THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 PRESENTED BY 
 
 PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND 
 MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID 
 
 Kofoid 
 
 JVJ3690Q3 
 
OUTLINES 
 
 BOTANY, 
 
 TAKES' CHIEFLY FROM 
 
 SMITH'S INTRODUCTION ; 
 
 COSTATXING 
 
 AX EXPLANATION OF BOTANICAL TEII' 
 
 AXD 
 
 AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE SYSTEM OFL? ! 
 
 ALSO 
 
 SOME ACCOUNT OF NATURAL ORDERS, 
 
 A3TD THE 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYblOLO^* i,F. VEGETABLES. 
 Illustrated by Engravings. 
 
 For the use of Schools and Stud-en 
 
 BY DR, JOHN LOCKE, 
 
 T.BCTUHEU O?f BOTANV 
 
 BOSTON : 
 
 CUMMINGS A,N) 
 For the Aathdr. 
 
 1819. 
 
DISTRICT 
 
 $ Office. 
 
 BE IT REMEMBERED, That on the twenty ninth day of July, A, D. 1 
 and in the forty fourth year of the Independence of the United States of Amei 
 John Locke of the said District has deposited in this office the title of a Book, 
 right whereof h claims as author, in the words following, viz. 
 
 Outlines of Botany, tak^a chiefly from Smith's Introduction ; containing an 
 planation of Botanical Terms, and an Illustration of the System ol Linnaeus. 
 
 - 
 
 anaon o oanca erms, an an usrao 
 
 ome Account of Natural Orders, and the Anatomy and Physiology of Vee-eta 
 llustrated by Engravings. Fr t se of Schools and tudents. B Dr 
 Locke, Lecturer on Botany. 
 
 Ill 
 
 , 
 For the use of Schools and Students. By Dr. 
 
 Ac 
 
 Books, to the Authors and Propri 
 mentioned ;" and also to an Act, entitled, " An act supplementary to an Act 
 Titled, an Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of IV 
 Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such copies, during 
 times therein mentioned ; ami extending the benefits thereof to the Arts of 
 
 ..-iti and other Prints." 
 
 JXO. W. DAVIS, 
 
TO 
 
 JACOB BIG BLOW, M. D. 
 
 Kumford Professor and Lecturer on Materia Medica and Botany in Harvard 
 . University. 
 
 ( SlJR^ 
 
 As this little treatise is chiefly taken from a 
 \Vork which has been made particularly valuable to 
 our local situation by your additions, and as the public, 
 especially in this vicinity, are much indebted to your 
 . t |ectures and publications, for a knowledge of the 
 science of Botany, and an acquaintance with our native 
 productions, there is a peculiar propriety in my oflferirig 
 
 lKyour notice. 
 mlP*^ 
 
 As you are acquainted with the value of the science, 
 
 as a branch of early education, I inn confident that 
 every effort to put into the hands of the young a facility 
 in its acquisition, will meet your approbation. 
 ^ "Permit me then to place the following pages unde"r 
 ycfur protection, and offer you this inscription as a 
 of personal gratitude and esteem for the 
 
 ir and benefits of your friendship, which were 
 
 f 
 bestowed on me white your pupil, and have 
 
 een continued. 
 Touv much obliged friend and 
 
 humble servant, 
 
 JOHN LOCKE, 
 
 uly 24, 1819. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 BOTANICAL works are of two kinds, elementary and 
 practical. The design of an elementary treatise on 
 botany, is to enable the student by the help of a prac- 
 tical work, to find out the name and history of an un- 
 known plant in the most expeditious and certain man- 
 ner. This it does by making him acquainted, in the 
 first place, with the marks or characters by which plants 
 are distinguished from each other, such as the forms of 
 the leaves, the number of parts in the flower, &c. and 
 with the terms applied to those characters ; and in the 
 second place, with a system, by which these characters 
 are used to the best advantage, and a multitude of 
 descriptions so methodized, that the description of 
 an individual can be determined with expedition and 
 certainty. 
 
 Practical works contain no explanations of terms ov 
 system, but presuming the student to be already ac- 
 quainted with these, proceed immediately to make use 
 of them in the descriptions of plants. 
 
 Elementary works are to practical ones what a 
 spelling book, dictionary, and grammar are to works 
 of history, poetry, &c. Notwithstanding this distinc- 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 tion of botanical books is so obvious as seems scarcely 
 to need noticing here, yet I have seen those who were 
 by no means deficient in literature, go to an elementary 
 treatise such as Smith's, and search it in vain for the 
 description of some unknown plant they had met with. 
 
 The object of the present treatise has not been to 
 bring forward any thing new in elementary botany, or 
 to alter what has been before established ; but merely 
 to collect and arrange the most important " outlines' 9 
 of the subject in a concise form, and illustrate them by 
 examples of native plants, affording a volume of a 
 moderate price for the uqe of schools and students. 
 
 For several years I have occasionally given instruc- 
 tions in various places, to classes of young people $ in 
 several instances to boarding schools of young ladies 
 and misses, who have generally acquired the elements 
 with great facility. In giving these instructions I uni- 
 formly felt the want of such a work as this is intend- 
 ed to be. Other instructors informed me that they 
 experienced the same* These were the circumstances 
 which induced me to prepare the following pages. 
 
 Lately I have delivered lectures on botany in Dart- 
 mouth College and to a private class in the Medical 
 Institution of Yale College* The students in both in- 
 stances were anxious to obtain a concise work contain- 
 ing the most essential elements, as they had scarcely 
 
PREFACE* VU 
 
 time to attend to more. I have therefore endeavoured 
 to make this treatise acceptable not only to schools, 
 but to students generally. 
 
 As schools are inclined to attend to the classes and 
 orders of Linn sens without much regard to their prac- 
 tical use, I have been particular to give some account 
 of genera and species, and the application of the ele- 
 ments in practice in finding out an unknown plant.'* 
 The classes and orders of Linnseus were construct- 
 ed for no other purpose than to afford a means of ar- 
 riving at a knowledge of genera and species, and a 
 knowledge of them seems not to be of much conse- 
 quence unless applied to this purpose. 
 
 I have added some observations on natural orders, 
 and put down in a concise way the natural orders of 
 Linn sens, and also some account of the anatomy and 
 physiology of vegetables. 
 
 The English terms have been placed first and the 
 Latin included in a parenthesis, after the manner &f 
 Thornton's Grammar. The plants mentioned as ex- 
 amples of the various elementary principles, are gen- 
 erally natives or exotics, which are commonly cultivat- 
 ed. In most cases the common English appellation of 
 the plant is put down first and this followed by the pro- 
 per technical or Latin name in italics, separated by a 
 comma. 
 
U PREFACE. 
 
 tion of botanical books is so obvious as seems scarcely 
 to need noticing here, yet I have seen those who were 
 by no means deficient in literature, go to an elementary 
 treatise such as Smith's, and search it in vain for the 
 description of some unknown plant they had met with. 
 
 The object of the present treatise has not been to 
 bring forward any thing new in elementary botany, or 
 to alter what has been before established $ but merely 
 to collect and arrange the most important " outlines' 9 
 of the subject in a concise form, and illustrate them by 
 examples of native plants, affording a volume of a 
 moderate price for the uqe of schools and students. 
 
 For several years I have occasionally given instruc- 
 tions in various places, to classes of young people $ in 
 several instances to boarding schools of young ladies 
 and misses, who have generally acquired the elements 
 with great facility. In giving these instructions I uni- 
 formly felt the want of such a work as this is intend- 
 ed to be. Other instructers informed me that they 
 experienced the same* These were the circumstances 
 which induced me to prepare the following pages. 
 
 Lately I have delivered lectures on botany in Dart- 
 mouth College and to a private class in the Medical 
 Institution of Yale College. The students in both in- 
 stances were anxious to obtain a concise work contain- 
 ing the most essential elements, as they had scarcely 
 
PREFACE* Vil 
 
 time to attend to more. I have therefore endeavoured 
 to make this treatise acceptable not only to schools, 
 but to students generally. 
 
 As schools are inclined to attend to the classes and 
 orders of Linnaeus without much regard to their prac- 
 tical use, I have been particular to give some account 
 of genera and species, and the application of the ele- 
 ments in practice in " finding out an unknown plant. 5 * 
 The classes and orders of Linnseus were construct- 
 ed for no other purpose than to afford a means of ar- 
 riving at a knowledge of genera and species, and a 
 knowledge of them seems not to be of much conse- 
 quence unless applied to this purpose. 
 
 I have added some observations on natural orders, 
 and put down in a concise way the natural orders of 
 Linnseus, and also some account of the anatomy and 
 physiology of vegetables. 
 
 The English terms have been placed first and the 
 Latin included in a parenthesis, after the manner of 
 Thornton's Grammar. The plants mentioned as ex- 
 amples of the various elementary principles, are gen- 
 erally natives or exotics, which are commonly cultivat- 
 ed. In most cases the common English appellation of 
 the plant is put down first and this followed by the pro- 
 per technical or Latin name in italics, separated by a 
 comma. 
 
Till PREFACE. 
 
 The student very properly inquires what books are 
 most suitable for his purposes. In addition to this or 
 some other elementary work, it is necessary he should 
 have some practical ones, such as Dr. Bigelow's "Plants 
 of Boston," which is particularly recommended in this 
 vicinity ; although it describes a part only of the na- 
 tive plants, yet Dr. B's descriptions and observations, 
 added to the generic and specific characters, render it 
 very satisfactory and easy even to those who are but 
 slightly acquainted with the language of botany : or, 
 Mr. Eaton's Manual of Br>tany/ 5 2d ed. containing 
 descriptions of the indigenous plants to the north of 
 Virginia, which are well defined and established ; and 
 of the cultivated exotics. 55 
 
 Mr. NuttalPs Genera of North American plants, 55 
 
 is highly recommended. 
 
 * 
 
 Richard's Botanical Dictionary, New-Haven trans- 
 lation, is very useful for students. 
 
 The student can do very little towards getting any 
 practical knowledge of botany with less books than this 
 or some other elementary work, and either Dr Bige- 
 Iow 5 s Plants of Boston/ 5 or Mr. Eaton 5 s Manual 
 of Botany, 55 as a practical work. 
 
 The student should, if possible, examine plants from 
 the very commencement of studying the elements, es- 
 
3PKEFACE. IX 
 
 pecially those which are mentioned as examples, when 
 he can obtain them. 
 
 From what little experience I have had in instruct- 
 ing, I cannot recommend to teachers to oblige their 
 pupils to commit any of the following pages formally 
 to memory \ in doing which they are by no means 
 certain to get the ideas. But let them read the whole 
 carefully and obtain a general idea of the various parts 
 of a plant, as the roots, trunks, leaves, and especially 
 of the seven parts of the flower and fruit, without mak- 
 ing any particular effort to fix in the mind and retain 
 all the more particular terms, which is a thing hardly 
 practicable. Let them get some knowledge also of the 
 classes and orders and the characters by which they are 
 distinguished ; and then proceed immediately to exa- 
 mine plants by practical works, agreeably to the meth- 
 od pointed out, p. 86. At the same time genera, species 
 and varieties should be attended to. They should have 
 their elementary work by them, and refer immediately 
 by the index to the explanation of any term in the 
 practical work which they do not understand. 
 
 If the student is anxious to arrive at a knowledge of 
 the classes and orders as immediately as possible, he 
 may commence with Part ILL the fructification, 
 flower and fruit, p. 45. When he has studied this he 
 will be prepared to understand the classes, orders, and 
 
X PREFACK. 
 
 genera. After acquiring an idea of these, he may 
 proceed to study parts I. & IL the roots and herbage, 
 on which principally are founded the characters of the 
 species. 
 
 We will just mention some of the recommendations 
 of the science and study of botany. 
 
 1. The science of botany is valuable, as medicine, 
 agriculture, and the arts are more or less dependant 
 upon it. 
 
 2. The study recommends itself as a " rich source 
 of innocent pleasure." It is pure and elegant, and be- 
 comes more and more interesting as it is pursued. It 
 adds a new sense and opens a new source of enjoyment. 
 It is not among the least of its recommendations to the 
 young, that it takes the place of other amusements, 
 which are liable to be useless, pernicious, or even ruin- 
 ous, serving in this way as a preventive to intemper- 
 ance and dissipation. 
 
 3. The study is profitable to the young especially, as 
 it forms the mind and regulates the modes of thinking. 
 Many gentlemen whose learning and experience have 
 qualified them to judge in subjects of this nature, have 
 expressed an opinion that children are generally too 
 much confined to the study of abstract subjects $ subjects 
 entirely mental, which they casi with difficulty, if at all, 
 comprehend, and that their minds would be better form- 
 
FRlil'ACE. Xi 
 
 ^(1 and their rational powers sooner developed by more 
 attention to sensible objects. Dr. Hosack of New- York, 
 in a letter to Mr. Eaton, published in the Manual of 
 Botany/ 5 makes the following observation on this sub- 
 ject "In early life, before our external senses are com- 
 pletely evolved ; when we are, in truth, endeavouring to 
 bring them into exercise and usej it has always appear 
 ed to me a very absurd practice in our schools, to occu- 
 py children with studies of an abstract nature, and 
 which require faculties to comprehend them, that are 
 not yet unfolded." 
 
 The power of methodizing and analyzing a subject 
 so important in ail mental operations, is no doubt bet- 
 ter acquired by studying natural history, than by any 
 other means. 
 
 The vegetable kingdom, as arranged by Linnaeus, is 
 a very perfect model of method. The divisions and 
 subdivisions in the system arc founded on marks so 
 simple and obvious, that a child will acquire an exact 
 and practical knowledge of it. 
 
 When he has thus acquired a knowledge of system 
 and a power of analysis by attending to sensible ob- 
 jects, he is enabled to carry it into abstract operations, 
 in which sensible objects arc not concerned. 
 
 In the analysis of the vegetable kingdom according to the Lin- 
 
 nxan system, we pass from generals to particulars, thus : it is first 
 
 into classes 9 classes are divided into orders, orders into 
 
Xll PREFACE. 
 
 genera, and genera into species. This is the course commonly 
 adopted in instructing. 
 
 In the synthesis we ascend from particulars to erenerals, thus : 
 species unite themselves into genera, genera are united into or- 
 ders, and orders into classes. This is the order in which discove- 
 ries have proceeded. By this analysis and synthesis, it will be 
 seen, that " systematic botany is practical logic." 
 
 The advantages of method are mentioned under the word sys 
 tern, page 3. The power of method enables one, by dividing and. 
 subdividing a complex subject, finally to simplify each portion, 
 so as to bring it perfectly within the power of his comprehension. 
 The power of method is in mental operations, what the lever, 
 screw, See. are in mechanical ones : by dividing and diminishing 
 the resistance of a given subject to any degree, it brings it finally 
 to be overcome by a given force, however small. 
 
 4. The study of nature is acknowledged to be high- 
 ly important, as it gives us just views of the char- 
 acter of the Supreme Being, and thus tends to make 
 us wiser and better. It is the study of the " elder 
 scripture written by God's own hand." 
 
 The evidences of himself which the Creator has im- 
 pressed on all his works, are so conspicuous in every 
 class of natural objects with which we are conversant, 
 and particularly in those which delight us most, in the 
 objects of every flowery walk, that he who has had his 
 attention once directed to them, must continually ob- 
 serve them, and will acquire a habit of deriving pleas- 
 ure from their contemplation. 
 
 The study of botany is every year becoming more 
 and more attended to by academies and common 
 
PREFACE. Xlll 
 
 mt.g-fi.- fiffi 
 
 ^^ 
 
 schools, and from its recommendations as a study for 
 
 the young, every encouragement should be afforded. 
 
 The increasing attention to the study of natural his- 
 tory is reckoned among the late improvements in 
 education in this country. Professor Silliman makes 
 the following observation on this point in his American 
 Journal of Science. " An extensive cultivation of the 
 physical sciences is peculiar to an advanced state of so- 
 ciety, and evinces in a country where they flourish, a 
 highly improved state of the arts, and a great degree 
 of intelligence in the community. To this state of 
 things we are now fast approximating. The ardent 
 curiosity regarding these subjects, already enkindled 
 in the public mind, the very respectable attainments in 
 science which we have already made, and our rapidly 
 augmenting means of information in books, instruments, 
 collections, and teachers, afford ground for the happiest 
 anticipations." 
 
 Boston, July 23, 1819. 
 6 
 

CONTENTS; 
 
 Page. 
 
 Introductory deflations, 
 
 Part I. Hoot, - 6 
 
 Part II. Herbage, - - 10 
 
 Chapter I. Trunks, - 10 
 
 II. Buds, 9.0 
 
 III. Leaves, - 22- 
 
 IV. Appendages, - 38 
 V. Inflorescence, - 40 
 
 Part III. Fructification, 45 
 
 Part IV. System of Linnaeus, &c. - 64 
 
 Chapter I. Classes arid Orders, 65 
 
 II. Genera and Species, - 79 
 
 III. Natural Orders, - 89 
 
 Part V. Anatomy and Physiology, - - 99 
 
 Chapter I. Germination, 100 
 
 II. Anatomy of Vegetables, - 102 
 
 III. Physiology of Vegetable, - 107 
 instruments, - - 123 
 Herbarium, - - 124 
 
OUTLINES OF BOTANY. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY DEFINITIONS. 
 
 I. Natural History. 
 
 .NATURAL HISTORY is that science which 
 treats of the productions of nature constituting the 
 globe we inhabit, as they come from tiie hands. of the 
 Creator. 
 
 It is generally divided into three branches. 
 
 1. Zoology, which includes all animals. 
 
 2. Botany, which treats of plants. 
 
 3. Mineralogy 9 which includes the unorganized mass 
 of our globe ; as earths, rocks, ores, &c. 
 
 Observation. 1. These are called the three kingdoms of nature. 
 
 2 A fourth branch has been added: Aerology t which includes 
 the atmosphere and whatever floats in it 
 
 3. Animals are nourished by vegetables, and vegetables by 
 minerals ; thus do plants, by tuking up unorganized matter 
 from the mineral kingdom and converting it into nutriment for 
 the animal kingdom, form an indispensable link between them. 
 
 BOTANY is a word derived from the Greek Botane 
 grass. It is applied to that branch "of natural science 
 which teaches us the relations, properties, and general 
 economy of the vegetable kingdom, and at tiie same 
 time by presenting the innumerable individuals of 
 which this kingdom consists in a form of arrangement 
 that brings them easily within the reach of our compre- 
 hension, enables us in practice both to designate them 
 by their proper names, and to avail ourselves of what 
 is known concerning their medicinal or economical 
 uses. Encijc. 
 1 
 
8 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Distinctions of Vegetables from height) places of 
 growth, $c.* 
 
 I. From height and consistence. 
 
 1. A tree, (arbor) a woody plant, generally rising- to a great 
 height and of long life, producing buds in cold climates. Exam- 
 ple, Oak, Pine 
 
 2. A shrub, (Jrutex} a tree of small size whose young branches 
 generally produce buds. Ex. Lilac, Syringa. 
 
 3 Under Shrub, (sufrutex) a woody plant which is usually 
 smaller than a shrub, and frequently produces no buds* Ex. Par- 
 tr id ge- berry, Gaultheria. 
 
 4 Herb, (Jierb({) of a tender substance which dies down in 
 winter whether its roots be annual or perennial. Ex. Tulip, 
 
 Observation. The difference between a tree and a shrub is dif- 
 ficult to define, although obvious enough to the sight in many in- 
 stances ; the trunk of a tree is usually single, of a shrub, more 
 frequentfy numerous even from the base. 
 
 II. Distinctions from the country in which they grow* 
 
 1. Exotics, (ezoticci) plants introduced from foreign countries. 
 
 2. Indigenous, (indigen*) natives of the country in which they 
 grow. 
 
 III. Places where they naturally grow. 
 
 In trodden places, (ruderales.) In fields, (arvenses.) Ex. Ve- 
 ronica arvensis. In gardens, (cufla.) In or Lear water, (aquatfaai) 
 aquatics. In marshes, (pahtdosa ) Ex. Scirpi. On the borders 
 of rivers, (littorales) Ex. Rushes. On the sea-shore, (maritime ) 
 marine. In meadows, (pratenses.) On sands, {arenosa.) On 
 plains, (campestres.) In hedges, {dumosa: or &epiari<e<') In woods, 
 (iiemorostf.) On mountains, (nwnttin<e.') On very high mountains, 
 alpine (atpin<e.) So high as to be frequently enveloped in clouds. 
 THORNTON. 
 
 Observation. It it^remarable that although plants in olher sit- 
 uations vary so much, yet the tops of high mountains which are in 
 the " region of the clouds** generally produce the same. Thus the 
 Alpine plants of England, Scotland, Wales, Lapland, firrerbnd, 
 Switzerland, Siberia, America, &c. ; of Olympus, Ararat, the Alps, 
 the Andes, Alleganies, and White Hills, although growing so re- 
 mote from each other, are all similar. Various zones of altitude 
 have each their peculiar productions ; so that the plants serve to 
 indicate the height of their place of growth. 
 
 * These distinctions are not essential in the Linnsenn system, nml are introduced 
 here as a sort of parenthesis for the want of a more appropriate place. 
 
INTRODUCTION. o 
 
 II. Characters. 
 
 CHARACTERS arc the marks or signs by which nat- 
 ural objects are distinguished from each other. The 
 term character in botany is more particularly ap- 
 plied to that set of marks which distinguish any one 
 plant from all others : it is applied also to the marks 
 by which the various divisions of the vegetable kingdom, 
 as the classes and orders, are distinguish. 
 
 Characters are taken from the number, figure, situa- 
 tion, proportion, and connexion of the various parts of a 
 plant. Each individual mark, as the form of the leaf, 
 the number of parts of the flower, &c. is called a SIM- 
 PLE CHARACTER. 
 
 Observation. The object of the following work is to make the 
 student acquainted with these simple characters which serve as 
 an alphabet *of natural letters, by the various combinations of 
 which in each plant, its character, or name, so to speak, is written 
 upon it. This object should be kept in view by the student, other- 
 wise the terms and their definitions will be unmeaning 1 and tire- 
 some. 
 
 III. System. 
 
 SYSTEM, (sy sterna) is an arrangement of natural 
 bodies according to assumed characters ; for the pur- 
 pose of aiding the mind and memory in acquiring and 
 retaining a knowledge of them. 
 
 The principal advantages of system result from di- 
 vision and subdivision, which enable us to direct our 
 whole attention to a part of a subject, to a part of that 
 part, arid so on, without being burthened with things in 
 connexion : and at the same time with the greatest 
 facility to arrange all together so as to constitute one 
 perfect whole. 
 
 Many systems of arrangement of vegetables have 
 been, at various times, proposed ; but the system of 
 the celebrated Linnseus, being founded on principles 
 which are simple and obvious, and such as arc perma- 
 nent and universal in nature \ has had the most gener- 
 al reception. 
 
4 1 j\ TR 01) U CT IO.V. 
 
 According to the Linnsean system the vegetable 
 kingdom is divided into CLASSES, ORDERS, GENERA, 
 and SPECIES. 
 
 IV. General Definitions cft/ie Linncean System. 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY is the science of animals, vege- 
 tables and minerals. Seep. 1. 
 
 BOTANY is that branch of natural history that gives 
 MS a knowledge of the vegetable kingdom. See p. 1. 
 
 DIVISIONS OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 
 
 I. Artificial Divisions. 
 
 1. CLASSES are the first great divisions of the vege- 
 table kingdom, founded upon the number, situation, 
 proportion, &c. of the stamens. 
 
 2. ORDERS are divisions of the classes, founded up- 
 on the number, situation, &c. of the stamens and pis- 
 tils ;* principally upon the pistils. 
 
 II. Natural Divisions. 
 
 3. GENERA are divisions of the orders into families, 
 (genera) not founded particularly upon the stamens and 
 pistils, but upon the natural resmblance the individuals 
 of a family (genus) bear to each other. Examples, 
 U The family of Roses (Rosa.') 2. 1 he family of Vi- 
 olets (Viola.') 3. The Lilies (Zi/imn.) 
 
 There is always found in thejlawtir and/nn (frucii- 
 ficatio) a mark or character common to all the individ- 
 uals constituting a genus. This is called the Generic 
 Character. Ex. 1. In the family of Buttercups (Ra- 
 nunculus) it is a scale at the base of each flower-leaf 
 (pdalS) 2. In the Lilies it is a longitudinal groove in 
 each of the petals. 
 
 4. SPECIES, (species') are the individuals of which a 
 genus consists : and of course are divisions of the 
 genera. Ex. 1. The red and white liose are two species 
 
 * Parts of the flower to be hereafter defined. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 in the genus (Rosa) Rose. 2. The blue and white 
 Violet are two species in the genus (Viola) Violet. 3. 
 The various species of Lilies, orange, white, &c. 
 
 5. VARIETIES, (varielas) are only accidental varia- 
 tions in the appearance of the same individual species. 
 Varieties are distinguished from species by being not 
 permanently propagated by soed. Ex. 1. All apples- 
 are but varieties of the same species ; because from the 
 seed of the same apple may be produced trees bearing 
 sour, sweet, red, green, large and small apples re- 
 spectively. But the Quince is a different species, be- 
 cause it cannot be produced from ar.ple seeds." 
 
 2. All the different kinds of Potatoes are only varie- 
 ties of the same species (solanum tuberosnrn) ; and al- 
 though they are permanently propagated by the root 
 yet they are^all produced promiscuously by the seed. 
 
 CX.ASSES are compared to States. 
 
 ORDERS *< to Towns or Cities. 
 
 GENERA " to Families. 
 
 SPECIES to Individuals. 
 
 V. Jl Vegetable and its Primary Divisions. 
 VEGETABLES, which constitute the second kingdom 
 of nature according to the definition of Linnaeus, 
 " grow and live." or they may be described as organ- 
 ic bodies which draw the matter of their nourishment 
 generally from the earth by mejfns of pores or vessels 
 placed on the external surface of their roots. 
 
 Prim a *y I) m,s io ns. 
 
 The primary parts of a vegetable, (paries primariai) 
 are 
 
 1. The ROOT, or descending part. 
 
 2. The HERUAGE, comprizing every part except the 
 root, flower, and fruit. 
 
 3. The FRUCTIFICATION, which consists of the flow- 
 er and fruit. 
 
 Observation. The following' matter is arranged according to 
 these divisions. 
 
PART I. 
 
 ROOT, (Radix?) 
 
 The ROOT is the descending part of a vegetable 
 which enters the earth or other substance in search of 
 nourishment for the plant. 
 
 The Root consists of two parts. 
 
 1. Caudex, the body of the root. 
 
 2. Radicula, Radicle, the fibre.* 
 
 The latter only is necessary, being the part which 
 imbibes nourishment. 
 
 Roots are distinguished by their duration, form, &c. 
 
 I. Duration. 
 
 1. ANNUAL, (amltia) belongs to plants which perish 
 altogether within a year, the species being continued by 
 means of srecls produced. Ex. Barley. 
 
 2. BIENNIAL, (tiennis) such plants as are produced 
 from seed either in the spring, sum me iy or autumn, and 
 Jiving through tiro ensuing winter produce 'flower and 
 fruit the following summer and then die. Ex. Carrot, 
 Radish. 
 
 * Observation. The term biennial is applied to any plant that is 
 produced one year and fk>wers another, provided it flowers but 
 once, whether that event takes place the second year as usual, or 
 \\hether, from unfavourable circumstances, it may happen to be 
 deferred to any future time. 
 
 3. PERENNIAL, (perennis*) such as live and blossom 
 through many succeeding seasons to an indefinite peri- 
 od. Ex. Trees and many herbaceous plants. 
 
 Observation. 1. The herbage is often annual while the root is 
 perennial : such plants are notwithstanding termed perennial. 
 
 2. The duration of plants is marked by the following 1 signs. 
 O Annual, Biennial, Jj S'.rubby, % Perennial. 
 
 * 1 he fibres, particuTarly their extremities which imbibe nourishment, are in every 
 case strictly muuiu!. After the cessation of their functions in autumn arid before 
 their reproduction in the spring, w the time to transplant vegetables successfully. 
 
II. Form, tye. 
 
 L. FIBROUS, (fibrosa,') Plate 1, fig. 1. consisting of 
 fibres either simple or branched, which convey nour- 
 ishment directly to the basis of the stem or leaves. 
 Ex. Many of the grasses, as Poa annua. 
 
 Observation. This is the most simple in its nature of all roots, 
 and belongs principally to plants that require but a slight support, 
 such as most annual herb* 
 
 2. REPENT, (repens.') PL 1, fig. 2. A creeping root. 
 A kind of subterraneous stem creeping and branching 
 horizontally and throwing out fibres as it goes. Ex. 
 Mint, (Mentha.') 
 
 Observation. Plants furnished with a creeping- root are multi- 
 plied by their roots in such a manner as frequently to occur in beds 
 of greater or less extent. 
 
 S. FUSIFORM, (f us if or mis.} PL 1, fig. 3. A spin- 
 dle-shaped or tapering root, thick at the top and tap- 
 ering downwards to a p,;inU Ex. Carrot, Parsnip, 
 Kadish. 
 
 Observation. The fusiform root descends perpendicularly and 
 throws qut fib.'es or radicles from various parts. 
 
 4. ABRUPT, (jmzmorsm?) PL 1 , fig. 4. Appearing 
 as if the end was hi I ten off. Ex. Devil's bit, Liutris. 
 Birdsfoot Violet, Viola petiata. 
 
 5. TUBEROUS. (tuberosaS) PI. 1, fig. 5. Composed 
 of tubers. It is of many different kinds. The most 
 genuine consists of fleshy knobs various in form, con- 
 nected by common stalks or fibres, as in the Potatoe, 
 Solatium tuber osum. 
 
 Species of the Tuberous Root. 
 
 1. Twin, (geminata.) PL 1, fig. 6. Consisting of 
 a pair of globular or oval bodies, tubers. Ex. Orchis. 
 
 2. Palmate, (palmata.') PI. 1, fig. 7. Divided 
 into blunt lobes like fingers. Ex, Orchis macidata. 
 
 Observation. " Of these globular or palmate knobs, one produ- 
 ces the herb and flowers of the present year, withering away towards 
 
8 HOOTS. 
 
 autumn, and the other is reserved for the following season, while 
 in the mean time a third is produced to succeed the latter/' 
 
 Smith. 
 
 3. Fasicular, (fasicularis.} PI. 1, fig. 8. When 
 a large portion of tubers proceed from a common ren- 
 tre shooting forth in an elongated form, as in Peony. 
 
 Observation* 1. The radicles of tubers originate principally 
 from the stalks and the place of their insert ion. 
 
 2. Tubers are reservoirs of nourishment, moisture, and vital 
 energy. 
 
 3. In most cases a tuber is produced o ie season, lives through 
 the succeeding winter, and dies the next, after having produced 
 the plant und another tuber or parcel of tubers to 'succeed ,t. 
 Thus the herbage is annual, and the root, strictly speaking-, bienr 
 ninly but ns it annually reproduces itself and thus is tx-rpetuated, 
 it is termed p?rerti.inh Ex Pctatoe, (Solatium tiibero&um ) 
 
 4. The knobs of genuine tuberous roots, such as ti.e polatre, ?ire 
 studded with buds, in which respect such roots differ esst nti ,lly 
 from bulbous ones ; which last are themselves simple buds and 
 produce their shoots as well as their offsets, either from the cen- 
 tre or from the base. 
 
 All perennial roots, which have annual herbage, have buds. The 
 buds in bulbous roots are in the centre, as they ave also in many 
 of the spindle-shaped roots In the creeping root they are at its 
 ends ; in the tuberous, as has just been observed, scattered over 
 its surface. 
 
 6. BULBOUS, (bblbos(i) a fleshy root of a bulbous or 
 globular form. 
 
 Species of the Bulbous Hoot. 
 
 1. Solid, (so/i(/.) PI. 1fi. 9. Of a uniform sub- 
 stance. Ex. Crocus and Tulip. 
 
 %. Tunicate, (turncdta.) PI. 1 5 fig. 10. Compos- 
 ed of concentric layers enveloping one another. Ex. 
 Oniqii, Jttiiinn. 
 
 3. Scaly, (sqwmmik) PL 1, fig* 11> Consisting 
 of fleshy scales connected only at their base. Ex. 
 While Lily. 
 
 Observation 1. The two latter kinds have a very close analogy 
 with leaf buds They are the reservoirs of the vital powers of the 
 plant during the winter season. They as well as buds contain, in 
 
KOOTS. 
 
 winter, plants perfect in all their parts in an embryo state ; the 
 leaves and Die flowers with all their parts may frequently be dis- 
 tinctly dissected out, and the stamens, p-stils, &c. counted. 
 
 Linnaeus arranged both buds and bulbs under the same term, 
 Hybernaculum, winter residence 
 
 2 The radicles are generally from the base of bulbous roots, as 
 in the Onion. 
 
 7. GRANULATED, (granulata.) PI. 1, fig. 12. Com- 
 posed of joints or grains. Ex. Wood Sorrel, Oxalis 
 Jicctosdla. White Saxifrage, Saxifraga grnnulata* 
 
 Observation 1. It is with roots as with other natural objects, we 
 can apply terms to the most prominent features, while there are so 
 many intermediate points of gradual transition, that we hardly 
 know where to draw the line of distinction. Tiie application of 
 these terms is in many cases arbitrary. 
 
 As botanists have in general determined under what head to 
 place the root of every species of plant, we have only to follow 
 them. 
 
 2. Specific characters are sometimes taken from the root, and 
 in some cases the specific name also, as Solanum tuberosum t Pota- 
 toe ; Ranunculus bidbosus, Bulbous Ranunculus, and Ranunculus 
 fascicukirnt. 
 
PART II. 
 
 THE HERBAGE, (lierba.} 
 
 The HERBAGE consists of the Trunk, Leaves, Buds, 
 and Appendages. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 TRUNK, (Truncus.} 
 
 Linnaeus enumerates seven kinds of Trunks, Stems 
 or Stalks of vegetables, caulis, culmus, scapus, peaun- 
 culus, petiolus,frons, and stipes. 
 
 1. Stem. 
 
 STEM," (caulis.*) PI. 2, fig. 1. Bears or elevates 
 from the root the leaves as well as flowers. Ex. The 
 trunks and branches of all trees and shrubs. A great 
 proportion of herbaceous plants, especially annuals. 
 
 The stem is described from its duration, composition, 
 mode of growth, shape, fyc. 
 
 I. Duration. 
 
 1 . HERBACEOUS, (hcrbaceus) annual, and not woody. 
 
 2. SUFFJRUTICOSE, (suffniticosus) belonging to un- 
 dershrubs. 
 
 3 FRUTICOSE, (jruticosus) belonging to shrubs. 
 4. ARBOREOUS, (arboreus) belonging to trees. 
 
 II. Composition. 
 
 1. SIMPLE, (simplex) without branches. Ex. White 
 Lily. 
 
 2. BRANCHED, (ramosns) giving out branches as in 
 most plants. 
 
 3. TWO-RANKED, (distichus) branches spreading in 
 two horizontal directions. Ex. Hemlock tree, Pinus 
 Canadensis. 
 
STEMS. 11 
 
 4. FOUR-RANKED, (brachiatus.} PI. 2, fig. 2. When 
 they spread in four directions, crossing each other al- 
 ternately in pairs. Ex. Common Lilac, Syringa vul- 
 garis. 
 
 Observation. A common mode of growth in shrubs which have 
 
 opposite leaves. 
 
 5. MUCH-BRANCHED, (ranrnissimus) repeatedly sub- 
 divided into a great many branches without order. 
 Ex. Most Trees. 
 
 6. ABRUPTLY-BRANCHED, (determinate ramosus) when 
 each branch after terminating in flowers produces a 
 number of fresh branches in a circular order from just 
 below the origin of those flowers. Ex. Azalea nudi- 
 Jlora. 
 
 7. PROLIFEROUS, (prdifer) shooting out new branches 
 from the summits of the former ones. Ex. Pines. 
 
 8. VERT ic i I/LATE, (verticillatits) giving off its 
 branches at regular intervals in whorls like rays from 
 a centre, as in the White Pine, Pinus strobus. 
 
 9. DICHOTOMOUS, (dichotomus.} ' PI. 2, fig. 3. Re- 
 peatedly forked. Ex. Cerastinm vi^gatum. 
 
 10. PANICULATE, (jjamculatus) where the brandies 
 are many times subdivided. Ex. Erigeron Canadense, 
 see Panicle. 
 
 11. FASTIGIATE, (fattigialus) the stem being ter- 
 minated by equal brandies so as to make a level top. 
 Ex. Yarrow, Jtchillea miUefolium. 
 
 III. Mode of Growth. 
 
 1. ETIECT, (credus) upright, nearly perpendicular. 
 
 2. OBLIQUE, (obliquiis) visibly turned from the per- 
 pendicular line. 
 
 3. PROCUMBENT, (procjtmbens) lying on the ground. 
 Ex. Purslane, Portidacca olcracea. 
 
 4. REPENT, (renews.) PI. 9.. fig. 4. Creeping, run- 
 ning on the ground ami taking root at certain distan- 
 ces as it goes. Ex. Creeping Crowfoot, Ranunculus 
 repws. 
 
12 TRUNK*. 
 
 5. ASCENDING, (astendens) ascending obliquely 
 without support. 
 
 Observation. From a horizontal direction is gradually curved 
 or bowed upwards. 
 
 6. PROSTRATE, (prostratus or deprcssus) when it lies 
 remarkably flat, spreading horizontally over the 
 ground, 
 
 7. RECLINING, (reclinatus) curved towards the 
 ground. Ex. Black berry. Rnbus. 
 
 8. RADICAL T, (radicans) clinging to any body for 
 support by means of fibres which do not imbibe nour- 
 ishment. Ex. Vitis quinqnejbiici, common Creeper* 
 
 9. CLIMBING, (scandens) either with spiral tendrils 
 for its support, as the Vine, Vitis 9 Passionflower, Pas- 
 siflora ; or by adhesive fibres, as in the preceding par- 
 agraph. 
 
 c 10. TWINING, (voluUlis.') PI. 2, fig. 5. Twining 
 in a spiral manner round other plants, either from left 
 to right, supposing the observer in the centre, (with 
 the sm) as tiie Hop, or from right to left, (against the 
 sun) as Convolvulus sepium. 
 
 11. FLAGELLIFOBME, (Jlagettiformis) resembling a 
 whip- lash. 
 
 12. SARMENTOSE, (sarmentosus) trailing ; a creep- 
 ing stem barren of flowers, thrown out from the root 
 for the purpose of increase, giving rise to another 
 plant where it takes root. Ex. Strawberry. 
 
 Observation. A sarmentose stem is filiform and almost naked 
 or having only leaves in bunches at the joints or knots where it 
 strikes root. Jllartin. 
 
 It is called a sarmtntum or a flagellum, a runner. When leafy, it 
 is arenerally denominated STOT,O, a sucker, or scyon, as in Bugle, 
 Jl}u.ga reptanSy and Sweet Violet, Viola odorata* Smith. 
 
 13. STRAIGHT, (recto) as in Liliurn. 
 
 14. STRICTUS expresses only a more absolute de- 
 gree of straightness. 
 
 15. SPREADING, (laxusvrdrffusus) expanding in an 
 open, loose manner. 
 
STEMS. IS 
 
 16. FLEXIJOTJS, (Jlexnosus] zigzag ; forming angles 
 from right to left and from left to right. 
 
 17. JOINTED, (articidatus) as in the Prickly Pear, 
 Cactus. 
 
 IV. Shape. 
 
 1. ROUND, (feres) cylindrical. 
 
 2. HALF-CYLINDRIC, (semiteres) round on one side 
 and flat on the other. 
 
 3. COMPRESSED, (compressus) more or less flattened 
 on the sides. Ex. Poa compressa. 
 
 4. TWO-EDGED, (anceps.} Ex. Sisyrinchium an- 
 ceps. 
 
 The term ANGUINE, comprehends the following. 
 
 5. TRIANGULAR, (triangularis) having three edges. 
 Ex. Cactus triangnlaris. 
 
 6. THREE-SIDED, (triqueter) having three fiat sides. 
 
 7. FOUR-CORNERED, (tetragonns or quadrangulans) 
 square. Ex. Balm. 
 
 8. FIVE-SIDED, (pcntagonus or qwnquangularis) 
 having five angles and five sides. 
 
 Observation. When the number of angles is either variable or 
 more than five, it is usual merely to describe the stem as (angulo* 
 sus) angular, except where the precise number makes a specific 
 difference, as in the genus Cartu*. Smith. 
 
