matter how severely, they are well-nigh sure to have sufficient power left to struggle down. Marmots in the Himalaya will generally reappear after being fired at once, but after a second fright they are seldom seen again on that day. All the species appear to be readily tamed. 88 RODENTS. American Marmots. Three well-defined species of marmot inhabit North America, namely the woodchuck (A. monax), the Eocky Mountain marmot (A. flaviv enter), and the hoary marmot (A. pruinosus). Of these the last is the largest, and agrees closely with the Alpine species, though the length of the head and body is said to reach from 23 to 25 inches. The second does not exceed 18 J inches in length of head and body, but has a much longer tail, of which the length is from 9 to 10 inches. This species ranges from California through the Eocky Mountains to about the 49th parallel of latitude ; it appears to be a strictly Alpine animal, and is to some extent gregarious, like the Old World species. THE ALPINE MARMOT (J- nat. size). The woodchuck is the smallest of the three species, averaging only 14 J inches in length of head and body, with a tail of nearly half this dimension. It is generally mixed fulvous, brownish black, and grey above, and yellowish or brownish red below ; but some specimens are almost wholly black. The range of the woodchuck extends from Manitoba to Carolina, and westwards from the Atlantic to Missouri and Minnesota. In habits this species appears to differ considerably from the Old World forms. According to Dr. Hart Merriam, it delights in the open meadows and rocky hill- sides in the cultivated area round the .Adirondack Mountains, where it feeds chiefly upon grass and clover. Although generally living in burrows of its own FLY NG SQUIRREL. FLYING SQUIRRELS. 89 excavation, the woodchuck will sometimes take up its abode in rocky ledges or in the hollow roots of trees. During the summer the greater number of these animals live in the open fields ; but in the winter it appears that in the Adirondack region at least they retire for the winter to burrows situated close to, or actually within, the borders of woods. In the Adirondacks the woodchucks become very fat in the early autumn, and retire for their winter sleep no matter what be the temperature or the state of the weather about the equinox, from which they do not awake till the middle or latter part of March. Still more remarkable is the circumstance that the animal often retires when the weather is genial and food abundant, while at the time of its reappearance the ground is frequently deep in snow. "Woodchucks," writes Dr. Merriam, "are both nocturnal and diurnal, the periods of feeding being determined, in a general way, by the time of the year, the weather, and the proximity of enemies. In summer, throughout the farming districts, they commonly leave their burrows early in the morning, late in the afternoon, and during moonlight nights ; but may sometimes be found abroad at all hours. As autumn approaches, and they become more fat and sleepy, they usually appear only in fine weather, and then but for a few hours in the hottest part of the afternoon." Like the Old World species, the woodchuck when much hunted becomes exceedingly wary and difficult to approach ; but it differs from all the latter in that it will sometimes ascend trees and shrubs making these ascents sometimes for pleasure and at others to avoid foes. Woodchucks live either singly or in pairs ; the young, which are born at the end of April or beginning of May in the Adirondack district, remaining with their parents only a few months. The number in a litter is usually from four to six. When the young first leave their parents they take refuge in stone walls, hollow logs, or even hollow trees habits quite different from those of their Old World cousins, and showing a marked approximation towards the chipmunks. In some parts of New Hampshire woodchucks are so numerous as to cause serious inconvenience to agriculturists, and rewards have consequently been offered by the State for their destruction. Extinct Marmot- Kemains of extinct species of susliks occur in the higher like Rodents. Tertiary rocks of Europe ; in addition to which the Upper Eocene beds of France yield evidence of an extinct but apparently allied genus, known as Plesispermophilus. More primitive are the forms described as Plesiarctomys, which, while showing certain resemblances both to the marmots and the squirrels, have triangular three-cusped upper molar teeth, and no bony process defining the hinder limit of the upper border of the socket of the eye. These Rodents are found in the Middle Tertiary deposits both of Europe and North America. THE FLYING SQUIRRELS. Genera Sciuropterus, Pteromys, and Eupetaurus. The flying squirrels of the Northern Hemisphere, which are divided into the three generic groups named above, are sufficiently characterised by possessing a parachute-like membrane extending from the sides of the body to the toes, and 90 RODENTS. supported in front by a cartilage attached to the outer side of the wrist. There is also another membrane connecting the sides of the neck with the fore-limb ; and there may be likewise one between the hind-legs and the root of the tail. The molar teeth are of a very complex type, and as their skulls differ considerably from those of all the preceding genera, the flying squirrels are now regarded as indicating a distinct subfamily. Moreover, as the group is known to be of consider- able antiquity, it is not improbable that it has no generic affinity with any of the foregoing genera but that it traces its descent to some totally extinct group of the family. With the exception of one North American species, and a second from Siberia and Eastern Europe, the flying squirrels are confined to the Indian and Malayan regions. They are all exclusively nocturnal in their habits, and mainly inhabit forest regions, although one may frequent rocks alone. Their mode of flight and general habits appear to be very similar to those of the flying lemur ; and when leaping from tree to tree they utter sharp piercing cries which are familiar to all who have travelled in regions where flying squirrels are to be found. Lesser Flying The lesser flying squirrels, constituting the genus Sciuropterus, squirrels. are those which have the lowest crowned molar teeth in the group, although there is considerable variation in the structure of these teeth. All the members of the genus are distinguished by the parachute-like membrane along the sides being of moderate width; and by the rudimentary condition of the membrane between the hind-legs, which does not include any portion of the tail. The fur, as in all other members of the group, is very thick and soft ; but the tail differs from that of the other flying squirrels in being broad, and flattened from above downwards, in order, probably, to act as an aid in flight. In size these animals vary from 5 to 12 inches in length. The large size of their expressive eyes, and the beautiful silky softness of their fur, render them exceedingly attractive creatures. The North American species (S. volucella), which is the one represented in our illustration, has the fur of an ashy brown above, and creamy-white below. Distribution and The lesser flying squirrels include a considerable number of Habits. species, one of which is an inhabitant of North America, and a second of Siberia and North-Eastern Europe, while all the others are confined to the Indian and Malayan regions, extending as far northwards as Afghanistan and Kashmir. The following notes refer mainly to the habits of the North American species, of which an excellent account is given by Dr. Hart Merriam. Like ordinary squirrels, these animals subsist mainly on nuts, seeds, and buds, but the American species also eats beetles, and probably other insects, and may be taken in traps baited with meat, while in confinement it will but seldom refuse flesh. The American flying squirrels construct nests in the hollow trees they haunt, and in the cold winters of the Adirondack region near New York they retire to these nests, and probably hibernate. The same habits will doubtless hold good for the species inhabiting Kashmir and Afghanistan, but those inhabiting India proper and the warm Malayan region remain active at all seasons. The Kashmir flying squirrel (S. fimbriatus), in some cases at least, produces four young at a birth. In the daytime these squirrels remain concealed in hollow trees> and only issue forth at sunset in quest of food. Numbers frequently associate in one tree ; FLYING SQUIRRELS. 9 r and if such a tree be discovered the creatures may be induced to come forth one after another by tapping the stem. With regard to the flying leaps of the American flying squirrel, Dr. Merriam observes that " the ease, grace, and rapidity with which it glides from tree to tree inspires the merest passer-by with wonder and admiration. Its ordinary mode of progression is by a series of alternate climbs and leaps. Upon reaching a tree, the first act is to ascend, for, being unable to sail horizontally, it must attain a considerable elevation before venturing to leap to the next. Instead of moving off in this way when disturbed, it some- times runs up into the topmost branches of the nearest tree, and, curling itself into a surprisingly small compass, remains motionless until the intruder has taken his departure." The earlier writers, Audubon and Bachman also describe very graphically the AMERICAN FLYING SQUIKREL (^ liat. size) movements of a colony of these animals they once encountered. '" At times, they write, " one would be seen darting from the topmost branches of a tall oak, and with wide extended membranes and outspread tail gliding diagonally through the air, till it reached the foot of a tree about fifty yards off, when at the moment we expected to see it strike the earth, it suddenly turned upwards and alighted on the body of the tree. It would then run to the top and once more precipitate itself from the upper branches and sail back again to the tree it had just left. Crowds of these little creatures joined in these sportive gambols ; there could not have been less than two hundred. Scores of them would leave each tree at the same moment, seeming to have no other object in view than to indulge a playful propensity." In America the flying squirrels breed early in April. The American flying squirrel, if taken sufficiently young, can be readily and speedily tamed, and forms a most charming pet. Indeed, it is said that they become tame and thoroughly confiding much sooner than any other kind of wild 92 RODENTS. creature. When going to sleep, a specimen kept by Prof. F. EL King was in the habit of first placing its nose upon the table, or other surface upon which it happened to be standing, and then walking forwards and at the same time rolling itself up, until the nose almost protruded from between the hind-legs. The tail was then curved in a horizontal coil around the feet, so that the whole animal appeared to form a complete ball of soft fur. One of the smallest representatives of these animals is the pigmy flying squirrel (S. spadiceus), from Arakan and Cochin-China, in which the length of the head and body is only about 5 inches, while the tail is half an inch shorter. This species is chestnut-red above, with the basal portions of the hairs black, and white beneath. The polatouche, or Siberian flying squirrel (S. volans) is about 6 inches in length, with the upper-parts of the body in summer tawny brown, and the under-parts pure white; the tail being greyish above and rufous beneath. Extinct representatives of these flying squirrels have recently been recognised from the middle Tertiary deposits of Europe, and it is probable that the genus is likewise represented in the corresponding rocks of North America. Larger Flying The larger flying squirrels (Pteromys), of which an example is. Squirrels, represented in our coloured Plate, in addition to their superior dimen- sions, are distinguished from the preceding by the greater relative width of the flank-membrane, by the presence of a well-developed membrane connecting the hind-legs and embracing the upper part of the tail, as well as by the perfectly cylindrical form of the latter appendage. They are further characterised by the taller crowns and somewhat more complex structure of the molar teeth, which are nearly similar in all the species. There are at least ten species of this genus, ranging from India, through Burma and the Malayan region to the south of China and Formosa, and also extending northwards into Eastern Tibet. One of the best known species is the Malayan flying squirrel, or taguan (P. petaurista) from the Malay Peninsula and Islands. Closely allied, is Hodgson's flying squirrel (P. magnificus), from the Nipal Himalaya and the ranges south of the Assam Valley, at elevations of from five thousand to six thousand feet. The length of the head and body of this species is 16 inches, and that of the tail from 18 to 22 inches. Its colour appears to undergo a seasonal change ; the upper-parts, in what is considered to be the summer-dress, being of a deep maroon colour, usually with a more or less distinct yellow line down the middle of the back ; while the sides of the neck and the inner border of the parachute yellowish, and the rest of the latter reddish or chestnut. On the other hand, in the presumed winter-coat, the upper-parts are chestnut, without any light line down the back. The larger forests of peninsular India south of the Ganges, as well as those of Ceylon, Burma, and Mergui, are tenanted by another very fine species known as the large brown flying squirrel (P. oral), in which the length of the head and body varies from 16 to 18 inches, and that of the tail from 24 to 25 inches. The general colour is grizzled-brown above, varying from deep chestnut to grey in one direction, and to black in the other ; the under-parts being white, often more or less tinged with grey or brown. In the Western Himalaya, at elevations- of from six thousand to ten thousand feet, and in Kashmir, this species is replaced by the closely allied large red flying squirrel (P. inornatus), distinguished by its PIGMY SQUIRRELS. 93 more rufous pelage. The spotted flying squirrel (P. punctatus), represented in our coloured Plate, is a considerably smaller species from Malacca and Burma, dis- tinguished by the white spots on the back. The habits of all the members of this genus are very similar and closely resemble those of the lesser flying squirrels. The large red species probably hibernates, but most of the others are active throughout the year. The common brown Indian form inhabits the forest, but in forest-clad districts they may be found near villages in clumps of mango and other trees. In addition to fruits and nuts, it is said to eat bark, and also insects and their larvae ; and it drinks by lapping with the tongue. Its cry is described as a low, soft monotone, quickly repeated. Mr. Blanford writes that this " flying squirrel sleeps during the day, sitting, like so many arboreal mammals, with its back bent into a circle and its head thrust inside ; or, in hot weather, lying on its back with the parachute extended. It is not so active as other squirrels, either on trees or on the ground, the parachute impeding its movements. When passing from one tree to another at a distance, it leaps, with its parachute extended, from the higher branches, and descends, at first more directly, then, apparently, by availing itself of the resistance of the air, more and more obliquely, until its flight gradually growing slower, becomes horizontal and finally terminates in an ascent to the trunk or branch of the tree to which its flight is directed." It is stated that these squirrels have been known to traverse distances of sixty and nearly eighty yards in their flight from tree to tree. Although readily tamed, they are very difficult to keep alive in captivity. Woolly Flying The woolly flying squirrel (Eupetaurus cinereus) differs from all squirrel. the other members of the family in having markedly high -crowned teeth, with flat (instead of ridged) grinding surfaces, and is accordingly referred to a distinct genus, which must be regarded as the most specialised member of the group. This magnificent flying squirrel inhabits the district of Gilgit, to the north- west of Kashmir, and is one of the largest species, the length of the head and body being about 18 inches, and that of the unusually bushy tail about 24 inches. This species differs from the members of the preceding genus by its shorter and blunter claws ; its general colour being dull greyish brown, with a slight greenish tinge above, and ashy brown below. From the nature of the districts in which it occurs, and also from the shortness and bluntness of its claws, it is inferred that this squirrel is in the habit of climbing about on rocks, instead of living on trees. A magnificent skin of this species was obtained in Kashmir by the present writer about 1878, but it was not till the arrival in England ten years later of a living although smaller example of the animal that it was recognised as a distinct species. It is not improbable that this fine flying squirrel also occurs in Tibet. THE PIGMY SQUIRRELS. Genus Nannosciurus. A small group of tiny squirrels comprising only five species, of which three are from Borneo, and the fourth is an inhabitant of the Philippines, while the fifth (Nannosciurus minutus) is West African, are now regarded as constituting not only 94 RODENTS. a distinct genus, but likewise a separate subfamily, although they were till recently included among the true squirrels. Their skulls are remarkable for the elongated form of the region of the face, while the forehead is much broader than in any other type ; and the process defining the hinder border of the socket of the eye is so elongated as to cause the eye to be almost surrounded by bone. In the upper jaw there may be either one or two pairs of small premolar teeth ; and the molars are much more complex than in any other squirrels, closely approaching those of the dormice in structure; the upper molars having only three transverse plates, instead of the four characterising those of the other members of the family. One of the prettiest representatives of the gH)up is Whitehead's pigmy squirrel (N. whiteheadi), from North Borneo, in which the head and body measure only about 3J inches in length, and the ears are surmounted by extraordinarily long tufts of black and white hairs, apparently more elongated than in any other squirrel. This little animal, which is grizzled olive grey in general colour, may be commonly seen running up and down the trunks of the forest trees on Mount Kina Balu. THE SEWELLELS. Family HAPLODONTID^E. These North American Rodents differ so remarkably from the other living forms that they are regarded as constituting a family by themselves, of which the nearest affinities are supposed to be with the Squirrel family. They differ from all the members of that family by their extremely flattened and broad skulls, in which there is no postorbital process defining the hinder part of the upper border of the socket of the eye. The molar teeth have no roots, and the first pair of premolars in the upper jaw are exceedingly minute. Common The common sewellel (Haplodon rufus) is an animal measuring SeweiieL about a foot in length, exclusive of the stump-like tail, which measures little more than an inch. The general colour of the fur is brown, more or less mingled with black, with the under-parts greyish ; the front teeth being yellow. The general form of the animal is short and clumsy, with the body relatively large and cylindrical. Dr. Hart Merriam observes that " this singular animal, which has come down to us as a relic of the past, and has no near affinities with any existing group, inhabits a narrow strip of country on the north-west coast of the United States. All the specimens thus far obtained have come either from Oregon or Washington, or from the Chilukweyuk River near its junction with the Fraser, just across our border in British Columbia." The animal lives in companies, constructing burrows in moist ground. Caiifornian The Californian sewellel (H. major) the mountain-beaver of sewellel. the inhabitants is a larger animal, measuring 16 inches in length, with greyish brown fur above. These Rodents inhabit the Sierra Nevada, and are largely aquatic in their habits. Mr. C. A. Allen, by whom the species was discovered, writes that they " live in small colonies, and inhabit wet ground where there is plenty of running water. They are very compact and strong, with a head BE A VERS. 95 which resembles that of a pug-dog. They are very shy, timid animals. On first seeing a human being, they try to hide away, but on being aroused are savage enough. . . They come out of their burrows about sundown to get their food, and again at daylight in the morning." Mr. Allen proceeds to say that the food of this sewellel is mainly composed of aquatic plants, especially the stems of a water-lily ; and he adds that the burrows of these animals are always on the lower part of a hillside, and frequently have running water passing through them. Their feet are eminently adapted for grasping, and it is stated that these creatures are in the constant habit of ascending broken and small trees furnished with branches. They are generally captured by means of traps set in the water. THE BEAVERS. Family CASTORID^:. From the large relative size of the animals themselves, coupled with their extraordinary constructive and destructive powers, an amount of interest invariably attaches to beavers which is not vouchsafed to other members of the order to which they belong. As is so frequently the case in analogous instances, the constructive abilities and engineering capacities of these animals marvellous as they undoubtedly are have, however, been greatly exaggerated in popular estimation ; and the creatures have been credited with performing tasks of which they are utterly incapable. Beavers, of which there are two species or varieties, one confined to Northern and Eastern Europe and parts of Western and Northern Asia, and the other to North America, are the only existing representatives of the family to which they belong, and constitute the genus Castor. The family is characterised by the massive form of the skull, in which there are no postorbital processes defining the hinder border of the eye-sockets, and the angle of the lower jaw is rounded off'. There is but one pair of premolars in each jaw ; and the cheek-teeth have no roots, a perfectly flat grinding-surface, and re-entering folds of enamel. The two series of cheek-teeth converge towards the front of the jaws, and the premolar in each jaw is larger than either of the molars. As a genus, beavers are characterised by their stout and heavy bodily conformation, this being most marked in the hinder quarters. The head is large and rounded, with short ears ; and the tail is of moderate length, much flattened, and covered with a naked, scaly skin. The limbs are short, with five sharp-clawed toes on both the fore and hind-feet 1 ; all the toes of the hind-feet being connected by a web extending to the roots of the claws. The portion of the muzzle surrounding the nostrils is naked, as are the soles of the feet, while the ears are scaly. Both the ears and the nostrils are capable of being closed. The fur is peculiarly thick and soft, its general colour being reddish brown above, and greyer beneath. There is, however, some amount of individual variation in this respect, individuals from northern regions inclining to be darker in coloration than those from the southern districts of the habitat of these animals. Occasionally pied or 1 There is an additional claw on the second toe of the hind foot, probably employed in dressing the fur. 96 RODENTS. white beavers are met with. Each molar tooth has three folds of enamel on one side, and one on the other ; the three folds occurring on the outer side in those of the upper jaw, and on the inner side in the lower teeth. In size, the beaver is the largest of all the Old World Rodents, its total length being about 40 inches, of which 10 are taken up by the tail. The weight of the adult animal usually varies from about 45 to 50 Ibs., but may reach as much as 60. European There has been much discussion as to whether the American and American beaver (C. canadensis) is entitled to rank as a distinct species, or Beavers. mer ely as a well-marked variety of the European Castor fiber ; and there is still a difference of opinion among zoologists on this point. That the two are very closely allied is admitted on all sides ; amd, although the matter is not of very much importance one way or the other, it is, on the whole, convenient to adopt the view of their specific duality. The main difference between the two forms is to be found in the characters of the skull ; that of the European beaver being relatively narrower in front, with the nasal bones extending somewhat SKELETON AND JAWS OF BEAVER. farther back than is the case with its transatlantic cousin. A large series of specimens show, however, that these characteristics are liable to a certain amount of variation in the two forms. Distribution of Owing to incessant persecution for the sake of their valuable the European fur, both the European and the American beaver are doomed to Beaver. extinction as wild animals at no very distant date ; this fate having already practically overtaken the European species, which only lingers on here and there in small numbers. Formerly, beavers were widely spread over Europe; and their abundance in the British Isles is attested not only by the numerous remains found in the fens and cavern-deposits of England, but like- wise by the number of places, such as Beaverbourne, Beverage, Beaverege, Bevercater, Beverley, Beverstone, and Beversbrook, which derive their names from these animals. According to the researches of Mr. J. E. Harting, it does not appear that there is any historic evidence of the existence of beavers in England ; but in Wales it is on record that they still lingered in Cardiganshire as late as the year 1188. That they occurred in the south of Scotland is proved by the occurrence of their remains, but there is no definite historic evidence of their existence ; while in Ireland we have neither the testimony of their remains nor of documents. BEAVERS AT WORK. VOL. III. 7 BE A VERS. 99 On the Continent beavers were exterminated from Holland in 1825. In France evidence of the former abundance of these animals is afforded by their buried remains, and by the names of places like Bievre and Beuvray. Within the historic period the Rhine and its tributaries appear to have been their last strong- holds, although they had become very rare during the last century. Beavers are, however, still met with in the Ehone and its affluents, where M. Mayet, writing in 1889, estimates that from twenty-five to thirty are annually killed. In the Pleistocene period the beaver ranged into Italy as far south as Rome, but there is no evidence of its existence there since that date. The lake-villages of Switzerland afford evidence of the abundance of beavers in that country during the prehistoric period ; and in the early part of this century they still lingered on in the Rhine, one having been captured in the year 1829. In North- Western Germany the Moselle and the Maas were formerly noted for the number of their beavers. The Lippe one of the tributaries of the Rhine was likewise a well-known haunt ; and at Kettlinghausen and Paderborn on that river, there were large colonies of these animals at the beginning of the present century. Again, in the Elbe basin, there was a considerable colony near Magdeburg in 1829, while at Wittenberg and Kahnert these animals were abundant in 1801, while no less than eight individuals were observed in the latter locality so late as 1878. In Bohemia, the valley of the Moldau, forming the upper part of the Elbe basin, abounded in beavers up to the year 1848, although this was largely owing to strict protection. On the upper Danube and its tributaries there were numerous colonies in the first half of this century, one of the most noted being on the small river Amper, to the north of Munich, which was in a flourishing condition between the years 1837 and 1846. Beavers also existed on the lower Danube in Austria, Hungary, and Turkey ; and they have been recorded from the upper Euphrates Valley and the Caucasus. On the lower Danube a colony is preserved by the Emperor of Austria. From the Caucasus the range of the beaver extended through Russia, Poland, and Livonia, to Lapland and Scandinavia. Beavers were abundant in the Tereck Valley to the north of the Caucasus in 1842 ; and in Livonia they were so common in 1724, that their dams were a serious inconvenience to the district. The last Livonian beaver was, however, killed in 1841 ; but a few were still living in the Dnieper and the Svislocz (Government of Minsk) in 1889. The Russian rivers Dwina and Petchora, respectively flowing into the White Sea and Arctic Ocean, were inhabited by beavers till 1842. Through Silesia it is believed that these animals extended as far east as Amurland ; but in the valley of the Obi they are now extinct in the Irtish, although still lingering in the Pelyin ; and they have quite disappeared from the Yenesei in Eastern Silesia. In Poland and Lithuania a. few may still survive ; but the last Lapland beaver was killed about 1830. In Scandinavia three considerable colonies still exist near Arendal in Norway, the number of individuals living in 1883 being about one hundred ; these colonies are strictly preserved. In Denmark we only know of the existence of the beaver by the evidence of its remains buried in the peat-mosses. It may be added that in 1874 the Marquis of Bute introduced beavers into the island from which he takes his title, where they have since thriven. ioo RODENTS. Distribution of At the time of the discovery of America, the beaver of that the American continent had a wider distribution than any other mammal except the puma. Its range extended from Alaska and the Hudson's Bay district in the north, along the Atlantic seaboard as far south as Georgia and Northern Florida, and thence along the Gulf of Mexico as far as the Rio Grande in Texas, and also some distance into Mexico ; while on the Pacific Coast it extended to California and Arizona. The desert and the prairie districts of the interior, as being unsuitable to its habits, were, however, of course, not tenanted by the beaver, which was necessarily confined to the valleys of the great rivers and lakes. Writing in 1877, Mr. C. A. Allen observes that " its present range, however, is much more restricted, very few being found east of the Mississippi River south of the great lakes, and it is everywhere less numerous than formerly. Some still remain in northern Maine and in the Adirondack region of New York, and probably some still survive thence southwards in the sparsely-settled districts to Alabama and Mississippi. A recent article states that they are still abundant in portions of Virginia. Their existence is in great abundance throughout the Atlantic States, and thence westward to the Pacific." Since the date when this passage was penned, the extermination of the beaver appears to have gone on apace ; and Mr. H. T. Martin, writing in 1892, says that only a few colonies now linger in the United States, especially on the slopes of the Rocky Mountains, while in Canada the numbers of the animal are vastly diminished. " Along the watershed, between the Hudson's Bay rivers and the St. Lawrence, in the upper waters of the Frazer and Peace Rivers, and along the Rocky Mountain Range, may be considered the last homes of the beaver." Mr. Martin adds that " as to the ultimate destruction of the beaver no possible question can arise, and the evidences of approaching exter- mination can be seen only too plainly in the miles of territory exhibiting the decayed stump, the broken dam, and deserted lodge. The passing bear or wolverene tears open the lodge, partly in the vain hope of finding a meal ; partly from habit ; the rising waters float the logs away, while the drifting ice in fall and spring gradually destroys the dam, till within a decade, where once the busy colony spent their happy domestic lives, no sign remains of all their wondrous toil." Beavers are mainly nocturnal, and almost exclusively aquatic animals; although it is stated that during the summer they will sometimes make journeys of considerable length on land, when they subsist upon fruit and corn, instead of their usual diet of bark and twigs. They are likewise essentially social creatures, usually associating in larger or smaller colonies ; although the few still remaining in the rivers of the Old World are owing to the lack of companions for the most part either solitary or in pairs. Needless to say, these animals are expert divers and swimmers ; their movements in the water being- graceful in the extreme, and effected almost entirely by the aid of their powerful and webbed hind-limbs. In addition to bark and twigs, they consume large quantities of the roots and stems of water-lilies and other aquatic plants. The young, usually from three to four in a litter, are produced at the close of the winter or early in the spring, in the shelter of the burrow or lodge, but it is not yet ascertained whether they are born with their eyes open or closed. Beavers do not hibernate, in the strict sense of the term, although during the depth of the winter they sleep BEAVERS. I0 i longer, and move about much less than at other times. In the winter, in America at all events, they swim about beneath the ice, dragging up water-lily roots for food and feasting upon the store of branches they have accumulated in the deep pools during the winter ; and it is for the purpose of securing a sufficient depth of water in which to swim beneath the ice that they construct their well-known dams. Most of the beavers still remaining in the rivers of the Old World live in burrows in the banks, without constructing either dams or lodges. The colony near Magdeburg, alluded to above, are known, however, to have undertaken both these engineering works ; and it is hence probable that European beavers were originally similar as regards their habits to their American cousins, but that through their reduced numbers and the constant persecution which they have undergone, the building propensity has been lost. In America beavers generally select as their haunts a well-timbered district traversed by a narrow stream ; and by felling the trees on the banks, and forming with the aid of their trunks and boughs a dam and lodges . across the stream, the water is headed back so as to form a large lake or pool. In some cases a series of such dams and pools may be seen one above another in the course of the stream. It is believed that the original object of tree-felling is to obtain a supply of food for winter ; and that the employment of the peeled trunks and branches for the construction of the dam and lodges is a secondary development. The beaver fells the trees it requires by gnawing through their stems with its sharp front teeth at a short distance above the ground ; the stem being generally gnawed nearly equally all round till the tree falls with its own weight. As trees on a river bank generally incline towards the water, they usually fall in the required direction. Sometimes, however, the animals miscalculate, and trees which they have felled may be seen caught in the forks of neighbouring stems. The trees selected for felling are usually from five to eight or nine inches in diameter, but occasionally trunks of as much as eighteen across are successfully attacked. The beaver goes to work in a thoroughly scientific manner, gnawing out very large chips, which are sometimes as much as nine inches in length. When the trees are felled, they are stripped of their boughs, and the trunks cut into lengths of five or six feet, which, after being barked, are rolled into the stream or pond, and employed in the construction of the dam and lodges. The term " lodge," it may be explained, is applied in America to the abodes constructed by these animals in the water of their ponds. It is now generally accepted that the lodge is nothing more than an extreme development of the burrows or " wash " in the banks. On this subject Mr. Martin writes as follows : " Starting with the simple burrow, the next step is the accumulation of logs and branches about its entrance, forming what is called a ' bank-lodge.' In places where the water is shallow towards the shore, a great advantage would be derived from ex- tending this artificial covering of brushwood, so that in time a natural evolution of the lodge disconnected entirely from the shore would take place, and form an independent and very convenient refuge from landward enemies." The lodge con- tains a large internal chamber, lined with grass, and is entered by several approaches beneath the surface of the water. The construction of the lodge is, however, of a much less elaborate nature than has often been stated to be the case. 102 RODENTS. On this point Mr. Martin writes that " the beaver-lodge is generally included in the list of marvels reserved for the investigation of those who visit beaver-districts, and yet no greater disappointment awaits the inquirer than the first inspection of one. Somehow the minds of all lovers of natural history become affected by the fabulous accounts concerning this structure, and it is a shock to stand for the first time before a pile of twigs, branches, and logs, heaped in disorder upon a small dome of mud, and to learn that this constitutes the famous lodge. Of course the superficial glance does not convey all that can be learnt in connection with this work, but it does most completely disillusionise the mind. On breaking through the upper walls, the interior is found to be similar to the general type of an animal's sleeping apartment, and has scarcely any distinguishing characteristic." Both dams and lodges are made more or less impervious to water by the addition of a quantity of mud, which is plastered on by the beavers with the aid of the fore-feet, and not, as is often supposed, with the assistance of the tail ; the latter organ acting only as a rudder in swimming. The length of a beaver-dam may occasionally be as much as one hundred and fifty or two hundred yards, and their ponds may cover many acres. Frequently a formation of peat commences round the edges of the ponds, and this may extend over the whole area, converting it into a swampy tract known as a beaver-meadow. A considerable part of the city of Montreal is built upon such beaver-meadows. In summer beavers generally forsake the neighbourhood of their lodges to travel up or down the stream ; occasionally, as already mentioned, taking consider- able journeys on land. With the advent of early autumn they return to their winter-quarters, and at once set about the necessary repairs to the dam and lodges, and the collection of a supply of food for the winter. Commercial Uses The beaver is hunted in North America not only for its valuable and Hunting. f ur? ^^ likewise for the substance known as castoreum, which is contained in two elongated glands at the hinder part of the body ; while its flesh is also used as an article of food. Castoreum is a waxy substance with a peculiar smell, and is used in medicine, although chiefly on the Continent. It sells, accord- ing to Mr. Poland, from thirty-eight to forty-five shillings per lb., and no less than 1486 Ibs. of this substance were sold in London alone in the year 1891. Formerly the great demand for beaver-fur was for the manufacture of hats, but since the supersession of silk for beaver-hair in this manufacture, the fur has been used for more ordinary purposes. Mr. Poland states that the number of beaver-skins sold by the Hudson's Bay Company in 1891 was 63,419, while in the year 1743 upwards of 127,080 were imported into Kochelle alone. The price, according to the same writer, varies from 5s. 3d. to 6s. 9d. per skin. The incisor teeth of the beaver were used by the North American Indians, and also by some of the ancient inhabitants of the Old World, as cutting instruments, the bases being fixed into a wooden handle with the aid of twine or thongs. Before the advance of civilisation a large number of beavers were killed in America by the native Indians for the sake of their skins and flesh, but the slaughter was not such as to have any marked effect on their numbers. Some appear to have been taken in wooden traps, but the favourite method was to attack a lodge in the months of January and February. A party of Indians male and BE A VERS, 103 female would on such occasions proceed to a beaver-colony, and, after cutting a series of holes in the ice around each lodge, in which nets were placed, the lodges themselves were dug open. Some of the animals would be killed in their sleeping- places, others were caught in the nets, while others were hunted by the dogs accompanying the party to their burrows, where they were dug out. Some individuals were, however, always allowed to escape, in order to re-populate the colony. With the increasing demand for skins as the country was opened up by Europeans, the Indians resorted to more effectual modes of capture, the rivers and ponds being staked across at the commencement of a raid, in a manner which prevented the escape of a single member of the colony. Subsequently steel traps were introduced, but, from the nature of the beaver's food, it was long before an attractive bait could be discovered. At length it was found that castoreum itself was a deadly lure, and from that date the traps have always been baited with some preparation of that drug. So attractive is castoreum to the animals by which it is produced, that a beaver which swam away with a trap attached to one leg has been known to be caught in another trap on the following day ; and there is an instance recorded where one of these animals, after having gnawed off a leg in order to escape, again suffered itself to be ensnared. The great natural enemy of the beaver is the glutton, or wolverene, whose common Canadian name of carcajou is a corruption of the Indian word quickwahuy, said to mean " beaver-eater." The glutton either digs the beavers out of their lodges, or catches them by lying in wait in the woods. The Hudson's Bay Company have wisely assigned certain islands in their territory as beaver-preserves, where a certain number of the animals are killed every third year only. It has been proposed to establish "beaver -ranches" in America, but, as Mr. Martin points out, the attempts hitherto made to domesticate these animals do not hold out much encouragement as to the success of the project. It is true that beavers live and become fairly tame in menageries (where, from their nocturnal habits, they are but rarely seen), but they rapidly deteriorate, losing the brilliant gloss of their coats, and acquiring dull, listless habits. The European beaver makes its first appearance in the " forest- ' bed" of the Norfolk coast, belonging to the lower part of the Pleistocene period. Here it was accompanied by the giant extinct beaver (Trogontherium), distinguished not only by its superior size, but by differences in the structure of the skull and teeth. Its range extended to Siberia. Beavers belonging to the living genus occur in the Pliocene strata of Europe and the Miocene of North America. The earliest European beaver is the Chalicomys, which is found in the Miocene beds of the Continent, and was of considerably smaller size than the living forms, while it differed from all living Rodents in having a perforation at the lower end of the upper arm-bone or humerus. CHAPTER XXXII. RODENTS, continued. THE MOUSE-LIKE RODENTS. Families MYOXID^, MURID&, SPALAClDsE, etc. THE Rodents treated of in the present chapter comprise several families mo:*e or less closely related to the rats and mice, and hence collectively termed the mouse- like group. They differ from the squirrel-like Rodents described in the preceding chapter in the following points. In the first place, as shown in the accompanying figure of the skeleton -of the dormouse, the two bones of the lower leg (tibia and fibula) are united at their extremities. Secondly, in the slender zygomatic or cheek-arch of the skull, the cheek-bone (jugal) seldom extends far forwards, and is usually supported from below by a long process from the upper jawbone (maxilla). None of them have any postorbital SKELETON AND MOLARS OF COMMON DORMOUSE. processes in the skull marking the hinder boundary of the upper part of the eye- sockets, and in no case is there more than a single pair of premolar teeth in each jaw, while frequently even these may be wanting in either one or both jaws. THE DORMICE. Family MYOXID^. The elegant little creatures known as dormice, or sleepers, so closely resemble diminutive squirrels in form and habits, that they are commonly regarded as closely allied to that group. Apparently, however, these external resemblances are solely due to adaptation to a similar mode of life, the relationship of the dormice to the true mice being much closer than it is to the squirrels. The dormice are confined to Europe, Asia (exclusive of the Indian and Malayan regions), and Africa, and are all of small size and arboreal habits. They are characterised by their large ears and eyes, and long, thickly-haired tails, the fore- limbs being short in proportion to the hinder ones. There is a pair of premolar teeth in both jaws, so that the total number of cheek-teeth on each side is four ; DORMICE. 105 and these teeth are furnished with distinct roots, and have their crowns marked with transverse folds of enamel. The claws on the feet are short, and the first toe in the fore-foot is rudimentary. THE COMMON DORMOUSE. Genus Muscardinus. The common dormouse (Muscardinus avellanarius) is the sole representative of the group inhabiting the British Isles, and is the type of a distinct genus. This THE COMMON DORMOUSE (f liat. size). tiny little animal, which is about equal in size to the common mouse, is so familiar to most persons from being commonly kept as a pet by children, that any descrip- tion seems almost superfluous. It is, however, particularly characterised by the cylindrical form of the long and somewhat bushy tail ; while internally it is distinguished from all its kindred by the complex structure of the anterior portion of its stomach. Its cheek-teeth have flattened grinding surfaces, with the folds of enamel arranged in a complex manner. This dormouse has a rather large head, and a thick, compact body : the muzzle is somewhat pointed, and the ears are about a third the length of the head. The most striking feature of the animal is, however, the large size and prominence io6 RODENTS. the full black eyes, which stand out in marked prominence to the tawny hue of the coat. In the adult the fur of the upper-parts is of a light reddish tawny colour, while below it is paler and yellower ; the throat and upper part of the chest being marked by a white patch. In the young the colour is, however, at first of mouse- grey, the reddish tinge of the adult appearing first on the head and flanks, and thence spreading over the body. The length of the head and body is 3 inches, and that of the tail about half an inch less. The common dormouse appears to be confined to Europe, ranging from Sweden and Britain in the north to Northern Italy in the south, and extending eastwards as far as the north of Turkey, Galicia, Hungary, and Transylvania. Although generally more coifimon in the southern than in the northern districts of its habitat, it is reported to be less abundant in the south of France than either of the other two species inhabiting Europe. In its arboreal mode of life, and the manner in which it holds its food between its fore-paws when eating, as well as in the nature of its food, there is much to remind us in the common dormouse (and likewise its allies) of the squirrel. Whereas, however, squirrels are mainly diurnal, dormice are exclusively nocturnal, remaining curled up during the day in their nests, or in some hole, asleep, and only issuing forth in search of food with the falling shades of evening. The dormouse is usually to be found in dense thickets and coppices, or in hedgerows ; making its nest generally among the underwood, although some- times beneath a protecting tussock of grass in the open field. The winter-nest is a globular structure composed of twigs, leaves, moss, and grass ; and is built in the autumn, and stored with a small supply of food for winter use. Occasionally small colonies of either the breeding or the winter-nests may be placed in the same thicket; Yarrell having observed as many as ten or twelve together. After feasting on the abundant nuts and mast of autumn, the dormouse accumulates a large amount of fat, and with the approach of winter retires to its nest for the period of hibernation. A warm day in winter serves, however, to arouse the little creature from its slumbers, when it will consume some of its store of food. The chief food of the dormouse consists of hazel-nuts, acorns, beech-mast, corn, and haws, and other wild berries. It is reported to extract the kernels from hazel-nuts without removing them from their stems ; and in climbing from branch to branch in search of food it exhibits marvellous agility. Bell observes that "both fore and hind-feet are well padded internally with fleshy, broadish tubercles, thus converting them into hands, in the use of which the creature, when creeping about in a bush of whitethorn, as we have seen it, exhibits an adroitness which is quite unequalled by the little agile harvest-mouse, and scarcely surpassed by the squirrel." The duration of the winter sleep is generally from five to six months, dor- mice generally retiring about the middle of October, and not resuming activity before the end of March or April, by which time they have completely lost all traces of the fat accumulated in autumn. The young do not generally commence their hibernation so early in the autumn as the adults. In England the young of this species are generally born in the spring, although there is evidence that in some cases they may be produced as late as September ; thus indicating the prob- DORMICE. 107 ability of their being two litters in a year. Brehm, however, states that on the Continent the young are not born till August. The young are born blind and naked ; the usual number in a litter being three or four. They are produced in a nest very similar to the one used for the winter sleep, which is always placed at a height of a yard or so above the ground. In Germany this species is known as the hazel-mouse (haselmaus). THE SQUIRREL-TAILED AND GARDEN DORMICE. Genus Myoxus. By many zoologists the two larger species of European dormice are each referred to distinct genera, while certain African representatives of the group constitute another pair of generic groups. Although clearly entitled to be separated THE SQUIRREL-TAILED DORMOUSE AND GARDEN DORMOUSE ( nat. size). generically from the common dormouse, all these species are, however, so intimately allied, that it seems preferable to include the whole of them in the single genus Myoxus, distinguished from Muscardinus by the simple structure of the stomach. Squirrel-Tailed Of the European species the largest is the squirrel-tailed dor- Dormouse. mouse (M. glis), the siebenschldfer of the Germans and the loir of the French, easily recognised by its thick, bushy tail (as shown in the left-hand figure of our illustration), in which the hairs are arranged in two rows. This species is further characterised by the large size of its cheek-teeth, in which the grinding surfaces of the crowns are flat, and the foldings of the enamel complex. The length of the head and body is a little over 6, and that of the tail rather less than 5, inches. The thick and soft fur is of an ashy-grey colour, more or less shaded with dark brown above, while on the under-parts and the inner sides of io8 RODENTS. the limbs it is silvery- white ; near the junction of the dark upper-parts with the white of the under surface the colour becomes greyish brown. The eyes are surrounded by dark rings, and the tip of the snout, as well as part of the throat, are white. The ears are moderate size, and rounded. This species is found in Southern and Eastern Europe, extending from Spain, Greece, and Italy, through South and Central Germany to Austria, Syria, and the south of Russia ; it is unknown in Denmark and Scandinavia. In general habits this species closely resembles the common dormouse, but it generally lies concealed during the day in the hollow of a tree, the cleft of a rock, or the burrow of another rodent ; and its breeding-nest is invariably concealed in some such situation, and is never built among the Hboughs of bushes like that of the English dormouse. In autumn it becomes still fatter than the latter ; and in this state it w^as much esteemed as a delicacy by the ancient Romans. The period of hibernation, according to Brehm, generally endures for upwards of seven months ; these animals rarely coming forth before the latter part of April. The young, which are sometimes born in the deserted nest of a starling, are usually from three to six in number ; and although blind, naked, and helpless at birth, are remarkable for the rapidity with which they come to maturity. In addition to various nuts and berries, this dormouse consumes fruit, and is also said to devour small birds and other animals. In its turn, it is preyed upon by martens, polecats, stoats, and wild cats. Like the common species, the squirrel-tailed dormouse is easily domesticated ; and during its period of activity forms an attractive little pet. The Tree- In Southern Russia, Hungary, lower Austria, and Siberia there Dormouse. j s a second species of dormouse (M. dry as), nearly allied to the last, but of considerable smaller size, although larger than the garden dormouse. It is generally reddish brown above and white beneath (including the lower surface of the tail) ; and is easily recognised by the black line extending from near the nose through the eye to the root of the ear. The painted dormouse (M. pictu-s), of Eastern Persia, is a brighter coloured form closely allied to the above. The Garden The garden dormouse (M. nitela), which is represented on the Dormouse, right hand of the illustration on p. 107, is the European repre- sentative of a group of several species ; distinguished from the preceding by the thinner and tufted tail, the larger and more pointed ears, and the characters of the cheek-teeth. These teeth are relatively small, and have their grinding surfaces concave, with the foldings of enamel very faintly marked. The group is represented in Africa as well as in Southern Europe. The garden dormouse was known to the ancient Romans as the nitela, and on the Continent at the present clay is termed in France the lerot, and in Germany the gartenschldfer. It is smaller than the squirrel-tailed dormouse, although larger than the common species, the length of the head and body being at the most 5J inches, while the tail measures about 3|- inches. The head and upper-parts are greyish brown, with a more less marked rufous tinge, and the under-parts pure white. A black ring encircles the eye, and thence extends backwards as a streak beneath the ear to the neck ; w^hile there are dark and light spots behind and in front of the ears. The tail is greyish brown at the base, but at the end black above and white below. JUMPING MICE AND JERBOAS. I09 The garden dormouse takes its name from being commonly found in the gardens and orchards of the warmer parts of the Continent, where it does much damage to the choicer kinds of fruit. It is found in Central and Western Europe, including France, Belgium, Switzerland, Italy, Germany, Hungary, Galicia, and the Baltic provinces of Russia; and is stated to be specially common in the Hartz Mountains. There is nothing calling for par- ticular remark in the habits of this species, except that it is Stated to be more carnivorous SKELETON OF GARDEN DORMOUSE. in its tastes than any of its European kindred. The young may be produced in a deserted thrush's nest, or in some hole in a tree, or in a freely suspended nest ; and it is characteristic of this species that whenever it builds a riest this is always placed between small boughs and never concealed. Omitting mention of the other species allied to the garden dormouse, it may be observed that there is a third group of the genus confined to Africa, the members of which are characterised by the hair being- arranged uniformly on the tail, instead of in two longitudinal rows ; the whole tail being relatively shorter than in the other groups, with a well-marked tuft at the tip. These African dormice are further characterised by the very small size of their cheek-teeth, in which the foldings of enamel are nearly obsolete. Remains of dormice are found not uncommonly in the Tertiary strata of Europe, as far down as the upper portion of the Eocene period ; most of the species agreeing approximately in size with some of the living forms. The extinct giant dormouse from the rock fissures and cavern deposits of Malta was, however, far larger than any existing species, and more nearly resembled a guinea-pig; this association of giant dormice with pigmy elephants in Malta being not a little remarkable. JUMPING MICE, JERBOAS, etc. Family DlPODlD^. The Rodents included in this family are all purely terrestrial, and for the most part characterised by the great length of their hind-limbs as compared with the front pair, and their long and generally hairy tails ; their general appearance and mode of progression thus being markedly kangaroo-like. They have very frequently four upper cheek-teeth ; and in all cases the incisor teeth are narrow, and the molars marked by transverse enamel-folds. The skull, as shown in the accompan} 7 ing figure of the skeleton of the jerboa, is characterised by the shortness of the brain-case, and the very large size of the apertures in front of the eye- sockets for the passage of the nerves supplying the face. There are also other no RODENTS. distinctive features in the skull, more especially in the large size of the hinder part of the auditory bulla, into which it would be out of place to enter here. The jerboas and their allies are mainly Asiatic and African forms, although there is one outlying species in North America, and a few range into Southern Europe. Most of the jumping kinds are inhabitants of open and dry districts, such as grassy steppes or sandy deserts; and approximate in colora- tion very closely to that of the ground on which they dwell. They form burrows in clayey or sandy soil, which are generally situated in the open plains, but sometimes among thicker or thinner bush-jungle. In habits they are mostly nocturnal, lying concealed in their burrows by day, and issuing forth to feed at night. Their nutriment consists of roots, berries, seeds, fruits, leaves, grass, and other herbage; but a few will also eat insects, small birds, and carrion. In feeding they sit in a half -erect posture upon their hind-quarters and tail, and convey the food to their mouth with the aid of their paws. Their move- ments are peculiar; the body being supported on the hind-limbs alone, perhaps aided, however, at times by the tail. In walking, the legs are moved alternately in the ordinary manner ; in which respect these animals differ from kangaroos, which always hop. Progression at a more rapid rate is, however, always effected by a series of leaps from the hind-legs ; the length of such leaps being generally very great in proportion to the size of the animal. Like all desert-haunting animals, the jerboas are extremely quick of hearing and long- sighted. Although generally silent, many of these animals have a kind of whining cry, which has been compared to that of a kitten. In the colder districts of their habitat, the species hibernate more or less completely; but they never lay up a store of provisions for winter use. The family may be divided into four main groups or subfamilies. SKELETON OP JERBOA. THE JUMPING MOUSE. Genus Zapus. The so-called jumping mouse of North America (Zapus hudsonianus) is the typical representative of the first group of the family. It is characterised by the presence of four pairs of rooted cheek-teeth in each jaw, by the vertebrae of the neck being entirely separate from each other, and by the long hind-limbs being furnished with five complete toes, of which the metatarsal bones are JUMPING MICE AND JERBOAS. in separate. In the fore-limbs the first toe is rudimental, and furnished with a flat nail. Well-developed cheek-pouches are present. In general appearance this animal resembles a mouse with elongated hind- limbs and a very long tail ; the degree of elongation of the hind-legs not being so great as in some other members of the family. The length of the head and body is a little more than 3 inches, and that of the tail about 5 inches, although there is a considerable amount of individual variation in the relative proportions of the latter. In the summer-coat the fur is brown above, yellowish on the flanks, and white below ; but in the winter it is uniformly brown. The moderate-sized ears are black with light-coloured edges, and the long and nearly naked tail is tipped with a pencil of hairs. Distribution and The geographical range of the jumping mouse is very large, Habits. extending from the cold regions of the Great Slave Lake and Hudson's Bay to Arizona and Mexico ; although in the latter districts it appears to be restricted to the mountains. In British North America and the northern United States it ranges from the Atlantic to the Pacific coasts. This species differs from most of its allies in not being strictly nocturnal, generally venturing forth early in the evening, and not unfrequently being abroad during the day. It likewise frequents more wooded and damper situations. The following excellent accounts of its habits was communicated to Dr. Hart Merriam by Mr. E. Slade, who observes that, " the long-tailed jumping mouse inhabits high land or low land, forest or pasture, cultivated field or swamp, and appears to be equally at home in either, and not numerous in any situation. It possesses a momentary agility second to no other rodent, and a muscular strength of enormous power for so small a creature. When suddenly disturbed, it often moves away in a direct line, the first three or four leaps being 8 or 10 feet in length, but these distances rapidly decline to about 4 feet. This is not always the case, however, for it frequently takes an irregular course and jumps at divers angles for several successive leaps, keeping the same general direction, or changing at will. It can double, and quickly too, if pursued, and by its manoeuvres and instantaneous squattings can elude a hawk or an owl, and its spontaneous irregu- larities enable it to escape being brained by a weasel, or swallowed whole by the common black snake. It feeds upon the buds, leaves, and twigs of many kinds of plants ; upon seeds, grain, wild berries, chestnuts, acorns, grass, and to some extent upon the bark of shrubs. As a rule, three litters are produced in a season, each consisting of from two to four young." In leaping, the successive springs are made with such rapidity that the feet of the animal seem scarcely to touch the ground. The nest is placed in a variety of situations, sometimes in the hollow stump of a tree, more frequently under logs of timber, often in clefts of rocks, and occasionally a short distance from below the surface of the ground in an open field. The jumping mouse hibernates during the winter in a hole deep down in the ground; but the length of the sleep appears to depend upon the latitude of the locality and the temperature of the season. In mild winters the hibernation is often interrupted for longer or shorter periods. The underground nest is carefully made of grass, in which the little animal lies tightly curled up, with ii2 RODENTS. the nose closely pressed to the belly, and the long tail curled round the body, which assumes an almost ball-like form. So deep are the slumbers of these animals, that they may be handled for a long time without evincing the slightest signs of life. The young of the various litters are to be met with from May till August. Fossil remains of the jumping mouse occur in the Pleistocene deposits of the Ignited States. THE FIVE-TOED JERBOAS. Genus Alactaga, etc. The jerboas, of which there are several genera, may be divided into two groups, according to the presence of five or three toes on the hind-feet, and constitute the second subfamily. The whole subfamily is characterised by the cheek-teeth, of which there may be either three or four pairs, having distinct roots ; by the vertebrae of the neck being more or less completely united together ; and by the long metatarsal bones of the hind-limbs being joined together so as to form a cannon-bone, as shown in the figure on p. 110. In all cases only the three middle toes of the hind-feet are of any functional importance ; the lateral digits, when present, being small and not reaching the ground. The Kirghiz The kirghiz jerboa, or alagdaga (Alactaga decumana), is the Jerboa. b es t known representative of the genus to which it belongs, and is one of the most characteristic mammals of the steppes of Central Asia. The genus Alactaga, in addition to the presence of five toes on the hind-feet, is characterised by its long and tufted tail and large ears ; there are a pair of premolar teeth in the upper, but none in the lower jaw, and the incisor teeth are not grooved. The alagdaga (as the animal is designated by the Mongols) is one of the largest members of the group, the length of the head and body being about 7 inches, and that of the tail considerably more. The general colour of the fur is reddish yellow, with a tinge of grey on the upper-parts ; while below, as well as on the inner sides and lower parts of the hind-legs, it is white ; a white patch also occurring on the outer sides of the thighs. The tail is brown, with a black-and- white tip. The range of this jerboa includes the whole of the steppe districts of Central Asia, and also extends into Persia as far as Bushire, and into South-Eastern Europe as far as the Crimea and the region of the Don. During the Pleistocene period this jerboa inhabited parts of Germany. . The alagdaga is a social animal, dwelling in small companies, and also selecting such portions of the steppes as possess a clayey soil for the construction of its large burrows. It is strictly nocturnal in its habits, issuing from its burrow at the commencement of darkness, but, according to Radde, not remaining abroad the whole night. Its speed is said to be considerably greater than that of the true jerboa, and the length of its leaps are enormous ; indeed, it is stated that even when mounted on a swift horse it is impossible to overtake these creatures. The burrows constructed by the Kirghiz jerboa are very complicated, having several branches radiating from a central chamber ; one of these branches, it is said, always stops a short distance below the surface of the ground, and is only JUMPING MICE AND JERBOAS. 113 used as an exit in time of danger, when the animal removes the barrier and escapes in an unsuspected direction. Usually two or three pairs occupy the same burrow. In addition to the usual vegetable diet, the alagdaga also eats insects, and the eggs and young of the steppe-lark, if not the old birds themselves. The young are born in summer, in a nest placed deep down in the burrow, and are usually from five to six in number, although occasionally there may be as many as eight in a litter. How long the young remain with their parents is unknown, but it is quite probable that they do not depart till the spring following their birth. In cold weather these animals do not leave their nests ; and the winter sleep is a long one, enduring, according to Radde, from the beginning of September till the latter part of April. The flesh of the alagdaga is eaten by the Kirghiz and other dwellers on the steppes; the capture being Afghan Jerboa. THE KIRGHIZ JERBOA (J nat. size). effected by surrounding the burrows with a fence and pouring water down the open holes, when the animals seek to escape by breaking through the closed entrance. The Afghan jerboa (A. indica) is a smaller species of the same genus, with proportionately longer ears and tail ; the length of the head and body being about 3J inches, and that of the tail, inclusive of the tuft at end, upwards of 74- inches. This species inhabits Afghanistan, the south-east of Persia, and Northern Baluchistan ; and is found commonly on the plains of Quetta at an elevation of about six thousand feet. In habits, this jerboa seems to be very similar to the larger species ; its period of hibernation lasting from October till April. Central Asia is also the home of other species of the same genus. The recently discovered Yarkand jerboa (Euchoretes naso) is the sole representative of a distinct genus characterised by certain features in the skull, the great length of the nose, and the enormous size of the ears, which are longer than the head. The fur is sandy -coloured above and white below ; the VOL. in. 8 Yarkand Jerboa. u 4 RODENTS, tufted tail being black near the end, but white at the extreme tip. The length of the head and body is 3J inches, and that of the tail 6J inches. Broad-Tailed Certain species of jerboas inhabiting the desert regions of Central Jerboas. an( J Northern Asia and Nubia are distinguished from those of the two preceding genera by their flattened and lancet-shaped tails, in consequence of which they have received the name of Platycer corny s. They are further dis- tinguished by the absence of premolar teeth in both jaws. There is nothing worthy of special notice in the habits of these species. THE THREE-TOED, OR TRUE JERBOAS. Genus Dipus. The true jerboas, as typically represented by the common Egyptian species (Dipus jaculus), are the most specialised representatives of the subfamily, having completely lost the two small lateral toes on the hind-limbs. They are further EGYPTIAN JERBOA. distinguished by the presence of vertical grooves on the front of the incisor teeth ; while they have a pair of premolar teeth in each jaw. They resemble the alagdaga in the great length of the hind-limbs and tail, and the comparatively large size of the ears ; the tuft of hair at the tip of the tail is, however, smaller. Usually the premolar teeth are wanting. In size, the Egyptian jerboa is rather inferior to the alagdaga, the length of the head and body being about 6| inches, while the tail, exclusive of the hairs at the end, measures a little over 8 inches. The general colour of the upper-parts is a sandy grey ; the under surface of the body being white, and a broad white stripe extending down the hind-limbs. The tail is yellowish brown above and whitish beneath, with the usual black-and-white tip. The range of the Egyptian jerboa extends from the north of Arabia westwards Habits. JUMPING MICE AND JERBOAS. 115 through Lower Egypt to Oran in Algeria. There are, however, numerous other species of the genus, some of which inhabit Eastern Persia and Central Asia. The name of two-legged mouse was applied to the Egyptian jer- boa on account of the fore-legs being applied so closely to the chest when the animal is jumping that it has an almost bird-like appearance. The home of this species is arid and desert districts, where the ground consists solely of sand and pebbles, and the vegetation is so scant that it is a marvel that even such a tiny creature can find the wherewithal to live. Here it lives in companies, frequently of considerable size, in association with sand-grouse, the small desert-lark, the cream- coloured courser, and various lizards. So exactly does the colour of the jerboa harmonise with its surroundings, that when at a short distance it is scarcely possible to recognise the presence of a living creature. Although very abundant, it is, from its extreme shyness, but seldom seen. Like its kindred, this jerboa THE AFRICAN JUMPING HARE (nat. size). is essentially a nocturnal animal ; but it generally comes out to feed before sun- down, while it not unfrequently sits at the mouth of its hole, or a short distance off, even in the full sunshine. It digs a burrow in the hard gravelly soil with its fore-feet, aided sometimes by its incisor teeth ; these burrows generally having four entrances. According to Arab reports, the whole colony take part in the construc- tion of the burrows ; and at the slightest sound the animals immediately take refuge in their retreats. In walking gently the jerboa moves one foot after the other, but directly the pace is quickened, it progresses by means of leaps ; and so rapid are then its movements, that travellers liken them to the flight of a bird. When leaping, the tail is carried stuck out nearly straight behind. The jerboa is very impatient of rain and damp ; and when such conditions are prevalent it relapses into a kind of torpid condition, analogous to the hibernation of species inhabiting more northern regions. u6 RODENTS. According to Brehm, very little is definitely known regarding the breeding of this species. The Arabs state that it forms a nest from its own fur within the labyrinths of its burrow, where from two to four young are produced at a birth. The Arabs capture these tiny creatures by stopping up all the entrances to a burrow except one, where they place a net, and then digging down into the central chamber, when the jerboas are either caught in the nets or by the hands of their pursuers. Many are thus taken alive, while the flesh of those killed is eaten. The chief foes of the jerboa, next to men, are fennecs, caracals, and owls, by all of which large numbers are destroyed. This jerboa, like its allies of Central Asia, is easily tamed; and from its beautiful form and delicate build, as well as its efigaging manners, is always highly esteemed as a pet by its owners. In its wild state the jerboa eats not only leaves, fruits, and seeds, but likewise insects and carrion. THE AFRICAN JUMPING HARE. Genus Pedetes. By far the largest representative of the long-limbed members of the family is the South African species, designated by the Cape colonists, inappropriately, the jumping hare the springhaas of the Boers. This animal (Pedetes caffer) constitutes not only a distinct genus, but also a separate subfamily ; being distinguished from the jerboas by the following characters. In the neck the whole of the seven vertebrae are separate ; the hind- feet have four toes, and their comparatively short meta- tarsal bones are not united together; while the cheek- teeth, of which there are four on each side of the jaws, do not develop roots. In size the jumping hare may be compared with the common hare, to which it also approximates in general coloration ; the length of the head and body being about 24 inches, and that of the tail rather more. The head is relatively large, with long pointed ears ; the fore-limbs are proportionately longer than in the jerboas; and the long tail is thickly haired throughout its extent. There are five toes, provided with long, sharp claws on the fore- feet, while in the hind -feet the claws are wider and blunter, and approximate somewhat to nails; the middle hind-toe being much larger than either of the others. The long and soft hair of the upper-parts is reddish brown, more or less mingled with white ; while beneath the colour is pure white. Distribution The range of the jumping hare extends from the Cape to and Habits. Angola on the west, and Mozambique on the east coast. Its habits approximate very closely to those of the jerboas. Thus it inhabits more or less desert districts, where it constructs complex burrows, in which several families SKELETON OF AFRICAN JUMPING HARE. THE MOUSE TRIBE. 