MODERN METROLOGY 
 
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 I 
 

i :;,:,:.:;', 
 
MODERN METROLOGY 
 
 A MANUAL OF THE 
 
 METRICAL UNITS AND SYSTEMS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 PRESENT CENTURY 
 
 WITH AN APPENDIX CONTAINING A PROPOSED ENGLISH SYSTEM 
 
 BY 
 
 LOWIS D'A. JACKSON 
 
 i \ 
 
 AUTHOR OF 'AID TO SURVEY-PRACTICE' 'HYDRAULIC MANUAL AND STATISTICS' 
 ' CANAL AND CULVERT TABLES ' ETC. 
 
 LONDON 
 CROSBY LOCK WOOD AND CO. 
 
 7 STATIONERS'-HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL 
 1882 
 
LONDON : PRINTED BY 
 
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 AND PARLIAMENT STREET 
 
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 lABCtTRS ARE INSCRIBE 
 
 ijHE IN'^'EllE- f /AKF:N BY 
 1 RNi'rLIHIH; Vi 1.ZG11TS AND .', 
 
 Ill 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 MEASURES, as exemplified in the pecks, pots and pounds 
 of the tradesman, may at the onset appear uninviting 
 and uninteresting from the fact of their being generally 
 associated with small shopping transactions. The subject, 
 however, even in the smallest of its bearings, cannot be 
 viewed with indifference. 
 
 Among almost all nations, an adherence to the cus- 
 tomary measures of the people is generally a deep-rooted 
 sentiment much akin to conformity to habitual forms of 
 religious ceremony, old politicalnst itutions, and ancient 
 modes of linguistic expression. Such conservatism is a 
 habit of the masses, including preponderating numbers 
 of unreflecting and narrow-minded persons ; while the 
 opposite phase of thought and tendency, progress and 
 improvement, constitute the aim of the more enlightened 
 and the scientific ; the balance between the two is much 
 affected by temporary circumstances, and controlled by 
 fitful impulse. Change is sometimes considered harass- 
 ing, sometimes eagerly welcomed. Any important 
 alteration in the measures of a country cannot be unat- 
 tended with some difficulty ; while the adoption of foreign 
 measures, and the abolition of the indigenous measures, 
 
viii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 i 
 
 nearly amounts to a national disgrace from the implied 
 admission that the nation cannot devise or produce a 
 sufficiently good system for itself. 
 
 Measures are essentially national, and it is in this 
 respect that they are chiefly of interest. 
 
 There is, perhaps, no more rapid and certain mode of 
 tracing the influence of a race than through the adoption 
 of its measures. Language may vary in districts, in 
 families, and in individuals ; habits and customs, even 
 modes of construction and of destruction, may follow 
 diverse lines within very circumscribed areas ; but 
 measures take the most condensed form in which a nation 
 can indicate its peculiarity. 
 
 A collection of the measures of all nations constitutes 
 in one form an annal of the world, and metrology in the 
 same way corresponds to history ; in this respect 
 measures become scientifically interesting. 
 
 Ancient metrology has its votaries, some that like it 
 for itself, others that explore it for its scientific interest 
 as the foundation of modern and of present measures, 
 and as throwing light on probable future development. 
 Useful and indispensable though it may be in some re- 
 spects, it is yet too antiquarian and frequently too vague 
 to command many followers. 
 
 Modern metrology, on the contrary, forms a branch 
 of ordinary education, and supplies part of the stock of 
 general knowledge that every well-informed man should 
 possess. If it is incumbent on the masses that their 
 children should learn at school the measures, or as they 
 are commonly termed, the weights 1 and measures, of 
 
 1 It is an unfortunate and irrational English mode of expression to 
 
INTRODUCTION. ix 
 
 their native country, it is no less requisite that the more 
 highly educated should have some knowledge of the 
 measures of all countries. 
 
 Books on the subject are few, and frequently have the 
 defects of being unnecessarily and repulsively dry, as 
 well as highly inaccurate and incorrect. As regards dry- 
 ness, probably nothing can equal the repulsiveness of a 
 column or set of measures unaccompanied by any expla- 
 nation of the purposes, history, or mode of formation or 
 subdivision ; perhaps, however, a column of difficult 
 words in a child's spelling-book, without any account of 
 their derivations, or illustration of their meanings, forms 
 an analogous case. With reference to incorrectness, this 
 may be of two kinds, one due to simple errors and 
 clerical mistakes both on the part of the author and of 
 the printer : the other due to mistaken principles. The 
 revision and seeing through press of such books consti- 
 tutes a formidable undertaking, which should properly 
 involve working-out and re-checking every figure, a 
 labour most often neglected not only on account of the 
 toil, but because press-corrections are exceedingly ex- 
 pensive and charged on elastic principles ; while the 
 general public estimate the value of a book less according 
 to the value of its information and the labour involved in 
 its production, than by its weight of paper, size of type, 
 and other small details. 
 
 speak of a measure of weight, or unit of weight, as an actual weight. A 
 measure of anything, whether of power, elasticity, heat, weight or distance, 
 should never be confounded either with the amount or with the quality 
 estimated. The clerk that refers in anecdote to a cow as ' my gentleman ' 
 is not more illogical or inaccurate than those that adopt the term weight 
 to represent a unit or a measure of weight. 
 
x INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The errors due to mistaken principles generally may 
 be ascribed to the following causes. 
 
 The values of units of measure are sometimes com- 
 piled from the first available book, regardless of the 
 probable time, mode, or circumstances under which the 
 comparison of the standard unit was effected, and the 
 number of figures to which the value may be safely relied 
 on. If, as is often the case, the original comparison was 
 made in foreign units, the multiples of a converted value 
 are then liable to an error amounting to a multiple of 
 the primary error in conversion. Next, as a great 
 number of comparisons have been made with French 
 units at o Centigrade in vacuo, and as the English 
 standard commercial temperature is now 62 Fahrenheit, 
 and was formerly 30 Fahrenheit, in air at 30" baro- 
 meter, allowances for the change of temperature and dis- 
 placement of air are almost invariably quite neglected ; 
 this makes a serious difference in the values of large 
 multiples or units, and may vitiate many pages of units r 
 or even a whole book. 
 
 These defects have, as far as possible, been avoided 
 in this work ; and, as a rule, English books on the sub- 
 ject have not been made use of. The allowances for 
 temperature, pressure, and air-displacement are the same 
 as in the conversion tables for English and French 
 measures attached to the translation of Kutter's work on 
 velocity-formulae (London, Spon, 1876), and are very 
 nearly identical with those published later by the Warden 
 of the Standards in the Report for 1872, issued a few 
 years afterwards. 
 
 The principal sources of reference and compilation 
 
INTRODUCTION. xi 
 
 here utilised are the whole series of Reports of the 
 Warden of the Standards from 1866 to 1878, and 
 Doursther's ' Dictionnaire des Poids et Mesures,' Brux- 
 elles, 1 840, a book long out of print, in which sometimes, 
 the French values and sometimes the English values are 
 correct ; also such information as was collected by 
 myself in Europe, Asia, Africa and America during 
 travel and intervals of professional work, and that due to 
 the kind aid of foreign consulates and embassies in 
 England. In one or two instances a small amount of 
 information may have been taken from sources now for- 
 gotten. Some of the Persian measures in Clarke's 
 Persian Manual (London, Allen, 1875), and some of the 
 Japanese and Chinese measures in Browne's * Merchant's. 
 Handbook/ were used at the suggestion of the corre- 
 sponding embassies ; some stray information may also- 
 have been gleaned from books of travel. 
 
 But, under all circumstances, the whole of the values- 
 adopted in this book have been worked out afresh from 
 the basic units believed to be the most correct available. 
 Any values of the multiples of these basic units will 
 necessarily hold with exactitude to the last figure, after 
 allowing for augmentation, only in the original series 
 in which the comparison was made ; sometimes, in the 
 French values, sometimes in the English values. 
 
 As regards the measures only used actually at the 
 present day, it would be perfectly impossible to distin- 
 guish them authoritatively from others that have only 
 lately become nominally obsolete. It may be noticed 
 that legal enactments do not rapidly sweep away old 
 measures, which are liable to survive to a very wide 
 
xii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 extent under all circumstances, in spite of comminatory 
 fine and imprisonment Old measures, too, that may 
 even have become practically as well as legally obsolete, 
 so frequently survive in the language and books of a 
 people, that it becomes convenient to have their values 
 recorded for reference in a book of this sort. The whole 
 of the measures of the present century are therefore in- 
 cluded in this collection, excepting the old French and 
 Belgian units, which would require an extra volume ; 
 thus, even when any nation has already both adopted 
 French measures and abolished its own by legal enact- 
 ment, the old measures will be found in the book, and 
 the French system can be referred to in order to obtain 
 the new measures. 
 
 The dates of the legal adoption of French measures 
 by various nations will be found in the text (page 14*7) ; 
 but those of their actual employment in internal trade 
 to the exclusion of national measures cannot be deter- 
 mined with certainty. 
 
 It is a marked feature in the tables of this book that 
 not only are the English commercial or ordinary equiva- 
 lents of measures given, but also the English scientific 
 equivalents ; and this comparative novelty needs special 
 explanation. 
 
 The basis of the English scientific system was laid 
 down by the Warden of the Standards in his work ' On 
 the Science of Weighing and Measuring ' (London, Mac- 
 millan, 1 877), where he explains that the English scientific 
 values of foreign units are those taken at 32 Fahrenheit 
 in vacuo ; and thus form a segregated set of values Mr. 
 Miller also constructed in 1859 the new English unit 
 
INTRODUCTION. xiii 
 
 of weight, the foot-weight or talent, which is the weight of 
 an English cubic foot of water. These constituted an 
 admirable basis for developing a complete English 
 scientific system, of which full advantage has been taken 
 throughout this work. 
 
 Of the necessity for some such complete system there 
 can be no doubt. English commercial measures, being 
 defective in systematisation, are ill-suited to professional, 
 technical, and scientific purposes, while French measures 
 are utterly out of all accord both with English measures 
 and modes and with all other naturally developed 
 systems ; hence neither of them can conveniently answer 
 the purposes of an English scientific or professional man, 
 apart from the undesirability of borrowing foreign 
 measures. An English scientific system must, in order 
 to suit all such purposes, be necessarily either strictly 
 decimal, or mixedly decimal, centesimal and millesimal, 
 as argued in the chapter devoted to the subject, and be 
 in some accord also with ordinary English trade-units. 
 
 The complete English scientific system, drawn up 
 on these principles, is given in Part II. chapter vi. with 
 attached conversion tables. It has also been used 
 throughout the whole of the tables as a useful and con- 
 venient medium for comparing and computing values of 
 foreign units, without the intervention of French 
 measures. 
 
 It is also to a certain extent parallel with the French 
 system, that is, as regards standard temperatures and 
 pressure, and thus forms a convenient medium of calcu- 
 lation for foreigners, to whom English commercial 
 measures are a bugbear of incongruity. 
 
xiv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 It may also be mentioned, such a permissive profes- 
 sional and scientific system cannot cause any alarm to 
 English shopkeepers that have lately invested in new 
 scales and weights. 
 
 Had any other equally perfect and convenient 
 English scientific system been either available or prac- 
 ticable, it would have been adopted in preference ; as the 
 need of some such system in a work of this kind was 
 absolutely pressing. 
 
 The general arrangement of this book is in two parts. 
 Part I. can be referred to for the value of any single or 
 detached unit of measure used in the present century ; 
 in this case it is solely necessary to know beforehand 
 whether the unit is one of length, of surface, of cubicity 
 or capacity, or of weight ; it can then be looked for in 
 the corresponding collection and chapter. Part II. in- 
 cludes merely the more common national systems and 
 collections of measures, that are most frequently re- 
 quired ; these are arranged in single pages, so that the 
 whole of the measures of any such nation may be seen 
 at a glance. 
 
 The second Part hence involves some repetition of 
 portions of the first Part ; but the arrangement is more 
 suited to rapid reference, and the values of the units are 
 carried to a greater number of figures. 
 
 The book has been enlarged by about one-third 
 during its passage through the press, with the object of 
 rendering it more complete than was originally in- 
 tended. 
 
 L. D'A. J. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 INTRODUCTION i 
 
 PART L METRICAL UNITS. 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PRIMITIVE MEASURES AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 Primitive, personal and natural units; Reduction to standard Royal, 
 sacred and double units Special units and segregated systems 
 Dynastic changes of unit Stages of development Reorganisa- 
 tions Modern spread of French measures .... i 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 LINEAR MEASURES. 
 
 Classification The foot, its origin, and subdivision The subdivision 
 of the inch, and the wire gauge The cubit, modern cubits and 
 their subdivision The yard and double ell, their derivation and 
 subdivision The fathom and the canna The rod and the pole 
 The rope or cord The chain The acre-side Itinerary 
 measures, the mile, league and stage Geographical and nautical 
 itinerary measures Commercial and scientific values of units . 16 
 
 TABLES OF MEASURES OF LENGTH. 
 
 Feet, general and national units, local and former units ... 51 
 
 Cubits, ells, bracci, piks, hath, hasta, &c. . . . . 55 
 
 Double cubits, yards, stab, vara, zar', gaz, haila .... 60 
 
 Paces 62 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Fathoms 63 
 
 Rods and poles 64 
 
 Cords, chains and acresides ... . . . . . 65 
 
 Itinerary measures ; geographical and nautical . ... 66- 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 MEASURES OF SURFACE. 
 
 Classification Formation and derivation The square foot, square 
 cubit, square yard The square pace and square fathom The 
 square rod, square pole, and square chain Agrarian units, acres, 
 hides, &c. Topographical units 69 
 
 TABLES OF MEASURES OF SURFACE. 
 
 Square feet, square cubits 91 
 
 Square double cubits, square paces, square fathoms ... 96 
 
 Square rods, square poles, and square chains . . . . . 100 
 
 Land measures, acres, hide, &c. Square miles, &c. . . . 105 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 CUBIC MEASURES. 
 
 Formation Theif relation to capacity units Their subdivision 
 Small English units, their comparison with capacity units, and 
 units of weight Large English units, their comparison with 
 capacity units, and units of weight Foreign units, their com- 
 parison with capacity units . . 109 
 
 TABLES OF CUBIC MEASURES. 
 
 Cubic inches, cubic tithes, and fluid ounces . . . . .127 
 Cubic feet and cubic yards . . . . . . . . 128 
 
 Fuel units, stacks, cords, &c. Tons of bulk 132 
 
 Cubic fathoms and cubic rods 134 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
 
 Modes of formation Transitional or doubtful units English units, 
 comparison of large and small standard units Nominal liquid 
 measures Foreign measures of capacity Dry measures Large 
 and nominal dry measures Barrels used in the Baltic trade . 135 
 
CONTENTS. xvii 
 
 TABLES OF LIQUID MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
 
 PACK 
 Small liquid measures, corresponding to the quart . . 159 
 
 Intermediate liquid measures, corresponding to the gallon . . . 164 
 Large liquid measures, corresponding to the runlet . . . .168 
 
 Nominal liquid measures ; barrels, and loads 170 
 
 Hogsheads, puncheons; butts, pipes, tuns The brew . . .173 
 
 TABLES OF DRY MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
 
 Ordinary dry measures, corresponding to the bushel . . 179 
 
 Large dry measures, corresponding to the quarter . . . . 185 
 Nominal dry measures, grain-lasts and coyangs . . . .190 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 
 
 Former separate systems, troy, monetary, and medicinal Old English 
 units Old German units Modes of subdivision The origin of 
 pounds, &c. Old Arab units Standard units of various nations 
 Large units, stones, centals, man, kandi, pikul Tons and 
 lasts 192 
 
 TABLES OF MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 
 
 Commercial pounds, rotal and ching . . . . . ..211 
 
 Double pounds, oka, ser . . 221 
 
 Triple pounds ; the vis and the catti-utan ...... 223 
 
 Stones, liespfund, pud, small man, and dharri .... 223 
 
 Quarters, arrobas and the kachcha man . . . . . . 225 
 
 The foot weight or talent Miscellaneous English units Barrels . 227 
 
 Hundredweights and analogous units ...... 228 
 
 Loads, kandi, and bahar . . . . . . . . 233 
 
 Tons and lasts of heavy goods . . 236 
 
 Miscellaneous lasts 238 
 
 PART IL METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 MODES OF SUBDIVISION. 
 
 Systematisation of measures Original methods The subdivision of 
 measures, decimal, sexagesimal, duodecimal, binary septimal 
 Combined modes of subdivision Complications resulting from 
 heterogeneous modes . . ..... 239 
 
xviii CONTEXTS. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 EUROPEAN COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Comparison of the English, Danish, Swedish and Prussian systems 
 Defects of the English system Austro-Hungarian system- 
 Russian Imperial system French metric system Modified 
 metric systems French ' mesures usuelles ' Baden, Hesse and 
 Swiss systems Old measures Spanish and Portuguese systems 
 Greek and Turkish measures Distinctions between European, 
 Moslem and Pagan systems . . . . . . 2 57 
 
 TABLES OF EUROPEAN COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 Early English measures 282 
 
 Present English system with conversion tables . .... 284 
 
 Russian, Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish systems . . . 290 
 
 North German systems 294 
 
 South German systems ......... 35 
 
 Spanish and Portuguese 309 
 
 Old measures of Paris, Amsterdam, Brussels, Florence, and Venice. 312 
 Metric systems Present French Former French Baden, Hessian, 
 
 and Swiss . . . . . . . . 3 T 7 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 COLLECTIONS OF ORIENTAL MEASURES. 
 
 General classification Historic causes of the separation of Moslem 
 from Christian measures Peculiarities of Oriental measures of 
 
 various kinds .......... 3 2 ^ 
 
 TABLES OF ORIENTAL COLLECTIONS OF MEASURES. 
 
 Ottoman 338 
 
 Greek . . . 339 
 
 Syrian ........... 34 
 
 Arab 341 
 
 Egyptian and Abyssinian . . . . . . . 34 1 
 
 Berber, Tunisian, and Moorish ........ 343 
 
 Algerine ........... 344 
 
 Persian 345 
 
 North Indian .......... 346 
 
CONTENTS. xix 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 COLLECTIONS OF PAGAN MEASURES. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Classification Primitive indigenous systems Comparison of Pagan 
 with English measures Peculiarities of Pagan units and systems 
 The values of some African units 347 
 
 TABLES OF PAGAN COLLECTIONS OF MEASURES. 
 
 South Indian 355 
 
 Burmese 356 
 
 Thai (or Siamese) 357 
 
 Anam 358 
 
 Malacca ........... 359 
 
 Sumatra ............ 360 
 
 Java, &c., and Manila 361 
 
 China . 362 
 
 Japan . 363 
 
 Indigenous African 364 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 MEDICINAL AND LAPIDARIES' SYSTEMS. 
 
 Medicinal and monetary units The medicinal ounce Its subdivi- 
 sion Metric units Remedy for English incongruity The 
 abolition of separate medicinal systems Lapidaries' systems . 365 
 
 TABLES OF MEDICINAL SYSTEMS 372 
 
 TABLES OF LAPIDARIES' AND JEWELLERS' UNITS .... 377 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS. 
 
 Their peculiarities and desiderata Ancient scientific systems, Chal- 
 d?ean, Indian, and Pyramidal The French metric system The 
 English scientific system The English decimal scientific series 
 Other scientific systems Prussian, Danish, Swedish, Neapoli- 
 tan and Florentine ........ 379 
 
 Tables of French and English scientific systems, and conversion 
 
 tables for the same ......... 406 
 
 Compound units .......... 414 
 
 Tables of moneys of account ........ 416 
 
xx CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Remarks on complete decimalisation . . . . . .418 
 
 Pressure units Irrigation units Water supply units Power units 
 
 and units of work Thermal and electro-magnetic units . . 420 
 Tables of English and French compound units, on the commercial 
 
 and on the scientific scale ....... 429 
 
 Tables of constants, as used in connection with standards Tempera- 
 tures Densities and expansion . . . . . .431 
 
 Weight of air Displacement Weight of water . . . . 433 
 
 Allowance in English and French measure . 435 
 
 APPENDIX L 
 PROPOSED ENGLISH COMMERCIAL SYSTEM ..... 439 
 
 APPENDIX IL 
 
 THE ACTUAL AND THE PROPOSED STANDARD TEMPERATURE 
 
 AND PRESSURE 443 
 
ESITY 
 
 ERRORS AND OMISSIONS. 
 
 Page 42, line 28, for 2,000 read 2000 
 
 56 ,, 31, for foot, and read for land, 
 
 ,, 62 ,, 30, >>- 1-15223 mo/ i -85223 
 
 ,, 67 ,, ii, add : 
 
 Turkey. Agasha = 3 berri. 3-1084 | 1-6408 | 5-0010 
 
 96 2S,/or 17-628 read 7'628 
 
 96 29, for 1-929 m*/ 11-929 
 
 ,, 1 02 ,, 5, for ahn read Slen 
 
 ,, 103 ,, 25, for thaoc ra&/ thuoc 
 
 ,,114 ,, io,for aliquot or multiple read aliquot-multiple 
 
 jj *37 !f or par rah rm^/parah 
 
 ,, 145 ,, 27, yfo' medical raw? medicinal 
 
 ,,151 ,, i8,for into three classes raz</ under three heads 
 
 , , 1 93 , , 12, for them read it 
 
 ,,231 ,, 1 2, y#r Manilla read Manila 
 
 232 37, twice for Manilla read Manila 
 
 ,, 260 ,, 2, read Troy weight apart from Apothecaries' weight is 
 
 legally abolished 
 
 ,,286 16, for 25-277 3350 read 25 -277 5033 
 
 ,, 289 ,, Cwts. into quintals, for 4-572 254 rau/ 4*572 214 
 
 373 2O , a ft er customary addtoi medicinal purposes 
 
 j 377 )? 22, y^r mardo r^a^/ marco 
 
 ,,416 ,, 3 5, for centimes read cent esimi 
 
 ,,418 ,, i6,for money account read money of account 
 
 ,,448 ,, 24, for also read now 
 
 ueiaciieu, wiien strong anu cosmopolitan, Wttfiii 
 dismembered and sunk in darkness, or when passing 
 through the various progressive stages either of com- 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 TAGE 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Remarks on complete decimalisation . . . . . 418 
 
 Pressure units Irrigation units Water supply units Power units 
 
 and units of work Thermal and electro-magnetic units . . 420 
 
ESITY 
 .v 
 
 MODERN METROLOGY. 
 
 PART L METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 PRIMITIVE MEASURES and THEIR DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 ALTHOUGH antiquarian research and archaic curiosity 
 are by no means of direct importance in a book that 
 deals with the ' Units and Systems of Measure ' of the 
 present century, and occupies itself about their future 
 development, yet the indirect bearing that the experience 
 of ages has produced on the present, and may produce on 
 the future, certainly deserves some notice and considera- 
 tion. Not only so, but the past development of the appa- 
 rently very heterogeneous collection of measures of all 
 sorts, that are now and have been in use throughout the 
 world, affords indication of natural transformation suited 
 to the progressive wants of communities, when primitive 
 and detached, when strong and cosmopolitan, when 
 dismembered and sunk in darkness, or when passing 
 through the various progressive stages either of com- 
 
 B 
 
2 METRICAL UNITS. PART I, 
 
 mercial progress or of enlightenment, civilisation and 
 scientific development. This natural transformation,, 
 based on rational requirements, is doubtless much 
 obscured in the chaos of measures, of which many are 
 due to unintentional departure from original or from 
 local uniformity ; it existed, nevertheless. 
 
 In primitive times, and among nations in a primitive 
 state, there were probably no very definite measures of 
 surface or of capacity like those now used in Europe, but 
 only measures of length and of weight. The measures 
 of length corresponding to the side of a square surface 
 were sufficient for denoting small areas ; while large 
 areas were indicated by natural limits or boundaries, 
 such as rivers, watercourses, the edges of forest, marsh, 
 hil.l-skirts, borders of natural pasture, or of arable land ; 
 these, in addition to occasional boundary stones or 
 pillars, answered the requirements of the period. 
 Measures of capacity were comparatively rare, almost 
 all commercial and monetary transactions were deter- 
 mined by weight ; measures of weight, either small or 
 large, appear to have always been in existence ; of this 
 there is ample evidence in the customs of Oriental races 
 to this day. In India, and partly in China, grain, oil, 
 and every commodity is sold by weight, while many of 
 the measures of capacity of the Ottoman, as well as 
 those of the East-Asiatic races, are really only trans- 
 formed measures of weight ; thus a very large number 
 of persons exist in the world to whom a measure of capa- 
 city is an unknown and apparently a most useless and 
 cumbrous contrivance. 
 
 The primitive measures of length were the grain of 
 corn placed lengthwise, the finger-breadth or digit, the 
 palm-breadth, the span, the foot-length, the cubit (from 
 
CH. I. PRIMITIVE MEASURES. 3 
 
 the elbow to the finger-tip, and sometimes only to the 
 roots of the finger), the double cubit, the gird or girdle, 
 the fathom (comprised in the reach of the two arms to 
 their fullest extent), the step, the pace or pair of steps, 
 the local acreside of 80 or 100 cubits, or some simple 
 multiple of a small measure, the itinerary measure or 
 mile of 1000 paces, of 4000 cubits, or some convenient 
 multiple of the pace or cubit, and the itinerary distances 
 expressed by the hour's march, and the day's journey. 
 The primitive measures of weight were the weights of 
 various grains of corn, millet, rice, barley, wheat, gunj 
 or abrus (more especially the last on account of their 
 wonderful uniformity in weight) ; the weights of the 
 current pieces of money locally used ; the weight 
 of a certain number of small shells of a sort that 
 .happened to be tolerably uniform in size and appear- 
 ance ; the weight of certain stones bearing some certain 
 proportion to that of a number of coins, shells, or grains ; 
 the weight of water, oil, wine, rice, wheat or commonly- 
 used grain contained in a temporarily-formed local cubic 
 foot, or in a cubic cubit ; the weight of a man (a rather 
 variable quantity), and the load of a man, or of a pack- 
 animal, ass, mule, bullock, or camel. 
 
 Such primitive measures in their original condition 
 may now be considered exceedingly variable, but were 
 certainly quite as well suited to the wants of a primi- 
 tive epoch as modern measures are to modern require- 
 ments ; for under ordinary circumstances the common 
 commodities of merchandise, grain, oil, &c., were of 
 low value, and when prices were exceptionally high 
 the variation in price was out of all proportion to the 
 fluctuation of unit of measure. The habits of Indian 
 grain-merchants at the present time show an indifference 
 
 B 2 
 
4 METRICAL UNITS. PART I. 
 
 about units of weight that throws light on the habits 
 of the past in this respect. These merchants, avaricious 
 though they are, will sometimes, on being pressed about 
 their stones and weights being incorrect, volunteer to let 
 one use any weight shown or mentioned, and simply 
 offer a guessed price to suit the case. They can well 
 afford this, for they have the power to get up fictitious 
 famines in districts, and actually do so under the bene- 
 ficent patronage of the free-trade doctrines of the 
 British Government, that does not interfere with the 
 market-rate, compete with ordinary trade, or aid the 
 helpless native to co-operate against his oppressors. 
 Under such circumstances it is evident the price is 
 everything, while the unit of measure is comparatively 
 immaterial. The same principle would also hold in 
 trade transactions in which measures of length were 
 used. They may now be termed rough measures, but 
 they were amply exact enough. The weight of the 
 pieces of money, whether silver, gold, or electrum a 
 mixture of the two were certainly of more importance ; 
 monetary weight, in periods when monetary tokens were 
 unknown, or regarded simply as medals, was necessarily 
 the most important part of a system of measures ; 
 but even then estimation by apparent weight in the 
 hand, or recognition by some peculiarity of form or of 
 mark, was generally sufficient for this purpose, for this 
 was similarly a consideration far inferior to the genuine- 
 ness, purity, or quality of trie precious metal ; a point 
 on which the judgment of any ordinary semi-savage is 
 wonderfully correct. 
 
 A second stage in the development of measures is 
 denoted by the demand for greater exactitude ; the 
 personal and primitive measures then requiring some 
 
en. I. PRIMITIVE MEASURES. 5 
 
 degree of fixity, the personal measures of some chief, 
 king, patriarch, or high-priest then became reduced to 
 actual standards, and were introduced into the temples, 
 the markets, the judgment halls and public buildings, 
 and the people could refer to these for comparison. 
 
 In this stage, a cubit was not the cubit of any indi- 
 vidual, but had become a standard unit ; while the cubit 
 of the individual was merely useful as affording an ap- 
 proximation to the standard unit. Cubic measures, and 
 units of weight based on cubic measure, in preference to 
 arbitrary units, then became possible. 
 
 Such standards were few in number, perhaps two of 
 length, and two of weight, one large and one small ; 
 while the multiples and submultiples were mere 
 matters of calculation, arrived at in accordance with the 
 habits of thought of the people and their chiefs or 
 priesthood. Some nations, especially the more primi- 
 tive early Egyptians and the Chinese, counted and 
 thought decimally ; others, as the Assyrians, by sixties 
 and sixtieths or shekels ; the Romans by twelfths, inches 
 or ounces of land-measure, capacity, length and weight ; 
 while the races that obtained the ascendency in modern 
 ages the Teuton in Europe, and the higher castes or 
 races in India adhered generally to binary subdivision 
 in their commercial measures, halves, quarters, eighths, 
 and sixteenths, and arranged their multiples so as to 
 admit of it. The subject of systematised modes of sub- 
 division will be treated in another chapter. The natural 
 mode of subdivision was, apart from these methods of 
 counting, based on the natural proportions that the 
 natural units of length, or personal measures, bore to 
 each other. 
 
 Taking the digit or finger-breadth as the smallest 
 
6 METRICAL UNITS. PART I. 
 
 common personal unit of length, the proportions of the 
 others to it probably followed nearly the accompany- 
 ing scale 
 
 I Palm = 4 digits 
 
 I Span =12 
 
 I Foot = 16 
 
 I Cubit = 24 
 
 I Step = 40 
 
 I Pace = 80 
 
 I Fathom = 96 
 
 i Rod =160 
 
 These proportions held generally ; the inch or twelfth 
 of a foot, the yard, whether a double cubit, a half-fathom 
 or an actual girdle, and the rod, were probably less 
 ancient units, about which some doubt may exist ; but 
 it would be futile to avoid the indication afforded by 
 these proportions, the strong tendency to the conveni- 
 ence of binary and fractional subdivision ; while on the 
 other side, the habits of people of a primitive race, aided 
 in counting by the presence of their ten fingers, would 
 naturally tend to the adoption of decimal multiples, as 
 more easily counted. 
 
 Apart from such simple or natural measures for 
 ordinary commercial uses, there were also royal mea- 
 sures, and sacred measures, almost invariably larger than 
 the corresponding natural measures. Among coarse 
 uncivilised and ignorant people, size or bulk meant 
 power ; an enormous Apis, a heavy bull, conveyed awe ; 
 a Saul, being a head and shoulders above the crowd, 
 was elected king and commander-in-chief to manage 
 the war against the Philistines ; a celebrated Hindu 
 deity, whose worshippers are millions, is represented by 
 
CH. I. PRIMITIVE MEASURES. 7 
 
 the figure of a very replete man, with an enormous 
 stomach quantity then expressed grandeur. Corre- 
 spondingly also, a large gift or tax paid to the king, or 
 tithe to a priest, conveyed with it an idea of dignity, of 
 sanctity, of reverence, or of special respect. As, also, 
 such increased measures were of considerable advantage 
 to the king or priest, royal and sacred measures were a 
 special institution, involving a separate set of standards, 
 at least for some considerable time before merging into 
 a general combination or into application to separate 
 nationalities or communities. 
 
 Besides these temporarily special standard units, there 
 is on record much evidence to the effect that in some cases 
 the units were doubled at pleasure under some monarchs. 
 The inscriptions on the well-known Babylonian and 
 Assyrian bronze and stone lion and duck weights in the 
 British Museum, and the verifications of Mr. Chisholm, 
 show that the manah or pound under Shalmaneser and 
 some other emperors was double of that under Tiglath- 
 pileser, Nebo-vulibar, Dungi, and Irba-merodach. Double 
 weight, double tribute, and double rent or tax are by 
 no means unknown Oriental arrangements. In years 
 of plenty, a double rent for land is frequently now paid 
 without demur, on the principle that remission accom- 
 panies a year of scarcity ; and it is probable that the 
 alteration of the standard weight was a mode of altering 
 taxation without the necessity for altering accounts or 
 issuing edicts that might redound to the advantage rather 
 of the collector than of the king. Fixity of measure was 
 not in those times an admitted necessary principle to 
 the extent of being binding on the government of the 
 country ; even now, in semi-Oriental countries, govern- 
 ment paper money is often forced by edict to be accepted 
 
8 METRICAL UNITS. PART u 
 
 at a very false value, and deemed a justifiable financial 
 proceeding. 
 
 Another cause of variety in measure was the tendency 
 of various trades to adopt units of their own, an evident 
 imitation by the tradesmen of the method adopted by 
 the king and the high priest A single system of com- 
 mercial measures was thus not only supplemented by 
 royal, sacred, and double measures, but was practically 
 broken up into a mass of special systems ; such as a. 
 monetary system, a grain and oil or common com- 
 mercial system, a jeweller's and a precious-stone system, 
 a druggist's ; artisans' systems for a large number of 
 crafts, carpentry, masonry, and so on, and finally scien- 
 tific, astronomical, and geodetic systems. Now, though 
 all such systems doubtless ramified from a single compre- 
 hensive system of which they were parts, yet local 
 departure from standard values, engrafted on results 
 in all these sub-systems, inevitably led to complexity. 
 
 The overthrow of a dynasty, the influx of a new 
 governing class, might in those ages have produced as* 
 much alteration in the measures l as now occurs in the 
 names of the streets of Paris under similar conditions ; 
 though conquests involving imperialism effected more 
 extended uniformity. This advantage, great as it may 
 appear to persons living in an age of international 
 commerce and rapid communications, was of far less 
 commercial importance in those days ; and although it 
 must certainly have been the means of sweeping away 
 a great quantity of local measures, it cannot be assumed 
 that the measures of the conquering were necessarily 
 better than those of the conquered race. 
 
 All this variety of standard and modification of units 
 
 1 Exemplified at present in China. 
 
CH. I. PRIMITIVE MEASURES. 9 
 
 culminating in extreme confusion of measure, naturally 
 necessitated a complete reorganisation, or a fresh 
 departure, after recurrent periods. 
 
 In such a development the following stages may be 
 clearly traced : 
 
 1. Primitive personal measures. 
 
 2. Primitive standard units, and original systems. 
 
 3. Combined and expanded series of measures of 
 great commercial utility. 
 
 4. Intricate, confused, and debased measures, hetero- 
 geneous in arrangement. 
 
 5. Reorganised systems of measures. 
 
 After this, the reorganised measures then seem to 
 take the place of primitive standard measures, and the 
 development then repeats itself in the way that history, 
 or rather historic development, invariably does. 
 
 The first of these reorganisations (of the measures of 
 the civilised world) of which there is full historic record 
 was the Phileterian system, of the Ptolemaic age, in- 
 geniously devised to suit all purposes in commercial and 
 monetary transactions. 
 
 At a later period, there was the Olympic system of 
 Greece, based on the Olympic cubit and Olympic talent, 
 which were identical with the ancient Egyptian natural 
 cubit and the Grseco-Egyptian talent ; the subdivision 
 adopted in this system had many advantages as regards 
 simplicity, as well as practical utility, besides that of a 
 rigid adherence to such ancient and correct standard 
 units as were retained. 
 
 The Roman reorganisation of measures was a com- 
 bination of the Egyptian and the Greek modified units, 
 arranged under a fresh system, and a mode of duo- 
 decimal subdivision of certain selected primary units of 
 
10 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. PART i. 
 
 length, surface, capacity, and weight, which was suited 
 to Roman forms of thought and calculation. 
 
 Among more modern reorganisations were that of 
 Charlemagne, about 780 A.D., better known as the 
 French poids de marc system, or pile de Charlemagne 
 (the weights of which are said to have been based on 
 the Arab yusdruman pound of Harun al Rashid) ; the 
 Nuremberg and the Coin marc systems, retained for 
 medicinal and for monetary measures of weight until the 
 present age ; and the Spanish marc system. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon system, with its Saxon gird or 
 yard, its moneyer's and its marchant's pounds (also having 
 some affinity to the Continental marc), its Saxon acre, 
 and the Roman mile of 5000 'Saxon feet engrafted on 
 the system, seems also to have been a complete and well- 
 arranged reorganisation, suited to the period and the 
 wants of the people, at the close of the Heptarchy. 
 
 A Scandinavian or a Danish system, about which 
 little information is available, was probably a reorganisa- 
 tion of about the same period. 
 
 The Mughal system of Akbar the Great, about 1570, 
 comprised a complete set of weights and measures re- 
 arranged and reorganised from the ancient and surviving 
 Indian measures. 
 
 The Russian system of measures, reorganised at the 
 command of Peter the Great, were so arranged that the 
 Russian foot should be exactly identical with the English 
 foot ; and the tschetwerik and vedro, the measures of 
 capacity, were, like those of the English, rearranged in 
 accordance with the measure of weight by comparison 
 with distilled water. 
 
 In 1795, the whole of the French measures having 
 arrived at an extreme state of heterogeneous confusion, a 
 
<;H. i. PRIMITIVE MEASURES. n 
 
 new system was adopted, in preference to a reorganisa- 
 tion : a modified half-toise, named a metre, was adopted 
 as the basic standard unit of length, its length being 
 determined on geodetic considerations, or on an estimated 
 value of the meridional arc passing through Paris then 
 believed to be correct. The system based on this single 
 unit, termed the metric system, was as rigidly decimal 
 as the primitive Chinese or the ancient Egyptian systems, 
 and thus possessed all the advantages of a primitive 
 system, while it was also in strict accordance with the 
 numerical modes of calculation universally adopted, in 
 which the digital system is decimal. The measures of 
 the Netherlands, Greece, and some Italian States being 
 also very heterogeneous and confused, the French 
 metric system was also adopted in those countries at a 
 very early date, to the exclusion of the old measures, 
 and in preference to a reorganisation. 
 
 In 1824, the English measures, derived from the 
 Anglo-Saxon system, having become debased and con- 
 fused from the successive introduction of French measures, 
 the Troy pound, Avoirdupois pound, and French ell, 
 and from a variety of local measures, the whole collection 
 of measures was reorganised, local measures were 
 abolished, and a complete imperial system, based on the 
 greater part of the preferable existing measures, was 
 drawn up with a certain amount of fixity and certainty, 
 and established by law. 
 
 In England, in 1869, a new standard-unit of weight 
 was constructed and legalised, the weight of a cubic foot 
 of distilled water represented in commercial weight by 
 62^32 1 Ibs. The corresponding scientific unit, which 
 corresponds to the ancient Greek talent, and may be 
 termed an English talent, is of extreme importance from 
 
12 METRICAL UNITS. PART I, 
 
 its enabling English scientific and technical calculations 
 to be made and recorded in a purely decimal system, 
 based on the English foot, which possesses all the ad- 
 vantages of the French system, while it is superior to it 
 in its employing a natural unit in common use. The 
 only standard-units necessary in this English scientific 
 system are 
 
 The foot, as the unit of length ; 
 
 The square foot, as the unit of surface ; 
 
 The cubic foot, as the unit of capacity ; 
 
 The foot-weight, or talent, as the unit of weight 
 
 while the multiples and submultiples are purely decimal 
 in accordance with ordinary arithmetical notation. 
 
 Most of the subsidiary units of this system are well- 
 known measures ; the facts, that technical, professional, 
 and scientific men have long utilised the coincidence 
 that the Avoirdupois ounce is very nearly one-thou- 
 sandth of the foot-weight, and that the fluid-ounce has 
 been long used as a measure of capacity or cubic 
 measure corresponding to the ounce-weight, combine to 
 render such a decimal system convenient. The comple- 
 tion of it worked out throughout this book, and fully ex- 
 plained in the chapter on Scientific Systems, may render 
 its use and application more easy and convenient. 
 
 The sets of units are these : 
 
 In length : the foot, the rod of 10 feet, the chain of 
 100 feet (Ramsden's), the cable of 10 chains, and the 
 league of 100 chains, or 10000 feet, which is equal to 
 two old London miles. In surface, the square foot, the 
 square rod of 100 square feet, the square chain of 100 
 square rods, the square cable or century (an old Roman 
 term once well known in England) of 100 square chains, 
 
-CH, I. PRIMITIVE MEASURES. 13 
 
 and the square league of 100 centuries. In weight and 
 cubic measure the two series correspond thus : 
 
 I rod-weight = 1000 foot-weight 
 i foot- weight = 1000 decimal oz. 
 I decimal oz. = 1000 mils 
 j mil = looo doits 
 
 I cubic rod - 1000 cubic feet 
 
 i cubic foot = looo fluid-oz. 
 
 I fluid-oz. = looo fluid mils 
 
 I fluid mil = 1000 fluid doits 
 
 The term fluid-ounce has been retained in preference to 
 cubic ounce, cubic decimal inch, or cubic thumb, for the 
 sake of adherence to well-known terms, and because 
 ^very new term seems a new difficulty to those adopting 
 it. The units themselves cover the whole range of 
 ordinary measures for technical purposes. 
 
 A corresponding system based on the inch, including 
 the square inch, cubic inch, and inch-weight, and 
 another based on the yard, including the square yard, 
 cubic yard, and yard-weight, would also be possible, 
 either as detached and purely decimal systems, or in 
 combination with the others ; but would be far less con- 
 venient. 
 
 The most recent improvement in the English com- 
 mercial system of measures, declared by Act in 1878, 
 but not yet practically that is, entirely effected, is its 
 simplification through the abolition of separate systems 
 of Troy weight and Apothecaries' weight, and consequent 
 reduction of the whole of the commercial weights to a 
 single system. 
 
 During a period from about 1859 to the present 
 time, the metric system has been permissively adopted 
 by almost all civilised nations, in addition to the com- 
 mercial measures of these nations ; thus avoiding the 
 disadvantage and inconvenience inseparable from the 
 rejection of the national measures in common use. 
 
I 4 METRICAL UNITS. PART K 
 
 The dates of these^ permissive enactments in various 
 countries are as follow : 
 
 Spain, Portugal and Italy . . . .1859 
 
 England Act of 1864 
 
 United States .... . 1866- 
 North German Confederation . . . 1868 
 
 Dominion of Canada 1871 
 
 Indian Empire, applied only to Officials, 
 Municipalities, and Companies, and 
 solely as regards measures of weight . 1871 
 Austrian Empire and Switzerland . . 1873 
 Sweden and Norway 1875 
 
 The compulsory employment of the metric system 
 in France dates from a law passed in 1837. 
 
 In Portugal, French measures were actually adopted 
 in their entirety by 1864; in Spain, the compulsory 
 adoption became effective in 1868. 
 
 The re-establishment of the German Empire in 1871 
 led to the necessity for adopting some single system 
 of measures in place of the very various and heretogene- 
 ous measures used in the various States and provinces ; 
 and, whether local jealousies prevented the extension of 
 the Prussian; or any other existing commercial system 
 to the whole Empire, or other reasons were more 
 influential, the result was the compulsory and exclusive 
 adoption of the metric system in the German Empire 
 from January I, 1872, and followed by a corresponding 
 change adopted in the Austrian Empire from January \ Y 
 1876. 
 
 In 1873, the Canadian Government adopted a deci- 
 mal system of measures based on English units ; these 
 units being the English foot and yard ; the English 
 
CH. I. PRIMITIVE MEASURES. 140, 
 
 avoirdupois pound, its decimal multiples and sub- 
 multiples, from 100 Ibs. down to O'ooi Ib. ; the English 
 grain, its decimal multiples and submultiples, from 1,000 
 grains to O'Oi grain ; the old English Troy ounce, its 
 decimal multiples and submultiples, from 500 Troy oz 
 down to O'OOI Troy oz. ; the English cubic foot and its 
 multiples; and the English measures of capacity with 
 their binary subdivision from the bushel to the half-gill. 
 
 In colonies, possessions, and dependencies the legal 
 system of measure is generally that of the colonising 
 race or parent-country, but the actual system is practi- 
 cally more often some old system of the parent country, 
 and sometimes a hybrid compromise between old in- 
 digenous measures and imported units. 
 
 The various typical systems of measure, mentioned 
 as reorganisations in this chapter, will be described in 
 detail in a following part of the book (Part II.). 
 
 DATES OF ALTERATIONS IN NATIONAL MEASURES 
 DURING THE PRESENT CENTURY. 
 
 DENMARK. 
 1 86 1. Decimal subdivision of the pound. 
 
 SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 
 1878. French measures adopted by Act of 1875. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 1824. Reorganisation of measures. 
 
 1853. Date of the present primary parliamentary standards. 
 1859. The foot- weight adopted as a unit of weight. 
 1864. French measures rendered permissive. 
 1872. New normal standard temperature 62 Fahrenheit exclusively 
 
 adopted for trade measures. 
 1878. Readjustment of measures. Abolition of troy-weight. 
 
14* ALTERATIONS IN NATIONAL MEASURES. PART i. 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 1795. Publication of the metric system. Old local measures used till 
 
 1812. 
 
 1812. Adoption of the mesures usuelles. 
 1840. Adoption of the simple metric system for commercial purposes. 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 1806. Wiirtemburg linear measures readjusted. 
 
 1 8 10. Baden adopts a modified metric system. 
 
 1816. Prussian foot and pound readjusted. 
 
 1817. Saxony: Dresden dry measures, and Leipzig weights adopted 
 
 throughout Saxony. 
 
 1818. Darmstadt adopts a modified metric system. 
 1834. Zollverein units proposed. 
 
 1856. Zollverein measures adopted. 
 
 1868. French measures permissive. 1872 compulsory. 
 
 NETHERLANDS. 
 1820. French measures adopted with local names. 
 
 BELGIUM. 
 1836. French denominations of metric measures adopted. 
 
 HOLLAND. 
 1870. French denominations of metric measures adopted. 
 
 AUSTRO-HUNGARY. 
 
 1873. French measures permissive. 1876 compulsory. 
 
 RUSSIA. 
 
 1819. Adjustment of Polish measures on a metric basis. 
 1826. Readjustment of the Russian Imperial system. 
 1831. Imperial system adopted in Poland. 
 
 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 1822, Canton Waadt adopted a modified metric system, Five other 
 
 cantons partially adopted it. 
 1873. French measures legally adopted. 
 
ICH. i. PRIMITIVE MEASURES. 15 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 1803. Lombardo-Venetia adopted French measures. 
 1840. Naples adopted a geodetic system of measures. 
 1859. French measures adopted throughout Italy. 
 
 SPAIN. 
 859. French measures permissive. 1868 compulsory 
 
 PORTUGAL. 
 
 French linear units adopted. 
 French weight units adopted. 
 French surface units adopted. 
 French capacity units adopted. 
 
 GREECE. 
 1836. French measures adopted with local names, termed Royal measures 
 
 
 IONIAN ISLANDS. 
 
 1800-1815. Local and Venetian measures in use. 
 1815-1864. English measures used. 
 1864. Greek Royal measures adopted. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 1870. First Conference of the International Standards Commission. 
 
METRICAL UNiTS. PAKT 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 LINEAR MEASURES. 
 
 MEASURES of length may be generally divided into 
 three classes : 
 
 1. Ordinary commercial measures from the smallest 
 unit up to the fathom. 
 
 2. Agrarian measures, as the rod, the pole, cord, rope, 
 chain, and acreside. 
 
 3. Itinerary measures, as furlongs, miles, leagues, 
 stages, and journeys. 
 
 THE FOOT. 
 
 TJte Foot is the most general natural standard unit of 
 length retained throughout the civilised world, and for 
 that reason the most important of the natural units still 
 used. There seems little doubt that it was in some 
 countries, but in very primitive times, a primitive unit 
 like the cubit, while in others it was certainly a second- 
 ary unit taken in some proportion to cubits already in 
 use as primary units. 
 
 The original foot, from which many of the existing 
 European feet has been remotely derived through 
 successive intermediate changes, was probably the 
 ancient Egyptian and the Olympic foot, equal to two- 
 thirds of the natural Egyptian and Olympic cubit ; as 
 
I 
 
 a. ii. LINEAR MEASURES. 17 
 
 his was the principal foot of the civilised world of 
 ancient times. Its length was nearly 1*013 English foot, 
 and it was probably partly based on geodetic considera- 
 tions, as, in accordance with the sexagesimal systems 
 then in vogue, it holds the following relation to a roughly 
 estimated mean degree of latitude : 
 
 i mean degree = 60 minutes ; I minute = 6000 feet. 
 
 There is, however, an alternative mode of accounting 
 for the derivation. There were several ancient cubits of 
 much greater length than the natural cubit, some of 
 them termed royal cubits ; among them was the Hash- 
 emic, or later Arab cubit, of great antiquity, as shown by 
 its identity with the ancient Chaldaean cubit of 2*10 
 English feet ; and it is very probable that many of the 
 German ells are merely debased Hashemic cubits, which 
 were halved to form the German and European feet of 
 modern times, and doubled to form the German stab and 
 the large French aune. 
 
 It is also possible that the European feet may have 
 been derived from various cubits ; but they certainly 
 seem as a rule to be approximations either to halves of 
 royal cubits or to two-thirds of natural cubits of assign- 
 able historic origin ; and this same principle seems to 
 hold generally throughout the world, for even the ancient 
 Chinese foot of Hoang Ti, of O'888 English foot, is said 
 to have some such connexion. 
 
 The foreign names of the foot are : 
 
 German : Fuss, Schuh. Spanish : 
 
 Dutch and Flemish : Voet. Italian : piede. 
 
 Danish and Norwegian : 
 
 Fod. 
 Swedish : Fot. 
 
 French : pied. 
 Portuguese : pt*. 
 Chinese : Chih. 
 
i8 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 The values of the feet used since 1 800 will be found 
 in the table of equivalents at the end of this section. 
 
 The subdivision of the foot. The Roman subdivisior 
 of the foot into twelfths, or inches, was generally adopted 
 throughout the whole of Europe that fell under Roman 
 sway, and has been retained to the present day ; but in 
 a few provinces and countries, more specially in Belgium, 
 Holland, and parts of France, the inch became the 
 eleventh part of the local foot, possibly with the view 
 of adjusting it to equal the twelfth of some other larger 
 foot ; in a few places also the inch was the tenth of the 
 foot exclusively. 
 
 The foot was divided into eleven inches, at the 
 following places : 
 
 Amsterdam. 
 Anvers. 
 
 Boulogne. 
 Caen. 
 
 Metz. 
 Sedan. 
 
 Aisne. 
 
 Cambrai. 
 
 St. Omer. 
 
 Ardennes. 
 
 Ghent. 
 
 Soissons. 
 
 Arras. 
 
 Laon. 
 
 Tournai. 
 
 Bruges. 
 Brussels. 
 
 Normandy. 
 Malines. 
 
 Vermandois. 
 Vervins. 
 
 Beauvais. 
 
 Mezieres. 
 
 
 The foot was divided into ten inches at the following 
 
 places : 
 
 Baden. 
 Carlsruhe. 
 
 Liege. 
 Louvain. 
 
 Tongres. 
 Vaud. 
 
 Cassel. 
 Darmstadt. 
 Hanau. 
 Hasselt. 
 
 Luxemburg. 
 Maestricht. 
 Mons. 
 Nassau. 
 
 Valais. 
 Wurtemberg. 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 Hcrenthals. 
 
 Nivelles (Belg.) 
 Namur. 
 
 China. 
 Japan. 
 
CH. ii. LINEAR MEASURES. 19 
 
 At many places in France and the Netherlands the 
 foot was both divided into eleven inches and into ten 
 inches ; and at a few places in France the three modes 
 of subdivision were in use. 
 
 The most ancient mode of subdividing the foot was 
 probably decimal, as decimalisation was in vogue in 
 ancient Egypt and in ancient China, as well as in China 
 to the present day ; the duodecimal method is more 
 modern, comparatively, but in recent times, both methods 
 have been adopted as suited to various purposes. For 
 geodetical purposes, levelling, and surveying, and all 
 matters in which rapidity and simplicity in calculation 
 is more important than adherence to former measures, the 
 decimal subdivision is more convenient ; while in iron- 
 work, where a large amount of plant and of practical 
 construction is in accordance with the true inch or duo- 
 decimal system, the latter mode would be preferred from 
 economic considerations. The subdivision of the foot 
 into thirds, or hands, of four inches each, is a method re- 
 tained to the present time for horse measurement 
 only. 
 
 Another mode of subdividing the foot, which is of 
 great antiquity, is into digits, or finger- breadths, which 
 should not be confused with inches ; this method is 
 principally applied in Oriental countries to the cubit and 
 double cubit. 
 
 The subdivision of the Inch. The ancient subdivision 
 into thirds, denominated barleycorns, is now gener- 
 ally obsolete ; and the subdivision into twelfths or lines 
 is now comparatively rare. The present methods are 
 either binary, into halves, quarters, eighths, and sixteenths, 
 or the decimal subdivision of the inch ; the former is 
 almost exclusively adopted in iron-work. 
 
 c 2 
 
2 o METRICAL UNITS. PART I. 
 
 The modern necessity for some smaller unit than 
 either the sixteenth or even the hundredth of an inch 
 has been practically demonstrated by the adoption of 
 various wire-gauges. Although Birmingham wire-gauge 
 was often supposed to be based on some principle of 
 subdivision, or arithmetic or geometric ratio, recent 
 investigation has proved this to be fallacious. The 
 English wire-gauges are purely arbitrary, and even in 
 Birmingham vary greatly according to the maker. In 
 Canada, Stubbs' Birmingham wire-gauge is nearly exclu- 
 sively adopted ; and in France the wire-gauge is in 
 tenths of millimetres. It seems probable that some 
 legal standard wire-gauge will be eventually adopted in 
 England, either in ten-thousandths of a foot, or in thou- 
 sandths of an inch. 
 
 THE CUBIT. 
 
 The Cubit has only retained its extreme importance 
 as a primitive unit to the present time in countries and 
 among people that never entirely and exclusively 
 adopted the foot ; as some Oriental, Ionian, Asiatic, 
 and African races, that entirely ignore the foot : thus, 
 the pik of Turkey, Arabia, Egypt, Morocco, and of 
 modern Ionian Greece, is a primary unit, so also the 
 hath and hasta, or esto of India, Burma, and of the 
 Malays and Indo-Chinese. Among some semi-Oriental 
 races, or in localities formerly under Oriental sway, the 
 cubit and the foot are both used as distinct units for 
 different purposes, as in Russia, Spain, and Portugal, and 
 their dependencies, where the arsheen and the foot, the 
 codo and the pie", the covado and pe, have been simul- 
 taneously employed. In Europe generally, the cubit, as 
 represented by the German ell and the Italian braccio, 
 
CH. II. LINEAR MEASURES. 21 
 
 was almost exclusively confined to cloth and stuff- 
 measurement, whenever it was not a multiple of the foot, 
 and hence became a measure of secondary importance. 
 In England the cubit is now merely a nominal half- 
 yard ; and in France, even under the old system of mea- 
 sures, the cubit or coudee was similarly treated as obso- 
 lete, although the long French aunes, corresponding to 
 the German stab, were probably double-cubits by origin ; 
 while in Spain there were two cubits, one of half-a-yard, 
 and the other of two feet. In India the hath or cubit is 
 generally equal to the English cubit, and is used and 
 known as well as the gaz or yard : it has been supposed by 
 some to be a debased Egyptian natural cubit ; by others, 
 a correct ancient Hindu hasta, either derived through 
 the Phileterian system or of direct Chaldaean origin. 
 
 The Chinese cubit still existing appears not to bear 
 any relation to the principal present Chinese foot, but to 
 an ancient one it bears approximately the same ratio as 
 that shown by the ancient Egyptian cubit to the corre- 
 sponding foot, namely of three to two. 
 
 The cubits of modern times, which alone are treated 
 in this work, consist of the following classes : 
 
 1. The German and Scandinavian ells. 
 
 2. The Italian and Levantine bracci. 
 
 3. The Spanish and Portuguese codo and covado. 
 
 4. The Russian and Turkish arsheens, and the 
 Turkish, Moorish, and Arab piks. 
 
 5. The hath, asta, esto, and sok of India- and South- 
 Eastern Asia. 
 
 Although a great proportion of these measures are 
 nearly obsolete, or have been declared to be so by legis- 
 lative enactment, they yet happen not to be quite null 
 and void, as measures survive enactments for a consider- 
 
22 METRICAL UNITS. PART i. 
 
 able time, generally to nearly an average lifetime, and 
 sometimes longer ; it would hence be a serious omission 
 to neglect mentioning them in a book to which reference 
 might be made in particular cases not of every-day 
 occurrence, and which is intended to deal with the 
 measures of the present century. 
 
 The former ells now quite obsolete are those of 
 Flanders and Franche-Comte, or of Belgium and 
 Holland, which varied but slightly, being generally very 
 nearly equal to two and a half local feet, or rather less ; 
 the consideration of these may now be neglected entirely. 
 The German and Scandinavian ells may be divided into 
 two sets, those that are or were exactly equal to two 
 local feet, and those that are independent of any con- 
 venient ratio or of any well-defined ratio to the local 
 foot. The values of the former may be obtained by 
 reference to the table of German feet in which those 
 marked with an asterisk merely require doubling to give 
 the value of the local ell ; the latter set in most instances 
 are less important, generally from having been used in 
 less important towns and from being detached measures 
 of limited application ; hence their values are only given 
 in a few special cases. The same remarks apply to the 
 ells of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and of the German 
 cantons of Switzerland. 
 
 The English ell, down to the time either of Henry 
 VII. or perhaps of Queen Elizabeth, was always 
 identical with the yard ; the Elizabethan ell of 45 
 English inches was probably an imported modification 
 of some French aune of 44 larger French inches, and 
 is now happily obsolete : the French aune has also 
 been practically obsolete for some time, owing to the 
 facility of replacing it by the metre. The foreign names 
 
CH. ii. LINEAR MEASURES. 23 
 
 of the ell are : in German and Flemish, elle ; in Dutch, 
 el\ in Danish, alen ; and in Swedish, din. 
 
 The Italian bracci, like the Teutonic ells, were mostly 
 used merely for measuring cloth and fabrics of silk and 
 haberdashery, and in a few instances were submultiples 
 of the canna, but in hardly any case have any well- 
 defined ratio to the local foot, when such a foot exists. 
 Sometimes the foot is absent from a local system, or is 
 little used as a submultiple, its place being supplied by 
 the braccio and the canna or pertica, and their submulti- 
 ples ; and this occasional deficiency of the foot, added to 
 the habits and customs of adhering to so-called obsolete 
 measures, renders the braccio not by any means an 
 unknown unit in Italy, at places distant from the 
 principal towns. Its values are hence given in the tables 
 following this chapter. The braccio sometimes is sub- 
 divided into 3, and sometimes into 2\ or 2^- palms, the 
 palms being submultiples of the canna ; but as a rule the 
 braccio is in practice merely divided into halves or thirds 
 as required. These Italian bracci are entirely distinct 
 from the Spanish and Portuguese braza, braga, and 
 brasada, and the French brasse marine, which are fathoms. 
 
 The Spanish codo de ribera, formerly used in the 
 arsenals, was exactly two local feet, while the ordinary 
 codo of commerce was half a vara, or a foot and a 
 half; the Portuguese covado, on the contrary, was not 
 originally a fixed submultiple of the local vara, though 
 it was a double foot. The values of these are given in 
 the tables of linear measures at the end of this chapter. 
 
 The Russian arsheen, an Oriental cubit, originally was 
 divided into 32 palez or digits, and was equal to 2-3557 
 English feet ; and at one time it was divided into 2 local 
 feet in a manner corresponding to most of the German 
 
24 METRICAL UNITS. PART u 
 
 and Scandinavian ells ; but as it was also the third of 
 the sasheen, Peter the Great reduced the arsheen to 2^ 
 English feet, thus making the sasheen exactly 7 English 
 feet, and causing the English and the Russian foot to be 
 identical in value. The arsheen is divided into sixteen 
 werschock. 
 
 The various Oriental and Levantine piks, or draa, 
 in present use, are said to be mostly derived from the 
 Arabian or Hashemic cubit of Omar, deraga akhdam, 
 of 8 palms or 32 digits, the value of which is estimated 
 to be 2'io English feet, and from the larger Phileterian 
 cubits, of 8 and of 7 palms, whose values are variously 
 estimated at from 2-433 to l '&3 English feet. The inves- 
 tigation of these various piks seldom leads to very useful 
 trustworthy conclusions ; even the pik of the Cairene- 
 Nilometer, now estimated at about 18-19 English inches 
 from recent measurement, \vas formerly supposed to be 
 identical with the black cubit of the Khalifat, variously 
 stated as 21 '26 and 21*34 English inches. The usually- 
 accepted values of the modern piks are given in the 
 tables of linear measure. 
 
 The Indian, Indo-Chinese, and Malayan cubits still 
 existing are supposed by some metrologists to have had 
 their common origin in the Arab Hashemic cubit, and 
 their reduced values to be merely due to the degradation 
 of the two ancient cubits of India and of China, which are 
 assumed to have been identical with the former. Whe- 
 ther this is a correct theory, and whether either of those 
 two cubits were Hashemic cubits, is apparently very 
 doubtful. Judging from the facts that the ordinary 
 hath or Indian cubit, of the present day and for long 
 past, has been 18 English inches, that the Burmese taim 
 has the same value, that the less-used district Indian 
 
CH. ii. LINEAR MEASURES. 25 
 
 cubits rarely exceed 19 English inches, that the Thai' 
 (Siamese) sok is 20 English inches, and the Chinese 
 and Malayan cobid vary between 1 5 and 20 inches, the 
 above supposition seems hardly tenable. 
 
 It is, however, very possible that some special sacred 
 or royal ancient Indian hasta, as well as the Royal 
 saundaung of Burma, may be correctly attributed to that 
 origin ; while the ordinary hath, from being near in 
 value to the Olympic or Egyptian cubit also used by 
 the Phoenicians, may have been brought into the country 
 by Alexander the Great, or by any of the races entering 
 India from the west at any time, or by the maritime and 
 commercial Phoenicians trading with them. 
 
 However this cubit may have been introduced, its 
 identity with the English cubit is very remarkable. The 
 double-cubit, or gaz, of India is also identical with the 
 English yard ; the principal distinction consisting in 
 that the Indian hath is the primary unit, whereas the 
 English yard is, at least at present, the primary unit in 
 the other case ; while the subdivision of the gaz and 
 hath into inches, in the Roman and English style, is 
 locally unknown in India, although customary in Burma. 
 The ordinary Indian subdivision of the hath is : 
 
 I hath = 2 spans = 8 girah. 
 
 Also, I hath = 6 palms = 24 digits or ungli = ^2 jao 
 (barleycorns). 
 
 Some of these subdivisions are adhered to and some 
 omitted in various provinces and towns, but none of 
 them correspond to the English inch in length. 
 
 The Chinese cubit is subdivided decimally ; and the 
 Malayan cubits mostly into halves and quarters. 
 
 The values of the various piks, haths, and other 
 cubits are given in the tables following this section. 
 

 6 METRICAL UNITS. PART I. 
 
 THE YARD. 
 
 The yard, as known in England, has been consid- 
 ered a purely primitive unit of measure, an Anglo-Saxon 
 girdle, developed into the Winchester yard of King Edgar ; 
 but the alternative theory, that it was an approximate 
 double-cubit, adopted during the four centuries of 
 Roman sway, and borrowed from the Romans, is equally 
 tenable. The vara of Spain and of Portugal, which alone 
 correspond to it in Europe, afford indication of support 
 to the latter theory, while the additional argument con- 
 veyed by the fact of the ordinary Indian yard or gaz 
 being a recognised double-cubit, and also equal to the 
 English yard, seems entirely conclusive as regards the 
 latter being a double-cubit derived from some source. 
 Its value too indicates that its original cubit either was 
 an Egyptian natural cubit coming through Phoenician 
 traders, or in some other way, or was a Roman cubit 
 (ulna). The analogy afforded by the other English land- 
 measures points to the latter conclusion ; the old 
 London mile of 5000 feet or 1000 paces was a Roman 
 mile retained to a very recent epoch, while the actus 
 simplex of the Romans was a rectangle, 120 feet (40 
 yards) long by 4 feet in width, and the English acre was 
 established by old statute as a rectangle 40 poles in 
 length by 4 in width ; an evident similarity in mode 
 which indicates that the Roman double-cubit may have 
 been actually used for measuring land in England for 
 centuries before the Saxon invasion. In the statutes of 
 the Norman dynasty, and even till the time of Henry the 
 Seventh, the term ell (ulna) was applied to the yard, the 
 words being indiscriminately used for the same measure ; 
 the aune of France and Normandy being the measure 
 
CH. ii. LINEAR MEASURES. 27 
 
 nearest to the Anglo-Saxon yard known to those that 
 drafted the statutes. It is hence reasonable to imagine 
 that, when the witangemot of King Edgar decreed ' the 
 measure of Winchester shall be the standard/ it enacted 
 in pithy Anglo-Saxon a uniformity that did not pre- 
 viously exist, that the Roman double-cubit and the 
 Saxon gird were till then of different value, but thence- 
 forth rendered identical by adjustment on a Winchester 
 standard. The term verge applied to the English yard 
 in the Anglo-Norman statutes does not convey simply 
 a connection between it and the French, Belgian, and 
 Norman verges, these latter being invariably poles of 
 from 1 6 to 22 feet in length ; the term terra virgata, or 
 terre vergee, in the same way was merely an expression 
 for measured land that was naturally convenient to the 
 Franco-Norman priests that acted as scribes in drawing 
 up enactments at that early period ; for they then 
 thought and wrote in accordance with their own ideas; the 
 vergee being a quarter of the Norman acre, as the rood 
 latterly was the quarter of the Anglo-Saxon acre. The 
 more correct term would doubtless have been terra ulnata, 
 as in England it was the Roman double-ell that had 
 been principally and for long time the land-measure, 
 and not especially a mesure daunage, or cloth-measure ; 
 an arrangement exactly the reverse of the French 
 custom. 
 
 The subdivision of this compounded yard and double 
 ell was necessarily two-fold, one, the Roman mode, 
 dividing it into 3 feet or 36 inches ; the other, the Saxon 
 method of natural application to a girdle measure, by the 
 folding and successive halving the girdle length, and thus 
 producing sixteenths ; both these modes are adopted in 
 the exchequer standard yard of Henry VII. 
 
28 METRICAL UNITS. PART i. 
 
 The complete series of subdivisions in accordance 
 with English tradition is : 
 
 I yard 2 cubits = 3 feet = 4 spans = 9 hands 
 
 = 1 2 palms = 1 6 nails = 36 inches = 1 08 barley- 
 corns. 
 
 The Spanish vara, which alone among the measures 
 of Europe corresponds exactly to the English yard, was 
 about as much shorter than the Roman double-cubit as 
 the English yard was longer, but was not divided into 
 sixteenths, the mode of subdivision being : 
 
 i vara = 2 codos = 3 pies = 4 palmos = 36 pulgadas 
 = 48 dedos, or digits. 
 
 The Portuguese vara was a measure less neatly sys- 
 tematised, being thus : 
 
 i vara= if covado =5 palmos de craveira ; 
 the covado, or perhaps the palmo, being the more primi- 
 tive and ordinary unit, one covado being equal to three 
 palmos, 24 pollegadas, or 36 dedos. 
 
 It may be noticed that the palmo of Spain, Italy, and 
 the palme of Southern France is not a palm but a 
 span. 
 
 The Indian gaz is not only a distinct double-cubit 
 identical in value with the English yard, but is also di- 
 vided into sixteenths, in the Anglo-Saxon method ; the 
 habit of measuring with the personal cubit and that of 
 doubling the girdle-length to obtain a measure being 
 still practised. 
 
 The ordinary modes of subdividing the common 
 Indian gaz are thus : 
 
 1 gaz = 2 hath = 4 spans=i2 palms = 24 tassu 
 
 = 16 girah 48 ungli, or digits=i44 jao or 
 barleycorns. 
 
CH. II. LINEAR MEASURES. 29 
 
 But at some places on the Malabar side the local gaz 
 consisted of \\ or 1} hath, or of a certain number of 
 local tassu ; these being exceptional cases. 
 
 The geza or gaz of Persia and Arabia differ greatly 
 from the Indian gaz. 
 
 The values of all the secondary measures correspond- 
 ing to the English yard will be found grouped in one set 
 in the tables at the end of this section. 
 
 Considering the yard as a double-cubit it may be 
 said to correspond in this respect to the stab or double- 
 ell of Germany and the large French aune, also a double- 
 ell ; the values of these will not be found in the tables, as 
 those of the stab can be easily deduced from the ells by 
 multiplying them by two, and in many cases from the feet 
 by multiplying them by four ; while the French aunes 
 may be considered not only as perfectly obsolete since 
 1 840, but as possessing no further interest. 
 
 THE FATHOM. 
 
 The primitive personal fathom was the natural mea- 
 sure applied to a cord in measuring it with the extended 
 arms to the fullest extent, nearly equal to a man's height ; 
 convenience developed this either into lengths marked 
 along the cord, or into short rods or canes of fixed length 
 for enabling it to be done. The fathom or cane, when 
 systematised in a series of measures, was eventually made 
 some simple multiple either of the local foot, or the cubit ; 
 in a few cases of the local span ; and in occasional but 
 comparatively rare instances it was made identical with 
 the pace or double-step. 
 
 The fathom being thus a secondary unit in almost 
 all systems, it merely becomes necessary here to give the 
 ratio that it bears to the primary unit. 
 
METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 In England the fathom is now treated as a sounding 
 measure of six feet, subdivided in practice to quarters, 
 and termed the common fathom ; the distinctive nauti- 
 cal fathom being a decimal submultiple of the nautical 
 mile, and cable-length, thus : I nautical mile= 10 cables 
 = 1000 nautical fathoms, this fathom being about -gL- or 
 an inch longer than the common fathom. 
 
 The foreign names of the fathom are : 
 
 German : Faden, Klafter, 
 Lachter, Dumpflachter. 
 
 Dutch : Vaam. 
 
 Flemish : Vaem. 
 
 Danish : Favn. 
 
 Swedish : Famn. 
 
 French : Brasse marine, 
 Toise. 
 
 Spanish : Braza, Estado, 
 Brazada, Toesa. 
 
 Portuguese : Bra^a, Toesa. 
 
 Italian : Cavezzo, Trabucco, 
 Canna, Pertica, Tesa, 
 Bracciata. 
 
 Russian : Faden, Sasheen. 
 
 Polish : Sazen. 
 
 Hindi: Danda. 
 
 Chinese : Pu. 
 
 Japanese : Ikje. 
 
 ThaT(Siam): Wa. 
 
 Malayan : DepaJi. 
 
 In Europe generally the fathom is not merely a 
 sounding-measure, but also used in land-measure, and 
 for works of construction ; sometimes having different 
 names in accordance with its mode of use, and some- 
 times also having different values when applied in these 
 various ways. 
 
 Its proportions are or were thus : 
 
 In Germany and Austria the faden and klafter were 
 merely different names for the same unit, consisting of 6 
 local feet ; and in Holland, Belgium, Denmark, and 
 Sweden, the fathoms or toises were all of 6 local feet 
 The exceptions are the modern klafter of Darmstadt of 
 
CH. ii. LINEAR MEASURES. 31 
 
 10 local feet ; the lachter used in mines, which is 6 local 
 feet in Prussia and 7 local feet in Saxony ; and the 
 Bohemian dumpflachter, 4 Bohemian ells. 
 
 In France generally, under the old system, the brasse 
 marine was 5 local feet, but the toise 6 local feet ; in 
 Burgundy the toise was 7^ local feet, and in some few 
 places 5^, 6^, 7, or even 8 local feet. In Spain, the 
 estado, braza, brazada, and toesa, were all names for a 
 measure of 6 local feet ; but the brazada of the Canaries 
 was 6J local feet. In Portugal the braca as a sounding- 
 measure was 5 local feet, but was also termed either a 
 braga or a toesa for other purposes when it was a measure 
 consisting of 2 local varas or 6 local feet. In some 
 parts of Switzerland the klafter or toise was 8 local feet, 
 and in others the toise was also the perch and consisted 
 of 10 local feet. The Italian fathom, generally termed 
 the cavezzo, but taking the name trabucco in Piedmont, 
 Nice, and Sardinia, is almost invariably equal to 6 local 
 feet ; the exceptions are the cavezzi of Florence and of 
 Mantua, equal to 6 local bracci, and the trabucchi of Nice 
 and of Sardinia, equal to 12 local spans (palmi). The 
 sasheen of Russian land-measure is 7 Russian or English 
 feet, but there is also a fathom identical with the English 
 fathom. The Polish sazen is reputed to have been 6 
 local feet. 
 
 The Chinese pu is the pace of. 5 Chinese feet with 
 which the national fathom is identical. The ink or 
 tattami of Japan, also a pace, is equal to 6^2355 English 
 feet ; and the ikje of commerce and cloth-measure is 
 nearly 7 English feet, a long fathom. The wa of That 
 (Siam) of 4 local cubits is equal to 6 English feet, and 
 the depah of Sumatra, Prince of Wales Island, and some 
 other places in the Malayan Archipelago, is equal to the 
 
32 METRICAL UNITS. PART i. 
 
 English fathom, and is subdivided into 8 spans (jaukal). 
 The Indian danda was 2\ local gaz. 
 
 Among all these fathoms, the French toise holds the 
 prominent place of affording the origin of a new system 
 of measures ; the half-toise, slightly modified and named 
 a metre, having been made the basic unit of the metric 
 system, hereafter described. 
 
 The proportions of the whole of this series of fathoms, 
 or measures corresponding to the fathom, being here 
 given, their actual values may be easily calculated from 
 the values of the foot, or of the cubit or yard, given in 
 the tables, excepting in one case, that of the Italian 
 canna or pertica, which bears no direct proportion either 
 to the bracci or the piede, and cannot be termed a perch 
 in the general sense of the term, which indicates a much 
 larger measure. This measure, termed the canna in 
 commerce and pertica in land-measurement, was exceed- 
 ingly variable in value all over Italy ; it was generally 
 equal to 8 local spans (palmi), in a few places equal to 7 
 spans, 7^, 7^, or 7 spans, and in Sardinia 10 spans ; at 
 Rome and at Florence the canna of commerce was 8 
 spans, but the canna of works of construction and build- 
 ings 10 spans ; the tesa of Savoy was 6 Chamberi feet, 
 and the Neapolitan bracciata was simply a French brasse 
 marine of 5 French pieds du roi. This detail would not 
 be worthy of mention, so long after the Italians have 
 adopted the metric system, were it not a land-measure, 
 and on account of the long survival that so-called obso- 
 lete land-measures pre-eminently enjoy. There seems 
 however, to have been no need for these incongruous 
 Italian canne or pertiche, as the Italian cavezzi and 
 trabucchi, which were convenient measures used all over 
 Italy for the same purpose, and also multiples of bracci 
 or piede, could always be made to take their place. 
 
CH. ii. LINEAR MEASURES. 33 
 
 THE ROD AND THE POLE. 
 
 The rod, rood, pole, perch, lug, are various names 
 applied to large linear measures of land -measure, that 
 sufficiently indicate their origin ; the values of measures 
 of this type, when distinct from fathoms, generally lie 
 between 10 and 25 local feet, or some approximate 
 corresponding values in cubits or yards. It would, 
 however, be a mistake to imagine that the rod, the pole, 
 and the perch have always been* measures of exactly the 
 same sort ; there seems little doubt that the rod was 
 generally a small unit, a double pace, or double fathom, 
 either 10 or 12 feet, while the pole was between 12 and 
 24 feet. 
 
 In Italy the canna or rod was a small'unit used both 
 for land-measure and cloth-measure, an approximate 
 fathom ; the exceptional or large canne of Tuscany and 
 Sardinia alone being true rods. 
 
 In early English times the rod was probably a Roman 
 pertica of 10 feet, while the pole had its present' value 
 as a special English term, and the foreign perch or ruthe 
 was from about 14 to 24 feet ; the present EngHsh unit 
 is evidently one of compromise, to which the term pole 
 is alone strictly applicable. 
 
 In England there were formerly several local pole 
 measures, 6 yards, 7 yards, and 8 yards ; the pole of 5^ 
 yards or \6\ feet, still remaining, seems to have been 
 adopted not from any advantage it possesses as a linear 
 measure, but because its square, the square pole or perch, 
 the y-J-oth part of the acre, supplied a mode of arriving at 
 the latter through calculation, in a method analogous to 
 the Roman mode of deriving the actus quadratus. 
 
 At present the English linear pole may be considered 
 D 
 
34 METRICAL UNITS. TART i. 
 
 a practically obsolete measure as far as surveyors are 
 concerned, besides being an inconvenient and unnecessary 
 unit of calculation. It seems even very doubtful whether 
 a linear pole of any other length would not be also an 
 entirely needless intermediate unit of calculation. 
 
 For the practical purposes of measuring land with 
 deal rods under ordinary circumstances, rods of 10 feet 
 are most convenient, as shown by the demands of 
 Canada for numerous lo-feet standards mentioned in the 
 reports of the Warden of the Standards for the last 10 
 years ; but rod-measurement being less rapid than 
 chaining, the latter mode of measuring has generally 
 superseded the former ; and the rod is hence mostly 
 used merely for taking offsets in surveying. The term 
 rod, though under old legal statute applicable to the pole, 
 is actually more often applied to the lo-foot rod, which 
 is the tenth of the Ramsden chain of 100 feet, and forms 
 a convenient intermediate unit in the decimal system of 
 measures based on the English foot. The pole or perch 
 may be considered a mere nominal unit not alone in 
 England, but almost everywhere. In Spain where they 
 have, as in England, a yard (vara) of 3 local feet, a 
 fathom (estado or braza) of 6 local feet, and a double- 
 fathom (estadal) of 12 local feet corresponding to 
 our rod the estadal was practically disused both in 
 measurement and in calculation, the vara being the unit 
 of calculation, the braza being occasionally used, and 
 perches almost unknown. In Italy there was, properly 
 speaking, no perch at all that corresponded to European 
 perches, the cavezzi and trabucchi used for the same 
 purpose being fathoms of 6 local feet, while the so-called 
 pertica was really a canna, and merely an approximate 
 fathom of a particularly inconvenient kind, as before 
 explained. 
 
CH. II. 
 
 LINEAR MEASURES. 
 
 35 
 
 The Russian arsheen used in land-measure is a local 
 fathom, and the perch does not exist ; the Japanese ikje 
 is also a local fathom, and the perch is either wanting, 
 undiscoverable, or identical with it. 
 
 The foreign terms applied to rods, poles, and perches 
 are 
 
 Germany and Sweden : 
 
 Ruthe. 
 
 Dutch and Flemish : Roede. 
 Danish and Norwegian : 
 
 Rode. 
 French, also in Belgium : 
 
 Perche and Verge. 
 Italian : Canna and Pertica. 
 
 Polish : Pretow. 
 Arabic : Gassab. 
 Hindi : Vansa. 
 Burma : Dha. 
 Sumatra : Jamba. 
 Chinese : CJiang. 
 Guinea : Jacktan. 
 
 The German ruthe is also termed a land-ruthe, feld- 
 ruthe, or wald-ruthe, in accordance with the description 
 of land measured, and sometimes varies in value on that 
 account alone. In a few exceptional cases in Germany, 
 the value of the linear ruthe has been unduly forced into 
 prominence by attempts to form on its basis a decimal 
 series of measures, and by forming an additional land- 
 foot from it in that way. 
 
 The reds of the following countries and places con- 
 sisted of 10 local feet or were double paces : 
 
 Baden. 
 
 Bavaria. 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Norway. 
 
 and 
 
 Darmstadt. 
 Frankfurt. 
 Elsass and Loth- 
 ringen. 
 
 Vienna. 
 Wurtemberg. 
 Zurich and Basel. 
 China. 
 
 The rods of Prussia, Franconia, Wiirzburg, Anspach, 
 and Constance were double fathoms, or equal to 12 local 
 feet. 
 
 D 2 
 
METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART 
 
 The gassab or Arab rod is 12 local feet or 8 cubits. 
 The dba of Burma is equal to 7 royal cubits (saun- 
 daung) or 12 feet 10 inches of English measure. The 
 jamba of Sumatra is 4 haila, or equals 4 English yards. 
 
 The poles of Lithuania, Silesia, and Poland were 1 5 
 local feet. 
 
 In the following places and provinces the pole was 
 1 6 local feet : 
 
 Aachen. 
 Bremen and 
 
 Hamburg. 
 Brunswick and 
 
 Hanover. 
 Coblenz. 
 
 Other poles, verges, ruthes, &c., were thus : 
 
 Coin. 
 
 Mecklenburg. 
 
 Creveld. 
 
 Mayence. 
 
 Gotha. 
 
 Nuremberg. 
 
 Luxemburg. 
 
 Pomerania. 
 
 Leipzig. 
 
 Weimar. 
 
 Lippe-Detmold. 
 
 
 Gotha and Hesse : 14 local 
 
 feet. 
 Oldenburg and Paris : 1 8 
 
 local feet. 
 
 Old Indian Vansa : 10 
 
 cubits. 
 
 Normandy : 22 local feet. 
 France, generally from 20 
 
 to 22 local feet. 
 
 The present Dutch roede is 10 metres, and the perche 
 or ruthe of Baden and the Canton de Vaud is 3 metres. 
 The metric French perch, adopted in the transition 
 period, was 10 metres. 
 
 THE ROPE OR CORD 
 
 The cord or rope is a measure slightly more obsolete 
 than the rod, pole, or perch ; in England there were 
 several of these measures, the principal being the cords 
 and ropes of 20 feet and of 25 feet. In Spain the 
 cuerda was either 25 local feet, or 8 local yards (varas). 
 
CH. II. LINEAR MEASURES. 37 
 
 In Brittany the corde was equal to 4 Parisian fathoms, 
 toises, or 24 Parisian feet, but more correctly was 3 
 gaules, an old fathom of Brittany ; 80 square cordes went 
 to the journal of Brittany, which slightly exceeded the 
 English acre. The chainee of Poitiers was equal to the 
 corde of Brittany ; and the chainee of Tours and other 
 places was equal to 25 Parisian feet ; all these measures 
 being evidently of one type. Although obsolete, this 
 measure is of a convenient length for common rough land- 
 measurement ; the cause of its abandonment is doubtless 
 due to the practical inaccuracy of rope-measurement 
 from shrinkage ; but as thick wire or wire-rope would 
 not be open to this objection, would coil easily, and be 
 inexpensive, there is yet some possibility of a future 
 revival of some such measure, from its practical supe- 
 riority over the pole in point of convenience in every 
 way. 
 
 THE CHAIN. 
 
 The chain of land- measure varies, or has varied in 
 different parts of the world, from about 50 to 150 feet in 
 length. In England at the present day there are two 
 chains in use, one the so-called Gunter's chain of 4 poles, 
 equal to 22 yards or 66 feet, a submultiple both of the 
 statute mile and the acreside ; the other, the Ramsden 
 chain of 100 feet, suited to the convenience in detail of 
 surveying, arrived at by keeping all measurements in 
 feet and decimal submultiples. 
 
 As to the real origin of the former chain, there is 
 little information available about ancient English chains ; 
 the old Scotch chain was equal to 24 Scotch ells or 74*4 
 present English feet ; a more modern one exactly 74 
 feet ; the old Roman chain factus) was 24 Roman paces, 
 
38 METRICAL UNITS. PART i. 
 
 or 1 20 Roman feet ; and both the Ptolemaic Phileterian 
 and the Greek chains (amma) were 60 local feet. This 
 last value being near the short English chain, it may be 
 conjectured to have been either an imported Phoenician 
 unit of measure, or a half Roman chain, until readjusted 
 as a multiple of the pole by Gunter. 
 
 The long chain was probably a modified Roman chain, 
 as its square is very nearly a rood, but its reintroduction 
 is very modern, probably dating from not long before 
 the time of Ramsden, and the commencement of the 
 Ordnance Survey of England. 
 
 The following are the foreign names for the chain : 
 
 German : Schnur, Seil, 
 
 Kette. 
 
 Dutch : Snoer. 
 Polish : Sznurow. 
 French : chaine. 
 
 Italian : catena. 
 Spanish : cadena. 
 Thai': Sen. 
 India : Tendb. 
 
 The German chains are said to have been generally 
 10 rods in length, and, as many of these rods were 10 
 feet, they were mostly chains of 100 local feet. In other 
 cases they were more, the Danzig seil being 1 50 local 
 feet ; so also the schnur of Kcenigsberg and Pillau. 
 The sznurow of Poland was 1 50 local feet. The Bohe- 
 mian wald-seil was 42 local ells, and the weinberg-seil 
 64 local ells. 
 
 The Arab chain is 10 gassab (poles) or 120 local feet; 
 the ancient Indian tenab was 50 gaz (yards) ; and the sen 
 of Thai' (Siam) is 20 wa (fathoms) or 80 local cubits (sok). 
 The metric chain, used by nations that have adopted 
 the metric system, is 20 metres, or, as it is termed by 
 the French, a double-decametre. 
 
 The values of the various fathoms, rods, cords, and 
 
CH. ii. LINEAR MEASURES. 39 
 
 chains, which are in all cases secondary units of linear 
 measurement, can be obtained by treating them as mul- 
 tiples of the foot, or from values given in the table at 
 the end of this chapter. . 
 
 THE ACRE-SIDE. 
 
 The acre-side, the rood-side, or the side of the prin- 
 cipal measure of surface used by any nation, is often a 
 linear unit of importance in calculation, although very 
 frequently not an acknowledged legal unit, and unfortu- 
 nately sometimes so entirely lost to sight in the arrange- 
 ments of a system of measures as to be rendered most 
 incongruous and inconvenient in its relation to other 
 linear measures. 
 
 For instance, the English acre-side is 
 
 208710326 ft. = 69-5701085 yds. = 3478505425 fathoms 
 
 = 12-6491106 poles= 3*1622777 Gunter's chains 
 
 -=2-08710326 Ramsden chains. 
 
 The English rood-side is 
 
 I04'355 l62 9 ^. = 347850543 yds. = 17-3925272 fathom 
 
 = 6-3245553 rods= 1-5811388 Gunter's chains 
 
 = 1-043551629 Ramsden chains. 
 
 But in the French system, the side of the hectare is 
 exactly 100 metres, and the side of the arc is 10 metres. 
 Even in Sumatra, the linear orlong, or local acre-side 
 corresponding to the square orlong, or local acre, is 
 exactly 20 jambas (local perches) or 80 haila (English 
 yards) in length ; while the side of the jamba or local 
 square perch is a linear jamba of 4 hailas. 
 
 The side of the Arab feddan is exactly 240 local 
 feet ; the side of the Spanish cuadra cuadrada is exactly 
 
40 METRICAL UNITS. PART I. 
 
 150 local varas ; the side of the Bavarian tagwerk is 
 exactly 20 perches or 200 local feet, so also is that of 
 the Baden morgen ; that of the Piedmontese giornata 
 was I2ojocal feet, and that of the Mecklenburg acre 10 
 local perches, or 160 local feet. 
 
 The side of the Tyrolese starland is 10 perches or 
 100 feet. The side of the Venetian migliajo was, like 
 the English acre-side, exceedingly inconvenient, being 
 v/ 1000 passi or 31 '622776 paces of 5 local feet ; although 
 the migliajo itself of 1000 square passi was well arranged 
 with respect to the miglio or mile of 1000 passi ; as it 
 formed the thousandth part of the square mile ; and 
 this is a typical case illustrating the inconvenience of 
 using thousands in square measure ; in the same way as 
 the hectare, are, and square metre show the advantages 
 of hundreds and myriads for the same purpose. The side 
 of the Darmstadt morgen was 20 klafter or 200 local feet, 
 and several other acre-sides of Germany and France were 
 equal to 10 or to 12 local perches or ruthes, as may be 
 seen by inspecting the table of acres and taking the 
 square roots of the number of square perches and square 
 feet of which they are composed. But the greater part 
 of the remaining acre-sides, &c., in present use do not 
 bear any such convenient relation to other linear measures 
 of the system, so that a record of their values would 
 not be of much use in any calculations. 
 
 ITINERARY MEASURES. 
 
 THE FURLONG of 40 poles long, unknown by that 
 name out of England, is a modification of the Roman 
 stadium, which was an eighth of the Roman mile, and 
 nearly equal to the Olympic <TTO&IOV. There are corre- 
 
CH. II. LINEAR MEASURES. 41 
 
 spending estadios in Spain and in Portugal, that are 
 eighths of the national miles, and consist of 125 paces. 
 
 The present value of the English furlong adapted 
 to the English statute mile a modern arrangement is 
 132 paces, but as the Old London mile of 1000 paces 
 was the local form of the Roman mile, its former value 
 was 125 paces. 
 
 At present it may be termed a mere expression for 
 the eighth of the mile that is in use, and a multiple of a 
 disused pole, but can hardly be considered a measure. 
 
 The values of the furlong and estadios may be reduced 
 from the values of the corresponding miles given in the 
 table at the end of this chapter. 
 
 THE MILE. Among the itinerary measures of the 
 civilised world, the mile has, since the Roman period, 
 been the principal and the most important. The mile, 
 considered as a simple measure of distance taken from 
 primitive personal measures, was 1000 paces or pairs of 
 steps ; but the mile, in a system of national measures, 
 consisted of 1000 reputed paces or units called paces, 
 which among the Romans was 5 Roman feet, so that 
 the Roman milliarium was 1000 paces or $000 feet. 
 The Old London mile, which, as well as the rebuilding 
 of London, was due to the Romans, was correspondingly 
 5000 local feet. 
 
 The old Irish mile of 320 Irish perches was 6720 
 English feet, and the old Scotch mile of 1920 Scotch 
 ells was 5929-6 English feet ; there were also several 
 ether local miles in England before the modern statute 
 mile of 5280 feet, or 1056 paces, was adopted as the 
 Imperial unit. This last was evidently a systematised 
 mile, arranged to make the mile exactly 320 poles, and 
 the square mile exactly equal to 640 acres an unfortu- 
 
42 METRICAL UNITS. PART i. 
 
 nate mode of disposition that entirely neglected the 
 consideration of that important unit, the acre-side. 
 
 Had the land-mile been made 6000 feet, or 2000 
 yards, in length, and the acre-side exactly 200 feet 
 instead of 2087, there would have been exactly 30 acre- 
 sides to the mile, and also exactly 900 acres to the 
 square land-mile ; a preferable arrangemem that would 
 have adjusted the whole, altered the acre slightly, and 
 abolished the pole entirely. Such a mile would have 
 been one-fifth longer than the London mile, and easily 
 estimated in calculation ; besides becoming identical 
 with the correct and typical Indian kos of 2000 gaz 
 (yards) of Indo-Germanic origin. 
 
 However much the statute mile and its complication, 
 may be regretted, there is no doubt that any departure 
 from the original London mile would have entirely 
 altered the type from the milliarium of 1000 paces ; 
 while the change actually made removed the mile from 
 one type without putting it into another class of 
 itinerary, and rendered it an exceptional measure. 
 
 Among all the miles of antiquity since the Roman 
 period, no such modification of the type appears to have 
 been ever made. The other type of mile is an itinerary 
 measure roughly approximating in value to a milliarium, 
 such as the Chinese li of 360 paces, or 1800 local feet ; 
 the Russian werst of 500 sasheen, or 3500 feet ; the 
 French kilometre of 1000 metres ; and the Indian cos 
 of 2,000 yards ; also the Hebrew Saturday walk of 
 2000 cubits, or about 4000 feet, which cannot be 
 correctly termed a journey. 
 
 The values of the modern miles, that are approxi- 
 mately milliaria of the Roman type, are given in the 
 tables of miles at the end of this chapter ; it will, how- 
 
CH. ii. LINEAR MEASURES. 43 
 
 ever, be noticed that the German stage-miles do not 
 follow this type, and are given separately ; the small 
 itinerary measures of some nations are also given apart. 
 
 THE LEAGUE appears to be in general an itinerary 
 unit representing an hour's walk, based on the ancient 
 parasang f Chald?ea, Persia, and Arabia, and the later 
 parasangs of Egypt, Asia Minor, and Armenia. 
 
 Most of these consisted of 3 local miles, but some of 
 them of 4 local miles. The surviving parasang of 
 modern times, the Turkish agasha, is 3 berri ; and the 
 leagues of most modern nations that adopted Roman 
 milliaria are generally 3 miles ; among these the English 
 had a league of 3 statute miles, which is not a legal unit 
 at present, and hardly even survives in the language of 
 the people as an expression. The term league being hence 
 free, it is proposed (see ' Scientific System ') to apply 
 it to a unit of two Old London miles, 10000 feet, or 100 
 Ramsden chains, which is nearly equal to three kilometres, 
 and thus to complete the decimal series of measures based 
 on the foot. 
 
 The discarded French postal league consisted of two 
 old French miles. 
 
 The German stunde is a measure corresponding to 
 the league, conveying the same idea of the hour's walk, 
 and it is very possible that the old stunden of Germany, 
 of which those of Westphalia, Baden, Bavaria, Wiirtem- 
 berg, and Bohemia, retained the longest vitality, were 
 primitive units of itinerary measure in that country, 
 although latterly they have been treated as secondary 
 measures or halves of the large German post-miles or 
 stages. 
 
 In countries that were destitute both of an approxi- 
 mate Roman milliarium, and of a stage-measure or post 
 
44 METRICAL UNITS. PART I. 
 
 mile, and any very large itinerary, the hour's walk could 
 neither be a multiple of the one nor a submultiple of the 
 other ; as, for instance, the old Flemish and Dutch uer 
 and uur, which were primary measures consisting of 
 1000 verges or roede, or 20000 local feet Also the 
 roeneng of Thai' (Siam), of 2000 local fathoms (wa) ; 
 and the dain of Burma, of 1000 dha or local perches. 
 
 The Chinese pou, consisting of 8 li or nearly 4 Eng- 
 lish miles, is a league of the secondary description, being 
 a tenth of the tsan or journey. 
 
 The values of the primary leagues are given in the 
 table following ; but those of most secondary leagues 
 may be obtained either by multiplying the miles 
 (milliaria) by three, or by dividing the Germaji post-miles 
 (stages) by two. 
 
 THE STAGE, post-mile., gross-mile, or staging-distance 
 of Germany is an itinerary measure not to be confounded 
 with the ordinary miles, or milliaria, before mentioned, as 
 it belongs to an entirely different type. The Teutonic 
 and Scandinavian meil is a stage, or stathm. 
 
 Referring to ancient measures, we find a stathm or 
 stage as a unit of measure in use in Syria and Asia 
 Minor, consisting of 6 Egyptian miles ; also a stathm 
 used in Persia and Western Asia that was equal to 4 
 parasangs or leagues, and was therefore nearly 12 miles ; 
 the latter stage being very nearly double the former. 
 Now, double measures of many sorts were quite a com- 
 mon institution in Asia in ancient times, and probably 
 also double stages ; also there was the postal-stage for 
 runners, and that for mounted men or for horses, as well 
 as the stage that consisted of a day's march or a journey. 
 The latter stathm was probably a journey, while the 
 former seems to have been a postal distance, corre- 
 
CH. II. LINEAR MEASURES. 45 
 
 spending to the Teutonic post-meil of about two 
 leagues. In India there was in ancient times a yojana 
 of 4 ancient kos, which may have been from 5 to 6 miles, 
 and was probably a postal-stage of the same type, though 
 nominally a journey. The values of the various primary 
 post-meil and gross-meil are given in the table. 
 