 V. Clothing. 
 
 1. NAKED, (nudns) entire nakedness, destitute of 
 leaves, hair, prickles, &c. 
 
 2. LEAFLESS, (aphyttus) without leaves. Ex. Cactus. 
 
 3. SCALY, (sguatnosus) having scales. Ex. Beech- 
 drops, Orobanche. 
 
 4. IMBRICATED, (iinbrtcatns) covered with scales, 
 so that the stem does not appear. Ex. Sempcrd-piim, 
 Houseleek, 
 
 5. WINGED, (alatus) furnished longitudinally with 
 a membrane which is commonly a prolongation of the 
 hase of the leaves. Ex. Thistle. 
 
14 TRUNKS. 
 
 VI. Surface. 
 
 1. SMOOTH, (glaber} destitute of hairs, glands, or any 
 particular excrescences. 
 
 2. POLISHED, (/ords) the surface being every where 
 equal and smooth. 
 
 3. SHINING, (nitidus) polished ; smooth, and shining. 
 
 4. VISCID, (viscidus) covered with a clammy juice. 
 
 5. WARTY, (verrucosus.} Ex. Enonymous verru- 
 cosus. 
 
 6. PAPiLLosE,(|;api#0sws) covered with soft tubercles, 
 Ex. Ice plant, Mesembryanthemum crystallinum, 
 
 7. SCABROUS, (scabe-r) rough to the touch, from 
 any little rigid inequalities. Ex. Centaurea nigra. 
 
 8. BRISTLY, (hispidus.) Ex. Borage, JBorago qffi- 
 cinalis. 
 
 9. HAIRY, (hirtus or pilosus.*) Ex. Common Cin- 
 quefoil, Potentilla simplex. 
 
 10. DOWNY^ (tonientosus) very soft to the touch 
 from soft feeble hairs so interlaced with each other 
 that each hair connot be separately distinguished. 
 
 1 1. SHAGGY, (yiUosus^) covered >vith long soft hairs. 
 
 12. WOOLLY, (lanatus.*) Ex. Common Mullein, Ver- 
 bascum Thapsus. 
 
 13. HOARY, (incanus) appearing as if frosted. Ex. 
 "Wormwood, Artemisia absinthium, and Mriplex portulac- 
 oides ; in the former case from close silky hairs, in 
 the latter from a kind of scaly mealiness. 
 
 14. MEALY, (glamcus) clothed with fine sea-green 
 mealiness which easily rubs off. Ex. Common Black 
 Raspberry, lliibus occidentalis. 
 
 15. STRIATED, (striatus) marked with fine parallel 
 longitudinal lines. Ex. Conium maculatum. 
 
 16. FURROWED, (sulcatus) lines somewhat deeper 
 and broader than the last. Ex. Hogweed, Chenopodium 
 album. 
 
 } 7. SPOTTED, (maculatusJ) Ex. Hemlock, Conium 
 maculatum. 
 
 The spines and prickles of the stem will be described 
 under Arms of plants. 
 
SCAPE. 15 
 
 VII. Consistence, 
 
 1. SOLID, (solidus) of an uniform solid substance. 
 
 2. MEDULLARY, (inanis or medullosus) containing 
 pith, a spongy substance in the centre. Ex. Elder, 
 Sambucus. 
 
 3. HOLLOW, (cavus or Jistulosns.') Ex. Hemlock, 
 Conium maculatum. 
 
 Observation. Plants destitute of a stem are called STEMIESS, (ac- 
 antes.) Ex. Early Anemone, Anemone hepatica* Dandelion. 
 
 2. Culm. 
 
 CULM, (cidnws.) PI. 2, fig. 6. The proper trunk 
 of the grasses, which elevates the leaves, flower, and 
 fruit. LinncKiis. 
 
 The Culm is denominated 
 
 1. WITHOUT KNOTS, (enodis.} Ex. Common Rushes. 
 Bulrush, Juncus effusus. 
 
 2. JOINTED, (firticulatus) interrupted by joints or 
 knots from space to space, as in most of the grasses. 
 
 3. GENICULATE, (geniculatus^ bent like the knee. 
 Ex. Floating Foxtail grass, Mopecurus geniculatus. 
 
 Observation. 1. When a culm takes a curved direction, it usu- 
 ally inclines to bend at the joints only, and thus become geniculate. 
 
 2. Several of the terms applied to the stem, (caulis) are occa- 
 sionally applied also to the culm, such as ASCENDING, EHP.CT, SOL- 
 ID, HOLLOW, ROUND, ANOULAR, ROUGH, SMOOTH, &c. 
 
 3 The number of angles in the culm sometimes affords a mark 
 to discriminate the species, as in the genus Eriocaulon . Milne. 
 
 S. Scape. 
 
 SCAPE, (scapus.) PL 2, fig. 7. A Stalk. A spe- 
 cies of trunk which springs from the root and bears the 
 flower and fruit, but not the leaves. Ex. Dandelion, 
 Leontodon, and Marsh Rosemary, Statice limonium. In 
 the former the stalk is simple and single flowered ; in 
 the latter, subdivided and many flowered. 
 
16 TRUNKS. 
 
 The Scape is termed 
 
 1. SPIRAL, (spiralisS) Ex. Valisneria spiralis. 
 
 2. SCALY, (squamosus*') Ex. Tussilago farfara. 
 
 Observation. 1. Several of the terms defined under the stems, 
 (caw/;*, );ire occasionally applied also to the Scape as well as to the 
 Culm. 
 
 2. Plants furnished with a Scape come under the head of STEM- 
 LK69 plants, (acaules*} Thus the Daffodil, Dandelion., and many of 
 the Violets are stemless plants. 
 
 3. Linnaeus has observed, that " a Scape (scafnis) is on!y a spe- 
 cies of pedunculus." Should the term scapits be abandoned, Pe- 
 duncuhts radiealis, a RADICAL PEDUNCLE, should be substituted. 
 
 4. Peduncle. 
 
 PEDUNCLE, (pedunadus) Flower stalk. A spe- 
 cies of trunk bearing the flower and fruit, but not the 
 leaves. 
 
 I. Composition. 
 
 1. SIMPLE, (simplex) without division and bearing 
 only one flower. Ex. Three-coloured Violet, Viola 
 tricolor. 
 
 2. COMPOUND, (compositus) having divisions. Ex. 
 Pea. 
 
 3. COMMOK, (communis) not dividing, but bearing 
 many sessile flowers assembled. Ex. Catkins, as of 
 the Alder, Willow, &c. 
 
 4. PARTIAL, (partialis) the ultimate division of a 
 common peduncle immediately connected with the 
 flower ; sometimes called PEDICEL, (yedicellus.} 
 
 II. Insertion on the Plant. 
 
 1. CAULINE, (caulinus) growing out of the main 
 stem. Ex. Indian shot, Canna Indica. 
 
 2. RAMOSE, (rameiis) growing out of a main branch. 
 
 3. AXILLARY, (axillaru) growing from the angle 
 made by the leaf and stem, or the branch and stem. 
 Ex. Chickweed, Stdlaria media. 
 
FLOWER-STALK. A' 
 
 4. EXTRA-AXILLARY, (exira-axillaris) placed near 
 the axilla. 
 
 5. OPPOSITE THE LEAF, (pppositifolius.') 
 
 6. BETWEEN THE LEAVES, (internodis) proceeding 
 from the intermediate part of a branch between two 
 leaves. 
 
 Observation. A mode of insertion very rare. 
 
 7. TERMINAL, (terminalis) terminating a stem or 
 branch. 
 
 8. LATERAL, (lateralis} situated on the side of a stem 
 or branch. 
 
 9. SOLITARY, (solitarius) either single on a plant or 
 only one in the same place. 
 
 10. CLUSTERED, (aggregatus) when several grow 
 together. 
 
 11. SCATTERED, (sparsi} dispersed irregularly over 
 the plant. Ex. Ranunculus scelleratus. 
 
 III. Number of Flowers. 
 
 1. ONE-FLOWERED, (unWorus.') 
 
 2. TWO-FLOWERED, (blflorus.) 
 
 3. THREE-FLOWERED, (triftorus.) 
 
 4. MANY-FLOWERED, (multiflorus.) 
 
 Reference. For the different modes in which flowers are borne 
 and connected on their footstalks, see Inflorescence. 
 
 Observation. When there is no peduncle, the flower is said to 
 be SESSILE, (sessilis) 
 
 IV. Direction. 
 
 1. FLACCID, (flaccidus) so weak andfee.ble as to hang 
 down by the weight of the flower it supports. 
 
 2. DROOPING (cernnus) bent at the top so that tl*e 
 flower is inclined to one side or towards the earth, and 
 cannot be placed erect on account of the curvature. 
 Ex. Annual Sunflower. 
 
 3. FLEXUOUS, (flexuoms) making angles to the right 
 and left. Ex, Mrajlexuosa* 
 
1& TRUNKS. 
 
 V. Form. 
 
 Besides being occasionally ROUND, ANGULAR, &c* 
 the peduncle is termed 
 
 1. FILIFORM, (Jiliformis) thread shaped, when it is 
 of slender structure like a thread. 
 
 2. ATTENUATED, (atteuuatus) diminishing insensi- 
 bly in thickness from the base to the summit. 
 
 3. lNCRAssATED,(mcrassato) thickening at the sum- 
 mit ; opposed to the last. Ex. Annual Sunflower, Hell- 
 anthus animus. 
 
 VI. Length. 
 
 1. SHORT, (ftrms) very little shorter than the 
 flower. 
 
 2. VERY SHORT, (brevissiinus) much shorter than the 
 flower. 
 
 3. EQUAL, (inediocris) of the length of the flower. 
 
 4. LONG, (longus) somewhat longer than the flower. 
 
 5. VERY LONG, (longissimus) more than twice the 
 length of the flower. Thornton. 
 
 Observation. 1. Linnaeus very rarely admits ar.y other mensura- 
 tion than that arising- from the respective length* and breadth of 
 the parts of a plant compared with each other ; of which the above 
 is an example. 
 
 2. Instead of using terms like the above, which would be liable 
 to mislead, authors express themselves more fully thus Peduncle 
 shorter than the flower as loner as the flower longer than the flower 
 ttoice as long as the flower, &c. 
 
 5. Petiole. 
 
 PETIOLE, (petidus) Leaf-stalk or Foot-stalk. A 
 species of trunk bearing the leaf only. 
 
 Observation. 1. The peduncle and petiole were called by Lin- 
 nscus partial trunks, feeing" placed upon the general or universal 
 trunk, which proceeds immediately from the root. 
 
 2. The petiole is commonly channelled on its upper side. The 
 channel ends in a concavity at the base on the side next the stem, 
 "#lnch is termed the AXILLA. 
 
19 
 
 I. Composition. 
 
 1. SIMPLE, (simplex^) without divisions. 
 
 2. COMPOUND, (compositus) when a common petiole 
 gives origin to several PARTIAL PETIOLES, which either 
 support leaflets immediately, or divide into other par- 
 tial petioles, Ex. Locust, Robinia, arid Sumach. 
 Ehus. 
 
 II. Appendages. 
 
 1. BEARING TENDRILS, (drrAi/br.) Ex. Common 
 Pea. 
 
 2. WINGED, (alatus) furnished on each side with a 
 leafy appendage. Ex. Dwarf Sumach, Ehus copalli- 
 num. 
 
 III. Form. 
 
 1. ROUND, (teres.) Ex. Common Hollyhock. 
 
 2. HALF-ROUND, (semiteres.) Ex. Yellow Water 
 Lily, JVjjrtipKcetl advena. 
 
 3. FLATTENED, (compressus.) Ex. Lombardy Pop- 
 lar, Populus dilatata. 
 
 4. CLUB-SHAPED, (clavatus) growing gradually 
 thicker towards the top. Ex. Cacalia suaveolens. 
 
 IV. Direction. 
 
 1. ERECT, (eredus] nearly perpendicular. 
 
 2. SPREADING, (patens") forming an acute angle 
 with the stem. 
 
 3. RECURVED, (recurvatus) curved downward. 
 
 4. CLIMBING, (scandens) performing the office of a 
 tendril. Ex. Virgin's bower, Clematis Virginiana. 
 
 Observation. 1. In length, the petiole is compared with the leaf, 
 as the peduncle is with the flower. See p. 18. 
 
 2. Several terms, defined under caul-is, are occasionally applica- 
 ble to the leafstalk. 
 
 6. Frond. 
 
 FROND, (/rons.) PL 2, fig. 8. A species of trunk in 
 which the stem, leaf, and fructification are united as in 
 the Ferns, Filices. 
 
20 BTJDS. 
 
 7. Stipe. 
 
 STIPE, (stipes) is applied to the stern or leafless 
 part supporting a frond, pi.' 2, fig. 8, a.; to the stalk of 
 a fungus, pi. 2, fig. 9, a. ; and to the slender thread 
 which in many of the compound flowers, such as the 
 Dandelion, elevates the hairy or feathery crown (pap- 
 pus,) with which the seeds are furnished, and connects 
 with the seed. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 BUDS. 
 
 THE BUD, (gemma) contains the essential parts of 
 a plant, covered by scales in order to protect the tender 
 rudiments enclosed during the winter. 
 
 Observation. 1. The scales of buds envelop each other closely 
 and enfold the infant plant or branch. Externally they have often 
 an additional guard of gum, resin or woolliness against wet and 
 cold. 
 
 2. That buds contain all that is essential to constitute a'perfect 
 plant is proved beyond a doubt by producing plants from buds. 
 This is done either by placing them immediately in the earth or by 
 introducing them into the bark of another plant, which last is 
 termed inoculation. So analogous are buds to seeds that some 
 plants, besides seeds, produce a set of buds or bulbs, which are 
 destined to propagate the plant by falling into the earth and vege- 
 tating. " Plants considered in analogy to animals may properly 
 enough be reckoned both oviparous and viviparous. Seeds are the 
 vegetable eggs ; buds, living infant plants which renew their spe- 
 cies as certainly as the seed.*' Milne, 
 
 3. Buds, together with bulbous roots, which are buds under 
 ground, constitute what Linnaeus termed HIBERNACXE, (hybernacu- 
 lum) that is, the winter-quarters of plants. See observation, p. 8. 
 
 FOLIATION, (foliatio.) 
 
 By foliation or vernation (vernatio*) Linnseus ex- 
 presses the curious manner in which the leaves are 
 folded or wrapped up in the buds. 
 
 * Vernatio, the terra employed by Linuxus in bis later works instead 
 
 Milne. 
 
FOLIATION. 21 
 
 Observation. 1. Foliation, which is in fact the structure of the 
 leaf bud, is not only curious, but affords a means of distinguishing 
 plants in the dormant season. 
 
 2. Buds are various in their forms and structure, but very uni- 
 form in the same species or even genus. 
 
 Various modes of Foliation. 
 
 1. CONVOLUTE BUD, (gemma convoluta.) PL 3, fig, 1. 
 Rolled together. Ex. Many of the grasses. 
 
 Q. INVOLUTE, (involuta.) PL 3, fig*. 3. Lateral 
 margins roiled spirally inwards on both sides. Ex. 
 Violet. 
 
 3. REVOLUTE, (reroduta.} PL 3, fig. 3. Lateral 
 margins rolled spirally backwards on both sides. Ex. 
 Coltsfoot, Tussitago, and some species of Willow. 
 
 4. CONDUPLICATE, (conduplicata.) PI. 3, fig. 4. 
 One side of the leaves doubled upon the other at the 
 mid rib. Ex. Beech and Rose. 
 
 5. OBVOIAJTE, (obvoluta.} PL 3, fig. 5. "When their 
 respective margins alternately embrace the straight 
 margin of the opposite side. Ex. Pink, Dianthus. 
 
 6. EQ.UITANT, (equitantia.} PL 3, fig, 6. Riding ; 
 when the sides of the leaves lie parallel and approach 
 in such a manner as that the outer embrace the inner. 
 Ex. Iris, Acorus, Sedge-grass, Carex. 
 
 7. PLICATE, (plicata.] PL 3, fig. 7. Plaited, fold- 
 ed up like a fan. Ex. Maple, Alder, Mallow. 
 
 8. IMBRICATE, (imbricata^ PL 3, fig. 8. Laid 
 over one another like tiles. Ex. Campanula. 
 
 9. RECXINATE, (reclinata.) Leaf reflected down- 
 wards toward the petiole. Ex. Monk's-hood, Aconitum. 
 
 10. CIRCINAL, (cirdnalia.) PL 3, fig. 9. Rolled 
 spirally downwards. Ex. Ferns, Filices. 
 
 Contents of the Bud. 
 
 1. FLOWER-BE AKING BUD, (gemma Jlonfera) a bud 
 containing the rudiments of flowers. 
 
 2. LEAF BEARING, (foliifera) containing rudiments 
 of leaves only. 
 
22 LEAVES. 
 
 3. LEAF AND FLOWER BEARING, (foliifera et Jlori- 
 fera) containing the rudiments both of flowers and 
 leaves. 
 
 Observation. Buds containing flowers can in general be distin- 
 guished by their form, being thicker and less pointed than those 
 containing leaves only. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 LEAVES, (folia.} 
 
 THE LEAF, (foliuni) is an organ of vegetables of 
 an expanded form, presenting a much greater surface to 
 the atmosphere than all the other parts of the plant to- 
 gether. 
 
 Observation. Leaves are not merely ornamental to plants ; they 
 are essential organs of vegetation, performing the functions of 
 respiration, perspiration, and absorption. 
 
 Reference. For the anatomy and functions of leaves, see anato- 
 my and physioktgy. 
 
 Observation. The us^s of leaves in the arts, in medicine and 
 as food for animals ; the infinite variety and elegance of their 
 forms, their wonderful vascular structure, and their importance to 
 the plant that bears them, are subjects highly deserving atten- 
 tion, but they are foreign to the purpose of this chapter. Smith. 
 
 LEAFLESS PLANTS, (planter aphyllcK) are those in 
 which the leaves are wanting, the surface of the stem 
 performing the necessary functions. Ex. Glass wort* 
 salicorniu. 
 
 The different situations, insertions, forms and sur- 
 faces of leaves, which are next to he explained, are of 
 very great use in systematical botany. 
 
 I. Situation and position of Leaves. 
 
 1. RADICAL LEAVES, (folia radicalia) are suck as 
 spring fr-Mti the root. Ex. Dandelion. 
 
 2. CAULINE, (caulind) stem leaves, grow on the stem. 
 
 3. RAMEAL, (ramea) branch leaves, sometimes dif- 
 fer from those of the main stem, and tUeri require to be 
 
LEAVES. 23 
 
 distinguished from them. Ex. Malampyrum arvense. 
 
 4. ALTERNATE, (alterna.) PL 4,%. 1. Stand soli- 
 tary on the stem or branches spreading in different di- 
 rections. Ex. Borage, Borago. 
 
 5. SCATTERED, (sparsa.} PL 4, fig. 2. Situated 
 irregular!/, without any apparent order. Ex. Lilium 
 bubiferum. 
 
 6. OPPOSITE, (opposita.) PL 4, fig. 3. Arising from 
 two opposite points on the same stem. Ex, Lilac, 8y- 
 ringa vulgar Is. 
 
 7. CLUSTERED, (conferta.) PL 4, fig. 4. Crowded 
 together. Ex. Trientalis Europwa. 
 
 8 BINATE, (biua} only two upon a plant or stem. 
 Ex. Enjthronmin Jlmericanum, and Lily of the valley, 
 Convaliaria majalis. 
 
 9. TERNATE, (terna) three together. 
 
 10. QtfATERtfATE, (quaterna) four together. 
 
 11. QUINATE, (quina) five together. 
 
 12. VERTICILLATE, (vertidttata.) PL 4, fig. 5. 
 Whorled ; is used to express several leaves growing in 
 a circle round the stem, without any reference to their 
 precise number. Ex. Wild Lilies, Lilium Canadense 
 and L. Philadelphia* in. 
 
 13. FASCICULATE, (fosciculata.) PL 4, fig. 6. Tuft- 
 ed or bundled together. Ex. Pine, Pinus. 
 
 14. IMBRICATE, (imbricata.) PL 4, fig. 7. Lying 
 one over another like tiles upon a house. 
 
 15. DECUSSATE, (decussata.) PL 4, fig. 8.^ Cross- 
 ing each other alternately in pairs. Ex. Motherwort, 
 Leonnrus Cardiaca. 
 
 16. TWO-RANKED, (disticha.) PL 4, fig. 9. Spread- 
 ing in two directions, and yet not regularly opposite at 
 their insertion. Ex. Hemlock, Pinus Canadeusis. 
 
 17. UNILATERAL, (secunda.) PL 4, fig. 10, j^ean- 
 ing all to one side. Ex. Many flowered, Solomon's 
 seal, Convaliaria multiflora. 
 
 18. APPRESSED, (adpressa} when the leaf takes a 
 
4 LEAVES. 
 
 direction parallel to the stem, and touches it in its whole 
 direction. Ex. Xvranthemnm sesamoides. 
 
 1 9. VERTICAL, (verticcdia') perpendicular ; both sides 
 at right angles with the horizon, but not quite in con- 
 tact with the stern. Ex. Lactnca Scariota. 
 
 20. ERECT, (eretfa) forming: a very acute angle with 
 the stem. Ex. Red Cedar, Juniperus Virginiana. 
 
 21. SPREADING, (patentid) forming a moderately 
 acute angle with the stem or branch. 
 
 22. HORIZONTAL, (horizontalia or patentissimd) 
 spreading in the greatest possible degree. 
 
 23. RECLINATE, (redinatd) inclining downward. 
 Ex. Motherwort, Leonurus Cardiaca. 
 
 24. RECURVED, (recurva or reflex(i) curved back- 
 ward. 
 
 25. INFLEXED, (incuroa or inftexa) curved inward. 
 
 26. OBLIQUE, (obliqua) twisted, so that o*he part of 
 each leaf is vertical, the other horizontal. Ex. Frit- 
 tiUaria obliqua. 
 
 27. RESUPIWATE, (resupinatd) reversed ; when the 
 upper surface is turned downward. 
 
 28. DEPRESSED, (depressa) radical leaves pressed 
 close to the ground. Ex. Plantago media. 
 
 29. NATANT, (natantid) floating on the surface of 
 the water. Ex. Water Lilies, NympkcRa advena and 
 odorata. 
 
 SO. SUBMERSED, (submersa, demersa, or immersa} 
 sunk ; plunged under water. Ex. Potamogeton. 
 31. EMERGED, (emersd) raised above the water. 
 
 II. Insertion. 
 
 By insertion is meant the mode in which one part 
 of a plant is connected with another. 
 
 1. FETIOLATE LEAVES, (folia petiolatd) leaves on 
 footstalks ; are such as are furnished with that organ, 
 whether long or short, simple or compound. 
 
 2. PELTATE, (pdtata.) PL 4, fig. 11. When the 
 footstalk is inserted into the centre of the leaf, like the 
 
LEAVES. 23 
 
 arm of a man holding a shield. Ex. Nasturtium, Tra- 
 pceolum inajns, 
 
 3. SESSILE, (sessilia) are sucli as spring immedi- 
 ately from the stein, branch or root, witnout any foot- 
 stalk. 
 
 4. AMPLE XTCATJL, (cnnplexicaulia^) PL 4, fig. 19. 
 Clasping the stem with their hase. Ex. Several of the 
 Asters, as Aster N0v&-Jbigli& and A. amplexicaulis. 
 
 5. CONNATE, (connata.} PL 4, fig. 13. United at 
 their base. Ex. Trumpet Honeysuckle, Lonicera sein- 
 pervivens. 
 
 6. PERFOLTATE, (pcrfoliata.) PL 4, fig. 14. When 
 the stem runs through the leaf. Ex. Uviilaria 2 )er f " 
 liala. 
 
 Observation. The veins or nerves of a leaf will generally deter- 
 mine whether it be a single perfoliate leaf, as in Uvularia perfolhi- 
 ta : or double and connate, as occurs in different degrees in the 
 Trumpet Honeysuckle, J<onicera scripervivens, in Fever wort, Trl 
 osteum perfoliatum, and in Rudbeckia amplexifolia, where the con- 
 nexion is slig-ht. Prof. Bigelotv. 
 
 7. VjLGTKAST^'oaginantia^ PL 4, h'g. 15. Sheath- 
 ing the stem or each other. Ex. Most of the grasses. 
 Wheat, Triticum. 
 
 8. EquiTANT, (eqnilantia.) PL 4, fig. 16. Dis- 
 posed in two opposite rows, and clasping each other by 
 their compressed base. Ex. Flenr-de-luce, Iris. 
 
 9. DECUKRENT, (decnrrentia.^ PL 4, fig. 17. Run- 
 ning down the stem or branch in a leafy border or 
 wing. Ex. Many of the Thistles. Mullein, Verbascmn 
 thapsus. 
 
 10. FLOWER-BE \UING, (flori/era.) PL 4, fig. 18. 
 When flowers grow out of the disk or margin of the 
 leaf. Ex. Ruscuv aculeatus* 
 
 Leaves considered with respect to their form are 
 either simple or compound. 
 
26 LEAVES. 
 
 Simple Leaves. 
 
 A SIMPLE LEAF, (folium simplex^) is one whose foot- 
 stalk is terminated by a single expansion. See pi. 5. 
 
 Observation. Whose divisions however deep do not reach the 
 mid-rib. The mid-rib of a leaf is the principal prolongation of the 
 foot-stalk, which usually runs longitudinally through the middle 
 of it. 
 
 Simple leaves are either 
 
 UNDIVIDED, (Integra} having no divisions or lobes. 
 Ex. Grasses ; or 
 
 LOBED, (lobata) divided into segments. Ex. Cranes- 
 bill, Geranium, and Crowfoot, Ranunculus. 
 
 Simple leaves are described by their form, surface, c. 
 
 Reference. For the definition of a compound leaf, see sec- 
 tion VIII. 
 
 III. Form. 
 
 1. ORBICULAR LEAF, (folium orbiculalum.*) PI. 5, 
 fig. 1. A circular leaf $ having its length arid breadth 
 equal. 
 
 2. ROUNDISH, (subrotundum^) PI. 5, fig. 2. Ap- 
 proaching to the circular form. Ex. lloundleaved 
 Wintergreen, Pyrola rotundifolia. 
 
 S. OVATE, (orrchwi.) PL 5, fig. S. Egg-shaped ; 
 the hase round and broader than the extremity. 
 
 Observation. A very common form of leaves. 
 
 4. OBOVATE, (obmatum.} PI. 5, fig. 4. Ovate, 
 with the broad end uppermost. Ex. Clethra aln'tfolia. 
 
 5. ELLIPTICAL, (ellipticum.} PI. 5, fig. 5. Oval ; 
 of the form of an ellipsis, longer than broad, with the 
 curve of both ends equal. Ex. Solomon's Seal, Con- 
 vailaria. 
 
 6. OBLONG, (oblongwri) three or four times longer 
 than broad. 
 
 Observation. This term is used with great latitude, and serves 
 chiefly in a character to contrast a leaf which has a variable, or 
 not a very decided form., with others that are precisely round, 
 ovate, linear, &c. 
 
LEAVES. 
 
 r. SPATTOATE, (spatulatiim.} PI. 5, % $ OF a 
 roundish figure, tapering into an oblong base. Ex. 
 Marsh rosemary, Statice Caroliniana. 
 
 8. WEDGE-SHAPED, (cunciforme.^) PI. 5, fig. 8. 
 Broad and abrupt at the summit and tapering down to the 
 base. Ex. Purslane, Portidacca olemcea. 
 
 9. LANCEOLATE, (lanceolatumS) PL 5, fig. 7* Of a 
 narrow oblong form tapering towards each end. Ex. 
 Field Plantain, Mantago lanceolata, and many Willows. 
 
 Observation. A very common form. 
 
 10. LINEAR, (lineareS) PI. 5, fig. 9. Narrow with 
 parallel sides. Ex. Most of the grasses. 
 
 11. ACEEOSE, (oceroswm.) PI. 5, fig. 10. Needle- 
 shaped ; linear and evergreen, generally acute and rig- 
 ed. Ex. Pine, Fir, and Juniper. 
 
 12. TRIANGULAR, (triangulare.} PL 5, fig. 11. 
 Having three prominent angles, without any reference 
 to their measurement or direction. Ex. Striped Ma- 
 ple, Acer striatum. 
 
 13. QUADRANGULAR, (quadrangulare.) PI. 5, fig. 12. 
 With four angles. Ex. Tulip- Tree, Liriodendron tuii- 
 pifera. 
 
 14. QUINQJJ ANGULAR, (quinquangulareS) PI. 5, fig. 
 13, With five angles. 
 
 15. DELTOID, (iielt aides.') PI. 5, fig. 14. Shaped 
 like the Greek letter A, Delta. 
 
 Observation. Trowel-shaped, ha.ving- three angles, of which the 
 terminal one is much farther removed from the base than the late- 
 ral one. Smith. 
 
 16. RHOMBOID, (rhomheum.} PL 5, fig. 15. Dia- 
 mond-shaped. Ex. Purple Trillium, Trillium erectum. 
 
 17. RENIFORM, (raijf/orae.) PI. 5, fig. 16. Kid- 
 ney-shaped ; a broad roundish leaf, whose base is hol- 
 lowed out. Ex. Canada Snake-root, Asamm Canadense. 
 
 18. CORDATE, (cordalum.^ PI. 5, fig. 17. Heart- 
 shaped ; ovate, hollowed out at the base, Ex. Sun- 
 flower, and many Vio^rts* 
 
28 J/KAVE-s. 
 
 39. LUNATE, (lunatuwj PL 5, fig. 18. Crescent- 
 shaped ; like a half-moon, whether the points are di- 
 rected towards the stalk or from it. Ex, Passiftora 
 Janata. 
 
 20. SAGITTATE, (sagitlatumS) PL 5, fig. 19. Ar- 
 row-shaped; like the head of an arrow. Ex. Arrow- 
 head, Sagittaria sagittifolia. 
 
 21. HASTATE, (liastatum.} PL 5, fig. 20. Hal- 
 bert-shaped; triangular, hollowed out at the base and 
 sides, but with spreading lobes. Ex. Sheep Sorrel, 
 Eitmex acetosdla, and Bitter-sweet, Salanum dulcamara. 
 
 22. PANDURIEORM, (jpanduriforme*) PL 5, fig. 21. 
 Fiddle-shaped; oblong, broad at the two extremities 
 and contracted in the middle. Ex. Some of the leaves 
 of Various-leaved Aster, -Aster diver sifoiius. 
 
 23. RUNCINATB, (runcinatum.) PL 5, fig. 22. 
 Lion-toothed ; cut into several transverse acute seg- 
 ments, pointing backward, Ex. Dandelion, Leontodon 
 taraxacum. 
 
 24. LYRATE, (lyratum.) PL 5, fig. 23. Lyre- 
 sha]>ed ; cut into several transverse segments, gradually 
 larger toward the extremity of the leaf, which is 
 rounded. Ex. Water Avens, Geum Rirale. 
 
 9,5. CLEFT or CLOVEN, (jfisswwi.) PL 5, fig. 24 U 
 When tiie margins of the fissures and segments are 
 straight. 
 
 Observation. JBifdum, two-cleft ; trifiJitm, three- cleft ; muhi- 
 Jhlnm, many- cleft, &c. express the number of segment*. 
 
 26. LOBED, (lobatum.} PL 5, fig. 25. When the 
 margins of the segments are rounded. Ex. Early 
 Anemone, Anemone liepatica. 
 
 Observation. JBilobatum, two-lobed ; trilobatwn, three-lobed, 
 -SvC. according- to the number of lobes. 
 
 27. STNUATED, (sinuatnm^ PL 6, fig. 1. Cut 
 Into rounded or wide openings. Ex. Oak. 
 
 8. PARTED, ( partitumj PL fi, fig. 2. Deeply 
 
JLEAVES. 
 
 divided nearly to the base. Ex. Spotted Geranium, 
 Geranium maculatum. 
 
 Observation. Bipartitum, two-parted; tripartitum, three-part- 
 ed ; multipartitum, many parted, according to the number of di- 
 visions. 
 
 29. LACINIATED or JAGGED, (laciniatum.) PL 6, 
 fig. 3. Cut into numerous irregular portions. 
 
 Observation. 1 Incisum and Dissectum, cut, are nearly synony- 
 mous with the last. Smith. 
 
 2. It is remarked by Linnxus, that aquatic plants have their 
 lower, and mountainous ones their upper, leaves most divided, by 
 which they better resist the action of the stream in one case, and 
 of the wind in the other. 
 
 30. PALMATE, (palinatum.) PL 6, fig. 4. Hand- 
 shaped ; cut into several oblong, nearly equal segments, 
 about half way or rather more toward the base, leav- 
 ing an entire space like the palm of the hand. Ex. 
 Sweet-gum, Liquidamber styracifolia. 
 
 31. PINNATIFID, (piniiatitidiim.^) PL 6, fig. 5* 
 Cut transversely into several oblong parallel segments* 
 
 Observation. Cut, but not to the mid-rib. 
 
 32. BIPINNATIFID, fbipirmatijiduin.*) PL 6, fig. 6. 
 Doubly pinnatifid ; cut into segments as in the last, 
 and the segments cut again. Ex. Roman Wormwood, 
 Ambrosia datiur, and paniculata. 
 
 33. PECTINATE, (pectinatum.) PL 6, fig. 7. A 
 pinnatified leaf, whose segments are remarkably nar- 
 row like the teeth of a comb. 
 
 34. UNEQUAL, (inwquale.) PI. 6, fig. 8. When the 
 two halves of a leaf are unequal in dimensions and their 
 bases not parallel. 
 
 IV. Termination. 
 
 1. TRUNCATED XEAF, (folium truncatum.) PL 5, 
 fig. 12. Has the extremity cut off, as it were, bv a 
 transverse line. Ex. Tulip-tree, Leriakudron feiltm- 
 f&ra. 
 
so 
 
 IJEAVES. 
 
 2. PREMORSE, (prcemorsum.*) PI. 6, fig. 9. Jagged- 
 pointed; bitten off, very blunt with various irregular 
 notches. 
 
 3. RETUSE, (retusum.*) PL 6, fig. 10. Ending in 
 a broad shallow notch. Ex. Rumex digynus. 
 
 4. EMARGiNATE^emar^naftttti.) P1.6,fig.ll. Hav- 
 ing a small acute notch at the summit. 
 
 5. OBTUSE, (pbtusum.) PI. 5, fig. 2. Blunt ; end- 
 ing in a segment of a circle. 
 
 6. ACUTE, (acutum.') PI. 6, fig. 17. Sharp; end- 
 ing in an acute angle. 
 
 Observation. A very common form. 
 
 7. ACUMINATE, (acuminatum.} PL 6, fig. 12. 
 Pointed ; having a taper or awl-shaped point. Ex. Sea 
 Club-rush, Scirpus maritimns. 
 
 8. BLUNT, WITH A SMALT, POINT, (obtusum cum 
 acumine.') PL 6, fig. 13. Ex. Marsh Rosemary? 
 Stalice limonium. 
 
 Observation. The following" term, (mucronate,) is sometimes 
 applied to a leaf of this description. 
 
 9* MUCRONATE, (mucronatum or cuspidatum.} PI, 
 
 t>, fig. 14. Sharp-pointed ; tipped with a rigid spine, 
 
 10. CIRROSE, (cirrosM-m.) PL 6, fig. 15. Tendrilled. 
 
 V. Margins. 
 
 1. ENTIRE LEAF, (folium intcgerrwium^) PL 5 y 
 fig. 1. Ex. The various species of Lilies. 
 
 Observation. This term is opposed to all kinds of teeth notches 
 jr incisions. It regards solely the margin of a leaf, whereas undi- 
 vided integrum respects its whole shape, and has nothing to do 
 with the margin. English writers who translate the one entire) and 
 the other very entire, are therefore incorrect. Smith. 
 
 2. SPINOUS, (spiwosiim.) PL 6, fig. 16. Beset with 
 prickles. Ex. Thistles. 
 
 3. UNARMED, (mmne.) is opposed to spinous, 
 
 4. CILTATE, (cUiatum.) PL 6, fig. 17. Fringed ; 
 bordered with soft parallel hairs. Beech tree, Fagus 
 
 Jerruginea, and Xylosteum dliahim. 
 
LEAVES. 31 
 
 5. CARTILAGINOUS, Qprtilaginum) hard and hor- 
 ny. Ex. Saxifraga callosa*. 
 
 6. DENTATE, (dentatumS) PL 6, fig. 18. Tooth- 
 ed $ beset with projecting, horizontal, rather distant 
 teeth of its own substance. Ex. Arrow wood, Vibur- 
 num dentatum. 
 
 7. SERRATE, (serratumS) PI. 6, fig. 19. When 
 the teeth are sharp and resemble those of a saw, point- 
 ing toward the extremity of the leaf. Ex. Rose. 
 
 Observation. Examples of this are frequent. 
 
 8. DOUBLY SERRATE, (duplicate serratuiri) having 
 a series of smaller serratures intermixed with the large. 
 Ex. Black Birch, Betula lenta. 
 
 9. MINUTELY SERRATE, (serrulatuni) is used when 
 the teeth are very fine. 
 
 10. CREMATE, (crenatum.) PI. 6, fig. 20. When 
 the teeth are rounded and not directed toward either 
 end of the leaf. Ground-Ivy, Glechoma hederacea. 
 
 11. JAGGED, (erosumS) PI. 7, fig. 1. Irregularly 
 cut or notched, especially when otherwise divided be- 
 sides. Ex. Hogweed, Chenopodium riride. 
 
 12. REPAND, (repandum^ PI. 7, fig. 2. Wavy; 
 bordered with numerous minute angles and small seg- 
 ments of circles alternately. 
 
 13. GLANDULAR, (glandulosum.) Ex. Bay -leaved 
 Willow, Salix pentandria. 
 
 14. RE VOLUTE, (revolutum) when the margin is 
 turned or rolled backward. Ex. Kalmia glauca. 
 
 15. INVOLUTE, (involutum) the reverse of the pre- 
 ceding. 
 
 16. CONDUPLICATE, (coiiduplicaiurn) folded when 
 the margins are brought together in a parallel direc- 
 tion. 
 
 VI. Surface. 
 
 Terms expressive of different kinds of surface, ap- 
 plying equally to the leaf, and to the stem, have been 
 
32 LEAVES. 
 
 already explained, p. 14. To these may be added the 
 following, chiefly appropriated to leaves. 
 
 1. DOTTED, (punctatum) full of small points hol- 
 low and transparent, or having vesicles containing in 
 them an essential oil. Ex. St. John's- wort, Bijpericum 
 perjbratum. 
 
 2. WRINKLED, (rugosum) when the veins are 
 tighter than the surface between them, causing the lat- 
 ter to swell into little inequalities. Ex. Various species 
 of Sage, Salvia. 
 
 5. BLISTER Y, (bullatnm) is only a greater degree 
 of the last. Ex. Cabbage, Bra&sica oleracea. 
 
 4. PLAITED, (plitatum.) PL 7, fig. 3. When 
 the disk of the leaf, especially toward the margin, 
 Is acutely folded up and down. Ex. Veratrum viride. 
 
 Observation. Folded like a fan, distinguished from waved by 
 the folds being angular. J\lartyn. 
 
 5. UNDULATE, (undulatwn.) PI. 7, fig. 4. Waved ; 
 \vhen the disk near the margin is waved obtusely up 
 and down. 
 
 6. CURLED, (cri spurn.) PL 7, fig. 5. When the 
 border of the leaf becomes more expanded than the 
 disk, so an to grow elegantly curled and twisted. Ex. 
 Jllafaa critpa 
 
 7. CONCAVE, (concavum) hollow ; depressed in 
 the middle, owing to a tightness in the border. 
 
 8 CONVEX, (wuwx-n 1 ) opposed to the last. 
 
 9. VEINY, (vcnosum) Pi. 7, fig. 6. When the 
 vessels by which the leaf is nourished are branched 
 and subdivided, and more or less prominent, forming a 
 net- work on either or both its surfaces. Ex. Common 
 Thorn, Crahegus, and Pear, Pynis 
 
 10. NERVED, (nervosum or costatum.) PI. 7, fig. 7. 
 Ribbed ; when they extend in simple lines from the 
 base to the point. Ex. Ladies'-s! ; pper, Cypripcdinm. 
 
 It. THKEK-WEHVED, (trinerre.) PI. 7, fig 8. Three 
 ribbed $ is applied to a leaf that lias three ribs, all die- 
 
LEAVES. &> 
 
 tinct, from the very base, as well as unconnected with 
 the margin. 
 
 12. BASE-THREE-NERVED, (basi trinerve.) PL 7, 
 %. ! . Triply-ribbed at the base ; is when the base is 
 cut away close to the lateral ribs. Ex, Burdock, 
 dirctium tappa, and Sunflower, Helianthus annuus. 
 