117 dwell together ; and is thoroughly nocturnal. At the Cape it is found in consider- able numbers, and frequents both the mountains and the open plains. When feeding, the jumping hare goes on all fours ; but when at speed progresses with the leaps characteristic of the family. Ordinarily the length of each spring is from six to nine feet ; but it is said that the leap may occasionally cover a space of as much as twenty or even thirty feet. The young are born during the African summer, and are usually from three to four in number; and during the rainy season young and old alike seldom stir from their burrows. The food appears to be entirely of a vegetable nature. The flesh is largely eaten by the Hottentots, who catch almost as many of the creatures as they please by the simple expedient of pouring 1 water down their holes, upon which the owners immediately bolt. THE SMINTHUS. Genus Sminthus. Three rat-like Rodents the one (Sminthus subtilis) from Eastern and Northern Europe and Central Asia, the other ($. concolor) from North- Western China, and the third (S. leathami) from Kashmir are interesting in showing that the long hind-limbs are not an essential attribute of the members of the present family. Indeed the former of these Rodents for which there is unfortunately no English name is so rat-like in appearance that it was long referred to the next family. It differs, however, from all the members of the latter by the presence of a pair of premolar teeth in the upper jaw (although there are none in the lower), while its skull agrees in essential features with that of the jerboas. The common sminthus has rather long and pointed ears, and a tail of nearly the same length as the body, and clothed with short hairs. The premolar and last upper molar teeth are very small; and the whole of the cheek-teeth have a complex pattern on their crowns. THE MOUSE TRIBE. Family MuRIDJE. The Mouse family, which includes mice, rats, hamsters, voles, lemmings, etc., is by far the most extensive group in the whole Rodent order, having a cosmopolitan distribution, and being the only family represented in Australia. The majority of the mice as we may conveniently term all the members of the group are of terrestrial habits, and have naked and scaly tails of varying length ; while in most cases there is no great disproportion between the length of the fore and hind-limbs. The incisor teeth are narrow ; and, owing to the invariable absence of premolars, there are never more than three pairs of cheek-teeth in each jaw. In structure these teeth exhibit great variation in the different groups, being either furnished with roots, or rootless, while in some cases their crowns are surmounted with simple cusps, and in others with folds of enamel arranged in a series of angles. In all cases the first toe of the fore-foot is rudimental. The skull is the most characteristic part of their entire organisation, although it is difficult n8 RODENTS. in a popular work like the present to point out its distinctive peculiarities without the aid of a series of figures. It may be mentioned, however, that the frontal region between the eye-sockets is much narrowed ; and that in the zygomatic, or cheek-arch, the cheek (jugal) bone is usually reduced to a mere splint occupying the middle of the arch. Again, the lower sur- face of the process arising from the upper jawbone to form the front half of the cheek-arch is more or less flattened out into a nearly perpendicular plate ; while the vacuity in the front of the eye for the passage of the nerves of the face is generally of considerable height, and wider above than below. The number of genera and species belonging to this family is so great that it is impossible to notice more than a small moiety in this work. Accordingly, only representatives of the various subfamilies into which these Rodents are divided, and such forms as are of general interest, are selected for description. SKELETON AND MOLARS OF BROWN RAT. THE AUSTRALIAN RATS. Genus Hydromys. The Australian rats, of which there is one aquatic species, together with an allied terrestrial form from the same region, constitute a subfamily distinguished from all the other mice by having only two pairs of molar teeth in each jaw ; these teeth being rooted, and having their crowns divided into distinct lobes. The Australian water-rat (Hydromys chrysogaster) is a rat-like aquatic Rodent, with broad and partially-webbed feet, the webs and claws being larger in the hinder than in the front-limbs. The fur of the back is black with an admixture of golden-coloured hairs ; the under-parts being of a dark golden hue, save for a narrow stripe of flaxen running from the lower part of the neck to the middle of the belly. Except for its terminal fifth, which is flaxen-coloured, the tail is black. The tip of the muzzle is thickly covered with hairs, by means of which the nostrils can be closed. The length of the head and body is about 2 feet, and that of the tail half as much. The skull differs in the form of the front portion of the cheek - arch from the ordinary murine type. This species is confined to Australia and Tasmania, where it is known to the colonists as the beaver-rat. It is thoroughly aquatic in its habits, and is not uncommon on the banks of the rivers ; while it is at times seen on the seashore. It is an inhabitant of Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea. The Queensland rat (Xeromys myoides) is a terrestrial species of about double THE MOUSE TRIBE. 119 the size of an ordinary mouse, which, while possessing teeth like those of the Australian water-rat, has unwebbed toes and the external form and skull of a mouse. It is, therefore, of interest as serving to connect its aquatic cousin with the more typical members of the family. THE MALABAR SPINY-MOUSE. Genus Platacanthomys. The pretty little murine known as the Malabar spiny-mouse (Platacanthomys lasiurus), from elevations of about two thousand feet in the hills of Southern India, is interesting as being one of the few members of the family which assume a dormouse-like appearance and have arboreal habits. It represents a subfamily by itself, characterised by the crowns of the molar teeth when worn showing oblique and nearly parallel bands of enamel, and by the long tail being thickly haired. This little mouse has long pointed ears ; and a number of broad flat spines mingled with the hair of the upper-parts. In colour it is reddish brown above, and white beneath ; the length of the head and body being 4 J inches, and that of the tail, with the hair at the end, half an inch more. This mouse lives in large trees, in which it hollows out small cavities that it fills with leaves and moss. It is stated to feed on jack-fruit and the pods of the pepper-tree. THE GERBILS. Genus Gerbillus. The elegant little Rodents commonly known as gerbils constitute the typical representatives of a third subfamily, and are easily recognised by their elongated hind-limbs, long and hairy tails, and their general jerboa-like appearance and habits. Indeed, they might be mistaken at first sight for members of the latter group ; but a close examination will show that they differ externally by their longer muzzles, smaller eyes, and the presence of five functional toes to the hind-feet. They are further distinguished by their molar teeth being divided into transverse laminae, of which there are three in the first, two in the second, and one in the third tooth of each side. The upper .. , , , -,-,-, ,-i LOWER JAW AND TEETH incisor teeth are narrow and grooved ; and the bullse ot the QF GERBIL> auditory region of the skull are generally very large. The true gerbils, of which there are more than half a hundred species, inhabit Asia and Africa ; but there are some allied genera confined to the latter continent. One of the best known species is the Indian gerbil (Gerbillus indicus), which is about the size of a rat, with moderate-sized rounded ears, and the fur light brownish rufous above, and white beneath. With its large, bright eyes, and long tufted tail, this gerbil (like its cousins) is one of the most graceful of the smaller Rodents. In common with the other species, it inhabits open sandy plains, where it lives in companies, constructing extensive burrows approached by numerous 120 RODENTS. chambers, and containing large central chambers containing dried grass. The Indian gerbil is a thoroughly nocturnal animal, seldom leaving its burrow during the daytime. It is frequently found near cultivated grounds, where it does much damage to the corn crops, sometimes appearing in such numbers as to constitute a veritable plague. Away from cultivated districts, its food consists mainly of grass and roots. It has been stated that gerbils lay up stores of food in their burrows, but it does not appear that this is really the case. Gerbils resemble jerboas in progressing by a series of leaps from their long hind-legs ; the length of the leaps EGYPTIAN GERBIL. in the Indian species being from twelve to fifteen feet. So active are these animals, that they are generally able to elude such dogs as may pursue them, sometimes even jumping upon their backs. The Indian gerbil is one of the most prolific of Rodents, frequently producing from twelve to fifteen young at a birth, and occasionally, it is said, even more. THE PHILIPPINE RAT. Genus Phlceomys. The Philippine Islands are the habitat of a peculiar species of rat (Phlceomys cumingi), which differs so markedly from all others that it must be regarded as constituting a subfamily by itself. While having the ordinary murine form, these rats resemble the gerbils in having their molar teeth divided into transverse laminae, THE MOUSE TRIBE. 123 of which there are three in the first tooth of the series, and two in each of the others. The incisor teeth are very broad, with smooth front surfaces. The muzzle is unusually short, the profile convex, and the ears rather small ; while the feet are characterised by their great breadth, and the large size of their claws. The tail is shorter than the head and body, and sparsely -haired. The hair is rather long and coarse, and darker on the muzzle, the sides of the face, the back of the head, the shoulders, and the fore-part of the back than elsewhere. THE HAMSTERS AND WHITE-FOOTED MICE. Genus Cricetus. The well-known hamsters of the Old World, together with the American white-footed mice, constitute an extensive genus of murine Rodents, which, with others, represents a distinct subfamily. These Cricetines, as all the members of THE HAMSTER ( liat. size). the subfamily may be called, are characterised by the crowns of their molar teeth carrying a number of distinct tubercles or cusps, which in the upper jaw are arranged in two longitudinal rows separated by a median groove ; these teeth being always implanted in the jaw by distinct roots. The whole of the Old World Cricetines are characterised by the shortness of their tails ; but in some of the i2 4 RODENTS. American forms these appendages are considerably longer. The Cricetines are distributed nearly all over the world, with the exception of Australia, and include the only representatives of the Rodent order found in Madagascar. In structure they appear to be the most generalised group of the entire murine family, and it is accordingly believed that they represent the ancestral stock from which came the more specialised rats and mice constituting the murine subfamily. This hypothesis is supported by the circumstance that the hamsters are some of the oldest types of the family with which we are acquainted, their remains being comparatively common in the Miocene strata both of Europe and North America. Common The common hamster (Cricetus frumentarius), of Europe and Hamster. Northern Asia, is the typical repiesentative of the genus under consideration ; the leading characters of the genus being that the incisor teeth are not marked by grooves, while the first upper molar tooth generally has six tubercles on its crown. Cheek-pouches, which may be of large size, are frequently present ; and the tail is often very short. The hamster itself is a decidedly handsomely-coloured Rodent, and is by far the largest member of the group, measuring about a foot in length, of which some 2 inches are taken up by the tapering hairy tail. It is stoutly built, with a thick neck, a rather pointed muzzle, medium-sized membranous ears, large and brilliant eyes, short legs, and small claws. The thick glossy coat is composed of hair and a woolly under-fur. The general colour of the upper-parts is usually light brownish-yellow, but the upper surface of the snout and the region of the eyes, as well as a band round the throat, are reddish brown. There is a yellow patch on the back, the mouth is whitish ; and the under-parts, the greater portion of the legs, and a stripe on the forehead are deep black, but the feet are white. There is, however, great individual variation with regard to colour, many examples being entirely black, while others are pied, and others, again, wholly white. The hamster inhabits suitable localities from the Rhine in Germany to the Obi in Siberia ; but its distribution is somewhat partial. In Germany it is wanting in the south and south-western districts, and also in East and West Prussia, but it is abundant in Thuringia and Saxony. Its favourite haunts are in soft dry soils, but it avoids those of a sandy nature as being unsuitable for its burrows, although it will sometimes select gravelly ground. The hamster has always attracted a considerable amount of interest, from the elaborate structure of its burrows, and the provident nature of its habits. The burrow always comprises a large dwelling-chamber, situated at a depth of from one to two yards below the surface of the ground, with a nearly perpendicular entrance- passage and an oblique exit. There is also a store-chamber or granary communi- cating with the dwelling-chamber by means of a gallery ; and it appears that the young, the females, and the males generally occupy distinct burrows, which may be distinguished by the size of their entrance-passages, those of the males being the largest. When a burrow is tenanted, the passages are kept scrupulously clean, and the presence of any litter in them would at once proclaim that the habitation was deserted ; chaff and straw may, however, be generally seen near the entrance of a burrow. Although the entrance-passage goes nearly straight down into the earth, it also has a turn before opening into the dwelling-chamber ; and in old burrows THE MOUSE TRIBE. I25 the entrance and exit passages are polished smooth by the constant friction of the coats of their occupants. Of the chambers, the dwelling-place is the smaller, and has smooth walls and the floor strewn with fine straw ; it has three apertures two communicating with the exterior, and the third with the granary. Young hamsters have but a single granary in their burrows, but the old males, which spend the whole summer collecting, frequently have from three to five such chambers. These are completely filled with corn, the passage communicating with the dwelling-chamber being frequently stopped up with earth. All kinds of corn are equally acceptable to these industrious little animals; and it will often be found that, while one part of the store-chamber is filled with grain of a particular kind, the other portion may contain a different sort. In addition to corn, which forms their main winter nutriment, hamsters in summer eat peas, beans, roots, fruits, grass, and other green herbage ; and in captivity these animals will eat almost any kind of food that is put before them. Burrows of the nature described above are constructed solely for winter use ; and when the weather becomes cold in October the hamsters retire to their inner- most recesses for their hibernation ; the entrance and exit of each burrow being then closed with earth. In February or March the animals awake from their slumbers, although they do not for some time open their burrows, where they remain feeding upon the stores of corn. About the middle of March the adult males make their first appearance abroad ; and these are followed early in April by the females. At this time they devour ravenously almost anything that comes before them, not refusing an occasional young bird, a mouse, or a beetle. Soon afterwards they set about constructing their summer-burrows ; on the completion of which the sexes pair. These summer-burrows are of simpler construction than the winter habitations, being seldom more than one or two feet in depth. Usually these burrows contain but a single chamber of about a foot in diameter. In the case of the females the nest-chamber has one exit passage, but from two to eight entrances ; although until the young go afield but one of the latter is used ; the advantage of these numerous entrances when there is a large number of young being sufficiently obvious. The nest-chamber is furnished with a bed of soft hay. Towards the end of April the males visit the burrows of the females ; and if two individuals of them should happen to meet in the same domicile, a fierce en- counter ensues, the hamster, for its size, being an extremely ferocious and quarrel- some animal. In from four to five weeks after the pairing-time the first litter of young is produced, the number in each litter varying from six to eighteen ; and as a second equally numerous brood comes into the world in July, the rate of increase of these animals is exceedingly rapid. When born, the young, although furnished with teeth, are naked and blind. The hair, however, quickly grows, and by the eighth or ninth day the eyes are opened ; while within a fortnight the young are able to burrow, and are soon after driven away by their parents to shift for them- selves. Although hamsters do not attain their full growth for a twelvemonth, it appears certain that a female born in May is capable of producing offspring in the ensuing autumn. With these marvellously rapid powers of reproduction it is no wonder that hamsters frequently appear in countless swarms, when they inflict incalculable 126 RODENTS. harm upon the harvest. Fortunately, however, they have a host of enemies, and buzzards, owls, ravens, and other predacious birds thin their ranks by hundreds ; while among four-legged foes, polecats and stoats follow the track of the advancing legions, and kill them where and when they can. The polecat and stoat are, moreover, able to follow the hamsters into the recesses of their burrows, where they probably destroy them by hundreds. Man, too, joins the ranks of the destroyers of these mischievous rodents ; and in some cases organises regular hunts for their destruction. Government rewards are sometimes offered to aid in ridding the country of these pests; and Brehm relates that in the year 1888 no less than 97,519 hamsters were destroyed in the single district of Aschersleben, for which a reward of 1950 marks was paid. In digging out the hamsters, the stores of corn which they laid up for winter use form not the least important part of the enter- prise ; the grain being carefully dried and used for human consumption. In many districts the flesh of the hamster is eaten, and is said to be not unlike that of the squirrel. The fur too, although not of high value, is extensively used for linings, some thousands of skins being annually imported into England. In Eastern Europe there are smaller species of hamster in which Other Species. ,v ,,,.,, , n . ni the black of the under-parts only occupies a small area on the chest ; and from these a transition is easy to the small uniform grey hamsters of Central Asia, one of which ranges as far south as Gilgit, while another occurs in Persia. White-Footed The New World possesses not a single indigenous representative mce - of the true rats and mice of the Old World, all the American members of the family belonging either to the Cricetine or to the closely allied Microtine subfamily. The great majority of the species belong to a group which may be conveniently designated white-footed mice, from the general prevalence of white on their feet and under-parts. These American mice, which have representa- tives from one end of the continent to the other, are frequently regarded as constituting a number of distinct genera ; but as they all possess molar teeth of essentially the same structure, it is simpler to include the whole of them in the genus Cricetus. They exhibit, however, great variation in regard to bodily form and the relative length of the tail. Thus there are some species with long tails and a general dormouse-like appearance, other long-tailed forms are mouse-like, others again have short hamster-like tails and vole-like bodies, while one species has spines mingled with the fur. The best known representative of the group is the common white-footed mouse (C. leucopus) of North America, which may be regarded as taking the place filled in Europe by the house-mouse. It is, however, far more attractive in appearance than the latter, although of approximately the same size and general configuration. In addition to its long tail, large ears, and bead-like eyes, this mouse is characterised by having the fur of the upper-parts of the body of a rich fawn colour, which forms a striking contrast with the snowy- white of the under-parts and feet. Indeed, when we add to this the natural grace and agility of its move- ments, we have in this animal, as Dr. Hart Merriam observes, one of the most beautiful and interesting inhabitants of the forests of North America. The white-footed mouse is an inhabitant either of forests or open fields ; and in the wild state feeds chiefly upon beech-nuts, of which it accumulates large THE MOUSE TRIBE. 127 stores for winter use. These stores are generally accumulated in hollow trees or logs, and sometimes may contain two or three quarts of beech-nuts or clover-seed. This mouse, unlike the hamster, remains, however, active throughout the winter ; and may be seen running about on the snow, where its long tail leaves a character- istic track. It is an agile climber, running up tree-stems with the activity of a squirrel, and frequently disappearing in some hole at a great distance above the ground. In addition to nuts and seeds, the white-footed mouse will readily eat the flesh of such animals as come in its way, and it is possible that it may occasion- ally kill small birds for itself. From three to six young are produced at a birth, and there appear to be several litters during the year. The first coat of the young is of a uniform dull grey colour. In the northern portions of the range of this mouse, the nest is generally built either in the hollow of a tree or a log, or in a burrow ; but more to the south these animals construct an "outside nest" of moss, grass, leaves, or bark, which is generally more or less cocoanut-shaped, and may be as much as a foot in diameter. It is usually suspended from a horizontal branch at some distance from the ground, and has its entrance on the under surface. The group to which this particular species of white-footed mice belongs is distinguished by having only five tubercles on the first molar tooth in the upper jaw. The rice- field mouse (C. palustris), which attains the size of a small rat, does much damage to the rice crops in the Southern States. THE FISH-EATING RAT. Genus Ichthyomys. A remarkable species (/. stolzmanni) inhabiting the mountain -streams of central Peru is allied to the preceding group, but distinguished by its aquatic and probably fish-eating habits, as well as by its webbed and fringed hind-feet. In size it comes near the brown rat, but has the head much flattened, larger whiskers, and very small ears and eyes; while in colour it is dark above and whitish beneath, with a black-and-w T hite tail. THE GROOVED-TOOTHED MICE. Genera JRhithrodontomys and Rkithrodon. Two groups of American Cricetines are distinguished by their upper incisor teeth being marked by parallel grooves. Of these, the American harvest-mouse (Ehithrodontomys humilis) resembles the rice-field mouse in external appearance, and is found in the southern United States as far north as Iowa ; the two other species of the genus being also North American. The Rhithrodonts, on the other hand, are exclusively South American, and are characterised by their rabbit-like appearance, the head being very short, with a highly convex profile, very large eyes, and rather large rounded ears. The rabbit-like rhithrodon (Rhithrodon cuniculoides), from Patagonia, is one of the best known species. The length of the head and body is 6J- inches, and that of 128 RODENTS. the tail about half as much again. Its general colour is yellowish grey mixed with black, with the under-parts pale yellow, and the rump, feet, and lower surface of the tail white. . THE WOOD-RATS. Genus Neotoma. The Florida rat (Neotoma floridana) is the best known representative of a small genus of North American Cricetines, distinguished by their large size and the circumstance that the cusps on their molars show some approximation to the type of structure obtaining in the voles. The .Florida rat, which inhabits the southern United States and the north of Mexico, is about the size of an ordinary rat, to which it also approximates in general coloration, although the under-parts and feet are entirely white. This species has a thin scaly tail, but in the bushy- tailed wood-rat (N. cinerea) from the north-western and western districts of North America, this appendage resembles that of a dormouse. The wood- rats are active, climbing animals, sometimes found in forests, but in other cases inhabiting rocky districts. In woods or near streams they frequently make heaps of twigs, straw, etc., in which to form their nests. The young, of which there are from three to six in a litter, cling to the sides and back of the female parent when she is walking about, somewhat after the manner of certain opossums, and two litters are generally produced in the year. In addition to vegetable food, the Florida rat will also eat crayfish and frogs. There are several other genera belonging to the Cricetine sub- OtHer Cricetines. .,,!_ lamily which cannot be mentioned here. It may be observed, however, that Hypogeomys, together with four other genera, are confined to Madagascar, where they are the sole representatives of the Rodents. THE AFRICAN CRESTED RAT. Genus Lophiomys. A rare and remarkable Rodent from North -East Africa differs from the preceding Cricetines in certain features, which have been regarded as entitling it to rank as the representative of a distinct family, but there can be little doubt that it is merely a highly-specialised member of the present group. The African crested rat (Lophiomys imhausi) derives its name from the great crest of long erectile hairs running down the back and tail, some of which are as much as 3J inches in length, and at their bases have a peculiar spongy structure. The tail is long and bushy, the limbs short, and the ears small. In the hind-foot the small front toe can be opposed to the others. The general colour is blackish brown, but there is a large triangular white spot on the front of the head, and a white streak beneath each eye, while the tip of the tail is also of the same hue. Moreover, the long hairs of the body have only the middle portion dark-coloured, their two extremities being white. Internally the crested rat differs from all other members of the family by its rudimentary collar-bones, and also by the circumstance that THE MOUSE TRIBE. 129 the sides of the hinder part of the skull are completely roofed over with bone, as in a turtle. This Rodent inhabits the district of Shoa, and is doubtless arboreal, although nothing definite is known of its habits in a wild state. THE YOLES. Genus Microtus. 1 The voles, together with their near allies the lemmings and the musquash, constitute a group closely allied to the Cricetines, but distinguished by the peculiar character of their molar teeth. Indeed, the voles and their allies are evidently nothing more than a specialised modification of the Cricetine type, and it is more as a matter of convenience than from any well-founded distinctive characters that they are placed by themselves in a distinct subfamily. The whole group is characterised by the molar teeth being usually rootless or with imperfect roots, and composed of two longitudinal rows of alternately-arranged triangular prisms. These prisms, as shown in the accompanying figure, decrease in number from the first to the third tooth in each jaw, but are variable in number in the different species, and thus form a valuable aid in their discrimination. The tail of the voles is either short or of moderate length; and these Rodents are distinguished from the true rats and mice not only by this character, CROWN-SURFACE OF THE URPER but likewise by their more corpulent form, their smaller AND LOWEB M LAR TEETH , A, . , , OF THE CHINESE VOLE. eyes and ears, their more obtuse muzzles, and proportion- (From Thomas.) ately shorter limbs. The subfamily has a wide distribution in the Northern Hemisphere, but is quite unknown in Asia south of the Himalaya, in the Malayan region, and in Africa and South America. It is connected with the Cricetine subfamily by a North American genus known as Phenacomys, in which the molar teeth are furnished with roots. The water-vole, or, as it is commonly termed, the water-rat (Microtus amphibius), may be taken as a typical example of the widely-distributed group of voles, of which there are about half a hundred species, ranging from Britain through Europe to China, and thence eastwards to North America. The genus is sufficiently characterised by the molars being rootless and the soles of the feet naked. From its diurnal habits and wide distribution the water-vole is one of the best known of the indigenous British mammals. In size it agrees approximately with the brown rat, the length of the head and body being about 8J inches, and that of the tail slightly more than half as much again. The fur is dense and shining, and of a full reddish brown colour mingled with grey above and yellowish grey below. The feet are not webbed, and the tail is hairy. The number of the prisms 1 The name Arvicola has been commonly applied to the voles, but by the rules of zoological nomenclature it has had to give place to Microtus. VOL. III. 9 Water-Vole. 1 3 o RODENTS. in the molar teeth are different from those in the smaller British voles, but since the species is sufficiently distinguished by its superior size, it will be unnecessary to enter into the consideration of this point. A black variety of the water-vole is sometimes met with. The water-vole has a wide distribution, extending from England in the west to China in the east, and occurring throughout continental Europe. Curiously enough, however, it is unknown in Ireland, where the other two species of British vole are likewise wanting. Every English brook and river is tenanted by the water-vole, whose long burrows in the banks are sometimes a source of considerable inconvenience to the agriculturist. The burrows are, however, by no means confined to the banks of rivers, being not unfrequent in water-meadows, and occasionally in ploughed fields THE WATER-VOLE (f nat. size). at a considerable distance from the water. Although the water-vole has been accused of carnivorous propensities, it is very doubtful if the charge can be substantiated. Its favourite food in summer appears to be the sweet inner pith of certain kinds of water-flags, but it will also eat many other aquatic plants, such as duckweed and horse-tails. In winter, when hard pressed for food, the water-vole turns its attention to the bark of trees and shrubs, and at this season frequently inflicts very serious damage on osier plantations. In cultivated districts it will also then readily eat mangold, turnips, potatoes, etc. When feeding upon duckweed, Bell says that "the creature sits, like a squirrel, on its haunches, near the water's edge, and, taking up a lump of the soft and slimy-looking mass in its fore-paws, eats a small part only, and, letting the remainder fall, takes up some more, which is similarly treated and rejected." : .In. May or June, and .occasionally as early as April, the female gives birth to five or six young in the depths of its burrow ; and it is probable that when the THE MOUSE TRIBE. I3I litter is produced early in the spring, a second one follows during the summer. When their holes are rendered inaccessible by frost, .water-voles are found to take shelter on shore, .sometimes frequenting the cover afforded by an osier-bed, and on other occasions taking refuge in pollard willows. In spite. of its feet not being webbed, the water-vole is an expert swimmer and diver ; and its coat is of such a nature as to throw off the water as readily as does the plumage of a duck. Fossil remains of the water-vole are found in the cavern -deposits of England, and also in, the "forest-bed" of the Norfolk coast; while those of extinct species of the genus to which it belongs, occur in the Pliocene crag-deposits of Suffolk and Essex. Short-Tailed In addition to the water-vole, the British Islands (exclusive of Field- voles. Ireland) possess two other species of the same genus, the commonest of which is the short-tailed field-vole, or field-mouse (M. agrestis). This species is THE CONTINENTAL FIELD-VOLE (4 uat. size). about the size of an ordinary mouse, and is greyish brown in colour above, and greyish white beneath, with dusky feet; the tail being about one-third the length of the body, while the under surfaces of the hind-feet have six naked pads. It is specially characterised by the circumstance that the second molar tooth in the upper jaw has five prisms. This character, unimportant as it may seem, serves to distinguish this species from the continental field- vole (M. arvalis) represented in the accompanying illustration in which, in common with the other continental short-tailed members of the genus, the corresponding tooth has but four such prisms. The common short-tailed field-vole is found all over England and Scotland, as well as the greater part of the Continent ; its range extending from the north of Italy to Finland, and from Spain and France to Russia; but in the southern portion of its habitat it is less numerous than the continental field- vole. The English species is commonly found in meadows especially those where the ground is moist, and makes extensive runs beneath the grass, in which it roams both by 1 32 RODENTS. night and day, although, it is more active during the dark hours. In addition to these runs, the field- vole also constructs burrows of considerable size. The food of this species consists of seeds, roots, and herbage of all kinds. In gardens it displays an especial taste for the bulbs of crocuses and newly-sown peas and beans, among which it frequently does great damage. In winter, when other food is scarce, the field-vole will not unfrequently ascend trees to feed upon their bark. It is also by no means averse to a diet of insects and flesh. The field- vole is an unusually prolific animal, producing from three to four litters in a year, and each litter containing from four to six young. The nest in which these are born is composed of moss and leaves, and is usually placed beneath a tussock of grass in some slight hollow in the giound. The most remarkable peculiarity in connection with this field-vole is the swarms in which it occasionally makes its appearance in various parts of the country. According to Mr. J. E. Harting, one such " mice-plague " appeared in 1580 in Essex, a second visited Hampshire and Gloucestershire during 1813-14, while a third was recorded in Wensleydale which lasted from 1874 to 1876. In the second of these visitations, upwards of thirty thousand voles were destroyed in the Forest of Dean, and eleven thousand five hundred in the New Forest. Quite recently (1892), another such plague has made its appearance in the south of Scot- land, especially in parts of Dumfriesshire and Roxburgh ; the area over which the voles extended being estimated at from eighty thousand to ninety thousand acres. The mildness of the winter of 1890-91, coupled with the scarcity of owls, kestrels, and weasels (due to the over-zeal of gamekeepers), are supposed to have been the inducing cause of this last visitation. It is reported, however, that, as on similar occasions, numbers of owls arrived in the affected districts for the purpose of prey- ing on the voles, which by the end of 1893 had well-nigh disappeared. The habits of the continental field-vole are similar to those of the English species. It is stated, however, to be even a more prolific animal, the number of young varying from four to eight, while as many as six different litters may be produced in a single season. Moreover, it is probable that the young produced in the spring will themselves be parents in the following autumn. On the Continent the plagues of voles are even more serious than in England. Thus, according to Brehm, during a visitation of these animals which took place in Germany in the year 1822, upwards of 1,570,000 were taken in one district, 590,327 in another, and 271,941 in a third. Again, in the summer of 1861, a total of 409,523 voles were taken in a single district of Rhine-Hessen. The third species of the genus in Britain is the bank-vole Bank-Vole. (M. glareolus), which may be distinguished externally from the field- vole by the colour of the back inclining more or less markedly to rufous, and also by its larger ears, and proportionately longer tail, which is equal to half the length of the head and body. The molar teeth differ from those of the field-vole not only by the circumstance that in the second one of the upper jaw there are but four prisms, but also in that in the adult state these teeth form imperfect roots. The whole proportions of the bank- vole are more elegant than those of the field- vole, while its fur is more smooth and glossy, its coloration more brilliant, and the eye larger. It is found locally over England and parts of Scotland, as far north as THE MOUSE TRIBE. '33 Morayshire, while abroad it ranges from France across Asia to China. Its general habits are the same as those of the field-vole, but it is said to be more generally found in sheltered situations, and is especially fond of visiting gardens. There is, however, a great probability that both the bank-vole and the red- backed vole (M. gapperi) of North America, are merely local varieties of the Arctic vole (M. rutilus), which inhabits the circumpolar regions of both hemispheres; their differences in coloration being merely such as might well be due to the varying climatic conditions of the countries they severally inhabit. The Alpine vole (M. nivalis), which is the last species to which we refer at any length, is interesting on account of the elevated regions forming its habitat. It is a small species with a relatively long tail : the Alpine Vole. THE ALPINE VOLE ( liat. size). total length being about 7 inches, of which slightly more than half is taken up by the tail. The cars are large ; and the number of prisms in the first upper molar tooth is the same as in the water-vole. The colour varies from brownish grey iibove and greyish white beneath to pure \vhite. This species has an exceedingly limited distribution, being confined to the Alps and Pyrenees, where it ranges from an elevation of about four thousand feet to the limits of perpetual snow. It is, indeed, most abundant near the snow line, above which it also sometimes wanders in search of the scanty vegetation which exists at such altitudes. Not only is the Alpine vole found in these dreary regions during the short season when the ground is more or less free from snow, but it likewise remains there from year's end to year's end. Accordingly, for upwards of nine or ten months of the year, it lives beneath a deep pall of snow. Here it makes regular runs, along which it travels in search of food when the supply hoarded for winter use becomes exhausted. No other known mammal leads a similar existence. 134 RODENTS. The list of species of voles being almost endless, space only per- mits of passing references to a few of the more interesting. In North America the commonest species is the meadow- vole (M. riparius), which in the northern regions during the winter abandons its frozen burrows and forms nests on the surface of the ground, which soon become buried in the snow. The heat of the little animal inside melts and cakes the surrounding snow, which thus forms a con- tinually increasing dome -shaped mass around the nest. The root-vole (M. ceconomus) of Siberia and Kamschatka, is interesting on account of the large stores of food it accumulates in its burrows, and likewise on account of its migratory habits, which resemble those of the lemming. Numerous voles occur in the Himalaya, Tibet, and Central Asia ; the earliest described Himalayan species being Royle's vole (M. roylei). THE LEMMINGS. Genus Myodes. Closely related to the voles are the lemmings, of which one species, commonly known as the Norwegian lemming (Myodes lemmus), inhabits the mountains of the Scandinavian peninsula and thence northwards to the North Cape, while the second is confined to North America. Lemmings are distinguished from voles by their heavier build, more convex and obtusely snouted head, extremely short tail, and by the soles of the small feet being covered with hair. They have also longer claws, thicker fur, and very small ears ; while there are likewise important differences in the structure of the skull and teeth. There is considerable individual variation in regard to size and coloration in the Norwegian lemming. Usually, however, its length is about 5 inches ; while the general colour of the fur is yellowish brown, darker above than below, more or less spotted and streaked with blackish brown. ^ Lemmings are the most abundant rodents found in Norway, and they have always attracted great interest from the circumstance, that at certain intervals countless swarms descend from the mountains to the cul- tivated plains, and thence make their way, apparently under the influence of some blind impetus, to the sea, into the waters of which they boldly plunge to meet a death by drowning. In the course of such migrations, the lemmings take a straight line across country, swimming rivers or lakes, climbing mountains, and eating their way through fields of corn or grass, and thus leaving a track of desolation in their rear. The line of march is marked by flights of predaceous birds hovering above the hosts ; the flanks and rear of the army being harassed by four-footed foes, who, however, at first make but little apparent diminution in its numbers. Disease also claims its victims ; and from these combined attacks, the numbers which eventually reach the sea, sometimes after an interval of from one to three years from the time of starting, form but a small minority of the original swarm. In general appearance, lemmings look not unlike small marmots or hamsters ; and they resemble the latter to a considerable extent in their mode of life. Although in Finmark they occur at the sea-level, in the more southern parts of Scandinavia they are found only high up in the mountains above the level of firs, in the belt THE MOUSE TRIBE. 135 clothed with birch and juniper. Here they select dry spots in the swampy ground, making their shallow burrows either beneath stones or in the peaty soil. Generally they do not form well-marked tracks from one hole to another, except when the ground is covered with snow. They are on the move by day as well as by night. Except when migrating, lemmings show a great aversion to water, always selecting the driest portions of the swamps, and if forced to enter a river, manifesting their dislike by squeaks and grunts. Generally they sit quietly during the day, in or near the entrances of the burrows, but should a human being appear on the scene, they at once become violently excited, raising themselves up on their hind-quarters, NORWEGIAN LEMMINGS MIGRATING (3 liat. size). and squeaking, as if to warn him off from their territories, while their gestures are such as to give the impression that they are about to attack the intruder. Indeed, they will sometimes bite vigorously at the trousers of any person who approaches too close to their holes. The squeaks and grunts uttered on such occasions by the lemmings are said to closely resemble those of guinea-pigs. In the winter, they form large nests in their tunnels through the snow, which are exposed to view when it melts ; several tunnels radiating from each nest, which are formed partly in the peat and partly in the snow. The chief food of the lemming in its native haunts consists of grass, reindeer - moss, the catkins of the birch, and probably various descriptions of roots. It appears that the young are born in the nests, which are usually made of dry grass with a lining of hair, and that there are 136 RODENTS. usually from five to six young in a litter. It is considered by Brehm that there is probably more than one litter in a season ; but precise information as to the breeding-habits of these creatures is still a desideratum. It is probable that the periodical migrations of the lemmings are induced by a scarcity of food. Brehm remarks that if an early spring following a wild winter is succeeded by a hot and dry summer, everything will be favourable for an un- wonted increase in the number of these animals. The dry summer will, however, equally tend to diminish the quantity of vegetation available for their support, and, accordingly, a migration to more fertile regions will be rendered necessary. Why, however, the migration should be continued in this extraordinary manner is a question which has not yet received a satisfactgry answer. The number of lem- mings taking part in a migration has been estimated at many millions ; and on such occasions every bush and every rock or large stone has a lemming hiding under it, while sometimes even the towns swarm with these creatures. Not only do the lemmings attempt to swim rivers and lakes which are too wide for them to cross, but, writes Mr. T. T. Somerville, " they tumble into holes, wells, and brooks, the sides of which are too steep for them to scramble out of again, so that frequently people are at a loss to obtain water that is not polluted by their bodies. Doubtless this accounts for an epidemic popularly termed 'lemming fever,' that is said to prevail after the migration, and which is described as resembling ordinary typhoid." THE BANDED LEMMING. Genus Cuniculus. The banded lemming (Cuniculus torquatus), from the circumpolar regions of both hemispheres, differs in several important points from the true lemmings, and is accordingly referred to a distinct genus. Externally it is distinguished by the absence of conchs to the ear, the shorter and more thickly-formed feet, the practical loss of the first toe of the fore-foot, which has only a rudimental nail, and also by the great length of the claws of the third and fourth toes in the same limb. The molar teeth are more like those of the voles than in the case of the true lemmings, but the first of these teeth in the upper jaw is peculiar in having seven distinct prisms. The banded lemming is so variable in coloration as almost to defy descrip- tion. It may be said, however, in general that the fur of the upper-parts presents a kind of " watered " appearance, owing to the intimate mingling of chestnut, rufous, black, grey, and tawny; the under-parts being leaden-grey. Usually a more or less distinct black line runs along the back from the muzzle to the tail ; while there may be a greyish collar on the nape of the neck. The habits of the banded lemming are probably very similar to those of the other species, although it does not undertake similar periodical migrations to the same extent. Baron Nordenskiold states that there are no lemmings in Spitzbergen, but that they must be exceedingly numerous at certain seasons in Novaia Zemlia, where, in early summer, the grass is seen to be traversed in all directions by the tracks made by these animals beneath the snow. THE MOUSE TRIBE. 137 It is interesting to note that remains of both the Norwegian and ' 'the banded lemming have been found in the Pleistocene deposits of Britain, apparently indicating the prevalence of different climatic conditions to those of the present age, THE MUSQUASH. Genus Filter. The musquash, or musk-rat (Fiber zibethicus), is a North American species, considerably exceeding in size all other members of the vole subfamily. Although resembling a vole in its general external appearance, as well as in the structure of its molar teeth and skull, the musquash differs by its compressed and THE MUSQUASH (^ nat. size). proportionately longer tail, of which the length is nearly equal to that of the body, exclusive of the head. In addition to its compressed form, the tail is also char- acterised by being nearly naked, and covered with scales. The feet, which are partially webbed, differ from those of the voles in having their soles entirely naked. The musquash is a massively-built animal, with the head and body attaining -a length of about a foot, and the tail about 10 inches. The head is unusually wide and not separated from the body by any distinctly constricted neck ; while the eyes are relatively small, and the ears scarcely project above the fur. With the exception of the small area immediately surrounding the nostrils, the muzzle is completely covered with hair. The limbs are short, with the first toe rudimentary in the front pair, although well developed in the hinder. The compressed form of the tail is increased by the presence of a line of hairs on both its upper and lower surfaces. The fur, of which the general colour is blackish brown, passing into grey on the muzzle and under-parts, has the soft and velvety texture of that of the beaver. It 138 RODENTS. is, however, mostly shorter than in the latter, although on the back and flanks there are interspersed a number of longer bristle-like hairs. Distribution The geographical range of the musquash is large, extending from and Habits. ^ e SO -called barren grounds of Arctic America to the genial climate of the Rio Grande, while it also reaches from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Musk-rats are thoroughly adapted for an aquatic life, and generally frequent ponds, swamps, and sluggish streams. Although their food consists mainly of the roots of grasses and water-plants, they consume considerable quantities of river mussels; they will likewise catch and eat fish, while they are said at times to devour the flesh of such individuals of their own species as they may find dead, or wounded and helpless. Occasionally they wander considerable distances from the water; and Dr. Merriam relates an instance where two of these creatures were discovered comfortably ensconced beneath the hearthstone of a room. The musquash is an excellent diver, being able to remain below the surface of the water for a considerable time. It is much less strictly nocturnal in habits than the beaver, and may be frequently observed swimming about in broad daylight, more especially if the sky be overcast. In leaping into the water to dive, it makes a loud noise by striking the flat tail against the surface. The long burrow always has its entrance beneath the surface of the water, from which it inclines upwards in the bank for a distance of from 10 to 15 feet, when it expands into a large chamber, in which may be a nest. Usually one or more galleries lead from this chamber further into the bank. In certain districts where the water is deep these animals in the autumn sometimes collect large heaps of vegetable matter in the form of haycocks. Such heaps are known as " musk-rat huts " or " houses.'* After mentioning that some of those built in the water attain enormous dimensions, Dr. Merriam observes that " the summit of the structure is commonly high enough out of water to admit of an air-chamber within, which communicates with the out- side world by means of a hole through the centre of the mass, the entrance or entrances being under water. Many of the houses contain no mud or sticks, but consist wholly of balls and knots of roots and swamp-grasses. It seems clear that the animals make no attempt to construct a dwelling of any particular shape, but merely heap the materials together without plan or order, the resulting mound naturally assuming, in a general way, the form of a flattened cone. . . . The materials of which the hut are composed, it will be observed, are such as serve as food for the animals during the long winters ; hence the musk-rat's house is in reality a storehouse, which he devours piecemeal as the winter advances." The nest -is usually placed in a burrow in the bank, although occasionally in the aforesaid hut. Here from five to nine blind and naked young are produced at a birth, and it is reported that there may be as many as three litters in the course of a season. Although not of much value, the fur of the musquash is much used, both in America and Europe. According to Mr. Poland, from three to four million skins come into the market annually; the Hudson's Bay Company alone having sold over half a million in. 1891. Dr. Merriam states that although the flesh of the musquash is red and rather flabby, yet that, failing other meat, it is eatable. THE MOUSE TRIBE. i 39 THE MOLE-LIKE VOLES. Genera Ellobius and Siphneus. Certain representatives of the vole group are specially adapted for a sub- terranean mole-like life, and, therefore, differ considerably from the other forms, although they retain the ordinary type of molar teeth. In form they are characterised by the' blunt and rounded head passing imperceptibly into the cylindrical mole-like body, the absence of external ears, the short tail and limbs, and the broad feet, each provided with five claws. The incisor teeth project considerably, and their enamel is usually white, instead of having the yellow or orange tinge so prevalent among the ordinary voles. These mole-like voles, of which there are but few species, are mainly confined to Central and Northern Asia, although one species ranges as far south as Afghanistan and Quetta, and another extends into Eastern Europe. They are divided into two genera, according as to whether the claws of the fore-feet are short or long; Ellobius including the short-clawed and Siphneus the long- clawed species. The so-called Quetta vole (E. fuscicapillus) is about 5 inches in total length, of which half an inch is occupied by the tail. It is brownish white above, with the exception of the greyish brown head, while the under-parts, feet, and tail are white ; the fur being long and soft. It is reported to construct horizontal galleries in the ground, with heaps of earth thrown up at intervals, after the fashion of the mole. THE RATS AND MICE. Genus Mus. The true rats and mice, together with certain allied forms referred to distinct genera, are the representatives of the last subfamily of the Muridce, which is exclusively confined to the Old World. They are primarily characterised by the crowns of the unworn upper molar teeth carrying a number of tubercles arranged in three longitudinal rows ; these teeth always having distinct roots. When worn by use, the crowns of the molars exhibit transverse bands of enamel. The tail is always long and scaly, and in most cases almost destitute of hairs. Moreover, the ears are large, and the eyes bright and prominent, while the muzzle is sharply pointed, and the build light and elegant. Their movements are quick, active, and graceful, and their coloration is in most cases uniform and sombre, as would naturally be expected from the nocturnal and burrowing habits of the majority of the species. The Murine subfamily includes a considerable number of species, by far the greater majority of which are comprised in the genus Mus. That genus is character- ised by the incisor teeth being smooth, and the molars distinctly tuberculated. The ears and eyes are proportionately large, and the tip of the muzzle is naked, while the tail is long and scaly. The first toe of the fore-foot has a short nail in lieu of a claw; and the fur is soft, although in some cases intermingled with 140 RODENTS. spines. The genus is the largest in the whole mammalian class, comprising not far short of a hundred and fifty species, which are distributed over the whole of the Old World with the exception of Madagascar ; some of these, by human aid, having now acquired a cosmopolitan range. With such a multitude of species, it is of course only possible to allude to a few of the more interesting. The brown or, as it is often inappropriately called, the Norway rat (M. decumanus), offers one of the most remarkable instances of a successful usurpation to be found in the animal kingdom ; this creature having ousted the black rat from most parts of England and a large area on the Continent, So far as can be ascertained, its original home appears to have been Western China, from whence it gradually travelled westward to'continental Europe, finally reach- B THE BROWN RAT (^ liat. size). ing the shores of the British Islands by the involuntary aid of ships. Its westerly migration was, however, by no means limited to Europe, as it has been carried by vessels across the Atlantic, and is now as abundant in many parts of North America as it is in the Old World. The migration of the rat into Russia is known to have taken place about 1727, in which year large troops of these animals crossed the Volga from Central Asia, and made their way westwards. In Paris it appeared about the middle of the eighteenth century, and it is generally supposed to have first reached England in 1730. In appearance the brown rat is unfortunately too well known to need much description, although it is advisable to point out the features by which it is distinguished from its cousin the black rat. In form this species is characterised by its heavy build, massive blunt muzzle, comparatively small ears, and relatively short tail; the length of the tail being always less than that of the head and THE MOUSE TRIBE. I4I body (8 to 9 inches), and usually not exceeding that of the body alone. The colour of the upper-parts is usually greyish brown, while the under surface is white ; but black varieties are often met with, which in Ireland have been regarded as indicat- ing a distinct species. The brown rat is a far more powerful animal than the black species, which has not a chance against its stronger rival, although curiously enough it is stated that on some ships the two kinds may be found living together. The following anecdote, related by the late Mr. Frank Buckland, illustrates in a striking manner the superior power and at the same time the extreme ferocity of the brown rat. " A London rat-catcher," writes the narrator, "shut up together in a cage the result of his day's work, consisting of several dozen rats, of both species, and put them away carefully for the night, their intended fate being to afford sport for his employer's dogs the next morning. What was his astonishment when he came to fetch them, to find none but brown rats remaining ! these cannibals having cruelly devoured all their sable brethren." Rats are practically omnivorous in their diet, devouring every kind of human food with avidity, and inflicting untold damage on the hen-roost, the dove-cot, and the rabbit-warren. Their devastations to corn -ricks, or to grain stored in insufficiently protected granaries, are too well known to need more than passing mention. Not only will they, as in the instance recorded above, prey on their cousin the black rat, but they will likewise slay and devour members of their own kind which have been caught in traps or otherwise disabled. In robbing poultry- houses, it is a well-ascertained fact that rats will convey the eggs in an unbroken condition for considerable distances, although it is not yet ascertained how this difficult feat is accomplished. The partiality of these animals for fish is well known, but that they will occasionally catch young eels for themselves has been only recently discovered. Mr. Harting adds that snails both land and fresh-water also form a portion of their diet ; while on the sea-coast they will eat prawns and other crustaceans. The prolific nature of the brown rat is little short of marvellous, and thoroughly accounts for its enormous numbers when in favourable situations. Several litters are produced annually, each of which generally contains from eight to ten, and sometimes as many as twelve or fourteen young ; and a female rat will breed when only half -grown, although the number of its progeny is then but three or four at a birth. When these animals obtain access to small islands inhabited by sea-birds or rabbits, the abundant food soon leads to a prodigious increase in their numbers; but sooner or later they practically exterminate the indigenous inhabitants, and then have to seek a more precarious livelihood by preying upon the crustaceans and molluscs on the shores. Some years ago the number of rats in the slaughter-houses around Paris was so great, that as many as 2650 were killed in a single night, and over 16,000 within a month. Rats, impelled by scarcity of provisions, at times make migrations in large bodies generally, or always during the night ; and on such journeys they will not hesitate to plunge boldly into and swim over such rivers as may come in their way; and it is related that instances have occurred of their being suddenly hemmed in during such voyages by a rapid formation of ice. Some years ago the 142 RODENTS. rats that frequented the London Zoological Gardens were in the habit of regularly swimming to and fro across the Regent's Canal. When brought to bay, the ferocity with which a rat -will defend itself against a human or canine foe, is known to most persons. When pressed by hunger, rats will, however, occasionally attack human beings without provocation ; and it is on record that an unfortunate man on entering a coal-pit which had been closed for some time, was actually killed and devoured by a starving host of rats. The black rat (M. rattus) is smaller and more elegantly built than the brown, with a longer and thinner tail ; the length of the head and body being about 7 inches, while that of the tail varies from 8 to 9 inches. Its snout, moreover, is longer and more slender^ projecting to a greater distance Black Rat. THE BLACK RAT ( nat. size). beyond the lower jaw, while its ears are considerably larger. In Europe the black rat, as its name implies, generally has fur of a deep bluish black colour ; but in India and other parts of the East there are varieties, in one of which the tint is tisually brown above and white below, while in a second the hue is rufous or yellowish brown, and spines are mingled with the fur. When domesticated, white and pied varieties are readily produced ; and most of the rats thus coloured which are exhibited by showmen, belong to this species. In one of the Indian varieties the length of the head and body is not more than 5 inches, while in another it reaches 8 inches. Distribution. The black rat is very commonly spoken of as the indigenous and Habits. British species ; this, however, is incorrect, as this rat was also intro- duced from the East, although at a much earlier date than its brown cousin. The exact date of its arrival in Europe cannot, however, now be determined, although it is known to have existed on the Continent in the thirteenth century. At the THE MOUSE TRIBE. I43 present day the European variety of this species is almost cosmopolitan ; but the brown and rufous varieties extend from Northern Africa through India to Burma, and are doubtless indigenous to both these regions. The black rat, in addition to its inferior size, is a far less ferocious animal than the brown species, which accounts for the ease with which it has been conquered by the latter. In England it is now comparatively rare the Isle of Dogs being one of its last strongholds ; but it is more common in certain parts of the Continent. In Europe its habits are generally very similar to those of the brown rat ; but in India it frequently ascends trees, where it makes its nests among the branches ; while in some of the islands of the tropics it lives exclusively in the crowns of the cocoanut palm, upon the fruit of which it feeds. House Mouse. -^ vi THE HOUSE MOUSE (* liat. size). In Britain, from the absence of any species of intermediate size, it is easy to distinguish between the rats, or larger species of the genus, and the smaller mice ; but in other countries it is impossible to draw any line of distinction, and the two terms must consequently be employed in a some- what arbitrary manner. The typical representative of the mice is the common house mouse (M. musculus), which is now of almost world-wide distribution, although probably originally a native of Asia. The characteristic features of this species are its relatively large ears, long tail, and nearly uniform brownish colora- tion, which is only slightly paler below than above. The distinctive peculiarity of this species is its partiality for human habitations and their neighbourhood; its tastes being practically omnivorous, although its 144 RODENTS. chief food consists of grain and other vegetable articles of human consumption. It is noteworthy that in corn-stacks rats and mice live in perfect harmony together, without any trace of that mutual antipathy existing between the brown and the black rat. This mouse is nearly as prolific as the brown rat, producing from three to five litters in a year, each of which includes from four to eight blind young. In habits, the house mouse is more active than most of its kindred, being able to ascend vertical walls with ease, and also having the power of springing to considerable distances. In domestication, white and pied breeds of this species are common. This mouse exhibits a peculiar susceptibility to musical sounds, to which it listens with marked attention. Occasionally, in common with other members of the family, individuals of this species are endowed with considerable vocal powers. A lady writes that although the song of one of these " singing-mice " was not very effective, yet it was a distinct vocal effort. Sometimes the mouse in her possession " would run up an octave, and end with a decided attempt at a trill. Sometimes it would try to trill up all the notes. An octave seemed to be about its range. I could distinctly see the expansion and vibration of its throat and chest as one can in a song-bird. Its favourite position when singing was an erect one, standing on its hind-feet." Long-Tailed Since the term " field mice " is popularly applied to the voles as Field Mouse. we ll as to the true mice, it is necessary to prefix the epithet " long- tailed " to the common British species (M. sylvaticus) of the present genus. This field mouse is rather larger than the field vole, from which it can be distinguished at a glance by its lighter build, longer and more pointed muzzle, much larger ears, and greatly elongated tail, which is nearly equal in length to the head and body. The general colour of the fur is reddish grey above, and whitish beneath, with a spot of light brown on the chest. This species is common in many parts of England, and is also widely distributed over the temperate regions of Europe, while eastwards it is replaced by the closely allied Persian field mouse, ranging from Persia over a large portion of Central Asia. This field mouse is generally found in England in gardens, hedgerows, and cornfields, but in winter it sometimes takes shelter in houses, while it also frequents corn-stacks, although in less numbers than the house mouse. It commonly burrows in the ground, and lays up large stores of food for winter use ; whole handfuls of corn, nuts, or seeds being sometimes discovered in these subterranean retreats. Since these mice are exceedingly prolific, the amount of damage they sometimes do to cornfields and gardens is almost incalculable ; and additional harm is fre- quently effected by pigs in their search after the concealed hordes of these little Rodents. The elegant little creature of which a group is represented in the ' coloured Plate is the most beautiful, and also almost the smallest of the British mammals ; the one inferior to it in point of size being the pigmy shrew. The harvest mouse (M. minutus), as the creature is called, was first dis- covered in England by Gilbert White of Selborne, and is so small that its weight is only about one-sixth of an ounce ; the total length being about 4 J inches, of which nearly one-half is taken up by the tail. The ears and tail are proportionately HARVEST MOUSE THE MOUSE TRIBE, I45 rather small; and the colour of the fur is yellowish red above and white beneath. The harvest-mouse, although local, is widely distributed in the British Islands, and extends over the great part of Europe, ranging eastwards through Russia into Siberia, and occurring as far south as the north of Italy. This species usually keeps far away from human habitations, frequenting cornfields and pastures ; but is often carried home with corn-sheaves, and then spends the winter in the rick where they are deposited. In the latter situations, the harvest-mouse remains active throughout the year ; but when living in the open fields it constructs a burrow in which to pass the winter months in a state of torpor. The summer nest is a globular structure of grass and leaves suspended among the corn-stalks at some distance from the ground ; ff THE BARBARY MOUSE (nat. size). and when ascending or descending the stems to reach this nest, or in search of food, the little creatures are much aided by their prehensile tails. No better description of this nest exists than the one given by White, which although often quoted will bear one more repetition. He writes that the structure was "most artificially platted, and composed of the blades of wheat ; perfectly round and about the size of a cricket ball, with the aperture so ingeniously closed, that there was no discover- ing to what part it belonged. It was so compact and well filled that it would roll across the table without being discomposed, though it contained eight little mice that were naked and blind." The number in a litter varies from five to eight or nine, and it is probable that there are several broods in the course of a summer. The numbers of the species are, however, kept down by the hosts of predaceous birds and small carnivorous mammals that make it their prey. Like the long-tailed field- mouse, the present species is partly insectivorous in its diet. Mr. Harting states that he has several times kept harvest-mice in captivity, and succeeded in rearing VOL. in. 10 i 4 6 RODENTS. their young to maturity. He describes them as charming little pets, allowing themselves to be handled without making any attempts to bite, and readily taking food from the hand. The only other species of the genus Mus that can be noticed here are two, one of which is remarkable for its coloration, and the other on account of its habits. The Barbary striped mouse (M. bo^rbarus) is the most strikingly coloured member of the group, the ground-colour of the fur of the upper- parts being a yellowish brown, upon which are a number of longitudinal blackish brown stripes ; the under-parts being pure white. This mouse inhabits Northern and Central Africa, being especially common in the Atlas Mountains, and also occurs in the desert regions of the interior as far as, Kordofan. There appears to be nothing worthy of special note in its habits. The Australian brown-footed rat (M. fuadpes) is remarkable as being nearly or quite as aquatic in its habits as the water-vole. THE BANDICOOT-RATS Genus Nesocia. The bandicoot-rats of Southern Asia differ from ordinary rats in the much greater width of their incisor and molar teeth, and also by the tubercles on the crowns of the latter being so completely connected as to form transverse ridges. Members of the genus extend from Palestine to Formosa, and from Ceylon to Central Asia ; but they are most abundant in India and the adjacent regions. The great Indian bandicoot-rat (Nesocia bandicota) is the largest member of the subfamily, measuring from 12 to 15 inches from the tip of the snout to the root of the tail, and weighing between 2J and 3 Ibs. It is common in cultivated districts and near human dwellings in most parts of India, although unknown in Lower Bengal. It is a burrower, like other species of the same genus, some of which turn up mounds of earth like mole-hills. When disturbed, this rat utters grunts like a pig; but it has far less pluck than the brown rat, and makes but a poor fight against a dog. OTHER GENERA. There are about eleven other genera belonging to this family, of which a few of the more interesting may be briefly noticed. The bush-rats (Golunda) are represented by one Indian and one African species, and are distinguished by the presence of a groove on the front of the upper incisor teeth. The length of the head and body in the Indian species (G. ellioti) is about 4J inches, and that of the tail half an inch less. The spiny mice (Acomys), of which there are several species of the approximate size of the house-mouse, are peculiar in having the hinder portion of the back covered with thick, rigid, grooved spines in lieu of hair, and thus look almost like minute hedgehogs. They are desert-loving creatures, ranging from Syria to Eastern Africa as far south as Mozambique, while a single example of one of the species has been found in Sind. MOLE-RATS. 147 The sandy deserts of Australia are inhabited by certain elegant representatives of the present group distinguished by their elongated hind-limbs, long ears and tail, and general jerboa-like appearance. Indeed, these jerboa-rats (Hapalotis) seem to take the place of the true jerboas in the regions they inhabit. Lichtenstein's A peculiar species from Tasmania, known as Lichtenstein's rat Rat. (Mastacomys), differs from ordinary rats in the great width of the molar teeth, and also by the circumstance that the female has but four teats. It somewhat resembles the water-vole in size and form, although the body is clothed with longer and softer fur. THE MOLE-RATS. Family SPALACID^. The strange-looking creature shown in the illustration on p. 148 is the typical representative of a small family of Old World Rodents, all of which are adapted for a purely subterranean mole -like life. Except for their large and projecting incisor teeth, which at once proclaim them members of the Rodent order, the mole-rats have a general mole-like appearance, their eyes and external ears being small or rudimentary, the limbs short and provided with large and powerful claws, and the tail usually short or practically wanting, while the body is cylindrical and not marked off from the head by any distinct neck. Their molar teeth are furnished with roots, and have re-entering folds of enamel on their crowns, and premolars may or may not be present. It may be remarked here that the assumption of mole-like habits and a more or less mole-like bodily form is common to several groups of smaller mammals. Thus, among the Insectivores, we have the true moles and the Cape golden mole; while in the Rodents we find mole-like forms in the mole-voles in the present family, and also in the South American tucutuco, belonging to the family Octodontidce, described in the next chapter. The marsupial mole of Australia presents us with an example of the Pouched Mammals, having a similar form and mode of life. The great mole-rat (Spalax typhlus}, which is the only repre- Great Mole-Rat. sentative of its genus, is characterised by the absence of premolar teeth, by the minute eyes being completely covered with skin, and the rudimental wart-like ears. The fur is soft, and so arranged as to be reversible, by which means the movements of the animal in its burrow are much facilitated. The .general colour is yellowish brown tinged with ashy grey above, and ashy grey, mingled with spots and flecks of white, beneath. This species inhabits South- Eastern Europe, whence it extends eastwards to Syria, Mesopotamia, and Persia, and also occurs in Lower Egypt. The great mole-rat constructs tunnels very much resembling those of the mole, their course being marked by heaps of earth thrown out at intervals. But while the mole constructs its lengthy burrows for the sake of feeding upon earth-worms, the present species and its allies make their sub- terranean journeys in search of bulbs and roots. In Egypt, according to Dr. J. i 4 8 RODENTS, Anderson, the burrowis of the mole-rat are made in sandy soil containing quantities of bulbs of asphodels and hyacinths, upon which the creature feeds. The tunnels are of great extent and complexity, some of the passages being as much as thirty or forty yards in length, and are generally about eighteen inches below the surface. In certain spots the borings descend, however, to a depth of some four feet, and here some of them terminate in chambers packed full of bulbs, while others open out into sleeping apartments, from which secondary passages again radiate. Dr. Anderson states that " the tunnels are perfectly smooth and cylindrical, and in digging through the soil above them numerous bulbs of the same kind as those found in the storehouse were observed." When taken from its burrow, the first instinct of the animal is to dig headlong into the. soil ; and when underground it is able to move with equal facility either backwards or forwards. In Northern India, Tibet, China, Burma, and the Malayan region, as well as in Abyssinia, the family is represented by a group of species, commonly known as bamboo-rats (Rhizomys), which differ from the preceding by Bamboo-Rats. THE GREAT MOLE-RAT (^ nat. size). the minute eyes not being covered with skin, as well as by the presence of small external naked ears, and of a short tail partially covered with hair. The bay bamboo-rat (R badius), ranging from the Eastern Himalaya to Siam, is one of the best known representatives of this genus, and attains a length of from 7 to 9 inches, exclusive of the tail, which is about 2J more. This species generally makes its burrows among tall rank grass, but sometimes at the roots of trees, and in their construction uses its teeth as well as its claws. There is some doubt whether these animals drive tunnels in search of roots, as they are known to issue forth at night in order to feed on the young shoots of grass, and probably bamboo, but it is generally believed that they also eat roots. When above ground, they move slowly, and they are said to be so fearless, or stupid, as to allow themselves MOLE-RATS. 149 to be caught without resistance, although when taken they bite savagely and severely. From three to four young are produced at a birth. The hill-tribes of Burma are in the habit of eating the flesh of these animals. The Sumatran bamboo- rat (R. sumatrensis), ranging from Tenasserim to Siam, is a much larger species, measuring from 15 to 19 inches in length, exclusive of the tail. Remains of an extinct bamboo-rat occur in the Pliocene rocks of the Siwalik Hills at the foot of the Himalaya. Africa, south of the Sahara, is the habitat of several types of mole- rats differing from these above mentioned in the formation of the lower jaw, and also by the general presence of premolar teeth. At the Cape there are two species, one of which (Bathyergus maritimus) is nearly a foot in length, with the upper incisor teeth grooved, no external ears, and extremely powerful claws ; the silky hair being of a light greyish brown colour. This second species (Georychus capensis) is about half the size of the former, with smooth upper incisors, and weaker claws. The late Prof. Moseley states that the strand-mole (Bathyergus), which is always found on the flats near the shore, constructs numbers of tunnels and hillocks, the former of which are large enough to easily admit the hand and arm. On the other hand, the runs of the smaller species are generally constructed on higher ground, although sometimes with those of the so-called strand-mole. The hillocks constructed by the latter are generally about a foot in height ; those freshly made being of a dark colour. Prof. Moseley writes that " one has not long to watch, standing a few yards off, before the fresh heap is seen to heave up, three or four times in succession, as the strand-mole forces freshly scooped-out earth up into it from below. I tried at first shooting into the heap as it was thus heaving, in the hope of getting the mole, but never with any success. In order to shoot the worker, the earth should be quickly thrown back from the fresh heap, and the hole laid open to the air. One then only has to retire about ten paces and wait patiently. The strand-mole does not like the fresh air, and in the course of five minutes or so comes back to fill up the hole, but usually puts its head out for a moment first to find what's up, though it certainly cannot see far with its minute eyes, which are not bigger than the heads of carpet-pins, the whole eyeball when extracted being not bigger than a tenth of an inch in diameter." When trapped, the animal bites the air fiercely with its enormous front teeth, at the same time uttering a half- snarling, half -growling noise. Although there is but a single species of Bathyergus, there are several of Georychus in different parts of Africa. In addition to these there is an allied form, known as Myoscalops, characterised by having usually three pairs of premolar teeth in each jaw, in addition to the three molars. N The sandy deserts of Somaliland and Shoa are inhabited by two 'members of the present family, which are some of the most extra- ordinary-looking little creatures in existence. In size the naked sand-rats (Hetero- cephalus) may be compared to a common mouse, but in appearance they are likened by Mr. O. Thomas, on account of their nearly naked skin, small eyes, and peculiar physiognomy, to tiny hairless puppies. They have small heads, with projecting incisor teeth, and no external ears, while the limbs and tail are of moderate length. The eyes are almost functionless ; and, although the feet are fringed with hairs, 150 RODENTS. the yellowish skin is almost naked, save for a few sparsely scattered hairs. One of the two species has three pairs of molar teeth in each jaw, while in the other there are but two. These sand-rats are entirely subterranean in their habits. Mr. Lort Phillips states they throw up "groups of miniature craters, which exactly represent volcanoes in active eruption. When the little beasts were at work I used frequently to watch them, and found that the loose earth from their excavations was brought to the bottom of the crater, and sent with great force into the air in a succession of rapid jerks, but they themselves never venture forth from the shelter of their burrows." THE AMERICAN POUCHED RATS. Family GEOMYIDJE. The possession of large cheek-pouches lined with hair, which open externally to the mouth at the lower edges of the cheeks, forms the distinctive peculiarity of a family of rat-like Rodents confined to the New World. The forms included in the family vary considerably in external appearance and habits; its larger and burrowing representatives being known as pocket -gophers, while the smaller terrestrial types are respectively termed kangaroo -rats and pocket -mice. In addition to three pairs of molar teeth with transverse plates of enamel on their crowns, and which may or may not be rooted, all these Rodents have a single pair of premolar teeth in each jaw. Their skulls are characterised by the great twisting of each branch of the lower jaw, and likewise by the forward extension of the cheek-bone. POCKET-GOPHERS. Genera Geomys and Thomomys. The pocket-gophers include large rat-like species, with burrowing habits, and are characterised by their small eyes, rudimental external ears, and the equality in length of their comparatively short limbs. The whole of them are confined to North and Central America. Common Pocket- The common pocket-gopher (Geomys bursarius) is selected for Gopher. illustration as the best known representative of the group, and as being the type of the genus Geomys, characterised by the presence of a deep groove on each of the broad upper incisor teeth. This species attains a length of from 7 to 8 inches from the muzzle to the root of the tail ; while the hairy tail itself varies from 2 to 3 inches. The fur is of a soft and mole-like texture ; and of a beautiful reddish brown colour above, becoming greyish beneath, while on the feet, and generally also on the tail, it is white. This pocket-gopher is an inhabitant of the extensive plains of the valley of the Mississippi and its tributaries, extending somewhat beyond these limits to the northwards. Here it lives a mole-like life, constructing subterranean tunnels and throwing up at intervals conical heaps of earth, after the fashion of the " little gentleman in black velvet." The tunnels generally run at a distance of about a AMERICAN POUCHED RATS. 151 foot below the surface ; but sometimes, as when passing beneath a garden path, they descend deeper. They are driven for the purpose of obtaining access to the roots of plants on which these animals chiefly subsist. The tunnels generally com- municate with one another by cross-passages ; and in a certain spot generally beneath the roots of some large tree the animal sinks a deep shaft, at the termina- tion of which is constructed a dwelling-chamber. This chamber is generally as much as from four to five feet below the surface, and is entered by a tortuous passage. It is of large size, and generally lined with soft grass, upon which the owner reposes. The nest of the female is constructed in a similar chamber, which THE COMMON POCKET-GOPHER ( liat. size). is, however, encircled by a horizontal gallery, after the manner of the residential chamber of the mole. Here in the latter part of March or beginning of April are produced from five to seven young ; their nest consisting partly of soft fur from the body of the mother. Generally a passage proceeds from one side of the nest- chamber to a store-chamber, which is filled with roots, nuts, and seeds in cultivated districts potatoes often forming a large proportion of its contents. The food is said to be carried to this storehouse in the capacious cheek-pouches of the animal. Usually the pocket-gopher works at its tunnels or domicile from about four to ten o'clock in the morning, during which time it excavates from twelve to twenty feet of tunnelling, and will throw up from two to five hillocks. Other species of pocket- gophers belonging to this genus are found in the Southern United States, Mexico, and Central America. 