 THE JOURNEY, day's walk, or day's march, is now an 
 obsolete itinerary measure in Europe, and nearly so 
 elsewhere. The Norwegian and Westphalian postal- 
 meil, and Swedish and the old Hanoverian polizei-meil, 
 the longest of their type, do not exceed 7 English miles 
 in length, and are therefore merely stages. In Asia, the 
 journey was in many countries a specified measure, of 
 which the various corresponding miles, leagues, and 
 stages were well-defined submultiples. 
 
 The present tsan of China is= I pou = 8o li. 
 
 The ancient marhala of Arabia =8 parasangs. 
 
 The South-Indian kadam = 7 nali-vali. 
 
 The gavada or journey in Maisur had two values, the 
 ordinary and the large gavada, one about 10 miles, the 
 other about \2\ miles; and in India generally, to the 
 present day, stages or camping-grounds are fixed at 
 distances on a route, called a kunch or march, that are 
 about 10 miles ; while the duna kunch, or double march 
 of 20 miles, is similarly recognised. There are probably 
 in several other countries accepted notions of the journey 
 as a unit of measure that have not received the attention 
 of metrologists. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL AND NAUTICAL ITINERARY MEASURES. 
 
 Measures of this type differ from all the preceding 
 itinerary measures in that, instead of being multiples of 
 
METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 common and commercial linear measures, they are sub- 
 multiples of some estimated geodetic quantity or value, 
 such as the polar or the equatorial axis of a mean 
 terrestrial sphere, a terrestrial meridional quadrant pass- 
 ing through some country or town, a mean degree of 
 latitude, or of longitude, either on the earth as a sphere, 
 as a spheroid, or on any great circle of the earth. 
 
 The geographical mile is considered in England to 
 have a value that varies with the latitude ; adopting the 
 English method of treating the geographical mile as a 
 minute of latitude, or a sixtieth of a degree, its value for 
 any locality would have to be deduced from the nearest 
 recorded or estimated values, such as the following : 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 At o 
 
 lo' 
 
 20 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 54 
 
 Value of the mile. 
 
 Feet. 
 6045-5 
 6044 '4 
 6054-3 
 60757 
 6082-5 
 6085-1 
 
 But the more usual Continental method, as far as 
 the books of foreign metrologists indicate, apparently 
 was to treat the geographical mile as a sixtieth of a 
 fixed value of a mean degree of latitude, determined 
 or deduced from such measurements as have been 
 afforded by various geodetic surveys. The value they 
 use for their purpose is equal to 6076-98 English feet (at 
 the scientific value) ; according to another computation, 
 taking iiri34 metres as= 12 1-540 yards, the value 
 would be 6077-00 feet. On referring to the latest Eng- 
 lish book on the subject of 'The Science of Weighing and 
 
LINEAR MEASURES. 47 
 
 Measuring and Standards of Measure and Weight/ by H. 
 W. Chisholm, Warden of the Standards (London, 1877), 
 the mean length of a degree of the meridian is stated to 
 be 364591 English feet, at page 26 of that book; thus 
 making the minute 6076-52 English feet Taking the 
 old accepted mean diameter of a sphere corresponding 
 to the spheroid to be 7912-5 statute miles, a minute of 
 mean latitude becomes 6076*36 English feet ; but the 
 higher value of 79167 miles gives 6076*52. 
 
 This variation in the estimated value of a mean 
 minute of latitude amounts as a maximum to about f of 
 a foot, or one per myriad ; if this were a final maximum, 
 it might not be considered excessive, but future geodetic 
 measurement and astronomical observation, aided by 
 modern devices, such as electric communication, and 
 electric-light signals, may cause perpetual alteration of 
 the estimated value. The insufficient information now 
 available, based on limited geodetic measurements, is at 
 present fatal to accuracy and certainty. The recent 
 triangulation across the Straits of Gibraltar, aided by the 
 electric light, has enabled a connection to be formed 
 between European and future African series ; ,but until a 
 few degrees both of latitude and longitude at and on the 
 equator have been actually measured, not only by per- 
 sons of some single nationality having particular metro- 
 logic views and objects, but by scientific men of several 
 nations, the nucleus of geodetic measurement may be con- 
 sidered a mere embryo. At present the world is believed 
 to be a doubly oblate spheroid, oblate at the poles, and 
 oblate on the equator at 105 34' of longitude ; future 
 measurements may prove so much variety of configura- 
 tion as to greatly alter the mode of reduction to mean 
 sphere, and thus doubly affect the variation in value of 
 the mean minute of latitude. 
 
 
48 METRICAL UNITS. PART 
 
 
 Under these prospects it is perhaps better not to 
 attempt any fresh reduction of Continental geographical 
 or of nautical miles to commercial or scientific measures 
 of length, but to leave them in. their original form, as 
 submultiples of a mean degree^of; latitude, whatever it 
 may be. 
 
 The geographical mile of Prussia, and of Poland is 
 an arc of 4 minutes,, or 15 miles to the mean degree ; a 
 larger mile of 5 minutes,, or 1 2 miles to the mean degree 
 is also adopted in Germany as well as in Bohemia ; a 
 geographical mile of six. minutes, or 10 miles to the 
 degree, is adopted in Norway. The geographical 
 leagues of France in former times were the common 
 league of an arc of 2' 24", or 25 leagues to the mean 
 degree, and the mean league of an arc of 2' 42", or 
 22-f leagues to the mean degree. 
 
 The Italian mile is a geographical mile of I minute, 
 or 60 miles to the mean degree. According to English 
 notions, as before explained, none of these would be 
 geographical miles. 
 
 Nautical miles and leagues may be estimated in 
 several ways ; first, as an English geographical mile, or 
 length of a minute of a degree of latitude at mean sea- 
 level, varying with the latitude from 6046 feet to 6107 
 feet ; second, as a Continental geographical mile, of one 
 minute of a mean degree of latitude, or about 6076*5 
 feet or 1*1508 statute mile; third, as the value of 
 a minute of a supposed mean degree of longitude 
 at the equator, or about 6086-5 feet, or 1*1528 statute 
 miles. The Continental nautical miles are determined by 
 the second method. Besides the nautical miles thus 
 determined, there are arbitrary knots or sea-miles in 
 common use : first, the common knot of 6082*66 feet or 
 
en. ii. LINEAR MEASURES. 49 
 
 1*15202 statute miles; second, the Admiralty knot of 
 6080 feet or 1*1515 statute miles. The sea-league is 
 equivalent to three sea-miles or knots as the case may 
 be ; and the sea-miles and knots are subdivided into 10 
 cables or 10000 fathoms, such cables and fathoms being 
 termed nautical cables and nautical fathoms, to distin- 
 guish them from the common or land units. 
 
 COMMERCIAL AND SCIENTIFIC VALUES. 
 
 The English equivalents of the foreign metrical units 
 of length, given in the following table, are arranged 
 separately as commercial and scientific values. The 
 whole series of commercial measures is by law deter- 
 mined at the English normal temperature of 62 Fahren- 
 heit in air under special average conditions of pressure, 
 air-density, latitude and so forth ; this rather intricate 
 arrangement affords the commercial man practically 
 possible conditions under which he may compare his 
 units with standards, and arrive at a close approximation 
 to exactitude in any single detached unit. It hence 
 meets the requirements of separate branches of com- 
 merce, and fulfils its object ; although for scientific and 
 for more extended purposes it fails, in that the relation 
 between units of weight and volume is complicated. 
 
 The whole series of English scientific values of units 
 of measure is determined at 32 Fahrenheit in vacuo ; 
 though the water used for comparison of weight and 
 volume is at its maximum density, involving a tempera- 
 ture of about 39. The relation between units of weight 
 and volume is hence more simple ; and the system is 
 more suited to technical and scientific purposes. The 
 decimalised series of scientific units, based solely on the 
 
 E 
 
50 METRICAL UNITS. PART i. 
 
 foot, square foot, cubic foot, and foot-weight render com- 
 parison with French units excessively simple throughout. 
 The comparison of English scientific units with English 
 commercial units of length is effected by allowing for 
 the linear expansion of brass or bronze for 30 differ- 
 ence of temperature, about 0*000285, which can be 
 easily applied in the form of a percentage ; this small 
 quantity seriously affects values in large units. 
 
 The French metric units are determined at 32 and 
 39 in the same way, and constitute a scientific system ; 
 no special arrangement to suit commercial purposes 
 forming part of the system. 
 
 In comparing units belonging to systems of dif- 
 ferent temperature, contraction or expansion, has neces- 
 sarily to be taken into account ; this allowance has been 
 made in the following tables. 
 
CH. II. 
 
 MEASURES OF LENGTH. 
 
 IMPERIAL AND NATIONAL FEET. 
 
 Foot of Great Britain, America, Russia, 
 and of their dependencies and colonies, 
 at the normal temperature of 62 Fahr. 
 
 The same at the temperature of 32 Fahr. 
 
 Rheinfuss of Norway, 1 Denmark, 1 and 
 Prussia ...... 
 
 Foot of Sweden l and Finland ] 
 
 Foot of the Austro- Hungarian Empire . 
 
 Spanish foot ...... 
 
 Portuguese foot' ..... 
 
 Chinese foot of the Board of Works, 
 Kambuchih 
 
 English 
 Commercial 
 
 English 
 Scientific 
 
 French 
 Scientific 
 
 Equivalent. 
 
 Equivalent. 
 
 Equivalent. 
 
 Feet 
 
 Feet 
 
 Millimetres 
 
 I -0000 
 
 0-9997 
 
 30471. 
 
 1-0003 
 
 1-0000 
 
 304-79 
 
 I -0300 
 
 1-0297 
 
 3I3-85 
 
 0-9743 
 
 0-9740 
 
 296-87 
 
 I -0373 
 
 1-0370 
 
 3I6-08 
 
 0-9134 
 
 0-9132 
 
 278-33 
 
 I -0830 
 
 1-0827 
 
 330-00 
 
 1-0594 
 
 1-0591 
 
 322-8I 
 
 FORMER AND LOCAL SPECIAL FEET. 
 
 GERMANY: 
 Rheinfuss, Prussia 
 Anspach, Baireuth l 
 Altona, Hamburg 1 
 Baden (metric foot) } 
 Bavaria (ordinary foot) . 
 
 ,, (Werkschuh) 1 . ... 
 
 Culm 1 , 
 
 Bavaria, Rhenish .... 
 
 Bremen '..... 
 
 Brunswick l . 
 
 Coin and Aschaffenberg l 
 
 Danzig l ..... 
 
 Elsass (Stadtschuh) 
 
 ,, (Landschuh) 
 
 Gotha 
 
 Halle 1 
 
 Hanover J ..... 
 
 Heiligenstadt and Erfurt J 
 
 Hesse Darmstadt l . 
 
 Hesse (Electoral) ordinary l . 
 
 ,, ,, (Landfuss) . 
 
 ,, ,, (decimal Landfuss) 
 
 Holstein 1 
 
 1 The ells of these countries and places 
 
 . I -0300 
 
 1-0297 
 
 3I3-85 
 
 . 0-9839 
 
 0-9836 
 
 299 -80 
 
 . 0-9402 
 
 0-9399 
 
 286-5 
 
 . 0-9846 
 
 0-9843 
 
 300 
 
 . 0-9578 
 
 0-9576 
 
 291. -86 
 
 . 0-9721 
 
 0-9718 
 
 296-2 
 
 0-9455 
 
 0-9452 
 
 288-1 
 
 . I -0939 
 
 1-0936 
 
 333 '33 
 
 . 0-9491 
 
 0-9488 
 
 289-2 
 
 0-9365 
 
 0-9362 
 
 285-36 
 
 . 0-9438 
 
 0-9435 
 
 287-6 
 
 . 0-9416 
 
 0-9413 
 
 286-9 
 
 . 0-9491 
 
 0-0488 
 
 289-2 
 
 . 0-9681 
 
 0-9678 
 
 295 
 
 0-9439 
 
 0-9436 
 
 287-62 
 
 . 0-9472 
 
 0-9469 
 
 288-63 
 
 . 0-9586 
 
 0-9583 
 
 292-10 
 
 . 0-9291 
 
 0-9288 
 
 283-1 
 
 . 0-8205 
 
 0-8203 
 
 250 
 
 . 0-9442 
 
 0-9439 
 
 2877 
 
 . 0-9350 
 
 0-9347 
 
 284-9 
 
 . 1-3091 
 
 1-3087 
 
 398-9 
 
 . 0-9795 
 
 0-9792 
 
 298-45 
 
 were = 2 local feet ; the stab = 2 ells. 
 
 2 
 
METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 FEET continued. 
 
 English 
 Commercial 
 
 English 
 Scientific 
 
 GERMANY : 
 
 Equivalent. 
 Feet 
 
 equivalent. 
 Feet 
 
 Lippe Detmold ' . 
 
 0-9501 
 
 0-9498 
 
 Lothringen ...... 
 
 0-93 8 5 
 
 0-9382 
 
 Liibeck 1 and Rostock l . 
 
 0-9448 
 
 0-9445 
 
 Miinster l ...... 
 
 0*9544 
 
 0-9541 
 
 Mecklenburg Strelitz and Schwerin ' 
 
 0-955 
 
 0-9547 
 
 Nassau (Werkfuss) 
 
 0-9846 
 
 0-9843 
 
 ,, (Landfuss) .... 
 
 i -6409 
 
 1-6404 
 
 Nuremberg (Stadtfuss) .... 
 
 0-9972 
 
 0-9969 
 
 (Artilleriefuss) . 
 
 0-9261 
 
 0-9258 
 
 Oldenburg ...... 
 
 0-9727 
 
 0-9725 
 
 Saxe Weimar (Werkfuss) ' . . 
 
 0-9255 
 
 0-9252 
 
 ,, (Landfuss) 
 
 i -4808 
 
 1-4804 
 
 ***{$$$. : : : : 
 
 Silesia (Prussian) J . 
 
 0-9291 
 0-9276 
 0-9450 
 
 0-9288 
 0-9274 
 0-9447 
 
 Wiirtemberg 
 
 0-9402 
 
 0-9399 
 
 Worbis 1 
 
 0-9402 
 
 0-9399 
 
 SWITZERLAND : 
 
 
 
 Berne and Freiberg .... 
 
 0-9624 
 
 0-9621 
 
 Basel 
 
 O'QQQC 
 
 0-9992 
 
 Saint Gall l 
 
 w yyyj 
 I -OOO"? 
 
 1-0090 
 
 
 1 V^V/^^ 
 I "6OI2 
 
 1-6007 
 
 Claris, 1 Grisons, Uri, 1 Waadt, 1 Valais, 1 
 
 
 
 Schweitz 1 
 
 O-9846 
 
 0-9843 
 
 Lucerne, 1 ordinary foot .... 
 
 I -0300 
 
 1-0297 
 
 ,, Joiners' foot . 
 
 0^972 
 
 0-9969 
 
 ,, Land and Works 
 
 0-9328 
 
 0-9325 
 
 Neufchatel, Landfuss .... 
 
 O-9624 
 
 0-9621 
 
 ,, Feldmessfuss 
 
 0-9424 
 
 0-9421 
 
 Rheinfelden, Vienna foot 
 
 1 >0 373 
 
 1-0370 
 
 Schaffhaus, 1 Werkschuh. 
 
 0-9776 
 
 0-9773 
 
 Ticino, Brazetto of artisans , 
 
 i -3029 
 
 1-3025 
 
 Zug ' (ordinary foot) .... 
 
 0-9846 
 
 0-9843 
 
 ,, (Steinschuh) ..... 
 
 0-8818 
 
 0-8815 
 
 Zurich l (ordinary foot) . 
 
 0-9846 
 
 0-9843 
 
 ,, (Steinschuh) . 
 
 0-9891 
 
 0-9888 
 
 FRANCE : 
 
 
 
 Former^pied de roi ou de Paris, duod. . 
 
 i -066 1 
 
 1-0658 
 
 Pied metrique (from 1812 to 1840), duod. 
 
 1-0939 
 
 1-0936 
 
 NETHERLANDS : 
 
 
 
 Old Amsterdam voet, undec. . 
 
 0-9291 
 
 0-9288 
 
 Old Brussels 
 
 0-9050 
 
 0-9047 
 
 1 The ells at thej.e places were = 2 local feet ; and the sta'u 2 ells. 
 

 CH. II. 
 
 MEASURES OF LENGTH. 
 
 FE ET continued, 
 AUSTRIA : 
 Imperial foot ...... 
 
 English 
 Commercial 
 Equivalent. 
 Feet 
 
 1*0373 
 0-9727 
 0-9746 
 I -0439 
 0-9714 
 1-1696 
 0-9498 
 1-0965 
 
 I -0000 
 
 I -066 1 
 
 0-8728 
 0-8995 
 0-9452 
 
 0'9002 
 
 1-4368 
 
 I -2474 
 
 1-5457 
 1-5868 
 
 I- 5323 
 1-4283 
 1-7166 
 1-1729 
 
 17875 
 1-6307 
 1-6861 
 1-1241 
 i -7423 
 0-9776 
 1-1139 
 1-1412 
 
 1-1253 
 1-1729 
 
 0-9134 
 9-9922 
 0-8434 
 
 0-9271 
 0-9975 
 i-o65 1 
 
 et ; and the 
 :se places w 
 
 English 
 Scientific 
 Equivalent 
 Feet 
 
 1-0370 
 0-9724 
 0-9743 
 1-0436 
 0-9711 
 1-1692 
 0'9495 
 1-0962 
 
 0-9997 
 1'0658 
 0-8725 
 0-8992 
 0-9449 
 0-8999 
 
 1-4364 
 1-2470 
 1-5452 
 1-5863 
 1-5318 
 1-4279 
 1-7161 
 1-1725 
 1-7870 
 1-6302 
 1-6856 
 1-1238 
 1-7418 
 0-9773 
 1-1136 
 1-1409 
 1-1250 
 1-1726 
 
 0-9132 
 0-9919 
 0-8431 
 
 0-9268 
 0-9972 
 1-0658 
 
 stab = 2 ells 
 re = 6 local 
 
 Fr 
 
 Sci< 
 Equ 
 Milli 
 
 31 
 
 29 
 29 
 
 31 
 
 29 
 
 11 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 32 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 2& 
 
 27 
 
 43 
 38 
 47 
 48 
 46 
 43 
 52 
 35 
 54 
 46 
 
 5* 
 
 34 
 53< 
 29 
 33 
 34 
 34 
 35 
 
 27 
 30 
 25 
 
 28 
 30 
 
 32< 
 feet. 
 
 Galicia 1 
 Illyria, Trieste 
 Moravia ...... 
 Poland (Cracow stopa) ' ... 
 Silesia 1 
 
 Tyrol 
 
 RUSSIA : 
 
 Imperial foot ..... 
 Lithuania l . . 
 Revel 1 
 Riga 1 
 Poland (Warsaw stopa) l after 1819. 
 
 ITALY : 
 
 Bergamo 2 ...... 
 Bologna (^ pertica) ... 
 Brescia 2 ..,.,, 
 
 Cremona 2 ...... 
 
 Milan (agrarian foot) 2 . 
 Modena 2 
 
 Padua 2 
 Parma (agrarian foot) .... 
 Piacenza 2 ...... 
 
 Piedmont (piede liprando) " . 
 ,, (piede mamiale) 
 Reggio 2 
 Rome ...... 
 
 Savoy (Chamberi) ..... 
 Venezia 2 ...... 
 Verona 2 ...... 
 Vicenza 2 ...... 
 
 SPAIN : 
 Castile 
 
 Valencia ...... 
 
 AMERICA : 
 
 Mexico, Peru, Chili, La Plata, La Havana 
 (old Spanish foot) .... 
 Pernambuco 
 Quebec (pied du roi) .... 
 
 The ells at these places were = 2 local fc 
 8 The fathoms (cavezzi or trabucehi) of th< 
 
54 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 FEET continued. 
 
 INDIA : 
 Malabar ady 
 
 CHINA : 
 
 Kambuchih, or kongpuchih of the Board 
 
 of Works 
 
 Chih of the Imperial Survey (1700) 
 Chih of the Tsing dynasty since 1644 
 
 Canton customs chih, of the British treaty 
 
 ,, retail merchants' <chih . 
 
 , , wholesale merchants' chih . 
 
 ,', architects' chih . 
 
 ,, tailors' chih . 
 Pekin, Palace chih for works . 
 
 ,, * Imperial statistics chih 
 
 ,, Tribunal of Mathematics chih 
 
 ,, Board of Works chih (doubtful 
 value) . 
 
 ,, ordinary chih . 
 
 ,, land ehih ..... 
 
 ,, architects' chih . 
 
 ,, tailors' chih . 
 
 ,, mercers' chih . 
 Nankin commercial chih 
 Shanghai land-revenue chih . 
 
 ,, custom-house chih . 
 
 ,, ship-builders' chih . 
 
 ,, , artisans' chih . 
 
 ,, carpenters' chih 
 
 ,, tailors' chih .... 
 Amoy ordinary chih .... 
 ,, custom-house chih . . 
 ,, traders' chih for fabrics 
 Macao customs chih . . 
 
 ,, wholesale merchants' chih . 
 ,, retail merchants' chih . 
 ,, artisans' chih . 
 Tientsin tradesmen's chih 
 
 ,, ordinary chih .... 
 The chih= 10 tsun= 100 fan 
 
 English 
 Commercia 
 
 English 
 Scientific 
 
 Equivalent. 
 
 Equivalent. 
 
 Feet 
 
 Feet 
 
 0-8717 
 
 0-8714 
 
 I '0594 
 
 1-0591 
 
 I -0083 
 
 1-0080 
 
 I '0487 
 
 1-0484 
 
 AJES. 
 1-1750 
 
 1-1747 
 
 1-2133 
 
 1-2130 
 
 i -2270 
 
 1-2267 
 
 i '05.83 
 
 1-0580 
 
 1-2238 
 
 1-2235 
 
 i -0390 
 
 1-0387 
 
 1-0333 
 
 1-0330 
 
 i -0932 
 
 1-0929 
 
 i -0283 
 
 1-0280 
 
 i -0567 
 
 i-0564 
 
 1-0729 
 
 1-0726 
 
 i -0487 
 
 1-0484 
 
 1-1013 
 
 1-1010 
 
 1-1217 
 
 1-1214 
 
 1-1614 
 
 1-1611 
 
 1-0984 
 
 1-0981 
 
 1-1740 
 
 1-1737 
 
 1-3083 
 
 1-3080 
 
 i -0474 
 
 1-0471 
 
 0-9284 
 
 0-9281 
 
 i -1600 
 
 1-1597 
 
 1-0083 
 
 1-0080 
 
 0-9860 
 
 0-9857 
 
 I-O2OO 
 
 1-0197 
 
 II2I 55 
 
 1-2152 
 
 I-222O 
 
 1-2217 
 
 1-2000 
 
 1-1997 
 
 I-I300 
 
 1-1297 
 
 I-I4I7 
 
 1-1414 
 
 I-0300 
 
 1-0297 
 
 almost invariably. 
 
 JAPAN : 
 
 Ordinary shaku or jaku = 10 sung = 
 
 100 bu x 0-9909 I 0-9906 
 
 Kujirad shaku for fabrics . . . i -2500 | 1'2497 
 1 This is the latest correct value obtained in 1881. 
 
 301 -94 
 
CH. II. 
 
 MEASURES OF LENGTH, 
 
 FEETcentintutf. 
 
 MANILA : 
 
 The Castilian pie. See General Values. 
 A Chinese chin for ship-building &c. 
 
 English 
 
 Commercial 
 
 Equivalent. 
 
 Feet 
 
 English 
 
 Scientific 
 
 Equivalent. 
 
 Feet 
 
 1-1512 
 
 Equivalent. 
 
 Millimetres 
 
 CUBITS, ELLS, BRACCI, ETC. 
 
 England, North America, and India cubit I '5000 | 1'4995 [ 
 DENMARK, NORWAY, AND SWEDEN: 
 
 Swedish aln 
 
 . I -9486 1-9480 
 
 Danish ell = 2 feet 
 
 . 2-0600 2-0594 
 
 Iceland ale 
 
 . 1-8731 1-8725 
 
 GERMANY. The German 
 
 ells were very often 2 
 
 local feet ; see Table of 
 
 Feet. Those that did 
 
 not consist of two local feet were the following : 
 
 Anhalt elle 
 
 . 2-0869 2-0863 
 
 Bavaria (34^ zoll) .... 
 
 . 2-7338 2-7330 
 
 Berlin, Prussian (25^ zoll) 
 
 . 2-1887 2-1880 
 
 Coblentz . . . 
 
 . 1-8812 1-8807 
 
 Coburg ...... 
 
 . i -9242 1-9236 
 
 Frankfurt, Homburg 
 
 . 1-7962 1-7957 
 
 Gotha, Saxe Gotha 
 
 . 1-8465 1-8460 
 
 Hof, Bavaria. .... 
 
 . 2-0914 2-0908 
 
 Mannheim, Baden .... 
 
 . 1-8316 1-8311 
 
 Nassau ...... 
 
 . i -8230 1-8225 
 
 
 i -8969 1-8964 
 
 Wurtemberg ..... 
 
 . 2-0159 2-0153 
 
 SWITZERLAND : 
 
 
 Altorfelle 
 
 2-3024 2-3017 
 
 Berne ...... 
 
 . 1-7805 1-7800 
 
 Basel (elle or braccio) 
 
 . 1-7722 1-7717 
 
 Langenthal ..... 
 
 . 2-0452 2-0446 
 
 Neufchatel (elle or halberstab) 
 
 . 1-8233 1-8227 
 
 Rheinfelden (Argau) 
 
 . i -7985 1-7980 
 
 Uznach ...... 
 
 . 2 -02 1 1 2-0205 
 
 . AUSTRIA : 
 
 
 Austro- Hungarian Imperial elle 
 
 . 2-5518 2-5511 
 
 Hungary (Kaschau) 
 
 . 1-9804 1-9798 
 
 Buda-Pesth 
 
 . 1-8831 1-8826 
 
 Cracow lokiec = 4 cwierci 
 
 . 2-0249 2-0243 
 
 Transylvania (Clausenberg) . 
 
 . 2-0458 2-0452 
 
 
 2-5949 2*5941 
 
 Tyrol (generally) .... 
 
 . 2-6393 2-6385 
 
 
 2-5801 2-5793 
 
 ,, (Trent, for wool) . 
 
 . 2-2210 2-2203 . 
 
 ( for silk) . 
 
 . 2-0085 2-0079 
 
METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 C U BI TS contin ued. 
 
 AUSTRIA : 
 
 Illyria (Trieste, for wool) 
 , ( for silk). 
 
 NETHERLANDS : 
 
 Amsterdam el ( 
 Brussels el 
 
 1 6 talien) 
 
 English 
 
 Commercial 
 
 Equivalent. 
 
 Feet 
 
 2-22IO 
 2-1069 
 
 2-2830 
 
 ITALIAN BRACCI, formerly in 
 general use : 
 
 Ancona 2-1791 
 
 Bergamo ...... 2-1506 
 
 Bologna (and for silk at Brescia) . . 2-1003 
 
 Brescia (for woollen fabrics) . . . 2-2119 
 
 Carrara (commercial braccio) . . . 2-0338 
 
 Casale 2-1706 
 
 Cremona ...... 1*9524 
 
 Firenze and Livorno (J pertica = 2 palmi l 
 = 20 soldi ; and Pisa, braccio di panno, 
 i pertica= 12 crazie) . . . .1-9153 
 
 Forli 2-0198 
 
 Genoa ( = 2^ palmi) . . . I -9077 
 
 Lucca (for silk) ..... I -9462 
 
 ,, (for woollen) .... 1-9855 
 
 Mantua 2-1129 
 
 Milano (= 12 oncie) before 1803 . . 1-9523 
 
 Modena 2-0774 
 
 Napoli ( = 2 palmi, ' spans) . . .2 -2930 
 
 Novara I'97I5 
 
 Padua (for silk) ..... 2-0922 
 
 ,, (for woollens) .... 2-2350 
 
 Parma (di legno, foot, and | pertica) . 1-7792 
 
 (for silk) 1-9214 
 
 ,, (for cloth) ..... 2-1003 
 
 Pavia 1*9523 
 
 Perugia. ...... 2*1218 
 
 Piacenza 2-2153 
 
 Reggio (braccio = 12 oncie) . . . 2-1037 
 
 Ravenna 2-2063 
 
 Rimini ....... 2-1010 
 
 Rome (3 p. for woven goods) . . . 2-0872 
 
 ,, (4 p. ordinary commerce) . . 2-7831 
 
 ,, (6 p. sacri,) braccio di ara . . 2-4614 
 
 Siena (for woollen goods) . . I -2393 
 
 ,, (for linen ,, ). . . . 1-9700 
 
 Sinigaglia (for silk and cloth) . . . 2-1791 
 
 ,, (for local cloth . . . 2-5665 
 
 Trevico 2-2010 
 
 Trevisa (for silk) 2-0807 
 
 1 These palmi were substitutes for feet 
 
 English 
 
 Scientific 
 
 Equivalent 
 
 Feet 
 
 2-2203 
 2-1063 
 
 2-2566 
 2-2823 
 
 2-1785 
 2-1500 
 2-0997 
 2-2113 
 2-0332 
 2-1700 
 1-9518 
 
 1-9147 
 
 2-0183 
 
 1-9071 
 
 1-9456 
 
 1-9849 
 
 2-1123 
 
 1-9517 
 
 2-0768 
 
 2-2923 
 
 1-9709 
 
 2-0916 
 
 2-2343 
 
 1-7787 
 
 1-9208 
 
 2-0997 
 
 1-9517 
 
 2-1212 
 
 2-2146 
 
 2-1031 
 
 2-2056 
 
 2-1004 
 
 2-0866 
 
 2-7823 
 
 2-4607 
 
 1-2389 
 
 1-9694 
 
 2-1785 
 
 2-5657 
 
 2-2003 
 
 2-0801 
 
en. 
 
 MEASURES OF LENGTH. 
 
 57 
 
 CUBITS continued. 
 
 English 
 Commercial 
 
 English 
 Scientific 
 
 French 
 Scientific 
 
 ITALIAN BRACCI : 
 
 Equivalent. 
 Feet 
 
 equivalent. 
 Feet 
 
 Equivalent. 
 Millimetres 
 
 Trevisa (for woollen) 
 
 . 2-2186 
 
 2-2179 
 
 676 
 
 Udine (for silk) .... 
 
 . 2-0872 
 
 2-0866 
 
 6 3 6 
 
 ,, (for woollen) 
 
 . 2-2349 
 
 2-2342 
 
 68 1 
 
 Urbino 
 
 . 2-2950 
 
 2-2943 
 
 699-3 
 
 Venezia (for silk) .... 
 
 . 2-0961 
 
 2-0955 
 
 638-7 
 
 Venezia (for woollen) 
 
 . 2-2429 
 
 2-2422 
 
 683-4 
 
 Verona (for silk) .... 
 
 . 2-1081 
 
 2-1075 
 
 642-4 
 
 ,, (for woollen) 
 
 . 2-1299 
 
 2-1293 
 
 649 
 
 Vicenza (for silk) .... 
 
 . 2-0922 
 
 2-0916 
 
 
 ,, (for woollen) 
 
 . 2-2655 
 
 2-2648 
 
 690-3 
 
 Swiss AND TYROLEAN BRACCI : 
 
 
 
 Basel . . . . 
 
 
 1-7717 
 
 - 
 
 Bolzano ..... 
 
 I -8042 
 
 1-8037 
 
 54975 
 
 Lugano (piccolo) .... 
 
 . 1-7271 
 
 1-7266 
 
 526-3 
 
 (tango) .... 
 
 . 2-2277 
 
 2-2270 
 
 678-8 
 
 Locarno (for silk) .... 
 
 . 1-5748 
 
 1-5743 
 
 479-8 
 
 ,, (the ordinary) . 
 
 . I -9693 
 
 1-9687 
 
 600-05 
 
 Roveredo (for silk) . . . 
 
 . 2TI02 
 
 2-1096 
 
 643 
 
 ,, (for woollen) . 
 
 . 2-2940 
 
 2-2933 
 
 699 
 
 Ticino (for silk) .... 
 
 . I-727I 
 
 1-7266 
 
 526-3 
 
 Ticino (the ordinary) 
 
 . 2-2277 
 
 2-2270 
 
 678-8 
 
 Trent (for silk) .... 
 
 . 2 -0709 
 
 2-0703 
 
 631 
 
 (for cloth) .... 
 
 . 2-3039 
 
 2-3032 
 
 702 
 
 Unterwalden . .... 
 
 . 1-8719 
 
 1-8716 
 
 570-45 
 
 Wintherthur and Zoffingen 
 
 . 1-9938 
 
 1-9932 
 
 607-5 
 
 Zoffingen (retail) .... 
 
 . 2-0478 
 
 2-0472 
 
 624 
 
 BRACCI OF THE IONIAN 
 
 ISLANDS : 
 
 
 
 Cephalonia, Cerigo, "\ (for silk) . 
 
 . 2-1151 
 
 2-1145 
 
 6 44'5 
 
 Corfu, Thiaki, Paxos, 1 /f or cotton 
 
 
 
 
 Santa Maura, and ( _J. ? r w i?" 
 
 . i 2-2662 
 
 2-2655 
 
 690-5 
 
 Zante . . . J and woollen 
 
 ) J 
 
 
 
 SPAIN, PORTUGAL, AND 
 
 BRAZIL : 
 
 
 
 Codo = \ vara = \\ pie 
 
 1-3701 
 
 1-3698 
 
 4I7-5 
 
 Codo de ribera = 2 pies 
 
 . i -8269 
 
 1-8264 
 
 556-67 
 
 Lisbon covado = 24 inches 
 
 . 2-1660 
 
 2-1654 
 
 660 
 
 ,, commercial, 24^ inches 
 
 . 2-2338 
 
 2-2331 
 
 680-6 
 
 Oporto covado .... 
 
 . 2-1796 
 
 2-1789 
 
 664-1 
 
 Goa covado ..... 
 
 2-2333 
 
 2-2326 
 
 680-4 
 
 Brazilian covado = 25! inches 
 
 . 2-1397 
 
 2-1391 
 
 652-2 
 
 commercial covado . 
 
 . 2-2219 
 
 2-2212 
 
 677 
 
 RUSSIA : 
 
 
 
 
 Arsheen = 16 vershok 
 
 2-3333 
 
 2-3327 
 
 711 
 
 Ancient arsheen = 32 palez 
 
 2-3564 
 
 2-3557 
 
 718 
 
 Crimean pik ..... 
 
 3-I983 
 
 3-1973 
 
 974-5 
 
 Crimean halebi, or arsheen 
 
 . 2-3987 
 
 2-3980 
 
 730-9 
 
 Old Warsaw lokiec ' 
 
 1-9543 
 
 1-9538 
 
 595-5 
 
 1 The lokiec of 1819 was = 2 stopa. 
 
METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 CUBITS continued. 
 
 English 
 Commercial 
 
 English 
 Scientific 
 
 ROUMANIA : 
 
 Equivalent. 
 Feet 
 
 Equivalent. 
 Feet 
 
 Bucharest halibin '-,'....> 
 
 23015 
 
 2-3008 
 
 ,, endezah . 
 
 2-1736 
 
 2-1730 
 
 TURKISH AND GREEK PIKS 
 
 . 
 
 
 Stambul pik halebi, or arsheen (silks 
 
 
 
 and woollens) ..... 
 
 2-3257 
 
 2-325U 
 
 Stambul draa, or pik endezah (cottons 
 
 
 
 and carpets) ..... 
 
 2-2556 
 
 2-2550 
 
 Stambul, common pik, Mekka standard = 
 
 
 
 24 kirat 
 
 2-2500 
 
 2-2494 
 
 
 2-O72O 
 
 2-0714 
 
 Albania, Valona pik 
 
 2-054I 
 
 2-0535 
 
 ,, Arta pik ... 
 
 1-8722 
 
 1-8716 
 
 ,, Negropont pik . 
 
 2-O226 
 
 2-0220 
 
 Morea, Mistra pik ... 
 
 I -4998 
 
 1-5003 
 
 ,, Patras pik (for woollens) 
 
 2-2514 
 
 2-2507 
 
 (for silk) 
 
 2-0848 
 
 2-0842 
 
 Lepanto pik .... 
 
 2-0866 
 
 2-0860 
 
 Negropont .... 
 
 2-O226 
 
 2-0220 
 
 Candia 
 
 2-0914 
 
 2-0908 
 
 Chios (large pik) ... 
 
 2-2514 
 
 2-2507 
 
 ,, (small pik) ... 
 
 2-1669 
 
 2-1663 
 
 Cyprus pik .... 
 
 2-2039 
 
 2-2033 
 
 
 2-4808 
 
 2-4801 
 
 SYRIA : 
 
 
 
 Acra pik ... 
 
 2-2750 
 
 2-2743 
 
 Aleppo and Alexandretta pik 
 
 2-2222 
 
 2-2215 
 
 Damascus (large pik) 
 
 2-0744 
 
 2-0736 
 
 ,, (small pik) 
 
 I-9IOI 
 
 1-9095 
 
 Jerusalem pik 
 
 2-25I4 
 
 2-2507 
 
 Sidon pik 
 
 1-9841 
 
 1-9835 
 
 Smyrna pik . 
 
 2-2500 
 
 2-2493 
 
 Tripoli pik . 
 
 2-2506 
 
 2-2499 
 
 ARABIAN PIKS : 
 
 
 
 Mesopotamia, Bassara, an Aleppo pik 
 Mesopotamia, Bassara hadid (for cotton 
 
 2-2083 
 
 2-2076 
 
 and linen) ...... 
 
 2-8500 
 
 2-8492 
 
 Arabia, Moka pik ..... 
 
 I-5830 
 
 1-5825 
 
 , , Mekka pik = 24 kirat . 
 
 2-2500 
 
 2-2494 
 
 ,, Beyt al fakiah pik 
 
 I -5000 
 
 1-4995 
 
 EGYPTIAN PIKS : 
 
 
 
 Alexandrian pik endazi (for cotton) . 
 
 2 -0692 
 
 2-0686 
 
 ,, ,, beledi (for linen) 
 
 I-8379 
 
 1-8373 
 
 ,, ,, Stambul (for cloth) 
 
 2-2194 
 
 2-2187 
 
 
 r87E(2 
 
 1-8746 
 
 Cairo pik endazi (for Oriental silks) 
 
 L */ j* 
 20951 
 
 2-0945 
 
CH. II. 
 
 MEASURES OF LENGTH. 
 
 CUBITS continued. 
 
 EGYPTIAN PIKS : 
 Cairo pik beledi (for cloth and cotton 
 Cairo pik Stambul (for European silks) 
 Cairo pik mehandeze (for land) = 24 kirat 
 Abyssinia, a Jurkish pik 
 
 ALGERIAN, BERBER, AND 
 Algeria, the Turkish pik = 8 robi . 
 ,, the Moorish or Arab pik . 
 ,, Oran pik ..... 
 Tunis pik (for woollen fabrics) 
 ,, (for silken ,, ) 
 ,, ,, (for linen ,, ) 
 Morocco covado .... 
 Also a Moorish pik 
 Barbary, Tripoli pik = 3 spans 
 ,, arbidraa or small pik 
 
 PERSIAN PIKS: 
 Bandar Abbas pik .... 
 Bushahr gezcha .... 
 
 INDIAN HATH : 
 
 Common hath = i gaz = 2 spans . . 
 Ahmadnaggar hath = y gaz . 
 Belgaum hath .... 
 Bangalur hath = gaz = 8 gira 
 Dharwar hath .... 
 Jaulna hath 24 ungli = 8 gira 
 Masulipatam hath = 3 spans . 
 Ranibednor hath .... 
 Surat hath = 1 8 tassu . 
 Bombay hath = 16 tassu 
 Goa covado ..... 
 Ceylon cobido .... 
 Burma, ordinary cubit = 1 8 pulghat 
 ,, royal saundung = 22 pulghat 
 
 CUBITS OF EASTERN ASIA : 
 
 Singapore (asta) ; Prince of Wales' Island 
 (asta = depa) ; Sumatra, Fort Marl- 
 borough (esto = \ depoh) 
 
 Sumatra, common etto . 
 
 Thai (Siam) sok =2 kub= 12 niu . 
 
 China Canton, Cachao, Pekin, ! 
 Islands (cubit = 10 fun) 
 
 Moluccas, Amboyna, Malacca (cubit) 
 
 Java, Bantam (cubit) 
 ,, Batavia ,, 
 
 Anam thuok= IO tak 
 
 Borneo hasta . 
 
 English 
 Commercial 
 
 English 
 Scientific 
 
 Equivalent 
 
 Equivalent. 
 
 Feet 
 
 Feet 
 
 . 1-8657 
 
 1-8651 
 
 . 2 -2690 
 
 2-2684 
 
 at 2-5320 
 
 2-5312 
 
 . 2-2506 
 
 2-2499 
 
 MOORISH P 
 
 IKS : 
 
 . 2-1003 
 
 2-0997 
 
 1*5753 
 
 1-5748 
 
 . 2-2514 
 
 2-2507 
 
 . 2-2084 
 
 2-2077 
 
 . 2-0699 
 
 2-0693 
 
 I-5525 
 
 1-5520 
 
 . 17500 
 
 1-7495 
 
 . 2-1692 
 
 2-1685 
 
 . 2-2024 
 
 2-2017 
 
 . 1-5863 
 
 1-5858 
 
 . 2'OOI 
 
 2-001 
 
 1-533 
 
 1-533 
 
 . -500 
 
 1-500 
 
 . -125 
 
 1-125 
 
 604 
 
 1-604 
 
 592 
 
 1-592 
 
 . '625 
 
 1-625 
 
 400 
 
 1-400 
 
 '594 
 
 1-594 
 
 '573 
 
 1-573 
 
 742 
 
 1-742 
 
 500 
 
 1-500 
 
 233 
 
 2-233 
 
 -542 
 
 1-542 
 
 . -500 
 
 1-500 
 
 - -833 
 
 1-833 
 
 id 
 rl- 
 . 1-500 
 
 1-500 
 
 . 1-560 
 
 1-560 
 
 . i -666 
 i 
 
 1-666 
 
 lu 
 . 1-21-9 
 
 1-219 
 
 . 1-522 
 
 1-522 
 
 . i -650 
 
 1-650 
 
 . 2-250 
 
 2-250 
 
 . i -600 
 
 1-600 
 
 . 1-500 
 
 1-500 
 
6o 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I 
 
 DOUBLE-CUBITS. 
 
 Yard, metre, vara, stab, aune, gaz, zar', &c. 
 
 English 
 
 English 
 
 French 
 
 GENERAL VALUES. EquSj 1 
 
 Scientific 
 Equivalent. 
 
 Scientific 
 Equivalent. 
 
 q Yards ' 
 
 Feet 
 
 Metres 
 
 England, North America, and India : the 
 
 
 
 yard = 2 cubits = 3 feet = 16 nails ; or 
 
 
 
 gaz = 2 hath = 16 gira ... .1 
 
 2-9991 
 
 0-9141 
 
 The scientific value of the same at 32 . i -0003 
 
 3 
 
 0-9144 
 
 Germany, Austria, and Switzerland : the 
 
 
 
 stab 2 local ells. See tables of ells. 
 
 
 
 France, Italy, &c. : the metre, or metro. ^ 
 
 
 
 Holland and Belgium : the Nederlandsche 1 1 '0939 
 
 3-2809 
 
 I 
 
 el or metre . . . . . . J 
 
 
 
 Spain : the Castilian vara = 2 codos ordina- 
 
 
 
 rios = 3pies 0-9134 
 
 2-7396 
 
 0-8350 
 
 Portugal : the Lisbon vara= if covados = 
 
 
 
 3?pes 1-2033 
 
 3-6090 
 
 I-IOOO 
 
 Persia : zar' = 4 charak= 16 gira . . 1*1377 
 
 3-4121 
 
 I -0400 
 
 Thai (Siam) : ken = 2 sok = 4kiib . . I'liil 
 
 3-3324 
 
 1-0157 
 
 Sumatra : hailah = 2 esto = 4 jankal . . "1 
 Borneo ella = 2 hasta . . . . J 
 
 2-9991 
 
 0-9141 
 
 LOCAL OR FORMER SPECIAL ^ 
 
 /A LUES. 
 
 
 French aune (mes. anc.) . . . . 1-3001 
 
 3-8992 
 
 1-1884 
 
 ,, demitoise (mesures anc. ) . . 1-0660 
 
 3-1973 
 
 0-9745 
 
 ,, aune metrique (1812-1837) . . ~] 
 
 
 
 Stab of Waadt, Valais, and Rhenish [ 1-3127 
 
 3-9704 
 
 1-2000 
 
 Bavaria (metric) . . . . . J 
 
 
 
 French demitoise metrique (1812-1837) .' 1*0939 
 Vara of Aragon = 4 quartas o palmos . 0*8434 
 
 3-2809 
 2-5296 
 
 0-77IO 
 
 Barcelona = 4 palmos --= 1 6 quartos o -8490 
 
 2-5460 
 
 0-7760 
 
 Galicia 1*1874 
 
 3-5614 
 
 I "0855 
 
 Valencia = 4 palmos . . . 0-9921 
 
 2-9757 
 
 0-9070 
 
 Canary I. . . . . . 0-9206 
 
 2-7609 
 
 o 8415 
 
 Cuba, Mexico, and La Plata . 0-9277 
 
 2-7822 
 
 0-8480 
 
 Chili, Peru, and Manila . . 0-9272 
 
 2-7806 
 
 0-8475 
 
 
 2-7813 
 
 
 Brazil ..... 1*1892 
 
 3-5663 
 
 I -0870 
 
 Madeira I. . 1*2001; 
 
 3-6000 
 
 I -007? 
 
CH. II. 
 
 MEASURES OF LENGTH. 
 
 Double- Cubits continued. 
 
 61 
 
 ORIENTAL UNITS. 
 
 English 
 Commercia 
 
 English 
 Scientific 
 
 French 
 Scientific 
 
 ARABIA : 
 
 Equivalent. 
 Yards 
 
 Equivalent. 
 Feet 
 
 Equivalent. 
 Metres 
 
 Gaz of Mokha and Betel faghi . 
 
 . 0-6943 
 
 2-0823 
 
 0-6347 
 
 (An exceptional gaz that was probably a royal cubit.) 
 
 MESOPOTAMIA : 
 
 
 Gaz of Baghdad .... 
 
 . 0-8797 
 
 2-6382 
 
 0-8041 
 
 Hadid of Bassara .... 
 
 . 0-9500 
 
 2-8819 
 
 0-8784 
 
 PERSIA : 
 
 
 
 
 General value of zar' = 2 kadam (step) 
 
 . 1-1377 
 
 3-4121 
 
 I -0400 
 
 Zar' of Yazd and Kirman 
 
 . I -0666 
 
 3-1989 
 
 0-9750 
 
 Common geza .... 
 
 . 0-6893 
 
 2-0674 
 
 0-6301 
 
 Royal geza ..... 
 
 . I -0340 
 
 3-1011 
 
 0-9452 
 
 Common arish .... 
 
 I -0636 
 
 3-1899 
 
 0-9723 
 
 Royal arish ..... 
 
 . 0-8761 
 
 2-6274 
 
 0-8008 
 
 
 
 3-1194 
 
 O'9?o8 
 
 Bandarabbas geza .... 
 
 . I-0756 
 
 3-2259 
 
 0-9832 
 
 Bandarabbas double cubit . . 
 
 . 1-0503 
 
 3-1500 
 
 0-9601 
 
 SOUTH-INDIAN 
 
 LOCAL UNITS. 
 
 The Imperial gaz or yard 
 
 i 
 
 2-9991 
 
 0-9141 
 
 Ahmadnaggar gaz= if hath 
 
 . 0-6806 
 
 2-0412 
 
 0-6222 
 
 Bangalur gaz = 2 hath 
 
 . 1-0611 
 
 3-1824 
 
 0-9700 
 
 Baroda gaz = 24 tassu 
 
 07535 
 
 2-2599 
 
 0-6888 
 
 Belgaum gaz = 24 tassu . 
 
 . 0-9132 
 
 2-7387 
 
 0-8348 
 
 Bombay gaz = \\ hath 
 
 . 0-7500 
 
 2-2494 
 
 0-6856 
 
 Calicut gaz ..... 
 
 0-7889 
 
 2-3661 
 
 0-7211 
 
 Cambai gaz ..... 
 
 0-7777 
 
 2-3325 
 
 0-7109 
 
 Dharwar gaz ..... 
 
 . 0-9042 
 
 2-7117 
 
 0-8265 
 
 Haidarabad (dakhan) gaz 
 
 . 0-9815 
 
 2-9436 
 
 0-8972 
 
 Jaulna (dakhan) gaz = 2 hath . 
 
 0-9333 
 
 2-7990 
 
 0-8531 
 
 Malwa gaz ..... 
 
 . 0-7777 
 
 2-3325 
 
 0-7109 
 
 Masulipatam gaz = 2 hath 
 
 . i -0625 
 
 3-1866 
 
 0-9713 
 
 Palamkattah gaz .... 
 
 . i -0069 
 
 3-0198 
 
 0-9204 
 
 Seringapatam gujah 
 
 . i -0694 
 
 3-2073 
 
 0-9776 
 
 Surat cloth gaz = 24 tassu 
 
 . 0-7685 
 
 2-3049 
 
 0-7025 
 
 ,, artisans' gaz of 24 tassu . 
 
 . 0-6666 
 
 1-9992 
 
 0-6094 
 
 , , woodwork gaz = 20 wassa 
 
 . 0-7246 
 
 2-2632 
 
 0-6898 
 
 EASTERN ASIA : 
 
 See General Values. 
 
62 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 THE PACE, OR DOUBLE STEP. 
 
 GENERAL VALUES. 
 
 Pace of England and America = 5 feet 
 The scientific value of the same at 32 Fahr. 
 Ordinary schritt, pace of Germany = 5 
 
 Rheinfuss ...... 
 
 Geodetic schritt, pace of Germany = 
 
 5-9016 Rheinfuss . 
 Ancienne mesure, pas of France = 5 pieds 
 
 du roi ...... 
 
 Paso of Spain = 5 pie .... 
 
 Passo of Portugal = 5 pe . 
 Switzerland, pace of 5 Bernese feet . 
 Arab kathuah of 6 old feet = | gassab 
 Chinese pu ! or pace = 5 chih . 
 Japanese ink or tattamy .... 
 
 Sumatra gochih or depah of 4 cubits 
 
 English 
 Commercial 
 
 English 
 Scientific 
 
 French 
 Scientific 
 
 Equivalent. 
 Pace 
 
 Equivalent. 
 Feet 
 
 Equivalent. 
 Metres 
 
 I 
 
 4-9986 
 
 1-52350 
 
 1-0003 
 
 5 
 
 I-52395 
 
 I-0300 
 
 5-1486 
 
 1-56925 
 
 I-2I57 
 
 6-0770 
 
 1-85223 
 
 I -066 1 
 
 5-3289 
 
 I -62420 
 
 0-9134 
 
 4-5659 
 
 1-39167 
 
 I -0830 
 
 5-4135 
 
 I -6500 
 
 0-9624 
 
 4-8108 
 
 I -46628 
 
 I -2602 
 
 6-2993 
 
 I -9200 
 
 1-0594 
 
 5-2955 
 
 1-61405 
 
 I -2472 
 
 6-2337 
 
 I -90000 
 
 I-2OOO 
 
 5-9983 
 
 I -82826 
 
 FORMER SPECIAL OR LOCAL PACES AND STEPS. 
 
 Hamburg, ordinary double step, 4-8 local 
 feet 
 
 0-9026 
 
 5-5118 
 
 16 
 
 ,, geodetic pace, 6-535 local feet 
 Berne, pas forestier 3 feet step 
 ,, pas agraire, z\ feet step 
 Trieste, passo = 5 feet . . 
 
 ITALIAN PASSI : 
 
 1-2157 
 
 0-5794 
 0-4812 
 1-0439 
 
 0-9776 
 
 6-0770 
 2-8864 
 2-4054 
 5-2178 
 
 4-8869 
 
 1-85223 
 0-87977 
 
 i -59036 
 i -480 to 
 
 Tuscany, 3 bracci ..... 
 Napoli, 2 7| palmi before 1840. 
 ,, geodetic pace (of 1840) = 7 palmi 
 
 1-1492 
 I -2898 
 
 I '21 $7 
 
 5-7442 
 6-4473 
 
 6-0770 
 
 I "1^223 
 
 Venezia, 5 piede ..... 
 Bologna, 5 piede ..... 
 Milanese pace ..... 
 French Antilles, pas agraire, 3| feet step . 
 Ionian Islands, 5 feet (Venetian) 
 Patras pace, 5 feet (Parisian) . 
 
 1-1401 
 I -2474 
 I -0847 
 0-7463 
 1-1401 
 I -066 1 
 
 5-7044 
 6-2353 
 5-4220 
 3-7302 
 5-7044 
 5-3288 
 
 I-73868 
 I -90050 
 I -65260 
 1-13694 
 I -73868 
 I 62420 
 
 1 The pu is also a fathom. 
 
 ' The passo di Napoli is also a pertica. 
 
CH. II. 
 
 MEASURES Of LENGTH. 
 
 England, Russia, "1 
 and India J 
 Russia 
 
 Germany, generally 
 Austria, generally 
 Sweden 
 Denmark 
 Belgium 
 Holland 
 
 Fiance, old measures 
 Spain 
 
 Portugal 
 Italy generally 
 Switzerland 
 
 China 
 
 Japan 
 
 Thai (Siam) 
 
 Sumatra, Malacca, &c. 
 
 Japan 
 
 Anam 
 
 FATHOMS. 
 GENERAL RATIOS. 
 
 Fathom or Danda < 
 Sasheen 
 I Faden or klafter 
 
 > Famn or toise 
 
 f Toise 
 
 \ Brasse marine 
 
 I Estado 
 
 I Braza, brazada 
 
 fBraga for soundings 
 
 \Toesa or braga 
 
 Cavezzo or trabucco 
 f Klafter or toise 
 \ also toise or perch 
 
 Pu 
 
 Ikje 
 
 Wa 
 
 Depah 
 
 Keng 
 
 Ngu 
 
 2gaz 
 
 6 local feet 
 ' 1 local feet 
 
 = 6 local feet 
 
 = 6 local feet 
 
 = 6 local feet 
 
 = 5 local feet 
 
 = 6 local feet 
 
 = 6 local feet 
 
 = 5 local feet 
 
 = 2 local varas 
 
 = 6 local feet 
 
 = 8 local feet 
 
 = 10 local feet 
 
 = 5 local feet 
 
 = nearly 7 English feet 
 
 = 4 local cubits 
 
 = 4 local cubits 
 
 = 6 local feet 
 
 = 5 local cubits 
 
 LOCAL OR SPECIAL RATIOS. 
 
 Poland 
 
 Savoy 
 
 Darmstadt 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Saxony 
 
 Bohemia 
 
 Burgundy 
 
 French provinces 
 
 Canary Islands 
 
 Florence and Mantua 
 
 Sardinia and Nice 
 
 Naples 
 
 Rome 
 
 Naples 
 
 Florence 
 
 Nice 
 
 Malta 
 
 Sazeen 
 
 Tesa 
 
 Klafter 
 
 Lachter 
 
 Lachter 
 
 Dumpflachter 
 
 Toise 
 
 Brazada 
 
 Cavezzo 
 
 Trabucco 
 
 Bracciata 
 
 Canna 
 
 = 6 local feet 
 
 - 6 local feet 
 
 = 10 local feet 
 
 = 6| local feet 
 
 = 7 local feet 
 
 = 4 Bohemian ells 
 
 = 7i local feet 
 
 -5j to 8 local feet, 
 
 various 
 = 61 local feet 
 = 6 local bracci 
 = 12 local spans 
 = 6 French feet 
 = 8 palmi 
 
METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 AGRARIAN LINEAR MEASURES. 
 GENERAL RATIOS. 
 
 RODS. 
 
 Rods ofW local feet, or double paces. 
 
 Austro- Hungary 
 Baden 
 Bavaria 
 Darmstadt 
 
 Denmark 
 Norway 
 Frankfurt 
 Elsass 
 
 Lothringen 
 
 Wiirtemburg 
 
 Zurich 
 
 Basel and Berne 
 
 China 
 Prussia 
 England (new 
 decimal series') 
 
 Rods of about 12 local feet, or double fathoms. 
 
 Prussia 
 
 
 Arab gasab, 8 cubits 
 
 = 12 local feet 
 
 Franconia 
 
 12 feet 
 
 Burmese dha, 7 royal cub. 
 
 = 12' 10" English 
 
 Wiirzberg 
 
 
 Sumatra tunga *l 8 , . 
 
 , . 
 
 Anspach 
 Constance 
 
 2 fathoms 
 
 Guinea jaktan 
 
 = 12' Eng. nearly 
 
 Spain 
 
 
 Turkish gasab 
 
 = 63 arsheen 
 
 POLES, PERCHES, VERGES, &c. 
 
 Poles of "15 local feet. 
 Lithuania, Silesia, and Poland. 
 
 Poles of 16 local feet. 
 
 Aachen 
 Bremen, "\ 
 
 Hamburg/ 
 Brunswick, 1 
 
 Hanover / 
 
 Coblentz 
 Coin 
 C re veld 
 Dresden, "I 
 Leipsig/ 
 
 Gotha 
 Lippe-Detmold 
 Luxemburg 
 Maintz 
 
 Mecklenburg 
 
 Nuremberg 
 Pomerania 
 Weimar 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Other poles of -various values. 
 
 Gotha ") 
 
 Hesse- \ 14 local feet 
 
 CasselJ 
 
 England, 1G| local feet 
 Ireland, 21 local feet 
 Scotland, fall of 6 ells or 18 '53 feet 
 Oldenburg} 181ocalfeet 
 
 Normandy, 22 local feet 
 France, 20 to 22 local feet 
 Belgium, 16| to 201 local feet 
 
 Dutch roede "1 , A 
 
 Metric French perche/ 10 metres 
 (Old) Amsterdam, 13 local feet 
 (Old) Brussels, 16| local feet 
 
 ,, also verge, 20 local feet 
 Baden ruthe "1 , , 
 Waadt ) 3 metres 
 
 Indian vansa, 10 local cubits 
 Malabar culey, 24 adye 
 Trichinopoly kolu, 21| feet English 
 Anam Sao, 15 cubits 
 

 CH. II. 
 
 MEASURES OF LENGTH. 
 
 CORDS. 
 
 Old English cord or rope . ^ 
 Brittany and Poitiers corde 
 Tours and other places in France 
 Spain, cuerda = 8j varas . 
 
 20 or 25 feet 
 
 24 Parisian feet 
 
 25 Parisian feet 
 24| Castilian feet 
 
 England (Older) . 
 (Newer) . 
 
 Germany . 
 
 Dantzig . 
 Koenigsberg . 
 Bohemia. . 
 Bohemia. . 
 
 Poland 
 
 France, Holland, and Belgium 
 Valencia. . 
 Naples . 
 Arabia . 
 
 India . 
 Thai (Siam) . 
 
 China 
 
 CHAINS. 
 
 Gunter's chain of 22 yards or 4 poles 
 Ramsden's chain of 100 feet or 10 rods 
 
 (in the series of decimal measures) 
 generally chains of 10 rods, and mostly 
 
 also of 100 local feet 
 seil of 150 local feet 
 schnur of 150 local feet 
 waldseil of 42 local ells 
 weinbergseil, 64 local ells 
 snurow of 150 local feet 
 chaine of 20 metres, or double-decametre 
 cuerda of 40 local varas 
 catena of 8 passi, also one of 10 passi 
 chain of 10 gassab (rods) ori 120 local 
 
 feet 
 
 tenab of 50 gaz (yards) 
 sen of 20 wa (fathoms> or 80 (local 
 
 cubits) sok 
 yu or yin of 100 chih , 
 
 ACRE-SIDES. 
 
 Austrian joch-side 
 
 Baden, morgen-side 
 
 Bavarian tagwerk-side 
 
 Darmstadt, morgen-side 
 
 England, cable (new series) or 
 
 century-side 
 France, hectare-side 
 Mecklenberg, acre-side 
 Piedmontese giornata-side 
 Tyrolese starland-side 
 Spanish fanegada-side 
 
 ,, cuadra-side 
 Arabian feddan-side 
 Sumatra, linear orlong 
 
 = 40 klafter 
 = 20 ruthen 
 = 20 ruthen 
 = 20 klafter 
 
 = 10 chains 
 
 = 5 chains 
 
 = 10 ruthen 
 
 = 20 trabucchr 
 
 = 10 perches 
 
 = 96 varas 
 
 = 150 varas 
 
 = 2 chains 
 
 = 80 hailah (yards) 
 
 : 240 local feet' 
 = 200 local feet 
 : 200 local feet 
 = 200 local feet 
 
 = 1000 feet 
 100 metres 
 160 local feet' 
 120 local feet 
 100 local feet 
 
 ' 288 local feet 
 450 local feet 
 240 local feet 
 160 cubits 
 
 A large number of countries possess rectangular land units of agrarian 
 superficial measures, which do not afford an aliquot acre-side in feet, cubits, 
 or yards. 
 
66 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART 1. 
 
 ITINERARY MEASURES. 
 
 
 ^i 
 
 j. B C* 
 
 ORDINARY MILES, MILLIARIA, 
 
 fil 
 
 fl.l I'll 
 
 AND CORRESPONDING UNITS. 
 
 wJJ- 
 
 wsj- ^sj 1 
 
 
 Miles 
 
 Leagues Kilom. 
 
 English statute mile (since 1824) = 8 furlongs = 
 
 
 
 1 760 yards =1056 paces . 
 
 I 
 
 0-5278 1-6089 
 
 The same, reduced to 32 Fahr. 
 
 I -0003 
 
 0-5280 1-6093 
 
 Old London mile = 1000 paces = 5000 feet 
 
 0-9470 
 
 0-4998 11-5236 
 
 The same, reduced to 32 Fahr. 
 
 0-9472 
 
 0-5000 1-5240 
 
 Irish mile = 2240 yards 
 
 I -2728 
 
 0-6718 2-0477 
 
 Scotch mile = 1984 yards = 1920 ells 
 
 I-I273 
 
 0-5951 1-8137 
 
 France, Italy, and the Netherlands, kilometre 
 
 
 
 = looo metres ...... 
 
 0-62I6 
 
 0-3291 i 
 
 Old French mile= 1000 toises 
 
 I-2II4 
 
 0'6395 1-9490 
 
 Russia, werst = 500 sasheen = 3500 feet . 
 
 0-6629 
 
 0-3499 i -0665 
 
 Spanish mill a = 1000 paces = 5000 feet . 
 
 0-8650 
 
 0-4566 1-3917 
 
 Portuguese milha = | legoa = 6236-37 feet of 54 
 
 
 
 to a mean degree ..... 
 
 1-2792 
 
 0-6752,2-0580 
 
 Old Italian units. (See Geographical miles.) 
 
 
 
 Roman mile = 1000 paces = 5000 feet 
 
 0-9257 
 
 0-5430 1-4895 
 
 Milan mile = i ooo passi . . . . f . 
 
 I-027I 
 
 0-6024 1-6526 
 
 Venice mile = I ooo passi. . . . ' . 
 
 I -0807 
 
 0-6839 7387 
 
 Naples mile= 1000 passi (before 1840) . 
 
 1969 
 
 0-7020 -9257 
 
 Tuscan mile = 28335 bracci = 5665 pertiche 
 
 0278 
 
 0-5425 -6535 
 
 
 O36l 
 
 0-5469 -6670 
 
 Arab mile = 1000 kathuah or paces . 
 
 wj^i 
 1934 
 
 0-6299 -9200 
 
 Indian kos = 2000 gaz or yards 
 
 1364 
 
 0-5998 -8282 
 
 Chinese li = 36o paces-: 1800 feet (B. Works). 
 
 
 
 (See eeodetic li) . 
 
 0-^612 
 
 0-1906 o-;8n 
 
 LEAGUES, STUNDEN, AND UER. 
 
 The old leagues of England, Spain, Portugal, 
 the sea league of Holland, the Turkish agasha, 
 the Arab farsakh or parasang, consisted of 
 3 miles ....... 
 
 England, new league of the decimal system at 
 32 = 10000 feet = 1000 rods = 100 chains = 10 
 cables = 2 old London miles 
 
 France, old post -league = 2 miles = 2000 toist s . 
 
 Netherlands, old Amsterdam uer = 20000 feet . 
 ,, old Brussels uer = 20000 feet 
 
 Baden stunde= 14815 feet . 
 
 Bavarian stunde= 12703 feet . 
 
 Anspach stunde= 14400 feet . 
 
 (See Miles and Milliaria.) 
 
 1-8945 
 
 1 
 
 3-0479 
 
 2 -4229 
 
 1-2789 
 
 3-8981 
 
 3'5!93 
 
 1-8576 
 
 5-6621 
 
 
 1-8094 
 
 5-5i5o 
 
 2-7631 
 
 1-4585 
 
 4 '4454 
 
 2-3044 
 
 1-2164 
 
 37075 
 
 2-6823 
 
 1-4164 
 
 
CH. II. 
 
 MEASURES OF LENGTH. 
 
 
 
 LEAGUES, &C. continued. 
 
 ill 
 
 bog > 
 III 
 
 CJW 
 
 it 
 
 ||j 
 
 
 Miles 
 
 Leagues 
 
 Kilom. 
 
 Bohemian stunde = \ grossmeile 
 
 . 2-8783 
 
 1-5193 
 
 4-6306 
 
 Westphalian stunde = \ grossmeile . 
 
 3-4538 
 
 1-8231 
 
 5-5567 
 
 Swiss stunde = 1600 ruthen (metric) . 
 
 . 2-9835 
 
 1-5748 
 
 4-8000 
 
 India, Maisur hardari = 6000 guj ah . 
 
 3-6458 
 
 1-9245 
 
 5-8656 
 
 Burmah, dain = 1000 dha (rods) 
 
 . 2-4306 
 
 1-2830 
 
 3-9104 
 
 Thai (Siam), roeneng= 100 sen (chains) 
 
 
 1-3330 
 
 4-0628 
 
 China, pou= 10 li . 
 
 . 3-6116 
 
 1-9064 
 
 5-8106 
 
 Japanese ri = 1 2960 shaku 
 
 . 2-4321 
 
 1-2838 
 
 3-9129 
 
 Persia, farsakh = 6000 zar 
 
 . 3-8785 2-0473 
 
 6-2400 
 
 STAGES, GROSSMEILEN, 
 
 POSTMEILEN, &c. 
 
 Danish mill = 4000 favn . 
 
 . 4-68191 2-4713 
 
 7^325 
 
 Swedish mil = 6000 famn 
 
 . 6-6427 3-5064 
 
 10-6872 
 
 Russian or Polish meile = 8 verst 
 
 . 5-3030 
 
 2-7992 
 
 8-5321 
 
 German meile = 20000 Rheinfuss 
 
 3-9015 
 
 2-0594 
 
 6-2770 
 
 Prussian postmeile (Danish) 
 
 . 4-6819 
 
 2-4713 
 
 7-5325 
 
 Baden meil = 2 stunden . 
 
 . 5-5261 
 
 2-9169 
 
 8-8907 
 
 Anspach mile = 2 stunden 
 
 . . 5-3666 
 
 2-8328 
 
 8-6342 
 
 Hanover postmeile = 25400 feet 
 
 . 4-6099 
 
 2-4333 
 
 7-4167 
 
 Saxony postmeile = 24000 feet 
 
 . 4-2233 
 
 2-2292 
 
 67946 
 
 Silesia, Breslau mile = 22500 feet 
 
 . 4-0274 
 
 2-1257 
 
 6-4790 
 
 Weimar mile = 26096 feet 
 
 . 4*5740 
 
 2-4142 
 
 
 Austro-Hungarian mile = 4000 klafter 
 
 4"7 I 5i 
 
 2-4889 
 
 7-5859 
 
 Old Hungarian mile 
 
 . 5-1806 2-7346 
 
 8-3350 
 
 Bohemian grossmeile 
 
 5-7567 
 
 3-0385 
 
 9-2612 
 
 Old Lithuanian mile 
 
 . 5-5264 
 
 2-9170 
 
 8-8907 
 
 Old Livonian mile .... 
 
 4. -06^6 
 
 9-1MR 
 
 
 Old Swiss mile .... 
 
 . 5-1937! 2-7415 
 
 8-3559 
 
 Later Swiss mile = 24690 feet (metric) 
 
 . 4-6039; 2-4302 
 
 7-4070 
 
 Indian kunch or stage = 10 miles 
 
 . 10 
 
 5-2785! 16-0886 
 
 JOURNEYS, AND SPECIAL UNITS. 
 
 Arabia, marhala = 24 miles = 8 farsakh 
 Persia, journey =10 farsakh . 
 India, Maisur gavada = 4 hardari 
 
 ,, ,, small gavada 
 Madras kadum = 7 nalli valli . 
 Burma, uzena = 6400 dha 
 Thai (Siam), yot = 4 roeneng . 
 China, tsan = 8 pou = 80 li 
 
 28-6411 
 38-7853 
 14-5833 
 10-9375 
 
 1 1 -2OOO 
 I5-5556 
 lO'IOIO 
 
 28-8930 
 
 15-1183 
 20-4728 
 7-6978 
 5-7734 
 5-9120 
 8-2113 
 5-3318 
 15-2512 
 
 46-0800 
 62-4000 
 23-4625 
 17-5969 
 18-0193 
 25-0267 
 i6-2Sii 
 46-4846 
 
 F 2 
 
68 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 FORMER GEOGRAPHICAL MILES 
 
 -sis 
 
 ^o| 
 
 ^o-S 
 
 AND LEAGUES, 
 
 |H 
 
 fl'1.1 
 
 111 
 
 Estimated on the old asmmed metric value of 
 
 w al 
 
 W* 
 
 ^rf 
 
 the mean degree of latitude then adopted. 
 
 Miles 
 
 Leagues 
 
 Kilom. 
 
 Former English, American, Italian, and Dutch 
 
 
 
 
 nautical mile= I minute of arc; or 60 to i 
 
 
 
 
 
 I "I ~ I ~" 
 
 0-6077 
 
 I-8=?22 
 
 Neapolitan miglio of the geodetic system (after 
 
 
 
 } 
 
 1840)= IOOO passi = 7000 palmi . 
 
 i'15'S 
 
 0-6077 
 
 1-8522 
 
 China, old geodetic li of 200 to the degree (tu) 
 
 0*3454 
 
 0-1823 
 
 0-5557 
 
 Modern geodetic li of 250 to the degree (tu) 
 
 0-2763 
 
 0-1458 
 
 0--T445 
 
 Old French, Flemish, and Dutch sea league = 
 
 
 
 
 3 minutes of arc, or 20 to i 
 
 3-4540 
 
 1-8231 
 
 5-5567 
 
 Portuguese legoa, 3| minutes, or 1 8 to I 
 
 
 2-0257 
 
 6-1741 
 
 Prussian, Bavarian, and Polish league = 4 minutes 
 
 
 
 
 of arc, or 15 to i 
 
 4-6054 
 
 2-4308 
 
 7-4089 
 
 German and Bohemian league = 5 minutes of 
 
 
 
 
 arc, or 12 to i . 
 
 5-75 6 7 
 
 3-0385 
 
 9-2612 
 
 Norwegian and Westphalian league = 6 minutes 
 
 
 
 
 of arc, or of 10 to the mean degree of latitude 
 
 6-9081 
 
 3-6462 
 
 11-1134 
 
 Modern English nautical mile, I minute of longi- 
 
 
 
 
 tude at the equator at sea level, subdivided 
 
 
 
 
 into looo nautical fathoms, or 10 nautical 
 
 
 
 
 
 1-1528 
 
 0-6085 
 
 1-8547 
 
CH in. MEASURES OF SURFACE. 69 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 MEASURES OF SURFACE. 
 
 MEASURES of surface may be generally divided into 
 two classes. 
 
 1. Ordinary commercial and artisans' measures, from 
 the square foot to the square fathom, or small measures 
 of surface. 
 
 2. Land-measures, from the square pace to the acre 
 and square mile, or large measures of surface. 
 
 Such measures have necessarily from their object a 
 high range of values, and being mostly based on the 
 squares of the various commercial, agrarian and itinerary 
 linear measures, and their multiples, are in general 
 accordance with them in any thoroughly systematised 
 set of national measures ; but this principle sometimes 
 holds only as regards the small units. 
 
 The land-measures or measures of ground were often 
 originally based on other considerations. Usually a 
 small land-measure, suited to measuring building-plots 
 in town, an ordinary agrarian measure suited to arable 
 land pasture and vineyards, and sometimes a large one 
 suited to forest and marsh land and to large domains, 
 seem to have been the original requirements. Some of 
 the smaller land-measures were probably originally based 
 on the space covered by some local temple or public 
 building, or the space included in the court of such 
 
70 METRICAL UNITS. PARTI. 
 
 buildings ; the basic idea being evidently in many cases 
 a rectangle of considerable length, and sometimes in- 
 volving a superficial quantity that was not the square of 
 any integral unit of length in common use ; in other 
 cases, when the idea was taken from a square court, this 
 anomaly did not occur. 
 
 The ordinary agrarian measure was based, in accord- 
 ance with various motives, first, on the surface capable 
 of being ploughed in a day by a man with a yoke of 
 oxen ; secondly, on the surface capable of being advan- 
 tageously sown with a certain weight or quantity of corn 
 of some sort, naturally that most commonly grown in the 
 country or region ; thirdly, a unit for pasture land, fixed 
 in accordance with the number of cattle it might support 
 by pasturage ; fourthly, a vineyard unit, based on the 
 produce in wine measured by local measures of capacity, 
 or on the surface tended in a day by the work of a single 
 man. 
 
 The large land-measure may in some cases have been 
 the extent of land that could be comprised within a 
 periphery of strips cut from the hide of a single bullock ; 
 and in others a mere multiple of the local agrarian mea- 
 sure, or a local square mile or square itinerary measure. 
 
 All these original methods of determining a unit of 
 surface caused much deviation from anything like uni- 
 formity of result ; and eventually, when such primitive 
 units became systematised, they were both modified in 
 accordance with each other and with the linear measures, 
 and the squares of the linear measures of the system of 
 the country. 
 
 Of the building-plot type are the Italian tavola, and 
 the old tornatura, the European square perches, square 
 ruthen, or square poles, of the small measures. Of the 
 
CH. in. MEASURES OF SURFACE. 71 
 
 agrarian type are the ploughing units, the Roman 
 jugerum, the acres, tagwerk, journal, and morgen, the 
 yugada and juchart, of arable measure; also the sower's 
 units, the ancient Egyptian series, bethcor, bethletech, 
 bethsea, bethroba, and bethcab ; the modern tunna and 
 toendehartkorn, the cahizada, the fanegada ; the stajo 
 and starland of Italy and the Tyrol ; the vineyard units, 
 the misura, and zappada, and the old French hommee, 
 ouvree, fossoree, poneur, and German tauen or thauen. Of 
 the large land-measures are the haken and hufe of 
 Germany and Poland, suited to large extent of forest 
 country corresponding to the ancient Roman centuria 
 of 100 heredies or 200 jugera, and the Roman saltus of 
 4 centuriae the old English hide of 100 acres, now 
 declared an illegal measure, and several ancient hides of 
 other nations ; and lastly the square mile, or some topo- 
 graphic unit of that class. 
 
 The smallest of the commercial and artisans' mea- 
 sures that happens to be much used is the square foot, 
 of which the square inch may be considered as a sub- 
 multiple less frequently employed ; while the largest of 
 the land-measures is either a square mile or a hide of 
 some sort. 
 
 THE SQUARE FOOT. 
 
 The square foot is in England a simple superficial 
 unit about which there is no doubt or difficulty ; in some 
 other European countries this simplicity does not exist. 
 In Germany in many cases there were two and some- 
 times three sorts of feet in a single town, one for the 
 ordinary purposes of commerce and of the artisan, a 
 second exclusively for land-measure, and sometimes a 
 third either specially for the carpenter, or the stone- 
 
72 METRICAL UNITS. PART I. 
 
 mason and builder : in fact, the foot as a unit was not 
 thoroughly digested into the German system in all cases, 
 but remained in its transition state, being a name for 
 either a half-cubit or half-ell or for a submultiple of the 
 pole or ruthe. In Italy and Switzerland this ambiguity 
 is less frequent among the feet, but occurs among the 
 cubits or bracci. Another cause of ambiguity in con- 
 nection with the German feet is due to the mode of sub- 
 division, and its nomenclature ; which is troublesome to 
 an Englishman, for in England an inch is an inch, that 
 is a twelfth in linear measure, but in Germany an inch 
 may be either a tenth or a twelfth ; hence a local inch 
 may be one of six values at any one place, where there 
 are three local feet, and both modes of subdivision. 
 The same ambiguity extends to the square inch, which 
 may be either the looth or the I44th part of any one 
 of the three local square feet. The decimal inches are 
 hence worthy of notice, as well as the nature of the work 
 to which it is applied. In Sweden, Prussia, Darmstadt, 
 Baden, and Wiirtemberg, and at some places in Switzer- 
 land, the decimal inch is more used. In Germany the 
 inch zoll or daumen may also be the 8oth part of the 
 lachter, and the square inch the 64OOth part of the square 
 lachter. 
 
 In England decimal multiples and submultiples of 
 the square foot are used without involving the misplaced 
 term, inch ; they are exceedingly convenient in building, 
 engineering, and surveying ; the square of 100 square 
 feet applied to roofing and flooring is one of these ; while 
 1 08-9 squares amount to a rood or a quarter of an acre ; 
 the rood being 10890 square feet. 
 
 In Italy as well as in France, a measure of surface 
 smaller than the square foot was formerly -used, namely, 
 
CH. in. MEASURES OF SURFACE. 73 
 
 the square span, palmo quadrate or palme carre, a sub- 
 multiple of the square canna. It was in Italy of 64 to the 
 square canna; in France 81 to the square canna; in 
 Sardinia, Sicily, and Pisa, 100 to the square canna; in a 
 few places held some other ratio, and in others apparently 
 was an independent unit ; but as the metric system has 
 been long exclusively adopted in France and Italy these 
 values are of little consequence ; the present linear Italian 
 palmo is a decimetre, and the square palmo is a square 
 decimetre. Similarly in the Netherlands, the palm and 
 the vierkante palm have the same values. 
 
 But there are one or two marked exceptions where 
 the former palmi formed sub-multiples of the land-mea- 
 sures, as in the stioro and quadrato of Tuscany, the 
 moggio and carro of Naples, the rubbio and pezzo of 
 Rome, and the starello of Sardinia. For these cases the 
 values of the square spans or palmi are given in the 
 tables at the end of this chapter, in addition to those of 
 the square feet. 
 
 The following are places and provinces where special 
 geometric land-feet or perch-feet are or were in use in 
 addition to the ordinary or other foot. 
 
 Aachen. 
 
 Elsass. 
 
 Bavaria. 
 
 Electoral Hesse. 
 
 Poland. 
 
 Flanders. 
 
 Frankfurt-on-Main. 
 
 Genoa. 
 
 Lippe-Detmold. 
 
 Lippe-Schaumberg. 
 
 Lothringen. 
 
 Lucerne. 
 
 Mainz. 
 
 Nassau. 
 
 Neufchatel. 
 
 Nuremberg 
 
 Piedmont. 
 
 Prussia. 
 
 Savoy. 
 
 Weimar. 
 
74 METRICAL UNITS. PART i. 
 
 THE SQUARE CUBIT. 
 
 The square cubit is in Germany a square ell, in Italy 
 a square braccio, in Spain a square codo, and in Portugal 
 a square covado, though in England an unused unit. 
 When the German or Scandinavian ell happens to be 
 equal to two local feet, the square ell of 4 square feet 
 falls into the system of measures of surface ; and may be 
 also used as a unit of measure for flooring and roofing in 
 construction, as well as for carpets and such things. The 
 values of these square ells may be obtained by squaring 
 the values of the linear ells given in the last chapter. 
 The former square bracci of Italy correspond in this 
 respect with regard to trade requirements, but, as they 
 rarely have any convenient ratio to the square foot, and 
 are besides long obsolete, are of less importance gener- 
 ally ; there are, however, one or two exceptions. A few 
 of the very various land-measures of Italy are based on 
 the square braccio, and not on the square foot ; such as 
 the tavola, staro, and biolca of Parma, the saccata, 
 stajolo, and the quadrato of Tuscany. The values of the 
 square bracci that might be required for such cases are 
 hence given in the tables at the end of this chapter. 
 
 The square codo, square codo de ribera, and square 
 covado, are not necessary submultiples of the land-mea- 
 sures of Spain and Portugal, which are most frequently 
 expressed as multiples of the square vara and estado, 
 and sometimes of the estadal ; the covado of Portugal 
 falls entirely outside the geometric measures. 
 
 The Oriental square cubits, or square pik, seem to be 
 unfrequently submultiples of their land-measures, which 
 are often either based en the square pace, in accordance 
 with the natural mode of determining a surface by 
 
CH. in. MEASURES OF SURFACE. 75 
 
 pacing two sides of a mean rectangle, or of a mean 
 square representing it, or are based on some square 
 perch, gassab, or vansa, and in some instances on some 
 local square chain, square fathom or square yard. 
 
 The Indian biggah is indifferently represented as a 
 multiple of the square hath (cubit) or of the square gaz 
 (yard) ; and though the typical biggah (that of Bengal) 
 is one of 80 cubits square (6400 square hath), it is 
 probably greatly due to the varieties of gaz and hath, 
 and the employment of either as basic units of land- 
 measure, that the biggahs of India present so great a 
 variation in value. 
 
 It is as a rule most convenient to the English to re- 
 present these Indian biggahs as consisting of a certain 
 number of square yards, but to the Indian, to deal with 
 his more favourite unit, the hath or cubit But as both 
 these units are understood by those races, and both 
 have identical values, it becomes a matter of practical 
 indifference. 
 
 The Arabian and Egyptian feddans are sometimes 
 said to be based on the square cubit, and sometimes on 
 the square pace ; and this seems to be correspondingly 
 a matter of indifference. The Arab pace (or double 
 step), named kathuah, is not a 5 -foot pace, but is a 
 rather exceptional pace of about 6 feet in fact, a fathom 
 and is divided into 4 cubits of the type dera'a cabda, 
 although it was anciently divided otherwise. It is, how- 
 ever, more convenient to treat the Arabian feddan as a 
 multiple of the square kassaba, or square perch, 400 of 
 which go to the feddan. The Egyptian feddans are of 
 various values, and this is probably due to the variety of 
 cubits employed as basic units for the gassab of two 
 paces, and thus altering the value of the pace. 
 
76 METRICAL UNITS. PART I. 
 
 The Chinese cubit, which appears to be also termed 
 a foot (chih) and divided decimally, is sometimes employed 
 in commerce to the exclusion of the kambuchih ; so 
 that a second system of measures of both length and 
 surface is probably based on this separate unit. The 
 value of this linear cubit is 14! English inches, or 
 1*21875 feet, English, making the square cubit =1*485 
 feet, English. 
 
 THE SQUARE YARD. 
 
 The linear yard, and the corresponding vara of Spain 
 and Portugal, the gaz and geza of Asia, remain unre- 
 presented in the general measures of several European 
 countries ; the aune and stab of France and Germany, 
 also double cubits, are applied specially to cloth-measure ; 
 and the passetto, or double cubit, of Italy is unfortunately 
 confined to Tuscany alone. The metre of the French 
 metric system (originally a half-fathom) is, however, 
 an approximate yard, adopted by several European 
 nations, which supplies the deficiency. (Metric measures, 
 forming a system of their own, will be treated under the 
 head of systems of measures apart from the ordinary 
 commercial measures.) 
 
 Existing square measures of this type generally are 
 the highest of the commercial and artisans' measures, 
 excepting when the square fathom, klafter, or toise is 
 in common use ; and the use of the square rod and 
 square ruthe of England and Germany in connection 
 with brickwork and masonry. They are sometimes, but 
 not always, submultiples of the units of land-measure. 
 
 The values of the square yard and corresponding 
 quantities are given in the tables. 
 
CH. in. MEASURES OF SURFACE. 77 
 
 THE SQUARE PACE. 
 
 The most expeditious and simple method of roughly 
 measuring a plot of ground is to pace one side of an 
 approximate square representing its area, or to pace two 
 sides of a corresponding rectangle ; and the estimation 
 by pace therefore developed into a similar more exact 
 mode of dealing with the pace as a fixed unit, and the 
 larger multiples of the square pace as well-defined units 
 of land-measure. 
 
 The versus of the ancients was one of the earliest 
 measures of this type known to us ; it consisted of 20 
 paces, or 100 feet square, or 400 square paces = 10000 
 square feet ; and it certainly appears unfortunate that 
 the Romans did not adhere to it, as the jugerum type 
 of land-measure has led to an infinity of very incon- 
 venient land-measures over the whole of modern Europe. 
 
 The Chinese land-measure (the king) nominally is. 
 60000 square feet, or 2400 square paces, but, practically 
 it appears to have been a decimal multiple of the mao 
 in the ordinary Chinese method, being equal to 10 mao, 
 while the mao is described as a measure 1 6 paces long 
 by 15 paces broad. 
 
 Several of the land-measures of modern Europe are 
 based on the square pace ; and some values of the 
 square pace of various nations are hence given in the 
 accompanying tables. 
 
 Among the land-measures based on the pace are the 
 Venetian migliajo of 1000 square passi ; the misura 
 of the Ionian Islands of 400 square paces, like the 
 ancient versus ; the Neapolitan moggio of 900 square 
 paces ; and the multiples of these the moggio of the 
 Ionian Islands, and the carro of Naples. 
 
78 METRICAL UNITS. FART i. 
 
 The gochih or pointung of Sumatra is a pace corre- 
 sponding to the Chinese pu, and the corresponding 
 square unit is probably used in a similar manner. 
 
 THE SQUARE FATHOM. 
 
 Nations that do not possess a yard, double-ell, or 
 some corresponding measure, generally make use of the 
 fathom and its submultiples in building, construction, 
 artisans' work, &c. &c., in the same way as the English 
 yard is applied. The same principle also applies to the 
 square faden, square klafter, square toise, square cavezzi 
 and trabucchi, square sasheen ; and possibly also to the 
 square depah, wa, chang, of Oriental nations. 
 
 In the preceding chapter the various corresponding 
 linear units have been classified and valued, see pages 
 51-68 ; and it merely remains to give the values of the 
 superficial units. Some of these square fathoms answer 
 the purpose of a square rod, as basic units of land- 
 measure, thus rendering a square rod a needless unit 
 in the system, or entirely supplanting it. The Italian 
 and South-French square canne, of about or below 36 
 square feet may be treated as square fathoms, or as 
 square paces, in accordance with their dimensions, 
 nomenclature, and history. 
 
 The more important values of the square fathom are 
 given in the tables attached to this chanter. 
 
CH. in. MEASURES OF SURFACE. 79 
 
 LAND MEASURES. 
 THE SQUARE ROD. 
 
 THE square rod is the smallest measure of surface 
 exclusively applied to land-measure. (See rod in 
 Chapter II.) Taking the values of the linear rod at 
 either 10 or 12 feet, and the general limits applied to 
 the linear pole at 14 to 25 local feet, the values of the 
 square rod, and of the square pole, as general expressions 
 representing units of surface anywhere, thus come be- 
 tween 100 and 144, and between 196 and 625 local 
 square feet respectively. 
 
 The terms perch and square perch are expressions 
 applied to many units of land-measure, both canes, rods, 
 and poles, and even square chains ; but, taken philologi- 
 cally, the term ruthe, or rod, is a Teutonic and Scan- 
 dinavian word, while the term perch is South-European, 
 and perhaps purely Roman. The Roman pertica was 
 the decempede, corresponding to the Greek, the Olympic, 
 and the Phileterian a/cr^vy ; all of which were dekapods 
 or true rods of the strictest type double paces. The 
 Roman square pertica or square decempede of 100 
 square feet was a scruple, being the 24th part of the 
 ounce (uncia) or the 288th of the jugerum, the basic 
 unit, or as of gromatic measure. Many of the perches 
 of Southern France and Italy were canes, half- rods, or 
 fathoms, some were true rods, and a few Italian pertiche 
 were by value chains. The perches of Northern France 
 were Belgic, Flemish, or Norman units properly poles 
 or verges to which the term perche was misapplied at 
 some early date. 
 
 The square poles, though frequently considered as 
 
80 METRICAL UNITS. PART i. 
 
 mere nominal multiples of smaller units, square feet, 
 square yards, or square fathoms, were probably by origin 
 perfectly independent units of surface in most cases, 
 and sometimes the feet of the system were modified or 
 added to suit them as submultiples. Many square poles 
 were also perhaps originally independent of the larger 
 land-measures, though harmonised with them in the 
 system at a later date. 
 
 Land-measures being usually arranged in a set of 
 rather large multiples, a centesimal arrangement is par- 
 ticularly well suited to them ; hence the convenience of 
 the square ruthe of so many places in Germany consist- 
 ing in 100 square feet ; the are of 100 square metres, and 
 the hectare of 100 ares ; a simple, primitive, and very 
 ancient principle adopted in the versus of the ancients 
 of 10,000 square feet, and in the Chinese decimal sub- 
 division of the mao to the myriadth part. However 
 inconvenient a rigid decimal system may be when 
 applied to strictly commercial measures of capacity 
 and of weight, where binary multiples and submultiples 
 are almost necessary, it has great advantages both in 
 land-measure and itinerary measure ; hence the con- 
 venience of reverting to the English square rod of 100 
 square feet of the decimal scientific measures. 
 
 Square rods of 100 square feet are or were adopted 
 at the following places and provinces : 
 
 Altona. 
 
 Baden. 
 
 Basel. 
 
 Bavaria. 
 
 Berne. 
 
 Darmstadt. 
 
 Denmark and Norway. 
 
 Frankfurt (special foot). 
 
 Freiburg. 
 
 Halle. 
 
 Hesse (special foot). 
 
 Lausanne. 
 
CH. III. 
 
 MEASURES OF SURFACE. 
 
 fiz 
 
 Lippe-Detmold (special Vaud. 
 
 foot). 
 
 Lothringen and Elsass. 
 Nassau. 
 
 Poland (precikow). 
 Prussia (geom. foot). 
 Wiirtemberg. 
 
 Vienna. 
 Zurich. 
 Tyrol. 
 
 Ancona, Bologna, and 
 Ferrara. 
 
 The special and geometrical feet mentioned are 
 special feet of land-measure in distinction to the werk- 
 fuss or werkschuh. 
 
 Square rods of 144 square feet are or were in use at 
 the following places, countries, and provinces : 
 
 Anspach. 
 
 Prussia (ord. foot). 
 Emden. 
 Franconia. 
 
 Nuremberg (spec. foot).. 
 Wiirzburg and Ost 
 Frise. 
 
 Spain. 
 
 Malacca. 
 
 Sumatra. 
 
 India. 
 
 Burma. 
 
 Some Italian tavole. 
 
 In Italy the tavola is often the smallest unit of land > 
 measure, corresponding to the square rod, and is gener- 
 ally = 4 square cavezzi, or trabucchi= 144 local square 
 feet 
 
 The exceptional tavole are those of Belluna and 
 Treviso, which consist of 25 local square feet, and are 
 yrj-oth of the campo ; and those of Padua,. Rovigo, 
 Udine, Venice, and Verona, which consist of 36 local 
 square feet, or are identical with the square cavezzo and 
 are also sometimes termed square pertiche. 
 
 Returning to the Italian perches : some of them 
 are neither subdivided into tavole nor square feet, as the 
 
8a METRICAL UNITS. PART i. 
 
 tavola and the square foot are sometimes non-existent. 
 These exceptional cases are the Tuscan square pertiche, 
 which consist of 25 square bracci (cubits) or of 100 
 square spans (palmi), and the Neapolitan pertiche. 
 The square pertica of Naples itself is 56^ local square 
 palmi, but the other Neapolitan square pertiche vary at 
 almost every town, ranging between 49 and 60 square 
 palmi, without being well-defined integral multiples. 
 
 THE SQUARE POLE. 
 
 Small square poles were the following : 
 The old Amsterdam roede . . . 1 69 square feet. 
 In Poland, Lithuania, and Silesia . 175 square feet. 
 Gotha (feldruthe), Erfurt, and Fulda 
 
 (Hesse) 196 square feet. 
 
 Square poles of the ordinary type, 256 square feet, 
 were in use at the following places : 
 
 Bremen. 
 
 Brunswick. 
 
 Coblenz. 
 
 Coin and Creveld. 
 
 Gotha (waldruthe). 
 
 Hamburg. 
 
 Hanover. 
 
 Lippe-Detmold. 
 
 Lubeck. 
 
 Mainz. 
 
 Mecklenburg. 
 Neufchatel (land-foot). 
 Neufchatel (werk-foot) 
 
 (vineyard). 
 Nuremberg. 
 Pomerania. 
 Rostock. 
 Saxony. 
 Stettin. 
 Weimar. 
 
 The juck or square pole of Oldenburg was 324 
 square feet. The square poles of the now obsolete 
 land -measures of France, Belgium, and Holland were 
 very various ; the most important were these : 
 
CH. in. MEASURES OF SURFACE. 83 
 
 La perche carree d'ordonnance . . 484 square feet 
 La perche de Normandie . . . 484 
 La perche commune .... 400 
 La perche de Paris . . . .324 
 La verge de Bruxelles . . . 266^- 
 Also the English square pole . . 272^ 
 
 There were also Dutch, Flemish, and Belgian verges 
 of 300$, 336^, 373^, 400, and 413$ square feet. 
 
 The present Nederlandsche vierkante roede is the 
 square decametre, 100 square metres, or are of the metric 
 system, while it is also a hundredth part of the bunder 
 or hectare. (See Metric Systems.) 
 
 The square pole is among Northern and Scandina- 
 vian nations termed the geviert or quadrat ruthe, rode, 
 or roede ; in Belgium and the north of France the verge 
 carree ; in southern Europe, including Southern France, 
 the perche, or pertica, is either a rod, or a cane, or a 
 chain never a pole ; and it must be noticed that some 
 of the Italian square perches consist of 96 square 
 cavezzi, or square trabucchi, and are subdivided into 
 24 tavole ; they are then units corresponding to the 
 square chain. 
 
 The English square pole of 272^ square feet or 30^ 
 square yards is certainly inconvenient in value, both 
 in this form and as being the i6oth part of an acre, 
 and the iO24OOth part of the square mile; but this 
 inconvenience is frequently avoided by ignoring the 
 pole, and expressing land-measure simply in acres and 
 decimal parts, or in acres and square yards. 
 
 G 2 
 
84 METRICAL UNITS. PART I. 
 
 THE SQUARE CHAIN. 
 
 Formerly the English rood was probably quite 
 distinct from the farthing-deal, or rectangular land-unit 
 of 40 poles in length by one in breadth, forming the 
 quarter of an acre, although they have been long synony- 
 mous and identical. The farthing-deal was always the 
 fourth of the Anglo-Saxon acre, and connected with the 
 pole ; but a rood is a relic of a former unit, probably 
 based on the original rod of 10 feet, the former 
 having some value near 10890 square feet, perhaps 
 10000 or 14400, and the rod being 10 or 12 feet, the 
 rood thus being 100 square rods. At such an epoch 
 the rood was a convenient unit ; corresponding to what is 
 now a square chain on Ramsden's system, and probably 
 was by origin a square chain of some ancient system. 
 
 A square chain is one of the most natural and con- 
 venient units of land-measure, dependent neither on the 
 reputed activity of a theoretic ploughman, nor the size of 
 the sower's corn-barrel, but on the appliance of measure- 
 ment. The English square chain (Ramsden's) of 10000 
 square feet is also convenient as a decimal unit, besides 
 being nearly a rood or a quarter-acre. 
 