 13. TRIPLY-NERVED, (triplinerve.) PL 7, fig. 10. 
 Triply-ribbed ; when a pair of large ribs branch off 
 from the main one above the base. 
 
 14. COLOURED, (coloratum) expresses any colour 
 in a leaf besides green. 
 
 15. VARIEGATED, (variegalum) is applied to 
 leaves which become irregularly blotched with white 
 or yellow. Ex. Striped Grass, Jlrundo colorata. 
 
 16. NAKED, (wudum) implies that the leaf is 
 destitute of all kinds of clothing or hairiness. Ex. 
 Orchis. 
 
 VII. Substance, Configuration) $*c. 
 
 1. CYLINDRICAL, (teres.) PI. 7, fig. 11. A solid 
 cylinder. 
 
 2. SEMICYLINDRICAL, (semicylindriaceum.) Flat 
 on one side. 
 
 3. STIMULATE, (subulatum?) PL 7, fig. 12. Awl- 
 shaped ; tapering from a thick base to a point. Ex. 
 Saltwort, Salsola kali. 
 
 4. TUBULAR, (tubulosurn) hollow within like a 
 tube. Ex. Common Onion, Miimn Cepa. 
 
 o. FLESHY, (carnosum) of a thick pulpy consist- 
 ence, as in all those called succulent plants. Ex. Live- 
 forever. Sedum. 
 
 6. GIBBOUS, (gibbnm) swelling on one side or 
 both from excessive abundance of pulp. 
 
 7. COMPRESSED, (compressiun) flattened laterally. 
 
 8. DEPRESSED, (depressum) flattened vertically. 
 
 9. CHANNELLED, (canalicufatum) having a lon- 
 gitudinal furrow, Ex. Sea Plantain, Plantago mari- 
 tima* 
 
S4 LEAVES. 
 
 10. CARINATE, (carinatum) keeled \ when the back 
 is longitudinally prominent. 
 
 11. ENSIFORM, ( msijorme) sword-shaped ; is a two- 
 edged leaf tapering to a point, slightly convex on both 
 surfaces. Ex. Flag or Flower-de-luce, Iris. 
 
 12. TWO-EDGED, (anceps.) Much the same as the 
 last. 
 
 IS. SCIMITAR-SHAPED, (acinaciforme.) PI 7, fig 
 14. Compressed, with one thick and straight edge, 
 the other thin and curved. Ex. Mesembryanthemum 
 acinaciforme. 
 
 14. HATCHET- SHAPED, (dolabriforme.) PL 7, fig. 
 13. Compressed with a very prominent dilated keel, 
 and a cylindrical base. Ex, M. dolabri/orme. 
 
 15. THREE-EDGED, (trigonum.} PL 7, fig. 15, Hav- 
 ing three longitudinal sides and as many angles. Ex. 
 Mesembryanthemiim delt tides. 
 
 16* THREE- s IDED, (triquetrum) differs from trigo- 
 num on ly in being used by Linnaeus for a three-sided, 
 awl-shaped leaf. Ex. M. emarginatum. 
 
 17. FOUR-ED GED, (tefrag-orawn.) PL 7, fig. 16. Hav- 
 ing four prominent angles. 
 
 18. TONGUE- SHAPED, (lingulatum) of a thick, ob- 
 long, blunt figure, generally cartilaginous at the edges. 
 Ex. Jhesembryanthemum linguiforme. 
 
 19. MEMBRANOUS, (membranaceum) of a thin, pli- 
 able texture. Ex. Rubus odoratus. 
 
 20. LEATHERY, (coriaceum) thick, tough, and 
 somewhat rigid. Ex. Magnolia grandifora, and Hy- 
 drangea horiensis. 
 
 21. EVERGREEN, tsempervirens) permanent through 
 one, two, or more winters, so that the branches are 
 never stripped. Ex. Pine, Pinus 9 and Laurel, Kahnia 
 latifdla. 
 
 22. DECIDUOUS, (deciduiim) falling off at the ap- 
 proach of winter, as in most of the trees and shrubs of 
 our northern climate. 
 
 23. ALIENATED, (alienatum.) PI. 7, fig. 17. When 
 tb# first leaves of a plant give place to others totally 
 
LEAVES. S5 
 
 different from them and from the natural habit of the 
 genus* Ex. Many of the Mimosce of New-Holland. 
 
 24. HOODED (cucullatum.) PL 8, fig. 1. When 
 the edges meet in the lower part and expand in the up- 
 per. Ex. Hooded Violet, Viola cucullata, and Side- 
 saddle Flower, Sarracenia. 
 
 Observation. A leaf is said t6 be hooded, whether the edges 
 unite so as to form a perfect cavity as in Saracenia ; or whether 
 they simply meet without cohering 1 , as in Viola cucullata. Prof. 
 
 25. APPENDAGED, (appendiculatum.) PL 8, fig. 2. 
 Furnished with an additional organ for some particular 
 purpose not essential to the leaf. Ex. Venus's Fly- 
 trap, Dioncea mustipula. 
 
 Observation, Each of the leaves of this plant is furnished with 
 a pair of armed irritable lobes, which close upon and pierce or 
 imprison insects whenever they crawl upon it ; hence the name of 
 Venus's Fly-trap. 
 
 VIII. Compound Leaves. 
 
 COMPOUND :LE\VES, (folia composita) consist of 
 two, or any greater number of leaflets ; ( foliola) con- 
 nected by a common footstalk. 
 
 Observation 1. Any part is denominated common, which includes 
 or sustains several parts similar among themselves. 
 
 2. These leaflets or lobes are, themselves, small, simple leaves, 
 and like them vary in form according to distinctions already es- 
 tablished . Milne. 
 
 3. A compound leaf is distinguished from a branch by this cir- 
 cumstance, that the leaflets do not fall off alone, but are accom- 
 panied by the common footstalk. 
 
 1. JOINTED ;LEAF, (folium articulatum.) PL 8, fig. 
 3. Is when one leaf grows out of the summit of anoth- 
 er with a sort of joint. 
 
 2. DIGITATE, (digitotum.] PL 8, fig. 4. Finger- 
 ed ; when several leaflets proceed from the summit of a 
 common footstalk. Ex. Common Cinquefoil, Potentilla 
 simplex. 
 
 3. BIXATE, (binatum.} PI 8, fig. 5. Is a fingered 
 leaf, consisting of only two leaflets. Ex. Zigophylium. 
 
56 1.EAVES. 
 
 4. TEKNATE, (ternatum.) PL 8, fig. 6. Consists of 
 three leaflets. Ex. Clover, Trifolinni. 
 
 5. QUINATE, (quinatum,) PI. 8, fig. 4. Of five leaf- 
 lets. Ex. Potentilta simplex. 
 
 6. PINNATE, (pmnatnm.) PI. 8, fig. 7. When the 
 common footstalk bears many leaflets on each side. 
 It is of several kinds, as follows : 
 
 1. With an odd leaflet, (cum impart.) PL 8, fig. 7. 
 Ex. Rose, Rosa ; Elder, 8ambncus ; Sumach, Rhus. 
 
 2. With a tendril, (cirrosum) PL 8, fig 8. When 
 furnished with a tendril in place of the odd leaflet. Ex, 
 Pea, Pisum. 
 
 3. Abruptly, (abrupte.) PL 8, fig. 9. Without 
 either a terminal leaflet or tendril. Ex. Common Sen- 
 sitive-plant, Mimosa sensitiva. 
 
 4. Opposite, (opposite,) when the leaflets are op- 
 posite in pairs. Ex. Water Par-snip, Slum augusii- 
 
 falium. Roses, pi. 8, fig. 7. 
 
 5. Alternately, (alternatim.) PL 8, fig. 10. When 
 they are not directly opposite, but alternate. 
 
 6. Interruptedly (interrupted PL 8, fig. 11. When 
 the principal leaflets are arranged alternately, with an 
 intermediate series of smaller ones. PotentiUa anserina. 
 
 7. Jointedly, (articulate*) with apparent joints in 
 the common footstalk. 
 
 8. Decurrently, (decursive) when the leaflets are 
 decurrent. 
 
 9. In a lyrate manner, (lyrato.) PL 8, fig. 12. 
 Having the terminal leaflet the largest, and the rest 
 gradually smaller, as they approach the base. Ex. 
 Avens, Geum rivale, and common Turnip. 
 
 10. In a whorled manner, (vertidllate.) PL 8, fig* 13. 
 The leaflets cut into fine divaricate segments embrac- 
 ing the footstalk. Ex. Slum. verticUlatum. 
 
 7. AURICLED LEAF, (miYiculatum folium) is a 
 leaf furnished with a pair of leaflets properly distinct, 
 but occasionally liable to be joined with it. 
 
.LEAVES. 37 
 
 8. CONJUGATE, (conjugatuni) yoked ; consists of on- 
 ly a pair of leaflets, and is much the same as binate. 
 Ex. Zygophyllum. 
 
 Observation. Two-yoked, (bijugum) Three-yoked, (trijugum,) 
 Four-yoked, (quadrijugum.) Many-yoked, (multijitgum,) ^&c. ex- 
 press particular numbers of pairs of leaflets, and are used for that 
 purpose where such discrimination is requisite for specific charac- 
 ters, as in the J\limos<e. 
 
 The following terms are applied to the degree of 
 composition ; without any reference to the mode. 
 
 1. COMPOUND, (compo&tum.) PI. 8, fig. 7. Sim- 
 ply compound. 
 
 2. DECOMPOUND, (decompositum.) PL 9, fig. 4. 
 Douhly compound. 
 
 3. SUPERDECOMPOUXD, (supmdecompositum.) PL 9, 
 fig. 5. Thrice compound or more. Ex. Hemlock, 
 Conium inaculatum. 
 
 Mode and degree of Composition. 
 
 1. BIGEMINATE, (bigeminatum.') PL 9 3 fig. 3. Twice 
 paired. 
 
 2. TERGEMINATE, (tergeminatuni) three times 
 paired. 
 
 3. BITERNATE, (biternatum ) PL 9, fig. 1. Twice 
 ternate. 
 
 4. TRITERNATE, (triternatum.') PL 9, fig. 2. Thrice 
 ternate. 
 
 5. BIPINNATE, (bipinnatum.} PL 9, fig. 4. Douhly 
 pinnate. 
 
 6. TRIPINSTATE, (tripinnatum.') PL 9 5 fig. 5. Triply 
 pinnate. 
 
 7. FED ATE, (pedatum^ PL 9, fig. 6, Is a ternate 
 leaf, with its lateral leaflets compounded in their fore- 
 part. Ex. Viola pedata. 
 
 Observation. 1. Leaves are so wonderfully diversified, and the 
 transition from one form to another is so gradual, that specimens 
 occur, not only to answer the preceding terms, which have been 
 assumed to describe them, but also of every intermediate descrip 
 
 4 
 
38 APPENDAGES. 
 
 tion. On this account two terms are occasionally combined to 
 express a form between them, as Ovate-lanceolate, (ovato-lanceo- 
 latum,) lanceolate, inclining 1 to ovate ; or Heart-ovate, (cordato- 
 ovatis,) as in ground Laurel, Epigtea repens. 
 
 When shape or any other character cannot be precisely denned, 
 sub is prefixed to the term used, as siibrotundum, roundish ; sub- 
 sessile , not Destitute of a footstalk. By the judicious use of such, 
 means all necessary precision is attained. 
 
 2. The leaves furnish very elegant and natural marks in discrim- 
 inating the species of plants. ^Numerous specific names, as well 
 as characters, which are both elegant and descriptive, are derived 
 from the leaves, as Pyrola'rotundifoIia ) 'RQ\md leaved Wintergreen ; 
 Convallaria bifolia, Two-leaved Convallaria ; Jlster cordifohus 
 Heart-leaved Aster. 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 APPENDAGES TO A PLANT. 
 
 THE APPENDAGES consist of the appendages, 
 properly so called, the arms, the supports, and the pu- 
 bescence or covering of plants. 
 
 I. Appendages to the Leaf and to the Flower. 
 
 1. STIPUXE, (stipula.) PI. 8, fig. 7 & 8. a. a. A 
 leafy appendage to the proper leaves, or to the foot- 
 stalks. Ex. Rose, Rosa ; Pea, Pisum. 
 
 Observation. 1. It is commonly situated at the base of the foot- 
 stalk in pairs, as it is in the above examples, and is extremely dif- 
 ferent in different plants. 
 
 2 Some stipules fall off almost as soon as the leaves are expand- 
 ed, which is the case with the Tulip-tree, Liriodcndron tuUpifera ; 
 in general they last as long as the leaves. 
 
 3. The stipule in the grasses is peculiar, consisting of an inter- 
 nal white membrane, crowning the sheath of the leaf and clasping 
 the culm. 
 
 2, BRACT, (bractea.) PI. 9, fig, 7. The floral leaf; 
 a leafy appendage to the flower or its stalk, differing in 
 shape or colour, or both from the other leaves of the 
 plant. Ex. Lime-tree, Tilea, in which it serves as a 
 wing to the seed. 
 
PUBESCENCE. 39 
 
 II. ARMS, (arma.) 
 Weapons of defence. 
 
 1. SPINE, (spina.) PI. 10, fig, 1. A Thorn. This 
 proceeds, not from the bark, but from the wood itself. 
 Ex. Thorn, Cratwgus. 
 
 Observation. Sometimes disappears by culture* 
 
 2. PRICKLE, (aculeus.) PL 10, fig. 2. Arises from 
 the bark only, and conies off with it, having no con- 
 nexion with the wood. Rose and Raspberry. 
 
 Observation. Does not disappear by culture. 
 
 III. SUPPORTS, (fulcra.) 
 
 1. TENDRIX, (cirrus.) PL 8, %. 8. A fibre, in- 
 tended to support weak and climbing plants, upon 
 more firm and sturdy ones. Ex. Pea and Cucumber. 
 
 Observation. 1. The tendrils of the Creeper, Vitis quinquefolia, 
 will adhere to the smoothest flint. 
 
 In some cases, the flower and leaf-stalks perform the part of 
 tendrils, by clinging 1 to other bodies for support, as the leaf- 
 stalks do in the Virgin's-bovver, Clematis Virginiana. 
 
 2. Linnxus applied the term supports, (fulcra) to all the va 
 rious kinds of appendages, but it seems not to apply very proper- 
 ly to any of them except the tendril, 6cc. 
 
 3, The prickles of the Sweet-briar Rose, being recurved like 
 hooks, serve as supports by taking hold of other bodies. 
 
 IV. PUBESCENCE, (pubes.} 
 
 Glands, hair, &c. which are found on the surface of 
 the plant. 
 
 1. GLAND, (glandula) a little tumour discharging 
 a fluid. Ex. On the calyx of the Moss Rose. Pt. 10, 
 fig. 4, a. On the foot-stalks of the Snow-ball, Vibur- 
 num opulus, and the various species of Passion-flower. 
 PL 10, fig. 3. 
 
 2. HAIR, (pilus.) PL 10, fig. 6. The hairs on 
 plants are either simple, serving the purpose of pro- 
 tection from cold, or they are ducts, discharging a fluid. 
 
 Observation, The hairiness of plants is liable to disappear by 
 culture. 
 
4 INFLORESCENCE. 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 INFLORESCENCE,^ (In^lorescentia.) 
 INFLORESCENCE is a term used by Linnus,to 
 express the particular manner in which flowers are sit- 
 uated upon a plant. 
 
 Observation. Those who wrote before Linn<eus used the term 
 modus forendi, or manner of flowering 1 . 
 
 Its various kinds are 
 
 1. WHORL, (verticettus.) PI. 10, fig. 7. Flowers 
 surrounding the stem in a sort of ring ; though they 
 may not perhaps he inserted on all sides of it, but mere- 
 ly on two opposite ones. Ex, Mint, Jllentlia, and 
 Balm. 
 
 2. RACEME, (racemus.) PL 10, fig. 8. A cluster. 
 A simple raceme consists of numerous, rather distant, 
 flowers, each on its own proper stalk, and all connect- 
 ed by one common stalk. Ex. A bunch of Currants. 
 
 Observation. A cluster is most generally pendulous or drooping*, 
 and the flowers all expand nearly at the same time. 
 
 Compound receme, (racemus compositus) partial 
 peduncles divided. Ex. Solomon's Seal, Convattariu 
 
 raccmoscu 
 
 Observation. By partial peduncle, is meant the proper peduncle 
 of the individual flowers, PL 10, fig. 8, a. a. in opposition to the 
 common peduncley b. whiph is shared equally by all of them. 
 
 (aggregates) several gathered together. 
 Ex. Ad(w racemosa, Black Snake-root. 
 
 Unilateral, (unUaterulis) one-sided : flowers grow- 
 ing altogether from one side of the common peduncle. 
 
 Secundous, (secundus') growing out from more 
 than one side, but bending round so as to bring the 
 flowers all to one side. 
 
 * The ip.fioTescence does not strictly belong under the head of Herbage, hut has 
 * to this place, iu as much as it depends on the composition and situation of 
 tho Trunks, 
 
INFLORESCENCE. 41 
 
 3. SPIKE, (spica.} PL 10, fig. 9. Bears numerous 
 flowers, ranged along a common stalk, without any 
 partial stalks. Ex. An ear of Wheat $ Greater Plan- 
 tain, Plant ago major. 
 
 Observation. 1. A mode of flowering in which the flowers are 
 ranged alternately upon both sides of a simple flower-stalk 
 Milne. 
 
 2. Some latitude is allowed to this difinition, and the term spike 
 is in many instances applied to flowers, which are not entirely with- 
 out partial peduncles. Smith. 
 
 3. The common stalk of a SPIKE is termed RAOHIS, from its re- 
 semblance to the back-bone of an animal. 
 
 Compound spike, (spica composita.) In a compound 
 spike the peduncle is divided. 
 
 Spikelet, (spiculd) is a term applied exclusive- 
 ly to the grasses that have many florets in one calyx, 
 such florets being ranged on a little stalk constituting 
 the spikelet, which little stalk is a part of the flower 
 itself and not of the infloresence. Smith. 
 
 Observation. These little groups of florets in one calyx, are 
 termed spikelets whether they are so disposed as to constitue a 
 spike or a panicle. 
 
 Interrupted spike, (spica interrupta*) In an inter- 
 rupted or whorled spike, the flowers are in separate 
 groups. Ex. Mentha spicata. 
 
 One-rowed, (secunda) a spike whose flowers lean 
 all to one side. 
 
 Two-rowed, (disticha) when the flowers look to 
 both sides or stand two ways. 
 
 Spiral, (spiralis) twisted like a screw. Ex. La- 
 dies' traces, J\eottia cernua. 
 
 Observation, A spike generally gro^s erect. Its mode of ex- 
 pansion, is much more progressive than that of the raceme, so that 
 a long period elapses between the fading of the lowest flowers and 
 the opening of the upper ones. 
 
 4. CORYMB, (corymbus.) PI. 11, fig. i. A mode 
 of flowering, in which the lesser or partial flower- 
 
42 INFLORESCENCE. 
 
 stalks are produced along the common stalk, are of 
 unequal length, the lower ones being longest, and all 
 rise nearly to the same height, so as to form a flat and 
 even surface at top. Ex. Spircea opulifolia, and Yar- 
 row, JLchillta millefolium. 
 
 Observation. A spike, whose partial stalks are gradually longer 
 as they stand lower, so that the flowers are nearly on a level. 
 Smith. 
 
 Compound, (compositus) when the partial stalks 
 are divided. 
 
 5. FASCICLE, (fasciculus,} PL 11, fig. 2. A little 
 bundle ; flowers on little stalks, variously inserted arid 
 subdivided, collected into a close bundle, level at top. 
 Ex. Sweet William, Dianthus barbatus, and nianthus 
 Jlrmeria. 
 
 6. HEAD, (capitulum) bears the flowers sessile in a 
 globular form. Ex. Globe Amarathus, Gomphrena 
 globosa. High Balm, Monarda didijma, and M. Kal- 
 miana. 
 
 Observation. In the capitulum, the flowers of the summit usu- 
 ally expand first. 
 
 7. UMBEL, (umbetta.) PI. 11, fig. 3. A mode of 
 flowering in which the several flower-stalks or rays, 
 proceed from one common centre, like the braces of an 
 umbrella. 
 
 Observation. The flower-stalks are of such lengths as to elevate 
 the flowers either to a concave, a level, a convex, or even a globose 
 surface. 
 
 Simple umbel, (uihbella simplex) when each flow- 
 er-stalk terminates immediately in a flower. Ex. 
 gilk weed, Asdepias /fynaca,andGinseng,Panwia? quin- 
 quefolium. 
 
 Compound, (composita.) PI. 11, fig. 3. When each 
 of the flower-stalks, instead of terminating in a flower, 
 jbears another umbel, (umbellula,} little umbel. 
 
 Observation. 1. In a compound umbel, the greater umbel, con- 
 stituted of the larger set of rays, is termed U^IVEBSAL or 
 
INFLORESCENCE. 43 
 
 umbel ; and the lesser umbels, which are borne by the rays of the 
 greater, are termed PARTIAL umbels. 
 
 2. The very extensive natural order of plants called umbellife- 
 rous, have generally compound umbels. Ex. Carrot, Parsnip, 
 Parsley, Hemlock, &c. 
 
 Radiate, (radiata) when the outer petals of the 
 external flowers are larger and longer than the rest. 
 
 Floscular, (Jlosculosa) when the flowers are all 
 alike in size. 
 
 8. CYME, (ct/ma.) PI. 11, fig. 4. A mode of flow- 
 ering, which has the general appearance of an umbel, 
 and agrees with it so far, that its common stalks all 
 proceed from one centre, but differs from it in having 
 the partial stalks variously subdivided. Ex* Elder, 
 Sambucus niger, and Snowball, Viburnum. 
 
 9. PANICLE, (paniculaS) PI. 11, fig. 5. Bears the 
 flowers dispersed upon foot-stalks variously subdi- 
 vided. 
 
 Observation. It is a sort of branching diffused spike composed 
 of a number of small spikes which are attached along a common 
 footstalk. Milne. 
 
 Lax, (diffusd) when the stalks are distant. Ex. 
 London pride, Saxifraga umbrosa 9 and Common Oat. 
 
 Divaricate, (divaricata.) Spreading ; when the par- 
 tial stalks form an obtuse angle with the common 
 peduncle. Ex. Brixa, and Red Top, Jlgrostis vul- 
 garis. 
 
 Dense, (coarctata) when the foot-stalks approach. 
 Ex. Phleum paniculatum. 
 
 One-sided, (secunda) leaning one way. Ex. Or- 
 chard grass, Dactylis glomerata. 
 
 10. THYRSE, (thyrsus.} PL 11, fig. 6. A panicle 
 contracted into an ovate figure. Ex. Lilac, Syringa 
 vulgaris. 
 
 Observation. 1. In the thyrsus the inferior peducles extend 
 horizontally, whilst the upper ones are nearly upright. 
 
44 INFLORESCENCE, 
 
 2. Linnaeus remarks that the most elegant specific characters are 
 taken from the inflorescence. Ex The Apple and Pear, two spe- 
 cies of the same genus, Pyrus, are distinguished thus : The Ap- 
 ple bears can umbel, the Pear a corymb. 
 
 Reference. The insertion of simple flower-stalks, whether 
 solitary, cindered, radical, cauline, axillary 9 lateral or terminal^ i* 
 defined under PEDUNCLE, page 16. 
 
PART III. 
 
 FRUCTIFICATION, (fructificatio.) 
 
 THE FRUCTIFICATION consists of the FXOWEU 
 and FRUIT. 
 
 The fructification is a temporary part of vegetables, 
 destined for the reproduction of the species, terminating 
 the old individual and begining the new. 
 
 Observation. The fructification is an essential part of every 
 vegetable. Every species of plants produces flower and fruit. The 
 seed is the essence of the fructification, and the whole use of the 
 flower is to serve in perfecting' it. 
 
 A plant may be propagated by roots, layers, offsets, scions and 
 buds, but the plants thus produced, are only extensions of the 
 same individual, and retain all its peculiarities.* 
 
 Although a plant may thus be propagated to a considerable ex- 
 tent, yet it appears that if it be not renewed by seed, it will 
 sooner or later become extinct, or, as it is commonly expressed, 
 will run out ; hence we infer that propagation by seed is the oiily 
 true reproduction of plants. 
 
 Linnseus distinguishes seven parts of fructification, 
 some of which are essential to the very nature of a 
 flower or fruit, others not so indispensably necessary, 
 and therefore not always present. 
 
 1. CALYX, (calyx.} PI. 13, fig. 1. Flower-cup, 
 generally resembling the leaves in texture and colour, 
 and forming the outermost part of the flower. This is 
 not essential, an&is often absent. 
 
 Observation. Commonly called the green leaves of the flower. 
 
 II. Con XLA,(coro7<i.) Pi. 12, fig. 1. a, a. a. The more 
 delicate coloured internal leaf or leaves, likewise not 
 essential. 
 
 Observation. 1. Commonly called the Jiotoer leaves. 
 
 2. PETAL is the term given to each separate leaf of the corolla. 
 
 ' This is exemplified in the various kinds of apples, which are propagttted by en 
 grafting and inocculationt 
 
46 ITIUCTIFICATIOJV. 
 
 III. STAMEN, (stamen.') PI. 12, fig. 5. Common- 
 ly consisting of a thread-like body, bearing a sack at 
 top, containing a coloured dust, placed internally in re- 
 spect to the corolla. This is essential. 
 
 IV. PISTIL, (pistoHum.) PI. 12, fig. 4. In the centre 
 of the flower, consisting of the rudiments of the fruit, 
 with one or more organs attached to them, and, of 
 course, essential. 
 
 V. PERICARP, (jpericarpinm.*) PI. 14, fig 6,7, &c. 
 The seed- vessel, of a pulpy, woody or leathery texture, 
 enclosing the seeds, but wanting in many plants. 
 
 VI. SEED, (semen] the perfecting of which is the 
 sole end of all the other parts of the fructification. 
 
 VII. RECEPTACLE, (receptaculnm.^) PI. 12, fig. 2, a. 
 The basis or point of connexion of the other parts. 
 This must necessarily be present in some form or other. 
 
 Observation. Each of these seven parts occurs under a variety of 
 forms, which are next to be explained. 
 
 I. Calyx. 
 
 THE CALYX or external covering of the flower, 
 when present, was originally divided by Linnaeus into 
 seven kinds. 
 
 Observation. As the student is beginning to examine flowers, he 
 should be reminded that all DOUBLE Flowers, ( f lores pleni,) are 
 imperfect. Although they are esteemed in the gardens as beauti- 
 ful, yet they are unfit for botanical illustration and have been em- 
 phatically called vegetable monsters. This fullness or impletion as 
 it is termed, of flowers, takes place in a variety of ways ; but the 
 most common, is by the conversion of the stamens into petals. 
 
 The seeds of double flowers are imperfect, because the organs 
 which are necessary to the formation of perfect seed, are oblite- 
 rated. Impletion is caused by excess of nourishment, and is prin- 
 cipally the result of art occuring almost exclusively among culti- 
 vated plants. This shews us that deformity, in consequence of 
 luxury, occurs in the natural as well as in the moral world. 
 
 The attention of the young- botanist is therefore directed to the 
 fields and woods in preference to the garden. The cultivated Rose, 
 Pseony, Double Carnation, See. are examples of double flowers. 
 
 1. PERIANTH, (perianthium.') PL 13, fig. i. A ca- 
 lyx which is contiguous to, and makes a part of the 
 
CALYX. 47 
 
 flower. Ex. The five green leaves which encompass 
 a Rose, including their urn-shaped base. The tubular 
 part comprehending the scales at its base in the Pinks. 
 
 1. Number of Leaves. 
 
 1. Monophyllous perianth, (Perianthium monophyl- 
 luin) when it consists of one leaf. 
 
 2. Cleft, (Jissuiri) divided down not exceeding half 
 way to the base. 
 
 S. Parted, (partituni) divided almost to the base. 
 
 4. Two-leaved, (diphyllum^ three-leaved, (triphyl- 
 lumi) and so on, according to the number of leaves. 
 
 5. Polyphyllous, (polyphijtlum) many leaved. 
 
 2 Form. 
 
 1. Inflated, (ventricosum) swelled or distended. 
 Ex. Cucubalus Behen. 
 
 2. Prismatic, (prismaticum) with sharp, and some- 
 what parallel angles. Ex. Monkey Flower, Mi- 
 mulus. 
 
 3. Imbricate or scaly, (imbricatum or squamosum,) 
 PI. 16, fig. 3. With its leaves lying one over another. 
 Ex. Thistle, and most of the compound flowers. 
 
 4. Squarrose, (sqnarrosum) when the leaflets which 
 compose it are bent back at the points. 
 
 6. Ciliate, (dliatum) fringed with hairs or bris- 
 tles on the margin. 
 
 7. Muricate, (muricatuin) set with short stiff 
 prickles. 
 
 5. Scariose, (scanosum) when the leaflets are hard, 
 thin, and dry. 
 
 8. Spinous, (spinosum) thorny; each leaflet tip- 
 ped with a thorn, Ex. Thistles. 
 
 9. Turbinate, (turbinatum) having the figure of a 
 top. 
 
 10. Calyculate, (calijculatuni) doubled; when one 
 calyx appears to be enclosed at its base by another. 
 Ex. Mallow, Milva.' 
 
48 FRUCTIFICATION. 
 
 Observation. This part is of an infinite variety of forms, in dif- 
 ferent genera, being- either simple or compound, regular or irreg- 
 ular, equal or unequal. In some instances it is permanent until 
 the fruit is ripe, in others it is caducous, falling even before the 
 flower is well expanded. 
 
 2. The Perianth is much the most common kind of calyx. " It 
 is the calyx properly and commonly so called," being sometimes 
 denominated Calyx by way of eminence, as though there were no 
 others. Tke genus Anemone, for example, is defined to be " with- 
 out a calyx," while several of the species are acknowledged to 
 have that kind of calyx called involucrum. 
 
 2. INVOLUCRE, (involucrum.*) PI. 11, fig. 3. A calyx 
 remote from the flower. Ex. Hemlock, Conium macu- 
 latum. 
 
 Observation. It usually accompanies an umbel. 
 
 1. Universal involucre, (involucrum universale) 
 when the leaflets are placed at the origin of the univer- 
 sal umbel. PI. 11, fig. 3, a. 
 
 2. Partial, (pariiale) when the leaflets are placed 
 at the foot of a partial umbel. PL 11, fig. 3, b. 
 
 3. Dimidiate, (dimidiatuin) placed only on one side. 
 Not going all round. 
 
 Observation* The term involucrum has been applied to the mem- 
 branes covering the fructification of ferns* Inducium has also 
 been applied to the same. 
 
 3. AMENT, (amentum.') PL 13, fig. 2, 3, &4. Cat- 
 kin. A species of calyx, consisting of a number of scales 
 ranged along a common thread-like receptacle, each 
 protecting one or more stamens or pistils. Ex, It is 
 the most common calyx of the forest trees, Oak, Wal- 
 nut, Chesnut, Birch, Alder, Hazlcnut, &c. 
 
 Observation. The whole forms an aggregate flower. 
 
 4. SPATHE, (spathn.} PL 13, fig. 5. A calyx which 
 bursts longitudinally, and is more or less remote from 
 the flower. Ex. Common Blue Flag, Iris, and Nar- 
 cissus. 
 
 Observation. In many cases the spatlie is of a membranous tex- 
 ture, and withers soon after the flower is evolved. 
 
COROLLA. 49 
 
 Observation, The spathe sometimes encloses a Spadix or elon* 
 gated receptacle common to many flowers. PI. 13, fig 1 . 5, a. & b. 
 Ex. Indian Turnip, Arum, 
 
 5. GLUME, (gluma.} Husk. PL 13, fig. 7. The 
 calyx of the grasses, and grass-like plants of a chaffy 
 texture. 
 
 Each separate piece of the glume is termed a valve. 
 
 Observation. 1. To the glume belongs the A.wx t (arista) beard; a 
 bristle-shaped appendage, usually spiral or twisted, and possess- 
 ing the property of being moved by moisture. This is what gives 
 motion to what is called the animated oat. 
 
 2 The corolla of grasses is precisely of the same husky nature 
 of their calyx, and is by some botanists considered as such. 
 
 6. CALYPTRA, (calyptra.} PI. 13, fig. 8. The ca- 
 lyx of the mosses, which is placed overtime unripe fruit 
 like an extinguisher upon a candle, but is soon torn 
 from its base and elevated along with the ripening cap- 
 sule. 
 
 Observation, Sir J. E. Smith considers it a species of corolla. 
 The same author makes another species of calyx, Perich.'tium, 
 a scaly sheath investing the fertile flower, and consequently the 
 base of the fruit-stalk in some mosses. 
 
 7. VOLVA, Ootw.) PI. 2, fig. 9. b. Wrapper or 
 covering of the Fungus tribe. It first envelops the head 
 of the Fungus* afterwards bursts and appears in a lacer- 
 ated form about the trunk. 
 
 II. Corolla. 
 
 THE COROLLA. PI. 12, fig. 1,a. a. a. Com- 
 monly called the flower-leaves, consists of those more 
 delicate and dilated, generally more coloured leaves, 
 \vhich are always internal with respect to the calyx, 
 and constitute the chief heauty of the flower. Ex. In 
 the Rose the corolla is red and fragrant ; in the Vio- 
 let, purple ; in tlrc Primrose, yellow. 
 
 The term corolla includes two parts, tho PETAI, 
 (petalum) and the NECTARY, (nectarium^ The Nec- 
 tary is to he treated of in a separate section. 
 5 
 
50 FRUCTIFICATION 
 
 The following terms are applied to the corolla. 
 1. Number of Petals. 
 
 1. MONOPETALQUS COROLLA, (corolla monopetalaJ) 
 PI. 13, fig. 10. Consisting of only one petal or leaf. 
 Ex. Thorn-Apple, Datura stramonium. 
 
 Tube, (tubus.) PI. is. fig. 10, a. The narrow, hol- 
 low part of a monopeialous corolla, By which it is fix- 
 ed to the receptacle. 
 
 Limh, (linibus.) PL 13, fig. 10. 6. The border, or 
 tipper dilated part. 
 
 Orifice, (jfrwo?) jaws or throat ; the opening of the 
 tube. 
 
 Observation. DJPETALOUS, TRIPETJLIOUS, TETIIAPETALOUS, PEN- 
 TAPETALOITS, and HEXAPETALocs, are terms applied according" to the 
 number of petals. 
 
 2. POL YPETALOUS, (polypetalo) consisting of many 
 petals. Ex. Water Lily, Nymphcea. 
 
 Observation. Linnaeus uses this term in opposition to the mo- 
 nopetalous corolla. By other writers it is usualty put down for 
 a flower consisting of more than six petals. Mar tyn. 
 
 Claw, (unguis.) PL 13, fig. 15, a. Is the narrow 
 part of the petal of a polypetalous corolla, by which 
 it is attached to the receptacle. 
 
 Border, (lamina.) PL IS, fig. 15, b. The upper 
 spreading part. 
 
 Observation. This corresponds to the Limb of a monopetalous 
 corolla, and the Claw, to the Tube. 
 
 2. Proportion of the Petals. 
 
 1. REGULAR* (regularis) when it consists of petals 
 equal in size and similar in form. Ex. Rose. 
 
 2. IRREGULAR, (irregularis) when it consists of ir- 
 regular and dissimilar petals, which are generally ac- 
 companied with a nectary. Ex. Larkspur and Violet. 
 
 S. EQUAL, ((zqualis) see regular. 
 4. UNEQUAL, (ffueguaH*) when some segments are 
 smaller than others, Ex. Veronica. 
 
COROLLA. 51 
 
 3. Form. 
 
 1. BELL-SHAPED, (campanulata.) PL 13, fig* 9. 
 Without a tube, expanding immediately from the re- 
 ceptacle. Ex. Bell-flower, Campanula. 
 
 2. FUNNEL-SHAPED, (infundibuliformis.) PL 13, fig. 
 
 10. Tubular at bottom, but gradually expanding to- 
 wards the top. Ex. Thorn-Apple, Datura. 
 
 3. SALVER-SHAPED, (hypocrateriformis.) PL 13, fig* 
 
 11. Having the border spread out horizontally and 
 placed on a tube. Ex. Phlox. 
 
 Observation. Resembling an old-fashioned salver. 
 
 4. WHEEL-SHAPED, (rotata.) PL 13, fig. 12. Aflat 
 border with scarce a tube. Ex. Potatoe, Solanum tu- 
 berosum, and Borage, Borago. 
 
 5. RINGENT, (ringens.') PL 13, fig. 13. Irregular 
 and gaping like the mouth of an animal. Ex. Hyssop, 
 Hyssopus. 
 
 Observation. A ringent flower is an irregular one-petaled co- 
 rolla, the border of which is divided into two parts,, called the up- 
 per and the lower lips. 
 
 The following terms are sometimes applied to the 
 parts of a ringent corolla. 
 
 1. Helmet, (galeaj PI. 13, fig. IS, a. The upper 
 lip. 
 
 2. Beard, (&ar6a.) PL 13, fig. 13, b. The lower 
 lip. 
 
 3. Gape, (rictus) the space between the lips. 
 
 4. Throat or Jaws, (faux) the opening of the tube. 
 
 5. Palate, (palatum) the prominent swelling in the 
 throat. 
 
 6. Neck, (cottum) the upper part of the tube. 
 
 6. PERSONATE, (personata.') PL 13, fig. 14. Re- 
 sembling the ringent, but having the throat closed with 
 a permanent swelling called the palate, (palatum.) Ex. 
 Toad-flax, Antirrhinum. 
 
 7* TUBULAR, (tubulata.) PL 16, fig. 1, a. Is ap- 
 
52 TRtJCTIFICATIOtf. 
 
 plied to the floret of a compound flower, when it ends 
 in a tube, the border being five cleft. 
 
 . LIGULATE, (ligutata.) Strap-shaped. PL 16, fig. 
 1, &o Also a floret of a compound flower tubular at base, 
 but terminating in a flat strip extending out at one side. 
 
 9. CRUCIFORM, (cruciformis.^) Cross-shaped. PI. 
 15, fig. 15. composed of four equal petals placed in 
 the form of a cross. Ex. Cabbage, Mustard, Radish, 
 and Shepherd's purse. 
 
 10. ROSACEOUS, (rosacea) consisting of five petals re- 
 sembling arose. Ex. Strawberry. 
 
 11. LILIACEOUS, (liliacea.') PJ. 12, fig. 1. Resem- 
 bling a lily, consisting of six fleshy petals. Ex. Dog- 
 tooth Violet, Erythronium and Tulip. 
 
 12. PAPILIONACEOUS, (papilionacea.*) Butterfly-shaped. 
 PI. 14, fig. 1 & 2. Irregular and spreading, some\vhat 
 like a butterfly. Ex. Pea. 
 
 The various petals which compose such a flower are 
 distinguished by appropriate names, as 
 
 1. Banner, (vexiium.*) PI. 14, fig. 2, a. The large 
 one at the back. 
 
 2. Wings, (cdce) &. b. the two side petals* 
 
 3. Keel, (carina) c. consisting of one or two petals 
 , embracing the internal organs, and resembling a boat 
 
 in form. 
 
 IS. INCOMPLETE, (incompleta) when parts, which 
 analogy would lead, us to expect, are deficient. Ex. 
 Jlnwrpha, a papilionaceous flower, apparently but con- 
 sisting of the banner only. 
 
 Observation. It is remarkable that irregular flowers sometimes 
 vary to regular ones in the very same plant, as in JBignonto radi- 
 cans. 
 
 4. Duration. 
 
 1. CADUCOUS, (cadnca) falling before the stamens. 
 
 2. DECIDUOUS, (decidua) falling with the stamens. 
 
 3. MAIICESCENT, (inarcescens} withering, without 
 dropping. 
 
 Observation. 1. The corolla may usually be distinguished from 
 the calyx by the fineness of its texture and brilliancy of colour. 
 
(COROLLA. 53 
 
 The calyx is generally of a rough and thick texture and usually 
 green But there are many exceptions ; the calyx is in some 
 cases coloured,* and the corolla in some green. Linnaeus distin- 
 guishes them thus ; the calyx has its leaves or segments opposite 
 the stamens, while the petals or segments of the corolla alternate 
 with them. 
 
 2. The corolla is wanting in many plants, and therefore, the 
 office it performs, whatever it may be, is either dispensed with, 
 being not essential, or is performed by some other part, 
 
 The uses of this very conspicuous part have not yet been fully 
 explained ; the following have been assigned to it. 
 
 1. To protect the tender and important parts within, especially 
 ft om wet. 
 
 2. To furnish a resting place for insects in search of honey. 
 
 3 To submit the juices to the action of air and light. Dr. Bar- 
 win calls the corolla, the lungs of the stamens and pistils, and with 
 great probability, for it abounds with air vessels. 
 