152 RODENTS. Northern Pocket- The northern pocket-gopher (Thomomys talpoides) is the best Gopher. known representative of a second genus, containing at least two species, and distinguished by the absence of grooves in the upper incisor teeth. This species measures from 6 to 8 inches in length, and the tail some 3 inches more ; while its general colour is very similar to that of the brown rat. The animals of this genus are distributed over the whole of Canada and North America west of the Rocky Mountains. In habits they precisely resemble the preceding genus. THE KANGAROO-RATS. Genus Dipodomys. The kangaroo-rats and their smaller allies the pocket-mice are utterly unlike the pocket-gophers in external appearance, having elongated hind-limbs and tails, THE COMMON KANGAROO-RAT (J nat. size). large eyes, and well-developed ears, while their habits resemble those of the jerboas. They agree, however, with the former in the possession of large external cheek-pouches, and their general internal structure, although their upper incisor teeth are proportionately much narrower, and there are certain peculiarities in the conformation of the skull. common The kangaroo-rats are characterised by the molar teeth being Kangaroo-Rats, rootless, and their best known representative is the common species (Dipodomys phillipsi) depicted in our illustration, which inhabits the desert regions to the eastward of the Rocky Mountains, and is characterised by the possession of four toes on the hind-feet. The head and body of this animal measure a little over 4 inches in length ; while the tail is very long and tufted at the end, and the general build of the creature light and elegant. The colour of POCKET-MICE. 1 53 the upper-parts is mouse-brown, becoming tawny on the flanks, while the under- parts, the tip of the tail, and a spot above each eye are white or yellowish. In the Rocky Mountains the place of this species is taken by Ord's kangaroo-rat ( D. ordi), which is a rather larger and more stoutly built animal, with a relatively shorter tail, and having five toes on each hind foot. The habits of the kangaroo-rats are very similar to those of the jerboas, these Rodents frequenting the most arid districts they can find, and living in burrows made beneath rocks or stones. In such districts there is no water, and but little vegetation save gigantic cactuses ; and it appears that the food of the kangaroo-rats is formed by the roots, blades, and seeds of the scanty grass that manages to struggle into existence. Probably the only water that these creatures drink is that derived from dew collected on the cactuses. Little or nothing seems to be known of their breeding-habits. THE POCKET-MICE. Genera Perognathus and Heteromys. The tiny little Rodents known in the United States as pocket-mice are dis- tinguished from the kangaroo-rats by the presence of roots to their molar teeth, and also by their inferior size the whole length of the head and body seldom exceeding 2 inches. The genus Perognathus, as represented by the banded pocket-mouse (P. fasciatus), of North America, is characterised by the hair being coarse and bristly; whereas in the genus Heteromys, of which representatives extend as far southwards as Trinidad, the fur is mingled with a number of flattened spines. Most of these animals are brownish above and white beneath, with a tawny stripe on the flanks dividing the dark from the light area. CHAPTER XXXIII. RODENTS, continued. THE PORCUPINE-LIKE RODENTS. Families OCTODONTID^, HYSTEICIDJS, etc. The Rodents described in the present chapter, which include the whole of the remaining members of the order, with the exception of the hares, rabbits, and picas, are distinguished from all those described above by the conformation of the lower jaw. In both the squirrel-like and mouse-like groups, the angular, or lower posterior process of the lower jaw, it will be remembered, takes its origin from the inferior edge of the socket of the lower incisor teeth. In the present group, on SKELETON OF THE CANE-RAT. the other hand, this process originates from a prominent ridge on the outer side of the jaw ; the position of this ridge being shown in the figure of the skeleton of the cane-rat. All the members of the group are further characterised by the stoutness of the zygomatic or cheek-arch of the skull ; and also by the bones of the lower leg (tibia and fibula) being perfectly distinct from one another. The porcupine-like Rodents are very characteristic of America, and more especially of the southern half of that continent. Thus the whole six families into which the group is divided occur in America, while only two of them have any Old World representatives. Of the latter, the porcupine family is almost cosmopolitan ; while the Octodontidce are represented in the Old World only in Africa, south of the Sahara. With the exception of one species, these Rodents have one pair of premolar teeth in each jaw. THE OCTODONT TRIBE, 155 THE OCTODONT TRIBE. Family OcTODONTID^. As there is no collective English name for the various members of this extensive family, we are compelled to adopt a modification of its Latin title. These Rodents are more or less rat-like animals, characterised by having complete collar-bones, and their molars marked by enamel-folds on both sides. In the skull the jugal portion of the cheek-arch nearly always has an angle on its lower edge. The feet, which are armed with long curved claws, generally have five toes. The teats are placed high up on the sides of the body ; the ears are short and but thinly haired ; while the tail, which varies greatly in length, may be either clothed with short hair, or scaly. With the exception of a few African forms, and others from the West Indies, this family is characteristic of South America. THE GUNDI. Genus Ctenodactylus. One of the most remarkable of the African representatives of the family is the gundi (Ctenodactylus gundi) from the regions bordering the Sahara, character- ised by the two inner toes of the hind-feet being furnished with a horny comb and bristles, which are employed in cleaning the fur. In size this animal may be compared to a water-vole, with relatively long hind-legs. It has no premolar teeth, the feet have only four toes each, the ears are small, and the tail is reduced to a mere stump. The gundi inhabits rocky districts, and is diurnal ; its mode of life being very similar to that of the jerboas. In Somaliland the gundi is replaced by a closely allied species, known as Pectinator spekei, distinguished by its moderately long and bushy tail, and the presence of a small premolar tooth in each jaw. THE DEGU. Genus Octodon. The degu (0. degus), which is the typical representative of the family, is a species inhabiting Chili and Peru, and distinguished from the last group by the feet having five toes, without any comb-like appendages, in the hind-limb. The molar teeth are alike in both jaws, and are simply indented on both sides by the folds of enamel. In general form the degu is like a rat, and it is slightly inferior in size to the water- vole ; the length of the head and body varying from 7 \ to 8 inches, while the tail, exclusive of the tuft at the end, measures about 4 inches. The fur is remarkable for its softness, the ears are of moderate size, and the nearly naked tail terminates in a distinct tuft. The general colour of the fur on the upper-parts is brownish yellow, mottled with black, while the under-parts are yellowish, and the feet white ; the tail is dusky above and whitish below, with the hair at the tip blackish. Habits. RODENTS. The degus are some of the commonest Rodents in Chili, and associate in large companies. They are generally found in hedges or bushes, and in the neighbourhood of towns may frequently be observed running across the high-roads, while they often resort to gardens and orchards, where they commit considerable damage. Their burrows are constructed in hedge-banks 01- under bushes, and those of the whole colony communicate more or less freely with one another. When disturbed, they scamper off at once to seek refuge in their burrows, with their tails raised over their backs. In many respects they resemble squirrels in their habits, climbing trees with facility, and laying up stores of food for winter use, although, owing to the mildness of the climate of the regions they inha.bit, they do not hibernate. Their fqpd usually consists of the various Habrocoma. THE DEGU (f nat. size). plants growing round their burrows, supplemented in winter by bark. It is believed that two litters are produced annually, each containing five or six young. There are other species of Octodon inhabiting Chili and Bolivia ; and in addition to these the latter country possesses two representa- tives of the allied genus Habrocoma, so named from the extreme softness of the fur, which approaches that of the chinchilla. The habrocomas are about the size of an ordinary rat, and distinguished by their larger ears, the absence of a tuft to the tail, and by the lower molar teeth being more complex than the upper ones. Another allied Rodent from the Southern Andes, known as Aconoemys, is distinguished by the enamel-folds of the molars meeting in the middle line. The regions where these animals are found are buried in snow for several months of the year. THE OC TO DO NT TRIBE. 157 THE TUCOTUCOS. Genus Ctenomys. The tucotucos, of which there are several South American species, are characterised by their adaptation for a subterranean life. They have small and almost rudimental ears, small eyes, and short tails. Their incisor teeth are extremely broad ; and their molars are rootless, with kidney-shaped crowns. On the fore-feet the curved claws are longer than the toes ; while the hind-toes are furnished with a number of bristles. The species of tucotuco vary in length from 8 to 12 inches, exclusive of the tail, which is about one-fourth as long again; and the general colour of the soft fur is greyish, while the incisor teeth are red. THE MAGELLANIC TUCOTUCO (i nat. size). Distribution. There are four species of these animals, ranging from Brazil and and Habits. Bolivia to the Straits of Magellan; our figured example being the Magellanic species (Ctenomys magellanica). The name tucotuco is derived from the peculiar cry of these animals, which, from their subterranean habits, are also termed oculto. In many districts, especially where the soil is sandy, these Rodents are found in large numbers ; whole tracts being frequently undermined by their long and shallow burrows, of which the course is indicated by lines of hillocks. They are nocturnal in their habits, feeding mainly upon the roots of plants, of which they are saved to lay up a store. Mr. W. H. Hudson writes that on the Argentine pampas wherever there is a stretch of sandy soil, or a range of sandhills, the tucotuco is to be found ; " not seen, but heard ; for all day long and all night sounds its voice, resonant and loud, like a succession of blows from a hammer; as 158 RODENTS, Cururo. if a company of gnomes were toiling far down underfoot, beating on their anvils, first with strong measured strokes, then with lighter and faster, and with a swing and rhythm as if the little men were beating in time to some rude chant unheard above the surface." The tucotucos seem to be somewhat gregarious in their habits, as several may be often taken from a single burrow. Chili is the home of two species of Rodents known as cururo (Spalacopus), nearly allied to the last, but distinguished by their rudimental ears. Somewhat curiously, another nearly related form (Petromys typicws) is found in South Africa, which differs from its American cousins by the harshness of its fur, the shortness of the thumb, the rather bushy tail, and the partially rooted molar teeth. THE COYPU. Genus Myopotamus. Widely different in its habits from the tucotuco is the coypu (Myopotamus coypii) of South America, which is one of the largest members of the order, THE COYPU (I nat. size). attaining a length of from 20 inches to 2 feet, exclusive of the tail. It belongs to a group of several genera distinguished from the preceding American examples by the very harsh nature of the fur, and depth of the folds of enamel in the half-rooted or rootless molars. The coypu itself is characterised by the very large size of its incisor teeth ; and by the upper molars having two folds of enamel on each side, while in those of the lower jaw there are one external and three internal folds. The molars are partially rooted, and the last one is larger than either of the others. The ears are of moderate size ; and the tail, which is scaly, with a thin coating of short hairs, is about two-thirds the length of the head and body. Each of the feet THE OCTODONT TRIBE. 159 has five toes, which in the hind-limb are connected by webs. The fur of the coypu is long, but beneath there is a dense and soft under-fur. The colour of the upper-parts is a mixture of dusky and brownish yellow, the sides and under-parts being pure brownish yellow, the tip of the muzzle and chin white, the feet dusky brown, and a patch below each ear yellow. The coypu is found in the rivers and lakes of South America, on both sides of the Andes, from Chili and Peru to about the 48th parallel of south latitude. In the Chonos Archipelago, according to Darwin, coypu are found exclusively in the channels and bays separating the various small islands. . In general appearance and habits the coypu is not unlike a beaver, being thoroughly aquatic, and making its burrow in the banks of the rivers and lakes it frequents. When, however, the banks are not sufficiently high to allow of this, a platform-like nest is constructed among the reeds. The burrow is generally three or four feet in depth, and expands at the end into a chamber of some two feet in diameter. They are generally found in pairs, but in Argentina the writer has seen them coming out in large parties in the evenings to swim and sport in the water. Here they utter peculiarly mournful cries ; the females, at the proper season, being each accompanied by some eight or nine offspring, which endeavour to obtain a seat on their parent's back, those that are unable to attain this position of security swimming behind. Although a first-rate swimmer, the coypu is said not to be an adept at diving ; and its movements on land are always awkward and ungainly. These animals usually select for their haunts the stillest parts of the rivers, lakes, or ponds ; and their food consists of the foliage, seeds, and roots of the water-plants growing hard by. In the Chonos Archipelago, where they make their burrows in the forest at some distance from the shore, they are said, however, to subsist partly on molluscs. In Argentina Mr. Hudson states that at one time the coypu became very scarce owing to the numbers killed for their fur. An enactment was then passed forbid- ding the killing of these animals ; the result being that they " increased and multi- plied exceedingly, and, abandoning their aquatic habits, they became terrestrial and migratory, and swarmed everywhere in search of food. Suddenly a mysterious malady fell on them, from which they quickly perished and became almost extinct." The under-fur of the coypu is an important article of commerce, the average number of skins annually collected varying from three hundred thousand to five hundred thousand. In Argentina the coypu is universally known as the nutria, which is properly the Spanish name for the otter ; the same term being applied in commerce to the fur. THE HUTIAS. Genus Capromys. The large Rodent known as the hutia-couga (C. pilorides), is one of a group of four or five species confined to the West Indian Islands, where they appear to be the only indigenous members of the order. They are all allied to the coypu, from which they are distinguished by their arboreal habits and more rat-like appearance, i6o RODENTS. as well as by certain structural peculiarities. Thus the incisor teeth are narrower than in the latter, while the upper molars are characterised by one fold of enamel on the inner side, and two on the outer side. The ear is relatively small, and the tail generally of considerable length, thick, and sparsely haired. The hutia-couga, which is the species represented in our figure, is confined to Cuba, and is somewhat smaller than the coypu, the length of the head and body being about 22 inches. The fur is very long and coarse, its general colour being a mixture of yellowish grey and brown, becoming reddish brown on the back and loins, while beneath it is dusky brownish grey, with a more or less marked yellow tinge. The paws are black, the THE HUTIA-COUGA (^ nat. size). ears dark, and the chest and a streak down the middle of the belly grey. Internally this species is remarkable in that the liver is split up into a number of small lobules. Another Cuban species is the hutia-carabali (C. prehensilis), distinguished, among other characters, by the tip of the tail being prehensile. In Jamaica there is the short-tailed hutia (C. brachyurus), while in the Bahamas the genus is represented by Ingraham's hutia (C. ingrahami). The hutia-couga inhabits dense forests, and is an expert climber, ascending trees both to avoid pursuit and in search of food. It sub- sists mainly on fruits, leaves, and bark ; but it also eats the flesh of small animals, particularly that of a kind of lizard. This species can be easily tamed ; and its flesh is considered a delicacy by the natives of Cuba, who either hunt the creature with dogs, or capture it by means of snares. The smaller hutia-carabali is said to confine itself to the most remote districts of the forests, and to frequent the top- Habits. THE OCTODONT TRIBE, 161 most branches of the trees. It is more shy and less easily tamed than the first species; and, like the latter, fights fiercely in self-defence when attacked. In one of the species, at least, there are but four teats in the female, from which it may be inferred that the number of young in a litter is small. The nipples, as in the coypu, are situated high up on the sides of the body ; and this seems to disprove the suggestion that in the latter animal they are thus situated in order that the young may be able to suckle while the parent is in the water. In Hayti and Jamaica the hutias are also represented by a nearly allied rodent known as Plagiodon cedium, distinguished by the extreme complexity of the enamel-folds of the molar teeth, which in the upper jaw form a kind of zigzag pattern. Africa possesses a single representative of this group of the family, known as the cane-rat (Aulacodus swinderianus), which is a large species of burrowing habits, easily recognised by three deep grooves on each of Cane-Rat. THE CANE-EAT (J nat. size). its broad red upper incisor teeth ; these grooves giving the name to the genus of which this animal is the only representative. The molar teeth resemble those of the hutias. The cane-rat attains a length of about 21 inches to the root of the tail ; the tail measuring from 5 to 8|- inches. Its general appearance is rat-like, with the fur very coarse, and the tail but sparsely haired. In the fore-feet the thumb is rudimentary and the fifth toe small ; while in the hind-foot the first toe is entirely wanting. The general colour of the fur is brown, richer in tint on the back than on the flanks ; the chin and upper lip being whitish, while the throat is a dirty yellow, and the under-parts pale brownish yellow. The feet are pencilled with black and yellow. A full-grown male will weigh as much as 9 or 10 Ibs. VOL. in. ii 162 RODENTS. The cane-rat has an extensive distribution in Africa, ranging from the Upper Nile (where it is represented by a variety with partially-webbed hind-feet) through Eastern and Central Africa to the Cape ; while on the western side it ranges as far north as Guinea. In Guinea it is known to the natives as the yumba, while in South-Eastern Africa it is termed the ivondue. In Sierra Leone it is said to feed chiefly upon ground-nuts and roots, in search of which it digs in the soil, while it also forms burrows for its residence. In South-Eastern Africa the habits of these rodents appear to be somewhat different. For instance, Mr. W. H. Drummond states that cane-rats " do not form burrows of their own ; but when forced out of the thick tangle of overgrown grass or reeds in which they lie, a task by no means easy of accomplishn*ent, they take refuge in any hole or crevice among rocks or stones, or in the deserted burrows of the ant-eater or porcupine. They are not only destructive to a degree among sugar-cane, gnawing down stem after stem, but most difficult to extirpate. In spots such as these, they live in what fields happen to be lying fallow, which, being covered with an impene- trable thicket of grass and weeds, offer them a secure retreat from which they can nightly issue forth into the canes." The cane-rat is largely hunted by the natives, and in some cases by Europeans, for the sake of its flesh. Schweinf urth remarks that its flesh " is excellent when roasted ; it is rich, and without being sweet and insipid like that of the hyrax, it is free from any unpleasant flavour. In quality it is about equal to poultry, whilst in taste it may be described as being intermediate between pork and veal." There are numerous other South American representatives of the Other Genera. Octodonts. These are mostly smaller rat-like forms than the preceding, with long cylindrical tails ; many of them being remarkable for the intermixture of flattened lance-like spines with the fur. Some of the best known genera are Loncheres and Echinomys, and these are mostly characterised by the possession of the above- mentioned spines. The majority of the species of these two genera inhabit Guiana and Brazil, but one species of Echinomys ranges into Central America. Most of them are brown above and white beneath, but in some cases the white extends on to the flanks, shoulders, and head, thus giving them somewhat the appearance of long- tailed guinea-pigs. A third genus, Carterodon, of which there is but one Brazilian species, is distinguished by a longitudinal groove on each upper incisor. THE PORCUPINES. Family HYSTRICID^. The well-known porcupines, which have the widest geographical distribution of any family of this section of the order, are distinguished from their allies by the presence of a number of large quill-like spines in the skin. Their build is stout and massive ; and the fore and hind-limbs are of subequal length. In the skull, the region of the face is comparatively short and broad ; while the cheek or jugal bone in the zygomatic arch is devoid of the angle on its lower edge, distinctive of most of the members of the preceding family. The 'molar teeth are partly or completely rooted with folds of enamel on each side. Porcupines derive their PORCUPINES. 163 name from the French porc-epin (spiny-pig), probably in allusion to their grunting pig-like cries. They are common to both the Old and New Worlds ; although the representatives of the group found in the two hemispheres constitute two distinct subfamilies. Canadian The common Canadian porcupine (Erethizon dorsatus) belongs to Porcupine. a group confined to America, all the members of which are arboreal in their habits, while most of them have prehensile tails. They are all characterised by the absence of a cleft in the upper lip, by the naked soles of the feet being covered by a number of tubercles, by the want of the first toe in the fore-foot, and the presence of only three teats in the female. Their molar teeth have complete roots ; and the collar-bones are fully developed. E. dorsatus differs from its allies in having a short and nonprehensile tail ; and also in the presence of five toes in the hind-feet. It is a heavy and clumsily-built animal, with long brown hair, almost or completely concealing the short spines, which .are white with brown- ish tips. The length of the creature is about 2 feet, and its weight from 15 to 20 Ibs. The limbs, neck, ears, and muzzle are short ; the ears being almost con- SKELETON OF PORCUPINE. cealedby the long bristly ihair at the sides of the head. The claws are very long and powerful ; and the tail massive and almost four-sided in shape. The stout spines vary in length from less than one inch to more than four inches in different parts of the body ; they cling loosely to the skin, and are thus easily detached, and as they are slightly barbed at the points they make their way completely through the flesh of any animal in which they may become fixed. As in other members of the family, the quills, when the animal is in repose, lie smoothly and are directed backwards ; but under the influ- ence of excitement they can be erected by the aid of a sheet of muscle underlying *the skin. The Canadian porcupine extends in the country from which it takes its name as far northwards as the limit of trees, while in the United States it extends on the eastern side as far south as Virginia, and on the western coast from Alaska to Arizona and New Mexico. Despite its heavy form and nonprehensile tail, it is an adept at climbing, and spends the greater part of its time among the branches of trees. Dr. Hart Merriam states that although largely nocturnal, these animals may at times be seen abroad during daylight. Their lair is usually made among the clefts of rocks, but sometimes in a hollow tree or heap of bushes. Even in the cold climate of the Adirondacks, this porcupine, although less active in winter, never hibernates. Dr. Merriam writes that when one of these animals " has selected and settled himself in a tree to his liking, he may not leave it, day or night, until he has denuded it of the whole of its foliage. I have seen many hemlocks thus completely stripped, not a green twig remaining, even on the smallest bough. It seems incredible that so large and clumsy an animal 164 RODENTS. should be able to climb out far enough on the branches of trees to reach the terminal leaves; but he distributes his weight by bringing several branches together, and then, with his powerful paws, bends back their ends and passes them through his mouth. When high in the tree-tops he is often passed unnoticed, mistaken, if seen at all, for the nest of a crow or a hawk." The food of this animal consists not only of the leaves of various trees especially the hemlock-spruce but likewise of their twigs and bark ; while beech- mast is also a favourite article of its diet. The pods of water-lilies are also eaten ; while a partiality for salt is very marked. The nest is constructed in the same situations as the sleeping lair. The young in the Adirondack region are born early in May, and are usually one or two in number. At birth, according to Dr. THE CANADIAN PORCUPINE ( nat. size). Merriam, they are very large for the size of the animal, being actually larger, and proportionately more than thirty times the size of the cubs of the black bear. This porcupine uses its tail as a weapon of offence, inflicting severe blows by its lateral action. Few animals care to attack the porcupine, although, as previously mentioned, both the puma and fisher-marten make these animals their prey, and are frequently found with their flesh bristling with quills. The tree -porcupines are distinguished from the Canadian porcu- pine by their long prehensile tails, and the presence of only four toes on the hind-feet. They are also of lighter build ; and their spines are short, closely set, and parti-coloured, sometimes almost concealed by long hairs. In the absence of the first toe, the inner side of each hind-foot is furnished with a large fleshy lobe which can be bent inwards to a certain degree, and forms an efficient aid in climbing ; more especially as the whole foot is set so obliquely 011 the leg that the rough sole is directed somewhat outwardly. The tail is thick at the Tree-Porcupines. PORCUPINES. '65 base, but slender at the end, where its upper surface is devoid of hair. It is this upper surface which is applied to the branch, and the tail is, therefore, coiled in the reverse direction to that of the spider-monkeys, as shown in our illustration. The muzzle is thick, and obliquely truncated, so that the upper lip somewhat overhangs the lower portion, with large nostrils; the whole being clothed with fine velvety hair. Both the ears and eyes are small. The quills have numerous exceedingly minute spines at their extremities, with their points directed back- wards, so as to act as barbs. Brazilian Tree- The Brazilian tree - porcupine (8. prehensilis), which is the Porcupine, species commonly seen in menageries, is found in Brazil, Guiana, and part of Bolivia, and has the spines projecting freely above the fur. In length the head and body measure from 16 to 18 inches ; the tail being about an inch shorter. BRAZILIAN TREE-PORCUPINE ( nat. size). These animals, like the other species of the genus, are usually solitary, passing the greater part of the day in slumber, and feeding in the morning and evening. Their food consists of the leaves, young shoots, and bark of the trees on which they dwell. In climbing it is said that they ascend the trunks of trees by the feet alone, the tail being employed only when among the smaller branches, which these animals but seldom leave. When sleeping, they generally rest in the fork of a branch. Comparatively little is known of their habits in a wild state; but in captivity they are harmless, stupid creatures. Their flesh is eaten by the natives of Brazil, by whom they are known by the name of cuandu. Mexican Tree- The Mexican tree-porcupine (Synetheres novcehispanice), belongs Porcupine, fa a g rO up which has the hair so long as almost to conceal the spines. It is distinguished by the nearly uniform black colour of the fur, and also by the presence of numerous spiny bristles mingled with the hair of the lower parts of the body. These bristles arise in small clusters from tubercles, and being white for 166 RODENTS. the greater part of their length form star-like spots among the dark fur. These bristles and the spines on the back are black at the tips. This species inhabits the forests on the eastern coasts of Mexico. Nothing special is recorded of its habits ; but it may be mentioned that from observations made on captive individuals of other species, it is probable that none of the tree- porcupines ever drink. It is stated that in those long-haired species in which the fur is of a greyish tint, the general appearance of the animal when reposing on the arm of a tree closely simulates a gnarled and lichen-clad knot. MEXICAN TEEE-PORCUPINB (\ liat. size). Thin-Spined A peculiar porcupine (Chcetomys subspinosus), from Central and Porcupine. Northern Brazil, differs from all the members of the preceding genus by the shape of its skull and the more complicated structure of its molar teeth, as well as by the slenderness of its spines, which may be described as half-way between those of the other groups and mere bristles. It is a large species, of a dull brown colour, with the under-parts inclining to rufous, and the feet and tail brownish black. The tail, although long, is not prehensile ; and the habits of the animal are less completely arboreal than those of the preceding group. Remains of a species of Ereihizon occur in the superficial deposits of Pennsylvania, and those of Synetheres in the caverns of Brazil. With the true porcupines, as typically represented by the True Porcupines. V -/TT .5 J * \ common South European species (Hystmx cnstata), we come to the second subfamily, all the members of which are confined to the Old World, and differ from their Transatlantic cousins by the following characteristics. Externally the soles of the feet are perfectly smooth, the fore -feet have a small thumb, and the female is provided with six teats. In the skeleton, the collar- bones are incomplete; and the molar teeth have imperfect roots. In habits all PORCUPINES. 167 these porcupines are purely nocturnal and terrestrial; consequently, the tail is never prehensile. Common The common porcupine, of which a group is represented in our Porcupine, coloured Plate, and a single individual in the accompanying woodcut, is the best known member of the first of these genera. As is the case with the other species of the genus, it is characterised by its massive form, its large size, the great length of the quills on the body, and by the short spiny tail terminating in a cluster of short slender-stalked quills, which are hollow and open at their extremities ; these tail- quills making the peculiar rattling noise noticeable when a porcupine is in motion. The genus is further characterised by the great eleva- tion and convexity of the skull, in which the chamber of the nose is frequently more capacious than the brain-case. Next to the beaver, the porcu- pines are the largest of the Old World Rodents, the common species measuring from 26 to 28 inches in length, exclusive of the tail. The prevailing colour of this species is brownish black, with a COMMON PORCUPINE. white band crossing the front of the neck, and about half-way up the sides, when it becomes gradually narrow. The neck is furnished with a crest of long bristles, which are mostly brown at the base and white above. Thj quills on the body are of two kinds the one distin- guished by their great length, slenderness, and flexibility, while the others are shorter and stouter, and are mostly concealed by the longer ones. These quills are mostly marked with broad rings of black and white ; both extremities being of the latter hue. Those on the rump are, however, chiefly black ; while the open quills at the end of the tail, as well as most of those clothing the rest of that appendage, are entirely white. This porcupine inhabits Southern Europe and Northern and Western Africa. In India the common species is replaced by the closely allied hairy-nosed porcupine (H. leucura), distinguished by the muzzle being densely clad with hairs, as well as by the quills at the base of the tail, and sometimes a row in the middle of the hinder part of the back, being mostly white. The skull, moreover, is less convex, with smaller nasal bones. This species is found from Ceylon to Kashmir, and appears to extend westwards as far as the Black Sea, Two other species inhabit India ; of which the Bengal porcupine (H. bengalensis) has a much shorter crest on the neck, while in Hodgson's porcupine this crest is totally wanting. The latter occurs in the Eastern Himalaya, and is represented by allied forms in Borneo and the Malayan region. The South African porcupine (H. afrce-australis) is a third representative of the crested group. Fossil porcupines occur in the Pliocene rocks of Northern India, and also in the upper and middle Tertiaries of Europe. Other Species. i68 RODENTS. Habits. As the habits of all the true porcupines appear to be very similar, they may be treated collectively. In the first place, it should be mentioned that the old idea of porcupines being able to eject their quills at an enemy is a pure fable. Although a belated individual may occasionally be seen making its way homeward in the early morning, porcupines remain concealed during the day- light hours, either in caves or clefts of rocks, or in burrows excavated by themselves. They generally prefer rocky hills, and although in Europe they are usually found either solitary or in pairs, in India they are frequently gregarious. Their food is entirely vegetable, and consists mainly of roots, although in cultivated districts they do much damage to crops, garden vegetables, and such fruit as they can reach. In Europe the pairing-season takes place early in the year ; and in the spring or commencement of the summer the female produces from two to four young, in a nest AFRICAN BRUSH-TAILED PORCUPINE (\ nat. size). formed of leaves, grass, and root-fibres. The young are born in an advanced state, having their eyes open, and their bodies covered with soft flexible spines, which soon harden by exposure to the air. When frightened or irritated, porcupines erect their quills, with a peculiar rattling of the hollow ones at the tip of the tail, at the same time stamping with their hind-feet. If attacked by dogs or other four- footed foes, they rush backwards and inflict severe wounds with the long quills on their hind-quarters, which are sometimes driven deeply into the flesh of their antagonists. Dogs, according to Dr. Jerdon, readily follow the scent of porcupines, and thus track them to their lairs. Leopards are said to despatch them easily by a single well-directed blow on the head. From the large size of their teeth and jaws, porcupines have great gnawing powers ; and the writer has seen in India tusks of elephants which have been half-eaten by these animals as they lay in the jungles. The flesh of porcupines is excellent eating, and is said to resemble something between pork and veal in flavour. CHINCHILLAS AND VISCACHA&' ^69 Brush-Tailed The brush-tailed porcupines, of which one species (Atherura Porcupines, africana) inhabits Western and Central Africa, and the other (A. macrura) Burma and the Malayan region, are much smaller and more rat-like animals than the true porcupines, from which they are distinguished at a glance by their long and scaly tails terminating in a tuft of bristles. The body is covered with flattened and grooved spines, which are not much longer on the hind-quarters than on the back and shoulders. In the Indian species the length of the head and body may reach as much as 22 inches ; that of the tail being about 10 inches. In colour this species is dark brown, with the tips of the spines sometimes paler. The longer spines on the hind-quarters are mostly white ; the under-parts, and the bristles at the end of the tail, are whitish. Gunther's A rare porcupine from Borneo (Trichys guentheri) differs so Porcupine, markedly from the preceding in the characters of its skull, that it is regarded as indicating a third genus of the subfamily. It is distinguished exter- nally from the brush-tailed porcupines by its shorter spines, and the narrow parallel-sided bristles of the tail. CHINCHILLAS AND VISCACHAS. Family CHINCHILLID^. The remaining porcupine-like Rodents are confined to South and Central America and the West Indies. Those included in the present family are few in number, and are characterised by their terrestrial habits, elongated hind-limbs, long bushy tails, and extremely soft fur. Internally they have complete clavicles ; their molar teeth are divided into a series of parallel transverse plates by the extension of the folds of enamel completely across their crowns ; and the incisors are remarkable for their shortness. In the skull the palate is very narrow in front, while behind it remains unossified for a considerable distance in advance of the last molar teeth. chin hma. ^^ e c hi ncn i nas are characterised by having four toes on the hind- feet, and live on the fore-feet, by the length of the bushy tail, and also by the enormous size of the bullse of the internal ear on the base of the skull, which are so much enlarged as to appear on the sides of its upper surface. Common The common chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigera) is a squirrel-like Chinchilla. Rodent, with very large ears, and a tail about half the length of the head and body; the latter measuring 10 inches. The fur, which is about an inch in length, is of extreme softness, and of a delicate pearly grey, mottled with black above, and yellowish white beneath ; while the tail is mostly black, with lighter bands on the sides. The front surfaces of the incisor teeth are of a bright orange. This species inhabits the higher Andes, from the south of Chili to the north of Bolivia ; and in certain districts is very abundant. Chinchillas live in burrows, where they associate in large companies, and may frequently be seen abroad during the daytime, keeping, however, to the shade thrown by the rocks. On the ground they run much after the fashion of mice, but when feeding they sit up on their hind-quarters in a squirrel-like manner, and grasp their food between the fore-paws. 170 RODENTS. The regions which these animals inhabit are lonely and barren, with but very small amount of vegetation. In such places there are numerous perpendicular faces of rock, up and down which these tiny creatures dart with such lightning- like rapidity as to render it almost impossible for the eye to follow them. Although by no means shy, the report of a gun is sufficient to send them at once to their holes ; and a spot which at one moment may be seen covered with hundreds of these creatures, will be left deserted in an instant. The natives hunt them with the aid of a species of weasel, which enters their burrows. From its peculiar softness and delicacy, the fur has long been highly appreciated in Europe, where large quantities are annually imported. THE CHINCHILLA (\ nat. size). Short-Tailed The short-tailed chinchilla (C. brevicaudatd), from Peru, is an Chinchilla, animal very little known to naturalists, some of whom have even doubted its right to rank as a distinct species. It is, however, decidedly larger than the common chinchilla, with relatively shorter ears and tail. The general colour of the fur of the upper-parts is a very pale bluish grey, mottled with slaty black ; the under-surface of the body, as well as the feet, being white. The tail gradually becomes bushy towards the tip ; its fur being a mixture of greyish white and greyish black, becoming darker towards the tip on the upper-surface. Cuvier's This (Lagidium cuvieri) is considerably larger than either of Chinchilla, the preceding, the length of the head and body varying from about 16 to 20 inches, and that of the tail, exclusive of the hair at the tip, CHINCHILLAS AND VISCACHAS. 171 from 11 to 12 inches; and since it differs by having only four toes on each foot, it is considered to represent a distinct genus. The ears, moreover, are longer and more pointed ; while in the skull the bullse of the internal ear are relatively smaller. The general hue of the long and soft fur is ashy grey, tinged with yellow and pencilled with black; while on the under-parts it is pale yellow, gradually becoming deeper in hue on the flanks. The feet are grey ; while the tail is black below, with very long hairs above, some of which are also of the same jetty tint. One of the most remarkable features about the animal is the length of the black whiskers, in which some of the hairs may measure seven inches. This species is also an inhabitant of the higher Andes of Chili, THE SHORT-TAILED CHINCHILLA (| nat. size). Peru, and Bolivia, ranging to elevations of some sixteen thousand feet above the sea-level. In habits these animals seem to be almost identical with the true chinchillas, dwelling in barren rocky districts, and exhibiting the same marvellous activity. Their food is composed of grass, roots, and moss, to procure which they have frequently to travel long distances from their homes. Their principal enemies are the condor, and the dogs of the shepherds. They are captured by the Indians in snares for the sake of their fur, which is, however, far less valuable than that of the chinchilla. The third generic modification of the present family, which is represented only by the viscacha (Lagostomus trichodactylus), differs from its cousins in being an inhabitant of the open pampas, ranging from the Rio Negro to the Uruguay River, instead of the heights of the Andes. These animals Viscacha. 172 RODENTS. are primarily distinguished from the last by the toes of the hind-feet "being reduced to three in number ; while the claws on these feet, and to a less degree those of the fore-feet also, are relatively longer. The cheek-teeth, with the excep- tion of the last in the upper jaw, are also distinguished by having only two transverse plates of enamel, and their squarer form. In its stoutly-built body and sturdy limbs the viscacha, as remarked by the late Mr. G. R Waterhouse, presents a contrast to the delicately-formed chinchillas exactly similar to that existing between the squirrels and the marmots; this CUVIER'S CHINCHILLA (j nat. size). difference in form being accompanied by a precisely similar difference in habits, the viscachas being purely burrowing rodents. In the viscacha the length of the head and body varies from some 19 to 23 inches ; that of the tail being about a third as much again. The ears are rather small, and distinctly notched behind, the tail is bushy throughout the greater part of its length, and the fur is rather short. The colouring of the fur is somewhat striking. Above, the general hue is grey, with some dusky mottlings and black markings; while the whole of the under-parts are white or yellowish white. From the muzzle a blackish band extends across each cheek; above which is a broad white stripe terminating in front of the eyes, while a third narrower dusky band crosses the lower part of the forehead. The tail is blackish brown. CHINCHILLAS AND VI SC AC HAS. 173 Habits. The viscacha is by far the most common rodent on the Argentine pampas ; and an excellent account of its habits is given by Mr. W. H. Hudson, from which the following summary is compiled. These animals live in societies usually numbering from twenty to thirty individuals; they form warrens known as viscachera, each of which may contain from twelve to fifteen burrows, some of them being double or triple. Such a viscachera will cover from one to two hundred square feet of ground. The burrows vary much in extent ; some opening out into wide chambers, from which other tunnels radiate ; while others communicate with their neighbours. The whole viscachera forms a raised mound of earth which has been brought up from the burrows. It is always formed on the open plains ; and the entrances to some of the compound burrows THE VISCACHA (| nat. size). are sometimes as much as a yard in diameter. Usually the burrow takes the form of the letter Y. A passerine bird (Geositta) belonging to the wood-hewer family, makes its breeding-holes in the sides of the viscacha-burrows ; while when deserted by their rightful owners they are occupied by a kind of swallow (Atticora). Moreover, on the mound of the viscachera may frequently be observed a pair of burrowing owls (Speotito), which generally excavate a domicile for themselves, but sometimes occupy one of the burrows on the flanks of the mound. The whole of the ground in the neighbourhood of the burrows is carefully cleaned from all vegetation, the refuse of which is heaped up near the entrance ; and it is this habit which renders these animals so obnoxious to the farmer. Their usual food is grass and seeds, but they sometimes also eat roots ; while in the dry season they are reduced to withered grass and thistles. When the herbage is green the viscachas require no water ; but the first shower in the dry season brings them at once out of their holes to imbibe the much-needed fluid. *74 RODENTS. Yiscachas are essentially nocturnal. Mr. Hudson states that in winter they " seldom leave their burrows till dark, but in summer come out before sunset ; and the viscachera is then a truly interesting spectacle. Usually one of the old males first appears, and sits on some prominent place on the mound, apparently in no haste to begin his evening meal. When approached from the front he stirs not, but eyes the intruder with a bold indifferent stare. If the person passes to one side, he deigns not to turn his head. Other viscachas soon begin to appear, each one quietly taking up his station at his burrow's mouth, the females, known by their greatly inferior size and lighter grey colour, sitting upright on their haunches, as if to command a better view, and indicat- ing by divers sounds and gestures that fear and curi- jiilirTff \ sity struggle in them for FniliTlmiiM ti/.'f. ITT the mastery. With eyes / A VTSCACHERA. fixed on the intruder, at intervals they dodge the head, emitting at the same time an internal note with great vehemence ; and suddenly, as the danger comes nearer, they plunge simultaneously, with a startled cry, into their burrows." When driven to the recesses of their burrows they utter a peculiar kind of growling sound. The viscacha is a far from prolific animal, the female producing in September a single litter, which usually contains two, but occasionally three young. As the animal takes about two years in reaching maturity, the vast numbers in which it existed on the pampas, previous to a war of extermination waged against it by the agriculturists, is not a little remarkable. The habit of accumulating the remains of its food around the entrance of its AGUTIS AND PA CAS. '75 burrow has been already mentioned ; but, in addition, the viscacha collects every hard object with which it meets. Darwin writes that " around each group of holes many bones of cattle, stones, thistle-stalks, hard clumps of earth, etc., are collected into a heap, which frequently amounts to as much as a wheelbarrow would contain. I was credibly informed that a gentleman, when riding one dark night, dropped his watch ; he returned in the morning, and by searching in the neighbourhood of every viscacha-hole on the line of road, as he expected, soon found it. Remains belonging to the same genus as the viscacha are met with in the superficial deposits of South America ; while in the older formations there occur those of allied extinct genera. One of these extinct rodents (Megamys) was the largest member of the order; its size approaching that of an ox. THE AGUTIS AND PACAS. Family DASYPROCT1DA2. The South American Rodents, respectively known by the names of aguti and paca, constitute a small family with the following characteristics. The limbs are of nearly equal lengths, and furnished with hoof - like claws; the tail is short or wanting ; the molar teeth have imperfect roots, and enamel -folds on both sides of the crowns; and the incisor teeth are long. In the skeleton the collar-bones are rudimentary, the palate SKELETON AND SKULL OF 'AGUTI. is broad, and the lower jaw lacks the distinct ridge on the outer side characteristic of the preceding families. The agutis are elegantly-formed Rodents, with a superficial resemblance to the chevrotains among the Ungulates ; and are char- acterised by their long and slender limbs, and the presence of only three toes on the hind-feet ; the fore-feet, however, having the full number of digits. The hair is coarse, more especially on the hind-quarters, where it becomes longer than elsewhere. The crowns of the molar teeth are rounded ; and when worn exhibit a single lateral fold of enamel, with several islands of the same on their summits. There are several species of aguti inhabiting the greater part of Central and South America as far as Paraguay; and there is one species in the West Indies. The common aguti (Dasyprocta aguti) may be taken as the chief example of the genus, all the members of which are very similar to one another in form and habits. This species, which occurs abundantly in the dense forests of Guiana, Brazil, and Northern Peru, attains a length of from 18 to 20 inches, and is of general olive-brown colour. The middle line of the under surface of the body is, however, yellow or whitish ; while the long hairs of the hind- quarters are mostly of a bright orange tint. The feet are pencilled with black and i 7 6 RODENTS. yellow, and the toes dusky. The large ears are pinkish, except on their margins ; and the small fleshy tail is naked, and of a dusky hue. Although essentially forest-dwelling animals, agutis are sometimes seen in the early morning or evening on the open spaces. They are mainly nocturnal, remaining concealed during the day in hollow trees or in cavities or burrows among their roots ; such burrows, according to Bates, being in some cases two or three feet in depth. Their movements are extremely active and graceful When going slowly they advance at a kind of trot ; but when running their pace takes the form of a series of rapid springs, which succeed each other so quickly as to give the appearance of a gallop. Cutias, as these animals are called on the Amazons, can swim well, but are unable to dive. Their food consists of the THE COMMON AGUTi (J nat. size). foliage and roots of ferns and other plants, as well as fallen fruits ; their sharp incisor teeth enabling them to perforate the shells of the hardest nuts. In culti- vated districts they do much harm to plantations of sugar-cane and plantains. Of their reproduction in a wild state but comparatively little is known. They breed, however, at least twice in the year, generally once in May, before the commencement of the period of drought, and again in October, at the setting in of the rainy season. In captivity, where these animals not unfrequently breed, there are usually only one or two at a birth ; but in a wild state it is quite probable that the number may be greater. For a considerable portion of the year the two sexes remain apart ; but at the pairing-season each male selects a female, which he follows with squeaks and grunts, and with whom he remains until after the birth of their offspring. The female brings forth her young in a lair or nest carefully formed of leaves, roots, and hair ; and attends them sedulously for some weeks, preventing the male from having any access to them AGUTIS AND PACAS. i 77 until some days after birth. When first born the young closely resemble their parents. If captured at a sufficiently early age, agutis can be readily tamed ; and it is not uncommon in South American houses to find one or more of these animals roaming at large. The nocturnal foes of the aguti are the ocelot and other species of cats, and also the Brazilian wolf. They are much hunted by the natives for the sake of their flesh. Bates writes that on the Amazons they are hunted with dogs; the method being for one hunter to proceed in the early morning to beat the forest in the neighbourhood of a river, while his companion takes his station in a boat. On being hard pressed by the dogs, the agutis at once make for the water, where they are shot by the man in waiting. The only other member of the genus to which we shall allude is Agnelli. the aguchi (D. cristata), which inhabits Northern Brazil and Guiana as well as parts of the West Indies. This species is distinguished from the others by its smaller size, and its longer and more slender tail, which is clothed with silver- white hairs. Its general colour is rich chestnut-brown, with a characteristic bright golden yellow, or rust-coloured patch behind each ear. It may be added that fossilised remains of agutis are met with abundantly in the caverns of Lagoa Santa, in Brazil. The Rodent known in South America by the title of paca PcLCclS (Coelogenys paca) is readily distinguished externally from all its allies by the longitudinal rows of light spots ornamenting its fur; while internally it is remarkable for the extraordinary structure of its skull. Its hind-feet are distinguished from those of the agutis by having five distinct toes ; and the limbs are much shorter and the whole build far more massive than in the latter. In the skull, as shown in the accompanying figure, the zygomatic or cheek-arches are greatly expanded from above downwards, so as to form huge bony capsules on the sides of the face, each of which encloses a large cavity communicating by a narrow aperture with the mouth. Externally the paca is stout-bodied, measuring about 2 feet in length, with rather short limbs, and a broad head, terminating in a blunted muzzle covered with fine hair. The ears are rather small, and but scantily clothed with hair ; the feet are naked below ; and the tail is reduced to a fleshy tubercle. The fur is coarse, and closely applied to the body. Its general colour varies from fawn to blackish; and the number of longitudinal rows of spots is likewise variable, being in some instances only three, while in others there may be five such rows. The female has two pairs of teats, placed at a considerable distance apart. The common paca has a very extensive range, being found throughout the greater part of South America as far as Paraguay. In Brazil it is fairly common, but it is much scarcer in Paraguay, while in Peru it is rare. It occurs in Tobago and Trinidad, but is unknown to the westward of the Andes. In the highlands of Ecuador, at elevations of from six thousand to ten thousand feet, it is represented by Taczanowski's paca (C. taczanowskii), distinguished by its inferior size, and the difference in the form of the skull, as well as in coloration. VOL. in. 12 SKULL OF PACA. i 7 8 RODENTS. Habits. The habits of the common paca appear to be very similar to those of agutis ; these animals going about either singly or in pairs, and being strictly nocturnal Their resting-place during the day is either some cavity among the roots of a forest-tree, or a burrow excavated by their own exertions, and reaching to a depth of from four to five feet. Their food is precisely similar to that eaten by the agutis. In disposition they are shy and timid ; and when pursued they invariably make for the water, in which they swim well and with considerable rapidity. During the summer the female produces a single THE PACA (J nat. size). (occasionally two) offspring, which is believed by the natives to remain in the burrow during the period of suckling several months in duration. The Ecuador paca is said to be not uncommon in the forests on both sides of the Andes. It makes a burrow with two entrances, in which a male and female take up their residence. The natives, who hunt these animals for the sake of their flesh, pursue them in the forests with dogs, and then drive them out from their burrows by lighting a fire at one of the entrances. A tame individual of the common species noticed by Rengger was at first very shy and suspicious, biting fiercely at the hands of any person approaching it. During the day it endeavoured to conceal itself as much as possible, but at night it CA VIES. 179 would wander about the house, uttering a grunting noise, and consuming such food as was placed for it. In the course of a few months its shyness and ferocity gradu- ally disappeared, and it learned to distinguish between its master and strangers, although it never exhibited friendliness to anyone. It would eat almost any kind of human food, except flesh ; and was remarkably cleanly in its habits, frequently dressing its fur with its claws. Bright sunlight seemed to blind the creature; while in the dark its large eyes gleamed like those of a cat. The skin of the paca is so thin, and its hair so coarse and harsh, that its pelage is of no commercial value. Its flesh is, however, white and well-flavoured ; and on this account the animal is much sought after by the natives of the countries it inhabits. During the months of February and March pacas become most extraordinarily fat, and it is at this season that their flesh is most esteemed. In the woods of Brazil pacas and agutis, together with certain edentates, are the only mammals whose flesh is eatable; and they are accordingly most accept- able to the traveller, who is often compelled for long periods to subsist on a vegetable diet. This animal is interesting as apparently forming a connecting link between the true pacas and the other families of the present group, and on these grounds it has been made the type of a family by itself. In size and general form of the head and body, as well as in coloration, this animal closely resembles the paca ; from which it is distinguished externally by its rather long and thickly-haired tail, by each foot having four toes, and by the vertical cleft on the upper-lip. Internally it differs by the complete clavicles, and by the molar teeth being divided into transverse plates of enamel, as in the chinchillas and cavies. The only known example (Dinomys branicki) was discovered one morning at daybreak, rather more that twenty years ago, wandering about the courtyard of a building in Peru ; and from that day to this nothing more has ever been heard of the species. THE CAVIES. Family CAYIID^. The cavies, familiar to us all from childhood in the form of the domestic guinea-pig, form a well-marked family distinguished by the following characters. The limbs are generally similar to those of the agutis, and are furnished with four toes in front and three behind. The collar-bones are imperfect; and the molar teeth are divided by continuous folds of enamel into transverse plates. As indicated by the well-known proverb concerning the guinea-pig, the tail is small or rudimentary. The incisor teeth are short; and the lower jaw differs from that of the agutis in having a strongly -marked ridge on each external surface. The majority of the members of the family are terrestrial, but one genus is aquatic. The true cavies, as represented by the guinea-pig, are comparatively small Rodents, characterised by their stout build, short and subequal limbs, small ears, and the total absence of a tail. All the wild species are uniformly coloured, and their range comprises the whole of South America. i8o RODENTS. One of the best known of the many species is the restless cavy Restless Cavy. . , _ .