 The values of foreign square chains and units ap- 
 proximating to them, which have been much neglected 
 by metrologists, are given in the tables. 
 
 AGRARIAN MEASURES. ACRES, &C. 
 
 The acre, or ploughman's unit of land-measure in 
 England, is also the ordinary unit of land-measure for 
 all purposes. Whether based on the Roman jugerum 
 or not, it is a measure of the same type, representing 
 
CH. in. MEASURES OF SURFACE. 85 
 
 the amount of land a ploughman can plough in a day 
 with a yoke of oxen. The other European measures 
 of this type are 
 
 The tagwerk of Germany. 
 
 The tagmatt of the Tyrol. 
 
 The juchart, or joch, of Austria, Bavaria, Wiirtem- 
 berg, Elsass, Switzerland, and the Tyrol. 
 
 The jour and journal, formerly used in France and 
 Belgium. 
 
 The acre of Gotha, Mecklenburg, Ravensburg, 
 Leipzig, Weimar, Cassel, Fulda, and Normandy. 
 
 The yugada of Spain. The pose of Switzerland. 
 The giornata of Piedmont. The geira of Portugal. 
 
 Some other European land-measures may possibly 
 belong to this type, although there may not be sufficient 
 evidence to demonstrate it. 
 
 The German morgen and the French arpent, or at 
 least some of them, appear to be measures corresponding 
 to each other. The French arpent, derived from the 
 ancient arepenna of Gaul, which was half a Roman 
 jugerum, was probably at one time intended for a half- 
 acre, and, in a few cases, the German morgen was half a 
 tagwerk. This distinction is, however, a thing of the 
 past ; the varieties of both sorts of measure obliterating 
 it and throwing both classes into one. 
 
 The quarter-acre, now termed in England a rood, 
 but formerly a farthing-deal, 1 had its analogous measures 
 in Germany, France, and Italy, where quarters of some 
 of the land-measures were termed vierling and vorling, 
 quart and quartel, quarta and quartuccio ; also the fjer- 
 dedels-tunneland of Sweden, and the quartillo of Spain. 
 
 1 In Holland, vierendeel, or quarter. 
 
86 METRICAL UNITS. PART i. 
 
 The sower's units of land-measure, corresponding to 
 various measures of capacity for grain, and representing 
 the amount of land that could be advantageously sown 
 with certain quantities of grain, are fortunately entirely 
 unknown in England. The principle is, however, a very 
 ancient one, adopted by the Egyptians before the Mosaic 
 exodus. The European measures of this type are : 
 
 The tunna or tunneland) 
 
 ~i i , \ of Sweden. 
 
 The spannland j 
 
 The toendehartkorn \ 
 The toendescedeland \ of Denmark. 
 The skieppehartkorn j 
 
 The scheffel of Hamburg, Liibeck, Rostock, Lippe- 
 Detmold, and Oldenburg. 
 
 The metze of Austria and Bohemia. 
 
 The moggio, rubbio, and scozzo of Italy, including 
 
 The stajo, staro, starello, and 
 
 seteree 
 
 Nice and Pied- 
 mont. 
 
 The starland of the Tyrol, and the setine of Switzer- 
 land. 
 
 The imbuto and corbula of Sardinia. 
 
 The saccata of Tuscany ; the bacile of modern 
 Greece. 
 
 The fanegada and cahizada of Spain, and a very 
 large variety of old French land-measures. 
 
 The almude or celemin of the Canary Islands. 
 
 The vineyard-units of land-measure are : 
 
 The aranzada of Spain ; the thauen of Germany. 
 
 The zappada and moggio of the Ionian Islands, 
 the fossore"e of Switzerland, and, perhaps, the stremo of 
 modern Greece, as well as several old French land- 
 
CH. in. MEASURES OF SURFACE. 87 
 
 measures, besides others that do not afford traces of 
 their original formation or intention. 
 
 The other unassignable units of land-measure, which 
 are either multiples or submultiples of the others, or 
 were based on square and rectangular formation from 
 linear measures, apart from any other object now evident, 
 are : 
 
 The album and penge of Denmark ; the cuadra and 
 cuadra cuadrada of Spain and of South America ; the 
 biolca, campo, pezzo r rnigliajo, quadrato, tornatura, carro, 
 zuoja, of Italy ; the stochiaca of Tyrol ; the biggah and 
 kani of India ; the orlong of Sumatra ; the king and 
 mao of China ; the dessatina of Russia ; the feddan of 
 the Levant ; as well as others. 
 
 The relation of these ordinary land-measures to the 
 small land-measures of square perches is very varied in 
 different localities. The following small table gives the 
 number of square perches to the acre, morgen, or tag- 
 werk for some of the more important cases : 
 
 Mecklenburg, and frequently for the old French 
 
 arpent 100 
 
 Bremen, Brunswick, Hanover, Lippe-Detmold . 120 
 
 Gotha and Weimar 140 
 
 Franconia 144 
 
 Aachen, Bamberg, Coin, Creveld, Hesse, Wurtem- 
 
 berg, and Lothringen 150 
 
 England, Gotha, Coblenz, Frankfurt, Mayence,] 
 Normandy, Nuremberg, and Wiirzburg j 
 
 Erfurt 168 
 
 Prussia and Wiirzburg 180 
 
 Elsass . 240 
 
METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 Baden (Constance) 260 
 
 Saxony (Leipzig), Lithuania, Poland, Pomerania, 
 
 Silesia 300 
 
 Zurich . . 320 
 
 Oldenburg' 356 
 
 Anspach, Basel, and Zurich 360 
 
 Wiirtemberg 384 
 
 Baden, Bavaria, Darmstadt, Wiirtemberg, Geneva 400 
 
 Hamburg, and occasionally .near the Rhine . . 600 
 
 The ratios to the small measures of some of the 
 former Italian land-measures, and those of countries 
 other than France and the Netherlands, are given in 
 the tables. The former land-measures of France were 
 very numerous, intensely complicated, and varied much 
 in value. The following is a rather incomplete list of 
 them : 
 
 Acre 
 
 Arpent 
 
 Boisseree 
 
 Boisseau 
 
 Bicheree 
 
 Carre 
 
 Carreau 
 
 Chainee 
 
 Concade 
 
 Corde 
 
 Danree 
 
 Eminee 
 
 Escat 
 
 Faucheur 
 
 Faux 
 
 Fossoree 
 
 Grande mesure 
 
 Hommee 
 
 Jallois 
 
 Journee 
 
 Journal 
 
 Jour 
 
 Latte 
 
 Mesure 
 
 Mesuree 
 
 Mine 
 
 Minee 
 
 Mouee 
 
 (Euvre 
 
 Ouvree 
 
 Pauque 
 
 Perche 
 
 Picotin 
 
 Place 
 
 Port 
 
 Pugnere 
 
 Puniere 
 
 Quartier 
 
 Quart 
 
 Quartel 
 
 Raie 
 
 Reges 
 
 Sadon 
 
 Salmee 
 
 Seteree 
 
 Setier 
 
 Seytive 
 
 Sillon 
 
 Verge 
 
 Verge'e 
 
 Vertison 
 
CH. in. MEASURES OF SURFACE. 89 
 
 Some of these measures had several, and some 
 many, values. The Belgian bunder had an infinity of 
 values. 
 
 The perusal of such lists, and reflection on the 
 confusion involved in the variety of their values, will 
 demonstrate the cause of the avidity of the French, 
 Belgians, and Italians for the metric system, which is 
 specially well suited to land-measure, and will also show 
 that no similar eagerness can be expected in a country 
 like England, where there is only one acre, not only 
 in the mother-country, but wherever English measures 
 are used. 
 
 LARGE AGRARIAN UNITS. HIDES, &C. 
 
 The hide was a large land-measure, consisting of 
 100 acres, formerly used in England, but now legally 
 obsolete ; the measures of Germany and Poland, that 
 are slightly analogous, are the haken and the hufe, or 
 wloka. 
 
 The following are the ratios of these measures to the 
 local morgen : 
 
 Pomerania\ haken=i5 morgen, also termed the 
 Wendische hufe, or Vandal hufe ; the priester-hufe of 
 20 morgen, the land-hufe of 30 morgen. Also the 
 tripel-hufe of 3 haken, and the haeger-hufe of 4 haken. 
 
 Kcenigsbcrg : the haken of 20 morgen and the hufe 
 of 30 morgen. 
 
 Berlin, Breslau, Danzig, Frankfurt-on-the-Main, and 
 Hesse : the hufe of 30 morgen. 
 
 Mecklenburg : the hufe of 400 acres. 
 
 Poland: the haken of 20 morgow, and the hufe, or 
 wloka of 30 morgow. 
 
90 METRICAL UNITS. PART 1. 
 
 The domain-unit, or estate-unit, appears almost as 
 necessary a part of a complete system as an agrarian 
 unit; the English hide being now obsolete, its place 
 may be supplied by the unit of the decimal system 
 termed a century, in accordance with Roman nomen- 
 clature, which is equal to 100 square chains, or nearly 
 the same number of roods. This unit also serves to 
 complete the system, in other respects being a square 
 cable, or the square of a cable 1000 feet long, and also 
 the hundredth part of a square league of the same series. 
 
 TOPOGRAPHICAL MEASURES. 
 
 The square mile is a recognised superficial unit of 
 surface in England, being exactly 640 acres. The 
 square kilometre of the metric system is in the same 
 way an Integral multiple of the hectare, and the Chinese 
 square li an integral multiple of the mao and the 
 king, but though some such relation may also exist in 
 some other countries and places, it is comparatively 
 rare. In some countries very large units are wanting, 
 numerical multiples being used instead of determined 
 units ; in others square geographical miles or leagues of 
 various sorts are employed ; but these are generally 
 detached units, not coalescing in the general system. 
 
 The square league of the English decimal series 
 consists of 100 centuries, or 10000 square chains (Rams- 
 den's) ; and as the linear league=2 Old London miles of 
 5000 feet, the square league is 4 square miles of the Old 
 London type. The series is hence complete in surface 
 measure, is centesimal throughout, and has a wider 
 scope than the French system y with which it is parallel 
 in some respects. 
 
CH. III. 
 
 MEASURES OF SURFACE. 
 
 SQUARE FEET. 
 
 NATIONAL AND GENERAL. 
 
 The square foot of England, America, and 
 Russia, their colonies and dependencies, duod. 
 
 The scientific value of the same at 32 Fahr. . 
 
 The square foot of Prussia, Norway, and Den- 
 mark ........ 
 
 The square geometric foot of Prussia for land . 
 
 The square foot of Sweden and Finland, dec. 1 
 and duod. ....... 
 
 The square foot of the Austro- Hungarian Em- 
 pire, dec. and duod. ..... 
 
 The square foot of Spain generally, duod. 
 ,, ,, Portugal, duod. . 
 
 ,, ,, Arabia .... 
 
 ,, ,, the Chinese Empire, dec., 
 
 the Board of Works kambuchih . 
 
 g English 
 ^ Commercial 
 % Equivalent. 
 
 # English 
 U, Scientific 
 $ Equivalent. 
 
 French 
 Scientific 
 P Equivalent. 
 
 I 
 
 I -OOO6 
 
 0-9994 
 1 
 
 9-2846 
 9-2900 
 
 I '0609 
 I-S277 
 
 1-0603 
 1-5269 
 
 9-8504 
 14-1846 
 
 0-9492 
 
 0-9487 
 
 8-8130 
 
 1-0760 
 0-8344 
 I-I729 
 I-I029 
 
 1-0754 
 0-8339 
 1-1722 
 1-1022 
 
 9-9907 
 7-7469 
 10-8900 
 10-2400 
 
 I-I223 
 
 1-1217 
 
 10-4206 
 
 FORMER, LOCAL, OR SPECIAL SQUARE FEET. 
 GERMANY : 
 
 Prussia, Imperial quadrat Rheinfuss 
 ,, geometric quadrat Feldfuss 
 Anspach and Baireuth, duod. . 
 Altona and Hamburg, duod. . 
 
 . I -0609 
 . 1-5277 
 . 0-9680 
 . 0-8440 
 0-969 3 
 
 1-0603 
 1-5269 
 0-9674 
 0-8835 
 0-9688 
 
 9-8504 
 14-1846 
 8-9880 
 8-2077 
 9-0000 
 
 Bavaria, dec. and duod. . 
 Rhenish Bavaria, metric duod. 
 Bremen, dec. and duod. . 
 Brunswick, duod. . 
 Coin and Aschaffenberg . 
 Culm 
 
 . 0-9174 
 . 1-1967 
 . 0-9008 
 . 0-8771 
 . 0-8909 
 . 0-8940 
 
 0-9169 
 1-1960 
 0-9003 
 0-8766 
 0-8904 
 0-8935 
 
 8-5182 
 ii-iiii 
 
 8-3635 
 8-1432 
 8-2714 
 8-3002 
 
 Dantzig. duod. 
 Elsass (Stadtschuh) 
 Elsass (Landschuh) 
 
 . 0-8864 
 . 0-9008 
 Q'9373 
 
 0-8859 
 0-9003 
 0-9367 
 
 8-2303 
 8-7025 
 
 The feet are marked decimal when the inch is a decimal submultiple of the foot. 
 
9 2 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 
 ill 
 
 iS^-a 
 
 g|| 
 
 SQUARE FEET continued. 
 
 
 HI 
 
 jj|.| 
 
 GERMANY : 
 
 CJW 
 
 Wc "w 
 
 fac "w 
 
 
 Sq. feet 
 
 Sq. feet 
 
 De'c. car. 
 
 Gotha, duod. ....... 
 
 0*8910 
 
 0-8905 
 
 8-2724 
 
 Halle (Werkfuss) 
 
 0-8973 
 
 0-8968 
 
 8-3309 
 
 ,, (Feldfuss, of i \ Werkfuss) 
 
 2-OI89 
 
 2-0177 
 
 18-7446 
 
 Hanover, duod . 
 
 0-9183 
 
 0-9178 
 
 8-5261 
 
 Heiligenstadt and Erfurt 
 
 0-8632 
 
 0-8627 
 
 8-0149 
 
 Hesse Darmstadt, metric dec. .... 
 
 0-6732 
 
 0-6728 
 
 6-2500 
 
 Hesse-Electoral, forest foot, duod. . 
 
 0-8915 
 
 0-8910 
 
 8-277I 
 
 ,, i perch, field foot 
 
 0-8742 
 
 0-8737 
 
 8-II68 
 
 , , i perch, dec. field foot . 
 
 I7I38 
 
 1-7128 
 
 I5-9I2I 
 
 Holstein ....... 
 
 0-9597 
 
 0-9591 
 
 8-9103 
 
 Lippe-Detmold and Schaumburg 
 
 0-9028 
 
 0-9023 
 
 8-3818 
 
 Lothringen ordinary square foot 
 
 0-8805 
 
 0-8800 
 
 8-1754 
 
 ,, square field foot .... 
 
 0-955 
 
 0-9544 
 
 8-8667 
 
 Liibeck and Rostock ..... 
 
 0-8927 
 
 0-8922 
 
 8-2887 
 
 
 0-9121 
 
 0-9115 
 
 8-4682 
 
 Nassau, metric quad. Werkfuss, dec. 
 
 0-9693 
 
 0-9687 
 
 9-0000 
 
 ,, metric quad. Feldfuss, dec. 
 
 2-6926 
 
 2-6910 
 
 25 -oooo 
 
 Nuremberg, metric quad. Stadtfuss . 
 
 0-9944 
 
 0-9938 
 
 9-2331 
 
 ,, ,, Artilleriefuss 
 
 0-9259 
 
 0-9253 
 
 8-5966 
 
 Oldenburg ....... 
 
 0-9463 
 
 0-9458 
 
 8-7862 
 
 S axe- Weimar, quad. Werk r uss, duod. 
 
 0-8564 
 
 0-8559 
 
 7-9512 
 
 Saxe-Weimar, quad. Feldfuss, dec. . 
 
 2-1923 
 
 2-1910 
 
 20-3551 
 
 Saxony, Dresden, duod. ..... 
 
 '8632 
 
 0-8628 
 
 8-0149 
 
 ,, Leipzig, dec. and duod. 
 
 0-8605 
 
 0-8600 
 
 7-9894 
 
 Silesia (Prussian) ..... ^ 
 
 0-8633 
 
 0-8928 
 
 8-2919 
 
 Wiirtemberg, dec 
 
 0-8840 
 
 0-8835 
 
 8-2077 
 
 SWITZERLAND : 
 
 
 
 
 Berne and Freiberg, square foot 
 
 0-9463 
 
 0-9457 
 
 8-6000 
 
 Basel, square foot ...... 
 
 0-9987 
 
 0-9981 
 
 9 -2 743 
 
 Saint Gall, square foot 
 
 I-OI87 
 
 1-0181 
 
 9-4586 
 
 Geneva, square foot ..... 
 
 2-5644 
 
 2-5629 
 
 23-8098 
 
 Claris, Grisons, Uri, Waadt, Valais, Schweitz, 
 
 
 
 
 square foot ....... 
 
 0-9693 
 
 0-9687 
 
 9-0000 
 
 Lucerne, ordinary square foot .... 
 
 I -0609 
 
 1-0603 
 
 9-8504 
 
 joiners' . 
 
 0-9944 
 
 0-9938 
 
 9-2329 
 
 , , for land and works .... 
 
 0-870I 
 
 0-8696 
 
 8-0789 
 
 Neufchatel, Landfuss 
 
 0-9463 
 
 0-9457 
 
 8-6000 
 
 ,, Feldmessfuss . . 
 
 0-8880 
 
 0-8875 
 
 8-2451 
 
 
 I "0760 
 
 1-0754 
 
 Q-QQO7 
 
 Schaffhause. Werkschuh .... 
 
 0-9558 
 
 0-9552 
 
 v v y / 
 18-8744 
 
 Ticino, square brazzetto . . . . 
 
 1-6975 
 
 1-6965 
 
 5-7609 
 
 Zug, Halberstab quad. ..... 
 
 0-9693 
 
 0-9687 
 
 9-0000 
 
 
 O'7776 
 
 0-7771 
 
 7-2200 
 
 Zurich, Halberstab quad, field 
 
 / / / v 
 0-9693 
 
 0-9687 
 
 9-0000 
 
 ,, builders' measure .... 
 
 0-9695 
 
 0-9698 
 
 9-0015 
 
MEASURES OF SURFACE. 
 
 93 
 
 SQUARE FEET continued. 
 FRANCE : 
 
 Pied du roi, Parisian square foot . 
 Pied metrique (from 1812 to 1840) 
 
 HOLLAND AND BELGIUM : 
 
 Amsterdam, vierkante voet=i2i v. duimen 
 Brussels, vierkante voet= 121 v. duimen 
 
 AUSTRO-HUNGARY : 
 
 Imperial square foot, dec. and duod. 
 Bohemia, ,,,,.... 
 
 Galicia , 
 
 Illyria, Trieste, square foot, duod. 
 Moravia, square foot .... 
 Poland, Cracow square stopa, duod. 
 Silesia (Austrian), square foot 
 Tyrol, square foot .... 
 
 RUSSIA : 
 
 Imperial square foot, duod. . 
 Lithuania ,, ,, 
 
 Revel ,, 
 
 Riga ,, ,, 
 
 Pernau ,, ,, 
 
 Poland (Warsaw), square stopa, duod. . 
 ,, ,, square precikow, dec. 
 
 ITALY : 
 
 Ancona, square foot .... 
 
 Bergamo 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Brescia 
 
 Cremona 
 
 Mantua 
 
 Milan 
 
 Modena 
 
 Padua and Vicenza, square foot 
 
 Parma, square foot .... 
 
 Piacenza ,, ,, .... 
 
 Piedmont, piede manuale, 8 in. 
 
 ,, piede liprando, 12 in. 
 Reggio, square foot .... 
 Rome (piede = i| palmo) ^ square palmo 
 Savoy, Chamberi square foot 
 Venetia, square foot .... 
 Verona, square foot .... 
 
 ^z 
 
 j 
 
 ** 
 
 111 
 
 '5;<G v 
 
 JSJQ S 
 
 'IMS 
 
 is? 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 ow 
 
 fl| 
 
 **! 
 
 Sq. feet 
 
 Sq. feet 
 
 Dec. car. 
 
 I-I365 
 
 1-1359 
 
 10-5521 
 
 1-1967 
 
 1-1960 
 
 II-IIII 
 
 0-8632 
 
 0-8628 
 
 8-0149 
 
 0-8I90 
 
 0-8185 
 
 7-6038 
 
 1-0760 
 
 1-0754 
 
 9-9907 
 
 0-9462 
 0-9487 
 
 0-9456 
 0-9491 
 
 87853 
 
 8-8180 
 
 I -0896 
 
 1-0890 
 
 10-1168 
 
 0-9437 
 
 0-9431 
 
 8-7616 
 
 I-368I 
 
 1-3673 
 
 12-7021 
 
 0*9020 
 
 0-9015 
 
 8-3752 
 
 I -2023 
 
 1-2016 
 
 11-1630 
 
 I 
 
 0-9994 
 
 9-2846 
 
 I-I365 
 
 1-1358 
 
 10-5521 
 
 07618 
 
 0-7613 
 
 7-0733 
 
 0-8091 
 
 0-8086 
 
 7-51 19 
 
 O-8IO4 
 
 0-8099 
 
 7-5240 
 
 0-9612 
 
 0-9606 
 
 8-2944 
 
 2-QIOO 
 
 2-0088 
 
 18-6624 
 
 I 8067 
 
 1-8057 
 
 16-7748 
 
 2-0644 
 
 2-0632 
 
 19-1669 
 
 I-556I 
 
 1-5552 
 
 14-4476 
 
 2-3893 
 
 2-3879 
 
 22-1841 
 
 2-5178 
 
 2-5163 
 
 23-3772 
 
 2-3474 
 
 2-3460 
 
 18-7952 
 
 2-0399 
 
 2-0387 
 
 27-9399 
 
 2-9466 
 
 2-9449 
 
 12-3579 
 
 I-3758 
 
 1-3750 
 
 12-7735 
 
 3-I948 
 
 3-1929 
 
 19-6630 
 
 2-378I 
 
 2-3767 
 
 22-0796 
 
 I -2634 
 
 1-2627 
 
 11-7306 
 
 2-8429 
 
 2-8412 
 
 26-3955 
 
 3-0357 
 
 3-0339 '28-1855 
 
 0-9558 
 
 0-9552 8-8744 
 
 I -2407 
 
 1-2400 11-5192 
 
 1-2998 
 
 1-2991 12-0687 
 
 I -2665 
 
 1-2658 11-7586 
 
94 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 SQUARE FEET continued. 
 
 ^11 
 111 
 
 ja^S 
 
 ^a.5 
 til 
 
 SPAIN : 
 
 w g. 
 
 OH 
 
 W8| 
 
 
 Sq. feet 
 
 Sq. feet 
 
 Castile, square foot, duod. .... 
 
 0-8344 
 
 0-8339 
 
 Aragon ,, ,, .... 
 
 07114 
 
 0-7110 
 
 Valencia ,, ,, .... 
 
 0-9843 
 
 0-9837 
 
 AMERICA : 
 
 
 
 Mexico, Buenos Ayres and Monte Video, Chili, 
 
 
 
 Peru, La Havana, duod. (old value of the 
 
 
 
 Spanish square foot) ..... 
 
 0-8608 
 
 0-8603 
 
 Pernambuco square foot, duod. 
 
 0-9947 
 
 0-9941 
 
 Quebec (pied du roi, Parisian), duod. 
 
 I-I365 
 
 1-1359 
 
 INDIA : 
 
 
 
 Malabar, square ady ..... 
 
 0-7599 
 
 0-7593 
 
 CHINA : 
 
 
 
 Board of Works square kambuchih . 
 
 1-1223 
 
 1-1217 
 
 Imperial survey of 1700, square chih 
 
 1-0167 
 
 1-0161 
 
 Square chih of the Tsing dynasty since 1644 . 
 
 1-0998 
 
 1-0992 
 
 Local values. ! 
 
 
 
 Canton customs, square chih .... 
 
 1-3806 
 
 1-3798 
 
 Pekin palace ,, ,, 
 
 i -0795 
 
 1-0789 
 
 ,, imperial statistics square chih 
 
 i -0677 
 
 1-0671 
 
 
 1-1952 
 
 1-1945 
 
 ,, board of works , ,, (?) 
 
 1-0574 
 
 1-0568 
 
 land ,, . 
 
 1-1511 
 
 1-1504 
 
 Shanghai land revenue , ,, 
 
 i -2065 
 
 1-2058 
 
 ,, shipbuilders' , ,, 
 
 1-7116 
 
 1-7106 
 
 Special value of the square chih frequently used 
 
 
 
 in land-measure as a sub-multiple of the mau, 
 
 
 
 eo^oth P art - 
 
 1-1968 
 
 1-1961 
 
 JAPAN : 
 
 
 
 Square shaku ordinary ..... 
 
 0-9819 
 
 0-9813 
 
 Special value, as a square land-foot, the myriadth 
 
 
 
 
 I '0*7 T C 
 
 1-07C9 
 
 MANILA : 
 
 
 
 The Castilian square foot .... 
 
 0-8344 
 
 0-8339 
 
 N. B. Some of the old values of square feet, having been deduced 
 through old Parisian measure, will not be exact squares of linear values, 
 given in metric or English terms. 
 
 1 For other values of Chinese square feet, square the English linear values on p. 54. 
 
CH. III. 
 
 MEASURES OF SURFACE. 
 
 95 
 
 SQUARE CUBITS. 
 
 
 SQUARE ELLS, SQUARE 
 BRACCI, &c. 
 
 Square cubit, English half yard squared 
 Scientific value of the same at 32 Fahr. . 
 Square ell of Prussia, 4-5157 square feet . 
 Square ell of Norway and Denmark, 4 sq. ft. 
 Square ell of Sweden and Finland, 4 sq. ft. 
 Square ell of Austria, not much used ; replaced 
 
 by the square klafter ..... 
 Square codo ordinario of Spain, 2.\ square feet . 
 Square codo de ribera of Spain, 4 square feet 
 Square covado of Portugal, 4 square feet . 
 Square covado do commejcio, Portugal, 24! 
 
 inches square ...... 
 
 Square braccio of Tuscany, 4 square palmi 
 
 square palmo of Tuscany .... 
 Square braccio di legno of Parma (this is also 
 
 termed an agrarian foot) .... 
 Square braccio of Naples, 7| square palmi . 
 
 square palmo of Naples ..... 
 Square braccio of Rome, 16 square palmi . 
 
 square palmo of Rome, ^ square foot 
 Square arsheen of Russia, 5| square feet . 
 Square pik endesa of Stambul .... 
 Square pik of Patras, Oran, Scio, and Jerusalem 
 Square pik of Aleppo and Alexandretta 
 ,, ,, endeza of Cairo . 
 ,, ,, endeza of Alexandria 
 
 ,, ,, of Cyprus 
 
 ,, ,, of Abyssinia 
 
 ,, ,, ofBassara . 
 Square hath of India and Burmese taim, and 
 
 Sumatra esto ...... 
 
 Square sandang of Burmah .... 
 
 Square cubit of commerce of China, also termed 
 
 a foot ; decimally divided .... 
 
 alj 
 
 SlJ 
 
 <iJ 
 
 111 
 
 111 
 
 811 
 
 w 1 & 
 
 W ^w* 
 
 fa Cfl O 4 
 
 Sq. feet 
 
 Sq. feet 
 
 Dec. car. 
 
 2-250 
 
 2-249 
 
 20-891 
 
 2-25I 
 
 2-250 
 
 20-903 
 
 4790 
 
 4-788 
 
 44-476 
 
 4-244 
 
 4-241 
 
 39-401 
 
 3796 
 
 3-794 
 
 35-248 
 
 6-539 
 
 6-535 
 
 60715 
 
 1-877 
 
 1-876 
 
 I7-43I 
 
 3-338 
 
 3-336 
 
 30-991 
 
 4-692 
 
 4-689 
 
 43-560 
 
 4-989 
 
 4-986 
 
 46-322 
 
 3-668 
 
 3-666 
 
 34-059 
 
 0-917 
 
 0-917 
 
 8-5I5 
 
 3-166 
 
 3-164 
 
 29-393 
 
 5*258 
 
 5-255 
 
 48-818 
 
 0739 
 
 0-739 
 
 6-864 
 
 7745 
 
 7-740 
 
 7I-9IO 
 
 . /> 
 
 0-538 
 
 4-992 
 
 5-444 
 
 5-441 
 
 50-545 
 
 5-o88 
 
 5-085 
 
 
 5-069 
 
 5-066 
 
 47-060 
 
 4-926 
 
 4-923 
 
 
 4389 
 
 4-386 
 
 40755 
 
 4-282 
 
 4-279 
 
 39753 
 
 4-857 
 
 4-854 
 
 45-098 
 
 5-066 
 
 5-063 
 
 47-032 
 
 4-880 
 
 4-877 
 
 45-306 
 
 2-250 
 
 2-249 
 
 20-891 
 
 3-361 
 
 3-359 I 31-201 
 
 
 1 
 
 1-486! 1-4861 13-801 
 
9 6 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 SQUARE DOUBLE CUBITS. 
 
 Square yards, metres, varas, pasetti, &c. 
 
 GENERAL VALUES. 
 
 HI 
 
 '3cg_> 
 
 IjJ 
 
 
 Sq. yds. 
 
 Sq. feet 
 
 Met. car 
 
 Square yard of England and America, square 
 
 
 
 
 gaz of India : 9 square feet, or 36 square 
 
 
 
 
 cubits (hath), or 256 square nails . 
 
 I 
 
 8-995 
 
 0-8356 
 
 The scientific value of the same at 32 Fahr. . 
 
 1-0006 
 
 9-000 
 
 0-8361 
 
 Metre carre of France, Holland, and Belgium, 
 
 
 
 
 metro quadrate of Italy, &c., divided deci- 
 
 
 
 
 mally 
 
 1-1967 
 
 10-764 
 
 I 
 
 Vara cuadrada of Spain = 9 pies cuad. =256 
 
 
 
 
 avas cuad. ....... 
 
 0-8344 
 
 7-505 
 
 0-6972 
 
 Vara cuadrada of Portugal = 9 pes cuad. . 
 
 1-4480 
 
 13-024 i -2 100 
 
 FORMER, LOCAL, OR SPECIAL VALUES. - 
 
 FRANCE : 
 
 
 Demi-toise car. (ancienne) .... 
 
 1-1364 10-221 '0-9496 
 
 Demi-toise car. metrique (1812 to 1840) . 
 
 1-1967 10-764 
 
 I 
 
 Aune carree (ancienne) ..... 
 
 i -6903 15-204 
 
 1-4124 
 
 Aune carree metrique (1812 to 1840) 
 
 1-7233 15-501 
 
 1-4400 
 
 SPAIN AND AMERICA : 
 
 
 
 
 Castilian vara cuadrada 
 
 0-8344 
 
 7-505 
 
 0-6972 
 
 
 o 7113 
 
 6-398 
 
 O'CQAA 
 
 Barcelona ,, ,, ..... 
 
 0-7207 
 
 6-483 0-6022 
 
 Galician ,, ,, . . * . 
 
 1-4102 12-685 
 
 1-1784 
 
 Valencian ,, ,, ..... 
 
 1-0358! 9-317 0-8655 
 
 Vara cuadrada of Peru, Chili, Mexico, Buenos 
 
 
 
 Ayres, Montevideo, and La Havana 
 
 0-8606! 7-741 0-7191 
 
 Vara cuadrada of Canary Islands 
 
 0-8480 
 
 17-628 
 
 0-7086 
 
 ,, ,, of Brazil ..... 
 
 1-3262 
 
 1-929 
 
 1-1816 
 
 ITALY : 
 
 
 
 
 Tuscan pasetto quad. = 16 palmi quad. 
 
 i -6304 
 
 14-665 
 
 i -3624 
 
 Roman stajolo quad. =33^ palmi quad. . 
 
 i975i 
 
 17-765 
 
 i -9504 
 
 ORIENTAL COUNTRIES : 
 
 
 
 
 Arabia, Mokha square gaz .... 
 
 0-4825 
 
 4-340 
 
 0-4032 
 
 Persia, 1 square zar' 
 
 i -2944 
 
 11-643 
 
 i -0816 
 
 India, Imperial square gaz .... 
 
 i 
 
 8-995 0-8356 
 
 ,, Bombay square gaz .... 
 
 0-5625 5-060 0-4700 
 
 Square Measures are not generally used. 
 
CH. III. 
 
 MEASURES OF SURFACE. 
 
 97 
 
 THE SQUARE PACE. 
 
 
 GENERAL VALUES. 
 
 Square pace of England and America = 25 
 
 square feet ....... 
 
 The scientific value of the same at 32 Fahr. . 
 Square pace of Germany in ordinary quad. 
 
 schritt = 25 square Rheinfuss. 
 Square pace of Germany, geodetic quad, schritt 
 
 = 42-706 square feet of Hamburg 
 Pas carre de France = 25 pieds carres de Paris . 
 Pas carre of 25 pieds carres metriques 
 Paso cuadrado of Spain = 25 square pies . 
 Passo cuadrado of Portugal = 25 square pes 
 Ionian Islands, 25 square feet (Venice) 
 Patras, 25 square feet (Paris) .... 
 Square pu 1 of China, 25 square chih of the 
 
 Board of Works ...... 1-1223 
 
 Square gochih of Surratra, 25 square chih; or 
 
 depa, 1 6 square cubits .... 
 
 FORMER, SPECIAL, OR LOCAL VALUES. 
 
 sli 
 
 Si I 
 
 ^I 
 
 1|| 
 
 1!| 
 
 ni 
 
 "It 
 
 W -| 
 
 **$ 
 
 Sq. pace 
 
 Sq. feet 
 
 Met. car 
 
 I 
 
 24-993 
 
 2-32II 
 
 i -0006 
 
 25 
 
 2-3217 
 
 i '0609 
 
 26-508 
 
 2 -4626 
 
 4777 
 
 36-930 
 
 3-4299 
 
 1365 
 
 28-396 
 
 2-6380 
 
 1967 
 
 29-901 
 
 2-7777 
 
 0-8344 
 
 20-848 
 
 1-9367 
 
 1729 
 
 29-306 
 
 2-7225 
 
 2998 
 
 32-478 
 
 3-0172 
 
 1365 
 
 28-396 
 
 2-6380 
 
 1-1223 
 
 28-042 
 
 2-6050 
 
 1-4400 
 
 35-976 
 
 3-3420 
 
 Square pace, Hamburg, ordinary 23*04 sq 
 feet 
 Square step, Berne, 9 square feet 
 Square pace, Berne, 25 square feet . 
 Square pace, Trieste, 25 square feet 
 Rome, 25 piede quad. .... 
 Tuscany, 9 bracci quad. .... 
 Napoli, 1 56-25 palmi quad. 
 
 0-815 
 
 0-333 
 0-946 
 1-090 
 0-956 
 321 
 664 
 300 
 
 20-36 
 8-33 
 23-64 
 27-23 
 23-88 
 33-00 
 41-57 
 32-48 
 
 1-891 
 0-774 
 2-1500 
 2-529 
 2-2219 
 3-0660 
 3-8610 
 VOI76 
 
 Bologna, 25 piede quad 
 Milan ........ 
 
 JVV, 
 
 556 
 
 177 
 
 38-88 
 29-41 
 
 j i 
 3-6119 
 2-7320 
 
 Square step, French Antilles, 12^ square feet . 
 
 * / / 
 
 Q'557 
 
 13-92 
 
 1-293 
 
 This is also a square fathom. 
 
9 8 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 SQUARE FATHOMS. 
 
 Lachters, klafters, toises, sasheens, estados. 
 
 GENERAL VALUES. 
 
 -glg 
 
 111 
 
 rS E' 3 
 
 M^.E 
 
 11| 
 
 
 W o cr 
 OW 
 
 p&g 
 
 *"&* 
 
 
 Sq. yards Sq. feet 'Met. car. 
 
 English square fathom = 36 square feet, rarely 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 35-979 3-3425 
 
 Value oi the same at 32 .... 
 
 4-0023 
 
 36 3-3444 
 
 Danish and Norwegian square favn = 36 square 
 
 
 
 
 feet 
 
 4-2437 
 
 38-172 3-5461 
 
 Swedish square famn = 36 square feet 
 
 3-7968 
 
 34-152 1 3-1727 
 
 Prussian square klafter = 36 square feet 
 
 4-2437 
 
 38-172 3-5461 
 
 ,, square berglachter = 44! square feet . 
 
 5-2390 
 
 47-134 4-3778 
 
 Austrian square klafter =36 square feet . 
 
 4-3042 
 
 38-715 
 
 3-5967 
 
 Russian square sasheen = 49 square feet . 
 
 5 '4444 
 
 48-972 
 
 4-5495 
 
 Spanish square estado = 36 square feet 
 
 3-3375 
 
 30-021 
 
 2-7889 
 
 Malacca and Sumatra square depah= 16 square 
 
 
 
 
 cubits . 
 
 4 35-979 3-3425 
 
 FORMER, LOCAL, OR SPECIAL VALUES 
 
 GERMANY : 
 
 
 Bavaria, square klafter = 36 square feet . 
 
 3-6698 33-009 3-0665 
 
 Bremen, geviert klafter = 36 square feet . 
 
 3-6031 32-410 13-0109 
 
 Darmstadt, square werkklafter= 100 square feet 
 
 7-4795 
 
 67-277 6-2500 
 
 Frankfurt, square klafter = 35 square feet . 
 
 3-4899 
 
 31-391 2-9162 
 
 Hamburg, square klafter = 36 square feet . 
 Hanover, square klafter = 36 square feet . 
 
 3-5360! 31-806 2-9548 
 3-6732 33-040 3-0694 
 
 Lothringen, toise carree = 36 square feet . 
 
 3-5223 
 
 31-682 2-9433 
 
 Saxony, Dresden, square klafter == 36 square feet 
 Saxony, Leipzig, square klafter = 36 square feet 
 
 3-4530 31-059 2-8854 
 3-4420 30-960 2-8762 
 
 Saxony, Leipzig, square lachter = 49 square feet 
 Weimar, geviert klafter = 36 square feet . 
 
 4-6850 42-141 3-9149 
 3-4256;30-813 2-8625 
 
 Wurtemberg, geviert klafter = 36 square feet 
 
 3-536o 
 
 31-806 2-9548 
 
 SWITZERLAND : 
 
 
 
 
 Metric square toise = loo square feet 
 
 10-7704 96-879 9 
 
 Berne, square klafter = 64 square feet 
 
 6-5864 59-243 : 5 -5037 
 
 Freiberg, square werkklafter= 100 square feet . 
 
 10-2919 92-574 8-6001 
 
 Gentva, square toise = 64 square feet 
 
 8-0818 72-695 6-7533 
 
MEASURES OF SURFACE. 
 
 99 
 
 SQUARE FATHOMS continued. 
 SWITZERLAND : 
 
 Lausanne, square toise = 100 square feet . 
 Neufchatel, square toise = 100 square feet. 
 Neufchatel, square toise for hay = 36 square feet 
 Zurich, square klafter = 36 square feet 
 
 FRANCE : 
 
 Toise carree ancienne = 36 square feet 
 Toise carree metrique = 36 square feet 
 
 RUSSIA : 
 : faden = 36 square feet 
 
 Pernau square laden = 36 square feet 
 Polish square sazen = 36 square stopa 
 Revel, square faden = 36 square f< et 
 Riga, square faden = 36 square feet . 
 
 ITALY : 
 
 Turin, square tesa = 25 square feet (p. manuale) 
 
 Savoy, square tesa = 64 square feet (Chamberi). 
 
 Bergamo "| 
 
 Brescia 
 
 Cremona 
 
 Milan 
 
 Modena Italian e cayezzi of j u 
 
 pLtr^ 1 ^^ 36 square feet 
 
 Reggio 
 
 Trevisa 
 
 Venice 
 
 Verona 
 
 M-mtua, square cavezzo = 36 square bracci 
 
 Tuscany, square cavezzo = 36 square bracci 
 
 Sardinia, square trabucco= 144 square palmi 
 
 Piedmont, square trabucco = 36 square feet 
 
 :d t> ~a 
 
 ||| 
 
 ||| 
 
 c E -- 
 
 
 E.S.5 
 
 c3w 
 
 HC ^W 
 
 ^^W 
 
 Sq. yards 
 
 Sq. feet 
 
 Met. car. 
 
 10-7704 
 
 96-879 
 
 9 
 
 10-2919 
 
 92-574 
 
 8 6001 
 
 37051 
 
 33-327 
 
 3-0961 
 
 
 34-876 
 
 3-2400 
 
 4-5460 
 
 40-891 
 
 3-7988 
 
 47869 
 
 43-057 
 
 4 
 
 3-^383 
 
 29-146 
 
 2-7060 
 
 3-5734 
 
 32-142 
 
 2-9860 
 
 3-0483 
 
 27-419 
 
 2-5472 
 
 3-2383 
 
 29-146 
 
 2-7060 
 
 3-5IOO 
 
 31-572 
 
 2-9330 
 
 8-8225 
 
 79-358 
 
 73732 
 
 r 8-257 
 
 74-28 
 
 6-900 
 
 
 85-97 
 
 7-986 
 
 10-071 
 
 90-59 
 
 8-416 
 
 8-160 
 
 73-40 
 
 6-818 
 
 11-786 
 
 106-01 
 
 9*849 
 
 5-503 
 
 49-50 
 
 4-598 
 
 9-5I3 
 
 85-56 
 
 7*949 
 
 12-143 
 
 09-33 
 
 10-147 
 
 7-175 
 
 64-54 
 
 
 5-I99 
 
 46-77 
 
 4345 
 
 
 45-57 
 
 4-232 
 
 77-858 
 
 150-62 
 
 14-922 
 
 14-673 
 
 131-99 
 
 12-261 
 
 11-875 
 
 106-81 
 
 9-923 
 
 11-372 
 
 102-29 
 
 9-502 
 
 K2 
 
1OO 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 SQUARE RODS. 1 
 
 GENERAL UNITS. 
 
 England and America, square rod of 100 square 
 
 feet ; at 62 normal temp. .... 
 The same at the temperature of 32 . 
 Square rod of Denmark and Norway = I oo 
 
 square feet ....... 
 
 Square stong of Sweden = 100 square fot 
 Square rod of Prussia =144 square feet=ioo 
 
 geometric square feet ..... 
 Square rod of Austro-Hungary = 100 square 
 
 feet ; (superseded by the square klafter) 
 Square estadal of Spain = 144 square feet . 
 Square gasab of Arabia = 144 square feet . 
 Square dha of Burmah = 49 square royal cubits . 
 
 Square jumba of Malacca "1 , 
 
 e > = 64 square cubits . 
 
 Square tung of Sumatra J 
 
 Square chang of China = 100 square feet (B. 
 
 Works) 
 
 Square jaktan of Guinea ..... 
 
 all 
 
 111 
 w al 
 
 Sq. yards 
 
 1|| 
 Sq. rods 
 
 II-III 
 II-II7 
 
 0-9994 
 
 1 
 
 II786 
 10-547 
 
 1-0603 
 0-9487 
 
 16-975 
 
 1-5269 
 
 II-956 
 
 I3-35 
 17-646 
 I8-209 
 
 1-0754 
 1-2008 
 1-5873 
 1-6460 
 
 l6-OOO 
 
 1-4392 
 
 12-471 
 I6-OI4 
 
 1-1217 
 
 1-4404 
 
 .as 
 
 LOCAL, FORMER, OR SPECIAL UNITS 
 
 GERMANY : 
 
 Prussian square rod= 144 square feet 
 Anspach = 144 ,, 
 
 Baden ,, = 100 ,, 
 
 Bavaria ,, = 100 ,, 
 
 Elsass =100 
 
 Hesse-Darmstadt, square rod= 100 sq 
 Holstein, square rod= 100 square feet 
 Lothringen ,, = 100 ,, 
 Niirnberg ,, =144 ,, 
 
 Wiirtemberg ,, = 100 ,, 
 
 1 For units greater than Jouble paces or double fathoms see Poles and Square Poles. 
 
 . 
 
 16-975 
 
 1-5269 
 
 . 
 
 I5-489 
 
 1-3932 
 
 t 
 
 10-770 
 
 0-9688 
 
 
 10-194 
 
 0-9169 
 
 . 
 
 10-009 
 
 0-9003 
 
 e feet 
 
 7-479 
 
 0-6728 
 
 , 
 
 11-788 
 
 1-0603 
 
 
 9-783 
 
 0-8799 
 
 , 
 
 15-912 
 
 1-3222 
 
 
 9-822 
 
 0-8835 
 
CII. III. 
 
 MEASURES OF SURF AC E. 
 
 rot 
 
 
 sis 
 
 ||| 
 
 gjsl 
 
 SQUARE "RODS continued. 
 
 Jz <u"d 
 M g > 
 
 . e 'a 
 
 c c 13 
 ".- 
 
 
 wl'g. 
 
 
 fc^J g, 
 
 SWITZERLAND : 
 
 ow 
 
 Sq. yards 
 
 Sq. rods 
 
 W 
 Met. car. 
 
 Berne and Freiberg, square rod= 100 sq. ft. 
 
 10-514 
 
 0-9457 
 
 8-6000 
 
 Basel, square rod = i oo square feet . 
 
 1 1 097 
 
 0-9981 
 
 9-2743 
 
 Geneva ,, 64 Parisian square feet 
 
 8-082 
 
 0-7269 
 
 67533 
 
 Waadt, Valais, square rod= 100 square feet 
 
 10-770 
 
 0-9688 
 
 9-OOOO 
 
 Zurich, square rod= 100 square feet. 
 
 IO-772 
 
 0-9689 
 
 9-OOI5 
 
 BELGIUM : 
 
 
 
 
 Square rod= 100 square feet (Brussels) 
 
 9-099 
 
 0-8185 
 
 7-6038 
 
 AUSTRIA : 
 
 
 
 
 Cracow, sq. pretow= IOO square stopa 
 
 I5-2OI 
 
 1-3673 
 
 I2-7O2I 
 
 Tyrolese square rod = 100 square feet 
 
 J3-358 
 
 1-2016 
 
 11-1630 
 
 ITALY : 
 
 
 
 
 (Former Tavole.) 
 
 
 
 
 Bergamo, tavola = 4 square cavezzi = 144 sq. ft. 
 
 33-03I 
 
 2-9710 
 
 27-6003 
 
 Cremona, tavola = 4 square cavezzi = 144 sq. ft. 
 
 40-286 
 
 3-6236 
 
 33-6632 
 
 Milan, tavola = 4 square cavezzi = 144 sq. ft. 
 
 32-639 
 
 2-8358 
 
 
 Modena, tavola = 4 square cavezzi = 144 sq. ft. . 
 
 
 4-6237 
 
 393954 
 
 Piacenza, tavola = 4 square cavezzi = 144 sq. ft. 
 
 38-177 
 
 3-4339 
 
 31-7946 
 
 Piedmont, tavola = 4 square trabucchi = 144 sq. 
 
 
 
 
 feet, also termed a square pertica . 
 
 45-488 
 
 4-0915 
 
 38-0095 
 
 (Square Pertiche.) 
 
 
 
 
 Ancona square pertica = 100 square feet . 
 
 20-075 
 
 1-8057 
 
 16-7748 
 
 Bologna ,, ,, 
 
 17-290 
 
 1-5552 
 
 14-4476 
 
 Ferrara ,, ,, .. 
 
 19-518 
 
 1-7556 
 
 16-3098 
 
 Naples = 56^ square palmi 
 
 4-622 
 
 0-4153 
 
 3-8617 
 
 Parma = 36 square bracci . 
 
 12*664 
 
 1-1390 
 
 10-5814 
 
 Tuscany =25 square bracci . 
 
 IOT90 
 
 0-9165 
 
 8-5I47 
 
 Venice, square pertica or tavola = 36 sq. ft. 
 
 5-I99 
 
 0-4677 
 
 4-3447 
 
 Verona, square pertica or tavola = 36 sq. ft. 
 
 5-069 
 
 0-4557 
 
 4-233I 
 
 Some Italian square pertiche consist of 24 tavole or 96 square cavezzi. 
 For these see Square Chains. 
 
102 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 SQUARE POLES. 
 
 GENERAL VALUES. 
 
 Sq. yards Sq. rods 
 
 English square pole = 30^ square yards or 272^ 
 
 square feet 30-250 2721 
 
 Square roede of Sweden = 64 square ahn or 256 
 
 square feet ....... 27-0^ 2'429 
 
 Are of the metric system of France; metric 
 
 tavola of Italy ; vierkante nederlandsche roede 
 
 of Holland and Belgium = 100 metres carres . 1 19-672 10'764 100 
 Greece, Patras stremo = 25 square paces = 625 
 
 square feet 78-923 7'099 
 
 LOCAL, FORMER, OR SPECIAL VALUES. 
 GERMANY : 
 
 Bremen, square ruthe = 64 square ells 
 Brunswick ,, ,, . 
 
 Coin ,, 256 square feet 
 
 Erfurt ,, =196 ,, 
 
 Gotha, square feldruthe= 196 square feet . 
 
 ,, ,, waldruthe = 256 ,, 
 
 Halle, square ruthe = 225 square feet 
 Hamburg, square marschruthe = 49 square ells . 
 
 ,, ,, geestruthe = 64 square ells 
 
 Hanover, square ruthe = 64 square ells 
 Hesse, Electoral, square ruthe= 196 square feet 
 Lippe-Detmold, square ruthe = 256 square feet . 
 Mecklenberg, square ruthe = 256 square feet 
 Nurnberg, square ruthe = 256 square feet . 
 Oldenberg, juck = 324 square feet . 
 Saxe-Weimar, square ruthe = 256 square feet . 
 Saxony, Dresden, square ruthe = 256 square feet 
 ,, Leipzig, square ruthe = 256 square feet 
 Silesia (Prussian), sq. ruthe = 225 square feet . 
 
 SWITZERLAND : 
 
 Neufchatel, common sq. perche = 245 sc l- f eet 
 ,, for vineyards = 256 square feet 
 
 25-622 
 
 2-305 
 
 24-828 
 
 2-244 
 
 25-341 
 
 2-305 
 
 18-800 
 
 1-691 
 
 19-404 
 
 1-745 
 
 25-343 
 
 2-280 
 
 22-432 
 
 2-018 
 
 19-252 
 
 1-732 
 
 25-146 
 
 2-262 
 
 26-120 
 
 2-349 
 
 19-021 
 
 1-711 
 
 25-679 
 
 2-310 
 
 25-943 
 
 2-334 
 
 28-287 
 
 2-544 
 
 34-067 
 
 3-064 
 
 24-748 
 
 2-226 
 
 24-555 
 
 2-209 
 
 24-476 
 
 2-202 
 
 22-327 
 
 2-008 
 
 25-261 
 
 2-272 
 
 26-348 
 
 2-370 
 
CII. III. 
 
 MEASURES OF SURFACE. 
 
 103 
 
 SQUARE POLES continued. 
 
 fl 
 
 li "Zi ctf 
 
 a -g 
 
 11! 
 
 FRANCE : 
 
 Perche car. = 25 toises car. (mes. usuelles) 
 ,, de Paris = 324 square feet 
 , , commune = 400 square feet . 
 , , des eaux et forets = 484 sq. feet 
 
 Sq. yards 
 119-672 
 40-9I5 
 50-5I3 
 
 Sq. rods 
 
 10-764 
 3-680 
 4-543 
 5-498 
 
 Met. car. 
 100 
 34-1887 
 42-2083 
 51-0720 
 
 HOLLAND AND BELGIUM : 
 
 
 
 
 Amsterdam, vierkante roede= 169 square feet. 
 Brussels, vierkante roede = 266| square feet . 
 ,, ,, verge = 400 square feet 
 
 16-210 
 
 24-276 
 
 1-458 
 2-184 
 3-274 
 
 I3-5452 
 20*2853 
 30-4152 
 
 AUSTRIA : 
 
 
 
 
 Silesian square ruthe = 225 square feet . 
 
 22-550 
 
 2-028 
 
 18-8442 
 
 RUSSIA : 
 
 
 
 
 Warsaw, sq. pretow = 225 square stopa . 
 
 22-333 
 
 2-OQ9 
 
 18-6624 
 
 INDIA : 
 
 
 
 
 Bengal, kattah = 80 square gaz = 16 chittack = 
 320 square hath ..... 
 Madras, kuli = 64 square gaz .... 
 Malabar, square kuli = 5 76 square ady . 
 Trichinopalli, square kolu .... 
 Indian revenue gunta = 4 square poles . 
 
 So 
 
 6 86 
 4978o 
 
 121 
 
 7-1959 
 5-7567 
 4-3765 
 4-4775 
 10-8840 
 
 66-8492 
 
 40-6572 
 
 4I-5975 
 IOI-IIOO 
 
 ANAM : 
 
 
 
 
 Square sao = 9 square ngu * 225 square cubits 
 
 6 4 
 
 5-7567 
 
 53-4* 
 
 CHINA : 
 
 The fan of surface measure is the tenth of the 
 mao, and = 24 square pu (paces) or kung = 
 600 square chih. (For values reduce from 
 the mao, or square chih. ) 
 Board of Works value of fan .... 
 
 
 6-7302 
 
 62-5236 
 
 JAPAN : 
 
 II9-082 
 
 10-7112 
 
 99-5067 
 
104 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 SQUARE CHAINS AND ANALOGOUS UNITS. 
 
 GENERAL VALUES. 
 
 England, the rood = 40 sq. poles= 1210 sq. yds. 
 Scientific value of the rood at 32 Fahr. . 
 The Ramsden square chain of 10000 square feet 
 
 = 100 square rods ..... 
 Its scientific value at 32 Fahr., the unit of the 
 
 English decimal system .... 
 The Gunter's square chain of 484 square yards, 
 
 or 1 6 square poles ..... 
 Sweden, square ref= 100 square stanger= 10000 
 
 square fot ....... 
 
 Germany, square chain = 10000 square Rhein'uss 
 Danzig, square seil = 22500 square feet 
 Konigsberg, square schnur = 22500 square ft. . 
 France, Holland, Belgium, and Italy, square 
 
 chain = 400 metres carres .... 
 Bohemia, square waldseil = 1 764 square ells 
 
 ,, sq. weinbergseil = 4096 square ells . 
 Poland, square snurow = 22500 square feet 
 Tyrol, starland^ 10000 square feet . 
 Spain, celemin = 768 varas cuad. 
 Valencia, sq. cuerda= 1 600 sq. varas 
 Naples, square catena = 64 square passi 
 
 ,, also sq. catena= 100 square passi 
 Rome, square catena 1 = 100 square stajoli. 
 Bergamo, square pertica 2 = 96 cavezzi quad. 
 Cremona ,, ,, ,, 
 
 Milan ,, ,, ,, 
 
 Piacenza ,, ,, ,, 
 
 Greece, Ionian Islands, misura = 3 zappade = 
 
 i oooo square feet = 400 square paces 
 Arabia, square chain = 100 square gassab . 
 India, sq. tenab = 2500 sq. gaz (yards) 
 
 ,, square jarib = 36oo square gaz illahi, of 
 
 the North-West Provinces .... 
 Thai (Siam), sq. sen = 4OOsq. wa (fathoms) 
 China, square yu=ioo square chang =10000 
 
 square chih ....... 
 
 Japan, ittau= 10 ijje ..... 
 
 This small unit is termed a chain, though corresponding in value to a large pole. 
 1 These are very exceptional pertiche. 
 
 ill 
 
 as! 
 
 HI 
 
 f> jj 
 
 wf S 
 
 y y QH 
 
 uw 
 
 w 
 
 Roods 
 
 Sq. ch. 
 
 I 
 
 1-0884 
 
 1-0006 
 
 1-0890 
 
 0-9183 
 
 0-9994 
 
 0-9188 
 
 1 
 
 0-4000 
 
 0-4354 
 
 0-8716 
 
 0-9487 
 
 0-9742 
 
 1-0603 
 
 I-83I5 
 
 1-9934 
 
 2-1069 
 
 2-2930 
 
 03956 
 
 0-4306 
 
 0-6155 
 
 0-6699 
 
 I -4292 
 
 1-5555 
 
 1-8458 
 
 2-0088 
 
 1-1041 
 
 1-2017 
 
 0-5296 
 
 0-5764 
 
 I-3696 
 
 1-4906 
 
 0-2444 
 
 0-2661 
 
 0-3825 
 
 0-4157 
 
 0-1633 
 
 0-1777 
 
 0-6551 
 
 0-7130 
 
 0-7991 
 
 0-8697 
 
 0-6474 
 
 0-7046 
 
 07547 
 
 0-8214 
 
 1-1936 
 
 1-2991 
 
 1-4581 
 
 1-5873 
 
 2 'O66 1 
 
 2-2487 
 
 2'5 
 
 2-7210 
 
 1-6325 
 
 1-7768 
 
 1-0^41 
 
 1-1217 
 
 0-9841 
 
 1-0711 
 
OH. III. 
 
 MEASURES OF SURFACE. 
 
 LAND MEASURES, ACRES, 
 
 GENERAL VALUES. 
 
 England, America, and parts of India: acre = 4 
 
 roods = 1 60 square poles = 4840 square yards . 
 The scientific value of the same at 32 Fahr. 
 Sweden: tunnland = 2i8f square poles = 56000 
 
 square feet = 2 spannland = 8 fjerdingar . 
 Denmark : toendehartkorn = 2240 square rods = 
 
 2 toende-soedeland 224000 square feet 
 Prussia : morgen= 180 sq. rds. =25920 sq. ft. . 
 France, Holland, Belgium, and Italy : hectare 
 
 = 100 ares = 10000 met. carres ;. ettaro or tor- 
 
 natura=ioo tavole ; nederlandsche bunder = 
 
 100 vierkante roeden ..... 
 Austro- Hungarian Empire: joch or jochart = 3 
 
 metzen = 576 square rods= 1600 square klafter 
 
 = 57600 square feet . 
 Russia : dessatina = 2400 square sasheen = 
 
 117600 square feet . 
 Spain : fanegada = 12 celemin = 576 estadales 
 
 cuad. =9216 varas cuad. . 
 Portugal : geira = 4840 varas cu ad. . 
 Greece : Ionian I., moggie = 24 zappade = 32oo 
 
 square paces = 8 misure = 80000 square feet . 
 Arabian feddan = 400 square rods = 57600 sq. ft. 
 
 (also used in Turkey and Egypt) . 
 Malacca and Anam : sq. orlong or mao = 400 sq. 
 
 Jamba = 1600 sq. depa (fathoms) = 100 sq. sao 
 China : king ' = 10 mao = 6 square yu (B. of W.) 
 
 Common king = 10 mao . 
 
 Shanghai king= 10 mao .... 
 
 Macao king = 10 mao . 
 
 Canton king= 10 mao ..... 
 
 Japan ichchu = 10 ittau = 100 ijje . 
 
 sll 
 
 T3> g > 
 
 w|! 
 
 CJW 
 Acres 
 
 I -OOO6 
 
 a* 13 
 
 Sq. ch. 
 
 4-3535 
 4-3560 
 
 1-2203 5-3125 
 
 S'455723-7513 
 0-6313 2-7484 
 
 2-4726 
 
 i -4229 
 
 10-7643 
 
 6-1945 
 
 2-6997 11-7532 
 
 1-5888 6-9167 
 1-4480 6-3040 
 
 2-3919 10-4130 
 
 i -4584 
 
 i -3223 
 I-55I2 
 
 i -6495 
 i -6666 
 2-0981 
 2-0631 
 2-4604 
 
 6-3490 
 
 5-7567 
 6-7302 
 7-1810 
 7-2560 
 9-1341 
 8-9817 
 10-7112 
 
 FORMER, LOCAL, OR SPECIAL VALUES. 
 
 GERMANY : 
 
 Prussian morgen = 180 sq. rods 
 
 Anspach ,, =400 ,, 
 
 Baden ,, =400 ,, 
 
 Bavaria, tagwerk =400 ,, 
 
 Local 
 
 sq. ft. 
 
 259201 0-6313 
 51840 I-I52I 
 40000| 0-8901 
 4OOOO! 0-8425 
 
 2-7484 
 5-0155 
 3-8751 
 3-6677 
 
 1 The king is also considered ten times these values, or=ioo mao. 
 
io6 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 
 
 i|| 
 
 .HlJ 
 
 ^g 
 
 ACRES continued. 
 
 
 
 '"tJM 
 
 ill 
 
 
 
 W S'3 
 
 y o ^ 
 
 ^ '^ rT< 
 
 GERMANY : 
 
 Local 
 
 <JW 
 
 ^W 
 
 ^W 
 
 
 sq. ft. 
 
 Acres 
 
 Sq. Ch. 
 
 Hectares 
 
 Bremen, morgen = 120 sq. poles . 
 
 30720 
 
 0-6353 
 
 2-7656 0-2569 
 
 Brunswick ,, =120 ,, 
 
 30720 
 
 0-6l85 
 
 2-6928 
 
 0-2502 
 
 Coin ,, =150 ,, 
 
 38400 0-7853 
 
 3-4190 
 
 0-3176 
 
 Danzig ,, =300 
 
 67500 
 
 I-3736 
 
 5-9802 
 
 0-5556 
 
 Elsass, arpent = 240 sq. rods . 
 
 240CO 
 
 0-4963 
 
 2-1536 
 
 O-2OO7 
 
 Erfurt, acker = 168 sq. poles . 
 
 32928 
 
 0-6526 
 
 2-8409 
 
 0-2639 
 
 Gotha, feldacker =140 ,, 
 
 27440 
 
 0-5613 
 
 2-4434 
 
 O-227O 
 
 ,, waldacker = 1 60 ., 
 
 40960 
 
 0-8378 
 
 3-6474 
 
 0-3388 
 
 Hamburg, morgen = 600 , , 
 
 117600 
 
 2-3866 
 
 10-3899 
 
 0-9652 
 
 Hanover ,, =120 ,, 
 
 30720 
 
 0-6476 
 
 2-8194 
 
 0-2619 
 
 Hesse-Darmstadt, morgen = 400 sq. rods 
 
 40000 
 
 0-6181 
 
 2-6911 
 
 0-2500 
 
 Holstein, toende 
 
 225280 
 
 5-4868 
 
 23-8871 
 
 2-2I9E 
 
 Kurhesse, acker =i5osq. poles . 
 
 29400 
 
 0-5901 
 
 2-5689 
 
 0-2387 
 
 LippeDetmold, morgen = 120 ,, 
 
 30720 
 
 0-6367 
 
 2-7717 
 
 0-2575 
 
 Lothringen, arpent = 250 sq. rods . 
 
 25000 
 
 0-5054 
 
 2-2001 
 
 0-2044 
 
 Mecklenberg, acker = 100 sq. poles . 
 
 25600 
 
 0-5360 
 
 2-3336 
 
 0-2168 
 
 Nassau, morgen = 100 sq. rods . 
 
 1 0000 
 
 0-6181 
 
 2-6911 
 
 0-2500 
 
 Nuremberg, acker = 160 ,, 
 
 23040 
 
 0-5260 
 
 2-2899 
 
 O-2I27 
 
 ,, morgen =2OOsq. poles . 
 
 51200 
 
 1-1689 
 
 5-0887 
 
 0-4727 
 
 Pomerania, ,, =300 ,, 
 
 76800 
 
 i -6205 
 
 7-0545 
 
 0-6554 
 
 Saxony, Leipzig, acker = 300 ,, , 
 
 76800 
 
 1-5171 
 
 6-6048 
 
 0-6136 
 
 Wurtemberg, morgen = 384 sq. rods . 
 
 38400 
 
 0-7793 
 
 3-3926 
 
 0-3152 
 
 SWITZERLAND : 
 
 
 
 
 
 Basel, juchart = 360 sq. rods . 
 
 36000 
 
 0-8255 
 
 3-5939 
 
 0-3339 
 
 Berne, acker =400 ,, 
 
 40000 
 
 0-8506 
 
 3-7029 
 
 0-3440 
 
 Freiberg, juchart =500 ,, 
 Lucerne ,, (large) 
 
 50000 
 
 45000 
 
 i -0632 
 0-8989 
 
 4-6287 
 3-9134 
 
 0-4300 
 0-3636 
 
 (small) 
 
 31250 
 
 0-6242 
 
 2-7176 
 
 0-2525 
 
 Waadt ,, =500 ,, 
 
 50000 
 
 1-1126 
 
 4-8439 
 
 0-4500 
 
 Zurich ,, =400 ,, 
 
 40000 
 
 0-8903 
 
 3-8758 
 
 3-3601 
 
 Geneva, pose =4OOsq. tois.s 
 
 25600 
 
 0-6679 
 
 2-9078 
 
 0-270I 
 
 FRANCE : 
 
 
 
 
 
 Arpent de Paris = 100 sq. poles . 
 
 32400 
 
 0-8453 
 
 3-6802 
 
 0-34I9 
 
 ,, commun = 100 ,, 
 
 40000 
 
 i -0436 
 
 4-5434 
 
 0-422I 
 
 ,, d'ordonnance = 100 ,, 
 
 48400 I -2628 
 
 5-4976 
 
 0-5I07 
 
 The old French units were excessively 
 
 numerous. 
 
 
 
 HOLLAND AND BELGIUM :- 
 
 
 
 
 Amsterdam, juchart = 300 sq. poles 
 
 . I -0047 
 
 4-3741 
 
 0-4064 
 
 , , morgen = 600 , , 
 
 . 2-0095 
 
 8-7483 
 
 O-8I27 
 
 Brussels, dagwand--= i oo ,, 
 
 . 0-5016 
 
 2-1836 
 
 0-2029 
 
 ,, bunder = 400 ,, 
 
 . 2-0063 8-7343 0-8114 
 
 The old units varied excessively in value. 
 
CH. III. 
 
 Austrian 
 
 MEASURES OF SURFACE. 
 
 107 
 
 ACRES continued. 
 
 
 111 
 
 l|| 
 
 111 
 
 AUSTRO-HUNGARY : 
 
 
 CJH 
 
 wjj 
 
 **jf 
 
 
 
 Acres 
 
 Sq. ch. 
 
 Hectares 
 
 Austrian jnch = 3 metzen = 576 square rods 1600 
 
 
 
 square klafter = 57600 square feet . 
 
 
 I -4229 
 
 6-1945 0-5755 
 
 Tyrolese jauchart = 1000 square klafter = 
 
 36000 
 
 
 
 
 square feet of Vienna . 
 
 
 0-8899 
 
 3-8745 
 
 0-3599 
 
 Botzen, tagmatt = 4 starland = 5 grabe 
 
 = 400 
 
 
 
 
 square rods = 40000 square feet 
 
 
 I-I04I 
 
 4-8066 
 
 0-4465 
 
 Polish morgow = 300 square pretow = 
 
 67500 
 
 
 
 
 square feet = 3 square snurow 
 
 
 
 I-3843 
 
 6-0266 
 
 0-5599 
 
 SPAIN : 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ordinary fanegada = 92 1 6 square varas 
 Small fanegada = 8000 square varas . 
 
 
 I-5888 
 I -3792 
 
 6-9167 
 6-0041 
 
 0-6426 
 0-5578 
 
 Aranzada = 6400 square varas 
 
 
 I-I033 
 
 4-8033 
 
 0-4462 
 
 Valencian cahizada = 6 Valencian fanegad 
 
 is 
 
 I -0272 
 
 4-4717 
 
 0-4I54 
 
 Valencian yugada = 6 cahizadas 
 
 
 6-1629 
 
 26-8304 
 
 2-4925 
 
 Canary I. , fanegada = 600 sq. brasadas 
 
 
 
 0-4935 
 
 2-1484 
 
 0-1996 
 
 ITALY : 
 
 Local 
 sq.ft. 
 
 
 
 
 Bologna, biolca =196 sq. rods 
 
 19600 
 
 0-7002 
 
 3-0481 
 
 0-2832 
 
 Ferrara ,, =400 ,, 
 
 4OOOO 
 
 1-6131 
 
 7-0225 
 
 0*6524 
 
 Modena ,, =72 tavole 
 
 10368 
 
 0-7013 
 
 3-0533 
 
 0-2837 
 
 Parma ,, = 72 ,, 
 
 10368 
 
 07535 
 
 3-2799 
 
 0-3047 
 
 Padua and Vicenza campo = 840 tavole 
 
 30240 
 
 
 4-1579 
 
 0-3863 
 
 Venice, campo = 640 tavole 
 
 20340 
 
 0-6875 
 
 2-9931 
 
 0-2781 
 
 ,, migliajo = 1000 sq. passi . 
 
 25000 
 
 0-7460 
 
 3-2478 
 
 0-3017 
 
 Verona, campo = 720 tavole 
 
 25920 
 
 0-7536 
 
 3-2808 
 
 0-3048 
 
 Piedmont, moggio = 96 , , 
 
 13824 
 
 0-8008 
 
 3-4861 
 
 0-3239 
 
 ,, giornata=ioo ,, 
 
 14400 
 
 0-9398 
 
 4-0915 
 
 0-3801 
 
 Lombardy, tornatura = 100 metric tavole . 
 
 
 2-4726 
 
 10-7643 
 
 I 
 
 Naples, moggio = 900 square passi . 
 
 
 0-8393 
 
 3-7411 
 
 0-3475 
 
 Rome, rubbio= 112 square catene . 
 
 
 4-5705 
 
 19-8977 
 
 1-8485 
 
 ,, quarto = 28 ,, . 
 
 
 i -1426 
 
 4-9744 0-4621 
 
 Sardinia, starello = 576 squaie rods . 
 
 
 0-9814 
 
 4-2724 0-3969 
 
 Tuscany, quadrato = 400 ,, ,, 
 
 
 0-8421 
 
 3-6662 0-3406 
 
 ,, saccata = 66o ,, ,, 
 
 
 
 I-3895 
 
 6-0492 
 
 0*5620 
 
 INDIA : Sq. yds. 
 
 
 
 
 Bengal, biggah = 20 kattah 
 Benares and Ghazipur, biggah 
 Northern India, biggah . 
 
 I6OO 
 3136 
 
 0-3306 
 0-6479 
 0-6250 
 
 1-4392 
 2-8208 
 2-7209 
 
 0-1337 
 0*2620 
 0-2528 
 
 Orissa, biggah 
 
 4840 
 
 i 
 
 4-3535 ; 0-4044 
 
 Tirhut ,, . 
 
 4225 
 
 0-8729 
 
 3-8003 0-3530 
 
 Madras, kani= 100 kuli . 
 
 6400 
 
 i -3223 
 
 5-7567 ' 0-5348 
 
 Bombay, biggah = 20 pund 
 
 3406 
 
 07037 
 
 3-0637 0-2846 
 
io8 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 LARGE LAND MEASURES, HIDES, 
 
 
 .1g M&i 
 
 Ssl 
 
 GENERAL VALUES. 
 
 ill 
 
 ill 
 
 CJW 
 
 ^n c & 
 
 Hc/2 0< 
 
 II 
 
 *<*! 
 
 
 Hides 
 
 Sq. cab. 
 
 Hectares 
 
 England : the (obsolete) hide= 100 acres . 
 
 I 
 
 or cent. 
 
 40-444 
 
 England : the century of the decimal scientific 
 
 
 
 
 system= I square cable = 100 square chains = 
 
 
 
 
 10000 square rods= loooooo square feet 
 
 0-2297 
 
 4 
 
 9-2900 
 
 Prussian haken = 20 morgen .... 
 
 0-1263 
 
 0-5497 
 
 5-I065 
 
 , , hufe = 30 , , 
 
 O-l8<jJ4 
 
 0-8245! 7-6597 
 
 ,, grosshufe = 66 morgen 
 
 0-4209 
 
 1-8322 17-0215 
 
 Pomeranian haken = 15 ,, ... 
 
 0-2431 
 
 1-0583J 9-8112 
 
 ,, landhufe = 3O ,, ... 
 
 0-4862 
 
 2-1165 
 
 I9'662^ 
 
 , , hseger hufe = 60 morgen 
 
 0-9723 
 
 4-2330 
 
 39-3246 
 
 Mecklenberg hufe = 400 acker .... 
 
 2-1441 
 
 9-3342 86-7145 
 
 Rostock hufe = 450 acker = 600 scheffeln . 
 
 2-4121 
 
 10-5010 97-5538 
 
 Spain : yugada= 50 fanegadas. 
 
 0-7944 
 
 3- 4584 1 32-1281 
 
 Polish : haken = 20 morgow .... 
 
 0-2769 
 
 1-2053 11-1974 
 
 ,, hufe or wloka = 30 morgow . 
 
 0-4I53 
 
 1-8080 16-7962 
 
 Bombay chahar= 1 20 biggah .... 
 
 0-7037 
 
 3-6764 34-1532 
 
 SQUARE MILES AND SQUARE LEAGUES. 
 
 England : square statute mile = 64 square fur- 
 
 Sq. miles Sq.leag. Fq. kilom. 
 
 
 j 
 
 0-2786 
 
 2^884 
 
 Former square London mile = 2500 square chains 
 
 
 
 o ^ 
 
 at 62 Fahr 
 
 0*8960 
 
 0-2499 
 
 2-3212 
 
 London square mile = 2500 square chains at 32 
 
 0-8973 
 
 0-25 
 
 2-3225 
 
 London square league of the decimal scientific 
 
 
 
 
 system = 100 centuries or square cables = 
 
 
 
 
 loooo square chains = 4 square London miles 
 
 3-589I 
 
 1 
 
 9-2900 
 
 France : kilometre carre=ioo hectares . 
 
 0-3863 0-1076 
 
 I 
 
 ,, mille itineraire car. = I million toises 
 
 
 
 
 i -4667 
 
 0-4089 
 
 3 -70X7 
 
 France : lieue de poste car. = 4 milles car. 
 
 A t\J\J 1 
 
 5-8704 
 
 1-6356 
 
 15-195 
 
 Germany : square postmeile (Danish) 
 
 2I-920I 
 
 6-1075 
 
 
 ,, square geographic meile (of 15 to i) 
 
 2I-2O69 
 
 5-9088 
 
 54-8923 
 
 Spain : legua cuad. (geogr. of 171 to i) . 
 
 15-5806 
 
 4-3411 
 
 40-3290 
 
 Portugal : legoa cuad. (geogr. of 1 8 to i) 
 
 14-7270 
 
 4-1033 
 
 38-1196 
 
 India : square kos = 4 million square yards 
 
 1-2913 0-3598 
 
 3-3425 
 
CH. IV, MEASURES OF SURFACE. 109 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 CUBIC MEASURES AND UNITS OF CUBICITY. 
 
 THE principal distinction between measures of capacity 
 and cubic measures, as regards their origin, consists in 
 the former having been deduced from measures of weight 
 and the latter from the cubes of linear measures in com- 
 mon use. In a perfect system of measures, the whole 
 fall into unison, and become corresponding in every re- 
 spect. 
 
 The attempt to carry out this principle to perfection 
 was made in the design and operations for laying down 
 the metric system. A litre, the basic unit of capacity, 
 was to be cubic decimetre ; and the measures of weight 
 were to be based on the weight of water contained in the 
 litre. Practically one kilogram, the ' kilogramme des 
 archives,' was actually made to equal as near as possible 
 the weight of a litre of water at 39 Fahrenheit, or 4 
 Centigrade ; but as the standard temperature for the 
 metric system was o Centigrade or 32 Fahrenheit, the 
 anomaly of the vessel being required at one temperature, 
 and the water at another, prevented its being done with 
 actual precision ; and hence computation had to be 
 depended on for making allowance to suit the case. 
 Since then, that kilogram, whether right or faulty, has 
 been enshrined, secluded strictly from public gaze, and 
 
no METRICAL UNITS PARTI. 
 
 not even weighed in water by scientific men in private 
 on account of some alleged deterioration that might 
 occur owing to a supposed presence of soluble arsenic in 
 the platinum ; hence its density is unknown. This can- 
 not be termed a very scientific basis for measures of 
 weight, though doubtless well suited to public venera- 
 tion ; yet the standard metric weights of Europe are 
 copies of an inexact copy of this kilogram. The ancient 
 Egyptians may have built pyramids as mural standards 
 of measure, the Romans may have laboriously adapted 
 the Greek and the Egyptian measures to practical pur- 
 poses and wants ; were the English to reconstruct their 
 metrical system they would scientifically weigh a 
 cubic yard, or at least a cubic foot of water, but the 
 French alone would make a single miserable cubic deci- 
 metre weight of such pretensions, borrow decimalisation 
 from the Chinese, and propagate the result by presents 
 of Sevres vases, large medals, and sentiments of mutual 
 admiration. 
 
 One kilogram, however, being thus made, the litre 
 has ever since not been a cubic decimetre, but a measure 
 of capacity containing such a kilogram-weight of dis- 
 tilled water at its maximum density. In other words 
 the French eventually fell back on the old system of 
 making their measures of capacity in accordance with 
 their measures of weight ; in the same way as in Eng- 
 land the gallon was made to contain ten pounds' weight 
 of distilled water. There would apparently have been 
 no necessity for this abandonment of intention, if the 
 temperature of 4 Centigrade had been adopted as the 
 standard for the system throughout. 
 
 The cubic measures of a system may hence be distinct 
 fiom the measures of capacity, both in origin and in 
 
CH. iv. CUBIC MEASURES. in 
 
 fact. This is more especially the case in England 
 where the measures of capacity are based on the legal 
 idea that a cubic foot of water weighs 62-321 pounds 
 of water at the temperature of 62 Fahrenheit a value 
 believed to be incorrect ; so that there are two causes 
 of departure affecting the two series as regards unison 
 and uniformity. 
 
 In England, therefore, we have a standard gallon and 
 a standard cubic foot based on linear measures that are 
 not in accordance ; and in order to compare the sets of 
 measures dependent on each of them with real accuracy, 
 we must assume some approximately correct weight of 
 a cubic foot of water either at 62 Fahrenheit, or at 39 
 Fahrenheit and at 32 Fahrenheit. 
 
 Taking the values as nearly as can be possibly 
 deduced from Miller's results (See { Philosophical 
 Transactions,' 1856), they are : 
 
 At 39 Fahrenheit . . 62-4245 Ibs. 
 
 62 - 62-3548 
 
 The legal enactment giving 62-321 
 
 There is, however, another legal definition of an 
 English gallon, namely, that it contains 277*274 cubic 
 inches ; while a cubic inch of water weighed in air was 
 also declared to weigh 252-458 grains at a temperature 
 of 62 Fahrenheit and a barometric pressure of 30 inches. 
 
 If this side of the matter be taken in preference to 
 the other, and the advantages of the law be made use of, 
 the bushel then becomes 2218*192 cubic inches ; and on 
 this basis the cubic measures and the measures of capa- 
 city may be compared in one system. Any error will 
 then be thrown into the weight, and into the whole of 
 
ii2 METRICAL UNITS. PART i. 
 
 the series of English commercial measures of weight ; 
 this will be treated in a succeeding chapter. 
 
 Having thus arrived by a legal subterfuge at a 
 single system of measures, formed by the coalition of the 
 capacity and the cubic measures, it may be first noticed 
 that the whole English series is comparatively small, 
 extending from the minim to the bushel in capacity, and 
 to the cubic yard in cubic measure ; everything beyond 
 this, such as a vat, a barrel, &c., being a calculated and a 
 numerical rather than an actual practical measure ; and 
 it may secondly be remarked that the capacity-measures 
 are mostly those of ordinary retail and trade and simple 
 commerce, while the cubic measures are mostly those of 
 technical business and work involving skilled or technical 
 labour. 
 
 In Germany, under their old system which ap- 
 peared to be intended to suit every special branch to the 
 utmost there were not only decimal feet and decimal 
 perches to suit the land-surveyor, and the cubic foot, 
 klafter, and rod to suit artisan's work ; there was also 
 the berglachter system of measures to suit mining 
 operations. The berglachter, or lachter of about a 
 fathom, was taken as the unit, and a complete system 
 based on it, both in Prussia and Saxony. There were 
 thus sometimes four systems co-existent, one based on 
 the foot for ordinary purposes, one on the ruthe and its 
 decimal submultiples through a special land-foot, a par- 
 tial system on the ell, and another on the common 
 klafter, and on the lachter. 
 
 The unity of the English cubic measures is in strik- 
 ing contrast to these, in a manner exactly corresponding 
 to the singleness of the English land-measures, con- 
 trasted with the multifarious old land-measures of France. 
 
CH. iv. CUBIC MEASURES. 113 
 
 CUBIC MEASURES. 
 
 Among all European nations that possess a linear foot 
 as a measure, the cubic foot forms a cubic measure. Its 
 decimal subdivision into thousandths, and its duodecimal 
 subdivision in 1728 cubic inches, are both convenient, 
 when used so as not to interfere with each other or cause 
 confusion ; and either one method or the other, or both, 
 appear to be adopted indifferently. 
 
 The independent ell, not forming any simple mul- 
 tiple of the foot, is seldom cubed ; and when the ell is a 
 simple multiple, the numerical advance in point of 
 measure is so small as not to render it very useful ; 
 hence it is only when the foot is unknown or little used 
 that the cubit, or ell, becomes sufficiently important to 
 be cubed and used in cubic measure. 
 
 The cubic yard, or cube of a double cubit, exists in 
 England and America, in Spain and Portugal, and in 
 India ; other nations being deficient in this useful 
 natural unit, with the sole exception of the Florentine 
 passetto, a double cubit now declared to be obsolete. 
 Its place is supplied by the metre of the French metric 
 system, and the cubic metre ; its decimal subdivision 
 has the advantage of convenience in numerical calcula- 
 tion in large numbers, but not so in small differences, as 
 cubic quantities increase very rapidly with the cubes ol 
 the corresponding linear dimensions ; the subdivision 
 into 27 cubic feet is certainly more convenient for this 
 latter reason ; and the cubic foot thus forms a fresh 
 point of departure. The absence of any cubic foot, or 
 measure corresponding to a cubic foot, is hence a 
 marked defect in a system, which is not compensated by 
 any measure near the cube of a tenth of a yard, or any 
 
 I 
 
H4 METRICAL UNITS. PARTI. 
 
 cubic decimetre. In fact, the entire absence of the cubic 
 yard itself would not be so serious, as its place might be 
 well supplied either by decimal multiples of the cubit 
 foot, or by submultiples of the cubic fathom. 
 
 The cubic fathom, klafter or lachter, toise, favn, braza 
 or estado, is necessarily most used by nations that do 
 not possess a cubic yard of any sort. The fathom, origin- 
 ally the embrace of the outstretched arms, or about the 
 height of a man, is a measure of about 6, or from 5 to 7 
 feet, and is usually an aliquot or multiple. The cubic 
 fathom hence is generally either 216 or 343 cubic feet in 
 a series of measures ; the exceptions being the large 
 cubic werkklafter, lachter, berglachter, and cubic toise of 
 Prussia, Darmstadt, and Switzerland, which are decimal 
 multiples of the cubic foot, or of some special cubic foot, 
 and are fixed at 1000 cubic feet. However convenient 
 these may be for purposes of numerical calculation, they 
 are not, strictly speaking, cubic fathoms, but fall in the 
 next higher class of measure cubic rods. 
 
 The cubic rod, or cube of the rod of land-measure, 
 is sometimes supplemented in German measures by 
 a special cubic rod adapted to artisans' work, masonry, 
 and building, and these, when real cubic rods of either 
 sort, are multiples of the cubic foot in one class or the 
 other. In England the real cubic rod is hardly ever 
 mentioned as such multiples of the cubic yard, or of 
 the cubic foot, being used instead ; but a nominal rod of 
 brickwork, a cubic measure formed on a square pole of 
 surface by a thickness of a brick and a half of such 
 bricks as are most commonly used, is still used ; it 
 is a mere term for about 306 cubic feet, or 1 1 J cubic 
 yards of brickwork in walling. Corresponding measures 
 of this type of parallclopipedon are, or were, used in 
 
CH. iv. CUBIC MEASURES. 115 
 
 Germany and France ; of these the following are 
 instances : 
 
 The Prussian schachtruthe is a square rod by a foot 
 of thickness, and is 144 cubic feet in masonry and 
 earthwork. 
 
 The Prussian feldsteinruthe is a term for 120 cubic 
 feet. 
 
 In Saxony the cubic rod for ashlar is 7^ ells long 
 x 8 broad x i^ high, or 90 cubic ells =720 cubic feet. 
 
 At Frankfurt-on-the-Main there are two cubic rods, 
 the ordinary one 12 feet long x 6 broad x 4 high 
 = 288 cubic feet; the mason's rod 12 feet long x 13 
 broad x 2 high = 312 cubic feet. 
 
 In Hesse there are two rods, the ordinary one of 12 
 feet long x 6 broad x 4 high = 288 cubic feet ; the 
 mason's rod is 144 cubic feet only. 
 
 In France there were, besides the real toise-cube of 
 216 cubic feet, the cubic measure known as the toise-toise- 
 pied of 36 cubic feet, and the toise-toise-pouce of 3 
 cubic feet. 
 
 It may be noticed that such contrived measures were 
 peculiar to countries that did not possess a cubic yard 
 measure, and served a useful purpose under such pur- 
 poses. In England there is no excuse for the retention 
 of the nominal rod of brickwork as a measure of n^ 
 cubic yards, as brickwork, being dependent on the chance- 
 size of a burnt brick, the uniformity of the bricks, the 
 size of the mortar joints and the shrinkage of the work, 
 does not demand a specially exact measure, and can be 
 estimated in cubic yards or cubic feet. Units of fuel- 
 measure, stacks and cords, are most frequently incon- 
 gruous ; their values range from the cubic yard to the 
 cubic fathom, mostly between 40 and 200 local cubic 
 
 I 2 
 
ii6 METRICAL UNITS. PARTI. 
 
 feet. Tons by bulk are from 40 to 60 cubic feet in 
 value. A few special loads, voies, carrate are also cubic 
 units. The English ton of 40 cubic feet is an excellent 
 unit for binary subdivision, and would serve well as a 
 basis for rearrangement of capacity-measures down to 
 the bushel or the cubic foot. 
 
 The extremes of cubic measure, hence, are the cubic 
 inch and the cubic rod ; and the arrangement of the 
 measures between these two extremes is diversely effected 
 in accordance with local habit, both in accordance with 
 the preferred linear units and the mode of subdivision 
 adopted. The natural subdivision based on the ordinary 
 values of linear measures is thus : 
 
 1728 cubic inches = I cubic foot ; 27 cubic feet = I cubic 
 yard ; 2 1 6 cubic feet or 8 cubic yards = I cubic fathom ; 
 
 and if we take the one typical value of the linear rod, 
 the double fathom, then 
 
 1728 cubic feet =64 cubic yards = 8 cubic fathoms 
 = I cubic double fathom ; 
 
 and there becomes a binary subdivision throughout 
 exactly corresponding to that of the cubic foot into 
 cubic inches ; this typical arrangement was adopted in 
 Prussia, in some parts of Germany, and in Spain, while 
 the corresponding principle was applied to some square 
 measures in Italy, the tavola being often a square of 12 
 feet or 144 feet. Such is the typical and natural binary 
 mode of subdividing cubic measures, which possesses 
 great advantages in continual halving. The other mode 
 of subdivision is decimal, any of these measures being 
 taken as a basis. Taking the other typical value of the 
 linear rod used by the Romans, Greeks, Arabs, and 
 
CH. iv. CUBIC MEASURES. 117 
 
 Egyptians, which is more natural, the double pace of 10 
 feet, then 
 
 i cubic rod =1000 cubic feet; and I cubic foot =1000 
 fluid ounces. 
 
 The cubic foot, being the most intermediate measure 
 is the most convenient for several reasons, as the thou- 
 sandth of a cubic foot is near if cubic inch (1728); 
 and a thousand cubic feet is a measure nearly 37 cubic 
 yards, being 37-037 cubic yards, or 4-64 cubic fathoms,. 
 Also with the English cubic foot, the thousandth part 
 has the additional advantage of very closely represent- 
 ing the quantity of water that weighs an ounce. 
 
 Decimalisation on the cubic yard, the cubic fathom, 
 and the cubic inch would have less practical convenience, 
 as the thousands and the thousandths or mils, which are 
 the important points in a system of cubic measures, do 
 not fall in useful positions. 
 
 The relations existing between the English cubic 
 units, inches and feet, that is both of the binary and of 
 the decimal scale, and the units of: capacity are shown 
 in small comparative tables, following on pages 119- 
 122 : these clearly demonstrate the superior advantage 
 of the foot and decimal-ounce units. While considering 
 the position of these various units of cubicity with 
 regard to each other, it becomes also imperative to notice 
 their position with regard to corresponding English units 
 of weight, and more especially in the lower part of the 
 scale, applied in the compounding of the druggist, and 
 in the smaller operations of the scientific chemist, 
 analyst, and experimentalist in natural science. 
 
 Small English Units. The thousandth part of a 
 cubic foot of water weighs nearly an ounce, and it 
 would be well if the ounce were very slightly adjusted 
 
Ii8 METRICAL UNITS. PART i. 
 
 to be exactly in correspondence ; also the fluid-ounce 
 is a legal measure of capacity, containing an ounce- 
 weight of water, a permanent binding connection 
 between the measures of weight and of capacity that is 
 convenient, like that of the cubic foot and the foot- 
 weight 
 
 The fluid-ounce is divided into 480 minims, and the 
 ounce-weight into 437*5 grains, and hence a minim is 
 not a grain-weight of water. Also the fluid-ounce is 
 divided into 8 fluid-drams, while the ounce-weight is 
 divided into dram-weights of two sorts, one the com- 
 mercial dram, which is the sixteenth of the ounce, or 
 27*344 grains, the other, the medical dram of 60 grains, 
 neither of which correspond to the weight of a fluid-dram 
 <of water ; thus the English small measures of capacity 
 below the fluid-ounce are at present neither convenient 
 in their relation to cubic measure, nor in connection with 
 measures of weight. 
 
 This anomalous arrangement will doubtless be even- 
 tually swept away and adjusted, not by lapse of time, 
 but by someone that possesses the courage, ability, and 
 influence necessary to have it done. Probably the best 
 plan would be the following : 
 
 1. To make the ounce and the fluid-ounce exactly 
 the loooth of the foot-weight and the cubic foot of pre- 
 sent English measures. 
 
 2. To subdivide both this ounce and- this fluid-ounce 
 into ten drams and fluid-drams, also into 400 grains and 
 fluid-grains respectively. 
 
 3. To abolish the whole of the old avoirdupois units, 
 and substitute for them the corresponding English units 
 which differ from them very slightly, only -^ per cent. 
 
 The attached small tables illustrate the connection 
 of the decimal submultiples of the cubic foot and of the 
 
CH. IV. 
 
 CUBIC MEASURES. 
 
 119 
 
 cubic inch with the existing series of small measures of 
 capacity and of weight 
 
 COMPARISON OF SMALL MEASURES OF CAPACITY WITH THOSE 
 OF CUBIC MEASURES AND OF WEIGHT. 
 
 By Subdivision of the Cubic Foot. 
 
 Cubic Measure 
 
 Capacity 
 
 Weight 
 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 
 
 Cub. ft. after 
 
 legal 
 
 
 
 adjustment 
 
 measure 
 
 Minims 
 
 Grains 
 
 *oo i cub. ft. 1 
 or 1000 mils j 
 
 1003 
 
 i fluid-oz. (480 m.) 
 
 {i ounce-weight 
 (437'5 g rs -) 
 
 137*2 mils 
 
 137-6 
 
 (65*826 minims) 
 
 i medical dram 
 
 
 
 
 (60 grs.) 
 
 125* mils 
 
 125*4 
 
 i fl.-dram (60 m.) 
 
 5 4 '6 9 grains drm. 
 
 62*5 mils 
 
 62*68 
 
 (30 minims) 
 
 i commercial drm. 
 
 2*286 mils 
 
 2*293 
 
 (1*0971 minims) 
 
 i grain 
 
 2*083 m ^ s 
 
 2*089 ' I minim 
 
 0*9115 grain 
 
 i mil 
 
 1*003 
 
 (0*48 m.) 
 
 '4375 grain 
 
 By Subdivision of the Cubic Inch. 
 
 Cubic Measure 
 
 Capacity 
 
 Weight 
 
 Cubic inches 
 
 Cubic inches 
 
 
 
 after ad- 
 
 legal 
 
 
 
 justment 
 
 measure 
 
 Minims 
 
 Grains 
 
 1*728 
 
 1*7329 
 
 i fluid-oz. (480 m.) 
 
 i ounce weight 
 
 
 
 
 (437 '5 g^) 
 
 
 I 
 
 0*577 fluid-oz. 
 
 0*577 oz. (252*4 
 
 
 
 (276*9 m.) 
 
 grs.) 
 
 0*2238 
 
 0*2377 
 
 (65-826 m.) 
 
 i medical dram 
 
 
 
 
 (60 grs.) 
 
 0*216 
 
 0*2166 
 
 i fl.-dram (60 m.) 
 
 (54*69 grs.) 
 
 0*103 
 
 0*1083 
 
 (30 m.) 
 
 i commrcl. dram 
 
 
 
 
 (27*34 grs.) 
 
 0*00373 
 
 0*00396 
 
 (1*0971 minim) 
 
 i grain 
 
 0*0034 
 
 0*00361 
 
 i minim 
 
 (0*9115 grs.) 
 
120 METRICAL UNITS. PART I. 
 
 From these it will be seen that these measures are 
 in ill-accordance with the cubic inch, both at present, and 
 even under the supposition that the ounce be adjusted so 
 as to be made exactly to the weight of loooth part of a 
 cubic foot of water ; but under this latter supposition the 
 fluid-dram is exactly 125 myriad ths of a cubic foot, and 
 the myriadth of a cubic foot is nearly half a minim, 0*48 
 minim a convenient relation that now holds good ap- 
 proximately. There is no such convenient relation be- 
 tween the cubic measures and the existing grain or its 
 decimal multiples : the advantage of correspondence 
 being solely in the cubic foot and the ounce. 
 
 Continental nations generally have no small measures 
 of capacity, such as minims and fluid-drams, as they 
 compound simply by weight in their old measures ; the 
 adoption of the metric system which has a cubic centi- 
 metre, about one-fourth of the English .fluid-dram, is 
 hence a considerable advantage to them in this respect. 
 
 Large English Units. 
 
 The accordance between the English cubic measures 
 and the large measures of capacity as well as with those 
 of weight is almost as unfortunate as in the case of the 
 very small measures ; in fact nowhere, excepting at the 
 fluid-ounce and ounce-weight, and at the cubic foot and 
 foot-weight, is there any identity of principle. 
 
 The legal capacity of the gallon is 277-274 cubic 
 inches, and the legal weight of a gallon of water is 10 
 pounds ; the gallon being the standard English unit of 
 capacity on which the whole of the rest of the capacity- 
 measures are based. These form an excellent binary 
 series from the bushel down to the quarter-gill, and are 
 
CH. iv. CUBIC MEASURES. 121 
 
 hence thoroughly adapted to commercial purposes ; but 
 from the basic unit, the gallon, being in ill-accordance 
 with the cubic measures, the whole series suffers in the 
 way already explained. 
 
 One approximation to adjustment which now exists, 
 and may hereafter be made perfect, is the connection 
 through the fluid-ounce and ounce-weight. 
 
 The gallon consists of 8 pints, the pint of 20 fluid- 
 ounces ; hence, as the gallon is 277*274 cubic inches, 
 the ounce is its i6oth part, or is 1*7329 cubic inches, 
 which is very nearly 1*728 cubic inches, or the loooth 
 of a cubic foot. Taking it at exactly that value, the 
 gallon would proportionately become 276*48 cubic inches, 
 or 0*160 cubic foot exactly; and the whole series of 
 measures of capacity would then be in accordance with 
 cubic-measure as a result of the small adjustment of 
 0*003 P er un fr> or t% tns P er cent - even ly throughout the 
 whole. 
 