 St. Pierre supposes the corolla to regulate the sun's influence 
 on the fructification of the plant, by reverberating the solar rays 
 upon the anthers and stigma ; or, in some instances, by sheltering 
 them from too intense heat. 
 
 NECTARY, (nectarium) is the part of the corolla 
 which contains, or which secretes honey. 
 
 Observation. 1. Linnaeus usually called every supernumerary 
 part of the flower Nectary, from analogy only, though he might 
 not, in every case, be able to prove that such parts produced 
 honey, 
 
 2. The nectary is confined to no particular part of the flower, 
 but is extremely various in situation as well as form. It cannot, 
 in all cases, be considered as a part of the corolla. 
 
 In relation to the corolla, nectaries are of four kinds. 
 
 1. A mere cavity in the corolla, as the groove in the claw of the 
 petal of the Lily, and the cavity near the base of the petal in 
 Grown Imperial. 
 
 2. A process of the corolla itself, as the scale of the Ranuncu- 
 lus and the spur of the Violet. 
 
 3. An organ separate entirely from the petals, but of a similar 
 texture and colour, as in Columbine, JLquilegia. PI. 14. fiq-. 3. 
 
 4. An organ separate from the corolla and dissimilar iiT struct- 
 ure, as in Jack-in-a-bush, Nigella, and Monk's-hood, Jlconitum. Fig. 5. 
 
 The following are some of the forms of the nectary. 
 1. Spur or horn-shaped, (nectarium cornicnlaium*) 
 
 * Coloured is here technically used for any other colour than green. 
 
54 FRUCTIFICATION. 
 
 PI. 14, fig. S. Ex. Larkspur, Delphinium and Nas- 
 turtium, Trapieolum. 
 
 Q. Cup-shaped. PJ, 13, fig. 6. Ex. Narcissus. 
 
 3. Scale, (sqwama.) Ex. Buttercup, Ranunculus. 
 
 4. Glandular, (glandulosumS) These actually 
 secrete honey, and are the most indubitable of all 
 nectaries. In the cruciform plants, as Cabbage, Tur- 
 nip, Mustard, Radish, Gilly-flower,. &c. they are four 
 green glands at the base of the stamens. 
 
 Observation. In monopetalous corollas, the tube contains, and 
 probably secretes the honey. 
 
 General observation. 1. There can be no doubt that the sole use of 
 the honey with respect to the plant is to tempt insects, who, in 
 procuring 1 it, fertilize the flower by disturbing- the dust of the 
 stamens, and even carry that substance from the barren to the fer- 
 tile blossoms, Smit h. 
 
 2. In discriminating the genera, the nectary often furnishes the 
 essential character. 
 
 III. Stamens. 
 
 STAMENS, (stamina.') PI. 12, fig. 1, b. b. b. These 
 are situated internally as it respects the calyx and 
 corolla, and externally with respect to the pistils. They 
 are various in number in different flowers, from one to 
 some hundreds. 
 
 The Stamen commonly consists of two parts. 
 
 1. FILAMENT, (fiiamentum.^ PI. 12, fig. 3, b.; and 
 
 2. ANTHER, (anthera) a, which is elevated upon 
 the filament. 
 
 The filament is sometimes wanting, when the anther 
 is termed Sessile, (sessilis.) 
 
 The ANTHER is generally of a membranous tex- 
 ture, consisting of two cells or cavities bursting longitu^ 
 finally at their outer edges, as in the Lily- In the Po- 
 tatoe, in the Kalmia, and some others, it opens by pores 
 at the summit. 
 
 The POLLEN is a powder or dust, which is contained 
 by the anther and discharged chiefly in warm dry 
 weather, when the coat of the anther contracts and 
 

 PISTILS. 55 
 
 bursts. Each grain of the pollen is commonly a membra- 
 nous bag, round or angular, rough or smooth, which re- 
 mains entire till it meets with moisture, being contrary 
 in this respect to the nature of the anther ; then it burst 
 with great force, discharging a most subtle vapour. 
 
 Observation. The stamens are changed to petals in double 
 flowers, and^rendered useless, as in Piony. They are often oblit- 
 erated by excessive nourishment, as in the Snow-ball or Guelder 
 Rose, Viburnum Opulus. 
 
 IV. Pistils. 
 
 PISTILS, (pistUla.) These are situated within the 
 stamens in the centre of the flower. Like the stamens 
 they vary in number in different flowers from one, to 
 hundreds. 
 
 Each pistil, PL 12, fig. 4, consists of three parts. 
 
 1. GERMEN, (germen) c 9 the rudiment of the fruit 
 and seed. 
 
 Observation* The Germen is termed 
 
 SUPF.RIOUR, (superum) when it is above the calyx and corolla, 
 as in the Strawberry and Raspberry. 
 
 INFERIOUR, (jnferum) when it is below them, as in the Apple and 
 Pear. The situation of the calyx and corolla is the opposite of that 
 of the germen, being INFERIOUR when the germen is SVPERIOUR, and 
 when it is INFERIOUR. 
 
 2. STYLE, (stylus) b. This is often wanting, and 
 serves merely to elevate the third part, the stigma. 
 
 3. STIGMA, (stigma) a, the top of the pistil which 
 receives the pollen from the anthers. 
 
 This is always present. Its shape is various, either 
 simple, scarcely more than a point; or capitate, forming 
 a little round head ; or variously lobed. Sometimes 
 hollow and gaping, more especially when the flower is 
 in its highest perfection, very generally downy, and 
 always more or less moist, with a peculiar viscid fluid, 
 which in some plants is so copious as to form a large 
 drop, though never big enough to fall to the ground. 
 
56 FRUCTIFICATION. 
 
 Functions of the Stamens and Pistils* 
 
 These parts contribute to the perfecting of the seed 
 in the following manner. 
 
 After the flower is expanded the anther hursts in 
 dry weather and discharges the pollen, the particles of 
 which, come in contact with the stigma, and meeting 
 with the viscid moisture with which this part is cover- 
 ed, explode and discharge their Contents, which are said 
 to be a subtle vapour. 
 
 It is probable that the contents of the pollen are ab- 
 sorbed by the stigma and transmitted to the rudiments 
 of the seeds in the germen. 
 
 This contact of the pollen with the stigma seems to 
 be the great object of the flower, by which it renders 
 the seed perfect and capable of vegetating ; and no 
 seed is perfect or will grow, unless it has taken place. 
 
 The stamens and pistils, or more particularly, the 
 anther, stigma and geriften, are indispensable to the per- 
 formance of this important function.* All other parts 
 may be, and occasionally are, wanting. 
 
 Observation. The corolla first attracted the attention of botan- 
 ists, and is considered by the vulgar the most important part, but 
 the stamens and pistils are essentially the flower, and constitute 
 one in effect without any other part. They are presumed to be es- 
 sential to all plants. 
 
 Linnesus clearly established these doctrines, and for- 
 tunately fixed upon the stamens and pistils, organs 
 necessarily universally present, as the foundation of 
 his first divisions of the vegetable kingdom, the classes 
 and orders. 
 
 Situation of the Stamens and Pistils. 
 he stamens and pistils are situated together in the 
 same flower, as in the Lily and most plants ; or in sep- 
 arate flowers on the same plant, as Indian Corn, Zea 
 
 * Mare's tail, Hippuris 9 an exotic plant, has a flower of the most simple structure, 
 having only one stamen and one pistil, without any calyx or corolla. 
 
PERICARP. 5f 
 
 Mays ; Cucumber, Cucumis ; or in separate flowers 
 on separate plants, as in the Willow. 
 
 This gives rise to the following distinctions of 
 flowers* 
 
 1. BARREN BLOWERS, flowers having stamens 
 only. 
 
 Observation, 1. Called BARREN because they produce no seed. 
 2. Sometimes called STAMEN-HEARING orSxAMEXiFEROus, 
 
 2. FERTILE, having pistils only. 
 
 Observation. ! Galled FERTILE because they bear seed. 
 2. Sometimes called PISTIL-BEARI^GF PISTILIFEROUS. 
 
 3. PERFECT, furnished with both stamens and 
 pistils. 
 
 Observation. 1. Called PERFECT be'cause they contain both the 
 rudiments of the seeds, and all that ^accessary to perfect them. 
 
 2. On account of the separation of tht- stamens and pistils in 
 the barren and fertile flowers, they have been termed SEPARATED 
 FLOWERS ; and on account of their union in perfect ones, they have 
 been denominated UNITED FLOWERS. 
 
 V. Pericarp. 
 
 PERICARP, (pericarpium) the seed vessel ; which 
 is formed by the germen enlarged. 
 
 Observation. It is not an essential part, the seeds being- fre- 
 quently naked and guarded only Jby the calyx, as in Motherwort, 
 LeonuriM. The use of the seed vessel is to protect the seeds till 
 ripe, and then in some way or other to promote their dispersion, 
 either by scattering them by its elastic power, or by serving as 
 food for animals. 
 
 Pericarps are of several kinds. 
 1. CAPSULE, (capsula.) PI. 14, fig. 6. A dry seed- 
 vessel of a woody or membranous texture. Ex. 
 Thorn-apple, Datura stramonium. 
 
 Terms applied to the parts of seed-vessels and principally 
 
 to the parts of a capsule. 
 
 1. Valves, (valvulcv) the pieces into which a capsule 
 usually splits. 
 
53 FRUCTIFICATION. 
 
 Observation. Although the capsule usually splits into valves, . 
 yet it sometimes discharges its contents by orifices or pores, as in 
 Bell'flower, Campanula, andPoppy, or falls off entire with the seed, 
 
 Q. Sutures, (suturce) the seams by which the valves 
 are united to each other. 
 
 S. Cells, (loculi.*) PL 14, fig. 6, a. The cavities con- 
 taining the seeds. 
 
 4. Dissepiments, (dissepimenta) partitions between 
 the cells. 
 
 5. Collumn, (collumellci) b. The pillar to which the 
 seeds are attached. 
 
 Observation. The capsule is called one-valved, two-waived, &c. 
 according- to the number of valves ; and oiie-celled, ttvo-celled, Sec 
 according 1 to the number of cells. 
 
 2. SILIQUE, (siiiqwi) Pod. PI. 14, fig. 7. A long, 
 dry, solitary seed-vessel? consisting of two valves with 
 a dissepiment intervening, seeds attached alternately 
 to one and the other suture. Ex. Cabbage, Rad- 
 ish, &c. 
 
 Silicic, (silicula^ PL 14, fig. 8. A silique or pod, 
 of a short rounded figure. Ex. Shepherd's purse, 
 ThlaspL 
 
 Observation. Nearly or quite as broad as long. 
 
 3. LEGUME, (legumen.) PL 14, fig. 9. A mem- 
 branous seed-vessel of two valves, no dissepiment, seeds 
 attached to one suture only. Ex. Pea and Bean. 
 
 Observation* Sometimes this kind of fruit lodges but one seed, 
 as in Clover. 
 
 Loment, (lomentum) expresses an elongated seed- 
 vessel, consisting of two valves, externally forming su- 
 tures, but never bursting like the legume. Internally 
 it is divided into cells by small transverse partitions. 
 Ex. Cassia and Hedysarum. 
 
 4. DRUPE, (tlrupa) Stone-fruit. PL 14, fig. 10, 
 Consists of a pulpy coat enclosing a nut. Ex, Peach* 
 Plumb, Cherry. &c. 
 
SEEDS. 59 
 
 5. POME, (jummm.) PL 14, fig. *i. Has a pulpy 
 coat like the drupe, but contains a capsule with several 
 seeds. Ex. Apple and Pear, Tyrus. 
 
 6. BERRY, (bacca.) PI. 14, fig. 12. A fleshy peri- 
 carp without valves, containing one or more seeds en- 
 veloped with pulp. Ex. Gooseberry and Currant, 
 Ribes. 
 
 Compound Berry, (bacca composita.) PI. 14, fig. J 3. 
 Consists of several single ones, each containing a seed, 
 united together. Ex. Raspberry, Rubus. Each sepa- 
 rate grain is denominated Acinus. 
 
 Observation. The melon and cucumber tribe have a berry of a 
 peculiar kind ; the cells together with the seeds are remote from 
 the centre, the seeds being inserted into the sides of the fruit. 
 
 7. STROBILE, (strobilus) Cone. PL 14, fig. 14. Is 
 a catkin or ainent, hardened and enlarged into a seed- 
 vessel. Ex. Pine and Fir. 
 
 VI. Seeds. 
 
 SEEDS, (semina^) are the sole end and aim of all 
 the organs of the fructification. Every other part is, 
 in some manner, subservient to the forming, perfecting, 
 or dispersing of them." 
 
 A Seed consists of several parts. 
 
 k CORCULE, (corculum.) PI. 16, fig. 8, b. c. This 
 is the chick or embryo of the future plant. It is the 
 essential part of the seed, to which all the rest are 
 wholly subservient, and without which no seed will 
 vegetate. 
 
 The Corcule consists of two parts. 
 
 1. Radicle, (radicula) 6, the descending part, which 
 unfolds itself into roots. 
 
 2. Plume, (plumuld) c 9 the ascending part, which 
 unfolds itself into herbage. 
 
 2. COTYLEDONS, (cotyledones.) Seed-lobes. PL 16, 
 fig. 8, a. a. They usually constitute the principal bulk 
 of the seed. They are attached immediately to the 
 
60 IfRUCTlFlCATION, 
 
 corcule, which they nourish until it has taken sufficient 
 root to support itself from the earth. 
 
 Observation. The cotyledons are commonly two in number, as 
 in the Bean. They rise out of the ground with the plume, and 
 become the Seminal leaves, (folia seminalia) PI. 16, fig. 10, still 
 supplying nourishment to the young plant, and acting as lungs to 
 it by permitting the juices to be changed in them by the action of 
 light and air. 
 
 From their Cotyledons Plants are denominated 
 
 1. Acotyledonous, (acotyledones) supposed to have no 
 cotyledons. Ex. Ferns. 
 
 2. Monocotyledonous, (monocotyledones.yPL 16, fig. 
 7. Having one cotyledon or lobe. Ex. Grasses. 
 
 3. Dicotyledonous, (dicotijledones.) PI. 16, fig. 8. 
 Having two. Ex. Bean, Pea. 
 
 4. PoIycotyledonouSj (polycotyledones.) PL 16, fig. 
 9. Having several. Ex. Pine and Fir. 
 
 3. SKIN, (testa) envelopes the other parts, giving 
 them their proper shape ; for the skin is properly 
 formed while they are a homogenous fluid. 
 
 Observation. 1. This is sometimes lined with a fine and delicate 
 membrane. 
 
 2. ^There is in some cases a loose coat (arillus) external to the 
 skin, which generally falls off when the seed is ripe. 
 
 4. SCAR, (hilnm) is the point by which the seed is 
 attached to the vessel or receptacle. 
 
 Observation. At this point all the parts of the seed are connect- 
 ed ; through this part it is nourished while connected with its par- 
 ent plant ; and through it also, it imbibes the juices of the earth 
 previous to germination. 
 
 Appendages to the seed. 
 
 1. PAPPUS, (pappus.} PI. 16, fig. 5, c. The feathe- 
 ry crown of seeds calculated to wait them in the wind. 
 Ex. Dandeijon, Thistle. 
 
 2. STJPK, (stipes) b. A thread which connects the 
 pappus with the seed. 
 
SEEDS. t)l 
 
 The Pappus is termed 
 
 1. Stipitate, (stlpitatus) wlien supported on a stipe. 
 Ex. Dandelion. 
 
 2. Sessile, (sessilis) when it is immediately connect- 
 ed with the seed. Ex. Jlpargia. 
 
 3. Pilose, (pilosus) when it consists of simple hairs. 
 Ex. Golden Rod, Solidago. 
 
 4. Plumose, (plumosus*) when each hair is branched 
 like a feather. Ex. Dandelion. 
 
 5 Membranaceous, when it consists of thin, trans- 
 parent leaves. 
 
 3. TAIL, (caiida) is an elongated, generally feathe- 
 ry, appendage to some seeds formed from the perma- 
 nent style. Ex. Virgin's bower, Clematis ; Avens, 
 Geum. 
 
 4. WING, (aid) a dilated membranous appendage to 
 seeds. Ex. Catalpa tree and Trumpet -flower, Big-nonia. 
 
 DISSEMINATION, (disseminatio ) 
 
 The various contrivances of nature to disperse and scatter 
 abroad the seeds, 
 
 Observation The various modes by which seeds are dispersed, 
 is a subject truly wonderful, and cannot fail to excite udmirat ion 
 in an observing mind. The numerous organs evidently construct- 
 ed for this peculiar purpose are alone sufficient to prove, be- 
 yond a. possibility of doubt, that the creation is the product of 
 superiour intelligence and design. 
 
 Naturalists observe four means of dissemination. 
 
 1 Rivers and running waters. 2. Wind. 3. Animals. 4. An 
 elastic capsule. 
 
 L Seeds are often conveyed by running waters a great distance 
 from their native soil, and cast upon a very different climate, to 
 which, however, by degrees, they render themselves familiar. 
 Milne 
 
 2. Those which are carried by the wind, are either furnished 
 with a pappus, as in the Dandelion, Thistle, and other compound 
 flowers, or with a wing, as the Maple, Ash, Trumpet-flower, &c 
 Tbebracteaof the Lime-tree or Basswood, Tilea, serves to wing 
 the seed ; it is placed obliquely, so as to give a rotatory or 
 whorling motion as it falls. Winged seeds generally are so con- 
 structed as to acquire a rotatory motion as they fall, and arc thus 
 suspended some time in the air. 
 
 Many seeds, in addition to the means of dissemination, are cal- 
 culated to bury themselves in the earth. The seeds of many of 
 the compound flowers, as the Dandelion, have barbs pointing up i. 
 
 6 
 
6 2 FRUCTIFICATION. 
 
 ward in such a way, that after they are thrown down, the wind, by 
 moving the pappus, works them into the earth. The Animated 
 Oat, being- moved by every change of moisture, affecting its twist- 
 ed awn, works its way into the earth with wonderful certainty. 
 
 3. Animals feed on the pulpy fruits, and at the same time dis- 
 perse their seeds, voiding- them in a condition to vegetate. 
 
 Some seeds attach themselves to animals, by means of barbs and 
 hooks, which are either affixed to the seeds themselves, as in Car- 
 rot, or to their calyx, as in Burdock, Agrimony and Itidens. 
 
 4. The Touch-me-not, Impatiens, is a common example of an 
 lastic capsule, 
 
 VII. Receptacle. 
 
 RECEPTACLE, (receptaculum.) PI. 12, fig. 2, a. 
 Is the common base or point where all the other parts 
 of the fructification unite. 
 
 It is termed 
 
 1. PROPER, when it belongs to a simple flower. 
 
 2. COMMON, when it belongs to aggregate flowers, 
 which sec below. 
 
 Observation. It is not a very definite part in simple flowers, 
 there being no particular line of separation between it and the 
 other parts ; in the compound flowers, as the Dandelion, Sun- 
 flower, cc. it const itutes a remarkable and important part. 
 
 Simple and Aggregate Flowers. 
 
 1. A SIMPLE FLOWER, (flos simplex) is a flower 
 which has a single fructification, complete in all its 
 parts, none of which are common to many flowers, as 
 the Rose and Lily. 
 
 Observation. A flower furnished with both calyx and corolla, 
 is termed a COMPLETE flower, (fos completus ,) when the latter is 
 wanting, IN COMPLETE, (incompletus ,) and when the corolla is pres- 
 ent without a calyx, NAKEd, (nudus.} 
 
 2. AGGREGATE FLOWER, (flos aggregatus) is applied 
 by Linnseus to such flowers as are made up of a num- 
 ber of smaller flowers, collected together by means of 
 a part, either a calyx or receptacle, common to them all. 
 
 Observation. Each of the flowers, which goes to constitute an ag- 
 gregate flower, is called a FLORET, (ftosciiliifi) little flower ; and, 
 from the above description, it is evident, does not constitute a 
 complete flower of itself, as one or two of the essential parts of a 
 flower are common to the whole aggregate. It happens, however, 
 sometimes, that the floret will be furnished with a part analogous 
 
RECEPTACLE. 3 
 
 to the common part in the aggregate ; thus, besides a common ca- 
 lyx, each floret may have its own proper calyx. 
 
 Linnseus enumerates seven kinds of aggregate 
 flowers. 
 
 1. AGGREGATE FLOWER, (Jios aggregatus) properly so 
 called, which has a common undivided receptacle, the 
 anthers all separate and distinct. 
 
 Observation. Flowers visually blue, purple or white. 
 
 2. COMPOUND FLOWER (flos compositus) has also a 
 common undivided receptacle, but the filaments, which 
 are five, have their anthers united into a tube. Ex. 
 Dandelion, Sunflower, Daisy, &c. 
 
 Observation. These constitute the class Syngenesia, which see. 
 Flowers usually yellow, especiall} in the centre or disk. 
 
 3. AMENTACEOUS (Jlos amentaceus) has a thread- 
 like receptacle, along which are disposed scales, 
 each of which is accompanied with one or more sta- 
 mens or pistils. Ex. Willow and Alder. See AMENT, 
 page 48. 
 
 Observation. 1. The greatest part of the amentaceous flowers arc 
 separated. 
 
 2. The birch, betula ; beech, fagus ; poplar, popidus ; hazel, 
 corylus ; hornbean, carplnus ; pine, pinus ; walnut, juelans ; oak, 
 quercus ; and some other trees, are amentaceous The fertile flow- 
 ers of some of these are not aments, as the walnut, oak, and hazel. 
 
 4. GLUMOSE, (flos glumosus) has a slender, thread- 
 shaped receptacle, along which are disposed a number 
 of florets, all enclosed in a common calyx, termed 
 GLUME, (gluma.) Ex. Grasses. 
 
 5. SpADicEous 9 (Jlos spadiceus) a sheathed flower, 
 in which the receptacle common to many florets is a 
 spadix'y enclosed with a sheath (spatha.') Ex. Common 
 Dragon Wild Turnip, JUnnn.* 
 
 6. UMBELLATE, (jflos umbettatui) in which the flo- 
 rets are borne on footstalks produced from a common 
 receptacle. Ex. Hemlock, Carrot. See UMBEL, p. 42. 
 
 7. CYMOSE, (Jlos cymosus) consists also of florets 
 borne on foot-stalks produced from a common recep- 
 tacle. Ex. Elder, Smnbucus. See CYME, p. 43. 
 
PART IV. 
 
 SYSTEM or LINNJEUS, &c. 
 
 According to the Linnsean system, the vegetable 
 kingdom is divided into Classes, Orders, Genera, and 
 Species. See page 4. 
 
 Observation. 1 These divisions arid subdivisions of the vegeta- 
 ble kingdom enable a student to find out the name and history of 
 stii unknown plant, in the most expeditious manner, by referring 
 it, in the first place, to its class, and to its order in that class ; 
 then determining- to what p-enus it belongs, and what species it 
 is in the genus, which is the individual : whereas, without method 
 and system, he would have been under the necessity of searching 
 over the descriptions of all the plants known. 
 
 2. The Classes and Orders are called artificial divisions, in oppo- 
 sition to natural ones, because they are professedly constructed to 
 serve the purpose of mere convenient divisions, stamped by a de- 
 finite mark by which the individuals of each may be at once recog- 
 nised ; and because they, in many instances, bring together, in the 
 same division, plants which are dissimilar, agreeing- only in the 
 assumed technical character of such division, as the Elm and Car- 
 rot, which, notwithstanding they are very unlike, belong to the 
 same class and order merely, because th?y have each the same 
 number of stamens and pistils; whereas natural divisions bring 
 together such only as are similar, allied by numerous affinities, as 
 the Carrot and Parsnip. The Genera are founded on natural af- 
 finities, and are natural of course. The genera are naturally di- 
 vided into species See observations on Natural Orders. 
 
 It is no objection to artificial divisions, that they bring together, 
 in the same division, objects which are dissimilar; but their 
 characters should be so constructed, that they should not separate 
 those which are very closely allied, as the various species of the 
 same genus. 
 
C3LASSBS. 65 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 CLASSES AND ORDERS. 
 
 I. CLASSES, (classes.) 
 
 THE CLASSES of Linnseus are twenty-four, and 
 
 their distinctions are founded on the number, situation 
 
 or proportion of the stamens. Their names are of 
 
 Greek derivation, and are expressive of their characters. 
 
 The first eleven are characterized solely 
 
 liy the number of the Stamens. 
 Plate 15 contains figures of the 24 classes. 
 
 1. MONANDRIA, 1 stamem. Ex. Glass wort, Sail- 
 cornia. 
 
 Observation A small class. 
 
 2. DIANDRIA, 2 stamens. Ex. Lilac, S-yringa. 
 
 3. TRIANDRIA, 3 stamens. Ex. Blue Flag, Iris. 
 Most of the grasses belong to this class. 
 
 4. TETRANDRIA, 4 stamens. Ex. Plantain, Plan- 
 tago. 
 
 5. PENTANDRIA, 5 stamens. Ex. Thorn-apple, 
 Datura. 
 
 Observationon. A numerous class* 
 
 6. HEXANDRIA, 6 stamens. Ex. Lily, Lilium. 
 
 7. HEPTANDRIA, 7 stamens. Ex. Trientalis. 
 
 Observation, A very small class. 
 
 8. OCTANDRIA, 8 stamens. Ex. Primrose, CE.no- 
 them. 
 
 9. ENTOANDRIA, 9 stamens. Ex. Sassafras, Laurus. 
 
 Observation. A small class. 
 
 10. DECANDRIA, 10 stamens. Ex. Pink, Dianthus. 
 
 11. DODECANDRIA, 12 to 19. Ex. Canada Snake- 
 root, Marum. 
 
 By Number and Insertion. 
 
 12. ICOSANDRIA, 20 or more stamens inserted into the 
 calyx. Ex, Apple, Pear, Cherry, Plum, Raspberry, 
 
CLASSES. 
 
 Strawberry, and other fruits. The Rose is an exam- 
 ple ; also, the Five-finger and Avens, which have not 
 pulpy fruits. 
 
 Observation. 1. A natural class.* 
 
 2. The stamens are often inserted so near the receptacle as to 
 resemble the next class, but the student will generally distinguish 
 it by a polished groove, which runs around between the insertion 
 of the stamens and the insertion of the pistils. 
 
 IS. POI.YANDRIA, stamens more than 20, inserted in~ 
 to the receptacle. Ex. Poppy, Papaver ; Buttercup, 
 Ranunculus. 
 
 Observation. A numerous class, very distinct in nature, as well 
 as character, from those of Icosandria. 
 
 By Proportion. 
 
 14. DIDYNAMIA, stamens 2 long and 2 short. Ex. 
 Motherwort, Leonurus ; Mint, Mentha. 
 
 Observation This is a natural class, and contains most of the 
 ringent and personate flowers. Some plants with ringent flowers 
 want two of the stamens, and therefore are placed in the 2d class, 
 JJiandria. Penny-royal, Cunilla / Sage, Salvia / and Water-hore- 
 hound, Lycopus, are examples. 
 
 15. TETRADYNAMIA, stamens 4 long and 2 short. 
 Ex. Stock, Radish, Mustard, Cabbage. 
 
 Observation. A very natural class, comprehending all the era* 
 eiforrn flowers. 
 
 By Union of the Filaments. 
 
 16. MONADEI.PHIA, stamens united more or less ex- 
 tensively into one tube. Ex. Mallow, JMalva. 
 
 17. DIADELPHIA, stamens united into two parcels. 
 Ex. Pea, Bean. 
 
 Observation This class consists of Popilionaceous flowers, and 
 is therefore natural, 
 
 18. POI.YADELPHIA, stamens united into more than 
 two parcels. Ex. St. John's wort. 
 
 Observation. A small class ; in some points related to Icos- 
 andria. 
 
 * A class or order is said to be natural, when all the genera which compose it have 
 & degree of resemblance to each other, or, in other words, are allied by affinities. 
 
CLASSES. 6f 
 
 By Union of the Anthers. 
 
 19. SYNGENESIA, stamens united by their anthers- 
 into a tube, flowers compound. Ex. Dandelion, Sun- 
 flower, Thistle, &c. 
 
 Observation. A very natural and extremely numerous class. 
 By Union of the Stamens and Pistils* 
 
 0. GYNANDRIA, stamens united with or growing 
 out of the pistil. Ex. Orchis and Ladies' slipper, 
 Cypripedium. 
 
 By the Situation of the perfect 9 barren 9 and fertile Flowers. 
 31. MONOECIA, stamens and pistils in separate flow- 
 ers on the same plant. Ex. Indian Corn, Zca ; Hazel, 
 Corylus ; Alder, Mnus. 
 
 Observation. In India Corn, the spike or spindle, so called, at top 
 bears the stamens, and the ear the pistils, the styles of which are 
 "what are called the silk. 
 
 2. DIOECIA, stamens and pistils in separate flow- 
 ers on two separate plants of the same species. Ex. 
 Willow and Hop. 
 
 Observation. These two last classes are natural when the barren 
 flowers have, besides the difference in their essential organs, a 
 different structure from the fertile ones in other raspects ; but not 
 so when they have the same structure, because then both organs 
 are liable to meet in the same flower. Smith. 
 
 3. POLYGAMIA, stamens and pistils separate in 
 some flowers, united in others, either on the same 
 plant, or on two or three separate ones of the same 
 species. Ex. Maple, #eer. 
 
 Observation. As many plants do, occasionally, have their sta- 
 mens and pistils separate in some flowers, Smith proposes to 
 confine this class to those in which the three kinds of flowers dif- 
 fer in their general structure. 
 
 By Concealment. 
 
 4. CRYPTOGAMIA, stamens and pistils obscure. Ex. 
 Ferns, Lichens, Seaweeds, and Mushrooms. 
 
68 CLASSES. 
 
 Observation. Either not well ascertained or not to be numbered 
 with any certainty, insomuch that the plants cannot be referred to 
 any of the foregoing* classes. 
 
 Derivation of the names of the Classes. 
 
 1. Monandria, from ftovos monos, one, & fay% aner, 
 which is used to signify a stamen. 
 
 2. Diandria, ht dis, two, & uryg aner. 
 
 3. Triandria, rgti$ ireis, three, & fayf aner. 
 
 4. Tetrandria, rsrret,^ tettares, four, & av7f aner. 
 
 5. Pentandria, irevrf pente, five, & v^ aner. 
 
 6. Hexandria, | ex^ six, & civt% aner 
 
 7. Heptandria^ inr* epta, seven, & *w% aner. 
 
 8. Octandriap OATH octo, eight, & uvyg aner. 
 
 9. Enneandria, v/ ennea. nine, & v^ awer. 
 
 10. Decandria, fox.* deka> ten, & ** aner. 
 
 11. Dudecandria, J^^f^a dodeka, twelve, Sauvyg aner. 
 
 12. Icosandria, ejxo^ eikosi. twentj, & v^ aner. 
 
 13. Polyandria, 7roAt/$ polus, many, &c v^ awer. 
 
 14. Didynamia, <J/5 rfis, two, & Mvafiig dunamis* power. 
 
 15. Tetradynamia, Terrenes tettares 9 four, & $fo*fuq du 
 namis. 
 
 16. Monad elphia, f*ovo$ monos, one, & JVAp$ adelphos, 
 brotherhood. 
 
 17. Diadelphia, J^$ ^is, two, & ahbfys adelphos. 
 
 18. Polyadelphia, ^oAv$ ^oZ^s, many, & JVA0o$ adelphos. 
 
 19. Syngenesia, <rw SMW, together, & ygvf <r/$ genesis, pro- 
 ducing. 
 
 20. Gynandria ywf ^wne, a pistil, & v^ aner, a stamen. 
 
 21. Monoecia, /ttovo? monos, one, & 01x0$ uikos, a house. 
 
 22. Dioecia^ <J/s c/is, two, & 04x0$ oz'/cos. 
 
 23. Polygamia, Trohvg polus, many, & yaw gamos, mar- 
 riage. 
 
 24. Cryptogamia, K^VTTTW kruptos, concealed, & 7*^05 
 gamos. 
 
 II, ORDERS. 
 
 THE ORDERS are divisions of the classes. In 
 the thirteen first classes, they are founded on the num- 
 ber of styles or on that of the stigmas, when the styles 
 are wanting. 
 
 Observation. Their names are of Greek origin and are indica- 
 tive of their characters. They are mostly fx*om the Greek nu- 
 merals Monos, Disy Treis, &c. and Gune, which is used te signify 
 a pistil, 
 
ORDERS. 
 
 MONOGYNIA, 1 style or sessile stigma. 
 DIGYNIA, 2 styles or sessile stigmas 
 TRIGYNIA, 3 
 
 TETRAGYNIA,4 ~ 
 
 PENTAGYJVIA, 5 ^ 
 HEXAGYNIA, 6 
 
 Observation, Of rare occurrence. 
 HEPTAGYNIA, 7 - - 
 
 Observation. Still more rare. 
 OCTAGYNIA, 8 
 Observation. Scarcely occurs at all. 
 ENNEAGYNIA,9 
 
 Observation. Hardly an instance known. 
 
 DECAGYNIA,IO 
 
 DODECAGYNIA, about 12 
 
 POLYGYNIA, many 
 
 Observation* 1. The grasses which constitute a natural order, 
 belong principally to the third Class, TRLAWDBIA, and to the sec- 
 ond Order, Digynia, 
 
 2. To the fifth Class, PKNTANDRTA, and to the second Order, 
 Digynia, belong- the great natural family of umbelliferous plants, 
 of which the Parsnip and Carrot are examples. 
 
 CLASS 14, Didynamia. 
 
 In this class there is but a single pistil. The orders, 
 both natural, are characterised by the fruit. 
 
 1. GYMNOSPERMIA, (yv^of gumnos, naked, arid 
 rTreppa sperma, seed) seeds naked in the bottom of the 
 calyx, almost universally 4. Ex. Mint, Hyssop, Cat- 
 mint, Thyme. 
 
 Observation. Corolla usually ring-ent. 
 
 2. ANGIOSPERMIA, (&vyo$ aggos, a capsule, and 
 rvspp.* sperma) seeds in a caj>sule, numerous. Ex. 
 Toad-fiax, Antirrhinum, Chelonc and Mimulus. 
 
 Observation. The personate flowers belong to this order. 
 
70 ORDERS. 
 
 CLASS 15. Tetradynamia. 
 
 This, like the last, has but one pistil* It has two or- 
 ders, hoth very natural, and distinguished by the form 
 of the fruit. 
 
 1. SILICULOSA, fruit a silicle fsiliculaj or roundish 
 pod. Ex. Shepherd's purse, Thlaspi, 
 
 2. SLLIQUOSA, fruit a silique fsiiiquaj or long pod. 
 Ex. Stock-July, Cabbage, Mustard. 
 
 The orders of the 16th, 17th and 18th classes, Man- 
 adelphia, Diadel^Jna and Polyadelpkia, are founded on 
 the number of the stamens, that is, on the characters of 
 the thirteen first classes, and have the same names* 
 TRIANBRIA, PENTANDIUA^ &c. 
 
 Observation. It may appear inconsistent to the student, that 
 there should be orders Triandria &c. when there are classes of the 
 same name ; but he will observe, that these are orders of classes, 
 which have their character not from the number of stamens, but 
 from some other circumstance ; in the classes above, from the 
 union of the filaments, the number of the stamens being unappropri- 
 ated is taken to characterize their orders. 
 
 CLASS 19. Syngenesia. 
 
 Observation The orders of this great natural class are frequently 
 complained of, as being difficult to be understood It is true there 
 are a number of particulars relating to compound flowers, which 
 should be attended to by the student, before he can possibly have 
 a clear conception of these orders. Each of these particulars is 
 easy enough in itself; and it is only for want of attention to them 
 that he meets with any difficulty in understanding the orders. 
 
 As the class is a very extensive and interesting one, the student 
 is directed to attend to the points alluded to above, in the follow- 
 ing 
 
 Analysis of Compound Flowers. 
 
 1. A COMPOUND FLOWER* is formed by the union of seve- 
 eral fructifications or lesser flowers, called florets, placed together 
 upon a common receptacle, and enclosed in a common calyx ; each 
 floret being furnished with fivti stamens, distinct at bottom, but 
 united at top by their anthers into a tube or cylinder, through which 
 passes a style considerably longer than the stamens, and crowned 
 by a stigma or summit with two divisions, that are generally rolled 
 backward like a recurved fork. 
 
 2. Each floret has a monopetalous corolla. 
 
 * The Class Syngenesit is made up of compound flowers, 
 
ORDERS. 71 
 
 The Florets, as it respects their Corollas, are of two hinds. 
 
 1. Ligulate, having a strap-shaped corolla, ending in three or 
 five teeth, PL 16, fig. 1, a. 
 
 2. Tubular, having a tubular corolla divided into five segments 
 at top, b. 
 
 The Flowers themselves are of three kinds. 
 
 1. COMPOUND RADIATE. PI. 16,fig.l. Consisting of two parts ; the 
 disk or central part of the flower, c composed of tubular florets, 
 and the ray, the external circle of florets, d, which is composed of 
 ligulate florets. In the Sunflower, the disk is brown and the ray 
 yellow. In the Whiteweed, Crysanthemum, the disk is yellow and 
 the ray white These flowers are compared to the sun, having 
 his disk and rays. 
 
 2. LIGULATE. PI. 16, fig. 2. Made up altogether of ligulate flo- 
 rets, as the Dandelion. 
 
 3. DISCOID. PI. 16, fig. 3. Composed entirely of tubular flor- 
 ets, as the Burdock and Thistle. 
 
 So far the florets have been described as being perfect, furnish- 
 ed with both stamens and pistils ; but these are sometimes sepa- 
 rated and found in separate florets in the same flower. 
 
 The Florets, as it respects Stamens and Pistils, are of four kinds. 
 
 1. Perfect florets, having both stamens and pistils. 
 
 2. Barren, having stamens only. 
 
 3. Fertile, have pistils only. 
 
 4. Abortive, destitute of either stamens or pistils, or having 
 none that are effectual. 
 
 The orders of this class, Syngenesia, are founded on 
 the situation of the several kinds of florets ; perfect) 
 barren, fertile, and abortive. 
 
 1. POLYGAMIA JEQ.UALIS, florets all perfect or united, 
 each having stamens and pistils. Ex. Dandelion, 
 Leontodon ; Thistle, Carduus and Cnicus. 
 
 Observation. Linnaeus applies the term polygamia to all the or- 
 ders of this class, on account of the promiscuous intercommunica- 
 tion of the several kinds of florets in a compound flower. 
 
 2. POLYGAMIA SUPEKFLUA, florets of the disk perfect, 
 having stamens aud pistils ; those of the ray fertile, hav- 
 ing pistils only, but each producing perfect seed. Ex. 
 Camomile, dnthemis ; Field-daisy, Chrysanthemum. 
 
72 ORDERS. 
 
 3. POLYGAMIA FRUSTRANEA, florets of the disk per- 
 fect ; those of the ray abortive, being either destitute of 
 
 a pistil, or having only an ineffectual one. Ex. Blue- 
 bottle, Centaurea; Sunflower, Helian thus. 
 
 4. PO;LYGAMIA NECESSARIA, florets of the disk, bar- 
 ren, having stamens only ; those of the ray fertile, hav- 
 ing pistils only. Ex. Marygold \ Everlasting, Gnaph- 
 alium* 
 
 5. POLYGAMIA SEGREGATA, each floret having a ca- 
 lyx proper to itself, besides a common calyx includ- 
 ing them all. Ex. Globe Thistle, Gundelia. 
 
 Observation* 1. Linnaeus had a 6th order, named Monogamia, 
 consisting- of simple flowers with united anthers, as Violet and //o- 
 belia ; but as these have no affinity to the compound flowers, 
 and as the union of their anthers is not in every instance constant, 
 they are lately more commonly placed in the 5th class, Peitfandria. 
 
 2. The names of these orders have been translated, as follows ; 
 cequalis, equal ; fnperflua, superfluous ; frustranea, ineffectual ; 
 neccssaria, necessary ; segregata, separated. 
 
 The orders of the 20th class, Gynandria, the 21st, 
 Monoecia, and the 22d, Dioecia, are distinguished by the 
 characters of some of the classes themselves which pre- 
 cede them, that is, almost entirely by the number of 
 the stamens, and have the same names, as MONAJVDRIA, 
 
 DlANDRIA, &C. 
 
 CXASS 23, Potygamia. 
 
 This class has three orders, which are founded on 
 the situation of the stamen-bearing, pistil-bearing, and 
 perfect flowers. 
 