^ . ^ (Uavia porceU'Us) ot Uruguay and. .brazil, which measures rather more than 10 inches in length, and attains a weight of about a pound. The colour of the rather long and coarse fur is greyish brown ; and the incisor teeth are white. This species is common in certain districts in the neighbourhood of the Eio de la Plata, where it is known by the name of aperea. According to Darwin, it is occasionally found on the sandhills or the hedges of aloes and cactuses; but its more usual and favourite haunts are marshy spots covered with aquatic plants. In the latter situations it lives among the shelter of the vegetation, but in sandy districts it excavates burrows. It usually comes forth to feed in the evenings and mornings ; but jn cloudy weather may sometimes be seen abroad at all hours. In Paraguay Dr. Eengger states that it is invariably found in moist situations on the borders of the forest, where it lives in societies comprising from six to fifteen individuals, among the dense masses of bromelia. Here it makes regular beaten paths, and never wanders far afield. It breeds but once a year, producing only one or two young. Cutler's cavy (0. cutleri), from Peru, is a rather smaller species, distinguished by the general black hue of the fur, although the flanks and more especially the under- parts tend to brown. Much discussion has arisen as to the origin of the domestic Guinea-Pig 1 . . . guinea-pig. It was long considered to have been derived from the restless cavy ; although several writers pointed out that from its aversion to wet and cold such an origin was improbable. From the researches of Dr. Nehring of Berlin, it appears, however, that the real ancestor of the domestic breed is the above-mentioned Cutler's cavy. It has been ascertained that the latter species was domesticated by the Incas of Peru, from whence it was carried to Colombia and Ecuador ; while, on the other hand, no cavy was ever domesticated in Brazil. The domesticated cavies of the Incas were either uniformly white or reddish brown, or a mixture of those two colours. In Europe guinea-pigs are generally either white or white marked with yellow and black. Occasionally, however, they may be white marked with pale yellow, and in such cases they invariably have pink eyes. Sometimes, again, they may be marked with brownish black, mouse-colour, or yellowish grey ; while in certain cases the black may be replaced by ashy grey, when the eyes are pink. Of late years a breed has been formed with exceedingly long coarse hair, and of larger size than ordinary. Guinea-pigs were introduced into Europe by the Dutch during the 16th century, shortly after the discovery of America ; the name being probably a corruption of Guiana-pig. From their pretty appearance and ways, as well as the ease with which they are kept and the rapidity with which they multiply, guinea-pigs have always been favourite pets with children ; although it must be confessed that from their stupidity and want of affection they cannot be regarded as very interesting creatures. When, however, a number of these rodents are kept together, they certainly form a pretty sight; and the manner in which they follow one another round and round their place of confinement in unbroken order is very remarkable. In some respects they resemble rabbits in their habits, while in others they are more like mice. Their pace is by no means swift and consists CA VIES. iSi partly of a series of short springs ; while the peculiar manner in which the body is elongated when creeping is familiar to all. Their food consists of roots, corn, and various vegetables ; and it is essential to the well-being of these animals that the place where they are kept should be dry and warm. If supplied with abundance of fresh vegetables, .guinea-pigs do not require water ; and when they do drink they take but little, and this with a lapping action. When pleased, guinea-pigs utter a soft murmuring cry ; when alarmed, this changes to a squeak ; while a series of short grunts (from which they probably derive their name) appear to be their mode of expressing their wants and desires. The two sexes live in company, THE GUINEA-PIG ( nat. size). but each male selects a partner from the herd ; and during such selection conflicts not unfrequently take place between rival males. Few animals exceed the guinea-pig in fertility, and this is the more remark- able, since, as we have seen, the wild cavies increase but slowly. In Europe the female will produce from two to three litters in a year, each of which will contain from two to five young ; while in warmer regions the number produced at a birth may be as many as six or seven. The young are brought forth in a highly advanced state of development, with their eyes fully opened, and, curiously enough, their milk- teeth already shed. In a few hours they are able to run by the side of the mother ; while by the second day they are able to nibble not only soft plants, but even corn. They are suckled for a fortnight, during which period they are carefully tended by the dam ; but after this the parental affection rapidly wanes, and in three weeks (by which time the parents have again paired) the young are left to shift by them- 182 RODENTS. selves. In from five to six months the young guinea-pig is able to reproduce its kind, although it does not attain full maturity till eight or nine weeks. With care, these animals will live for six or eight years. Although guinea-pigs seem too stupid to display the slightest affection for their owners, they have the great advantage of never making any attempts to bite, and may therefore be handled by children with impunity. The Bolivian cavy (C. boliviensis), which is of rather smaller size than the restless cavy, is interesting from its habitat. It lives among the higher regions of the Bolivian Andes at elevations of from ten to twelve thousand feet; dwelling in large societies, and forming burrows which completely undermine the whole ground in certain districts. In colour this species has the fur of the upper-parts grey, with a yellowish tinge, while the throat and under-parts are white, and the feet whitish. The incisor teeth are orange in front. The last species of the genus that we shall notice is the rock- cavy (0. rupestris), differing from those mentioned above by the extreme shortness of its claws, which scarcely project beyond the toes. It has the fur greyish above, and whitish beneath. This species inhabits rocky districts in certain parts of Brazil, dwelling in cracks and crevices, and not constructing burrows. It is much hunted by the Indians, and it is known to them as the hoki. The Patagonian cavy, or mara (Dolichotis patachonicci), is readily 'distinguished from the true cavies by its longer limbs and ears, and the presence of a short tail, which is always turned to one side. Its skull is characterised by the extreme narrowness of the front portion of the palate ; this being carried to such an extent that the premolar teeth of opposite sides are actually in contact at their front edges. In length it is from 30 to 34 inches, and it stands about 13 inches at the shoulder. Its fur is thick and crisp, and of a greyish colour on the upper-parts, while on the flanks it becomes rusty yellow, and beneath white. The rump is black, with a broad transverse band of white running from the hocks to just above the tail; and the limbs are rusty yellow, but greyish in front. The hair of the throat is elongated into a fringe. Both in habits and general appearance the mara has a superficial resemblance to the hare, but the legs are longer and the ears shorter and wider. It inhabits not only the barren country from which it derives its name, but likewise extends northwards into the grassy pampas of Argentina, where it ranges as far as Mendoza, in lat. 33 30'. On the Atlantic coast, however, where the climate is moister, it only ranges as far north as 37 30' ; while its extreme southern limit is about the 48th parallel. Absolutely dry and more or less desert -like districts are essential to the well-being of the mara ; and it is probable that its original home was the Patagonian wastes. In Patagonia the mara is so common as to form almost a characteristic feature in the landscape, Darwin observing that it is usual " to see in the distance two or three of these cavies hopping one after the other in a straight line over the gravelly plains, thinly clothed by a few thorny bushes, and a withered herbage." Generally these rodents are found either in pairs or in parties of from four to eight individuals, but occasionally in large flocks of thirty or forty. They live in burrows, generally excavated by themselves; and CARPING HO. 185 differ from the other cavies in being diurnal. To protect its eyes from the glare of the midday sun, the mara has well-developed eyelashes, which are wanting in its nocturnal allies. In disposition these cavies are extremely shy and timid, taking to flight at the least alarm, and generally trusting to their legs, rather than to the .shelter of their burrows, for safety. Their food consists chiefly of grass and the roots and stems of such other plants as grow near their burrows. Of their repro- duction, it is only known that the female produces twice in the year from two to five young, which are born and nurtured in the burrow. They have been introduced by Sir E. G. Loder into his park near Horsham, having bred there several times. Maras are among the few mammals that habitually enjoy basking in the full sunshine. When thus reposing it usually lies stretched out on its side or flat on its belly ; and in the latter posture, as shown in the central figure of our engraving, bend the fore-foot backward in a manner unlike any other rodent. When disturbed, they at once assume a sitting position, resting on their fore-feet .and heels, and raising their heads as high as possible in order to see whence the danger comes. After taking to flight, they generally stop when they have run fifty or a hundred paces, and turn to look round ; repeating this process after having again run a short distance. When caught young, they can be tamed without much difficulty, although they require to be tethered. By the natives mara are hunted for their flesh ; but this, although white when cooked, is described .as being dry and tasteless. Fossilised remains of three species of these animals have been obtained from the caves of Lagoa Santa, in Brazil ; one of these being probably inseparable from the existing form. The carpincho or capivara (Hydrochcerus capivara), which takes its second name from a Spanish modification of the native term capugua, is the largest of living Kodents, reaching a length of about 4 feet, and weighing 98 Ibs. From this large size, coupled with its bristly hair and grunting cry, the animal is often designated the water-hog. It is a rodent of bulky build, with moderately long legs, small ears, cleft upper lip, no tail, and short webs between the short-nailed toes. The neck is short ; the head long, broad, and much flattened above ; the eyes large and widely separated ; and the ears with a notch in their hinder border. The hind-legs are considerably longer than the front pair. The skin is clothed somewhat sparsely with long and coarse hair, of a reddish brown colour above, and brownish yellow beneath ; the bristles around the mouth being black. The upper incisor teeth are marked with a broad and shallow groove in front ; while the molars are characterised by the great complexity of the last tooth of the series. Thus in the upper jaw the last molar comprises some twelve trans- verse plates, and exceeds the united length of the three teeth in front of it ; while in the lower jaw the corresponding tooth is somewhat less complex, although still much larger than either of the others. This complexity of the last molar, which is quite unparalleled elsewhere among the rodents, presents a condition analogous to "that existing in the wart-hogs. The carpincho is distributed over the whole of Eastern South Distribution. America, as far south as the Rio de la Plata ; and also extends west- wards into the lowlands of Bolivia and Peru. The existing species occurs in the 186 RODENTS. caverns of Brazil; while in the Tertiary deposits of Argentina fossil remains indicate an extinct species of 5 feet in length, and another considerably larger. This gigantic cavy is thoroughly aquatic in its habits, frequenting the margins of lakes and rivers, and swimming and diving with great speed. Darwin, for instance, writes that these rodents " occasionally frequent the islands in the mouth of the Plata, where the water is quite salt, but are more abundant on the borders of fresh-water lakes and rivers. Near Maldonado three or four generally live together. In the daytime they either lie among the aquatic plants, or openly feed on the turf plain. When viewed at a distance, from their manner of walking, as well as from the colour, they resemble pigs; but when seated on their haunches, and attentively watching any object with one eye, they resume the appearance of their congeners the cavies. These animals were very tame ; by cautiously walking, I approached within three yards of four old ones. This tameness may probably be accounted for by the jaguar having been banished for some years, and by the gaucho not thinking it worth his while to hunt them. As I approached nearer and nearer, they frequently made their peculiar noise, which is a low, abrupt grunt, not having much actual sound, but rather arising from the sudden expulsion of the air ; the only noise I know at all like it is the first hoarse bark of a large dog. Having watched the four, from almost within arm's length for several minutes, they rushed into the water at full gallop, with the greatest impetuosity, and emitted at the same time their bark. After diving a short distance, they came again to the surface, but only just showed the upper parts of their heads." In other places the carpincho occurs in larger herds, which may comprise twenty or more individuals. The usual pace of the animal is a long trot, of no great swiftness ; but when pressed it will advance in a series of leaps. It has no regular lair, although the herd generally returns to the same part of the river- bank. The general food consists of water-plants and the bark of young trees ; but in the neighbourhood of cultivated lands carpinchos will consume large quantities of water-melons, maize, rice, and sugar-cane. In disposition these animals are quiet and peaceful, not to say stupid; and they never appear to indulge in sportive gambols. They occupy their time either in feeding, or in reposing in a listless manner on the banks of the rivers or lakes they frequent. When thus reposing, one individual will from time to time raise its head to see if any foe be approaching; and if an alarm arise they soon plunge headlong into the water. In the settled portions of Uruguay they are but seldom seen, although their footprints, as the writer can testify, are very numerous on the sandy banks of the rivers. The female produces from five to eight young ones in the year ; but it is not yet ascertained whether a regular lair is prepared for their reception. The young follow their parents closely, although not exhibiting any marked signs of affection towards her. Azara states that each male appropriates two or three females. When captured young, carpinchos are capable of being completely tamed, and may be suffered to run about a house like a dog. CHAPTER XXXIV. RODENTS, concluded. THE HARE-LIKE RODENTS. Families LAGOMYID^E and THE whole of the Rodents described in the preceding chapters are characterised by having but a single pair of incisor teeth in the upper (as in the lower) jaw ; and they are hence collectively spoken of as the single-toothed Rodents, or Rodentia Simplicidentata. On the other hand, the hares and rabbits, together with their cousins the picas, have a second smaller pair of incisors placed behind the large front pair in the upper jaw, as shown in the accompanying cut. These Rodents are accordingly regarded as con- stituting a group of equal value with the one containing all the other families, for which the term double-toothed Rodents, or Rodentia Duplicidenta, is adopted. In the young of this group three pairs of incisors are present in the upper jaw, but the hindmost pair soon disappear, and are not succeeded by permanent teeth. In addition to these extra incisor teeth, these Rodents are characterised by the enamel extending all round the large incisors, instead of being confined to their front surfaces. In the skull the palate is distinguished by the shortness of its bony portion, in which there are very large vacuities in front ; while its hinder border is situated between, instead of behind, the molar teeth. In all cases the latter teeth have tall crowns without roots, and are divided into parallel transverse plates surrounded by enamel. In the hind- limb the bones of the lower leg (tibia and fibula) are united together. The upper lip is invariably cleft. These Rodents, which are divided into two families, are all strictly terrestrial in their habits, and have a wide geographical distribution, although more abundant in the Northern than in the Southern Hemisphere. SKELETON AND TEETH OF HARE. RODENTS. THE PICAS. Family Most travellers in the Himalaya are familiar with the pretty little Rodents, known as picas, tailless hares, or mouse-hares, which may be seen in the higher regions, cautiously poking their noses out from between broken rocks, and again disappearing with the rapidity of lightning directly they catch a glimpse of the intruder. These creatures constitute a family of the present group, of which there is but the single genus Lagomys, and present the following characteristics. All the species are of comparatively small sige, being considerably inferior in SIBERIAN PICA (} nat. size). this respect to a rabbit ; and are easily recognised by their small ears, and the absence of any external traces of a tail. The fore and hind-limbs are short and of nearly equal length. In the skeleton the collar bones are complete ; and the skull has no descending (postorbital) processes defining the hinder border of the socket of the eye. In the living species there are two pairs of premolar teeth, in addition to three molars, in each jaw. The picas have the soles of the feet well covered with hair ; and the fur of the body is generally thick and soft. Picas, of which there are a considerable number of species, may be considered as especially characteristic of Northern and Central Asia, one species alone ranging into Eastern Europe, while another inhabits North America. In Asia the genus extends into Eastern Persia, Afghanistan, the Himalaya, and Tibet. The best known species is the Siberian pica (Lagomys alpinus), inhabiting the steppes of Eastern Europe, Siberia, and Kamschatka. This animal may be compared in size to a guinea-pig, its length being from 9 to Distribution. PICAS AND HARES. i 9I 9J inches. The general colour of the long and soft fur is greyish brown on the upper-parts, although the individual hairs are of a deep grey near the skin ; while beneath it is grey tinged with yellow. The feet are pale, suffused with brownish yellow ; and the ears have white margins. The common Himalayan pica (L. roylei), which ranges to elevations of from eleven thousand to fourteen thousand feet, or more, is a much smaller species, measuring only 6J inches in length, with fur of a dark brown or bay colour. Other species from the inner Himalaya, such as the Ladak pica (L. ladacensis), are, however, larger ; the one named measuring 9 inches in length, and inhabiting regions situated at an elevation of from fifteen thousand to nineteen thousand feet above the sea-level. During the Pliocene and Miocene divisions of the Tertiary period picas were common in Central and Southern Europe, while in Sardinia they lived on into the Pleistocene. Some of these Tertiary picas differed from the living forms in having only one pair of premolar teeth in the lower jaw ; while in others there were but a single pair of these teeth in both jaws. Picas inhabit only cold and desert regions, and, therefore, in the greater part of their range, are found at great elevations, although in Siberia they can exist at much lower levels. They either form burrows among rocks, or live in the crevices between the rocks themselves; in the Eastern Himalaya Lagomys roylei is, however, found in the pine-forests. Although mainly nocturnal in their habits, picas will often venture abroad in the daytime, especially if the sky be overcast ; and the writer has several times seen them in the Himalaya darting about in the full glare of the sun. Their movements are so quick, that they are exceedingly difficult to shoot. Their food consists of various plants, more especially grasses ; and of these a large store is accumulated for winter use. In Siberia this provender is piled up into heaps like small haystacks, which gradually disappear during the winter ; unless they are plundered by the sable-hunters as fodder for their horses. None of the picas appear to hibernate, although in most of their haunts they must be buried deep beneath the snow for several months in the year. Although often found in the Himalaya in pairs or small parties, picas are generally more or less gregarious, sometimes associating in very large numbers. In Northern and South-Eastern Mongolia, where they are exceedingly abundant, their burrows consist of a vast number of separate holes, which may be counted by hundreds, or even thousands. From the peculiar loud chirping or whistling cries uttered by many of the species whilst feeding, picas are often termed piping-hares ; but this habit does not appear to have been observed in the Himalayan forms. All the picas drink but little. In summer some amount of rain falls in many of the districts they inhabit, while in winter the snow supplies them with as much liquid as they require ; but in spring and autumn there is scarcely even dew in the Mongolian steppes, so that at such seasons they must exist entirely without water. According to Pallas, the females give birth at the commencement of the summer to about six naked young, to which she attends with the greatest care. In Central Asia picas have many foes, among which the most prominent are the manul cat, the wolf, the corsac fox, and many eagles and falcons ; while in winter they are harried by the great snowy owl. The fur-hunters of Siberia do not, however, consider these creatures worth the trouble of killing. RODENTS. HARES AND RABBITS. Family LEPORID^!. The hares and rabbits, all of which are included in the single genus Lepus, constitute a family distinguished from the picas by their elongated hind-limbs, short recurved tail, long ears, and imperfect collar-bones. The skull is distinguished by the extremely narrow frontal region, and the presence of large wing-like (postorbital) processes defining the hinder border of the eye-sockets ; while there are three pairs of premolars in the upper, and two in the lower jaw, the total HARE IN ITS FORM. number of cheek-teeth thus being on each side of the jaws. The eyes are large and full, and devoid of eyelids. In all the species the fore-limbs are furnished with five, and the hinder pair with four toes each ; the soles of the feet being as densely clothed with hair as are the lesrs. The inner sides of the cheeks are also lined with hair. The females o have teats both on the breast and on the belly. With the exception of one remarkable Indian species, noticed in the sequel, all the members of the family are very much alike in appearance and coloration ; the usual tint of the fur on the upper-parts being a mixture of grey and reddish brown, although in some cases the red, and in others the grey tends to predominate. This coloration harmonises well with the general tint of the open country on which most of the species dwell. A noteworthy feature (which, however, is absent in the above-mentioned Indian species), is the pure white of the under-surface of the up- turned tail. This, in the case of the rabbit at least, is considered by Mr. Wallace as serving the purpose of a guiding signal to other individuals in the presence of danger, so that when the leader of a flock is in full retreat towards its hole, the remainder at once see in which direction to follow. PICAS AND HARES. 193 Hares, as all the members of the family save the rabbit are Distribution. called, have an almost cosmopolitan distribution, although none are indigenous to Australasia. Of some thirty known species, by far the greater majority are, however, confined to the Northern Hemisphere ; the whole of South America having only a single species, the Brazilian hare (Lepus brasiliensis). With the exception of the rabbit and the curious hispid hare of Northern India, all the members of the family dwell either in open country among grass and other herbage, or among rocks and bushes. They are solitary ; and each inhabits a particular spot known as its form ; such form being either a flattened resting-place among grass or bushes, or merely the sheltered side of some rock or stone. As a rule, a hare returns to its form, sometimes day by day, for a considerable portion of the year ; but the situation is changed periodically. Hares are mainly nocturnal, going forth at evening in quest of food, and not returning to their forms till after sunrise. Their speed is great ; but, owing to the great relative length of their hind-limbs, they are better adapted for running uphill than down. All the members of the genus are remarkable for their extreme timidity, and their long ears are admirably adapted to collect the least sound, and thus to give the earliest possible notice of danger. It will not fail to be observed that the ears are the shortest and the legs the less elongated in the rabbit and the hispid hare, both of which dwell in burrows, and have not, therefore, such need of protecting themselves by acuteness of hearing and extreme speed. All the members of the family breed with great rapidity ; the young being able to reproduce their kind within about six months after birth. Whereas, however, the young of the true hares are born fully clothed with hair and with their eyes open, those of the rabbit, and probably also of the hispid hare, come into the world blind and naked. THE COMMON HARE (Lepus europceus). Such a well-known animal as the common hare requires but a comparatively brief description, although it is necessary to point out such features as serve to distinguish it from the mountain-hare. The length of the head and body is generally a little short of 22 inches ; the ears being rather longer than the head, with black tips. The general colour of the soft fur of the upper-parts and flanks is tawny grey, more or less mingled with rufous, but tending to a purer grey in winter than in summer. The under-parts are white ; while the tail, of which the length is nearly equal to that of the head, is black above and white beneath. The usual weight is from 7 to 8 Ibs. With the exception of the north of Russia, the Scandinavian Peninsula, and Ireland, the common hare is found over the whole of Europe, ranging as far eastwards as the Caucasus ; but in the north of Scotland the species is confined to the low grounds and valleys. It may be mentioned here that this species is commonly alluded to under the name of Lepus timidus ; that name was, however, applied by the Swedish naturalist Linne to the hares of his own country, and therefore clearly rightly belongs to the next species. In the more northern parts of its habitat the hare tends to become white in winter ; while the maximum of rufous in its coloration occurs in the more southerly districts. VOL. in. 13 194 RODENTS. Habits. The hare, like other members of the genus, is an exclusively vegetable feeder, its food consisting of grass, corn, bark, etc. In cultivated districts hares often inflict much damage on growing wheat, and like- wise on garden vegetables ; while the destruction these animals cause among young trees by nibbling away the bark is sometimes very great. In fine weather hares are usually to be found in the open, while during rain they show a decided prefer- ence for cover ; but while on some days they select the bare fallows, on others they COMMON HARE (\ nat. size). repair to fields with long grass or other herbage. On some occasions, either when lying in the open or in their forms, they will almost allow themselves to be trodden upon before stirring; and it is then that they are sometimes captured by the poacher merely walking silently up and throwing himself suddenly upon them. On other occasions they are so wild that it is difficult for the sportsman to come within range ; Prof. T. Bell observing that they are generally most wild in bad weather, and more so in the afternoon than in the morning. The hare will take readily to the water, not only to escape from pursuit, but likewise to obtain food PICAS AND HARES. [ 95 or a mate ; and there is a record of one actually swimming across an arm of the sea about a mile in width. The author last mentioned writes that " on hearing an unusual sound the first impulse of a hare is to sit upright with erected ears to reconnoitre ; then it either endeavours to conceal itself by ' clapping ' close to the ground, or at once takes to flight. It is a cunning animal, and the sharp turns or * wrenches ' by which it strives to baffle the fleeter but less agile greyhound, con- stitute one of the principal beauties of the sport of coursing." The female produces several litters in the course of the year, the earliest of which may arrive in January and the latest in November. The number of young Mountain-Hare. MOUNTAIN-HARE (* nat. size). in a litter varies from two to five ; and the " leverets " are suckled for about a month, after which they are left to shift for themselves. The mountain or Alpine hare (Lepus timidus) is a species with a very wide distribution, ranging over the greater part of Northern Europe and Asia, from Ireland in the west to Japan in the east, and also met with in the Alps, the Pyrenees, and the Caucasus. It is represented by a variety known as the Polar hare in Arctic America, which extends as far south as Nova Scotia. In the British Isles this species is not met with except in Scotland and Ireland ; and in the former country is commonly termed the blue hare. Its present distribu- tion is doubtless to be accounted for by the glacial period, when it was able to exist i 9 6 RODENTS. in the lowlands of the greater part of Europe ; but it is somewhat curious that it should find the wild climate of Ireland suitable to its existence. The mountain-hare is intermediate in size between the common hare and the rabbit; and has a relatively smaller and more rounded head, with shorter ears, hind-legs, and tail than the former. Throughout the year in Ireland and the south of Sweden, and during summer in the greater part of the rest of its habitat, the general colour of the pelage is light fulvous gi*ey ; the tips of the ears being- black. With the commencement of winter, however, except in the regions named, the fur gradually becomes more and more flaked with white, until at length it assumes a uniformly white hue, save on the black tips of the ears. It is believed, however, that in the extreme north the fur is white throughout the year. In general habits the mountain-hare appears to agree very closely with the common species. Its " form " is generally made in the clefts of rocks, or between stones ; and during the winter its food consists largely of lichens and pine-seeds. In summer it ascends the higher mountains, produces from four to six young at a birth, and it is doubtful if there is more than one litter in a year. It seems to be more inclined to seek shelter under tree-stems, thick evergreens, etc., than the common hare ; and the young are believed to be produced in sheltered cover. In Arctic America the Polar hare remains active throughout the winter, feeding chiefly on the berries of the arbutus and the bark of dwarf willows. North American In addition to the polar hare, North America is the home of Hare. several species of the genus, two of which turn white in winder, although the bases of the hairs retain their normal colour. The two species in question are the prairie-hare (L. campestris), distinguished by its large size, long ears, and the white hue of both surfaces of the tail ; and the smaller varying hare (L. americanus), with shorter ears, and the tail dark above. Of the North American species, which do not turn white in winter, the best known is the small wood-hare (L. sylvaticus), not unfrequently termed the grey rabbit ; the usual colour of the upper-parts being grey, varied with black, and more or less tinged with yellowish brown, while the uncler-parts are white. This hare is a southern species, not ranging further north than the Adirondack region of New York. In habits this species approximates somewhat to the rabbit, frequently dwelling in hollow tree-stems or the deserted burrows of other mammals. Mr. Kennicott states that it " is very prolific, producing young three or four times a year, and usually from four to six at a birth. In open ground the female scratches a shallow hollow, in which to bring forth her young. In this she forms a nest of soft leaves and grasses, well lined with fur from her own body ; and when she is absent the young are always completely covered and concealed in the nest, which they leave at an early age, and separate from the mother as soon as able to take care of themselves." The Brazilian hare (L. brasiliensis) is very closely allied to the wood-hare, but has the under surface of the tail yellowish brown. There are a large number of species of hares inhabiting; Central Asiatic Species. Asia, India, and the regions to the eastward. Of these the Indian black -naped hare (L. nigricollis) is distinguished by the presence of a black patch on the back of the neck, which is wanting in the common Indian hare (L. rufi- caudatus). Both these species appear to be much less prolific than the European PICAS AND HARES. 197 species ; and when pursued generally take refuge in holes. Of the Tibetan species, the Afghan hare (L. tibetanus), which is found as low as five hundred feet above the sea, is distinguished by the black upper surface of the tail ; while in the woolly hare (L. oiostolus) and upland hare (L. hypsibius) both surfaces of the tail are nearly or quite white. The latter species does not occur below fourteen thousand or fifteen thousand feet ; and I have found it in swarms among eleagnus bush in the higher valleys of the Ladak. The most remarkable of the Indian species is, however, the hispid hare (L. hispidus), inhabiting the foot of the Eastern Himalaya. In this hare the ears are shorter than the skull, the eyes small, the ears coarse and bristly, the tail dark both above and below, and the hind-legs scarcely longer than the front pair. Although not gregarious, this species is said to burrow like a rabbit ; and probably, therefore, produces blind and naked young. Its flesh is reported to be white. An allied species (L. nitscheri) inhabits Sumatra. In Africa hares are found from E^ypt to the Cape ; those from African Species ' South Africa afford but poor sport, as their speed is not great, and when pursued they almost invariably run to ground. Moreover, some of them at least, are very foul feeders. The Egyptian hare (L. cegyptius) is considerably smaller than the common species, but with relatively longer ears, and paler fur. Of the Cape species, the rock -hare (L. saxatilis) is nearly equal in size to the common European hare, and has relatively long limbs and ears, with the fur rufous above and dirty white below. The Cape hare (L. capensis) differs by its shorter legs, and the absence of a rufous tinge on the back of the neck, and the yellowish colour of the throat ; when hunted, it always carries the ears erect. Lastly, we have the small thick-tailed hare (L. crassicaudatus), which is not larger than a rabbit, and is of a foxy-red colour above, paler beneath, with the large and thick tail of the same rufous tint as the body. This species, which has very short legs, is confined to the highlands, ranging from the Cape Colony to the Transvaal. THE RABBIT (Lepus cuniculus). From the foregoing account of the non-European species of hares it will be gathered that some of them show a transition, both as regards form and habits from the European hare in the direction of the rabbit, although none of them are as gregarious as the latter, and, with one probable exception, none produce blind offspring. On these grounds the rabbit cannot be separated generically from the hare. The rabbit is characterised by its small size, relatively short ears, which about equal the length of the head, its small head, and the comparatively slight elongation of the hind-legs. The general colour is greyish brown, with the neck reddish fawn, the under-parts and lower surface of the tail white, and, at most, only the margins of the tips of the ears white. Black, fawn, or parti-coloured individuals are, how- ever, at times met with even in the wild state. The length of the rabbit is usually about 16J inches; and its weight from 2J to 3 Ibs., although it may occasionally reach as much as 5 Ibs. These rodents which, as compared with the hare, are deficient in speed, are eminently gregarious, forming in suitable soils numerous burrows, collectively termed " warrens." Sandy soils, especially those clothed with heath or gorse, are 198 RODENTS. their favourite resorts ; but in damp situations rabbits sometimes content them- selves with forming a series of runs among the thickly-matted gorse or heather. Occasionally, it is stated, they will take possession of a hollow tree, and ascend the stem for a considerable height. Although mainly nocturnal, rabbits when undisturbed may be seen abroad at all hours; but their favourite feeding- times are in the evening and early morning. The prolific nature of the rabbit RABBIT ( nat size). is proverbial ; several litters being produced in the course of a year, both during the summer and the winter, and the number of young in each litter usually varying from five to eight. The young are born in a blind and nearly naked condition : and at the age of six months are themselves able to breed. The ordinary burrow usually has two entrances, but the young are born in a special excavation to which there is but a single approach. In this breeding-burrow the mother forms a soft nest from her own fur ; and during her absence in the day she covers over the entrance with earth. It does not appear to be generally known that these animals can swim ; but a rabbit startled by a dog belonging to the present writer, from a tuft of grass on the margin of a river, at once plunged into the water and reached PICAS AND HARES. i 99 the opposite bank in safety. Kabbits, from their numbers, do even more damage to young plantations than is inflicted by hares. The chief foes of these animals are weasels, stoats, and polecats, which either hunt them in the open, or attack them within the recesses of their subterranean haunts; the curious kind of paralysis which seems to seize the rabbit when pursued by one of these carnivores has been already mentioned under the heading of the stoat. Distribution Although now widely distributed, it is believed that the original home of the rabbit was in the countries on both sides of the western portion of the Mediterranean, where it is still abundant at the present day. Thence it is considered to have spread northwards, and to have reached England and Ireland by human agency. In Scotland it has increased and spread enormously of late years, having been formerly but sparsely distributed, and unknown in the more northern parts of the country. On the continent its distribution is somewhat local ; and it is unknown in the more northern and eastern parts of Europe. It should be observed that remains of rabbits occur in the caves of England in company with those of the mammoth and other extinct mammals, which would seem at first sight to disprove the view that these rodents are immigrants from the south. It is, however, quite probable that the association of the remains of the rabbit with those of extinct mammals may be due to its burrowing habits. The rabbit has been introduced by human agency into several countries beyond Europe, where it has flourished and multiplied to a degree beyond conception ; so much so, indeed, that in Australia and New Zealand these animals have become a perfect pest and a serious hindrance to agriculture. Rabbits were first introduced at the period of the highest prosperity of Australia and New South Wales by a patriotic gentleman who thought it would be a good thing to import a few rabbits into the colony, as they would serve for food and for sport. He accordingly imported three couple of rabbits, and they were turned loose. It was not long before it was found that the district in question had been transformed into a gigantic rabbit warren. Indeed it was discovered that a single pair of rabbits, under favourable circumstances, would in three years have a progeny numbering 13,718,000. The inhabitants of the colony soon found that the rabbits were a plague, for they devoured the grass, which was needed for the sheep, the bark of trees, and every kind of fruit and vegetables, until the prospect of the colony became a very serious matter, and ruin seemed inevitable. In New South Wales upwards of fifteen million rabbit skins have been exported in a single year ; while in the thirteen years ending with 1889 no less than thirty- nine millions w r ere accounted for in Victoria alone. To prevent the increase of these rodents, the introduction of w r easels, stoats, mungooses, etc., has been tried ; but it has been found that these carnivores neglected the rabbits and took to feeding on poultry, and thus became as great a nuisance as the animals they w r ere intended to destroy. The attempt to kill them off by the introduction of an epidemic disease has also failed. In order to protect such portions of the country as are still free from rabbits fences of wire-netting have been erected ; one of these fences erected by the Government of Victoria extending for a distance of upwards of one hundred and fifty geographical miles. In New Zealand, where the rabbit has been introduced little more than twenty years, its increase has been so 200 RODENTS. enormous, and the destruction it inflicts so great, that in some districts it has actually been a question whether the colonists should not vacate the country rather than attempt to fight against the plague. The average number of rabbit skins exported from New Zealand is now twelve millions. in other Tame rabbits were introduced into the island of Porto Santo, Countries, near Madeira, in the year 1418 or 1419, and their descendants have now formed a breed distinguished by their small size, the reddish colour of the fur of the upper-parts, and the grey tints of that below. So different, indeed, are these rabbits from the ordinary kind, that the two kinds will not even breed together ; and if the history of the Porto Santo race were not known, it would undoubtedly be regarded as a distinct species. Tame rabbits.which have run wild in Jamaica and the Falkland Islands have not reverted to the ordinary w T ild form, but still exhibit distinct traces of their origin. Introduced rabbits are also numerous in Teneriffe and the Crozet Islands. In Teneriffe, where the breed is small, they do not burrow, but live in crannies among the rocks. Domesticated The rabbit has long been kept in a domesticated state, in which Rabbits. it varies not only in colour but likewise in size, in the length of the fur, in the form and direction of the ears, and also to some extent in the conforma- tion of the skull. The usual colours are brown, fawn, reddish brown, or black, more or less mingled with white ; and there is also an albino race with pink eyes. Lop-Eared Among the most remarkable changes produced by domestication Breeds. j s the assumption of a pendent position by one or both ears, which become greatly enlarged, accompanied by a modification in the skull. Whereas in the ordinary wild rabbit the length of the ears from tip to tip when extended is rather less than 8 inches, and the breadth of each not more than 2 inches ; a " lop- ear" has been exhibited in which these dimensions were respectively 23 and 5J inches. The weight of these rabbits is, moreover, frequently from 8 to 10 Ibs.; while, according to Mr. Darwin, it has been known to reach 18 Ibs. When only one ear hangs down the rabbit is called a "half- lop " ; and in some cases this pendent ear is LOP-EARED BABBIT. larger than the upright one. Many lop- eared rabbits have large dewlaps, or folds of skin beneath the throat. Neither whole nor half-lops breed at all truly ; and in all lop-eared rabbits the skull is proportionately longer than in the wild race. ^ ora The Angora breed is readily distinguished by the length and fineness of its fur, which is even of considerable length on the soles of the feet. Mr. Darwin states that these rabbits are more sociable in disposition than the other domestic breeds ; and that the males do not exhibit that tendency to destroy their offspring which is so characteristic of the rest. Other Breeds ^^ nare " c l ure( i or Belgian rabbit differs mainly from other large breeds by its colour ; while other strains which breed true to PICAS AND HARES. 201 colour are the so-called silver-greys and chinchillas, which are born black, and assume their characteristic colours later on. Silver-greys generally have black heads and legs, and the fine grey fur of the body is intermingled with a number of long black and white hairs. These rabbits have long been kept in warrens ; and when crossed with the wild breed, one- half of the progeny, or thereabouts, takes after the one parent, and the second half after the other. On the other hand, chinchillas, or tame silver-greys, have short, paler, mouse-coloured, or slaty fur, among which are long, black, slate- coloured, and white hairs. Darwin remarks that silver-greys rnay be re- garded as black rabbits, which become grey at an early period of life. By crossing silver-greys with chinchillas a certain number of the resulting offspring belong to what is known as the Hima- layan breed. When first born these rabbits are generally true albinos, having pure white fur and pink eyes ; but in the course of a few months they gradually become blackish brown on the ears, nose, feet, and the upper surface of the tail. In spite of their sudden production, Himalayan rabbits generally breed true ; and Darwin suggests that their remarkable change in coloration may be due to both chinchillas and silver-greys having descended from a cross between black and albino parents. Lastly, we have the Nicard or Dutch rabbit, distinguished by its very small size ; some examples not weighing more than a pound and a quarter. "HALF-LOP" RABBIT. CHAPTEE XXXV. THE EDENTATES, Order EDENTATA. THE Mammals described in this chapter, which include the sloths, ant-eaters, and armadillos of South America, together with two Old World groups, are collectively characterised by the total absence of front teeth, while in a few instances their jaws are entirely toothless. Strictly speaking, therefore, the title of the group applies only to those of its representatives as present the latter feature ; but if we THE GREAT ANT-EATER. regard the term as indicating the absence of front teeth alone, it will be applicable to the whole group, so far as existing forms are concerned. In addition to this absence of front or incisor teeth, the Edentates are also characterised by the simple structure of their cheek-teeth, which are composed solely of ivory and cement, without any trace of enamel. Moreover, these teeth never form distinct roots, but grow continuously throughout life, and have their pulp -cavities open inferiorly. Then, again, these animals usually lack a functional series of milk-teeth ; although in two instances such teeth are developed, which in one case cut the gums and come into use. GENERAL CHARACTERS. 203 The foregoing are almost the only characters common to the whole of the Edentates. It may be added, however, that all these animals are of a comparatively low degree of organisation, although many of them are specialised for particular modes of life. In general their brains are relatively small, with the hemispheres, or anterior portion, devoid of convolutions, and not extending backwards to overlap and conceal the hinder portion or cerebellum. In some cases, however, the hemi- spheres of the brain are distinctly convoluted. Very frequently the shoulder-blade, or scapula, is characterised by the great development of the anterior portion of its lower extremity ; this so-called coracoidal portion (of which we shall have to speak more fully when we come to the Egg-laying Mammals), being sometimes, as shown in our figure of the skeleton of the sloth, marked off from the remainder of the bone by a perforation, and suturally united with it. Certain members of the order, such as the armadillos and their extinct allies, are peculiar among Mammals in possessing a bony cuirass in the skin ; while the pangolins are equally remarkable for the coat of overlapping horny scales with which the entire body is invested. From the absence of enamel in their teeth, and the presence of rudimental milk-teeth in some of their representatives, it is probable that the Edentates should be regarded as somewhat degenerate types, descended from ancestors provided with a double set of enamel-coated teeth. There are, however, no indications of any close relationship between the Edentates and any other of the Mammalian orders ; and it is accordingly pretty evident that they are descended from extinct primitive Mammals quite independently of all other members of the class. As already mentioned, the sloths, ant-eaters, and armadillos, are entirely confined to the New World ; and since it is these alone which form the typical Edentates, the order is essentially an American one. Indeed, there is a considerable degree of doubt whether the Old World pangolins and aard-varks, which form its only other representatives, are rightly included within the order ; their organisation being very different from that of the typical forms. Be this as it may, the typical Edentates appear to have been always confined to the New World, in the southern half of which they attained their greatest development ; for while fossil forms are abundant in America, they are unknown elsewhere. 1 Some of these extinct types are of the greatest importance to the zoologist, since they serve to connect together most intimately such widely different forms as the arboreal sloths and the terrestrial armadillos. Although varying greatly in their mode of life, the whole of the Edentates both living and extinct are either arboreal or terrestrial, none of them being modified either for flight in the air or for swimming in the water. While the purely arboreal sloths are entirely vegetable feeders, all the other members of the order, of which a few are likewise more or less arboreal in their habits, subsist on flesh or insects. Moreover, several of these carnivorous forms are burrowing animals; and it is remarkable that the members of three distinct groups, namely, the ant-eaters, the pangolins, and the aard-varks, subsist mainly, or exclusively, on white ants or termites ; the only other purely ant-eating members of the class belonging respectively to the Pouched Mammals and the Egg- 1 Certain remains from the Tertiary rocks of France have been considered to belong to armadillos, but this determination is exceedingly doubtful. 204 EDENTATES. laying Mammals. It Edentates the true ant- organs are retained in ; varks. At the present of the larger members have sought protection or by the development is further noteworthy that while among the ant-eating eaters and the pangolins have entirely lost their teeth, those i comparatively high state of development among the aard- day the Edentates are evidently a waning group, the whole of the order having died out; while those which remain by the acquisition of either arboreal or burrowing habits, of a protective coat of mail to their bodies. THE SLOTHS. Family BRADYPODID^E. Although by the older zoologists the sloths were regarded as ill-formed creatures destined to lead a miserable life on account of their misshapen limbs, no animals are in reality better adapted to their peculiar mode of existence. We SKELETON OF THREE-TOED SLOTH. see this not only in their elongated limbs, which have been modified into hook -like organs of suspension, with the removal of all superfluous digits and the great development of the claws of those which remain ; but likewise in the extraordinary resemblance of their coarse coat of hair to the shaggy lichens clothing the gnarled and knotted boughs of their native forests. It is noteworthy that while the monkeys of the same regions have mostly acquired a fifth limb by the development of the prehensile power in their tails, the sloths have almost dispensed with tails altogether. The sloths are characterised externally by their short and rounded heads, in which the ears are very small and buried among the fur, their rudimentary tails, and the excessive elongation of their fore-limbs, of Characteristics. SLOTHS. 205 which the length far surpasses that of the hinder-pair. Both pairs of limbs are furnished with long and slender feet, in which there are never more than three toes ; while the toes themselves are invested for nearly their whole length in a common skin, and terminate in long curved claws of great strength. The thick coat of long, coarse, and somewhat brittle hair with which the whole of the body and limbs is invested, is generally of a brownish or dull ashy-grey colour, mingled with a greenish tint ; each individual hair having a fluted or roughened external surface. The most remarkable feature connected with the pelage is, however, the growth of a vegetable a kind of alga on the hairs themselves ; the alga attach- ing itself to the aforesaid flutings, and growing luxuriantly in the moist atmosphere of the South American forests, although quickly withering when the animals are brought to Europe. It is this extraneous vegetable growth which communicates the greenish tinge to the hair during life ; and its object is doubtless to render the coloration of these creatures in still closer harmony with their inanimate surround- ings than would have been otherwise possible. It may be mentioned here that it is almost impossible to conceive that any sort of so-called natural selection could have given rise to this peculiar and unique kind of protective resemblance. In the region of the back between the shoulders many sloths exhibit a patch of fine woolly under-fur marked by longitudinal stripes of rich brown and orange ; the ex- posure of such patches being due, according to Brehm, to the animals having abraded the long hair by rubbing or resting their backs against trees. The coloration of this patch of under-fur approximates to that obtaining in the coat of the ant-eaters, from which it may be inferred that both these groups of animals originally had bright-coloured fur, and that the long external dull-hued coat of the sloths has been a special development suited to the needs of their environment. The sloths have five pairs of teeth in the upper, and four in the lower jaw : the individual teeth, with the exception of the first pair in one of the two genera, being nearly cylindrical in form, and in all cases consisting of a core of ivory invested with a thick coating of cement. The skeleton is characterised by the presence of complete collar-bones ; while in the fore-arm the two bones are completely separate, and allow the hand to be supinated like that of man. The claws are, however, permanently fixed parallel to one another, so that the hand, like the foot, can be used merely as a claw. In the hind-limb the foot is articulated obliquely to the bones of the leg ; so that when on the ground the animal can walk only on the outer sides of its feet. Of the soft parts, it will suffice to mention that the tongue is short and soft ; while the large stomach, as in so many leaf-eaters and grass-feeders, is divided into several compartments. The windpipe is peculiar in being folded before reaching the lungs, a feature found elsewhere only in certain birds. Finally, the female sloth has but a single pair of teats on the breast. Three-Toed The typical members of the family are commonly known as Sloths. three-toed sloths, or, from their native title, ai's, and constitute the genus Bradypus, readily characterised by the presence of three toes on both the fore and the hind-feet. The teeth are all of nearly the same height, with their grinding surfaces deeply cupped ; the first tooth in the upper jaw being considerably smaller than either of the others, while the corresponding lower tooth is broad and compressed. The most remarkable peculiarity connected with the genus is, how- 206 EDENTATES. ever, the presence of nine, instead of the usual seven, vertebrae in the neck ; that is to say, it is the tenth vertebra from the head which first carries ribs articulating with the breast-bone, although the ninth, and occasionally the eighth vertebra, is furnished with a pair of free floating ribs, which stop short of the breast-bone. There are several species of the genus characterised by differences in coloration, or by the relative length of the hair on the face ; but the precise number of species is THE COMMON THREE-TOED SLOTH (j nat. size). not yet definitely ascertained. In some kinds the coloration is uniform, while in others there is a dark stripe across the shoulders; the presence of the above- mentioned bright-coloured patch on the back cannot, however, as was once thought, be regarded as a specific character. The typical B. tridactylus inhabits the drier regions of the forests, while others, as noticed below, frequent the permanently flooded districts. As a rule, these animals appear to be silent ; but it is recorded that a captive specimen, when dragged from the branch to which it was clinging^ uttered a shrill scream. SLOTHS. 207 The two-toed sloths, or unaus, of which there are two well- Two-Toed Sloths. . . 7 denned species, constitute the genus Cfwlcepus, characterised by having only two functional toes on the fore-foot ; these two digits representing the index and middle finger of the human hand. The hind-foot has, however, three toes, as in Bradypus. The unaus are further distinguished by the characters of their teeth; the first pair in each jaw being longer and stouter than the others, from which they are separated by a considerable interval. These anterior teeth assume, indeed, the characters of tusks, and have their summits obliquely worn away by mutual attrition. That they do not correspond to the true tusks, or canines, of other mammals is shown, however, by the circumstance that the lower ones bite behind, instead of in front of those of the upper jaw. In the common unau (G. didactylus) the number of vertebrae in the neck is the usual seven, but in Hoffmann's sloth (C. hoffmanni) it is reduced to six. Of these two species the former is restricted to Brazil ; while the latter extends from Ecuador to Costa Rica. Hoffmann's sloth utters at rare intervals a cry like the bleating of a sheep, while when suddenly seized it gives vent to a loud snort. The haunts of the sloths are the primeval forests of South and TT o \y\ + q -^ Central America, where vegetation attains its highest development, and the warm air is heavily laden with moisture. The darker and denser the forest, the more thickly is it tenanted by these creatures, which are as thoroughly arboreal as the squirrels and spider-monkeys, and seldom or never descend of their own accord to the ground. Indeed, on the ground the sloth is but a helpless creature, walking uneasily on the edges of its in-turned feet, and seeking as soon as possible to regain its native trees. Writing of the habits of the common three- toed sloth (B. tridactylus), Bates observes that the Indians call it ai ybyrete, or sloth of the mainland, to distinguish it from the B. infuscatus, which has a long black and tawny stripe between the shoulders, and is called ai ygapo, or sloth of the flooded lands. Some travellers in South America have described the sloth as very nimble in its native woods, and have disputed the justness of the name which has been bestowed upon it. " The inhabitants of the Amazon regions, however, both Indians and descendants of the Portuguese, hold to the common opinion, and consider the sloth as the type of laziness. . . It is a strange sight to watch the uncouth creature, fit production of these silent shades, lazily moving from branch to branch. Every movement betrays, not indolence exactly, but extreme caution. He never loosens his hold from one branch without first securing himself to the next, and when he does not find a bough to immediately grasp with the rigid hooks into which his paws are so curiously transformed, he raises his body, supported on his hind-legs, and claws around in search of a fresh foothold." Bates goes on to say that after watching its movements for some time, he shot the specimen under observation ; its body remained, however, firmly suspended to the bough to which it was clinging, and it was not till the muscles became relaxed that it fell. He adds that on another occasion he saw a three-toed sloth swimming a river, about five hundred yards wide. Sloths are mainly nocturnal ; and in their usual attitude they hang suspended back downwards. When sleeping, they roll themselves into a ball, with the head tucked between the arms; in this position they somewhat resemble the 208 EDENTATES. pottos among the lemurs, and it is then that they present the most striking resemblance to a lichen-clad knot. They are found usually either in pairs or in small family parties ; and are harmless and inoffensive in disposition. They are most active in the dusk and at night ; and will then wander slowly for consider- able distances through the forest. Their food consists exclusively of leaves, young shoots, and fruits, the moisture contained in which renders drinking unnecessary. Their favourite food is afforded by the large-leaved and milky cecropia trees, which are so abundant in the South American forests; and it is said that they seldom desert a cecropia so long as it affords them nutriment. The sense of hearing in these animals seems but imperfectly developed ; and their small, dull and reddish eyes do not appear capable of very acute vision. Indeed, on first observing a sloth its eyes loolf so devoid of brightness as to give the impression that the creature must be blind. But a single young is pro- duced at a birth. When it first comes into the world the young sloth is fully developed, having the body thickly clothed with hair, and the claws on the toes of the same proportionate length as in the adult. With these claws it clings fast to the long hair of its mother, clasping its arms around her neck. Sloths are capable of enduring deprivation from food for protracted periods, and they are also remarkable for the severe bodily injuries they are capable of sustaining, while they appear to be unaffected by doses of poison which would immediately prove fatal to other animals of larger size. It is related that on one occasion a three-toed sloth kept in captivity at Turin took no food for upwards of a month, and appeared none the worse at the end of its long fast. All these circumstances clearly point to the low organisation of these animals ; it being a well-known fact that reptiles exhibit a far greater tenacity of life than the higher mammals. Indeed, as a rule, the lower we descend in the animal kingdom, the greater becomes the power of sustaining injury. THE EXTINCT GROUND-SLOTHS. Family No account of the Edentates would be complete without some reference to the gigantic ground-sloths which were formerly so abundant in South America, as it is by their aid alone that we are able to comprehend the relationship of the true sloths to the ant-eaters. The best known of these creatures is the megathere, which rivalled the elephant in bulk; while the mylodon and scelidothere were somewhat smaller forms. They may be described as possessing the skulls and teeth of sloths, and the back-bones, limbs, and tails of ant-eaters. The megathere differs from most of the others in having the crowns of the teeth square and divided into wedge-shaped transverse ridges, owing to the variation in the hardness of their constituents ; but in most cases the teeth were subcylindrical, with depressed centres. They agreed with the sloths in having large and complete collar-bones ; but, as we infer from the conformation of the lower jaw, they approximated to the ant-eaters in the elongation of their tongues. The majority of the ground-sloths were South American ; but one species of megathere ranged into North America, while an allied genus, Megalonyx, was apparently exclusively North American. THE TWO TOED SLOTH. ANT-EATERS. 209 That the ground-sloths were herbivorous is evident from the structure of their teeth ; while it is obvious that creatures which must have weighed several tons when in the flesh could not have been climbers. Their bodies were probably clothed with coarse hair some- what like that of the ant-eater ; but there is evidence that the mylodon had also a number of small bony plates embedded in its skin. From the enormous width and massiveness of the pelvis of the ground - sloths, coupled with the extraordinary size of the bones of the tail, it is probable that these creatures were in the habit of procuring their food by supporting them- selves on the tripod formed by their hind-limbs and tail, and rearing their bodies against the trunks of trees, from which the boughs were then dragged down by the powerful arms. Possibly, how- ever, the megathere, as suggested by the late Prof. Parker, may in some cases have bodily uprooted trees, by first digging a hole at their roots with its powerful front claws, and then grasping the trunk with its arms, and swaying it to and fro till it fell with a crash. It may be added that the ground-sloths resembled the ant-eaters and sloths in walking on the outer sides of their enormous fore-feet ; but they differed from the latter in also applying only the outer side of the hind-feet to the ground. All these gigantic forms lived during the Pleistocene period ; but in the lower Tertiaries of Patagonia they are represented by the much smaller Eucholceops, in which the skull was only some 5 inches in length ; the teeth resembling those of the megathere. PALATAL VIEW OF SKULL OF EXTINCT GROUND-SLOTH (MYLODON). After Owen. THE ANT-EATERS. Family MYRMECOPHAGID^. The ant-eaters, or, as they are often called, ant-bears, differ so widely in appearance and structure from the sloths that it is difficult to believe at first sight in their close relationship ; indeed, had it not been for the fortunate preservation of the remains of the ground-sloths, it may be questioned whether even zoologists would have fully understood the alliance of the two. As it is, we have an excellent example of the effects of adaptation to widely different modes of life in modifying the organisation of nearly allied animals. In the present instance the extinct ground-sloths are probably the least removed from the original common type. In the sloths the needs of a purely arboreal life have led to a great elongation of the fore-limbs, coupled with the reduction of the digits to a few hook-like claws, and the functional loss of the tail. In the other group, the ant-eating habit has led to an extraordinary elongation of the skull, with the loss of all traces of teeth. VOL. in. 14. 2io EDENTATES. All the ant-eaters are characterised by the body being clothed with hair, and by the more or less marked elongation of the head, in which the mouth is tubular, and provided with a long worm-like tongue, while teeth are wanting. The mouth has only a small aperture at its extremity, through which, when feeding, the long extensile tongue, coated with viscid saliva, is rapidly protruded and as instantane- ously withdrawn. The tail is always long, and in two species is prehensile. In the fore-feet the middle toe is enlarged and furnished with an enormous curved claw, while the other digits are reduced in size, and some of them may be rudi- mentary. The hind-limbs are as long as the front pair ; and their feet terminate in four or five equal-sized and clawed toes. In the skeleton the collar-bones are generally rudimentary, although in one genus .well-developed ; and the ribs are remarkable for their breadth. In the soft parts the stomach is comparatively simple, the brain much more convoluted than in the sloths. The heart is very small. As their name implies, ant-eaters are purely insectivorous. SKELETON OP GREAT ANT-EATER. The great, or maned ant-eater (Myrmecophaga jubata) known ' ' in Paraguay as the yurumi, and in Surinam as tamanoa is the largest member of the family. Externally it is characterised by the extreme elon- gation of its narrow head, and the enormous mass of long hair clothing the tail. The anterior portion of the head forms a kind of cylindrical beak, which is of far greater length than the hinder half, and carries the small nostrils at its tip. The eyes are minute ; and the oval ears small and erect. The body is somewhat compressed laterally, and is about equal in length to the tail, which is not prehensile. In the fore-feet claws are present upon all the toes except the fifth ; that of the third being far larger than either of the others ; when walking the toes are bent back, and the weight of the body supported on the upper surfaces of the third and fourth, aided by a hard pad at the extremity of the fifth. The hind-feet, in which the toes are of nearly equal length, are comparatively short, 1 and have the soles applied to the ground in walking. The hair is stiff and bristly ; although short on the head it is of considerable, though varying, length 011 the body. On the neck and back it forms an upright mane; while on the fore- 3 They are somewhat too long in the figure. ANT-EATERS. 211 limbs and flanks it becomes still more elongated and pendent, but attains its maximum development on the tail, where it may measure as much as 16 inches in length. The general colour of the hair over a large part of the body is ashy grey mingled with black, this tint prevailing on the head, neck, back, flanks and hind- quarters, fore-legs and tail. The throat, chest, under-parts, hind-feet, and under- surface of the tail are blackish brown ; while a broad black band, margined with white, extends obliquely upwards and backwards to terminate in a point on the loins. The length of the head and body is about 4 feet, the height at the shoulder being about two. THE GREAT ANT-EATER, WITH THE TAIL ELEVATED (jy nat. size). In addition to these external features, there are certain points in the internal anatomy of this ant-eater which demand some attention. In the first place, the exceedingly elongated skull is characterised by the zygomatic or cheek-arch being incomplete ; and also by the circumstance that the passage above the bony palate, through which the creature breathes, instead of stopping short near the middle of the skull, is prolonged nearly to its hinder extremity. This is brought about by the union in the middle line of descending plates from the bones known as pterygoids ; this feature occurring elsewhere among mammals only in certain dolphins and one genus of armadillo. In consequence of this arrangement the posterior or inner nostrils of the great ant-eater open at the back of the skull, 212 EDENTATES. instead of near its middle. Another peculiarity of the skull is the absence of any postorbital process denning the hinder border of the socket of the eye, which is consequently continuous with the temporal fossa, or large open space at the side of the hinder portion of the skull. Then, again, the lower jaw is very long and slender, with an extremely short union in front between its two lateral branches, and without the process which usually ascends behind the socket of the eye for the attachment of the muscles of mastication. Like the sloths, the females of the great ant-eater have but a single pair of teats on the breast. Distribution and Although distributed over the whole of the tropical portions of Habits. South and Central America, the great ant-eater is nowhere common ; and from its nocturnal habits but seldom seen. It frequents either the low, wet lands bordering the rivers, or swampy forests; and is strictly terrestrial in its habits. Its strong claws might lead to the supposition that the creature was a burrower, but this is not the case. It has, however, usually a regular lair, or at least an habitual place of resort, generally situated among tall grass, where it spends the day in slumber, lying on one side, with its head buried in the long fur of the chest, the legs folded together, and the huge tail curled round the exposed side of the body. Except in the case of females with young, the ant-eater is, as a rule, a solitary creature. Its usual pace is a kind of trot, but when pursued it breaks into an awkward, shuffling, slow gallop. The food of the great ant-eater consists exclusively of termites and ants, together with their larvae. In order to obtain these insects, the ant-eater tears open their nests or hillocks with the power- ful claws of its fore-feet. As soon as the light of day is let into their domicile, the ants or termites rush to the surface in order to investigate the cause of the dis- turbance, and are forthwith swept up by hundreds adhering to the viscid tongue of the ant-eater, which is protruded and withdrawn with lightning-like rapidity. The breeding-habits of the animal are still very imperfectly known. A single young is, however, produced by the female in spring, which is carried about on the back of its parent for a considerable time. The period of suckling lasts for several months ; and even when the young ant-eater has taken to feeding on insects, it does not leave its parent until she is again pregnant. Usually the ant-eater is a harmless, inoffensive creature, which may be driven in almost any direction so long as it is not pressed too hard. If, however, driven to close quarters, it turns furiously on its assailants, whom it attacks by hugging with its immensely muscular arms. It has been asserted, on the authority of the natives, that the ant-eater will even face and attack the jaguar ; and although the truth of this statement was denied by the traveller Azara, a later explorer believes that it may be founded on fact. Like the sloths, ant-eaters are exceedingly difficult to kill, their skin being so tough that an ordinary small hunting-knife will make no impression on it, while their skulls may be battered with a heavy stone without producing any other effect than temporarily stunning the creatures. These ant-eaters thrive fairly well in captivity in Europe ; but spend most of their time in sleep, with the head, limbs, and tail folded up in the manner already mentioned. On awakening, the animal generally unfolds itself with considerable deliberation, usually sitting up at first on its hind-quarters, with its legs stretched out rigidly in front, and its bird-like head swaying slowly from side to side. " In ANT-EATERS, 213 its slow and measured walk," writes Sclater, "the tail is stretched out in a straight line with the back (as in the illustration on p. 211), and the animal then presents a length of between 6 and 7 feet, of which the head occupies 1 foot, and the tail 3." The small mouth and face are cleaned from any of the viscid saliva which may have adhered to them by being rubbed from time to time against the slightly bent knee. The flesh of the great ant-eater, although black in colour, and musky in odour, is largely eaten by the natives and negroes of South America. The lesser ant-eater, or tamandua (Tamandua tetradactyla) is an animal of scarcely half the size of the preceding, from which it is distinguished by its much shorter head, longer ears, uniformly short bristly hair, Tamandua. THE TAMANDUA ( J nat. size). and the prehensile tail, of which the extremity, together with the whole length of the inferior surface, is naked and scaly. The three middle toes of the fore- foot have well-developed claws, of which that on the third is much larger than either of the others ; while the first toe has only a minute claw, and the fifth is clawless, and concealed within the skin. The hind-foot is very similar to that of the great ant-eater, and has five subequal clawed toes. The structure of the skull is essentially the same ; and the collar-bones are likewise rudimentary. The whole length of the head and body is about 2 feet, and that of the tail 6 inches less. As regards coloration, there is a great amount of individual variation. The general hue of the fur is, however, yellowish white, with a more or less marked rusty tinge ; but a broad black band extends from the sides of the neck along the flanks, and becomes so deep on the hind-quarters as to appear the predominating colour. The tip of the snout, together with the lips, eyelids, and the soles of the feet, are naked and black ; and the ears are but sparsely haired. 2I 4 EDENTATES. Distribution and Habits. The tamandua (which, by the way, is the Portuguese term for creature, the native name being caguari) ranges through the tropical forests of South and Central America. It is mainly an arboreal animal : its climbing powers being largely aided by the prehensile tail. Generally nocturnal, it may be sometimes seen abroad during the day. Its movements are more rapid than those of the great ant-eater; and when asleep it lies on its belly, with the head bent under the chest and covered with the fore-feet, while the tail is curled along the side. Its food apparently consists mainly of ants, and termites probably belonging to arboreal species ; but it has been suggested that honey may likewise form a portion of its diet. Like the great ant-eater, it produces only a single young one at a birth. It is a much commoner animal than the tamanoa, and is said to be generally found on the borders of the forests. Frequently it ascends TWO-TOED ANT-EATER (% nat. size). to the top of the tallest trees. When pursued, it endeavours to escape by flight ; but if hard pressed it turns on men or dogs in the same manner as its larger cousin, sitting up on its hind-quarters, and trying to hug its foes in its arms. Two-Toed The third and last representative of the family (Cydoturus Ant-Eater. didactylus) is no larger than a rat. Its skull is only slightly elongated. The length of the head and body is only 6 inches, and that of the highly prehensile tail a little over 7 inches. The fore-feet have four toes, of which those corresponding to the index and third fingers of man alone have claws ; the claw of the third toe being very much larger than that of the second. In the hind-feet there are four nearly equal-sized toes, which are placed close together so as to form a hook-like organ somewhat after the fashion of the foot of a sloth. The fur is soft, thick, and silky ; its colour being generally foxy red above and grey beneath, with the individual hairs greyish brown or black at the base, and yellowish brown at the tips. The skull differs from that of the other ant-eaters ARMADILLOS. 215 by its shorter muzzle, and by the absence of the backward prolongation of the nasal passage on the palate, to which allusion has been already made. The lower jaw is less widely removed from the ordinary type. Another peculiarity in the skeleton is the presence of well-developed collar-bones ; and it may also be noted that the ribs are so extraordinarily wide as to come nearly in contact with one .another, and thus render the bony casing of the body well-nigh continuous. Distribution and The two-toed ant-eater is an exclusively arboreal animal, with a Habits. somewhat restricted geographical range. It inhabits Northern Brazil, Guiana, and Peru, between the 10th parallel of south and the 6th parallel of north latitude, and it also extends into Central America ; its range thus including the very hottest portions of the continent. In the mountains it ascends to an elevation of some two thousand feet above the sea. It is either a rare creature, or one but seldom seen, even by the natives ; frequenting the thickest portions of the forests, and escaping observation through its arboreal habits and diminutive size. Like its larger relatives, it leads, except during the pairing-season, a solitary existence ; and it is likewise nocturnal, sleeping during the day among the boughs. Its movements are generally slow and deliberate ; but when so disposed, it can climb quickly, always with the aid of the tail. Ants, termites, bees, wasps, and their larvae, are its food. When it has captured a large insect, it sits up on its haunches like a squirrel, and conveys the prey to its mouth with its paws. Bates had one of these ant-eaters brought to him which had been captured while slumbering in a hollow tree. He kept it in the house for twenty-four hours, where " it remained nearly all the time without motion, except when irritated, in which case it reared itself on its hind-legs from the back of a chair to which it clung, and clawed out with its fore-paws like a cat. Its manner of clinging with its claws, and the sluggishness of its motions, gave it a great resemblance to a sloth. It uttered no sound, and remained all night on the spot where I had placed it in the morning. The next day I put it on a tree in the open air, and at night it escaped." THE ARMADILLOS. Family DASYPODIDJE. The armadillos, together with their near ally the pichiciago, constitute a well- defined South American family distinguished from other living mammals by the development of a number of bony plates in the skin, so as to form a more or less complete shield enveloping the body ; and it is from the presence of this bony cuirass that the members of the family derive their distinctive Spanish title of armadillos. In general the bony shield of the back is formed by the union of quadrangular or many-sided plates, and is divided into an anterior and posterior solid portion, separated by a series of movable transverse bands, varying in number from three to thirteen. The anterior shield, into which the head and fore-limbs may be more or less completely withdrawn, is termed the scapular shield ; while the posterior portion, which is notched for the tail, is known as the lumbar, or pelvic shield. The movable bands are composed of parallel rows of similar plates connected together by flexible skin ; and in some cases the degree of flexibility in this region 216 EDENTATES. is so great as to allow of the animal rolling itself into a complete ball. One peculiar genus of extinct armadillo differs from all living forms in that the whole body-shield was composed of these movable plates. Usually a certain number of hairs protrude between the bony plates of the armour ; and in some cases these are so numerous as almost to conceal the armour, and give the appearance of a furry animal. Each bony plate is sculptured, varying in pattern in the different genera ; and it is overlain by a horny shield, developed in the cuticle or epidermis ; the bones themselves belonging to the true skin. The upper surface of the head is also protected by an armour of similar structure ; and the tail is usually en- circled by a series of bony rings. The limbs are likewise protected externally by a number of bony plates embedded in the skin, which do not, however, articulate together by their edges. The fore-feet are provided with very powerful curved claws adapted for dig- ging, and varying in number from five to three ; while in the hind- feet the claws are of smaller size, and invari- ably five in number. SKELETON OP ARMADILLO. The numerous teeth are small and simple, looking like small pegs fixed in the jaws ; and in one genus the anterior teeth are preceded by a deciduous milk series. The tongue is considerably elongated, although to a less extent than in the ant-eaters. The elongated skull is characterised by the full development of the zygomatic or cheek arch; and the collar-bones are complete. In the hind -limbs the bones of the second segment tibia and fibula differ from those of the other existing members of the order by being united together at their lower extremities. Another peculiarity is that a variable number of the vertebre in the middle of the neck are likewise immovably welded together. In the development of additional facets for mutual articulation, the vertebrae of the loins of the armadillos resemble those of the ant-eaters. The ribs are of considerable width ; and the upper lateral processes of the back are specially developed for the support of the carapace. Most of the species are of comparatively small size ; the largest living one not exceeding 3 feet in length, exclusive of the tail ; but in the Pleistocene of Argentina there occurs the gigantic Dasypotherium, with a skull about a foot in length. In the Argentine pampas the armadillos are as a rule diurnal, in other districts many appear to be crepuscular or nocturnal. The majority are mainly or exclusively insectivorous, but one species consumes not only flesh, but vegetable substances. In disposition these Edentates are mostly harmless and inoffensive little creatures ; a Gaucho remarking to Mr. Darwin, as he sharpened his knife on the back of one, " they are so quiet (son tan mansos "). All of them burrow in the ground ; and so rapid is the act of burrowing, that, as the writer has witnessed, if a horseman sees one of these animals, it is almost necessary for him to tumble off his horse in order to capture it before it disappears in the soft soil of the pampas. They run with considerable speed, some of the species merely touching the ground with the tips of ARMADILLOS. 