 Although this is doubtless a matter of the future, and 
 not of the present, as regards the fact, it is yet now a 
 convenient mode of arriving through calculation from 
 cubic measure to capacity-measures and the converse, 
 which is in itself important, whether the adjustment 
 of the -^ths be made at an early date, in the dim future, 
 or never. 
 
 The legal equivalents of the English measures of 
 capacity, from the quarter to the pint, as well as the 
 weights of water they contain, are given in the attached 
 table. There are still higher measures, the wey or load 
 of 5 quarters, and the last of 10 quarters, which consti- 
 tute an unfortunate departure from a nearly perfect 
 binary system ; there are also subdivisions on the binary 
 scale, from the pint down to the quarter-gill of I \ fluid- 
 
122 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I, 
 
 ounces ; thus making in all 14 measures of a strictly 
 binary formation, which are perhaps unequalled any- 
 where as regards their commercial convenience, although 
 not yet scientifically adjusted to cubic measure. 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE LARGER MEASURES OF CAPACITY WITH 
 CUBIC MEASURE AND WEIGHT. 
 
 '3 N 
 
 5 
 
 73 
 
 si 
 
 Actual Legal 
 Capacity in 
 Cubic Inches 
 
 Adjusted or 
 approximate 
 Capacity in 
 Cubic Feet 
 
 Weight of water 
 contained 
 
 Quarter 10240 
 
 I7745'536 
 
 10-24 
 
 640 pounds 
 
 Coomb 5120 
 
 8872768 
 
 5-12 
 
 3 20 
 
 Strike 2560 
 
 4436-384 
 
 2-56 
 
 160 
 
 Bushel 1280 
 
 22l8'J92 
 
 1-28 
 
 80 
 
 Half-bushel 640 
 
 1109-096 
 
 0*64 
 
 40 
 
 Peck 320 
 
 554-548 
 
 0-32 
 
 20 
 
 Gallon 1 60 
 
 277-274 
 
 0-16 
 
 10 
 
 Pottle 80 
 
 138-637 
 
 0-08 
 
 5 
 
 Quart 40 
 
 69-318 
 
 0*04 
 
 2f 
 
 Pint 20 
 
 34'659 
 
 0'02 
 
 J i 
 
 Fluid-ounce i 
 
 1-7349 o'ooi 
 
 T V or i oz. 
 
 In addition to the natural cubic measures before 
 referred to, which in England do not go beyond the 
 cubic yard, there are terms of cubic measure that are 
 convenient multiples of the cubic yard, or of the cubic 
 foot ; such as the various loads, lasts, and tons of mea- 
 surement which are not to be confused with the lasts, 
 loads, and tuns of capacity, the latter being multiples of 
 the bushel or of the gallon. 
 
 The real cubic measures are mostly fuel and wood 
 measures, and shipping tons, as before mentioned. Even 
 some of the old English measures of capacity were deter- 
 
 1 These quantities are nearly ^ per cent, less than the legal capacities. 
 
en. iv. CUBIC MEASURES. 123 
 
 mined in cubic measure, although they may have been 
 originally based on weight of corn or of flour. The 
 Winchester bushel was 2150^ cubic inches, and the Win- 
 chester gallon was 274^ cubic inches ; the Elizabethan 
 ale-gallon was 282 cubic inches, and the Queen Annian 
 wine-gallon 231 cubic inches. The present gallon of 
 277*27384357 cubic inches is an invention dating only 
 from the reorganisation of 1825. 
 
 The inherent defect of the present English capacity 
 measures is that they are dependent on an old French 
 avoirdupois pound, which cannot coalesce in the English 
 measures without some slight alteration. Beyond that 
 there is the anomalous two-temperature standard under 
 which weight and capacity are compared. 
 
 Foreign Units. 
 
 While the English cubic measures are not in strict 
 accordance with the commercial measures of capacity, 
 the same may be said of a very great number of cubic 
 measures of other nations. The fact that the litre is no 
 longer a cubic decimetre in reality, but is a measure of 
 capacity containing a kilogram weight of water, in 
 accordance with a primitive kilogram of unknown den- 
 sity, has been already mentioned. The Russians, in the 
 same way as the English, have hitherto conformed their 
 measures of capacity to those of weight ; thus their 
 vedro of liquid measure is 30 local pounds of water and 
 their tschetverik 64 pounds. The Turkish fortin and the 
 kiloz are based on weight of wheat, the former being 2 
 canthars, the latter 22 oka, and the alma is 8 oka of oil. 
 The Iberian almudes and arrobas are now nominally 
 based on weight of water in some cases and on weight 
 
124 METRICAL UNITS. PART i. 
 
 of oil in others ; formerly they were Arab or Moorish 
 makuk and waebe, or true cubic measures of another 
 series, which cannot coalesce with the cubic units of the 
 Visigoths and Suevi. It cannot, therefore, be expected 
 that measures of capacity formed on this principle, and 
 rigidly adhered to, can be in strict accordance and uni- 
 formity with the cubes of the linear measures of the 
 nation, until some mode of adjustment be adopted to 
 effect a real systematisation. It seems that this habit of 
 neglecting the accordance between cubic and capacity- 
 measures is not only unscientific, but is a marked evi- 
 dence of a want of ordinary civilisation. 
 
 The ancient Egyptians, the Chaldseans, the Assyrians, 
 the Persians, the Ptolemaic Egyptians, and the Greeks, 
 all deduced their weights from their cubic measures 
 and subdivided large cubic measures to form small mea- 
 sures of capacity, when they required them ; although 
 there is no doubt that Oriental nations did not much use 
 capacity-measures, and preferred buying and selling 
 almost everything by weight ; but the mode of making 
 measures of capacity to suit old foreign units of weight, 
 without considering their relation to true local cubic 
 measure, is a proceeding suited to savage tribes, desti- 
 tute of apparatus, appliances, and scientific men. 
 
 The whole series of Swedish units of capacity are 
 actual cubic units (see Swedish system). 
 
 The Prussians and the Danes, as well as some of the 
 former German nationalities, regulated their measures of 
 capacity by cubic measure, as may be seen by the 
 attached table giving the values. 
 
CH. IV. 
 
 CUBIC{ MEASURES. 
 
 125 
 
 EQUIVALENTS OF MEASURES OF CAPACITY IN LOCAL CUBIC 
 MEASURE. 
 
 Danish pot or krug . 
 Danish kanne . 
 Danish bushel . 
 Danish corn-barrel . 
 Danish tar-barrel 
 Danish grain last 
 
 Prussian scheffel 
 Prussian eimer . 
 Prussian beer-barrel . 
 Prussian maker 
 
 Lubeck scheffel 
 
 Lippe-Detmold scheffel . 
 
 Bavarian scheffel 
 
 Dresden scheffel 
 
 Gotha bergscheffel for coal 
 
 Bavarian schankeimer for wine 
 
 Castilian fanega 
 
 ^V of a cubic foot 
 1 08 cubic inches 
 972 cubic inches 
 
 4^ cubic feet 
 
 3f cubic feet 
 99 cubic feet 
 
 3072 cubic inches 
 
 3840 cubic inches 
 
 6400 cubic inches 
 
 2it cubic feet 
 
 2343 cubic 
 3154 cubic 
 8944 cubic 
 8064 cubic 
 2920 cubic 
 2580 cubic 
 
 inches 
 inches 
 inches 
 inches 
 inches 
 inches 
 
 4440 cubic inches 
 
 Zurich grain malter, 1 2^ cubic feet ; vegetable malter, 
 12^ cubic feet; lime malter, 12 cubic feet; charcoal 
 malter, 27^ cubic feet. 
 
 In other parts of Europe the cases of capacity- 
 measures in strict accordance with cubic measure are 
 detached and comparatively rare ; most of them are 
 based on weight, the weight-units being generally old, 
 borrowed, and foreign ; thus preventing these national 
 collections of units from being perfect in systematisation, 
 or deserving of being named systems. 
 
 In Oriental countries capacity-measures hardly exist, 
 or are comparatively rare. In Pagan countries, capacity- 
 measures are mostly based on weight of grain, and 
 
125 METRICAL UNITS. PART i. 
 
 sometimes are deductions from weighing several sorts of 
 grain ; in some places they do not exist, but are sup- 
 planted by direct weight ; and in very few, such as Thaif 
 (Siam), Anam, and one or two other cases, they are 
 correctly formed on local cubic measure. 
 
 The very marked distinction between foreign mea- 
 sures of capacity that are truly cubic or otherwise is 
 important ; it has, however, not been preserved in the 
 tables, all nominal measures of capacity being classified 
 together for the sake of convenience in reference. 
 
CH. IV. 
 
 CUBIC MEASURES. 
 
 
 127 
 
 XL * 
 
 CUBIC INCHES, DECIMAL CUBIC INCHES, 
 AND DECIMAL FLUID-OUNCES 
 
 
 x-Sg 
 
 JS 4513 
 
 JjSj 
 
 -g<fil 
 
 GENERAL VALUES. 
 
 t* E.J; 
 
 "If g.f 
 
 fill 
 
 
 W 
 UW 
 
 3| 
 
 *8| 
 
 
 Cub. inch 
 
 Fluid-oz. 
 
 Cent. cub. 
 
 English cubic inch duodecimal at 62 Fahr. 
 
 I 
 
 0'5782 
 
 16-3721 
 
 Scientific value of the same at 32 Fahr. . 
 
 I 0009 
 
 0-5787 
 
 16-3862 
 
 Fluid-ounce of the English decimal measures, 
 
 
 
 
 or the loooth of the cubic foot at 32 Fahr. 
 
 
 
 
 = 1000 fluid mils 
 
 17290 
 
 1 
 
 28-3153 
 
 Decimal cubic turn of Sweden .... 
 
 I-5980 
 
 0-9240 
 
 26-1629 
 
 Cubic inch of Prussia, Norway, and Denmark, 
 
 
 
 
 
 I '0928 
 
 0-6319 
 
 I7-8QII 
 
 Cubic inch of Austro- Hungary . . 
 
 I-II62 
 
 0-6454 
 
 * / ^ J y * * 
 I8-2749 
 
 Decimal kubikzoll of Austro-Hungary 
 
 I -9288 
 
 1-1153 
 
 3<'5790 
 
 Cubic inch of Spain, duod. .... 
 
 07622 
 
 0-4407 
 
 I2-4782 
 
 ,, Portugal, duod. .... 
 
 1-2703 
 
 0-7345. 
 
 20-7969 
 
 Cubic tsun of China (Board of Works) dec. 
 
 2-0547 
 
 1-1880 33-639I 
 
 FORMER, LOCAL, OR SPECIAL VALUES. 
 
 GERMANY : 
 
 
 Baden and Nassau, decimal and metric . 
 
 1-6491 0-9535 27-0000 
 
 Bavaria, decimal ...... 
 
 j -5185 
 
 0-8780 
 
 24-86ir 
 
 ,, duodecimal ..... 
 
 0-8788 
 
 0-5081 
 
 143872 
 
 Brunswick, duod. . . . . . . 
 
 0-8213 
 
 0-4749 
 
 I3-4468 
 
 Bremen, decimal (also the duod. ) 
 
 i '4773 
 
 0-8542 
 
 24-1870 
 
 Gotha, duod. ....... 
 
 0-8410 
 
 0-4863 
 
 I3769I 
 
 
 0-8800 
 
 0-5088 
 
 14-4074 
 
 Hesse-Darmstadt, decimal and metric . . 
 
 0-9544 
 
 0-5518 
 
 I5-6250 
 
 Hamburg, duod. 
 
 0-8312 
 
 0-4806 
 
 I3-6077 
 
 Mecklenberg, duod. ..... 
 
 0-8710 
 
 0-5036 
 
 I4-2605 
 
 Oldenberg, duod. ...... 
 
 0-9194 
 
 0-5322 
 
 1 5 -0692 
 
 Saxony, Dresden duod. ..... 
 
 0-8020 
 
 0-4638 
 
 13-1312 
 
 ,, Leipzig duod. ..... 
 
 0-7982 
 
 0-4615 
 
 13-0686 
 
 Wurtemberg, decimal ..... 
 
 i -4362 
 
 0-8304 
 
 23-5142 
 
 Swiss (Waadt) decimal and metric . 
 
 i -6491 
 
 0-9535 
 
 27-0000 
 
 FRANCE : 
 
 
 
 
 Pouce cube (mesures usuelles) duod. and metric 
 
 i -3091 
 
 0-7570 
 
 21-431 
 
 Parisian pouce cube, duod. .... 
 
 1-2117 
 
 0-7006 
 
 19-8364 
 
 HOLLAND AND BELGIUM : 
 
 
 
 
 Amsterdam, kubieke duim (undec. ) . 
 
 1-0413 0-6021 
 
 17-0479 
 
 Brussels, kubieke duim (undec.) 
 
 0-9622 0-5563 
 
 157532 
 
 For other values, decimalise on the equivalents of the cubic feet. 
 
128 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 CUBIC FEET. 
 
 
 js3a 
 
 ^ o c' 
 
 S 
 
 
 H y ! 
 
 fjSj 
 
 "oJS-SJ 
 
 GENERAL VALUES. 
 
 Ill 
 
 
 III 
 
 
 cjw" 
 
 W V5 0- 
 
 ^fzf 
 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 D(?c. cub. 
 
 The cubic foot of England, America, and Russia, 
 
 
 
 
 and their dependencies, duod. = 1728 cubic 
 
 
 
 
 inches 
 
 I 
 
 0-9991 
 
 28*2909 
 
 The scientific value of the same at 32 Fahr. 
 
 
 
 
 = 1000 decimal fluid-ounces, decimal . 
 
 1-0009 
 
 1 
 
 28-3153 
 
 The cubic foot of Prussia, Norway, and Den- 
 
 
 
 
 mark ........ 
 
 I -0928 
 
 1-0918 
 
 30*9158 
 
 The cubic foot of Sweden and Finland (formerly 
 
 
 
 
 
 O "Q24.8 
 
 0-9240 
 
 26*1629 
 
 The cubic foot of Austro- Hungary, dec. and 
 
 -/*T'*-* 
 
 
 
 
 I "I l62 
 
 i. H HCO 
 
 ._,fc_ 
 
 The cubic foot of Spain, duod. 
 
 0*7622 
 
 1 1 1 JO 
 
 0-7615 
 
 21*5623 
 
 The cubic foot of Portugal, duod. . 
 
 I -2703 
 
 1-2692 
 
 35-9370 
 
 The cubic foot of the Chinese Empire, decimal 
 
 
 
 
 (the Board of Works' kambuchih) 
 
 I-I890 
 
 1-1879 
 
 33-639I 
 
 FORMER, LOCAL, OR SPECIAL CUBIC FEET. 
 GERMANY : 
 
 Prussian Rheinfuss . 
 Anspach and Baireuth, duod. . 
 
 1-0928 
 . 0-9525 
 
 1-0918 
 0-9517 
 0-8304 
 
 30-916 
 26-946 
 
 2~2 'C \A 
 
 
 
 0-9535 
 
 27 
 
 Bavaria, dec. and duod. 
 Werkschuh 
 Rhenish Bavaria, metric duod. 
 Bremen, dec. and duod. . 
 
 . 0-8788 
 . 0-9186 
 . 1-3091 
 . 0-8549 
 
 0-8780 
 0-9178 
 1-3080 
 0-8542 
 0-8206 
 
 24-86I 
 25-987 
 
 37'037 
 24-I87 
 
 2? *276 
 
 Coin and Aschaffenberg . 
 Culm 
 Danzig, duod. . . . 
 
 . 0-8407 
 . 0-8452 
 . 0-8348 
 
 0-8400 
 0-8445 
 0-8341 
 0-8542 
 
 23-764 
 23-913 
 23-615 
 24*188 
 
 ,, Landschuh . 
 
 0-9073 
 
 0-9065 
 0-8403 
 
 25*672 
 2V7Q3 
 
 Halle 
 
 0-84.08 
 
 0-8491 
 
 
 Hanover, duod. 
 Heiligenstadt and Erfurt . 
 
 . 0-8800 
 . 0-8020 
 
 0-8792 
 0-8012 
 
 24*896 
 22-69I 
 
CH. IV. 
 
 CUBIC MEASURES. 
 
 129 
 
 CUBIC FEET continued. 
 
 ill 
 
 tug > 
 
 :i|l 
 
 s3 
 
 SSJ 
 
 C rt 
 5 S > 
 
 GERMANY continued : 
 
 111 
 
 <JW 
 
 C .J-'S 
 W -| 
 
 ,^-3 
 
 3| 
 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 Dec. cub. 
 
 Hesse Darmstadt, metric dec. .... 
 
 0-55 2 3 
 
 0-5518 
 
 i5' 62 5 
 
 ,, Electoral, ordinary duod. 
 
 0-8418 
 
 0-8410 
 
 23-813 
 
 ,, ,, landfuss .... 
 
 0-8174 
 
 0-8166 
 
 23-125 
 
 
 O-Q^oS 
 
 0-9389 
 
 26-C8A 
 
 Lippe-Detmold and Schaumberg 
 
 \j y^y^J 
 0-8576 
 
 0-8568 
 
 *** JT* 
 
 24-266 
 
 
 O-8266 
 
 0-8258 
 
 23 "377 
 
 Liibeck and Rostock ..... 
 
 0-8434 
 
 0-8426 
 
 *j $1 1 
 23-863 
 
 Minister. ....... 
 
 0-8693 
 
 0-8685 
 
 24-591 
 
 Mecklenburg, duod. ..... 
 
 O-87IO 
 
 0-8703 
 
 24-642 
 
 Nassau, werkfuss, dec. and metric . 
 
 Q'9544 
 
 0-9535 
 
 27 
 
 Nuremburg, stadtfuss, duod. .... 
 
 0-9916 
 
 0-9907 
 
 28-055 
 
 ,, artilleriefuss .... 
 
 0-7943 
 
 0-7935 
 
 25-192 
 
 Oldenburg, duod. ...... 
 
 0-9204 
 
 0-9196 
 
 26-040 
 
 Saxe- Weimar, werkfuss, duod. 
 
 0-7927 
 
 0-7920 
 
 22-426 
 
 Saxony, Dresden, duod. ..... 
 
 0-8020 
 
 0-8014 
 
 22-691 
 
 ,, Leipzig, dec. and duod. 
 
 0-7982 
 
 0-7975 
 
 22-583 
 
 Silesia (Prussian) ...... 
 
 0-8439 
 
 0-8431 
 
 23-876 
 
 Wiirtemberg, dec 
 
 0-8312 
 
 0-8304 
 
 23 '5 H 
 
 SWITZERLAND : 
 
 
 
 
 Berne and Freiberg, duod. .... 
 
 0-8914 
 
 0-8906 
 
 25-220 
 
 Basel, duod. .... ... 
 
 0-9985 
 
 0-9976 
 
 28-244 
 
 Saint Gall, duod 
 
 1-0281 
 
 1-0272 
 
 29-087 
 
 Geneva ........ 
 
 4-1063 
 
 4-1028 
 
 116-17 
 
 Claris, Grisons, Uri, Waadt, Valais, Schwytz, 
 
 
 
 
 duod. ........ 
 
 0-9544 
 
 0-9535 
 
 27-000 
 
 
 i '0928 
 
 1-0919 
 
 3O'Ql6 
 
 ,, joiners' ...... 
 
 0-9916 
 
 0-9907 
 
 ju y nj 
 28-049 
 
 ,, bauschuh ..... 
 
 0-8116 
 
 0-8109 
 
 22 '962 
 
 Neufchatel, landfuss, duod. .... 
 
 0-8914 
 
 0-8906 
 
 25-22O 
 
 Rheinfelden, Arau (Vienna) .... 
 
 1-1162 
 
 1-1153 
 
 31-579 
 
 Schaffhausen, werkschuh .... 
 
 0-9343 
 
 0-9335 
 
 ** *// -/ 
 
 26-432 
 
 
 -j -0206 
 
 3-0270 
 
 62" ^7 1 
 
 Zug, ordinary duod. ..... 
 
 O ^ J **?* J 
 
 0-9544 
 
 0-9535 
 
 \ji 3/ A 
 27-000 
 
 ,, steinschuh ...... 
 
 0-6857 
 
 0-6851 
 
 19-400 
 
 Zurich, dec. and duod. ..... 
 
 0-9544 
 
 0-9535 
 
 27 -ooo 
 
 ,, bauschuh ...... 
 
 0-9677 
 
 0-9669 
 
 27 -007 
 
 FRANCE : 
 
 
 
 
 Pied du roi, Paris, duod.. .... 
 
 1-2117 
 
 1-2106 
 
 34-277 
 
 Pied metrique, duod. 
 
 1-3091 
 
 1-3080 
 
 37-037 
 
 HOLLAND AND BELGIUM : 
 
 
 
 
 
 O'8O2O 
 
 0-8014 
 
 22*691 
 
 
 O-7A.Il 
 
 0-7405 
 
 20 '067 
 
 K 
 
130 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 CUBIC FEET continued. 
 AUSTRO HUNGARY : 
 
 *!! 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 I-II62 
 
 0-9203 
 0-9257 
 
 1*1374 
 0-9166 
 I -6002 
 0-8568 
 I-3I82 
 
 i -2116 
 
 0-6649 
 
 0-7278 
 0-7295 
 
 o "8444 
 2-9661 
 
 1-9411 
 3*6933 
 3*9952, 
 
 3*5977 
 2*9i35 
 5*0581 
 1*6137 
 57II3 
 3*6675 
 1-4201 
 
 4*7944 
 5-2892 
 
 Q'9343 
 1-3819 
 i -4820 
 
 0-7622 
 
 0-5999 
 0-9768 
 
 ' 0-7969 
 0-9925 
 
 I-2II7 
 
 xf 
 |j| 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 1-1153 
 0-9195 
 0-9249 
 1-1364 
 0-9158 
 1-5988 
 0-8560 
 1-3170 
 
 0-9991 
 1-2105 
 0-6642 
 0-7271 
 0-7288 
 0-8437 
 
 2-9635 
 1-9394 
 3-6901 
 3-9918 
 3-5946 
 2-9110 
 5-0538 
 1-6123 
 5-7064 
 3-6644 
 1-4189 
 4-7903 
 5-2847 
 0-9334 
 1-3807 
 1-4807 
 1-4239 
 
 0-7615 
 0-5993 
 0-9759 
 
 0-7961 
 0-9916 
 1*2106 
 
 l|l 
 e|.| 
 
 Dec. cub. 
 
 31-579 
 26-040 
 26-I88 
 32*I79 
 25*934 
 45-270 
 24-243 
 37*293 
 
 28-291 
 34*278 
 18-812 
 20-589 
 20-6^8 
 23-888 
 
 83*9I3 
 
 54*9i5 
 104-487 
 113-029 
 101-782 
 82-426 
 143-100 
 45*652 
 161-580 
 
 103757 
 40-177 
 
 I35*638 
 149-637 
 26-437 
 39*096 
 41-927 
 40-318 
 
 21-562 
 16-975 
 27-634 
 
 22-545 
 28-078 
 7A-277 
 
 
 
 
 
 Poland, Cracow, duod. ..... 
 Silesia ...... 
 
 Tyrol 
 
 RUSSIA : 
 
 
 
 
 
 Poland, Warsaw, duod 
 
 ITALY : 
 Bergamo 
 
 
 
 
 Milan 
 
 
 
 
 Piacenza (agrarian) ...... 
 Piedmont, piede manuale (in 8ths) . . 
 ,, piede liprando (in I2ths) . 
 Reggio ........ 
 Rome 
 Savoy, Chamberi ...... 
 
 
 SPAIN : 
 
 Castile, duod. 
 Aragon 
 
 AMERICA : 
 
 Mexico, Buenos Ayres, and Montevideo, Chili, 
 Peru, La Havana j old value of the Castilian 
 
 Pernambuco 
 
CH IV. 
 
 CUBIC MEASURES. 
 
 CUBIC YARDS, METRES, STAB, VARAS, <5-r. 
 
 GENERAL VALUES. 
 
 Ill 
 
 ! 
 
 CJW 
 Cub. yds. 
 
 England and America cubic yard = 27 cubic 
 
 feet ; Indian cubie gaz = 8 cubic hath . . i 
 Scientific value of the same at 32 . . . 1-0009 
 Metre cube of France, Holland, Belgium, and 
 
 Italy= looo dec. cub. i'3O9i 
 
 Vara cubica of Spain = 27 pies cub. . . . 0-7622 
 Vara cubica of Portugal = 37 5 \ pes cub. =125 
 
 palmos cubicos de craveira .... 1*7425 
 
 Vj 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 26-977 
 27 
 
 35-317 
 20-914 
 
 47-006 
 
 Met. cub 
 
 FORMER LOCAL, 
 FRANCE : 
 
 OR SPECIAL VALUES. 
 
 Demitoise cube metrique (1812-1840) 
 
 1-3091 
 
 35-317 
 
 ,, ancienne (till 1812) 
 
 1-2117 
 
 32-685 
 
 Aune (stab) metrique cube (18*2- ^840) . 
 
 1-8853 
 
 50-857 
 
 ,, ,, ancienne cube .... 
 
 2-1977 
 
 59-283 
 
 SPAIN AND AMERICA : 
 
 
 
 Castile 
 
 0-7622 
 
 20-91 
 
 Aragon 
 
 0-5999 
 
 16-19 
 
 Barcelona ....... 
 
 0-6120 
 
 16-50 
 
 Galicia 
 
 1-6739 
 
 45-16 
 
 Valencia ....... 
 
 0-9765 
 
 26-35 
 
 Mexico, La Plata, La Havana. 
 
 0-7984 
 
 21-54 
 
 Peru, Chili, and Manila 
 
 0-7971 
 
 21-50 
 
 Canaries 
 
 0-7810 
 
 21-06 
 
 Curagao . 
 Brazil 
 
 0-7976 
 1-6815 
 
 21-52 
 45-36 
 
 ITALY : . 
 
 
 
 Tuscan pasetto cub. = 8 bracci cubichi = 64 
 
 
 
 palmi cub 
 
 2-0806 
 
 56-13 
 
 Carrara carrata = 25 palmi cubichi (a load used 
 
 
 
 as a cubic measure for marble) . . . 
 
 0-4736 
 
 -12-80 
 
 K 2 
 
METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART 
 
 NOMINAL UNITS FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES. 
 UNITS OF WOOD-FUEL MEASURE. 
 
 GENERAL AND FORMER 
 LOCAL VALUES. 
 
 England, the stack, I xi X4 = 4c. yards . 
 ,, the cord, 4' x 4' x 8'= 128 c. feet 
 Denmark, l favn for fuel, 3x3x1=9 cub. alen 
 Sweden, 1 famn for fuel, 3 x 3 x i|= 13^ cub. Sin 
 Prussia, holzfaden, 3x3x1=9 kub. ellen 
 ,, haufen, 18' x 9' x 3' = 486 kub. f. . 
 Baden, holzklafter, 6' x 6' x 4'= 144 c. f. . 
 Bavaria, holzklafter, 6' x 6' x 3!'- 126 c. f. 
 Bremen, holzfaden = 72 kub. fuss 
 Brunswick, malter, 3^ x 4' x 4!' = 6o| c. ft. 
 
 ,, klafter, 6|' x 4' x 4!'= I2o| c. feet . 
 
 Breslau, holzstoss, 10 x 5 x i = 75 c. ells . 
 Coblenz, holzfaden =192 c. ft. 
 Darmstadt, stecken, 4' x 5' x 5'= 100 c. ft. 
 Frankfurt, stecken, 3^' x 3| x 3'| = 42| c. ft. 
 
 ,, gilbert = 2 stecken = 85! c. ft. . 
 Gotha, charcoal malter, 3^' x 3^' x 3^ = 42! c. ft. 
 Gotha, holzklafter, 6' ~ 6' x 3'= 108 c. ft. . 
 Hamburg, 1 holzfaden, 6|' x 6|' x 2' = 88| c. ft. . 
 Holstein, holzfaden, 6 x 6' x 2' = 72 c. ft. . 
 Nassau, holzklafter, 6' x 6' x 4' = 144 c. ft. 
 Mecklenburg, holzklafter, 7' x 7' x 2! 98 c. ft. . 
 Mainz, stecken, 4^' x 4!' x 3' = 56^ c. ft. . 
 Saxony, Leipzig klafter, 6' x 6' x 3!= 126 c. ft . 
 Saxony, schragen = 3 holzklafter = 3 78 c. feet . 
 Wiirtemberg, scheitholzklafter, 6' x 6' x 4'= 144 
 
 c. ft 
 
 Wiirtemberg, the wanne for hay, 8' x 8' x 8' = 512 
 
 c. ft. , 
 
 France and the Netherlands, the stere or wisse . 
 France, voie de Paris, 4' x 4' x 3|' = 56 c. ft. 
 
 ,, corde de porte, 8' x 5' x 3^'= 140 c. ft. . 
 Swiss Berne holzklafter, 6' x 5' x 3|' = 105 c. ft. 
 Swiss Waadt moule, 5x5x5= 125 c. ft. . 
 
 1 The true cubic fathom is also used for fuel. 
 
 ill 
 
 -S.<5 S 
 
 -g<s I 
 
 Ij! 
 
 SJ 
 
 I'll 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 Met. cub. 
 
 108 
 
 107-91 
 
 2-QC 1:4 
 
 128 
 
 127-89 
 
 3-6212 
 
 78-68 
 
 78-61 
 
 2-2259 
 
 99-88 
 
 99-79 
 
 2-8256 
 
 118-02 
 
 117-92 
 
 3-3389 
 
 53I-09 
 
 530-63 
 
 15-0251 
 
 I37-43 
 
 137-31 
 
 3-8880 
 
 110-73 
 
 110-63 
 
 3' 1 3 2 5 
 
 61-56 
 
 61-50 
 
 I-74I5 
 
 52-95 
 
 52-90 
 
 i -4979 
 
 105-89 
 
 105-80 
 
 2-9958 
 
 550-94 
 
 550-47 
 
 '5-5867 
 
 166-57 
 
 166-44 
 
 4-7127 
 
 
 55-18 
 
 1-5625 
 
 34'94 
 
 34-91 
 
 0-9885 
 
 69-88 
 
 69-82 
 
 1-9769 
 
 36-06 
 
 36-03 
 
 i -020 1 
 
 90-83 
 
 90-75 
 
 2-5696 
 
 73|8 
 
 73-82 
 
 2 -0902 
 
 
 5979 
 
 I '6930 
 
 137-43 
 
 137-31 
 
 3-8880 
 
 82-66 
 
 82-59 
 
 2-3386 
 
 47-32 
 
 47-28 
 
 I-3387 
 
 100-58 
 
 100-49 
 
 2-8454 
 
 301-72 
 
 301-47 
 
 8-5362 
 
 119-68 
 
 119-58 
 
 3-3860 
 
 425-55 
 
 425-19 
 
 12-0393 
 
 35-35 
 
 35-32 
 
 I 
 
 67-85 
 
 67-79 
 
 I-9I95 
 
 169-62 
 
 169-48 
 
 
 93-6o 
 
 93-52 
 
 2-6481 
 
 119-30 
 
 119-19 
 
 3-3750 
 
CH. IV. 
 
 CUBIC MEASURES. 
 
 133 
 
 FUEL-MEASURES continued. 
 
 Swiss Zurich holzklafter, 6 x 6 x 2 = 72 c. ft. 
 Swiss Zurich torf klafter = 6 korben = 72 c. ft. 
 
 11.1 
 
 Wfg- 
 
 CJW 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 68-73 
 
 -S| 
 111 
 
 Cub. ft. Mfct. cub 
 
 68-67 
 
 1-9445 
 
 UNITS OF TONNAGE BY BULK (FOR LIGHT 
 MERCHANDISE). 
 
 England, ton = 40 c. ft. . . . . .40 
 
 France, old ton = 42 c. ft. de Paris . . .. 50*88 
 
 Hamburg, ton = 40 c. ft 33 '25 
 
 Portugal, ton = 57| c. ft 73'36 
 
 39-97 
 
 50-84 
 
 33-22 
 
 3-30 
 
 1-1316 
 I-4396 
 0-9406 
 2-0754 
 
METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 CUBIC FATHOMS AND CUBIC RODS. 
 
 GENERAL AND FORMER 
 
 ill 
 
 l|| 
 
 111 
 
 LOCAL UNITS. 
 
 CJW 
 
 s 
 
 ^w 
 
 
 Cub. yds. 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 Met. cub. 
 
 England, cubic fathom = 8 cubic yards = 216 
 
 
 
 
 cubic feet (not generally used) . 
 
 8 
 
 215-8 
 
 6-II09 
 
 ,, cubic rod of the decimal system at 32 
 
 
 
 
 = looo cubic feet .... 
 
 37-069 
 
 1000 
 
 28-3153 
 
 Sweden, cubic famn = 2i6 cubic feet 
 
 
 199-6 
 
 5-6512 
 
 Danish, Norwegian, and Prussian cubic favn = 
 
 
 
 
 
 8'7A2 
 
 235-8 
 
 6-6778 
 
 Prussian cubic berglachter = 296^ c. ft. . 
 ,, schachtru the = 144 cubic feet 
 
 11-979 
 5-828 
 
 323-5 
 157-2 
 
 9-1602 
 4-45*9 
 
 ,, feldsteinruthe = 120 cubic feet . 
 
 
 131-0 
 
 3-7099 
 
 Leipzig, cubic klafter = 216 cubic feet 
 
 6-386 
 
 172-3 
 
 
 ,, cubic lachter = 343 cubic feet 
 
 IO-I4O 
 
 273-6 
 
 7-7458 
 
 ^, kubikruthe = 7 20 cubic feet . 
 
 21-286 
 
 574-2 
 
 16-2594 
 
 Frarikfurt cubic klafter = 216 cubic feet . 
 
 6-5I9 
 
 175-9 
 
 4-9797 
 
 ,, kubikruthe (earth) = 288 c. ft. . 
 
 8-692 
 
 234-5 
 
 6-6396 
 
 ,, ,, (mason's) = 312 c. ft. 
 
 9-4I7 
 
 254-0 
 
 7-1929 
 
 Baden, kubikruthe = 1000 cubic feet. 
 
 35*347 
 
 953-5 
 
 27 
 
 Darmstadt, kubikruthe = 1000 cubic feet . 
 
 2 0'455 
 
 551-8 
 
 15-6250 
 
 Berne, kubikklafter= 5 12 cubic feet. 
 
 I6-904 
 
 456-0 
 
 12-9127 
 
 Geneva, cubic toise = 5i2 cubic feet (Paris) 
 
 22-975 
 
 619-8 
 
 17-5499 
 
 Freiberg, cubic werkklafter = 1000 cub. ft. 
 
 
 890-7 
 
 25 -2202 
 
 Lausanne, cubic toise= i ooo cubic feet 
 
 35-347 
 
 953-5 
 
 27 
 
 Neufchatel, cubic toise= 1000 cubic feet . 
 
 
 890-7 
 
 25-2202 
 
 Zurich, cubic klafter = 216 cubic feet 
 
 3 7'636 
 
 206-0 
 
 
 France, toise cube metrique = 2i6 p. c. usuels . 
 
 10-473 
 
 282-5 
 
 8 
 
 ,, ,, ancienne = 2i6 p. c. (Paris) . 
 
 9-693 
 
 261-5 
 
 7 '4039 
 
 Russia, cubic sasheen = 343 cubic feet 
 
 12-704 
 
 342-7 
 
 97038 
 
 Austria, cubic klafter = 2i6 cubic feet 
 
 8-930 
 
 240-9 
 
 6-8210 
 
 Spain, braza or toesa cub. =216 cubic ft. . 
 
 6-097 
 
 167-3 
 
 4*6575 
 
 Portugal, bra9a or toesa cub. = 125 c. ft. . 
 
 
 158-6 
 
 4-4921 
 
 ORIENTAL AND EAST-ASIATIC CUBIC MEASURES. 
 
 It is very doubtful whether the cubes of linear units are generally 
 employed as cubic measures. 
 
 N. B. These English and French values of cubic units are clipped or 
 reduced from longer values that correspond exactly. 
 
135 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
 
 COMMERCIAL measures of capacity, as distinct from 
 cubic measures before treated, have their origin under 
 one or other of the three following forms of deriva- 
 tion : 
 
 First Some convenient vessel is adopted as suitable 
 to measuring produce of various kinds, such as a cubical 
 or cylindrical box for corn, or an earthenware or metal 
 vessel for ale or wine ; and its dimensions are measured 
 in the linear measure of the country. This rather hap- 
 hazard mode is undoubtedly very primitive. 
 
 Second. A vessel is made to contain a certain 
 amount of produce, wine, oil, water, rice, wheat, flour, 
 or grain, so that when full its contents will counter- 
 balance a certain number of specified weights in use. 
 This method is slightly in advance of the former as re- 
 gards care and accuracy. 
 
 Third. A vessel is made in accordance with the 
 linear measures of the country, so as to form a definite 
 and easily defined cubic measure, and is also arranged in 
 accordance with the weights of the country, while the 
 latter are adjusted to suit the cubic measures. This 
 method is in advance of the other two, as it is a 
 matter involving much care and skill to make a weight 
 that shall exactly balance the contents of a filled 
 
136 METRICAL UNITS. PARTI. 
 
 cubic measure. Such a plan therefore is usually only 
 adopted at the reorganisation, reconstruction, or in the re- 
 modelling of a complete national system. 
 
 It may be noticed that measures of capacity are not 
 by any means necessary to nations not largely employed 
 in commerce, as almost everything may be bought or 
 sold by weight ; the exceptions being such things as 
 cannot be conveniently weighed, and produce or merchan- 
 dise that may be made to absorb a large amount of 
 water without showing much subsequent trace of the 
 operation. 
 
 Oil, corn, grain, and vegetable produce may be, and 
 are in some places sold by weight, and so also may any 
 liquid, beer, wine or spirits ; but it is principally for the 
 convenience of the trade in liquids that measures of ca- 
 pacity are at all desirable, and secondly only with the 
 object of preventing the adulteration with water of 
 absorbent goods and produce, such as coke, flour, and 
 things of low specific gravity or of a loose nature. 
 
 In many Oriental countries measures of capacity are 
 almost unknown, and even in some semi-Oriental coun- 
 tries the so-called measures of capacity are merely 
 disguised measures of weight, and are termed and 
 expressed in accordance with the weight of grain, oil, 
 wine or water, they may hold. From these very marked 
 habits it may be supposed that the Oriental has been 
 long fully aware of the fact that a capacity-measure of 
 grain is comparatively valueless, and may hold nearly 
 a quarter more by filling it with force. 
 
 In some countries, where Oriental influences have 
 left an Arab, Moorish, or a Turkish trace, these undeve- 
 loped measures of capacity are common ; and show the 
 unobliterated effect of the units as applied to various 
 substances. 
 
CH. v. MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 137 
 
 Similarly the Indian seer, or ser, of weight, passing 
 into Ceylon, forms a measure of capacity, and its 
 multiples the parrah and mercal follow the sam-e process. 
 The same thing occurs also in Maisur, and some parts 
 of Southern India, the Carnatic, Madura, Madras, and 
 Trichinopalli ; where there were some real ancient mea- 
 sures of capacity, the colaga, bullah, and others, with 
 which the ser weight and the kandi weight system was 
 blended at some comparatively late epoch. 
 
 " Most of the doubtful measures of this transition class 
 are more conveniently and correctly treated as measures 
 of weight, even when varying in value with the nature 
 of the produce or merchandise ; but it is the natural 
 error of the Teuton to assume a measure of capacity to 
 exist under circumstances where he himself would use 
 one, though as a rule the contrary is more true in any 
 land where transition-measures may exist. The correct 
 test is to examine whether three or more such measures 
 of various sorts of produce vary in moderately close 
 accordance with the specific gravities ; two cases may 
 be accidental, and afford no basis of reasoning. 
 
 As regards true measures of capacity, although they 
 afford the conveniences before mentioned, they yet have 
 disadvantages of their own ; the mode of placing or 
 packing the goods or produce in a measure of capacity 
 may affect the amount, to a very important extent, as 
 much as 10 per cent, so also may shaking it ; again, 
 there is no resource against a moderately incorrect 
 measure of capacity, while a false weight or a faulty 
 balance is easily exposed in a moment by means of a 
 correct weight, or by reversing the weight and the 
 counterpoise ; besides this, measures of capacity become 
 unclean from use. 
 
i- 3 8 METRICAL UNITS. PART i. 
 
 Whether measures of capacity are generally more con- 
 venient than those of weight, for any other commercial 
 purpose than that of a rapid retail sale of liquids, and 
 of compounding medicine, is hence a matter still open to 
 some doubt, as very large quantities of liquids have 
 necessarily to be gauged, very small quantities of liquids 
 may be weighed, large quantities of dry merchandise 
 have to be weighed in the majority of cases, and the 
 same is the case with very small quantities generally. 
 
 The general tendency in England has been to revert 
 to weight in preference to capacity, for a large number 
 of things ; and to entirely abolish neutral measures. 
 The sack, the keel, and the chaldron, of coal-measure, 
 were for a long time neutral measures, that is, nominal 
 measures of capacity, controlled by stipulations regard- 
 ing weight ; the bushel of salt-measure was a nominal 
 bushel controlled by weights legislated for various sorts 
 of salt ; the butter-measures were actual kilderkin and 
 firkin casks under regulated weights for the contents ; 
 the soap-measures were very similar to the butter-mea- 
 sures in having regulated weight for kilderkin barrel 
 and firkin filled casks. These things have now been 
 long obsolete, and replaced by direct weight, but they 
 serve to explain the transition-measures of other coun- 
 tries, though in the converse way, as in England the 
 transition has been back to weight, while in semi-Orien- 
 tal lands the transition was from weight to capacity. 
 
 ENGLISH UNITS * 
 
 Measures of capacity have generally been treated in 
 England as following two separate systems one for 
 liquids, the other for dry merchandise ; but though there 
 
CH. v. MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 139 
 
 may be some convenience in dealing with them in this 
 manner, and thus taking one set at a time, there is no 
 more necessity for such a separation than for the 
 German double arrangement in linear measure ofawerk- 
 fuss, and a feldfuss. 
 
 In any complete system of measures of rapacity 
 some will necessarily be more useful for dry produce, 
 and some for liquids, while a certain number serve both 
 purposes equally well ; also, the measures applicable to 
 any single branch of trade may be very restricted and 
 detached ; but this is not a sufficient reason for form- 
 ing two distinct general categories. That we neither 
 talk of a bushel of ale nor of a firkin of corn is simply 
 due to custom and habit, for there is no special reason 
 or necessity for the measure of capacity for ale being 
 a firkin of 9 gallons, while that for corn is a bushel of 8 
 gallons ; in fact, the ale-firkin of Henry VIII. (Act 23 of 
 1531) was a bushel, for it was an 8-gallon measure; 
 and the ale-barrel was a coomb, being 32 gallons an ar- 
 rangement not by any means transient, but lasting for a 
 century and a half, or until the time of Charles II. (Act 
 12 of 1660). The system of binary multiples and binary 
 subdivision applies to liquids quite as conveniently as it 
 does to dry produce, and there is no sufficient reason 
 for adopting different methods for them ; we have hence 
 receded in this respect from the advantages of the time 
 of Henry VIII. 
 
 If at any time the 8-gallon firkin, containing a 
 bushel of water, and the 32-gallon barrel, containing 
 a coomb of water, be revived, there would not only be an 
 accordance between wet and dry measures up to the 
 barrel, but the barrel would then form a convenient unit 
 for the upper or nominal measures above it, put these in 
 
140 METRICAL UNITS. PART i. 
 
 accordance both for wet and dry measures in the same 
 way, and reduce the incongruities in the system. 
 
 At present the English wet and dry measures cor- 
 respond only from the pint to the gallon ; the fixed 
 liquid measures extend from the minim to the butt of 
 1 08 gallons ; and the fixed dry measures from the pint to 
 the quarter of 64 gallons. Besides these there are variable 
 nominal measures that differ with various sorts of pro- 
 duce ; tuns, lasts, sacks, and other units. 
 
 The division into legal and nominal measures of the 
 whole series, which is given in the chapter on Systems, 
 does not admit of very exact separation, without a 
 lengthy study of various Parliamentary Acts ; but a more 
 practical division may be otherwise effected. There are 
 certain actual measures that are copies of national stan- 
 dard measures, made by scientific men in accordance with 
 legal definition, and there are others, that are multiples 
 of the foregoing, that do not admit of direct scientific 
 verification, from their size being beyond the powers, 
 means, and apparatus used for such purposes. Now, a 
 standard capacity-measure cannot be sufficiently verified 
 by simple linear measurement, but must, for exactitude, 
 have its contents in water correctly weighed ; and all 
 such standard measures, as do not admit of this process 
 may be termed nominal measures in a correct sense of 
 the word. On referring to the Report of the Warden of 
 the Standards for 1866 it is mentioned that no balance 
 existing in the Department could weigh more than 
 561bs. of water ; also in 1859 a standard cubic foot- 
 weight (of about 62-42454 Ibs. at 39 Fahrenheit) was 
 made, and declared to be 62-321 Ibs. at 62 Fahr. the 
 English normal commercial temperature, instead of about 
 62-3548 Ibs. ; hence the probability is that this was not a 
 
CH. v. MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 141 
 
 standard from direct construction and verification, but one 
 of estimation. From the above facts it may be deduced 
 that the half-bushel is the largest real measure in Eng- 
 land, and all higher measures are estimated measures, 
 while perhaps even the gallon may be the highest unit 
 of scientific verification. The parsimony of the nation 
 with regard to scientific men and matters is too notori- 
 ous to require comment ; gratuitous and voluntary con- 
 tributions to scientific progress and improvement being 
 alone received, with due regard for the delicate suscepti- 
 bilities of the British tax-payer. Even the labours of 
 restoring the lost national standards were works of 
 scientific charity (for detail see page 82 of Chisholm, 
 ' On the Science of Weighing and Measuring.' London, 
 
 18/7). 
 
 The scientific determination of the larger English 
 measures hence cannot be expected until scientific bene- 
 volence is again patronised ; and in the meantime we 
 do not know with much exactitude the weight of water 
 contained in a cubic foot at the English normal tem- 
 perature. 
 
 The measures of capacity of which standards exist 
 are given in the following list : 
 
 STANDARD ENGLISH MEASURES OF CAPACITY, 
 
 with their legal capacity and weight of water. 
 
 THE BINARY SERIES. 
 
 Gallons. Cubic inches. Grains. 
 
 Bushel 8 2218*192 560000 
 
 Half-bushel 4 1109 '096 280000 
 
 Peck 2 554*548 140 ooo 
 
 Gallon i 277*274 70000 
 
 Pottle \ 138-637 35 ooo 
 
 Quart 69*318 17500 
 
I 4 2 METRICAL UNITS. PARTI. 
 
 STANDARD ENGLISH MEASURES OF CAPACITY continued. 
 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Cubic inches. 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Pint 
 
 I 
 
 34'659 
 
 8750 
 
 Half-pint 
 
 re- 
 
 17-329 
 
 4375 
 
 Gill 
 
 A 
 
 8-664 
 
 2 187-5 
 
 Half-gill 
 
 BT 
 
 4-332 
 
 i 063-75 
 
 Quarter-gill 
 
 riir 
 
 2-166 
 
 546-875 
 
 Bottle 
 
 * 
 
 46*211 
 
 n666f 
 
 Half-bottle 
 
 TV 
 
 23-105 
 
 5833* 
 
 Other Measures. 
 
 Fluid-ounce measures of 4 oz., 2 oz., i oz., \ oz. 
 
 Sixteen liquid-grain measures from 7,000 grains down to i 
 grain. 
 
 Seven cubic-inch measures from 10 cubic inches down to 
 OT cubic inch. 
 
 Three gas standards : 10 cubic feet, 5, and i cubic foot. 
 
 Also the following : 
 
 LEGAL W T EIGHT OF WATER LEGAL 
 
 IN CONTENTS. CAPACITY. 
 
 
 Grains. 
 
 TO cubic inches. 
 
 2524-58 
 
 5 
 
 1262*29 
 
 2 
 
 504-916 
 
 1 
 
 252*46 
 
 o'5 
 
 126*23 
 
 0-2 
 
 50-492 
 
 o-i 
 
 25*246 
 
 
 Grains. 
 
 4 fluid-ounces. 
 
 I 750 
 
 2 ,, 
 
 875 
 
 i 
 
 437'5 
 
 i 
 
 21875 
 
 Cubic inches. 
 6*932 
 3-466 
 
 1*733 
 0-866 
 
CH. v. MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 143 
 
 Grains. Cubic inches. 
 
 i o liquid grains. 10 0*0396106 
 
 5 5 0-0198 
 
 3 3 0-01188 
 
 2 2 0-00792 
 
 I I 0-00396 
 
 Besides measures between 10 and 7000 liquid-grains. And the 
 cubic foot measure, 62-321 Ibs. of water. 
 
 Such are the measures, their legal capacities, and 
 weights of water they may contain, at the standard 
 temperature of 62 Fahrenheit under a barometric 
 pressure of thirty inches. 
 
 The basis of the tabulated series is the acceptance of 
 the determination by Sir George Shuckburgh in 1798, 
 that the cubic inch of water weighs 252*458 grains ; a 
 matter that will be further referred to in the chapter on 
 measures of weight. 
 
 The highest legal measure in this series being the 
 bushel, all higher measures may be treated as nominal, 
 without entering into the Acts that regulate them. 
 
 It will be noticed that minim measures do not exist, 
 and that a large set of liquid or fluid-grain measures do 
 exist, in the series, which is taken from the Warden's 
 Report for 1874-5, and the list given in Chisholm's 
 work dated 1877. This seems to foreshadow the aboli- 
 tion of the minim, its entire replacement by the fluid- 
 grain measure, and a thorough accordance between all 
 measures of weight and capacity from the ounce and 
 fluid-ounce downwards a consummation much to be 
 desired, though under a more convenient subdivision. 
 
 A matter that appears neglected in connection with 
 this arrangement is the dram and fluid-dram ; whether 
 they are to be abolished in all their old forms, and no 
 
144 METRICAL UNITS. PART i. 
 
 measure between the fluid-ounce and the fluid-grain, nor 
 between the ounce-weight and the grain-weight, is to 
 exist, or whether some new arrangement is in prospect, 
 seems still undecided. In the meantime the old fluid- 
 dram, an eighth of the fluid-ounce, would be represented 
 by 54*685 fluid-grains, the equivalent of 60 old minims. 
 
 The old subdivision of the fluid-ounce into 480 
 minims, making the fluid-dram exactly 60 minims, 
 preserved the binary method. 
 
 THE NOMINAL MEASURES. 
 
 Among the upper and nominal liquid-measures, the 
 barrel of 36 gallons is the principal unit. The half- 
 barrel and the quarter-barrel are termed kilderkin for 
 beer, or runlet for spirits, and firkin ; and the rest are 
 multiples, as far as real English measures extend ; the 
 hogshead being i^- barrel, and the butt 3 barrels ; the butt 
 being the highest fixed nominal measure completing the 
 English series, which is arranged to suit the measurement 
 of ale and beer. 
 
 The nominal spirit-measures. The Jamaica puncheon 
 of rum or spirits is often treated as a fixed English 
 measure of 84 gallons, though it holds no place in the 
 national series, varies greatly in amount, from about 72 
 to nearly 108 gallons, and is a measure of foreign origin, 
 possibly a double French poingon. The tierce of brandy 
 or spirits is also a measure of foreign origin, a Bordeaux 
 tiergon, which was two-thirds of the barrique and held 
 about 1 5 1 litres, or 34 gallons, although its former trade 
 value in London was 42 old wine-gallons, or about 35 
 imperial gallons. The awm of spirits was either a 
 German or a Dutch ahm, ohm, or aam ; the Prussian 
 
CH. v. MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 145 
 
 ahm is 30^ gallons, the Dutch aam 33^; the trade value 
 of the^awm in England is 30 gallons. The anker of 
 spirits was apparently a Continental anker at one time, 
 but as the latter seldom exceed 8^- gallons, and the 
 English trade anker is a reputed 10 gallon measure, the 
 origin is doubtful. 
 
 The whole of these spirit-measures of foreign intro- 
 duction appear perfectly unnecessary in the English 
 system, and might be well abolished in favour of the 
 barrel, the half-barrel or runlet, and the quarter-barrel 
 as an anker, which could be recognised by legal enact- 
 ment, and thus complete the system. 
 
 The nominal wine-measures. The pipes, butts, and 
 hogsheads of wine are not English measures, but im- 
 ported measures received from other nations, varying 
 greatly in value ; their correct values will be found in 
 the tables of equivalents of foreign measures at the end 
 of the chapter, also in many cases their English reputed 
 trade values. 
 
 FOREIGN MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
 
 On reviewing the whole of the capacity-measures 
 used in modern times in Europe, their variety in value is 
 certainly very marked, and their origin is generally very 
 obscure ; whilst at the same time they present a general 
 uniformity of object or intention. 
 
 Commencing with the smallest measures and going 
 upwards, the absence of medical measures corresponding 
 to minims and fluid-grains is notable, indicating that 
 compounding is done entirely by weight ; the sole ex- 
 ception to this appears to be the cubic centimetre of the 
 metric system, which is the thousandth part of the 
 
 L 
 
146 METRICAL UNITS. PART i. 
 
 litre, and whose content of water weighs a gramme. In 
 English equivalents the cubic centimetre is either 1 6-931 
 or 1 5 '43 2 liquid grains, and its content in water weighs 
 I -5'43 2 grains. The multiples of the cubic centimetre 
 up to the litre are simple numerical multiples, and can 
 hardly be termed measures ; thus there is no convenient 
 measure in the system corresponding to the English 
 fluid ounce, the corresponding value of which would be 
 28-4 cubic centimetres. The litre is 17614 pint, or 
 O'22Oi8 gallon, and is therefore larger than the new 
 English bottle-measure, Jj- of the gallon, -16667 gallon or 
 ij pint. 
 
 Proceeding to the small commercial liquid-measures 
 devised to meet convenience in the retail sale of liquids, 
 ale, beer, wine, oil, and honey, there is a marked accord- 
 ance among the whole of the quarts, pots, mass, and 
 crushka of Northern Europe, and the boccale and bozze 
 of Southern Europe ; the quartas and quartillos of Spain 
 deviate most from the general type, being submultiples 
 of the azumbre, and of the arroba, or old Moorish 
 or Arab units. The extended employment of the term 
 quart with local modification over so large a part of 
 Europe, including Poland, for a measure of about the 
 same value, is also worthy of note; whether this has 
 been a mere repetition of the old Roman term quartarius 
 is doubtful, because the quartarius was a much smaller 
 measure (less than half an English pint), being a quarter 
 of the sextarius or Roman unit (as) of capacity. This con- 
 tained ^ of a Roman pound of water = u> x f , or about 
 I '2 English pounds, thus making the quartarius about a 
 quarter of an English pint ; while the quarts of Modern 
 Europe are almost all near the English quart. Such 
 quarts may, therefore, have been Gothic and Teutonic in 
 
CH.V. MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 147 
 
 origin, or, if that were not the case, they present a very 
 striking instance of the generalisation of a unit of 
 measure based on natural requirement and convenience 
 the correct principle of formation. 
 
 The multiples of the quart, pot, mass, stof, and 
 crushka of Northern Europe are binary ; the general 
 type being, 2 quarts or pots I kanne or can ; and 2 
 kannen=i stiibchen or gallon in strict analogy with 
 the English measures ; for the term pot is exclusively 
 used in some parts of England, and the term can is also 
 applied to two pots in the same way. In Southern 
 Europe, or rather in Italy, the pinta was a measure of 2 
 boccali ; but no measure of 4 boccali, or any liquid mea- 
 sure corresponding to the Teutonic stiibchen and English 
 gallon, exists otherwise than as a very exceptional case. 
 There are seldom any Italian measures between the pinta 
 and the barile or the brenta, an approximate runlet, 
 kilderkin, or half-barrel in English terms ; the exceptions 
 occurring only when the local Italian barile either takes 
 the place of the brenta or happens to be rather smaller. 
 
 Proceeding from the gallon to the nominal liquid- 
 measures of capacity, the German and Scandinavian 
 ahm or ohm of about 30 gallons seems the most marked 
 unit of this class, and though local measures vary, its 
 ordinary typical subdivision is into 2 eimers, 4 ankers, 
 20 viertel, or 40 stiibchen. The ahm, therefore, corre- 
 sponds to the English kilderkin, runlet, or half-barrel. 
 In the present Italian measures the soma is a hectolitre, 
 but in the former local Italian measures, the soma, the 
 brenta, and the mastello of from 15 to 20 gallons, and 
 the wine-barrel, barile, of about two-thirds that amount, 
 were the measures corresponding to the runlet. 
 
 In Northern Europe the higher nominal liquid-mea- 
 L 2 
 
148 METRICAL UNITS. PARTI, 
 
 sures of capacity are mostly multiples of the awm, and 
 sometimes of the barrel (termed a tonne) ; the barrel 
 being variable, between 20 and 40 gallons, its local 
 values are given in the tables. The Swiss saum corre- 
 sponds to the English barrel, it is sometimes 3 local 
 awms, or 4 local eimer, but is almost invariably a mea- 
 sure equal to 100 mass ; the exceptions being the saum 
 of Basel and Wintherthur of 120 mass, of Schaffhausen 
 and Saint Gall 128 mass, of Zurich 90 mass. The double 
 system of stadtsaum and landsaum correspond to the 
 stadtmass and landmass. 
 
 The oxhoft or hogshead is i^ awm, the butt is 2 awm, 
 and the fuder or tun is 6 awm. The fass or vat corre- 
 sponds to the Jamaica puncheon, and is variable, some- 
 times being a multiple of the barrel (tonne) and 
 sometimes having some simple ratio to the oxhoft or to 
 the eimer ; its values are therefore given in the tables. 
 It must, however, be noticed that the term fass is fre- 
 quently and unnecessarily applied to the German fuder, 
 kufe, and stuckfass, thus causing confusion. 
 
 In Southern Europe the butt and the pipe are some- 
 times different measures and sometimes identical, but 
 they form the more important units, while the barrica, 
 which slightly corresponds to the oxhoft or hogshead, 
 is a mere term for either half a pipe or for half a butt, 
 and the tonelada (or tun) is a term either for two pipes 
 or for two butts. The values of the pipes and the butts 
 of Southern Europe are given in the tables, and in some 
 cases the accepted English trade-values corresponding to 
 them. The general arrangement adopted in the tables 
 of liquid-measures of capacity is this : a series of small 
 measures approximating to the quart is first given ; this 
 is followed by a series of general values of measures 
 
CH. v. MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 149 
 
 corresponding to the gallon, and another set correspond- 
 ing to the runlet or kilderkin. The last set is a series of 
 nominal measures from the barrel to the tun. 
 
 The Asiatic and African liquid measures of capacity 
 given are very few in number, but it must be remembered 
 that Eastern nations deal by weight generally, rarely 
 use measures of capacity, and seldom have any ; for 
 the Oriental Moslem neither takes strong drink, nor 
 consumes the midnight oil. 
 
 DRY-MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
 
 MEASURES of this class are the most unsatisfactory of 
 measures generally, from the fact that their use is or 
 should be mostly confined to produce and goods of a 
 loose nature, grain, coke, lime, fruit, vegetables, &c., and 
 to those of an absorbent nature that may be easily 
 tampered with and adulterated with water without leav- 
 ing much trace of the operation. Such produce may 
 often be so handled in measurement as to render the 
 indicated amount entirely fallacious ; the error possible 
 being fully 25 per cent. ; though in most cases it even 
 amounts to 10 per cent. On the other hand, it is almost 
 as unsatisfactory to weigh many such goods ; for 
 instance, coke, which will absorb more than one-third its 
 original weight of water, without its being apparent, 
 would be liable to an undiscoverable error of 33 per 
 cent. Other things are not liable to such a high error 
 from trusting to weight, and as a rule estimation by 
 weight is preferable to measurement by capacity. 
 
 Under such circumstances any tabulated values of 
 equivalents of foreign dry-measures of capacity are not 
 
i 5 o METRICAL UNITS. PARTI. 
 
 more useful from being extended to many figures, for 
 they cannot be practically applicable with exactitude. 
 
 The range of dry-measures of capacity is necessarily 
 very limited, from the reason that small quantities of 
 dry produce are sold by weight, while very large quanti- 
 ties are either sold by weight or by nominal measures of 
 capacity, loads and lasts that are mere arithmetic multi- 
 ples of real measures. 
 
 In every well-regulated system of measures, the dry- 
 measures are in conformity with the liquid-measures, and 
 are convenient multiples and submultiples of them ; but 
 this cannot be said to be the case generally either in the 
 old German measures or in the old Italian measures, 
 where in some instances the accordance is very imper- 
 fect and badly arranged. In the old French measures 
 the arrangement was worse. Such circumstances are the 
 cause of and form the necessity for a reconstruction of 
 the whole series, or a reason for the adoption of the 
 metric system. In England, where a bushel is 8 gallons, 
 and a quarter is 8 bushels, and the system is in this 
 respect perfect and complete, any such change would 
 not only be undesirable and unnecessary, but needlessly 
 troublesome. 
 
 In Russia where the vedro of liquid is 30 Ibs. of 
 water, the chtof, its eighth part, is 3| pounds, the 
 tschetverik of dry-measure is 64 pounds ! of water, and 
 the tschetvert is 8 tschetverik there is a relation which 
 holds throughout the whole, which similarly renders the 
 adoption of metric measures unnecessary and unadvisa- 
 ble. On the other hand, it does seem unfortunate that 
 the binary system is not rigidly adhered to in the Russian 
 
 1 The Russian pound (funt) is divided in a perfect binary scale into 96 
 sol, or 9216 dola ; its value in English is 6319-81 grains. 
 
CH. v. MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 151 
 
 system, which might be done either by making the 
 tschetverik exactly equal to two vedro, or by making the 
 vedro exactly half a tschetverik. 
 
 As to the range of dry-measures, it may be noticed 
 the English gallon is comparatively large as a liquid- 
 measure, while as a dry-measure it is a comparatively 
 small one. In point of importance, the bushel of dry- 
 measure is the principal unit of use, and the submulti- 
 ples, the pecks, gallons, pottles, quarts, and pints are of 
 less consequence, while the quarter of eight bushels is an 
 important measure. Hence the extent of the more im- 
 portant English dry-measures is from the bushel to the 
 quarter, higher measures being nominal measures, and 
 smaller measures being treated as fractions of the bushel. 
 
 The tables of equivalents of foreign measures at the 
 end of this chapter are arranged in accordance with this 
 classification, and are divided into three classes : measures 
 analogous to the bushel, those corresponding to the 
 quarter, and nominal measures of higher value. 
 
 It might at the first glance appear preferable to 
 arrange them in accordance with their names, and follow 
 out types of measure based on nomenclature. Such an 
 arrangement is possible in the tabulation of the liquid- 
 measures, and is actually carried out, for the reason 
 that the liquid-measures of Europe were found to follow 
 certain types in a general and approximate way ; but 
 among the dry-measures, where less parallelism exists, 
 any such attempt would have caused confusion, and 
 hence the English bushel and the English quarter 
 were taken as types with which the tabulated measures 
 were grouped, either as small or as large measures. 
 The principal cases that led to this arrangement were, 
 first, the metzen, some of which are small, being mere 
 
152 METRICAL UNITS. PARTI. 
 
 subdivisions of the scheffel, and others very large, being 
 even larger than many of the scheffel ; and secondly, the 
 scheffeln, some of which are comparatively small, and 
 others being larger than an average malter. Also in 
 Switzerland the values of the mass, the viertel, and the 
 sester or setier, are similarly subversive of strict con- 
 formity of type to general value. 
 
 Following out the classification adopted, it may be 
 noticed that the measures analogous to the English 
 bushel, or small measures, are among the nations of 
 Northern Europe termed scheffel, skieppe, schepel ; the 
 exceptionally large scheffel of Brunswick and that of 
 Bavaria falling outside this class, and being approximate 
 quarters. In Southern Germany and in certain pro- 
 vinces of Central Germany the scheffel is wanting, and 
 its place, or rather its employment as an approximate 
 bushel, is supplied by the simmer, sester, himt, and by a 
 metze of large size ; in Switzerland the viertel holds a 
 generally corresponding position, although there is much 
 diversity among Swiss measures. The Italian staja and 
 stari were mostly rather small bushels ; while the 
 Spanish and Portuguese fanegas and fangas are very 
 large bushels, mostly about a bushel and a half. The 
 kiloz and bacile of Turkey and Greece, again, are rather 
 small bushels ; while in Asiatic and African countries 
 true dry-measures are rare, as grain is most frequently 
 sold by weight. 
 
 LARGE AND NOMINAL DRY-MEASURES. 
 
 The English nominal dry measures are multiples of 
 the bushel in the same way as the nominal liquid 
 measures are multiples of the barrel. 
 
CH. v. MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 153 
 
 The quarter is a fixed measure of eight bushels, the 
 half-quarter being called a coomb, and the half-coomb or 
 two-bushel measure a strike convenient terms less 
 used now than in former times. The sack is unfor- 
 tunately variable, its reputed values being for coke 3 
 bushels, for corn 4 bushels, and for flour 5 bushels ; 
 while the sack of coal is not a measure of capacity but a 
 weight of two hundredweight ; and the sack of wool is 
 also a weight, being 364 Ibs. The exclusive sale of corn 
 and flour by weight would reduce the sack to a fixed 
 single measure. The chaldron, used for coke alone, is 
 9 bushels an unnecessary measure that might well be 
 suppressed and superseded by the quarter of 8 bushels ; 
 while, if convenient, retaining the name of chaldron as 
 applied to coke ; similarly, also, the sack might either 
 be entirely ignored as a measure of capacity, or fixed at 
 4 bushels for goods of all sorts. 
 
 Proceeding to the foreign measures, that approximate 
 to the English quarter as regards value that is, a measure 
 of about 8 bushels, or 3 hectolitres of the metric system- 
 it may be noticed that the English quarter is seldom 
 closely represented anywhere ; the Russian tschetvert 
 being that most nearly corresponding. Anything more 
 than roughly approximating to a general uniformity can 
 hardly be expected in measures of this type ; but the 
 greater part of them appear to range between the half 
 and the double of the English quarter, and it would not 
 be conducive to clearness to subdivide them into sepa- 
 rate sets. 
 
 The makers of Germany range between 3 and 8 
 bushels, excepting the unusually large Prussian malter ; 
 the large scheffel of Bavaria and that of Brunswick fall 
 among these large measures. The droemt is a large 
 
154 METRICAL UNITS. PART i. 
 
 measure, analogous to the Prussian malter, and a few of 
 the simmer and simra fall in this category, all the 
 measures of which are rather larger than the English 
 quarter. 
 
 The Austrian miith is an exceptional measure of 
 large size. The Swiss mutt are smaller measures follow- 
 ing a type of their own generally, but are very diverse 
 in value ; hence the Swiss malters and Swiss sacks, that 
 approximate more nearly to the English quarter, are 
 given in preference to them in the tables ; from these, 
 the values of the mutt may be reduced when required. 
 
 The old Italian moggio, rubbio, sacco, and soma, are 
 very diverse ; so also are the Spanish cahiz and the 
 Portuguese moio. The Levantine large measures show 
 a similar diversity. 
 
 There is one dry-measure of capacity that is common 
 to almost every nation that uses capacity-measures, and 
 that is the sack ; the word sack is reputed to be one of 
 the most widely spread terms in the vocabulary of the 
 world, and accounted for by the theory of anxiety to 
 secure luggage and effects on the disruption of races 
 at the historic city of Babel. However this may be, the 
 values of the grain-sack of various nations are exceed- 
 ingly varied, the extreme limits being an English bushel 
 and an English quarter that is, the value is between 
 one bushel and eight bushels ; most of them, however, 
 lie between two and four bushels, thus affording suffi- 
 cient grounds for theorising about a primitive or 
 primaeval sack. As a modern measure the sack is 
 seldom worthy of consideration ; the cases in Italy and 
 in Switzerland where its place is not supplied con- 
 veniently by some other measures are comparatively 
 few. 
 
en. v. MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 155 
 
 The nominal measures of capacity are the load, the 
 barrel, the cartload, and the last. 
 
 The load, or man's load, is usually a measure of 
 about five English bushels, but does not admit of any 
 fixity ; the cartload is generally about 40 bushels, or 
 five English quarters, and is similarly variable. 
 
 The barrel, or, as many nations term it, the tonne, of 
 capacity, varies with the description of produce, and is 
 also very variable as regards capacity ; the only source 
 of uniformity being the common custom of using old 
 barrels intended for liquids, which have some approxi- 
 mate known capacity branded on the bung-stave. 
 
 The grain-last is frequently a multiple of the barrel, 
 and, as it is often referred to in commercial transactions 
 and shipping matters, it becomes a more important unit 
 than the barrel ; the values of the grain-lasts are given 
 in the tables, and from these the contents of some grain- 
 barrels may be reduced when required. 
 
 A great number of lasts of various sorts are mere 
 numerical expressions, or customary terms for produce 
 packed according to stereotyped habit and the require- 
 ments of trade, in barrels, bales, or collections of various 
 forms ; such lasts can seldom be considered measures of 
 capacity, as the barrels are estimated by weight. 
 
 The English last of capacity varies from 10 to 12 
 quarters ; the numerical last expressing a quantity is 
 sometimes a multiple of any customary barrel ; thus the 
 last of herring or of cod consists of 1 2 barrels, the last 
 of gunpowder 24 barrels, a last of soap 12 barrels, and 
 of salt 1 8 barrels ; the barrels being very various. 
 
 The following small collection of values of the foreign 
 barrels as dry-measure is suited to the Baltic and North- 
 ern ports of Europe : 
 
i 5 6 METRICAL UNITS. PARTI. 
 
 NORWAY AND DENMARK. 
 
 English French 
 
 gallons. litres. 
 
 For corn and lime. 
 
 Barrel = ^V last =14 4 kriige . . 30-60 138-97 
 For flour, soap, butter, tallow and meat. 
 
 Barrel =136 kriige or pots . . 28-92 131*38 
 For fish, pitch and tar. 
 
 Barrel=i2o kriige .... 25-50 115*81 
 For coal. 
 
 Barrel = T V last= 1 76 kriige . . 37*70 169-85 
 For salt. 
 
 Barrel=i8o kriige or pots . . 38-55 17371. 
 
 SWEDEN AND FINLAND. 
 
 For corn. 
 
 Augmented barrel=63 kannar . 36*29 164*81 
 For flour and fish. 
 
 Augmented barrel =48 kannar . 27*65 125-57 
 For salt and lime. 
 
 Augmented barrel =34 kappar . 34*27 155*65 
 For pitch and tar. 
 
 Augmented barrel=95 stop . . 27-36 124-26 
 For malt. 
 
 Augmented barrel =38 kappar . 38-31 173*97 
 The exceptional customary barrels in Finland are : 
 For coal. 
 
 Barrel of 56 kannar . . . 32*26 146*50 
 
 or the unaugmented Swedish corn-barrel. 
 For salt. 
 
 The Finnish barrel is the Swedish augmented corn-barrel 
 The augmentation is a customary addition of one-eighth. 
 
 RUSSIA AND FINLAND. 
 
 For Finland, see as under Sweden. 
 The Riga barrel for dry merchandise is : 
 For corn and flax, pitch and tar, fish and salt. 
 
 [=^th last=2 Iof=i2 kulmet 30*07 136*57 
 
en. v. MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 157 
 
 The Revel barrels for dry merchan- English French 
 
 dise : gallons. litres. 
 
 For corn, flax, hemp, and lime. 
 
 Barrel=^ th last=3 lof=9 kulmet . 26-05 JI 8*3o 
 For salt. 
 
 Barrel= T Vth last=4 Iof=i2 kulmet 3473 15774 
 
 HOLLAND. 
 
 The Nederlandsche vat or barrel of 
 
 i oo kannen (metric) . . . 22*02 100 
 
 NORTH GERMANY. 
 Berlin barrels. 
 
 For coal, salt, cement, lime, potash. 
 
 Barrel=4 scherTel or 7^ cubic feet . 48*41 219*85 
 For flax and hemp. 
 
 Barrel=37 metzen or 7232 cubic 
 
 inches 28-49 I2 9'39 
 
 Hamburg barrels. 
 
 For corn and flax. 
 
 The Danish corn-barrel . . . 30-60 138*97 
 For lime. 
 
 Barrel =3 fass=6 himten . . 34*84 158*25 
 For coal. 
 
 Barre^^ last= 8^ cubic feet . 42*46 192-82 
 For salt. 
 
 Barrel=^ last=7 himten . . 40-65 184*62 
 
 Bremen. 
 
 For coal. 
 
 Barre^^ last .... 42*45 192-82 
 For salt. 
 
 Barrel = T V last= 3 \ scheffel . . 54*36 246-90 
 
 Liibeck. 
 
 ^ last =4 scherTel . 29-33 I 33' 62 
 
158 METRICAL UNITS. PART i. 
 
 Much of the difficulty in connection with barrels 
 is obviated in practice by the brand on the bung-stave, 
 which gives, either in English or in French units, the 
 reputed capacity or weight of contents of the barrel. 
 Values of the last, a multiple of the barrel, are easily 
 computed for cases other than those of grain ; the grain- 
 lasts alone are given in the tables following : 
 
 As regards the future of the English capacity- 
 measures, based on an old French pound of another 
 system, it perhaps cannot be expected that they will 
 exist unaltered much longer. As to substitutes for them, 
 the English cubic foot and its multiples, whether decimal, 
 binary, or both, are always available. 
 
 The strong attachment that a nation of copious 
 drinkers has for its quarterns, pints, and quarts, mili- 
 tates against any change in retail or small liquid- 
 measures, below the cubic foot ; the wholesale liquid 
 traders might object to change in casks and barrels ; but 
 in dry-measures above the cubic foot there seems a good 
 opportunity for immediate change with a small amount 
 of alteration, by adopting three units, the cubic foot, the 
 quarter =10 cubic feet, instead of 10*27 cubic feet ; and 
 the last=ioo cubic feet, instead of 1027 cubic feet. 
 These three units would answer all purposes in the 
 upper part of the scale ; while liquid-measures could 
 serve for retail dealing. If required, a chaldron of 4 
 quarters might be also adopted. Anything more is 
 evidently superfluous. 
 
 The same principle might also be similarly applied 
 in liquid measures, with equal convenience and simpli- 
 city. 
 
CH. V. 
 
 MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
 
 S9 
 
 SMALL LIQUID MEASURES. 
 
 GENERAL VALUES. 
 
 England, imperial quart 2 pints = 4 gills = 40 
 
 fluid ounces ; 2\ pounds of water at 62 Fahr. 
 Prussia, quart =? 2 oesseln ; 64 cubic inches . . 
 Norway and Denmark, pott = 4 poegel ; 54 cubic 
 
 inches ........ 
 
 Sweden, stop = 4 qwarter = 16 ort ; 50 cubic turn 
 Russia, crushka = 10 charki ; 3 pounds of water 
 Austria, mass = 2 kannen = 4 seideln . 
 France, litre of the metric system ; I kilogram 
 
 of water ...... 
 
 Holland, Nederlandsche kan= 10 maatje . 
 Italy, pinta= 10 coppi .... 
 
 Poland, kwarti (metric) after 1819 
 
 Waadt and other Cantons, mass or pot = 10 glas 
 
 (metric) ; 50 cubic inches ; (since 1823) . 
 Spain, Castilian azumbre = 4 quartillos ; 154! 
 
 cubic inches = 16 copas . . 
 Portugal, Lisbon canhada = 4 quartillos 
 
 ORIENTAL COUNTRIES : 
 
 Liquids are generally sold by weight ; for excep- 
 tions, see under local values. 
 
 ? English 
 Commercia 
 Equivalent 
 
 4&1 
 
 ||| 
 
 Fluid oz. 
 
 French 
 Cf Scientific 
 w Equivalent 
 
 I 
 
 I -008 
 
 40-10 
 40-44 
 
 I-I35 
 
 0-851 
 I-I52 
 I-082 
 1-246 
 
 34-12 
 46-20 
 43-40 
 49-96 
 
 0-966 
 I-308 
 1-229 
 I-4I5 
 
 0-88 1 
 
 35-32 
 
 I -000 
 
 1-189 
 
 47-68 
 
 1-35 
 
 1-777 
 1-214 
 
 71-24 
 48-68 
 
 2-017 
 
 1-380 
 
 FORMER LOCAL OR SPECIAL MEASURES. 
 
 GERMAN MASS, KANNE, QUART : 
 
 Prussian quart of 64 cubic inches - 2 oesseln 
 Anspach, mass = 2 seideln = 4 schoppen 
 Altona, Hamburg, Liibeck, and Rostock 
 
 ,, pot, or kanne = 2 quart = 4 oesst 
 Baden, mass = 10 glaser . 
 Bavaria, masskanne = 4 quarteln ; 43 
 
 cubic inches ..... 
 Bremen, quart = 2 oesseln . 
 Brunswick, quart = 2 noesseln . 
 
 eln 
 
 i -008 
 
 40-44 
 
 i-i45 
 
 '". . 
 
 1-194 
 
 47-89 
 
 I-356 
 
 >ln 
 
 },594 
 
 63-92 
 
 1-810 
 
 
 I-32I 
 
 52-98 
 
 1-500 
 
 decimal 
 
 
 
 
 , . 
 
 0-942 
 
 37-75 
 
 1-069 
 
 ; ; 
 
 O-7II 
 0-809 
 
 28-41 
 32-46 
 
 0-805 
 0-919 
 
1 6o 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 
 11 J 
 
 SnjJ 
 
 SMALL LIQUID MEASURES -*/*/. 
 
 HI 
 
 J|| 
 
 
 uw* 
 
 73 H* 
 
 
 Quarts 
 
 Fluid oz. 
 
 Coblentz, biermass = 4 schoppen 
 
 1-515 
 
 60-75 
 
 ,, weinmass ...... 
 
 I "241 
 
 49-76 
 
 ,, oelmass 
 
 IT26 
 
 45-03 
 
 
 I -171 
 
 46-97 
 
 Dantzig, bierstof= 4 quarts . 
 
 1 1 / M. 
 2-027 
 
 81-26 
 
 
 I'CII 
 
 60-60 
 
 
 ? 
 
 I '692 
 
 67-84 
 
 Erfurt, Thuringian kanne ..... 
 
 1-648 
 
 66-08 
 
 Frankfurt, altmass ...... 
 
 i'579 
 
 63-32 
 
 ,, neumass ...... 
 
 1-404 
 
 56-29 
 
 ,, oelmass, of I pound of oil 
 
 0-456 
 
 18-29 
 
 Gotha, schenkmass = 2 noesseln 
 
 0-801 
 
 32-13 
 
 ,, oelmass of i pound of oil 
 
 0-440 
 
 17-66 
 
 Hanover, quart = 2 noesseln ; 2 pounds of spring 
 
 
 
 water ........ 
 
 0-856 
 
 34-33 
 
 Hesse Darmstadt, mass = 4 schoppen . 
 
 1-761 
 
 70-63 
 
 Hesse (Electoral), weinmass = 4 schoppen ; 144 
 
 
 
 cubic inches ....... 
 
 1-747 
 
 70-07 
 
 Hesse (Electoral), biermass= 1^ weinmass 
 
 1-922 
 
 77-06 
 
 Holstein, quart = 2 oesseln .... 
 
 0-797 
 
 31-96 
 
 Lippe-Detmold, visirkanne = 4 ort 
 
 I -212 
 
 48-60 
 
 Mainz and ') kleinemass = 4 schoppen . 
 
 i '493 
 
 59-86 
 
 Nassau / grossemass, for beer and oil . 
 
 1-661 
 
 66-61 
 
 Oldenburg, weinkanne = 4 ort .... 
 
 1-293 
 
 51-85 
 
 ,, bierkanne I T ^ quart 
 
 1-206 
 
 48-35 
 
 Saxe-Coburg, bier mass ..... 
 
 0-840 
 
 33-69 
 
 Saxe- Weimar, schenkmass = 2 noesseln 
 
 0-807 
 
 32-35 
 
 Saxony, visirkanne ...... 
 
 1-237 
 
 49-60 
 
 f hellaichmass = 4 schoppen . 
 
 1-618 
 
 64-88 
 
 Wiirtemberg < triibaichmass = ,, . . 
 
 1-688 
 
 67-70 
 
 I. schenkmass = ,, 
 
 1-471 
 
 58-98 
 
 SWITZERLAND : 
 
 
 
 Arau, mass ....... 
 
 268 
 
 50-86 
 
 Berne, mass = 4 vierteln ..... 
 
 472 
 
 59-01 
 
 Basel, altmass = 4 schoppen . 
 
 252 
 
 50-22 
 
 ,, neumass= ,, .... 
 
 002 
 
 40-19 
 
 ,, oelmass= ,, .... 
 
 370 
 
 54-95 
 
 Freiberg, mass= ,, .... 
 
 1-376 
 
 55-17 
 
 Geneva, pot of 48 Parisian cubic inches 
 
 0-838 
 
 33-62 
 
 Claris, mass = 4 stotzen ..... 
 
 1-567 
 
 62-83 
 
 Grisons, mass = 4 quartlein . . . . 
 
 1-170 
 
 46-94 
 
 Lucerne, mass = 4 schoppen .... 
 
 1-522 
 
 61-03 
 
 Neufchdtel, pot of 96 Parisian cubic inches 
 
 1-677 
 
 67-24 
 
 Schaffhaus, mass 
 
 i-iif 
 
 46-44 
 
CH. V. 
 
 MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
 
 
 ill 
 
 rfj 
 
 SMALL LIQUID MEASURES continued. 
 
 "* 6.5 
 
 ill 
 
 SWITZERLAND continued. 
 
 uw* 
 
 **$ 
 
 
 Quarts 
 
 Fluid oz. 
 
 
 O-cqi 
 
 23-70 
 
 Saint Gall, mass = i| schenkmass 
 
 v J7* 
 
 46-34 
 
 Thurgau, mass ...... 
 
 407 
 
 56-40 
 
 Uri, mass = 2 quartli ..... 
 
 598 
 
 64-10 
 
 Waadt, mass = 10 glas ; 50 cubic inches 
 
 I8 9 
 
 47-68 
 
 Zurich, lautermass = 2 quartli = 4 statzen 
 
 607 
 
 64-45 
 
 ,, stadtmass= ,, ,, 
 
 446 
 
 57-99 
 
 ,, oelmass, 88 cubic inches 
 
 211 
 
 48-56 
 
 FRANCE : 
 
 
 
 Parisian pot = 2 pintes = 4 chopines ; 93 -9 cubic 
 
 
 
 
 I "640 
 
 65-78 
 
 HOLLAND AND BELGIUM : 
 
 J. \Sf.vr 
 
 
 Amsterdam, mengel = 2 pinten .... 
 
 1-068 
 
 42-82 
 
 Brussels, wine pot = ,, ; 64 ounces 
 
 1-193 
 
 47-83 
 
 beer pot = . 
 
 I -145 
 
 45-92 
 
 AUSTRIA : 
 
 
 
 Imperial mass = 2 kannen = 4 seideln 
 
 1-246 
 
 49-96 
 
 Hungarian halbe or icze = 2 seitel or messli 
 
 0735 
 
 29-45 
 
 Bohemian and Moravian mass \. 
 
 0-942 
 
 37-75 
 
 Poland, Cracow kwarti = \ garniec 
 
 0-835 
 
 33-48 
 
 Silesia, quart ....... 
 
 0-618 
 
 24-79 
 
 Trieste, boccale = Vienermass .... 
 
 1-246 
 
 49-96 
 
 Tyrol, mass 
 
 0712 
 
 28-57 
 
 RUSSIA : 
 
 
 
 Imperial crushka= 10 charki . 
 
 1-082 
 
 43-40 
 
 Pernau and Narva, stof = 4 quarts 
 
 I-I 35 
 
 45-52 
 
 Revel, common stof =4 quarts .... 
 
 1-048 
 
 42-03 
 
 , , stof for oil ; 2| pounds .... 
 
 0-942 
 
 36-16 
 
 Riga, stof . . . . 
 
 1-063 
 
 42-63 
 
 Warsaw, kwarti = \ garniec .... 
 
 0-881 
 
 35-32 
 
 ,, old kwarti \ garniec; before 1819 
 
 0-835 
 
 33-48 
 
 ITALY : 
 
 
 
 The pinta of Lombardo-Venetia and Sardinia . 
 
 0-881 
 
 35-32 
 
 Ancona, boccale = 4 fogliette . . ... 
 
 1-577 
 
 63-22 
 
 Bologna, ,, ,, 20 ounces of wine . 
 
 1-083 
 
 43-44 
 
 
 I "21 7 
 
 48-81 
 
 Brescia, boccale = \ pinta ..... 
 
 1 ** 1 
 0-607 
 
 24-33 
 
 Ferrara, ,, ...... 
 
 1-220 
 
 48-91 
 
 Milan, ,, ...... 
 
 0-693 
 
 27-79 
 
 M 
 
162 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART 
 
 SMALL LIQUID MEASURES continued. 
 
 lj| 
 
 ||| 
 
 111 
 
 ITALY continued : 
 
 uw 
 
 w w 
 
 w w 
 
 
 Quarts 
 
 Huid oz. 
 
 Litres 
 
 
 0*917 
 
 36-77 
 
 I-O4I 
 
 ,, fiasco = 2 boccale .... 
 
 I-834 
 
 73-53 
 
 2-082 
 
 Padua and Vicenza, bozza .... 
 
 0-872 
 
 34-96 
 
 0-990 
 
 Piedmont, boccale = 2 quartini .... 
 
 0-603 
 
 24-19 
 
 0-685 
 
 Rome, boccale of wine ..... 
 
 I -606 
 
 64-38 
 
 1-823 
 
 
 I -808 
 
 72-51 
 
 2-QC'J 
 
 Rovigo, bozza ....... 
 
 0-854 
 
 34-26 
 
 0-970 
 
 Trevisa, boccale di campagna .... 
 
 1-909 
 
 76-53 
 
 2-I67 
 
 ,, town boccale ..... 
 
 I-43 1 
 
 57-39 
 
 I '625 
 
 Tuscany, wine ,, =2mezzette 
 
 1-004 
 
 40-24 
 
 I-I39 
 
 , , oil , , =4 quartucci . 
 
 0-920 
 
 36-89 
 
 1-045 
 
 ,, fiasco = 2 boccale, wine 
 
 2-007 
 
 80-49 
 
 2-279 
 
 Venice, boccale = i quartuccio 
 ,, bozza = 4 quartucci .... 
 
 0-891 
 
 2-378 
 
 35-74 
 95-35 
 
 I -OI2 
 2-700 
 
 Verona, inghistara ...... 
 
 0-862 
 
 34-58 
 
 0-979 
 
 
 0-816 
 
 33-52 
 
 0-949 
 
 Naples, caraffa. ...... 
 
 , J 
 0-640 
 
 25-68 
 
 0727 
 
 ,, quarto = 6 misurelle .... 
 
 o-557 
 
 22-36 
 
 0-633 
 
 Sardinia, quartana= 12 quartucci 
 
 3*699 
 
 148-33 
 
 4'20O 
 
 
 0-80 *: 
 
 35-88 
 
 1-016 
 
 SPAIN AND PORTUGAL : 
 
 7*/ 
 
 
 
 Spain generally azumbre = 4 quartillos 
 
 1777 
 
 71-24 
 
 2*017 
 
 Alicante, quarto = 4 quartillos .... 
 
 2-543 
 
 101-99 
 
 2*888 
 
 Asturias, azumbre = 4 quartillos. 
 
 1*983 
 
 79-50 
 
 2*251 
 
 Barcelona, quarto = 4 quarias .... 
 
 0-907 
 
 36-38 
 
 1*030 
 
 Valencia, azumbre = 2 medios .... 
 
 2'595 
 
 104-04 
 
 2*946 
 
 Galicia, ,, =4 quartillos 
 
 2-044 
 
 81-97 
 
 2-321 
 
 Malaga, =-4 ,, ... 
 
 1745 
 
 69-96 
 
 1-981 
 
 Majorca, quarta (varies much) .... 
 
 0-919 
 
 36-87 
 
 1-044 
 
 Minorca, quartillo ...... 
 
 5-049 
 
 202-47 
 
 5-733 
 
 Lisbon, canhada = 4 quartillos .... 
 
 1-214 
 
 48-68 
 
 1-380 
 
 Oporto, ,, 
 
 1-841 
 
 73-81 
 
 2-090 
 
 Bahia ,, ...... 
 
 6-244 
 
 250-39 
 
 7-090 
 
 Brazil, medida = 2 canhadas = 4 garrafas 
 
 2-447 
 
 98-11 
 
 2-778 
 
 Colombo, Canada = 2 quarts 92* c. in. 
 
 1-330 
 
 53-33 
 
 1-510 
 
 GREECE: 
 
 
 
 
 Cephalonia, boccale = 2 quartucci 
 
 0-833 
 
 33-42 
 
 0-947 
 
 Patras and Morea, wine boccale 
 
 1-880 
 
 75-42 
 
 2-135 
 
 ,, ,, oil ,, ... 
 
 i -606 
 
 64-38 
 
 1-823 
 
 Thiaki, boccale = 2 quartucci .... 
 
 0-9-38 
 
 37-60 
 
 1-065 
 
 ARABIA : 
 
 
 
 
 Mokha, nasfiah= 16 vakia . 
 
 0-83 
 
 33-41 
 
 0-946 
 
CH. V. 
 
 MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
 
 163 
 
 SMALL LIQUID MEASURES continued. 
 
 ||| 
 
 fl.l 
 
 I'll 
 
 ABYSSINIA : 
 
 W Jfl 
 
 W ^(f 
 
 ^$- 
 
 Cuba, for honey = 62 English cubic inches . 
 
 Quarts 
 0-894 
 
 Fluid oz. 
 
 35-85 
 
 Litres 
 I-O15 
 
 ORIENTAL COUNTRIES, INCLUDING 
 NORTHERN INDIA : 
 
 
 
 
 Liquids are sold by weight. 
 
 
 
 
 SOUTHERN INDIA: 
 
 
 
 
 Madras, measure = 8 olluck=ioo cubic inches, 
 
 I '442 
 
 57-82 
 
 I "6^7 
 
 Cochin, oil measure 
 Madura, ,, ....... 
 Masulipatam, manika ..... 
 Negapatam, oil measure ..... 
 Trichinopalli ,, . .. 
 
 * H*T r '*' 
 
 0-625 
 
 1-578 
 2-083 
 
 0-516 
 
 25-05 
 63-28 
 83-54 
 40-08 
 20-68 
 
 1 w o/ 
 O-yiO 
 1792 
 2-365 
 
 0-585 
 
 CEYLON : 
 
 
 
 
 Colombo, measure or ser of capacity = 65 cubic 
 inches, English ...... 
 
 0-938 
 
 37-58 
 
 1-064 
 
 THAI (OR SIAM) : 
 
 o-8u 
 
 33-46 
 
 0-047 
 
 SUMATRA : 
 Pakha 
 
 * '-'OH- 
 0*484 
 
 19-42 
 
 w y\i 
 
 CHINA : 
 
 w T^T" 
 
 
 
 Liquids are sold by weight ; tching measure also 
 exists, corresponding to the tching weight 
 
 0-6I5 
 
 24-72 
 
 0-700 
 
 JAPAN : 
 
 j 
 
 64-07 
 
 I-8I4 
 
 1-12 
 
6 4 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 INTERMEDIATE LIQUID MEASURES. 
 
 GENERAL VALUES. 
 
 England : the imperial gallon of 10 pounds of 
 
 water at 62 Fahr. = 4 quarts = 6 bottles = 1 60 
 
 fluid ounces ...... 
 
 Germany : Prussian stiibchen = 4 quarts or 
 
 mass ; 256 cubic inches .... 
 Norway and Denmark : stiibchen = 3^ pots 
 Sweden : double kanna = 2 kanna = 4 stop j | of 
 
 a cubic foot of water, or 200 cubic tomme 
 Russia: vedro=io crushka ; 30 pounds of 
 
 water ...... . 
 
 Austria : viertel=lo ordinary mass . 
 Italy : the soma= 10 pinte (metric) . 
 Waadt : the broc of 500 cubic inches = 10 pots 
 
 or mass= loo glas ..... 
 Spain : the wine arroba = 4 quartillas = 8 
 
 azumbres (Castile) 
 
 Spain : the oil arroba = 4 quartillas = 100 
 
 panillas (Castile) ..... 
 
 Portugal : the almude of Lisbon = 2 alqueiras 
 
 = 12 canhadas ...... 
 
 Turkey : alma or meter ; 8 oka of oil ..'- 
 Oriental liquid measures are few and local (see 
 
 Local Units). 
 
 5 S 
 
 i- C 
 
 gssj 
 
 'bj'c j 
 
 Gallons 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 t 
 
 0-1604 
 
 1-0084 
 0-8243 
 
 0-1617 
 0-1322 
 
 I-I52I 
 
 0-1847 
 
 2-7057 
 
 0-4340 
 0-4996 
 
 2'2Ol8 
 
 0-3532 
 
 2-9724 
 
 0-4768 
 
 3-553I 
 
 0-5699 
 
 2-7663 
 
 0-4437 
 
 3-6418 
 
 0-5841 
 0-1849 
 
 FORMER, LOCAL, OR SPECIAL VALUES. 
 
 GERMANY : 
 
 Prussian stiibchen = 4 quarts or mass . . 1-0084 0-1617 
 
 = 3 quarts .... 0-7563 0-1213 
 
 Bremen =4 . . . .0-7110 0-1136 
 
 Brunswick ,, -4 M 0-8094 0'1298 
 
 Gotha =4schenkmass . . . 0-8012 0'1285 
 Hamburg, Holstein, and Llibeck, stiibchen = 4 
 
 quarts 0-7971 0'1278 
 
 Hanover, stiibchen = 4 quarts .... 0-8561 1 0'1373 
 
CH. V. 
 
 MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
 
 INTERMEDIATE LIQUID MEASURES 
 continued. 
 
 GERMANY : 
 
 Altona, 1 Rostock, Lubeck, and Bremen, viertel 
 
 ill 
 
 ^S > 
 III 
 
 ow 
 
 Gallons 
 
 CQ4I 
 
 => ? English 
 2 F' Scientific 
 SJ] pp Equivalent. 
 
 Coblenz, viertel = 4 mass. .... 
 
 J -/T^ 
 2409 
 
 0-1990 
 
 Coin ,, =4 ,, 
 
 I7II 
 
 0-1878 
 
 Frankfurt 1 ,, =4altemass . . . 
 
 5789 
 
 0-2533 
 
 Hamburg 1 ,, =8 quarts .... 
 
 5941 
 
 0-2557 
 
 Hanover ,, =8 ,, . .- .- 
 
 7122 
 
 0-2746 
 
 Hesse-Darmstadt, 1 virtel = 4 mass . . . 
 
 7614 
 
 0-2825 
 
 Kiirhesse, ' viertel = 4 mass . : ., T , 
 
 7471 
 
 0-2802 
 
 Lippe-Detmold, ' viertel = 5f kannen . ; 
 
 6362 
 
 0-2625 
 
 Mainz, 1 wine and spirit viertel = 4 mass . . 
 
 4924 
 
 0-2394 
 
 ,, beer and oil ,, =4 
 
 I -6608 
 
 0-2664 
 
 Baden, stutz=iomass ..... 
 
 3-3027 
 
 0-5297 
 
 Wurtemberg, imi = 10 helleichmass . 
 
 4-0447 
 
 0-6488 
 
 FRANCE : 
 
 
 
 Velte = 4 quarts = 8 pints (Paris) 
 
 I '6405 
 
 0-2631 
 
 ,, (mesures usuelles)= 10 litres (1812-1840) 
 
 2'2Ol8 
 
 0-3532 
 
 Corsica, zucca = 9 boccali .... 
 