 1. MONOECIA, lias eitherperfcct arid stemen-bearing, 
 or perfect and pistil-bearing flowers, or all these three 
 kinds on the same plant. 
 
 2. DIOECIA, has the two or three kinds of flowers, on 
 two separate plants. 
 
 3> TRIOECIA, has them on three separate plants* 
 The Fig, Ficus, is the only example- 
 
ORDERS. < i> 
 
 CLASS 24, Cnjptogamia. 
 
 Observation* The orders in this class are professedly natural. 
 They are four in Linnaeus, but we no,Y reckon live. 
 
 1. FILICES, Ferns. Whose fructification is obscure, 
 and grows either on the back of the leaf, which is 
 thence denominated a frond ; or upon a separate frond. 
 Common Brake is an example. 
 
 The parts of their flowers are almost entirely un- 
 known. Their fructification proved to be such by pro- 
 ducing them from their seeds, consists of the following 
 parts. 
 
 1. Involucre, (i-nvolucrum or inducium.') PL 5, fig. 
 10. A membranous patch which covers the capsules. 
 
 Observation. The fructification is most commonly in dots or 
 patches, which are frequently in rows upon the back of the leaf; 
 each of these dots or patches consists of an assemblage of cap- 
 sules, either naked or covered by an involncrum. 
 
 2. Capsules, PL 3, fig. 11, which consist of two 
 valves, PL 3, fig. 11, 6. contain many seeds, and are 
 sometimes furnished with a ring. 
 
 3. Ring, (annulus.} PL 3, fig. 11. a. An elastic sub- 
 stance which surrounds the capsule, partially attached 
 by its opposite ends to the two valves of the capsules. 
 
 When the capsule is ripe, its valves separate, and the 
 ring, by its elasticity, throws it open, thus scattering 
 abroad the seeds. 
 
 Observation. Those furnished with a ring are termed annulate, 
 those destitute of it, exannuJatx. 
 
 2. Musci, Mosses. These are really herbs, with dis- 
 tinct leaves, and frequently a distinct stem. 
 
 Fructification of the Mosses. 
 
 The fertile flowers have the following parts. 
 
 1. Calyptra, (cahjptra.} PL 3, fig. 14, b. The" 
 proper calyx of the mosses, the summit of which per- 
 forms the office of a stigma. See page 49. 
 
 Observation. Smith considers this a species of corolla, and its 
 apex, a stigma. 
 
74 ORDEKS. 
 
 . Capsule, PI. 3, fig. 14, a. It is of one valve and 
 one cell, opening by a lid. 
 
 S. Lid, (ppurculum.) PI. 3, fig. 15,6. Which is situ- 
 ated on the top and is covered by the calyptra. 
 
 Observation. The capsule in most mosses has its orifice closed 
 by a fringe. 
 
 4. Fringe, (peristomium.') PL 8, fig. 15 & 16, a. Which 
 is brought into view by removing the lid. It is either 
 simple or double. The number of teeth, remarkably 
 constant in each genus and species, is either 4, 8, ] 6, 
 32, or 64. 
 
 Observation. 1. This part is a very interesting- object in the mi- 
 croscope. 
 
 2. The stamens and pistih of mosses are so difficult to be ob- 
 served, that I believe no distinctions are founded on them. The 
 barren flowers of mosses consist of an indefinite number of nearly 
 cylindrical, almost sessile anthers ; the fertile flowers, of one, 
 rarely more, perfect pistils, accompanied by several barren ones. 
 Some' few species have the stamens and pistils associated in the 
 same flower, but they are generally separated. 
 
 3. Hedwig raised mosses from the seed. 
 
 3. HEPATICJE, Liverworts. Their herbage consists 
 of stem, leaf, and fructification, all united, hence call- 
 ed a frond. The capsules are destitute of a lid or opcr- 
 culum. 
 
 4. A&GM, Flags. In this order the herbage is a 
 frond, sometimes a mere crust, sometimes of a leathery 
 or gelatinous texture. The seeds are imbedded either in 
 the frond itself or in some peculiar receptacle. 
 
 To this order belong the seaweeds, &c. 23 the com- 
 mon weed upon rocks, between high and low water, 
 with blistery swellings, and the green fibrous substance 
 in fresh water; also the Lichens, very distinct from the 
 above, examples of which are seen in the green and 
 dark coloured patches on rocks, and in the light green 
 fibrous substance on trees. 
 
 5. FUNGI, Mushrooms. PI. 2, fig. 9. These cannot 
 properly be said to have any herbage, Their subsance 
 
TABUS OF THE CLASSES AND ORDERS. 75 
 
 is fleshy, generally of quick growth, and short duration, 
 differing in firmness from a watery pulp to a leathery or 
 woody texture. Ex. Common Mushroom, Toadstool, 
 and Puff ball. Their seeds are imbedded iii their sub- 
 stance. 
 
 Tabular View of the Classes and Orders. 
 CLASS 1. MONANDRIA, 1 stamen, contains 2 orders. 
 
 1. Monogynia, having one pistil. 
 
 2. Digynia, 2 pistils.* 
 
 CLASS 2. DIANDRIA, 2 stamens, contains 3 orders. 
 
 1. Monogynia, having 1 pistil. 
 
 2. Digynia, 2 pistils. 
 S. Trigynia, 3 pistils. 
 
 CLASS 3. TRIANDRIA, 3 stamens, contains 3 orders. 
 
 1. Monogynia, having 1 pistil. 
 
 2. Digynia, 2 pistils. 
 
 3. Trigynia, 3 pistils. 
 
 CLASS 4. TETRANDRIA, 4 stamens, contains 3 ordeis. 
 
 1. Monogynia, having 1 pistil. 
 
 2. Digynia, 2 pistils. 
 
 3. Tetragynia, 4 pistils. 
 
 CLASS 5. PENTANDRIA, 5 stamens, contains 6 orders. 
 
 1. Monogynia, having 1 pistil. 
 
 2. Digynia, 2 pistils. 
 
 3. Trigynia, 3 pistils. 
 
 4. Tetragynia, 4 pistils. 
 
 5. Pentagynia, 5 pistils. 
 
 6. Polygynia, many pistils. 
 
 CLASS 6. HEXANDRIA, 6 stamens, contains 6 orders. 
 
 1. Monogynia, having 1 pistil. 
 
 2. Digynia, 2 pistils. 
 
 3. Trigynia, 3 pistils. 
 
 4. Tetragynia, 4 pistils. 
 
 5. Hexagynia, 6 pistils. 
 
 6. Polygynia, many pistils. 
 
 * When the pistils are not distinct in all their parts, the number of styles or sessile 
 stigmas is taken for the order* 
 
7ft TABLE OF THE 
 
 CLASS 7. HEPTANURIA, 7 stamens, contains 4 orders. 
 
 1. Monogy nia, having I pistil. 
 
 2. Digynia, 2 pistils. 
 
 3. Tetragynm, 4 pistils. 
 
 4. Heptagynia, 7 pistils. 
 
 CLASS 8. OCTANDRIA, 8 stamens, contains 4 orders, 
 i. Monogynia, having one pistil, 
 3.' Digynia, 2 pistils. 
 
 3. Trigynia, 3 pistils. 
 
 4. Tetragynia, 4 pistils. 
 
 CLASS 9. ENNEANDRIA, 9 stamens, contains 3 orders. 
 
 1. Monogynia, having 1 pistil. 
 
 2. Trigynia, 3 pistils. 
 
 3. Hexagynia, 6 pistils, 
 
 CLASS 10. DECANDRIA, 10 stamens, contains 5 orders. 
 
 1. Monogynia, having 1 pistil. 
 
 2. Digynia, 2 pistils. 
 
 3. Trigynia, 3 pistils. 
 
 4. Pentagynia, 5 pistils. 
 
 5. Decagyiiia, 10 pistils. 
 
 CLASS 11. DODECANDRIA, 12 to 19 stamens, contains 6 
 orders. 
 
 1. Mnnogy nia, having 1 pistil. 
 
 2. Digynia, 2 pistils. 
 
 3. Trigynia, 3 pistils. 
 
 4. Tetragynia, 4 pistils. 
 
 5. Pentagynia, 5 pistils. 
 
 6 Dodecagynia, 12 to 20 pistils. 
 CLAS 12. ICOSANDRIA, stamens 20 or more, inserted 
 into the calyx, contains 3 orders. 
 
 1. Monogynia, having 1 pistil. 
 
 2. Pentagynia, 5 pistils. 
 
 3. Polygynia, many pistils. 
 
 CLASS 13. POLY ANDRIA, stamens more than 20, insert- 
 ed into the receptacle, contains 7 orders. 
 1. Monogynia, having 1 pistil. 
 .2. Digynia, 2 pistils. 
 
 3. Trigynia. 3 pistils. 
 
 4. Tetragynia, 4 pistils. 
 
CLASSES AND ORDERS. 77 
 
 5. Pentagynia, 5 pistils. 
 
 6. Hexagynia, 6 pistils. 
 
 7. Polygynia, many pistils. 
 
 CLASS 14. DIDYNAMIA, 2 long and 2 short stamens, 
 contains 2 orders. 
 
 1. Gymnospermia, seeds naked. 
 
 2. Angiospermia, seeds in a capsule. 
 
 CLASS 15. TETRADYNAMIA, 4 long and 2 short sta- 
 mens, contains 2 orders. 
 
 1. Siliculosa, fruit a short roundish pod. 
 
 2. Siliquosa, fruit a long pod. 
 
 CLASS 16. MONADELPHIA, stamens united by their 
 filaments into one tube, contains 8 orders. 
 
 1. Triandria, having 3 stamens. 
 
 2. Pentandria, 5 stamens. 
 
 3. Heptandria, 7 stamens. 
 
 4- Octandria, 8 stamens. 
 
 5- Decandria, 10 stamens. 
 G Endecandria, 11 stamens. 
 
 7. Dodecaridria, 12 to 20 stamens. 
 
 8. Polyandria, many stamens. 
 
 CLASS 17. DIADELPHIA, stamens united by their fila* 
 merits into 2 parcels, contains 4 orders. 
 
 1. Pentandria, having 5 stamens. 
 
 2. Hexandria, 6 stamens. 
 
 3. Octandria, 8 stamens. 
 
 4. Decandria, 10 stamens. 
 
 CLASS 18. POLYADELPHIA, stamens united into more 
 than 2 parcels, contains 3 orders. 
 
 1. Dodecandria, having from 12 to 20 stamens in- 
 serted on the receptacle. 
 
 2. Icosandria, numerous stamens inserted, in several 
 parcels, on the calyx. 
 
 3. Polyandria, stamens numerous, more than 20, 
 inserted on the receptacle. 
 
 CLASS 19. SYNGENESIA, anthers united into a tube, 
 contains 5 orders. 
 7* 
 
78 TABLE OF THE CLASSES Atfl> ORDER!*. 
 
 1. Polygamia sequalis, all the florets perfect, having 
 stamens and pistils. 
 
 2. Polygamia superflua, florets of the disk perfect, 
 and those of the ray, pistil-bearing. 
 
 3. Polygamia frustranea, florets of the disk perfect, 
 those of the ray neuter and abortive. 
 
 4. Polygamia necessaria, florets of the disk furnish- 
 ed with stamens only, those of the ray with pistils only, 
 
 5. Polygamia segregata, florets all perfect, and each 
 furnished with a proper calyx besides the common 
 calyx. V- 
 
 CLASS 0. GYNANDRIA, stamens inserted on the pistil, 
 contains 7 orders. 
 
 1. Monandria, 1 stamen. 
 
 2. Diandria, 2 stamens. 
 
 3. Triandria, 3 stamens. 
 
 4. Tetrandria, 4 stamens. 
 
 5. Pentandria, 5 stamens. 
 
 6. Hexandria, 6 stamens. 
 
 7. Octandria, 8 stamens. 
 
 CLASS 21. MONOECIA, stamens and pistils in separate 
 flowers on the same plant, contains 9 orders. 
 
 1. Monandria, 1 stamen. 
 
 2. Diandria, 2 stamens. 
 
 3. Triandria, 3 staiyiens. 
 
 4. Telramlria, 4 stamens. 
 
 5. Pentandria, 5 stamens. 
 
 6. Hexandria, 6 stamens. 
 
 T. Polyamlria,more than 7 stnmens. 
 
 8. Monadelphia, filaments united into one body. 
 
 9. Polyadelphia, filaments united into more than 
 2 sets 
 
 CLASS 22. DIOECIA, stamens and pistils in separate 
 flowers, situated on separate plants, contains 8 orders. 
 
 1. Monandria, having 1 stamen* 
 . Diandria, 2 stamens. 
 
 3." Triandria, 3 stamens. 
 
 4. Tetrandria, 4 stamens. 
 
 5. Pentawdria *5 stamens. 
 
GENEKA. 79 
 
 6. Hexandria, 6 stamens. 
 
 7. Polyandria, many stamens. 
 
 8. Monadelphia, filaments united into a tube. 
 CLASS 23. POLYGAMIA, stamens and pistils separate 
 
 in some flowers, united in others, either on the same 
 plant, or on two or three distinct ones of the same 
 species. 
 
 Observation. Such difference in the essential organs being 
 moreover accompanied with a difference of structure in the other 
 parts of the flower. Smith. 
 
 This class contains 3 orders. 
 
 1. Monoecia, united flowers, accompanied with bar- 
 ren or fertile, or both, all on one plant. 
 
 2. Dioecia, the different flowers on two different 
 plants. 
 
 3. Trioecia, the different flowers on three different 
 plants. 
 
 CLASS 24. CHYPTOGAMIA, stamens and pistils either 
 not well ascertained, or not to be numbered with 
 any certainty ; contains five orders. 
 
 1. Fillets, Ferns. 
 
 2. Muse?, Mosses. 
 
 3. Hepaticcv, Liverworts. 
 
 4. Mgw, Flags. 
 
 5. Fungi, Mushrooms. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 GENERA AND SPECIES. 
 
 I, Genera and their Characters. 
 
 1. A GENUS consists of a number of plants which 
 agree with each other in their flower and fruit. Will- 
 denow* 
 
 A genus comprehends one or more species, so essen- 
 tially different in formation, nature, and often many 
 adventitious qualities, from other plants, as to consti- 
 
80 GENERA. 
 
 tute a distinct family or kind, no less permanent, and 
 founded in the immutable laws of the creation, than the 
 different species of such a genus. Smith. Take, for 
 example, the various species of Rose ; these compose 
 a beautiful genus, known to the most ignorant, merely 
 by a certain combination of ideas, which he is unable 
 to express, but which is clearly distinguished by a defi- 
 nite character, which, in the present instance, consists, 
 principally in the urn-shaped calyx, the enlargement 
 or swelling below the flower. The Violets form, also, 
 a beautiful genus, and the Lilies another. Other fa- 
 miliar examples of genera occur in the several families 
 of Oaks, Pines, Cherry trees, Willows and Birches. 
 
 2. A genus is aptly compared to a family, and has- 
 one name, called the generic name, applied to all the in- 
 dividuals composing it, while each individual or species 
 has, in addition, its own peculiar name, called the spe- 
 cific name ; thus we have Lilium Canadense, Lilium 
 Philadelphicum, &c. 
 
 3. A genus may consist of one species only, although 
 it is commonly composed of more. Ex. Linncea is the 
 only species of its genus. 
 
 4. Genera are as much founded in nature, as the 
 species which compose them. 
 
 Observation, 1 Although naturalists assume characters, and form 
 artificial divisions as they please, yet they all agree nearly in the 
 genera, which are sufficient!/ marked by nature. 
 
 5. Plants of the same genus possess similar medici- 
 nal powers. 
 
 Observation. This is in general true, yet there are so many ex 
 ceptions that " the final appeal must be to experience." Al- 
 though their properties may be similar in kind, yet very different 
 effects may be produced, by the different degree in which they 
 possess these properties. 
 
 Generic Characters. 
 
 THE GENERIC CHAHACTER is that mark or set of 
 marks which distinguishes one genus from all others. 
 
 1. The genric characters are taken exduswdyjrotti the 
 seven parts of fructification. 
 
GENERA. 8 1 
 
 Observation, 1. This is a rule of the first importance in scientif- 
 ic botany, and should be kept in view by the student from the 
 very commencement of his studying genera. To the discovery and 
 observance of this rule, botany owes its very existence as a science. 
 
 Linnzeus first insisted on generic characters being exclusively 
 taken from the seven parts of fructification, and he demonstrated 
 these to be sufficient, for all the plants that can be discovered. 
 
 2. The most important characters are afforded by those parts of 
 
 plants which are most essentially concerned in the reproduction of 
 
 the species, as the flower and fruit ; it follows then, that plants 
 
 which agree in these, whether they agree in other points, or not, 
 
 are allied ; and those which do not, are fundamentally different. 
 
 2. Generic characters are drawn from the number, 
 figure, situation, proportion, and connexion of eacli par- 
 ticular part of the fructification. 
 
 Observation. 1. Thus all the different species of calyx, corolla, 
 nectary, pericarp, &c. considered with respect to the five attributes 
 just mentioned, furnish the observer with so many simple charac- 
 ters These simple characters Linnaeus denominates the letters or 
 alphabet of botany. By studing, comparing, and, as it were, spell- 
 ing these letters, the student comes at last to read and understand 
 the generic characters, which the Creator has originally imprinted 
 upon vegetables. JVtilne. 
 
 2. Some characters are more uniform and constant than others ; 
 the parts of the flower and fruit are more constant than the other 
 parts of a plant ; and again, the situation, connexion, and pro- 
 portion of these parts, more constant than the number and 
 figure. 
 
 Colour is in general so variable, that it is not depended on as a 
 character, either of genera or species. 
 
 3. In some few genera, alt the parts of the flower 
 and 'fruit are constant and uniform, as the Lily, Rose* 
 Violet, Iris, &c. 
 
 4. In others, a part only of the frucitiflcation is uni- 
 form and constant. 
 
 5. The part that is uniform and constant in all the 
 species of the genus, is various in various genera. In 
 the genus Anemone, it is the seeds, while the petals vary 
 from 5 to 9. In the genus Acer, Maple, it is the pecu- 
 liar seed-vessel, furnished with a dilated wing, while 
 
 the other parts are inconstant. In Hydrophyllum, it is 
 the closed chinks, which are situated within the co- 
 rolla. 
 
82 GENERA. 
 
 By taking into the generic character a greater or 
 less numher of marks, Linnseus himself makes several 
 kinds of generic characters. The most important are 
 the Natural and the Essential. 
 
 1. The Natural character comprehends every possi- 
 ble mark, common to all the species of one genus ; is 
 an enumeration of all the particulars in which their 
 fructifications agree. 
 
 2. The Essential character consists of an enumera- 
 tion of those marks onl), which distinguish the genus 
 from all others. This last, is the kind of generic char- 
 acter now universally adopted, and indeed the only one 
 in common use. The excellence of the essential char- 
 acter consists in its brevity and perspicuity. In ten 
 or twelve words, it frequently makes know the dis- 
 tinguishing marks. 
 
 The natural character is much more lengthy, and 
 does riot direct the attention, particularly, to those es- 
 sential marks which distinguish the genus. It is used 
 by Linnaeus in his Genera Plantarum, a work now near- 
 ly superseded by the essential characters* in his Systema 
 Vegetabilmin 9 and therefore, in some measure laid aside. 
 Both the Natural and Essential characters are put 
 down in the Cyclopedia. 
 
 Observations. The study of genera cannot be too strongly re- 
 commended to the young Bo anist. The science of Botany may 
 be said to corsist principally in a knr wedge of them, and the 
 whole use of the Classes and Orders, is to afford a facility, by 
 which to arrive at this knowledge. When a Botanist has become 
 acquainted with a single species of a genus, and by examining its 
 flower and fruit, fixed in his mind the character of the genus, he 
 is enabled to recogrT.ze all the other species, which, in some Di- 
 stances, are hundreds, wherever he may meet With them. TI is 
 serves to give some idea of the pleasures and advantages of a 
 knowledge of genera. 
 
 But it is not from books alone that this knowledge is to be obtain- 
 ed ; the student should study plants themselves ; he should make na- 
 ture principal, and books auxiliary In Botany, as well as in 
 every other branch of Natural Hi-tory, the objects themselves 
 should be studied, and books be used as a mere assistance. 
 
SPECIES. 8S 
 
 The few rules given above concerning 1 genera and their charac- 
 ters can hardly be comprehended without some practical observa- 
 tion. 
 
 Whenever the young botanist has an opportunity, he should exa- 
 mine the several species of the same genus, and see how the gen- 
 eric character appears in each. 
 
 He should also compare the characters of different genera. By 
 repeated efforts of this kind, he will finally become acquainted 
 with the various affinities of plants, by which species are united 
 into Genera, and Genera again into Natural Orders, by which all 
 the individuals of the vegetable kingdom sustain a beautiful and 
 varied relation to each ether. 
 
 II. Species. 
 
 1. SPECIES are the individuals of which a genus 
 consists. 
 
 A species more properly consists of a number of individuals, 
 all of which are essentially alike ; called different specimens of 
 the same species ; for example, in one orchard are several Apple- 
 trees, which are so many individuals of the same species, Pyr\is 
 Mains. 
 
 2. Any permanent peculiarity is sufficient to consti- 
 tute a species. 
 
 Observation. If one plant in a genus had round leaves, while 
 all the rest had leaves of some other form, such plant would con- 
 stitute a distinct species. 
 
 THE SPECIFIC CHARACTER consists of those marks 
 which distinguish one species from all others in the 
 genus. 
 
 Specific characters are taken from the number, j%- 
 ure 9 situation, proportion and connexion of the roots, 
 trunks, leaves, and appendages ; also from the inflo- 
 rescence, and such circumstances of the flower and 
 fruit as are not appropriated to the other divisions. 
 
 Observation. 1. The most permanent characters are furnished 
 by those circumstances of a plant which are most essentially con- 
 cerned in its existence or peculiar habits. Thus the strong*curv- 
 ed prickles of the Sweet-briar Rose are necessary to support this 
 " towering* queen" on other plants, and are therefore constant and 
 uniform, while in other species of Rose, in which the prickles have 
 no very essential part to serve, they are variable. 
 
84 SPECIES. 
 
 2. Colour, although so conspicuous a mark in flowers, is so va- 
 riable, that it is never depended on as a character. 
 
 Take, for an example of Generic and Specific char- 
 actors, the family of Lilies, which in Practical Works 
 is arranged as follows. 
 
 Class VI. HEXANDRIA, six stamens. 
 
 Order I. MOJVOGYJVI4, one style. 
 
 Genus LILIUM. LILY. 
 
 Generic character. Calyx none ; corolla inferiour, 
 six petalled, the petals with a longitudinal groove from 
 the middle to the hase. 
 
 Species 1. LIUUM CANADENSE. Canada Lily. Com- 
 mon Yellow Lily. 
 
 Specific Character. Leaves in whorls ; flowers ter- 
 minal, drooping, petals spreading. 
 
 Species 2. LIUUM PHIIADELPHICUM. Common Red 
 Lily. 
 
 Specific Character. Leaves in whorls; flowers erect ; 
 corolla hell-shaped, petals with claws. 
 
 Observation. I . The Cabbage, Turnip, and Kale, are so many 
 species of one genus, Brassica. The Apple, Pear, and Quince, 
 of the genus Pyrus. The Plum and Cherry are species of the 
 genus Prunm. The Currant and Gooseberry are species of Ribes. 
 
 . A diagnostic or discriminating description of a plant, of 
 which the above is an example, is liable to differ very much 
 from a general or entire description. In a discriminating de- 
 scription such points only are noticed as are sufficient to distin- 
 guish the plant successively, in classes, orders, genera, and spe- 
 cies from all others In distinguishing species especially, very 
 minute marks are frequently of necessity made essential, because 
 they are the only definable points in which the species differs 
 from all others, while some marks which are prominent, pass un- 
 noticed because they are common to several. 
 
 A per/eft or complete description of an individual, made out with- 
 out any reference to other plants, touches every point and gives, 
 as it were, a complete picture of the whole plant. Such a de- 
 scription has been called the Natural Character of the Species. 
 
 It is often very convenient to note down something 1 like an en- 
 tire description of plants, as we find them, in order to retain their 
 characters until we can fir.d their distinguishing description, or in 
 other words, their generic and specific characters. 
 
VARIETIES. 85 
 
 It is very well calculated to improve a young' botanist to at. 
 tempt an entire description of all the parts of a plant in technical 
 terms. By repeated attempts of this kind, the language of bota 
 ny will become familiar. 
 
 The order to be observed in such descriptions, is that of nature, 
 as follows : beginning with the ROOT, then the TRUNKS, LEAVES, 
 APEXI)AKS, INFLORESCENCE, FRUCTIFICATION, &c. In describing 1 
 the fructification, b^gin with the external part, and proceed in- 
 ward, thus, first the calyx, then the corolla, 8cc The description 
 of each separate part should be arranged in a sepaiate paragraph. 
 
 The Characters of the Classes are taken from the 
 stamens ; those of the Orders from the stamens and 
 pistils, principally from the pistils ; the Generic Char- 
 acters from the other of the seven parts of fructification 
 and such circumstances of the stamens and pistils as 
 are not taken for the Classes and Orders ; and the Spe- 
 cific Characters from all parts of the plant except such 
 circumstances of the flower and fruit as are taken for 
 Classes, Orders, and Genera. 
 
 VARIETIES, (varietas) are plants changed from 
 their usual appearance by some accidental cause ; the 
 various kinds of Apples are examples of varieties. 
 See page 3. 
 
 Observiitioii 1. As many plants of different form and appear- 
 ance as are produced from seed of the same species, are to be re- 
 garded as g*enuine varieties, and in all cases to be distinguished 
 with great care from the species. 
 
 2. Varieties are caused by culture, climate, exposure, age, dis- 
 ease, luxuriance or poverty of nourishment, and some other 
 causes. 
 
 3. Gardeners by various methods of culture produce innumer- 
 able varieties, especially of double flowers. 
 
 4. Varieties in colour are very common. 
 
 We have now explained the terms of botany, as ap- 
 plied to the external forms of plants, illustrated the 
 Classes and Orders of Lirmseus, and given a brief out- 
 line of Genera and Species ; an understanding of 
 which is all that is necessary for discriminating plants* 
 It remains to explain 
 8 
 
86 METHOD TO FIND OUT 
 
 The method to take tojind out an unknown plant. 
 
 Observation. As the most important distinctions are founded 
 on the flower, the only proper time for examining a plant is when 
 it is in flower. 
 
 When a botanist lias obtained a plant in flower, he 
 determines, in the first place, by inspecting the flower, 
 to what class it belongs, and to what order in that 
 class. He next refers to some practical work, such as 
 Dr. Bigelow's " Plants of Boston," Eaton's "Man- 
 ual," or Pursh's " Flora," in which the plant is pre- 
 sumed to be described, and turns to the class and or- 
 der pointed out by the flower. Next reads over the 
 generic characters in that order, carefully observing 
 the particulars of the fructification mentioned, until 
 one is found which applies. This gives him the gen- 
 eric or family name which is prefixed to the character. 
 Lastly he turns to the specific characters of the genus, 
 reads them over, and observes the particulars men- 
 tioned until he finds the one which applies. To this is 
 prefixed the specific name. Thus he discovers the tech- 
 nical name of the individual ; which was the object. 
 This is generally accompanied with the synonims, one 
 or more English names, and references to figures. 
 
 By means of the name he is enabed to refer to what- 
 ever may have been written concerning it. And also 
 to refer to its place in the Natural Orders, and thus 
 see to what other genera it is allied. 
 
 To be convinced of the great utility of an artificial system in con- 
 ducting 1 to the knowledge of plants, let us suppose the number of 
 known species of plants to be twelve thousand, and the number of 
 classes in a certain known method, to be twenty-four. A plant is 
 presented to me which I have never seen. 1 immediately look for 
 the general character, which serves to distinguish each of the 
 twenty- four classes. This being found, and consequently the 
 class of the plant being determined, 1 have no longer to look for 
 my plant among twelve thousand, but, on a supposition that each 
 class contains an equal number, among live hundred only the 
 twenty-fourth part of the number just supposed. I next look for 
 the character of the order, the second division, which being like- 
 wise found, will reduce the number to about an hundred. The 
 character of the genus, which I next explore, will reduce the 
 number still further, to twenty, for instance^that of the species 
 determines the plant in question. 
 
UNKNOWN PLANTS. tf< 
 
 This method of proceeding is similar to that which is observed 
 in turning- over a dictionary, where, in searching for a word, as 
 FAME, we first look for the letter F, then A, and so successively 
 the M and E. F may represent the class, A the order, M the ge- 
 nus, and E the species. Milne. 
 
 Observation. 1 It happens in some instances in the Linnaean 
 system, that a particular species has the character of some other 
 class or order than the one to which the other species of the 
 same genus belong. Thus the Fringed Gentian has only four 
 stamens, while the other species of the genus have 5. Some spe- 
 cies of Cerastium have only 4, others 5, stamens, though the 
 greater part have 10. This is an imperfection in the classes and 
 orders, and as the different species of the same g'enus must nevei 
 be separated by artificial arrangements, such species are not plac 
 ed in the class and order whose character they have, but are re- 
 tained with the other species of their genus in another class and 
 order. Their names however are put down in italics by Linnaeus 
 in the class and order to which they would be referred by the 
 stamens and styles. This obviates the difficulty which would 
 otherwise arise to the student, and enables him to refer to the 
 plant by the index. 
 
 2. There is generally a relation in the numbers of the different 
 parts of the same flower. Thus the Lily has 6 petals, 6 stamens, 
 stigma 3-cleft, capsule 3celled. The Rose has its calyx 5-parted 
 and corolla 5-petalled. In Trillium this uniformity of numbers is 
 so remarkable as to give name to the genus. It has 3 leaves ; 
 the flower has the calyx 3-leaved, corolla 3 petalled, stamens 6, 
 stigmas 3, capsule 3-celled. 
 
 This often gives a clue to the class and order of an unknown 
 plant when it is in fruit. The benefit of which I have frequent- 
 ly had the satisfaction to avail myself of, either by the divisions of 
 a permanent caiyx, the number of valves or cells of the capsule 
 or the number of seeds. 
 
 3. Sometimes from poverty of nourishment or some other 
 cause, flowers are found to have a less number of divisions in all 
 their parts than usual ; or a greater number from abundance of 
 nourishment. 
 
 The Epigaa usually has its calyx and corolla 5-parted, stamens 
 10, capsule 5-celled ; but some of its flowers occasionally have a 
 fifth part wanting, thus : calyx and corolla 4-parted, stamens 8, 
 capsule 4 celled 
 
 4. In some plants the terminal flowers have a greater number of 
 divisions than the latteral ones. Ex. Some species of Jllonotropa 
 have their terminal flowers with 10 petals, 10 stamens, capsule 5- 
 valved, &c. while the lateral ones have a fifth part wanting, thus : 
 petals 8, stamens 8, capsule 4-celled, &c. 
 
88 POISONOUS PLANTS. 
 
 The student will observe that the genera in each order of Lin- 
 naiis are arranged according 1 to their natural affinities ; thus com- 
 bining-, as far as may be, the advantages, both of a Natural and 
 an Artificial method. 
 
 Tt has already been observed, that plants which agree in their 
 most essential external characters, agree also in their properties. 
 Of course certain qualities will be indicated by particular exter- 
 nal marks See page 80 St 91. Upon this principle are construct- 
 ed the following 
 
 Mules to distinguish Poisonous Plants. 
 
 1. Plants with glumes, as the grasses, never poisonous. They 
 belong mostly to Triandria 
 
 2. Plants with 5 stamens and 1 pistil, Pentandria, Monogynia, 
 of a dark gloomy aspect andnauoeous smell, are narcotic and dan- 
 gerous. Kx. Thorn-apple, Datura ; Henbane, Hyo&eyamus ; To- 
 bacco, Nicotiana 
 
 3. Plants of Pentandria Digynia, bearing umbels, are poisonous 
 if th,'y grow in wet soil and have a nauceous odour ; Kx. Hem- 
 lock, Conium ; Water parsnip, Slum ; Water-hemlock, Cicuta. 
 
 Observation. The cicnta maculuta is an exception to a part of 
 the rule, being aromatic and still a deadly poison. It is on that 
 account the more dangerous. It has destroyed some children 
 lately, the root being mistaken and eaten by them for Angelica. 
 See I)r. Bigelow's Medical Botany. 
 
 If they grow on dry soil and have an agreeable odour, they are 
 healthful aromatics, as Coriander, Carui, Fennel. 
 
 4. Plants with stamens inserted on the calyx, whether they be 
 few, as in the Currant, or numerous, as in the class Icosar,dria t 
 have wholesome fruits, as Apple, Plum, Strawberry, Currant. 
 The other parts of the plant should be suspected. 
 
 5 ^Plants with rir.gent corollas and naked seeds arc mostly 
 aromatic, and none of them poisonous, as Sweet Marjoram, Cat- 
 mint, Hyssop, Motherwort. They belong chiefly to Didynamia 
 Gymnospermia 
 
 6. Plants with labiate corollas, and seeds in a seed-vessel, are, in 
 some instances, narcotic, as Fox-glove, Digitalis. They belong 
 to Didynnwia Jlngospermia, and have generally personate flowers. 
 
 7. Plants of the 1.5th Class, Tetradynamia* having cruciform flow- 
 ers, rarely, if ever, poisonous, but are many of them used as food ; 
 :is Cabbage, Turnip, Radish, and Mustard 
 
 8. Plants with butterfly shaped flowers, belonging mostly to 
 .'Diadelphia, very rarely poisonous ; many of them are used for food ; 
 as Pea and Bean. Wild Indigo, Podalyria tinctoria t is an excep- 
 tion, being 1 emetic and cathartic. 
 
 9. Planis of the 19th Class, Syngenetia, having compound flow- 
 ers, are rarely poisonous ; as Sunflower, Dandelion and Thistle^ 
 
NATURAL ORDERS. 89 
 
 10. Plants which have a milky juice, unless compound, are 
 poisonous ; as Dog's-bane, Jlpocymun ; Milkweed, Asclefiias. 
 
 11. Plants having any appendage to the calyx or corolla, and 8 
 or more stamens, generally poisonous ; as Columbine, Jlquilegia ; 
 Monk's-hood. See Eaton's Manual, page 11. 
 
 We have now gone through with what is necessary to become 
 acquainted with genera and species, in a knowledge of which Bo- 
 tanical science principally consists. The next chapter contains 
 some observations on Natural Orders, and the general relations of 
 plants, of which the student cannot possibly form a very definite 
 conception, until he is more or less acquainted with genera. It is 
 well enough however for him to read them, but he must not be 
 dissatisfied with himself or discouraged if he does not at once un- 
 derstand them in every particular. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 NATURAL ORDERS. 
 
 A NATURAL ORDER consists of a number of 
 genera, which are allied to each other by botanical af- 
 finities ; which have an evident agreement with each 
 other in some of their most essential parts. 
 
 In a Natural Method the Artificial Divisions, Classes 
 and Orders are set aside and the vegetable kingdom 
 stands divided, first into those primary divisions, 
 NATURAL ORDERS, which nature has marked out. 
 These are divided, in the next place, as artificial classes 
 and orders are, into genera ; and the genera into species. 
 
 The Artificial arrangement of the vegetable kingdom into Clases 
 and Orders, for the purpose of determining the name and history 
 of an unknown plant in an easy and' direct manner, was thought 
 by Linnseus to be a matter of necessity ; because Natural Orders 
 cannot be stamped with a single definite character by which the 
 individuals of each might be readily knovvn But still he consid- 
 ered a Natural method as the perfection of Botanical science. See 
 page 64. 
 
 Take a fruit garden for an example of a natural or- 
 der. The Cherry and Plum are two species of the 
 genus Prunus ; Peach and Flowering Almond, two 
 
 8* 
 
90 tfATtJJ&AL ORDERS. 
 
 species of Amygdalus ; Pear, Apple and Quince, three 
 species of Pyrus ; Currant and Gooseberry, two spe 
 cies of Ribes. These all belong to the same Natural 
 Order, POMACEJE of Linnaeus. 
 
 Observation The relation between these several genera is 
 obvious even to a common observer, by their habit* or general 
 aspect. 
 
 These relations may he represented in the following 
 manner : 
 
 NATURAL ORDER. GENEHA. SPECIES. 
 
 ~Prunus. {Cherry, 
 | Plum. 
 
 POMACEJS.- 
 
 Jhnygdab*. | Bering Almond, 
 
 f Pear, 
 
 Pyms. -j Apple, 
 
 I Quince. 
 
 Ribes -f Currant ' 
 
 | Gooseberry. 
 
 There is a tendency in the vegetable kingdom to- 
 wards the following general relations, upon which 
 Natural Divisions, such as Natural Orders, Genera, 
 &c. are (bunded. 
 
 1. All the individuals which compose 1 it are united 
 by affinities into one common bond, in which there is a 
 gradual transition from one point to another, the vari- 
 ous individuals standing as so many points of an ex- 
 tended series, or so many links of a continued chain. 
 Thus one plant has a certain set of characters ; anoth- 
 er loses some of these and acquires some new ones; 
 another loses some more, and acquires other new ones, 
 <S;c, until the two extremes are quite different from each 
 other. 
 
 2. In this general series Natural Orders are related 
 to each other. The various Gercra of the same natural 
 order are related on one extreme with one natural or- 
 der, and, passing through a gradual series, approach 
 
 * By habit in botany is meant the general port or appearance of a plant, which 
 strikes the observer at once, and cannot be very well denned. 
 
NATURAL ORDERS. 91 
 
 another on the other extreme. Some genera seem to 
 hold an intermediate place between two orders. 
 
 3. The various species of the same genus are in the 
 same way allied, on one extreme, to one genus, and, on 
 the other, to another. 
 
 Although there is an evident tendency to the above 
 conditions, yet they are not universally true. They 
 require to be very much modified, as follows : 
 
 1. The relations, of genera particularly, in the series, 
 instead of being single and simple as above, are, in 
 many cases, compound and complicated. Thus a 
 plant is not only allied in certain .points to those which 
 are considered next to it, but it is related in other 
 points to various other plants, holding a place more 
 remote in the series. 
 
 If we represent the series of relations by a chain, it 
 would not consist of single, simple links, but the links 
 in different parts, would be variously looped together. 
 
 2. The series is variously interrupted ; in many in- 
 stances some links appear to he wanting. Many 
 plants are not connected at all and constitute solitary 
 links. 
 
 Observation, Xaturalists have an opinion thai these deficiences 
 do not really exist in nature, but are occasioned by our partial 
 knowledge of the vegetable kingdom, This leads to the conclu- 
 sion, that a large portion of the vegetable world lies yet unexplor- 
 ed, and attaches additional importance to new discoveries. 
 
 3. Some natural orders are strikingly marked, all 
 their genera being very similar among themselves, and 
 evidently distinct from all others, scarcely showing 
 any tendency to a gradual transition from one point to 
 another. Such are the Grasses, Umbelliferous plants, 
 and Compound flowers. 
 
 4. Many genera are no less strikingly natural, the 
 species holding a very close affinity among themselves, 
 and differing essentially from all other genera, as the 
 genus Rose, and Violet. These are the most perfect 
 examples of genera. 
 
92 NATURAL ORDERS 
 
 Observation. 1. If the whole vegetable kingdom was in this way 
 distributed into definite natural tribes or classes, the study of 
 botany on such a plan would be easy and satisfactory, and an ar- 
 tificial system would hardly be needed. 
 
 2. It was atone time a desideratum with Naturalists to dicover 
 a perfect and complete natural method. Although they have read- 
 ily done it to a certain extent, yet on account of the difficulties al- 
 ready mentioned above, No, 1 & 2, the natural orders are still in 
 some measure incomplete, and a number of plants remain unasso- 
 ciated. 
 
 3. The Linnsean order, Polygynia, in Class Icosandria, to which 
 belong the Rose, Raspberry, Strawberry, and Cmquefoil, affords one 
 of the most perfect examples possible, of a natural assemblage, of 
 which all the genera are natural^ and so well distinguished in hab- 
 it, that any person, at all observant of plants, ma) know them by 
 their foliage, inflorescence or general appearance, while their fruit 
 affords clear essential generic characters. The natural family of 
 Orchidae come very near the same point of perfection, but their 
 differences of habit are less obvious. Such instances ought to 
 stimulate the philosophical Kotonist " to go on from one degree of 
 perfection to another," though, like the Christian moralist, he 
 cannot hope to reach the summit. Smith. 
 
 4. It is impossible for a person to form a proper conception of 
 natural orders until he is acquainted with a number of genera, so 
 that lie can bring together their characters and compare them at 
 once in his own mind. 
 