217 their claws, and carrying the body elevated high on the limbs. They are found both on the open pampas and in the forests ; and, with the exception of a single species which ranges as far north as Texas, they are restricted to the warmer parts of South and Central America. Their burrows are frequently found in the neighbourhood of the mounds erected by ants and termites ; and although most of the species wander abroad in search of food, a few lead an almost exclusively subterranean and mole-like life. Except in the pairing-season, armadillos are solitary creatures; and they nearly always prefer flat, open country for their habitations. Although generally found in dry districts, they are said to be able to swim well and swiftly. In spite of the nature of their food (which in addition to ants and other insects includes snails and worms), the flesh of most armadillos is free from unpleasant flavour. The smallest, and at the same time the most curious repre- Pichiciago. sentative of the whole group, is the tiny creature known as the pichiciago, or pink fairy armadillo (Chlamydophorus truncatus), which differs so remarkably from the true armadillos as to constitute a subfamily by itself. This Edentate was discovered by the American naturalist Harlan, at Mendoza in 1824, much to the astonishment of the natives, who had no knowledge of its existence. For many years it was known only by two examples the one preserved in London and the other at Philadelphia ; but of recent years a considerable number of specimens have been obtained; and it has been kept alive in the Zoological Gardens at Buenos Aires. The pichiciago is only about 5 inches in length; and, while the shield or mantle covering the head and body is pink, the fur is of a snowy white. The head is short, widest behind, and gradually tapering to the muzzle, where it terminates in a short and abruptly truncated snout, with small and rounded nostrils. The small and almost rudimentary eyes are nearly concealed among the long hair ; l and the ears are quite invisible, having scarcely any external conchs. The mouth is very small, with the lips hard and stiff"; and the rather long and fleshy tongue is conical, and covered above with warty protuberances. The teeth, of which there are eight in the upper and eight or nine in the lower jaw, are small and nearly cylindrical; those in the middle of the series being larger than at the two extremities. The neck is short and thick; and the body long and depressed, becoming gradually wider from the shoulders to the abruptly truncated hinder extremity. The limbs are short, and the front pair much more powerfully made than the hinder ones. Both are provided with five toes ; but whereas in the fore- limbs these are connected nearly to the bases of the claws, in the hind-pair they are entirely free. The second claw in the fore-foot is the largest, and the fifth the smallest ; while the claws of all the hind-toes are comparatively small. The tail, which protrudes through a notch in the lower border of the bony shield on the hind-quarters, is short and inflexible, terminating in a flattened and pointed paddle - like expansion, and covered with a leather skin, dotted over with small horny plates. The whole of the upper surface of the body is covered with a continuous shield, or mantle, of quadrangular horny scales, underlain by very thin, bony plates. This mantle commences in a point a short distance above the muzzle, and 1 They are made too conspicuous in our figure. 2l8 EDENTATES. gradually increases in width to the hinder extremity of the body, where it is abruptly truncated. Instead of being firmly attached to the body throughout its extent, the mantle is only affixed along the line of the backbone, and consequently lies quite loosely on the hairy sides of the body ; on the head it is, however, firmly joined to the bones. There are usually about twenty transverse rows of plates in the mantle ; and while the number of plates in each row at the hinder extremity of the head varies from seven to eight, on the loins there may be as many as twenty- four in a row. The abruptly truncated hinder extremity of the body is protected by a solid shield, composed of firmly welded plates of bone, overlain by thin scales of horn. This shield is slightly convex, and forms a segment of a circle, the centre of which would be the notch in its inferior bolder through which protrudes the tail. It is firmly welded to certain bony processes arising from the pelvis, and THE PICHICIAGO (\ nat. size). comprises five or six concentric rows of plates ; the number in the uppermost row being about twenty, and that in the lowest only six. The entire shield is placed in a nearly vertical plane. Both externally and internally the mantle is smooth and devoid of hair. With the exception of the tail, the soles of the feet, the snout, and the chin, which are nearly naked, the whole of the skin is covered with a coat of long, silky hair, forming a fringe along the edges of the mantle. This hair is longest on the flanks and limbs, and shortest on the upper surface of the feet, where it is intermingled with wart-like masses of horn. The female pichiciago has a single pair of teats situated on the breast, as in the armadillos. Distribution and The pichiciago is a rare animal, confined to the western part of Mode of Life. Argentina, and is least uncommon in the neighbourhood of Mendoza ; where, as elsewhere, it frequents open, sandy dunes, or their proximity, the vegetation in such spots consisting of thorny brushwood and cacti. The best account of the habits of this creature is given by Mr. E. W. White, who writes that, when walking, the pichiciago " plants both the fore and hind-feet on the soles, and ARMADILLOS. 219 not on the contracted claws, carrying its inflexible tail, which it has no power to raise, trailing along the ground, and much inclined downwards from the body. As it commences to excavate, the fore-feet are first employed ; and, immediately afterwards, supporting its body on the tripod formed of these and the extremity of the tail, both hind-feet are set to work simultaneously, discharging the sand with incredible swiftness. The burrows, which are never left open, usually have but slight, if any, inclination to the horizon. Sluggish in all its movements, except as a fodient, in which capacity it perhaps excels all other burrowing animals, the Chlamydophorus performs the operation of excavation with such celerity that a man has scarcely time to dismount from his horse before the creature has buried itself to the depth of its own body." Mr. White believes that the use of the bony shield at the hinder extremity of the body is to act as a rammer in closing up the entrance to its burrow , and he is further of opinion that when the creature desires to come above ground, it emerges by digging a new exit. When in search of a spot in which to burrow, the pichiciago utters a sniffing sound, but is otherwise silent. " So extremely sensitive is this delicate little burro wer to cold," writes Mr. White, " that my living example, after passing a night in a box of earth covered with flannels, was found the following morning in a very exhausted condition. Wrapped in warm clothing, and placed near a fire, it soon revived. On taking it in my hand under a Mendozan midday sun it shivered violently; but whether through fear or chill it is impossible to say. Its normal paradise seems to be when the temperature of its residence is such as is produced by sand so hot as almost to scorch the hand ; and yet, if cold be unfriendly, no less so is wet, for although its winter is spent beneath the earth, a fall of rain quickly drives it from its retreat. During summer it leaves its burrow at dusk to search for food ; and being truly nocturnal, moonlight nights are very favourable for discovering it." A second, and rather larger species of pichiciago (C. retusus) inhabits Bolivia, and is dis- tinguished from the typical form by the mantle being attached to the skin of the back throughout its whole extent. The remaining: members of the family, with the exception of the True Armadillos. -, , n- i j i i i -i peba armadillo and its allies, are included in a single subramily, characterised by the division of the bony carapace on the back into scapular and lumbar shields, separated from one another by a variable number of movable bands. They all have moderate-sized ears, set at a considerable distance apart ; and the first and second claws of the fore-feet are, when present, slender ; while the females have but a single pair of teats on the breast. Six-Banded The weasel-headed, or six-banded armadillo (Dasypus sexcinctus) Armadillos. j s fa Q iypQ of a genus characterised by having usually six or seven, but occasionally eight, movable bands in the carapace ; each bony plate of which is marked by an elliptical row of punctures. The head is broad and flattened, with an obtusely pointed muzzle, and rather small or moderate-sized ears; and the body is broad and much depressed. In length the tail is less than the head and body ; and the plates on its basal portion form well-defined rings. Of the five toes in the fore-feet, the first is the most slender, the second is the longest, while the three outer ones are the stoutest, and gradually diminish in size from the third to the fifth. They have a rounded inner border, and a sharp outer and lower edge. 220 EDENTATES. The teeth may be either nine in the upper and ten in the lower jaw, or one less in each ; they are of large size, and the first upper pair are generally implanted in the premaxillary bones. The figured species, which attains a length of about 16 inches, exclusive of the tail, inhabits Brazil and Paraguay; but is replaced in Argentina by the closely allied peludo, or hairy armadillo (D. villosus). The fleecy armadillo (D. vellerosus), from Argentina and the north of Patagonia, and the pichi, or pigmy armadillo (D. minutus) of Argentina, are much smaller forms ; of which the second is distinguished by the absence of any teeth in the premaxillary bones. The different species of the genus vary somewhat in habits ; the pichi being mainly diurnal, whil^ in the cultivated districts of Argentina the peludo has become nocturnal. The pichi, according to Mr. Darwin, Habits. THE WEASEL-HEADED ARMADILLO (i nat. size). prefers a very dry soil; and the sand-dunes near the coast, where for many months it can never taste water, are its favourite resort ; it often tries to escape notice by squatting close to the ground. All of the species live in burrows, where in winter or spring the young are born ; the number in a litter varying from two to four, although the female has but a single pair of teats with which to afford them nourishment. The young are born blind, but with their armour fully formed, although soft and flexible. They grow with great rapidity, and remain for several weeks in the burrows ; it is believed, however, that they are not suckled for any very lengthened period, and that they soon learn to shift for themselves. The armadillos of this genus are usually found alone ; and most of them feed chiefly on ants and other insects, although they will also attack and devour small snakes. On the other hand, the peludo is omnivorous. Dr. E. Peard writes that this species " comes forth for a short time only by day ; on a moonlight night he may be met ARMADILLOS. 221 with at any hour. I have very often made a peludo post-mortem examination, and several times found his last meal consisted of putrid flesh, as well as insects and vegetable fibre. I do not mean to assert that he cannot live on vegetables alone ; but he evidently does not prefer them, and looks on a dead lamb or other animal as a bonne bouche by no means to be despised. A fresh peludo-burrow may almost invariably be found by or underneath a stinking carcase. This is not merely that the occupant may avail himself of the maggots bred in the carrion, for pieces of the flesh may frequently be seen drawn partly into the burrow, and the softer parts chewed and eaten." These flesh-eating propensities of the peludo frequently lead to its destruction, since these animals often devour the poisoned meat spread for wandering dogs and foxes. It is also stated that in some districts, where peludoes are so numerous as to render riding dangerous, on account of their burrows, flesh poisoned with strychnine is exposed for their destruction. The foregoing observations are confirmed by Mr. W. H. Hudson, who writes that the peludo, like its fast-disappearing congeners, " is an insect-eater still, but does not like them seek its food on the surface and on the ant-hill only ; all kinds of insects are preyed on, and by means of its keen scent it discovers worms and larvae several inches below the surface. Its method of taking worms and larvse resembles that of probing birds, for it throws up no earth, but forces its sharp snout and wedge-shaped head down to the required depth ; and probably while working it moves round in a circle, for the hole is conical, though the head of the animal is flat. Where it has found a rich hunting-ground, the earth is seen pitted with hundreds of these neat symmetrical bores. It is also an enemy to ground- nesting birds, being fond of eggs and fledglings ; and when unable to capture prey it will feed on carrion as readily as a wild dog or vulture, returning night after night to the carcase of a horse or cow as long as the flesh lasts." Mr. Hudson adds that this armadillo resorts, to a vegetable diet only when animal food fails ; and states that on such occasions it will eat not only clover, but likewise grains of maize, which are swallowed whole. The peludo also displays marked intelligence in capturing some of the animals on which it preys. Mr. Hudson had a tame one which was an adept at catching mice in a most ingenious manner. After stating that the creature had a most keen sense of smell, and was in the habit of trotting along with its nose to the ground like a beagle, Mr. Hudson writes that " when near his prey he became agitated, and quickened his motions, pausing frequently to sniff the earth, till, discovering the exact spot where the mouse lurked, he would stop and creep cautiously to it; then, after slowly raising himself to a sitting posture, spring suddenly forwards, throwing his body like a trap over the mouse or nest of mice concealed in the grass." Still more remarkable is the manner in which a peludo has been observed to kill a snake, by rushing upon it and proceeding to saw the unfortunate reptile in pieces by pressing upon it closely with the jagged edges of its armour, and at the same time moving its body backwards and forwards. The struggles of the snake were all in vain, as its fangs could make no impression upon the panoply of its assailant ; and eventually the reptile slowly dropped and died, to be soon after devoured by the armadillo, which commenced the meal by seizing the snake's tail in its mouth, and gradually eating forwards. 222 EDENTATES. Both the peludo and the weasel-headed armadillo are hunted for the sake of their flesh, with dogs specially trained for the purpose. A moonlight night is generally selected for the pursuit; and the hunter arms himself with a stout cudgel, pointed at one end. As soon as the armadillo perceives the dog, it either makes straight for its burrow, or endeavours to bury itself by digging a hole where it stands. If the dog come up with the creature before it gain its retreat, its fate is sealed. As the carapace affords no hold, the dog generally seizes the armadillo by the head, or a paw, and holds it till the arrival of his master, by whom it is despatched with a blow on the head from his stick. A specially clever dog will, however, endeavour to overthrow the armadillo as it runs by thrusting his nose under the edge of the, carapace. The creature is then promptly seized by the soft under-parts, and soon killed; the teeth of the dog crunching up the edges of the carapace as readily as an egg-shell is crushed in the hand. Broad-Banded The tatouay, or broad-banded armadillo (Lysiurus unicinctus), Armadillo. o f Surinam, Brazil, and Paraguay, is the best known representative of a small genus distinguished from the last by the presence of twelve or thirteen movable bands in the carapace, and likewise by the teeth. The latter are either eight or nine in number on each side of both the upper and lower jaw, and are of moderate size; while in the upper jaw the last of the series is placed considerably in advance of the hinder extremity of the bony palate, instead of close to it, as in the preceding group. The head has the same general form as in the six-banded armadillos, with rather widely separated, large, and rounded ears; and by the presence of from twenty to twenty-five teeth on each side of the jaws. The slender tail, which is considerably shorter than the body, is nearly naked, except for a few bony plates on its under-surface and near the tip. In the fore-foot the third toe has a huge curved claw, much larger than that on either of the others ; the claws of the first and second toes being slender. The hind-feet have short triangular nails, of which the first is the shortest and the third the longest. The bones of the armour are ornamented with an indistinct granular sculpture. Next to the under- mentioned giant armadillo, the present species is the largest of the group. Its habits are probably very similar to those of the six-banded armadillo, although our information is somewhat scant on this point. By far the largest living member of the family is the giant ' armadillo (Priodon gigas), from the forests of Surinam and Brazil, which attains a length of nearly a yard from the tip of the snout to the root of the tail, and is the sole representative of its genus. While agreeing with the broad- banded armadillo in the number of five bands in the carapace, and the general structure of its feet, this species is distinguished by the still greater relative development of the third toe, and the small size of the claw of the fifth. It is further characterised by the small size and elongated form of the head, on whicli the ears are oval and rather small ; and by the tail, which is nearly equal in length to the body, being covered with large scales arranged in spiral rows. There are ten rows of plates in the scapular, and sixteen or seventeen in the pelvic shield. With the exception of the head, tail, and a band on the sides, which are whitish, the colour is blackish brown. The immensely powerful front claws of this armadillo ARMADILLOS. 223 clearly proclaim its fossorial habits; and it is said to feed chiefly on ants and termites, although not averse to carrion. Three-Banded The common three-banded armadillo, or apar, (Tolypeutes Armadillos, tricinctus), is the typical representative of a genus comprising three rather small species, distinguished by the great development and solidarity of the scapular and lumbar shields of the carapace, and the reduction of the movable bands to three. The teeth, of which there are nine on each side of the lower jaw, and either nine or eight in the upper jaw, are relatively small, and extend back THE GIANT ARMADILLO ($ nat. size). nearly to the end of the palate. The head is long and narrow, with the elongated and oval ears placed rather low down on its sides. The third claw in the fore-feet is even more developed than in the giant armadillo ; the first and fifth claws being very minute or wanting. In the hind-foot the three middle toes have short hoof- like nails ; while those of the first and fifth digits are smaller and compressed. The plates of the carapace are small and polygonal, with a strongly-marked granular sculpture. Both the scapular and lumbar shields of the carapace are very large, and much produced on the sides of the neck and tail, thus forming large chambers into which the limbs, tail, and head, can be withdrawn. The conical tail is less than a third the length of the body, and is covered with bony tubercles. The total length of the head and body is about 15 inches; and 224 EDENTATES. THE THREE-BANDED ARMADILLO. the general colour is dark grey, with a more or less marked brown tinge ; the skin between the movable bands being whitish, while that on the under-surface of the body is dusky. The apar is found throughout the Argentine pampas ; and, in common with the other two members of the genus, differs from the rest of the armadillos in being able to roll itself up into a complete ball, with the shield of the head and the bony upper-surface of the tail packed away side by side, and thus completely filling up the notches in the scapular and lumbar shields. In this state the creature is perfectly safe from nearly all foes save man. For instance, when a dog attempts to seize one of these armadillos, it is compelled, from the size of its mouth, to make a bite upon one side, upon which, as Mr. Darwin tells us, the ball immediately rolls away from its grasp. The apar is mainly diurnal in its habits ; and trusts for defence to its power of rolling itself into a ball, not dwelling in burrows like the members of the other genera. When running, these armadillos tread only on the tips of the claws of the fore- feet, and consequently have the edges of the carapace raised high above the ground. Our figure represents a specimen with the fore-legs stretched out in front preparatory to digging up an ant's nest. In captivity these armadillos will eat fruit and green vegetables ; although, on account of the small size of their mouths, it is necessary that all the food with which they are supplied should be chopped up into small pieces. Fossil remains of armadillos of this species, together with others belonging to all the genera except Priodon, are met with in the cavern-deposits of Lagoa Santa, in Brazil ; and are mostly referable to species still existing in the country. The Peba armadillo (Tatusia novemcincta), ranging from Texas to Paraguay, together with the mulita " little mule " (T. hybrida), of Argentina and other parts of South America, and certain allied species, differ from all the members of the family yet noticed by the elongated ears being closely approximated at their roots, by the female having a pair of teats on the abdomen, in addition to the two on the breast, and by the circumstance that the permanent teeth, with the exception of the last pair in each jaw, are preceded by deciduous milk-teeth, each furnished with two roots. The permanent teeth, which are either seven or eight in number in each side of both the upper and lower jaws, are very small in proportion to the size of the skull, and do not come into use until the animal has well-nigh attained its full dimensions. The head is narrow, and produced into a nearly cylindrical snout, obliquely truncated at the extremity; and the bony palate of the skull has a backward prolongation formed in the same manner as Peba Armadillo. GLYPTODONTS. 225 that of the great ant-eater. The body is long and narrow, with from seven to nine movable bands between the scapular and lumbar shields ; the former being produced on either side of the shoulders, arid having a deep notch at the neck. Each bony plate is ornamented with a series of pits arranged in the shape of a V. The tail is nearly or quite as long as the body, and surrounded for the greater part of its length with complete bony rings. The fore-feet have four long claws, of which the inner pair are considerably larger than the others ; while the hind-feet carry five claws, of which the third is the longest, and the fourth and fifth the shortest. The length of the body of the peba armadillo is about 16 inches, and that of its tail some 2 inches less. In producing from six to twelve young at a birth the peba armadillo differs from all the species hitherto noticed. It inhabits CARAPACE AND SKELETON OP GLYPTODON, WITH THE TAIL-SHEATH IMPERFECT ($z nat. size). After Zittel. burrows in the open plains, and feeds largely on carrion, which is said to be stored up in the burrows for future consumption. In spite of this unsavoury diet, the peba is much hunted for its flesh, which is stated to be of delicate flavour. The above-mentioned mulita is a smaller species, with a relatively shorter tail. A very remarkable form is the rare shaggy armadillo (T. pilosa) from Peru, in which the cheeks and the whole of the carapace, except the front margin, as well as the upper parts of the limbs and the under surface of the body, are covered with a thick coat of light brown hair, of about an inch and a half in length. So dense is this hairy covering that the carapace is completely concealed, giving to the creature, save for its mail-clad head, the appearance of an ordinary hairy mammal. THE EXTINCT GLYPTODONTS. Family GLYPTODONTID^. As we have seen, the carapace of the largest existing armadillo scarcely exceeds a yard in length ; but during the Pleistocene, or latest, geological period, there existed in South America a number of gigantic armadillo-like animals, in some of which the carapace attained a length of between 6 and 7 feet. All these Edentates differed from the living armadillos in having complex teeth (eight in VOL. in. 15 226 EDENTATES. number on each side of the jaws), which were divided into three prisms by a pair of deep vertical grooves on each side. In all of them the carapace consists of a single solid shield, formed of a number of polygonal bony plates, which are firmly united together by suture. A peculiar form from Brazil known as the chlamy doth ere serves in some respects to connect the glyptodonts with the arma- dillos, having the carapace of the latter, and the teeth approximating to those of the former. The typical species was about the size of a rhinoceros ; but others were smaller. In all the glyptodonts the skull was short, the feet were short and massive, generally with five toes in front and four behind ; and the limbs were likewise short and massive. In the larger forms the bony jplates of the carapace were fully an inch in thickness; and in all the species the head was protected by a bony shield, somewhat similar in structure to the carapace. In the larger types, constitut- ing the genus Glyptodon, the carapace was much vaulted, and its margins ornamented with a number of large projecting tubercles ; while the tail was protected by a series of bony rings, also ornamented with bosses, gradually diminishing in size from root to tip. In one species the total length, along the curve of the back, from the nose to the end of the tail was 114 feet, while END OF SHEATH OF TAIL OF A . , , ,_ P . . , . , , _ . . , , , GLYPTODONT, MUCH REDUCED. the carapace measured 7 feet in length and 9 in width, inclusive of the curves. On the other hand, in the mostly smaller forms known as Lomaphorus, the carapace was less vaulted, and devoid of bosses on the margin ; while the tail had several movable smooth rings at the root, and terminated in a long bony tube of more than a yard in length. The extremity of such a tube, showing the large bony plates with which its surface is covered, is shown in the accompanying cut. Another gigantic kind from the pampas, distinguished by the tail terminating in a huge flattened club, armed during life with horns, is known as Doedicurus. In the Miocene beds of Patagonia all the glyptodonts were of smaller size. THE PANGOLINS. Family MANILA. Stranger even than the armadillos are the Edentates commonly known as pangolins, or scaly ant-eaters, which may be compared in appearance to an animated spruce-fir cone furnished with a head and legs. These creatures constitute a family by themselves, in which there is but a single genus Manis, and, like the remaining representatives of the order, they are confined to the Old World. As already mentioned, the relationship of the pangolins to the typical New World Edentates, is remote ; and it may be even questioned whether the group is rightly included in the same order. Their internal anatomy is of a different type ; and the joints of the backbone lack the additional articular processes characterising most of the American Edentates. PANGOLINS. 227 The pangolins may be briefly characterised as a family by the total want of teeth, and by the upper surface and sides of the body and the whole tail being covered with a number of large, overlapping horny scales. Their limbs are short, with five toes on each foot ; and the long, worm-like tongue is capable of being protruded a great distance from the small mouth. The head is small, long, and pointed, with the eyes small, and the external conchs of the ears minute or rudi- mentary. The scales of the body extend on to the outer sides of the limbs ; but they are absent from the inner surfaces of the latter, as well as from the sides of the head and the inferior aspect of the body, all of which are sparsely covered with hair. There are often a few coarse, bristly hairs arising from between the scales. All the toes have slightly curved claws, which are much longer in the front than in the hind-feet, and of which the third is larger than either of the others. In walking, the front toes are bent under the feet, and the weight of the body supported mainly on the upper and outer sides of the fourth and fifth toes. On the other hand, the hind-feet are of the ordinary plantigrade type, and have SKELETON OF PANGOLIN. the whole sole applied to the ground in walking. The female has a pair of teats situated on the breast. In the skeleton the skull is remarkable for its smooth and solid structure, and almost conical form. The zygomatic, or cheek-arch, is incom- plete, and there is no distinction between the sockets of the eyes and the fossae at the hinder extremity of the skull ; while the palate is much produced backwards. The lower jaw is extremely slight and slender, without any ascending or descending processes. In many of these respects the skulls of the pangolins approach those of the true ant-eaters; but it must be remembered that such resemblances are purely adaptive, and are brought about by the identical modes of life of the two groups. Two other points may be noticed in the skeleton; firstly, that collar- bones are wanting; and, secondly, that the terminal joints of the claws are deeply cleft. Distribution and The pangolins, of which the largest species attains a length of Mode of Life, about 6 feet, are exclusively confined to Africa south of the Sahara, and South-Eastern Asia. Africa possesses the largest species, and the greater number of forms. The pangolins are essentially burrowing and nocturnal animals, feeding exclusively on ants and termites, which are captured on the long extensile tongue. They have the power of rolling themselves into a ball as a 228 EDENTATES. protection against foes ; and when thus coiled up their muscular strength is such as to set at defiance any attempt to unroll them. Asiatic Asia is inhabited by three species of the family, namely, the Pangolins. Indian pangolin (Manis pentadactyla), confined to India and Ceylon, and represented in the accompanying figure ; the Chinese pangolin (M. aurita), ranging from Nipal and Assam to China ; and the Malayan pangolin (M. javanica), inhabiting the regions to the westward of the Bay of Bengal as far as Celebes, and also occurring in North-Eastern India. All these species agree with one another in having the whole of the outer surfaces of the limbs covered with scales, and in their tapering tails, on which the middle upper rows of scales is continued uninterruptedly to the extremity. In .the first two species the front THE INDIAN PANGOLIN (J Uat. size). claws are about twice the length of the hinder ones ; the Indian pangolin being distinguished by having from eleven to thirteen rows of scales round the body, against from fifteen to eighteen in the Chinese species. On the other hand, the more slenderly-built and longer-tailed Malayan pangolin differs from both the others in having the claws on the fore-feet only slightly exceeding in length those of the hind-feet. In the Indian pangolin the length of the head and body is just over 2 feet, and that of the tail a foot and a half. The habits of all the three kinds are believed to be similar, although the Malayan species is probably less of a burrower than the others. The Indian pangolin dwells either among the crevices and clefts of rocks, or in burrows of its own construction ; such burrows extending to a depth of from eight to twelve feet below the surface, and terminating in a large chamber, which may be as much as six feet in diameter. Here a pair of these animals take up their abode, and in the winter or early spring give birth to their young. The Habits. PANGOLINS. 229 young, which are one or two in number, are covered with soft scales at birth, but it does not appear to be ascertained whether they are born blind. When inhabited, the entrance to the burrow is stopped with earth; and it is rarely that its occupants are seen abroad after sunrise. The food consists chiefly of termites ; the pangolin tearing open the nests of these insects with its powerful front claws, and thrusting its long glutinous tongue into their runs. The tongue is rapidly with- drawn with a swarm of the white ants clinging to it. In captivity pangolins will readily eat finely-chopped raw meat, hard-boiled eggs, and rice. Their stomachs have a somewhat gizzard-like structure; and frequently contain a few small pebbles, probably introduced to aid in triturating the food. In captivity pangolins drink freely by rapidly extending and withdrawing the tongue ; but Mr. Blanford THE SHORT-TAILED PANGOLIN ( nat. size). doubts whether this habit is natural to them, as they are often found in places where there is no water. When irritated, pangolins will give vent to a hissing sound ; but at other times they are believed to be silent. African There are four African species of pangolin, all of which are Pangolins, characterised by the middle row of scales on the upper surface of the tail bifurcating at a short distance from the tip. They are also distinguished by the absence of any external conch to the ear, and the lack of any hairs growing between the scales ; while in some of them the scales do not extend all the way down the outer surfaces of the limbs. Of the four species, the long-tailed pangolin (M. macrura) is easily recognised by the great length of its tail, which is nearly twice as long as the body, and also by the absence of scales at the lower part of the outer surface of the fore-limbs. A nearly allied form is the white-bellied pangolin (M. tricuspis), distinguished by its larger and tricuspidate scales, and 230 EDENTATES. the white under-parts. The short- tailed pangolin (M. temmincJci) is readily distinguished by its short and blunt tail, in which the under surface of the tip lacks the bare patch found in all the other species except the next. The outer surfaces of the limbs are also fully scaled. The giant pangolin (M. gigantea) is sufficiently distinguished from the last by its superior size. It is remarkable that the remains of a closely-allied species have been found in a cavern in Madras. The whole of the four African species inhabit the West Coast ; but the short-tailed species also extends to South Africa and ranges across the Continent to Zanzibar and Southern Somaliland. The general habits of the African pangolins appear to be very similar to those of their Asiatic cousins. While, however, the long- tailed and the white-bellied pangolins are partially arboreal, the other two are purely terrestrial. Most of the observations as to their habits have, however, been made WHITE-BELLIED PANGOLIN. (From Guide to British Museum. } from captive specimens. In 1878, Mr. F. Hoi wood, in sending a young example of the short-tailed pangolin to the London Zoological Gardens, wrote as follows to the secretary. These pangolins " always appeared to burrow in hard or stony ground, and I saw them always in the daytime. The mother of the specimen I sent you lived three months in Zanzibar. She only fed at night, and remained curled up in a ball all day. She regularly retired to the dark corner of my harness-room at daylight, and left for the garden at sunset. There were very few ants, but she seemed to get plenty of insects. She burrowed at intervals all round the garden walls, but this was evidently only trying to escape, as she never made a hole large enough to give cover." Although the scales of this young pangolin were quite soft at birth, they had completely hardened by the second day. Mr. L. Fraser relates how his pangolins would climb the somewhat roughly-hewn square posts, which supported a building, and sometimes roll up into a ball and throw themselves down, apparently without suffering any inconvenience from the fall. AARD-VARKS. 2 33 THE AARD-VARKS. Family ORYCTEROPODIDsE. The name aard-vark, or earth-pig, has been applied by the Dutch Boers of the Cape to the southern representative of the second group of Old- World Edentates, of which there are two living species exclusively confined to Africa. To the English colonists of South Africa the Cape species is known as the ant-bear ; while by the zoologist the aard-varks are termed Orycteropus, and collectively constitute a very distinct family group. In addition to the two living forms, the remains of THE ETHIOPIAN AARD-VARK. (From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. t 1876.) an extinct species have been discovered in the Pliocene deposits of the island of Samos; while those of another have been recorded from the Oligocene beds of France. In appearance both species of aard-vark are singularly ungraceful, not to say ugly. Thus the body, which may be either almost naked or sparsely clad with bristly hairs, is heavy and ungainly; the head greatly elongated, with a small tubular mouth, and somewhat pig-like snout ; the ears of enormous length, and the tail thick, cylindrical, and tapering, and nearly equal in length to the body. The neck is very short ; the fore-quarters are short compared with the hinder part of the body; and the back is much arched. The tongue is long and extensile, although not so completely worm-like as that of the pangolins ; and the round nostrils are situated at the extremity of the truncated muzzle. The fore-limbs are rather short, but very powerful ; they have four toes, with moderate-sized, strong nails ; and, in walking, the entire sole of the foot is applied to the ground. The hind-feet have five toes of nearly equal size, each carrying a nail. The skin 234 EDENTATES. is of remarkable thickness ; its general colour being yellowish brown, with a tinge of red on the back and sides, while the head and under-parts are light reddish yellow ; and the hind-quarters, the root of the tail, and the limbs brown. A full- grown aard-vark measures a little over 6 feet in total length. The jaws are furnished with a considerable number of well-developed teeth, of which all but the last three in each jaw have milk-predecessors, which do not, however, cut the gum. In full-grown specimens there are usually five teeth on each side of both upper and lower jaws ; but the total number of teeth developed is from eight to ten in the upper, and eight in the lower jaw ; the anterior ones falling out as the animal attains maturity. When unworn, these teeth, which are of considerable size, have rounded summits. They are composed of a number of closely-packed denticles, which by mutual pressure assume a polygonal form, and are traversed by a series of radiating tubes; such a structure being unknown elsewhere in the whole mammalian class. The skull has a complete cheek-arch ; and the lower jaw is far less slender than in the pangolins. It has been considered that the aard-varks are nearly-allied to the pangolins, but the result of more recent observations has been to disprove this view ; and it is even doubtful whether they should be included in the Edentate order, with the typical forms of which these animals have but little in common, except so far as regards the want of front teeth, and the absence of cement in the teeth of the cheek- series. The typical Cape aard-vark (Orycteropus afro) inhabits South and South-Eastern Africa; it is replaced in North-Eastern Africa by the Ethiopian aard-vark (0. cethiopicus) ', the former being distinguished by the thicker coating of hair, more especially on the back and flanks, as well as by the thicker and less elongated tail, and the longer head and ears. . The aard-varks are essentially nocturnal and burrowing in their habits ; and feed exclusively on termites and ants. In South Africa their deep burrows are generally constructed in the neighbourhood of the tall conical mounds formed by the termites ; and, in the old days, before these animals were hunted for their skins, it used to be said that wherever termite-hills were numerous, there an aard-vark might confidently be expected. Wherever these animals are abundant, a number of half -formed holes are seen in the ground and on the sides of the ant-hills, which have been commenced and abandoned. Aard- varks usually spend the whole of the day asleep in their burrows, but may occasionally be seen abroad in the early morning. Their powers of digging are so great, that in a few minutes they can bury their large bodies, even when the ground is hard and sun-baked. In digging, they work with their fore-feet, and throw out huge clods of earth between their hind-legs. Aard-varks are quick of hearing, and very shy, making off at the slightest sound to their burrows with considerable speed. But little definitely is known as to their breeding-habits; although it has been ascertained that the Ethiopian species gives birth during May or June to a single offspring. At birth the young is naked and flesh- coloured ; and is suckled by its parent for a long period. Gambier Bolted BENNETT'S WALLABY. CHAPTER XXXVI. THE POUCHED MAMMALS, OR MARSUPIALS. Order MARSUPIALIA. Distinctive THE whole of the Mammals treated of in the preceding chapters Characters. are collectively characterised by certain peculiarities connected with the development of their young. In all of them the young are brought into the world in a more or less high state of development ; this high grade of development being due to the circumstance that during the greater portion of intra-uterine life the circulatory system of the foetus is connected with that of the maternal parent by a special vascular organ termed the placenta; this placental connection between the blood-vessels of the parent and offspring allowing the blood of the latter to be oxygenated almost as completely as by breathing. On account of the development of this placenta, the whole of the foregoing orders of Mammals are brigaded together into a single large group, or subclass, and are collectively termed either Placental, or Eutherian Mammals ; the latter term referring to their general high degree of development, as compared with those remaining for consideration. On the other hand, in the Mammals of which we have to treat in the present chapter, the young are born at a very early stage of development, and in an exceedingly imperfect and helpless condition, being, in fact, little more than 236 POUCHED MAMMALS. animated lumps. Previous to birth there is no placental communication between the blood-vessels of the foetus and the parent ; and at birth the rudimental young are transferred to the teats of the female, to which they adhere tightly for a long period, their lips being specially modified into a cylindrical sucking-organ. In most cases the young thus suspended are protected by a fold of skin on the abdomen of the female, which forms a pouch in which the teats are contained. From the universal absence of a placenta, these Mammals are regarded as forming a subclass of equal rank with the Placentals or Eutherians, and are spoken of as Implacentals or Metatherians ; the latter term indicating their lower position, as compared with the Eutherian, or highest Mammals. The Placental, or Eutherian Mammals are, as we have seen, divided into numerous orders ; and it may be thought that similar divisions could be instituted among the Implacentals or Metatherians. It happens, however, so far at least as existing forms are concerned, that this is not the case; but so as to render our classification symmetrical, it is necessary to have a name for the one order of Implacentals, the term Pouched Mammals, or Marsupials, has been selected, and we shall speak of these Mammals under either of these terms ; it must, however, be constantly borne in mind that they also have the higher designation of Implacentals, or Metatherians, ranking with the term Placentals, or Eutherians. In addition to the primary distinction of the absence of a placenta, the Pouched Mammals present certain other more or less distinctive peculiarities. Mention has already been made of the general presence of a pouch, or marsupium, in which the abdominally-placed teats of the female are concealed ; and to this it may be added that, with the single exception of the thylacine, the front brim of the pelvis always has a pair of divergent splint-like bones projecting forwards in the form of the letter V. These so-called marsupial bones shown in all our figures of the skeletons of this group were originally considered to be for the purpose of affording support to the pouch ; but this view is discredited by their presence in both sexes. A peculiarity of the skull of all Pouched Mammals save one, is that the so-called angle, or lower posterior projection of the lower jaw, is more or less bent inwards, or inflected, as seen in the figure of the skull of Gray's rat-kangaroo, given in the sequel. This peculiarity is not, however, distinctive of the order, since it also occurs in some of the Insectivores. The skull of every marsupial is further characterised by the presence of larger or smaller vacuities, or unossified spaces, in the bony palate. As regards their brains, it may be observed that all the Pouched Mammals display a low grade of organisation; the whole brain being small in proportion to the size of the body, while the foldings on the surface of its hemispheres are never of a very complex nature, and only developed at all in the largest members of the order. The reproductive organs of the female are likewise constructed after a lowly fashion; the oviducts always remaining perfectly separate from one another, and never uniting, as they do in so many of the Eutherian Mammals, to form a common chamber, or womb. Certain peculiarities connected with the number and mode of replacement of the teeth also aid in distinguishing marsupials from other Mammals. In the first place, as shown in the figure of the skull of the Tasmanian devil given later on, there may be more than three pairs of front or GENERAL CHARACTERS. 237 incisor teeth in the upper jaw ; and in such cases the number of pairs of these teeth in the upper jaw always exceeds those in the lower by one. More important is the circumstance that but a single tooth on each side of both the upper and lower jaw ever has a milk predecessor. This tooth, marked pin in the accompanying figure, corresponds to the fourth or last premolar of the dog (Vol. I. t p. 10); and consequently all the four teeth behind it are molars. Now, as we have already seen, it is but very rarely that there are more than three of these molars in Placental Mammals, whereas in the present order there are nearly always at least four. JAWS AND TEETH OF THE RUFOUS On the other hand, there are never more than BAT-KANGAROO. three premolar teeth, which in the adult of The letters i indicate the front or incisor teeth ; some forms, as in the figure, may be reduced ^^otT ?***' to one. It may be added that, according to recent researches, all the teeth in advance of the last premolar appear to represent the milk-series of the higher Mammals, which are here permanently retained. Mode of The fact that the new-born young of the Pouched Mammals, when suckling Young. fi rs ^ transferred to the teats of the mother, are little more than mere animated lumps of flesh, renders it imperative that some special arrangement should be made for their nutrition, as they are quite incapable of sucking by themselves. For this purpose the mammary gland of the female is overlain by certain specially-developed muscles, the periodical contraction of which injects a supply of milk into the stomachs of the helpless young. In order to prevent the 3^oung marsupials from being choked during this injecting process, their throats are provided with an arrangement similar to that obtaining permanently in the Cetaceans. That is to say, the larynx, or upper terminal expansion of the wind- pipe, is prolonged upwards so as to extend into the hinder aperture of the nostrils at the back of the palate ; and consequently there is a closed tube from the nostrils to the lungs, on either side of which the milk can flow without danger of choking the young animal. When there is no longer any necessity for this special arrange- ment, the larynx is shortened, and respiration and swallowing are carried on after the usual manner. It may be added, that in the Pouched Mammals the teats are confined to the region of the abdomen, and that the number of teats is frequently greater than that of the young. Such teats as have been in use may always be recognised by their great elongation, owing to the weight of the young suspended from them. Geographical With the exception of the opossums, which are confined to Distribution. America, and are most numerously represented in the southern half of that continent, the living representatives of the order are restricted to Australia, New Guinea, and the adjacent islands as far west as Celebes and Lombok. Exclusive of the Egg-laying Mammals, the Marsupials form almost the whole Mammalian fauna of Australia, where the chief other types are certain Rodents and Bats. In the more western islands they are, however, mingled with 238 POUCHED MAMMALS. Placental Mammals, thus showing that these islands have had some connection with those of the Malayan region. The channel separating Lombok and Celebes from Java and Borneo is, however, of much greater depth than those dividing the other islands ; and it may accordingly be inferred that any land- connection which formerly existed between the two groups must have been remote. In the Tertiary period opossums were distributed over a large portion of Europe ; and recent discoveries indicate the existence during the same epoch of marsupials allied to the Australian thylacine in South America. In the preceding Secondary period, as we shall show later on, Pouched Marsupials appear to have ranged over the whole world, and were then, together with Egg-laying Mammals, the chief, if not the sole representatives of the class. THE KANGAROOS AND THEIR ALLIES. Family MACEOPODIDJE. We commence our survey of the Pouched Mammals with their most aberrant and specialised representatives, or those commonly known as kangaroos, wallabies, rat -kangaroos, etc. And it may be mentioned here, that whereas kangaroos are very frequently spoken of as typical Marsupials, this is really very far from being the case. It is true that they con- form in all essential characteristics to the Marsupial type of structure ; but they have been specially modified for a particular kind of progression namely, leaping. This has profoundly modified their whole organisation, and rendered them some of the most specialised of all Mammals ; and they retain accordingly but little resemblance to what may be termed a typical, or generalised marsupial, such as a bandicoot, or thylacine. The kangaroos belong to a group or suborder of Marsupials characterised by the adaptation of their teeth to a vegetable diet. Thus the front, or incisor teeth, as shown in the figure on p. 239, are never more than three in number on each side of the jaws, and are usually three in the upper and one in the lower jaw ; while in all cases the innermost pair in each jaw are of large size, SKELETON OF KANGAROO. KANGAROOS. 2 39 and adapted for cutting. As a rule their upper canine teeth, or tusks, are small, or wanting; and this invariably holds good for those of the lower jaw. As regards their molar teeth, these are invariably characterised by having broad, flattened crowns, surmounted either by tubercles or transverse ridges, and adapted for the trituration of vegetable substances. The members of the kangaroo family vary greatly in size, and in the relative length of the hind-limbs, but they are collectively characterised as follows. In the upper jaw there are three pairs of incisor teeth, with sharp and cutting edges ; while the lower jaw is furnished with a large single pair inclining forwards, and sometimes biting against one another with a scissor-like action. The upper canine, or tusk, if present at all, is of small size, as in the accompanying figure ; while there is no corresponding lower tooth. In the adult the cheek- teeth are five in number on each side, of which the first is a premolar ; this condition obtaining in the figured skull. In young animals there are, however, SKULL OF LESUEUR - S RAT . K ANGAEOO. two milk -molars in place of this c , tusk, or canine tooth. premolar; the number of cheek-teeth then being six on each side. The molar teeth themselves may carry either a pair of transverse ridges, or four blunt tubercles. A characteristic feature of the family is to be found in the lower jaw, which has a deep pocket in the outer side of the hinder portion, communicating at its base by a large perforation with the canal on the inner side. The pocket is shown in the accompanying figure, but the communicating aperture is concealed by its outer wall. In all the members of the family the fore-limbs are short and feebly developed, with five complete digits. The hind-limbs, on the contrary, are very powerful, and more or less elongated. Usually they have but four toes, of which the one corre- sponding to the fourth in the typical series of five is much larger than either of the others, and terminates in a huge claw. The outermost toe is considerably smaller, but still stout. The two toes on the inner side of the large one, corre- sponding to the second and third of the typical series, are, however, reduced to small slender rods, lying parallel to one another, and enclosed in a common skin. These rudimental digits are of course useless in progression, and their aborted condition is technically known as syndactylism. The head, especially in the larger forms, is small in proportion to the body, and tapers towards the muzzle. Generally the tail is long, cylindrical, and tapering ; while it frequently aids in supporting the body, and may be prehensile. The female is provided with a large pouch, of which the aperture looks forwards. All the members of the kangaroo family are purely vegetable feeders, and are mainly confined to Australia and Tasmania, where, before the introduction of sheep and cattle, they took the place of the ruminants of other regions. They are divided into numerous genera, of which the first includes the true kangaroos and wallabies. 240 POUCHED MAMMALS. THE TRUE KANGAROOS AND WALLABIES. Genus Macropus. In the summer of the year 1770, when Captain Cook was refitting his vessel at the mouth of the Endeavour River in New South Wales, a party of his crew who had landed to procure food brought back reports of a strange animal of large size, which sat upright on its hind-limbs and tail, and progressed by a series of enormous leaps. Excitement among those on board was naturally raised to the highest pitch by this account especially as a naturalist, Sir Joseph Banks, was a member of the ex- pedition ; and soon after a specimen of the animal in ques- tion was killed. This creature was the one we now know by the name of the great grey kangaroo (Mac- ropus giganteus) ; and was the first member of the family which came fully under European notice, although one of the smaller forms from the Aru Islands had been partially made known as early as the year 1711. The name kangaroo, it may be observed, is said to be of Australian origin, although it appears to be now unknown to the natives. The kangaroos and wallabies, which include the largest members of the family, are characterised by the great length and powerful development of the hind-limbs as compared with the front pair ; and the enormous size of the tail, which is regularly tapering, and evenly covered with fur from end to end. In the hind-foot the claw of the fourth toe is enormously developed, and the first toe is wanting. The head is small, with an elongated and usually completely naked muzzle, and large upright ears. The females have four teats. The skull is characterised by its smooth and rounded contours, and the absence of any inflation in the bulla of the internal ear. The tusk in the upper jaw is minute, and shed at an early period; and the upper incisor teeth are of nearly equal length, and form a regular open curve. The lower incisor teeth have sharp inner edges capable of cutting against one another in a scissor-like manner; and the crowns of the molar teeth carry a pair of transverse ridges, which are nearly THE GEEAT GREY KANGAROO, WITH YOUNG IN POUCH. KANGAROOS. 241 always connected by a longitudinal bridge. The true kangaroos and wallabies comprise twenty -three living species, as well as several which are extinct; and they are found not only in Australia and New Guinea, but also in some of the islands to the eastward. While the larger species are as tall as a man, the smallest do not exceed the dimensions of a rabbit. They may be divided into three groups, distinguished by size, and partly also by coloration. Under the common title of true kangaroos may be included all True Kangaroos. . the larger forms, characterised by their generally uniform and sombre coloration, and their large and massive skulls, in which the hinder portion of the skull is well ossified. The best known of all the species is the great grey kangaroo (M. giganteus) the " boomer," " old man," or " forester " of the colonists, to which allusion has been already made, and which is represented in the figure on p. 240. A full-grown male will measure 63 inches from the tip of the nose to the root of the tail, the length of the tail being 52 inches ; while the entire animal will weigh some 200 Ibs. This species is of rather slender and graceful build, with soft woolly hair, which is greyish brown above, and nearly white beneath on the under-parts and limbs, without any white markings on the face. It is further characterised by the middle of the muzzle being hairy between the nostrils, and also by the shortness from back to front of the permanent premolar tooth. It is an inhabitant of open plains, and is found over the great part of Australia and Tasmania. On the other hand, the red kangaroo (M. rufus), represented in our coloured Plate, and the antelopine kangaroo (M. antilopinus), together with certain allied species, are inhabitants of rocky districts, and have their muzzles completely naked, and the permanent premolar tooth of greater length from back to front. Their colours also may be more brilliant. The great red kangaroo is of slender build, with reddish coloured and very soft woolly fur, which corresponds to the under-fur of other species ; the face having light markings and a black streak. This species inhabits South and Eastern Australia. The antelopine kangaroo, from North Australia, is distinguished by its massive build, and heavy, clumsy head, as well as by its short, coarse, straight, reddish hair, without any under-fur, and the absence of face-markings. It is stated to attain a weight of from 120 to upwards of 170 Ibs. Another well-known species is the wallaroo (M. robustus), from Queensland, New South Wales, and South Australia, in which the fur is long and thick, and of smoky grey colour ; the build being also stout and heavy. Under the designation of large wallabies, or brush-kangaroos, Large Wallabies. . . , may be included a group of smaller and brighter coloured species, distinguished by the more incomplete ossification of the hinder part of the bony palate, and by the third incisor tooth of the upper jaw having a single distinct notch near the middle of the crown. All these species frequent dense scrub-jungle,, known in Australia as " brush " ; and their leaping powers are nearly as great MS those of the true kangaroos. One of the largest species is the red-necked wallaby (M. ruficollis), in which the length of the head and body may be as much as 41 inches, and that of the tail 31 inches. It occurs in New South Wales and Victoria, and is represented in Tasmania by a smaller variety known as Bennett's wallaby. Other well-known species are the black- tailed wallaby (M. ualabatus), VOL. in. 16 242 POUCHED MAMMALS. from New South Wales, Victoria, and Queensland ; Parry's wallaby (M. parryi), from mountain districts in Queensland and the north of New South Wales ; and the agile wallaby (M. agilis) of New Guinea, Queensland, and part of South Australia, distinguished from all the others by the uniform sandy colour of the short fur of the back, and the presence of a distinct white stripe on the hips. The " padamelon " wallaby of the colonists (M. theditis), which is very common in New South Wales and Victoria, and measures 26 inches from the muzzle to the root of the tail, is one of the best known representa- tives of the group of small wallabies, several of which are not larger than a rabbit. All the species are lightly built, with perfectly naked muzzles, and the outer incisor tooth smaller than in the last group. Their hinfl-f eet are also relatively shorter ; Small Wallabies. THE PADAMELON WALLABY ( nat. size). and their jumping powers, therefore, probably proportionately less. Thjs group has a wider distribution than either of the others, the Aru Island wallaby (M. brunii) the earliest known member of the family occurring in the islands from which it takes its name. Other well-known species are the rufous-bellied wallaby (M. billardieri), from South Australia, Victoria, and Tasmania ; and the small short-tailed wallaby (M. brachyurus), from Western Australia; the latter being remarkable for the shortness of its tail, and the small size of its ears. As already mentioned, all the kangaroos are exclusively vegetable feeders, the larger kinds browsing solely on grass and other herbage, while many of the smaller wallabies also eat roots. Although, when feeding, kangaroos occasionally move about in an awkward manner on four feet, their habitual position is the upright one, when they are supported by the hind-limbs aided by the tail ; and the whole structure of their skeleton is modified to suit Habits. KANGAROOS. 243 this position. Thus, as shown in the figure of the skeleton on p. 238, the bones of the lower leg (tibia and fibula) are immensely elongated, while the thigh-bone (femur) is comparatively short, and the narrow pelvis set very obliquely to the axis of the back-bone. Consequently, when the animal is resting in the usual position, with the whole of the foot applied to the ground, the knee-joint forms the summit of a solid support from which the whole body is suspended, as it were on pivots. The kangaroo can, however, raise itself so as to be supported only by the tips of the toes and the tail ; and when in this position is enabled to take a wide survey of the country, and thus to obtain early warning of approaching danger. " When running," says the Old Bushman, " it springs from the ground in an erect position, propelled by its powerful hind-legs and balanced by its tail, holding its short fore-arms well into the chest, after the manner of a professional runner. Thus it bounds lightly and easily along, clearing any obstacles, such as fallen trees, and even low fences, in its stride. I never fairly measured one of these strides or springs, but I am certain, when hard pressed, an ' old man,' or ' flying doe,' will clear nearly ten yards at a spring. The long tail materially assists them in running, and its measured thumps may be heard on the ground long before the kangaroo itself appears in sight in the thick forest. It is a curious fact, that a wounded kangaroo very often breaks "the hind-leg in struggling; and I once knew an ' old man ' snap the bone just above the hock, as short as a carrot, in taking a spring." In general habits, the writer continues, kangaroos much re- semble sheep and deer. " Timid and shy, their senses of sight, hearing, and smell are most acute. Like the hare, they appear to be unable to see an object directly in front of them when running ; at least I have often stood still and shot one down as it came running up to me in the open forest. They are very gregarious, and are always to be met with in smaller or larger droves. I have often seen as many as one hundred and fifty in a drove, and our general c mobs ' used to average fifty or sixty. After the rutting-season, the ' old men ' will often draw away from the ' mobs,' and retire by themselves to the thickest scrub. Each drove frequents a certain district, and has its own particular camping and feeding-grounds. The ' mobs ' do not appear to mix, and when the shooter once obtains a knowledge of the country, he has no difficulty in planting himself for a shot. Their camping- grounds are generally on some open timbered rise, and they have well-trodden runs from one ground to another. They feed early in the morning and at twilight, and I think also much at night. The kangaroo lies up by day, during the hot summer weather, in damp, thickly-scrubbed gullies ; in the winter, on dry, sandy rises. Here, unless disturbed, they will remain quiet for hours ; and it is a pretty sight to watch a ' mob ' camped up, some of them playing with each other, some quietly nibbling the young shrubs and grass, or basking in the sun half asleep on their sides. About Christmas the young ones appear to leave their mothers' sides, and congregate in ' mobs ' by themselves ; I have seen as many as fifty running together, and very pretty they looked." When on the move, kangaroos invariably follow a leader ; and when once started, it is impossible to divert a drove from the direction they have taken. Except during the pairing-season, when the males engage in fierce contests, these animals are as peaceful and harmless as sheep. When hard pressed, a kangaroo will take readily to the water ; and there is an 244 POUCHED MAMMALS. instance on record of one swimming across an arm of the sea two miles in width, half of the distance being against a strong wind and current. The writer just quoted states that the principal food of kangaroos " appears to be the tender sprouts of small shrubs and heather, quite as much as grass ; but there is a small kind of spike-grass, brown on the under-side, called the kangaroo- grass, to which they are very partial. They will also come at night into the small bush-enclosures, and nibble off the young blades of wheat, oats, etc." When feeding off the ground, they do not always use the fore-paws as a support, but often merely crouch down. Occasionally they may be seen in the upright position, browsing from trees. As regards breeding-habits, it appears that in the great grey kangaroo the pairing-season is either in January or February, although there is some irregularity in this respect. Only a single young is produced at a birth, after an exceedingly short period of gestation ; and when first transferred to the pouch of its mother, the length of the offspring is scarcely more than an inch. When the young kangaroo is sufficiently developed to move freely by itself, it becomes detached from the teat to which it at first adhered ; but it remains chiefly in the pouch till able to run by the side of its parent. " Even then, when danger is near, it tumbles head-over-heels into the pouch for protection ; and it is wonderful how quickly the old doe can pick up the 'joey' when running at full speed, and shove it into the pouch, its pretty little face always outside. There she carries it till hard pressed, when the love of life overcomes the love of the mother, and she then casts it away to save herself." The "joeys" become strong runners; and by Christmas, leave their parents and learn to shift for themselves. The half-dozen medium-sized species collectively known as rock- Rock-Wallabies. .... . . r . . wallabies, one or which is represented in the accompanying illustra- tion have the extremity of the muzzle completely naked, and differ from the true wallabies by the shortness of the claw of the fourth hind-toe, and also by the long cylindrical tail being thinner and more or less distinctly tufted at its extremity. None of them have any trace of a tusk in the upper jaw. The yellow-footed rock-wallaby (Petrogale xanthopus) that given in our figure is the largest species, and is distinguished from the rest by its brilliant coloration, more especially the alternate brown and pale yellow rings on the tail. The general colour of the long and silky fur is grey on the back, with a well-defined black streak running from between the long ears to the middle of the trunk. The cheeks are marked by an oblique white stripe below the eye, and by a yellow spot above the same. The ears are yellow externally, with their inner sides edged with white, except at the tips ; and the sides of the body are marked by a pure white stripe from the elbow to the hip. The chin and under-parts are also pure white ; and there is likewise a patch of the same colour on the outer side of the knee ; while the lower portions of the limbs, including the feet, are yellow. On the tail the rings occupy only the upper surface, the inferior aspect being uniformly yellowish. This species is restricted to South Australia. The common brush- tailed rock -wallaby (P. penicillata), from the coast districts of the eastern side of the continent, is more soberly coloured ; the general tint of the coarse hair being- dull brown, tending to rufous on the hind-quarters. In the male, the length of the head and body reaches 28 \ inches ; and that of the tail, exclusive of the hair WALLABIES. .245 nt the tip, 24 inches. The remaining four species are all smaller; the north- western short-eared rock-wallaby (P. brachyotis) being distinguished by the character from which it takes its name. The whole of the rock-wallabies are confined to continental Australia, and, as their name implies, frequent rocky districts, whereas the true wallabies are plain-dwelling animals. Their tails lack the stiffness of those of the latter, and appear to be used rather in balancing the body when leaping, than as a third support. The brush-tailed rock-wallaby, Spur-tailed Wallabies. YELLOW-FOOTED ROCK-WALLABY (fp nat. size). according to Gould, collects in large flocks, and forms regular well-beaten tracks on the mountain-sides. Three species of wallaby differ from all other mammals, with the single exception of the lion, in having the extreme tip of the tail furnished with a horny spur or nail, the use of which is at present unknown. They are further distinguished by the hairy muzzle, by the length and narrowness of the fourth toe of the hind-foot, and by the length of the tapering tail, on which the hair is short. The upper incisor teeth are relatively small, and decrease in size from the first to the third. They are all of moderate or small size, with short hair, and are some of the most graceful members of the family. The nail-tailed wallaby (Onychogale iinguifera) is of a general fawn-colour, and distinguished by the great length of the tail, and the large size of its terminal nail ; the length of the head and body being 26 inches, and that of the tail an inch more. It is a rare species 246 POUCHED MAMMALS. from North - Western and North - Central Australia. The bridled wallaby (0. frenata) and the crescent wallaby (0. lunata) are smaller species, with relatively shorter tails ; the former inhabiting Eastern, and the latter, which is not larger than a rabbit, West and South Australia. All the species appear to frequent rocky and arid districts. The hare-wallabies, so called from their resemblance in size, and in some respects appearance, to the common hare, likewise form a group of three species exclusively confined to Australia. They are characterised by the muzzle being partially or completely covered with hair, by the claw of the fourth toe of the hind-foot being long and not concealed by hair, while the tail is rather short and evenly furred, without either a brush of hair or a spur Hare-Wallabies. THE COMMON HARE-WALLABY (i- nat. size). at the tip. Their skulls are characterised by the shortness of the interval between the incisor and cheek-teeth; and by the inflation of the auditory bulla on the inferior surface the latter feature at once distinguishing these animals from the true wallabies. The upper tusk is always present ; and the incisor teeth in the same jaw are small. Our illustration represents the common hare-wallaby (Lagorchestes leporoides), from South Australia and New South Wales, which measures 19 J inches to the root of the tail ; and is clad in fur closely resembling that of the common hare in general colour. This species is fairly abundant in the open country of the interior, more especially near the Murray River. Its habits are in many respects very similar to those of the hare. The West Australian rufous hare-wallaby (L. hirsutus), distinguished by the ruddy tinge of the hair on the rump, and the absence of a black patch on the TREE-KANGAROOS. 247 elbow, appears to be very similar in its habits. In the north of the continent, and on some of the small adjacent islands, the genus is represented by the spectacled hare- wallaby (L. conspicillatus), distinguished by its broader and heavier muzzle, shorter ears, the rufous tinge round the eyes ; and the presence of two light bands on the flanks. Miiller's kangaroo (Dorcopsis muelleri} is one of a group of Dorca Kangaroos. r three Papuan species connecting the true kangaroos with the under- mentioned tree-kangaroos. They are medium-sized animals, the length of the head and body in Miiller's kangaroo being about four inches greater than in the brush-tailed rock- wallaby ; while in D. luctiwsa it is about as much less. These kangaroos differ from the forms hitherto noticed in that the hair on the nape of the neck is either completely or partially directed forwards ; while the dispro- portion between the fore and hind-limbs is very much less marked. The large and broad muzzle is devoid of hairs, the ears are small, the tail has an almost naked tip, and the claws of the hind-feet are not concealed by hair. The teeth are distinguished by the great length, from front to back, of the permanent preinolar in each jaw, which has a development similar to that which obtains in the potoroos. There is a well-developed upper tusk ; and the molar teeth have low, rounded crowns, in which there is scarcely any trace of a longitudinal bridge connecting the two transverse ridges. Moreover, instead of converging at their extremities, the two series of cheek-teeth run nearly, or quite parallel. Miiller's kangaroo has short, close, and glossy fur, of a general uniform chocolate -brown ; but with a white stripe on the front of the hips, and the fore-arms and feet whitish. Externally this animal presents a remarkable resemblance to the Aru Island Wallaby (Macropus brunii). In the dense tropical forests of New Guinea and the north of ' Queensland are found tree-kangaroos ; and it is evident that these are specially modified types which have taken to this mode of life, and are in no way connected with the ancestral forms of the family. The tree-kangaroos are easily recognised by the general proportions of the two pairs of limbs to the body being normal : the length of the front pair being only slightly less than that of the hinder. The broad muzzle is only partially naked ; and the hair of the nape, and in one species that of the back also, is directed forwards. In the hind feet the claws of the united second and third toes are nearly as large as those of the others : the latter being curved. The tail is very long, and thickly furred. In the teeth, the permanent premolar is less elongated from front to back than in the last genus. Of the four well-defined representatives of the genus, the figured black tree-kangaroo of New Guinea (Dendrolagws ursinus) is characterised by its general black colour and whitish face : the length of the head and body of the female being 20J inches, and that of the tail 23 inches. On the other hand, the brown tree- kangaroo (D. inustus) of New Guinea, and the Queensland tree-kangaroo (D. lumholtzi), have the back greyish, and the face (and in the Queensland species the paws) black. Finally, Doria's tree-kangaroo (D. dorianus), of south-eastern New Guinea, differs from all the others in having the fur of the back directed forwards. Comparatively little is known of any of the species in their native haunts ; although it appears that the}' spend most of their time in the trees. Dr. 248 POUCHED MAMMALS. Guillemard, who had two of these animals alive on board ship, which he had captured in New Guinea, writes that the tree-kangaroo " is as yet a tyro in the art of climbing, performing this operation in the slowest and most awkward manner. Our pets, for instance, would take a full minute or more in ascending the back of a chair, but their hold is most secure ; and if we wished to pull them off, we had considerable difficulty in doing so, so tightly do they cling." It is added that the tail, although not actually prehensile, is pressed against the branches in climbing, and appears to be of considerable assistance. Of the Queensland species, THE BLACK TREE-KANGAROO (\ liat. size). locally known as the bungari, Dr. Lumholtz, its discoverer, writes that it frequents the densest and most inaccessible portions of the highest mountainous scrubs, where even the aborigines are scarcely able to penetrate. From the marks of its claws on the trees of the more open districts, the animal appeared to have been once common there, but is now nearly exterminated by the blacks. When disturbed, these kangaroos are stated to travel considerable distances ; and they are also reported by the blacks to be most commonly seen abroad on moonlight nights. Two or three are often found sleeping in the same tree ; and it is stated that they affect only one particular kind of tree, which grows to a considerable height. In rainy weather, lower trees are selected. RAT-KANGAROOS. 