 2-5695 
 
 0-4122 
 
 AUSTRIA : 
 
 
 
 Viertel = 10 mass (imperial) . 
 
 3-II49 
 
 0-4996 
 
 Cracow (old), garniec = 4 kwarti 
 
 0-8351 
 
 0-1339 
 
 Illyria, Trieste, caffiso ..... 
 
 2 6290 
 
 0-4217 
 
 RUSSIA : 
 
 
 
 Vedro = 10 crushki = 30 pounds of water . 
 
 27057 
 
 0-4340 
 
 Warsaw, old garniec = 4 kwarti 
 
 0-835I 
 
 0-1339 
 
 ,, metric garniec = 4 kwarti . 
 
 0-8807 
 
 0-2595 
 
 HOLLAND AND BELGIUM : 
 
 
 
 Amsterdam, viertel = 3^j stoopen 
 
 I-627I 
 
 0-2610 
 
 Brussels, schreef = 2 geltes = 4 pots . 
 
 I-I93 
 
 0-1913 
 
 SPAIN AND PORTUGAL : 
 
 
 
 Castilian wine arroba = 8 azumbres . 
 
 3'554 
 
 0-5699 
 
 ,, oil ,, of 27^ Ibs. of water . 
 
 2766 
 
 0-4437 
 
 Aragon, cantaro, or wine arroba = 8 azumbres . 
 
 2-28I 
 
 0-3655 
 
 ,, oil arroba of 36 pounds 
 
 2-983 
 
 0-4786 
 
 Barcelona, cortan, or wine arroba = 6 mitadellas 
 
 2-270 
 
 0-3641 
 
 Malaga, cantara (wine) = 8 azumbres 
 
 3-490 
 
 0-5598 
 
 Valencia, cantaro (wine) = 4 azumbres . ."1 
 ,, oil arroba of 30 pounds , . . / 
 
 2-528 
 
 0-4055 
 
 1 At these places 20 vierteln = i a 
 
 tun. 
 
 
156 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART 
 
 INTERMEDIATE LIQUID MEASURES - 
 continued. 
 
 SPAIN AND PORTUGAL contimied : 
 
 6'anary L, arroba of 4^ old English wine gallons 
 (libra Itar, arroba of 3! old English wine gallons 
 Majorca, oil cortan of 9 rottoli .... 
 
 Minorca, gerra = 2 cortes ..... 
 
 La Havana, arroba of 4^ old English wine gals. 
 Valparaiso, arroba of 8j English imperial gallons 
 Mexico, jame= 18 quartillos .... 
 
 Lisbon, almude = 2 alqueiras= 12 canhadas 
 Oporto ,, =2 ,, =12 ,, 
 Madeira almude ...... 
 
 Brazil ,, =2 cantaros= 12 canhadas 
 
 ITALY : 
 
 Florence, fiasco = 2 boccali 
 
 ,, fiasco (oil) = 2 ,, .... 
 
 Ferrara, secchio = 5 ,, 
 
 Venice , = io| ,, .... 
 
 Vicenza ,, = 10 bozze o inghistare 
 Milan, bassa =6 boccali ..... 
 Verona .,, = 4^ inghistare .... 
 Rome, cugnatell a = 4^ boccali (oil) . 
 Messina, caffiso of 12| rottoli grossi (oil) . 
 Calabria, stajo = 30 pignatoli .... 
 Milan , , =32 boccali .... 
 Naples, staro =20 pignate= 16 quarti 
 Sardinia, misura of oil 
 Malta, caffiso (oil), 5| English wine gallons 
 Ionian -I., jaro of wine or oil = 4 mittre 
 
 ,, secchio= 12 boccali .... 
 Zante and 1 Cephalonia, lira o pagliazza 
 
 ARABIA, ALGIERS, MOROCCO': 
 
 Mokha, gadda = 8 nasfiah . . . . . 
 
 Algiers, khulleh or khull ..... 
 ,, metal of oil of 20 rotal kebir 
 
 Tripoli ,, 42 rottal 
 
 ,, harbaia = 6 caraffa, i8| rottal . * 
 
 ,, ,, ofpommade2o ,, unknown spec. 
 
 Tunis, wine matar ..... 
 ,, t)il ,, =2 wine matar 
 
 Soussa, oil matal ..... 
 
 1 In Oriental countries, including Northern India, liqu 
 weight ; and large liquid measures do not exist. 
 
 f 
 
 !f| 
 
 Gallons 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 3-54I 
 
 0-5680 
 
 2-666 
 
 0-4276 
 
 0-890 
 
 0-1428 
 
 2-655 
 
 0-4259 
 
 3-416 
 
 0-5479 
 
 8 -.250 
 
 1-3233 
 
 1-761 
 
 0-2825 
 
 3-642 
 
 0-5841 
 
 5-522 
 
 0-8957 
 
 3-902 
 
 0-6258 
 
 3-642 
 
 0-5841 
 
 0-502 
 
 0-0805 
 
 0-459 
 
 0-0738 
 
 i-5 2 4 
 
 0-2444 
 
 2-378 
 
 0-38f4 
 
 2-089 
 
 0-3352 
 
 I '039 
 
 0-1667 
 
 0-971 
 
 0-1558 
 
 i -808 
 
 0-2899 
 
 2-576 
 
 0-4132 
 
 6-709 
 
 1-0761 
 
 5-544 
 
 0-8893 
 
 2-228 
 
 0-3574 
 
 2-114 
 
 0-3390 
 
 4-582 
 
 0-7349 
 
 3-750 
 
 0-6015 
 
 2-500 
 
 0-4010 
 
 r-666 
 
 0-2674 
 
 1-666 
 
 0-2673 
 
 3'523 
 
 0-5297 
 
 3-94I 
 
 0-6322 
 
 5-I39 
 
 0-8243 
 
 2-294 
 
 0-3680 
 
 g rav - 
 
 
 2-068 
 
 0-3477 
 
 4-335 
 
 0-6954 
 
 5-284 
 
 0-8476 
 
 lids are generally 
 
CH. V. 
 
 MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
 
 167 
 
 INTERMEDIATE LIQUID MEASURES 
 
 continued. 
 
 Ill 
 
 HJ 
 
 flj 
 
 .- 
 
 SOUTHERN INDIA : 
 
 The markal of 12 pakka ser weight. 
 Madras, markal = 8 measures (oil) . 
 Madura ,, =6 ,, ,, 
 Masulipatam, markal 6 manika (oil) 
 Negapatam ,, =4 measures ,, 
 Trichinopalli ,, =4 
 
 Gallons 
 
 2-8839 
 2-3672 
 3-I250 
 
 0-516 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 0-4626 
 0-3797 
 0-5012 
 0-1604 
 0-0827 
 
 C/5 Cf 
 
 w 
 
 Litres 
 
 13-098 
 10-751 
 I4-I93 
 
 2-340 
 
 CEYLON : 
 
 
 
 
 Colombo, markal, 780 c. in. = 12 measures, or 
 seers of capacity ...... 
 
 2-8I3 
 
 0-4511 
 
 12-770 
 
 THAI (OR SIAM) : 
 
 
 
 
 Thangsat = 20 thanan ..... 
 
 4-I722 
 
 0-6692 
 
 18-949 
 
 SUMATRA : 
 
 
 0-2331 
 
 6-598 
 
 CHINA : 
 
 
 
 v J S 
 
 Liquids are sold by weight. 
 Also, teu= 10 tching measures . 
 
 i'S4l 
 
 0-2472 
 
 7'OOQ 
 
 JAPAN : 
 
 
 
 
 Liquids are sold by weight. 
 Also, To= 10 shoo= 100 goo .... 
 
 3 '9938 
 
 0-6407 
 
 I8-I4I 
 
i68 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 LARGE LIQUID MEASURES. 
 
 GENERAL VALUES. 
 
 England : runlet or kilderkin = 18 imperial 
 
 gallons ; or 180 pounds of water at 62 Fahr. 
 
 = 2 firkins = 72 quarts = 2880 fluid ounces 
 Prussian eimer = 2 anker = 60 quarts ; or 3840 
 
 cubic inches 
 
 Sweden : eimer = 2 ankar = 30 kannen = 60 stop ; 
 
 or 3 cubic feet ...... 
 
 Norway and Denmark: anker = 5 viertel=io 
 
 stiibchen= 1 9^ kannen = 39 pots . 
 Russia : anker = 2 stekar = 3 vedro = 30 crushki ; 
 
 or 90 pounds of water ..... 
 Austria : eimer = 4 viertel = 40 mass 
 France : hectolitre of 100 kilogrammes of water . 
 Italy : soma = io mina= 100 pinte . 
 Holland : vat = 100 kannen 
 Polish beczka = 25 garniec = 100 kwarti . 
 Greece : koilon= 100 litra 
 
 O English 
 ; Commercial 
 g Equivalent. 
 
 P English 
 cr Scientific 
 , Equivalent. 
 
 18 
 
 2-887 
 
 15-126 
 
 2-426 
 
 17-282 
 
 2-772 
 
 8-243 
 
 1-322 
 
 8-117 
 12-460 
 
 1-302 
 1-999 
 
 22-018 
 
 3-532 
 
 FORMER, LOCAL, OR SPECIAL VALUES. 
 
 GERMANY: 
 
 Anspach, eimer = 66 mass .... 19-700 3'160 
 Altona, Hamburg, Liibeck, and Rostock, eimer 
 
 = 4 viertel = 8 stiibchen .... 6-377 1'023 
 
 Bavaria, schankeimer = 60 masskannen . . 14-123 2'235 
 
 ,, visireimer = 64 ,, . . 15 -064 2.416 
 
 Brunswick, anker = 10 stiibchen . . . 8-094 I 1'218 
 
 Erfurt, Thuringian eimer =2 anker = 36 kannen 14 -830 2-3/9 
 
 Gotha, eimer = 40 kannen = 80 mass . . 16-025 \ 2'5 
 
 Hanover, eimer =32 kannen = 64 quarts . . 13-785 2'197 
 
 Lippe-Detmold, anker =5 viertel . . . 8-182 i 1'312 
 
 Oldenberg, anker = 26 kannen =40 quarts . 8-403! 1-348 
 
 Dresden, eimer = 2 anker = 48 visirkannen . 14-842 2'381 
 
 Leipzig, eimer = 2 anker = 54 visirkannen . 16-698 2' 678 
 
 Weimar, eimer 72 kannen = 80 schenkmass . 16-139 2'589 
 Wurtemberg eimer is the ohm = i6imi (seep 
 
 V 7 2) 
 
CH. V. 
 
 MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
 
 LARGE LIQUID MEASURES- continued. 
 
 ill 
 
 if| 
 
 SWITZERLAND s 
 
 W c3w 
 
 WC ^H 
 
 
 Gallons 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 Berne, eimer or brenter = 25 mass . 
 
 9-199 
 
 1-476 
 
 Basel, ahm = 8 viertel = 32 altemass . 
 
 10-OlS 
 
 1-607 
 
 Arau, brenta 25 mass ..... 
 
 
 2-361 
 
 Freiburg, brenter = 25 mass .... 
 
 J 8-598 
 
 1-379 
 
 Geneva, setier = 24 quarterons = 48 pots . 
 
 10-062 
 
 1-614 
 
 Claris, eimer = 4 viertel = 30 kopf = 60 mass 
 
 23-506 
 
 3-770 
 
 Saint Gall, eimer = 4 viertel = 32 mass 
 
 9-245 
 
 1-483 
 
 Lucerne ,, = 30 mass or pots . 
 
 
 1-831 
 
 Neufchatel, setier 2 brochets= 16 pots . V 
 
 6-709 
 
 1-076 
 
 Schaffhaus, eimer = 4 viertel = 32 mass 
 
 9-263 
 
 1-486 
 
 Thurgau ,, =32 mass . . - .. 
 
 11-251 
 
 1-805 
 
 Uri of 60 . 
 
 23-978 
 
 3-846 
 
 ,, ,, of 64 ,, 
 
 2C-C76 
 
 4-102 
 
 Waadt, setier 3 brocs = 30 pots 
 
 3 j/ " 
 
 8-917 
 
 1-430 
 
 Zurich, eimer stadtmass = 4 viertel = 60 mass . 
 
 2I-699 
 
 3-481 
 
 Ticino, brenta = 66 boccale .... 
 
 9758 
 
 1-565 
 
 HOLLAND : 
 
 
 
 Amsterdam, anker = 2 steekkannen = 16 stoopen . 
 
 8-543 
 
 1-370 
 
 AUSTRIA : 
 
 
 
 Eimer = 4 viertel = 40 mass .... 
 
 12-460 
 
 1-999 
 
 Hungary, Presburg and Pesth eimer = 64 icze 
 Hungary, Tokay antal = 88 icze = 176 messli 
 
 11-744 
 16-152 
 
 1-884 
 2-591 
 
 Bohemia, Prague eimer =32 pints =128 seidel . 
 
 13-452 
 
 2-158 
 
 ,, Temeswar kis-czeber = 50 icze . 
 
 9-176 
 
 1-472 
 
 Illyria, Trieste orna = 40 boccale 
 
 12-460 
 
 1-999 
 
 Tyrol, uren, or yuren= 128 zimment 
 
 9782 
 
 1-569 
 
 For SOUTHERN EUROPE see Barrels and Loads. 
 
 
 
 RUSSIA : 
 
 
 
 Anker = 2 stekar = 3 vedro = 40 bottles . 
 
 8-117 
 
 1-302 
 
 Narva and Pernau, anker = 30 stof . 
 Revel, anker = 5 viertel = 30 stof . . , 
 
 8-517 
 7-863 
 
 1-366 
 1-261 
 
 Riga =5 =30 >t 
 
 7-971 
 
 1-278 
 
 SUMATRA : 
 
 
 
 Tub= 10 sukat= 120 pakha .... 
 
 I4-530 
 
 2-331 
 
 CHINA : 
 
 
 
 Tche=io teu=ioo tching . . . 
 
 15-412 
 
 2-472 
 
I 7 o 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 NOMINAL LIQUID MEASURES. 
 
 BARRELS. 
 
 Ill 
 
 ||| 
 
 111 
 
 Tonne, fas schen, barile, barril, 
 
 III 
 
 r \ rvi 
 
 111 
 
 IjJ 
 
 brenta, &c. 
 
 QJ W 
 
 Gallons 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 Hectol. 
 
 England : beer and ale barrel = 4 firkins . 
 
 36 
 
 5-775 1-6350 
 
 Norway and Denmark : toende= 136 pots 
 
 28-930 
 
 4-640 ! 1-3139 
 
 Sweden and Finland : tunna = 96 stop 
 
 27-650 
 
 4-439 1-2558 
 
 GERMANY : 
 
 
 
 
 Berlin, tonne = 100 quarts, or 6400 cub. in. 
 
 25-2II 
 
 4-044 
 
 I-I450 
 
 Bremen ,, =48 stiibchen .... 
 
 34-009 
 
 5-455 
 
 I 1 5446 
 
 ,, oil tonne = Berlin tonne 
 
 25-2II 
 
 4-044 i -^450 
 
 Brunswick tonne = 27 stiibchen 
 
 21-855 
 
 3-506 0-9926 
 
 Gotha ,, =24 ,, . 
 
 19-228 
 
 3-084 0-8733 
 
 ,, brandy tonne = 1 10 kannen 
 
 44-065 
 
 7-068 2-0013 
 
 Hanover, tonne = 26 stiibchen .... 
 
 22-258 
 
 3-570 , i -0109 
 
 Holstein, Hamburg and Rostock tonne = 32 
 
 
 
 
 stiibchen ; (also one of 48 stiibchen) 
 
 25-506 
 
 4-091 
 
 1-1584 
 
 LUbeck, tonne = 42 stiibchen .... 
 
 33^78 
 
 5-370 
 
 1-5205 
 
 Saxony, Dresden tonne = 70 visirkannen . 
 
 21-646 
 
 3-472 
 
 0-9831 
 
 ,, Leipzig ,, =75 kannen 
 
 19-878 
 
 3-188 
 
 0-9028 
 
 Oldenburg, tonne = 112 kannen . . . 
 
 33754 
 
 5-414 
 
 I-5330 
 
 FRANCE : 
 
 
 
 
 Tonne de biere (mesure usuelle) = 7^ veltes 
 
 
 
 
 (1812 1840) 
 
 i6*ciA 
 
 2-649 
 
 0*7 ^oo 
 
 AUSTRIA : 
 
 
 
 
 Tonne = 2 imperial eimer = 80 mass . 
 
 24-920 
 
 3-997 
 
 1-1318 
 
 Vienna, old tonne = 2 eimer = 85 mass 
 
 26-481 
 
 4-248 
 
 i -2027 
 
 Temeswar, nagy-cseber = 2 kis-cseber 
 
 18-352 
 
 2-944 
 
 0-8335 
 
 Cracow, old beczka = 36 garniec 
 
 30-063 
 
 4-822 
 
 
 RUSSIA : 
 
 
 
 
 Narva and Pernau, tonne = 128 stof . 
 
 3 6 -339 
 
 5-829 
 
 i -6504 
 
 Revel, tonne 128 stof ..... 
 
 --,.-. 2 
 
 5-380 
 
 
 Riga ,, =90 ,, 
 
 2VQI2 
 
 3-835 
 
 i -0860 
 
 ,, brandy tonne = 1 20 stof .... 
 
 3I-882 
 
 5-114 
 
 i -4480 
 
 Warsaw, old beczka = 36 garniec before 1819 . 
 
 30-063 
 
 4-822 
 
 
 Lemberg, old beczka = 36 garniec , , . 
 
 30-471 
 
 4-888 1-5839 
 
 The above barrels are for liquids generally, except when otherwise 
 specified, as for Bremen, Gotha, Riga. 
 
CH. V. 
 
 MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
 
 171 
 
 NOMINAL LIQUID MEASURES 
 
 
 H 
 
 o a 
 
 - o a 
 
 Wine barrels and oil barrels. 
 
 ill 
 
 ill 
 
 gSj * 
 
 u o > 
 
 
 III 
 
 wjj'g* 
 
 S'0'3, 
 
 SPAIN : 
 
 ow 
 
 Gallons 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 ^W 
 Hectol. 
 
 Aragon, barril = 4 wine arrobas 
 
 . 9-124 
 
 1-464 
 
 0-4144 
 
 Barcelona ,, =2 mallals = 32 mitadellas . 
 
 . 6-636 
 
 1-064 
 
 0-3014 
 
 , , oil barril = 7| cortanes 
 
 6-804 
 
 1-091 
 
 0-3090 
 
 Valencia, barril = 3f wine arrobas 
 
 9-479 
 
 1-520 
 
 0-4305 
 
 Alicante, oil barril = 2\ oil arrobas . 
 
 . 6-319 
 
 1-014 
 
 0-2870 
 
 Majorca, covtin = 6i corters (wine) . 
 
 5-976 
 
 0-958 
 
 0-2714 
 
 Minorca, barillo = 5| quartillos 
 
 . 6-942 
 
 1-114 
 
 0-3I53 
 
 Spanish barrels are mostly estimated by 
 
 weight, and vary greatly. 
 
 ITALY : 
 
 
 Ancona, barile = 24 boccale . . 
 
 9-459 
 
 1-517 0-4296 
 
 Genoa, wine barrel = 50 pinte . 
 
 . 16-344 
 
 2-G22 
 
 0-7423 
 
 ,, oil ,, = 64 quarteroni . 
 
 . 14-239 
 
 2-284 
 
 0-6467 
 
 Modena, wine ,, =20 fiaschi 
 
 . 9-I73 
 
 1-471 
 
 0-4166 
 
 Naples ,, ,, =6ocaraffe 
 
 . 9-604 
 
 1-541 
 
 0-4362 
 
 Palermo ,, ,, 
 
 . 7-865 
 
 1-262 
 
 0-3572 
 
 Rome ,, ,, =32 boccali 
 
 . 12-845 
 
 2-060 
 
 0-5834 
 
 ,, oil ,, =28 boccali 
 
 . 12-658 
 
 2-030 
 
 0-5749 
 
 *" ~T^ 
 
 Sardinia, oil ,, =3^ pots 
 
 7'398 
 
 1-187 
 
 0-3360 
 
 Tuscany, wine,, =20 fiaschi (wine) 
 
 10-036 
 
 1-610 
 
 0-4558 
 
 
 
 1-471 
 
 o -4. 1 6 ^ 
 
 ,, oil orchio= 1 6 fiaschi (oil) . 
 
 . 7-360 
 
 1-180 
 
 w *r 4 V 3 
 Q'3343 
 
 Bergamo, brenta = 52 pinte 
 
 . 15-822 
 
 2-538 
 
 07186 
 
 Cremona ,, 
 
 . 32-367 
 
 5-192 
 
 1-47 
 
 Milan ,, = 16 basse 
 
 . 16-632 
 
 2-668 
 
 07554 
 
 Parma ,, .... 
 
 I5-853 
 
 2-543 
 
 O-72 
 
 Piacenza and Reggio, brenta 
 
 . 16-734 
 
 2-684 
 
 076 
 
 Piedmont, brenta = 36 pinte 
 
 . 10-850 
 
 1-740 
 
 0-4928 
 
 Verona ,, =16 basse 
 
 I 5"5 2 3 
 
 2-490 
 
 0-7050 
 
 Belluna, mastello = 40 boccali . 
 
 . 16-447 
 
 2-638 
 
 07470 
 
 Ferrara =40 ,, 
 
 . 12-194 
 
 1-956 
 
 0-5538 
 
 Padua = 72 bozze 
 
 . 15-699 
 
 2-518 
 
 0-7I30 
 
 Rome 40 boccali . 
 
 . 18-081 
 
 2-900 
 
 0-8212 
 
 Rovigo = 108 bozze . 
 
 23-075 
 
 3-701 
 
 I -0480 
 
 Trevisa = 36 boccali di campagna 
 
 . 17-174 
 
 2-755 
 
 0-78 
 
 
 14-268 
 
 2-289 
 
 0*6480 
 
 Vicenza =120 bozze . 
 
 25 -079 
 
 4-023 
 
 I -1 190 
 
 Bologna, corba = 60 boccali 
 
 . 16-247 
 
 2-606 0-7379 
 
 Lucca, coppo = 264 pounds of oil 
 
 . 21-987 
 
 3-527 0-9986 
 
 Mantua, moggio = 320 pounds of oil . 
 
 . 24-519 
 
 3-933 1-1136 
 
172 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART 1. 
 
 NOMINAL LIQUID MEASURES 
 
 slj 
 
 -sii 
 
 ** 
 
 continued. 
 
 ill 
 
 I'll 
 
 III 
 
 GREECE, MEDITERRANEAN, &c. : 
 
 on 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 Hectol. 
 
 Patras, barrel = 24 boccali (wine and brandy) . 
 
 11-284 
 
 1-810 
 
 0-5125 
 
 ,, oil and honey barrel 19 Ib. or 25^ bocc. 
 
 
 
 
 Ionian I., wine and oil barrel = 4 jari 
 
 15*005 
 
 2-407 
 
 06815 
 
 Zante ,, ,, =120 quartucci , 
 Malta, wine and oil barrel = 2 caffisi, II old 
 
 14-690 
 
 2-356 
 
 o 6672 
 
 
 Q-l64 
 
 1-470 
 
 0-4162 
 
 Ragusa, oil and honey barrels = 84 centlets 
 
 ./ * ui r 
 I6-972 
 
 2-722 
 
 0-7708 
 
 Tripoli (Barbary), barrel = 24 bozze (Venetian) . 
 
 I4-268 
 
 2-289 
 
 0-6480 
 
 Majorca, odre= 12 cortanes = 48 quartas . 
 
 IO-68I 
 
 1-713 
 
 0-4851 
 
 JAPAN : 
 
 
 
 
 Koku = 10 to = loo shoo = 1000 goo . 
 
 39*938 6-407 1-8141 
 
 LOADS. 
 
 The awm, ahm, ohm, and the tierce. 
 
 DENMARK, SWEDEN, AND GER- 
 MANY : 
 
 The ahm is an expression for 4 ankers ; in some 
 cases for 20 vierteln or f oxhoft (see Ankers 
 and Vierteln, pp. 165, 168, or see Oxhoft). 
 
 The exceptional ahmen are : 
 Baden ahm= 10 stiitzen ..... 
 Coblenz ,, =27 vierteln. .... 
 Coin =28 ..... 
 Gotha ,, =2ehner . . . . 
 Hanover,, =2\ ,, =4 anker 
 Wurtemberg ohm, or eimer= 16 imi, 12\ c. ft. . 
 
 HOLLAND AND BELGIUM : 
 
 Old Amsterdam aam = 4 anker 
 
 Old Brussels aem = 24 schreef .... 
 
 FRANCE (mesures anciennes) : 
 
 Parisian tier5on= 13 veltes .... 
 
 Bordeaux ,, =20 ,, 
 
 Champagne,, or demicaque = 7| veHes . 
 
 RUSSIA : 
 Warsaw, tiercon = 40 garniec (old) . 
 
 33-027 
 
 5-297 
 
 'So 
 
 33 -55 
 
 5-374 
 
 5217 
 
 32-794 
 
 4-909 
 
 4894 
 
 32-049 
 
 5-141 
 
 4555 
 
 34-242 
 
 5-492 
 
 5552 
 
 64715 
 
 10-381 
 
 2-9393 
 
 34-172 
 
 5-481 
 
 i'552 
 
 28-628 
 
 4-592 
 
 1-3002 
 
 19-686 
 
 3-158 
 
 0-8941 
 
 33'203 
 
 5-326 
 
 i -5080 
 
 11-729 
 
 1-881 
 
 0-5327 
 
 33-423 5-358, 1-5171 
 
CH. V. 
 
 MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
 
 173 
 
 NOMINAL LIQUID MEASURES- -continued. 
 
 LOADS continued. 
 
 3% 
 
 .e c" 
 
 
 HI 
 
 .JS'S J 
 
 CJiarges, carica, carga, salma, soma, taunt. 
 
 rS 1'3 
 
 c.l-| 
 
 SWITZERLAND : 
 
 W 3 o 4 
 UW 
 Gallons 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 The saum is generally = 100 mass (see Mass). 
 
 
 
 The exceptional saum were: Basel, 96 altmass; 
 
 
 
 St. Gall, 128 mass ; Grisons, 90 mass ; Schaff- 
 
 
 
 haus and Stein, 128 mass; Wintherthur, 120 
 
 
 
 mass ; Zurich, saums of 90 and of 96 mass. 
 
 
 
 SPAIN : 
 
 
 
 The carga for wine or oil generally consists of 
 
 
 
 4 nominal barrels (see Barrels) ; its value 
 
 
 
 varies locally from 27 to 36 gallons, and is, 
 
 
 
 besides, differently estimated, even by Spanish 
 
 
 
 metrologists. 
 
 
 
 ITALY : 
 
 
 
 
 22'Ol8 
 
 3-532 
 
 Ancona, soma = 2 barili = 48 boccali . 
 
 18-918 
 
 3-034 
 
 Tuscany ,, (oil) = 2 barili = 32 fiaschi . 
 
 I4-7I9 
 
 2-361 
 
 Rome ,, ,, = 2 mastelli = 80 boccali 
 
 36-165 
 
 5-801 
 
 Naples, salma ,, =256 quarti .... 
 
 35-660 
 
 5-720 
 
 Sicily, ordinary wine salma .... 
 
 18-341 
 
 2-942 
 
 ,, Messina wine salma = 8 barili 
 
 19-288 
 
 3-094 
 
 ,, Syracuse salma ..... 
 
 17-139 
 
 2-749 
 
 Cyprus, some or coriche ..... 
 
 22'8OO 
 
 3-657 
 
 HOGSHEADS. 
 
 Oxhoft, oxhufwud, barrica, barrique. 
 
 England, hogshead = i| barrel (since 1803) 
 Sweden, oxhufwud = i| awm = 3 embar 
 Denmark, oxehoved^i| M =6 anker . 
 
 GERMANY : 
 Prussian oxhoft =ii ahm = 6 anker . 
 
 -6 anker 
 = 6 
 -6 
 
 Hanse towns,, =i| ,, =6 
 Brunswick ,, = if ,, =6 
 Hanover ,, i\ ,, =6 
 Lippe-Detmold, oxhoft = i\ ahn 
 Oldenburg ,, = i 
 
 Saxony, Dresden ,, = i 
 ,, Leipzig ,, =i| 
 
 54 
 
 8-662 
 
 2-4525 
 
 5I-84 
 
 8-316 
 
 2-3544 
 
 49-457 
 
 7-933 
 
 2 -2462 
 
 45-38 
 
 7-279 
 
 2-0611 
 
 
 7-671 
 
 2-1721 
 
 48-57 
 
 7-790 
 
 2-2057 
 
 5I-36 
 
 8-239 
 
 2-3328 
 
 49-09 
 
 7-873 
 
 2-2294 
 
 50-42 
 
 8-087 
 
 2-2899 
 
 44*53 
 
 7-142 
 
 2 -O224 
 
 50-10 
 
 8-035 
 
 2-2752 
 
174 
 
 METRICAL UNITS, 
 
 PART I. 
 
 NOMINAL LIQUID MEASURES 
 continued* 
 
 HOLLAND : 
 Amsterdam okshoofd = i| aam = 6 anker . 
 
 RUSSIA: 
 
 Russian oxhoft = 12 stekar= 18 wedro 
 Warsaw ,, = 60 garniec (old) 
 
 ,, ,, =60 ,, (metric) . 
 
 SOUTHERN EUROPE : 
 
 The barrica of Southern Europe is a term for the 
 half-pipe or demiqueue. (See Pipe.) 
 
 SAN DOMINGO : 
 Barrica = 60 old wine gallons .... 
 
 3KJ 
 
 '^S-> 
 
 6 g, 
 
 UW 
 
 Gallons 
 
 51-26 
 
 4870 
 5O-IO 
 52-84 
 
 s<s 
 
 '' 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 8-220 
 
 7-812 2-2119 
 8-037 2-2756 
 8-476 2-4000 
 
 49-99 8-018 2-2702 
 
 PUNCHEONS, /ass, vat, fat, &*c. 
 
 GERMANY : 
 
 Prussian fass, beer or brandy = 2 barrels 
 
 Brunswick fass for mumme= 10 anker 
 
 Brunswick , for beer =4 ,, 
 
 Gotha , for brandy = I ,, 
 
 Hanover , for beer =4 ,, 
 
 Liibeck , ,, = I Hamburg oil fass = 1 3- 
 
 , for brandy = I oxhoft . 
 
 Saxony, Dresden fass (beer) =4 barrels 
 
 ,, Leipzig ,, ,, = 4 ,, . . 
 
 ,, Dresden ,, (wine) = 10 anker 
 Leipzig =10 
 
 AUSTRO- HUNGARY : 
 
 Bohemian fass (beer or wine) = 4 eimer 
 Presburg ,, ,, = 4 eimer = 256 icze . 
 Tokay ,, (wine) = 2f Presburg eimer 
 
 JAMAICA : 
 
 Rum puncheon, variable nominal value ; actual 
 values between 72 and 108 gallons . 
 
 50-42 
 
 8-088 
 
 80-94 
 
 12-983 
 
 87-42 
 
 14-021 
 
 44-07 
 
 7-068 
 
 8903 
 
 14-280 
 
 31-88 
 
 5-114 
 
 47-83 
 
 7-671 
 
 86-58 
 
 13-887 
 
 79'S 1 
 
 12-754 
 
 74-21 
 
 11-904 
 
 83'5c 
 
 13-392 
 
 S3'8i 
 
 8-631 
 
 46-98 
 
 7-536 
 
 32-30 
 
 5-181 
 
 84 
 
 13-473 
 
 3-8151 
 
CH. V. 
 
 MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
 
 175 
 
 NOMINAL LIQUID MEASURES 
 continued. 
 
 BUTTS AND PIPES, bota, pipa, queue. 
 
 Germany "| 
 
 Norway I The butt or pipe (when not imported) 
 
 Sweden f consists of 2 oxhoft. (See Oxhoft.) 
 
 Denmark J 
 
 England, the butt = 2 hogsheads = 3 barrels 
 
 Russia : Sarokowaja-botschka for oil or brandy 
 
 = 40 wedro . 
 
 Austria: weinfass= 10 eimer .... 
 
 SPAIN : 
 
 Pipa of wine = 27 wine arrobas .... 
 
 , , of oil 34^ oil arrobas .... 
 
 Bota of wine = 30 wine arrobas .... 
 
 , , of oil = 385 oil arrobas .... 
 
 Local values. 
 
 Alicante, pipa vino = 40 arrobas 
 
 Barcelona, pipa (wine) =4 carga; = 64 wine cor- 
 
 tans, reputed trade value loc gallons 
 Barcelona, pipa (oil) = 119 oil cortans, same val. 
 Cadiz, pipa (oil) = 34 oil arrobas 
 Malaga ,, (wine) = 25 arrobas . 
 
 ,, bota (wine) = 30 ,, reputed trade 
 
 value 100 gallons ...... 
 
 Malaga, pipa (oil) = 34 Castilian oil arrobas 
 
 bota (oil) -42 
 Teneriffe, pipa vino, varies from 116 to 124 old 
 
 wine gallons ; reputed trade value 100 gallons 
 Valencia, pipa vino = 42 cantaros 
 
 ,, pipe (oil) =40 arrobas . . 
 ,, bota, or tonel = i oo cantaros 
 Xeres, bota vino, 120 old wine gallons, English ; 
 
 reputed trade value 108 imperial gallons 
 Majorca, pipa (oil) = 108 cortanes 
 Minorca, pipa = 40 gerra ; reputed trade value 
 
 105 gallons ...... 
 
 Malta, pipe = 1 1 barrels .... 
 
 PORTUGAL : 
 
 Lisbon, pipa o bota = 26 almudes 
 
 ,, ,, for London, 31 almudes, reputed at 
 140 wine gallons ...... 
 
 Porto, pipa = 21 almudes, reputed at 115 gallons 
 Madeira, pipa = 23^ almudes, reputed at 92 galls. 
 
 c i'3 
 
 |l 
 
 Gallons 
 
 ub. ft. 
 
 1 08 
 
 7-324 
 
 108-2 
 
 124-6 
 
 7-359 
 9-985 
 
 95*9 
 
 95 '4 
 106-6 
 106-5 
 
 15-387 
 15-308 
 17-097 
 17-084 
 
 1017 
 I 
 
 16-320 
 
 1 106-2 
 
 17-031 
 
 J 
 94-1 
 
 87-2 
 
 15-087 
 13-994 
 
 1047 
 94-1 
 116-2 
 
 16-792 
 15-087 
 18-637 
 
 . 
 
 100 
 
 106-2 
 
 lOI'I 
 
 252-8 
 
 16-040 
 17-033 
 16-217 
 40-543 
 
 ! 
 IOO 
 
 . 96-1 
 
 e 
 106-2 
 
 16-040 
 15-421 
 
 17-041 
 
 100-8 
 
 16-175 
 
 947 
 
 15-188 
 
 t 
 112-9 
 116 
 92 
 
 18-107 
 18-598 
 14-708 
 
176 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART 
 
 NOMINAL LIQUID MEASURES 
 
 "rt 
 '0 
 .52 *-< -* 
 
 *%i 
 
 *&i 
 
 continued. 
 
 ">!. 
 
 Ill 
 
 III 
 
 BRAZIL ; 
 
 uw* 
 
 ^w 
 
 ^w 
 
 
 Gallons 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 Hectol. 
 
 Rio Janeiro, pipa = 1 80 medidas 
 Bahia, pipa (rum) = 72 canhadas 
 
 . HOT 
 
 112-6 
 
 17-658 
 18-032 
 
 5 
 
 ,, ,, (molasses) = I oo ,, 
 
 . 156-1 
 
 25-045 
 
 7-0915 
 
 ITALY &c. : 
 
 
 
 
 Rome, botta vino = 16 barili 
 
 205-5 
 
 32-967 
 
 9-3346 
 
 Venice, ,, = 10 mastelli . 
 
 . 142-7 
 
 22-885 
 
 6-4800 
 
 ,, anfora = 8 mastelli . 
 
 114-1 
 
 18-308 
 
 5-1840 
 
 ,, botta of oil = 2000 pounds weight. 
 
 
 
 
 Vicenza ,, = 8 mastelli = \ carro . 
 
 . 200-6 
 
 32-181 
 
 9-II2O 
 
 
 
 18-486 
 
 C "?'2/l A 
 
 
 
 21-567 
 
 6-1068 
 
 Sardinia, botta = 500 pinte 
 
 no'i 
 
 17-658 
 
 5 
 
 Messina, bota o pipa = 90 gallons 
 
 . 90 
 
 14-436 
 
 4-0876 
 
 Palermo, pipa = 12 barili .... 
 
 94-4 
 
 15-136 
 
 4-2858 
 
 Gallipoli, pipe of oil = 2f salme . 
 
 95-6 
 
 15-327 
 
 4-3400 
 
 
 
 17-40 
 
 4/928 
 
 SWITZERLAND : 
 
 
 
 *T ;7*'' ta/ 
 
 Geneva, char =12 setier .... 
 
 . 120-8 
 
 19-369 
 
 5 -4844 
 
 Waadt, char = 16 eimer = 48 broc 
 
 . 142-7 
 
 22-885 
 
 6-4800 
 
 TUNS, FUDER, TONELADA, TONNE AU, STUCKFASS, 
 KUFE, FASS. 
 
 England, tun of beer or ale = 2 butts . 
 ,, ,, whale oil = 2 10 gallons 
 
 ,, ,, vegetable oil = 197 gallons 
 
 United States, tun = 200 wine gallons 
 
 Norway and Denmark, fuder = 2 pipes =4 oxhoft 
 
 ,, ,, stykfad = i fuder = 30 
 
 ankar ........ 
 
 Former Elsinor tun, for wine, vinegar, and beer . 
 ,, ,, ,, of whale oil = 252 wine gals. 
 
 Sweden, fuhre = 2 pipas = 4 oxhufwud 
 
 GERMANY : 
 
 Hamburg tun of wine, or fass = 4 oxhoft 
 Danzig fuder = 2 both or pipes .... 
 Munich fass = 25 eimer ..... 
 Heidelberg, stiickfass= 150 vierteln . 
 Frankfurt = i^ fuder = 8 ahmen . 
 
 Nuremberg = ii ,, =15 eimer. 
 Vienna, dreiling = 3 fass = 30 eimsr . 
 
 216 
 
 34-65 
 
 9 810 
 
 2IO 
 
 33-69 
 
 9 '539 
 
 197 
 
 31-60 
 
 8-947 
 
 166-6 
 
 26-74 
 
 7-570 
 
 197-8 
 
 31-73 
 
 8-984 
 
 2473 
 
 39-66 
 
 1 1 -230 
 
 204-2 
 
 32-75 
 
 9-274 
 
 2IO'O 
 
 33-69 
 
 9*539 
 
 207-4 
 
 33-26 
 
 9-418 
 
 I9I-3 
 
 30-68 
 
 8-688 
 
 I8I-5 
 
 29-11 
 
 8-244 
 
 376-5 
 
 60-39 
 
 17-10 
 
 26l-2 
 
 41-90 
 
 1 1 -863 
 
 252-6 
 
 40-52 
 
 n-473 
 
 242'4 
 
 38-87 
 
 11-007 
 
 383-I 
 
 61-45 
 
 17-40 
 
CH. V. 
 
 MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
 
 177 
 
 NOMINAL LIQUID MEASURES 
 
 continued. 
 
 SWITZERLAND : 
 
 Berne, landfass = 6 saum .... 
 
 , , fass = 4 saum = 26 brenten 
 Freiberg, fass, or fahrt= 16 ,, 
 Gruyere ,, = 16 brenten 
 
 FORMER FRENCH UNITS : 
 
 Bordeaux, tonneau = 4 barriques = 6 tierfons 
 Le Havre ,, =4 ,, 
 Nantes ,, = 2 pipes = 4 barriques . 
 
 La Rochelle ,, =4 barriques = 120 veltes 
 Marseille, tonneau d'huile .... 
 
 HOLLAND AND BELGIUM (former): 
 
 ill 
 
 111 
 
 c e'3 
 
 e?.U m ~ 
 
 wji- 
 
 W crt o 1 
 
 Gallons 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 220-8 
 
 35-41 
 
 147-2 
 
 23-609 
 
 137-6 
 
 22-065 
 
 22O'O 
 
 35-280 
 
 I99-2 
 
 31-65 
 
 200-8 
 
 32-21 
 
 2II-4 
 
 33-90 
 
 2OI 'I 
 
 32-25 
 
 I98-2 
 
 31-78 
 
 201-3 
 
 32-29 
 
 I87-9 
 
 30-14 
 
 joi-6 
 
 30-73 
 
 198-2! 31-78 
 
 213-2 
 
 Amsterdam, wine vat, or kufe = 60 aamen 
 
 ,, olive oil vat = 717 mengel 
 
 Rotterdam ,, =340 stoopen 
 
 Anvers, tun of Geneva 
 
 SPAIN : 
 
 Spanish tonelada = 2 botas = 4 barrigas 
 At Alicante, Barcelona, and in Valencia the 
 tonelada = 2 pipas. (See Pipes.) 
 
 PORTUGAL AND BRAZIL : 
 
 Lisbon, tonnelada = 2 pipas = 4 barricas . . 189-4 
 
 ,, ,, de junta = loo cubic palmos . 176-1 
 
 Rio de Janeiro, tonelada = 2 pipas = 360 medidas 220-2 
 
 SICILY : 
 
 Messina, tonna= 12 salme . 
 Syracuse, tonna= 12 salme 
 Naples, carro = 24 barili . 
 
 205-7 
 230-6 
 
 34-19 
 
 30-38 
 28-25 
 35-32 
 
 37-13 
 32-99 
 36-97 
 
 N 
 
METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 JNUM1JNAL, i^l^UIiJ JVmA.au Ka 
 
 continued. 
 
 111 
 
 c^-- 
 
 fli 
 
 lj| 
 
 BREW, BRAU, GEBRAUDE, 
 
 W c3w 
 
 ^ w* 
 
 ^w 
 
 BROUWSEL, BRASSIN. 
 
 Barrels 
 
 Cub.rods 
 
 Hectol. 
 
 Berlin, gebraude = 9 kupen = 36 barrels 
 Bremen, brau = 45 scheffeln 
 
 . 20-4 
 
 0-14558 
 0-11772 
 
 41-22 
 
 
 55*9 
 
 0-30683 
 
 86-88~ 
 
 Dresden ., = 12 kufe = 96 barrels . 
 
 577 
 
 0-33332 
 
 94-38 
 
 Leipzig ,, =8kufe = 64 ,, 
 Hanover ,, =172 barrels 
 
 . 35-3 
 . 106-3 
 
 0-20406 
 0-61405 
 
 57-78 
 I73-87 
 
CII. V. 
 
 MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
 
 179 
 
 DRY MEASURES* 
 
 GENERAL VALUES. 
 
 England : the Imperial bushel = 8 gallons ; or 80 
 
 pounds of water ..... 
 Germany: the Prussian scheffel = 4 viertel = 16 
 
 metzen = 3072 cubic inches 
 Norway and Denmark : the grain skieppe = 4 
 
 fierdingkar = 18 pott = 972 cubic inches . 
 Norway and Denmark : the coal skieppe = 22 pots 
 Sweden : the spann = 4 fjerdingar= 16 kappar = 
 
 56 stop = 2 -8 cubic feet . 
 Russia : tschetwerik = 4 tschetwerka = 8 garnetz ; 
 
 or 64 funt of water 
 
 Austria: metze = 4 viertel = 16 muhlmassl . 
 France : hectolitre of the metric system 
 Holland : mudde= 10 schepel = 100 kop 
 Italy: soma= 10 mina= 100 pinte 
 Rhenish Bavaria : hektoliter = 8 simmern . 
 Waadt : quarteron=io mines = 100 copets = 5oo 
 
 cubic inches (metric) ..... 
 Spain : Castilian fanega = 4 quarrillas = 12 al- 
 
 mudes, standard in 1830 .... 
 Portugal : Lisbon fanga * 4 alqueiras = 8 meios . 
 Turkey : kiloz of 22 okas of wheat . . . 
 
 gf English 
 v Commercial 
 K* Equivalent. 
 
 *\ 
 ll*a 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 I 
 
 1-283 
 
 I-5I3 
 
 1-941 
 
 0-479 
 0-585 
 
 0-614 
 0-751 
 
 2-016 
 
 2-587 
 
 0-722 
 1-692 
 
 0-926 
 2-172 
 
 2752 
 
 3-532 
 
 0-372 
 
 0-477 
 
 1-508 
 
 1-488 
 
 1-935 
 1-910 
 
 0-966 
 
 1-240 
 
 FORMER, LOCAL, AND SPECIAL VALUES. 
 
 GERMANY (Scheffeln) : 
 
 Prussian scheffel = 4 viertel = 16 metzen = 3072 
 
 cubic inches . , . . . . l'5i- 
 
 1-45* 
 
 Anhalt, scheffel of Koethen 
 
 Bremen, scheffel = 4 viertel = 16 spint ; or 104 Ibs. 
 
 of rye . . 2-039 2-616 
 
 Elsass, scheffel = Parisian boisseau . . . 0-358 0'459 
 
 Gotha, ,, = 2 viertel = 8 metzen . . . 2-428 3'116 
 
 ,, bergscheffel = 2920 cubic inches . . 1-106 1'420 
 
 Hamburg, scheffel (wheat) = 4 himten=i6 spint . 2-903 3725 
 
 Hamburg, scheffel (oats) = 6 himten = 24 spint . 4-354 5-588 
 
 1 The values of Small Dry Measures may be obtained by division. 
 
 N 2 
 
 1-941 
 1-870 
 
igo 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 all 
 
 *&* 
 
 ,dg' 
 
 DRY MEASURES continued. fl| 
 
 111 
 
 S'f1 
 
 GERMANY continued : 6w 
 
 
 "I 
 
 Bushels 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 Litres 
 
 Hesse (Electoral), scheffel = 2 himten = 8 metzen . 2 -208 
 
 2-834 
 
 80-23 
 
 Holstein, the Danish skieppe .... 0-479 
 
 0-614 
 
 1 7 '39 
 
 Lippe - Detmold, scheffel (wheat) = 6 large 
 
 
 
 metzen = 24 mehlmetzen, 3154 cubic inches . 1-219 
 
 1-564 
 
 44-29 
 
 Lippe-Detmold, scheffel (oats) - 7 large metzen . i -422 
 
 1-825 
 
 51-67 
 
 Lubeck, scheffel (wheat), 2343 cubic inches . 0-919 
 
 1-180 
 
 33'40 
 
 ,, (oats), 2752 . i -080 
 
 1-386 
 
 39 '24 
 
 Mecklenberg Schwerin, scheffel (wheat) = 4 viertel 
 
 
 
 
 1-373 
 
 38-80 
 
 Mecklenburg Schwerin, scheffel (oats) . . i -206 
 
 1-548 
 
 O oy 
 
 43-82 
 
 ,, Strelitz, scheffel .... 1-422 
 
 1-824 
 
 Si' 6 S 
 
 Oldenburg, scheffel = 16 bierkanne . . . 0-603 
 
 0-773 
 
 21-90 
 
 Saxe- Weimar ,, =4 viertel = 16 metzen . . 2-118 
 
 2-718 
 
 76-97 
 
 Saxony ,, -4 ,, = 16 ,, =8064 
 
 
 
 cubic inches of Dresden, since 1719 . . 2-914 
 
 3-740 
 
 105-89 
 
 Wiirtemberg, scheffel = 8 simri = 32 viertel . . 4-878 
 
 6-259 
 
 177-23 
 
 ,, zuberscheffel = 4 imi = 40 mass . 2-022 
 
 2-595 
 
 7 3 '48 
 
 Schleswig, scheffel (wheat) . i -238 
 
 1-589 
 
 44 '99 
 
 ,, ,, (barley) .... 1-212 
 
 1-555 
 
 44-02 
 
 German sester, simmer, and large metzen. 
 
 
 
 Bavaria, metze = 8 massl . . . - . i -020 
 
 1-309 
 
 37-06 
 
 Brunswick, himt = 4 vierfass= 16 loechern . . 0-856 
 
 1-098 
 
 31-10 
 
 Baden, sester= 10 massl = i oo becher . . 0-413 
 
 0-530 
 
 15 
 
 SJrasburg, sester = 4 vierling=i6 massl, town- 
 
 
 
 measure, 924 cubic inches, Parisian . . 0-505 
 
 0-647 
 
 I 8'33 
 
 Strasburg, sester country measure, 952 Parisian 
 
 
 
 cubic inches ....... 0-520 
 
 0-667 
 
 18-88 
 
 Rhenish Bavaria, simmer = 4 vierling . . . 0-344 
 
 0-441 
 
 12-50 
 
 Saxe-Coburg, simmer = 4 viertel = 16 metzen . 2-416 
 
 3-099 
 
 87-76 
 
 Hesse-Darmstadt, simmer = 4 kiimpfe = 16 ge- 
 
 
 
 scheid 0-881 
 
 1-130 
 
 32 
 
 Nassau, simmer = 4 kiimpfe = 16 gescheid . . 0-753 
 
 0-966 
 
 27'35 
 
 Nuremberg, metz (wheat) = 16 mass . . . 0-547 
 
 0-702 
 
 19-88 
 
 ,, ,, (oats) ..... 0-506 
 
 0-649 
 
 18-39 
 
 AUSTRIA :- 
 
 
 
 Metze = 4 viertel = 16 muhlmassl . . . 1-692 
 
 2-172 
 
 61-49 
 
 Moravia, old metze ...... i -943 
 
 2-493 
 
 70-60 
 
 Bohemia, strich = 4 viertel = 16 massl . . 2-576 
 
 3-306 
 
 93-60 
 
 Hungary, Pesth-Buda metze = 96 halben, or icze of 
 
 
 
 
 2-826 
 
 80 -oi. 
 
 Hungary, Temeswar and Presburg metze, or kila 
 = 64 halben ; or 40 oka weight, after 1808 . 1-468 
 
 1-884 
 
 53*34 
 
 Illyria, Fiume metze of 37! wine boccali of 3456 
 Viennese cubic inches 1-739 
 
 2-231 
 
 63-17 
 
CH. V. 
 
 MEASURES OF CAPACITY* 
 
 iSi 
 
 DRY MEASURES continued. 
 
 ill 
 
 o U 
 
 
 
 111 
 
 AUSTRIA continued : 
 
 CJW* 
 
 
 
 Bushels 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 Illyria, Trieste staro .... 
 
 2-274 
 
 2-918 
 
 Galicia, Lemberg cwiercek = 8 garniec = 32 kwarti 
 Poland, Cracow cwiercek = 8 garniec = 32 kwarti 
 
 0-846 
 0-826 
 
 1-086 
 1-060 
 
 Tyrol, staro or star ...... 
 
 0-841 
 
 1-080 
 
 Dalmatia, Ragusa roupell ..... 
 
 0-682 
 
 0-875 
 
 Trent, staja 
 
 0-581 
 
 0-746 
 
 RUSSIA : 
 
 
 
 Imperial tschetverik = 4 tschetverka . . 
 
 0-722 
 
 0-926 
 
 Pernau, lof= 4 kulmitz (stricken) . . . 
 
 1-743 
 
 2-236 
 
 Revel, ,, =3 kullmet = 36 stof. 
 
 1-085 
 
 1-393 
 
 Riga, ,, =6 ,, =54 ,, . 
 
 1-880 
 
 2-412 
 
 Warsaw, cwiercek = 8 metric garniec, litres 
 
 0-881 
 
 1-130 
 
 ,, ,, =8 old garniec before 1819 . 
 
 0-830 
 
 1-065 
 
 FRANCE, HOLLAND, AND BELGIUM : 
 
 
 
 The old Parisian boisseau = 16 litrons . 
 
 o-358 
 
 0-459 
 
 The boisseau metrique (1812-1840) 
 
 o-344 
 
 0-441 
 
 Amsterdam, old schepel = 32 koppen . 
 
 0-744 
 
 0-954 
 
 
 0-671 
 
 0-861 
 
 SWITZERLAND : 
 
 
 
 Arau, viertel = 4 vierling = 1 6 massli . 
 
 0-620 
 
 0-795 
 
 Basle, sester = 2 mudde = 8 kupfli= 16 becher 
 
 0-940 
 
 1-206 
 
 Berne, mass = 2 massli = 4 immi 
 
 0-386 
 
 0-495 
 
 St. Gall, viertel = 4 vierling =16 masslein . 
 
 0-568 
 
 0-729 
 
 Geneva, bichet of 1957^ Parisian cubic inches 
 
 1-069 
 
 1-371 
 
 Grisons ,, =4 quartanen= 16 masslein . 
 
 0-825 
 
 1-059 
 
 Lucerne ,, = 10 imni= 16 becher . 
 
 0-956 
 
 1-227 
 
 Neufchatel, setier = 8 pots = 24 copets . 
 
 0-419 
 
 0-538 
 
 ,, ,, foroats = 25copet = 8oop.c., Paris 
 
 0-437 
 
 0-560 
 
 Schaffhausen, viertel = 4 vierling = 16 masslein . 
 
 0-622 
 
 0-798 
 
 Schwytz, Uri, Claris, Zurich, viertel for corn 
 
 0-569 
 
 0-730 
 
 oats 
 
 0-576 
 
 0-738 
 
 Waadt, quarteron= 10 mines = loo copets = 500 
 
 
 
 cubic inches ....... 
 
 0-372 
 
 0-477 
 
 Wyl, viertel (grain) =4 vierling = 16 masslein 
 
 0-706 
 
 0-806 
 
 Zug ,, (wheat) =4 ,, = 16 ,, 
 
 0-618 
 
 0-793 
 
 Ticino, large staro of Locarno .... 
 
 0-810 
 
 1-039 
 
 ,, small ,, ,, 
 
 0-722 
 
 0-926 
 
 ITALY : 
 
 
 
 Soma= 10 mine = 100 pint e . 
 
 2-752 
 
 3-532 
 
 Bergamo, stajo = 6 copelle .... 
 
 0-570 
 
 0-731 
 
 Bologna ,, = 4 quartaroli , 
 
 1-016 
 
 1-303 
 
 
 0-0,82 
 
 1-260 
 
IC2 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 = \\ starello 
 
 = 2 mine= 16 mitadelle 
 
 DRY MEASURES continued. 
 ITALY continued : 
 
 Ferrara, staro = 4 quart! = 8 quartini 
 
 Mantua, stajo of 80 pounds 
 
 Milan, staro = 2 starelli = 1 6 meta 
 
 Modena, stajo .... 
 
 Padua ,, = 4 quartaruole 
 
 Parma, staro = 2 mine = i6 quartaroli 
 
 Piacenza, stajo = 2 mine 
 
 Reggio 
 
 Rome 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 of rye . 
 Piedmont, staro 
 Venice ,, = 4 quarti= 16 quartaioni; 
 
 pounds of wheat 
 
 Vicenza, stajo = 16 quartaruole . 
 Sicily, bisaccia = 4 tomoli 16 modilli 
 Naples, tomolo = 4 quarti = 24 misure ; 
 
 rottoli of wheat 
 
 Castilian fanega -4 quartillas= 12 almudes . 
 
 Ferrol , , - 4 ferrados ( 1 1 < 
 
 Aragon ,, = 3 quartales= 12 almudes 
 
 Asturias ,, = 12 celemines . 
 
 Canary Is. ,, =12 almudes . 
 
 La Havana ,, =2 Castilian fanegas . 
 
 Buenos Ayres, fanega = 3 75 Winchester bushels . 
 
 Montevideo ,, =375 Imperial 
 
 Valparaiso, fanega for wheat and barley 
 
 maize = 160 
 potatoes = 200 
 
 wheat = 150 
 
 =175 
 = 100 
 
 wheat =140 
 
 grain, old C 
 
 cacao = no 
 
 Lisbon, fanga = 4 alqueiras = 8 meios = 1 6 quartos . 
 Oporto =4 ,, =8 , 
 Madeira ,, =4 ,, =8 . 
 Azores ,, =4 ,, =8 , 
 Brazil =4 =8 \ 
 
 TURKEY, THE LEVANT, &c. : 
 Kiloz of 22 okas of wheat 
 Bucharest, demerli of 1 6 okas 
 Morea, the Stamboul kiloz . 
 
 San Antonio 
 Concepcion 
 Peru, ordinary 
 
 H 
 
 Mexico 
 
 ill 
 
 III 
 
 ,e<e S 
 
 c !! 
 
 
 
 M|| 
 
 fvi ' D ^4 
 
 fo'^ Q- 
 
 ow 
 
 ^ W 
 
 w w 
 
 Bushels 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 Litres 
 
 . 0-861 
 
 1-105 
 
 31-29 
 
 0-959 
 
 1-230 
 
 
 . 0-503 
 
 0-646 
 
 l8'28 
 
 
 2-481 
 
 70-24 
 
 ! ! 1 0-798 
 
 1-023 
 
 28-98 
 
 . 1-415 
 
 1-816 
 
 5^42 
 
 . 0-963 
 
 1-236 
 
 35-00 
 
 . 1-638 
 
 2-101 
 
 59-50 
 
 . 0-675 
 
 0-866 
 
 
 e ; or 50 Ibs. 
 
 
 
 . 0-670 
 
 0-860 
 
 24-36 
 
 . 1-055 
 
 1-354 
 
 38-34 
 
 oni; or 132 
 
 
 
 . 2-293 
 
 2-942 
 
 83-3I 
 
 0-744 
 
 0-955 
 
 27-05 
 
 . i -886 
 
 2-420 
 
 68-51 
 
 ure ; or 45 
 
 
 
 . 1-520 
 
 1-950 
 
 55-22 
 
 'H AMERICA : 
 
 
 
 mdes . . i -508 
 
 1-935 
 
 54-80 
 
 lianfan.) . 2 -on 
 
 2-581 
 
 73-07 
 
 nudes . 0-621 
 
 0-797 
 
 22-56 
 
 . 2 -or i 
 
 2-581 
 
 73-07 
 
 . 1723 
 
 2-211 
 
 62-60 
 
 . 3-016 
 
 3-870 
 
 109-60 
 
 er bushels . 3-635 
 
 4-664 
 
 132-07 
 
 3-750 
 
 4-812 
 
 136-25 
 
 ey . . 2-498 
 
 3-205 
 
 9075 
 
 unds . . 2-578 
 
 3-308 
 
 93-67 
 
 . 3-222 
 
 4-135 
 
 117-08 
 
 
 3-101 
 
 87-81 
 
 '. 2-830 
 
 3-618 
 
 102-45 
 
 1-611 
 
 2-067 
 
 58-54 
 
 . 2-256 
 
 2-895 
 
 81-96 
 
 ilian value . -555 
 
 1-995 
 
 56-49 
 
 iinds . . -773 
 
 2-274 
 
 64-40 
 
 -16 quartos. -488 
 
 1-910 
 
 54-08 
 
 -16 . -879 
 
 2-411 
 
 68-27 
 
 ; *6 '553 
 
 1-992 
 
 56-41 
 
 --16 . -319 
 
 1-692 
 
 47-92 
 
 = 16 . -488 
 
 1-910 
 
 54-08 
 
 &c. : 
 
 
 
 . 0-966 
 
 1-240 
 
 35-11 
 
 . 0-677 
 
 0-869 
 
 24-60 
 
 . 0-966 
 
 1-240 
 
 35-" 
 
CH. V. 
 
 MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
 
 DRY MEASURES continued. 
 
 ill 
 
 w ** 
 
 111 
 
 
 H i'gi 
 
 M O 3 
 W WD 0* 
 
 TURKEY, &c. continued : 
 
 CJW 
 
 W 
 
 
 Bushels 
 
 Cub. ft- 
 
 
 0*824 
 
 1-057 
 
 Negropont, kiloz ..... 
 
 0-835 
 
 1-071 
 
 Cerigo, chilo = I Winchester bushel . 
 Thiaki, bacile =i ,, ,, 
 
 |j 0-969 
 
 1-243 
 
 Cephalonia, bacile = if Imperial bushel 
 
 i '375 
 
 1-764 
 
 Zante, bacile = ^ Cephalonia bacile . 
 
 . 1-238 
 
 1-603 
 
 Corfu and Paxos, mi sura .... 
 
 . 0-578 
 
 0-743 
 
 Cyprus, coffino ...... 
 
 0*^44. 
 
 0-698 
 
 ,, moose of 40 oka of wheat 
 
 . 1-761 
 
 2-26 
 
 Malta, tummolo (stricken measure) 
 
 . 0-498 
 
 0-639 
 
 SYRIA AND ARABIA : 
 
 
 
 Smyrna, kilo of 32 okas of wheat 
 
 . 1-412 
 
 1-812 
 
 Mokha and Beitulfakiah, teman = 4O kella 
 
 or 
 
 
 mecmeda, 168 pounds (avoir.) of rice 
 
 . 2 -625 
 
 3-369 
 
 EGYPT AND ABYSSINIA : 
 
 
 
 Gondar, ardeb = 10 madega 
 
 . O-I2I 
 
 0-189 
 
 Massowah, ardeb = 24 madega . 
 
 . 0-29I 
 
 0-453 
 
 (See also Large Dry Measures.) 
 
 
 
 TUNIS AND ALGIERS : 
 
 
 
 Tunis, weba= 12 saa .... 
 
 . 0-909 
 
 1-167 
 
 Tripoli, temen = 4 orba = 8 nasforba 
 
 , 0-739 
 
 0-948 
 
 Algiers, tarri ...... 
 
 . 0-546 
 
 0-701 
 
 NORTHERN INDIA : 
 
 
 
 (Grain is sold by weight.) 
 
 
 
 The English cubic foot (commercial value) . 
 
 . 0-779 
 
 0-999 
 
 The French hectolitre .... 
 
 2-752 
 
 3-532 
 
 In Sindh the coss&h = 4 toyah 
 
 . 0-321 
 
 0-412 
 
 SOUTHERN INDIA : 
 
 
 
 Bombay, parah (grain) = 28 ser measures 
 
 . 0-254 
 
 0-326 
 
 ,, (salt) =40 ,, 
 
 . 0-725 
 
 0-930 
 
 Anjar, shahi = 4 map = 32 palli . 
 
 0-855 
 
 1-098 
 
 Cochin, parah = 45 local measures 
 
 . 0-875 
 
 1-123 
 
 Madras ,, =40 measures, or 4000 cubic in. 
 
 . i -802 
 
 2-313 
 
 Ballari ,, = 60 ser measures 
 
 . 2 -023 
 
 2-597 
 
 Bangalur, colagah = 8 ser measures 
 
 . 0-269 
 
 0-346 
 
 Madura, markal = 6 measures . . 
 
 . 0-298 
 
 0-380 
 
 Travancor, parah = 10 dungalli . 
 
 . 0-043 
 
 0-057 
 
 Masulipatam, markal = 12 zavah = 96 giddah 
 
 . 0-391 
 
 0-501 
 
 Negapatam ,, = 4 measures (grain) . 
 
 . 0-II3 
 
 0-146 
 
 Palamkattah ,, = 6 bazar measures . 
 
 . 0-270 
 
 0-346 
 
I8 4 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 
 "a 
 
 SjiJ 
 
 DRY MEASURES continued. 
 
 I'll 
 
 111 
 
 SOUTHERN INDIA continued*. 
 
 W 6w 
 
 MC ^W 
 
 
 Bushels 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 Dindigal ,, =5 measures 
 Trichinopalli ,, =4 ,, 
 
 0-264 
 0-139 
 
 0-338 
 0-178 
 
 PondicherrT ,, of 12 liv. p. demarc . 
 
 0-193 
 
 0-247 
 
 CEYLON : 
 
 
 
 -Colombo, parah = 2 markal = 24 ser measures 
 
 0-702 
 
 0-902 
 
 BURMAH : 
 
 
 
 Rangun, basket, parah or teng, 1 6 vis of rice = 8 sa 
 
 0-833 
 
 1-069 
 
 Pegu 16 =8,, 
 
 0-848 
 
 1-089 
 
 THAI (SiAM) : 
 
 
 
 Thangsat = 20 thanan = 2000 cubic niu 
 
 0-522 
 
 0-669 
 
 ANAM (COCHIN CHINA).: 
 
 
 
 Tao = 2 hao 
 
 *'55 6 
 
 1-996 
 
 MALACCA AND SUMATRA : 
 
 
 
 
 O'lIO 
 
 0-141 
 
 Singapore ,, =4chupa 
 
 O-I22 
 
 0-157 
 
 Sumatra, sukat= 12 pakha 
 
 0-I82 
 
 0-233 
 
 Bencoolen, kula, or bambu = 4 chupa 
 
 O'I22 
 
 0-146 
 
 Palembang, gantang of 6 catti of grain 
 
 0-135 
 
 0-173 
 
 ,, bally = 10 gantang . 
 
 1-349 
 
 1-731 
 
 Acheen, nelli = 8 bambu = 32 chopa 
 
 0-480 
 
 0-616 
 
 JAVA, BORNEO, MOLUCCAS, 
 
 
 
 CELEBES, &c. : 
 
 
 
 Bantam, gantam=^ 8 bambu 
 
 0-716 
 
 0-918 
 
 Batavia, gantang 
 
 0-264 
 
 0-339 
 
 Borneo ,, 20 pounds troy (Dutch) rice 
 
 0-358 
 
 0-459 
 
 Macassar, home gantang 
 
 0-138 
 
 0-177 
 
 ,, export ,, I 1 1 Ibs. troy (Dutch) rice 
 
 0-206 
 
 0-265 
 
 Mindanao, battel, or raga = 10 gantang 
 
 0-440 
 
 1-130 
 
 CHINA : 
 
 
 
 (Grain is sold by weight.) 
 
 
 
 Tche=io teu=ioo tching . 
 
 1-927 
 
 2-472 
 
 JAPAN : 
 
 
 
 
 0-897 
 
 0-641 
 
 SOUTH AFRICA : 
 
 .// 
 
 
 Madagascar, trubahuash, or monka = 2 bambu = 
 
 
 
 12 voules .... . 
 
 o-iio 
 
 0-141 
 
 Madagascar, zatu = 100 voules, rice 
 
 0-918 
 
 1-177 
 
 Cape of Good Hope, bally = 5 gantang 
 
 1-266 
 
 1-625 
 
CH. V. 
 
 MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
 
 185 
 
 LARGE DRY MEASURES. 
 
 GENERAL VALUES, 
 
 England : the quarter = S bushels ; 640 Ibs. of 
 
 water ...,,.. 
 Germany: the Prussian maker = 12 scheffein = 
 
 2i| cubic feet . ...... 
 
 Norway and Denmark : the toende (barrel) = 
 
 4 fierde = 8 skieppe = 4| cubic feet . 
 Sweden : the tunna = 2 spann =112 stop = 5 '6 
 
 cubic feet ....... 
 
 Sweden : augmented tunna, \2\ per cent, added, 
 
 = 6-3 cubic feet ...... 
 
 Russia : tschetwert = 4 pajok = 8 tschetverik ; 512 
 
 funt of water, or 10 pud of wheat . 
 Austria : the grain muth = 30 metzen . 
 Spain : cahiz=i2 fanegas . 
 
 Portugal : moio =15 fangas .... 
 Turkey : for tin = 4 kiloz ; 2 kanthar of wheat 
 Syria : makuk of Aleppo ; 250 rotl of grain 
 Egypt : ardeb of Cairo ..... 
 Morocco : almud or mud ..... 
 China : ping = 8 tche ..... 
 
 3l 
 
 -S "J? 
 
 111 
 
 c'-g'nt 
 
 "Id 
 
 W'cEJ- 
 
 ^H 
 
 Bushels 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 Hectols. 
 
 8 
 
 10-266 
 
 2-9067 
 
 18-152 
 
 23-292 
 
 6-595 
 
 3-829 
 
 4-913 
 
 1-391 
 
 4-032 
 
 5-174 
 
 1-465 
 
 4^536 
 
 5-821 
 
 1-648 
 
 5772 
 50-768 
 18-099 
 22-326 
 3-865 
 22-018 
 
 7-407 
 65-145 
 23-226 
 28-649 
 4-960 
 28-253 
 
 2-097 
 18-446 
 6-576 
 8-112 
 
 1-404 
 
 8-000 
 
 4-800 
 
 5 
 15-413 
 
 6-160 
 6-416 
 19-778 
 
 1-744 
 1-817 
 5-600 
 
 FORMER, LOCAL, AND SPECIAL VALUES. 
 
 GERMANY : 
 
 Prussian maker = 12 schefFeln ; 2i| cubic feet 
 
 ,, winspelkarre, 7 cubic feet 
 Anspach, simra of wheat =17 metzen . 
 
 oats = 576 mass 
 
 Bairetith ,, = 16 maes . 
 Baden, maker = 10 sester= 100 massl . 
 Bavaria, scheffel = 6 metzen = 8944 cubic inches . 
 Brunswick, scheffel = 10 himten = 4O vierfass 
 Coblentz, maker = 8 simmern = 32 sester (stricken) 
 Coin ,, = 4 fasser = 8 simmern 
 
 Elsass, sac, or resal = 8 boisseaux de Paris ; 160 
 poids de marc pounds of wheat 
 
 18-152 23-29 
 
 6-595 
 
 5-956 ; 7-64 
 
 2-164 
 
 9-306 
 
 11-94 
 
 3-381 
 
 17-177 
 
 22-04 
 
 6-241 
 
 13-648 
 
 17-51 
 
 4-959 
 
 4-128 
 
 5-30 
 
 1-500 
 
 6*190 
 
 7-85 
 
 2-224 
 
 8 560 
 
 10-58 1 vi 10 
 
 5-224 
 
 6-70 
 
 1-898 
 
 3-95I 
 
 O/T 
 
 5-07 
 
 n nrt 
 
 1-435 
 
 1-041 
 
i86 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 ill 
 
 SI'S 
 
 
 LARGE DRY MEASURES--*********. 1|.fc 
 
 {Ml 
 
 \ 
 
 H o cr 
 GERMANY continued : 
 Bushels 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 fn 
 He 
 
 Eisenach, malter = 2 scheffeln ... .8 *o8o 
 
 10-37 
 
 2' 
 
 Frankfurt ,, = 4 simmern = 8 metzen . . 3*158 
 
 4-05 
 
 I- 
 
 Gotha ,, =2 scheffeln =16 ,, . . 4-857 
 
 6-23 
 
 I 
 
 ,, charcoal malter (see Cubic Measures). 
 
 
 
 Hamburg, sac ' = 2 scheffeln == 4 fasser = 8 himten 5 -806 
 
 7-45 
 
 2 
 
 Hanover, malter = 6 himten . . . -5*136 
 
 6-59 
 
 I 
 
 Hesse-Cassel, viertel = 2 scheffeln = 16 metzen . 4*415 
 
 5-67 
 
 I 
 
 Hesse-Darmstadt, malter = 4 simmern = 16 kumpfe 3*523 
 
 4-52 
 
 I 
 
 Homburg, viertel = 4 himten = 16 metzen . . 4*910 
 
 6-30 
 
 I 
 
 Mainz, malter = 4 simmern = 16 kumpfe . . 3-010 
 
 3-86 
 
 I 
 
 Lufceck, droemt of wheat = 12 soheffeln . . 11*034 
 
 14-16 
 
 4 
 
 oats =12 . . 12-958 
 
 16-63 
 
 4 
 
 Rostock , , wheat =12 , , . .12 -844 
 
 16-48 
 
 4 
 
 ,, ,, oats =12 . . 14-471 
 
 18-57 
 
 5 
 
 Nassau, malter = 4 simmern = 16 kiimpfe . . 3-010 
 
 3-86 
 
 i 
 
 Nuremberg, simmer (wheat) = 16 metzen . . 8*755 
 
 11-24 
 
 3 
 
 ,, ,, (oats) =4 malter = 32 metzen 16-194 
 
 20-78 
 
 5 
 
 Oldenburg, molt l = i| barrel = 12 scheffeln . 7 -233 
 
 9-28 
 
 2 
 
 Saxony, malter = 12 scheffeln (Dresden) . . 34-972 
 
 44-88 
 
 12 
 
 Schleswig and Holstein, the Danish barrel l toende 3 -829 
 
 4-9t 
 
 I 
 
 Schleswig, heitscheff = 2| scheffeln . . .3 -095 
 
 3-97 
 
 I 
 
 The winspel of grain. 
 
 
 
 is in Prussia = 2 malter; in Brunswick = 4 scheffeln; 
 
 
 
 in Hanover = 8 ,, at Hamburg = 10 ,, 
 
 
 
 in Saxony =2 ,, at Rostock =32 ,, 
 
 
 
 AUSTRIA : 
 
 
 
 Grain miith = 30 metzen . .... 50-768 
 
 65-15 
 
 18 
 
 Hungary, Temeswar schinek = 2 metzen ; 80 
 
 
 
 
 3-77 
 
 
 Slavonia, kila = 3| Presburg metzen = 224 halben 5*138 
 Galicia, Lemberg korzec = 4 kwerki = 32 garniec 3*385 
 
 6-59 
 4-34 
 
 
 Poland, Cracow korzec = 4 kwerki = 32 garniec . 3-306 
 
 4-24 
 
 
 Dalmatia, Ragusa stajo = 6 roupell . . . 4-090 
 
 5-25 
 
 
 
 5-97 
 
 
 RUSSIA : 
 
 
 
 Imperial tschetwert = 8 tschetverik ; 512 Ibs. of 
 
 
 
 water ........ 5*772 
 
 7-41 
 
 2 
 
 Finland, Swedish tunna 1 augmented . . . 4*536 
 
 5-82 
 
 
 Narva, grain barrel ! = 4 viertel = 32 kapp . . 4-462 
 
 5-72 
 
 I 
 
 Pernau ,, ,, =2 lof=8 kullmets . . 3-484 
 
 4-47 
 
 I 
 
 1 For other barrels of dry merchandise see text, pp. 156 and 157. 
 
CH. V. 
 
 MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
 
 187 
 
 
 ill 
 
 sgj 
 
 LARGE DRY MEASURES continued. 
 
 ||.| 
 
 ef !'l 
 
 RUSSIA continued \ 
 
 Bushels 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 Revel, grain barrel ' = 3 lof=9 kulmet = 108 stof . 
 
 3-256 
 
 4-18 
 
 Riga ,, ,, =2 ,, =12 ,, = 108 ,, . 
 
 3-760 
 
 4-82 
 
 Warsaw, korzec = 4 k werki = 32 garniec (metric) . 
 
 
 4-52 
 
 ,, =4 -32 ,, (before 
 
 
 
 1819) 
 
 33I9 
 
 4-26 
 
 FRANCE, HOLLAND, AND BELGIUM : 
 
 
 
 Old Parisian seder of grain = 12 boisseaux . 
 
 4-294 
 
 5-51 
 
 ,, ,, salt =- 16 ,, 
 
 5*723 
 
 7-35 
 
 ,, oats =24 
 
 8-588 
 
 11-03 
 
 ,, ,, charcoal = 32 ,, 
 
 11-446 
 
 14-70 
 
 Amsterdam, sac = 3 schepeln = 96 koppen . 
 Brussels, muid = 6 rasieres = 24 vierteln 
 
 2-23I 
 8-052 
 
 2-86 
 10-33 
 
 SWITZERLAND : 
 
 
 
 Arau, maker = 4 miitt = 16 viertel 
 
 9-916 
 
 12-73 
 
 Basel, vierzel = 2 sac = 8 sester = 64 kupfli . 
 
 7-522 
 
 9-65 
 
 Berne, miitt = 12 maess (11520 cubic inches) 
 
 4-627 
 
 5-94 
 
 St. Gall, maker = 2 miitt = 8 viertel 
 
 4-547 
 
 5-83 
 
 Geneva, sac = 2 bichets ; no Ibs. of wheat . 
 
 2-139 
 
 2-74 
 
 Claris and Schwytz, the Zurich makers. 
 
 
 
 Grisons, ladi = 8 miitt = 44 viertel 
 
 36-330 
 
 46-62 
 
 Lucerne, maker = 4 miitt = 16 viertel . 
 
 I5-304 
 
 19-64 
 
 Neufchatel, sac = 8 setiers 
 
 3-355 
 
 4-31 
 
 S chaff hausen, grain maker = 2 miitt = 8 vitrtel 
 
 
 6-39 
 
 Waadt, sac= 10 quarterons= 100 emines 
 
 3716 
 
 4-77 
 
 Wyl, grain maker = 2 miitt = 8 viertel . . . 
 
 5-651 
 
 7-25 
 
 Zug ,, =4 ,, =16 ,, . 
 
 9-884 
 
 12-68 
 
 Zurich, maker (grain) = 4 miitt =16 viertel (i2| 
 
 
 
 cubic feet) ....... 
 
 9-106 
 
 11-68 
 
 Zurich, maker (oats and vegetable) = 16 viertel 
 
 
 
 (12/3 cubic feet) 
 
 9-209 
 
 11-82 
 
 ITALY : 
 
 
 
 Ancona, rubbio = 8 coppe .... 
 
 7-874 
 
 10-10 
 
 Bergamo soma 8 staja ..... 
 
 
 5-85 
 
 Bologna, corba = 2 stari = 8 quartaroli 
 
 2-031 
 
 2-61 
 
 ,, fruit corba = 3 stari . . . 
 
 3-046 
 
 3-92 
 
 Brescia, soma =12 quarti 
 
 4-018 
 
 5-16 
 
 Cremona, sac = 3 staja . 
 
 2-945 
 
 3-78 
 
 Ferrara, moggio = 20 staje .... 
 
 17-226 
 
 22-11 
 
 Genoa, mina = 8 quarti = 96 gombette 
 
 3-322 
 
 4-26 
 
 Milan, rubbio = 2 moggia= 16 staja . - . 
 
 8-049 
 
 10-33 
 
 Modena, saco = 2 staja ..... 
 
 3'496 
 
 4-49 
 
 Padua, moggio = 12 staje ..... 
 
 9-572 
 
 12-28 
 
 Piedmont, sacco = 5 emine= 10 quartieri 
 
 3-I65 
 
 4-06 
 
 Reggio ,, =2 staja . 
 
 
 4-20 
 
 1 For other barrels of dry merchandise see text 
 
 pp. 156 and 157. 
 
188 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 LARGE DRY MEASURES continued. 
 
 i|! 
 
 111 
 
 ITALY continued : 
 
 Bushels 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 Rome, rubbio= 12 staja . 
 
 8-103 
 
 10-40 
 
 Tuscany, rubbio = 3| sacchi = 1 1| staja 
 
 7-54I 
 
 9-68 
 
 ,, moggio = 8 ,, =24staji . 
 
 16 091 
 
 20-65 
 
 Venice ,, =4 stari= 16 quarti 
 
 9-172 
 
 11-77 
 
 Verona, sacco = 3 minelli= 12 ,, 
 
 3-157 
 
 4-05 
 
 Vicenza ,, =4 staja ..... 
 
 2-978 
 
 3-82 
 
 Sicily, salma = 4 bisaccie ..... 
 
 7-543 
 
 9-68 
 
 Naples, carro = 36 tomoli ..... 
 
 54718 
 
 70-21 
 
 SPAIN AND SOUTH AMERICA : 
 
 
 
 Castilian cahiz =12 fanegas = 52700 pul. cub. 
 
 18-099 
 
 23-23 
 
 Alicante ,, = 1 2 barcellas = 48 almudes . 
 
 6781 
 
 8-70 
 
 Aragon ,, =8 fanegas =96 ,, 
 
 4-968 
 
 6-37 
 
 Valencia ,-, 1 2 barcellas = 48 ,, 
 
 5 '649 
 
 7-25 
 
 Barcelona, salma = 48 cortanes .... 
 
 7-816 
 
 10-03 
 
 Buenos Ayres, cahiz = 3! fanegas 
 
 13-631 
 
 17-49 
 
 PORTUGAL AND BHAZIL : 
 
 
 
 Moio for grain and salt =15 fangas = 60 alqueiras . 
 
 22-326 
 
 28-65 
 
 Moio for lime = 50 alqueiras . . 
 
 18-605 
 
 23-87 
 
 ,, for limestone = 30 alqueiras 
 
 ii 163 
 
 14-33 
 
 TURKEY, LEVANT, &c. : 
 
 
 
 Fortin = 4 kiloz of 2 canthar of wheat 
 
 3-865 
 
 4-96 
 
 Bucharest, kile = 2 mirze=i6 demerli ; 256 oka 
 
 
 
 of wheat ....... 
 
 10-833 
 
 13-90 
 
 Ibrahil, kilo of 400 oka of wheat 
 
 17-614 
 
 22-60 
 
 Moldavia, Galatz kilo ... 
 
 1 1 -284 
 
 15-01 
 
 Salonica, kilo of 85 oka ..... 
 
 5 '337 
 
 6-85 
 
 Corfu and Paxos, moggio= 8 misure . 
 
 
 5-95 
 
 Thiaki, moggio = 5 bacile ..... 
 
 4-844 
 
 6-22 
 
 Malta, salma rasa = 16 tummoli . 
 
 8-000 
 
 10-27 
 
 SYRIA : 
 
 
 
 Aleppo, makuk of 250 rottal .... 
 
 22-018 
 
 28-25 
 
 Smyrna, fortin = 4 kiloz ..... 
 
 5-648 
 
 7-25 
 
 Acre ardeb ....... 
 
 
 12-01 
 
 EGYPT : 
 
 
 
 Alexandria, kilo of 202 Amsterdam koppen 
 
 4-694 
 
 6-03 
 
 ,, Rosetta ardeb = 7f Imp. bushels 
 
 7750 
 
 9-95 
 
 ,, Damietta ,, for rice 
 
 11-180 
 
 14-35 
 
 Cairo, flax ardeb = 4| Imperial bushels 
 
 4-800 
 
 6-16 
 
 For ABYSSINIA see p. 183. 
 
 
 
CH. V. 
 
 MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
 
 189 
 
 LARGE DRY MEASURES continued. 
 
 |1| 
 
 2|-| 
 
 ill 
 
 Sis S 
 HI 
 
 TUNIS, MOROCCO, ALGIERS: 
 
 wl| 
 
 Wg. 
 
 i3 
 
 
 Bushels 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 Hectols. 
 
 Morocco, almud, or mud ..... 
 
 5 
 
 6-42 
 
 I-8I7 
 
 Algiers, caffiso= 1 6 tarri . 
 
 8-737 
 
 11-21 
 
 3-I74 
 
 Tunis ,, = 16 weba . 
 
 14-545 
 
 18-66 
 
 5'285 
 
 Tripoli, weba = 4 temen ; 2iorottol of wheat 
 
 2-954 
 
 3-79 
 
 1-073 
 
 PERSIA : 
 
 
 
 
 No measures of capacity. 
 
 
 
 
 NORTHERN INDIA : 
 
 
 
 
 In Moslem Asia generally, grain is sold by weight, 
 
 
 
 
 and measures of capacity are rarely used. 
 Sindh, karwal = 60 cossah ..... 
 
 19-266 
 
 21-19 
 
 7 
 
 SOUTHERN INDIA : 
 
 
 
 
 Anjar kulsey= IQ shai .... 
 
 13-688 
 
 17-56 
 
 4-973 
 
 Bombay, the kandi = 8 parah of grain . 
 
 2-032 
 
 2-91 
 
 0-738 
 
 ,, rice kandi = 12 ,, ,, . 
 
 3-044 
 
 3-91 
 
 1-106 
 
 ,, mora or muddi = 25 grain parah . 
 
 6-342 
 
 8-14 
 
 2-304 
 
 Madras, kandi = 4 parah .... 
 
 7-208 
 
 9-25 
 
 2-620 
 
 Colombo, ammonam = 8 ,, ... 
 
 5-623 
 
 7-21 
 
 2-043 
 
 The kandi of capacity in Southern India corre 
 
 
 
 
 sponds to the kandi of weight of various 
 
 
 
 
 merchandise, it hence varies greatly. Esti- 
 
 
 
 
 mation by weight is the more usual method. 
 
 
 
 
 CHINA : 
 
 
 
 
 Ping - 8 tche ....... 
 
 15-413 
 
 19-78 
 
 15-600 
 
 JAPAN : 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 Koku = ioto= loo shoo 
 
 4-992 
 
 6-41 
 
 1-814 
 
 MANILA : 
 
 
 
 
 Kaban = 25 ganta, rice . 
 
 2-750 
 
 3-53 
 
 0-999 
 
 Kaban of cacao = Salibras castillanas. 
 
 
 
 
190 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 NOMINAL DRY MEASURES. 
 
 Grain Lasts. 
 
 .fl'O 
 
 s.|1 
 
 GENERAL AND FORMER 
 
 111 
 
 II -1 
 
 LOCAL UNITS. 
 
 Woo- 
 OW 
 
 w wj 
 
 
 Quarters^ Cub. ft. 
 
 England : grain last = 10 quarters 
 
 IO 
 
 102-66 
 
 Danish and Norwegian: last = 22 toende (barrels) 
 
 
 
 or 99 cubic feet ...... 
 
 10-530 
 
 108-09 
 
 Sweden : last of rye = 24 tunna (augmented) 
 
 13-609 
 
 139-70 
 
 ,, ,, barley = 27,, ,, 
 
 I5-3IO 
 
 157-17 
 
 ,, oats = 30 ,, ,, 
 
 I7-OII 
 
 174-63 
 
 GERMANY : 
 
 
 
 Prussian last of wheat or rye = 6 matlern= 128 
 
 
 
 
 13-614 
 
 139-75 
 
 Prussian last of barley or oats = 4 maltern . 
 
 9-076 
 
 93-17 
 
 Bremen, last = 40 scheffeln .... 
 
 10-193 
 
 104-64 
 
 Brunswick, last=io ,, .... 
 
 10-698 
 
 109-85 
 
 Hamburg , , =60 fasser .... 
 
 IO-887 
 
 111-76 
 
 Hanover ,, = 16 maltern .... 
 
 IO-27I 
 
 105-45 
 
 Liibeck ,, of wheat = 8 droemten = 24 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 'Old. 
 
 113-27 
 
 Liibeck, last of oats = 8 droemten 
 
 * ^J^T 
 I2-958 
 
 133-02 
 
 Oldenberg, last= 18 barrels = 144 scheffeln 
 
 IO-849 
 
 111-37 
 
 Rostock, last of wheat = 8 droemten 
 
 I2-844 
 
 131-85 
 
 ,, ,, oats = 8 droemten . 
 
 I4-47I 
 
 148-56 
 
 RUSSIA : 
 
 
 
 Grain last =19 tschetwert .... 
 
 "'544 
 
 118-51 
 
 Finland (see Swedish lasts) 
 
 
 
 Narva, last = 24 barrels = 96 vierteln 
 
 I3-38 
 
 137-4 
 
 Pernau, last = 24 barrels = 48 lof 
 
 IO-46 
 
 107-3 
 
 Revel, last = 24 barrels = 72 lof 
 
 977 
 
 100-3 
 
 Riga, rye last =15 tschetwert .... 
 
 10-823 
 
 111-10 
 
 ,, wheat and barley last = 16 tschetwert 
 
 "544 
 
 118-51 
 
 oats last = 20 tschetwert .... 
 
 14-43 
 
 148-13 
 
 Warsaw ,, = 30 korzec (metric) 
 
 13-211 
 
 135-62 
 
 ,, ,, 30 ancient korzec, before 1819 
 
 12-448 
 
 127-79 
 
 HOLLAND AND BELGIUM : 
 
 
 
 Amsterdam, metric last = 3 metres cubes = 30 
 
 
 
 mudden = 300 schepeln .... 
 
 10-321 
 
 105-95 
 
 Old Amsterdam last = 36 sacs (grain) 
 
 10-039 
 
 103-06 
 
 SOUTHERN EUROPE AND AMERICA 
 
 : 
 
 
 
 "O4.Q 
 
 92-90 
 
 Buenos Ayres, last = 4 cahices .... 
 
 y ^"ry 
 
 6-816 
 
 69-96 
 
 Sa'f 
 
CH. V. 
 
 MEASURES OF CAPACITY: 
 
 191 
 
 NOMINAL DKY MEASURES 
 continued. 
 
 SOUTHERN EUROPE AND 
 AMERICA continued : 
 
 Lisbon and Brazilian last = 4 moios = 60 fangas . 
 Syria, garava ....... 
 
 Genoa, la?t = 25 mines ..... 
 
 Livorno ,, =40 sacchi= 120 staji . 
 
 NORTHERN INDIA : 
 (Grain is sold by weight.) 
 Calcutta, kahun of 40 man .... 
 
 SOUTHERN INDIA AND BURMA: 
 
 Cambay, coyang ...... 
 
 Madras, garsah = 20 kandi = 80 parah 
 
 Masulipatam, garsah = 5 kandi = 400 markal 
 
 Maisur, garsah = 521 pukkaser. 
 
 Pondicherri, garsah = 600 markal 
 
 Colombo, last = 75 parah .... 
 
 Ceylon, garsah = 25 ammonam .... 
 
 Rangoon, coy an = 100 baskets .... 
 
 MALACCA, &c. : 
 
 Malacca, coyang = 80 mass, or sacks 
 
 Thai (Siam), cohi = 4O seste .... 
 
 Thai, coyan = 80 thangsat .... 
 
 Malacca, last = 50 mass, or sacks 
 
 Singapore, coyang = 40 sacks, or pecul 
 
 SUMATRA AND FORT MARLBOROUGH : 
 
 Sumatra, coyang = 80 tub = 800 sukat 
 Bencoolen and Fort M. coyang = 800 kula 
 Palembang, coyang = 80 balli .... 
 Acheen, coyang = i oo nelli = 800 bambu . 
 
 JAVA, BORNEO, MOLUCCAS, CELEBES : 
 
 Amboyna, coyang, 3000 Ibs. T. D. rice . 
 Bantam ,, =2OOgantam, 8000 Ibs. T. D. 
 
 Batavia ,, = 230 gantam, 3375 Ibs. T. D. 
 
 SOUTH AFRICA : 
 
 Cape of Good Hope, last = 46 balli = 230 gan- 
 tang of 3200 Ibs. (Dutch Troy) of wheat 
 
 Lasts of miscellaneous merchandise are either based on weight, as 
 weight-lasts ; or on cubic measure, as shipping-tons, or lasts of measure- 
 ment. For lasts of capacity used in the Baltic trade, deduce from values 
 of barrels, given in the text at pp. 156 and 157. 
 
 English 
 Commercial 
 Equivalent. 
 
 English 
 Scientific 
 Equivalent. 
 
 French 
 Scientific 
 
 Equivalent. 
 
 Quarters 
 
 Cub. ft. 
 
 Hectols. 
 
 11-163 
 
 114-60 
 
 32-449 
 
 4-988 
 
 51-21 
 
 I4-5 
 
 10-381 
 
 106-57 
 
 30-I75 
 
 10-057 
 
 103-24 
 
 29-232 
 
 6-004 
 
 61-63 
 
 17-45 
 
 8-257 
 
 84-76 
 
 24 
 
 18-025 
 I9-53 
 
 185-03 
 200-49 
 
 52-39I 
 56-768 
 
 2-196 
 
 22-54 
 
 6-383 
 
 I4-44S 
 
 148-29 
 
 4I- 9 88 
 
 6-595 
 
 I7-548 
 
 67-70 
 180-26 
 
 I9-I7 
 5I-08I 
 
 10-417 
 
 106-93 
 
 30-28 
 
 11-009 
 
 113-01 
 
 32 
 
 5215 
 6-881 
 
 53-54 
 70-63 
 
 15-16 
 20 
 
 12-248 
 
 125-73 
 
 35'60 
 
 18-16 
 
 186-49 
 
 52-79 
 
 12-166 
 
 116-47 
 
 ^ 
 
 35-36 
 
 13-486 
 
 138-44 
 
 39'2 
 
 6-004 
 
 61-63 
 
 17-45 
 
 6-709 
 
 68-87 
 
 I9-5 
 
 17-890 
 
 183-65 
 
 52-O 
 
 7-819 
 
 77-70 
 
 22-0 
 
 7-283 
 
 74-73 
 
 21-16 
 

 1 92 METRICAL UNITS. PARTI. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 
 
 THE classification of measures of weight into two cate- 
 gories, 
 
 1. Purely commercial, 
 
 2. Monetary and medicinal, 
 
 is the method most usually adopted by metrologists, and 
 is also a convenient mode of separating the voluminous 
 amount of and variety of weights in use throughout the 
 world. 
 
 Medicinal weights are necessarily small, so also 
 are those for precious metals and precious stones, 
 while the commercial weights have an enormous range, 
 from the granottino of Turin, of which 165 888 went 
 to a rather small pound, up to the Russian perma of 
 nearly four tons, a very large unit approached by the 
 Spanish cajon of about two tons, and only seriously 
 exceeded by the enormous maniasa of Bhopal and 
 Malwah, which vary from about 15 to nearly 22 English 
 tons. 
 
 There appears, however, never to have been any 
 actual need for separate monetary and commercial sys- 
 tems of weight, although the smaller subdivisions neces- 
 sary to a monetary system as well as to a medicinal one 
 would require an arrangement suited to the greater 
 delicacy and refinement of the operations of testing 
 
CH. vi. MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 193 
 
 money and compounding minute quantities of drugs. 
 On examining the old English monetary system of 
 weight, in which the still used Troy grain was divided 
 into ii 520 periots, and the periot into 24 blanks, units 
 actually used and referred to in old records, the conclu- 
 sion at once suggests itself that any such grain whether 
 commercial or not would have answered the same pur- 
 pose, apart from the disadvantages accompanying a 
 change. The principle of selection is the same when 
 applied to measures intended for one purpose as it is to 
 another ; a unit is to be forthcoming at the points of a 
 general scale where convenience demands them, and the 
 secondary units in the scale must be multiples and sub- 
 multiples of those units placed at other convenient 
 points in the scale. A single system of measures may 
 hence be made to include any multiples and submultiples 
 to any degree of any one unit once determined, 
 without adopting the coarse expedients either of a de- 
 tached system, or of borrowing foreign-units. 
 
 It is only very recently that the principle of sys- 
 tematic uniformity has been thoroughly and entirely 
 accepted in England. The old apothecaries' weight- 
 system and the old Troy weight-system are now nomi- 
 nally discarded, and will become really obsolete very 
 shortly after some perfect mode of supplanting them is 
 arranged. 
 
 At present the Troy ounce is the marked relic of that 
 system, the Canadian Government having obtained 
 standards of the Troy ounce from England as late as 
 1875 ; and the apothecaries' dram of 60 grains cannot 
 be expected either to make way for the inconvenient 
 avoirdupois dram of 27-3475 grains, or to be prac- 
 tically abolished until some more perfect arrangement 
 
 O 
 
194 METRICAL UNITS. PART I 
 
 be made ; the abolition and the transition are incom- 
 plete. 
 
 The adjustment of this matter appears to involve 
 much difficulty. The practical requirements are that the 
 dram should consist both of some convenient submul- 
 tiple of the ounce, and be some convenient multiple of 
 the grain, so as to admit of halving and quartering in 
 aliquot numbers. The difficulties result from the unfor- 
 tunate conjunction of the binary and the septimal modes ; 
 the pound is divided by one method into sixteenths or 
 ounces, and those again into sixteenths, thus arriving at 
 the 256th part in one mode, while the pound is also 
 divided into 7000 parts or grains on another method. 
 The advantages of both binary and decimal modes can- 
 not be preserved in a septimal system ; the halving and 
 quartering, doubling and quadrupling in a binary system 
 are of practical convenience in actual weighing, while 
 the decimal multiplication and division is convenient 
 when dealing with far-separated units, and generally 
 facilitates calculation ; the question therefore arises, 
 which advantages should be preserved, and which re- 
 jected. 
 
 Considering the English system as a whole, and 
 bearing in mind that the capacity-measures are binary 
 throughout, a corresponding mode might appear suitable 
 also in the series of weights. 
 