 The student of Natural History, who gets introduced to the veg- 
 etable kingdom by Linnaeus's artificial system, and prosecutes the 
 subject from the book of nature, will, independently of any system 
 of natural orders of Linnaeus, of Jussieu, or any one else, observe 
 Nature's method, will observe the family affinities of the several 
 plants he becomes acquainted with, thus forming- a sort of natural 
 system in his own mind. 
 
 Linnaeus called his scheme of Natural Orders, Frag- 
 ments of a Natural Method. The Natural Orders of 
 Jussieu are said to be an improvement on those of 
 Linnaeus. Those of Linnseus are subjoined, as they are 
 more connected with his artificial system. 
 
 Linnaeus expresses an opinion, that plants which are 
 allied by botanical affinities, possess similar medicinal 
 properties. The sensible qualities^ as taste and scent, 
 must however be regarded. 
 
OF LINN^US. 93 
 
 These give a general indication, but so many qualifi- 
 cations are necessary in -particular cases, that the ad- 
 ministration of plants as remedies, must still rest on 
 experience. See observation, page 80. 
 
 NATURAL ORDERS or 
 
 1. PALM.E. Palms and palm-like plants ; as Cocoa- 
 nut, Cocos ; Date-tree, Phoenix. 
 
 2. PIPERIT.E. Pepper and other plants agreeing 
 with it in habit and sensible qualities, Indian-turnip, 
 drum ; Skunk-cabbage, Dracontium. 
 
 3. CALAMARIJE. Grasses with culms without joints ; 
 as Sedge, Carcx ; Cat-tail, Typha. 
 
 4. GRAMINA. Grasses with jointed culms, and a 
 glume calyx ; Wheat, Triticum ; Rye, Secale ; Barley, 
 Hordcum; Oats, Jtoena ; Herdsgrass, Pfdeum ; Indian- 
 corn, Zea. 
 
 5. TRIPETALOJD^. (Tm, three, an&petalum, a pe- 
 tal.) Plants with three petals ; as Water-plantain, 
 Misma; Rush, Junciis ; Arrow-head, Saggitlaria. 
 
 6. ENSATJS, (Ensis 9 a sword.) Plants with sword- 
 shaped leaves $ as Flower-de-luce, Jra; Blue-eyed grass, 
 Sisyrinchium ; Virginian Spider-wort, Tradescantia. 
 
 Observation. Very nearly allied to the grasses and liliaceous plants. 
 
 t 
 
 T. ORCHIDE/E. Roots fleshy ; leaves sessile, nerved ; 
 flowers irregular, five petalled, gynandrous ; pollen 
 glutinous; germ inferiour ; as Orchis ; Ladies' slip- 
 per, Cypripedium ; Jlrethusa ; Cymbidiiim. 
 
 3. SCITAMINE.E (Scitamenfatm, a dainty.) Consists 
 of plants which furnish exquisite fruits, and of others 
 which have an agreeable aromatic flavour ; as Ban- 
 ana, Musa ; Ginger, dinomum. 
 
 9. SPATHACEJE. Corolla liliaceous, calyx a spathe ; 
 as Onion, Miinm ; Daffodil, Narcissus. 
 
 10. CORONARI^:. (Corona, a wreath.) Liliaceous 
 
 4b 
 
 * Mr. Eaton, in his Manual of Botany, 2d ed. has given the Natural Orders of 
 Linnaeus and the qualities of each ; and also the Natural Orders of Jussieu, with a v 
 catalogue, under each, of the genera belonging to it. 
 
94 1STATURAX ORDERS 
 
 plants without spaces ; as Lily, Lilium ; Tulip, Tu- 
 lipri ; Crown-Imperial, Fritittaria ; Hyacinth, Hya- 
 cinthus ; Hypoxis ; Fine-apple, Bromelia. 
 
 11. SARMENTACEJE. (Sarmentum, a shoot. Co- 
 rollas liliaceous, stems weak or climbing. Asparagus ; 
 Smilax; Solomon's seal, Convallaria; Adder's- Tongue, 
 Erythronium. 
 
 12. HOLERACEJE. (Hilus, pot-herhs.) Consists of 
 plants used for culinary purposes ; as Beet, Beta ; Rhu- 
 barb, Eheum ; Dock, Rumex. 
 
 Observation. Flowers generally small and destitute of beauty. 
 
 13. SUCCULENTS. Flat, fleshy, succulent plants, 
 most of v\hich are evergreen; as Prickly-pear, Cac- 
 tus; House-leek, Sempervivum ; Furslain, Portulacca. 
 
 14. GRUINAJ.ES. (Grus, a crane.) Geranium and 
 its relatives. Flowers 5-petalled, seed-vessels generally 
 5 cornered and beaked. Geranium ; Flax, Linum ; 
 Wood-sorrel, 0,Talis. 
 
 15. INUNDATE. Plants growing under water ; as 
 Bippuris ; Potamogeton. 
 
 16. CALYCIFLOK^. (Calyx, &Jlos, a flower.) Co- 
 rollas wanting, stamens on the calyx, fruit pulpy ; as 
 Seed Buckthorn, Hippophaw ; Poet's Cassia, Osijris. 
 
 1". CALYCANTJIEM.^. (Calyx, & v^$, a flower.) 
 Corolla and stamens inserted into the ( alyx ; as Wil- 
 low-herb, Epilobium ; Primrose, (Enothem. 
 
 18. BICORNES. (Bis, two, & cornu, a horn.) Plants 
 with horned anthers ; as Whortle-berry, Vaccinnium ; 
 JIndromeda ; Partridge-bush, Gault/ieria. 
 
 19. HESPERIDJB. (Hesperides, whose orchards, ac- 
 cording to the poets, produced golden fruits.) Golden 
 or precious fruit Aromatics. Calyx permanent su- 
 periour, stamens inserted into it ; as Clove-tree, Canj- 
 ophyllous ; Allspice, Myrtus ; Mock-orange or Syrin- 
 ga, PhUadelphus. 
 
 20. ROTACEJE. (7?o/o, a wfceel.) Corolla wheel-shap- 
 ed. Rock-rose, Cistus : St. John's wort. Hypericnm 
 
or Litfxjsus. 95 
 
 21. PRECISE. (Precius, early.) Primula, and a few 
 genera allied to it in habit, though riot, always in the 
 character expressed in the title ; as Itiapemia$ B *g~ 
 bean, Meniantlits. 
 
 22. CARYOPHYLLEI. (Caryophyttus, a pink.) Co- 
 rollas pink-iike, branches opposite, axillary, leaves op- 
 posite. Pink, Diantlius ; Cockle, Jlgroisttmma ; Chick- 
 weed, btellaria, 
 
 23. TRIHILATLE. (Tres, three, & hilum 9 the eye of 
 the seed.) Plants with 3 -seeded cap-ulrs, seeds mark- 
 ed with a hilurn or scar. Bead-tree, Mdia ; Maple, 
 Jlcer ; Horse-chesnut, JEscuiis ; Nasturtion, Trapceo- 
 lum. 
 
 24. CORYDALES. (^t', a helmet.) Plants with 
 peculiar irregular corolids, somewhat resembling a 
 helmet. Fumitory, Fumaria ; Balsam, Tmpatiens. 
 
 25. PUTAMIXK^J. (Putamen, a shell.) Consisting 
 of plants whose fleshy seed-vessel is frequently cover- 
 ed with a hard woody shell. Caper-bush, Capparis ; 
 Calabash-tree, Crescentia. 
 
 26. MIH.TISH,IQ,UJB. (Multus, many, & sttiqua, a 
 pod.) Plants having many dry capsules or numerous 
 distinct naked seeds. Columbine, JHquilegia ; LarS's- 
 spur, Delphinium ; Buttercup, Ranunculus ; Anemone. 
 
 27. HHCEADEJE. (Rhceas, Red Poppy.) Plants with 
 caducous calyxes ; containing a red or a milky juice. 
 Poppy, Papcmer ; Bloodroot, Sanguenaria ; Celandine, 
 Chelidonium. 
 
 28. LURID^. (Lundus 9 dark gloomy.) Corollas 
 monopetalous, flowers pentandrous or didynamous, 
 with superiour capsules. Thorn-apple, Datura; Fox- 
 glove, Digitalis ; Tobacco, Nicotiana ; Nightshade, 
 Solanum. 
 
 29. CAMPANACE^;. (Campana, a bell.) Flowers 
 more or less bell -shaped ; as Campanula ; Convalvo- 
 lus ; Lobelia; Violet, Viola. 
 
 SO. CONTORTS. (Con, together, & torquco, to 
 twist.) Corollas twisted. Periwinkle, Vinca; DogV 
 bane, Jlpocynum ; Milkweed, Jlsclepias. 
 
96 NATURAL ORDERS 
 
 31. VEPRECU;UB. (Fq?m, a bramble.) Corollas 
 mortopetalous, coloured ; berry superiour, one-seeded. 
 Mf-zereon, Daphne ; Leather-wood, Direa. 
 
 32. PAPILIONACE^:. (Paplw, a Butterfly.) Flow- 
 ers butterfly -shaped. Bean \ Pea ; Locust-tree, Robi- 
 nia ; Glover, Trifolium. 
 
 33. LOMEJVTACJLE. Corollas not perfectly butter- 
 fly-shaped. Stamina distinct, fruit leguminous ; as Cas- 
 sia ; Sensitive plant, Mimosa; Milk- wort, Poly gala. 
 
 34. CUCURBITACE^:. (( 'ucurbita 9 a gourd.) Gourd- 
 like plants ; as Pumpkin, Cucurbtta ; Cucumber and 
 Melon, Cucnmis; Passion-flower, Passtflora. 
 
 35. SENTICOS^E. (Sznlis, a briar.) Prickly plants. 
 Mostly Pentapetalous and Icosandrous. Raspberry ; 
 Strawberry \ Rose ; Avens, Geum ; Cinquefoil, Po 
 tentilla. 
 
 Observation. Nearly allied to POMACEJE. 
 
 36. POMACEJE, (Pomum. an apple.) Plants with a 
 pulpy, esculent fruit ; as Apple and Pear, Pyrus ; Cur- 
 rant ; Peach ; Plum. 
 
 37. COLUMNIEER.E. (CoZu?n?irt, a pillar, & fero, to 
 bear.) Plants whose stamens and pistils have the ap- 
 pearance of a column or pillar in the centre of the flow- 
 er. Hollyhock, Mcea ; Mallows, Malva. 
 
 Observation. Many of them monadelpbous. 
 
 38. TRICOCCJE. (*?*/*, three, & x,o%x.o$ 9 a grain.) 
 Capsule 3-cornered, 3-celled, cells 1 -seeded ; as Box, 
 Buxus ; Palma-Christi, Iticinus. 
 
 39. SJLI^UOS.E. (Siliqua, a pod.) Flowers cross- 
 sliaped. Tetradynamous, seed-vessel a silique. Rad- 
 ish ; Mustard ; Cabbage. 
 
 40. PERSONATE. (Persona* a mask.) Flowers per- 
 sonate ; as Toad-flax, Antirrhinum; Snake's-head, 
 Chelone. 
 
 41. ASPERIFOLT^. (JUiper, rough, & folium, a leaf.) 
 Leaves rough. Corolla monapetalous, stamens 5, 
 
OF I/INNJEUS. 97 
 
 seeds 4, naked. Borage, Borago ; Comfrey, Sy-mphy- 
 tum. 
 
 42. VERTICILLATJB, ( Verticillus, a whorl.) Flow- 
 ers in whorls, corollas labiate, as Hyssop ; Mint; 
 Marjoram, Origanum ; Sage, SaMa ; Thyme, Thy- 
 mus. 
 
 43. DUMOSJB. (Dumus, a hush.) Bushy plants, 
 with small flowers. Stamens 4, 5, 6 or 10. Elder, 
 Sambucus; Sumach, Wins; Snuwball, Viburnum; Staff- 
 tree, Cdastrus ; Holly, Ilex. 
 
 44. SEPIARIJE. (Sepes, a hedge.) Ornamental 
 shruhs, vuth few stamens. Lilac, Syringa ; Privet, 
 Ligustrum. 
 
 45. UMBEIXAT.E. Flowers in umbels, corollas 5- 
 petalled, stamens 5, styles 2, seeds 2 naked. Carrot ; 
 Parsnip ; Carui. 
 
 46. HEDERACEJS* (Iledera, Ivy.) Petals 5, sta- 
 mens 5, fruit berry -like. Vine, Vitis ; Jlralia ; Gin- 
 seng, Panax. 
 
 47. STE1.I.ATJ5. (Stella, a star.) Leaves whorled, 
 seeds 2, naked. Dogwood, Cornus ; Madder, Rubia ; 
 Galium. 
 
 48. AGGREGATE. (Jlggregare 9 to assemble,) Flow- 
 ers aggregate ; as Teazel, Dipsacus ; Boerhaavia. 
 
 49. COMPOSITE. Compound flowers ; as Dandelion ; 
 Thistle ; Sunflower. 
 
 Observation. Belonging to class Syngenesia. 
 
 50. AMENTACE^:. Bearing aments ; as Oak ; 
 Chesnut ; Willow ; Alder. 
 
 Observation. Principally trees. 
 
 51. CONIFERS. Consisting of cone-hearing plants ; 
 as Pine, Hemlock-tree, and Spruce, Pinus ; Juniper*, 
 Jnniperus ; Cedar, Cupressus. 
 
 Observation. Mostly trees. 
 
 52. COABUNAT^E. (Coadunctre, to join together.) 
 Several seed-vessels united somewhat at their base, 
 
 9 
 
'?8 NATURAL OKDERS 
 
 forming a sort of cone ; as Tulip-tree, Liriodend ron ; 
 Magnolia. 
 
 53. SCA^RID^B. (#cft6er, rough.) Leaves rough, 
 flowers destitute of beauty ; as Elm ; Nettle $ Hop ; 
 Hemp. 
 
 Observation. Rougher than those of the 41st order, Aspen folia. 
 
 54. MISCELLANEA. Plants unconnected. 
 
 55. FILICES. Ferns, Brakes, Polypod, &c. 
 
 56. Musci. Mosses. 
 
 57> ALGJB. Flags, Liverworts, Lichens, and Sea- 
 weeds. 
 58. FuffGi. Mushrooms. 
 
 Observation. These four last constitute the Linnsean class Cryp* 
 ivgamia, which see. 
 
PART V. 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY otf VEGETABLES. 
 
 THIS comprehends an account of the internal or- 
 gans, and the functions they perform. 
 
 Plants are organic bodies, containing cells, vesicles* 
 absorbents, tubes, &c. which being disposed in regular 
 order and qualified with the principle of vitality, arc 
 the laboratory in which nature produces the phenome- 
 na of vegetation. 
 
 Plants as well as animals then are endowed with the 
 principle of life or vitality, a principle which minerals 
 do not possess ; they are living organized beings." 
 
 If it be asked what this principle of life or vitality is, we must 
 own our complete ignorance. We know it, as we know its omnip- 
 otent Author, by its effects. 
 
 The effects of vitality are stupendous beyond conception, in the 
 operations constantly going on in every organized body, from our 
 own elaborate frame to the humblest moss or fungus. 
 
 Those different fluids which compose the eye, so fine and trans- 
 parent, separated from each other by membranes as fine, all retain 
 their proper situations (though each fluid individually is perpetu- 
 ally removed and renewed) for sixty, eighty, or an hundred years 
 or more, while the principle of life remains. 
 
 So do the infinitely small vessels of an almost invisible insect, 
 the fine and pellucid tubes of a plant, all hold their destined 
 fluids, conveying or changing them according to fixed laws, but 
 never permitting them to run into confusion so long as the vital 
 principle anftnafes their various forms. But no sooner does death 
 happen, than witlwut any apparent alteration of structure, any ap- 
 parent change in the ir material configuration, all is reversed. The 
 eye loses its form and brightness ; its membranes let go their 
 contents, which mix in confusion, and thenceforth yield to the 
 laws of chemistry alone. Just so it happens, sooner or later, to 
 the other parts of the animal as well as vegetable frame. 
 
 Chemicai changes, putrefaction and destruction immediately 
 follow the total privation of life, the importance of which instant* 
 ly becomes evident when it is no moret 
 
1 00 GERMINATION. 
 
 I humbly conceive therefore, that if the human understanding 
 can, in any case, flatter itself with obtaining in the natural world, a 
 glimpse of the immediate agency of Deity, it is in the contempla- 
 tion of this vital principle, which seems independent of material 
 organization, and an impulse of his own divine energy. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 GERMINATION. 
 
 GERMINATION is a term applied to that part of 
 vegetable physiology, which explains the process by 
 which a seed becomes a plant. 
 
 For the terms applied to the various parts of a seed, see p. 59. 
 
 When a seed is committed to the earth, under the 
 proper conditions of air, heat, and moisture, it first 
 swells by the fluids absorbed by its vessels. Accord- 
 ing to Dr. Thomson of Edinburgh, a chemical action 
 next takes place ; oxygen gas is absorbed, and carbonic 
 acid evolved; by this process, the carbon in the farina 
 of the lobes being diminished, and the oxygen increased 
 in proportion, it is, in part, converted into sugar. The 
 cotyledons thus prepared, convey nourishment through 
 vessels, fitted for the purpose, immediately to the em- 
 bryo or chick. Thus supplied with nourishment, the 
 chick sends its radicle downward, taking such root as 
 finally to be supplied with nourishment from the earth, 
 and its plume upward, to unfold itself into herbage. In 
 this process, the integuments of the seed are ruptur- 
 ed and presently decay. The radicle makes its ap- 
 pearance rather before the plume. 
 
 Observation. The chemical action, mentioned above, is attend- 
 ed with an evolution of heat which results from the absorption of 
 oxygen 
 
 The evolution of .sugar is precisely what takes place in malting-, 
 in which the seed is exposed in a warm place and moistened un- 
 til germination commences, when the process is stopped by drying 1 
 it.- It is then found to have become sweet, -.-d is used to impart 
 saccharine matter to beer. 
 
GERMINATION. 1 01 
 
 When the young root has made some progress, the 
 cotyledons are raised out of the ground hy the ascend* 
 ing stem, take a green colour and perform the function 
 of real leaves, submitting the juices to the action of 
 air arid light ; in this state they constitute what are 
 called seed-leaves. Hadish, Mustard, and Bean are ex- 
 amples. After the plume unfolds itself into the proper 
 leaves, these seed-leaves, being no longer needed, gen- 
 erally wither and decay. 
 
 Plants which have only one cotyledon, as the grass 
 and corn tribes, and the Orchidce, do not raise it out of 
 the ground, and it of course never becomes a seed-leak 
 
 Observation* The substance, which makes up the principal bulk 
 of the seed with one cotyledon, has been called Albumen. There 
 is, in some of those seeds, another part, which is situated in imme- 
 diate contact with the embryo, which has been called Vitelhts or 
 yolk, very conspicuous in Indian- corn. 
 
 The presence of air is indispensable to the germi- 
 nation of seeds. They will not vegetate in an ex- 
 hausted receiver, nor when they are buried too deep in 
 the earth, but they often retain their power to vegetate 
 for an unlimited period. Earth, taken from a consid- 
 erable depth, will, when exposed to the air, soon be cov- 
 ered with young plants, especially of the Thistle or 
 Mustard kind, though no seeds have been allowed to 
 have access to it. 
 
 The vital principle of seeds, on which depends their 
 power to vegetate, seems not to be affected by the com- 
 mon vicissitudes of heat and cold. Some seeds lose 
 their vegetative power by being kept out of the ground 
 ever so little a while after they are ripe, and, in order 
 to succeed, must sow themselves in their own way. 
 Others may be kept a long while without losing this 
 power. Some seeds, although they will vegetate after 
 being long preserved, jet they produce stinted and 
 sickly plants. 
 
 If the process of germination has once commenced., 
 its interruption is fatal to the seed. 
 
102 Aff ATOMY 01? VEGETABLES. 
 
 The elongation of the radicles downward takes, 
 place by additions to their extremities. The elonga- 
 tion of the plume takes place by an increase of parts 
 already formed. 
 
 The unerring direction of the radicle downward, 
 and of the plume upward, is found, by experiment, to 
 he under the controul of gravitation ; hence, we per- 
 ceive, why plants do not grow perpendicular to the sur- 
 face, which is frequently much inclined, but always 
 stand perpendicular to the horizon. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 ANATOMY. 
 
 In the living vegetable system there are to be con- 
 sidered the exteriour form and the internal constitution. 
 
 Having, in the former part of the work, explained 
 the external characters of plants, we proceed next to 
 an examination of their internal structure. 
 
 Observation, The Anatomy and Physiology of vegetables, al- 
 though a pleasing and important branch of Botanical science, is 
 not absolutely indispensable to the practical botanist, the discrimi- 
 nating characters being taken altogether from external marks. 
 Most of the following observations will be intelligible to every 
 reader, but as the subject is very much connected with the pecu- 
 liar laws which govern living beings, and with the science of 
 chemistry, the young* reader is cautioned not to be dissatisfied 
 with himself, if he should be unable to comprehend them in every 
 particular. 
 
 This chapter will be confined principally to a mere 
 description of the several internal parts ; the next will 
 be appropriated to the various functions these perform. 
 
 The vegetable body consists of the BARK, WOOD, 
 and PITH. 
 
 I. Of the Bark. 
 
 The Bark consists externally of the Epidermis, Cuti- 
 cle, or outer bark, next of the Cellular integument, and 
 internally of the Cortex or inner bark. 
 
ANATOMY Of VEGETABLES. 10S 
 
 1. Epidermis. Every part of a living plant is cov- 
 ered with a skin or membrane, called tiie epidermis or 
 cuticle. 
 
 The term cuticle has been applied by anatomists to 
 the scarf skin which covers the animal body. There is 
 the most striking analogy between the animal and veg- 
 etable cuticle. 
 
 The cuticle is sometimes called the outer bark. 
 Upon the leaves and annual branches it is membranous 
 and transparent. Upon older branches it is more or 
 less opaque, and on the bodies of old trees it is coarse, 
 thick, cleft and scaling off, being sometimes altogether 
 removed, as in old oaks and elms, the dead layers of the 
 inner bark performing its functions. 
 
 The Birch has its outer hark in circular layers re- 
 sembling paper, for which daat of- the White Birch has 
 heen used as a substitute. 
 
 The outer bark serves (he purpose of protection from 
 external injuries, at the same time that it regulates the 
 proportion of absorption and perspiration through its 
 pores. It is destitute of vitality ; the only part of a 
 living plant which is dead. Although it does not grow, 
 yet it is capable of very great extension. 
 
 The outer bark of many of the grasses, and of sev- 
 eral species of Equisdum or scouring 1 rush, contains 
 silicious earth or flint. It is so abundant in the Rat- 
 tan, that it will give fire with steel. 
 
 2. The Cellular integument. Immediately beneath 
 the cuticle or outer bark we find the cellular iutegu- 
 ment. This being for the most part green, is the 
 seat of colour, and so far is analogous to the cutis or 
 true skin of animals. 
 
 The leaf consists of an extension of the cellular in- 
 tegument, covered on both sides by a membranous ex- 
 pansion of the cuticle. It is of a succulent vascular na- 
 ture, and is important in a physiological point of view, 
 being the part in which the fluids are changed by the 
 
104 ANATOMY OF VEGETABLES. 
 
 action of air and light, and in which the various secre- 
 tions principally take place. 
 
 This part is interposed between the cuticle and the 
 true bark. 
 
 3. Cortex. Immediately under the cellular integu- 
 ment and next to the wood we find the inner or true 
 bark. Jt consists of but one layer in plants or branch- 
 es of only one year old. In older branches or the 
 trunks of trees, it consists of as many layers as they 
 are years old. The innermost layer is called the liber. 
 It is in this layer only that the essential vital functions 
 are carried on for the time being ; after which, it is 
 pushed outwards with the cellular integument by the 
 successive formation of new layers, and with the cel- 
 lular integument finally becomes a lifeless crust. 
 
 The inner bark of some species of trees separates 
 when macerated in water into the several layers of 
 which it is composed ; each layer, in some cases, ap- 
 pearing perforated like lace. The Lime-tree or Bass- 
 wood is one of the finest examples, in which the fibres 
 are soft and tenacious like hemp, and have been manu- 
 factured. 
 
 All these layers, in a living state, are closely con- 
 nected by the cellular texture which pervades the vege- 
 table body generally, as well as by transverse vessels 
 which pass through them. The principal vessels of 
 the bark are the longitudinal ones 5 they are called 
 cortical vessels. 
 
 In the bark the peculiar virtues of particular plants 
 chiefly reside, especially in several of its internal lay- 
 ers nearest the wood. 
 
 II. Wood. 
 
 When the bark is removed, we come to the wood* 
 which makes the principal bulk of a trunk of a tre^ or 
 shrub. When cut across, it is found to consist of a 
 number of concentric layers, called grains, PL 3, fig* 
 17, c. very distinct in most trees of our northern cli- 
 
ANATOMY OF VEGETABLES. 105 
 
 mate. Every year's growth constitutes a layer, so 
 that by counting the several layers the age of the tree 
 may be ascertained. 
 
 In a species of ash these layers are very distinct, 
 and are so slightly connected by the cellular substance 
 between them, that by continual beating and bending, 
 the basket-maker is enabled to separate them for his 
 use. These layers are annually secreted or deposited 
 from the innermost part of the bark or liber. The wood 
 owes its tenacity and strength to innumerable woody 
 fibres, and consists of various vessels running for the 
 most part longitudinally, PI. 3, fig. 17, b. Some of 
 these vessels have a spiral coat, others not. Some have 
 their 9 ides perforated, and others nearly or quite en- 
 tire see pi. 3, fig. 19 & 20. The vessels anastomose 
 or communicate laterally with each other. This is 
 the case also with the vessels of the bark, which are 
 smaller and more complicated thaw those of the wood. 
 
 Observation. In the transverse sections of wood, which are a 
 common and beautiful object in the microscope, these vessels are 
 very conspicuous. In the roots of the Elm, the trunk of the Com- 
 mon Creeper, and the wood of the Chesnut, they are so large that 
 air and even water can be sucked through them in pieces of sever- 
 al feet in length. 
 
 Of the vessels of the wood, some in their youngest 
 state convey the sap from the root to the extremities of 
 the branches and leaves, and others contain the vari- 
 ous peculiar or secreted juices. The whole are joined 
 together by the cellular substance, which seems to be 
 designed to unite all the parts of a plant. 
 
 In some trees, and particularly old ones, there are a 
 number of external layers or grains of wood which 
 differ greatly in colour from the central ones, being 
 much whiter ; these are called by the workmen the sap, 
 while the central or darker part is called the heart. 
 The sapwood is called technically alburnum. 
 - The sapwood is the living, vascular, and active part, 
 while the heart is dead or possesses a very low degree 
 
106 ANATOMY OF VEGETABLES. 
 
 of vitality. The heartwood is usually much more du- 
 rable timber than the sapwood. In the arrangement 
 of the fibres of the wood there are two distinct ap- 
 pearances. Besides the layers just described, there 
 are a series of white and shining lamellae, which shoot 
 from the centre towards the circumference, and these 
 constitute what is called the Silver grain PL 3, fig. 
 17, d. 
 
 The appearance of the silver grain is generally ob- 
 vious in trees and shrubs, and particularly so in the 
 Oak. Something analogous to it is discoverable in an- 
 nual herbs. 
 
 The silver grain is elastic and susceptible of change 
 of volume by various temperatures. 
 
 III. Medulla or Pith. 
 
 This is situated in the centre of the trunk and 
 branches of plants* JLn plants of one year's growth it 
 is often very large and full of the juices of the plant ; 
 in older ones, it becomes dry, soft, light, and very com- 
 pressible. In most old trees it is altogether obliterat- 
 ed. It has been thought to be a reservoir of the juices 
 in young plants. The pith is very conspicuous in the 
 Elder, Ash, and Sumach. 
 
 General texture of Plants. 
 
 Mirbel finds, by the help of the highest magnifying 
 powers, that the vegetable body is a continued mass of 
 tubes and cells ; the former extended indefinitely, the 
 latter frequently and regularly interrupted by trans- 
 verse partitions. These partitions being ranged al- 
 ternately in the corresponding cells, and each cell in- 
 creasing somewhat in diameter after its first forma- 
 tion, except where restrained by the transverse parti- 
 tions, seems to account for their hexagonal figure.* 
 See PI. 16, fig, 1 1. a. The membranous sides of all these 
 cells and tubes are very thin, more or less transparent. 
 
 * Jn microscopic figures they are generally drawn like circles intersecting each 
 other, 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF VEGETABLES* 107 
 
 often porous, variously perforated or torn. Of the 
 tubes, some are without any lateral perforations, b. 
 at least for a considerable extent ; others pierced with 
 holes ranged in a close spiral line, c. ; in others, sev- 
 eral of th^se holes run together, as it were, into inter- 
 rupted spiral clefts, d. ; and in some, those clefts 
 are continued, so that the whole tube, more or less, is 
 cut into a spiral line, e. ; which, in some young 
 branches and tender leaves, will unrol to a great ex- 
 tent, when they are gently torn asunder. The cellular 
 texture, especially, is extended to every part of the veg- 
 etable body, even into the thin skin, called the cuticle, 
 which covers every external part, and into the fine 
 hairs or down, which, in some instances, clothe the 
 cuticle itself. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 Having, in the former chapter, given a brief outline 
 of the structure of the internal organs of plants, we pro- 
 ceed to give some account of the supposed functions 
 these perform. 
 
 I. Division of a Plant into parts according to the func- 
 tions they perform. 
 
 Every plant examined as to external structure dis- 
 plays at least four systems of organs. 1. The Root ; 
 2. the Trunk and Branches ; 3. the Leaves ; and 4. the 
 Fructification. Davy. 
 
 1. The Root fixes the plant in the earth and imbibes 
 the nourishment from the soil. The root is a continu- 
 ation of the trunk, and is similar to it in its anatomi- 
 cal structure. While the trunk terminates in leaves, 
 the root terminates in fibres or radicles, in which its 
 peculiar functions are performed. 
 
 2. The Trunk elevates the leaves, flow r er and fruit to 
 a convenient and proper situation, and serves as a me- 
 
lf)3 PHYSIOLOGY 0]F VEGETABLES. 
 
 dium of vascular communication between the root and 
 these parts. 
 
 3. The Leaves serve to effect important changes in 
 the juices of the plant, as is presently to he explained. 
 
 4. The Fructification forms a distinct set of organs 
 for the continuation of plants in succession, one genera- 
 tion after another. For the particular physiology of 
 this part, ^^fructification, p. 45. 
 
 II. Thz Circulation of the Blood in Jlnimals. 
 
 Physiologists observe an analogy between animals 
 and vegetables, both in anatomical structure and physi- 
 ological functions, which r;)akes it necessary to explain, 
 especially, the circulation in animals, which is very 
 analogous to what we are about to explain in vegeta- 
 bles. 
 
 The blood passes out of the left cavity of the heart* 
 in the main trunk of the arteries, vUiich, dividing and 
 branching like a tree, takes a pretty direct course to 
 all the various p?rts of the body, where its branches 
 finally become innumerable, pervading every particle 
 of the body, and so small as to elude observation. These 
 are called the extreme vessels of the body. They grad- 
 ually collect themselves again into another set of 
 vessels, called the veins, which finally unite into two 
 principal trunks that enter the cavity of the right side 
 of the heart together, and convey the blood thither. 
 
 By ite contractions the heart sends it from the right 
 cavity to the lungs, through a vessel which passes up 
 to them, ramifying, like the artery which has been de- 
 scribed, until it pervades every particle of the lungs 
 with its minute vessels, which are called the extreme 
 bloodvessels of the lungs. These finally collect them- 
 selves into another set of vessels, which enter the left 
 cavity of the heart in four trunks, and return the blood 
 to be recirculated. The extreme blood vessels, in the 
 lungs meet with the extreme branches of the trachea or 
 
 f The heart has two cavities, a right and left, 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF VEGETABLES 109 
 
 Windpipe, which every where accompany them, being 
 separated from them only by very fine membranes. 
 
 In these extreme vessels of the lungs the blood under- 
 goes an important change* It gives off a portion of 
 its carbon which combines with a portion of the oxy- 
 gen or vital air inspired ; at the same time its capaci- 
 ty for caloric or heat is increased, and it drinks up, as 
 it were, the heat of the oxygen, which otherwise would 
 have been developed. By these changes, the blood 
 from a purple, acquires a bright verm ill ion colour. 
 The blood then passes into the left cavity of the head, 
 which contracts and throws it through the arteries in- 
 to the extreme vessels of the body, still retaining its 
 vermillion colour. 
 
 In the extreme vessels of the body 9 the blood performs 
 the important offices for which it was designed in the 
 animal economy. In these, in some unknown manner, 
 its capacity for the matter of heat, is diminished, and 
 the heat which was taken up in the lungs is thus devel- 
 oped, where it is required, in every part of the body. 
 In these vessels also, the body is nourished and its de- 
 cays built up. 
 
 After the blood has passed the extreme vessels, it is 
 found to have lost its fine vermillion, and acquired a 
 dark purple, which it retains as it passes through the 
 veins to the heart, and thence to the lungs, to be re- 
 newed arid recirculated. 
 
 Another system of vessels called t\\eLacteals 9 take up 
 from the viscera the essential nourishment of our food, 
 and convey it by their common trunk, to the circulation 
 emptying it, in form of milk into one of the veins. 
 Thus the great business of the circulation is done in 
 in the extreme vessels of the lungs and in those of the 
 body ; the larger trunks serve as mere channels of con- 
 veyance, while the heart acts as an engine to give mo- 
 tion. In the extreme vessel:-; of the lungs the blood is 
 prepared to nourish and support the body, and in th we 
 of the body it performs this office. 
 10 
 
110 PHYSIOLOGY OF VEGETALES. 
 
 The arteries in the limbs are deep-seated near the 
 bones, while the veins are much more superficial. 
 
 III. Of the Sap-vessels, course of the Sap, functions of 
 the Leaves, and theory of Vegetation. 
 
 The whole vegetable body is an assemblage of tubes 
 and vessels, as has been previously observed. 
 
 Observation. In the arrangement of these there is a degree of 
 similarity in all plants, but each species has its peculiarities just 
 as it has in external characters. 
 
 The fluid which is most abundant in these vessels is 
 the sap or blood of the plant, from which are secreted by 
 appropriate organs, all the various vegetable products 
 to which the various flavours and qualities of each plant 
 are owing, as gums, resins, honey, acids, essential oils, 
 &c. These substances must each be lodged improper 
 cells and vessels to be kept distinct from each other. Air 
 is found to exist in the vegetable body, and must like- 
 wise be contained in appropriate vessels. 
 
 1. Of me, Sap-vessels and Cortical-vessels, and their 
 communication with each other in the leaf. 
 
 The external surface of the radicles or fibres of the 
 roots, are presumed to be perforated by the mouths of 
 innumerable vessels which absorb nourishment. 
 
 These absorbents are presently collected into the 
 large simple vessels of the sap-wood, which are com- 
 pared to the veins of an animal. The sap-vessels, 
 called by Mr. Knight central vessels, from their situa- 
 tion near the pith in young plants, pass up and branch 
 off to the leaves and fructification, as they approach 
 them. 
 
 Passing through the woody part of the foot-stalks 
 of the leavef, and through the ribs and veins of the 
 leaf, which are its ramifications, they are presumed 
 to terminate in the -parenchyma or pulp of the leaf, and 
 communicate with the vessels and cells which compose 
 it. Thus they extend from the fibres of the root to the 
 
IPAYSIOJLOGY OF VEGETABLES. Ill 
 
 extremity of each annual shoot of the plant. They 
 have throughout, spiral coats see plate 3, fig. 18 &19. 
 The cortical vessels or vessels of the inner bark are 
 very distinct, botli in structure and function, from the 
 sap+vessels ; they are much smaller, and the spiral 
 coats which are conspicuous in the sap-vessels have 
 never been found in them. Through the medium uf the 
 bark of the leaf-stalk these vessels of the inner bark 
 communicate with the cells of the leaf, the same with 
 which the sap-vessels communicate. This is probably 
 the only communication which the two sets of vessels 
 have with each other. 
 
 2. Ascent of the Sap. 
 
 In the following account of the course of the sap, &c. 
 the theory of Mr. Knight is adopted. 
 
 In the extreme vessels of the root which immediate- 
 ly absorb the nourishment, an important function is per- 
 formed. The matter presented to the root is water 
 holding various materials in solution : by an unknown 
 process the extreme vessels of the root, as they absorb 
 this fluid matter of the soil, convert it into sap of the 
 peculiar quality necessary to nourish the plant which 
 absorbs it. 
 
 The sap thus formed differs widely in its properties in 
 different species. Sugar, in a greater or less degree, 
 usually abounds in it ; various salts, acids, gums, oils, 
 and resins, are occasionally found in it. 
 
 The sap is compared to the blood of animals. 
 
 Thus prepared by the root, it undergoes no change 
 of consequence, nor performs any important func- 
 tion until it enters the leaves and fructification. The 
 vesse^ of the sap-wood, in which it passes, seem 
 destined merely to convey it to the leaves and flowers, 
 elevated in their several convenient situations. 
 
 Part of the sap is conveyed into the flowers and 
 fruit, where various fine secretions, such as the volatile 
 
112 PHYSIOLOGY OF VEGETABLES. 
 
 oil, on which depends the aroma or peculiar perfume of 
 flowers, are made from it. By far the greater portion 
 of sap is carried into the leaves, where it is subjected 
 to important changes. In these organs the sap is ex- 
 posed to the action of light and air, two powerful 
 agents by which it is enabled to form various secre- 
 tions, which give peculiar flavours and qualities to the 
 leaves themselves, at the same time that much super- 
 fluous matter passes off by perspiration. 
 
 The sap, thus modified in the leaves, is returned by 
 another set of vessels into the new layer of bark. 
 A More will be said of the? descent of the sap and 
 growth of the plant after we have given an account of 
 
 S. The Structure and Functions of the Leaves. 
 
 The Leaves are very aptly compared to the lungs of 
 animals. They are the organs of respiration, perspi- 
 ration, and absorption. 
 
 The alburnum or sap-wood is continued into the 
 leaf-stalk, which branches out into the leaf, form- 
 ing what is called the skeleton of the leaf, which is 
 frequently seen after the worms have devoured the 
 other parts. The spiral tubes attend the alburnum 
 throughout this skeleton ; they are conspicuous in the 
 leaf of the Rose, Lilac, Lilies, and particularly so in 
 the Common Eel-grass ; when these are torn and gent- 
 ly separated, they are seen unrolling themselves from 
 the broken ends of the nerves and veins. 
 
 This skeleton is clothed on both sides by a membra- 
 nous extension of the cuticle ; between these two 
 membanes is the fleshy substance of the leaf called 
 parenchyma, which consists of vessels and cells filled 
 with the juices of the plant. 
 
 The upper surface, which is exposed to the sun, is 
 darker than the under, its epidermis is thicker but 
 transparent, allowing a free passage of light. 
 
 On the under surface, the epidermis is thin and full 
 of cavities, and, it is probable, altogether by this sur- 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF VEGETABLES. US 
 
 lace that leaves perspire, and absorb the principles of 
 the atmosphere necessary for vegetation. The under 
 surface is so constructed that water will not wet it, but 
 collects in large drops and rolls off, otherwise its func- 
 tions might be obstructed. 
 
 There are in the leaves of some plants, either on one 
 or both surfaces, a large number of small whitish 
 points, scarcely apparent to the naked eye but easily 
 distinguished with a glass. They are found to consist 
 of small fissures surrounded by areas. These pores, 
 which contain air only, are surrounded by a pair of 
 cells, which contain a greenish fluid in common with 
 the other cells of the leaf. Through these pores and 
 cells the communication appears to be kept up between 
 the external air and the juices of the leaf. See Smith's 
 Bot. Note 84, by Prof. Bigelow. 
 
 The upper side of leaves is uniformly turned to 
 the light. If a branch be overturned, the foot-stalk 
 will twist until the leaf regains its former position. 
 
 Light is so essential to vegetation that few plants can 
 be perfect without it. Plants growing in the shade, 
 besides other imperfections, are without colour. When 
 they are placed in a room where the light comes only 
 laterally from a single window, they incline not only 
 the leaves, but the whole plant takes a course to- 
 wards it. 
 
 Three kinds of vessels centre in the lungs of animals, 
 the Arteries, the Veins, and the dir-vessels of the Wind- 
 pipe. In tbe leaves, the Sap-vessels, the CorticM-ves- 
 sels, and Pores, which convey air, communicate with 
 each other. 
 