249 Banded Wailab (Lagostrophus fasciatus), of Western ' Australia, which is about the size of a hare, and is easily recognised by the dark transverse bands crossing the hind-quarters, forms the single re- presentative of a genus. It is specially characterised by the presence of long bristly hairs on the hind-feet, which completely conceal the claws. The muzzle is naked; and the ears are small and rounded. The skull is characterised by its narrow muzzle, and inflated auditory bulla ; while there is no tusk, the two series of upper incisor teeth meet in an angle, and the two halves of the lower jaw are welded together at their, union. These pretty little wallabies inhabit the scrub-jungle and the margins of swamps on the west coast of Australia and the small adjacent islands. On the islands they form tunnels beneath the dense bushes by gnawing off the lower branches on certain lines ; and they can only be beaten out from their cover by the aid of dogs. On the mainland they are said to skulk in the open like hares. The whole of the members of the family hitherto considered . ** form a single subfamily primarily characterised by the circumstance that the three incisor teeth of the upper jaw are of nearly equal height, while the tusk, or canine tooth, if present at all, is very minute. We now come to a second group or subfamily, including a number of small forms known as rat-kangaroos or potoroos, which differ in many important respects from the preceding. These creatures, none of which are larger than an ordinary rabbit, are characterised by having the first incisor tooth on each side of the upper jaw (as shown in the figures on pp. 237 and 239) considerably taller than either of the others, and narrow and curved in form ; while there is always a rather large and blunted upper tusk. Then, again, whereas in the preceding subfamily, with the exception of Mtiller's kangaroo and its allies, the permanent premolar tooth is comparatively short from front to back, in the group under consideration the same tooth, as shown in the aforesaid figures, is much elongated in this direction, and has a straight cutting- edge, and its two surfaces generally marked by vertical grooves and ridges. Sometimes, moreover, the same tooth may be bent slightly outwards, instead of forming a continuation of the line of the molars. The latter have blunt tubercles at their four angles, instead of complete transverse ridges; and the last of the series is, instead of being larger, always smaller than the one in front of it. The rat-kangaroos are further distinguished by their narrow fore-feet, in which the three middle toes are much longer than the other two, with long, narrow, and slightly-curved claws ; whereas in the broader front paws of the preceding group, the whole five toes are nearly equal in length, and have highly-curved claws. All the rat-kangaroos have small rounded ears, and long furry tails, of which the extremities are partially prehensile in some of the species. Externally, the rat- kangaroos cannot well be distinguished in general appearance from some of the smaller short-eared representatives of the preceding group ; and it is accordingly of prime importance that the foregoing distinctive characteristics should be thoroughly understood. The group comprises nine species, which are confined to Australia and Tasmania, and are divided into four genera. Common Rat- The common rat-kangaroo (Potorous tridactylus), that figured in Kangaroo. the illustration on the following page, may be taken as our representa- 250 POUCHED MAMMALS. tive of the first of the four genera. The distinctive characters of the genus being the long and slender form of the head, the few (three or four) perpendicular ridges on the permanent premolar tooth in both jaws, the shortness of the foot, the naked muzzle, and the rather large ears. In the skull the auditory bulla is somewhat swollen, and the unossified spaces in the palate are large. The figured species., which is the largest of its genus, is confined to Eastern Australia and Tasmania, and is variable both in size and colour ; the length is, however, frequently about 15 inches, exclusive of the tail. It is specially characterised by the great elonga- tion of the muzzle ; the general colour of the coarse, long, and straight hair being dark grizzled greyish brown, with a more or less marked tinge of rufous. The COMMON RAT-KANGAROO (i Iiat. size). West Australian P. gilberti is a smaller allied form ; while P. platyops, from the same side of the continent, is still smaller, and has a broader and shorter muzzle. Brush-tailed The brush-tailed rat-kangaroo (Bettongia penicillata), repre- Rat-Kangaroo. se nted in the figure on p. 251, appears to be the commonest and most widely spread of the group, and is one of four species having the following characteristics in common. The head is comparatively short and wide, with very small and rounded ears, and a naked muzzle ; the foot is elongated ; and the permanent premolar tooth (figure on p. 237) is characterised by its numerous (fourteen or fifteen) and slightly oblique ridges. The tail is thickly furred, with the hairs longer on the upper than on the lower surface, and somewhat prehensile. In the skull the auditory bulla is generally much swollen ; and the unossified spaces in the palate are large. The figured species is a somewhat smaller animal than the common rat-kangaroo ; and is characterised by the great development of the tuft of hair on the upper surface of the end of the tail, of which the under surface is brown. It inhabits nearly all Australia, but is replaced in Tasmania by the much larger jerboa-kangaroo (B. cuniculus), in which the tail-tuft is scarcely developed. Lesueur's rat-kangaroo (B. lesueuri), of which the skull is figured on p. 239, is a South and West Australian species distinguished from the one here figured by the small size of the tail-tuft, which is almost always white at the tip. RA T-KANGAROOS. 25' The plain rat-kangaroo (Caloprymnus campestris) of South Australia, differs from the foregoing by the naked portion of the muzzle extending somewhat less back- wardly on the nose, and the absence of any crest or tuft of hair on the tail ; and on these and other grounds it is made the type of a distinct genus. Rufous Rat- The largest member of the group is the rufous rat-kangaroo Kangaroo. (^Epyprymnus rufescens), of New South Wales, distinguished from all the others by the partially hairy muzzle, and the unusually broad and short head ; the tail being evenly furred. The permanent premolar tooth in each jaw has a medium number (seven to eight) of vertical ridges; and the skull is characterised by the absence of any unossified spaces on the palate, and the Habits. BRUSH-TAILED RAT-KANGAROO (| nat. size). unswollen auditory bulla. The head and body of this species may measure as much as 20 inches, and the tail about 4 inches less. The general colour of the long and soft fur is bright rusty red on the upper-parts, more or less pencilled with white ; while the under-parts are dirty white, and the ears black. Although the different groups of rat-kangaroos vary to a certain extent in habits, the whole of them agree in being nocturnal, and in feeding not only on leaves, grass, etc., but likewise on roots and bulbs, which are grubbed up with the fore-paws. They generally frequent scrub-jungle, and get up before the sportsman after the manner of rabbits. Usually but a single young is produced at a birth ; and, as appears to be the case with all Marsupials, there is not more than one birth during the year. In accordance with the reduced size of their hind-feet, the leaping powers of the common rat-kangaroo are less developed than those of the other genera. It is stated, indeed, that although these species habitually stand on their hind-limbs alone, when running they employ both pairs 252 POUCHED MAMMALS. of limbs in a kind of gallop. Moreover, they never kick out with their hind-legs after the manner of kangaroos and wallabies. The brush-tailed rat-kangaroo and its kindred employ their prehensile tails in carrying grass and other substances for the construction of their nests ; the extremity of the tail being curled downwards below the bundle. The nest, according to Mr. Gould, is made in a hollow specially dug in the ground for its reception ; and as its upper surface thus becomes level with the herbage, only the practised eyes of the blacks are able to detect its presence. During the day either one or two of these animals occupy a nest, in which they completely conceal themselves by dragging herbage over the entrance. Here they remain till evening, when they sally forth in quest of food. The rufous rat-kangaroo may either form a somewhat similaj nest beneath a fallen tree-trunk, or under the shelter of some low bush, or may repose during the day in a seat among the herbage like the " form " of a hare. On being pursued, this species runs for a short distance with great speed, but as it always takes shelter in hollow trunks it falls a prey to the blacks, by whom it is relished as food. Five-toed The rat-like little animal, scientifically known as Hypsiprym- Kangaroo. nodon moschatus, and which may be termed in popular language the five-toed kangaroo, is one of those connecting links so interesting to the evolutionist, but so extremely inconvenient to the systematic zoologist. This creature stands, indeed, almost exactly midway between the common rat-kangaroo and the phalangers, to be immediately mentioned ; although the kangaroo-like structure of its lower jaw has led to its being placed in the present family. The five-toed kangaroo is confined to Queensland, and is very nearly the size of a large rat, to which it also presents a general external resemblance. The body is clothed with close, crisp, velvety fur, of a grizzled rusty orange-grey colour ; the orange tinge being strongest on the back, and almost disappearing on the lighter under-parts. The head is sharply pointed, with rather large and nearly naked ears; and the tapering cylindrical black tail is likewise naked, and also scaly. The relative proportions of the fore and hind-limbs are not far removed from the ordinary mammalian type. The fore-paws are small, with five toes, each provided with a delicate claw ; and the hind-feet differ from those of all the other members of the family in having a first or " great " toe, in addition to the usual four. This first toe is clawless and opposable to the others, and is placed high up on the foot, near the heel ; the second and third toes, as in all the other members of the family, are slender and united in a common skin. The teeth generally resemble those of the rat-kangaroos, but the permanent premolar in each jaw is short from front to back, and is bent outwards from the line of the other teeth in the manner char- acteristic of the phalangers. The best description of the habits of the animal is the one given by Mr. P. Ramsay, who writes that the five-toed kangaroo " inhabits the dense and damp portions of the scrubs which fringe the rivers and clothe the sides of the coast- range in certain districts. The animal is by no means rare, yet, from its retiring habits, and the dense nature of the parts frequented by it, it is at all times difficult to obtain. Its habits are chiefly diurnal, and its actions when not dis- turbed by no means ungraceful; it progresses in much the same way as the rat-kangaroos, but procures its food by turning over the debris in the scrubs in PHALANGERS. 2 53 search of insects, worms, and tuberose roots, frequently eating the palm-berries, which it holds in its fore-paws after the manner of the phalangers, sitting up on its haunches, or sometimes digging the bandicoots. Seldom more than one or two are found together, unless accompanied by the young." It is added that, at least in some instances, there are two young at a birth ; and that the breeding-season is during the rains, which last from February to May. EXTINCT KANGAROO-LIKE MARSUPIALS. In addition to those of several of the existing species of kangaroos, wallabies, and rat-kangaroos, the caverns and superficial deposits of Australia contain numerous remains of kangaroos, or kangaroo-like types, some of which attained gigantic dimensions. One of these (Mac- Topiis titan) was allied to the great grey kangaroo, but of larger size; while others, as M. brehus, appear to have been gigantic wallabies, with skulls of as much as a foot in length. Other species, distinguished by the characters of their permanent premolar teeth, or by the bony union of the lower jaw, constitute extinct genera, which have been named Sthenurus, Procoptodon, and the Palorchestes ; the skull of the single representa- tive of the latter measuring upwards of 16 inches in length. All the above-mentioned types may be included in the Kangaroo family, but there were other forms which cannot be included in any existing group. Largest of these is the gigantic diprotodon, with a skull of about a yard in length, huge chisel-like first upper incisor teeth, and no perforation in the side of the lower jaw. This creature, which must have been fully as large as the largest rhinoceros, evidently walked on all four limbs in the ordinary manner. Another allied but somewhat smaller animal was the notothere, characterised by its extremely short skull ; it appears to have been to some extent intermediate between the kangaroos and the wombats. THE PHALANGES TRIBE. Family PHALANGERIDJE. Under the general term of phalangers a name referring to the union of the second and third toes of the hind-foot may be included a large number of small SKULL OF AN EXTINCT KANGAROO-LIKE ANIMAL (THE DIPROTODON). After Sir K. Owen. 254 POUCHED MAMMALS. or medium-sized Australasian marsupials of arboreal habits, which are so closely connected with the kangaroo tribe through the five-toed kangaroo as to render the distinction between the two families a matter of some difficulty. The whole of these animals are characterised by their thick, woolly coats ; and, with the single exception of the koala, they have long tails, which are frequently endowed with the power of prehension. The fore and hind -limbs instead of presenting the disproportionate relative lengths characterising most of the kangaroos, are of the normal proportions ; and the front paws are provided with five nearly equal-sized and clawed toes. The structure of the hind-feet is essentially the same as in the five-toed kangaroo ; that is to say, there is a nailless first toe which can be opposed to the others, while^the second and third are slender and enclosed in a common skin. Whereas, however, in the five-toed kangaroos the fourth toe is much longer and more powerful than all the others, in the phalangers it is not much larger than the fifth. The whole group differs from the kangaroos in the absence of any pit on the outer sides of the hinder portion of the lower jaw, as shown in the accompanying figure of the skeleton ; while if there is any perforation in this portion of the jaw, it is extremely minute. As regards the dentition, there are always three pairs of upper incisor teeth, of which the first is elongated, and likewise a SKELETON AND JAWS OF PHALANGEE. Well - de Veloped tusk OF Canine J while in the lower jaw the single functional pair of incisors are large and pointed, although they lack the scissor-like action characterising those of the kangaroos. In the adults there are usually five functional cheek-teeth, of which the last four are molars, and the other the permanent premolar. The premolar in each jaw has a tall cutting crown, set obliquely to the line of the molars ; while the latter, of which the fourth may be absent, have usually blunt tubercles on their crowns, although they may be of a cutting type. In young animals there are two milk -molars in advance of the first molar in each jaw ; and between the first of these and the functional front teeth there occur several minute teeth in each jaw, very variable in number and quite useless, which it is impossible to name correctly, several of these rudimentary teeth usually persisting throughout life. While some of the phalangers are mainly or exclusively herbivorous, others are more or less omnivorous ; and it is in this family alone among Marsupials that we meet with species endowed with the power of spurious flight. Long-snouted The elegant little creature known as the long-snouted phalanger Phalanger. (Tarsipes rostratus), may be compared in form and size to the com- mon shrew ; and is the sole representative of a special subfamily of the phalangers. In spite, however, of this superficial resemblance to a shrew, the creature is a true marsupial, the female having a well-developed pouch for the young. Externally, the most characteristic feature of this animal is the extremely long and pointed muzzle, in which the opening of the mouth is very small. From this tiny mouth PHALANGERS. 255 can be protruded at will a long, slender, and highly extensile tongue, sharply pointed at its extremity. The rather small ears are rounded and clothed with very short hairs ; and the beady black eyes are small and prominent. The feet are of the same general type as in the typical phalangers; but from the small size of their nails, which are mostly emb3dded in fleshy parts, they appear more adapted for grasping small twigs than for ascending tree-trunks. The tail slightly THE LONG-SNOUTED PHALANGER (5 liat. size). After Gould. exceeds the length of the head and body, and is cylindrical and tapering, with but a scanty clothing of extremely short hairs, and endowed with prehensile power. The fur is short, close, and somewhat coarse. The colour is subject to considerable individual variation, but its general tint is grey, more or less suffused with rusty red above and yellow beneath. A black line runs from the head along the middle of the back to the root of the tail ; and on either side of this line are two greyish bands, each bordered by a rusty brown stripe passing imperceptibly into the rufous of the flanks. The upper part of the head is brown, passing into 256 POUCHED MAMMALS. rufous on the sides of the face. Although the central pair of lower incisors are relatively large and well-developed, all the other teeth, of which the number is very variable, are simply conical, and placed at considerable intervals apart. This rudimentary condition of the teeth, together with the peculiar characters of the tongue and mouth, clearly indicate that the creature is a very specialised member of the family. The long-snouted phalanger is an inhabitant of Western Australia, where it is known to the natives as the tait. Although in some districts stated to be very rare, in others it appears to be far from uncommon ; its favourite resorts being low scrubby bushes. It is strictly nocturnal; and constructs its nests in the taller plants and shrubs, among the branches of which it climbs in search of its favourite food, honey. This food is procured by thrusting the long extensile tongue into the cups of the flowers ; and as nearly all the Australian flowering plants are honey-yielders, it is obtainable at all seasons. With the beautiful animals commonly known by the name of cuscus, one of which (Phalanger maculatus) is represented in the accompanying figure, we come to the first generic group of the typical phalanger^ which present the general characteristics noticed under the heading of the family. The members of the present genus are relatively large or medium-sized animals, with thick woolly coats and long prehensile tails, of which the terminal portion is completely naked. Their ears are short or of medium length, invariably covered with hair externally, and sometimes also on their inner surface. In the fore-feet the toes are of nearly equal length, and furnished with long, stout, and curved claws; while the soles of both fore and hind-feet are naked and striated, with several large and ill-defined fleshy pads. The crowns of the molar teeth have four cusps; of which the outer pair in those of the upper jaw are somewhat com- pressed from side to side. Altogether there are five different species of cuscus, mostly of about the size of a large cat ; and among these the spotted cuscus herewith figured is by far the handsomest. In the male of this species the ground-colour of the fur of the back is usually a dirty yellowish white, marked with numerous irregular blotchings of reddish brown and black ; the chin and under-parts being white, often tinged with yellow or red, and the head or limbs grey or reddish. There is, however, great individual variation, some specimens being almost uniformly grey or red. The smaller female (as shown on the right side of our figure) is generally of a uniform grey and black above, and white beneath, although sometimes red. A much more sober-hued animal is the black cuscus (P. ursinus), of Celebes, in which the fur is of a uniform black or dark brown colour, with the exception of that on the inside of the ears, which is white. With the exception of the spotted species, which ranges to North Australia, the cuscuses are mainly confined to the islands of the Indo-Malayan region, as far westwards as Celebes. Only the spotted cuscus and one other species are even found in New Guinea ; and they are the sole Old World Marsupials occurring to the westward of that island. The grey cuscus (P. orientalis), of Amboyna, Timor, and some of the smaller islands, was the first Australasian mammal known in Europe, having been discovered and described as far back as the year 1611. CUSCUSES. 257 All the species of cuscus are dull and sleepy creatures by day, but become more active at night, which is their chief feeding-time ; the comparatively large size of their eyes being in accordance with nocturnal habits. Mr. Wallace writes that these animals " live in trees, feeding upon the leaves, of which they devour large quantities. They move about slowly, and are difficult to kill, owing to the thickness of their fur, and their tenacity of life. A heavy charge of shot will THE SPOTTED cuscus ( nat. size). often lodge in the skin and do them no harm, and even breaking the spine or piercing the brain will not kill them for some hours. The natives everywhere eat their flesh, and as their motions are so slow, easily catch them by climbing, so that it is wonderful they have not been exterminated. It may be, however, that their dense woolly fur protects them from birds of prey, and the islands they live in are too thinly inhabited for man to be able to exterminate them." These animals appear to be nowhere common, and in most parts of their habitat are very rare. In addition to leaves and fruit, they will catch and eat birds and other small VOL. in. 17 258 POUCHED MAMMALS. animals, and are indeed reported to be more carnivorously inclined than any of the other members of the family. They frequent only forests containing large trees, and pass from the boughs of one tree to another after the manner of squirrels, sometimes swinging themselves by the tail in order to reach a branch which would otherwise be inaccessible. There are four teats in the pouch of the female, which usually contains from two to four young; and it is said that a female is never killed without at least one being in the pouch. So tightly do the young adhere to the nipples, that they cannot be torn away without causing blood to flow. The True The true phalangers (Trichosurus), of which there are two Phalangers. species, from Australia and Tasmania, where, in common with the members of the next genus, they are called opossu^ms, are readily distinguished from the cuscuses by the character of their tails. Thus, instead of being tapering and naked for about half its length, this appendage is thickly covered with bushy hair up to its very tip, which, together with a narrow line on the lower surface extending about a third of the length, is alone naked. The ears are more or less hairy behind ; and there is also hair on the hind -feet behind the heel. The relative lengths of the toes of the fore-feet are somewhat different from those obtaining in the cuscuses; and there is also a gland on the chest not found in the latter. The common phalanger (Trichosurus vulpecula) is one of the most abundant animals in Australia, where it is found everywhere in forest-regions, with the excep- tion of the Cape York peninsula; it is represented by a variety in Tasmania, Deriving its specific name from its general resemblance in size and form to a small fox, it is especially characterised by its comparatively long and narrow ears, in which the length considerably exceeds the width. In the ordinary form the general colour of the soft and close fur is grey above and yellowish white beneath ; the ears being white, and the tail black. In the larger and stouter-built Tasmanian variety the fur is longer, and of a more decided brown or rufous colour, with little or no white on the ears. The short-eared phalanger (T. caninus), of Queensland and New South Wales, comes very close to the latter variety, from which it differs by its short and rounded ears. While the common phalanger inhabits forests, the short-eared species frequents scrub-jungle; but in other respects the habits of the two are prob- ably very similar, both being purely nocturnal creatures. During the daytime the common species lies securely curled up in some hole in a giant gum-tree, but soon after sundown issues forth to prowl in search of food, and remains abroad until the laughing jackass commences its morning notes. Leaves especially those of the peppermint-gum constitute their chief food; but their diet is occasionally varied with the flesh of a bird. In their movements among the forest trees they are very nimble ; and they are much aided in their evolutions by their highly prehensile tails. They utter, especially during the pairing- season, a loud, chattering cry, which echoes far through the forest stillness. The female phalanger gives birth to one or two young, which are retained for a long period in the pouch, but afterwards cling to the back of their parent till able to shift for themselves. Crescent-Toothed Very similar in external appearance to the true phalangers are a Phalangers. g rou p of ten species, which, from the peculiar structure of their PHALANGERS. 2 59 molars may be termed crescent -toothed phalangers. Externally they differ from the preceding group by the tail being tapering, and having shorter hair on its terminal third and under surface than elsewhere, with the lower surface of the tip naked for a short distance. There is, moreover, no gland on the chest ; and the two inner toes of the front paw are very markedly opposable to the other three. In addition to certain features in the skull, these phalangers are readily distinguished from the last by having the whole four cusps on their upper molar teeth distinctly crescent-shaped ; thus simulating those of the ancestors of the Ruminant Ungulates. These phalangers inhabit Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea; and are divided into two groups each containing five species. In the first group, as represented COMMON PHALANGER. by the Herbert River phalanger (Pseudochirus herbertensis), and the widely spread ring-tailed phalanger (P. peregrinus), first discovered by Captain Cook, the ears are of medium length, and longer than broad, while the tail is tipped with white. This group is confined to Australia and Tasmania. In the second group, on the other hand, the ears are very short, and wider than long ; while, with one exception, the tail is not white at the tip. The exceptional species is Archer's phalanger (P. archeri), of Queensland, which is the only representative of the group found of New Guinea. Consequently, all the Australian crescent-toothed phalangers are distinguished from those of Papua by their white tail-tips. Great Flying- The flying representatives of this family belong to three groups, Phalanger. severally allied to as many non-volant types. The largest of these forms is the great or taguan flying-phalanger (Petauroides volans), of Queensland' and Victoria, which is the sole representative of its genus, and appears indeed to be nothing more than a crescent-toothed phalanger which has acquired a flying- 2 6o POUCHED MAMMALS. membrane ; being like it in skull and teeth, while the tail, which is prehensile, is similarly naked on the under surface of the tip. The flying-membrane extends from the wrist to the ankle, but is reduced to a narrow strip on the fore-arm and lower leg. In size this species may measure as much as 20 inches to the root of the tail. It is characterised by its large and thickly-haired ears and long silky coat ; its general colour being blackish brown with white beneath. striped The striped phalanger (Dactylopsila trivirgata), ranging from Phalanger. New Guinea to Queensland, together with a second Papuan species (D. palpator), represent a non-flying genus, agreeing with the two last in having the under surface of the tip of the tail naked, but distinguished by having the fourth toe of the fore-foot much longer than either of the others. These phalangers, which are of medium size, are, moreover, easily distinguished from their kindred by the back being ornamented with broad longitudinal stripes of black and white. Although nothing definite is known as to their habits, it is probable that the elongated fourth digit of the fore-paw is for the purpose of extracting insects and grubs from beneath the bark, or out of holes in trees. True Flying- The true flying-phalangers (Petaurus), of which there are two Phalangers. exclusively Australian species, and one common to Australia and New Guinea, are small or medium-sized forms, closely allied to Leadbeater's phalanger, noticed below. They are readily distinguished from the preceding groups by the tail being evenly bushy to its extreme tip, without any naked portion, and not prehensile. The flying-membrane is broad, and extends from the outermost toe of the fore-foot to the ankle. The best known species is the squirrel flying- phalanger (Petaurus sciureus) the sugar-squirrel of the colonists which is the one represented in our illustration. It is confined to Eastern Australia. The length of the head and body in this pretty little animal is about 9 inches, and that of the tail rather more. The ears are of medium length, the tail extremely bushy, especially near its root, and the fur very soft. The general colour is a delicate ashy grey ; but a longitudinal black band commencing near the nose runs down the back, to stop short of the root of the tail. The eyes are ringed with black ; the ears are black at the base externally but white at the hinder angle ; the cheeks are white, save for a black patch immediately below the ear; while the chin, under-parts, and edges of the flying-membrane are also white. The tip of the tail is black, and there is a black line on each side of the flying-membrane internally to the white margin. The following excellent account of the habits of the yellow flying-phalanger (P. australis), from mountain districts in New South Wales and Victoria, is given by Gould, who says that "this animal is common in all the bushes of New South Wales, particularly in those which stretch along the coast from Port Phillip to Moreton Bay. In these vast forests trees of one kind or another are perpetually flowering, and thus offer a never-failing supply of the blossoms upon which it feeds ; the flowers of the various kinds of gums (eucalyptus), some of which are of great magnitude, being the principal favourites. Like the rest of its genus, it is nocturnal in its habits, dwelling in holes and in the sprouts of the larger branches during the day, and displaying the greatest activity at night while running over the small leafy branches, frequently even to their very PHALANGERS. 261 extremities, in search of insects and the honey of the newly-opened blossoms. Its structure being ill-adapted for terrestrial habits, it seldom descends to the ground except for the purpose of passing to a tree too distant to be reached by flight. When chased or forced to flight, it ascends to the highest branch and performs the most enormous leaps, sweeping from tree to tree with wonderful address ; a slight ascent gives its body an impetus which, with the expansion of its membrane, enables it to pass to a considerable distance, always ascending a little at the extremity of the leap ; by this ascent the animal is prevented from receiving the shock it would otherwise sustain." SQUIRREL FLYING-PHALANGER (J nat. Size) Leadbeater's The little Leadbeater's phalanger (Gymnobelideus leadbeateri), Phaianger. which is rather smaller than the lesser flying squirrel, is of interest as being apparently a representative of the parent form from which the true flying squirrels were derived. This animal may, indeed, be concisely described as a flying squirrel, minus the flying-membrane. It is an inhabitant of Victoria. Dormouse- The dormouse-phalangers, of which there are four species from Phaiangers. Western Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea, are small creatures somewhat resembling dormice in general appearance, and readily distinguished by their cylindrical mouse-like tails, which are covered with fur at the base, then scaly for the greater part of their length, but naked and prehensile at the tip. In the smallest species (Dromicia concinna) the length of the head and body may be 262 POUCHED MAMMALS. less than 2J inches, while the tail is slightly longer. They are all nocturnal and arboreal in their habits ; one of the species being stated to conceal itself during the day beneath the loose bark of large gum-trees. They feed upon honey and young shoots of grass, and probably also insects. Pigmy Flying- One of the smallest and at the same time the most elegant of Phalanger. mammals is the exquisite little creature commonly known as the pigmy flying-phalanger (Acrobates pygmcea), in which the length of the head and body only slightly exceeds 2 J inches ; that of the tail being somewhat more. This phalanger is readily distinguished from those yet noticed by the long hairs on the tail being arranged in two opposite fringes like the vanes of a feather. The general build of the animal is extremely light and delicate ; the flying-membrane is very narrow, extending from the elbow to the flank, where it almost disappears, and thence to the knee ; while the toes are furnished with expanded pads at their tips, PIGMY FLYING-PHALANGER (nat. size). The fur is long, soft, and silky ; its general colour on the upper-parts being brownish grey ; while on the margins of the flying-membrane and beneath, together with the inner sides of the limbs, it is white. The teeth are sharp, and apparently adapted for an insectivorous diet. In spite of its diminutive proportions, the female has a well-developed pouch containing four nipples ; but it is difficult to imagine the minuteness which must necessarily characterise the newly-born young. The pigmy fly ing -phalanger is confined to Queensland, New South Wales, and Victoria ; and is reported to be very abundant in the neighbourhood of Port Jackson. Its food consists of honey and insects ; and its agility in leaping from branch to branch is described as little short of marvellous. Pen-Tailed The little pen-tailed phalanger (Distcechurus pennatus), of New Phalanger. Guinea, has precisely the same relation to the preceding animal as is KOALA. 263 Koala. presented by Leadbeater's phalanger to the members of the genus Petaurus, being in fact a pigmy fly ing -phalanger without the parachute. The foot-pads are. however, wanting. The general appearance of the animal is very dormouse-like , the head being ornamented with stripes of white and dark brown, while the fur of the body is uniformly buff. This curious and somewhat bear-like creature is an aberrant member of the family, constituting not only a distinct genus but likewise a separate subfamily by itself. To the natives it is known by the name of koala, while by the colonists it is generally termed the native bear; its scientific title being Phascolarctus cinereus. The koala has been compared in size to a large poodle dog, the length of the head and body being about 24 inches. It is a heavily-built animal, differing from all the other members of the family in the absence of any external tail, and also readily recognised by its large, squared, and thickly-fringed ears. The fur is extremely thick, woolly, and THE KOALA ( nat. size). moderately soft; its general colour on the upper-parts being ashy grey, with a tinge of brown, but becoming yellowish white on the hind-quarters, while the under-parts are whitish. All the feet are provided with long claws, and the two innermost toes of the fore-feet are completely opposable to the remaining three. A peculiarity of the koala is the possession of pouches in the cheeks for storing food ; while the dentition differs from that of the typical phalangers in the absence of the minute rudimentary teeth referred to above. The upper molar teeth have very short and broad crowns, somewhat resembling, in the structure of their tubercles, those of the crescent-toothed phalangers. In its internal organisation the koala approximates to the wombats. Habits ^ ne koala i g confined to Eastern Australia, where it ranges from Queensland to Victoria. Like the other members of the family it is 264 POUCHED MAMMALS, chiefly arboreal, moving awkwardly when on the ground, and when pursued always endeavouring to gain a tree with all possible speed. Its movements are usually comparatively slow and sluggish, and, although mainly nocturnal, it may not unfrequently be seen abroad in the daytime. Koalas are generally found in pairs : and spend the day either high up on the tree-tops or in hollow logs. They are purely herbivorous, and subsist chiefly on the leaves of the blue gum-tree, although at night they descend to the ground in order to dig for roots. In the evenings these animals slowly creep along the boughs of the giant gums, the females often having a solitary cub perched on their backs. When irritated or disturbed, the koala utters a loud cry, variously described as a hoarse groan, and a shrill yell. Giant Extinct The superficial deposits of Australia have yielded evidence of Phaianger. the former existence in that country of a phalanger (Thylacoleo carnifex) far exceeding any of the living forms in point of size, and remarkable for the exceedingly specialised character of its dentition. The functional teeth, as shown in the accompanying figure of the skull, were, indeed, reduced to a pair of large incisors, and a single elongated cut- ting premolar on each side of both the upper and lower jaws; the latter tooth evidently corresponding to the permanent premolar of the rat - kangaroos (see the figure on p. 237). Such other teeth as remain were small, and of no functional importance. The skull is unique among Marsupials in that the sockets of the eyes SKULL OF THE GIANT EXTINCT - n . . PHALANGER (j nat. size). are completely surrounded by bone. This huge phalanger received its technical names on the supposition that it was of purely carnivorous habits ; but from the resemblance of its dentition to that of the existing members of the family, it seems more probable that its diet was mainly of a vegetable nature. THE WOMBATS. Family PHASCOLOMYID^. i The wombats of Australia and Tasmania, where they are represented by three existing species all referable to the one genus Phascolomys, constitute the last family of the herbivorous Marsupials. These animals are of considerable size, and characterised externally by their massive build, short and flattened heads, broad flat backs, and extremely short and thick legs; their hind-feet being plantigrade. Their ears are small or of moderate size, and more or less pointed ; the eyes are small, and the tail is reduced to a mere stump. The fore-feet have five toes, of which the first and fifth are considerably shorter than the remaining three, all being furnished with powerful and somewhat curved nails. In the hind-feet the inner or " great " toe resembles that of the phalangers in being unprovided with a nail, although it cannot be opposed to the rest ; the others have strong curved nails and WOMBATS. 265 are of nearly equal length, but the second and third are relatively slender and partially united by skin, thus foreshadowing the " syndactylism " of the two fore- going families. The most distinctive feature of the wombats is, however, their dentition. The teeth, twenty-four in number, all grow uninterruptedly throughout life, and thus never develop roots. The incisors are reduced to a single pair in each jaw, these being exceed- ingly powerful chisel - shaped teeth, with enamel only on their front surfaces, thus resembling the incisors of Kodents. The cheek-teeth are five on each side, of which the first is a premolar, and separated by a long interval from the incisor. Each molar is much curved, and SKELETON OF WOMBAT. consists of two triangular prisms; but the premolar comprises but one such prism. It will thus be evident that, so far as their teeth are concerned, the wombats simulate the Rodents, to many of which they also approximate in habits. In general appearance these Marsupials are however, curiously like diminutive bears, as shown in the illustration on p. 266. Of the three species of the genus, the smallest is the Tasmanian wombat (P. ursinus), inhabiting Tasmania and the islands in Bass Strait. It is characterised by its small and somewhat rounded ears, the naked extremity of the muzzle, and the coarse and rough hair; the colour being uniform dark grizzled greyish brown. About one-fourth larger than this species is the common wombat (P. mitchelli), from New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia, in which the length of the head and body is about 30 inches, while the colour may vary from yellow, through yellow mingled with black, to nearly pure black. The third species is the hairy-nosed wombat (P. latifrons), from South Australia, intermediate in size between the other two, from which it differs by its longer and more pointed ears, hairy muzzle, and soft silky hair. All the three species seem to agree in their habits, and are exclusively herbivorous, living either in burrows excavated by them- selves, or in clefts and crannies of rocks. Like most Marsupials, they are exclusively nocturnal ; and their food consists of grass, other herbage, and roots. They walk with a peculiar shuffling gait ; and utter either a hissing sound or a short grunt when irritated. In disposition they are shy and gentle ; although their powerful incisor teeth are capable of inflicting severe bites. On the rare occasions that these animals are seen abroad in the daytime, they suffer themselves to be caught with ease, and often make no resistance after their capture. THE BANDICOOTS. Family PERAHELID^E. All the members of the preceding families are characterised by the presence of not more than three pairs of upper incisor teeth, and also by those of the lower jaw 2 66 POUCHED MAMMALS. being reduced to a single functional pair of large size, which are invariably inclined forwards. On account of this single pair of functional lower incisor teeth, they are collectively termed Diprotodonts. The upper canine or tusk is small in all the group, and the corresponding lower tooth absent or represented by a rudiment. On the other hand, in the remaining families of the order the incisor teeth, as shown in the woodcut on p. 268, are of a more normal type; that is to say, they are numerous, and the innermost pair is not greatly developed at the expense of the others. The tusks are large and prominent; and whereas in the Diprotodonts the molar teeth have broad and often squared crowns, surmounted TASMANIAN WOMBAT (ON THE LEFT) AND HAIRY-NOSED WOMBAT (ON THE EIGHT). ( nat size.) by transverse ridges or blunt tubercles, those of the present group have sharp cusps, and are generally more or less triangular in form, thus indicating a partially or wholly carnivorous diet. On account of the number of their lower incisor teeth, the name of Polyprotodonts has been suggested for this second great group of the Marsupials, which occupy the place in the order held by the Carnivores and Insectivores among the Placental Mammals. Instead of being restricted to the Australasian region, the Polyprotodonts are represented in America by the opossums ; while in former epochs they had apparently a world- wide distribution, and included some of the oldest mammals known. The bandicoots are small or medium - sized animals of fossorial habits, living either on insects or a mixed diet, and are readily characterised by the structure of their hind-feet. They have long and sharply pointed noses ; and the BANDICOOTS. 267 pouch is complete, with its opening directed towards the hinder end of the body. In the fore-feet the three middle toes, or two of them, are of nearly equal size and furnished with well-developed and somewhat curved claws, while the first and fifth toes are rudimentary or absent. The hind-feet are constructed on the same type as in the kangaroos ; the fourth toe being much larger than the others, while the second and third are small, slender, and united by skin, the first being rudimental or wanting. The terminal bones of the larger toes in both feet are peculiar among Marsupials in having their extremities cleft by a longitudinal slit, in the same manner as are those of the pangolins. As regards their dentition, the bandicoots are char- acterised by having either four or five pairs of incisor teeth in the upper jaw, and three in the lower ; while their upper molars are more squared than in the other families, with their cusps arranged in the form of the letter W. The similarity between the hind-feet of the bandicoots and the kangaroos is a very remarkable feature ; more especially if, as is now generally considered to be the case, this structure has been independently acquired in the two groups. The true bandicoots (Perameles), of which there are eleven species, are characterised by having the three middle toes of the fore-foot large and functional, and the first and fifth present, although small and nailless ; while on the hind-foot there is also a rudiment of the first toe. The ears, although variable, are never of enormous length, and the tapering cylindrical tail is devoid of a crest of hairs near its extremity. In all, the build is stout and clumsy, and there is no great disproportion between the fore and hind-limbs. The various species of bandicoots inhabit Australia and Papua; one of the best known being Gunn's bandicoot (P. gunni), from Tasmania. The length of the head and body in this creature is about 16 inches, and that of the tail 4 inches. It belongs to a group characterised by the ears being long and pointed, reaching as far as the eyes when turned forwards ; and also by the hinder-half of the sole of the foot being covered with hairs. The fur is soft, and of a general grizzled yellowish brown colour above, with four or more pale vertical bands, separated by dark brown intervals on the rump ; the chin and under -parts being white or yellowish white. The smaller short-nosed bandicoot (P. obesula), which is common to Australia and Tasmania, represents a second group, in which the ears are very short and rounded at the tip, the soles of the hind-feet completely naked, and the fur intermingled with short spines. These two groups are closely connected by the Papuan representatives of the genus. Bandicoots are the commonest of the Australian carnivorous Marsupials ; and are cordially detested by the colonists on account of the damage they do to gardens and cultivated fields. Omnivorous in their diet, consuming, with equal gusto, roots, bulbs, berries, fallen fruits, or other vegetable substances, as well as insects and worms, they are chiefly nocturnal, and pass the day either in holes or hollows or logs ; to which retreat they at once fly when pursued. In addition to their burrows, some of the species at least construct nests. Rabbit- The rabbit-bandicoot (Peragale lagotis), together with a closely Bandicoot, allied species, constitutes a genus readily distinguished by the enormous length of the ears, by the terminal half of the tail having a crest of long hairs on its upper surface, and by the great relative length of the hind-limbs, in 268 POUCHED MAMMALS. which all trace of the inner toe is wanting. The molar teeth are, moreover, curved; and in the type species have longer roots and shorter crowns than in the true bandicoots. The rabbit-bandicoot is about the size of an ordinary rabbit, and is clothed with fine silky hair of considerable length. The general colour of the upper-parts is pale grey, passing into rufous on the flanks, and becoming white beneath ; the feet, as well as the end of the tail, being white. Pig-Footed The pig-footed bandicoot (Chosropus castanotis) is a delicately - Bandicoot. built and rather small animal, measuring from 10 to 11 inches in length, exclusive of the short tail. It has long ears ; and a rather short but sharp muzzle, naked at the extreme tip ; but its most characteristic features are to be found in its feet. In the fore-limbs, which are much ghorter than the hinder-pair, the functional toes are reduced to the second and third, these being furnished with short, symmetrical, and slightly curved claws; while the first and fifth toes are absent, and the fourth represented merely by a small rudiment. In the long and slender hind-limbs the whole strength is concentrated in the long and stout fourth toe, the united second and third toes being very small, and the fourth altogether rudimentary. The fur is coarse and straight ; its general colour on the head and body being a uniform grizzled grey, with a tinge of fawn ; while the chin, chest, and under-parts are white, and the feet pale grey or white, with a yellowish tinge. This animal inhabits the greater part of Australia, with the exception of the extreme north, north-east, and east ; its favourite haunts being open grassy plains, where it constructs nests like those of the ordinary bandicoots. THE DASYURE TRIBE. Family DASYURID^E. Dasyures are distinguished from the members of the preceding family by having the second and third toes of the hind-foot perfectly separate from one another, and as well developed as the fourth and fifth; the first toe, if present at all, being small and without a claw. The dentition differs from that of most of the bandicoots in that there are four in place of five incisor teeth on each side of the upper jaw ; both groups having three pairs of these teeth in the lower jaw. In all the members of the family the fore and hind -limbs are of approximately equal length ; and the fore-feet have five well- i I i , -i -i 1 -j.1 i FRONT VIEW OF SKULL OF THE TASMANIAN DEVIL. developed toes, all armed with claws. (From Sir w H Flower? QuarL Journ , GeoL ^ vol . xxiv>) The tail, which may be either medium or long, is hairy, and without the power of prehension ; and the pouch, DASYURES. 269 when present, opens downwards and forwards. In the more typical forms the incisor teeth are small, and the tusks large, as shown in the figure on p. 268; the number of cheek-teeth being either six or seven on each side of both jaws. At the present day the family is confined to Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea, although in the Tertiary period it was represented in South America, where some of the extinct forms appear to have been very closely allied to the existing thylacine. While the larger species are purely carnivorous, catching and killing their own prey, the smaller representatives of the family are mainly insect-eaters. In structure these animals are the most generalised of all Marsupials, and come nearest to the extinct forms from the Secondary rocks. The largest of the carnivorous Marsupials is the animal com- monly known in Australia as the Tasmanian wolf, but better desig- nated the thylacine (Thylacinus cynocephalus). In appearance this creature is extraordinarily wolf-like ; and the unscientific observer would probably at first SKELETON OP THYLACINE. sight regard it as a member of the canine family. Nevertheless, the female has a well-developed pouch ; although the marsupial bones are wanting, being repre- sented merely by cartilages, of which the position is indicated by the * in the figure of the skeleton. In size the thylacine is rather smaller than the European wolf; from which it is readily distinguished externally by the tapering and thinly haired tail, as well as by the dark transverse stripes on the hinder part of the back and loins, and the shortness and closeness of the fur. The ground-colour of the fur is greyish brown, while the transverse bands are black. In the hind-foot the first toe is wanting ; and there are seven cheek-teeth on each side of the jaws. Tasmania is now the only habitat of the thylacine ; although remains of a species near akin to the living one are met with in the superficial deposits of the mainland. Like most Marsupials, the thylacine is mainly nocturnal. Its favourite haunts are caverns and clefts of rocks among the deep glens of the mountains in the more remote districts of Tasmania ; the settlers having nearly exterminated the animal from the more populated regions on account of the damage it inflicts on their flocks. 270 POUCHED MAMMALS. The animal rejoicing in the name of the Tasmanian devil Tasmanian Devil. . J . . . . ,. . . . (Sarcoph^lus ursinus) is the sole living representative or its genus. Like the thylacine, it has, however, an extinct cousin on the Australian mainland. The Tasmanian devil is an ugly and powerfully-built animal, with an exces- sively large head, terminating in a short and broad muzzle; its size being approximately that of the common badger. The ears are large and rounded on the outer side ; and the tail is of moderate length, and thickly, although evenly haired. As in the thylacine, the hind-foot has no trace of the first toe ; but, instead of being digitigrade, both fore and hind-feet are markedly plantigrade. The fur THE THYLACINE, OR TASMANIAN WOLF (^ nat. size). of the head and body is thick and close, with a large quantity of under-fur, which is nearly equal in length to the straight fur. In colour the fur is mainly black or blackish brown, but there is a white collar or patch on the throat, and a variable number of white spots on the neck, shoulders, and rump. The incisor teeth (as shown in the figure on p. 268) differ from those of the thylacine in that the outer- most pair are not markedly larger than the others ; while the cheek-teeth are six instead of seven in number, on each side, and are closely packed together, in place of being separated from one another by intervals. It is an even more exclusively nocturnal animal than the thylacine, being almost blinded if exposed to the rays of the sun, and passing the day coiled up in some dark and secluded lair, which may be either a natural cave or cleft among the rocks, or a burrow excavated by DASYURES. 271 the animal's powerful claws at the root of a tree. In its gait and movements it presents a considerable resemblance to a badger or small bear. Except those which are too large to be attacked, living creatures of all kinds whether vertebrate or invertebrate form the prey of the Tasmanian devil ; even sheep being destroyed in large numbers by these comparatively small marauders. Dag eg On the mainland of Australia the carnivorous Marsupials are represented by the civet-like dasyures, or native cats (Dasyurus), the largest of which are about equal in size to an ordinary cat. They have the same number of teeth as in the Tasmanian devil, but the cheek-teeth are less massive and powerful. The general form of the body is also much longer and more slender, and the tail more elongated; while in all cases the body is profusely spotted with white, upon a grey or brown ground-colour. The muzzle THE TASMANIAN DEVIL (^5 11 at. size). is sharp, the ears long, narrow, and pointed ; and the long tail evenly and thickly furred. In some of the species there is a rudiment of the first toe of the hind-foot. The dasyures, of which there are five species, are common to Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea. The largest is the spotted-tailed dasyure (D. r maculatus\ from Eastern and South -Eastern Australia, distinguished from the others by the tail being spotted as well as the body; but the best known species is the common dasyure (D. viverrinus), inhabiting both Australia and Tasmania. The dasyures are arboreal animals, and in habits resemble the martens, of which they appear to take the place in Australasia. They feed on small mammals, birds and their eggs, and probably also lizards and insects, and are especially destructive to poultry. Far more numerous than the dasyures are the smaller phascolo- gales (Phascologale), the largest of which is not bigger than a good- sized rat. They are distinguishable from the dasyures by the absence of white spots Phascologales. 272 POUCHED MAMMALS. on the fur, and by the presence of an additional premolar in each jaw, thus bringing up the number of cheek-teeth to seven on each side. The crowns of these teeth are more minutely cusped, and the canines relatively smaller than in the dasyures. The muzzle is rather long and pointed, the ears moderately rounded and nearly naked, and the feet short and broad; the hind-foot always having a distinct, although nailless, first toe. The long tail is subject to considerable variation in the different species, being in some cases bushy, in others furnished with a crest of hair, and in others nearly naked. The pouch is rudimentary, being represented merely by a few loose folds of skin. Probably these animals produce a larger number of young at a birth than any other Australasian Marsupials, seeing that in some species the number of teats may be as many as ten. There are altogeijier thirteen distinct species of the genus, distributed over Australia and New Guinea, and also ranging into the Aru Islands. Of these thirteen, nine are distinguished by the absence of any stripe down the back, and are mainly confined to Australia. This stripe is present in the remaining COMMON DASYURE (\ iiat. size). four, which are. exclusively Papuan. Of the two species figured here, the yellow- footed pouched-mouse (P. flavipes) is a small form, liable to considerable variation in point of size and colour, and inhabiting a large portion of Australia, although unknown in Tasmania. It belongs to a section of the first group, characterised by the tail being evenly covered with short hair. In general appearance it is a mouse- like creature, with close and rather crisp fur, of which the prevailing colour is clear grey more or less suffused with yellow or rufous. The under-parts, together with the feet, in the typical East Australian variety, are yellow; this colour sometimes deepening to rufous and spreading over the whole body. The variety inhabiting Western and Northern Australia differs in that the whole of the under- parts and limbs are more or less nearly pure white instead of yellow. The brush-tailed phascologale (P. penicillatcC) is a larger species, inhabiting the whole of Australia except the extreme north, although likewise unknown in Tasmania. It belongs to a section of the unstriped group, characterised by the extremity of the tail being evenly tufted on all sides. It is a more stoutly-built POUCHED MICE. 273 animal than the last, with short and coarse fur. The general colour of the upper-parts is pale grizzled grey, while the chin is white, and the lower surface of the body pale grey or white. The head is characterised by the large size of the ears, and the presence of a more or less indistinct black streak down the nose. These pretty little animals are arboreal and insectivorous in their habits ; and appear to fill the place in Australia occupied in the Oriental region by the placental tree-shrews, which they much resemble in general habits. All seek their insect-prey by climbing the boughs of trees ; and at least some make nests in the hollows of the trunks and branches. common The tiny creature, known as the common pouched-mouse (Smin- Poucned-Mouse. thopsis murina), constitutes, with three other nearly-allied species, a distinct genus, differing from the last by the extreme narrowness of the hind-foot, and also by the circumstance that the soles of the feet are covered with hair or granulated. This species measures 3 J inches in length to the root of the tail ; the YELLOW-FOOTED POUCHED-MOUSE (nat. size). length of the tail being a little less than 3 inches. The pouched-mice of this genus are confined to Australia and Tasmania ; and since they are terrestrial and insectiv- orous, they may be compared to the shrews among placental mammals. In all the pouch is well-developed ; and the number of teats varies from eight to ten. Jerboa The last and apparently the rarest of the typical section of the Pouched-Mouse, family is the jerboa pouched -mouse (Antechinomys laniger), from South Queensland and New South Wales, which constitutes a genus by itself. This little creature, which has much the appearance of a sharp-nosed jerboa, with very large oval ears, and a long tail, becoming bushy at the end, is distinguished from the members of the preceding genus by the great elongation of the hind- limbs, and the total absence of the first toe from the hind-foot. Its form is very slender and graceful ; and the soft and fine fur composed almost entirely of under- fur. The general colour is pale grizzled grey, with the chin and feet pure white, and the hairs of the under-parts grey at the base and white at the tips. The tail, of which the length considerably exceeds that of the head and body, is fawn- VOL. in. 18 274 POUCHED MAMMALS. Banded Anteater. coloured. This pouched-mouse inhabits open sandy districts, and is mainly if not exclusively terrestrial. It progresses by leaps like a jerboa, and is accompanied in its haunts by the placental jumping mice of the genus Hapalotis. One of the most curious and interesting of all the Australian Marsupials, is the little banded anteater (Myrmecobius fasciatus) ; which derives its special interest from the circumstance that it comes closer to some of the extinct Marsupials of the Secondary rocks of Europe than does any other living type. This animal, which may be compared in size to a squirrel, differs from the other members of the family in that there are more than seven cheek-teeth on each side of both the upper and lower jaws, and also in the tongue being elongated BRUSH-TAILED PHASCOLOGALE ( nat. size). and cylindrical, and thus capable of being protruded a long distance from the mouth. The banded anteater takes its name from the broad transverse bars of white on the dark ground-colour of the hinder-half of the back and loins ; the general hue of the fur of the upper-parts being dark chestnut-red, with the under surface of the body white, and a dark line running from the ear through the eye towards the nose. The fur itself is of a somewhat coarse and bristly nature. In form the animal is characterised by its long but broad head, and narrow, elongated muzzle, moderate-sized and somewhat pointed ears, elongated body, short limbs, and long bushy tail. In the fore-feet the first and fifth claws are considerably shorter than the others ; while in the hind-foot there is no external trace of the first toe. The banded anteater is one of the few Marsupials in which the female has no pouch ; the young, when first born, being merely concealed by the long hair of the belly as BANDED ANTEATER. 275 they cling to the teats (four in number). The teeth are all small, and are mostly separated from one another by distinct intervals; those of the cheek-series are JERBOA POUCHED-MOUSE (f nat. size). either eight or nine in number on each side of both the upper and lower jaw, thus making a total of either fifty-two or fifty-six teeth a greater number than in THE BANDED ANTEATER (J nat. size). any other existing members of the order. In many of the above-mentioned points this creature differs widely from all the other Dasyuridce, and there is considerable justification for the view that it ought to constitute a family by itself. The banded 2 7 6 POUCHED MAMMALS. UNDER SURFACE OF THE POUCHED-MOLE (| nat. size). After Stirling. anteater inhabits Western and Southern Australia, and lives mainly on the ground, although it will sometimes ascend trees. Its nutriment consists entirely of insects, and chiefly of ants and termites, which are collected by the long extensile tongue. Its favourite haunts are sandy regions, where there are numerous hollow tree-stems and ant-hills. THE POUCHED-MOLE. Family NOTORYCTID^. In general bodily conformation the pouched-mole (Notoryctes typhlops) is a mole-like creature, measuring about 5 inches in total length, and covered with long, soft and silky hair of a light fawn colour, deepen- ing in parts to golden. There are no external ears, and the eyes are represented merely by small black dots buried in the skin. The nose and upper lip are pro- tected by a peculiar quadrangular leathery shield, the use of which to a burrowing animal is sufficiently obvious. The short limbs, which are covered with hair down to the claws, are very remarkable in structure. Both pairs are of nearly equal length, powerfully made, and furnished with five toes. In the fore-paws the third and fourth toes are enormously enlarged and furnished with huge triangular claws of great power; while in the hinder-pair the first toe is small and furnished with a small claw, and the others decrease in size from the second to the fifth. The short, cylindrical, and stumpy tail is hard and leathery, and marked by a series of distinct rings. The pouch opens backwards, and contains two very small teats. The teeth are small and weak, and appear to be forty in number. Of these three pairs in each j aw are incisors, and seven are cheek-teeth ; the molars having triangular three-cusped crowns, and much refeembling those of the golden mole. This mole appears to be a very rare and locally distributed animal, restricted to the deserts of Northern South Australia, lying to the north-east of Lake Eyre. Here it inhabits flats and hills of red sand, upon which grow porcupine-grass (Triodia) and acacias. Dr. FEET OF THE POUCHED-MOLE (about f nat.. size). 1. Outer aspect of left fore-foot. 2. Profile view of same. 3. Inner aspect of same. 4. Upper surface of left hind-foot. 5. Palmar surface of same. After Stirling. OPOSSUMS. 277 Stirling,, by whom the marsupial mole was first made known to science, states that most of the specimens he obtained were "captured by the aboriginals, who, with their phenomenal powers of tracking, follow up their traces until they are caught. For this reason they can only be found with certainty after rain, which sets the surface of the sand and enables it to retain tracks that would be immediately obliterated where it is dry and loose. Xor are they found except during warm weather, so that the short period of semitropical summer rains appears to be the favourable time for their capture.'' Perpetual burrowing seems to be the characteristic trait of this animal. On " emerging from the sand, it travels on the surface for a few feet, at a slowish pace, with a peculiar sinuous motion, the belly much flat- tened against the ground, while it rests on the outsides of its fore-paws, which are thus doubled in under it. SKULL (1 and 2) AND SKELETON OF THE HIND (3) AND FORE (4) FEET OF THE POUCHED -MOLE (about nat. size). After Stirling. It leaves behind it a peculiar sinuous triple track, the outer impressions, more or less interrupted, being caused by the feet, and the central continuous line by the tail, which seems to be pressed down in the rear. It enters the sand obliquely, and travels underground either for a few feet or for many yards, not apparently reaching a depth of more than two or three inches, for whilst underground its progress can often be detected by a slight cracking or moving of the surface over its position. 5 ' THE OPOSSUMS. Family DlDELPHYID^. The last family of the existing Marsupials is constituted by the well-known opossums, which are now confined to America, although during the early portion of the Tertiary period they also ranged over Europe. Closely allied to the Australian Ddsyuridce, the opossums are mainly distinguished by the hind-foot having a well-developed inner toe, which, although nailless, is capable of being opposed to the other digits. They are further distinguished by the number of their incisor teeth, of which there are five pairs in the upper and three in the lower jaw. The tail is generally of considerable length, partially naked and prehensile at the extremity: and the feet are likewise devoid of any hairy covering. Although com- plete in a few of the species, the pouch is generally either wanting altogether, or represented merely by a couple of longitudinal folds in the skin of the abdomen, which partially conceal the numerous teats. As a rule, opossums may be compared in general outward appearance to rats, although they have longer snouts terminating 2 7 8 POUCHED MAMMALS, in a perfectly naked muzzle; while in the larger species the body becomes proportionately stouter. As regards habits, all the opossums, with the exception of the water-opossum, are arboreal, and omnivorous or insectivorous in their diet. They are nocturnal, and spend the day concealed either among the foliage of trees or in hollows in their trunks or boughs. The opossums take the place in America of the Insectivores of the Old World. They are naturally forest-loving animals; but a few are found on the pampas of Argentina, where they have adapted themselves to a terrestrial life. In those species in which the pouch is rudimental or wanting, the young after leaving the teats are carried upon the back of their female parent, where they maintain their position by curling thir tails round that of their mother, True Opossums. COMMON OPOSSUM ( nat. size). which is bent forwards for the purpose. Opossums are essentially characteristic of Central and South America, only one out of some twenty-four species ranging into North America, where it extends as far north as the United States. The true opossums, of which there are about twenty-four living species, are characterised by the absence of webbing between the toes, and by their arboreal habits. The common or Virginian opossum (Didelphys marsupialis) is the sole representative of the first group, and likewise the only species found in the northern half of America. It is from three to five times the size of any other species, and characterised by its long, scaly, prehensile tail, and by the * fur consisting of a mixture of long bristle-like hairs and a fine under -fur. It may be compared in size to a cat, the length of the head and body reaching 22 inches in large specimens, and that of the tail 15 inches. It is, however, subject to great variation both in size and colour, and on this account has received a number of distinct names, the common South American OPOSSUMS. 279 form being generally known as the crab-eating opossum. The general colour of the fur may, indeed, vary through all the intermediate shades from black to white, while the hair on the face shows an almost equal amount of variation, the northern forms being almost wholly white in this region, while those from the south are darker, and often nearly black. In all cases the pouch is complete; but the number of teats may vary from five to thirteen. The range of this widely-spread species includes the whole of temperate North America, and extends southwards through the tropical regions of the other PHILANDER OPOSSUM (| nat. size). half of the continent. In many parts it is one of the commonest animals, and may be met with even in towns, where it lies concealed during the day in drains and other lurking-places. Its diet is a mixed one, comprising fruits, roots, birds, and other small animals, eggs, and carrion ; and it is reported to be very destructive to poultry. With the aid of its prehensile tail, this opossum is- one of the most expert of climbing mammals ; and when caught, it has, in common with some of the other members of its genus, the habit of feigning death. Like so many marsupials, it is extremely tenacious of life. The young are born in the spring, and comprise from six to sixteen in a litter. They remain in the pouch till they 2 8o POUCHED MAMMALS. are about the size of a mouse, after which they venture abroad, although return- ing to its shelter for the purpose of being suckled or sheltering for a considerable time. The female exhibits the most marked attachment to her offspring, and endeavours by every means in her power to prevent her pouch from being opened. Rat-Tailed The rat- tailed opossum (D. nudicaudata) is a well-known Opossum. representative of the second group of the genus, which includes three medium-sized species, characterised by their short, close fur being of one kind only, and their long tails, which in two of the species are naked, although in the thick-tailed opossum (D. crassicaudata) the tail is hairy nearly to its tip. Although in the two species above-named the pouch is rudimental or absent, it is well-developed in the Quica opossum (D. opossum). Philander The philander (D. philander) and the woolly opossum Opossum. (J). lanigera) are easily distinguished from the members of the preceding group by the presence of a distinct brown streak running down the middle of the face. The pouch is represented merely by two longitudinal folds of skin. The philander attains a length of from 9J to 11 J inches to the root of the tail; the tail itself varying from 12 J to 15 inches. The fur is thick, soft, and woolly, and of a dull yellowish or rufous grey colour, with the face pale grey, save for the dark brown streak down the forehead, and similar dark areas round the eyes ; the under-parts being some shade of yellow. This species is restricted to Guiana and Brazil, but is replaced in most other parts of tropical South America by the somewhat larger woolly opossum. In both species, the young, which may be a dozen in number, are carried on the back of the mother, and it is marvellous with what rapidity the females when thus loaded manage to climb trees. The murine opossum (D. murina), ranging from Central Mexico ' to Brazil, may be taken as an example of the fourth group of the genus, in which all the species are small, with short, close hair, very long tails, and no dark streak down the middle of the face. The pouch is absent in all the group, In size the murine opossum may be compared to a common mouse ; the general colour of its fur being bright red. From their small size it may be inferred that all the opossums of this group live exclusively upon insects. Three-Striped The last group of the genus includes its smallest representatives, Opossum, among which the three-striped opossum (D. americana) of Brazil is conspicuous for its coloration. The whole ten species which constitute this group are shrew-like little creatures, easily recognised by their short and generally non- prehensile tails, which are less than half the length of the head and body. The three-striped species, which is by no means the smallest, measures from 4 to 5J inches to the root of the tail; while the length of the tail is rather less than 2J inches. Its general colour is reddish grey, with three black bands running down the back. Another species (D. unistriata) has a single dark line down the back ; but in nearly all the others the colour is uniform. The smallest of all is the shrew-opossum (D. sorex), from Rio Grande do Sul, in which the length of the head and body is less than 3 inches. Water o ossum ^ e wa ^ er ~P ossum or yapock (Chironectes minima) differs from ' all the other members of the family in having the hind-toes webbed, and the presence of a large tubercle on the outer side of each fore-foot, giving the OPOSSUMS. 