 The cause of the difficulty is evidently inherent in 
 the original engrafting of the Troy system on to the 
 avoirdupois system, each of which were complete and 
 convenient to a certain degree. 
 
 The old Troy pound consisted of 5760 grains Troy, 
 and the avoirdupois pound of 7680 grains avoirdu- 
 pois ; both of these pounds were quite unnecessarily 
 
CH. vi. MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 195 
 
 introduced from France into England, and eventually a 
 combination was effected, the avoirdupois grain was 
 abolished and the avoirdupois pound was declared equal 
 to 7000 grains Troy exactly ; the convenient subdivision 
 of this purely accidental number 7000 in accordance with 
 the traditional submultiples of either one class or the 
 other is the apparent stumbling-block. 
 
 Before the introduction of these foreign measures 
 of weight, the Anglo-Saxon or real English weights 
 answered every purpose, and were much superior to the 
 innovations, said to have been imported by the Black 
 Prince after the annexation of France. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon moneyer's pound, afterwards 
 termed the Tower pound, consisted of 12 ounces, or 20 
 shillings, or 240 pence ; and the pennyweight being 32 
 grains, this pound was 7680 Anglo-Saxon grains ; the 
 merchant's pound consisted of 15 such ounces or of 
 9600 Anglo-Saxon grains (O'7O3I25 grs. Troy). The 
 values of these pounds given in the tables are based on 
 the data given in the Reports of the Warden of the 
 Standards. The Anglo-Saxon ounce hence was 640 
 grains, a number admitting of continuous halving down 
 to 5 grains. The analogy between this subdivision of 
 the merchant's pound into 9600 grains, and the existing 
 subdivision of the pint into 9600 minims, affords evi- 
 dence of the natural English method of suiting their 
 measures to their own practical requirements, and of 
 their marked preference for binary subdivision. 
 
 The monetary weights of olden time were of much 
 greater importance than the commercial weights, and 
 show traces of greater care and nicety of arrangement 
 The repeated weighing of money, of which much was 
 debased, clipped, defective, and very irregular in form, 
 
 o 2 
 
196 METRICAL UNITS. PART I. 
 
 was then a necessity ; while at present improved coinage 
 and severe penal enactment render it comparatively need- 
 less, and at the same time principally confine monetary 
 measures to the hands of a special and limited number 
 of persons. In fact, recognition of coin and the accept- 
 ance of tokens of perfect form has superseded weighing 
 money as a general rule ; the scale is not now much used 
 for silver coin, and though retained for gold coin it is 
 perhaps not used for more than five per cent, of the 
 cases where gold coin is accepted in ordinary trade of 
 the country. Such a custom could never have existed 
 with the pieces of money, crooked, much battered, and 
 very variable, that have been handed down to us from 
 antiquity, nor before the penal edicts that provide im- 
 prisonment for half a life-time as the meed for making 
 payment with a bad shilling, or as it is termed, uttering 
 base coin. Comparatively modern experience in India 
 with the rupees of native States proves the necessity for 
 perpetual weighing that must have similarly been re- 
 quired not only with the silver pence of the Anglo- 
 Saxon period, but, if we may judge from the compara- 
 tive rarity of perfect ancient pieces of money, also with 
 the mass of the money of all nations in olden time. 
 
 At present, an unknown coin is either rejected or 
 valued as so much metal, and the reputed fineness of 
 the coins and tokens of other countries is the basis of 
 their valuation. Not only is Troy weight now unneces- 
 sary, but it always was so ; for, on examining the whole 
 of the old Continental monetary systems, fully three 
 quarters of them were merely marc systems, in which 
 the marc was exactly half a commercial pound (the 
 cases in which it was two-thirds are exceptional) ; the 
 marc was divided into 16 lodes, or loth, in the same 
 
en. vi. MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 197 
 
 way as the pound was divided into 16 ounces, and the 
 commercial units were simply doubled monetary units. 
 If then a unit approximating to the present avoirdupois 
 ounce is not now suited to the requirements of Mint- 
 officials, and a smaller unit be necessary, the adoption of 
 a monetary marc of half a pound, or even merely of a 
 monetary lode of half an ounce, would be sufficient for 
 all purposes, provided the subdivision were also rendered 
 convenient. 
 
 The English subdivision of the Troy ounce was 
 
 I ounce = 20 penny weights = 480 grains = 9600 mites 
 and the mite was anciently divided into 
 
 24 doits=576 periots= 13824 blanks. 
 
 The latter series has been long discarded as un- 
 necessarj', but the former part, the subdivision of the 
 ounce into 9 600 parts, follows the natural and typical 
 English method, formerly applied to the merchant's 
 pound and still applied to the pint, that will probably 
 be never improved upon for practical purposes, although 
 it is inferior for purposes of very rapid calculation. 
 
 The subdivision of the Coin loth, which was the i6th 
 of the Coin marc, or Continental unit of monetary mea- 
 sure, was : I loth, or lode = 4 drams or quetitchen = 1 6 
 pfennig or penny weights =32 heller = 272 asschen, but 
 the further division of the ass was unsystematic and 
 clumsy. 
 
 It may here be noticed that the marcs or half- 
 pounds mentioned in the tables of Continental com- 
 mercial pounds were not necessarily units of monetary 
 weight, for in a few cases they were mere commercial 
 
laS METRICAL UNITS. PARTI. 
 
 submultiples : besides this the term marc was frequently 
 applied to a unit of fineness of metal in distinction to a 
 fixed value either of commercial or monetary weight, and 
 in that form was the basis of a ratio, differently ex- 
 pressed for gold and for silver. A marc cannot therefore 
 be invariably treated as a monetary half-pound when 
 mentioned in connection with Continental systems. 
 
 The modes of subdivision above mentioned, indicate 
 practical requirements to be remembered when super- 
 seding the old Troy weight by new arrangements. 
 There is, however, another alternative method of arrang- 
 ing new measures and their subdivision ; it consists in 
 entirely ignoring all practical requirements and all the 
 convenience afforded by choice of suitable unit, in 
 forming a rigid decimal scale based on any unit what- 
 ever taken at hazard, and depending on the chance that 
 some one of the decimal sub-multiples will be near 
 enough to answer any required purpose. Such a method 
 is generally attributed to scientific men that are indif- 
 ferent to the public convenience, and is stigmatised 
 perhaps justly, as a very coarse and unscientific mode 
 of doing things ; though more strictly it amounts to a 
 mode of avoiding the care and thought involved in pro- 
 ducing anything useful. 
 
 The former apothecaries' weights in use in Europe 
 are mentioned in the tables of medicinal systems. The 
 Nuremberg medicinal pound and system of subdivision 
 was that most widely adopted, in the same way as the 
 Coin commercial pound was most generally used for 
 mercantile purposes throughout Northern Europe. 
 
 The special requirements of apothecaries' weight do 
 not appear to vary much from those of monetary weight: 
 and hence English Troy weight was apothecaries 
 
CH. vi. MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 199 
 
 weight for a considerable time ; there is, however, one 
 practical requirement of the compounder that calls for 
 attention, the connection between the weight-measure* 
 and the capacity-measures. The ounce-weight should 
 be the weight of a fluid ounce of water, and correspond- 
 ingly also for the dram and fluid dram, grain and fluid 
 grain, and any other such measures. This principle 
 has been admitted in England by the modern adoption 
 of the fluid ounce, and the recent adoption of the 
 liquid grain measure ; at present the English apothe- 
 caries' system of both weight and measure seems to 
 be resolving itself into the employment of a single unit 
 of weight, the grain weight, and a single unit of 
 measure, the liquid grain, with their decimal multiples 
 an arrangement that possesses the advantage of ex- 
 treme simplicity. 
 
 The purely commercial weights of almost all nations 
 present a tolerably general similarity. Most nations pos- 
 sess some sort of pound, rotl or catti, or some approximate 
 double-pound, oka, ser, or small man ; and these form 
 the standard units of which all others are multiples and 
 sub-multiples. 
 
 The origin of these pounds was in most cases an 
 Oriental rotl of very ancient date ; and it was an unfor- 
 tunate custom formerly to take the linear square and 
 cubic measures of a nation from one source, while adopt- 
 ing weight-units from another. In other cases the pound 
 is a unit dependent on the weight of water contained in 
 a cubic measure, based on some linear units of national 
 measure, as in the case of the Danish pound, and the 
 Prussian pound, respectively the 62nd and the 66th part 
 of a cubic foot of water of local measure. 
 
 The avoirdupois pound falls in the former of these 
 
200 METRICAL UNITS. PART i. 
 
 classes, but its French origin cannot be distinctly as- 
 signed ; and as it is not exactly the j-J-g-o of an English 
 cubic foot of water, although nearly so, it is hence a 
 most unfortunate and inexact unit. Even its name, 
 avoirdupois, is not capable of perfect explanation ; from 
 its being mentioned as a haberty-pound, it is supposed 
 to have been a weight used for averia, haberties, or 
 movable goods and commodities, in distinction to money 
 and valuables. Its value does not indicate connection 
 with the weights of the pile de Charlemagne^ or explain 
 its history and derivation. Its utility in England is 
 simply due to the fact that the English are now habi- 
 tuated to a measure of that value ; its historic asso- 
 ciations would not be injured by putting it in strict 
 adjustment with cubic measure, and making it exactly 
 the y^-6 Q th of a cubic foot ; and the variation introduced 
 would be so small as to be unimportant in the generality 
 of commercial matters, less than ^ per cent. 
 
 An English pound on this principle would render 
 the whole English series systematic. Several of the 
 German pounds are degraded values of the ancient and 
 historic unit, the Coin pound, while others have not their 
 individual origin historically assignable. 
 
 The metric pound of France, in use from 1812 to 
 1840, was a metric approximation to the livre poids de 
 marc, in use before that period, the former being half a 
 kilogramme, 500 grammes ; the latter, 489-5 grammes. 
 This last was divided into 2 marcs, 1 6 ounces, 128 gros, 
 384 scrupules or deniers, or 9216 grains, and was sup- 
 posed to be a unit belonging to the French series, de- 
 nominated the pile de Charlemagne, and based on a 
 yusdruma sent by the Khalif Almamun to Charlemagne, 
 The actual livre esterlin of Charlemagne is reputed to 
 
CH. vi. MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 201 
 
 have had a value of 367*1 grammes, or 5666^ English 
 grains, and to have been in value i^- marc of the French 
 monetary system in the middle ages. 
 
 On referring to the tables of former Italian pounds, 
 it will be noticed that some of them either are avowed 
 rottoli or happen to be indiscriminately termed libbre 
 or rottoli) while the same principle holds with pounds 
 of the Levant and the Mediterranean. In some of 
 these places, the rottal and the pound preserve some 
 aliquot ratio to each other, but this does not occur suffi- 
 ciently often for the purpose of drawing any general 
 conclusion. The values of these rottal> however, afford 
 useful indication. Apart from one or two very excep- 
 tional rottal, such as the very small one of Jidda, the 
 remainder may be divided into two very marked classes, 
 the large ones, of about two English pounds and up- 
 wards, and the ordinary ones, about thirty-two in number, 
 that group well together as approximations to the com- 
 mercial pounds of Northern Europe, and to the avoirdu- 
 pois pound more specially ; those of the latter group never 
 approximating to the Northern marcs and monetary 
 pounds. There is therefore sufficient reason for sup- 
 posing that the mercantile pounds of Europe are rottals 
 by origin ; the other alternative is to suppose them to 
 be simply double-marcs, or augmented marcs. 
 
 If the marc was the original unit, preserved in value 
 in the form of current money through a barbarous epoch, 
 and the commercial pounds were afterwards formed, when 
 wanted, either by doubling it, or by adding a half to 
 the monetary pound, or augmented marc (both methods 
 being in vogue from Spain to North Germany), the 
 origin of commercial pounds may then be entirely 
 independent of Oriental derivation. 
 
202 METRICAL UNITS. PARTI. 
 
 The closeness of value of the ancient Coin marc 2 33-8 
 grammes or 3608 grains Troy to the Charlemagne 
 marc, 244*7 grammes, places the old French and German 
 pounds in the same category as regards origin, which 
 probably dated from before that period in the earlier 
 ages when France was entirely overrun and occupied 
 by races from Germany. The French monetary pound 
 is historically assumed to have been a yusdruma or later 
 Arab pound, and a corresponding connection may 
 also have existed with the German pounds. There is 
 hence just as much reason for believing the i^-marc 
 units or monetary pounds to have been generally yus- 
 druma, as for considering the 2-marc units or commercial 
 pounds to have been rottals, in the vast majority of cases ; 
 and both of these theories seem equally probable. 
 
 The ordinary rottal seems to have been very widely 
 adopted eastward as well as westward, going as far as 
 Persia and India, being known still in Maisur and 
 Travancore and Goa ; it is also possible that the tching 
 of China, known to the English as the catti t was also 
 either a rottal or a mina. 
 
 The Arab units are believed to have been thus con- 
 nected : 
 
 I canthar = 44 oka= 100 rottal = 132 yusdruma. 
 i yusdruma=i2 wakia (ounces) =120 dirhem 
 
 (drachms). 
 
 I dirhem = 4 obole = 6 danik=i2 kirat (carats) = 48 
 chabba (grains). 
 
 But there were also earlier units of the same name, but 
 diversely derived, and hence of slightly different values ; 
 and besides metrologists have different opinions on this 
 particular subject. Taking the accepted value of the 
 
en. vi. MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 203 
 
 later canthar, the rottal corresponding to it must have 
 been 7 238 English grains, and the yusdruma 5 483 
 English grains ; but the older yusdruma is estimated to 
 have been 5 666 grains, and this is the one that probably 
 was a really ancient mina, and not a yusdruma in the 
 strict sense, its antiquity in Almamun's time making it a 
 valuable present to Charlemagne. Without prolonging 
 this subject of endless discussion, it may be noticed that 
 the above-mentioned Arab units of weight appear to 
 have formed the basic units of weight for almost all 
 nations, and to have remained so to the present day, in 
 the same way as the Arabic numerical notation. The 
 exceptional races that have neither an approximate oka, 
 mina, rottal, yusdruma, or a cheki, are comparatively 
 few, and may have some older but more specially local 
 weights. There appears to have been only one fresh 
 point of departure, the kilogramme des archives of un- 
 known density ; while the few modified pounds of Europe, 
 adapted to local cubic measure of water, corn, or other 
 substance, are probably systematised approximations to 
 former and more ancient pounds of the type of -the Arab 
 rottal. 
 
 Leaving the pounds and rottoli of Europe for the 
 oka of the Levant, that shows its origin in its name, the 
 ser and the man (called by the English the seer and the 
 mun or maund) come next in order for consideration. 
 First taking the Persian and present Arab man, which 
 is an exceptionally small one of its name, this gene- 
 rally varies from 2 to ?lbs. in value only, being a small 
 multiple of the local rottal ; but there are also some 
 double, royal, and special Persian man that are mere 
 augmentations on the ordinary value. 
 
 The mass of the larger seers, or ser, of India seem to 
 
204 METRICAL UNITS. PARTI. 
 
 be undoubtedly okas by origin, more especially the 
 typical and common North-Indian seer of 80 rupees, 
 which approximates to the oka in value. Some of the 
 small local and mostly South-Indian seers were probably 
 ancient units of quite another class, belonging to some 
 former regime and older races ; these were, in accord- 
 ance with Oriental custom, kept up and represented by 
 the weight of a certain number of local current coins. 
 The older races and dynasties being driven south by 
 invading races from the north-west and west, the older 
 seers, or kuchcha ser, are hence found in Southern India. 
 They are generally nominally based on pagodas, star- 
 pagodas, and curious antique rupees, some of which are 
 mere lumps of pure silver with a just perceptible trace 
 of a stamp of perhaps one letter of the name of some 
 ancient chief. 
 
 There is also another very marked distinction to be 
 drawn between the proper or pukka ser of Northern 
 India, and the small or kuchcha ser of Southern 
 India. They are both units of connection between 
 monetary weight and commercial weight, thus corre- 
 sponding to the marc and monetary pounds of Europe, 
 and hence fall in both categories as far as estimation 
 and numerical calculation is concerned. But the pukka 
 ser of Northern India is fairly employed and adapted to 
 both purposes, so that a seer of silver, or of oil, grain, or 
 of anything, is an ordinary expression, while the kuchcha 
 ser of Southern India has seldom held so important a 
 position as regards commercial weight, the viss of five 
 kuchcha sers there being the distinctive commercial 
 unit. The values of the viss are hence given in the fol- 
 lowing tables in addition to those of the ser, all of which 
 are collected and given together. The pussurree or 
 
CH. vi. MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 205 
 
 pasari, the measure of five pukka seers in Northern 
 India, is the unit parallel to the viss on the other scale, 
 but is comparatively seldom referred to, being a nominal 
 multiple and not a distinctive unit. 
 
 It is this change from the northern ser to the 
 southern viss, or from a chosen unit of about 2^1bs. cor- 
 responding to the Arab oka to another unit of about 
 3 to 3-^lbs. of indigenous origin, that marks an impor- 
 tant transition in system of measure. There is also a 
 corresponding transition in civilisation to be noticed in 
 passing from Northern to Southern India, which has 
 earned for the southern provinces the appellation of 
 ' the realms of the benighted.' This expression of the 
 idea may be an exaggeration in language, yet the actual 
 facts not only remain but may be fully accounted for. 
 
 Indian civilisation, whether considered semi-civilisa- 
 tion or not, was that of Northern India as regards origin 
 and historic association ; the Rajput ascendency, the 
 Brahmanical supremacy, the Buddhist reactionary sway, 
 and the Mughal dominion, each supported a civilisation 
 of their own in Northern India for a considerable period, 
 and with an important amount of homogeneity in each 
 case, before being successively broken up and supplanted. 
 
 The Dakhan, Southern India, and the two coasts, 
 never received corresponding advantages to such a 
 widely-spread extent ; the Telingi, Tamil, Mahratta, 
 Maisur, and the Haidarabad developments were local 
 and confined round certain centres, while the coasts ob- 
 tained their enlightenment from a fitful commercial 
 intercourse with distant nations. The permanence and 
 grandeur of the northern civilisation, when pressed 
 southward, was invariably frittered into fractions ; while 
 the old substratum of less-expanded and more aboriginal 
 
206 METRICAL UNITS. PART i. 
 
 ideas and customs remained steadfast, and was accom- 
 panied by the retention of the older and more primitive 
 measures in the lower part of the peninsula. 
 
 Proceeding eastward, the Malayan and Indo-Chinese 
 weights appear to be of an intermediate or mixed type ; 
 as the Indian Buddhist exodus took Indian weights 
 further east ; while the more purely Malayan races 
 brought Chinese weights westward ; some of the weights 
 hence belong to one category, some to the other, as 
 regards origin, although their names may vary consider- 
 ably. 
 
 The Chinese tching or pound is the standard unit of 
 weight in China, and is locally peculiar in its subdivision, 
 being divided into 16 Hang or ounces ; this is in marked 
 contradistinction to Chinese habits of thought, which 
 are rigidly decimal. The Chinese divide anything and 
 everything into fun, li, hdo, and ssa, or tenths, 
 hundredths, thousandths, and myriadths, going on fur- 
 ther to the infinitely small in the same way. A com- 
 mon fraction is comparatively unknown to them and 
 requires special explanation ; such a thing as a sixteenth 
 could hardly have entered their unaided minds ; hence 
 the tching and Hang must have been importations. Their 
 origin may be a matter of mere surmise, but even this does 
 not offer a very wide range of choice. 
 
 The value of the tching, 1*325 Ibs., or 9275 grains 
 English, may indicate some Chaldaean or early Egyptian 
 mina of a large and primitive type for its source, but as all 
 trace of sexagesimal subdivision, as well as of decimal sub- 
 division, is missing, this objection seems almost conclusive. 
 In the second place, it may have been an Arab rottal of the 
 larger type introduced with and by the Moslem, and may 
 have followed the same rule as the European commer- 
 
CH. vi. MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 207 
 
 cial pounds, being treated as 16 wakia or ounces, of 
 which about 12 went to the yusdruma, although, as 
 before explained, the rottals were not generally exactly 
 1 6 wakia. 
 
 Thirdly, the tching may have been a borrowed Dutch 
 commercial pound of 16 ounces, augmented for increased 
 size and consequent imaginary grandeur, while its 
 antiquity may have been an Oriental invention ; this 
 origin becomes more probable from the reason that the 
 Chinese itinerary measure the pou of 10 li is believed to 
 be a Dutch league. But the fact that the Chinese ///&/ 
 of 100 tching corresponds proportionately to the Arab 
 canthar of 100 rottal, while also any unit of 10 tching or 
 10 rottal is entirely absent in both scales, may be con- 
 sidered as evidence that the trio of Chinese weight, pikul, 
 tching, and Hang, are derived from the Arab canthar, 
 rottal, and wakia. 
 
 The tching, when termed a catti (a word that is not 
 Chinese), is a modified and an export tching used in 
 foreign trade only ; the English making it exactly i^ 
 pounds avoirdupois, the Dutch sometimes ij and some- 
 times 1^- pounds Troy Dutch, the Spaniards 22 Cas- 
 tilian ounces ; in these forms it is used all over the 
 Chinese Archipelago and the Indian Ocean, in Borneo 
 Sumatra, and Malacca. 
 
 The Japanese have a national picul, tching, and 
 Hang of their own, that probably were borrowed from 
 China and afterwards varied from accidental fluctuation 
 of standard. 
 
 Large Units. The larger measures of weight among 
 almost all nations are multiples of their standard 
 units, the pounds, rottals, sers, okas, viss, and tching ; 
 and hence require but little comment. The values of 
 
208 METRICAL UNITS. PARTI. 
 
 the stone, being dependent on those of the smaller units, 
 may be obtained by applying the ratios given in the 
 tables. The European liespfunds are units of this class. 
 
 The Indian dharri is a stone ; it is invariably a 
 quarter of a maund, but varies from 6 to 1 5 pounds in 
 value. 
 
 In Turkey, Syria, Arabia, and Persia the man or 
 batman is generally a small unit corresponding to the 
 stone. 
 
 In Malacca, the capin of 10 vis is a unit near the 
 value of an English foot- weight or talent. 
 
 The English foot-weight, of I ooo millesimal ounces 
 or 62*32 1 Ibs. av., may be considered an approximate half- 
 hundredweight, essentially necessary in the systematisa- 
 tion of the English system. (See Scientific Systems.) 
 
 The values of the centners, centals, quintals, and 
 hundredweights of Europe are given in the tables, as 
 well as their ratios to their corresponding standard units. 
 The English cental of 100 pounds is gradually gain- 
 ing ground on the hundredweight of 112 pounds in 
 external commerce, and may possibly altogether replace 
 it for such purposes ; in the meantime it would be per- 
 haps premature to imagine it has done so, and to give 
 all tabular values in centals instead of in hundred- 
 weight. 
 
 Perhaps the most convenient mode of arranging the 
 upper English weight-units would be to abolish both the 
 hundredweight and the cental, and use the foot-weight 
 or talent of 62-321 Ibs. as the standard unit, with a unit 
 of 40 foot- weight as a ton ; thus preserving correspond- 
 ence with cubic measure and the tun of capacity. 
 
 The Levantine and Syrian cantaro is either 44 okas 
 or 100 rottal, according as the oka or the rottal is con- 
 
CH. VI. MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 209 
 
 sidered the standard unit ; in some cases both ratios are 
 preserved. The Cairene canthar of 36 okas and of 100 
 local rottal is an exceptional case, probably due to the 
 incorporation of older local measures with the Arab 
 system. 
 
 In Northern India, the large mun, or maund, not to 
 be confounded with the small Arab and Persian mun, is 
 a multiple of the proper ser, being almost invariably 40 
 ser, or about 90 English pounds. In Central India, the 
 Malwah mun are rather small, from 16 to 28 ser and 
 upward ; but in this province the mani of 12 mun, 
 varying from 3 to 5 English hundredweight, are the 
 peculiar units ; in one or two cases they are merely 4 
 mun. 
 
 In Southern India the mun is comparatively small in 
 value, for it generally consists of 40 nominal or kuchcha 
 sers, which, as before explained, are usually small ; the 
 Gujrat mun is small, but here the mauni of 12 mun, or 
 480 local ser, varying from 4^ to 6 English hundred- 
 weight, is also a peculiar local unit. The Malabar, Ganjam, 
 and Travancore mun are small ; the more notable of the 
 exceptional South Indian mun are the Bangalore mun 
 of 24 rottal, the Travancore mun of 25 rottal, the Goa 
 mun of 24 rottal, the Tranquebar mun of 68 Danish 
 pounds, and the maunds of Allepay, Quiloa, and 
 Trevandrum of 25 and of 30 olundas or Dutch pounds. 
 
 In Southern India besides the maund there is also 
 the kandi or candy, a unit much more frequently em- 
 ployed in all transactions than the maund, in the same 
 way as the viss is more usually adopted than the 
 seer. The kandi is 20 small man, and varies from 500 to 
 560 English pounds ; it is hence the large commercial 
 unit in common use, corresponding to the baharvi China, 
 
 P 
 
210 METRICAL UNITS. PARTI. 
 
 Malacca, and the Malayan Archipelago, and it occasion- 
 ally takes the latter name. 
 
 The bahar of modern Arabia varies much in value ; 
 the bahar of China and Malacca io 3 piculs or 300 tching 
 or catti. 
 
 Tons and lasts. The very large or nominal measures 
 of weight corresponding to the English ton are units 
 adopted only by nations having extensive commercial 
 transactions ; the number of various tons used in the 
 world is hence comparatively small, as may be seen 
 from the list of them given with their values in the 
 tables at the end of this chapter. 
 
 Lasts of freight vary much with the nature of mer- 
 chandise ; although those used for heavy goods are well- 
 defined and invariable. 
 
 Units far beyond the ton in value are few in number. 
 The South American cajon for minerals, a case or chest 
 of 50 quintals, or about two English tons (see the tables) 
 is one of these ; the Russian perma of four Russian tons 
 or eight packen, used for hay and similar goods, is 
 another ; but the whole series of Malwah maniasa of 100 
 mauni exceed them ; the highest being that of Bhopal ; 
 their values range from 15 to 25 English tons, and they 
 indicate a high degree of commercial development in the 
 land of opium. 
 
CH. VI. 
 
 MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 
 
 211 
 
 COMMERCIAL POUNDS AND ANALOGOUS 
 UNITS. 
 
 GENERAL VALUES. 
 
 England and America : the avoirdupois pound 
 = 16 ounces = 7000 grains troy =128 medi- 
 cinal drams = 256 commercial drams . 
 
 An English pound = 16 millesimal ounces, each 
 Y^ooth of the English foot- weight of water on 
 the scientific series = 16 ooo mils = 16 ooo ooo 
 doits 
 
 Denmark : the Danish pound = ^nd part of a 
 foot-weight of water at ordinary temperature 
 = 2 marcs = 1 6 ounces = 32 lod = 128 qwintin 
 = 512 ort 
 
 Norway : the Danish pound, but valued thus 
 according to Warden's Report for 1874-75 
 
 Sweden : the skSlpund=i6 ounces = 32 lod = 
 128 qwintin = 8848 ass ; (detached unit) 
 
 Prussia : the Prussian pound = ith part of a 
 foot-weight of water in vacuo at 15 Reau- 
 mur = 2 marcs = 1 6 ounces = 32 loth =128 
 quentchen = 5i2 pfennige; the half pfennig 
 being also termed a heller .... 
 
 A'^stro-Hungarian Imperial pound = 4 vierling 
 = 16 ounces = 32 loth =128 quentchen = 5 1 2 
 pfennige ; (detached unit) .... 
 
 German Zoll -pound (metric) = \ kilogramme 
 de la Conservatoire 
 
 Russian Imperial pound (funt) = i2 Iana=l6 
 ounces = 96 501 = 9216 doli ; (detached unit) 
 
 France, Italy, and the Netherlands, &c. : the 
 kilogramme = I cubic decimetre of water at 
 0-4 Centigrade =1000 grammes 
 
 Spain: the Castilian pound = 2 marcos = i6 
 onzas =128 ochavas = 256 adarmes = 768 
 tomines - 9216 granos ; (detached unit) 
 
 P 2 
 
 0-9988 
 
 English 
 Scientific 
 Equivalen 
 
 16-019 
 
 16 
 
 i-ioio I 17-637 
 
 1-0981 I 17'691 j 0-49810 
 
 0-9337 | 14-958 0-42354 
 
 1-0311 16-518 
 
 1-2347 
 
 1-1023 
 0-9028 
 
 2 -2046 
 
 19-779 
 
 17-658 
 
 14-463 
 
 35-317 
 
 1-0141 , 16-246 0-46000 
 
METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 COMMERCIAL POUNDS, &c. 
 continued. 
 
 GENERAL VALUES continued. 
 
 Portugal : arratel or arrate = 2 marcos = 4 
 
 quartas=i6 onzas=i28 outavas = 384 scru- 
 
 pulos = 92i6 graos ; (detached unit) . 
 Ottoman Empire : the Stambul oka = 4 cheki 
 
 = 400 dirhem = 6400 kirat or taim = 25600 
 
 taim ; (detached unit) .... 
 
 Also the Stambul rotal or lodar= 176 dirhem . 
 Greece : the oka = 400 drachmata . 
 Syria : the Damascus rotal = 60 wakia = 400 
 
 mitkal = 600 dirhem 
 
 Arabia : mekka rotal ..... 
 Egypt : Cairo oka or harsela = 400 darham . 
 Abyssinia : rotal or litre = 10 mocha =- 120 
 
 darham = 12 wakia ..... 
 Tunis : rotal = 16 wakia = 128 mitkal 
 Algiers: rotal-attari = 16 wakia 
 
 Morocco : rotal 
 
 Persia : the saddarham = 6 giya = 8 danar = 16 
 
 pinar = 20 seritahran = 100 darham = 320 
 
 miskal 
 
 Persia: rotal = 100 miskal .... 
 Northern India: the Imperial serorseer=i6 
 
 chattak = 80 tola or rupis = 14400 grains troy 
 Also the French kilogramme .... 
 Southern India : the Madras vis = 50 ounces 
 
 avoirdupois ...... 
 
 Also the Bombay ser = 30 paise = 4900 grains 
 
 troy ........ 
 
 Burma : the Rangun vis = loo tical 
 Thai (Siam) chang = 80 bat = 20 tael 
 Malacca tampang, or Dutch catti=ij Ibs. 
 
 Dutch troy . . . . 
 Sumatra : the English catti .... 
 Java, Celebes, and Borneo : the Dutch catti . 
 Mindanao and Sulu Islands : the English catti 
 Manila : the Spanish catti = 22 onzas espailoles 
 China : the tching= 16 Hang .... 
 ,, the export tching or catti = 16 taels . 
 Japan : Japanese king= 160 nomme 
 
 NOTE. These units are detached, when not expressed as cubicised. 
 
 fij 
 
 uw* 
 
 Lbs. av. 
 
 l|l 
 Jjl'3 
 
 Ounces 
 
 I-OII9 
 
 16-210 
 
 2-8283 
 1-2444 
 
 3-37ii 
 
 45-308 
 19-935 
 54-003 
 
 3-9544 
 i -0206 
 2-7769 
 
 63-347 
 16-349 
 43-704 
 
 0-6857 
 1*1104 
 1-2039 
 1-1.123 
 
 10-985 
 17-788 
 19-286 
 17-819 
 
 3-2508 
 1*0159 
 
 52-076 
 16-274 
 
 2*0571 
 
 2 -2046 
 3-I250 
 
 32-954 
 35-317 
 
 50-060 
 
 0-7 
 
 11-214 
 
 3-3333 
 
 53-398 
 
 2-675 
 
 42-852 
 
 1-3564 
 
 21-729 
 
 1-3333 
 
 21-359 
 
 1-3564 
 
 21-729 
 
 1-3333 
 
 21-359 
 
 1-3946 
 
 22-341 
 
 1-3252 
 
 21-229 
 
 1-3333 
 
 21-359 
 
 i-3 
 
 20-825 
 
CH. VI. 
 
 MEASURE'S OF WEIGHT. 
 
 213 
 
 COMMERCIAL POUNDS, &c. 
 
 contimud. 
 
 FORMER, LOCAL, OR 
 
 SPECIAL UNITS. 
 ENGLAND : 
 
 Former troy and apothecaries' pound ' = 12 oz. 
 troy = 5760 grains troy = 96 drachms = 288 
 scruples 
 
 Old commercial pound used in foreign trade = 
 1 6 ounces (7200 grains troy) = 10240 grains. 
 
 Old merchants' pound =15 ounces = 25 shillings 
 = 300 pence (6750 grains troy) = 9680 grains 
 
 Old moneyers' pound 1 =12 ounces = 20 shil- 
 lings = 240 pence = \\ marc = 7680 grains 
 (5400 grains troy) ..... 
 
 DENMARK AND NORWAY : 
 
 Monetary pound,' for subdivision see commer- 
 cial pound, also = 8192 as = 63536 grains . 
 
 SWEDEN : 
 
 Export pound and jernwigt pound = f skalpund 
 Town pound, uppstadswigt = 74$os ass 
 Miners' pound, bergwerkwigt = 7821^ ass 
 Copper pound, rakopparwigt = 7853 ass . 
 Iron-ore pound, rajernwigt= 10168 ass .. 
 
 GERMANY : 
 
 The Prussian pound was used in several addir 
 
 tional places after 1816; Weimar, Silesia, 
 
 Hesse, and Wurtemberg. The subdivision. 
 
 of the following German pounds follows the 
 
 Prussian type except when otherwise ex- 
 pressed. (See General Values.) . 
 The Coin pound used in Saxony, Lippe-Det- 
 
 mold, and at Hamburg for retail trade 
 Baden, after 1810, zoll-pfund = 10 zehnling = 
 
 loo centass = 1000 pfennige = 10000 as ;. also 
 
 divided into 32 loth = 128 quentchen. . 
 Bavaria, from 1810 to 1872, pound = 16 unzen 
 = 32 loth = 128 quentchen .... 
 
 Bremen pound 
 
 Brunswick pound 
 
 Coburg pound . . . . . 
 Darmstadt, zoll-pfund = 32 loth =128 quentchen 
 
 = 512 richtpfennige 
 
 Elsass, livre poids de marc (see France) . 
 
 1 Monetary pounds were used for some purposes in retail trade. 
 
 cr English 
 *" Commercial 
 < Equivalent 
 
 Ounces 
 
 o . 8229 
 
 13-182 
 
 I -0286 
 
 16-477 
 
 0-9643 
 
 15-447 
 
 07714 
 
 12-358 
 
 I -0379 
 
 1 6-627 
 
 0-7469 
 0-7862 
 0-8254 
 0-8287 
 I -0750 
 
 11-965 
 12-486 
 13-223 
 13-275 
 17-189 
 
 I-03II, 
 
 16-518 
 
 I -0307 
 
 16-511 
 
 L-I023 
 
 17-658 
 
 I -2346 
 1-0985 
 I -0302 
 I-I239 
 
 19-777 
 17-596 
 1&503 
 17-994 
 
 ITO23 
 I -0792 
 
 17-658 
 17-288 
 
METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I 
 
 COMMERCIAL POUNDS, &c. 
 
 ill 
 
 s^I 
 
 continued. 
 
 fc* 6 i 
 
 l|| 
 
 GERMANY continued : 
 
 W JI 
 
 W ^w 
 
 
 Lbs. av. 
 
 Ounces 
 
 Elsass, old pfund of Elsass for retail trade 
 
 I -0395 
 
 16-652 
 
 Frankfurt-on-the-Main, wholesale pound 
 
 I-II4O 
 
 17-846 
 
 ,, ,, ,, retail pound 
 
 I-03I5 
 
 16-524 
 
 Gotha pound 
 
 I -0304 
 
 16-507 
 
 Hamburg, wholesale Ib. is the Holstein Ib. 
 
 I -0679 
 
 17-107 
 
 ,, retail pound is the Coin pound 
 
 0307 
 
 16-511 
 
 Hanover pound ...... 
 
 0794 
 
 17-291 
 
 Holstein pound ...... 
 
 0679 
 
 17-107 
 
 Llibeck pound ...... 
 
 0684 
 
 17-114 
 
 Mecklenburg Schwerin, wholesale pound as at 
 
 
 
 Hamburg ....... 
 
 0679 
 
 17-107 
 
 ,, ,, retail Ib., aug. 5 per ct. 
 
 1213 
 
 17-962 
 
 Nassau, the Wiesbaden pound 
 
 0377 
 
 16-624 
 
 Nuremberg, old commercial pound. 
 
 1244 
 
 18-012 
 
 ,, old monetary pound . 
 
 I -0518 
 
 16-850 
 
 Oldenburg, the Hamburg pound subdivided 
 
 
 
 down to 8192 as 
 
 I -0679 
 
 17-107 
 
 SWITZERLAND : 
 
 
 
 The three pounds most commonly used were 
 
 
 
 Zoll-pfund 
 
 I 'IO23 
 
 17-658 
 
 Uri, Zug, Zurich, "1 Zurich heavy pound = i8oz. 
 
 1-1654 
 
 18-668 
 
 Schwytz & Claris / Antorf light pound = 16 oz. 
 
 I '0357 
 
 16-592 
 
 Arau pound = 32 loth ..... 
 
 I-0507 
 
 16-832 
 
 Basel, wholesale or heavy pound = 16 ounces . 
 
 I -0873 
 
 17-418 
 
 ,, retail pound = 16 ounces =32 Ioth=i2& 
 
 
 
 quentchen . . 
 
 I-07I9 
 
 17-171 
 
 ,, monetary pound (Prussian) = 1 6 ounces 
 
 I-O3II 
 
 16-518 
 
 Berne and Neufchatel, heavy pound = 16 ounces 
 
 1-1466 
 
 18-368 
 
 ,, ,, light Ib. {Fr. p. de marc). 
 
 I -0792 
 
 17-288 
 
 Freiberg, commercial pound = 32 loth =128 
 
 
 
 quentchen . . ... 
 
 1-1654 
 
 18-668 
 
 ,, monetary pound (French p. de marc) 
 
 
 
 St. Gall, heavy pound = 20 ounces = 40 loth . 
 
 1-2733 
 
 20-397 
 
 ,, light pound = 1 6 ounces = 32 loth 
 
 I -0252 
 
 16-422 
 
 Geneva, heavy pound = 1 8 oz. =432 pfennige . 
 
 I-2I4I 
 
 19-449 
 
 , , light pound =15 ounces = 360 pfennige 
 
 I-OII7 
 
 16-207 
 
 Grisons, meat pound = 48 loth 
 
 1-5296 
 
 24-493 
 
 ,, fish pound = 36 loth . 
 
 I-I47I 
 
 18-375 
 
 ,, light pound = 32 loth 
 
 I-OI96 
 
 16-334 
 
 Lucerne, pound = 36 loth = 144 quentchen 
 
 I'lOIO 
 
 17-637 
 
 Schaffhausen, heavy pound = 40 loth 
 
 I -2677 
 
 20-307 
 
 ,, light pound = 32 loth . 
 
 1-0141 
 
 16-246 
 
 Thurgau, Appenzell heavy Ib. =20 oz. =40 loth 
 
 I -2888 
 
 20-646 
 
 ,, light Ib. = 16 oz. =32 loth. 
 
 1-0252 
 
 16-422 
 
CH. VI. 
 
 MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 
 
 21$ 
 
 COMMERCIAL POUNDS, &c. 
 
 fll 
 
 $&i 
 
 continued. 
 
 ||| 
 
 t|| 
 
 SWITZERLAND continued : 
 
 CJW 
 
 CO * 
 
 
 Lbs. av. 
 
 Dunces 
 
 Ticino, libbra grossa = 32 ounces = 64 loth 
 
 I-942I 
 
 31-110 
 
 ,, libbra sottile= 12 ounces = 24 loth 
 
 0-7283 
 
 11-667 
 
 Waadt, since 1822, pound =^ 5 th part of a foot- 
 
 
 
 weight of water at 39 Fahr. = 16 oz. = 128 
 
 
 
 gros = 5 12 pfennige = 9216 grains 
 
 I-I023 
 
 17-658 
 
 NOTE. The ounces of the light and heavy 
 
 
 
 pounds are not necessarily identical at any 
 
 
 
 one place or canton. 
 
 
 
 FRANCE : 
 
 
 
 Livre metrique (1812 to 1840) = ^ kilogramme 
 
 
 
 = 1 6 onces = 128 gros = 9216 grains . 
 
 I-I023 
 
 17-658 
 
 Livre poids de marc = 2 marcs = 1 6 onces = 128 
 
 
 
 gros = 92 1 6 grains ..... 
 
 I -0792 
 
 17-288 
 
 Livre esterlin = I \ marc =12 onces = 20 sous = 
 
 
 
 24 deniers = 4800 oboles = 5 760 grains . 
 
 07093 
 
 12-965 
 
 HOLLAND AND BELGIUM : 
 
 
 
 Amsterdam pond = i6 onsen = 32 looden= 128 
 
 
 
 drachms = 10280 as ..... 
 
 1*0893 
 
 17-451 
 
 Troy-pond, subdivided in the same way, but 
 
 
 
 also = 320 engeln = 10240 as 
 
 I -0850 
 
 17-382 
 
 Brussels shop-pound = 4 quarter =16 onsen = 
 64 satin =128 gros = 92 1 6 grains . 
 
 I-03II 
 
 17-220 
 
 AUSTRO-HUNGARY : 
 
 
 
 The Imperial and the Zoll-pound (General Values] 
 
 
 
 
 I '134.2 
 
 18-169 
 
 Buda-Pesth, old pound . . . . 
 
 J. L 3t+* 
 I-0576 
 
 16-941 
 
 Galicia, old Lemberg pound .... 
 
 O-9262 
 
 14-836 
 
 Cracow pound = 2 marc = 1 6 ounces = 32 loth = 
 
 
 
 48 skoykiecs ...... 
 
 0-8949 
 
 14-335 
 
 Silesian old pound (subdivided as at Vienna) . 
 
 I-I676 
 
 18-704 
 
 Dalmatia, Ragusa pound = f oka= 12 ounces == 
 
 
 
 120 drachms ...... 
 
 0-8437 
 
 13-516 
 
 Illyria, funto of Fiume ..... 
 
 I-23I7 
 
 19-731 
 
 Tyrol, Tyrolese pound = 1 6 ounces = 32 loth . 
 
 I -2403 
 
 19-869 
 
 ,, Trent commercial pound 
 
 O-74O8 
 
 11-866 
 
 ,, Botzen heavy pound .... 
 
 I-I045 
 
 17-693 
 
 ,, Botzen light pound for grocery 
 
 0-7290 
 
 11-678 
 
 RUSSIA : 
 
 
 
 Imperial, commercial, and monetary ( General 
 
 
 
 Values). 
 
 
 
 Old Lithuanian pound ..... 
 
 0-826I 
 
 13-233 
 
 Narva pound = 96 solotnik 
 
 I-O3I8 
 
 16-528 
 
216 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 COMMERCIAL POUNDS, &c. 
 
 -sis 
 
 $< 
 
 continued. 
 
 if! 
 
 m 
 
 RUSSIA continued : 
 
 w li 
 
 * 
 
 
 Lbs. av. 
 
 Ounces 
 
 Pernau pound = 16 oz. = 32 loth= 128 quenten 
 
 0-9185 
 
 14-713 
 
 Revel ,, ,, ,, ,, 
 
 0-9502 
 
 15-221 
 
 Riga . 
 
 O'Q2I7 
 
 14-764 
 
 Warsaw, metric funt= 16 ounces = 32 loth = 48 
 
 \J y*r A f 
 
 
 skoykiecs = 9216 granikow of 8 milligrams . 
 
 o -8940 
 
 14-321 
 
 ,, ancient funt before 1819 . 
 
 0-8352 
 
 13-379 
 
 ITALY : 
 
 
 
 Libra metrica (since i8o3)=io oncie = 100 
 
 
 
 grossi= i ooo denari = I oooo grani 
 
 2 -2046 
 
 35-317 
 
 Ancona, lira commerciale = 12 oncie 
 
 0-7293 
 
 11-683 
 
 Belluna, libbra peso grosso .... 
 
 I-I39I 
 
 18-248 
 
 sottile .... 
 
 0-6640 
 
 10-637 
 
 Bergamo, lira = 30 oncie = 720 denari =17280 
 
 
 
 grani 
 
 i 7973 
 
 28-792 
 
 Bergamo, Iiretta=i2 oncie = 288 denari 6912 
 
 
 
 
 0*7180 
 
 11-517 
 
 Bologna, libbra = 12 oncie = 96 ottave = 192 
 
 \j i i_>y 
 
 
 ferlini = 1920 carati = 7680 grani . 
 
 0-7981 
 
 12-785 
 
 Brescia, libbra commerciale .... 
 
 07077 
 
 11-337 
 
 Como, libbra 
 
 0-6839 
 
 10-955 
 
 Cremona, libbra commerciale 
 
 0-6812 
 
 10-913 
 
 Ferrara ,, , ,, = 12 oncie . 
 
 0-7625 
 
 12-214 
 
 ,, the monetary pound was that of Rome. 
 
 
 
 Genoa, peso grosso = 12 oncie 
 
 07686 
 
 12-313 
 
 ,, libbra peso scarso = rottolo =12 oncie 
 
 0-6989 
 
 11-195 
 
 ,, , "1 rottolo ordinario = 30 oncie 
 
 1 7502 
 
 28-037 
 
 J 360 trapesi .... 
 
 0-7072 
 
 11-328 
 
 Milan, libbra peso grosso = 4 quarti = 28 oncie 
 
 1-6811 
 
 26-931 
 
 ,, ,, ,, sottile = 12 oncie = 6912 
 
 
 
 grani 
 
 0-7205 
 
 11-542 
 
 Modena, lira =12 oncie =192 ferlini 
 
 07500 
 
 12-015 
 
 Monetary pound was that of Bologna. 
 
 
 
 Naples, rottolo of commerce = 2 Ibs. = 33! 
 
 
 
 
 i -064'? 
 
 31-467 
 
 Naples, monetary libbra =12 oncie = 360 tra- 
 
 ?^^3 
 
 
 pesi = 7 200 acini ..... 
 
 0-7072 
 
 11-328 
 
 Padua and 1 libbra peso grosso = 12 oncie 
 
 I ^726 
 
 17-182 
 
 Vicenza / ,, sottile =12 ,, 
 
 0-7472 
 
 11-969 
 
 Parma, libbra = 12 oncie = 288 denari = 6912 
 
 
 
 grani 
 
 07196 
 
 11-527 
 
 Piacenza, libbra = 12 oncie = 288 denari = 69 12 
 
 
 
 
 O-7OII 
 
 11-231 
 
 Piedmont, Turin libbra = i marc= 12 ounces 
 
 
 
 = c6 ottavi = 69i2 grani = 165888 granatini . 
 
 0-8I3I 
 
 13-027 
 
CH. VI. 
 
 MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 
 
 COMMERCIAL POUNDS, &c. 
 continued. 
 
 ITALY continued : 
 
 Reggio, libbra ...... 
 
 Rome =12 oncie = 288 denari = 6912 
 
 grani . . . .... 
 
 Rovigo, libbra peso grosso .... 
 
 ,, ,, ,, sottile .... 
 
 Sardinia ,, =12 oncie . 
 Sicily, Neapolitan pound =12 oncie 
 
 ,, old Sicilian pound =12 oncie = 5760 
 
 cocci. ....... 
 
 Tuscany, libbra =12 oncie = 96 drachme = 69 1 2 
 
 grani 
 
 Tuscany, Livorno rottolo = 3 libbre = 36 oncie . 
 Venice, libbra peso grosso = 2 marc = 72 sazi 
 
 = 2304 carati 
 
 Venice, libbra peso sottile = 1 2 oncie = 72 sazi 
 
 = 1728 carati ...... 
 
 Verona, libbra peso grosso = 12 oncie =192 
 
 mezetti 
 
 Verona, libbra peso sottile =12 oncie =192 
 
 mezetti 
 
 SPAIN : 
 
 Castile and Leon, libra castillana (general) 
 
 Aragon, libra pensil=i| marcos =12 onzas = 
 48 quartos =192 adarmes = 6144 granos 
 
 Asturias, libra mayor = 3 marcos = 24 onzas cast. 
 , , , , menor = libra castillana. 
 
 Cataluna, Majorca and Minorca, libra = i| 
 marcos =12 onzas = 48 quartos =192 arienzos 
 = 6912 granos ...... 
 
 Galicia, libra gruesa or gallega = 2O onzas 
 
 , , , , sutil = libra castillana = 1 6 onzas. 
 
 Grenada, old libra mayor .... 
 ,, menor .... 
 
 Iviza, libra 
 
 Murcia ,, . . 
 
 Navarra, libra = 2 marcos = 16 onzas =17 
 onzas cast., divided in the Castilian manner 
 
 San Lucar, libra 
 
 San Sebastian, libra = i *o6 libra castillana 
 
 Tortosa (Spain) libra ..... 
 
 Valencia, libra mayor = 18 onzas . 
 
 , , , , menor =12 onzas (Castilian sub- 
 division) 
 
 Valencia, libra for saffron and chocolate =16 
 onzas ....... 
 
 Valencia for bread and meat 36 onzas . 
 
 Canary Islands, libra castillana. 
 
 Ill 
 
 l|| 
 
 Lbs. av. 
 0-7165 
 
 Ounces 
 
 11-477 
 
 T '5 23 
 0-6645 
 
 0-8963 
 0-7072 
 
 11-976 
 16-857 
 10-644 
 14-356 
 11-328 
 
 07001 
 
 11-215 
 
 0-7486 
 2*2457 
 
 11-992 
 35-975 
 
 1-0517 
 
 16-848 
 
 0*6643 
 
 10-641 
 
 1*1019 
 
 17-651 
 
 0*7346 
 
 11-768 
 
 1-0141 
 
 16-246 
 
 07716 
 1*5212 
 
 12-361 
 24-369 
 
 0*8818 
 i -2703 
 
 14-127 
 20-350 
 
 1*1018 
 0-9793 
 i -0207 
 0*9586 
 
 17-649 
 15-688 
 16-352 
 15-356 
 
 i -0787 
 i -0450 
 i -0759 
 0-6716 
 1*1751 
 
 17-280 
 16-613 
 17-234 
 10-759 
 18-824 
 
 07834 
 
 12-540 
 
 2*3501 
 
 16-732 
 37-648 
 
2lS 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 COMMERCIAL POUNDS, &c. 
 continued. 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA, MANILA, &c. : 
 The Castilian pound. (See General Values.) 
 
 BRAZIL, MADEIRA, GOA, &c. : 
 The Portuguese arratel. (See General Values.) 
 
 IONIAN ISLANDS, GREECE, &c. : 
 The pound avoirdupois .... 
 
 The Venetian libra peso grosso 
 
 ,, marc = libra .... 
 
 Patras, pound = \ oka = 12 oz. = 133! drachma . 
 
 , , silk pound 15 ounces 
 Morea, pound = f oka = Venetian libra p. g. . 
 Malta, monetary lira = f rottolo = 12 oncie 
 
 INDIA AND THE ANTILLES : 
 Cannanor, pound = 4 pollam = 4O Surat rupis . 
 Cochin ,, =42| Surat rupis . 
 
 Ceylon, pound avoirdupois .... 
 Ceylon, formerly the Dutch troy pound . 
 Antilles (French) livre poids de marc 
 Cura9ao, old pound ..... 
 Saint Croix, the Danish pound 
 
 ill 
 
 111 
 
 -I! 
 
 *w 
 
 Lbs. av. 
 
 Ounces 
 
 I 
 
 16-019 
 
 1-0517 
 070II 
 
 16-848 
 11-232 
 
 0-8810 
 
 14-114 
 
 I-IOI3 
 
 17-642 
 
 1-0517 
 
 16-848 
 
 0-6980 
 
 11-181 
 
 I-O227 
 
 16-383 
 
 I -0867 
 
 17-408 
 
 I 
 
 16-019 
 
 I -0850 
 
 17-332 
 
 1-0792 
 
 17-288 
 
 I-I7I3 
 
 18-764 
 
 I-IOIO 
 
 17-637 
 
 The Rotal, Lodar, and Cheki. 
 
 For the Italian rottoli see the Italian pounds 
 (p. 216). The Portuguese rotal is given 
 among the General Values. 
 
 Balearic Islands, rottolo = 3 libras = 36 onzas . 
 
 Malta, rottolo = 2| lire = 30 oncie . 
 , , , , gro?so = 2| lire = 33 oncie . 
 
 Cyprus ,, = 12 ounces = 7 50 drachms 
 
 OTTOMAN EMPIRE AND GREECE 
 Stambul, rotal or lodar = 1 76 dirhem 
 
 ,, cheki or yusdruma=ioo dirhem = 
 1600 karat or taim = 66| mitkal . 
 Stambul, opium cheki = 250 dirhem 
 
 Rhodes, rotolo 
 
 Scio 
 
 Candia 
 
 The Wallachian litre = Stambul cheki 
 Patras, rotolo or pound = \ oka 
 Negropont, rotolo . ... 
 
 Mistra ,, . . . . . 
 
 SYRIA : - 
 Acra, rotal for raw cotton, and general use 
 
 2-6454 
 1-7450 
 1-9195 
 
 5' 2441 
 
 42-381 
 27-953 
 30-748 
 84-007 
 
 I-2OOO 
 0-79150 
 0-87065 
 2-37868 
 
 1-2444 
 
 19-935 
 
 0-56447 
 
 0-7071 
 1-7677 
 
 5 '2744 
 i -0925 
 1-1656 
 
 11-327 
 28-317 
 84-493 
 17-500 
 18-672 
 
 0-32073 
 
 0-80181 
 2-39245 
 
 Q'49553 
 0-52869 
 
 0-8810 
 i -1802 
 0-9969 
 
 14-114 
 18-905 
 15-969 
 
 0-39963 
 
 0'5353i 
 0-45218 
 
 4-8652 
 
 77-937 
 
 2-20682 
 
CH. VI. 
 
 MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 
 
 219 
 
 COMMERCIAL POUNDS, &c. 
 
 sU 
 
 S.I I 
 
 continued. 
 
 til 
 
 |j| 
 
 SYRIA continued : 
 
 W JI 
 
 We *ff 
 
 
 Lbs. av. 
 
 Ounces 
 
 Acra, rotal for spun cotton .... 
 
 4-4909 
 
 71-942 
 
 Aleppo and Alexandretta, rotal = i oka =12 
 
 
 
 ounces = 720 darham ..... 
 
 5*0266 
 
 80-523 
 
 Aleppo, rotal for Syrian silk = 700 darham 
 
 4-8870 
 
 78-286 
 
 ,, ,, Persian ,, =680 ,, 
 
 47472 
 
 76-049 
 
 ,, ,, drugs =600 ,, 
 
 4-1889 
 
 67-103 
 
 Damascus, rotal = 60 wakia = 400 mitkal = 600 
 
 
 
 
 3 'QZAA. 
 
 63-347 
 
 Smyrna, rotal or lodar= 180 darham 
 
 I-2746 
 
 20-419 
 
 ,, cheki = \ oka= 100 ,, 
 
 0-708I 
 
 11-344 
 
 ,, opium cheki =250 >, 
 
 1-7703 
 
 28-360 
 
 Tripoli, small rotal = \\ oka = 600 darham 
 
 4-0053 
 
 64-162 
 
 ,, large ,, = if =720 
 
 4-8063 
 
 76-994 
 
 Said (Sidon), the rotal for ordinary trade 
 
 5 <2 537 
 
 84-161 
 
 , , the silk rotal = 600 darham 
 
 4-1081 
 
 65-810 
 
 ARABIA : 
 
 
 
 Mekka and Medina, rotal .... 
 
 i 0206 
 
 16-349 
 
 Mokha, rotal =15 vakia . 
 
 I c 
 
 24-029 
 
 ,, coffee rotal = 14! vakia 
 
 J '45 
 
 23-228 
 
 Betelfaghi, rotal =15 vakia .... 
 
 1-0194 
 
 16-330 
 
 ,, coffee rotal = 14! vakia . 
 
 0-9854 
 
 15-786 
 
 ,, rotal for dates, iron, &c. = 16 vakia 
 
 i -0874 
 
 17-419 
 
 Jidda, rotal = 15 vakia 
 
 0-3660 
 
 5-863 
 
 EGYPT AND ABYSSINIA : 
 
 
 
 Alexandria, rotal = 144 dirham 
 
 0-9678 
 
 15-503 
 
 Cairo, rotal = 12 vakia =144 dirham 
 
 0-9499 
 
 15-217 
 
 Abyssinian rotal or litar= 10 mokha= 12 vakia 
 
 
 
 144 dirham ...... 
 
 O-68S7 
 
 10-985 
 
 BARBARY, TUNIS, AND MOROCCO : 
 
 w u "j/ 
 
 
 Tunis, rotal = 16 vakia = 128 mitkal 
 
 1-1104 
 
 17-788 
 
 Tripoli ,, = 16 ,, =160 darham = 2560 
 
 
 
 kharuba ....... 
 
 i -0970 
 
 17-574 
 
 Fez, rotal . 
 
 1-0370 
 
 16-613 
 
 Tangiers, rotal ...... 
 
 i -0608 
 
 16-993 
 
 Tetuan ,, ...... 
 
 
 25-047 
 
 Morocco, small rotal ..... 
 
 1-1123 
 
 17-819 
 
 ,, large ,, = i| small rotal 
 
 i -6685 
 
 26-728 
 
 Mogador, rotal = 20 piastres espanoles . 
 
 1-1865 
 
 19-007 
 
 ALGIERS : 
 
 
 
 Rotal feudi (monetary) = 16 vakia 
 
 i -0966 
 
 17-568 
 
 ,, attari (ordinary) = 16 ,, 
 
 i -2039 
 
 19-286 
 
 ,, kebir = i| rotal attari = 24 vakia 
 
 i -6450 
 
 28-929 
 
 Oran rotal ....... 
 
 1-1107 
 
 17-793 
 
220 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 COMMERCIAL POUNDS, &c. 
 continued. 
 
 -dig' 
 
 Hi 
 
 English 
 Scientific 
 Equivalent. 
 
 GUINEA : 
 
 OM 
 
 Lbs. av. 
 
 m 
 Ounces 
 
 Benda = 8 piso= 16 agirac .... 
 
 0-1414 
 
 2-265 
 
 PERSIA AND INDIA : 
 
 
 
 Persian rotal = i oo miskal 
 
 I-OI59 
 
 16-274 
 
 Maisur rotal =40 rupis= i| Bangalur ser . 
 
 I-0062 
 
 16-118 
 
 Travancor rotal or putur = ^ tulam 
 
 0-9959 
 
 15-954 
 
 ,, another rotal = ^ man . 
 
 I -0010 
 
 16-035 
 
 ,, Colachi rotal = 5 pollam = 1350 man 
 
 
 
 jandi 
 
 0-752I 
 
 12-048 
 
 EASTERN ASIA : 
 
 
 
 The Tching or Catti. 
 
 
 
 China, tching = 16 liang = 160 tchen = 1600 
 
 
 
 fun = 16000 li 
 
 1-3252 
 
 21-229 
 
 China, export tching, or Anglo-Chinese catti 
 
 
 
 = 1 6 tael = 1 60 maces = 1600 condorin = 
 
 
 
 16000 cash : also for Japanese export . 
 
 "i '3333 
 
 21-359 
 
 Used also at Singapur, Sumatra, Camboja, 
 
 
 
 Moluccas, Mindanao, and Sulu Islands 
 
 
 
 Dutch-Chinese catti = \\ pounds, Dutch troy, 
 
 
 
 used in Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Celebes, and 
 
 
 
 Malacca : also termed a tampang 
 
 I-3564 
 
 21-729 
 
 Hispano-Chinese catti = 22 onzas espanoles, 
 
 
 
 used at Manila, and in the Philippines 
 
 3946 
 
 22-341 
 
 Malacca, catti = 16 tael . . 
 
 3500 
 
 21-626 
 
 Molucca catti = i| Ibs. Dutch troy (Amboyna) . 
 
 3022 
 
 20-860 
 
 
 6211 
 
 25-969 
 
 Anam, kan= 16 luong= 160 dong . 
 
 375 
 
 22-027 
 
 Mocamoco, catti = 16 tael = 24 ringit 
 
 4583 
 
 23-361 
 
 Acheen, catti = 20 bunkal = 100 tael 
 
 2-1171 
 
 33-915 
 
 Malacca, monetary catti = 20 bunkal 
 
 2-0491 
 
 32-825 
 
 Singapur ,, =20 ,, 
 
 2-3768 
 
 38-075 
 
 Japan, king = 1 60 nomme . 
 
 1-3000 
 
 20-825 
 
 ,, the king is also estimated to be equal 
 
 
 
 to the Anglo-Chinese catti .... 
 
 
 
 Thai (Siam), chang or ching = 80 bat 
 
 2-6750 
 
 42-852 
 
 Manila, the tola for gold = 10 piastres 
 
 0-5966 
 
 9-558 
 
 ,, ,, silk = 11 piastres, or ounces 
 
 0-6563 
 
 10-513 
 
CH. VI. 
 
 MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 
 
 221 
 
 ORIENTAL DOUBLE POUNDS. 
 
 ja-ol ' 
 
 *&i 
 
 
 **"* & *rt 
 
 '-ipl 
 
 The Oka, Okijah, and Large Wakia. 
 
 M 8 '3 
 
 
 EASTERN EUROPE : 
 
 W cr 
 CJW 
 
 Wc ^w 
 
 
 
 Lbs. av. 
 
 Ounces 
 
 Hungarian oka = 2\ pounds = 400 dirham 
 
 27778 
 
 44-499 
 
 Moldavian, or Galatz oka .... 
 
 2-8660 
 
 45-912 
 
 Wallachian, or Ibrahil oka .... 
 
 2-8660 
 
 45-912 
 
 Dalmatian, or Ragusa oka = 3^ pounds = 42 
 
 
 
 ounces = 420 drachms .... 
 
 2-9527 
 
 47-300 
 
 Ionian Islands, oka = 2-7 Ibs. = 400 drachms . 
 
 27 
 
 43-252 
 
 Cyprus, oka = 400 drachms .... 
 
 27968 
 
 44-803 
 
 TURKEY : 
 
 
 
 Stambul, oka = 4 cheki = 400 dirham 
 
 2-8283 
 
 45-308 
 
 Candia, oka = 2 j\ rotal = 400 drachms 
 
 2-6491 
 
 42-436 
 
 GREECE : 
 
 
 
 Greek oka = 400 drachms .... 
 
 S'37 11 
 
 54-003 
 
 Patras and Morea, oka = 3 pounds = 36 ounces 
 
 1 
 
 > 2 '643 1 
 
 42-341 
 
 Also the Stambul oka . 
 
 J 
 
 
 SYRIA : 
 
 
 
 Aleppo, oka = 400 drachms .... 
 
 27925 
 
 44-734 
 
 Smyrna ,, = 4 cheki = 400 drachms 
 
 2-8325 
 
 45-375 
 
 Tripoli ,, =400 drachms . . . . 
 
 2-6702 
 
 42-775 
 
 MESOPOTAMIA : 
 
 
 
 Bagdad and Bussara, oka = 400 drachms 
 
 2-7425 
 
 43-934 
 
 
 . .8228 
 
 77-418 
 
 
 I -1665 
 
 18-586 
 
 EGYPT AND BARBARY : 
 
 
 
 Alexandrian oka = 400 drams 
 
 2-7282 
 
 43-704 
 
 Cairo, oka or harsela = 2| rotal = 400 drams 
 
 2-7769 
 
 44-485 
 
 Tripoli, oka = 2| rotal = 400 darham 
 
 27425 
 
 43-934 
 
 PERSIA : 
 
 
 
 The Saddirham = 8 danar= 100 dirham . 
 
 3-2508 
 
 52-076 
 
 Persian wakia = 90 miskal = 4 nimmih 
 
 0-9143 
 
 14-646 
 
 The Ser, or Seer. 
 
 
 
 Indian Imperial ser = 16 chattak = 80 rupis 
 
 
 
 weight = 14400 troy grains . 
 A double pound of 32 millesimal ounces of the 
 
 2-0571 
 
 32-954 
 
 English scientific series .... 
 
 I -9976 
 
 32 
 
 The French kilogramme (used as a ser) . 
 
 2-2046 
 
 35-317 
 
222 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 ORIENTAL DOUBLE POUNDS 
 
 .elas 
 
 ** 
 
 continued. 
 
 III 
 
 Tjjg i> 
 
 I'll 
 
 NORTH INDIAN UNITS (or 
 
 "It 
 
 H ^l 
 
 proper sers) : 
 
 Lbs. av. 
 
 Ounces 
 
 Allahabad and Lakhnau, ser = 96 sicca . 
 
 2-4640 
 
 39-473 
 
 Balasur (Orissa), ser= 1 6 chattak . 
 
 I '8906 
 
 30-288 
 
 Bauleah and Serampur, ser=i6 chattak = 60 
 
 
 
 
 I '54OO 
 
 24-666 
 
 Banaras, ser of 105 rupi of Benares 
 
 2-6250 
 
 42-050 
 
 96 J5 
 
 2-4000 
 
 38-446 
 
 Bhopal (Malwa) ser = 80 rupi 
 
 I-9286 
 
 30-895 
 
 Calcutta, bazar ser ..... 
 
 2-0533 
 
 32-892 
 
 ,, factory ser = 8o sicca = 16 chattak 
 
 I -8667 
 
 29-903 
 
 Calp! and Etawah (Agra) ser= 16 ,, . 1 
 , , Khaus-ser for sugar and metal . . j 
 
 2-I2II 
 
 33-978 
 
 ,, Raipur-ser, retail .... 
 
 2-3750 
 
 38-046 
 
 ,, ,, wholesale .... 
 
 2-53I3 
 
 40-550 
 
 Dakka, ser =16 chattak .... 
 
 2*0469 
 
 32-790 
 
 Hughli =16 ,, 
 
 2-1047 
 
 33-716 
 
 Indor ,, =82 Ujjain rupi .... 
 
 2-0266 
 
 32-387 
 
 Malda ,, =100 Bengal sicca 
 
 2-5625 
 
 41-050 
 
 Malwah, or Bunswara ser = 84 Salimshahi rupi 
 
 2-0250 
 
 32-439 
 
 Mirzapur, ser = 84 Bengal sicca 
 
 2-1560 
 
 34-538 
 
 Patna, many ser units, the principal one is ser 
 
 
 
 = 80 sicca ...... 
 
 2-0566 
 
 32-945 
 
 Pertabghur, ser = 80 Salimshahi rupi 
 
 I -9286 
 
 30-895 
 
 Ujjain, ser = 80 rupis= 16 chattak . 
 
 I-977I 
 
 31-672 
 
 SOUTH INDIAN UNITS (mostly 
 
 
 
 kachcha sers) : 
 
 
 
 Ahmadnagar, commercial ser = 80 Ankosi rupi 
 
 I-97I4 
 
 31-577 
 
 ,, goldsmiths' ser = 24 tola . 
 
 0'6453 
 
 10-337 
 
 Bangalur, kachcha ser = 24 Arcot rupi . 
 
 0-6035 
 
 9-668 
 
 ,, pakka ser = 84 ,, 
 
 2TI32 
 
 33-852 
 
 Ballari, commercial ser = 21 Maisur rupi 
 
 0-5288 
 
 8-471 
 
 Baroda, ser = 42 Babashahi rupi 
 
 I-0620 
 
 17-009 
 
 Belgaum and Shahpir, ser = 24 Shahpir rupi . 
 
 0-5966 
 
 9-557 
 
 Bombay goldsmiths' ser = 24 tola . 
 
 0-6I37 
 
 9-831 
 
 ,, and Surat, commercial ser = 30 paise 
 
 
 
 (pice) . . .... 
 
 0-7 
 
 11-212 
 
 Haidarabad, Dakkan, ser = 80 rupi 
 
 1-9851 
 
 31-800 
 
 Madras, native ser = 80 pagoda = 8 pollam 
 
 0-6028 
 
 9-657 
 
 Anglo-Madras ser= 10 ounces avoirdupois 
 
 0-6250 
 
 10-012 
 
 Puna, commercial ser = 72 tola 
 
 I-97I4 
 
 31-577 
 
 Telicherri and Calicut, ser = 20 Surat rupi 
 
 0-5II4 
 
 8-192 
 
 Trichinopalli, metal ser . . 
 
 0*5954 
 
 9-538 
 
 ,, retail ,, = 243 star pagodas . 
 
 I -9060 
 
 30-533 
 
 , , wholesale ser = 270 star pagodas 
 
 2-II78 
 
 33-926 
 
CH. VI. 
 
 MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 
 
 223 
 
 ORIENTAL TRIPLE-POUNDS. 
 
 fjj 
 
 III 
 
 1|| 
 
 The Vis t PanJ-ser, or Passari. 
 
 W |w 
 
 "coj 1 
 
 ^Jf 
 
 
 Lbs. av. 
 
 Ounces 
 
 Kilog. 
 
 The panj-ser of Northern India is a mere term 
 
 
 
 
 for 5 proper sers. The passari of Central 
 
 
 
 
 India is generally 5 sers, but at Bhilsa is 6 
 sers, at Bhopal 6| sers, and at Omutwara is 
 
 
 
 
 3 sers. 
 
 
 
 
 SOUTHERN INDIA : 
 
 
 
 
 Bangalur, vis = 5 ser kachcha 
 
 3'Ol89 
 
 48-361 
 
 1-3694 
 
 = 5~ >i ' 
 
 3-I698 
 
 50-778 
 
 1-4378 
 
 Ballari, panchaser = 6 ser .... 
 
 3-I725 
 
 51-025 
 
 1-4390 
 
 Seringapatam, panchser = 5 ser 
 
 3-0343 
 
 48-608 
 
 I-3763 
 
 Surat, panseri = 5 ser 
 
 4-6875 
 
 75-091 
 
 2-I262 
 
 Madras, indigenous vis = 400 pagodas = 5 ser . 
 
 3-0143 
 
 48-287 
 
 I -3673 
 
 ,, Anglo ,, =5 ser = 50 ounces av. 
 
 3-1250 
 
 50-060 
 
 I-4I75 
 
 Masulipatam, vis = 5 ser = 450 pagodas . 
 Pondicherri , , = 3 pounds, poids de marc . 
 
 3-5I56 
 
 56-318 
 51-853 
 
 1-5947 
 I -4682 
 
 Trichinopalli ,, =5 (metal) ser, nearly . 
 
 3 
 
 48-058 
 
 1-3608 
 
 BURMA AND MALACCA : 
 
 
 
 
 Rangun, vis= 100 tical= 10000 mus 
 
 3-3333 
 
 53-398 
 
 I-5I20 
 
 Pegu ,, =100 ,, =10000 ,, - 4 agito 
 
 
 
 
 = 8 abuco 450 pagodas .... 
 
 3-3929 
 
 54-352 
 
 1-5390 
 
 Tocopa, vis = 4 put= 12 pinga 
 
 5-9500 
 
 95-315 
 
 2 "6989 
 
 Janselon, vis = 4 put ..... 
 
 6-0667 
 
 97-184 
 
 27518 
 
 SUMATRA &c. : 
 
 
 
 
 Sinkel, catti-utan = 3 English cattis 
 
 4 
 
 64-077 
 
 I-8I44 
 
 ,, ,, for camphor 
 
 3-8400 
 
 61-514 
 
 I-74I8 
 
 ,, ,, for benzoin 
 
 3-5 
 
 56-068 
 
 I-5876 
 
 Banda ,, 
 
 6-10 
 
 97-721 
 
 2-7669 
 
 THE STONE AND THE LIESPFUND. 
 Ratios to the Commercial Pound for both General and Former Local Units. 
 
 England : ordinary stone 
 ,, For meat or fish 
 
 For glass 
 
 Local Ibs. 
 . 14 
 8 
 
 Sweden : sten . . -32 
 
 ,, lispund for iron . 1 6 
 
 ,, ,, or ordinary . 20 
 
 GERMANY : 
 
 Berlin, stein, light . . . n 
 
 ,, ,, heavy . . 22 
 
 Local Ibs. 
 GERMANY continued : 
 
 Berlin, liespfund . . . i6| 
 
 ,, ,, formerly . 14 
 
 Baden, stein. . . .10 
 
 Bavaria ,, . . . .20 
 
 Bremen ,, light (wool) . 10 
 
 Bremen, stein, heavy (flax) . 20 
 
 ,, liespfund (light) . 14 
 
 (heavy) . 14* 
 
 Breslau, stein . . .22 
 
 laep ... 24 
 
 Brunswick, stein, 10, 1 1, 20 or 22 
 
224 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 THE STONE AND THE LIESPFUND continued. 
 
 Local Ibs. 
 
 GERMANY continued : 
 Brunswick liespfund 
 Cassel, kleuder (wool) 
 Danzig, stein (sugar, rice, sirup) 
 ,, ,, (flax, hemp, cord) 
 ,, liespfund (Prussian). 
 Frankfurt on Main, stein 
 Hamburg, stein (flax) 
 
 ,, (wool, feathers) 
 liespfund . 
 
 (freight) . 
 Hanover, stein (wool) 
 
 ,, (flax and hemp) 
 liespfund , 
 Holstein ,, 
 Koenigsberg, stein (light) 
 
 ,, (heavy) . 
 
 ,, liespfund, Prussian. 
 
 Lubeck, stein (wool, feathers) . 
 
 (flax) 
 ,, liespfund (ordinary) . 
 
 (freight) 
 
 Mecklenburg, stein (light) 
 ,, (heavy) 
 
 , , liespfund (ordin. ) 
 
 (freight) 
 
 Oldenburg, stein (wool, feathers) 
 ,, liespfund 
 
 The values may be reduced 
 
 Local Ibs. 
 
 GERMANY continued : 
 
 14 
 
 Oldenburg stein (flax) 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 Saxony, stein .... 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 33 
 
 SWITZERLAND : 
 
 
 
 Zug, stein .... 
 
 4i 
 
 22 
 
 HOLLAND AND BELGIUM 
 
 ._ 
 
 2O 
 IO 
 
 Amsterdam, steen . 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 ,, lyspond 
 
 IS 
 
 16 
 
 Brussels, sten 
 
 8 
 
 IO 
 
 AUSTRO-HUNGARY : 
 
 
 20 
 
 Vienna, stein .... 
 
 20 
 
 I 4 
 
 ,, ,, (also) 
 
 22 
 
 14 
 
 Bohemia ,, 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 Cracow, kamieneck 
 
 25 
 
 33 
 
 (old) 
 
 32 
 
 IO 
 
 (also) 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 RUSSIA : 
 
 
 14 
 
 Imperial pud in Imperial runt . 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 Local pud in local funt . 
 
 4 
 
 ii 
 
 Warsaw, kamieneck 
 
 25 
 
 22 
 
 ,, ,, (wool) . 
 
 32 
 
 14 
 
 Narva, liespfund 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 Pernau ,, 
 
 2O 
 
 10 
 
 Riga ... 
 
 20 
 
 '4* 
 
 Revel ,, ... 
 
 2O 
 
 from those of the pounds. 
 
 ORIENTAL STONES. 
 The Smaller Mun, Man, or Batman. 
 OTTOMAN EMPIRE: 
 
 Turkish and Syrian man = 6 local oka. 
 Arabian man, generally = 2 ,, rotal. 
 But the Jidda man = 5 Jidda rotal. 
 
 PERSIA : 
 
 Man i tabriz = 40 sir i tahran = 640 miskal 
 ,, shiraz = 6o ,, shiraz =720 ,, 
 ,, bushahr=i6 giya =768 ,, 
 ,, shah = 4 saddirham = 400 dirham . 
 
 INDIA : 
 The Dharri or Dhadda. 
 
 The dharri or dhaddha is an expression foi the quarter of an Indian man or 
 inun : the dassari is ten seers. 
 
 6-5017 
 
 7-3I44 
 
 7-8020 
 
 13-0034 
 
 104-153 
 117-172 
 124-983 
 208306 
 
 2-9491 
 3-3I78 
 
 5-8982 
 
CH. VI. 
 
 MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 
 
 225 
 
 QUARTERS AND ANALOGOUS UNITS. 
 
 ti 
 
 ENGLAND AND AMERICA : Lbs?av. 
 The English quarter (weight-unit) is the quarter 
 of the hundredweight. The American quarter 
 (weight -unit) is the quarter of the cental. 
 
 => ^ English 
 ^ ^ Scientific 
 r Equivalent. 
 
 M H French 
 4 g* Scientific 
 w Equivalent. 
 
 
 0-4005 
 
 1 1 *34O 
 
 The half of the commercial talent or foot-wt. . 31 *l6l 
 The half of the talent or foot-weight of the 
 Scientific series . ..... 31-212 
 
 The arroba. 
 SPAIN : 
 The Spanish arroba (weight-unit) is the quarter 
 of the quintal. 
 Castilian arroba = 25 libras castillanas . . 25-353 
 Alicante ordinaria = 36 libras menores 28*254 
 granesa =30 23-545 
 Aragon = 36 libras menores . . 27778 
 Cataluna =26 ,, . . . 22-928 
 Galicia % =25 gallegas . . 31-758 
 Valencia ordinaria = 36 libras menores 28-254 
 delgada =30 23*545 
 (for flour) = 32 25*115 
 Canaries = 25 libras castillanas . . 25*353 
 Majorca j g 
 
 0-4992 
 0-5 
 
 0-4061 
 0-4526 
 0-3772 
 0-4450 
 0-3673 
 0-5088 
 0-4526 
 0-3772 
 0-4023 
 0-4061 
 
 0-3673 
 
 I4'I34 
 14*158 
 
 11*500 
 12-816 
 10-680 
 12*600 
 10*400 
 
 12*816 
 10*680 
 11-392 
 1 1 -500 
 
 10*400 
 
 Gibraltar ,, =25 ,, . . . . 25*435 
 Buenos Ayres, Chili, Mexico, Peru, Uruguay, 
 La Havana, Manila, the Castilian arroba . 25*353 
 
 PORTUGAL : 
 
 The Portuguese arroba (weight-unit) is the 
 quarter of the quintal. 
 Lisbon, arroba = 32 arrateis .... 32-381 
 Brazil and Goa, the Lisbon arroba. 
 
 0-4075 
 0-4061 
 
 0-5187 
 
 "'537 
 11*500 
 
 14-688 
 
226 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 FART I. 
 
 The kachcha man. 
 
 SOUTHERN AND CENTRAL INDIA : 
 The kachcha man = 40 kachcha ser (see Sers) 
 in some cases 8 vis. 
 
 The exceptions were the following : 
 
 CENTRAL INDIA : 
 
 Bhilsa, man = 48 ser . 
 
 Indor, kachcha man = 20 ser 
 
 Mandissor, man = 1 5 ser 
 
 Omatwara, man = 28 ser .... 
 
 Pertabghur, man = 20 ,, .... 
 
 Rutlam, Malwah, and Banswara, man = 20 ser 
 
 Ujjen, man = 1 6^ ser ..... 
 
 SOUTHERN INDIA : 
 
 Baroda, 1 man = 42 ser . 
 
 Belgaum, man = 44 ser .... 
 
 Ballari, man = 48 ser . 
 
 Bombay, ! man, for arrack = 50 ser 
 
 Calicut, man = 34 pounds = 60 ser 
 
 Cannanor, man = 30 pounds = 60 ser 
 
 Carwar. man = 42 ser . 
 
 Cochin, man = 30 pounds 
 
 Colachi, man = 30 rotal .... 
 
 Darwar, man, for liquids = 48 ser . 
 
 Goa, man = 24 rotal = 24! pounds avoir. 
 
 Jamkhair, ' man (dry) = 64 ser 
 
 Pallamkatta, man = 2 tulam = 200 pullam 
 
 Puna, * besides a man of 40 ser, there are five. 
 
 Surat, 1 besides a man of 40 ser there are 
 
 several. 
 
 Telichery, man = 32 pounds = 64 ser 
 Tranquebar, man = 68 Danish pounds . 
 Travankor, man = 25 olundas for metals and 
 
 sugar . 
 
 Travankor, also a man = 30 olundas (general) 
 
 , , man = 25 putur or rotal 
 
 Trichinopalli, man = 8| vis = 25 pounds av. . 
 
 In several places a special man for cotton of 42 ser (local) was commonly 
 used ; and occasionally also a man of 40 ser ( ' ) in addition to the man 
 given in the table. 
 
 ill 
 
 III 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 Fwt. 
 
 0-8204 
 
 1-4720 
 
 0-3619 
 
 0-6493 
 
 0-2970 
 
 0-5329 
 
 0-4880 
 
 0-8756 
 
 0-3431 
 
 0-6179 
 
 0-3616 
 
 0-6488 
 
 0-2979 
 
 0-5345 
 
 0-3983 
 
 0-7145 
 
 0-2344 
 
 0-4205 
 
 0-2266 
 
 0-4066 
 
 0-6850 
 
 1-2289 
 
 O-62IO 
 
 0-5571 
 
 0-2740 
 
 0-4916 
 
 0-230I 
 
 0-4059 
 
 0-2911 
 
 0-4352 
 
 O-2OI5 
 
 0-3615 
 
 0-2204 
 
 0-3955 
 
 O-22IO 
 
 0-3965 
 
 I-3I82 
 
 2-3651 
 
 0-2232 
 
 0-4005 
 
 O-2922 
 
 0-5244 
 
 0-6685 
 
 1-1991 
 
 0-2443 
 
 0-4383 
 
 0-293I 
 
 0-5259 
 
 0-2235 
 
 0-4009 
 
 0-2232 
 
 0-4005 
 
CH. VI. 
 
 MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 
 
 227 
 
 THE FOOT-WEIGHT OR TALENT (fwt.\ 
 
 ENGLAND : 
 
 The commercial foot -weight, or talent, being 
 the weight of an English cubic foot of 
 distilled water at 62 Fahr. in air, by 
 standard constructed and legalised in 1859 
 for Great Britain 
 
 The scientific foot-weight at 32 Fahr. 
 water at 39 Fahr. in vacuo; in corre- 
 spondence with the French standard 
 method) = 1000 millesimal or English 
 ounces = I million mils = I billion doits, j 
 on the English scientific system, = ] 
 28-315 311 931 kilogrammes 
 
 FRANCE : 
 
 The kilogramme, theoretically the weight") 
 of a cubic decimetre at o Cent, of water 
 in vacuo at 4 Cent. =2-20462125, 
 pounds, av. ; since 1864 = 35-316580740^ 2 ' 2 46 
 millesimal ounces English. Its old value 
 was 2-204 857 14 Ibs. av. J 
 
 *%i 
 
 S.41J 
 
 s^l 
 
 pi 
 wig. 
 
 cjy 
 
 Isl 
 SBS 
 
 fe ^w 
 
 Lbs. av. 
 
 Fwt. 
 
 Kilog. 
 
 62-3210 
 
 I 
 
 0-9983 
 
 28-2686 
 
 1 
 62-4245 
 
 1- 
 
 28-3153 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 J 
 1 
 
 
 
 VARIOUS NOMINAL ENGLISH UNITS. 
 
 Truss of straw . 
 
 ,, ne\v hay 
 
 ,, old ,, (Sept. 
 Tod of wool . 
 Barrel of anchovies . 
 Pocket of wool . 
 
 malt . 
 Seam of glass . 
 
 Lbs. av. 
 
 
 
 Lbs. av. 
 
 I 
 
 Barrel of gunpowder 
 stockfish 
 
 
 
 . 100 
 IOO 
 
 56 
 
 
 raisins . 
 
 
 
 . 112 
 
 28 
 
 
 candles 
 
 
 I2O 
 
 30 
 
 
 flour . 
 
 , 
 
 . 1 9 6 
 
 I2O 
 
 
 butter = 4 firkins 
 
 . 224 
 
 140 
 
 
 soap =4 
 
 it 
 
 . 256 
 
 1 2O 
 
 Faggot of steel . 
 
 
 . 120 
 
 Q 2 
 
 
 
228 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 HUNDREDWEIGHTS AND ANALOGOUS 
 UNITS. 
 
 GENERAL VALUES. 
 
 112 pounds 
 
 =100 
 
 = loo kilog. 
 
 The English hundredweight . 
 
 The ,, cental 
 
 The American hundredweight / 
 
 The Zollverein metric centner = 100 ,, 
 
 The Prussian centner . . =110 ,, 
 
 The Danish and Norwegian 
 
 centner .... = 100 ,, 
 
 The Swedish centner . . =120 ,, 
 
 The Austrian ,, . . = 100 ,, 
 
 For Russian centners see Local Values, 
 p. 230. See also imperial berkowitz, 
 under Loads, p. 234. 
 
 The French metric quintal . 
 
 The Italian centinajo = 10 
 rubbi .... 
 
 The Nederlandsche centenaar 
 
 Switzerland: the Waadt quin- 
 tal = 100 pounds 
 
 Spain: the Castilian quintal . = 100 ,, 
 
 Portugal : the Lisbon ,, . =128 ,, 
 
 Ottoman Empire : the Stam- 
 bul cantar . . . = 100 rotl 
 
 Egypt : the Cairo cantar * = 100 ,, 
 
 Algiers : kantar attari = 100 ,, 
 
 Persia : the man i hasham = 16 man i bushahr 
 the man or maund . = 40 ser 
 the picul . . = loo tching 
 ,, the export picul = 100 English catti 
 ,, the Dutch ,, = 100 Dutch ,, 
 
 Japan : the tan or picul . = 100 king 
 
 = loo 
 = loo 
 
 India : 
 China 
 
 .=!' 
 
 all 
 
 Ill 
 
 111 
 
 w o o 1 
 
 
 UW 
 
 M 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 Fwt. 
 
 I 
 
 1-7942 
 
 0-8929 
 
 1-6019 
 
 0-9842 
 
 1-7658 
 
 I-OI27 
 
 1-8170 
 
 0-9830 
 
 1-7637 
 
 1-0004 
 
 1-7950 
 
 I-0756 
 
 1-9779 
 
 I -9684 
 
 3-5317 
 
 0-9842 
 
 1-7658 
 
 0-9055 
 
 1-6246 
 
 1-1565 
 
 2-0749 
 
 I-III2 
 
 1-9935 
 
 0-8481 
 
 1-5217 
 
 I -0749 
 
 1-9286 
 
 I-H46 
 
 1-9997 
 
 0-7347 
 
 1-3182 
 
 1-1832 
 
 2-1229 
 
 1-1905 
 
 2-1359 
 
 1-2093 
 
 2-1729 
 
 1-1607 
 
 2-0825 
 
 LOCAL, FORMER, 
 
 GERMANY : 
 The Zollverein metric centner = 
 
 AND SPECIAL VALUES. 
 
 Altenburg centner 
 Baden ,, 
 
 10 s'em 
 
 = loo pounds 
 = 110 ,, 
 
 = IOO 
 
 0-9842 
 
 I -0104 
 0-9842 
 
 1-7658 
 1-8128 
 1-7658 
 
CH. VI. 
 
 MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 
 
 HUNDREDWEIGHTS, &c. 
 continued. 
 
 j|j 
 
 i 
 
 GERMANY continued : 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 Fwt. 
 
 Bavarian centner = 5 stein . = 100 pounds 
 
 I-IO23 
 
 1-9777 
 
 Rhenish-Bavaria, centner . = 100 kilog. 
 
 1-9684 
 
 3-5317 
 
 Bremen, centner . . . =116 pounds 
 
 I-I377 
 
 2-0412 
 
 Brunswick, centner . . =114 
 
 I -0486 
 
 1-8814 
 
 Cassel ,, . . =108 
 
 I -0294 
 
 1-8470 
 
 Coburg ,, . =110 
 
 1-1039 
 
 1-9794 
 
 Coin, old ,, . . =106 
 
 0*9754 
 
 1-7501 
 
 Darmstadt ,, . . = 100 
 
 0-9842 
 
 1-7658 
 
 Frankfurt on Main, centner . = 100 
 
 0-9947 
 
 1-7846 
 
 Hamburg & Holstein, centner = 112 
 
 I -0679 
 
 1-9160 
 
 Hanover, centner . . =112 
 
 1-0794 
 
 1-9366 
 
 Lippe-Detmold, centner . = 108 
 Liibeck, centner . . . =112 
 
 0-9936 
 1-0684 
 
 1-7828 
 1-9168 
 
 Nuremberg, old centner . = 100 
 
 1-0039 
 
 1-8012 
 
 Oldenburg, centner . . = 100 
 
 0-9535 
 
 1-7107 
 
 Prussian = 5 stein . = 1 10 
 
 1-0127 
 
 1-8170 
 
 Rostock , . =112 
 
 i -0679 
 
 1-9160 
 
 Saxony =5 stein. =110 
 
 1-0123 
 
 1-8162 
 
 Wiesbaden ., . = 106 
 
 0-9821 
 
 1-7621 
 
 Wiirtemberg . . = TOO 
 
 0-9206 
 
 1-6518 
 
 augmen. centner = 104 
 
 0-9575 
 
 1-7179 
 
 SWITZERLAND : 
 
 
 
 Waadt, centner . . = 100 pounds 
 
 0-9842 
 
 1-7658 
 
 Arau, centner . . = 100 
 
 0-9381 
 
 1-6832 
 
 Basel ,, . . . ~ioo 
 
 0-9708 
 
 1-7418 
 
 Berne ,, ... = 100 
 
 1-0238 
 
 1-8368 
 
 Saint Gall, centner, . = 100 light 
 
 0-9153 
 
 1-6422 
 
 Geneva ,, (liq.) =104 heavy 
 
 1-1273 
 
 2-0227 
 
 Grisons, heavy centner = 100 ,, 
 
 i -0242 
 
 1-8375 
 
 ,, light ,, i oo light 
 
 0-9104 
 
 1-6334 
 
 Solothurn centner . . =- 100^ , 
 
 I -0202 
 
 1-8305 
 
 FRANCE : 
 
 
 
 The metric quintal . . = 100 kilog. 
 
 19684 
 
 3-5317 
 
 Old quintal poids dq marc . = 100 pounds 
 
 0-9635 
 
 1-7288 
 
 NETHERLANDS : 
 
 
 
 The metric centenaar . . <= 100 kilog. 
 
 I -9684 
 
 3-5317 
 
 Old Amsterdam centenaar . = i op, pounds 
 
 0-9726 
 
 1-7451 
 
 Brussels ,., = 100 shop ,, 
 
 0'9206 
 
 1-7220 
 
 AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN EMPIRE : 
 
 
 
 Zollverein centner . . = 100 pounds 
 
 0-9842 
 
 1-7658 
 
 Vienna ,, . . = 100 ,, 
 
 1/0756 
 
 1-9779 
 
 Old Bohemian centner = 6 stein = 120 ,, 
 
 I-2I52 
 
 2-1803 
 
230 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 HUNDREDWEIGHTS, &c. 
 
 continued. 
 
 AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN EMPIRE 
 continued : 
 
 Galician-Lemberg centner = 
 
 75 Vienna pounds . 
 Tyrol, Botzen heavy centner 
 
 , %ht . 
 
 Cracow, centner = 4 stein 
 
 ,, also a centner 
 Trieste, tfee Vienna centner . 
 
 RUSSIA : 
 
 See berkowitz, among Loads, p. 
 Pernau, centner ='6 liespfund 
 Revel =6 ,, 
 Warsaw , , =4 heavy stein 
 ,, ,, =4 light ,, 
 
 ITALY : 
 
 Metric centinajo = 10 rubbi . 
 Cagliari, cantarello 
 Genoa, cantaro grosso.. 
 
 ,, ,, sottile . 
 
 Modena, centinajo 
 Nice ,, =6 rubbi . 
 
 Naples, cantaro grosso 
 
 ,, ,, piccolo 
 
 Rome ,, = 10 decine . 
 Sardinia, cantarello 
 Sicily, cantaro ordinario 
 grosso . 
 Tuscany, centinajo (since 
 
 1836) .... 
 Venice, centinajo grosso 
 sottile 
 
 SPAIN : 
 
 The Castilian quintal = 4 arro- 
 bas 
 
 Aragon, quintal = 4 arrobas . 
 
 Cataluna, quintal = 4 ,, 
 
 Bilbao, quintal pequano o 
 ordinario .... 
 
 Bilbao, quintal macho, for iron 
 ,, ,, for fish . 
 
 Cadiz ,, ordinario = 4 
 arrobas .... 
 
 Cadiz, quintal macho = 6 arro- 
 bas . 
 
 S, &c. 
 
 "c* ** 
 
 j 
 
 
 111 
 
 bo6.> 
 
 fl| 
 
 EMPIRE 
 
 CJW 
 
 ^ W ft 
 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 Fwt. 
 
 = loo pounds 
 
 0-8067 
 
 1-4836 
 
 = 100 ,, 
 
 0-9862 
 
 1-7693 
 
 = IOO ,, 
 
 0-6509 
 
 1-1678 
 
 = 128 
 
 I-O227 
 
 1-8349 
 
 = IOO ,., 
 
 0-7990 
 
 1-4335 
 
 . 
 
 !I -0756 
 
 1-9779 
 
 ). 234. 
 
 
 
 = 120 ,, 
 
 0-9I27 
 
 1-7656 
 
 = I2O ,,, 
 
 i-orSi 
 
 1-8265 
 
 = 128 . 
 
 i 0217 
 
 r8331 
 
 = IOO 
 
 0-7982 
 
 1-4321 
 
 =joo kilog. 
 
 1-9684 
 
 3-5317 
 
 = 104 pounds 
 
 0-8325 
 
 t-4936 
 
 = 150 
 
 i -0295 
 
 1-8471 
 
 ='150 
 
 0-9360 
 
 1-6793 
 
 = 100 . 
 
 0-6697 
 
 1-2015 
 
 = 150 
 
 0-9200 
 
 1-6507 
 
 = loo rottoli 
 
 17539 
 
 3-1467 
 
 = 150 pounds 
 
 0-9471 
 
 1-6992 
 
 = IOO ,, 
 
 06675 
 
 1-1976 
 
 = 100 ,, 
 
 SCD-8002 
 
 1-4356 
 
 =250 
 
 I -5627 
 
 2-8037 
 
 =273 ,, 
 
 I-7I90 
 
 3-0841 
 
 = IOO ,, 
 
 0-6684 
 
 1-1992 
 
 = 100 
 
 0-593I 
 
 1-0641 
 
 = 100 ,\ 
 
 0-9270 
 
 1-6848 
 
 = loo pounds 
 
 09055 
 
 1-6246 
 
 = 144 
 
 09921 
 
 1-7800 
 
 = $04 , 
 
 0-8189 
 
 1-1-779 
 
 = roo ,, 
 
 0-9631 
 
 1-7280 
 
 = 146 
 
 I -4062 
 
 2-5230 
 
 = 110 ,, 
 
 1-0595 
 
 i-9009 
 
 = IOO 
 
 0-9055 
 
 1-6246 
 
 = 150 
 
 I-3583 
 
 2-4369 
 
^KpB LIB!? 
 
 // \vV 
 CH. vi. MEASURES OF WEIGHT. ' 231 
 
 HtrifivTirTB s 
 
 ' 
 
 
 HUNDREDWEIGHTS, &c. ||| 
 
 ^Ijg 
 
 o 'A 
 
 ill 
 
 continued. IfS-l 
 
 111 
 
 s si 
 
 SPAIN continued : P wt 
 
 Fvrt. 
 