 In the lungs of animals the purple blood from the, 
 veins absorbs oxygen gas from the air inhaled through 
 the air-vessete of the Wind-pipe, which combines with 
 a portion of the carbon of the blood, and is thrown off 
 at the next breath in the form of carbonic acid gas, 
 while the caloric of the oxygen is absorbed, to be car- 
 ried on in the arteries and disengaged in the extreme 
 vessels. Watery vapour is also given off by the Junes. 
 10* 
 
114 PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 The leaves, in the sunshine, uniformly absorb car- 
 bonic acid gas from the atmosphere, by their under sur- 
 faces, and decomposing it, retain the carbon and give 
 out its oxygen. The carbon retained, no doubt goes 
 into the juices in the leaves. This, it will be perceiv- 
 ed, is the converse of what is effected on the atmos- 
 phere by the lungs of animals. Animals absorb oxy- 
 gen and produce carbonic acid gas, but vegetables ab- 
 sorb carbonic acid, and give out oxygen gas ; thus ani- 
 mals and vegetables serve, very happily, to counteract 
 each other's effects on the atmosphere. 
 
 In animals, the blood in the lungs, by parting with 
 some of its carbon, changes from a purple to a vermil- 
 lion colour. In the leaves, the juices from being col- 
 ourless, become green, not by losing carbon, for that 
 principle is increased in them. 
 
 So great is the quantity of carbonic acid gas pro- 
 duced by the breathing of animals, and various chemic- 
 al operations in nature, that we should probably be 
 suffocated by it were it not continually decomposed by 
 the whole world of vegetables, and the pure vital air 
 restored for our respiration. 
 
 Leaves in the night give out carbonic acid, but in a 
 less quantity than that which they absorb during the 
 day. Flowers are found to give out carbonic acid 
 both in the sunshine and shade, of course their effect 
 is uniformly to vitiate the air. 
 
 Observation. 1. It will be perceived, from what takes place in 
 leaves, that plants derive a part of their solid nourishment from the 
 air, that is, the carbon or charcoal matter from the decomposed 
 fixed air or carbonic acid gas. 
 
 2. Some inquiries of Mr. Ellis of Edinburgh go to prove, that 
 vegetating plants, at all times, absorb oxygen and produce carbo- 
 nic acid in its stead Smith** Bat, p. 175. Note. 
 
 The leaves are also organs of perspiration. The 
 blood or juices of plants give off a portion of their water 
 in the form of perspiration, through the under surface of 
 the leaves. Dr. Hales proved that an annual Sunflower 
 perspired in dry weather, more than a man. The Cor- 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF VEGETABLES. 115 
 
 nelian Cherry perspires, in the course of 24 hours, sev- 
 eral times its own weight. In moist weather, however, 
 plants sometimes absorb moisture by their leaves. 
 
 The rapid waste of moisture, by the perspiration of 
 the leaves, and its supply by the absorption of the roots, 
 are both indicated by the rapidity with which a plant 
 wilts when plucked from its root, and its immediate 
 revival when the stem is pl&ed in water. It is indi- 
 cated also by the very great quantity of water ne- 
 cessary to supply some plants when placed in the house 
 in an espalier or flower-pot. 
 
 4. Descent of the Sap and Growth of the Plant. 
 
 It is very contradictory to the common notions of 
 vegetation, that plants should grow by a flow of sap 
 from the leaves downward ; yet this point seems to be 
 well established by Mi\ Knight's experiments. 
 
 The sap, haying ascended from the roots to the 
 leaves, and being there modified and prepared, as has 
 just been described, descends through the vessels of 
 the bark, for the double purpose of nourishing and 
 increasing the plant, and of producing the various 
 secretions, such as gums, resins, turpentines, oils, &c. 
 which are usually found in the bark. " In the bark, 
 principally, if I mistake not, these peculiar secretions 
 of a plant are perfected, each, undoubtedly, in an ap- 
 propriate set of vessels." Smith. 
 
 The new layers of bark and wood appear to be add- 
 ed in trees in the following manner. 
 
 The descending cortical vessels of the liber, in the 
 growing season, throw out between the bark and the 
 wood, a pulpy or gelatinous matter, which has been 
 called cambium. The cambium, as it gradually becomes 
 fibrous and of a firmer consistence, separates into a 
 new layer of bark, which attaches itself to the other 
 layers, and, in its turn, secretes another cambium; and 
 a new layer of wood, which is deposited upon the outside 
 of the former layers. 
 
116 PHYSIOLOGY OF VEGETABLES. 
 
 Observation. 1. When the cambium first begins to be fibrous, 
 although produced by the bark, yet it adheres so much more 
 firmly to the wood, that it remains* quite entire upon it when the 
 bark is removed. It contains much saccharine matter, and in 
 those trees, in which it is not tinctured with any disagreeable 
 property of the plant, as bitterness, it is palatable. 
 
 It is particularly so in the Birch. Children, in the country, 
 sometimes seek for it, and appear to be as fond of it as they are 
 of fruit. 
 
 2. At the season when the cSnbium is perfectly formed, trees 
 maybe stripped of their bark entirely without injury, a new bark 
 being speedily formed upon them. This has been thought to 
 prove, that the wood had power to produce anew bark I have sev- 
 eral times made the experiment on forest trees with perfect suc- 
 cess, and from some circumstances attending it, am inclined to 
 the following opinion. That the cambium, containing the rudi- 
 ment of a new layer of bark, as well as of a new layer of 
 wood, is not removed with the bark, but remains undisturbed on 
 the trunk, and thus the new bark, which forms in this case, is not 
 formed by the wood, but had its rudiment previously formed by 
 the bark. This method of removing the old bark has been turned 
 to advantage in fruit trees, whose bark had become bound. Care 
 should be taken not to injure the pulp of the cambium. It should 
 be protected from the weather a while b} some soft covering. 
 
 In animals, the trunks of the arteries serve as mere 
 channels to convey the blood into the extreme vessels, 
 which are distributed throughout e/ery fibre of the 
 body. It is in these extreme vessels, that the great 
 vital functions go on ; in these it is, that parts are in- 
 creased or renewed, and in these animal heat is pro- 
 duced. The veins collect the blood, after it has^erform- 
 ed these function.^ and return it through the medium of 
 the heart, to the lungs, to be renewed by the air, and 
 sent round again by the arteries. 
 
 In the vegetable, the sap-vessels are analogous to 
 the veins, and .the vessels of the leaf to the extreme 
 vessels of the lungs. The vessels of the bark, are com- 
 pared to the arteries. There are not any vessels in 
 vegetables, which carry the descending sap back 
 again from the bark to the vessels of the sap-wood 
 to be recirculated. The sap is supposed to be exhaust- 
 ed altogether, by nourishing the plant in its descent. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF VEGTABLES. llf 
 
 In this respect the course of the sap in vegetables dif- 
 fers essentially from the circulation in animals. 
 
 5. Growth in genera!. 
 
 The growth of the trunks and branches, as it re- 
 pects thickness, takes place by means of successive 
 layers, which are annually added, one to the bark, and 
 another to the wood, in a manner already described. 
 
 The elongation of trunks and branches of trees and 
 shrubs takes place by annual shoots, which are made at 
 their extremities, No part already formed is carried 
 upward or enlarged in proportion in all its parts, as is 
 the case with animals. 
 
 The Sword-leaved plants, such as Iris and some 
 species of Lily, elongate by additions to their base, 
 while the parts perfectly formed are carried upward ; 
 hence they appear of a darker green at their extremi- 
 ties than near the ground. Most of the grasses elon- 
 gate by additions to the bases of their several joints. 
 
 Observation. I have determined these points by placing" stakes 
 beside the growing- plants and marking- them. 
 
 That part of a plant which is the shooting part, 
 whether it be the base or extremity, is usually whitish 
 anil tender. 
 
 6. Duration of the Vascular Systems. 
 
 All perennial plants have annually a new set of radi- 
 cles to their roots, a new growth of leaves to their 
 branches, whether the former fines have fallen or not, 
 a new layer of bark, and a new one of wood added to 
 their bodies. Dr. Smith says, <* the vascular system 
 of all plants is strictly annual. This of course is ad- 
 mitted in annual plants, the existence of whose stems, 
 and often of the whole individual, is limited to one 
 season ; but it is no less true with regard to trees. 
 The layer of alburnum, on the one hand, is added to 
 
118 PHYSIOLOGY OF VEGETABLES. 
 
 the wood, and the liber, or inner layer of bark, is on 
 the other, annexed to the layers formed in the preced- 
 ing seasons ; and neither have any share in the pro- 
 cess of vegetation for the year ensuing. Still, as they 
 continue for a long time to be living bodies, and help 
 to perfect, if not to form, secretions, they must receive 
 some portion of nourishment from those more active 
 parts, which have taken up their late functions." 
 
 The vital functions of these systems diminish with 
 their age. Thus, on one hand, the layers of bark, 
 with their systems of vessels, are pushed outward by 
 the new layers within, gradually diminishing in vitali- 
 ty, until they finally become quite dead, split and scale 
 off, as we see them in old trees. On the other hand, the 
 layers of wood are successively covered by the new 
 layers of alburnum, gradually losing their vital powers, 
 until at last they become quite destitute of vitality, and 
 then constitute the heart-wood. The heart-wood some- 
 times goes a step farther, decomposes and leaves the 
 tree hollow. 
 
 7. Facts which tend to prove the preceding theory of 
 vegetation. 
 
 1. The old physiologists had an idea, that the ves- 
 sels of the alburnum contained nothing but air. Dr. 
 Darwin and Mr. Knight, by placing the cut ends of the 
 twigs of various plants in coloured fluids, succeeded in 
 making these vessels absorb them in such a degree, 
 that they were enabled to trace them in the vessels 
 quite into the leaves 3 thus proving that they carried 
 fluids. 
 
 2. When a tree is wounded, it heals from the upper 
 edge of the wound downward, while below the wound, 
 the tree dies in a sort of triangular space, until by the 
 anastomosis or lateral communication of the vessels of 
 the bark with each other, the parts are supplied with 
 what is necessary to their vitality. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF VEGETABLES. 119 
 
 3. It lias been stated that grapes came to maturity 
 much earlier, were larger, asiu setter flavoured when 
 a small circle of bark, one or two eighths of an inch 
 wide, was removed from around the alburnum of the 
 fruitful branches, while the fruit was in its young state. 
 Dr. Bigelow mentions that this method is annually 
 practised in the vicinity of Boston, by different indi- 
 viduals, with the best success. See Smith's Botany, 
 page 59. According to Mr. Knight's theory, the ex- 
 planation is obvious, The sap continues to ascend 
 with freedom, but being interrupted in its descent, and 
 confined to the branches above the incision, a geater 
 quantity of it goes to nourish the fruit. 
 
 4. Du Hamel, by many experiments, proved the 
 wood to be deposited from the innermost part of the 
 bark or Liber. He introduced plates of tinfoil under the 
 bark of growing trees, arid after some years, on cut- 
 ting them across, he found the layers of new wood, 
 equal to the number of years, on the outside of the tin. 
 
 Observation. Linnaeus had a peculiar notion that the new layers 
 were secreted annually from the pith, and added internally to the 
 former ones. 
 
 5. It has been mentioned, that at a particular sea- 
 son, trees may be stripped of their bark without inju- 
 ry, a new bark being speedily formed. This was 
 thought to go against the theory, but if it be true, 
 as I have suggested, page 116, that the rudiment 
 of the new bark is formed before the old bark is re- 
 moved, and is not removed with it, but remains on the 
 wood, it accords perfectly with it. 
 
 8. Of the power which elevates the Sap. 
 
 The manner in which the sap is propelled through 
 the several tubes, and elevated to the top of the tallest 
 tree, seems not to be well understood. 
 
 Whatever may be the action which propels the fluids, 
 it must possess great power, for the mass of fluid in a 
 large tree, which is not only supported by it, but mov- 
 
120 PHYSIOLOGY OF VEGETABLES. 
 
 ed upward with considerable force, amounts to several 
 tons. ; 
 
 In animals, the hlood is propelled around its curcuit 
 by the powerful muscular contractions of the heart and 
 arteries. It is also solicited by the action of the ex- 
 treme vessels. Mr. Knight supposes that the silver 
 grain, being susceptible of quick contraction and ex- 
 pansion by heat and cold, has an agency in propelling 
 the sap by pressing upon the vessels. 
 
 It has been supposed that the propulsion of the fluids 
 in vegetables takes place in a manner similar to that 
 of animals, i. e that they are in some way acted on by 
 the coats of the large vessels, and that they are like- 
 wise drawn up by the action of the extreme vessels of 
 the leaf. The spiral coats of the vessels have been 
 suspected of having an agency in this business. " In 
 some of these, when separated from the plant, Mal- 
 pighi tells us, he once saw a very beautiful undulating 
 motion that appeared spontaneous. This indeed has 
 not been seen by any other person, nor can it be sup- 
 posed, that parts so delicate can, in general, be remov- 
 ed from their natural situation, without the destruction 
 of that fine irratibility, on which such a motion must- 
 depend." Smith. 
 
 Observation. I was once examining some Eel-grass, in which 
 these spirals are numerous and may be dra*vn out to a great 
 length ; but my object at this time was not to observe them. The 
 grass was moist ft?om the salt water and laid in a heap, various- 
 ly broken and torn asunder, on a table in a dry, warm room. 
 I\vas presently surprised by the appearance of numbers of white 
 filaments in a very brisk vermicular motion, and which I actually 
 took for little worms. They seemed to raise themselves frequent- 
 ly in end, and being bent at various angles, turned rapidly round 
 in one direction a while, then changed and turned in the opposte, 
 making at the same time various other animated movements. Put- 
 ting them in the microscope, I found they consisted of the spiral 
 coats, which, from the manner in which they had been drawn out, 
 were twisted, and when drawn quite asunder had, consequently, 
 twisted together into an elegant little cord, which being very sus- 
 ceptible of changes of volume by alternate dryness and moisture, 
 had been put in motion by the fluctuating vapour arising from 
 the moist grass. 
 
SLEEP OF PLANTS. 
 
 I made some experiments to see how they would be affected by 
 changes of temperature, but determined nothing further than 
 their mechanical sensibility to water, being a most extraordinarily 
 delicate Hygrometer, actively affected even by the vapour of the 
 hand at a considerable distance. 
 
 It might have been something like this which Malpighi ob* 
 served. 
 
 Although this may not throw any immediate light on the inter- 
 esting subject of the propulsion of the sap, yet the fact will 
 doubtless be thought worth noticing. 
 
 It is most probable that the propulsion of the sap is 
 not .to be explained on any mechanical principles, but is 
 in some way the effect of vitality. 
 
 IV. Sleep of Plants. 
 
 Many leaves, especially the pinnate ones, of legumin- 
 ous plants, fold themselves together at night or droop 
 as if dying. It is a fact, very commonly observed, that 
 many flowers close at night without opening again un- 
 til the next day. Some flowers are open only in the 
 morning, closing before noon. Common names are 
 sometimes applied from the hour of their closing or 
 expanding ; as Four o'clock. The compound flowers 
 are very much disposed to close during the night. 
 The Dandelion and Marigold are examples. 
 
 Shakspeare notices this fact in the Marigold in the 
 following lines, 
 
 Her eyes like marigolds had sheathed their light, 
 
 And canopied in darkness lay 
 
 Till they might open to adorn the day. 
 
 This change of the leaves and closing of the flowers 
 are what is called the sleep of plants. It seems to take 
 place in consequence of the absence of light. 
 
 Light acts beneficially on the upper surface of leaves 
 and hurtfuily on the under side ; hence the upper sur- 
 face is always turned to the light in whatever situation 
 the plant may happen to be placed. 
 
 The leaves of a great number of plants follow the 
 sun in his daily course. Clover is an example. 
 
 Many flowers also follow the sun, as the Sunflower 
 11 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF VEGETABLES. 
 
 and other compound radiate ones. " In their forms 
 Nature seems to have delighted to imitate the radiant 
 luminary to which they are apparently dedicated, and 
 in the abscence of whose beams, many of them do not 
 expand their blossoms at all.' 5 
 
 It has already been mentioned^ that the functions of 
 the leaves, in decomposing carbonic acid and deliver- 
 ing out its oxygen, were performed only in the sun- 
 shine. The most important functions of flowers are 
 also performed in the sunshine only. Most plants 
 vegetate but imperfectly in the shade, and scarcely at 
 all in perfect darkness. Trees, which are overgrown 
 by others around them, decline and finally die. 
 
 Leaves and flowers are attracted by light, and prob- 
 ably have their vital functions stimulated by it. 
 
 The pinnate leaves of the Sensitive-plant, Mimosa 
 sensitwa, and some other plants, have a most extraor- 
 dinary sensibility not only to light but to the touch of 
 any extraneous body or to any sudden concussion. By 
 even a gentle impression to one of the leflets they will 
 close together, one pair after another, and finally the 
 whole leaf will drop down to the stalk. 
 
 " Weak with nice sense the chaste Mimosa stands, 
 From each rude touch withdraws her timid hands ; 
 Oft as light clouds o'erpass the summer glade, 
 Alarmed, she trembles at the moving- shade, 
 And feels alive through all her tender form 
 The whispered murmurs of the gathered storm ; 
 Shuts her sweet eyelids to approaching night, 
 And hails with freshened charms the rising light." 
 
 Hedysarum gyraus has a spontaneous motion in its 
 leaves, independent of any external stimulus, even of 
 light, and only requiring a very warm atmosphere to 
 be performed in perfection. That it does not depend 
 on any motion of the atmosphere is proved by its con- 
 tinuing under a glass bell. 
 
 These various phenomena depend no doubt on what 
 is termed vital irritability, which means a power in liv- 
 ing beings independent of any thing mechanical, by 
 which they act when certain agents are applied. 
 
INSTRUMENTS FOR BOTANIZING. 123 
 
 IT remains to make some observations on 
 
 Instruments for botanizing and the method of preparing 
 an Herbarium. 
 
 INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 1. A small knife, a pair of scissors, a bodkin, a pair 
 of forceps, and a glass or microscope for dissecting 
 and examining plants. 
 
 A bodkin may be made by fitting a piece of wood in- 
 to the sliding socket of a pencil case and inserting a 
 needle into it. 
 
 The forceps should be a simple spring ; a strip of 
 brass or other metal bent over at a short angle like a 
 V, about 2 inches long, points i inch apart, to close by 
 pressure with the fingers like sugar-tongs. These will 
 be found very convenient. 
 
 These several instruments should be in a pocket case* 
 
 A simple glass of from one to two inch focus, such 
 as the watch-makers use, or a penknife with a glass in 
 the handle, as may now be obtained in the shops, will 
 answer very well. 
 
 Pocket microscopes with a reflector to illuminate the object, 
 and adjusting- forceps, are now manufactured and sold by J. 
 Peirce, optician, Marlborough street, Boston, which are very use- 
 ful, especially in examining the grasses and mosses, besides being* 
 convenient for examining any other small interesting object. 
 
 2. A tin box to receive those specimens, when col- 
 lected, which are afterward to be examined. A close 
 box of this kind immediately becomes full of the va- 
 pour of the plants. Further evaporation being thus pre- 
 vented, the plants are preserved fresh for days, espe- 
 cially if a few drops of water be put in with them. It 
 may be made of a flattened form so as to be carried in 
 the pocket. 
 
 3. A portfolio, furnished with strings, containing a 
 parcel of paper like a large, thin book, to collect those 
 specimens which are to be dried and preserved. 
 
1.24 HERBARIUM. 
 
 HERBARIUM. 
 
 A collection of dried specimens of plants is called 
 an Herbarium or Hortus siccus. 
 
 Upon the subject of collecting and preparing speci- 
 mens 1 refer the reader to Smith's botany and to Rich- 
 ard's Dictionary, New-Haven translation, giving at the 
 same time the outlines of a metbod which I have found 
 very successful in practice. 
 
 The most usual method of preparing specimens, 
 is to dry them between papers under pressure, which 
 is the method I am to give some account of. 
 
 When a specimen is taken it should be put into the 
 portfolio or into a book immediately, before it wilts to al- 
 ter its habit. Very little care should be taken in placing 
 the various parts, except that some of the flowers may 
 be laid open so as to display the parts which compose 
 them. If the plant be small, the root and all the oth- 
 er parts should be taken. If it be tall like the grasses, it 
 should be cut into pieces and brought upon the paper, or 
 partially broken in several places and folded down once 
 or more in a zigzag manner, passing the last fold ob- 
 liquely across the others, and tying it to them with silk 
 or thread where it crosses them, that it may keep in 
 place when handled. 
 
 Every thing belonging to the natural habit of the 
 plant should be preserved ; the dead leaves should be 
 suffered to remain, and even a little of the native rub- 
 bish upon the roots often indicates the peculiar situa- 
 tion in which the plant grows. 
 
 The specimens are next to be dried under pressure, 
 which may be applied by laying a board upon the pa- 
 pers containing them, and putting weights upon it, or 
 by placing them between two shelves and setting a prop 
 down upon them, or by a press made for the purpose. 
 There should be paper enough to accommodate itself 
 to the inequalities of the specimens, and by pressing 
 upon them uniformly and equally in every part to pre- 
 
HERBARIUM. 125 
 
 vent them from shrivelling, which is the very object of 
 pressing them. The degree of pressure should be ac- 
 cording to the nature of the specimens, more being 
 necessary for rugged woody ones than for delicate 
 herbaceous ones $ it should never be so great as to 
 break the specimen and force out the juices. I com- 
 monly apply from 50 to 1 or 2 hundred pounds. 
 
 When a number of specimens are to be dried at 
 once, several folds of empty paper should be interpos- 
 ed between them, and if they are rigid, a piece of book- 
 binder's pasteboard also. The specimens should be 
 frequently taken out and put into dry papers. 
 
 The following is the most expeditious and effectual 
 method of drying the papers I have tried. 
 
 Take a few spare sheets, and having laid the tongs 
 or other convenient instrument from one. andiron to 
 the other of a kitchen fire, set them up against it. 
 When the one next the fire is sufficiently dry and 
 warm, remove it and place a specimen in it, applying 
 the damp paper from which the specimen has been taken, 
 to the backside of the parcel before the fire, and so on, 
 taking a dry paper from the fo reside of the parcel and 
 applying a moist one to the backside, until all the spe- 
 cimens are changed, when they are to be replaced in the 
 press 
 
 Another method equally effectual and more comfort- 
 able in warm weather, though not so expeditious, is to 
 iron the papers dry with a hot flat-iron, instead of plac- 
 ing them before the fire, and then place the specimens 
 in them as before. 
 
 This should be repeated as often as once or twice in 
 a day, or oftener if the weather be damp, or the speci- 
 mens crowded. The best specimens I ever nrenarcd 
 were done by changing and drying the papers once 
 every half hour until they were dry. I cornmoniy \\$Q 
 printing paper, which having little size, is more ab- 
 sorbent than other kinds. 
 11* 
 
126 HEKBARIUM. 
 
 Plants which are not very rigid, can be dried very 
 well in a book without changing, if only two or three 
 are put into a volume. Plants dry very variously ; 
 some unavoidably turn black by drying, as the Or- 
 chis and Cypripedium. Flowers in many instances 
 lose or change their colour $ those that are blue es- 
 pecially. 
 
 After a specimen is dry, it should first be done over 
 with a solution 06 corrosive sublimate in spirits of 
 wine, one drachm to a pint, with a little camphor ; or a 
 solution of aloes, applied by means of a camel's hair 
 pencil. This proves effectual in preventing the attacks 
 of insects. It is next to be fastened to paper, which is 
 best done by means of carpenter's glue. I first used 
 a solution of gum Arabic, but specimens fastened with 
 it are very apt to get detached in a short time, especi- 
 ally if handled. Glue is much superior. As it will 
 not keep in a dissolved state any length of time, it 
 must be dissolved at the time of using, and made into a 
 thin size, which may be done by boiling a small piece 
 in water in any convenient small vessel. A few drops 
 of the solution of corrosive sublimate should be added. 
 The specimen should be held out in one hand, and the 
 size applied while warm uniformly over one side of it, 
 with the other, by means of a large camel's hair pencil. 
 It is then to be put immediately on the paper. Take 
 care to place it right the first time, otherwise the size 
 will deface the paper where is is not required ; a piece 
 of waste paper should be laid over the specimen and 
 another under the paper. In this state put it immedi- 
 ately in the pres& between two or more quires of empty 
 paper to form a bed for it, and screw the press firmly 
 upon it. Let it remain one or two minutes, and taking 
 it out remove the waste papers and apply new ones ; 
 repeat this as often as they are soiled by the size, other- 
 wise the papers will be glued together. 
 
 The paper is usually directed to be of the folio size, 
 (the full size of a quire.) I have commonly used what 
 
HERBARIUM. 127 
 
 is called demy printing paper, folded quarto size, (half 
 the size of the quire.) 1 fasten my specimens to the 
 right hand side of a folded sheet, leaving the other to 
 fold over it. On the outside of the left hand side I 
 write the names of the Class, Order, Genus, and Spe- 
 cies of the plant ; and upon the inside of the same, its 
 name, synonyms, common names, place of growth, 
 time of gathering, and any thing else I wish to remem- 
 ber concerning it. 
 
 Great neatness should be observed in an herbarium. 
 The papers should ail be of the same size, and kept 
 regularly and evenly packed. I have usually kept mine 
 in several parcels, each between two pieces of book- 
 binder's pasteboard, tied down with tapes. 
 
 The uses of prepared specimens are, 
 
 1. To get a knowledge of Plants. When a number 
 of plants are well prepared, we have an opportunity to 
 compare them with each other all at once, and see in 
 what they agree, and in what differ. 
 
 Observation. When a botanist has taken and examined a speci- 
 men, dried and prepared it on paper, as has been directed, and 
 written its name upon it, he will have done about enough, and pro- 
 bably none too much to remember it well. It is well for every one, 
 who wishes to be in any degree a practical botanist, to prepare 
 a few specimens, if it be only fifty or an hundred species. In- 
 dependent of the value of the collection, he will thus acquire a par- 
 ticular knowledge of the plants. 
 
 2. To revive in the memory the names and habits of 
 plants which have been previously examined. 
 
 3. Tojind out unknown plants which cannot be other- 
 wise determined, by sending the specimens to some one 
 acquainted with them. For this purpose duplicates 
 should be prepared and numbered with corresponding 
 numbers, one set being retained when the other is sent 
 for examination. 
 

 QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS. 
 
 A few general questions are here put down. It is 
 left for the instructer to construct particular questions 
 extemporaneously, from the subject of the lesson be- 
 fore him ; varying them according to the knowledge 
 and capacity of "the pupil. For in this as well as oth- 
 er casses an instructer will find it necessary to seek 
 out what avenues are open to the young mind, and 
 shape his precepts accordingly. 
 
 1. What is Natural History ? p. 1. 
 
 2. Into how many branches is Natural History di- 
 vided, and what are they called ? p. 1. 
 
 3. Of what does Zoology treat ? p. ! 
 
 4. Of what does Botany treat? p. 1. 
 
 5. Of what does Mineralogy treat ? p. 1. 
 
 6. What is meant by Characters ? p. 3. 
 
 7. Give an example of a simple character of a 
 plant ? p. 3. 
 
 3. What is system ? p. 3. 
 
 9. What are the advantages of system ? p 3. 
 
 10. How is the vegetable kingdom divided, accord- 
 ing to the Linnsean system ? p. 4. 
 
 11. What divisions are the Classes ? p. 4. 
 
 12. What are the Orders ? p. 4. 
 
 13. What are Genera? p. 4. 
 
 14. Give an example of a Genus ? p. 4. 
 
 15. How is a Genus known ? p. 4. 
 
 16. By what mark is the family of Buttercups 
 known ? p. 4. 
 
 17. What are Species ? p. 4. 
 
 18. Give an example of the Species of a genus? 
 p. 4 & 5. 
 
 1 9. What are Varieties, and how are they distinguish- 
 ed from species ? p. 5. 
 
QUESTIONS. 19 
 
 0. Give an example of Varieties, p. 5. 
 
 21. To what are Classes, Orders, Genera, and Spe- 
 cies compared? p. 5. 
 
 22. What are Vegetables ? p. 5. 
 
 23. What are the Primary divisions into which Bo- 
 tanists divide a plant or vegetable ? p. 5. 
 
 24. Define the Root, p 6. 
 
 5. Of what part does the root consist ? p. 6. 
 
 26. Which of these is most necessary ? p. 6. 
 
 27. Of what does the Herbage consist 1 p. 10. 
 
 29. How many kinds of Trunks are enumerated ? 
 p. 10. 
 
 50. Name each of the 7 kinds and define it so as to 
 see how they differ from each other, p. 10, 15, 16, 
 18, 19, 20. 
 
 51. What do Buds contain ? p. 20. 
 
 32. What is intended by Foliation ? p. 20. 
 
 33. Define a Leaf. p. 22. 
 
 34. What is a simple leaf ? p. 26. 
 
 35. What are compound leaves ? p. 35. 
 
 36. How is a compound leaf distinguished from a 
 branch ? p. 35. 
 
 37. What is meant by Inflorescence ? p. 40. 
 
 38. Define the Appendages of plants, as Stipule, 
 Bract, Spine, Prickle, Tendril, Gland, Hair, arid men- 
 tion examples, p. 38. 
 
 39. Define the various kinds of Inflorescence, as 
 Whorl, Raceme, Spike, Corymb, Fascicle, Umbel, 
 Cyme, Panicle, Thyrse, and mention examples, p. 40. 
 
 40. Of what does the Fructification consist ? p. 45. 
 
 41. What is the use of the fructification ? p. 45. 
 
 42. Does every species of plants produce flower and 
 fruit ? p. 45. 
 
 43 Define the seven parts of fructification, Calyx, 
 Corolla, Stamen, Pistil, Pericarp, Seed, and Recep- 
 tacle, p. 45. 
 
 44. Which of these parts are essential and always 
 present ? p. 43. 
 
 45. Name and define the several kinds of Ca- 
 lyx, p. 46. 
 
ISO QUESTIONS. 
 
 46. Name and define the several kinds of Corolla, 
 p. 49. 
 
 47. What is the Nectary ? p. 53. 
 
 48. Of how many parts does a Stamen consist ? p. 54. 
 
 49. Which of these is essential and always present, 
 and which sometimes wanting ? p. 54. 
 
 50. What is the Pollen ? p. 54. 
 
 51. What causes the Anther to burst? p. 55. 
 
 52. What are the grains of Pollen ? p. 55. 
 
 53. What causes the grains of Pollen to burst ? p. 55. 
 
 54. Of what parts does a Pistil consist? p. 55. 
 
 55. Which of these is absent in some flowers ? p. 55. 
 
 56. What. are the functions of the stamens and pis- 
 tils ? p. 56. 
 
 57. From the office the stamens and pistils perform, 
 is it necessary they should be present in every species 
 of plant ? 56. 
 
 58. When a flower has stamens only, what is it cal- 
 led ? p. 57. 
 
 59. When a flower has pistils only, what is it cal- 
 led ? p. 57. 
 
 60. When a flower has stamens and pistils both, 
 what is it called ? p. 67. 
 
 61. What part of the flower forms the seed-vessel or 
 Pericarp ? p. 57. 
 
 62. What are the various kinds of pericarps? p. 57. 
 
 63. What part of the fructification are all the other 
 parts designed to perfect ? p. 59. 
 
 64. What is the Receptacle ? p. 62. 
 
 65. When is the receptacle called proper and when 
 common ? p. 62. 
 
 66. What is an aggregate flower ? p. 62. 
 
 67. Define the several kinds of aggregate flowers 
 p. 62. 
 
 68. What is the use of dividing arid subdividing the 
 vegetable kingdom into Classes and Orders ? p. 64. 
 
 69. Why are the Classes and Orders called Artificial 
 divisions ? p. 64. 
 
QUESTIONS. 131 
 
 70. Name the Classes and give the character by 
 which each is known, p. 65. 
 
 71. Name the Orders and give the characters by 
 which they are distinguished, p. 68. 
 
 72. Define a Genus, p. 79. 
 
 73. What is meant by the Generic character ? p. 80. 
 
 74. What are species ? p. 83. 
 
 75. What is meant by the Specific character ? p. 84. 
 
 76. From what parts of the plant are the characters 
 of the Classes taken ? p. 85. 
 
 77. From what parts are the characters of the Or- 
 ders taken ? p. 85. 
 
 78. From what parts are the characters of the 
 Genera taken ? p. 85. 
 
 79. From what parts are the characters of Species 
 taken ? p. 85. 
 
 80. How do you proceed to find out an unknown 
 plant ? p. 86. 
 
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 
 
 PLATE 1. 
 
 ROOTS. 
 
 Fig. 1. A FIBROUS ROOT. Ex. Grass, p. 7. 
 
 2. CREEPING. Ex. Mint. 
 
 3. FUSIFORM or SPINDLE-SHAPED. Ex. Radish. 
 
 4. ABRUPT. 
 
 Tuberous Roots. 
 
 5. TUBEROUS. Ex. Potatoe. 
 
 6. Twin tuberous root. Ex. Orchis. 
 
 7. Palmate tuberous root. 
 
 8. Fasciculate tuberous root. 
 
 Bulbous Hoots.]). 8. 
 
 9. Solid bulbous root. Ex. Tulip. 
 
 10. Coated bulbous root. Ex. Onion. 
 
 11. Scaly bulbous root. Ex. Lily. 
 
 12. GRANULATED, p. 9. 
 
 13. JOINTED. 
 
134 EXPLANATION OP PLATES. 
 
 PLATE 2. 
 
 TRUNKS. 
 
 Fig. 1. A STEM (caulis.) p. 10. 
 
 2. Four-ranked stem. p. 11. 
 
 3. Dichotomous or forked stem. p. 11. 
 
 4. Creeping stem. 
 
 5. Twining stem. Ex. Convolvolus. p. 12. 
 
 6. CULM (cuJmtw.) Ex. Grass, p. 15. 
 
 7. SCAPE. Ex. Dandelion. 
 
 a. The scape. 
 
 It. A naked receptacle. 
 
 c. The pappus. 
 
 d. A flower. 
 
 3. FROND. Ex. Polypodium vulgaris. p. 19. 
 
 8 a. STIPE, p. 20. 
 
 9 a. A stipe also. Ex. Fungus. 
 
 b. The Volve, c. the Head of the fungus, 
 
1S6 EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 
 
 PLATE S. 
 
 FOLIATION. p. 23. 
 
 These figures represent sections of buds. 
 Fig. I. A convolute bud* 
 
 2. Involute. 
 
 S. Revolute. 
 
 4. Conduplicate. 
 
 5. Ob volute. 
 
 6. Equitant. 
 7. Plicate. 
 
 8. Imbricate. 
 
 9. Circinal. 
 
 FRUCTIFICATION OF THE FERNS. p. 73. 
 
 10. A Fern leaf having its fruit covered with in- 
 
 volucres, a. One of the involucres or 
 patches magnified. 
 
 11. A capsule of the same. a. Its ring. 6. The 
 
 hemispherical valves. 
 
 FRUCTIFICATION OF THE MOSSES. 73. 
 
 12. AMoss. a. The Perichsetiurn, as in the genus 
 
 Hypmnn* b. The Peduncle, c. The Fruit. 
 
 13. A capsule of a species of Hypnum magnified. 
 
 14. The same with the Calyptra b. separated. 
 
 15. The same with the Lid (operculum) b. sepa- 
 
 rated, exposing the fringe, a. 
 
 16. The same with the exteriour row of the 
 
 fringe a. expanded, the interiour with the 
 points gathered in the centre* 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE VEGETABLE BODY. p. 102. 
 
 17. A section of the branch of an Ash magnified. 
 
 , The bark. /, The wood, b, The sap-ves- 
 sels, c, The concentric layers, d, The sil- 
 ver grain, e, The pith. 
 
 18. The section of its natural size* 
 
 19. A tube or sap-vessel with its coat variously 
 
 perforated and slitted in a spiral manner, 
 0. A simple spiral tube. 
 
EXPLANATION OE PLATES. 
 
 PLATE 4. 
 
 LEAVES. 
 
 Situation and position of leaves.- p. 22. 
 
 Fig. 1. Alternate leaves, p. 23. 
 
 2. Scattered. 
 
 3. Opposite. 
 
 4. Clustered. 
 
 5- Verticillate or Whorled. 
 
 6. Fasciculate. 
 
 7. Imbricate. 
 8* Decussate. 
 9. Two- ranked. 
 
 10. Unilateral. 
 
 Insertion. p. 24. 
 
 11. Peltate, p. 24. 
 
 12. Amplexicaul or Clasping, p. 25. 
 
 13. Connate. 
 
 14. Perfoliate. 
 
 15. Vaginant. 
 
 16. Equitant. 
 
 17. Decurrent. 
 
 18. Flower-bearing. 
 
8 EXPLANATION OF PLAiES* 
 
 PLATE 5. 
 
 LEAVES CONTINUED, 
 
 Form of Simple Leaves. p. 26. 
 
 Fig. 1. Orbicular or circular, p. 6. 
 
 2. Subrotund or roundish, 
 
 S. Ovate. 
 
 4. Obovate. 
 
 5. Elliptical. 
 
 6. Spatulate. p. 27. 
 
 7. Lanceolate. 
 
 8. Wedge-shaped 
 
 9. Linear. 
 
 3 0. Acerose or needle-shaped. 
 
 11. Triangular. 
 
 12. Quadrangular, and Truncate also. 
 IS. Quinquangular. 
 
 14. Deltoid, or trowel-shaped. 
 
 15. Rhomboid. 
 
 16. Reniform, or kidney-shaped. 
 
 17. Cordate, or heart-shaped. 
 
 18. Lunate, or crescent -shaped, p. 28* 
 
 19. Saggittate, or arrow-shaped. 
 
 20. Hastate, or halbert-shaped. 
 
 21. Pandviriform, or fiddle-shaped. 
 
 22. Runcinate, or lion-toothed. 
 
 23. Lyrate, or lyre-shaped. 
 
 24. Cleft or cloven. 
 
 25. Lobed. 
 
EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 139 
 
 PLATE 6. 
 
 LEAVES CONTINUED. 
 
 Fig. 1. A Sinuated leaf. p. 28. 
 
 2. Parted. 
 
 3. Laciniated. p. 29. 
 
 4. Palmate, or hand-shaped. 
 
 5. Pinnatifid. 
 
 6. Bipinnatifid. 
 
 7. Pectinate. 
 
 8. Unequal. 
 
 Termination. p. 29. 
 
 9. Premorse. p. 30. 
 
 10. Retuse. 
 
 11. Emarginate. 
 
 12. Acuminate. 
 
 13. Blunt, with a small point 
 
 14. Mucronate. 
 
 15. Cirrhose, or tendrilled. 
 
 Margins. p. 30. 
 
 16. Spinous. 
 
 17. Ciliate, or fringed. 
 
 18. Dentate, or toothed, p. 31. 
 
 19. Serrate. 
 
 20. Crenate. 
 
140 EXPLANATION OF PI.ATES. 
 
 PLATE 7. 
 
 XEAVES CONTINUED. 
 
 Fig. 1. Jagged. p. 31. 
 
 2. Repand, wavy-bordered. 
 
 Surface. 
 
 3. Plaited, p. 32. 
 
 4. Undulate. 
 
 5. Curled. 
 
 6. Veiny. 
 
 7. Nerved. 
 
 8. Three-nerved. 
 
 9. Base-three-nerved, p. 33. 
 
 10. Triply. nerved. 
 
 Substance, Configuration, #c. p. 3S. 
 
 11. Cylindrical. 
 
 12. Subulate, or awl-shaped, 
 IS. Hatchet-shaped. 
 
 14. Scimitar-shaped. 
 
 15. Three-edged. 
 
 16. Four-edged. 
 
 17. Alienated. 
 
EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 141 
 
 PLATE 8. 
 
 LEAVES CONTINUED, 
 
 Fig. 1. -Hooded, p. 35. 
 
 2. Appendaged. 
 
 Compound Leaves. 
 
 3. Jointed. 
 
 4. Digitate, or fingered, and Quinate also. 
 
 5. Binate. 
 
 6. Tern ate. p. 56. 
 
 7. Pinnate, with an odd leaflet. It is also a 
 
 compound leaf, simply-^-see p. 37. 
 a* A Stipule. 
 
 8. Pinnate, with a tendril. 
 
 . A Stipule. 
 
 9. Pinnate, abruptly. 
 
 10. alternately. * 
 
 11. " interruptedly. 
 
 12. in a ly rate manner. 
 
 13. in a whorled manner. 
 
142 EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 
 
 PLATE 9. 
 
 i 
 
 LEAVES CONTINUED. 
 
 Fig. 1. Twice ternate. p. 37. 
 
 2. Triternate. 
 
 3. Bigeininate, twice paired. 
 
 4. Bipinnate, and Decompound also. 
 
 5. Tri pinnate, and Superdecompound also. 
 
 6. Pedate. 
 
 APPENDAGES. 
 