281 appearance of a sixth digit. This animal ranges from Guatemala to Brazil, and is distinguished by its peculiar coloration and aquatic habits. The fur is short and close, and the long tail naked and scaly for the greater part of its length. The head and body measure about 14 inches in length, and the tail about 15 J inches. The ground-colour of the fur is light grey, upon which there is a blackish brown stripe running down the middle of the back, and expanding into large blotches on the shoulders, the middle of the back, the loins, and rump. The face has also blackish markings, with an imperfect whitish crescent above the eyes; while there is a WATER-OPOSSUM (J nat. size). certain amount of the dark tint on the outer surfaces of the limbs, the under-parts being pure white. The female possesses a complete pouch. In habits the yapock closely resembles an otter, to which group of animals it was indeed referred by the earlier naturalists. Its food consists of crustaceans, small fish, and other aquatic animals. EXTINCT MARSUPIALS. From their low degree of organisation it would be expected that Marsupials are some of the oldest of mammals; and this expectation is borne out by the facts. So far as can be determined, no placental mammals are known to have 282 POUCHED MAMMALS. LOWER JAW OF TRICONODON (3 times nat. size). After Marsh. existed before the Tertiary period, that is to say, in the rocks lying below the London clay. The cretaceous rocks of North America, and the under- lying Jurassic or Oolitic rocks both of that continent and of Europe have, however, yielded a number of remains of small mammals which may be pretty confidently assigned to the Polyprotodont section of the present order. In one form, known as Triconodon, the molar teeth, of which there were four in the fully adult state, although only three are shown in the lower jaw here figured, are characterised by carrying three compressed cones arranged in a line one before the other; while the premolars, three in number, were simpler. The groove (g) seen on the inner side of the lower jaw, corresponds to one found in the banded anteater and a few other living Marsupials, but unknown in any other mammals. In a second type, as represented by Amiphi- lestes from the Stonesfield beds near Oxford, the cheek-teeth were much more numerous, and the molars less unlike the premolars. In the molar teeth the front and hind- cones were relatively smaller in proportion to the middle one than is the case in Triconodon ; and in the number and form of these teeth this early mammal comes exceedingly close to the living / "" Australian banded anteater. A third type is represented by jaws from the Purbeck rocks of Dorsetshire, known as Amblo- therium, closely allied to which is the jaw from America repre- sented in our third figure. Here the front and hind-cones have become twisted round to the inner side of the main cone, so that the crown of each molar forms a triangle, as in the living bandicoots and opossums. The number of the cheek-teeth is, however, much greater than in the latter, and thus indicates relationship with the banded anteater. LOWER JAW OF A MARSUPIAL (Amphilestes] FROM THE STONESFIELD SLATE (twice nat. size). LOWER JAW OF AN AMERICAN JURASSIC MAMMAL (twice nat. size). After Marsh. ECHIDNA WALKING. CHAPTER XXXVII. EGG-LAYING MAMMALS, OR MONOTREMES, Order MONOTREMATA. THE Australasian mammals, known as the duckbill and the echidnas, differ from the other members of the class not only in certain important structural points, but also by their young being hatched from eggs laid by the female parent. In their structural differences, and in their mode of reproduction, they resemble reptiles, although they agree with other mammals in that the young, when hatched, are suckled by milk secreted by the mother. Owing to these great differences, the Egg-laying Mammals, or Monotremes, as they are technically termed, constitute not only a distinct order (Monotremata) in the class, but form a separate subclass known as Prototherians (Prototheria). Consequently we find that Mammals are divided into three primary groups or subclasses, viz. : 1. EUTHERIANS, or PLACENTALS, containing the first nine orders. 2. METATHERIANS, or IMPLACENTALS, including the Pouched Mammals. 3. PROTOTHERIANS, represented only by the Egg-laying Mammals. These Egg-laying Mammals have no immediate relationship to Birds, but are closely allied to certain extinct orders of Reptiles and Amphibians; and the present representatives of the group are highly specialised creatures, and thus widely different from the original ancestral types of the Mammalian class, which we may fairly presume to have once existed as members of the Prototheria. Such ancestral types were doubtless furnished with a full series of teeth of a 284 EGG-LAYING MAMMALS. simple type of structure, and it is possible that certain imperfectly known mammals from the earliest Secondary rocks may turn out to be such missing links. In regard to the distinctive features of the Egg-laying Mammals as a subclass, it may be mentioned that they differ from all other members of the class in having but a single excretory aperture to the body ; whence their name of Monotremes is derived. Then, again, in their skeleton the shoulder-blade (scapula), instead of forming the sole support for the arm, is connected with the breast-bone (sternum) by another plate-like bone termed the metacoracoid, in advance of which is a third element known as the coracoid; the metacoracoid being always present in the lower Vertebrates. Another resemblance to Reptiles is found in the presence of a T-shaped bone overlying the breast-bone, and collar-bones (clavicles), and known SKELETON OF DUCKBILL. as the interclavicle ; such interclavicle being similar to that of lizards and certain other reptiles, and unknown among higher mammals. Another feature of these animals is connected with the milk -glands, which instead of opening by nipples or teats, communicate with the exterior by a number of small pores situated in a cup- like depression in the skin of the abdomen. Although there are many other peculiarities in the structure of these animals, if we add to the above that their brains are of an exceedingly low and simple type, and that their young are pro- duced from eggs, we shall not have much difficulty in understanding why they are referred by naturalists to a distinct subclass. It may be added that their skeletons possess " marsupial " bones similar to those of the Pouched Mammals. THE DUCKBILL. Family QRNITHoi&TNCHIDJB. The duckbill, or duck-billed platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus), derives its name from the duck-like bill forming the extremity of the head. In length the adult male duckbill measures from 18 to 20 inches from the tip of the beak to the extremity of the rather short tail. The muzzle is expanded and flattened, and has both the upper and lower jaws invested with a blackish naked beak not unlike that of a duck. This beak is bordered by a naked sensitive skin, forming a lappet-like fold at the base of the snout ; the nostrils being situated near its anterior extremity. The depressed and oval-shaped body is covered with short, close, and somewhat mole -like fur, comprising both longer hairs and a woolly under-fur; its usual colour being deep brown, becoming paler underneath. There are no external conchs to the ears ; and the eyes are small, and in the living state inconspicuous. The tail DUCKBILL. 285 is broad and somewhat flattened, with a coat of coarse hairs, which on the under surface become more or less worn off in old individuals. The short limbs have their feet more especially the front pair expanded and webbed for the purpose of swimming. Each foot has five complete toes furnished with strong nails ; but while in the fore- feet the web extends considerably beyond the extremities of the nails, in the hind-pair it reaches only to their bases. The extension of the web of the fore-feet might appear to be a hindrance in burrowing ; but this difficulty is avoided by the web being then folded back on the palm of the paw. The nails of the fore-foot are somewhat flattened and expanded, while those of the hind-foot are longer, narrower, and much curved. To the heel of the male is affixed a long, THE DUCKBILL (\ nat. size). horny spur, curving upwards and backwards, and nearly an inch in length. A canal traversing this spur, and opening near its summit, is connected with a gland on the leg, which appears to secrete a poisonous fluid. The tongue is small and non-extensile ; while the cheeks are provided with pouches of considerable size, doubtless used for storing food. If it be a fully adult specimen that we examine, it will be found that in lieu of teeth each jaw carries two pairs of horny plates, of which the more anterior are sharp and narrow, while those behind are broad and flattened. Between these plates the palate is thrown into a number of transverse wrinkles, like those in a duck. In young specimens, however, two or three pairs of cheek-teeth may be observed in the upper, and two pairs in the lower jaw ; most of these teeth being broadly quadrangular in form, with two cusps on one side, separated by a hollow from a longitudinal crenulated ridge on the other. As these teeth are gradually worn away by the sand taken into the mouth with the food, the horny plates grow up beneath and around them. 286 EGG-LAYING MAMMALS. till they are eventually shed. That the ancestors of the duckbill were provided with a full series of persistent teeth is thus evident. Distribution. The duckbill is restricted to Southern and Eastern Australia and and Habits. Tasmania, where it is fairly common in places suited to its habits. Thoroughly aquatic in their habits, and exclusively frequenting fresh waters, duckbills are remarkably shy creatures, and rarely seen, except at evening, when they come up to the top of the water, and look like so many black bottles floating on the surface, sinking down immediately if alarmed. By quietly watching the stream in the evening they may be easily shot, and they will readily take a bait on a hook. Although gregarious when in the water, these animals live in pairs in the burrows constructed in the banks ; their favourite haunts being where the streams expand into wide, still pools. In the banks of such sequestered spots are constructed their burrows ; each of which usually has one entrance opening beneath the water, and another above the water-level, hidden among the herbage growing on the bank. The burrow runs obliquely upwards from the water to a great distance sometimes as much as fifty feet into the bank ; and ends in a chamber, lined with grass and other substances, where the young are produced. Two eggs are laid at a time, enclosed in a strong, flexible, white shell, measuring about three-quarters of an inch in length, and two-thirds of that in diameter. They resemble the eggs of birds in the large size of their yolk, of which only a small portion goes to the formation of the embryo, while the remainder serves for its food. When first hatched, the young are blind and naked, with the beak very short, and its margins smooth and fleshy, thus forming a nearly circular mouth, well fitted to receive the milk ejected from the glands of the mother. The duckbill feeds on various small aquatic animals, such as insects, crustaceans, and worms, which it obtains by probing with its beak in the mud and sand near the banks; the food being first stored in the capacious cheek- pouches, and afterwards devoured at leisure. The large front paws are the chief agents in swimming and diving. On land these creatures move somewhat awkwardly, in a shuffling manner ; and when reposing in their nests curl them- selves up in a ball-like fashion. The aborigines capture the duckbill, by digging holes with sticks into the burrow from the ground above at distances from one another, until they light upon the terminal chamber. THE ECHIDNAS. Family The echidnas, or spiny anteaters, of which there are two species, representing as many genera, are widely different in appearance and structure from the duckbill, and have a more extensive distribution. Instead of mole-like fur, the echidnas have the upper surface of the head and body covered with a mixture of stiff hairs and short thick spines. The head is rather small and rounded, and has a long, slender, beak-like snout, covered with skin, at the extremity of which are situated the small nostrils. There are no external conchs to the ears ; but the eyes .are of fair size. The opening of the mouth is very small ; and the extensile tongue ECHIDNAS. 287 has the elongated cylindrical form characterising anteaters of all kinds. The skull is devoid of all traces of teeth, and remarkable for the slenderness of its lower jaw, and its generally bird-like form. Although there is nothing corre- sponding to the horny plates of the mouth of the duckbill, both the palate and the tongue are thickly beset with small spines. The body of the echidnas is remark- ably broad and depressed, with a sharp line of division between the spine-covered area of the back and the hairy under-parts. The tail is a mere stump ; and the short and sturdy limbs are armed with enormously powerful claws, varying in number from three to five on each foot. Although the front-feet are applied to the ground in the usual way, the hind-feet, in walking, have the claws turned outwards and backwards. The males resemble those of the duckbill in having a hollow spur at the back of the hind-foot, which is probably employed as a weapon in the contests between rival males during the breeding-season. The brain of the echidnas differs from that of the duckbill in that the surface is extensively convoluted. The common echidna (Echidna aculeata), is a variable species, found in Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea; and characterised by having five toes SKELETON OP ECHIDNA. on each foot, all provided with claws ; those on the fore-feet being broad, while the others are narrow and more curved. In length the beak is about equal to that of the remainder of the head ; and it is either straight or slightly turned upwards. The smallest variety inhabits Port Moresby, in New Guinea, and attains a length of about 14 inches ; its distinctive feature being the shortness of the spines on the back. The variety from the Australian mainland is larger, and the spines are of great length. Larger than either is the Tasmanian variety, in which the length may be 19 inches ; the very short spines on the back being partially or completely hidden by the fur, the dark brown hue of which is frequently relieved by a white spot on the chest ; while the beak is unusually short. The three-toed Echidna (Proechidna bruijnii), of North- Western New Guinea, is larger than any of these. Usually it has but three claws to each foot, but there is considerable variation in this respect, one specimen having five claws on the front, and four on the hind-feet. The beak is bent downwards, and attains a length equal to about double that of the rest of the head. The short spines are generally white, and the colour of the fur is dark brown or black, although the head may be almost white. Echidnas are fossorial and mainly nocturnal animals frequenting rocky 2 88 EGG-LAYING MAMMALS. UNDER PART SOUTH AFRICAN SECONDARY MAM- districts, and subsisting almost exclusively on ants. They are generally found in the mountains, and the three-toed species has been taken at an elevation of between three and four thousand feet. Although it is definitely ascertained that they lay eggs, much less is known of their breeding- habits than is the case with the duckbill ; according, however, to native reports, the young, which are probably two in number, are born during the Aus- tralian winter, generally in the month of May. Remains of a large extinct echidna have been obtained from the superficial deposits of New South Wales. ALLIED EXTINCT MAMMALS. Certain forms from the Secondary and early Tertiary rocks of Europe, Africa, and North America are believed to belong to the Prototherian subclass, of which they probably indicate a distinct order. Their molar teeth have a distant resemblance to the teeth of the duckbill, while the bones of the shoulder seem MAL ( nat. size). to have comprised the two elements characterising the Egg - laying Mammals. The peculiarity in the teeth of these mammals is that the molars are traversed by one or two longitudinal grooves, on either side of which are ridges carrying a number of small tubercles ; and from this feature the name of Multituberculata has been proposed for the group. The number of ridges in the upper molars is always one more than in those of the lower jaw. In some species, as in Tritylodon, represent od in our first figure, the premolar teeth are similar to the molars ; but in others, as in our second figure, the molars are small, while the premolars are large and have sharp cutting edges. When unworn, such cutting premolar teeth gener- ally have a series of oblique grooves on the sides, and as the incisor teeth (a) are large and often reduced to one pair, the jaw resembles that of the rat-kangaroos. The molar teeth, however, are different, and if these Secondary Mammals are really Prototherians, the character of their teeth indicates that they cannot be the ancestral types of the higher groups of the class. a-A LOWER JAW OF PLAGIAULAX (nat. size and enlarged). After Marsh. BIRDS CHAPTER I. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS, Class Aves. A TRAVELLER may in many parts of the world journey from one week's end to another without coming across a single Mammal or Keptile, but few indeed are the regions where bird-life, in some form, will not present itself more or less abundantly to his gaze ; and in no country is this exuberance of bird-life, as contrasted with the apparent scarcity of Mammals and Reptiles, more remarkable than in the British Islands. This abundance is largely due to the great majority of Birds, being diurnal in their habits, whereas most Mammals are nocturnal, but it is chiefly owing to the Birds being more numerous in most parts of the world, both as regards individuals and species. On this account alone Birds have always, aroused a widespread interest even among those who pay no particular attention to Natural History ; and in addition to it we have the beauty of their form, the gorgeous hues with which their plumage is so frequently adorned, and the power of melodious song with which so many members of the class are endowed. Then, again, the many interesting points connected with their habits, and more especially their conjugal affection and the care they bestow on their helpless young, have combined to aid in producing the universal enthusiasm for what have been most VOL. in. 19 290 BIRDS. appropriately designated " our feathered friends." As the result of this widespread popularity, the literature devoted to Birds is far more extensive than that relating to any other group of animals of equal size. And it may, perhaps, be questioned whether, in spite of their many undoubted claims to special interest, Birds have not attracted rather more than their fair share of attention; for, after all, the whole of the members of the class are wonderfully alike in general structure, even its most divergent representatives presenting no approach to the differences dis- tinguishing nearly allied mammalian orders. It is to a great extent owing to this remarkable structural uniformity that such different views still exist as to the classification of Birds. Distinctive Char- Birds form a class in the Vertebrates ranking on the same level . acters of Birds. as the Mammalia, and technically known as Aves ; and from the aforesaid structural uniformity of all its members, there is no difficulty in defining a Bird, nor is there any possibility of mistaking any other animal for a Bird. All living Birds, and so far as we know all fossil ones likewise, are sharply distinguished from every other creature by the possession of feathers; these corresponding in essential structure to hairs, and being similarly developed from pits sunk in the superficial layer of the skin or epidermis. This is the grand and essential characteristic of Birds, most of their other peculiarities being shared by some of the other groups of Vertebrates, either living or extinct. Birds agree with Mam- mals in having a four- chambered heart and hot blood, and also in that the blood is carried to the body by only a single great artery or aorta ; but while in Mammals this aorta passes over the left branch of the windpipe or bronchus, in Birds it crosses the right. In producing their young from eggs laid by the female parent, Birds resemble not only the Egg -laying Mammals, but likewise most of the lower Vertebrates. All living members of the class possess two pairs of limbs ; of which the hinder pair are always adapted either for walk- ing or swimming, while the first pair are generally specially modified for flight, although in the flightless species they are small and more or less rudimentary. Except to a small degree in the penguins, they never subserve the purpose of walking, at least in the adult condition. The power of true flight, which is such an essential characteristic of the majority of Birds, is found elsewhere among Vertebrates only in the bats among Mammals, and the extinct pterodactyles among Reptiles. An especial peculiarity of Birds is the manner in which their whole structure is permeated by atmospheric air taken in through the windpipe. Thus, whereas in Mammals the lungs are enclosed in complete sacs (the pleuron), and LEFT SIDE OF THE PELVIS OF THE KIWI. il, haunch-bone or ilium ; p, p', pubis ; is, ischium ; a, cup for head of thigh-bone. After Marsh. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 291 are freely suspended in the cavity of the chest, in the present class they are moulded to the form of the back of that cavity, while some of the great air-tubes pass completely through them, and thus carry the air to all parts of the body. In most Birds even the bones, which are hollow, are thus permeated by air ; and in the dried state they show a small aperture (pneumatic foramen) by which the air-tube enters. It is in consequence of this arrangement that it is impossible to kill a " winged " bird by compressing its windpipe, the process of respiration being carried on by means of the air entering the broken end of the bone. In addition to the hollow bones, Birds also have a number of air- sacs disposed beneath the skin. Curiously enough, there appears to be no sort of relation between the power of flight of a bird and the degree of development of pneumaticity, as the aeration of the body and bones is called. The hornbills, for instance, which are poor and heavy fliers, have the whole of the bones, including the vertebrae, so hollowed that they are reduced to little more than shells, while in their not very distant cousin the rapid flying swift, the aeration is reduced to a minimum. Among swimming birds a similar difference may be observed, the gannet having a remarkably pneumatic skeleton and large air-sacs, while in the allied cormorants there are no air-sacs, and the bones are but slightly or not at all pneumatic. According to the old theory, the heated air in the sacs and hollow bones made the bird lighter than the medium in which it flew, and thus rendered flight easy ; but, as Mr. Headley well observes, the sight of an eagle flying off with a lamb ought to convince anyone that the saving of a fraction of an ounce cannot make the slightest difference to its flight. Moreover, the swallow has all the bones solid. That the air-sacs aid to some extent in general respira- tion, and thus help in maintaining the high temperature of the blood in birds (reaching in some cases 112 F.) is probable, but this cannot be their sole function, and it is most likely that during flight, when a bird's breath- ing must be rapid, they are the chief agents in maintaining an equable temperature of the system. The function of the pneumaticity of the bones is not at present decided, and it would therefore be only entering on controversial matters to discuss it here. That one of the objects of the coat of feathers, which forms a most efficient insulator, is to assist in the maintenance of a uniform high temperature, cannot be doubted. An important structural difference between Mammals and Birds is to be found in the absence in the latter of the partition or diaphragm, which in the former separates the cavity of the chest containing the heart and lungs from that of the abdomen. SKELETON OF VULTURE. 1, head ; 2, neck ; 3, back ; 4, tail ; 5, ribs ; 6, breast-bone ; 7, furcula ; 8, metacoracoid ; 9, thumb ; 10, humerus ; 11, ulna ; 12, meta- carpus ; 13, phalanges ; 14, pelvis ; 15, femur ; 16, tibia ; 17, metatarsus or cannon-bone ; 18, toes. 292 BIRDS. Skeleton. As the skeleton of Birds affords many important characters, whereby the class is distinguished from Mammals, it is advisable to enter at once upon its consideration. In the first place, the skull of a bird, as shown in the figures given later on in the chapter, differs from that of a mammal SKELETON OF PARROT AND SKULL OF COCKATOO. in that it is attached to the first joint of the backbone by a single knob or condyle, instead of by two such condyles. Secondly, each half of the lower jaw is composed of several pieces, instead of but one ; and instead of the lower jaw articulat- ing directly with what is known as the squamosal region of the brain-case, it does so by the intervention of a separate bone, termed, from its form, the quadrate, the position of which is indicated in the accompanying figure. It may be mentioned here that in all existing Birds both jaws are encased in horn, and are devoid of teeth ; while the two halves of the lower jaw are completely soldered together by bone at their junction, or symphysis. Certain extinct Birds had, however, a full series of teeth, and the two halves of the lower jaw separate. SIDE VIEW OF SKULL OF TEAL, WITH THE LOWER JAW DISPLACED. The bone immediately to the left of the one marked Pt is the quadrate. (From Huxley, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1867.) GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 293 As regards the backbone, existing Birds differ from Mammals in that the bodies of the vertebrae, at least in the region of the neck, are articulated to one another by saddle-shaped surfaces, instead of by a cup-and-ball joint or two nearly flat surfaces; and there is no constancy in the number of joints in the neck. A further peculiarity is that a number of the vertebrae of the back, together with some of those of the tail, are solidly united with the proper sacrum, while the whole long series of welded vertebrae are themselves as firmly attached to the ao ANTERIOR ASPECT OF THE DORSAL VERTEBRA OF A MOA ns, upper or neural spine ; n, neural canal ; pz, prezygapophysis ; d, transverse process ; v, pedicle of arch ; p, facet for rib ; ac, anterior surface of body or centrum ; hy, lower or haemal spine. After Owen. haunch-bones of the pelvis. In all living Birds the bones of the tail are very few in number, and terminate in a triangular bone (as seen in our figure of the skeleton of a parrot), termed the ploughshare-bone. It is to this region of the body that the tail-feathers of a bird, commonly called the tail, are attached ; and it will thus be apparent that the so-called tail of a bird does not correspond with the tail of a mammal. In the earliest known bird the tail was, however, long, and composed of a number of vertebrae, each carrying a pair of feathers. The pelvis of a bird is remarkable for the great elongation of the haunch-bones, and also for the circumstance that the portion known as the pubis (p, p') is 294 BIRDS. directed backward parallel with the element termed the ischium; the three elements being united together as in Mammals but differing from them, with two exceptions, in that neither the ischium nor the pubis unites with its fellow of the opposite side in the middle line. Moreover, the cup in the pelvis for the head of the thigh-bone is always open at the base. The firm union of the haunch-bones with such a large portion of the backbone is necessary to afford a solid basis of support for the rest of the skeleton in flight. Equally essential is a solid union between the bones of the shoulder and the breast-bone. Accordingly, we find that, as in the Egg-laying Mammals the blade-bone or scapula (s) is connected with the breast- bone (st), by a metacoracoid (c); the scapula and metacoracoid thus jointly forming the cup for the articulation of the head of the arm- bone or humerus (h). Although in flightless Birds the metacoracoid is short and broad, in other species it is more or less elongated; and in either case its lower expanded end IS received in a groove On the Usually the collar - bones, or clavicles, are well-developed, and united together to form a V or U-shaped bone, now known as the " merry-thought," or furcula (/) ; this furcula generally articulating with a process on the metacoracoid (a), and also with the anterior end of the breast-bone. The breast-bone in flying Birds is provided with a strong keel up the middle of its inferior surface, as shown in the figure of the skeleton of a parrot on p. 292, in order to afford support for the powerful muscles moving the wing ; but in flightless Birds, as in the figure on this page, it is smooth and rounded. To the sides of the upper part of the breast-bone are attached the lower segments of the ribs; the ribs themselves being few in number, and distinguished from those of Mammals by the presence of oblique .(uncinate) processes projecting from their hinder borders. With regard to the limbs, the bones of a bird's wing correspond generally to those of the arm or fore-leg of a mammal ; the arm-bone or humerus having distinct condyles (a, b) for the articulation of the bones of the fore-arm (radius and ulna) ; and .being sometimes furnished with a projecting process above the outermost of these two condyles. . LEFT SIDE OF SHOULDER AND BREAST-BONES OF A FLIGHTLESS BIRD. s, blade-bone or scapula ; c, metacoracoid ; h, arm-bone or humerus ; /, furcula ; st, breast-bone or sternum. After summit of the breast-bone. Marsh. FRONT SURFACE OF THE LEFT METACORACOID OF A FLYING BIRD. two bones of the fore-arm always remain separate from bone. a, process for articulation mi ^ of furcula ; b, c, d, surface for junction with breast- GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 2 95 FRONT VIEW OF THE RIGHT HUMERUS OF A GULL. one another. In the wrist the numerous bones found in Mammals are, how- ever, reduced to two ; and the metacarpus and hand are flattened and specially modified. Thus there are never more than three digits, which are usually without claws, although among recent birds two may be thus armed. The thumb, or first digit, is repre- sented merely by one or two joints (as shown in the skeleton on p. 292), and carries the so- called bastard- wing ; while the other two digits represent the index and middle fingers of the human hand. Their respective metacarpals, as seen in the figure cited, are united at their two ends so as to form a single bone ; while the index finger has two flattened joints, and the third finger (not present in the figure) but one. In the hind-limb there is a still wider departure from the Mammalian type. The uppermost bone in a bird's leg (A of the accompanying figure) is the thigh- bone, or femur ; below this comes the tibia, or larger bone of the lower leg, on the outer side of which is a small splint (not shown in the figure) representing the fibula. Below the tibia comes another long bone, terminating (except in the ostrich, where they are reduced to two) in three pulley -like sur- faces, known as trochlese, to which are articu- lated the toe-bones. Obviously, then, this third long bone corresponds to the metatarsus of a mammal, consisting in fact of the three middle metatarsals of the typical five-toed limb welded together, in the same manner as two such metatarsals are united in the hind-limb of a ruminant mammal. It may, therefore, be called either the metatarsus or the cannon-bone. The reader will, however, now ask what has become of the ankle or tarsus in the bird's leg. To this it may be replied that its upper bones have united to the lower end of the tibia ; while the lower row has joined the upper end of the cannon-bone. The figure on p. 296 exhibits the lower end of the tibia of an adult crane and of a young ostrich ; and it will be seen that in the latter the upper ankle-bone is still distinct, while in the former it has become completely united with the tibia. A precisely similar state of things takes place in the for- mation of the cannon-bone. It will, therefore, be apparent that the tibia of a bird corresponds to the tibia, plus the upper half of the ankle, of a mammal ; while the cannon-bone represents the metatarsus, plus the lower half of the ankle. Hence, while the ankle-joint in a mammal occurs between the tibia and the upper row of ankle-bones, in a bird it is placed between the upper and lower rows of the ankle. The bony bridge seen at a in the tibia of the crane is very commonly present in birds ; it acts as a pulley for the tendons of the muscles of the front of the leg A, BONES OF THE RIGHT LEG OF A MOA ; B, CANNON-BONE OF SAME ON A LARGER SCALE. 296 BIRDS. Skull. LOWER END OF THE LEFT TIBIA OF A CRANE (A), AND A YOUNG OSTRICH (B). which pass beneath. Such pulleys enable the fleshy portions of the muscles to be placed high up in the limb, and thus cause the centre of gravity of the body to be near the wings, an arrangement essential for flight. In addition to the three toes articulating with the lower end of the cannon-bone, most birds have another toe, corresponding to the first or great toe of the human foot, of which the metacarpal is loosely attached to a facet on the inner edge of the hinder surface of the cannon-bone as shown in the figure of the cannon-bone of a buzzard in our fourth volume. No bird has any trace of the fifth toe. The number of joints in each toe, in place of not exceeding three as in ordinary mammals, increases regu- larly from the first to the fourth toe. As the structure of the base of the skull is of some import- ance in classification, a few words are neces- sary on this point. In the first place, the skull of a bird is characterised by the great size of the sockets for the eyes, which are separated from one another merely by a thin bony partition. The aperture for the nostrils (immediately below Na in the figure on p. 292) may be either short and rounded, when the skull is said to be holorhinal (as in that figure) ; or they may form elongated slits, as in a pigeon, when the condition is termed schizorhinal. In all Birds most of the component bones of the skull are completely united together, without any trace of the original lines of division, in the adult state ; and in ornithology it is usual to apply the terms upper and lower mandible to the two parts of the beak. With regard to the bones of the palate, the introduction of a number of technical terms is unavoidable. In the middle of the hinder part of the lower surface of a bird's skull can be seen a pointed rod of bone, known as the sphenoidal rostrum, which may carry, as in (A) of the figure, a pair of basipterygoid facets (f). In advance of this is a single or double bone, termed the vomer (Vo). On the two sides of this central axis are two pairs of slender bones, of which the hinder are termed ptery golds (Pt), and articulate with the basipterygoid processes when present ; while the front pair are named palatines (PI). From the sides of the upper jaw or maxilla? (Mx), are given off two maxillo-palatine processes (Mxp), projecting in the middle line towards the vomer. Now when the vomer, as in the fowl and capercaillie (A) is pointed in front, while the maxillo-palatines remain separate both from it and from one another, the skull is said to be schizognathous (cleft palate). When, on the other hand, as in the duck (B), the maxillo-palatines unite in the middle line, so as to form a bridge in front of the vomer, the construc- tion is termed desmognathous (bridged palate). In a third modification, as exemplified in the raven (B) and all other living passerine birds, the maxillo- palatines, although extending beneath the vomer, do not unite either with that bone or with one another, while the vomer itself is expanded and abruptly truncated in front; this arrangement being termed wgithognatkous (passerine- GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 297 palate). Various minor modifications of these three types exist, but a little practice will enable the student to determine to which of the three any given skull conforms. A fourth modification, met with only among the ostrich-like birds and the South American tinamus, need not be referred to till a later chapter. Before leaving the subject of the skull, it may be mentioned that the outer coat or " white " of the eye of a bird contains a movable ring of overlapping bones surrounding the pupil and iris, which by their contraction or expansion are con- Tmx ABC UNDER VIEW OF SKULL OF CAPERCAILLIE (A), DUCK (fi), AND RAVEN (c). Mxp, maxillo-palatine ; Vo, vomer ; Pa, palatine ; Pt, pterygoid ; f, basipterygoid facet. (From Proc. Zool. Soc., 1867. After Huxley.) sidered to alter the degree of convexity of the aqueous humour and cornea, and thus to render the eye focally adapted to the constantly varying distance of objects during flight. External When clothed with its feathers, the bodily conformation of an Characters, ordinary bird is that best adapted for cleaving the air with the least possible resistance ; the head being more or less sharpened, the body gradually swelling to a point some distance in advance of the middle, and then as rapidly decreasing in girth, while the feathers are all directed from the head towards the tail. In those birds in which the neck is not unduly elongated the whole contour is, indeed, spindle-shaped, and may be compared to two cones placed base to base at the thickest part of the body. It is essential to the exigencies of flight that the centre of gravity should be on the lower aspect of the body, as nearly as possible immediately below the points of suspension by the wings ; and, in order to ensure 298 BIRDS. this, there is the concentration of muscles and other organs in this region, to which some allusion has been already made. Not only are the fleshy portions of the muscles of the legs mainly confined to the upper portions of these limbs, but the muscles which elevate the wings are actually placed on the under instead of 011 the upper surface of the body. In the breast of a flying bird the great superficial muscle, known as the pectoralis major, is for the purpose of depressing the wing ; beneath this is, however, a second muscle the pectoralis minor of which the function is to raise the wing-bone, or humerus. This is effected by the muscle terminating in a tendon, which passes through a pulley over the head of the scapula Tfteiidn coverts Breast...'.'::.. _ Secondary coverts 1'j.j -^C Ba.sla.-rd.wi DIAGRAM OF A BIRD, TO ILLUSTRATE THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE PLUMAGE, ETC.* and metacoracoid, and then being attached on the upper surface of the humerus ; that bone being accordingly elevated when the muscle contracts. The same tendency to the concentration of structures is exhibited by the organ of voice (syrinx) of a bird being placed within the chest, where the windpipe divides into the two bronchi, instead of, as in Mammals, immediately beneath the lower jaw. An important external feature in Birds is the frequent presence of a gland termed the oil-gland, on the upper surface of the rump, the function of which is to secrete oil for the lubrication of the feathers. This gland, which is most developed in aquatic birds, may be absent, and when present may be either naked or crowned with a tuft of feathers. 1 For this cut the Editor is indebted to Mr. Eowland Ward, in whose Sportsman's Handbook it originally appeared. Acknowledgments are likewise due to the same gentleman for the copyright of the head of the Musk-ox on p. 210 of Vol. IT., which is taken from a photograph of a specimen shot by Lord Lonsdale and mounted by Mr. Ward. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 299 Ornithologists have devised a number of terms to indicate the different parts of a body of a bird, several of which are located in the accompanying diagram : the others it will be unnecessary to mention here. It may be observed, however, that the ears of Birds are unprovided with external conchs, merely opening flat on the sides of the head, usually a little behind and below the eyes. The eyes, which are in most cases placed laterally and near the middle of the head, are provided with a third eyelid, or nictitating membrane, which can be drawn obliquely like a shutter over the eyeball, while the proper eyelids remain open ; as may be observed in a captive owl or eagle, when the glistening white membrane will be seen from time to time to sweep across the eye with extreme rapidity. The beaks of birds, which, as we have said, are always encased in horn or leathery skin, have different terms applied to them, according to their relative length and form ; the meaning of most of such terms, as fissirostral, dentirostral, conirostral, etc., being self -apparent. A horny investment is also generally present on such portions of the lower part of the legs as are devoid of feathers ; although in some cases, as in the clucks, this is replaced by a more or less leathery skin. The horny covering of the metatarsus may consist of small pieces, with the edges in apposition, as in the plovers, when it is said to be reticulate ; but frequently the front surface, as in the fowls, has a number of broad overlapping plates, when it is termed scutate. Occasionally each side is invested by a single greave-like plate, meeting its fellow in a prominent ridge at the back. The feathers of birds being all-important need a somewhat fuller notice. A feather in its most complete state of development consists of a main stem, and a secondary stem, or after-shaft ; but the latter is frequently wanting. The base of the main stem is formed by the hollow horny quill, the lower end of which is pointed and inserted into the skin. The upper part of the quill passes into the shaft, or rachis, at a point marked by a small aperture termed the upper umbilicus. The shaft is four-sided, elastic, pithy, and less horny than the quill ; and gradually tapers at its extremity to a fine point. On either side of the shaft are the two webs, collectively forming the vane of the feather. Each web or half of the vane, one of which is generally considerably wider than the other, is composed of a series of flattened plates closely applied to one another, and diverging from the shaft at an open angle, each plate terminating in a point. These plates form the barbs, and they are held together by barbules, given off in the same manner as are the barbs from the stem ; while the barbules may again give off hooklets. The after-shaft is, when fully developed, a miniature of the main stem, from which it is given off at the junction of the quill with the shaft. Such is the structure of a typical feather ; but the soft feathers known as down have the stem short and weak, or even wanting, while the barbs are soft and not held together by fully-formed barbules and hooklets. Sometimes the ends of such feathers break up into powder, and they may then be spoken of as poivder-down feathers. In another type of feather the vane is rudimentary, and the whole structure then becomes more or less hair-like ; to such the term thread-feathers is applicable. Finally, the feathers covering the body and concealing the underlying down are conveniently referred to as the contour-feathers. Instead of being evenly distributed over the body of a bird, the feathers grow 3 oo BIRDS. from certain well-defined tracts, between which are bare spaces. Although such tracts have received distinct names, and are of some importance in classification, it will suffice to mention their mere existence ; and we pass on to the consideration of the names applied to the feathers of the tail and wings. As shown in the diagram on p. 298, the tail-feathers, which are very generally twelve in number, are termed rectrices ; and are usually firm and fully developed. Above and below the rectrices are the upper and under tail-coverts; although generally small and unimportant, in the peacock the upper tail -coverts attain an extraordinary development, and constitute what is commonly designated the tail. Premising that the feathers clothing the shoulders are termed scapulars, and those between them inter scapulars, we pass on to the consideration of the feathers of the wings. First of all, we have the little group of feathers forming the bastard-wing, or alula, which are carried by the first digit, or thumb, and lie on the front border of the back of the wing. Next, we have the flight- feathers, remiges, or quills, which arise from the bones of the arm and pinion (or hand, exclusive of the thumb) ; all are strong, firm feathers, giving rise to the main contour of the wing. Such of the remiges as take their origin from the pinion are termed primaries; while those attached to the fore-arm (ulna) and upper arm (humerus) are entitled secondaries, though the remiges arising from the humerus used to be distinguished as tertiaries, and the term secondaries con- fined to those attached to the ulna. The primaries are the firmest and stiffest of the wing-feathers, and are very generally either nine or ten in number. As the rectrices of the tail have tail-coverts, so the remiges have wing- coverts, both above and below. Of the upper wing-coverts, we have first the primary coverts overlying the primaries; while the secondaries are overlain by three series, respectively known as the greater, median, and lesser upper secondary wing - coverts. Of these the greater coverts are the largest and the most important in classification. The under wing-coverts, which are less important in classification, are likewise divided into a primary and secondary series. Change of When first hatched, Birds are covered with some kind of down, Plumage. V ery scanty in those which are reared in nests, but thick in all those able to run about at the time of birth. The true feathers are, however, soon developed, those of the wings and tail being usually the first to make their appear- ance, and the rapidity with which feathers grow is one of the most remarkable features of Birds. In order to preserve the plumage in good condition, it is essential that it should be renewed at least once a year. This renewal of the feathers is termed moulting, and frequently takes place twice during the year; while in the ptarmigan there are three moults. The chief moult usually takes place soon after the breeding-season ; but in those birds which, like ducks, have a special breeding-plumage, a second moult takes place previous to that period. In the ptarmigan the third moult is for the assumption of the white winter dress. Usually the wing-feathers are shed in pairs one after another; but among the ducks, which are enabled to conceal themselves among water plants, and can thus protect themselves without flight, the shedding of all the wing-feathers is frequently almost simultaneous. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 3 oi As already mentioned, birds produce their young by means of eggs, covered with a hard calcareous shell, often remarkable for the beauty of its coloration. Into the structure of an egg it will be quite unnecessary to enter in this work ; but the following remarks, chiefly taken from the descriptive account of a series of some of the most remarkable forms in the central hall of the British Museum, will be found of general interest. Although the number of eggs laid and incubated together is generally pretty constant in each kind of bird, yet there is great specific variation in this respect. The Manx shearwater, for instance, lays but a single egg, while clutches of the long-tailed tit and red-legged partridge may contain from nine to twelve eggs. In form, eggs vary from an almost spherical shape, as in owls, to different modifications of the elliptical or oval. The latter shape, in which one end is smaller and more pointed than the other, although far from being universal, is decidedly the most common ; this conical shape allowing a larger number of eggs to be accommodated in a circular nest than would otherwise be possible ; and it may be noticed that, when only a pair of eggs is laid, this form is but seldom assumed. Such eggs as narrow very rapidly, and thus take a pear-shaped form, mainly pertain to the wading- birds and their terrestrial allies the plovers, of the order Limicolce ; four of these being laid in a nest. Their size being large in proportion to the bulk of the bird by whom they are laid, their position in the nest, with their pointed ends meeting together in the centre, causes them to occupy the smallest possible amount of space. Sea-birds, like the guillemot and razorbill, which lay one or two eggs on barren ledges of rock, likewise have them pointed, as being much less liable to roll than would be the case if they were spherical. Although the size of the eggs generally varies proportionately to that of the parent bird, yet this is by no means invariably the case ; and it appears that in birds of which the young are hatched in a helpless condition, the eggs are relatively smaller than in those in which the young come into the world fully fledged. Moreover, it is the birds that have helpless offspring that usually make the most carefully constructed nests ; while those that have fully fledged young lay their eggs in very rude nests or on the bare ground. As examples of birds of equal size, laying differently sized eggs, may be mentioned the curlew and the raven ; while the bird which has the relatively smallest egg is the cuckoo, and that with the largest the kiwi. The texture of the outer surface of the shell is liable to much variation, tinamus and kingfishers laying smooth and porcellaneous eggs, while those of the ibises and ducks are dull and chalky, those of the flamingos coated with a calcareous outer film, and those of the emu rough and pitted As regards coloration, no relation can be traced between eggs and the birds by which they are laid ; and it is probable that originally Birds resembled Reptiles in laying white eggs, this want of colour being retained, or perhaps reacquired, in the eggs of the majority of birds which lay in holes. The larger number of eggs are, however, variously coloured by the deposition of pigment on or near the outer surface of the shell. The colour (as in the tinamus) may be either uniform over the whole surface, or it may take the form of irregular washes, blotches, lines, or more or less nearly circular spots, upon either a white or uniformly-coloured ground. 302 BIRDS. Very little is, however, at present understood with regard to the signification of egg-coloration. Frequently the different species of a group lay very similarly coloured eggs, as is exemplified by the warblers and buntings ; but this is by no means invariably the case, as is well shown by the different members of the thrush family. In many cases the coloration of the eggs is evidently adapted to the hue of their natural surroundings, as is well exemplified by sandpipers, dunlins, plovers, and their allies, and likewise by pheasants and partridges. Since no bird hibernates, while a large number breed in regions where they could not possibly exist during the cold winter months, it is essential that they should migrate to warmer regions in which to pass that season of the year. Such migrations may be vgry partial, as is the case with many British species, when the individuals passing the summer in the more northern parts of the country come further south during the winter ; while those from the area into which the immigrants arrive likewise move southwards. From such partial migrations there is a gradual transition to complete migrations, when the birds of one country travel to a far distant land for the winter. As the great masses of land enjoying a cold climate are mainly confined to the Northern Hemisphere, it is obvious that bird migrations must take place from south to north, and the following general laws of migration are now accepted. With the exception of purely tropical species, every bird breeds in the coldest or most northern part of its range ; such nesting-grounds being generally reached by a horizontal migration, although in a few instances birds may ascend mountains until they meet with the required degree of temperature. This northerly migration is always for the purpose of breeding, while the southward return is for food and warmth. Those species which go furthest north often also range furthest to the south ; while every species has its particular period of migration. Finally, no species ever breeds during its sojourn in the southern portion of its migratory area. It would be quite out of place to enter into any discussion as to the origin of this migratory instinct ; but it may be mentioned that as the young frequently make the autumn migration unattended by the old, it is quite evident that the journey is made independently of any knowledge of the route. Moreover, as most migrations take place in the night, it is clear that this alone will preclude any guidance of the host by landmarks. Then, again, from the circumstance that during astronomical observations flights of birds have been seen crossing the moon's disc at an immense elevation above the earth, there is good reason to believe that at least many migrations take place at heights whence the con- figuration of the continents and oceans would be invisible even during the day. Nevertheless, it appears that there are certain definite lines along which vast numbers of birds, subject to conditions of weather, habitually migrate ; one of these trunk-routes passing through the island of Heligoland and along the western coast of Europe. . Although, from their power of flight and migratory habits, it might seem that Birds would have no definite distributional areas, yet this is by no means the case ; and the different zoological regions into which the world is now mapped out were originally defined from the various groups of Birds GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 303 by which they are inhabited. For instance, while the Palsearctic region, that is to say, the greater part of Europe and Asia north of the line of the Himalaya, is characterised by the sole possession of the capercaillie, and its abundance of grouse, buntings, etc., North America is the sole home of the turkey, while humming-birds are mainly characteristic of South and Central America, as are birds of paradise, lyre-birds, and cockatoos of the Australasian region. Many birds, especially some of the humming-birds, have indeed a very local distribution ; and, as might have been expected, the various groups of flightless Birds are now respectively confined to particular continents and islands. It would be impossible to pursue the subject further in the space available, but the reader will be enabled to gather many of the leading facts of avian distribution in the course of our description of the various groups. As regards their geological distribution, it may be mentioned that most of the birds from the Tertiary formations are more or less closely allied to existing types. When, however, we reach the antecedent Cretaceous (chalk) epoch, we find that at least several of the birds were furnished with teeth ; while in the still older Jurassic or Oolitic epoch the one definitely known bird (Archceopteryx) was not only furnished with teeth, but had a long tapering tail, and exhibited several other features indicative of reptilian affinity. While Birds present no sort of relationship to Mammals, they show manifest indications of being nearly allied to certain extinct groups of Reptiles ; but the nature of that relationship can be best indicated in our consideration of those groups. On no subject is there greater diversity of views among zoologists than with regard to the classification of Birds; scarcely any two ornithologists being in accord on this point. To a great extent this is owing to that structural uniformity among the members of the class to which reference has been already made, which renders it almost impossible to determine what features should be regarded as of primary importance. With such conflicting views it is inevitable that schemes of classification are to be counted almost by the dozen, and scarcely a year passes without one or more new ones being proposed. As it is unlikely that any one of these latter classifications will be permanently accepted, it has been thought advisable, in a popular work of the present nature, to revert to a modification of a scheme proposed some years ago by Dr. Sclater. Including certain extinct groups, the class, according to this scheme, may be divided into the following twenty-five groups, of which the first twenty-two may be reckoned orders such orders, be it understood, being for the most part far less distinct from one another than are those of Mammals. ORDERS OF BIRDS. 1. PASSERES Perching Birds. 2. PICARLE Woodpeckers, Cuckoos, Hornbills, etc. 3. PSITTACI Parrots. 4. STRIGES Owls. 5. PANDIOXES Ospreys. 6. ACCIPITRES Eagles, Falcons, Vultures, etc. 304 BIRDS. 7. STEGANOPODES Pelicans, Cormorants, and Gannets. 8. HERODIONES Herons and Storks. 9. ODONTOGLOSSI Flamingos. 10. ANSERES Ducks, Geese, and Swans. 11. PALAMEDEJE Screamers. 12. COLUMB^E -Pigeons, Dodo, and Sand-Grouse. 13. GALLING Fowls and Game-Birds. 14. FULICARLE Rails and Coots. 15. ALECTORIDES Cranes and Bustards. 16. LIMICOL.E Plovers, Curlews, Snipe, etc. 17. GAVI.E Gulls and Terns. 18. TUBINARES Petrels and Albatrosses. 19. PYGOPODES Divers, Auks, and Grebes. 20. IMPENNES Penguins. 21. ODONTORNITHES Toothed Birds (extinct). 22. CRYPTURI Tinamus. 23. STEREORXITHES Patagonian Flightless Birds (extinct). 24. RATIT^E Ostriches, Emus, Cassowaris, etc. 25. SAURUR,E Long-Tailed Birds (extinct). Of these groups the first twenty-two, which are reckoned as orders, are brigaded together to form the subclass of Carinate Birds (Carinatse), the great majority of which possess the power of flight, and have a strong keel (carina) to the breast-bone. The twenty-fourth group, or Ratitas, constitutes, on the other hand, a second subclass, characterised by the absence of a keel to the breast-bone, and the loss of the power of flight ; while the extinct long-tailed birds (group 25) form a third main, division differing from all the others by the retention of the long reptilian tail. The number of existing species of birds being in all probability considerably over ten thousand, it will be obvious that in the space at our command the various groups must be treated much more briefly than were the Mammals ; and in many instances we shall be able to allude only to the families, without referring to the genera, and in some cases not even the whole of the former are mentioned. It will be noticed that in the course of this Introduction practically nothing has been said as to the anatomy of the soft parts of birds ; for this we must refer the reader to other works. CHAPTEK II. THE PERCHING BIRDS, Order PASSERES. CROWS TO HONEY-CREEPERS. Families CoRVlVJE to THE order of Passeres, which includes by far the great majority of existing birds, and especially those popularly termed song-birds, may be regarded as occupying a position analogous to that held by lizards among the Reptiles, and by the bony fishes in the Fishes, all its members being more or less specialised and highly organised. On this account the group is now, by general consent, regarded as the highest in the class. All these birds are characterised by having the palate constructed on what is termed the segithognathous modification, the structure of which is described and illustrated on p. 301. They are further distinguished by producing their young in a helpless and nearly naked condition, having merely a few patches of dow r n scattered here and there over the body. In the skeleton the slender metatarsus has its three nearly equalised condyles placed almost in the same transverse line ; while the arm-bone, or humerus, has a well-marked bifurcate process at the outer sides of its lower end ; and, as a minor character, it may be mentioned that the breast-bone has but a single notch. The first toe is always present, and is mobile and directed backwards, in addition to being worked by a muscle independently of the other digits. A covering of feathers invests the legs as far down as the ankle-joint. There are usually twelve feathers in the tail ; while the primary quills of the wings vary in number from nine to ten, the latter being the usual complement among the typical members of the order. With three exceptions, the perching birds of the Old World belong to a section characterised by having the intrinsic muscles of the syrinx, or organ of voice, attached to the cords of the open rings of the bronchial tube, and technically termed the Acromyodi. The Indian members of the order, provided with ten primary quills in the wings, may be divided, according to an arrangement sug- gested by Mr. Oates, into five groups. In the first of these the nestling resembles that of the adult female ; this is likewise true of the second group, in which the coloration of the young bird is more brilliant than that of its parent, being in the Indian forms generally suffused with yellow. On the other hand, in the third group, the nestling is transversely barred ; while in the fourth it is striated ; and in the fifth group the nestling-plumage is either mottled or squamated. Although certain species of the perching birds, such as the snow-bunting and the sand-marten, have a circumpolar distribution, numerous genera of this order VOL. in. 20 306 PERCHING BIRDS. are restricted to the New World ; while in spite of the fact that many species, as well as families, range across the whole of the north temperate parts of the Old World, from the British Isles to Japan, comparatively few families can be termed strictly cosmopolitan. Among those families, which are variously represented in almost every region of the globe, may be ranked the finch tribe, the swallows, and the true crows. For lustre of plumage and striking combinations of colour, the perching birds of the Indo-Malayan region excel all others ; but South America possesses a larger and more varied assortment of these birds. Among the number, tanagers and chatterers form specially interesting groups. While the mocking-birds, represented by closely allied species in both the northern and southern divisions of the New World, have the best claim to be considered the finest songsters in the entire order, in Europe it is probable that the* blue thrush possesses the most beautiful notes of all the passerines. In such a large and difficult group as the perching birds it is but natural to expect diverse views among ornithologists in regard to classification. To a great extent the scheme of Dr. Sharpe is here followed, which differs very considerably from that recently proposed by Mr. Gates in the Birds of British India. Without attempting to weigh the value of the two, the former has been adopted, as being that more generally known. It will be obvious that in such a vast assemblage all that can be attempted in the limits of our space is to notice some of the more generally interesting types. THE CROW TRIBE. Family CORVID^. Frequently conspicuous by a black or pied plumage, often variegated with grey, and occasionally with brown, although some species, like the blue jays of South America, are much more gaudily coloured, the members of the crow family form a group which, while having few characters in common, are yet easy of recog- nition. Possessing a stout and generally large beak, without a distinct notch in the upper mandible, and generally straight, the crows have the chin-angle, or union of the two branches of the lower jaw, almost always produced in front of the line of the nostrils ; while the tongue is non-extensile. The toes are of the normal passerine type, but although the first toe is strong, it is inferior in length to the third. The nostrils are clear of the line of the forehead, and are protected by a number of stiff bristles reaching to the middle of the beak, which are, however, shed in the adult of the European rook. The wing always has ten primary quills, and the tail twelve feathers. Mr. Gates, who includes the tits in the present family, points out that the crows may be distinguished by having the first primary quill longer than half the length of the second ; while the plumage is more or less firm and glossy, and the length of the bill considerably greater than its depth. Both groups agree in that the plumage of the two sexes is alike, and undergoes but one moult (in the autumn) ; while the plumage of the young is paler. Some representatives of this specialised family are found in all the great continents ; and even islands have in some cases their peculiar species. The piping CROW TRIBE. 309 crows are only found in Australia ; while magpies, nutcrackers, and choughs, are characteristic of the northern and central parts of the Old World. South America possesses some jays of brilliant plumage; those of the genus Xanthura having beautiful blue feathers, associated with black or deeper blue markings. THICK-BILLED RAVEN. Ravens and Crows. The genus Corvus includes all the true ravens and crows, distinguished by a stout compressed bill, straight at the base, arched towards the point, and sharp at the edges. The wings are long and graduated, and the tail is more or less graduated. The feet are powerful, the metatarsus ex- ceeding in length the middle toe. The plumage is identical in both sexes; and black, more or less glossed with green or purple, decidedly predominates. Birds of this genus are found throughout the whole of Europe and Asia north of the line of the Himalaya, ranging into North- Western India, Australia, North America, and Mexico. The type of this well-known genus is the large raven (Corvus corax), familiar to the natives of the northern parts of both hemispheres. In Japan its place is occupied by the Oriental raven, which is also found in India, Ceylon, South China, and the islands of the Malay Archipelago. The common raven of temperate Europe may be regarded as the parent form, and thrives in a wide diversity of regions, ranging from Greenland to Spain and from Portugal to Palestine, contriving constantly to adapt its habits to its immediate 3 io PERCHING BIRDS, environment. The raven is an early breeder, and the birds of the English fells annually repair their nests while snowdrifts are lying in deep folds on the mountain sides. It sometimes happens that a raven's nest becomes swamped by rain and driving sleet to such a degree that the eggs are chilled and rendered useless. In the event of such a contingency arising, the breeding ravens retire to some other favourite haunt, in which the female lays a fresh complement of eggs. The latter are four or five in number, rarely six ; and are usually of a bluish green colour, blotched and spotted with dark olive-brown, although a reddish variety is occasionally obtained. The raven performs valuable services as a scavenger, and the damage it does the game-preserver is infinitesimally small ; but it must be confessed that WHITE-BELLIED CROW (J liat. size). shepherds have only too good reason to complain of the injuries inflicted upon ewes when dropping their lambs, for the raven readily attacks any defenceless animal such as a weak lamb or a feeble fawn. African Crows "^ n -^^ ca ^ ne g enus i g represented by the black African rook (C. capensis) ; the white-necked raven (C. albicollis), which is brown and black with a conspicuous black collar; the thick-billed raven (C. crassirostris) ; and the white-bellied crow (C. scapulatus). This last is a handsome bird, easily recognised by its black and white or parti -coloured plumage. It obtains much of its food about the high roads, examining the droppings of the animals that pass by, and picking the carcases of such as perish on their journeys. It makes its nest in trees or in the recesses of rocks, and CROW TRIBE. lays about six eggs, light blue in colour, profusely spotted with brown. It some- times nests in gardens, approaching the haunts of men ; at other times it is shy and retiring, especially when breeding. Although hybridisation is comparatively rare among the true Hooded Crow. -i ^ crows, naturalists have long been aware that the hooded crow ((7. comix) occasionally interbreeds with the carrion crow (C. corone) notably in such parts of Scotland as both species frequent during the summer. It was, however, reserved for Mr. Seebohm to discover that these two species inter- breed to an extraordinary extent, the hybrid offspring of the original stocks apparently proving fertile for several generations, in the valley of the Yenesei in East Siberia. This is the more remarkable because both forms possess a well- defined distribution, and only occasionally overlap one another in the breeding- vseason. Many naturalists (among them Professor Newton) consider that the carrion crow is only a black form or variety of the hooded crow, which has lost the dun-coloured portions of the plumage peculiar to the hooded crow of both sexes and all ages ; and it must be confessed that the flight and cries of these two forms are to all intents and purposes identical. While, however, the carrion crow lives chiefly in wooded valleys, nesting in isolated pairs, and harrying the nests of other birds, the hooded crow frequents the wildest coasts of Western Europe, ranging from the northern islands that fringe the continent to the forest-regions of Central Russia, rearing its young with equal success upon the ground, in the top of a tree, or on the face of a frowning precipice. The nest of the hooded crow is often a cumbrous collection of heather-roots, sticks, and seaweed, lined with softer substances well felted together. The eggs vary from four to six in a clutch, and are greenish in ground-coloured, blotched with dark olive-brown. The ordinary " crow " of the British public has long been known to naturalists as the rook (C. frugilegus), and as such is almost the best known and most familiar of European birds. The sooty plumage differs from that of its Eastern repre- sentative, the Siberian rook (C. pasti- nator), chiefly in having a bluish purple gloss in lieu of the reddish purple of the Asiatic species. The latter to a large extent retains the feathers around the bill, which are generally moulted by the western bird when arriving at maturity. Like many other crows, the rook is an early breeder, nesting sometimes in shrubs or even on the roofs of houses, but chiefly in tall trees, often in the midst of crowded streets. The young are mainly reared upon noxious insects in their various stages, on field -voles, and waste substances. ROOK. Rook. 3 i2 PERCHING BIRDS. In the autumn the rooks band together to plunder cornfields. They also do much mischief to young turnips, often tearing up thousands of newly-planted seedlings ; and in severe weather they attack the roots of the turnips, or devour such small birds as have become too enfeebled by want of food to elude their enemies. During the greater part of the year they are gregarious, and many of their established " rookeries " contain myriads of birds every night. Their sagacity enables them to evade the various forms of destruction which reduce the numbers of other birds, and, as they are extremely long-lived, the rapid increase in their numbers has become somewhat alarming. Though less easily reconciled to captivity than other members of the family, they are nevertheless lively and amusing pets. The daw or jackdaw (C. inonedula) is readily distinguished from other crows by its small size, less powerful bill, and slaty-grey collar, the remainder of the plumage being entire black in the western form. The typical European daw is replaced in Northern Asia and Japan by Pallas's daw (C. dauricus), which wears a broad collar of ashy white and has a white belly. The daw is distributed locally throughout temperate Europe, and is very abundant in parts of Algeria. A highly gregarious species even in the breeding-season, it forms colonies in low cliffs, nesting numerously in the holes and recesses formed by weathering. Elsewhere single pairs appropriate disused rooks' nests, adapting them to their own purposes. Not the least remarkable of the many idiosyncrasies of this familiar bird, is the readiness with which it contents itself with every variety of nesting site, rearing its young as happily in a disused rabbit-hole as in the belfry of a church. The nest is often a cumbrous pile of sticks, carefully lined with hair, wool, or other soft material. The eggs vary in number from four to six, and are bluish green spotted with grey and brown. Mr. Tait says that the jackdaws frequenting the islands on the coast of Galicia breed in holes under the stones, and follow the droves of pigs, in order to secure the insects which these animals turn up when grubbing in the soil with their snouts. While the pig ploughs up the ground, they may often be seen perching on its back, waiting their opportunity. During seasons of drought jackdaws are sometimes compelled by hunger to commit serious depredations upon the pheasant-coops, in consequence of the earthworms upon which these birds largely subsist having retired from the surface to secure moisture at a greater depth. This species does not appear to make the migratory journeys frequently accomplished by rooks and hooded crows, the daw being in fact of a somewhat sedentary character, as evinced by the attachment which it displays for favourite nesting sites. A black variety of the European jackdaw, in which the usual grey collar has become entirely suppressed, has been regarded by some naturalists as a valid species. Although these are rare, white jackdaws are sufficiently plentiful. Examples of a uniform silver-grey occur from time to time, but are less frequently met with than white or pied birds. The genus Nucifraga contains only four species, three of which 'are designated nutcrackers from their partiality for nuts and other fruits. The American representative of the genus is Clarke's crow (N. columbiana), a plain grey-coloured bird with glossy black wings, most of the secondaries broadly tipped with white, and the tail white, with the exception of the black central CROW TRIBE. feathers. This unspotted bird ranges through the coniferous woods of Western America, nesting in high pines in mountainous and northerly localities. The nutcrackers of the Old World are birds of well-marked form and colour, not only sharing the possession of a long, straight, pointed bill with their American relative, and a black-and-white tail which is always conspicuous in flight, long wings, nostrils covered with bristly feathers, but exhibiting, in a special degree, NUTCRACKER AND SIBERIAN JAY ( nat. size). a general uniformity of coloration among themselves, all three species being constantly of a general chocolate-brown, more or less spotted with white. Two of these species belong to the higher parts of the Himalaya, where they are resident throughout the year in forests of pine and cedar. The best known species is the European nutcracker (N. caryocatactes), which inhabits the northern and central portions of Europe and Northern Asia, ranging into Northern China and Japan. A conspicuous species during many months of the year, sometimes approaching the neighbourhood of human dwellings in search of food, in the 314 PERCHING BIRDS. breeding-season the nutcracker becomes shy and cautious, so that its whereabouts is no longer easy to ascertain. The difficulty of discovering the vicinity of its nest is enhanced by the nutcracker being one of the very earliest birds to nest, and consequently the forests in which it breeds, usually vast extents of pine trees, often at an elevation of several thousand feet above sea level, are covered with deep snow at the time when the eggs have to be sought. These are usually laid in the month of March, and are pale bluish white, in ground-colour, thickly spotted with olive-brown. The young are easily reared by hand if supplied with a sufficient variety of food, and exhibit a marked predilection for insects. Mr. Howard Saunders gives the following description of the habits of the nutcracker, as observed in the Prattigau : " Between Septembej 1 14th and 18th this species was quite common among the hazel bushes, and the top of a low wall, within live minutes' walk above the village where I was staying, was a favourite anvil on which to hammer the nuts, their shells lying thick on it. Every few minutes a bird might be seen flitting along the hillsides its widely-spread tail-feathers dis- playing the white spots on their tips with a somewhat dipping flight, less laboured than that of the jay. Often alighting on a sloping patch of sward, the nutcracker would draw itself up till its neck seemed unnaturally elongated, then give a few skips, and, taking a short flight, make a furious attack on a bush, tearing off' a whole cluster of nuts. This was sometimes rejected, after a comically critical examination, and another cluster would be torn off, after which the bird would fly up to some tolerably wide branch of a fir, and hammer the nuts energetically to free them from their shucks, pausing to look up as if for admiration. Then the bird would hop rapidly up the branches as if on the rungs of a ladder to the top of the tree, dash away across a ravine, settle on a bush, and be lost to view for a time, return- ing with its crop quite distended with nuts." One of the notes is a peculiar gurre, gurre ; but there is another, like a sprung rattle. Hancock records the fact that a nutcracker which lived in his possession for six years had a sweet, low, delicate, warbling song ; this was uttered only when everything was perfectly quiet. Characterised by their stout and compressed beaks, which are sharp at the edges and arched towards the tip, short and rounded wings, strong feet, and long, graduated tails, the magpies have typically a black- and-white plumage, although many of their Oriental representatives are gorgeously coloured. The common magpie (Pica rustica) is found throughout the more northern portions of the Old World, from Britain to Northern China, and likewise occurs in the western districts of the United States. On the other hand, the Moorish magpie (P. mauritanica) is peculiar to North- Western Africa, although certain Spanish specimens tend to bridge over the distinctions of colour distinguishing the typical representatives of the two forms. Familiar enough in many parts of the British Islands, magpies in the north of Europe may be seen hunting for insects on the roofs of cottages: but elsewhere they lead a wandering life, feeding on carrion, small birds, and such other animal food as they can obtain. Breeding in a variety of situations frequently in a tall poplar, but at other times in a low bush or hedge they construct a domed nest of dry branches, securely protected by projecting thorns. Even in China, where they nest in February, their choice of a situation of a site for building is quite as varied as in Europe, Swinhoe stating CROW TRIBE. MAGPIES. that he has seen nests on the poles in front of a mandarin's house, and in the crown of a cocoa-nut palm. The eggs, from five to seven in number, are bluish white, with greenish brown or brownish spots. A nonmigrant, as a rule, and fre- quenting open rather than forest districts, the magpie affords excellent sport before the hawk, Sebright stating that " it is far superior to every other kind of hawking. The object of the chase is fully a match for its pursuers a requisite absolutely necessary to give an interest to any sport of this kind, and it has the advantage of giving full employment to the company, which is not the case in partridge-hawking. A down or common where low trees or thorn bushes are dis- persed at distances of from thirty to fifty yards apart, is the place best calculated for this diversion. When a magpie is seen at a distance, a hawk is immediately to be cast off. The magpie will take refuge in a bush the moment he sees a falcon, and will remain there until the falconer arrives, with the hawk waiting on in the air. The magpie is to be driven from his retreat, and the hawk if at a good pitch will stoop at him as he passes to another bush, from whence he has to be driven in the same way, another hawk having been previously cast off, so that one or the other may always be so situated as to attack him with advantage. Four or five assistants besides the falconer are required for this sport. The magpie will always endeavour to make his way to some strong cover ; care therefore must be taken to counteract him and to drive him to that part of the ground where the bushes are farthest from each other/' Azure-winged The azure- winged magpie (Cyanopica cooki), on account of certain Magpies. differences, is regarded as representing a genus apart from the typical pies ; and is one of the handsomest of European birds. In colour, the head and upper-part of the neck are coal-black, the back and mantle brownish grey, the throat greyish white, the under-parts light fawn grey, and the wings and tail light greenish blue. This bird is selected for notice on account of the remark- able geographical distribution of the genus to which it belongs. Thus the typical azure -winged magpie is confined to certain districts of Spain and Portugal, where it is far from common, and very local, breeding in small colonies, and 3 i6 PERCHING BIRDS. generally resorting to districts where evergreen oaks are abundant. Unknown elsewhere in Europe, this bird is replaced in China by an almost identical form, distinguished by its superior size, and generally greyer tone of coloration, the same form also occurring in Japan. Such an instance of discontinuous Blue Magpies. AZURE-WINGED MAGPIE (\ nat. size). distribution is scarcely paralleled among the Passerines. In disposition the azure-winged pie is described as being an active and intelligent bird, building a nest very like that of the common jay. The magpies included in the genus Urocissa are distin- guished by having the nostrils covered with soft plumes instead of stiff bristles, and situated near the base of the bill. They further differ from the pies in having the bill either red or yellow, but never black ; and they are all characterised by the predominance of azure-blue in their plumage. Unlike the true magpies, they build open nests. One species is found in Formosa, China, and Burma, and two others inhabit the Himalaya and Nipal. The Chinese blue magpie (IT. sinensis) inhabits the hills of Eastern China, sometimes extending its range into the more wooded portions of the plains. Styan states that it is a noisy bird, and possesses a great variety of notes. It wanders about the wooded hillsides in large parties, composed exclusively of members of its own kind. The upper-parts are lavender-brown, slightly shaded with bluish purple, CROW TRIBE. the wings dull azure, brighter on the quills, the primaries being spotted with white; the tail is azure-blue, broadly tipped with white; the head and entire throat are black, all the feathers of the fore -part of the crown being tipped ifelt RED-BILLED BLUE MAGPIE (f nat. size). with lavender -grey, and the under surface of the body being light grey. The red- billed species ( U. occipitalis), which is the one represented in our figure, extends throughout the Himalaya, from the north- west to Nipal, where it is chiefly confined to the outer ranges. It lives in small parties containing from two or three to half a dozen birds, and breeds from March to July. The open nest is built at a variable elevation above the ground, and is formed of twigs and branches, lined with fine roots. The number of eggs ranges from three to five; their colour being similar to that characterising those of the common magpie. When feeding, these birds are generally on the ground. The head, neck, and breast of the red- billed magpie are black ; a large patch on the nape is white ; back, scapulars, and PERCHING BIRDS. rump are purplish blue ; the wings are brown ; the first primaries are edged with blue ; the tail is blue broadly tipped with white ; the lower plumage white tinged with purple. The genus Dendrocitta contains a group of Indian species, ' S ' generally resembling the pies of the Old World, but distinguished by short curved bills and the constant possession of a chestnut coloration varied with black. One species inhabits the island of Formosa ; another is peculiar to the Andaman Islands ; and a third is found in the Himalaya and Assam. The most generally dis- tributed is the common Indian magpie (Den- drocitta rufa), which is very common in well- wooded districts, especi- ally in the plains ; and in travelling further north is to be seen in pairs and small parties in every grove and garden, and about every village. It builds a large nest of sticks usually in some lofty tree, and lays three or four eggs of a light greenish - fawn colour, usually indistinctly blotched with brown. It preys upon insects, small birds, and even bats; but at times feeds principally upon fruits. The adult has the upper- parts orange-brown, shading off into a brighter orange-buff on the lower back and rump ; the wings are black, the tail-feathers grey, with black tips, the lores and throat blackish, and the rest of the under-parts orange-buff. Under the general title of jays may be included a group of several genera of closely allied members of the present family, in all of which the wings are relatively short, the tail being always more than three - fourths the length of the wing. In the typical genus the short and compressed beak is shorter than the head; the nostrils are placed at the The Jays. INDIAN TREE-PIE (J nat. size). CROW TRIBE. 