 Quintals 
 
 Galicia, quintal = 4 arrobas . = 100 pounds 1-1342 
 
 2-0350 
 
 0-57620 
 
 Valencia ,, =4 ,, . =144 ,, 1-0072 
 
 1-8071 
 
 0-51168 
 
 Majorca 1 cantaro ordinario 
 and V =4 arrobas . =-104 ,, 0-8189 
 
 1-1779 
 
 0-4160 
 
 Minorca J cantaro barbaresco = 100 ,, 0-7874 
 
 1-1326 
 
 0-4000 
 
 Canary Islands 1 
 
 
 
 South America 1 th c ast ^i an qu i nt al. 
 Antilles & Mexico | 
 
 
 
 Manilla J 
 
 
 
 Brazil and Madeira : the Lisbon quintal . i 1 565 
 
 2-0749 
 
 0*5875 
 
 GREECE, MEDITERRANEAN, ETC. : 
 
 
 
 Malta, cantaro = i oo rottoli . =250 pounds 1*5580 
 
 2-7953 
 
 0-79150 
 
 Cyprus ,, =100 ,,.... 4-6822 
 
 8-4007 
 
 2-37868 
 
 ,, Famagusta cantaro = 
 
 
 
 104 rottoli 4*8695 
 
 8-7367 
 
 2-47383 
 
 Ionian Islands, Levantine 
 
 
 
 cantaro = 44 oka . = 44 oka . i -0607 
 
 1-9031 
 
 0*53887 
 
 Anglo-Levantine talent 
 
 
 
 (English cental) . . = 100 pounds 0-8929 
 Former Levantine talent = IOO Ibs. peso grosso 0-9370 
 
 1-6019 
 1-6848 
 
 0-45359 
 0-47705 
 
 Greece generally, cantaro . = 44 oka . i -3244 
 
 2-3761 
 
 0-67280 
 
 ,, Patras ,, . = 132 pounds 1-0384 
 
 1-8630 
 
 0-52752 
 
 ,, also, the Stambul kantar . . . 1-1112 
 
 1-9935 
 
 0-5645 
 
 OTTOMAN EMPIRE-. 
 
 
 
 The Stambul kantar = 44 oka = 100 rotl . 1-1112 
 
 1-9935 
 
 0-56450 
 
 ,, kantar for cotton =45 oka . 1*1364 
 
 2-0388 
 
 0-57733 
 
 Wallachia, the Stambul kan- 
 
 
 
 tar .. . . . = loo rotl . i -i 1 12 
 
 1-9935 
 
 0-5645 
 
 Candia, kantar = 44 oka . = 100 ,, . 1-0407 
 
 1-8672 
 
 0-52869 
 
 SYRIA : 
 
 
 
 {ordinary kan- 
 
 
 
 thar . . = loo rotl . 4-4880 
 
 8-0522 
 
 2-2800 
 
 kola = 7 vesnos =35 large rotl I -5708 
 
 2-8183 
 
 0-7980 
 
 zurlo . . =27! ,, 1-2342 
 
 2-2144 
 
 0-6270 
 
 Damascus, kanthar . . = 100 rotl . 3*5307 
 
 6-3347 
 
 1 7937 
 
 Smyrna, kanthar = 45 oka . = loo rotl . 1*1381 
 
 2-0424 
 
 0-5782 
 
 ,, also a kanthar of 44 oka. 
 
 
 
 Tripoli, ordinary kanthar = 100 small rotl 3*5762 
 
 6-4163 
 
 i -8168 
 
 large = 100 large 4-2915 
 
 7-6996 
 
 2-1801 
 
 MESOPOTAMIA: 
 
 
 
 Bassara, man = 24 wakia . . . .1-0356 
 
 1-8580 
 
 0-52610 
 
 ,, man-attari = 24 wakia attari . . 0*2499 
 
 0-4485 
 
 0-12698 
 
232 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 HUNDREDWEIGHTS, &c. 
 
 ^11 
 
 ||| 
 
 continued. 
 
 1?M 
 
 !?.! 
 
 EGYPT : 
 
 W c3w 
 Cwt. 
 
 Fwt 
 
 Alexandria, kanthar = 36 oka nearly =100 rotl 
 
 0-8634 
 
 1-5503 
 
 Cairo, ordinary kanthar = 36 oka = 100 rotl 
 
 0-8392 
 
 1-5217 
 
 The canthars of Cairo are about 10 to 12 in 
 
 
 
 number varying from 36 to 82 okas in value. 
 
 
 
 TUNIS AND MOROCCO : 
 
 
 
 Tunis, kanthar . . . = 100 rotl 
 
 0-9170 
 
 1-7788 
 
 Tripoli ,, = loo ,, 
 
 0-9914 
 
 1-7574 
 
 Mogador ,, ... = 100 ,, 
 
 1-0594 
 
 1-9007 
 
 Morocco generally, kanthar . = 100 ,, 
 
 0-9931 
 
 1-7819 
 
 Bengazi, kanthar = 50 oka . =125 ,, 
 
 I -2244 
 
 2-1967 
 
 ALGIERS : 
 
 
 
 Kantar attari . . = 100 rotl-attari 
 
 1 -0749 
 
 1-9286 
 
 for cheese and cotton = no ,, 
 
 1-1824 
 
 2-1214 
 
 gharduri, vegetables =-H2 ,, 
 
 1-2093 
 
 2-1696 
 
 kebir . . =150 ,, 
 
 1-6124 
 
 2-8929 
 
 for butter and fruit oil = 1 66 , , 
 
 17843 
 
 3-2014 
 
 for hemp and flax =200 
 
 2-1498 
 
 3-8571 
 
 PERSIA : 
 
 
 
 Man i hasham = 16 man i bushahr 
 
 1-1146 
 
 1-9997 
 
 INDIA : 
 
 
 
 The Imperial man, mun, or maund = 40 Im- 
 
 
 
 perial ser 
 
 0-7347 
 
 1-3182 
 
 NORTHERN INDIA : 
 
 
 
 The old local man = 40 local ser (see Ser). 
 
 
 
 EAST ASIATIC : 
 
 
 
 Anam, tan= 10 yen= loo kan 
 
 2277 
 
 2-2027 
 
 Thai (Siam), the hap or pikul = 50 chang 
 
 1942 
 
 2-1426 
 
 Malacca, pikul = 100 Malacca catti 
 
 2054 
 
 2-1626 
 
 English ,, = i oo English ,, 
 
 1905 
 
 2-1359 
 
 Sumatra, tarn pang = 60 ,, ,, 
 
 0-7143 
 
 1-2816 
 
 Dutch pikul = 100 Dutch catti 
 
 2111 
 
 2-1729 
 
 Molucca, pikul = 100 Molucca catti 
 
 1627 
 
 2-0860 
 
 Bandq, soekel = 28 Banda catti . 
 
 -5 2 50 
 
 2-7361 
 
 Manilla, pikul = 100 Manilla catti 
 
 I -2452 
 
 2-2341 
 
 China, common pikul = 100 tching 
 
 I-I832 
 
 2-1229 
 
 ,, export pikul "\ = IOO English catti . 
 
 I-I905 
 
 2-1359 
 
 
 
 
 Japanese tan or pikul = 100 king . 
 
 I-I607 
 
 2-0825 
 
CH. VI. 
 
 MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 
 
 LOADS AND ANALOGOUS UNITS. 
 
 Load, karch, bilrde, charge, carga, carica, 4--"|| 
 
 X c 
 
 schiffpfund, skippund, frachtpfund, pfund- | fc-| 
 schwer, schwerpfund, berkowitz. c |-| 
 
 aw 
 
 III 
 
 EUROPE : Cwt. 
 
 Fwt. 
 
 The load is a general expression for 3 local 
 
 
 quintals, centner, or cwt. ; for values de- 
 
 
 duce from cwts., &c., p. 226-221. The 
 
 
 following are mostly exceptional : 
 
 
 ENGLAND : 
 
 
 The load (generally) = 3 cwt. . . 3 
 
 5-3825 
 
 The pig of lead = 300 pounds . . 2-6914 
 The sack of wool = 3| cwt. ... 3-25 
 
 4-8058 
 5-8310 
 
 The load of straw = 36 trusses = 1296 pounds 1 1 -5714 
 
 20-7611 
 
 hay =36 =2160 ,, 19-2857 
 
 34-6018 
 
 NORWAY AND DENMARK : 
 
 
 Skippund = 20 lispund = 320 pounds . . 3 1 45 7 
 
 5-6439 
 
 SWEDEN : 
 
 
 Skippund = 20 lispund = 400 skSlpund . . 3 '3348 
 
 5-9832 
 
 There were also skippunds of 400 stapelstads- 
 
 
 wigt pund, 400 bergwerkwigt pund, and 
 
 
 400 landstadswigt pund. 
 
 
 GERMANY : 
 
 
 German schiffpfunds. 
 
 
 Prussian schiffpfund = 20 liespfund = 330 pounds 3 -038 1 
 
 5-4509 
 
 Bremen =290 2-8442 
 
 5-1030 
 
 Brunswick =280 2-5755 
 
 4-6210 
 
 Hamburg =280 2-6689 
 
 4-7901 
 
 Hanover = 280 2 -6985 
 
 4-8415 
 
 Liibeck =280 2-6709 
 
 4-7920 
 
 Nuremberg =300 3*0117 
 
 5-4034 
 
 Oldenburg =290 27651 
 
 4-8072 
 
 Rostock =280 2-6698 
 
 4-7901 
 
 Bremen, pfundschwer or frachtpfund = 300 Ibs. 2-9423 
 Hamburg and Rostock, pfundschwer or fracht- 
 
 5-2789 
 
 pfund = 320 pounds . . . . .3-0512 
 
 5-4744 
 
 Hanover, pfundschwer or frachtpfund = 336 
 
 
 
 5-8098 
 
 Liibeck, pfundschwer or frachtpfund = 320 Ibs. 3 -05 1 2 
 
 5-4769 
 
 Stettin, biirde of steel = 3 centner =336 pounds 3 -0987 
 
 5-5595 
 
 Vienna, karch = 400 pounds of Vienna . . 4*4097 
 
 7-9118 
 
234 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 
 !s 
 
 y 
 
 
 LOADS, &c. continued. 
 
 ill 
 
 81 1 
 
 
 
 "31 
 
 *Sl 
 
 1 
 
 FRANCE : 
 
 w W 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 Fwt. 
 
 Q 
 
 Old charge = 3 quintals = 300 Ibs. p. de m. . 
 
 2-8906 
 
 5-1863 
 
 i 
 
 Nice, old charge = 300 pounds 
 
 I '8401 
 
 3-3014 
 
 
 
 Bruxelles, poose or charge of coal = 144 Ibs. . 
 
 I -4847 
 
 2-4797 
 
 o 
 
 A nvers old charge = 400 pounds 
 
 3-6825 
 
 6-8881 
 
 I 
 
 SPAIN, &c. : 
 
 
 
 
 Alicante, carga = 2\ quintales = 240 libras 
 
 
 
 
 
 2*5180 
 
 4-5177 
 
 T 
 
 Aragon, carga = 3 quintales = 432 libras . 
 
 2-9762 
 
 5-3399 
 
 I 
 
 Malaga ,, =2 serones =175 ,, cast. . 
 
 1-5846 
 
 2-8430 
 
 
 
 Cataluna and Majorca, carga = 3 quintales = 
 
 
 
 
 312 libras .... 
 
 ty . . tfifi 
 
 4-4075 
 
 I 
 
 Quayaquil, carga of cacao = libras cast. . 
 
 0-7244 
 
 1-2997 
 
 o 
 
 Valencia ,, =3 quintales = 432 libras 
 
 
 
 
 menores ....... 
 
 2 'O2 1 C 
 
 5-4211 
 
 I 
 
 ITALY : 
 
 j *-'*' 3 
 
 
 
 Venice, carica = 4OO pounds peso sottile 
 
 2-3723 
 
 4-2564 
 
 I 
 
 RUSSIA : 
 
 
 
 
 Imperial berkowitz= 10 pud = 400 funt . 
 
 3-2244 
 
 5-7851 
 
 I 
 
 Pernau, schiffpfund = 20 liespfund = 400 pounds 
 
 3-2804 
 
 5-8855 
 
 I- 
 
 Revel ,, =20 ,, =400 ,, 
 
 3 '3953 
 
 6-0918 
 
 I- 
 
 Riga ,, =4lof ,, =400 ,, 
 
 3-2916 
 
 5-9056 
 
 I- 
 
 ARABIA : 
 
 
 
 
 Betelfaghi, bahar = 40 farzel . = 800 rotl 
 
 7-2814 
 
 13-0640 
 
 3" 
 
 Jiddah ,, = 10 ,, . =5oorattal . 
 
 1-6338 
 
 2-9313 
 
 o- 
 
 Mokha ,, =15 ,, . =300 
 
 4-0179 
 
 7-2087 
 
 2- 
 
 PERSIA : 
 
 
 
 
 Kharwar= loo man i tabriz .... 
 
 5-8060 
 
 10-4153 
 
 2' 
 
 CENTRAL INDIA AND GUZRAT : 
 
 
 
 
 The mani=i2 local man (see Man) ; in four 
 
 
 
 
 exceptional cases it is otherwise, but there 
 
 
 
 
 is then a maniasa also (see Maniasa), p. 237. 
 
 
 
 
 SOUTHERN INDIA : 
 
 
 
 
 The kandi or bahar = 20 local man (see Man). 
 
 
 
 
 The following are special values. 
 
 
 
 
 Anglo-Madras, kandi = 20 kachcha man = 
 
 
 
 
 
 A * A f\A 'J 
 
 R-OfiQ? 
 
 21 
 
 Anglo-Bombay, kandi = 20 kachcha man = 
 
 
 O UU\J/ 
 
 
 
 q 
 
 8-9708 2- 
 
CH. VI. 
 
 MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 
 
 LOADS, &C. continued. 
 
 CEYLON AND BURMA : 
 
 Anglo-Cingalese kandi = 500 pounds avoir. 
 Old Dutch kandi = 480 pounds Troy Dutch 
 Burma, English kandi = 500 pounds avoir. 
 Old Pegu kandi = 1 50 local vis 
 
 EAST ASIATIC : 
 Malacca, bahar = 3 Malacca pikul 
 
 = 3 English 
 = 80 vis 
 
 ' 405 Ibs. 
 = 400 
 = 476 
 
 = 1 5 hali = 240 ganta = 480 , , 
 = 80 vis =4851,, 
 
 = 560 pounds avoir. = 560 ,, 
 = 200 Acheen catti 
 = iooBanda ,, =6iolbs 
 Batavia, amat = 2 Dutch pikul 
 Java, bahar = 3 ,, 
 
 Batavia, tampang = 5 Dutch pikul 
 Molucca, bahar = 3 Molucca ,, 
 China, large export bahar =4| English pikul 
 
 ,, small ,, =3 
 
 Anam quan = 5 tan or pikul . 
 
 English 
 
 Tocopa 
 
 Queda 
 
 Jansalon 
 
 Sumatra 
 
 Acheen 
 
 Banda 
 
 o g 
 
 | 
 
 g 
 
 ill 
 
 wow 
 
 III 
 
 g^ls 
 
 c g-g 
 fccnW* 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 Fwt. 
 
 Quintals 
 
 4 '4643 
 
 8-0097 
 
 2-26796 
 
 . 4-6684 
 
 8-3765 
 
 2-37163 
 
 . 4-4643 
 
 8-0097 
 
 2-26796 
 
 . 4-5440 
 
 8-1528 
 
 2-30849 
 
 5. 3-6162 
 
 6-4878 
 
 1-83705 
 
 3-57I5 
 
 6-4077 
 
 I-8I437 
 
 4-25 
 
 7-6252 
 
 2-I59IO 
 
 4-2857 
 
 7-6893 
 
 2-17725 
 
 4-3333 
 
 7-7747 
 
 2-20144 
 
 5 
 
 8-9708 
 
 2-54012 
 
 3-7805 
 
 6-7829 
 
 I -92060 
 
 5 5-4464 
 
 9-7718 
 
 2-76692 
 
 2 -4222 
 
 4-3457 
 
 1-23051 
 
 3*6333 
 
 6-5186 
 
 1-84576 
 
 6-0555 
 3-4880 
 
 10-8643 
 6-2581 
 
 3-07627 
 J-7720I 
 
 ll 5-3573 
 
 9-6116 
 
 272156 
 
 
 6-4077 
 
 1-81437 
 
 . 6-1384 
 
 11-0133 
 
 3-II85 
 
236 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART r. 
 
 TONS AND LASTS OF HEA VY GOODS. 
 
 GENERAL AND SPECIAL 
 FORMER LOCAL UNITS. 
 
 England : ton = 20 hundredweight 
 
 A ton of 40 foot-weight on the scientific series 
 
 America : ton = 2000 pounds = 20 centals 
 
 DENMARK : 
 
 Danish last (heavy goods) = 5200 pounds 
 Els-inor ,, ,, =12 skippund 
 
 SWEDEN : 
 
 Last of heavy goods = 5760 pounds (skSlpund) 
 GERMANY : 
 
 Prussian ton = 2000 pounds . 
 Hamburg, ton = 2000 pounds 
 Frankfurt ,, =2000 ,, 
 Prussian last (heavy goods) =4000 pounds 
 
 ,, ,, also a last= 12 schiffpfund 
 Bremen , , of heavy goods = 4000 pounds 
 Frankfurt, last = 2 tons = 4000 pounds . 
 Hamburg, schiffslast = 2 tons . . 
 
 ,, commerzlast = 2| tons . 
 Hanover, last = 3360 pounds = 30 centner 
 
 NETHERLANDS : 
 
 Last of heavy goods = 2000 kilog. . 
 Old Amsterdam last = 4000 ponden 
 
 FRANCE : 
 
 Tonne, tonneau, or millier = 1000 kilog. 
 Old French tonne = 2000 Ibs. poids de marc 
 
 RUSSIA : 
 
 Ton = 60 pud = 2400 pounds 
 Last of heavy goods = 120 pud = 2 tons . 
 Perma = 8 packen = 4 tons . 
 
 SPAIN : 
 
 Spanish tonelada = sooo pounds . 
 Alicante ,, = 1920 pounds = 80 arrobas 
 Mexican timber tonelada = 2240 pounds cast. 
 S. American cajon (mineral) = 50 quintales 
 Malaga, last = 6200 pounds cast, net 
 
 large last = 8800 pounds cast, gross 
 
 sfl' 
 
 rfs 
 
 111 
 
 ||i 
 
 Tons 
 
 Fwt. 
 
 . I 
 
 35-883 
 
 S I -1 147 
 
 40 
 
 . 0-8929 
 
 32-039 
 
 2 -5559 
 . 1-8874 
 
 91-713 
 67-726 
 
 ) 2-4011 
 
 86-158 
 
 . 0-9206 
 
 33-036 
 
 0*9535 
 
 34-215 
 
 . 0-9946 
 
 35-691 
 
 1-8413 
 
 66-072 
 
 . i -8229 
 
 65-411 
 
 . 1-9615 
 
 70386 
 
 . i -9892 
 
 71-382 
 
 . i -9070 
 
 68-429 
 
 . 2-3837 
 
 85-537 
 
 . 1-6191 
 
 58-098 
 
 . 1-9684 
 
 70-633 
 
 i-945i 
 
 69-804 
 
 . 0-9842 
 
 35-317 
 
 0-9635 
 
 34-575 
 
 . 0-9673 
 
 34-711 
 
 . i -9346 
 
 69-421 
 
 . 3-8693 
 
 138-842 
 
 0-9055 
 
 32-491 
 
 1-0091 
 
 36-209 
 
 1-0141 
 
 36-390 
 
 2-2637 
 
 81-228 
 
 2-8070 
 
 100-723 
 
 3*9841 
 
 142-961 
 
CH. VI. 
 
 MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 
 
 237 
 
 TONS AND LASTS, &c. 
 continued. 
 
 PORTUGAL : 
 
 Portuguese tonelada and "1 , 
 
 Rio de Janeiro ton } ^8 pounds . 
 Pernambuco ton = 2240 pounds 
 
 ITALY : 
 
 French tonne (see Millier). 
 Formerly the old Amsterdam last . 
 
 ,, the English ton .... 
 Livorno, last = 5600 pounds Tuscan 
 
 PERSIA : 
 Kara = 100 man i hasham . , . . 
 
 NORTHERN INDIA : 
 
 Sau man = ioo man (Imperial) 
 Also values based on the local man now obso- 
 lete. (See Man and Ser.) 
 
 CENTRAL INDIA : 
 Maniasa= ioo mam invariably. 
 
 Special Values. 
 
 Bhairsiah, ioo man! = 400 man 
 Bhilsa =375 
 
 Bhopal ,, =4OOOpassari 
 
 Omatwara ,, =800 man 
 
 SOUTHERN INDIA : 
 Garsah = 20 kandi = 400 man (generally). 
 
 Values. 
 
 Bangalur, garsah = 30 kandagon . . . 
 Madras ,, =20 kandi. 
 Pondicherri , , = 7200 pounds poids de marc 
 
 CEYLON : 
 Colombo, garsah = 9256^ pounds avoir. 
 
 (_)W 
 
 English 
 Scientific 
 Equivalent. 
 
 French 
 Scientific 
 Equivalent. 
 
 Tons 
 
 Fwt. 
 
 Milliers 
 
 0-7806 
 
 28-011 
 
 07932 
 
 I-OII9 
 
 36-311 
 
 I -0282 
 
 I-945I 
 I 
 
 1-8714 
 
 69-804 
 35-883 
 67-154 
 
 1-9764 
 I -01 60 
 
 I-90I5 
 
 5-5729 
 
 199-97 
 
 5-6623 
 
 3-6735 
 
 131-82 
 
 37324 
 
 137754 
 I5-3825 
 22-3853 
 
 I9-52I4 
 
 494-31 
 551-99 
 803-26 
 700-49 
 
 13-9964 
 15-6298 
 227445 
 19-8347 
 
 4^283 
 4-3061 
 3-4688 
 
 162-49 
 154-62 
 124-47 
 
 4-6009 
 43752 
 3'5244 
 
 4-I324 
 
 148-28 
 
 4-I987 
 
23 8 
 
 METRICAL UNITS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS LASTS AND ANALOGOUS 
 UNITS. 
 
 
 
 rill 
 
 f|| 
 
 ,cg 
 
 
 a| g 
 
 'Sbc'j! 
 
 115 
 
 ENGLAND : 
 
 "11 
 
 Tons 
 
 Fwt. 
 
 Milliers 
 
 
 I-QH 
 
 69-972 
 
 i-oSn 
 
 Last of flax, hemp, or feathers =17 cwt. 
 
 0-85 
 
 30-501 
 
 7 V <J 
 
 0-8636 
 
 Last of gunpowder = 2400 pounds 
 
 1-0714 
 
 38-447 
 
 1-0886 
 
 Fodder of lead, London and Hull= 19^ cwt. . 
 
 
 34-089 
 
 0-9652 
 
 ,, ,, Newcastle = 2I | 
 
 1-075 
 
 38-575 
 
 1-0923 
 
 Derby =22! . 
 
 1-125 
 
 40-369 
 
 1-1431 
 
 NORWAY AND DENMARK : 
 
 
 
 
 Last of butter (net) =-- 2688 pounds . ' . 
 
 1-3212 
 
 47-409 
 
 I -3424 
 
 , , according to Norwegian standard 
 
 1-3158 
 
 47-215 
 
 I-3369 
 
 SWEDEN : 
 
 
 
 
 Last of hemp and flax, tallow, and malt = 6 
 
 
 
 
 skippund = 2400 skalpund .... 
 
 1-0005 
 
 35-899 
 
 1-0165 
 
 RUSSIA : 
 
 
 
 
 Last of hemp and flax, hair, isinglass, tobacco, 
 
 
 
 
 and Russian thread = 60 pud 
 
 0-9673 
 
 34-711 
 
 0-9828 
 
 Last of candles, foreign thread, and of wax in 
 
 
 
 
 barrels = 80 pud = 8 berkowitz . 
 
 1-2897 
 
 46-281 
 
 i'3 IO 5 
 
 Last of resin, soap, or wax in bales = loo pud 
 
 i -6122 
 
 57-851 
 
 1-6381 
 
 Last of caviar, tallow, linseed oil, potash, 
 
 
 
 
 copper and iron ; also of heavy goods = 120 
 
 
 
 
 pud = 12 berkowitz = 2 tons 
 
 i -9346 
 
 69-421 
 
 1-9657 
 
 For Lasts of Capacity see Measures of Capacity. 
 
 
 
 
 ROD-WEIGHT. 
 
 
 
 
 England : rod-weight of the decimal system 
 
 
 
 
 = 1000 footweight or talents =i million 
 
 
 
 
 ounces = I billion mils = I trillion doits = 25 
 
 
 
 
 tons of the same series . . . .2 
 
 7-868 
 
 000- 
 
 28-315 
 
MODERN METROLOGY 
 
 PART II. METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 SYSTEMS AND MODES OF SUBDIVISION. 
 
 WHILE many of the primitive units of measure men- 
 tioned in the foregoing chapters were originally perhaps 
 independent, and afterwards became either primary or 
 secondary units, and were re-arranged both in value and 
 in proportion to each other, yet some of them became 
 nearly obsolete, and others came forward into common 
 use ; several becoming less suitable to direct measurement 
 from changes in commercial usage and in the com- 
 mercial products principally dealt with, and some also 
 becoming inconvenient in calculation from not being 
 aliquot parts, or multiples or sub-multiples of other more 
 useful primary measures. 
 
 The first result of such changes was the systematisa- 
 tion of a series of measures of length and distance, a 
 series for surface, a series for capacity, and a series for 
 weight. Sometimes also there remained two or three 
 sets in each series ; these sets being often independent 
 of each other. 
 
 The next result was the formation of a complete 
 
240 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 system of measures of length, surface, capacity, and 
 weight, arranged with perfect interdependence, and 
 sometimes also following one single method of sub- 
 division throughout the whole. 
 
 The connection between the series of measures of 
 length, surface, capacity, and weight, which alone justified 
 the name of system, was made in various ways. 
 
 The relation between measures of length and of sur- 
 face was apparently a most easy arrangement ; the mul- 
 tiple of some unit of length in common use was squared 
 to form a unit of surface, and from this unit of surface a 
 set of multiples and submultiples, or secondary units 
 of surface were formed. This, the most simple and 
 ordinary method, was, however, inconvenient from its 
 incompleteness ; it was also necessary that the second- 
 ary units of surface should bear some convenient pro- 
 portion to the secondary units of length, besides to 
 that from which it was derived ; otherwise calculation 
 became troublesome. We have at present an example 
 of this defect in English measures ; the acre is 43560 
 square feet, or 4840 square yards, or 160 old square 
 poles, which are perfect multiples ; the acre is also -^ 
 of a square mile, a perfect sub-multiple ; but the repre- 
 sentation of the acreside in feet, in yards, in poles, 
 and in parts of a mile is by no means simple or rapidly 
 calculated, for the reason that the acre was based on the 
 square pole, irrespective of its relations with the foot, 
 yard, and mile being convenient or otherwise. 
 
 The relation between measures of length and of 
 capacity was a matter much neglected by many nations 
 in ancient times, for the reason that measures of capacity 
 were not much used at an early epoch, weight being 
 the mode of estimating commercial produce, both liquid 
 
CH. I. MODES OF SUBDIVISION. 241 
 
 and solid ; hence generally the above-mentioned rela- 
 tion was adjusted only when perfect systematisation was 
 deemed necessary. 
 
 The general relation, whenever made, was in accord- 
 ance either with the cubit, with the foot, or with the 
 half-foot, or some fraction of it, or some other linear 
 unit ; thus 
 
 Egyptian Grand Artaba was the cube of the Natural Cubit. 
 Egyptian Royal Artaba Royal Foot 
 
 (f Royal Cubit). 
 Egyptian Common Artaba ,, Egyptian Foot 
 
 (f Natural Cubit). 
 
 The Ancient Hindu Chari Hindu Cubit. 
 
 The Arab Den or Kor Hashemic cubit. 
 
 Greek Metretes Olympic Foot. 
 
 Roman Congius half a Roman Foot. 
 
 Danish, Swedish, Prussian, and French capacity-measures are 
 based on cubic units. 
 
 The relation between measures of capacity and 
 measures of weight was diversely made, according as it 
 was thought advisable to conform the former to the 
 latter, or the latter to the former. 
 
 In some cases the measures of weight were based on 
 ancient and arbitrary standards, and the rectification of 
 the measures of capacity was effected by adjusting them 
 to certain weights of some common liquid or agricul- 
 tural produce. Thus in China, the ching of capacity 
 was adjusted to the ching (or pound) weight of un- 
 husked rice ; in England the bushel was formerly ad- 
 justed to 56 Ibs. of wheaten flour or of meal, and at 
 one time to 60 Ibs. of wheat ; and in recent times only 
 to 80 1'bs. of distilled water. The Roman amphora or 
 
 R 
 
242 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 quadrantal was at one time adjusted to 80 Roman 
 pounds' weight of wine. 
 
 The preferable method, however, adjusted the mea- 
 sures of weight to those of capacity, and thus rendered 
 systematisation more simple ; for example 
 
 One of the Egyptian Talents was the weight of a Common 
 Artaba of Water (cubic foot). 
 
 The Great Attic Talent (Solon) was the weight of a Metretes 
 of water (cubic foot). 
 
 The Arab Artaba weight was the weight of an Arab Artaba 
 of water. 
 
 The Arab Yusdruman was the weight of y^ of this. 
 
 The Lesser Greek Talent was the weight of an Amphora 
 of water. 
 
 One of the Roman Amphorae was the weight of a Roman 
 cubic foot of water. 
 
 The Kilogramme is the weight of a litre of water (nomi- 
 nally). 
 
 When the whole of these relations became, or were, 
 perfected, the result was a complete system of measures 
 of all sorts, suitable for calculation as well as for weigh- 
 ing and measuring, such as those of Ancient Egypt, 
 Ancient China, probably those of Assyria, those of 
 Ancient Greece, and probably at one period those of 
 Ancient Rome. 
 
 In modern ages in Europe, we have not only debased 
 units, but also disjointed systems to deal with ; the 
 debased units, being approximations to the original 
 correct units, are almost invariably excellent for purposes 
 of weighing and measuring, and for all the objects of de- 
 tached trades and commercial matters they have met the 
 requirements of ages, and want little more than rectify- 
 ing ; the disjointed systems, however little they may 
 
CH. i. MODES OF SUBDIVISION. 243 
 
 affect detached trades, are, on the contrary, a consider- 
 able difficulty to the calculator, to the scientific man, and 
 to all trades and professions that habitually deal with 
 more than one, or with several sets of measures. 
 
 The principle of facilitating calculation has been 
 thoroughly carried out in the design of the metric 
 system, in which the relations of the measures of length, 
 surface, capacity, and weight have been carefully 
 adjusted ; this advantage has, however, its counterpart 
 in the comparative disadvantages it possesses as regards 
 purposes of weighing and measuring in commercial 
 affairs, and as regards the practical inconvenience of 
 many of its units of measurement, and the fact that 
 many others remain mere decimal names, instead of 
 practically useful measures. The choice of the demi- 
 toise or metre, as the basis of this system is one much 
 to be lamented ; had a natural unit been used instead, 
 and had a practical man developed the system, it might 
 have been as good in weighing and measuring as it is 
 convenient in calculation. At present the metre fails as 
 a geodetic unit, and many of its dependent units fail in 
 commercial convenience. 
 
 Decimal subdivision. The most primitive and ancient 
 method of estimating and dividing measures is doubtless 
 the decimal system. From information given in the 
 appendices to the Ninth Annual Report of the Warden 
 of the Standards, 1874-75, it appears that the Ancient 
 Egyptian standard-weight and copper coinage were 
 based on this system, and the following was the scale : 
 
 I Ten or Men=io Kat= 1400 grs. English. 
 I Kat = 140 grs. English. 
 
 The Ten or Men thus being about one-fifth of a 
 
244 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 pound, deduced from the weight of a 5-Kat weight 
 found at Thebes, being 700 grains. A papyrus of the 
 period of Rameses II. gives an account in Ten and Kat, 
 and the inscriptions at Karnac both mention Ten and 
 Kat, and state amounts of tributes in Ten up to 3000. 
 It is also extremely probable, from the units of measure 
 being few, and from the remarkable apparent similarity 
 of habit that the Ancient Egyptians had to the Chinese, 
 that a system of decimal subdivision of any unit was as 
 common with the former nation as with the latter. The 
 land-measure of Egypt was, according to Herodotus, an 
 aroura =10000 sacred square cubits; or 100 cubits 
 square. 
 
 The ancient measures of China, which are said to 
 date from the reign of Hoang Ti, or about 2600 years 
 B.C., were generally decimal. Doursther thus gives the 
 ancient measures of capacity to be : 
 
 i kou= 10 teu= 100 chin= 1000 ho 10000 yo, 
 
 and estimates I kou = 2i English bushels. 
 
 There seemed also to have been some corresponding 
 system of measures of weight, the lowest unit being the 
 weight of a grain of millet ; 100 millet grains = I tchu, 
 and ascending by a decimal scale up to the tan ; but 
 there is also an opinion that there was always a break 
 in this system, and that the Chinese pound or tching 
 was always =16 Hang, or ounces ; although it is more 
 probable that several systems existed. The Tan, accord- 
 ing to Doursther, was 5ojlbs. English. 
 
 The decimal subdivision of any unit is so imbedded 
 in the minds of the Chinese that any other but a deci- 
 mal fraction requires special explanation ; the terms of 
 
CH. I. MODES OF SUBDIVISION. 245 
 
 decimal subdivision were probably in ancient times 
 much as now, any unit being = 
 
 10 fan = 100 li= 1000 hao= 10000 ssa= 100000 hoe, &c., 
 
 continued down to the trillionth part. 
 
 The advantages of rapidity of calculation accompany- 
 ing any decimal system are very great, and the rigidity 
 of the ancient decimal systems of Egypt and China has 
 been scrupulously imitated by the French in their me- 
 tric system. It can be applied to any unit equally 
 well, provided that there is an indifference as to whether 
 the dependent units of the system are convenient or in- 
 convenient for commercial purposes in weighing and 
 measuring. It must, however, be noticed that the con- 
 venience is solely due to accordance with numerical 
 notation, as regards decimality. 
 
 Sexagesimal subdivision. This method prevailed with 
 the Chaldaeans, Babylonians, Assyrians, and Phoenicians, 
 also with the Egyptians, under certain dynasties in the 
 period intervening between that of the early decimal 
 system before mentioned, and that of the later Ptolemaic 
 or Phileterian decimal system. Cycles of time were 
 invariably reckoned as periods of 60 years ; the Indians 
 still date back in cycles from the Kali-Yog ; the Chinese 
 also ; this method was universal ; the century of 100 
 years is a comparatively modern arrangement. 
 
 The subdivision of both time and angular measure- 
 ment into minutes and seconds is the remnant of it now 
 surviving in Europe ; in India the subdivision of the 
 day into 60 ghari (or periods equal to 24 minutes), the 
 ghari into 60 pul, and the pul into 60 taz, each equal 
 to 0*4 second of European measure, still indicates the 
 perfect sexagesimal method of those ancient astro- 
 
246 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 nomers ; latterly the English commuted the ghari into a 
 sub-multiple of the hour. 
 
 All the ancient talents of a certain epoch, whether 
 monetary, commercial, or royal, or specially for gold, were 
 in the same way divided into 60 pounds or manah, and 
 these manah into sixtieths or shekel. The values of these 
 are given in Chisholm, ' On the Science of Weighing and 
 Measuring ' (page 47). Among these it is most likely 
 that the manah was the original unit, based on 60 
 pieces of money, or small bars of gold or silver, the 
 same mode being afterwards applied to the talent. A 
 double system, in which one set of talents, manah, and 
 shekel were respectively equal to double those of the 
 other, shows strong attachment to this subdivision. 
 The larger measures of capacity, the cor or komer of 
 Media, and the artaba of Egypt, were also divided into 
 60 hin, according to some accounts. 
 
 The sexagesimal system possessed the advantage of 
 facility of subdivision into thirds, sixths, and twelfths, as 
 well as into tenths, but appears to demand some digital 
 notation specially adapted to it in order to render it 
 practically convenient in every respect 
 
 Duodecimal subdivision. The system of subdivision 
 into twelfths, ounces or inches (unciae) was carried out 
 by the Romans ; their foot was divided into 12 unciae ; 
 their jugerum, a small acre of 28800 square feet, equal to 
 about 2987^ square yards English, was subdivided into 
 1 2 unciae ; their sextarius, a measure of capacity one 
 sixth of the congius, was divided into 12 unciae; and 
 the libra, or pondo, or pound, was divided into 12 unciae. 
 Each of the four standard units was termed an as or 
 entire original unit ; its duodecimal fractions from -J--J- 
 down to the f were denominated deunx, dextans, 
 
CIT. i. MODES OF SUBDIVISION. 247 
 
 dodrans, bes, septunx, semis, or sexunx, quincunx, 
 triens, quadrans or teruncium, sextans, uncia. The term 
 sescunx for an uncia and a half, corresponding to the 
 anderthalb of the Germans and the derh of the Hindus, 
 afforded a convenient single term for expressing the 
 eighth part of the as in unciae, and for the ounce and a 
 half without using a fractional term ; for this there also 
 appears to have been at one time a single digital symbol 
 also. 
 
 The multiples of the as, the tressis, quadrussis, quin- 
 cussis, sexcussis, septussis, octussis, nonussis, decussis, 
 or 10 as, were, on the contrary, on a decimal scale, in ac- 
 cordance with their notation, which was decimal in 
 intention, although not dependent on place or position 
 of the numerals. All European nations that took their 
 foot measures through the Romans followed the duo- 
 decimal subdivision ; while in the subdivision of the 
 pound, the Italians, the French, and the English alone 
 adopted it partially for commercial purposes, although it 
 was retained by almost all European nations for the 
 division of the medicinal pound. 
 
 Excellent as the duodecimal system may be for pur- 
 poses of subdivision of a single unit, it appears to fail 
 when applied beyond that limit without the aid of some 
 special corresponding notation or arrangements of digits. 
 
 Binary subdivision. The reciprocals of numbers that 
 admit of perpetual halving down to unity, such as, 2, 4, 
 8, 1 6, 32, and 64, form excellent sub-multiples of measures 
 to serve as secondary units of a lower degree ; some of 
 them also afford exact square roots and cubic roots in 
 integers, and thus give simplicity of relation between 
 the units of surface and of capacity, and the original 
 measures of length. Besides these conditions, which 
 
248 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 may be termed partly theoretical, and principally 
 affect calculation, there is the higher advantage that 
 measures subdivided on a binary scale possess consider- 
 able convenience in actual weighing and measuring 
 (which is the main object of commercial measures), as a 
 half of any weight or measure throughout the series can 
 always be conveniently arrived at, an advantage conceded 
 neither by decimal subdivision, nor strictly even by duo- 
 decimal subdivision, but only arrived at by the device 
 of treating the term i^, an improper fraction, as a special 
 digit. 
 
 For instance, the halves of 3, 5, 7, and 9 on a decimal 
 scale run into inconvenient fractions ; the square roots 
 of 10, 1000, and 100000 are inconvenient, so also the 
 cube roots of 100, 10000, and I ooo ooo ; while the 
 numbers on the decimal scale that do not give surds 
 are very few and very far apart. A binary sub- 
 division hence is a more civilised arrangement for com- 
 mercial measures, and seems to have been adopted 
 both by the commercial and by the more intellectual 
 nations ; the Romans for commercial purposes, the Hin- 
 dus, the Germanic, and Teutonic races ; while decimal- 
 isation was favoured by primitive nations only for 
 commercial purposes, though even now well adapted to 
 the scientific purposes and calculations of advanced races. 
 
 The Hindus were perhaps among the earliest of 
 nations to adopt binary subdivision ; their system of 
 expressing fractions is clear of decimal terms, being 
 real fractional terms, and not mere reciprocals in form of 
 language. Thus their natural subdivision is 
 
 The adha = J; the pao = ^; the adhpao = ; the 
 chittak and the anna =-^5 the adh-chittak=3!j ; the 
 pa win, or subsidiary quarter =gV 
 
CH. i. MODES OF SUBDIVISION. 249 
 
 Originally this method applied to everything, though 
 latterly it was retained only with reference to certain 
 special units ; thus the term chittak is now used for the 
 -j^ of the ser (or common unit of weight) ; but it was also 
 applied to the -^ of the kottah (a unit of surface = 80 
 square yards) as well as other units. The anna, now 
 mostly confined as a term to the j^ of a tola, or rupl- 
 weight for monetary weight, was also a term used in 
 some parts of the country for the ^ of a ser, thus 
 corresponding to the chittak ; the anna or, more pro- 
 perly, ana was also the ^ of a large measure of 
 capacity, the rash, principally used for salt on the 
 Bombay coast, and equal to 1160 English bushels, 
 or 14^ loads. The gaz or yard was subdivided thus : 
 I gaz = 2 hath=i6 girah = 64 pawln ; although there 
 was also a subdivision of the girah into 3 ungll (fingers) 
 or 9 jau (barleycorns) ; but it is remarkable that not 
 only does this correspond to I yard = 2 cubits = 16 nails 
 of English and Dutch subdivision, but the values are 
 also identical with English units, if we reject exceptional 
 local gaz. 
 
 The more ancient Hindu division of the day into 8 
 pahar or watches was distinct from the Chaldaean system 
 of sixtieths borrowed at a later date. 
 
 The old Hindu measure of capacity, the chari, or 
 cubic cubit, was divided in a corresponding manner : 
 
 I chari = 16 drona = 64 adhaca, 
 I adhaca = 4 prastha= 16 kadaba, 
 
 but it seems doubtful whether measures of capacity were 
 ever much used by them at any time. At present, 
 measures of weight take their place entirely and almost 
 exclusively in commerce. 
 
250 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 The Arabs, although renowned for thedecimal notation 
 adopted by all civilised nations, also used binary subdivi- 
 sion. 
 
 The artaba measure was \ den or kor, and = 2 
 kafiz = 4 khul = 8 woeba=i6 makuk. 
 
 The Arab batman of weight was thus divided ; 
 I great batman = 4 small batman = 8 oka=i6 rotl = 32 
 cheki. 
 
 The commercial European pounds are almost in- 
 variably divided into sixteenths (called ounces) ; not 
 only so, but the Teutonic marks, or marcs, or half- 
 pounds, are also invariably divided into sixteenths (called 
 loths l or lodes) or half-ounces. The origin of these 
 commercial pounds seems obscure, and the existence of 
 the marc as an independent original unit appears also 
 doubtful. Whether these pounds were based on the 
 ancient Phoenician commercial pound, or whether the 
 greater Attic mina, which corresponded to 16 Roman 
 ounces derived by twelfths from the lesser mina, was 
 the real origin, or both combined, is an interesting 
 subject of antiquarian research ; but the fact remains 
 that the Teutonic races divide weight-units into six- 
 teenths, although the standards have varied. 
 
 The same races divide their measures of capacity in 
 the same way ; not only in England does the quarter = 
 8 bushels, and I bushel = 4 pecks 8 gallons = 16 pottles 
 = 32 quarts = 64 pints, but the malter, scheffelj and 
 boisseaux of Europe mostly follow the same invariable 
 principle of subdivision. 
 
 1 This measure, known as the loth, and used all over Germany, 
 Austria, and Switzerland, also in Holland as the lood, in Sweden, Denmark, 
 and Norway as the lod, and in Russia and Poland as the loth and lutow, 
 seems to be absent in England only, where it would be termed lode. 
 
en. i. MODES OF SUBDIVISION. 251 
 
 Such a mode, thoroughly well-suited to commercial 
 purposes, cannot be lightly rejected. 
 
 Septimal Subdivision. This method is generally 
 subsidiary or secondary. Even the week of seven days, 
 undoubtedly ancient, was probably the quarter of some 
 approximate month. The English stone of 14 pounds, 
 the eighth of a hundredweight of 112 Ibs., appears 
 to have been adopted to suit the weight of certain 
 measures of flour a bushel of flour weighing 56 Ibs., 
 and a peck of flour weighing 14 Ibs. also to suit 
 certain, now antiquated, peck-loaf arrangements. The 
 firkin of butter weighing 56 Ibs., the Winchester bushel 
 of Chester salt weighing 56 Ibs., and the sack of wool 
 being 26 stone of 14 Ibs. each, are three other practical 
 commercial considerations that rendered septimal divi- 
 sion of the half-stone into pounds a real convenience. 
 The English hundredweight is not the only one that 
 consists of 112 Ibs. ; those of Altona, Hamburg, Han- 
 over, Holstein, Rostock, and Stettin, are similarly sub- 
 divided. 
 
 The subdivision of the present pound into 7000 
 grains seems to have been merely the result of accident, 
 in the adaptation of former measures to each other 
 on the correct principles of natural systematic develop- 
 ment ; though in this case the results shown in retain- 
 ing the Troy grain with the avoirdupois pound, and 
 allowing both the ounce and the dram to involve fractions 
 of grains, were particularly unfortunate. 
 
 The so-called septimal subdivision of weight hence 
 appears to be due to a particularly unfortunate series of 
 causes now relatively unimportant. The subdivision 
 into eighths or octaves is the real mode of dividing the 
 hundredweight, each eighth consisting of 14 pounds ; 
 
252 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART 11. 
 
 the pound is also successively divided into sixteenths 
 among all civilised nations ; the English 7-pound weight 
 and 7000 grain subdivision are inconvenient. Were it 
 not for the involved change, it would be best to divide 
 the pound either into 8000 grains or into 6400 grains ; 
 and besides, to abolish the hundredweight of 1 1 2 Ibs., 
 thus ridding the English system of the anomaly and 
 encumbrance of septimality. 1 
 
 Combined Modes of Subdivision. When any collec- 
 tion of measures, as in England, presents a combination 
 of all the foregoing modes of subdivision, it certainly 
 appears complicated. The first wish of the calculator 
 and of the scientific and professional man is then to 
 render it convenient for calculation by modification. 
 The last wish of the commercial man and tradesman is 
 that the measures he uses should be altered in any 
 way, for the reason that he does not calculate beyond 
 narrow limits, but does wish to retain the measures to 
 which he is accustomed, for purposes of weighing and 
 measuring. In other words, each department of trade 
 may have its requirements met by some portion of the 
 rather heterogeneous collection, while rarely does any 
 tradesman calculate throughout the entire series, or want 
 to do so ; he does not reckon from the cubic yard and 
 go on through the pint or the gallon to the hundred- 
 weight or ton ; and, besides, is quite indifferent regarding 
 those who really have to do so, for he considers they 
 should have a system of their own without interfering 
 with his. Certainly, a series of commercial measures 
 well suited to their object should not be broken up for 
 
 1 The notion of sanctity attached to the number seven is an ancient 
 Jewish relic that was condemned with sabbatariar ism more than eighteen 
 centuries ago. 
 
en. i. MODES OF SUBDIVISION. 253 
 
 professional or scientific purposes ; the modes of sub- 
 division suit the tradesman, and should not be radically 
 altered. The various anomalies such as stones of dif- 
 ferent sorts, tons of various description, also lasts and 
 sacks, and the various quarters, quarts, and quarterns 
 are mostly matters of denomination, that may be ad- 
 justed by alteration of names. The rejection of some 
 secondary units, and alterations of value not exceeding 
 5 per cent, could meet but little opposition. But any 
 radical alteration of a useful system could only be the 
 suggestion of one indifferent to the commercial conve- 
 nience of the millions that use English measures. 
 
 In the Dominion of Canada, where the inheritance 
 of old and heterogeneous measures was an incubus 
 rather than a convenience, English measures have 
 in the main been adhered to. The Act of 1873, legis- 
 lating for the period of 1880, retains the English foot- 
 measure, and from the standards made for Canada, its 
 decimal multiples and sub-multiples appear in vogue 
 there ; it also adopts the cubit foot as a measure of capa- 
 city for gas, and all the English measures of capacity 
 from the bushel to the half-gill ; it adopts the English 
 pound, the old English Troy ounce, and the English 
 grain, and the decimal multiples and sub-multiples 
 of all these three measures of weight. The old French 
 measures of the province of Quebec are now limited 
 to the Parisian foot, perch, square perch, and arpent. 
 As regards the metric system, which has been permis- 
 sive in Canada since April 1871, Mr. Brunei, the head 
 of the Weights and Measures Department, states that 
 
 * he is not aware that it has been used by anyone in 
 
 * Canada, and that there does not appear much proba- 
 ' bility of this system being generally used there, though 
 
254 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART u. 
 
 ' it has been adopted to some extent by scientific men 
 ' for purposes of comparison ' (see Warden's Report for 
 1874-75). 
 
 It may here be noticed that not only is Canada less 
 fettered by the measures of the past than England, but 
 that the province of Quebec with its old French asso- 
 ciations may have supplied the scientific men that to 
 some extent used the metric system. 
 
 If, then, the Canadians have already avoided a senti- 
 mental alteration of their commercial measures, it may 
 be hoped that the English-speaking races will never fall 
 into the blunder of applying French measures to their 
 own commercial purposes. There are scientific men 
 living out of France able to make a better system, and 
 an English one, suited to English requirements. 
 
 Apart from the inconvenience attending the intro- 
 duction of foreign measures, and the difficulties inherent 
 in any attempt to incorporate them into any pre-existing 
 system, it will be noticed, on examining the tables of 
 systems, that there is considerable inconvenience attend- 
 ing combined modes of subdivision of any sort, when 
 incorporated in a single system, 
 
 When a system is, like the early English, binary 
 throughout, when 8 ounces =i marc, 2 marcs =i pound, 
 8 pounds of wine = I gallon, 8 gallons I bushel, 8 
 bushels = I quarter, 4 quarters = I chaldron, the sim- 
 plicity is convenient for trading purposes ; when in the 
 Chinese measures I tching- weight of rice= I tching of 
 capacity, 10 tching =i ten, ioten=i tche, and, again, 
 I tching = 10 fun, I fun= 10 li, I li = 10 hao, I hao= 10 
 ssa, i ssa=io hoe, &c., the simplicity is convenient for 
 purposes of calculation. Whenever a ternary subdivision 
 intervenes, as the English yard into three feet, the butt 
 
en. i. MODES OF SUBDIVISION. 255 
 
 into three barrels, homogeneity ceases ; when an unali- 
 quot term is introduced, as the pole of 5^ yards, the 
 chaldron of 4^ quarters, incongruity results. 
 
 A combination of several systems, each the best in 
 its own way, would not retain the advantages of any. 
 
 For instance, how needlessly complicated is the time- 
 honoured subdivision of the medical or monetary pound, 
 or of the marc: 20 grains = I obolus, 2 oboli= I scruple, 
 3 scruples = I dram, 8 drams = I ounce, and 8 ounces = I 
 marc, or 12 ounces = I pound, as the case may be. The 
 needlessness of an additional pound of 12 ounces in a 
 system possessing a commercial pound of 16 ounces is 
 now perfectly recognised ; a marc of half-a-pound = 8 
 ounces answers every purpose without encumbering a 
 system with duodecimals. Again, the scruple of one- 
 third of a dram is of comparatively little practical use, 
 and the introduction of ternary units in a binary series 
 here shows to disadvantage ; the English scruple has 
 hence been nominally abolished. The old medical 
 pound of Europe of 12 ounces, or 5760 grains, gives a 
 marc of 8 ounces or 3840 grains, or a commercial pound 
 of 1 6 ounces or 7680 grains ; but if it is both practically 
 and theoretically unnecessary to complicate the sub- 
 division with the third of any of its sub-units to be 
 expressed in a perfect number of grains, the whole 
 arrangement of the subdivision immediately admits of 
 simplification to an extent that was not possible before. 
 The marc can then be made equal to 3 200 grains ; the 
 ounce or eighth will then be 400 grains, and the dram, its 
 eighth will be 50 grains ; or, by an alternative arrangement, 
 it may be preferred to make the commercial pound 8 ooo 
 grains, the marc 4 ooo grains, the ounce its eighth = 500 
 grains. 
 
256 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART 11. 
 
 On the whole, then, it may be safely said that com- 
 bined modes of subdivision are generally troublesome, 
 though various combinations of the binary with the deci- 
 mal system may be so devised as to be convenient, also 
 that the simple binary, or the simple decimal mode of 
 subdivision are severally in their own ways the best, the 
 one being suited to commercial, the other to scientific 
 and geodetic purposes. 
 
 This being generally well-accepted by those conver- 
 sant with the subject, it becomes of interest to draw 
 conclusions as regards the best practicable mode that 
 could be adopted in England. 
 
 Already the distinction between scientific units at 
 32 and commercial units at 62 is fully recognised, both 
 by officials and the general public. Hence the English 
 scientific system should consist of purely decimal units 
 at 32, belonging to existing measures. This is carried 
 out in the English scientific system described in a 
 succeeding chapter and used throughout the tables. 
 This system, extending over a wide range, can then 
 form the skeleton or framework for intercalation in 
 rearranging the commercial units on a binary or on a 
 mixed decimal and binary mode whenever requisite. A 
 proposal to this effect is made among the Proposed and 
 Typical systems at the end of this book. 
 
257 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 THE COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS OF EUROPE. 
 
 AN examination of the English system of commercial 
 measures given at the end of this chapter, and a com- 
 parison between it and any other natural commercial 
 system of measures in the world, will show it to be either 
 as good or nearly as good as any other, excepting in 
 one or two respects ; while if the whole of the circum- 
 stances and conditions be taken into consideration, it 
 may be considered the first, from being most suited to 
 the circumstances and the people. 
 
 A country of large commercial transactions in every 
 branch of trade is necessarily most liable to a superfluity 
 of measures ; and hence also to a considerable amount 
 of incongruity ; but when the extent and the diversity 
 of English commerce is borne in mind it is a fact 
 worthy of notice that the natural English system is a 
 single system, having one foot, one mile, one acre, one 
 pound, one gallon, and one bushel. 
 
 It will not, it is true, bear comparison with the 
 French system as a scientific one, although it is in- 
 finitely superior to it for the commercial purposes of 
 weighing and measuring in ordinary trade transactions ; 
 in fact, the pre-eminence it has is due to the fact that it 
 
 S 
 
2 S8 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART 11. 
 
 is not a scientific system, but purely adapted to conve- 
 nience in commerce at an ordinary temperature. 1 
 
 A purely artificial scientific system may be devised 
 in a day, and with hardly any thought or care. The 
 length of anyone's walking-stick may be taken as the 
 basic unit of length, and a decimal system may be de- 
 rived from it which will have a perfect uniformity and 
 simplicity. As for the names, Greek and Latin affixes, 
 or even German and French affixes, may be easily 
 applied. But such a system would necessarily nearly 
 ignore the exact wants of many branches of trade ; and 
 the haphazard plan of applying in trade the nearest 
 applicable unit afforded by such a process is not a satis- 
 factory one, as it amounts to a practical indifference to 
 the requirements of commerce. 
 
 A commercial system of measures requires time 
 for perfect development ; it must be suited to the race, 
 and their forms of thought and calculation ; it must also 
 prove its suitability to all trading purposes through a 
 long practical employment ; and finally, all improvement 
 and systematisation, readjustments and rejections, should 
 be gradual alterations, aiming at the perfect development 
 of the original system, and at a convenient practical 
 uniformity and simplicity, without violent departures, or 
 borrowing extraneous measures from other nations. 
 
 Among the systems of Northern Europe, the Swedish, 
 
 1 Professor Piazzi Smyth's remark on this subject is : ' Your con- 
 clusions and methods are strictly rational, but do not enter into the religious 
 history of man,' &c. February 20, 1877. 
 
 The following is the opinion of the late Warden of the Standards : 
 ' There can be no question of the greater convenience of our Weights and 
 Measures over those of the Metric System for the practical purposes of 
 weighing and measuring ; the units have been adopted as the most conve- 
 nient, and our system is far better than the metric system ; but for pur- 
 poses of account it is inferior to it,' &c. August 26, 1878. 
 
CH. ii. EUROPEAN COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS. 259 
 
 the Danish, and the Prussian systems (see pages 289, &c.) 
 seem to be complete and regular. 
 
 The Swedish system is excellent ; its measures of 
 capacity are arranged in strict accordance with cubic 
 measure ; but it is deficient as regards the measures of 
 weight ; the relation of weight to capacity is either 
 doubtful or non-existent, while the large number of 
 various pounds used for different purposes till very lately 
 constituted a serious drawback. 
 
 The Danish system is also an excellent one ; its basic 
 unit, the foot, is based on the length of a simple pen- 
 dulum beating seconds at sea-level in vacuo at a latitude 
 of 45 ; and thus possesses the peculiarity of not being 
 dependent on the exactitude of preserved standards, 
 although the reconstruction of a standard would involve 
 rather intricate reduction of value. The Danish foot is 
 also adopted in the Prussian system as the Rheinfuss ; 
 while the whole of the Danish system is used in Nor- 
 way, although there may be some differences due to 
 slight fluctuation of value in the-standards. The Danish 
 measures of capacity are arranged in accordance with 
 cubic measure, although they have not the same regular 
 binary arrangement that constitutes the beauty of the 
 Swedish and of the English system. The Danish com- 
 mercial pound is the weight of -fa of a cubic foot of 
 water at a normal temperature, and this scientific ar- 
 rangement renders the system complete ; it has, however, 
 the defect that there is also a second pound for monetary 
 and perhaps for a few other purposes. 
 
 The English system will compare favourably with 
 both the Swedish and Danish systems as regards the 
 regularity of its measures of capacity and their sub- 
 division, though connection between weight and capacity 
 
 s 2 
 
260 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 is inferior ; while, now that separate Troy weight and 
 apothecaries' weight are both legally abolished, it has the 
 advantage of having a single series of weight-units. 
 
 The Prussian system is in some respects superior to 
 the Danish and Swedish systems, in others not so good. 
 It has two sorts of foot-measures, one the Rheinfuss, the 
 other a geometric foot, a tenth of the ruthe ; it has two 
 pounds, one the commercial pound, another the medi- 
 cinal pound of 12 ounces, a double method in vogue 
 in Germany generally, from which English measures are 
 free. The Prussian measures of capacity are in accord- 
 ance with cubic-measure, being in aliquot ratios to 
 them. The subdivision of the capacity- measures is well 
 arranged in accordance with trade requirements from the 
 quart to the fuder and the malter. The measures of 
 weight are in accordance with the capacity-measures, 
 the commercial pound being -gig- of a cubic foot of water 
 in vacua at the temperature of 1 5 Reaumur ; while the 
 marc or half-pound retained is the ancient unit, the Coin 
 marc but slightly varied in value ; the other measures 
 of weight follow the forms of multiple and sub-multiple 
 well suited to German custom. 
 
 If, after scrutinising these three systems, the English 
 system be examined, its advantages and defects become 
 more clearly apparent. Its single system of linear 
 measures is free from two sorts of foot, pole, or mile, or 
 two sorts of inch faults common to German systems ; 
 its single system of measures of surface, one square 
 pole, rood, and acre, is also an advantage, although it 
 must be admitted that the acre is inconvenient from 
 the acreside not being a round number. The remedy 
 for this defect could be easily supplied by the adoption 
 of the square furlong as a hide, which would be the 
 
CH. ii. EUROPEAN COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS. 261 
 
 64th part of a square mile, while its side would be a 
 furlong or 220 yards exactly : the hide would then 
 be equal to 40 roods, or 10 acres, and the rood equal 
 to 40 perches as before, without altering any measures 
 at all ; and the acre could be permissively retained 
 until it became unnecessary and practically obsolete. 
 A further improvement in the series of surface units 
 might be effected by making the rood exactly 10000 
 instead of 10890 square feet. The present series, though 
 single, is exceedingly bad as regards subdivision. 
 
 The series of English measures of capacity form a 
 nearly complete binary system, equalled only by the 
 Swedish ; they are deficient, however, in one most im- 
 portant respect, that of not being in convenient accord- 
 ance -with cubic measure ; for instance, the gallon is 
 nominally 277-273844 cubic inches, and the whole sys- 
 tem is correspondingly defective. The principle of 
 basing the gallon on an arbitrary old French pound 
 avoirdupois, that was never any part of the early English 
 or Anglo-Saxon system, has been the cause of this 
 difficulty. In the earlier period the gallon was eight 
 pounds of wine, the pound being then an English pound. 
 The incorporation of the French pound, after Cressy and 
 Poitiers, into the English system thus disarranged the 
 whole of the measures of capacity. The accordance of 
 the latter with the measures of weight is, however, well 
 defined. 
 
 There is also a defect in the upper part of the series ; 
 they do not correspond above the gallon for both wet 
 and dry measures ; the bushel is 8 gallons, the quarter 
 8 bushels, and the chaldron 4^ quarters in dry measure ; 
 while in wet measure the firkin is 9 gallons, the kilderkin 
 1 8 gallons, and the barrel 36 gallons. Formerly and 
 
262 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 for nearly a century and a half, the barrel of ale was 32 
 gallons, the kilderkin 16 and the firkin 8 gallons ; the 
 firkin and bushel being identical in capacity ; the Eliza- 
 bethan barrel of wine was also 32 gallons. 
 
 In the lower part of the scale the objection that a 
 minim was not exactly a grain in weight has been met 
 by introducing a series of liquid-grain measures into the 
 system which will eventually perhaps supersede the old 
 minim-measures entirely. 
 
 Proceeding to the English measures of weight, the 
 utmost that can be said for them is that they form a 
 single system, one pound, one quarter, one hundred- 
 weight, and one-ton ; there are not two sorts of liespfund 
 and two sorts of schiffpfund, as in the German system, 
 nor 5 -or 6 liespfund -and markpfund, as in the Swedish 
 system. But beyond this advantage of simplicity and 
 unity, there remains hardly a single advantage. The 
 ounce is not exactly the 10 1 00 of a cubic foot of water, 
 although very nearly so, and thus the adjustment of the 
 whole series is imperfect. The Danish pound is -gL-, and 
 the Prussian pound -^ of the respective local cubic foot 
 of water, but until the English ounce is made exactly 
 the YOO~O f a cubic foot of water, and the pound the 
 7o~oo~> the connection is imperfect. The error in adjust- 
 ment is less than ^ per cent., and could be easily 
 effected as soon as the misplaced veneration for the 
 French avoirdupois pound has faded, without causing 
 any. serious disturbance in commercial transactions. 
 
 The subdivision of the English commercial pound 
 is at present clumsy. It consists of 16 ounces, while 
 the ounce is 16 drams, and the pound is also divided 
 into 7000 grains, thus making the ounce 437^ grains, 
 and the dram 27-34375 grains. The cause of this very 
 
CH, ii. EUROPEAN COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS. 263 
 
 inconvenient arrangement must be sought at its source ; 
 the avoirdupois pound originally consisted of 7680 
 grains, and thus the ounce was 480 grains, and the 
 dram 30 grains ; but as the old Troy pound consisted 
 of 5760 Troy grains, and the avoirdupois pound was 
 equivalent to 7000 of these Troy grains, the avoirdupois 
 grain was abolished in the reorganisation of 1824, and the 
 Troy grain alone retained ; this unfortunate combination 
 of Troy and avoirdupois measures has brought about 
 the above result. It would have been better to have 
 entirely abolished the Troy and the medicinal systems 
 without retaining the Troy grain. A grain of either 
 64 * 00 or of -g oVo f the pound avoirdupois would give 
 convenient values in grains to both the ounce and the 
 dram. 
 
 It may be here mentioned that there is a widespread 
 belief that there are still three stones existing in the 
 English system, one of 14 Ibs., one of 10 Ibs., and one of 8 
 Ibs. ; the old meat stone of 8 Ibs. is, however, declared an 
 obsolete illegal measure in the Warden's Annual Report 
 for 1876-7 ; while a stone of wool, or a stone of flour 
 has always been 14 Ibs. ; the retention of obsolete 
 measures in parts of the country cannot therefore be 
 urged as a defect in the system itself. 
 
 If then the advantages of the English system balance 
 its defects, or even nearly so, and allowance be made on 
 the score of the immense commerce of England in com- 
 parison with that of Sweden, Denmark, and Prussia, and 
 the consequent difficulty in effecting modification and 
 improvement of measures, the English system may be 
 fairly considered as good as any of them for purposes of 
 trade. 
 
 While examining the systems of other countries a 
 
26 1 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 marked line must be drawn between the natural systems 
 peculiar to those countries and the artificial or metric 
 and modified metric systems. The natural systems of 
 the Hanse towns, Hamburg and Bremen, and those of 
 Saxony, Brunswick, Gotha, Mecklenburg, and Olden- 
 burg are inferior in systematisation to the Prussian 
 system, although resembling it generally, and hence 
 require no special comment. 
 
 The Austro- Hungarian system can hardly be said to 
 present any preponderating advantages either as a 
 system or from the values of its units, or the connection 
 between them ; in this latter respect it appears rather un- 
 fortunate. Its advantages rather lie in the fact that it is 
 or was a single imperial system adopted to a wide extent 
 over many provinces, and that these centralised Austrian 
 measures, perhaps inferior in themselves, were important 
 from their wide acceptation. The Hungarian units 
 given in Part I. are not European but Asiatic, and are 
 parallel with Ottoman measures. The South German sys- 
 tems of Bavaria and of Wiirtemberg correspond slightly 
 to the Austrian system, more especially the former. 
 Of these three, the Wiirtemberg system is by far the 
 most simple and well-arranged generally ; decimalisation 
 is adopted, where applicable, among the inches, feet, 
 and poles or ruthen, and binary subdivision is employed 
 throughout the measures of capacity generally as most 
 suited to them. The triple system of liquid measure, 
 the hellaichmass (for clarified wine), the triibmass or 
 mostmass (for unclarified wine or wort), and the schenk- 
 mass for retail sale, is the principal defect in these South 
 German systems. In North Germany the double system 
 of visirmass for gauging and schenkmass for retail sale 
 is sufficiently troublesome, but on the whole the North- 
 
CH. ii. EUROPEAN COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS. 265 
 
 German systems are much superior to those of Southern 
 Germany. 
 
 The Russian system bears a strong similarity to the 
 English ; the Russian foot is identical with the English 
 foot, thus making that unit the most widespread and 
 largely-used linear measure of the whole world ; and 
 the whole of the Russian measures of capacity are based 
 on weight, the vedro containing 30 Ibs. of water, the 
 tschetverka 64 Ibs., and the whole of the rest in accord- 
 ance with the English method. The Russians still, 
 however, possess two pounds or funt, one the commercial, 
 the other the German medicinal pound of Nuremberg. 
 The dessatina of 2400 square sasheen is in accordance 
 with English measure, the sasheen or fathom being 
 exactly 7 English feet ; and the werst, of 500 linear 
 sasheen, is 3500 English feet. A peculiarity in the 
 Russian series of weight-units deserves notice ; both the 
 stone and the hundredweight are absent, but there is a 
 pud of 40 pounds, a berkowitz of 10 pud or 400 pounds, 
 and a ton of 6 berkowitz. The pud is nearly half an 
 English foot-weight or talent, about 36 pounds avoir- 
 dupois, and the berkowitz appears an approximate load 
 of nearly 3 English hundredweight. The load (a camel 
 load), perhaps the most widely used weight-unit, thus 
 becomes important in the Russian system. The arrange- 
 ment indicates that stones and hundredweights may be 
 dispensed with in a commercial system. The accord- 
 ance between English and Russian measures renders 
 English and American tabular and scientific values of 
 great value to the Russian, a convenience of which they 
 avail themselves to the utmost 
 
 A further increased similarity of the Russian and 
 English measures may probably be made after the 
 
255 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 English pound has been adjusted to cubic measure, as 
 before explained ; in that case the Russians would be 
 wise to discard their two pounds, and adopt the single 
 English pound as the basis of their systems of weight 
 and capacity, thus completing the correspondence in 
 every respect, and making one foot and one pound, of 
 -j-j-jL-ths cubic foot of water, the most commonly used 
 units in the world. 
 
 The French system, adopted for commercial purposes 
 since 1840 in France, Holland, and Italy, and more 
 recently adopted by other nations that are now in the 
 unenviable state of transition from natural to artificial 
 measures, may be said to be at present the most perfect 
 system for scientific purposes and for purposes of cal- 
 culation ; these advantages would, however, be attained 
 by any rigid decimal system. 
 
 For the ordinary purposes of commerce, and for all 
 operations of weighing and measuring, it is of consider- 
 ably less value. The units themselves, the metre and the 
 kilogramme, are particularly inconvenient and perfectly 
 arbitrary ; they coalesce with none of the natural mea- 
 sures of Europe, and are devoid of significance ; the 
 metre is not, as was once supposed, a geodetic unit, and 
 the kilogrammes of ordinary use are copies of the kilo- 
 gramme de rObservatoire, which is a doubtful copy of 
 the kilogramme des archives, whose density cannot be 
 determined by immersion from fear of injury. This 
 latter kilogramme was the solitary standard originally 
 made in 1799 by Fortin. The accepted description of 
 the mode in which this cylinder was scraped to the 
 size necessary to represent the weight of a decilitre of 
 water, and its doubtful density, render its relation to a 
 cubic decimetre of water rather doubtful from a scientific 
 
CH, ii. EUROPEAN COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS. 267 
 
 point of view, while its copies twice removed are not 
 likely to be better. 
 
 Apart from the excessive pretensions of the metric 
 system, and the method of propagating it by compli- 
 mentary expressions and devices, there cannot be found 
 any advantage in it beyond that already mentioned, 
 which would be inseparable from almost any complete 
 and rigid decimal system. 
 
 The disadvantage in commercial dealings arising 
 from the want of binary subdivision in the metric system 
 is partly amended by using double measures and half 
 measures of each unit in the decimal scale. 
 
 The transition period of measures in France, during 
 which old measures were still actually, though perhaps 
 not legally, in use, must have been nearly half a century 
 a considerable disadvantage. But drawbacks of this 
 description were trivial to a nation that had an enor- 
 mous number of old measures in inextricable confusion, 
 probably more than a hundred values of units of land- 
 measure, and so forth. The large variety of measures 
 in former use in France, in Italy, and in the Nether- 
 lands rendered any new single system a boon ; the 
 same may also be said of the Empire of Germany. 
 
 In the British Empire there is fortunately no such 
 multiplicity of measures as to demand their abolition in 
 favour of the introduction of the metric system, and if a 
 decimal system were required, the decimalisation of some 
 of the units in common use could be much more conve- 
 niently effected and applied in commerce. Besides, our 
 experience in the past, from the adoption of the French 
 avoirdupois and Troy pounds in preference to the old 
 Anglo-Saxon merchant's pound, or any of the really 
 English pounds, and the incubus they have been to our 
 
268 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 system up to the present day, constitute a standing 
 warning against adopting the newest French fashion in 
 measures, apart from the difficulties of a transition period, 
 which would be probably greater in England than 
 they were in France. 
 
 On an examination of the metric measures that 
 have become actual commercial units, apart from the 
 nominal metric measures that are mere names, the first and 
 most striking peculiarity that presents itself is the rarity 
 of the cases in which the values approximate to any of 
 the natural measures of the civilised world, and the utter 
 impossibility of reducing metric values to natural values 
 in any system, by means of simple multipliers and divisors. 
 This last feature renders any attempt or proposition to 
 incorporate metric measures in the natural measures 
 of any country perfectly impracticable. This is perhaps 
 extremely fortunate as saving much confusion that 
 would otherwise accrue from the efforts of the metre- 
 propagators ; in fact, as far as can be discovered, there 
 has been only one such attempt yet made, the result 
 being that the two sets of units remained purely 
 distinct. 
 
 Taking the commercial metric units in detail, the 
 metre answers the purposes of the English yard, the 
 Spanish and Portuguese vara, and the stab, or double 
 ell of Germany, and corresponds to the half-fathom of 
 some other nations ; it is therefore a practically useful 
 unit. The centimetre of about half an inch of most 
 nations is a small and rather inconvenient unit ; the 
 decimetre is of little utility in measurement, and the 
 millimetre is too small for most commercial purposes, 
 its utility being confined to scientific employment and 
 purposes of numerical expression. The kilometre is a 
 
CH. ii. EUROPEAN COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS. 269 
 
 small mile, which possesses no intrinsic advantage apart 
 from its decimal advantages. These decimal advantages 
 must be considered as perfectly separable matters, not 
 as inherent in the metric system. The metric units of 
 length are hence, with one exception, exceedingly 
 inferior as commercial units, while the absence of any 
 unit of length approaching in value to the foot of most 
 civilised nations is a most serious defect. The nominal 
 metric units of length the decametre, the hectometre, 
 and myriametre, and the double decametre or chain of 
 20 metres, can hardly be considered as accepted com- 
 mercial units of linear measurement. 
 
 Among the metric units of surface, which are 
 excellently arranged with regard to each other, the 
 square metre is a practically useful unit ; the hectare of 
 about 2\ English acres is nowhere near the surface-units 
 of any civilised nation, with the solitary exception of 
 Russian dessatina ; and the square kilometre does not 
 approximate to any known square mile. The decimal 
 interdependence of the metric surface-units is exceed- 
 ingly convenient ; a square kilometre being 100 hectares, 
 a hectare 100 ares, and an are 100 square metres ; but this 
 would accompany any decimal system based on other 
 non-metric units. There hence appears to be only one 
 really useful and convenient commercial unit in this 
 series, while the rest are hap-hazard decimal multiples. 
 
 In the metric measures of capacity, the litre is the 
 basic unit ; theoretically, this represents the volume of a 
 cubic decimetre ; but as, in fact, there is no such primary 
 standard cubic decimetre of capacity, the litre is merely 
 a measure containing a kilogramme weight, of water, 
 that cannot be practically tested, but merely verified by 
 computation. This defect is due to the temperature of 
 
2 ;o METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 4 Centigrade being taken as the standard for the water, 
 and that of o for the vessel. 
 
 As a commercial unit, the litre is excellent ; it is a 
 very convenient and practical bottle-measure of wine or 
 any liquid, and specially useful among nations with 
 whom wine is an article of daily food and ordinary 
 consumption. The decilitre and centilitre are mere 
 decimal sub-multiples of the litre, and unimportant as 
 units ; the cubic centimetre or millilitre, equal to about 
 15 English liquid-grains or 17 minims, is the druggist's 
 small unit of capacity. Whether such a quarter-dram 
 is a practically convenient unit or not is very doubtful ; 
 apparently it is either too small or too large ; all the 
 assumed advantages in connection with it are really only 
 those of decimalisation. The hectolitre of about 2| 
 English bushels is nowhere near any corresponding 
 grain-measure, scheffel, or fanega, of civilised nations. 
 Among the metric measures of capacity, the litre-bottle 
 is therefore the only commercial unit of practical con- 
 venience. 
 
 Continuing to measures of weight, the gramme is too 
 large a unit for the more delicate commercial purposes 
 for which other nations employ a grain ; though in 
 scientific matters its decimal sub-multiples down to the 
 milligramme effect all the objects of persons quite indif- 
 ferent about the values of the units they employ. The 
 kilogramme is more than double the pound of any civi- 
 lised nation in Europe, and hence an inconvenient unit 
 as regards value, but it certainly is an approximation to 
 the Turkish oka and the Indian seer, the former being 
 about a fourth more, the latter about a tenth less. The 
 quintal resembles the kilogramme in its relation to the 
 units of other nations, the hundredweights, centners, and 
 
CH. ii. EUROPEAN COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS. 271 
 
 quintals of Europe, and also is distant from the cantaros 
 and maunds of Asia. The millier, bar, or tonne, some- 
 times also called a tonneau, is, however, a practically 
 useful metric ton, and thus forms the solitary metric unit 
 of weight that possesses real commercial convenience. 
 
 Summarising the results of the foregoing examination, 
 the metric system affords the following convenient com- 
 mercial units, the metre and its square and cube, the 
 litre and the metric ton ; or one unit of length, one of 
 surface, one of capacity, and one of weight, while the 
 rest are unimportant decimal multiples and submultiples. 
 Could any decimal system do less ? Apparently not, 
 unless devised with the declared object of ignoring all 
 commercial convenience. It is, however, possible that 
 any English schoolboy would decimalise better for 
 English purposes on a walking-stick selected by him 
 from a bundle. As a French scientific system, the 
 metric system is excellent, for the single contact with 
 natural commercial measures in each class is just suffi- 
 cient for all such purposes ; as a French commercial 
 system it is an inferior one, adopted as a preferable alter- 
 native to the enormous collection of heterogeneous old 
 French measures ; for other nations falling into the same 
 unfortunate predicament it is a pis alter, a mere mode of 
 extrication ; but for any country possessing a good single 
 natural system of commercial measures, it is a snare and 
 a delusion, that much resembles the soufflee, the fondant, 
 the champagne- mousseux, the crinoline, and other in- 
 flated French inventions of puerile type. 
 
 As a universal commercial system it is deficient 
 from the fact of its being decimal, for most commercial 
 nations and races are essentially binary in habit and 
 form of thought. The exclusive Chinese are decimal in 
 
272 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 habit ; for them it would be well suited, were it not that 
 all this decimalisation has been borrowed from them, and 
 that they subdivide to trillionths already with habitual 
 ease ; hence it might be more in accordance with the 
 fitness of things for the French to have applied Chinese 
 and Japanese prefixes to their metric terms. The 
 Romans thought in duodecimals, the Greeks principally 
 in sexagesimals, and the English, who afforded the 
 French instructors in Latin in the time of Charlemagne, 1 
 have, like the rest of the Indo-Germanic races, always 
 thought naturally in eighths. The English system of 
 measures, which is commercial in origin and develop- 
 ment, would, with a small amount of modification, form 
 by far the most suitable universal system for Europe and 
 the world ; and even in the event of decimalisation 
 superseding binary subdivision, a decimalised English 
 system of measures based on English units would 
 answer the corresponding purpose. 
 
 The enormous increase of French manufactures and 
 general trade since the Cobden-Saint-Simonist Treaty, 
 has been frequently urged as a reason for preferring 
 French to English measures as a universal system ; and 
 
 1 In the period following the utter decadence of everything that was 
 Roman, the knowledge of Latin of the higher type was alone thoroughly 
 preserved in Cumbria, whence, at the special request of Charlemagne, 
 Alcuin sent instructors to him for purposes of education. The ecclesiasti- 
 cal Latin of Rome was certainly continuously retained through the Church 
 formularies as regards pronunciation, but probably accompanied with very 
 contracted notions of meaning, and but little linguistic knowledge. The 
 subsequent foundation of universities and colleges all over Europe, appa- 
 rently with the sole object of reviving Latinity and theologic lore, supports 
 this view. 
 
 In the Cymric ante-Roman period, Britain was the most highly 
 civilised Western nation, to which young Gallic nobles were sent for 
 education. France has never been pre-eminent in real civilisation, or 
 deserving of imitation in matters of high importance. 
 
CH. ii. EUROPEAN COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS. 273 
 
 hence this basis of argument cannot be neglected in its 
 bearing on systems. It assumes that, as in the past the 
 English, represented by the Cobden school of policy, 
 have facilitated by treaty the loss of manufactures and 
 commerce, and given English coal, iron, and manufac- 
 turing power in return for Lyons silk dresses and 
 ornamental fabrics, in the future this doctrine will be 
 perpetuated ; that the English are bound hand-and-foot 
 by a false form of free-trade, and cannot extricate them- 
 selves from this vicious circle. Certainly, if at intervals 
 the English make commercial treaties of that sort, Eng- 
 lish trade is doomed to entire extinction ; but the 
 assumption of perpetual stupidity is too far-fetched, the 
 English are progressive, they do profit from experience, 
 and may yet retain the most important share of the 
 commerce of the world, and sustain the ascendency of 
 their own measures. 
 
 Besides the simple metric system as applied direct to 
 commercial measures in France, Holland, Belgium, and 
 Italy, for a long time past, there are several systems 
 based on metric units, or modified metric systems, that 
 either answer the purpose of a temporary or transitional 
 system and lessen the abruptness of a change from 
 natural to artificial measures, or afford a convenient 
 relation to metric measures for countries and nations 
 having a trade exclusively connected with that of others 
 whose system is already metric. 
 
 The systems of this class are the French mesures 
 iisuelles, used from 1812 to 1840, as transitional; the 
 Baden system, used from 1810 till lately; the Darmstadt 
 system, adopted in the Grand Duchy of Hesse since 1818 ; 
 and the Waadt system, exclusively used in the Canton 
 Waadt since 1822, and partly in the Cantons Valais, 
 
 T 
 
274 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 Schwcitz, Uri, Zug, Zurich, Claris, and Grisons, for 
 some time, but afterwards applied to the whole of 
 Switzerland. These four systems having been expressly 
 devised to meet commercial convenience, are necessarily 
 more suited both to purposes of ordinary trade, and to 
 the people that use them, than the metric system itself ; 
 the latter being, on the other hand, preferable for scienti- 
 fic purposes only. The values of the commercial units 
 of these systems are multiples and sub-multiples of 
 metric units, but have local names in accordance with 
 the old local measures ; such units are necessarily -quite 
 out of accordance with any natural measures as regards 
 exactitude, but approximate to them for purposes of 
 convenience. It is evident that these systems in 
 coalescing with metric units are cut adrift from all natu- 
 ral measures, and aim at adaptation to metric measures 
 in combination with a superior adaptability to com- 
 mercial purposes ; in these objects they certainly succeed. 
 On examining these four systems together, it will be 
 noticed that the relation of the commercial foot to the 
 metre is diversely fixed, thus : 
 
 France. Baden. Hesse. Switzerland. 
 
 Foot \ metre ^ metre \ metre ^ metre 
 
 also the French pied usuel is divided into 12 inches, 
 and in the other three cases tke foot is divided into 10 
 parts or tithes. These arrangements have important effect 
 on the development in the square and cubic measures. Of 
 these methods the Hessian is certainly preferable. 
 
 In surface-measures, the principal unit in each case 
 holds some connection with the metric hectare, and with 
 the smaller units of its own system, thus : 
 
CH. ii. EUROPEAN COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS. 275 
 
 France. Baden. Hesse. Switzerland. 
 
 Surface unit "\ l nectare '3 6 hectare 0-25 hectare 0-45 hectare 
 
 pose or morgen f loos( l uare 4 oo square 400 square 500 square 
 J perches ruthen ruthen ruthen 
 
 In small units of capacity the distinctive unit is thus 
 connected with the litre, and with the smaller cubic 
 units of its own system : 
 
 France. Baden. Hesse. Switzerland 
 
 Mass, or small "\ I litre I -5 litre 2 litres I -35 litre 
 
 unit J 8^5 cub. toise 55f cub. in. 128 cub. in. 500 cub. in. 
 
 The pound adopted is a half-kilogramme in every case. 
 
 The modes of subdivision adopted for the measures of 
 capacity as well as throughout the four systems gene- 
 rally, are thus : 
 
 France. Baden. Hesse. Switzerland. 
 
 Mode of sub- '\ Mixed Purely Binary Nearly 
 
 division / decimal decimal. 
 
 Taking the connections of the measures with the 
 cubic measures of the respective systems, that of 
 Switzerland is the most convenient, that of Hesse corre- 
 spondingly good for a binary system, while that of 
 Baden, though regular, is clumsy, and that of France is 
 convenient but rather irregular. 
 
 The comparison of these four systems of the same 
 class of arbitrary artificial measures, adopted with 
 untrammelled choice under very much the same condi- 
 tions, affords a most useful and instructive example to 
 those that advocate modified metric measures for Eng- 
 land, America, or any other country, possessing a large 
 trade with France, and wishing to satisfy both the 
 internal and the export requirements of trade-conveni- 
 ence by a single intermediate system. Of the above 
 four attempts, the Hessian system seems the preferable 
 one in almost every respect ; but whether any of these 
 
 T 2 
 
276 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 methods is worthy of imitation is very doubtful ; pro- 
 bably the English method of using the purely metric 
 system itself as a legally permissive system, whenever 
 it may happen to suit the circumstances of a case, is a 
 better alternative. 
 
 Returning to the subject of the natural measures and 
 systems of measures of the past century, after this di- 
 gression on the subject of artificial or metric units and 
 measures, it may be here noticed that it has not been 
 considered worth while to introduce in this book the old 
 French measures existing before 1799, nor the old mea- 
 sures of the Netherlands. They were voluminous and 
 complicated to a fearful degree, and now that they have 
 not only been legally abolished, but also been allowed to 
 fall into practical oblivion, for a very long time, they are 
 seldom referred to. Even in local books, when these 
 measures are referred to, their values in new measures 
 generally accompany them. The old French measures 
 that were principally in use at Paris have not entirely 
 yet vanished from France ; persons still talk of and sell 
 onces of tobacco, and acres, arpents, &c. of land in France 
 itself ; in the French Antilles and some of the French 
 possessions they are still referred to ; while in the 
 Canadian province of Quebec the perche and the arpent 
 de Paris were legally abolished only last year. Doubt- 
 less, there are many persons ready to inform one that 
 all old French measures were abolished by law in 
 the month Germinal of the year III. of the French 
 Republic ; in spite of this, stern facts remain, and require 
 explanation. 
 
 The collection of old Parisian measures is therefore 
 given among the tables of systems ; but as a rule the 
 older measures of various countries, that have existed 
 
CH. ii. EUROPEAN COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS. 277 
 
 or been in use within the present century, and survive 
 in language, books, and records, rather than in actual 
 use, will be found not among the tables of systems but 
 among the tables of measures in Part I., under the heads 
 of Former Local or Special Values. 
 
 The old Italian measures, the German measures 
 that have been for a long time abolished, and the old 
 Swiss measures, will be thus found. As regards the 
 German measures that have been abolished by law in 
 the last few years and are merely surviving through a 
 transitional period, these are necessarily treated in this 
 book as recent measures still existing, because reference 
 to them is frequently made and their values in English 
 and in French terms are often wanted. 
 
 The Spanish and the Portuguese measures are sup- 
 posed to have been abolished even as long ago as the 
 Italian measures, and to have similarly made way for 
 French metric measures. Though the old Italian mea- 
 sures have, uith the exception of various local land- 
 measures, been completely abolished as regards reference 
 and expression, as well as by law, the Spanish measures 
 have not yet vanished to the same degree. 
 
 The Spanish system is on the whole a good one ; 
 it much resembles the English in its advantages and 
 defects, though certainly less simple and hence inferior; 
 it requires a comparatively small amount of modification 
 and adjustment to render it an excellent system, and far 
 superior for commercial purposes to the metric system 
 partially adopted in preference to it. The linear mea- 
 sures, up to the furlong of an eighth of a mile, and the 
 mile of 5000 feet, are good and more simple than the 
 corresponding English measures. The square measures' 
 include some rather complicated land-units ; and if 
 
278 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 the celemin, fanegada, and yugada were replaced by a 
 square furlong and a square mile (in the same way as is 
 much wanted in England), this class of measures would 
 also become perfect. 
 
 The Spanish measures of capacity are, like the 
 English, independent of local cubic measure ; the dry- 
 measures are simple and convenient units, but the liquid- 
 measures, from having two arrobas and four butts of 
 various sorts, inclusive of pipes, are extremely incon- 
 venient. Were the term arroba abolished from the 
 capacity-measures, and the whole of the liquid capacity- 
 measures readjusted in strict accordance with the dry- 
 measures, as well as with the cubic units, the whole 
 would form a useful commercial system. The origin of 
 the Spanish capacity-units is probably the makuk, and 
 other Moorish and Arab units ; while the Spanish cubic 
 units are Gothic ; hence the divergence of the two series. 
 
 The Spanish measures of weight are simple, excel- 
 lently arranged, and admit of little improvement ; there 
 is but one pound of commerce, and the marc or half- 
 pound is merely differently subdivided for monetary 
 and medical purposes; the arroba of 25 pounds, the 
 quintal of 100 pounds, and the tonelada of 2000 
 pounds, complete this very well-arranged class of mea- 
 sures. 
 
 The Portuguese system is greatly inferior to the 
 Spanish system ; the linear measures are complicated 
 by an inconvenient cubit, and an irregular mile ; the single 
 land-measure, the geira of 4840 square varas, is, how- 
 ever, advantageous, and so also are the liquid-measures 
 which are simple ; the two alqueiras, one liquid, the 
 other dry and of another value, are, however, troublesome. 
 The Portuguese measures of weight resemble the Spanish 
 
CH. ii, EUROPEAN COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS. 279 
 
 in all respects, excepting that the multiples adopted are 
 less convenient. 
 
 The measures of Greece and Turkey in Europe will 
 be given in the collection of Oriental measures in the 
 following chapter, as they belong to a type distinct from 
 the generality of European measures. 
 
 It may be here noticed that systems of the European 
 type are markedly distinct from Oriental and Asiatic 
 measures, apart from causes referable to mere geo- 
 graphical position and location of the races using them. 
 
 It is perhaps quite possible to assign an Asiatic 
 origin or derivation for every measure in the world at 
 present in existence ; but in* some cases this derivation 
 is very remote, in others comparatively so, and in a few 
 cases hardly admits of being clearly traced. European 
 measures under their own distinctive type have become 
 changed in a way peculiar to themselves, and differ in 
 system and in arrangement from the Oriental systems 
 from which they may have been derived. 
 
 The Moslem sway carried Oriental measures over 
 North Africa, parts of Southern Europe, and the whole 
 of Western Asia. The retention of those measures in the 
 countries from which the Moors and Moslems were ex- 
 pelled was not of long duration, while the measures of 
 the same type are retained in Moslem countries to the 
 present day. The Christian form of religion is hence 
 generally associated with distinctive type of measures, 
 nearly peculiar to Europe at one period, but subsequently 
 carried into America, where few indigenous measures 
 are known to have existed. The peculiarities princi- 
 pally consist in the adoption of a foot as a basic standard 
 unit of length, in preference to a cubit or ell, in using a 
 pound as a standard unit of weight in preference to an 
 
280 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n 
 
 oka or larger unit, and in employing a systematised 
 series of true measures of capacity in preference to 
 measures of weight for liquid and dry merchandise. 
 The adoption of these three principles seems to be dis- 
 tinctive of a race free from Moslem sway, and generally 
 but not always peculiar to a Christian and European 
 race. Any single one of these three principles may be 
 ultra-European ; thus the Arab rottal and vakia corre- 
 spond exactly to European pounds and ounces, but the 
 Arab foot is, when retained, not the primary unit of 
 length, but gives way to the cubit ; in China there is 
 both a foot and a pound, but in China and Eastern Asia 
 generally the capacity-measures are merely nominal, 
 often hardly known to the masses, and replaced entirely 
 by measures of weight in trade transactions. In 
 Southern India, and the Burmese peninsula, beyond the 
 limits of Moslem preponderance, true measures of capa- 
 city may be found, but then in most cases either the foot 
 or the pound is missing. Such races have a geographical 
 location at present widely distinct from that of the 
 European races, and markedly separated from them, by 
 'the intervening extent of continent long retained under 
 Moslem sway. The division of the measures of the 
 world into three great classes, the European or Christian, 
 the Oriental or Moslem, and the East-Asiatic or Pagan, 
 is hence comparatively well-defined. As to indigenous 
 African measures little is known, the North African 
 measures being Oriental, and the South and East 
 African measures facing clearly assignable to an East- 
 Asiatic origin. The indigenous American measures, 
 like the aboriginal American races, have become matters 
 of archaic curiosity. 
 
CH. ii. EUROPEAN COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS. 281 
 
 The collection of the European systems of commercial 
 measures here given is arranged in order as follows : 
 
 1. Early English Measures. The Present English 
 System. Conversion Tables. 
 
 2. The Russian ; the Danish and Norwegian ; and 
 the Swedish Systems. 
 
 3. North German Systems (ten in number). 
 
 4. South German Systems : Austria, Bavaria, and 
 Wiirtemburg. 
 
 5. The Spanish and Portuguese Systems. 
 
 6. The Old Measures of Paris, Amsterdam, Brussels, 
 Florence, and Venice. 
 
 7. Metric Systems. I. Present French System of 
 France, Italy, and the Netherlands, with Conversion 
 Tables ; 2. The Mesures usuelles ; 3. The Baden System ; 
 4. The Hessian System ; 5- The Swiss System. 
 
282 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 Early English and Anglo-Saxon measures, 
 Inch=3 barleycorns ......... 
 
 Foot=i2 inches .......... 
 
 Yard or ell=3 feet=l6 nails ; (the Elizabethan ell = 45 inches abolished) 
 Rod (decemped or perch)=io feet ...... 
 
 Pole=5^ yards ; (also poles of 6, 7, and 8 yards, and of 25 feet) 
 Furlong=4o poles ......... 
 
 London mile= i ooo paces =5 ooo feet ... . 
 
 Common mile =8 furlongs =5 280 feet ... . 
 
 Square pole = 30 J square yards 
 
 Rood=4o square poles 
 
 Acre=4 roods . . 
 
 Hide=ioo acres . ......... 
 
 London (Stricken) measures for wine, corn and all produce. 
 Pint or pound of wine = nearly 29 cubic inches .... 
 
 Gallon=8 pounds=23i cubic inches ...... 
 
 Bushel=8 gallons 04 pounds=i848 cubic inches 
 Quarter=8 bushels=5 12 pounds= 14784 cubic inches. 
 Chaldron=4 quarters=ii8272 cubic inches. .... 
 
 Reputed Winchester and other measures, someti?nes heaped. 
 
 Old Winchester corn gallon stricken = 268*8 cubic inches 
 bushel =2150-4 
 
 chaldron=36 Winchester bushels stricken . 
 
 Elizabethan ale gallon=282 cubic inches ..... 
 
 Revived ancient measures 1 /T -, \ , . . , 
 
 Queen Annian wine gallon } (London measure) = 23 x cubic mches 
 
 coal bushel =-33 wine quarts=22i8"48 cubic inches 
 
 Modern Winchester gallon of William III. = 272^ 
 
 bushel=6o Ibs. of wheat^= 2 150*42 
 
 Imperial gallon of 1824=277-274 ,, 
 
 Weight-units. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon marc=8 ounces=i6opence=5i2o grains 
 Moneyers' pound= i \ marc= 1 2 oz. = 20 sh. = 240 pence = 7680 grs. 
 Merchants' pound=i5 oz. = 25 shillings=96oo grains . 
 Commercial pound=2 marcs=i6 ounces= 10240 grains 
 Foreigners' pound (Dutch weight)=i6 foreign 0^ = 256 for. drms. 
 Troypound=i2 troy ounces =240 penny weights= 5 7 60 troy grains, "1 
 
 used for bread till 1709. . . . . . . ./ 
 
 Avoirdupois pound=i6 avoirdupois oz. = 768o avoirdupois grains ; "1 
 
 latterly =16 oz. = 256 drams=7ooo grains . j 
 
 For Standard Temperatures 
 
CH. II. 
 
 EUROPEAN COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 283 
 
 Equivalents 
 
 
 French 
 
 in present English 
 
 
 Equivalents. 
 
 Commercial Measures. 
 
 N 
 
 r. 
 
 . still retained 
 
 25-39 millim. 
 
 ** &-^ d >! 
 
 <1J Cj r^2 g j- O 
 
 . . 
 
 5) 
 
 304*71 
 
 _^ *~O o 4 _r1 *- 
 
 . 
 
 
 0*9141 metre. 
 
 ^ 5 -s|^ 
 
 retained in Canada &c. 
 
 3*0471 metres. 
 
 hell* 
 
 
 
 . still retained 
 
 5-0277 
 
 8 8 f ?? 
 
 
 ? 
 
 0*2011 kilom. 
 
 r * ajt'jj I' 5 retained on Indian Canals 
 
 i'5235 
 
 If-fi * * 
 
 . 
 
 . still retained 
 
 1*6089 
 
 *.g |1 H I 
 
 . . . 
 
 . retained 
 
 25*2775 met. carr. 
 
 H c cl, *! (/" "S 
 
 
 
 lo'in ares. 
 
 ^^ D tr >~> -i-i c 
 
 J f n i 
 
 . . 
 
 5) 
 
 0*40444 hectare. 
 
 I. . . abolished in 1701 
 
 40-444 hectares. 
 
 Period of Retention. 
 
 . 0*8331 pint 
 
 
 0-4730 litre. 
 
 . 0*8331 gallon 
 
 Generally retain - 
 
 3-7841 litres. 
 
 . 0*8331 bushel 
 
 . ed till 1413, . 
 