 7. A Bract, p. 38. 
 
EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 143 
 
 PLATE 10. 
 
 APPENDAGES CONTINUED. p. 38. 
 
 Fig. 1. Spine, or thorn, p. 39. 
 2., A Prickle. 
 
 3. Glands on the leaf-stalk of the Passion- 
 
 flower. 
 
 4. Glands on the calyx of the Moss Rose. 
 
 5. The Nettle, a. One of the stings (stimuli) 
 
 magnified. It is a tube opening at the 
 point and containing a sack of poison at 
 the base, which when pressed on is dis- 
 charged through the point and produces 
 the inflammation and itching in the skin. 
 
 6. A hairy leaf. 
 
 INFLORESCENCE. p. 40. 
 
 7. A Whorl, p. 40. 
 
 8. Raceme. 
 
 9. Spike, p. 41. 
 
144 EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 
 
 PLATE 11. 
 
 IFFLORESCENCE CONTINUED. 
 
 Fig. 1. A Corymb, p. 41. 
 
 2. Fascicle, p. 42. 
 
 3. Umbel. 
 
 a. The universal or general umbel and in- 
 volucre. 
 &. The partial umbel and involucre. 
 
 4. Cyme. p. 43. 
 
 5. Panicle. 
 
 6. Thyrse. 
 
EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 145 
 
 PLATE 12. 
 
 FRUCTIFICATION. 
 
 Parts of a Flower. p. 45. 
 Fig. 1. White Lily, Lilium candidum. 
 
 a a. a. The Co HOLLA consisting of 6 petals. 
 
 b. The STAMENS. 
 
 c The PISTIL, 
 
 d. The NECTARY, which is a groove in the petal, 
 
 2. A dissection, showing the stamens and pistil, 
 
 and likewise (lie RECEPTACLE, a. 
 
 3. A STAMEN, consisting of 
 
 b. The Filament, and 
 
 a. The Anther, p. 54. 
 
 4. The PISTIL, consisting of 
 
 c. The Germen, 
 
 b. The Style, and 
 
 . The Stigma. p. 55. 
 
 13 
 
146 EXPLANATION OF PLATES, 
 
 PLATE 13. 
 
 CALYX. 
 
 Fig. 1. Perianth. Ex. Pink. p. 46. 
 
 2 & 3. Ament. Ex. Willow, p. 48. 
 
 2. The barren flower, b. A floret magnified consisting 
 of 2 stamens and a scale which protects them. 
 
 3 The fertile flower, a. A magnified floret, consisting 
 of a pistil and a scale which protects it. 
 
 4. Ament of the Hazel, a. The barren, and b. The fer- 
 tile flowers. 
 
 5. Spathe. Ex. Wild Turnip, Arum. p. 48. 
 
 a. A stamen-bearing, and b* A pistil-bearing spadix. 
 
 6. a. The spathe of the Narcissus. 
 
 b. Its Nectary. 
 
 7. The Glume. 
 
 a. The valves. 
 
 b. The awns. p. 49. 
 
 8. b. The Calyptra. Ex. Polytricum. p. 49. 
 
 COROLLA. 
 
 9. Bell-shaped, p. 51. 
 
 10. Funnel-shaped, p. 51. 
 
 a. The tube. 
 
 b. The limb. 
 
 11. Salver-shaped, p. 51. 
 
 12. Wheel-shaped, p. 51. 
 
 13. Ilingent, showing the stamens separated, p. 51. 
 
 . The upper lip or helmet. 
 b. The lowar lip or beard. 
 
 14. Personate. Ex. Antirrhinum. 
 
 a. The palate. 
 
 b. The nectary. 
 
 15. Cruciform. 
 
 a. b. One of the petals separated, a its claw, b its 
 border. 
 
 c. The stamens separated. 
 
EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 147 
 
 PLATE 14. 
 
 COROLLA CONTINUED. 
 
 Fig. 1. Papilionaceous or Butterfly-shaped flower. 
 Ex. Sweet Pea. p. 52. 
 
 2. A dissection of the same. 
 
 a. The banner. 
 If. b. The wing-s. 
 c. The keel. 
 
 NECTARIES. 
 
 3. Spur-shaped Nectary of the Columbine, Jlqui* 
 
 tegia. p. 53. 
 
 4. Nectaries of the Monk's-hood, Aconitum. 
 
 5. Fringed Nectary of the Parnassia. p. 54. 
 
 PERICARPS. p. 57. 
 
 6. Capsule of the Thorn-apple, Datum Stram- 
 
 momum. p. 57. 
 
 a. The cells. 
 
 b. The columns. 
 
 7. Silique. p. 58. 
 
 a. The dissepiment. 
 
 b. The valves. 
 
 8. Silicic. 
 
 9. Legume, p. 58. 
 
 10. Drupe. Ex. Cherry, p. 58. 
 
 11. Pome. Ex. Apple, p. 59. 
 
 12. Berry. Ex. Gooseberry, p. 59. 
 
 1 3. Compound berry. Ex. Blackberry, p. 59. 
 
 14. Strobile or Cone. p. 59. 
 
14 S !EXP1*ANATJOX OF PLATES. 
 
 PLATE 15. A. 
 
 CLASSES See Frontispiece. 
 
 Tins plate contains a figure of a flower in each of 
 no 24 Classes. With the exception of 1, 9, and 23, 
 they are either native or commonly cultivated. 
 
 Fig. 1. Monamlria, 1 stamen ; MareVtail, Hippuris 
 vidgaris. Native of Britain. 
 
 Tliis is an example also of the order Monogynia, having- 1 pistil. 
 
 2. Biandria, 2 stamens ; Speedwell, Veronica. 
 
 3. Triandria, 3 stamens ; Common Timothy. 
 
 grass or Herds-grass, Fhieum Pratense, 
 much magnified. 
 
 a. The entire Floret, having three stamens and two 
 feathered styles projecting- from the two compressed 
 glumes which enclose them at the base. 
 
 b. The Pistil shown separate, consisting of the germen 
 and two feathered styles. 
 
 This is an example also of the order fiigynia, having 2 styles. 
 
 4. Tetrandria, 4 stamens ; Cornel, Cornuspani- 
 
 culata, somewhat magnified, 
 
 5. Pentandria, 5 stamens; Common Elder, Sam-. 
 
 bucu-s niger, magnified. 
 
 It is an exemple also of the order Tryginia, having- three sessile 
 fitig-mas. 
 
 6. Hexandria, 6 stamens ; Barberry, Berberis 
 
 vulgaris. 
 
 7. Heptandria, 7 stamens ; Chickweed winter- 
 
 green, Tnentalis Europeans. 
 
 8. Octiindria, 8 stamens ; Dwarf tree primrose, 
 
 (Enothera pumila. 
 
 9. Enneandria, 9 stamens ; Flowering Rush, 
 
 Butomus umbellatus. Native of Britain. 
 This is also an example of the order Hcxag^nia^ having 6 pistils-, 
 
 10. Decaridria, 10 stamens ; Broad-leaved Lau- 
 
 rel or Lamb-kill, Kalmia latifolia. 
 
 11. Dodecandria, 12 to 19 stamens ; Houseleek, 
 
 Sernperowum tetforum. 
 
EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 149 
 
 PLATE 15. CONTINUED. 
 
 12. Icosandria, 20 or more stamens inserted into 
 
 the calyx ; Pear, Pyrus communis. 
 
 tn this specimen the five stamens opposite the segments of the 
 calyx are shorter than the rest. 
 
 B. 
 
 13. Polyandria, stamens more than 20, inserted 
 
 into the receptacle ; Celandine, Chelidonium 
 majus. 
 
 14. Didyriamia, stamens 2 long and 2 short ; 
 
 Selfheal, Prunella Pennsylvania. 
 
 a. The flower. 
 
 b. The stamens and pistils shown separate and magni- 
 
 fied. 
 
 In tlje genus Prunella the filaments are forked, and the anther 
 borne on one point of the fork, as seen in the figure. 
 
 15. Tetradynamia, stamens 4 long and 2 short ; 
 
 White Mustard, Sinapis alba. 
 
 a. The flower of the natural size. 
 
 b. The stamens and pistil magnified. 
 
 c. Glandular nectaries at the base of the stamens. 
 
 d. One of the petals. 
 
 16. Monadelphia, stamens united by their fila- 
 
 ments into one tuhe ; Mallow, Makca. 
 
 a. The flower. 
 
 b. The stamens and pistil separated from the other 
 
 parts of the flower. 
 
 c. The tube of the united filaments. 
 
 d. The anthers. 
 
 e. The styles passing through the tube and appearing 
 
 at top like a pencil. 
 
 An example also of the order Polyandria, having many stamens. 
 IS* 
 
^50 EXPLANATION OF PLATES; 
 
 PLATE 15. CONTINUED. 
 
 IT. Diadclphia, stamens united into two parcels f 
 Sweet Pea, Lathy rus odoratus. 
 
 a The flower. 
 
 b. The stamens and pistil separated from the other 
 
 parts. 
 
 An example also of the order JJecandria, having 1 ten stamens. 
 
 In this as in many other pspilionaceous flowers, there are nine 
 stamens united by their filaments into one parcel and one stamen 
 not united. This drawing- was made from the dissection of a flow- 
 er not quite expanded, in which the anthers were entire and con 
 sequently large. 
 
 Fig. 18. Polyadelphia, stamens united into more than 
 two parcels ; St. John's-wort. Hypericum. 
 
 An example also of the order Potyandria, having 1 many stamens. 
 
 19. Syngenesia; stamensmnited by their anthers 
 into a tube, flowers compound. A floret of 
 the Dandelion,, Leontodon Taraxacum. 
 
 A. The corolla. 
 
 B. The stamens. 
 
 c. The Jive separate filaments* 
 d Tlie tube of united anthers. 
 E. The pistil. 
 
 f. The germen. 
 'ff. The style. 
 
 h. The stigma. 
 
 i. The pappus. 
 
 20 Gynandria, stamens united with, or growing 
 out of the pistil | Ladies'-slipper, Cypri- 
 pediwn acaule. 
 
 a. The pistil. 
 
 b. The germen. 
 
 c. The style and stigma. 
 
 d. One of the anthers. 
 
 e. The pistil separated, having the anthers attached 
 
 to the sides. 
 An example also of the order Fiandria> having two stamens. 
 
 21. Moncecia, stamens and pistils in separate 
 flowers on the same plant 5 Sedge-grass, 
 Carex ccespitosa. 
 
Otf PLATES. 151 
 
 PLATE 15. CONTINUED. 
 
 A. The stamen-bearing- spike. 
 
 b. One of the florets separated, consisting of a glume 
 
 and 3 stamens. 
 C. The pistil-bearing" spikes. 
 d. One of the florets separated, consisting of a pistil 
 
 constituted of a germen, two styles, and a glume 
 
 which protects them. 
 It is also an example of the order Triandria, having three stamens. 
 
 22. Dioecia, stamens and pistils in separate flow- 
 ers on separate plants of the same species 5 
 Willow, Salix. 
 
 A. A stamen-bearing ament. 
 
 b. A floret separated, consisting of two stamens pro- 
 tected by a scale. 
 C. A pistil-bearing ament. 
 d. One of the florets separated, consisting of a pistil 
 
 protected by a scale. 
 It is also an example of the order Dianctria, having two stamens'. 
 
 Fig. 23. Polygamia, stamens and pistils separate in 
 some flowers, united in others, either on 
 the same plant, or on two or three sepa- 
 rate ones of the same species ; Fig, Ficus. 
 
 a. A stamen-bearing flower. 
 
 b. A pistil. bearing flower. 
 
 c. A perfect flower. 
 
 It is likewise an example of the order Triacia, the three kinds 
 of flowers being on three different trees. 
 
 24. Cryptogamia, stamens and pistils obscure. 
 
 A. A a Fern, Polypod, Polypodium vulgaris. 
 b. The patches of fructification. 
 
 C. Hair-cap Moss, Polytrichum. 
 
 D. Scarlet Lichen, Lichen cocineus. 
 
 The above are examples of three of the orders of Oyptogamia, 
 viz. Filices, Musci, and Hepaticae. 
 
 Several of the 24 classes of Linnaeus have been abandoned by 
 several eminent botanists. The classes Polyadelphia and Polyga- 
 mia particularly have been rejected, and the plants distributed in 
 other classes. These are rejected in Eaton's *' Manual," which 
 is consequently arranged under 22 classes. 
 
152 EXPLANATION OF PLATES, 
 
 PLATE 16, 
 
 COMPOUND FLOWERS. p. 70. 
 
 Fig. 1. A compound radiate Flower. Field Dasiy. 
 
 a. The ray or external circle of florets, 
 
 b. The disk or centre. 
 
 c. A lig-ulate floret of the ray separated. 
 
 d. A tubular floret of the disk separated- 
 
 2. A ligulate Flower. Dandelion* 
 
 a. One of the florets separated. 
 
 3. A Discoid flower. Burdock. 
 
 a. A floret separated. 
 
 SEEDS. 
 
 4. A Seed and its appendages. 
 
 a. The seed. 
 
 b. The stipe. 
 
 c. The pappus or down. p. 60. 
 
 5. The wing of a seed. p. 61 
 
 6. A seed having one cotyledon, p. 60. 
 
 7. A seed having two cotyledons, p. 60. 
 
 a. a. The cotyledons. 
 
 b. c The corcule. 
 b. The radicle, and 
 e. The plume. 
 
 8. A seed having many cotyledons, p. 60. 
 
 9. Seminal leaves p. 60. 
 10. Anatomy of wood. p. 104. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Abrupt leaf. See truncated, 29. 
 
 Abruptly branched stem, 11. 
 
 Abruptly pinnate leaf, 36. 
 
 Abrupt root, 7. 
 
 Acerose leaf, 27. 
 
 Acinus, 59. 
 
 Acuieus. See Prickle, 39. 
 
 Acotyledonous plants, CO. 
 
 Acute leaf, 30. 
 
 JEqualis poly gam ia, 71. 
 
 Aggregate flo\v r er, 62, 63. 
 raceme, 40. 
 
 Ala. See Wings, 52. 
 
 Mbumen, 101. 
 
 Alburnum, 105. 
 
 Aerology, 1. 
 
 Alienated leaf, 34. 
 
 Alpine plants, 2. 
 
 Alternate leaves, 23. 
 
 Alternately pinnated leaf, 36. 
 
 Ament, 48. 
 
 Amentaceous flower, 63. 
 
 Ample xicaul leaves, 25. 
 
 Jlnceps caulis. See two-edged 
 stem, 13. 
 
 Angiospermia, 69. 
 
 Annual, 6. 
 
 Anther, 54. 
 
 Appeiidaged leaf, 35. 
 
 APPENDAGES, 38. 
 
 Arillus> 60. 
 
 Arista, See Awn, 49 
 
 Arrow-shaped leaf. See Sagit- 
 tate, 28. 
 
 Articulated. See Jointed, 
 
 Appressed leaves, 23. 
 
 Arboreous stem, 7. 
 
 Arms of plants, 48. 
 
 Artificial system, 64. 
 
 Ascending stem, 12. 
 
 Attenuated peduncle, 18. 
 Auricled leaf, 36. 
 Awn, 49 
 Axillary peduncle, 16, 
 
 B 
 
 liacca. See Berry, 59. 
 
 Banner, 52. 
 
 Bark, 98. 
 
 Barren flowers, 57. 
 
 Base three nerved, 33. 
 
 Beard. See Awn, 49. 
 
 of the corolla, 51. 
 Bell-shaped corolla, 50. 
 Berry, 59. 
 Biennial, 6. 
 Bifid leaf, 28. 
 Bigeminate leaf, 37. 
 Binate leaf, 35. 
 Binate leaves, 23. 
 Bipinnatifid leaf, 29. 
 Bipinnate leaf, 37. 
 Biternate leaf, 37. 
 Blistery leaf, 32. 
 Blunt leaf. See Obtuse, 30. 
 Border of the petal, 50. 
 Botany defined, 1. 
 Brachiatus caulis. See Four- 
 
 ranked, 11, 
 Bract, 38. 
 Bristle}', 14. 
 BUDS, 20. 
 Bulbous roots, 8. 
 Butterfly-shaped corolla. See 
 
 Papilionaceous, 52. 
 
 C 
 
 Caducous corolla, 52, 
 Calyculate calyx, 47. 
 Caiyptra, 49. 
 Calyx, 46. 
 
154 
 
 JNBEX. 
 
 Cambium, 115. 
 
 Campanulata corolla. See Bell- 
 
 shaped, 51. 
 Canilicuiatum folium. See Chan- 
 
 nelled, 33. 
 
 Capitulum. See Head, 42. 
 Capsule, 57. 
 Carina. See Keel, 52. 
 Cartilaginous leaf, 31. 
 Catkin. See Ament, 48, 
 Caudex, 6. 
 Cauline leaves, 22. 
 
 peduncle, 16. 
 Caulis. See Stem, 10. 
 Cells of the seed-vessel, 58. 
 Cellular integument, 103. 
 Characters, 3. 
 Ciliate leaf; 30. 
 
 calyx, 47. 
 Cirrhose leaf, 30. 
 Cirrhus. See Tendril, 39. 
 Classes, general definition of, 4. 
 
 explained, 55. 
 Clasping- leaves. See Amplexi- 
 
 caul, 25. 
 
 Claw of the petal, 50. 
 Cleft leaf, 28. 
 
 perianth, 47. 
 Climbing- stem, 12. 
 
 petiole, 19. 
 
 Club-shaped petiole, 19. 
 Cluster. See Raceme, 40. 
 Clustered peduncles, 17. 
 
 leaves, 23. 
 Coloured leaf, 33. 
 Collumn, 58. 
 Common peduncle, 16. 
 
 receptacle, 62. 
 Compound Berry, 59. 
 corymb, 42. 
 flowers, 63, 
 leaf, 35. 
 leaves, 35. 
 peduncle, 16. 
 spike, 41. 
 umbel, 42. 
 Compressed leaf, 33. 
 stem, 13. 
 Gencave leaf, 32* 
 
 Conduplicate leaf, 31. 
 
 Cone. See Strobile, 59. 
 
 Conjugate leaf, 37. 
 
 Connate leaves, 35. 
 
 Convex leaf, 32. 
 
 Corcule, 59. 
 
 Cordate leaf, 27. 
 
 Coriaceum folium. See Lathery, 
 34. 
 
 COROLLA, 49. 
 
 Cortex, 104> 
 
 Corymb, 41. 
 
 Costatum folium. See Nerved, 32. 
 
 Cotyledons, 59. 
 
 Creeping. See Repent, 
 
 Crenate leaf, 31. 
 
 Crispum folium. See Curled, 32. 
 
 Cross-shaped corolla. See Cru- 
 ciform. 
 
 Cruciform corolla, 52. 
 
 Cryptogamia class, 67. 
 
 Cucullatum folium* See Hooded; 
 35. 
 
 CUL*, 15. 
 
 Cuneiform leaf, 27. 
 
 Cup -shaped nectary, 54. 
 
 Curled leaf, 32. 
 
 Cuticle, 103. 
 
 Cylindrical leaf, 33. 
 
 Cyme, 43. 
 
 Cymose flower, 63. 
 
 D 
 
 "Decandria, 65. 
 Deciduous corolla, 52. 
 
 leaf, 34 
 
 Decompound leaf, 37. 
 Decurrent leaves, 25. 
 Decurrently pinnated leaf, 36. 
 Decussate leaves, 23. 
 Deltoid leaf, 27. 
 Dense panicle, 43. 
 Dentate leaf, 31. 
 Depressed leaf, 33. 
 Diadelphia, 66. 
 Diandria, 65. 
 Dichotomous stem, 11. 
 Dicotyledonous plants, 69. 
 Didynamia, 66. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 155 
 
 Digitate leaf, 35, 
 Digynia, 69. 
 Dimidiate involucre, 48. 
 Dicecia, 67 
 
 Dipetalous corolla, 50. 
 Discoid flowers, 71. 
 Disk, 71. 
 
 Dissectum folium, 27. 
 Dissepiments, 5 
 Distichus cciutis. See Two-rank- 
 ed, 10. 
 
 Divaricate panicle, 43. 
 Dodec'indria, 65. 
 Dotted leaf, 32. 
 Doubly serrate leaf, 31. 
 Down See Pappus, 60. 
 Downy, 14* 
 
 Drooping- peduncle, 17. 
 Drupe, 58. 
 
 Elliptical leaf, 26. 
 Emarginate leaf, 30. 
 Embryo. See Corcule, 59. 
 Emerged leaves, 24. 
 Enneandria, 65 
 Ensiform leaf, 34. 
 Entire leaf, 30. 
 Epidermis, 103. 
 Equitant leaves, 25. 
 Erect leaves, 24. 
 
 stem, 11. 
 
 Erosum folium. See Jagged, 31. 
 Essential character, 82. 
 Equal corolla, 50. 
 Evergreen leaves, 34. 
 Exotic plants, 2 
 Extra-axillary peduncles, 17. 
 
 Fascicle, 42. 
 Fasciculate leaves, 23. 
 Fascicular root, 8. 
 Fastigiate stem, 11. 
 Faux. See Throat, 51. 
 Feathery pappus. See Plumose, 
 
 61. 
 Ferns. See Filices, 73. 
 
 Fertile flowers, 59. 
 Fibrous root, 7. 
 Fiddle-shaped leaf. See Pandu- 
 
 nform, 28. 
 Filament, 54. 
 Filices, 73. 
 
 Filiform peduncle, 18. 
 Fingered leaf. See Digitate, 35. 
 Fistulous stem. See Hollow, 15. 
 Five-sided stem, 13. 
 Flaccid peduncle, 17. 
 FlagelLform stem, 12. 
 Flattened petiole, 19. 
 Fleshy leaf, 33. 
 
 FlexufAis peduncle, 17. 
 stem, 12. 
 
 Florets, 70 
 
 Floscular umbel, 43. 
 
 Flower-bearing leaf, 25. 
 
 Foliation, 20. * 
 
 Forked stem. See Dichotomous s 
 11. 
 
 Four-cornered stem, 13. 
 
 Four-edged leaf, 34. 
 
 Four ranked stem, 11. 
 
 Fringed leaf. See Ciliate, 30. 
 
 Fringe of mosses, 74. 
 
 Frond, 19. 
 
 Frustranea polygamia, 72. 
 
 Fruticose stem, 8 
 
 Fulcra. See Supports, 39. 
 
 Functions of the stamens and 
 pistils, 56. 
 
 G 
 
 Galea. See Helmet, 51. 
 Gape of the corolla, 51. 
 Gemma. See Bud, 20. 
 Genera, general definitions of, 4. 
 particular explanation of, 
 79. 
 Generic characters, 80. 
 
 names, 80. 
 
 Geniculate culm, 15. 
 Germen, 55. 
 Germination, 100. 
 Gibbous leaf, 23. 
 Glabrous. See Smooth, 14. 
 
156 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Gland, 39. 
 Glandular leaf; 31. 
 
 nectary, 54. 
 
 Glaucous. See Mealy, 14. 
 Glume, 49. 
 Glumose flower, 63. 
 Granulated root, 9. 
 Gymnospermia, 69. 
 Gynandria, 67. 
 
 H 
 
 Hairs of plants, 39. 
 
 Hairy, 14. 
 
 Hairy pappus. See Pilose, 61. 
 
 Halbert-shaped leaf. See lias- 
 
 tate, 28* 
 
 Half cylindric stem, 13. 
 Hastate leaf, 28. 
 Hatchet-shaped leaf, 34. 
 Head, 42. 
 
 Heart-ovate leaf, 38. 
 Heart-shaped leaf. See Cordate, 
 
 27. 
 
 Helmet of the corolla, 51. 
 Hepaticae, 74. 
 Heptandria, 65. 
 Herb, 2. 
 
 Herbaceous stem, 10. 
 HERBAGE, 10. 
 Herbarium, 123. 
 Hexandria, 65. 
 Hexapetalous corolla. 50. 
 Hilum See Scar, 60. 
 Hispid. See Bristly, 14. 
 Hoary, 14. 
 Hollow stem, 15. 
 Hood of mosses. See Calyp- 
 
 tra, 49. 
 
 Hooded leaf, 35. 
 Horizontal leaf, 24. 
 Hortus Siccus, See Herbarium, 
 
 123. 
 
 Husk. See Glume, 49. 
 Hypocrateriform corolla. See 
 
 Salver-shaped, 51. 
 
 losandria, 65. 
 
 Imbricate leaves, 23. 
 calyx, 47. 
 
 Incanus. See Hoary, 14. 
 Incomplete corolla, 52. 
 
 flower, 62. 
 
 Incrassated peduncle, 18. 
 Incurved leaves. See Inflexed, 
 
 24. 
 
 Indigenous plants, 2. 
 Inducinm, 73. 
 Liferiour germen, 55. 
 calyx, 55. 
 corolla, 55. 
 Inflated calyx, 47. 
 Inflexed leaves, 24. 
 
 INFLORESCENCE, 40. 
 
 Infundibuliformis corolla. See 
 
 Funnel-stiaped, 51. 
 Integrum folium* See Entire, 
 
 30. 
 
 Interruptedly pinnate leaf, 36. 
 Interrupted spike, 41. 
 Introduction, 1. 
 Involucre, 48. 
 
 of the ferns, 73* 
 Involute leaf, 31. 
 Irregular corolla, 50. 
 
 Jagged leaf, 31. 
 Jointed culm, 15. 
 
 leaf, 35. 
 Jointedly pinnated leaf, 36, 
 
 Keel, 52. 
 
 Kingdoms of Nature, 1. 
 Kidney-shaped leaf. See Reni- 
 form, 27. 
 
 Labiate flowers. See Ringent 
 
 and Personate, 51. 
 Lacinnated leaf, 29. 
 Lamina. See Border, 50. 
 Lanceolate leaf, 27. 
 Lateral peduncle, 17. 
 Lax panicle, 43. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 In? 
 
 Leafless plants, 22. 
 Leathery leaf, 34. 
 Leaves, 22. 
 Legume,, 58. 
 Liber, 104. 
 Ligulute coiolla, 52. 
 florets, 71. 
 Liliaceous corolla, 52. 
 Limb of the corolla, 50. 
 Linear leaf, 27. 
 Lion -toothed leaf. See Runci- 
 
 ate, 28. 
 
 Liverworts. See Hepatic x. 74. 
 Lobed leaf, 28. 
 
 leaves, 26. 
 Loment, 58. 
 Lunulate leaf, 27. 
 Lyrate leaf, 28. 
 
 M. 
 
 Maculatus. See Spotted, 14. 
 Marcescent corolla, 52. 
 Mealy, 14. 
 Medulla, 106. 
 Medullary stem, 15, 
 
 Membranous leaf, 35. 
 
 pappus, 61. 
 
 Mineralogy, 1. 
 Monadelphia, 66. 
 Monandria, 65. 
 Monocotyledonous plants, 60. 
 Moncecia, 67. 
 
 Monogamia Syngenesia, 72. 
 Monogyni?, 69. 
 Monopetalous corolla, 50, 
 Monophyllous calyx, 47. 
 Mosses. See Musci, 73. 
 Mucronate leaf, 30. 
 Muricate calyx, 49. 
 
 Musci, 73. 
 
 N 
 
 Naked flower, 62. 
 
 Natant leaves, 24. 
 
 Natural orders, 89. 
 
 History defined, 1. 
 Necessariapolyg-amia, 72. 
 Nectariferous glands. See 
 r nectary, 54. 
 
 14 
 
 Nectariferous scale, 54. 
 
 Nectary, 53. 
 
 Needie-sha.ped leaf. See Ace- 
 rose, 27. 
 
 Nerved leaf, 32. 
 
 Nicked leaf. See Emarginate, 
 30. 
 
 Nitidus* See Shining, 14. 
 
 Notched leaf* See Emargi- 
 nate, 30. 
 
 Clique leaves, 24. 
 Oblong leaf, 26. 
 Obovate leaf, 26. 
 Obtuse leaf, 30. 
 Octandria, 65. 
 One-rowed panicle, 43. 
 
 spike, 41. 
 
 Opposite leaves, 22. 
 Orbicular leaf, 26. 
 Orders, general definition of, 4. 
 particularly explained, 68. 
 Orifice of the corolla, 50. 
 Oval leaf. See Elliptical, 26. 
 Ovate leaf; 26. 
 Ovate-lanceolate, 38. 
 
 Palate, 51. 
 Palmate leaf, 29. 
 
 root, 6. 
 
 Panduriform leaf, 28. 
 Panicle, 43. 
 Paniculate stem, 11. 
 Papilionaceous corolla, 52. 
 Papillose, 14. 
 Pappus, 60. 
 Parted leaf, 28. 
 
 Perianth, 47. 
 Partial involucre, 48. 
 
 peduncle, 16. 
 Patentia folia. See Spreading-, 
 
 24. 
 
 Pectinate leaf, 29. 
 Pedate leaf, 37. 
 
 Pedicelled down. See Stipitatf 
 pappus, 61. 
 
158 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Peduncle, 16. 
 
 Peltate leaf, 24. 
 
 Pcntagonus cutilis. See Five- 
 sided, 13. 
 
 Pentandria, 65. 
 
 Pentapetalous corolla, 50. 
 
 Perennial, 6. 
 
 Perfect flowers, 57. 
 
 Perfoliate leaves, 25. 
 
 Perianth, 46. 
 
 Perianthium diphyllwn. See two- 
 leaved, 47. 
 
 Pericarp, 46, 57. 
 
 PericJifliwn, 49. 
 
 Peristomium. See Fringe, 74. 
 
 Personate corolla, 51. 
 
 Perspiration of leaves. 
 
 Petal, 49. 
 
 Petiolate leaves, 24. 
 
 Petiole, 17. 
 
 Pilose pappus, 61. 
 
 Pilosus. See Hairy, 14. 
 
 JPilus. See Hair, 39. 
 
 Pinnate leaf, 36. 
 
 Pinnatifid leaf, 29. 
 
 Pistil, 46, 55. 
 
 Pistil-bearing flowers, 57. 
 
 Pith, 106. 
 
 Plaited leaf, 32. 
 
 Plumose pappus, 61. 
 
 Plumula. See Plume, 59. 
 
 Pod. SeeSilicle, 58. 
 
 Poisonous Plants, rules to dis- 
 tinguish, 88. 
 
 Pollen, 54. 
 
 Polished, 14. 
 
 Polyadelphia, 66. 
 
 Polyandria 16. 
 
 Polycotyledonous plants, 60. 
 
 Poly gam ia, 67. 
 
 Polygynia, 69. 
 
 Polypetalous corolla, 50. 
 
 Pome, 59. 
 
 Prsemorse root. See Abrupt, 7. 
 leaf, 30. 
 
 Prickle, 39. 
 
 Primary divisions of a vegeta- 
 ble, 5. 
 
 Prismatic calyx, 47. 
 
 Procumbent stem, 11. 
 Proliferous stem, 11. 
 Proper receptacle, 62. 
 Prostrate stem, 12. 
 Pubescence, 39. 
 
 Quadrangular leaf, 27. 
 
 Quadrangular stem. See Four- 
 cornered, 13. 
 
 Quaternate leaves, 23. 
 
 Quinate leaves, 23. 
 
 Quinquangnlaris caulis, See 
 Five- sided, 13. 
 
 R 
 
 Raceme, 40. 
 
 Radiate compound flowers, 71 
 
 umbels, 43. 
 Radical leaves, 22. 
 Rndicans cau!is 9 12. 
 Radicant stem, 12. 
 Radicle of the eorcule, 59. 
 Radicles of the root, 6. 
 Radix. See Root, 6. 
 Rameal leaves, 22. 
 Ramose peduncle, 16. 
 Ray, 71. 
 
 Receptacle, 46, 62. 
 Reclinate leaf, 24. 
 Reclining stem, 12. 
 Rectus caulis. See Straight, 12. 
 Recurved leaves, 24. 
 
 petioie, 19. 
 Reflexed leaves. See Recurved, 
 
 24. 
 
 Regular corolla, 50. 
 Reniform leaf, 27. 
 Repand leaf, 31. 
 Repens cautis 9 ll. 
 Radix, 7. 
 
 Resupinate leaves, 24. 
 Retuse leaf, 30. 
 Revolute leaf, 31. 
 Rhomboid leaf, 27. 
 Ribbed leaf. See Nerved, 32. 
 Rictus. See Gape, 51. 
 Ring of the ferns, 73. 
 Ringent corolla, 51. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 159 
 
 HOOT, 6. 
 
 Rosaceous corolla, 52. 
 
 Rotate corolla. Sec Wheel- 
 
 shaped, 51. 
 Round stem, 13. 
 Roundish leaf, 26. 
 Rugged leaf. See Wrinkled, 32. 
 fiugosum folium. See Wrinkled, 
 
 32. 
 Runcinate leaf, 28. 
 
 Salver-shaped corolla, 51. 
 Sagittate leaf, 28. 
 Sap, 110. 
 Sap-vessels, 110. 
 Sarmentose stem, 12. 
 Scabrous, 14. 
 Scaly, 13. 
 Scale nectary, 54. 
 Scaly bulbous root, 8. 
 
 scape, 16. 
 
 Scandens. See Climbing, 12. 
 Scape, 15. 
 
 Scar of the seed, 60. 
 Scariose calyx, 47. 
 Scattered peduncles, 17. 
 
 leaves, 23. 
 
 Scimitar-shaped leaf, 34. 
 Secunda folia. See Unilateral, 
 
 Secunda spica. See One-row- 
 ed, 41. 
 
 Secundus racemm, 40. 
 
 Seeds, 46, 59. 
 
 Seed-vessel. See Pericarp, 57. 
 
 Segregata polygamia, 72. 
 
 Scmiteres caulis. See Half cy- 
 lindric, 13. 
 
 Seminal leaves, 60. 
 
 Separated flowers, 57. 
 
 Serrate leaf, 31. 
 
 Sernilatum folium. See Minute- 
 ly serrate, 31. 
 
 Sessile anther, 54. 
 leaves, 25. 
 pappus. 61, 
 
 Shaggy, 14. 
 
 Sheath. See Spathe, 48. 
 Sheathing leaf. See Vaginant, 
 
 25. 
 
 Shining 14. 
 Shrub, 2. 
 Silicle, 58. 
 Siliculosa, 70. 
 Siliqua. See Sllique, 58. 
 Silique, 58. 
 Silver-grain, 106. 
 Simple flower, 62. 
 
 leaves, 26. 
 
 peduncle, 16, 
 
 petiole, 19. 
 Sinuated leaf, 28. 
 Sleep of plants, 121. 
 Solid bulbous root, 8. 
 Solitary peduncle, 17. 
 Spadix, 49. 
 Spadiceous flower, 63. 
 Spathe, 48. 
 Spatulate leaf, 27. 
 Species of plants, 4, 83. 
 Specific character, 83. 
 Spike 41. 
 Spikelet,41. 
 Spine, 39. 
 Spinous leaf, SO. 
 
 cal}x, 47. 
 Spiral vessels, 113. 
 Spiral stalk. See Twining, 1%, 
 
 spike, 41. 
 
 Spreading stem, 12. 
 petiole, 19. 
 leaves, 24. 
 Spotted stem, 14. 
 Spur, 53. 
 Squamosum periamhiimim* See 
 
 Imbricate, 47. 
 Squarrose perianth, 47. 
 Stamens, 46, 54. 
 Stamen- bearing flowers, 57. 
 Stameniferous flowers, 57. 
 Standard. See Banner, 52. 
 Stem, 10. 
 
 Stemless plants, 16. 
 Stigma, 55. 
 Stipe, 23. 
 
160 
 
 ISTDEX. 
 
 Stipitate pappus, 61. 
 
 Stipule, 38. 
 
 Striated, 14. 
 
 Strictus caulis. See Straight, 12. 
 
 Strobile, 59. 
 
 Style, 55. 
 
 Submersed leaves, 24. 
 
 Subrotundum folium, 26. 
 
 Subsessile leaf, 58. 
 
 Subulate leaf. S3. 
 
 Sulcatus. See Furrowed, 14. 
 
 Super flu a poly gam ia, 71. 
 
 Superiour calyx, 55. 
 
 corolla, 55. 
 
 g-ermen. 55. 
 
 Superdecompound leaf, 57. 
 Sword-shaped leaf. See Ensi- 
 
 form, 34. 
 Syngenesia, 70. 
 System of Linnaeus, 64. 
 
 T 
 
 Table of the Classes and Or- 
 ders, 75. 
 
 Tail of the seed, 61. 
 
 Tendril, 39. 
 
 Tendiilled leaf. See Cirrhose, 
 30. 
 
 Teres caulis t 13. 
 
 folium. See Cylindrical, 
 33. 
 
 Tergeminate leaf, 3f . 
 
 Terminal peduncle, 17. 
 
 Ternate leaf, 36. 
 
 Testa. See Skin, 60. 
 
 Tetradynamia, 66. 
 
 Tetragonum folium. See Four- 
 edged, 34. 
 
 caulis, 13. 
 
 Tetragynia, 69. 
 
 Tetrandria, 65. 
 
 Tetrapetalous, corolla, 50. 
 
 Thorn, 39. 
 
 Three-edged leaf, 34. 
 
 Three nerved leaf, 32. 
 
 Three-lobed leaf, 28. 
 
 Three-sided leaf, 34. 
 stem, 13. 
 
 Thyrse, 43. 
 
 Tomentosus. See Downy, 14. 
 
 Tongue- shaped leaf, ;>4. 
 
 Toothed leaf. See Dentate, 31. 
 
 Tree, 2. 
 
 Triandria, 65. 
 
 Triangular leaf, 27. 
 stem, 13. 
 
 Trigonum folium. See Three- 
 edged. 54. 
 
 Trig-onus caulis. See Three- 
 sided, 13. 
 
 Trigyma, 69. 
 
 Trilnbum folium. See Three- 
 loted, 28. 
 
 Triner-ve folium. See Three* 
 nerved, S2. 
 
 Trioecia, 72. 
 
 TripUnerve folium* 33. 
 
 Tripiunate leaf, 37. 
 
 Tripeialous corolla, 51. 
 
 Triternate leaf, 37. 
 
 Trowel-shaped leaf. See Del- 
 toid, 27. 
 
 Truncate leaf, 29. 
 
 Tube of the corolla, 50. 
 
 Tuberous root, 7. 
 
 Tubular corolla, 51. 
 florets, 71. 
 leaf, 33. 
 
 Tuft. See Capitulum, 42. 
 
 Tunicate bulb, 8. 
 
 Turbinate perianth, 47. 
 
 Twin root, 7. 
 
 Twining stem, 12. 
 
 Two-edged leaf, 34. 
 
 stem, 13. 
 
 Two-ranked leaves, 23. 
 stem, 10. 
 
 Two-rowed spike, 41. 
 
 U 
 
 Umbel, 42. 
 
 Umbellate flowers, 63. 
 Unarmed leaf, 30. 
 Under-shrub, 2. 
 Undivided leaf, 26. 
 Undulate leaf, 32. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 161 
 
 Unequal leaf, 29. 
 
 corolla, 50. 
 Unilateral leaves, 23. 
 
 raceme, 40. 
 United flowers, 57. 
 Universal involucre, 48. 
 umbel, 42. 
 
 Vaginant leaves, 25. 
 
 Valves, 57. 
 
 Variegated leaf, 33. 
 
 Varieties, 5, 85. 
 
 Vegetable defined, 5. 
 
 Veiny leaf, 32. 
 
 Ventticosum perianthium. See 
 
 Inflated, 47. 
 
 Vemcosus. See Warty, 14. 
 Vertical leaves, 24. 
 Verticillate stem, 11. 
 Verticillus. See Whorl, 40. 
 Vexillum. See Banner, 52. 
 Villosus. See Shaggy, 14. 
 Viscid, 14. 
 Vitellus, 101. 
 Volubilis caulis. See Twining 1 , 
 
 12. 
 
 Volva, 49. 
 
 W 
 
 Warty, 14. 
 
 Waved leaf. See Undulate, 32* 
 
 Wedge- shaped leaf, 26. 
 
 Wheel-shaped corolla, 51. 
 
 Whorl, 40. 
 
 Whorled leaves. See Verticil- 
 late, 23. 
 
 Whorled stem. See Verticil- 
 late, 11. 
 
 Wings of a papilionaceous flow- 
 er, 52. 
 
 Wing of the seed, 61. 
 
 AVinged stem, 13 . 
 petiole, 19. 
 
 Wood, 104. 
 
 Wrapper. See Volva, 49. 
 
 Wrinkled leaf, 32. 
 
 Yoked leaf. See Conjugate, 
 Yolk, 101. 
 
 Zoology, 1 
 
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