319 base of the beak, and are hidden by stiff, forwardly-directed feathers ; while the feathers of the crown of the head are long and erectile. The majority of the species have white upper tail-coverts, and the wings barred with light blue ; the general colour of the body-plumage being fawn-red. Chiefly frequenting woods, where their presence is revealed by their harsh, discordant cries, jays are omnivorous, living on almost every description of animal and vegetable substance, but changing their diet according to the season. True Jays. COMMON JAY (\ nat size). The true jays of the genus Garrulus are principally inhabitants of the northern and temperate regions of the Old World, although one species is found in Burma, a second is peculiar to Algeria, and a third is confined to Japan. The common European jay (G. glandarius) ranges through- out Europe from Northern Kussia and Scandinavia to Spain and Italy; but is replaced in Asia Minor by the black-headed jay (G. kynicki) ; while in Eastern Russia its place is taken by Brandt's jay (G. brandti), and in Syria by G. syriacus. Shunning open country, the jay frequents large woods, where it often nests at only a moderate elevation above the ground, laying usually six eggs, of a greyish white 320 PERCHING BIRDS. colour speckled with brown. Although a shy bird, never dwelling in the open country and seldom seen on the ground, the jay is thoroughly arboreal in its habits; and, as its name implies, is especially fond of acorns and other forest fruits. Nevertheless, when dwelling in woods bordering gardens, it is frequently tempted forth during the fruit-season to plunder the latter. Not content, however, with the vegetable diet, the jay rifles and destroys the nests of the smaller birds, consuming both eggs and callow young alike ; while it also destroys a considerable number of pheasants' eggs and chickens. In consequence of these thieving propen- sities, the jay is most cordially detested by the gamekeeper, who seizes every opportunity for shooting it; and in many districts of England, owing to such persecution, these handsome birds have become scarce. The jay flies with an undulating and somewhat heavy motion, accompanied by much flapping of the wings ; and generally takes only short flights from tree to tree, although when on migration it can fly for long distances. Unlike the pre- ceding members of the family, when on the ground, the jay progresses by hopping instead of by walking. In its movements, when perching, it is lively and apparently self-conscious, the head being continually turned from side to side, the crest alternately raised and depressed, and the wings and tail in motion. A characteristic bird of the most northern parts of the Old Siberian Jay. ..,,,.., ~., . , -~ . . NT,. , i i World is the Siberian jay (Pensoreus ^nJaustus), distinguished by the possession of a soft fluffy plumage, well adapted to protect its owner from the rigour of an Arctic winter. The adult bird has the crown and nape sooty-brown, gradually fading in tinge as it joins the colour of the back ; the upper-parts being dull lead-grey, washed with reddish brown, and the rump and tail bright foxy red, excepting the two central tail feathers. The chin, throat, and breast are grey, while the under-parts and flanks are bright rufous. The Siberian jay breeds early in the year, building its nest close to the stem of a pine or fir tree, and forming it principally of grey lichens closely interwoven with dry fir twigs, a few of its own feathers and those of the ptarmigan being inserted here and there, as also stalks of dry grass. The eggs vary in number from three to five, and in colour are dirty white, blotched with purplish grey and brown. Professor Newton writes : " More sprightly and cunning birds than these jays cannot well be, whether caged or not. In their own woods one hears their deep ringing kook, kook, kook, followed by a series of noises which sound like a conversation carried on by two or three people in an unknown tongue. One puts up a family-party off the ground where they have been feasting on the berries, and away they go through the trees with their wavering unsteady flight, every here and there a gleam of sunshine catching their tails, and turning them into gigantic redstarts. Or when one halts for any purpose, there comes a Siberian jay, at first stealthily ; but soon, if he sees no sign of danger to him, he displays himself openly, perching almost within arm's length, ruffling his long, loose plumage, and calling to his neighbours." Long-Crested A common bird in Western America, represented in Mexico by Ja -y- the bluer Mexican jay, is the long-crested jay (Cyanocitta macrolopha), which inhabits large pine forests. The upper-parts of this bird are sooty brown, passing on the rump and upper tail-coverts into beautiful, light, cobalt blue, which also occupies the lower parts. In habits it is cautious and cunning, displaying CROW TRIBE. 321 in a marked degree the acuteness common to most members of the crow family. It nests in trees and bushes, and lays from five to six eggs, which are pale bluish green, profusely spotted with light and dark brown. The Mexican species is re- presented in our figure. The urraca jay (Cyanocorax clirysops) is a well-known Brazilian species, found also in Paraguay and Uruguay. In colour it is black MEXICAN LONG-CRESTED JAY (f nat. size). above, glossed with purple, the feathers of the crown forming a crest ; the nape is greyish blue, deepening into purple on the hind neck ; above the eye there is a blue spot; while the under surface is creamy yellow. According to Azara's account, this jay, of which we give a figure, is an abundant bird in Paraguay, where it is as familiar as is the magpie in England, not even hesitating to enter the houses of the inhabitants. Not ranging into the colder regions of Argentina, this bird seems to suffer from the cold during winter in Uruguay ; and at that season it is by no means uncommon to see a party of from ten to twenty of these VOL. III. 21 3 22 PERCHING BIRDS. jays crowding together in the most sheltered part of a tree, to obtain protec- tion from the wind. If the tree or bush be small, and the best space limited, it may happen that some of the birds will perch on the back of their fellows, and thus form a regular pyramid. Like most gregarious pies and jays, when the flock is on the move, one bird flies off first, followed soon by another, and then by a third, till the whole party is on the wing. As a rule, the nest is built in a tall and thorny tree, and though it is strongly constructed, so coarsely made is it, URRACA JAY (f nat. size). that the eggs can always be seen from below, and sometimes actually fall through the chinks. With a blue ground-colour, and a chalky incrustation, the eggs are generally six or seven in number, although upwards of fourteen have been taken from a single nest. The Grey Distinguished by the arched form of the short bill, which struthidea. Gould regarded as specially adapted to enable the bird to feed upon the seeds extracted from the cones of a tree found only in the district which it CROW TRIBE. 3 2 3 inhabits, the grey struthidea (Struthidea cinerea) is confined to the rocky hill- ridges of Southern and Eastern Australia. The eggs are four in number, and are white in colour, blotched with reddish brown and grey; the nest is of mud, thickly lined with fine grass. The struthidea feeds principally upon insects, chiefly beetles. The two sexes are so nearly identical in size and colour that they can only be distinguished by dissection. This species differs from many other GREY STRDTHIDEA (J liat. Size). Australian birds by reason of the sober colour of its dress, which is inconspicuous and little likely to attract attention. The general colour both above and below is grey, each feather being tipped with lighter grey ; while the wings are brown, and the tail is glossy black, with a greenish lustre on the outer webs of its feathers. This small genus, Gymnorhina, includes only three species, popularly known as Australian magpies by reason of their black and white plumage, which is common to both sexes, and never varies. Piping Crows. 324 PERCHING BIRDS. The best known member of this genus is the black-backed piping crow (G. tibicen), which is universally distributed over New South Wales ; the white-backed piping crow (G. leuconota) being restricted to the southern and western parts of the Australian continent, and very abundant in Southern Australia. A third species (G. organica), known to the colonists as the organ-bird is peculiar to Tasmania, and will pour forth from the branch of some dead tree a succession of the strangest notes that can be imagined, much resembling the sound of a hand-organ out of tune ; it is very easily tamed, and can be taught to whistle various tunes as well as to articulate words. The black - backed species, which is the one given in our illustration, is BLACK-BACKED PIPING CROW nat. size). bold and showy, enlivening and ornamenting the lawns and gardens of the colonists by its presence, and with the slightest protection from molestation becoming so tame and familiar that it approaches close to their dwellings and perches around them and the stock-yards in small families of from six to ten in number. Gould states that it prefers cleared lands, or open plains skirted by belts of timber; hence the interior of the country is more favourable to it than the neighbourhood of the coast. Its lively and intelligent habits and fine vocal powers render it a favourite cage-bird both at home and abroad. The crown, back, and under-parts are black ; and the nape, wing-coverts, and upper and under tail-coverts white. Insectivorous in their habits, the piping crows live chiefly on grasshoppers, of which they consume an enormous quantity. The breeding-season commences in August and lasts till January, during which period each pair of birds nests twice. CROW TRIBE. 325 The round and open nest is formed of twigs and leaves, with a softer lining ; the three or four eggs are of a bluish white ground-colour, which may often have a reddish tinge, upon which are large blotches of brownish red or light chestnut- brown. It is noteworthy that although these birds seem always to thrive in captivity, yet their vocal powers in that state vary considerably, some specimens pouring forth the full song, while others sing only in a subdued undertone. RED-BILLED, AND ALPINE CHOUGH (J nat. size). The two species of the genus Graculus, while resembling the The Choughs. . . * -.-". - true crows in form and coloration, diner in possessing long and pointed wings, as well as in the comparatively slender beak. Unlike other crows, they have a smooth metatarsus, and the feet and beak brightly coloured. Of the two species, the common or red-billed chough (G. eremita) 1 ranges from Eastern Europe to China and Eastern Siberia, being no less at home in the deserts of Ladak than on the cliffs 1 When the generic name Graculus is adopted for these birds, the common species is generally termed G. graculus, but this is a combination the Editor cannot admit, and the alternative Linnean name is therefore taken. 326 PERCHING BIRDS. of the English coast. Formerly this species was a comparatively common bird on the western coasts of Great Britain and Ireland, nor was it entirely a coast-loving one, since individual pairs nested in the recesses of limestone precipices inland, such as Whitbarrow Scaur in Westmoreland. The chough has, however, latterly de- creased in numbers in most of its strongholds, partly owing to human interference ; although there is some reason to suppose that its extermination may be partially accounted for by the special predilection of the peregrine falcon for its flesh. The chough nests in the spring of the year, breeding principally among the precipices of dizzy cliffs and headlands, deemed impregnable by all but professional cragsmen ; but occasionally it rears its young among the broken pinnacles of some ruined cathedral. The eggs are white in ground-colour^ streaked with brown and grey. The Isle of Man was formerly a great stronghold of the species, and when Jardine visited that island in 1827, he found the "red-legged crows" most abundant. Even in Britain the chough occasionally wanders from its maritime haunts; and in Ladak it dwells in the very heart of Asia. Not the least interesting feature in the life-history of this bird is the constancy with which individual pairs endeavour to rear their young for many successive years in the same nesting-places. Choughs obtain much of their food on the grassy borders of the cliffs which they frequent, as also in the adjacent fields, feeding either gregariously or in single pairs. . Amongst the Alps and other mountain-ranges of Central Europe ' the red-billed chough is in many cases replaced by the Alpine chough (6r. alpinus) which has a yellow instead of a red beak, and is somewhat smaller in dimensions. Mr. Fowler says that the Alpine chough is the character- istic corvine of the Alps, as it also is of the Apennines ; and its lively chatter, breaking suddenly on vast and silent solitudes, recalls to memory the familiar jackdaw. The Alpine chough nests amongst the crags of its native precipices ; the eggs being four or five in number, and in colour white, varied with dirty yellow mottlings. This chough is a recognised article of commerce, and as such is frequently imported to Europe as a cage-bird. Chough- We now come to a small but interesting group of birds, of some- Thrushes, what doubtful affinity, though probably not distantly related to the choughs, from which they are at once distinguished by the relative shortness of their wings, which fall short of the tip of the tail by more than the length of the metatarsus. They are further distinguished by the possession of a peculiar style of coloration, and also by their inferior size. Comparatively little is known of the habits of the chough-thrushes, these birds being found only in certain parts of Central Asia, and having rarely come under the notice of field-naturalists. The whole of the four species known to science inhabit desert regions and sterile plains. Of these the first discovered was Pander's chough - thrush (Podoces panderi), and although many years have elapsed since its existence became known, it is still very rare in collections. Nor is this surprising, since its home is the lower Oxus, and the inaccessible deserts of Turkestan. It is not a gregarious species, nor does it associate with other kinds of birds, living for the most part in couples, which presumably pair for life, and constantly associate together, sub- sisting upon the insects and other food to be found in the vicinity of their favourite sandhills. Unlike its congener, the plain-coloured chough-thrush, the present CROW TRIBE. 327 species is a handsome bird, and attractive in appearance ; the upper-parts of the adult being clear grey ; the wings white, with black at the base and at the tip ; while the tail is glossy purplish black ; the throat whitish ; a large black patch adorns the fore-neck ; and the lower-parts are vinaceous, fading into white. PANDER'S CHOUGH-THRUSH (f nat. size). The genus Heteralocha includes a single species, variously referred to the hoopoes and crows; while Garrod considered its relations to be most intimate with the starlings, a view also adopted by Sir Walter Buller and Dr. Sharpe. The bill of the male is rather short and straight, and acutely pointed, with the sides compressed, and the nostrils at its base ; while in the female it is long, curved, and slender; the difference being so great that the two sexes were at first regarded as distinct species. The wings are long and rounded. The huia bird (H. gouldi), which is peculiar to New Zealand, has an extremely restricted habitat, being confined to certain mountain - ranges, with their divergent spurs, and the intervening wooded valleys. The natives, who prize the bird very highly for its tail-feathers, which are used as a badge of mourning, state that, unlike other species which have of late years diminished and become more confined in their range, the huia has from time immemorial been limited in its distribution to its present haunts. Sir W. Buller, who com- ments on the readiness with which the huia becomes reconciled to the loss of its liberty, so long ago as 1864 received a pair of these birds from a native in exchange for a valuable stone. They were fully adult, and had been caught in the following simple manner. Attracting the birds by an imitation of their cry to the place where he lay concealed, the native, with the aid of a long rod, slipped a running knot over the head of the female and secured her. The male, emboldened by the loss of his mate, suffered himself to be easily caught in the same manner. When liberated in a large room, writes their owner, " it was amusing to notice 328 PERCHING BIRDS. their treatment of the hu-hu. This grub, the larva of a large nocturnal beetle, which constitutes their principal food, infests all decayed timber, attaining at maturity the size of a man's little finger. Like all grubs of its kind, it is furnished with a horned head and horny mandibles. On offering one of these to the huia, he would seize it in the middle, and, at once transferring it to his perch, and placing one foot firmly upon it, he would tear off the hard parts, and then, throwing the grub upwards to secure it lengthwise in his bill, would swallow it whole. For the MALE AND FEMALE HUIAS ( nat. size). first few days these birds were comparatively quiet, remaining stationary on their perch as soon as their hunger was appeased, but they afterwards became more lively and active, indulging in play with each other, and seldom remaining more than a few moments in one position. I sent to the woods for a small branched tree, and placed it in the centre of the room, the floor of which was spread with sand and gravel. It was most interesting to watch these graceful birds hopping from branch to branch, occasionally spreading their tail into a broad fan, displaying themselves in a variety of natural attitudes, and then meeting to caress each other with their BIRDS OF PARADISE. 329 ivory bills, uttering at the same time a low affectionate twitter . . . But what interested me most of all was the manner in which the birds assisted each other in their search for food, because it appeared to explain the use, in the economy of nature, of the differently- formed bills in the two sexes. To divert the birds, I introduced a log of decayed wood infested with the hu-hu grub. They at once attacked it, carefully probing the softer parts with their bills, and then vigorously assailing them, scooping out the decayed wood till the larva or pupa was visible, when it was carefully drawn from its cell, treated in the way above described, and then swallowed. The very different development of the mandibles in the two sexes enabled them to perform separate offices. The male always attacked the more decayed portions of the wood, chiselling out his prey after the manner of some woodpeckers, while the female probed with her long pliant bill the other cells, where the hardness of the surrounding parts resisted the chisel of her mate. vSometimes I observed the male remove the decayed portion without being able to reach the grub, when the female would at once come to his aid and accomplished with her long slender bill what he had failed to do. I noticed, however, that the female always appropriated to her own use the morsels thus obtained." Buller subsequently studied the habits of the huia in the bush. The huia never leaves the shade of the forest ; and moves along the ground, or from tree to tree, with remarkable celerity, by a series of bounds or jumps. In its flight it never rises like other birds above the tree-tops, except in the depths of the woods, when it happens to fly from one high tree to another. The old birds as a rule respond to the call- note in a low tremulous whistle or whimper, and almost immediately afterwards answer the summons in person, coming down noiselessly, and almost with the rapidity of an arrow." The huia builds its nest in hollow trees, lining it with coarse grasses and bits of coarse herbaceous plants, twined into a basin-like form. A specimen of the egg brought to Buller was of a very delicate stone-grey, inclining to greyish white, without any markings except at the larger end where there are some scattered rounded spots of dark purple - grey and brown ; but another specimen is described as pure white, without any trace of markings. The whole of the plumage is black, with a green metallic gloss, the tail being banded with white. Both sexes are adorned with large rounded wattles, which are of a rich orange colour in the living bird. The bill is ivory-white, darkening into blackish grey at the base. The young differ from the adults in having the entire plumage of a duller black, and the terminal bar washed with rufous. It may be added that in the superficial deposits of the North Island remains of the huia have been found in association with those of the extinct moas. * BIRDS OF PARADISE. Family PARADISEID^. In spite of their gorgeous plumage, which seems to run riot in the way of exuberance and eccentricity, the birds of paradise, according to the system we are * NOTE. See p. 374. 33 o PERCHING BIRDS. following, are regarded as near allies of the crows, from which they may be distinguished by the abnormal structure of the toes. Thus, the outermost or fourth toe is inferior in length to the third, which is longer than the second ; while the first is very large, and equal to or longer than the third. According to Dr. Sharpe's arrangement, the birds of paradise may be divided into two groups, in the first of which the beak is short and more or less stout, with its culm en shorter than the metatarsus ; while in the second it is long and slender, the culmen being longer than the metatarsus. These birds, which are represented by nearly fifty species, are almost wholly confined to New Guinea and the adjacent Papuan Islands (especially the Aru group), although one genus is found in the Malaccas, while three genera extend to North Australia. Although the females are at best generally plain and ordinary-looking birds, often of a uniform chocolate-colour, the adult males of all the species are characterised by an extraordinary development of plumage, quite unparalleled in any other group. " In several species," writes Mr. Wallace, " large tufts of delicate bright-coloured feathers spring from each side of the body beneath the wings, forming trains, or fans, or shields ; and the middle feathers of the tail are often elongated into wires, twisted into fantastic shapes, or adorned with the most brilliant metallic tints. In another set of species these accessory plumes spring from the head, the back, or the shoulders ; while the intensity of colour and of metallic lustre displayed by their plumage is not to be equalled by any other birds, except, perhaps, the humming-birds, and is not surpassed even by these." Although but very little is known in regard to the habits of these lovely birds, it appears that as regards food they are generally omnivorous, feeding on fruits and insects, and showing a marked preference for figs, grasshoppers, locusts, leaf-insects, and caterpillars. Even, however, when supplied with food of this nature in captivity they almost immediately pine and die. While the long-tailed species are purely arboreal, some of the short-tailed kinds, like the six-plumed bird of paradise, are frequently seen on the ground ; and in all cases the cock-birds are fond of assembling for mutual display. Till recently their eggs have been almost unknowm, but such as have been obtained recall those of some of the rails in appearance. They are two in number, and laid in a nest built high up in the tree-tops. The eggs of the Empress Augusta paradise-bird have a pale pinkish buff ground-colour, upon which are streaks and spots of reddish brown and grey. Several of the species have a very small distributional area, but in no case is the range more restricted than in the red bird of paradise, which is entirely con- fined to the small island of Waigiou, at the north-western extremity of New Guinea, in which spot it replaces the members of the genus to which it belongs found in the other islands. Twelve-Wired Commencing with the second of the two groups referred to Bird of Paradise. a b ovej or the one in which the beak is relatively long and slender, we may take as a first example the beautiful twelve -wired bird of paradise (Seleucides nigricans), which is the sole representative of this genus. Having a short, squared tail, much inferior in length to the body, this genus is dis- tinguished by the absence of a jugular shield of metallic plumes on the throat and fore-neck; and still more so by the feathers of the flanks, which are BIRDS OF PARADISE. 33* yellowish like those of the breast, being produced and their shafts elongated into six pairs of bare wire-like bristles, which are bent forwards in a bold curve. As regards the plumage, the head is covered with short velvety feathers of a purplish bronze colour; the breast appears at first nearly black, but in different lights shows various metallic tints, especially green and purple, the TWELVE-WIRED BIRD OF PARADISE (J nat. size) outer edges of the feathers being margined with emerald-green. The whole of the back and shoulders is rich bronzy green, while the closed wings and tail are of the most brilliant violet-purple ; and the whole plumage has a delicate silky gloss. Posteriorly to the fore-breast, the whole of the under-parts are of a rich buffy yellow, the same tint characterising the plumes of flank-feathers, which extend about an inch and a half beyond the tail. The total length of the bird is about a foot, of which two inches are taken up by the compressed beak. The 332 PERCHING BIRDS. female, although less sombre than in some of the group, has none of the bright plumes of her partner, being bright chestnut-red above, with the crown of the head and back of the neck brown, while the under-parts are buffy brown, irregularly barred with blackish brown. Inhabiting the island of Salwatti and the north-western parts of New Guinea, the twelve-wired bird of paradise, according to Mr. Wallace, " frequents flowering trees, especially sago-palms and pandani, sucking the flowers, round and beneath which its unusually large and powerful feet enable it to cling. Its motions are very rapid. It seldom rests more than a few moments on one tree, after which it flies off, and with great swiftness, to another. It has a loud, shrill cry, to be heard a long way off, consisting of call, cah, repeated flve or six times in a descending scale, and at the last note it generally flies away. The males are quite solitary in their habits, although, perhaps, they assemble at certain times like the true paradise-birds." Both Mr. Wallace and Dr. Guillernard have been fortunate enough to see this splendid bird in the living state. To capture them, the natives search the forest until they discover a roosting-place, where the hunter conceals himself beneath the tree, and having marked the particular bough on which the bird is accustomed to perch, ascends the stem at night, and secures his prize by the simple expedient of stealthily putting a cloth over it. There are three other genera included in the long-beaked group, or Epimachince, namely, Ptilorhis, Epimachus, and Drepanornis. The first of these three are inhabitants of Northern Australia and New Guinea, and are commonly known as rifle-birds. While agreeing with the twelve-wired paradise-bird in the relative proportions of the tail, they differ in having a jugular shield of metallic plumes occupying the throat and fore-neck, as well as by the absence of the "wires." The scale-breasted bird of paradise (P. magnified) is the Papuan representative of this genus, and is characterised by the shield of stiff metallic green feathers on the breast, and a small tuft of somewhat hairy plumes on the sides of the same ; the back and wings being velvety black, faintly glossed with purple. The long -tailed bird of paradise (Epimachus speciosus), together with an allied Papuan species, represent the second of the three genera, sufficiently distinguished by the great elongation of the gradu- ated tail, which is much longer than the body. Resembling the twelve-wired species in its dark velvety plumage, glossed with purple and bronze, this bird has the tail, which exceeds two feet in length, tinted above with a splendid opalescent blue ; but its chief ornament is the group of broad feathers arising in a fan-like manner from the sides of the breast, which are dilated at their extremities, and banded with vivid blue and green ; the beak being long and curved, and the feet black. In total length this bird measures between 3 and 4 feet. It is an inhabitant of the mountains of New Guinea, sometimes found near the coast. The fourth genus is represented by the Albertis bird of paradise (Drepanornis albertisi), which differs from all the others in having a long, slender, sickle-shaped beak, downy plumage, a moderately long graduated tail, and the flank-feathers developed into a brown fan-like shield. " Above the beak," writes its discoverer, Signor Albertis, " are two tufts or horns, formed of small feathers deeply marked with green and copper-coloured reflections. The long feathers which grow from BIRDS OF PARADISE. 333 the sides of the breast are, when closed, grey, shot with a violet tint ; but when spread they form almost a semicircle round the body, and in certain lights shine 1 GORGET BIRD OF PARADISE (f nat. size). like gold, in others like fire. Long feathers of a greyish violet colour grow from the sides, their edges being of a metallic violet lustre. The upper-parts of the wing and tail-feathers are of a darkish yellow, as are those of the back, but sometimes of a still darker hue. The feathers of the throat are black, shading off into olive colour ; those of the breast of a greyish purple, with an olive band; the abdomen is white. The beak is black, the eyes chestnut, and the feet dark lead-colour. When the bird raises the long feathers on his sides and breast, they form two semicircles, and he presents as extraordinary and beauti- ful a sight as one could behold." The female of this Papuan species is chestnut above, and yellower beneath. 334 PERCHING BIRDS. The Gorget Bird This species (Astrapia nigra), from the mountains of Central of Paradise. New Guinea, is the sole representative of its genus, and brings us to the short-beaked or typical group of the family. Having a long and graduated tail, of which the central plumes are not elongated into wire-like shafts, it is especially distinguished by the thick feathering of the lores and angle of the mouth, by the presence of an erect frill surrounding the head, and another frill of a golden coppery tint round the throat. In the adult male the general colour of the upper-parts is velvety black, with a purplish gloss ; the two long central tail-feathers are glossed with purple; the frill round the head is golden- green ; while the feathers of the throat are steely black, with the above-mentioned gorget of brilliant copper ; a ruff of black plume^ springs from the shield on the neck ; the flanks are dusky black, and the under-parts velvety grass-green. Wattled Bird An allied genus is represented by the wattled paradise -bird of Paradise. (Paradigalla carunculata) of New Guinea, distinguished by the lores having an erect orange-yellow wattle, while another of azure blue hangs from each angle of the mouth ; the tail being shorter than the body, and the head and throat devoid of frills. Typical Birds of The great bird of paradise (Paradisca apoda), which was the Paradise. fi rs t known representative of the entire family, derives its specific name from having been described by Linnaeus from a skin prepared in the Papuan _^ fashion, with the wings and feet cut off. The l(,/y, '>[,/, .~^J' -1. / __ genus, which is repre- sented by several species from Papua and the Aru and other islands, is characterised by the production of the cen- tral pair of tail-feathers into extremely long, horny, wire-like shafts, the absence of a shield on the back, and the elongation of the flank- plumes into two huge bunches of feathers reaching far beyond the tail. The great bird of paradise, of the Aru Islands, is the largest representative of the genus, measuring from 15 to 18 inches in total length, and is described by Mr. Wallace, as follows : " The body, wings, and tail are of a rich coffee-brown, which deepens on the breast to a blackish violet or purple-brown. The whole of the top of the head and neck is of an exceedingly delicate straw- yellow, the feathers being short and close set, so as to resemble plush or velvet ; the lower part of the throat up to the eye is clothed with scaly feathers of an GREAT BIRD OF PARADISE. BIRDS OF PARADISE. 335 emerald-green colour, and with a rich metallic gloss, and velvety plumes of a still deeper green extend in a broad band across the forehead and chin as far as the eye, which is bright yellow. The beak is pale lead-blue; and the feet, which are rather large, and very strongly and well-formed, are of a pale ashy pink. The two middle feathers of the tail have no webs, except a very small one at the base and at the extreme tip, forming wire-like cirrhi, which spread out in an elegant double curve, and vary from 24 to 30 inches in length. From each side of the body, beneath the wings, springs a dense tuft of long and delicate plumes, sometimes 2 feet in length, of the most intense golden-orange colour, and very glossy, but changing towards the tips into a pale brown. This tuft of plumes can be elevated and spread out at pleasure, so as almost to conceal the body of the bird." In the female the whole of the ornamental plumes are wanting, and the colour is a uniform coffee-brown. The lesser bird of paradise (P. minor), from New Guinea, and several of the adjacent islands, although considerably smaller, is very similar in general characteristics. Red Bird of On the other hand, the red bird of paradise (P. sanguinea), from the islands of Waigiou, Ghemien, and Batanta, is a very distinct Paradise. 336 PERCHING BIRDS. form. Measuring from 13 to 14 inches in length, it has the flank-plumes shorter, and of a rich crimson hue, while in structure they are rigid, their tips being horny, and nearly white. The forehead, sides of the head, and the whole throat are a brilliant metallic green, with the plumes of a velvety texture ; the sides of the neck and entire mantle are bright golden -yellow, deepening into orange on the sides of the mantle and the middle of the back ; the rump is straw- yellow, the two central feathers consisting of two long shafts, 21 inches in length, of a metallic horny structure ; the wing-coverts are golden yellow ; the primaries ruddy chestnut; and breast deep purplish chestnut. The female and young have the sides of the head and forehead purplish brown ; the hind-part of the head, neck, and mantle straw-yellow, deepening into orange ; the remainder of the upper surface, including the wings and tail, being chestnut-brown, as are the lower-parts. Thoroughly arboreal in their habits, the birds of this genus live both upon insects and fruits; and occasionally they may be seen running along the lower boughs of trees almost like woodpeckers, with the long, black filaments of the tail hanging gracefully down on each side. In motion throughout the day, they are active and vigorous ; and while small flocks of females and immature males are constantly met with, the adult cocks are less commonly seen, although their presence near by is revealed by their loud and harsh cries. At certain seasons of the year the adult males flock together in a selected tree for the purpose of display, forming what the natives term dancing-parties. " On one of these trees," says Mr. Wallace, " a dozen or twenty full-plum aged male birds assemble together, raise up their wings, stretch out their necks, and elevate their exquisite plumes, keeping them in a continual vibration. Between whiles they fly across from branch to branch in a state of great excitement, so that the whole tree is filled with waving plumes in every variety of attitude and motion." When thus assembled, the birds are shot with blunt-headed arrows by the natives, who climb silently into the "play-tree," and seat themselves in some convenient fork. From con- tinual persecution to supply the European market with skins, the great bird of para- dise, according to Dr. Guillemard, has of late years greatly diminished in numbers. King Paradise The beautiful little king bird of paradise (Cicinpurus regius) } Bird. f rom N ew Guinea and the adjacent islands, forms the type of a distinct genus, distinguished by the flank-plumes not extending beyond the tail, by the presence of a large tuft of fan-like plumes on each side of the breast, and by the two central tail-feathers being long and racket-like. Measuring only about 6J inches in length, this lovely species has the head, throat, upper-parts, wings, and tail red, the fan-like plumes on the sides purplish, tipped with green, a green gorget below the red of the throat, and the rest of the under-parts white. Wilson's Bird The remarkable species (Diphyllodes wilsoni) we illustrate may be of Paradise. i nc l u d e( } i n a Papuan genus, typically represented by the magnificent paradise-bird (D. magnified), and distinguished from the preceding by the presence of a shield of feathers on the back, and the absence of elongated flank-plumes ; while from an allied genus (Rhipidornis) it differs in having no fan-shaped shield of feathers springing from each side of the breast. Whereas, however, in the magnificent paradise-bird the head is thickly feathered, in the species under consideration, with the exception of a few narrow tracts of feathers, it is bare ; on BIRDS OF PARADISE. 337 which account some writers refer Wilson's bird of paradise to a distinct genus. Describing this remarkable species, Dr. Guillemard writes that " behind the head a ruff of canary-coloured feathers stands erect above the scarlet back and wings. The breast is covered by a shield of glossy green plumes, which towards the throat are marked with metallic green and violet spots of extraordinary beauty. The two central feathers of the tail, prolonged for 5 or 6 inches beyond the others, cross WILSON'S BIRD OF PARADISE. (From Guillemard's Cruise of the Marchesa.) one another, and are curved into a complete circle of bright steely purple. But the chief peculiarity of the bird is the head, which is bald from the vertex backwards, the bare skin being of the brightest imaginable blue. The bizarre effect thus produced is still further heightened by two fine lines of feathers, which running lengthways and from side to side form a dark cross upon the brilliant azure background." This bird is of small size, and is confined to Waigiou and Batanta Islands, where it appears to be very locally distributed, frequenting forests of no great height, at an elevation of some eight hundred feet above the sea. VOL. in. 22 338 PERCHING BIRDS. Six-Plumed Bird of Paradise. Another strange and beautiful representative of a group in which are lovely beyond description is the six-plumed bird of paradise (Parotid sexpennis) of New Guinea, which is the only known member of its genus. In common with the remaining members of the family, this bird has a short tail, without any elongation of the central pair of feathers, while it is specially char- acterised by three pairs of very long racket-feathers springing from the sides of the head. With the exception of a vivid steely-green bar across the crown of the head, and a tuft of silvery feathers at the base of the beak, together with a green and bronze gorget on the breast, the plumage is almost entirely black; the tuft of silvery feathers on the beak being capable of erection or depression at will. For many years this splendid species was known only by skins badly prepared by the HEAD OF SIX -PLUMED BIRD OF PARADISE. (From Guillemard's Cruise of the Marchesa. ) natives; but eventually it was observed in the living state by Signer Albertis, who writes as follows of his first sight of it in its native haunts : " After standing still for some moments in the middle of the little glade, the beautiful bird peered about to see if all was safe, and then he began to move the long feathers of his head, six in number, from which his name is derived, and to raise and lower a small tuft of white feathers above his beak, which shone in the rays of the sun like burnished silver ; he also raised and lowered the crest of stiff feathers, almost like scales, and glittering like bits of bright metal with which his neck was adorned. He spread and contracted the long feathers on his sides in a way that made him appear now larger and again smaller than his real size, and, jumping first on one side and then on the other, he placed himself proudly in an attitude of combat, as though he imagined himself fighting with some invisible foe. All this time he was uttering a curious note, as though calling on some one to admire his beauty, or perhaps challenging an enemy." From this account it would appear that the species is much less arboreal in its habits than the other members of the family. The standard- Even more remarkable than the last is the standard- wing (Semi- Wing. optera wallacei), from the islands of Batchian and Gilolo, which like- BIRDS OF PARADISE. 339 wise forms a genus by itself, and is characterised by the absence of long thread-like plumes on the head, and the presence of two long projecting feathers from each wing, which are capable of being erected at the pleasure of their owner. Its dis- coverer, Mr. Wallace, describes this bird as being generally of a delicate olive- brown colour, deepening to a kind of bronzy olive in the middle of the back, and changing to a delicate ashy violet with metallic reflections on the crown of the head ; the feathers covering the nostrils and extending half-way down the beak being loose and upwardly curved. On the breast the scale-like feathers are margined with a rich metallic bluish green ; while the same colour embraces the throat and sides of the neck, together with the long pointed plumes arising from the sides of the breast. The two long projecting white feathers springing from near the bend of the wings are fully 6 inches in length, and are spread out, whenever the bird is excited, at right angles to the wings. The beak is horny olive, the iris deep olive, and the foot bright orange. In total length the bird measures 11 inches. The standard-wing, which resembles the rest of its tribe in being in constant motion, frequents the lower boughs of the forest trees, "flying from branch to branch, clinging to the twigs, and even to the smooth and vertical trunks almost as easily as a woodpecker. It continually utters a harsh, croaking note, somewhat intermediate between that of a Paradisea apoda and Cicinnurus regius. The males at short intervals open and flutter their wings, erect the long shoulder-feathers, and spread out the elegant green breast-shields." It is noteworthy that the examples of this species from Gilolo differ somewhat in coloration and the conformation of the plumes from those inhabiting Batchian, so that an expert is at once able to say from which of the two islands any given specimen w r as obtained. Superb Bird of The acme of strange plumal adornment (which in all these cases Paradise. j s i n a ii probability developed to attract the admiration and attention of the female, since it can have no other conceivable object) seems to be attained by the superb bird of paradise (Lophorhina superba), which is chiefly characterised by the presence of an enormous erectile forked shield of velvety black feathers, arising from the nape of the neck, and when in repose lying flatly on the back. So strange and apparently incongruous is this shield that it might suggest to the beholder that the tail of some other bird had been stuck on to the skin, were it not that its feathers are of a different type. The ground-colour of the plumage is of the deepest black, but with bronze reflections on the neck, while the feathers of the head are metallic green and blue. Spreading over the breast is a shield composed of narrow and rather stiff feathers, which extends in a pointed form along each side, and is emarginate in the middle. In colour this is bluish green, with a satiny sheen ; the back-shield, on the other hand, is velvety black, with reflections of bronze and purple, its outermost feathers exceeding the primaries of the wing in length. So far as Dr. Guillemard could gather from native reports, it would seem that the enormous crest, as it appears displayed during the courtship of the female, is not only raised, but spread widely out in a fan- like manner, while the chest-shield is similarly expanded. Hence the head of the bird forms the centre of an irregular circle of feathers of velvety black and emerald, completely concealing the rest of the body when viewed from the front. The remaining genera of the family, such as Phony gama of New Guinea and 340 PERCHING BIRDS North Australia, Manucodia of North Australia and the adjacent Papuan Islands. and Lycocorax of the Moluccan and Papuan Islands, must here be passed without f-urther mention. * THE BOWER-BIRDS. Family PTILONORHYNCHID^. By no means easy of definition, the bower-birds, most of which are, however, characterised by building the structures from which they take their name, have given rise to some difference of opinion among ornithologists as to their affinities, and they have been included in the preceding family, although they are now placed by Dr. Sharpe in his catalogue of the birds in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons between the birds of paradise and the starlings. While the so-called regent -bird approximates to the former group in the nature of the feathers on the head, and the gorgeous coloration of its plumage, the true bower-birds are more thrush-like in appearance. The group is mainly peculiar to Australia, although one Australian genus extends to the Papuan Islands, and another genus (Amblyornis), with a single species, inhabits New Guinea only. They all have the base of the beak fully feathered, and the foot of the normal Passerine type. In the position of the flexure of the lower mandible, immediately below the aperture of the nostrils, the skull resembles that of the birds of paradise ; but, in a slight backward projection of the hinder extremity of the mandible, they approximate to the starlings, in which it is more developed, while the flexure is further back. The satin bower-bird (Ptilonorhynchus holosericeus) is the type Satin Bower-Bird. . v . or a genus characterised by the snort, convex, and laterally com- pressed beak, in which the nostrils are basal and concealed by the silky feathers of the forehead; the wings being pointed, the tail somewhat rounded, and the feet stout and furnished with moderately long claws. These bower- birds belong to the eastern and northern districts of Australia. The localities frequented by the satin bower-birds are the luxuriant and thickly foliaged brushes stretching along the coast of New South Wales. Their popular name owes its origin to their extraordinary habit of constructing what the colonists commonly call " runs," which are used by the birds as a play ing - house, and are constructed in avenue form, built of pieces of stick or grass and adorned with stones, bright-coloured shells, and even bleached bones, as well as the blue tail-feathers of certain parrakeets. The natives are so well acquainted with the propensity of these birds for carrying off any attractive object, that they always search the runs for any small article that may have been dropped in the bush ; and in one Gould found a small neatly- worked stone tomahawk, together with some slips of blue cotton rags, which the birds had doubtless picked up at a deserted encampment of the natives. This is a stationary species, but roams from one part of the district to another in search of food. It appears to have particular times in the day for feeding, and when thus engaged may be approached within a few feet, although at other times the old males are shy and watchful. In autumn these bower-birds associate in BO WER-BIRDS. 34 L small flocks, and may often be seen on the ground near the sides of the rivers. The adult male is entirely of a deep, shining blue-black, closely resembling satin, with the exception of the wings and tail, which are of a deep velvety black. The female has all the upper-parts greyish green ; the under surface being similar, but lighter and washed with yellow; and each feather of the under surface having a crescentic mark of dark brown near the extremity. Young males closely resemble the females. There are other species of the genus. Spotted Bower- Birds. SATIN BOWER-BIRDS AND NEST (^ nat. size). The five species of this genus differ from the preceding group h av i n g the nostrils exposed, instead of completely hidden by silky plumes; while from an allied form they are distinguished by the nostrils being oval in shape and overhung by a membrane behind, as well as by the longer and more slender beak. In colour the upper-parts of the common spotted bower- bird (Chlamydodera maculata) are deep brown, as are also the wings and tail ; each feather of the back and rump, as well as the scapularies, being tipped with a large buff patch ; the under-parts are greyish white. The male is ornamented with a broad crest of rose pink, which is wanting in his partner. Much similarity exists between the habits of the satin bower-bird and those of the spotted bower-bird. The latter species is, however, extremely shy, 342 PERCHING BIRDS. and would often escape notice were it not for the harsh grating note with which it receives the intrusion of a stranger into its haunts. When disturbed it takes to the topmost branches of the loftiest trees, and frequently flies off to another neighbourhood. Gould states that he found several of the bowers or runs of this bird during his journey into the interior of New South Wales, both on the plains studded with small trees and in the brushes clothing the lower hills ; SPOTTED BOWER-BIRDS AT HOME (J liat. size). these were considerably longer and more avenue-like than those of the satin bower-bird, being in many instances 3 feet in length. "They are outwardly built of twigs, and beautifully lined with tall grasses, so disposed that their heads nearly meet ; the decorations are very profuse, and consist of bivalve shells, crania of small mammalia and other bones, bleached by exposure to the rays of the sun or from the camp-fires of the natives. Evident indications of high instinct are manifest throughout the whole of the bower and decorations formed by this STARLINGS. 343 species, particularly in the manner in which the stones are placed within the bower, apparently to keep the grasses with which it is lined fixed firmly in their places. These stones diverge from the mouth of the run on each side so as to form little paths, while the immense collections of decorative materials is placed in a heap before the entrance of the avenue, the arrangement being the same at both ends. In some of the larger bowers, which had evidently been resorted to for many years, I have seen half a bushel of bones, shells, etc., at each of the entrances. I frequently found these structures at a consider- able distance from the rivers, from the borders of which they could alone have procured the shell sand small round pebbly stones; their collection and trans- portation must therefore be a task of great labour. I fully ascertained that these runs, like those of the satin bower-bird, formed the rendezvous of many individuals." Gardener Bower- The Papuan representative of the next genus (Amblyornis Bird. inornatus) has the beak less elevated than in the other genera, and the nostrils completely concealed. It is remarkable for building a kind of hut- like structure, fronted with what may be termed a garden, which displays a striking appreciation of beauty in its mode of arrangement. The hut, which is always placed at the foot of a large tree, is some two feet in height, and is formed of the stems of orchids, radiating and sloping from a central support, and roofed with a mass of moss, while round it runs a gallery. One side of the hut is left open, and in front of this is the garden, which is decorated with the bright- coloured berries and flowers, these being removed as soon as they wither. It may be mentioned here that the " bowers " of the whole group have nothing whatever to do with nesting, and appear to be erected solely for the amusement of the birds. There are several other genera pertaining to the family, among which may be mentioned ^Elurcedus, as represented by the Australian cat-bird (dE. viridis). Instead of building a bower, this species merely clears a space of ground, which may be some 8 feet in diameter, where the birds sport. THE STARLINGS. Family STURNID^. Following the arrangement of Dr. Sharpe, the next family on our list is that of the star- lings, although Mr. Gates, in his Birds of British India, assigns it a very different position. All these birds agree in possessing a wing with five primary quills, and twelve tail - feathers ; the beak being generally, although not invari- ably, slender and curved. The nostrils are clear of the line of the forehead ; but the length of the metatarsus is variable. The characters in which the skull differs from that of the birds of paradise are noticed under that family. COMMON STABLING. 344 PERCHING BIRDS. Starlings are found throughout the Eastern Hemisphere, with the exception of New Zealand. In the typical genus (Sturnus) the beak is as long as the S ' head, and blunt at the tip and depressed, its edges being quite smooth ; the wings are long and pointed, and the tail is short and squared. The members of the genus principally inhabit the temperate regions of Europe and Asia, as well as Northern Africa. Common Breeding commonly in most parts of temperate Europe, although starling. more rarely in the north than in the central districts of the Continent, the common starling (Sturnus vulgaris) is one of the most adaptive of birds, in consequence of which its range is steadily increasing. In the British Islands it has increased of late years to an extraordinary extent. So long as the starling con- tented itself with nesting sporadically in the pigeon-houses of farms and in hollow trees, as, for example, in the London parks, the public naturally desired to afford protection to so charming a bird ; and there can be no doubt that it merits much interest, since it works assiduously to destroy the larvae of such injurious insects as the crane-fly. At the same time it is only right that we should take into account the heavy loss which fruit-growers frequently sustain from the inroads of hordes of hungry starlings ; the extraordinary numbers of these birds which visit orchards of ripe fruit almost defying description. Quite recently the starling has developed an alarming fondness for ripe pears and apples ; nor does he altogether disdain wild fruit ; even the berries of the mountain-ash are much to his taste, and he constantly strips them with extreme pertinacity. When feeding on grass lands, in company with thrushes, the starling is apt to play the part of a bully, robbing his gentler neighbours of their fairly-earned subsistence. In addition to being a vocalist of no mean order, the starling is a first-class mimic, and delights in reproducing familiar sounds with the greatest fidelity to truth. We have heard individual starlings reproduce the call - note of the skylark, goldfinch, wagtail, and other small birds ; sometimes we have been startled on a winter's day to recognise the cry of the common sandpiper or the grating call-note of a fern-owl in the middle of a crowded city, and have discovered the author of our astonishment in the person of a starling, that is pouring forth his rhapsodies from some neighbouring chimney-top. Perfection is not easily acquired ; but the starling practises his performances until he acquires a high measure of proficiency. The starling does not, however, confine his attention to the reproducing the notes of other birds; any sound that strikes his fancy being rehearsed time after time, until the sharpest expert might be deceived. Not long ago, one of these birds astonished its human neighbours by reproducing the hammering of a stonemason, who had been engaged in dressing stone. The starling nests in April, and the young usually fly about the end of May ; many pairs rearing two broods of young in a season. Some birds nest in the recesses of sea-caves in company with rock-doves and black guillemots ; others rear their broods in the interior of old stone walls ; while others again inhabit and enlarge the burrows of sand-martins in some perpendicular cliff': by far the greater number nest, however, about human habitations. In some STARLINGS. 345 districts the fledged young gather together in dense flocks as early as July ; and with the advance of autumn young and old congregate at their favourite roosts in prodigious numbers, feeding during the day in widely different localities, but flock- ing together at their favourite rendezvous before nightfall. Myriads of starlings migrate along the British coasts in spring and autumn ; hence their presence at one or other of our lighthouses is frequently the subject of remark. Many individuals COMMON AND BLACK STARLING (\ liat. size). bred in northern Britain winter in the midland counties, frequenting half -flooded meadows and other attractive haunts. The male in summer has the plumage black brilliantly shot with purple-green and steel-blue ; the feathers of the nape and upper -parts generally being tipped with buff in the form of triangular spots. Professor Newton points out that after the autumnal moult the starling is profusely spotted with buff, especially on the lower-parts, but in the spring many of these spots become obsolete. The plumage of the young is a dull brownish grey. 346 PERCHING BIRDS. Black Starling. In Southern Europe the spotted starling of the British Isles is replaced by the black or Sardinian starling (S. unicolor), which is abundant in some parts of Spain and Portugal. Mr. Tait says that it is very common in the interior of Portugal, and that it is a very restless bird, often seen flying up and down in small flocks. Although some individuals reside in the Peninsula all through the year, the bulk of the black starlings, which breed in Spain, appear to pass the winter in Algeria, where they feed upon the fruit of the date-palms. This starling nests both under the eaves of outhouses and also in crevices of rocks. Its nesting habits are said to be identical with those of the ROSE-COLOURED STARLING ( nat. size). common starling, and the egg is of a similar pale blue colour. The black starling- has the entire plumage black, glossed with purple, without any spots whatever ; the smaller feathers being very long and tapering. It is shown in the lower figure of the illustration on p. 345. Rose-coloured The single representative of the genus Pastor differs from the true starling. starlings in having the head furnished with a long and conspicuous crest, reaching to the upper part of the back. One of the most beautiful of European birds, the rose-coloured starling (P. roseus), has its winter-home in India, from which country it is, however, absent during the breeding-season. Occasionally wandering as far north as the west of Scotland, this bird is very erratic in its habits, and many years have passed since it has been seen in any STARLINGS. 347 considerable numbers in the British Islands. In the summer of 1875, vast numbers visited Villa Franca ; a small flock making its appearance on June 3rd, and alighting on the high ruined walls within the castle, and being followed in about half an hour by another flock of about one hundred. In a short time many people assembled at the places, and soon witnessed another sight, for towards evening appeared many thousands of these starlings, which, joining with first comers, stopped there till dusk, when they dispersed in numerous troops over the open country. On the following day from twelve to fourteen thousand rose-coloured starlings arrived and took entire possession of the castle; driving away by the force of superior numbers the common starlings, pigeons, and all other birds that nested in the ruins, and proceeding to fill every available hole and fissure. The birds began to lay about the 17th of June, the eggs being of a uniform white colour with a greenish tinge. The young were hatched about the 10th July, and were fed exclusively upon locusts. The old birds foraged in the country in flights of from ten to twenty, or even forty, returning in the same united fashion to their offspring. The rose- coloured starling is one of the most sociable and cheerful of birds. "Always busy and restless," says Signer de Betta, " it may be seen running here and there, accompanying every movement with its cries. The song of the male is a continual chatter, mixed with harsh and disagreeable sounds ; both one and the other begin in the early morning, continuing for a length of time, and renewed at intervals after feeding. The males, always at strife, may be seen pursuing one another and exchanging blows with their bills, while in the most curious attitudes and with their long black crests elevated and expanded. They exhibit great affection for the hen birds which, never leaving the nest during the period of incubation, are protected and fed by them with all assiduity." These birds will not unfrequently associate with the common starling ; and they retain their vivacious character even in captivity, where they form some of the most charming of aviary birds, darting to and fro on rapid flights or singing from some favourite perch. The male in summer-plumage has the head, crest, wings, and tail black, with a blue or violet gloss ; the back and breast being of a beautiful rose colour, which is suffused with brown in the winter plumages. The young are uniform light greyish brown above, with the wings and tail dark brown edged with buff; the throat and lower parts being dull huffish- white. There are numerous other genera of the family into the consider- ation of which the limits of our space forbid our entering. Among these are the true mynas (Sturnia) of India, distinguished from Sturnus by the beak being more slender, shorter than the head, and narrowing to a point ; and differing from the allied Agropsar by the middle tail feathers being longer than the outer pairs. The pied starling (Sturnopastor) of India, as well as the African wattled starling (Dilophus), likewise belong to this group. Among the most useful of South African birds, from their habit of feeding on the parasites which infest domestic and other cattle, the ox-peckers are very unlike starlings in general appearance ; from which they are distinguished by the beak being stout, broad at the base, and nearly straight, with the nostrils bare. The wings are long, with the first quill very short, and 34 PERCHING BIRDS. the second nearly equal in length to the third ; the tail being long, broad, and wedge-shaped ; while the feet are strong, and furnished with sharp-curved claws, by means of which the birds retain their hold on the slippery skin of buffaloes. One species of ox-pecker inhabits North-Eastern Africa, Senegambia, and the Transvaal; while the South African ox-pecker (Buphaga ofricana) is found in Natal, and the red-billed species (B. erythrorhyncha) in most parts of Central Africa. BED-BILLED OX-PECKER (1 nat. size). These birds fly in small parties of six or eight, and have a somewhat laboured flight ; they may be observed climbing over the oxen in a team, much as a wood- pecker climbs a tree ; and the cattle for the most part enjoy the operation of being freed from the ticks and other pests with which they are infested. On the first arrival of a flock of these birds, the cattle are, however, apt to be alarmed, and start GLOSSY STARL NGS GLOSSY STARLINGS. 349 off as if they had been attacked by gad-flies. It. munt not be supposed that these birds confine their attention to cattle, since they perform the same kind offices for rhinoceroses, elephants, antelopes, and probably almost all the larger African mammals. Although not loud, the notes of the ox-peckers are harsh and grating ; and are always uttered when a flock approaches cattle to feed. Nothing appears to be ascertained as to the breeding-habits of these birds. In the- figured species the general colour of the upper-parts is greyish brown ; the wings being black, the tail brown, the throat grey, the under-parts pale fulvous, and the beak red. * GLOSSY STARLINGS AND CRACKLES. Family EULABETIDJE. Whereas the true starlings and their allies have no trace of bristles at the rictus of the gape, and lay uniformly coloured eggs, the members of the present African and Asiatic family possess such bristles, and lay spotted eggs. Moreover, the members of the present family are mainly or entirely arboreal, instead of hunt- ing for a large portion of their food on the ground. African Glossy The most beautiful members of all the starling-like birds are starlings. undoubtedly the African glossy starlings, of which a group of three species is represented in our coloured illustration. All the African glossy starlings are neatly -built birds, with the beak strong, of moderate length, compressed, swollen at the base, and notched; the nostrils being situated about the middle. The wings are large, the feet long and strong, and the tail of variable length ; while the plumage is remarkable for its brilliant gloss, being generally adorned with shades of bluish green, violet, purple or copper-colour. Such species as have long graduated tails may be included in Lamprotornis, while those in which the tail is short and squared are classed as Lamprocolius. The glossy starlings are gregarious birds, ranging all over Africa, and feeding on vegetable as well as animal substances. Uttering harsh clamorous notes, they are rapid in their flight and lively in their movements ; and while generally dwelling high up in the branches of the forest trees, they descend at times to pick up insects and other food on the ground. From the retiring habits of most of the species, they are but seldom seen. They either build in holes of trees, or make large cup-shaped nests, in which are deposited five or six spotted eggs. Long-Tailed This species (L. ceneus), which is the one represented in the upper Glossy starling. fig ure o f our coloured Plate, is a denizen of West Africa, although also ranging into the southern, eastern, and central districts of that continent. Measuring about 20 inches in total length, of which two-thirds are occupied by the long, graduated tail, this bird has the head, chin, and upper part of the throat black, with a golden lustre ; the upper-parts and wings being dark metallic green, and the upper wing-coverts ornamented with small black spots ; the middle of the throat, as well as the upper tail-coverts, tail, and under-parts being dark purple- violet, marked with darker cross-bands; while the middle of the breast is copper- red. The upper wing-coverts have black spots. The iris of the eye is yellow ; 350 PERCHING BIRDS. and the beak and feet are black. Feeding largely upon insects, these birds are more terrestrial in their habits than many others of the group. Green Glossy The green glossy starling (Lamprocolius chalybeus), which is starling. shown in the lower figure of our Plate, is an inhabitant of North- Eastern Africa, and is selected as a good example of the second genus of the group. With the exception of a spot in the region of the ear and the under wing-coverts, the whole plumage is of a steely bluish green, the secondaries and the feathers of the upper wing-coverts being marked at the end with a round blackish spot. Such THE SUPERB GLOSSY STARLING. is the wonderful shimmer of the plumage, which is similar in both sexes, that it shows totally different tints according to the light, and indeed can scarcely be described in words. In the young only the upper-parts are metallic green, the under-parts being dark brownish grey, devoid of lustre. Although typically an inhabitant of Abyssinia, this beautiful bird ranges into Senegambia. It frequents alike the thickly-wooded river-valleys and the high mountains, ascending in Abyssinia to an elevation of some ten thousand feet ; and while generally going about in pairs, in the breeding-season congregates in small flocks. Both in flight and general habits it resembles the European starling. White-Bellied The pretty little bird (L. leucogaster), depicted in the middle figure Glossy starling. o f the Plate, is our last representative of the group, and differs DRONGOS. 35 1 considerably in coloration from the foregoing species. The whole of the upper- parts and the throat, as far as the breast, are purplish blue, with a wonderful violet shimmer in certain lights ; while the remainder of the under-parts are white, and the wings blackish brown, with a violet tinge ; the whole of the darker portion of the plumage being shot with a coppery lustre. This bird is distributed over the whole of Central Africa, and extends northwards into Abyssinia and Western Arabia. A truly arboreal species, it is found both on the plains and in the