 3 '273 
 
 . 0*8331 quarter 
 
 Henry V. 
 
 2-422 hectol. 
 
 . 0*7405 chaldron 
 
 
 , 9-687 
 
 eaped to 272 cub. in. "1 Retained till 1701 " 
 eapedto 2218 cub. in. J William III. 
 
 4-401 to 4 -45 3 lit. 
 f 35-21 to 36 -32 lit. 
 
 . 42-717 cub.' ft. 
 
 Retained till 1713. 
 
 13-0757 hectol. 
 
 . i -oi 70 gallon 
 
 1589 till 1824. 
 
 4-6169 litres. 
 
 . 0-8331 gallon 
 
 > 1707 till 1824. 
 
 > 37841 litres. 
 
 eapedto 2815 cub. in. 
 
 1713 till 1824. 
 
 36-32 to 46-09 *' 
 
 . 0-9818 gallon ] 
 eaped to 2218*19 cub. in. J 
 
 , 1701 till 1824. J 
 
 4*4573 litres. 
 35-21 to 36-32 lit. 
 
 i- gallon 
 
 retained 
 
 4-5417 litres. 
 
 3600 grains 
 
 675 
 7200 
 
 7600 
 
 7000 
 
 see Chapter VI. 
 
 "1 Abolished, f 233-277 grammes. 
 
 Abolished, 
 Edward III. 
 
 Edward III. [349-915 
 J 437*393 
 
 1 492'472 
 
 45 3 593 
 
 Introduced Ed. 
 III., retained. 
 
28 4 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 Present English Commercial Measures at 62 Fahr. 
 
 Commercial Units 
 
 Dec. Scientific Equivalent 
 
 Inch . . . . . . 
 
 0-83308 tithe 
 
 Nail . = 2\ inches . 
 
 0-18745 foot 
 
 Hand . = 4 inches 
 
 0-33324 foot 
 
 Foot . =12 inches 
 
 0-99971 foot 
 
 Yard . = 3 feet . 
 
 2-99913 feet 
 
 Fathom = 2 yards 
 
 5-99826 feet 
 
 Pole . = 5^ yards 
 
 1-64952 rod 
 
 Furlong = 40 poles 
 
 6*59809 chains 
 
 Mile . = 8 furlongs . 
 
 0-52785 league 
 
 Square inch ...... 
 
 0"69405 sq. tithe 
 
 Square foot =144 square inches . 
 
 0-99943 sq. foot 
 
 Square yard= 9 feet 
 
 8-99487 sq. feet 
 
 Square pole = 30^ yards . 
 
 2-72095 sq. rods 
 
 Rood . = 40 sq. poles . 
 
 1-08838 sq. chain 
 
 Acre . = 4 roods 
 
 4-35352 sq. chains 
 
 Sq. furlong = 10 acres 
 
 43-53517 sq. chains 
 
 Sq. mile 64 square furlongs 
 
 0-27863 sq. league 
 
 Cubic inch ...... 
 
 0-578205 fl. ounce 
 
 Cubic foot =1728 cubic inches 
 
 0'999139 cub. foot 
 
 Cubic yard= 27 feet. 
 
 26-976753 cub. feet 
 
 Minim . =0*0036 cubic inch 
 
 2-088621 fluid mils 
 
 Liquid grain =0*0040 cubic inch 
 
 2-291515 fluid mils 
 
 Fluid drachm =60 minims . 
 
 125-3172325 fluid mils 
 
 Fluid ounce =8 fl. drms. = i*7329 c. in.. 
 
 1 '002538 fl. ounce 
 
 Gill . =5 fluid ounces 
 
 5-012690 fl. ounces 
 
 Pint . =4 gills .... 
 
 20-050760 fl. ounces 
 
 Bottle . =1^- pint .... 
 
 26-734347 fl. ounces 
 
 Quart . =2 pints .... 
 
 4010152 fl. ounces 
 
 1 For the decimal units see Scientific Systems in a 
 N.B. The exact correspondence between capacity 
 
CH. II. 
 
 EUROPEAN' COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 285 
 
 with their Decimal Scientific Equivalents at 32 . 1 
 
 Commercial Units 
 
 Dec. Scientific Equivalent 
 
 Quart . =69*318 cubic inches 
 
 40101 515fl. ounces 
 
 Pottle . =2 quarts 
 
 80-203 03 fl. ounces 
 
 Gallon . = 2 pottles 
 
 1 60'406 06 fl. ounces 
 
 Peck . =2 gallons 
 
 320-81212 fl. ounces 
 
 Bushel . =4 pecks=i*2837 cub. ft. 
 
 1-283 248 cub. foot 
 
 Strike. . =2 bushels 
 
 2-566 497 cub. feet 
 
 Coom . =2 strikes 
 
 51 32 994 cub. feet 
 
 Quarter . =2 cooms= 10*2696 c. ft. . 
 
 10-265 9878 c. feet 
 
 Chaldron . =4^ quarters . 
 
 461969451 c. feet 
 
 Gallon . =277*274 cubic inches 
 
 160-40606 fl. ounces 
 
 Firkin . =9 gallons =1*4441 c. ft. . 
 
 1-443 654 54 c. foot 
 
 Kilderkin . =2 firkins 
 
 2-887 309 cub. feet 
 
 Barrel . =2 kilderkins=5*7766c. ft. 
 
 5-774 61 8 cub. feet 
 
 Hogshead . i\ barrel=8*6649 c. ft . 
 
 8-661 927 cub. feet 
 
 Butt . . =2 hogsheads . 
 
 17-323 854 cub. feet 
 
 Tun . . 2 butts=34*6596 c. ft . 
 
 34-647 709 cub. feet 
 
 . , L f 2=; 2*41-; 8 grs. 
 Inch-weight = < 22,. Jt M 
 
 ] 0-577 7445 ounce 
 
 I 0*57705 oz. . 
 
 J 
 
 Foot- weight = 62*321 pounds . 
 
 0'998 3425 foot-wt 
 
 Yard-weight = 15*0238 cwt 
 
 26-955 2475 foot-wt 
 
 Grain . . . . . 
 
 2-288 478 mils 
 
 Com. drachm = 27*34375 grs. . 
 
 62-575 55 mils 
 
 Med. drachm = 54*6875 grs. 
 
 125151 1 mils 
 
 6o-grain drachm ..... 
 
 137-308 666 mils 
 
 Ounce . =437i grains . 
 
 1-001 209 ounce 
 
 Pound . = 1 6 ounces . 
 
 16-01 9 344 ounces 
 
 Stone . . = 14 pounds . 
 
 224-270 76 ounces 
 
 Quarter . = 2 stone 
 
 448-541 52 ounces 
 
 Cental . =100 pounds . 
 
 1 '601 934 foot-wt 
 
 Hundred weight = 1 12 pounds . 
 
 1-7941661 foot-wt 
 
 Ton . = 20 cwt . 
 
 35-883 21 6 foot-wt 
 
 succeeding chapter (Chapter VI., Part II.). 
 
 and weight does not exist in Commercial Units at 62 C 
 
286 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 The English Commercial System at normal temp., 62 Fahr., 
 
 Inch . . 
 
 0*253 9229 d&cim. 
 
 Foot . =3 12 inches 
 
 304 7075 metre 
 
 Yard . . = 3 feet . 
 
 0-9141225 
 
 Fathom . = 2 yards 
 
 1-8282450 
 
 Rod . = TO feet . 
 
 3 '047 075 metres 
 
 Pole . . =. 5! yards 
 
 5-0276738 
 
 Chain (Gunter's) = 4 poles . 
 
 20-110695 
 
 Chain (Ramsden's)= 100 feet 
 
 30-470 750 
 
 Furlong . = 40 poles 
 
 201*106950 
 
 Mile . . = 8 furlongs . 
 
 i -608 8556 kilom. 
 
 Square inch . . . 
 
 0-0644768 de'c. carr. 
 
 Square foot . =144 square inches . 
 
 0-092 8467 met. carr. 
 
 Square yard . = 9 square feet 
 
 ' 8 35 6l 99 
 
 Square rod . = 100 square feet 
 
 9*284 6661 ,, 
 
 Sq. pole . = 30^ square yards . 
 
 25' 2 77 3350 
 
 Sq. chain (Gunter's) =16 sq. poles . 
 
 4-044 4005 ares 
 
 Sq. chain (Ramsden's) = ioo sq. rods . 
 
 9-284 6661 ,, 
 
 Rood . . =E 40 sq. poles . 
 
 lo'in 0013 
 
 Acre . . = 4 roods 
 
 0-4044401 hectare 
 
 Square furlong = 10 acres 
 
 4*0444005 hectares 
 
 Square mile . = 64 square furlongs 
 
 2*5884163 kil. carr. 
 
 Cubic inch ...... 
 
 16*372 1492 cent. cub. 
 
 Cubic foot . =1728 cubic inches 
 
 28-291 0738 dec. cub. 
 
 Cubic yard . = 27 cubic feet 
 
 0*763 8590 met. cub. 
 
 Minim . . =773- f a fluid ounce . 
 
 0*05914 millilitre 
 
 Liquid grain = 7Tr iW of a gallon 
 
 0*06488 
 
 Fluid drachm = 60 minims . 
 
 3-54823 millilitres 
 
 Fluid ounce . = 8 fluid drachms . 
 
 28-38587 
 
 Gill , = 5 fluid ounces 
 
 0*141 929 litre 
 
 Pint = 4 gills. 
 
 o'567 7i7 
 
 Bottle -r = i pint 
 
 0756 956 
 
 For connecting values of Measures of Capacity, Cubic 
 For English Scientific Values at 32 Fahrenheit, 
 
CH. II. 
 
 EUROPEAN COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 287 
 
 with French Commercial Equivalents at 32 Fah r. 
 
 
 Quart . . = 2 pints 
 
 T>1 35435 litre 
 
 
 Pottle . . = 2 quarts 
 
 2*270 869 litres 
 
 
 Gallon. . = 2 pottles 
 
 4'54i 739 
 
 
 Peck . = 2 gallons 
 
 9' 8 3477 
 
 
 Bushel . = 4 pecks 
 
 36-333909 
 
 
 Strike . . = 2 bushels . 
 
 72-667818 
 
 
 Coom . = 2 strikes 
 
 J'45335 6 hectolitre 
 
 
 Quarter . = 2 cooms 
 
 2*906 713 hectolitres 
 
 
 Chaldron . 4^ quarters . 
 
 13-080 207 
 
 
 Last . . = 10 quarters . 
 
 29-067 127 
 
 
 Gallon 
 
 4-541 739 litres 
 
 
 Firkin . = 9 gallons 
 
 40-875 647 
 
 
 Kilderkin . = 2 firkins 
 
 81751295 
 
 
 Barrel . = 2 kilderkins 
 
 1-635 26 hectolitre 
 
 
 
 Hogshead . = i^ barrel 
 
 2*452 539 hectolitres 
 
 
 Butt . 2 hogsheads 
 
 4-905 078 
 
 .> 
 
 Tun . = 2 butts 
 
 9-810 155 
 
 
 Inch-weight ..... 
 
 16-358 998 grammes 
 
 
 Foot-weight =1728 inch-weight . 
 
 28*268 349 kilogrammes 
 
 
 Yard-weight= 27 foot-weight . 
 
 7*632 454 quintals 
 
 
 Grain . . =.^-^^ of a pound 
 
 0*064 7989 gramme 
 
 
 Commercial drachm=27'344 grains 
 
 1-771846 
 
 
 Medical drachm =54-69 grains 
 
 3*543 6 93 grammes 
 
 ) 
 
 6o-grain drachm =60 grains . 
 
 3-887 937 
 
 
 Ounce . = 1 6 com. drachms . 
 
 28-34954 ( 
 
 
 Pound. . = 1 6 ounces 
 
 '453 593 kilogramme 
 
 
 Stone . = 14 pounds 
 
 6-350 297 kilogrammes 
 
 
 Quarter . = 2 stone 
 
 12700594 
 
 
 Cental. . = 100 pounds 
 
 '45 3 593 quintal 
 
 
 Hundred weight = 4 quarters . 
 
 0-508 024 
 
 
 Ton . = 20 hundredweight 
 
 1*016 048 millier 
 
 Measure and Weight, see pp. 119, 122, 141-143. 
 see tables in Chapter VI., Part II. 
 
288 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 Conversion Tables for reducing English 
 
 Inches into decim. Feet into metres. Yards into metres. 
 
 0-253923 
 
 0*304 708 
 
 0*914 123 
 
 0*507 846 
 
 0*609 415 
 
 1*828 245 
 
 0*761 769 
 
 0*914 123 
 
 2*742 368 
 
 1*015 692 
 
 1*218830 
 
 3*656490 
 
 1*269 615 
 
 I-523538 
 
 4*570613 
 
 I-523537 
 
 1*828 245 
 
 5-484735 
 
 1*777460 
 
 2-132953 
 
 6*398858 
 
 2*031383 
 
 2*437 660 
 
 7*312 980 
 
 2*285 36 
 
 2742369 
 
 8*227 I0 3 
 
 2*539229 
 
 3-047 075 
 
 9*141 225 
 
 Sq. in. into decim. carr. Sq. ft. into metres carr. Sq. yds. into metres carr. 
 
 0*064477 
 
 0*092 847 
 
 0*835 620 
 
 0*128 954 
 
 0*185 6 93 
 
 1*671 240 
 
 0*193420 
 
 0*278 540 
 
 2*506 860 
 
 0*257907 
 
 0*371 387 
 
 3*342 480 
 
 0*322 384 
 
 0*464 234 
 
 4*178 100 
 
 0*386861 
 
 0*557 080 
 
 5*013720 
 
 0*451 338 
 
 0*649 927 
 
 5^49339 
 
 0*515 814 
 
 0*742 774 
 
 6*684959 
 
 0*580 291 
 
 0*835 620 
 
 7-520579 
 
 0*644 768 
 
 0*928 467 
 
 8*356 199 
 
 Cub. in. into litres. Cub. feet into litres. Gallons into litres. 
 
 0*016 372 
 
 28*291 07 
 
 4-541 739 
 
 0*032 744 
 
 56*582 15 
 
 9*083 477 
 
 0*049 116 
 
 84*873 22 
 
 13*625 216 
 
 0*065 488 
 
 113*16430 
 
 18*166 954 
 
 0*08 1 860 
 
 i4i'455 37 
 
 22*708 693 
 
 0*098 232 
 
 169*746 44 
 
 27-250433 
 
 0*114 605 
 
 198*037 52 
 
 31*792 170 
 
 0*130977 
 
 226*32859 
 
 36*333909 
 
 o-i47 349 
 
 254*61967 
 
 40*875 647 
 
 0*163721 
 
 282*910 74 
 
 45-417386 
 
CH. II. 
 
 EUROPEAN COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 289 
 
 Commercial Measure into French Measure. 
 
 Units Miles into kilom. Grains into Grammes. Ounces into kilog. 
 
 I 
 
 1-608856 
 
 0-064 799 
 
 0*028 350 
 
 2 
 
 3-217 711 
 
 0-129 59** 
 
 0*056 700 
 
 3 
 
 4-826 567 
 
 0-194397 
 
 0*085 5 
 
 4 
 
 6-435 422 
 
 0-259 J 96 
 
 0*113 4 
 
 
 8-044 278 
 
 0-323 995 
 
 0*141 750 
 
 6 
 
 9^53 i34 
 
 0-388 794 
 
 0*170 100 
 
 7 
 
 11-261 989 
 
 o-453 593 
 
 0*198 450 
 
 8 
 
 12-870845 
 
 0-518 392 
 
 0*226 800 
 
 9 
 
 14-479 700 
 
 0-583 191 
 
 0-255 150 
 
 10 
 
 16-088556 
 
 0-647 9^9 
 
 0*283 495 
 
 Sq. miles into kilom. carr. Acres into hectares. Pounds into kilog. 
 
 I 
 
 2-588416 
 
 o '404 440 
 
 o'453 593 
 
 2 
 
 5-176832 
 
 0-808 880 
 
 0*907 186 
 
 3 
 
 7-765 248 
 
 1-213320 
 
 1*360778 
 
 4 
 
 10-353 664 
 
 1-617 760 
 
 1-814371 
 
 5 
 
 12-942 080 
 
 2-022 200 
 
 2*267 964 
 
 6 
 
 i5'530496 
 
 2-426 640 
 
 2*721556 
 
 7 
 
 18-118 912 
 
 2-831 080 
 
 3-I75 J 49 
 
 8 
 
 20-707 328 
 
 3^35 520 
 
 3*628 742 
 
 9 
 
 23'295 747 
 
 3-639960 
 
 4*082 334 
 
 10 
 
 25-884 163 
 
 4-044401 
 
 4-535 927 
 
 Bushels into hectolitres. Cwts. into quintals. Tons into millieis. 
 
 I 
 
 0-363 339 
 
 0*508 024 
 
 1*016 048 
 
 2 
 
 0726 678 
 
 1*016 048 
 
 2*032095 
 
 3 
 
 1*090017 
 
 1-524071 
 
 3*048143 
 
 4 
 
 I-453356 
 
 2-032095 
 
 4*064 190 
 
 5 
 
 1-816696 
 
 2-540 119 
 
 5-080 238 
 
 6 
 
 2-180 035 
 
 3-048 142 
 
 6-096 285 
 
 7 
 
 2-543374 
 
 3-556 167 
 
 7*112333 
 
 8 
 
 2-906 713 
 
 4*064 190 
 
 8*128380 
 
 9 
 
 3-270052 
 
 4-572 254 
 
 9*144428 
 
 10 
 
 3-63339! 
 
 5-080238 
 
 10*160475 
 
290 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 f J I d * * ' * 
 
 1 5 - -x .2 .o -tj 1 . a r = a .. 
 
 g S 3 -o S J3 -S ;=; a 
 
 si-. 
 
 2 rs "'2 '3 ^ 
 
 ON Tf vO Ti-OO OO ONOO O 
 
 vO nvO ^t ON >- O NOOvQ' 
 
 ON w ON rovO 00 rf O\ ON M ro 
 
 ro t^ ON >-* O C^ *O O W HH c^ *O 
 
 t^Tt-ON" ONT(- 00 6>-'>-' 
 
 Tj- N ON ^ ONOO N Tj- N VO 
 
 X3 mio-c to vo toioO t^o 
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 rt c3 l^ 
 
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 srsr 
 
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 Ed 
 
 Sg 
 
 sr 
 
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 vers 
 arsh 
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 iiin 
 
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 Sz<>SS 
 
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 ^ - I S 
 
 mill i- 
 
 VO vO O O VO N HOC 
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 II II II II 
 
 Q * v 8 CJ 
 
 Sslll I 
 
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CII. II. 
 
 COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS OF EUROPE. 
 
 291 
 
 i! 
 
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CH. II. 
 
 COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS OF EUROPE. 
 
 293 
 
 
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 TART II. 
 
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CH. II. 
 
 COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS OF EUROPE. 
 
 297 
 
 
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 rG ^ o o o cr bJ3 cr^s cr 1 cr o f^ ex o 
 
 ^ | 
 H 
 S 
 
 CO W 
 
 ^ "~ 
 
 I 
 
 O 
 
 K 
 
 O 
 
 b b o cr bi) cr^a cr cr 
 
 t < W co O vo covo vo vO tj N co vo vo 
 
 voQco"-" NCOTt-^fO MMM OOONN OO 
 
 XOOO ONOO M rf rj- rj- M t^ t^vO OO t^OO ON rf I~- 
 
 ONOO O vO ON ON ** t* ON OO OO O * ONOO co ' ' O 
 O M !/** O"^WC4M OO 
 
 II 
 
 *- -4- *- 
 
 rt rt rt 
 
 cr cr cr ci 
 
 rt**O O O 
 
 Tt VOO O 
 
 S ft 
 
 s 
 
 O C! 
 
 ?? llH -S|o ^- 
 
 ^J^^WrtO SwT3 S-IM 
 
 OOOO NO^l-Tl- vONOO'gll|| 
 
 WON -< MM *J c ,, 
 
 ^ II 
 ^ 
 
 ii 
 
 ^-SQ a ^ 
 
 ^, -t-> tfl r - 
 
 |u n 
 S^^ 
 
 1) i3 S 
 
 3 S S <5 ~ ~ o 
 
 ^ s a D, HN 
 
 Ttoo N^OJJ 
 
 ^ fa ^ 'S "^ i 
 
 s|S! !! 
 
 Illl M 
 
 O 
 c-l 
 
 co 
 
 II 
 
 J 
 
 ( 
 
 - 
 U C/2 
 
CH. II. 
 
 COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS OF EUROPE. 
 
 305 
 
 8 S 
 l 
 '.8 
 
 W N 
 
 1* 
 
 V 
 
 b O 
 
 E S 
 
 ! 8l 
 
 33 
 
 m N N 
 
 1-1 r^. 
 
 O> 
 
 Tj- O -! 
 
 Kco "in p y^^nyS p^iopcxj T^r'^r 1 
 O Or^ O ror^t^dowbvb M^-bdb 
 u-) ir> MI co IH 1-1 
 
 til 
 
 X) 
 
 ! 
 
 8 
 
 go 
 
 "o 
 
 v 
 
 w u 
 
 C3 ^j 
 
 t>'s a 9 
 
 ^-sJ 
 
 ounce 
 
 o o5 
 -&& 
 
 ounces 
 
 *"" OJ 
 
 MH & 
 
 i 
 
 ^ 
 
 O o 
 
 !/3 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 . 1 . 
 
 Jl 
 
 1 
 
 O 
 
 Hi 
 
 ii 
 
 2 
 
 <L) 
 
 
 tfl 
 
 111 
 
 CT^CT 
 
 r3 C en ^ 
 
 11 
 
 rt s 
 
 2 
 
 is 
 
 .2 S 
 
 13 g 
 
 "O *- 
 
 c c 
 
 II II 
 
306 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 j 
 
 g s 
 3 a 
 
 !&3 
 
 W t^r^v 
 
 ill -II s ^ p. 
 
 I 1 1211 S 
 
 W VO vo VQ ON ON 00 *000 HI 
 _, HI oo HI 10 ^d- P-H 10 HI r>>. 
 
 *R N M HI OO t^ OO VO OQ N 
 C CO s * 10 H t O w VQ ** t^ 
 
 fe N O " C4 f^ oo rooo rh 
 
 a B ~ ^ - 
 
 1 S 
 
 I g3> 
 
 w<=5sji 
 
 S " 
 
 'Si-Mi 
 
 HtyDOP-" PnODnO 
 
 S rot^fOOvOOOt^- 
 SvO O ^-C4vO -^J- 10 t-i ON 
 
 r^QO***OS!^*J't?2. 
 
 w >e c>.p jr 
 
 W 
 
 b 
 
 * g ill4: 
 
 au 
 
 8 ^9288 
 
 II II II I! l> l> 
 
 s !8e! 
 
 II 5 J*8| ^^^^ 
 
 : ^ssg gisg 
 
 ?3 55 cz> CT> co 
 
 w 8^ 
 
 |||| -| o-o- I 
 
 vo'cx? ^ ^i 
 Tt- r^ O "i 
 
 I 
 
 M OO 
 
 b co b b 
 
 ^ tn lr> in ^ S 
 
 M vo O fO vo O O 
 
 HI HI O CO O O 
 
 II II II 7 II II II 
 
 . OH . w 
 
 n-( " ' >-< <U 
 
 a a c -S ^ 
 
 3 .S fl -S C O 
 
 vH O -rt 3 S H 
 
 CXn'^ S 8 8 ^ 
 
 "" r* S OH"- jj <U O 
 
 | Sl^'S^O^! 
 fS^S^S N 
 
 3 2 
 
CH. ii. COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS OF EUROPE. 
 
 307 
 
 00 VO vo 
 
 
 
 cbcb o |^g 5 
 
 o o 
 
 VO O vO 
 
 oo oo oo 
 
 op LO op" 
 
 b M b 
 
 oo 
 
 LO OO 
 
 I-H fj 
 
 e P ? ? 
 
 ^- t* b * 
 
 
 o o 
 
 3 -S 
 
 ? ? 
 p M 
 
 M VO 
 
 s ~ 
 
 ta 
 
 ta 
 
 rti "T3 *TD 
 
 O C ^ C 
 
 C S ^ " 3 
 30 O 
 
 O OH O, 
 
 ON 
 
 w N 
 ON O 
 
 t->.vo M i-i co ON ON O 
 
 HH OO VO VO C< t**VO *^ 
 
 cocob b-<b^-M 
 
 X 2 
 
30* 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 <=' -a 
 o g 3 
 
 ts-i 
 
 f I 'I : 
 
 43 bu '^ 
 
 vr> O M 11 - 00 t^ 
 
 ON N 10 y> 10 co p 
 
 co O 10 N 
 
 ON t^ O ONVO O 
 
 w> ro t-,. ro ff) ' 
 
 vO 
 
 HH 1O 
 
 r^ vp op 
 
 N w rj- rOt>.v 
 
 -^ 
 
 6 ^ 
 
 VO N N O 
 
 ^s-s I 
 
 I-H TfOO N 10 O 
 
 M CONN NHHOON ONO\t^NN 
 N TJ-VQ NO. VO-iNOj OOt^r*-iO 
 
 t^ CO CO CO 
 
 N 10 tN. 
 
 VO Tj- 
 w O t^ 
 
 ro ci 10 
 
 ^o 
 w 
 
 - o\ o 
 
 k rt-CC 
 
 VO 00 
 
 CO 
 
 O O o O 
 
 1 1 
 
 ii ii 
 
 s 
 
 ~ o*o< cr 1 
 
 -SrlSfi^ 00 
 
 8 5 ^ s --^ ^' 
 
 ' O M M ^^OvOvo -^-OO 00 
 
 ii ii ii ii ! ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii 
 
CH. II. 
 
 COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS OF EUROPE. 
 
 309 
 
 II - -a 8 -1 
 
 |i--i : ri 
 
 .y vo o ooo >i 
 
 5 fO Y^^p OO vO CO ON CO 
 
 S oo t^vb b M co fo 
 
 o o 
 
 OS vO 
 VO t^ vo 
 TJ- ON vo 
 
 ^.VO M4 
 
 t^ O "-> 
 
 
 ectares 
 
 111 
 
 49 
 
 ro O 
 
 m M N 
 
 vooo oo 
 
 vo M t^ 
 
 n 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 CO fOQO 
 
 vo COOO vp 
 
 ^- ^-ON 
 
 II 111 11 f^J If 1 : 11 e -. t | 
 
 CT'rT'CT'CT'cr 1 -33 33 33 
 
 a M 9 03 u w 03 O o uu 33 
 
 cl- CSlP" -r T i CO CO 
 
 | 8 
 
 v M OO 
 
 ISs 
 
 
 o^ o o 
 B 
 
 g ^^43 S3 
 o rs 3 3 J3 rt 
 
 cj Sod cr tuo 
 
 MOOrONmt^vovo N-II-I 
 
 m -*\o mvo N N w oo oo 
 
 rhOO t^ O O ro ff 
 
 H* c^ vovO vO ^O tO vo W 66 ~^O VO vO VO i^ vo CO ONVO Tt" O OO" O 
 
 ON op vp op op opopp vo vorf 1-^r^.r^ ^V ? 1 ^ ^^ 10 ^ 9 
 
 MMM voM^voro 
 
 O M. M 
 
 mo O O O 
 
 O "-I 00 
 
310 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 I .-3 | 
 ill I 3 
 
 O ^ * **^5 
 
 "' 
 
 f- CMCO 
 
CH. II. 
 
 COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS OF EUROPE. 
 
 S a 
 
 = i I 
 
 13 
 
 
 a Sa 
 
 .11 "H 
 
 X b/J ^ 8 
 
 ^t* O O ^" 'O Is* i ""< ^O 0$ O 
 
 t^ ON H-I \O ON ^O fO OC T^ O O N CO ^^ t*>* 
 
 KH 00 C^ vo J>* O^ ^O ^*O *-O ^OvO xr "> O '^ ^O lO O 
 
 vb o*-icx) o ^o HI M\O ^oc 
 
 g> 
 
 
 
 
 co co cz^ p-- co QQ r^- r-**. 
 CD-^-r^ cbotba CZD 
 
 lira 
 
 i| 
 
 iCp CD,-CNUOOCp 
 
 o ^ ^ ^ 
 
 O ^D I-H vo 
 ^"o S co 
 
 O O O 
 
 00 00 OO 
 
 ti . 
 
 rf H 
 
 ONOO CO\O 
 
 Tj-OO t^ 
 N vp vp CO 
 
 M CO Tf ON 
 
 ONOO 
 
 w 
 
 ll 
 
 SI .1 
 
 gg -* 
 
 OJO OH 
 
 ft w 00 N ' 
 ^^vO N t^>.00 
 M ON ON ^- ^-v 
 OO tr> M M vO 
 ON O i- 1 00 vr>C 
 O vo O co w . 
 in O N M 
 
 !/> CO 
 
 .'S 
 
 > rt -g 
 w N 00 
 
 rt rt 
 ex ^a 
 
 Gj ;^ 
 
 t-t OO 
 
 II II II 
 
 o i-Q "-S "53 
 o E3 cr 1 
 
 I 
 
 I^S 
 
 W) 
 
 3 
 
 J a 7 
 
 c 3 
 
 s bfl 
 
 II II 
 
 . rt 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 ii 
 
 
312 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 I/I 
 
 i "1 _ IS . 
 
 01 <U 
 
 .'s . 
 
 h 
 
 pi 
 
 l||ii B , , 3aa 
 
 :g = = sg -s.p^E, h^| !|.FS| till ggglfi 
 i| ^5J^ 8 J ox-^r? ?5^5J?i !53s oo^o'u^ 
 
CH. II. 
 
 COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS OF EUROPE. 
 
 . 
 
 N ONMD 
 10 O t> 
 
 ON jf O\ 
 
 CO ON w 
 
 i I 
 
 I I 111 
 
 II =1 =1J S STSrsT 
 
 g LgO }^g UO 
 
 ,__ _ > Csl >-O Csl OO OO OO ^" CO 
 
 '<o o CM ix> ^- -^- -^- o ^- -3- 
 
 rv. is. OT 
 
 ON CO co ON Tf 
 
 i < v/"j vo O Q 
 
 p ON op p y> ri- op p 
 
 tt^ONwVi-COCO O VO M N 
 
 w " 
 
 *-" VO O CO "" 
 
 00 c* u->r>. T}- 
 
 M O N IO * 
 
 ON m TJ- N 10 
 
 <l> . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . / ^-N 
 
 /^ s NI^ 
 
 . _^ 
 
 1 
 
 0) 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 1 
 <u o 
 
 OJ 
 
 c| 
 
 
 i 
 
 cx 
 o 
 
 g^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 oo "j O 
 N ri N 
 
 M rr 
 
 ,a 
 
 o 
 
 11 
 
 00'3 
 II ^ 
 
 n 
 
 'g II 
 
 s^g 
 
 d S 
 .airt 
 
 d 
 
 IS 
 
 80 
 
 |ii- 
 
 S O o 
 X3 > S ^ 
 
 s-d-ijl 
 
 <u a; <u t> 
 
 ubieke duimen. 
 
 c '2 
 
 s. M w 
 
 *.00 
 
 II ^ 
 
 111 
 
 ^ 
 
 ' 5 ^ 
 
 ol 
 
 ^'oo 
 
 SI 
 
 
 
 OJ 
 
 i 
 
 .M 
 
 m & f 
 
 lit 
 y.s-g 
 
 1^ 
 
 vl 
 
 N Q 
 
 s" 
 
 eg i 
 
 1 II 
 
 -2 S^ 
 
 "I" 1 
 
 S-s-s 
 
 1 
 
 n * ' 
 
 c 
 
 1 
 
 C ^ 
 
 - 55 
 
 73 o 
 
 > 
 
 > "> > .E, 
 
 4<i 
 
 B '- 
 
 S > 
 
 
 
 rr( 
 
 ^ > " 
 
 Q 
 
 O fi 
 
 p t 
 
 > & 
 
 Tt C^ 
 
 S > 
 
 ivO <0 
 
 CO O 
 
 HH O 
 
 ON O M 
 2^c^ 
 
 S 
 
 N <* 
 
 Tf 
 
 VO 
 
 00 Tj-CO ' 
 
 ^vO 
 CO 
 
 VO W 
 
 8 
 
 H-l O 
 
 II H II o 
 
 M 
 
 O 
 
 n n 
 
 I llJI 
 
 fi s^ 
 Si 
 
 C/2 C^ n3 
 
314 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 s 
 
 rt U3 
 
 fc 
 
 o g C 
 
 ON O O 00 
 
 -tjT3 I ^ 2 . " ~ ^ 
 
 ~ S O ~ CJ O" 1 O" 1 CT 1 S 
 
 **H j-i * i in in in ceo 
 
 LO -^ CO CO CM 
 
 ~ CM r-- co co LO 
 
 issfc; 
 
 CD CO CM <= CO ' 
 'cbcbcM-^ 
 
 Sococo^; coS 
 cbcb 
 
 I S CSJ 
 
 i CO CO 
 CO CT> 
 
 CO .> 
 
 W 
 
 ss 
 
 .S -5 
 
 
 .2 o o 
 
 O >-" 
 
 cr 1 a* o o 
 
 t/3 C/3 }_i TO 
 CO 
 
 Tj- vo N O ^ Tj- 
 
 rovo r^ m ON O vo ON "~> to 
 
 N ON ON O M ON ONVO N N <-< HH 00 
 
 - oo 
 
 ?* 
 
 OO u">v 
 00 N 
 
 o o 
 
 N 1-1 ri >-o o 
 
 vO -3- ONOO ON 
 
 ON t~. M ro CM 
 
 O O "-" CM M 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 T! 
 
 1 
 
 vO O vO 
 
 S 
 
 -H ^ < HH OO O ^ 
 
 a 
 
 ^=! . 
 OO 
 
 bfl 
 > 
 
 r^ *""* 
 
 3 1) 
 
 -s 
 
 .5 "oJ o 
 3 O ^* O 
 
 Q> WP^ 
 
 . II 
 
 a I : .|l s i,s 
 
 85 SB ^"n 
 
 l^>- 
 
 1 SI B*l 
 
 ^ 'S.*,n 
 
 
 ^ | 
 
 II II II 
 
 s - 
 
 Kubieke 
 Kubieke 
 
 2 
 
 Is 
 
 o-l I "Sa P 
 
 SB * dc oj G .. K 
 
 pa 
 
 2 .8 
 
 ^ co 
 
CH. ii. 
 
 COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 315 
 
 1 
 
 fc S ,d 
 
 c s s . g ~ s . 
 
 t/5 C/5 C/3 O C r hfl 
 
 o cj " ^ ~ u v f4~l!Si..u rt w . 
 
 oo vo N oo 
 73 i-i cor^ o 
 
 C ONOO VO LO 
 
 01 oo CN d co 
 
 xt- o T}* ON **-- O ON ON N ON 
 
 >-i TJ- w I-H ON N vO t-00 N 00 
 
 M oo LO N LO LO O ^OO 
 
 ro LOLO ro 
 
 OvOrj-cOTj- COONCOOON 
 
 CS t^ i^ CO CO LO ro 
 
 CO CO 
 
 
 ' S * S3 ^ 3 ^ 
 
 Q O O *j&4 'I - o 
 
 ~ js .3 
 
 'S o 
 
 ^-^- i co LO CD ^- rj- ?j 
 i LO O} co co ^t~ ci> co -i 
 
 - &- 
 
 - 
 
 . 
 srg'g'e s 
 
 ^li>-i _I_H MMn>_x^ w w 
 
 ^_,t-o ^"Go ^^oo^ti c-cc . 
 o a 53 cs3^ - c^^sqs ?sSS> 
 
 N 00 VO 
 
 ro LO M OO ON ON LO 
 
 t^ONLOON t^ COt^LO ONONONON 
 
 S i-i VO 00 LOOO' !>. O" O CO i-i CO LOW Tt- Tj-VO N OO 
 ONvp w to p op pop ONOO cor^ r^PPPP Y~* 
 i-< o co OO W O ^^c^O O |H t**" T^ HH HH LO d LO ri~ 
 
 11 
 
 ll 
 
 t/> N O -- 
 
 .-' 
 
 J W OH 
 
 | 
 
 Is.? ^ 
 
 &s 
 
METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART IT. 
 
 J 
 
 P 
 
 1 
 
 fi :* 
 
 fa r^ 
 
 s a 
 
 2 2 
 c o 2; o 
 
 **<&: 
 
 vd cooo to 
 
 ^ 
 
 <* N vo co N N vo 
 
 OOOO >* N N 1-1 fO OO O <*> 
 
 t^oo 1-1 foi-i oomro WCOM 
 
 0< 4) O V 
 
 w ^ <2 
 
 <^gw s r r 5 g ^^ 
 
 g g S *% & w 
 
 ^ ^- csi CN ub tb cb cb -^- ci 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 . ^ 
 
 WJ W) P 
 
 r- fil 
 fc 
 
 S5? SSSSSSSS 3 
 
 Z- uocVjcb cz>-^- ocsi^- r^-cb-^-4tcocb-^-cb 
 en-* CM "*~'*T CO-T-T 
 
 2 rt o 
 
 w a "^ 
 
 W e 
 
 I II 
 
 H 
 
 s 
 
 W5 jO 
 
 SfSf 
 
 i- O ON O 00 w vo 
 
 O ^* | ^ oo t^ c^ vo O 
 
 ON vooO OO t^vo ^ t^vo 
 
 N ONVO Mt^ON ^- < ">f< l ~' S^P 
 
 wvoWi-i tiNCOvoNN >-> NTt-^J- COvo 
 
 *i ON vooO 00 
 
 O O vo CO 
 vO tOvO r ^- 
 OO ON rf OO v 
 
 0-,- I 
 
 ON 1 -O t"^* ON *w 
 
 w 
 
 Q 
 vo 
 
 O 
 
 So 
 
METRIC COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS, 
 
 OR 
 
 SYSTEMS BASED ON THE FRENCH METRE. 
 
 N.B. The units in these systems are employed in com- 
 merce at any temperature, without reduction for expansion. 
 The standard temperature is o centigrade in vacuo. 
 
METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 No. I. THE PRESENT 
 
 Used in France as a Commercial System since 1840. 
 
 Units. 
 
 Multiples. I Eng. Commercial Equiv. 
 
 Millimetre . 
 
 O'OOI 
 
 metre 
 
 '39 382 inch 
 
 Centimetre . 
 
 O'OI 
 
 3) 
 
 0-393 820 
 
 Decimetre . 
 
 O'l 
 
 3) 
 
 0*328 183 foot 
 
 Metre . 
 
 I 
 
 . 
 
 i '093 943 yard 
 
 Decametre . 
 
 10 
 
 metres 
 
 i '988 987 pole 
 
 Hectometre 
 
 100 
 
 5J 
 
 0*497 248 furlong . 
 
 Kilometre . 
 
 IOOO 
 
 
 
 0-621 560 mile 
 
 Centimetre carre. 
 
 O'OOOI 
 
 metre carre 
 
 0*155 094 sq. inch . 
 
 Decimetre carre . 
 
 O'OI 
 
 j) 
 
 0-107 74 sc l- f ot 
 
 Metre carre 
 
 I 
 
 
 1*196 716 sq. yard . 
 
 Are . 
 
 100 
 
 met. carres 
 
 0*098 902 rood 
 
 Hectare 
 
 100 
 
 ares . 
 
 2-472 550 acres 
 
 Kilometre carre . 
 
 100 
 
 hectares 
 
 '386 336 sq. mile . 
 
 Centimetre cube . 
 
 O'OOI 
 
 litre . 
 
 0*061 079 cub. inch 
 
 Decimetre cube 1 
 or litre . j 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 0*220 1 80 gallon 
 
 Hectolitre . 
 
 100 
 
 litres . 
 
 2752 250 bushels . 
 
 Metre cube or 1 
 stere . J 
 
 IOOO 
 
 j) 
 
 1-309 140 cub. yard 
 
 Milligramme 
 
 O'OOI 
 
 gramme 
 
 0-015 43 2 grain 
 
 Gramme . 
 
 I 
 
 . 
 
 1 5 '43 2 349 g rains 
 
 Kilogramme 
 
 IOOO 
 
 grammes . 
 
 2-204 621 pounds . 
 
 Quintal . 
 
 100 
 
 kilogrammes i'9684i2cwt 
 
 Millier or tonne . 
 
 IOOO 
 
 )j 
 
 0-984 206 ton 
 
 Metric units are arranged at o Centigrade in vacuo both for 
 English Commercial Units are at 62 Fahr. in air, bar. 30 inches, 
 English Scientific Units are arranged at o Centigrade in vacuo, 
 N.B. Some of the nominal metric units, being mere terms for 
 
CH. II. 
 
 COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS OF EUROPE. 
 
 FRENCH METRIC SYSTEM. 
 
 Also adopted by other nations at various dates. See text. 
 
 Eng. Scientific Equiv. 
 
 Dutch term. 
 
 Italian term. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 0-032 809 tithe 
 
 Streep . 
 
 Atoma 
 
 Gramme 
 
 0-328 090 
 
 Duim . 
 
 Dito . 
 
 Dactylus 
 
 3-280 899 tithes 
 
 Palm . 
 
 Palmo 
 
 Palame 
 
 3-280 899 feet 
 
 El 
 
 Braccio . . | Pecheus 
 
 3-280 899 rods 
 
 Roed . 
 
 . 
 
 
 3-280 899 chains 
 
 .... 
 
 . 
 
 
 0-328 090 league 
 
 Myl . . . 
 
 Chilometro 
 
 Stadion 
 
 0-107 643 sq. tithe . 
 
 Vierkante duim . 
 
 Dito quadrato 
 
 
 10-764 299 sq. tithes. 
 
 palm . 
 
 Palmo quadrato . 
 
 
 10-764 299 sq. feet . 
 
 el 
 
 Metro quadrato . 
 
 
 10-764 299 sq. rods . 
 
 roed . 
 
 Tavola . 
 
 Strema 
 
 10764 299 sq. chains 
 
 Bunder 
 
 Ettaro, Tornatura 
 
 
 0-107 6 43 s q- league 
 
 Vierkante myl 
 
 Chilom. quad. 
 
 
 35-316 581 fluid mils 
 
 Kubieke duim 
 
 Dito cubico 
 
 Kybos 
 
 35-316 581 fluid oz. . 
 
 Kop or kan . 
 
 Pinta . 
 
 Litra 
 
 3-531 658 cubic feet 
 
 Mudde or vat 
 
 Soma . 
 
 Koilon 
 
 35*316581 
 
 Kubieke el, Wisse 
 
 Metro cubico 
 
 
 35-316 581 doits 
 
 Milligram . 
 
 .... 
 
 
 35-316581 mils 
 
 Wigtje. 
 
 Denaro 
 
 Drachme 
 
 35-316 581 ounces . 
 
 Pond . 
 
 Libbra 
 
 Mna 
 
 3-531 658 ft. -weights 
 
 Centenaar . 
 
 Centinajo . 
 
 Talanton 
 
 35-316581 
 
 Ton . 
 
 Migliajo 
 
 Tonos 
 
 commerce and for scientific purposes. (See Part II. , Chapter VI.) 
 
 at mean sea level. See pp. 282, 283. 
 
 for technical and scientific purposes. (See Part II., Chapter VI.) 
 
 decimal multiples, are omitted in the commercial system. 
 
320 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 Conversion Tables for reducing Metric Measures 
 
 Units Decimetres into inches. Metres into feet. Metres into yards. 
 
 1 
 
 3-9382 
 
 3-28183 
 
 1-09394 
 
 2 
 
 7-8764 
 
 6-56366 
 
 2-18789 
 
 3 
 
 11-8146 
 
 9 ^4549 
 
 3-28183 
 
 4 
 
 15*7528 
 
 13-12732 
 
 4*37577 
 
 5 
 
 19-6910 
 
 16*40915 
 
 5*46972 
 
 6 
 
 23-6292 
 
 19-69098 
 
 6*56366 
 
 7 
 
 27-5674 
 
 22-97281 
 
 7*65760 
 
 8 
 
 31 '556 
 
 26-25464 
 
 8*75i55 
 
 9 
 
 35*4438 
 
 29*53647 
 
 9'84549 
 
 10 
 
 39-3820 
 
 32-81830 
 
 10-93943 
 
 Decim. car. into sq. in. Met. car. into sq. ft. Met. car. into sq. yards. 
 
 1 
 
 i5*5094 
 
 10-7704 
 
 1*19672 
 
 2 
 
 31-0188 
 
 21-5409 
 
 2-39343 
 
 3 
 
 46-5283 . 32-3*13 
 
 3*59oi5 
 
 4 
 
 62-0377 
 
 43-0817 
 
 4*78686 
 
 5 
 
 77*547i 
 
 53*8522 
 
 5*98358 
 
 6 
 
 93*0565 
 
 64*6226 
 
 7-18030 
 
 7 
 
 108-5659 
 
 75*3930 
 
 8*37701 
 
 8 
 
 124-0754 
 
 86-1634 
 
 9*57373 
 
 9 
 
 139-5848 
 
 96-9339 
 
 10*77045 
 
 10 
 
 i55*o942 
 
 107*7043 
 
 11*96716 
 
 Litres into cubic inches. Litres into cubic feet. Litres into gallons. 
 
 1 
 
 61-0793 0-035347 
 
 0*22018 
 
 2 
 
 122*1587 
 
 0-070 694 
 
 0*44036 
 
 3 
 
 183-2380 
 
 0*106 041 
 
 0*66054 
 
 4 
 
 244 "3 1 73 
 
 0*141 388 
 
 0*88072 
 
 5 
 
 305-3966 
 
 0-176739 
 
 1*10090 
 
 6 
 
 366-4759 
 
 O"2I2 082 
 
 1*32108 
 
 7 
 
 427'5553 
 
 0-247 429 
 
 1-54126 
 
 8 
 
 488-6346 
 
 0-282 776 
 
 1-76144 
 
 9 
 
 549-7139 
 
 0-318 123 
 
 1*98162 
 
 10 
 
 6107933 
 
 0-353 468 
 
 2*20180 
 
CH. ii. COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS OF EUROPE, 
 
 into English Commercial Measures. 
 
 Kilometres into miles. Grammes into grains. Kilogrammes into oz. 
 
 0*62156 
 
 15-432349 
 
 35-273941 
 
 1-24312 
 
 30*864 698 
 
 70-547 882 
 
 I '86468 
 
 46-297 047 
 
 105-821 823 
 
 2*48624 
 
 61729 396 
 
 141-095 764 
 
 3-10780 
 
 77-161 745 
 
 176-369 704 
 
 372936 
 
 92-594094 
 
 211*643 646 
 
 4'35092 
 
 108*026 443 
 
 246-917587 
 
 4-97248 
 
 123-458792 
 
 282-191 528 
 
 5'59404 
 
 138-891 141 
 
 317-465469 
 
 6*21560 
 
 154-323 487 
 
 352739408 
 
 Kilometres carres into 
 
 sq. miles. Hectares into acres- Kilogrammes into lb. c .. 
 
 0-38634 
 
 2-47255 
 
 2*204 621 
 
 077267 
 
 4-94510 
 
 4*409 242 
 
 1-15901 
 
 7-41765 
 
 6-613864 
 
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 9-89020 
 
 8-818485 
 
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 19-78040 
 
 17-636970 
 
 3-47702 
 
 22-25295 
 
 19-841 592 
 
 3-86336 
 
 247255 
 
 22*046 213 
 
 Hectolitres into bushels. Quintals into cwt. Milliers into tons. 
 
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 0-984 206 
 
 5-50450 
 
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 15-747 296 
 
 7-873648 
 
 2477025 
 
 17-715 708 
 
 8-857854 
 
 27-52250 
 
 19-684 120 
 
 9*842 060 
 
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 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
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326 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 COLLECTIONS OF ORIENTAL MEASURES. 
 
 THE Oriental measures in the following tables differ from 
 the systematised measures of European nations and 
 provinces principally in the very important consideration 
 that they are not national systems. The measures are 
 not identical throughout a kingdom or a province, but 
 vary in different towns and different parts of the same 
 province ; and to collections of such measures the word 
 system would not be applicable. 
 
 It will, however, be noticed that there is a general 
 resemblance throughout the whole of the measures given 
 under the heads of 
 
 1. Turkish measures. 
 
 2. Greek measures. 
 
 3. Syrian measures. 
 .4. Arab measures. 
 
 3. .Egyptian measures. 
 6. Abyssinian measures. 
 
 7. Berber, Tunisian, and 
 Moorish measures. 
 
 8. Algerine measures. 
 
 9. Persian measures. 
 
 10. North - Indian mea- 
 sures. 
 
 In fact, they appear to form detached parts and modifi- 
 cations of one general system or ruling intention, 
 although the variety in value of the units may be occa- 
 sionally rather large. This similarity is entirely due to 
 the Moslem predominance that has existed and con- 
 tinued over the whole of those countries for a lengthened 
 period, and it is on account of this evident self-classifi- 
 
CH. in. COLLECTIONS OF ORIENTAL MEASURES. 327 
 
 cation that the group of Moslem or Oriental collections 
 of measures is treated apart. 
 
 The three grand divisions under which nations and 
 races can be classified are, Christian, Moslem, and Pagan ; 
 their metrical systems also group most conveniently in 
 the same way. Modern Christianity is by association 
 or 'through transition European, as it barely exists in 
 Asia and Africa ; in the same way Islam is Oriental, 
 and Orientalism is confined to parts of Asia and Africa ; 
 while paganism covers the remainder of the world un- 
 peopled from Europe. Orientalism, forming the inter- 
 mediate group, hence requires special notice in the 
 sense here applied. It hardly admits of exact defi- 
 nition beyond that it includes races still under Moslem 
 influence ; as it does not by any means include all races 
 of Oriental origin. The Hungarian is an Asiatic and 
 nearly a Turkish race by descent. The modern Russian, 
 offspring from the blending of ancient Russian and of 
 Slavonic races under Rurik, and only partially Finnish 
 or Ugrian, is an undoubted Oriental by descent ; for 
 the ancient Russian was a Scythian-Tatar, whose ori- 
 ginal location was near Mount Taurus, and the Slavonian 
 before his original settlement on the Danube was a Semi- 
 Persian : the ancient Portuguese were probably Phoeni- 
 cian, and some of the Italian peoples descendants of 
 Lycians and emigrants from Asia Minor : yet none of 
 these nations can now be justly termed Oriental. The term 
 Orientalism cannot either be confined or applied exclu- 
 sively to races or countries that never fell under the yoke 
 of Roman Imperialism, and hence retained their own 
 measures ; for the reason that all the countries mentioned 
 in the above list were subjugated, and submitted to the 
 political domination of Rome, which was then considered 
 
328 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 conterminous with civilisation. The distinctive limit is 
 mostly coincident with that of religious belief, although 
 original Christianity spread itself over Eastern nations ; 
 hence the origin of the present limit between Christen- 
 dom and lolam, that is so marked in its bearing on 
 Metrical Systems, requires some explanation. 1 
 
 1 Original Christianity, spreading under missionary and apostolic teach- 
 ing, extended to the two extremes of Britain and Southern India ; idolatry 
 and paganism gave way before it, and Christian life and doctrine were 
 accepted : but Christian dogma did not exist ; in fact, Christianity was 
 actually Arian for nearly five centuries throughout the greater part of the 
 world, both east and west ; the vagueness in detail of the Christian tenets 
 rendering them acceptable to all forms of thought. 
 
 From A.D. 319 to 351, Christendom was divided against itself: the 
 two parties, Athanasians and Arians, were hostile factions. The former 
 evolved and enforced a ponderous amount of dogma, besides aiming at a 
 centralised hierarchical sway, an imperialised ecclesiasticism of arrogant 
 authority ; while the latter, wishing to retain the previously existing 
 freedom of tenet, struggled against this usurpation of supremacy or dominion 
 over the realms of religious opinion, and were for a long time successful. 
 As, however, they in their turn, not content *vith opposing Athanasianism, 
 also fell to drawing up creeds, and confessions of faith involving dogma, 
 and were forced into drawing up theological definitions, and visiting trans- 
 gressors with excommunication ; they thus ceased to remain Christians of 
 the old type, and became rigidly sectarian, opposing the Athanasians in 
 the main, and excommunicating both Semi-Arians and Sabellians on the 
 one side and on the other. Athanasianism eventually triumphing at 
 central points with the aid of papal and imperial support, set to work to 
 secure its ecclesiastical domination, centralisation, and invariability of 
 dogma over the whole of Christendom. In fact, a new and rigid form of 
 Christianity was propagated from A.D. 351 till A.D. 600, when Spain was 
 still partly Arian, and this had hardly obtained universal assent, when 
 Maharnmed reproduced a modified Arianism in the form of Islam in 604 
 to 623 A.D. 
 
 Islam allowed extreme diversity of tenet without interference, thus 
 imitating early Christianity, but being severely monotheistic, was uncom- 
 promising with both pagan idolatry and Christian image-reverence. A 
 hard and firm line thus drawn was rigidly adhered to. Association with 
 or imitation of the infidel was henceforth impossible, even in the minutest 
 detail of habit and custom ; towns and places were renamed, and pagan 
 and Christian units of measurement rejected or altered. 
 
CH. in. COLLECTIONS OF ORIENTAL MEASURES. 329 
 
 The original uncompromising separation of the 
 Moslem from both Christian and pagan in point of 
 religion caused a most rigid line to be made practically 
 between Islamic and non-Islamic measures, while the 
 geographical locality of the Moslem races also intervened 
 between Christendom and paganism, and thus divided 
 Christian and Roman units from pagan and miscel- 
 laneous measures. 
 
 This dividing line in some places became eventually 
 less defined and uncertain, more especially in India and 
 Eastern Asia, where the population became only partly 
 Moslem ; but it exists even now. 
 
 Among the peculiarities of Islamic units and sys- 
 tems may be noticed, the adherence to a cubit or a 
 double cubit as a unit of length, and the absence of a foot, 
 a want of rigidity about surface measures or land-units, 
 and often their entire absence ; also the general absence 
 of all measures of capacity both wet and dry ; cubic units, 
 and submultiples of the cubic unit, are and have been 
 comparatively rare ; both these and capacity units being 
 generally supplanted by direct weight-units. 
 
 In some places, a pik (cubit) and a rotal (pound), or, 
 as we might say, a stick and a stone, answered all pur- 
 poses. 
 
 . These facts inform us most clearly of the habits of 
 the peoples using such systems, whether due to race- 
 tendency or to the effect of Islam. They indicate non- 
 agricultural races, or tribes not much attached to tillage, 
 rather pastoral and semi-nomadic, trusting to force rather 
 than to definition as the preserver of boundary. They 
 show those races to be not only abstemious as regards 
 consumption of alcoholic liquid, but positively non-com- 
 mercial, despising trade as a means of acquiring wealth, 
 
330 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 and treating both usury and speculation as sinful. Races 
 of this type being generally noble, brave, and religious, 
 their habits would naturally be warlike, and their ten- 
 dencies in time of peace would be to employ their ener- 
 gies in work involving skill and science, or, as we would 
 say, professional, technical, operative and scientific labour, 
 These deductions are completely borne out by the habits 
 of the Spanish Moors, and the earlier Arabs in Egypt 
 and Syria, and the former Indian- Moguls : even the de- 
 cadence of these races, the absence of all energy and 
 scientific or skilled achievement or labour, is shown in 
 the diminution in number of the metrical units in use, 
 and the absence of both the very small and very large 
 units that would occasionally enter into such work. 
 
 There is, however, one point as regards Moslem metrical 
 units that is specially worthy of notice ; and that is, that 
 anything like rigid adherence to standard is totally absent. 
 One would imagine that a severe rigid monotheistic 
 dominion would, at least within certain moderate limits, 
 enforce some uniformity of unit, or of standard ; and one 
 would naturally look to the standard units of Mekka- 
 Sharif as prototypes. Certainly the pik of Mekka, which 
 happened to be very nearly 2\ English feet, and the 
 rotal of Mekka, that is very nearly a pound avoirdupois, 
 are treated nominally as standard units, and these units 
 are used at several other places including Stambul ; but 
 anything approaching a wide-spread uniformity of stan- 
 dard is quite wanting. 
 
 The types of pik are, however, comparatively few ; on 
 examining the units of this type from the Russian ar- 
 sheen to the Bushahr gezcha, pp. 57 to 59, it will be noticed 
 that the values generally lie between 2 and 2j English 
 feet, and they are probably by derivation, sacred cubits : 
 
CH. in. COLLECTIONS OF ORIENTAL MEASURES. 331 
 
 while the piks of Arab origin, whether used in Arabia, 
 Tunis, Algiers, or Morocco, are approximately i^ Eng- 
 lish foot, and thus belong to another class, the natural 
 cubit. The arsheens, piks, mihandesah, or halibins also 
 form a class by themselves as land-cubits having high 
 values. The distinction between the tradesman's small 
 pik and -large pik for two sorts of fabrics or stuffs exists 
 in a way corresponding to that of the Italian and South 
 European arrangement in bracci and ells. 
 
 Proceeding to larger linear units, the pace is a recog- 
 nised Oriental measure, the most common type of which 
 appears to be the pace of three Turkish or large cubits, or 
 of four Arab or natural cubits, about six feet ; but there 
 is considerable lack of exact information about Oriental 
 paces. The Kassaba, gasab, or rod, having been also 
 based on diverse cubits is also very various in value, and 
 does not admit of very exact definition ; the com- 
 monest type is the gasab of 2 paces, equal to 8 small 
 cubits, or 6 ordinary cubits, or 4 large cubits, approxi- 
 mately 12 English feet, but sometimes more nearly 
 ten old Arab feet. Tracing these gasabs back to their 
 origin, they were apparently founded on ancient cubits of 
 three sorts, the Hashemic cubit of 0*6417 m. or about 
 2' 1 5 English feet, the Beledi cubit of 0^5775 m. or about 
 1-90 English foot, and the later Arab cubit of 0*4813 m. 
 or about 1*56 English foot; hence the diversity of the 
 derived units. The same complication also occurs in the 
 Oriental chains of 10 gasab and in the Oriental miles of 
 nominally 1000 paces, or 500 gasab, which are sometimes 
 considered 5000 feet, and sometimes 6000 feet of differ- 
 ent values. Oriental paces, rods and miles, are hence 
 speculative units. The farsakh, agasha or parasang, a 
 league representing an hour's walk on rather bad roads of 
 
332 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART 11. 
 
 about 3 miles, is therefore the unit more commonly referred 
 to, and in general use as an itinerary measure ; it may be 
 nominally fixed at 3 local miles, but actually is as vari- 
 able as a Scotch bittock. Apart from the above units, 
 that are purely Oriental by origin, there are others that 
 have survived and existed for a long time in some Ori- 
 ental countries, but are probably of Pagan origin. The 
 Arabian gaz differs from a two-foot pik merely in name, 
 but the gaz and hadid of Mesopotania, the zar' of Persia, 
 and the North Indian gaz are evidently yards or double 
 natural cubits. On these as primary units, the itineraries, 
 the Indian kos of 2000 gaz, and the Persian farsakh of 
 6000 zar', and the surface units, the North-Indian biggahs 
 are evidently based. 
 
 In Oriental surface measures, there is the Arab square 
 chain, of 100 square gasab, and the Arab feddan of 400 
 square gasab, the former corresponding to the English 
 rood, the latter to the English acre ; but their values, 
 owing to the above-mentioned causes, are necessarily also 
 variable. They are certainly adopted in Arabia, Turkey, 
 and Egypt ; but more often units of surface in Oriental 
 countries are quite unused ; it is said that there are none 
 in Persia. 
 
 This absence of land units is notable, but due to as- 
 signable causes. The Oriental landowner or landholder 
 is not, like the European, anxious to know how much 
 land he holds, nor does he want others to know it; 
 it appears to him inquisitorial interference ; he has a 
 tenderness on the subject similar to that of an English 
 tradesman with regard to his books of account ; and 
 besides is afraid of assisting the tax-gatherer and the 
 oppressive extortionate officials that are inseparable from 
 Oriental and semi-Oriental sway. Again even under 
 
CH. 
 
 CH. in. COLLECTIONS OF ORIENTAL MEASURES. 333 
 
 a just regime of fixed tenure and just officials, he is 
 opposed to permanent taxation ; he perfectly admits 
 the right of the Government to demand at intervals a 
 war-tax, or a subsidy, for some comprehensible clear 
 object, and he fully acknowledges it is his duty to 
 assist the State ; but a perpetual rate, and worse a 
 rated tax, is in his eyes severe and repugnant in every 
 way. A lump-sum demanded occasionally he cheerfully 
 agrees to in a way strange to a North-European, but a 
 yearly rate per acre opens to his vista of thought a pos- 
 sible double form of future enhancement, both by the 
 acre and by the year; in fact, the principle is too dread- 
 ful to be admitted, otherwise than under strong compul- 
 sion. The land-units still existing in Oriental countries, 
 that differ very markedly from the Arab feddan, are 
 generally surviving pagan measures : the North Indian 
 biggahs are units of that description. 
 
 Cubic measure also seems at present comparatively 
 unknown in Oriental countries, almost all goods being 
 estimated by weight. Capacity measures are occasionally 
 used but generally rare ; as liquids, with the exception of 
 oil, are not much consumed or sold as merchandise, and 
 both liquids and grain are sold by weight. The strong 
 objection to buying dry goods by weight, due to possible 
 adulteration with water, does not exist in Oriental and 
 hot countries under climates of very speedy evaporation ; 
 and the speed and time saved by filling a vessel in pre- 
 ference to weighing a liquid is unimportant to people 
 that hardly appreciate the value of time. Pseudo-capa- 
 city measures are, however, sometimes used for conveni- 
 ence' sake ; these holding a certain weight of commodities 
 of different sorts are of different capacities for the same 
 weight in accordance with the specific gravities of the 
 
334 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 merchandise. Real capacity measures are few, being 
 generally the most commonly used and locally prevalent 
 pseudo-capacity measures ; thus in wheat-consuming 
 countries it would be a wheat measure, in rice growing 
 countries a rice measure, and in millet-growing countries 
 a millet measure, holding a fixed weight of grain of 
 each sort. Such a measure, being that most frequently 
 used, eventually becomes the general measure for grain of 
 all sorts, and then is a real capacity measure, independent 
 of weight in all subsequent application. Some of the 
 kiloz, mecmeda, ardeb, temen, tarri and almud thus be- 
 come real capacity measures, while others are not ; it takes, 
 however, much investigation to discover to which class 
 any one of them may belong, and it has been found im- 
 possible to distinguish them in the tables of this book. 
 
 Oriental weight-units are, like most European pounds, 
 antiquated in origin, and of irrecoverable standard ; that 
 is, they cannot be readjusted or newly formed at any 
 time from cubic measure ; for instance, the French kilo- 
 gramme is the weight of a cubic decimetre of water, 
 and the English foot-weight or talent is the weight of 
 a cubic foot of water, but the Turkish, Egyptian, 
 Persian and Indian, okas, rotals, wakia, and ser, do 
 not admit of this, the sole check on them is by balan- 
 cing them against a certain number of coins or pieces 
 of money of known weight. Formerly they were recog- 
 nised submultiples of talents, anciently based on the 
 weight of water contained in cubic measures formed on 
 then well-known linear units ; but the linear units were 
 numerous, the talents were of several kinds, and the 
 modes of subdivision were various ; thus making the 
 derivations complicated matters of archaic research, in 
 all but a very few cases. 
 
CH. in. COLLECTIONS OF ORIENTAL MEASURES. 335 
 
 The rotal generally is now the term for an Oriental 
 unit of weight corresponding in use to a European com- 
 mercial pound ; while the yusdruma, cheki, saddirhem, 
 okiejah, or wakiah is more often a smaller monetary 
 pound corresponding to the former English Troy-pound ; 
 the oka being a larger unit than either, nearly but 
 not exactly falling in both series, being exactly equal to 
 four okiejah, and nearly 2\ rotal ; this is the Turkish 
 and the present typical Oriental mode. The Syrian 
 rotals are exceptional, being large units exceeding the 
 oka. In most cases the wakia is an ounce of 10 or 12 
 dirhems, while the saddirhem or small pound of 100 
 dirhems is absent from the system, and replaced by some 
 subsidiary rotal or other special unit. The Persian dirhem 
 is exceptional and has a high value, being about half an 
 ounce. The miskal, mitkal, or kaffala is the primary 
 unit most frequently used from Persia to Morocco ; its 
 value is almost invariable, nearly 72 grains English, or 
 one-sixth of an ounce. The foregoing units are the basic 
 units of weight, some of them occurring and some being 
 absent from each system. The principal difficulty in com- 
 prehending the systems lies with the waki', wakiah, or 
 okiejah, for sometimes and more generally the wakiah is an 
 ounce, as in Arabia, Egypt, Tripoli, Tunis, and Morocco ; 
 while the okiejah in Turkey and the waki' in Persia are 
 small pounds. The clue to clearness in such doubtful cases 
 is to treat all Oriental units of weight generally either as 
 multiples of some miskal, or of some dirhem, up to 
 some approximate pound, and then to start again from 
 the derived units, going up to some approximate kanthar 
 or hundredweight. 
 
 Among the peculiarities of Oriental systems of weight 
 units, there is one that partly extends into Pagan systems. 
 
336 METRICAL SYSTEMS. FART n. 
 
 The man, pronounced mun, and sometimes called by 
 the English maund, is a very variable unit which does 
 not occur in European or Eastern Asiatic systems. It 
 does, however, exist in Southern India, although not as 
 a practically important unit, for the kandi is more 
 frequently used. The man is a term applied to units of 
 three sorts, 
 
 1. A very small man, between 2 and 14 Ibs. 
 
 2. The kachcha man, of about 28 to 40 Ibs. 
 
 3. The large man, of 70 to 80 Ibs. 
 
 Probably the whole of these are by origin stones, 
 although the smallest, those of the first class, alone ap- 
 proach the English stones in value, while those of the 
 second are approximate quarters, and those of the third 
 being about three-quarters of a hundredweight may 
 be termed approximate hundredweights. Class I is 
 peculiar to Arabia, Syria, Turkey and Persia ; class 
 2 is peculiar to Southern and Central India ; while 
 class 3 exists throughout the whole of Northern India, 
 and in the special form of the man-i-hdsham in Persia 
 also. 
 
 The second class thus exists beyond the strict geo- 
 graphical limits assigned to purely Oriental systems, 
 although probably due to Oriental influence in some now 
 unassignable manner. 
 
 Proceeding to the Oriental hundredweight or kanthar, 
 it will be observed that this is in most cases 100 rotal, 
 an arrangement followed by most European nations and 
 derived from the Arabs ; the exceptional kanthars are 
 very rare. 
 
 Units above the kanthar are very few ; the bahar of 
 Arabia is a load very varying in value, between ij and 
 
CH. in. COLLECTIONS OF ORIENTAL MEASURES. 337 
 
 7 hundredweight ; the kharwar of Persia is also a large 
 load ; the kara of Persia, a large unit of about 5 \ tons, 
 and the sauman of Northern India, of 3 \ tons, are both 
 equal to 100 large man. 
 
 On the whole the Oriental arrangement of weight- 
 units is rather perplexing from local diversity of 
 method. 
 
338 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 25 
 
 <P * 
 
 \O O 
 
 m oo 
 
 ~~ s e 
 
 .0,0 c - c 
 
 33 3 "" 3 
 
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 <j< h ON N fOvO 00 O f N ON 
 
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 ^ gtOvoONTJ-NNvOOp OO 
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 JI 
 
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 CH. in. COLLECTIONS OF ORIENTAL MEASURES. 
 
 339 
 
 11 
 
 
 vO 
 
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 r^vO vo vovO O 
 vox> co moo vo 
 
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 VOONONVOMI-IM M O M O O O O 
 
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 M 
 
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 ssg 
 
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 ^.-^-cbcsicb * ^- -^- -^- cb cb ii> 
 
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 ^ voro Tj-00 CO ON 
 
 C VO CO !*> 1O CO ON 
 
 6 O I-H Tj-vo >- vo 
 
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 v- 1 xo N O O fvl 1-1 
 
 W 
 
 N VO *-O ONVO 
 
 ^ r- N t^xo^ ^ox^S 2 *% "&&> 
 
 i_ihi_iM3voTt-O VO OO vox) CO^TJ-CO "-"^ OOrh 
 
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 OOt^CstvOOOMvo VO t^voco ONOO VO " 
 
 sr 
 
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 8 . .^- 
 
 bug 
 
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 11 
 
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 UPQ 
 
 ll 2*lg I n 1^1 o 
 
 af iji-l "^ i'S 1 1"!" ""I 
 
 If 7Hl| '^'srl s |I|1 
 
 Z 2 
 
340 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART IT. 
 
 is 
 
 w 
 
 rt t/3 O 
 
 2 S 3 
 
 rt ri 
 
 O ON N O O ^ 
 
 vQ OO OvoOQO O 
 
 \r- 10 m O ^J" O ""> N 
 
 rn p ^ 
 
 rnoo ON M rnvQ O ^O ^ 
 ONf-.tONO^OO "OOO"-c 
 t^ >-O ON fOOO OO i-> N M M 
 
 t* N 00 
 
 rooo o 
 
 ON r^ I-H 
 
 O 00 
 ivo O 
 
 
 1 
 
 | -g .a .a 
 
 3P 2 pd o 
 
 S CT- 3S 
 
 ^j t/3 00 
 
 ^(^ICNCNI^-^-CVIC)-^ <> -^-S-CNjdb.-Tr r^ococsaoizoo;^ 
 
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 S " 
 
 U) (fl 
 
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 -^ -"5 r3 ^ g ^ 
 
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 11 =1 : 
 
 Uo o o 
 OH OH OH 
 
 1-1 f~^ ON N 
 
 i-O N ' ^-O CS C*J ON rooo ON ON 
 
 OCwcOflTj- x^Ti-MVOi-HI^ 
 
 'GO OO O 1 O V O CS CM O ^ ^" O 
 
 .MOr^OO ONrf)c^.fOrO t-^.C 
 
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 flj- JllllHl 
 
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 111- 
 
V. HH 
 
 |i 
 
 CH. in. COLLECTIONS OF ORIENTAL MEASURES. 
 
 " o 
 
 to bfl ^ 
 
 N ON O O t^vo 
 n xr> M CO >-< ON tx. M 
 
 -g O O C 
 
 Tf O n vC 
 
 JJ vp rj- i-i t>*c>o Tt p> r- 
 
 fe xo N t~^ ^ COOO w x/ 
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 vO 
 
 w^ ^ - S l)--S) 2r5 
 
 .-ill ^Illj " ~J! ^s 
 
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 CO- i-t- 
 
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 c r j\rnc\ > 
 
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 ro xo 1000 co 
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 OH bjj PH 
 N M O 
 
 o bushels 
 
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 ONOO Jt^ 
 Xi *t ON 
 
 in 
 
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 -a . . . : 
 
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 xoxoxo 
 
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 1 .11 
 ^^1 
 
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342 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 ll 
 
 .ri 
 
 t 
 
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 foOOOQi-ii-iOOvOw 
 
 d OO r~- f">oo M rh ^. 
 O VO 00 ONOO m ,g* 
 
 Tj- 10 XO N ON ON ON QC 
 
 
 co en u-> co ro co 
 TJ- Tl- M N rt- -3- 
 
 b b " b b 
 
 vo 10 
 
 M ON co "I 
 ON >-i O M 
 
 y^ P^ r 1 r 
 
 N io w O 
 
 din 
 
 
 v m T3 
 C S ,| 
 
 ^ s 2 -3 e -3 
 & a 
 
 "NNior^TtNOtr 
 
 17 S "- 1 ^O O ON ONOO to 1-1 
 
 to fo o 00 <O fO rf 
 
 i tooo t^\O M ^-^O t^ N ON t->. <~ ONOO 
 
 t*N ^^ t^x ON fO ON ON t-^ ^ ON t^ ON O *O 
 
 tN H^OO^ OOWC^ ^vo O O ^ O 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 *fl 
 
 8"S 
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 Ji 
 
 r^ 
 '< 
 
 o 
 
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 <u 
 
 
 
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 ' 5 -6 d 
 
 C T3 rt 
 
 L 3 s ^, c 
 
 ^ * T3 JJ X! 
 
 ,'S,.I ft? ij 
 
 rt G bfl 5 ^ 
 
 '8 W ^ 'I S 
 
 8 ^ ^ S ^^ 
 
 H< 3< 
 
 N 
 
 x 2 
 
 .s 
 
 a s 
 
 O M 
 
 ^^OOOQ ONO 
 
 ^^-oooo - 
 
 J Ilj. fl 
 
 |^2l lU 
 
 Cairo rotal 
 Alexandria 
 Cairo oka or 
 Alexandria ok 
 Common Cair 
 Alexandria ca 
 
 T3 ^ S 2 
 
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 < 
 
CH. in. COLLECTIONS OF ORIENTAL MEASURES. 
 
 343 
 
 
 
 rz - " - ~'3 
 
 ^4 O" 
 
 W rf^ o O ^00 O vo TJ-OO O 
 
 "S u-i O ^t" coo co r^ TJ-QO TJ- r-, co r^-oo N 
 
 (-MtrjvpiO ^-OsQO-'tNO CO COOO t^-i OONOcOTfONOOcON 
 
 nJONt^OON OOOOO CO TtOO OOONOOO lOTj-iotoN TI->OIOXOO 
 
 O co M co 
 
 r^ ro r^ t^ co 1-1 
 
 MM OOOOOOOOO 
 
 O o 
 
 O o3 O 
 ^o ^,0 
 
 11 
 
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 S. .. J s: 
 
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 t~^ Tj- 1^ r- t~N. 
 
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 i2<5v2^^ ^rt'^3'^'^C rteSrO^ 
 
 2* lls SiJi -ill S 
 
 u ^s SSS H .:^ ^rs.fs 
 
 .s = S o .2? Is. s s I SLi 1. 2 
 
 H S H cEH 
 
344 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART IT. 
 
 !g 
 
 1! 
 
 !* 
 
 O O< 
 
 n-oo ( 
 
 vo r}-' 
 
 OO N1 
 
 ON co 
 
 t^vO ON covo O ONV 
 rf vooo vo u~>\O OO 
 
 OOOOOCOO'-iO 
 
 ill 
 
 ggg 
 
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 LO crt 
 
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 S3 1 
 
 : o> O QJ r3 
 
 O 
 ~ t/j 
 
 W 
 
 r^-QV^v^i^c* ,J_1 l_n o 00 
 
 ^ fei-iOOiO ^OOt^N-iNvOvOMri- 
 
 s i^^^ ^ ^^ ^^K^im? 
 
 s asjc^ 85- s^ igjsj.ga^^g* 
 
 ^ .hHlOCS V^?* P{^ OCSVpt-lpwVpt^NHcJ 
 
 t^. C CI ^^ C^ CO CO ^t*00 *HH*HH*HhHNHhHh*0$HH 
 
 ^-1 H 
 
 I '^T^ 
 
 ' "c8 
 
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 .S O vovo O HI 
 
 ii ii ii ii ii V 
 
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 j-i rt .-. 2 12 ^ 
 
 ,s^- !! v 2|--- *J 
 
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 g-su ^^ 'j S .,n i^l'S'Sl 
 
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Ci-i. in. COLLECTIONS OF ORIENTAL MEASURES. 
 
 345 
 
 a s' s 
 
 8*- 
 
 N 
 
 En vo in O VO 
 VO 
 
 Ti- N O O H-I 
 
 B 
 
 g s s 
 
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 ON - 
 
 S - 
 
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 N - 
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 C/2 
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 t-^ 1-^VO OO 
 
 co covo t^ 
 
 M hH O 00 
 
 rt 
 
 CJ) 
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 vo 
 
 vovo t 1 ONVO vO 
 co rt- O OO -too 
 N "-> OO COOO 00 CO 
 N O O <* vo O CO 
 
 hH M VO HH -! VO O 
 
 H< vo W ON O N O 
 
 t-t b ro b co co 
 
 1 
 I 
 
 T3 nd 
 
 c . c 
 
 pi - 
 
 s o 
 
 O OH OH O 
 
 VO 
 
 ^0 
 OH 
 
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 rj- 
 
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 w f ON CO 00 M vo 
 
 O b f>. r^ w vb 
 
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 irt 
 
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 llllli.il 
 
 'g'O'S:^!. S^. rt^ 
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 13 
 
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 52 
 
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 2 
 
346 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 
 
 fa a 
 
 W N COVO V0_v 
 (S 00 
 
 rt O 00 i 
 fe HH rf ON toOO 
 
 _. vo W 1-1 rttoco M 
 -g O "-i vo 
 
 M O 
 
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 rt O 
 
 P" r 
 
 b to 
 
 ON W 
 
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 *- 
 
 CO ON co 
 
 oo b r^ 
 to co 
 
 ^ .tjns | 
 
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 W3 < CO < 
 t-Csl CO CJ5 L 
 
 .coCOCDG75a5CSJcn CJS^-COCSICMUOCD 
 bo ipi -jf cp = LO to ^t cp CNI -^ cp r^. cp cp 
 cb -^- cvi -^- o cb cb cb CN -^- CNI CNI 4i- cb 
 
 ?c^ 
 
 ^2 ^ fS 
 
 33 ^ 
 
 u o o 
 
 tO i/5 
 
 "5 V 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 <u ^ 
 
 g e * 
 
 C 'g'g 
 
 -a^ s s . 
 
 |j srsr 
 
 op 
 
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 1-1 r^ vo 
 
 9 P r> 
 
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 I | 
 
 coo 
 
 II 
 
 tXbJJ^ 
 vo O O 
 
 1> D 
 
 I 3 = 
 ^^ 
 
 re 
 in 
 
 rt^ fa 
 
 N 5 "cO cV rt n' j- C t/3 
 
 VO OOON JJ^3 j^Q 
 
 tHCOCOrtrj- - -< O aj^^ 
 
 f9"5 -S2 r2 N S 
 
 ||| -3.1 a^ 
 
 I 
 
 E.&.5- 
 
 ' & 
 
 -Ho 
 
 J4 
 
 bb P 
 
 Square 
 Square 
 Biggah 
 
 P sa 
 
 T< 0. _ 
 
 | S 8 s s 3 
 
 Ri a 2 
 
 C rt 
 
 & -3 
 
 I'SS 
 
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 (**, 
 
 3 ^G 53 
 P< UCA! 
 
347 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PAGAN MEASURES OF EASTERN ASIA, AND THOSE 
 INDIGENOUS TO AFRICA. 
 
 THE collections of measures of this type are markedly 
 distinct from Oriental measures introduced and sustained 
 by Moslem preponderance and dominion. 
 
 The geographical limit in India accompanying this 
 type may be roughly drawn as a nearly tropical parallel 
 of. latitude dividing Northern India from Southern India : 
 though in Asia the general limit is ultra-Indian. 
 
 It may be noticed, however, that, though the Moslem 
 religion, and the Moslems themselves, entered into 
 Southern India, parts of Malacca, the Eastern Archi- 
 pelago, and greatly into China, they never established a 
 firm preponderance and dominion on a very large scale 
 in those regions ; had they done so, the indigenous mea- 
 sures would have been generally abolished or modified. 
 
 These collections are classified under the heads of 
 
 I. Southern India and 6. Anam (or Cochin 
 
 Ceylon. 
 
 2. Burmah. 
 
 3. Thai' (or Siam). 
 
 4. Singapore, Malacca, and 
 
 Prince of Wales Island. 
 
 5. Sumatra and Fort 
 
 lylarlborough. 
 
 China). 
 
 7. Java, Borneo, Moluc- 
 
 cas, &c. 
 
 8. Philippines and Sulu 
 
 Islands. 
 
 9. China. 
 10. Japan. 
 
348 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART IT. 
 
 Besides these, and in completion of the whole of the 
 Pagan measures now used in the world, there is doubt- 
 less a comparatively large number of indigenous primi- 
 tive measures, about which little or no precise informa- 
 tion exists. These would include the measures used 
 by savage and semi-savage tribes and peoples in Central 
 Africa, that are independent of Christian and Moslem 
 influence ; also any indigenous American measures sur- 
 viving among the Red-skins of North America, and the 
 descendants of the Incas, Caribs, Tupi-speaking Brazi- 
 lians, and Patagonians. 
 
 All such units owe their sole importance to the 
 evidence they afford of ethnological distinction, variety, 
 origin, and habit. It is hence much to be regretted 
 that travellers, anthropologists, and scientific men should 
 have comparatively neglected the metrical units of savage 
 and expiring races, although they may now be of no 
 commercial utility. 
 
 Reverting to the better-known Asiatic Pagan mea- 
 sures before classified, it will be noticed that they 
 generally have some similarity to ancient European 
 measures. 
 
 The cubits of Eastern Asia (see page 59) are mostly 
 approximate natural cubits, or English cubits ; the 
 double cubits of Thai' (Siam), Sumatra and Borneo, are 
 approximate English yards ; and the fathoms of Burma, 
 Anam (Cochin China), Thai', Sumatra, China, and Japan, 
 are markedly parallel with European fathoms. 
 
 The foot that exists in China and Japan, though 
 markedly missing in Pagan measures generally, is 
 evidently an exceptional unit ; the Malabar ady of 
 the Western (Muabbar) coast of India was perhaps 
 imported from Syria or Arabia, but certainly was not 
 
CH. iv. PAGAN MEASURES OF EASTERN ASIA. 349 
 
 indigenous. The parallelism between ancient China 
 and ancient Egypt and Chaldsea leads to the presump- 
 tion that the Chinese, and consequently also the 
 Japanese foot, was Chaldaean by origin ; while all 
 European feet were of Roman or Christian derivation, 
 never indigenous ancient units. The Kymri, whether in 
 Britain, Gaul, or the Kimmerian Chersonese, never had 
 any foot-unit, as far as is now known. The Kymric 
 Welsh had a goad, of about 27 J English inches, which 
 was probably divided into halves, quarters, and eighths, 
 independently of any foot ; although it may have been 
 by origin a sacred cubit. 
 
 The general resemblance between ancient European 
 and present Asiatic Pagan units is hence most striking ; 
 any few exceptions to the rule regarding the absence of 
 the foot can but aid in establishing the main principle. 
 
 The rods of Pagan-Asia are mostly double-fathoms ; 
 the exception being the rod of China, which is a double- 
 pace of ten local feet ; large units corresponding to the 
 pole exist in some countries in addition to the rod ; also 
 some rather large chains ; the itinerary units, approxi- 
 mate furlongs, leagues, and journeys are rather varied. 
 
 The surface-units of Pagan-Asia, both small and 
 large, are necessarily also very diverse in value, yet 
 among them may be noticed the biggah of Orissa, 
 identical with the English acre of 4840 square yards, 
 also the Sumatra square orlong, which is identical with 
 the Madras kanl (in vulgar English cawney), a very 
 convenient unit of 6400 square yards, giving a corre- 
 sponding linear orlong or kanl-side of exactly eighty 
 yards. Similarities of this kind cannot be justly attri- 
 buted to mere hazard, or fortuitous accident. 
 
 Capacity measures, shown in the various parahs, 
 
350 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 markals, baskets, gantangs, balli, kula, &c., mentioned 
 on pages 183, 184, and 189, form the chief distinctive 
 between the Pagan and Oriental-Moslem systems of 
 measure ; in the latter none or hardly any such units 
 exist This peculiarity extends also to large capacity 
 units, as shown by the garsah, lasts and coyan, given at 
 page 191. 
 
 In the Asiatic-Pagan units of weight, the tching or 
 king (Anglice, catti) is the unit corresponding to the 
 pound in a large number of cases ; it is used in China, 
 Japan, the Chinese Archipelago, and through a great 
 portion of Eastern Asia. In some cases, however, the 
 principal unit of weight is a double pound, but this is 
 more generally a monetary catti, as that of Malacca, 
 Acheen, Singapur, and Thai'. The Kachcha sers, or seers 
 of Southern India are exceedingly variable, and are 
 mostly less than a pound, corresponding to the former 
 English troy pound ; but the vis of Southern India, 
 Burma, and Malacca, and the variable catti-utan of 
 Sumatra are mostly approximate triple pounds, and are 
 the commercial standard weight-units. 
 
 The kachcha man of Southern India is an approxi- 
 mate quarter (English weight - quarter 14 pounds) 
 peculiar to that country, but not very much used even 
 there, as the next larger unit, the kandi, with its 
 quarters and eighths, throws it out of employment. 
 This kachcha man, an improper or incomplete maund, 
 must be distinguished both from the very small man 
 of Turkey, Syria, Arabia, and Persia, which is a 
 stone, and from the pakka, real, proper, or large man 
 of Northern India, and man-i-hasham of Persia and 
 Mesopotamia, which are approximate hundredweights. 
 The term man is applied to units of these three sorts, 
 
cil. iv. PAGAN MEASURES OF EASTERN ASIA. 351 
 
 probably from the reason that the word meant a stone 
 in some language, and that all such corn-weighing units 
 were practically stones of various sizes. The similarity 
 between the kachcha man of Southern India and the 
 proper or large man of Northern India solely consists in 
 their being in each case composed of forty sers ; but as 
 the North-Indian ser was a large unit and the South- 
 Indian kachcha ser was a small unit, the difference in 
 value is very great. There are, how r ever, a few excep- 
 tional cases that can be easily accounted for by ethno- 
 logical and historic causes. In the main, the kachcha 
 man is an indigenous Pagan unit quite distinct and 
 peculiar ; it is yet a most troublesome unit in any 
 system, and its total obliteration from the measures of 
 the world would hence be advantageous. 
 
 Among Pagan weight-units, the load, generally 
 termed the bahdr or kandi, holds a prominent position ; 
 its value ranges between three and six English hundred- 
 weight as extremes, with a mean of about 3^ or 4 
 hundredweight (see page 234). Its formation is various, 
 according as it is based on a pound, or ching, a double 
 pound, or a vis or triple-pound ; it has in most cases 
 degenerated as regards simplicity and directness of 
 multiple, from having been forced by English commerce 
 into another form, its nearest equivalent in avoirdupois 
 pounds. 
 
 Proceeding to the largest weight-units corresponding 
 to English tons and lasts, these appear rare among 
 Pagan measures ; the garsah of Southern India and 
 Ceylon is the only one of which full record exists ; 
 possibly there may be others that have not attracted 
 notice. The garsah when a weight-unit is about 4 tons ; 
 but it might perhaps be more strictly considered a 
 
352 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 doubtful or nominal unit partly of capacity and partly of 
 weight ; although there are sufficient grounds for treat- 
 ing the garsah separately as a weight-unit and as a 
 capacity-unit of dry measure. See pages 191 and 237. 
 
 Pagan systems of measures may on the whole be 
 considered as but little inferior to either Oriental or 
 European systems. Decimalisation has been carried 
 out thoroughly by the Chinese and Japanese. Perfect 
 systematisation is only known to exist in the measures 
 of Thai' (Siam), which have been lately reorganised ; the 
 capacity units being cubicised on the niu, and standards 
 supplied by the English Warden of the Standards. The 
 ordinary common defect in Pagan, as well as in Oriental 
 and European systems, is that the weight-units are not 
 systematised or adjusted to cubic measure, and thus 
 remain independent, arbitrary multiples of coins fre- 
 quently long obsolete. 
 
 In thus completing an account of the measures of 
 the world, it becomes necessary to apologise for the 
 absence of indigenous African, Australasian, and 
 American measures in this book. Communications have 
 been opened with travellers which may eventually result 
 in procuring detailed and trustworthy information on the 
 subject At present vague and general statements alone 
 exist. The indigenous savage African apparently most 
 often adopts a fathom as a standard unit of length, and 
 divides it into four natural cubits ; the weight units are 
 apparently very diverse and arbitrary, shells, berries, 
 and eggs ; and the capacity units are gourds and cala- 
 bashes. 
 
 Among indigenous African measures, those of Guinea 
 and of Madagascar have been longest known to a partial 
 extent The jacktan of Guinea is a rod or double 
 
CH. iv. PAGAN MEASURES OF EASTERN ASIA. 353 
 
 fathom, reputed to be I2>*oo5 English feet in value ; 
 the refe of Madagascar is a fathom reputed at 6*56 
 English feet, but it appears also to be very variable, 
 generally varying between 4 and 6 feet in different pro- 
 vinces. The indigenous capacity measures of Guinea 
 are not yet forthcoming it is said that Abyssinian 
 measures, the kuba and ardeb, are used there ; but those 
 of Madagascar show an evident connection with those 
 of the Chinese Archipelago, whence former immigrations 
 came. 
 
 The series is thus : 
 
 i zatu = 8'5 trubahuash=: 17 bambu= 100 voules. 
 
 The zatu is thus about 7*339 gallons, the voule 0*5867 
 pint, and the bambu 17614 quart. 
 
 In Guinea, the weight-units are peculiar : 
 I benda=2 benda offa = 4 egebba 8 piso=i6 agerac 
 or aid = 32 media tabla ; the value of the benda being 
 989-6 grains, or about 2\ ounces, and the media tabla 
 30*925 grains ; these are monetary units used for gold 
 dust. There is also a kanthar, subdivided into 5 gamel, 
 which may be of Moslem and of Moorish origin, 
 although it is unusually large, 0*9635 ton. 
 
 In Madagascar there is also- a. series of monetary 
 weight-units as follows : 
 
 I sompi = 2 vari = 3 sacare =6 nankin I2~nanke, 
 
 the sompi being about 60 grains, and the nanke 5 grains. 
 In some portions of Africa various Moslem units are 
 employed, Arab, Egyptian, and Moorish ; near the old 
 Portuguese settlements, Mozambique and Loando, old 
 Portuguese measures are in use. At the Cape of Good 
 Hope, and in Southern Africa, though English measures 
 are now generally employed, and formerly Dutch units 
 
 A A 
 
354 METRICAL SYSTEMS. I-ART n. 
 
 were in use, there were also some compounded measures 
 of capacity that afford some idea of the old indigenous 
 measures ; they were : 
 
 Last = 4.6 balli ; balli = 5 gantang, 
 
 the last being 7'283 quarters, and supposed to represent 
 a capacity holding 3200 troy Dutch pounds of wheat ; 
 and the balli 1*266 bushel, holding 500 troy Dutch 
 pounds of wheat. The arrangement of units and their 
 names are similar to some in Sumatra and at Batavia ; 
 but whether they were brought over by the Dutch or by 
 the native immigrants at an earlier epoch, and after- 
 wards merely modified by the Dutch as regarded value, 
 is a matter that may perhaps be considered doubtful ; 
 although the latter appears more probable. This pro- 
 bability is further supported by the analogy of the 
 bambu of Madagascar, which is most markedly a unit of 
 Sumatra derivation. 
 
CH. iv. PAGAN MEASURES OF EASTERN ASIA, 
 
 355 
 
 S 2 
 J4> : 
 
 > e 
 
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 b b 
 
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366 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 S i-i 2 
 
 1*1 II :: 
 
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 rt ^ * 
 
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 fa i^oo cnfo vo bb VOHIVOHI 
 
 vovo mHimroHi HI 
 rj- vo 
 
 rs.s.s 
 
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 Pl 
 
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 s a c 
 
 
 
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 "rtj "J? ^^J " ^ H 
 
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 JO eo <n O ON fooo m 
 
 OrnfnmvooN ro w en 
 
 voop op rh en N op op 
 
 bi, HI HI N N rnoo bb^ 
 W 
 
CH. iv. PAGAN MEASURES OF EASTERN ASIA. 
 
 357 
 
 
 rj- N m ONOO vO 
 N ONOO ^O COVQ 1^ 
 O ^O f*> *n -< t^ o 
 
 VO in O ** rr ^ CS HH V 
 
 i-i N in p p ^p y> 
 b b N b N 
 
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 ounce 
 ounces 
 ft. -weig 
 
 ill 
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 crsocsioa ocsicsi csi 
 
 l 
 
 
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 oo 
 
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 ro ON oj r^> t^ HH o O fo 
 
 P ^-i^^Hc, ? Y* *> ^? * r^ P ^> 
 
 O O M co^O fOON M Ot^t^N** O 
 
 w co in *n HH 
 
 rf i-i m ON co t^ O 
 ON i-i r^ TJ- co i-< ON 
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 o 
 
 ri 
 
 
 
 
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 ^- 
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 J 2 
 
 s 
 
 J3 
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 CU3 ^ 
 
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 ta J >> 
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 rt <u c3 -5 c 
 
 Us o-a 
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358 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 iS4j; 
 
 I "a 'a 'a 
 
 t !: S ' 
 
 tuo ^ 
 
 CO f^ ^ 10 N 10 O\ ONOO t> 
 IOOO fO t> >-i N W "> COOO 
 t^ ^ 'tf-OO fOvO N ^- to 
 
 o\ vo 
 
 VO ON Tt" 
 
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 vo >-< ONOO N mvO 1-1 
 
 ONOO c^ 
 
 OO ON\O 
 
 in u5 
 
 o- e,,>S< < uo.a v -'-<ua>*j 
 
 jf|*if4vittil I'H..' 
 
 JS >i _ o o^w^iflO o o < 
 
 I si 
 
 OO OO CO CM *rj- OO CM 
 
 r**- r^ OO _, f o CO no --. "-^ C75 
 
 ,coco coco ca c ) '-Ooo a:>CSI 
 r^. co co^2 CM co 
 
 CO OD 
 LO uO 
 
 3l 
 
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 -"^^ .."~-Cr3=3 
 
 O G C .. . 
 
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 o d, ex. o 
 
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 ONVO 
 
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 ro 
 t^ vo 1-1 
 
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 u . . M M ro NH rovo 
 
 d -^ ^ 
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 So 
 
 
 14, -II JIIJJU 
 
 28^2 ^8 
 
 u u ii u u ~ 
 
 III 
 
 N o o vo o o vo 
 
 II II II ii II II II 
 
 > <u <u <u 
 
 Q' .;=> Ill is 
 
 rt^oxiCrt-flJSSo &'a H o-'J2rt o^rtort 
 tHH^H^U^C^^^ c^c^c^ KH O ^ W ^ H 
 
CH. iv. PAGAN MEASURES OF EASTERN ASIA. 
 
 359 
 
 I =111 
 
 r** co ^^ uf ^ ^^ 
 
 LO LO cvi co co 
 
 CT3 CM CT? CT3 CJ3 
 
 -^- -^- ti> ^-<N 
 
 Ill* 
 
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 sr^sr 
 
 s 
 
 gg 
 
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 sr 
 
 Q O, M 00 
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 CN ON t^ N 
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METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 II. 
 
 II , 
 
 11 
 
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 gg 
 
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 2 Si 8 
 
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 Is 1 " 1 
 
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 ss "1 
 
 m 
 
 
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 cr cr r 
 
 S *i ^ oco TI- 
 
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 v/1 N ON OQO <N "I 
 
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 srsfsr 
 
 s 13 3 
 
 Ill 
 
 CL, &, a, 
 
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 O w 1-1 00 M3 
 
 OOOvOO coi-iTfro 
 
 VO 00 OO vO cOt^\OOO 
 
 VO t- ^OO CO 1-1 ir) if) O Tj- 
 
 i-iQco^J- cowco^- vnoo 
 
 ^ R'S 1 
 
 S.Sji^'i 
 
 3 "13 .S 
 
 C^^PnplHC^ 
 
 .83113 
 
 H en V3 v5 al <1 
 
CH. iv. PAGAN MEASURES OF EASTERN ASIA. 
 
 s 
 
 S ~ " 
 
 
 
 s . s . o s s s.a 2 
 
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 SSS^S fewS^c? 
 
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 Si 
 
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 sl-il^tli 
 
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 to ti'S 
 
 
362 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 TART II. 
 
 1s a i s -- . I 
 
 If 'mm -I! -i 
 
 r, 00 O 00 rf 10 
 
 "o N OO O OO N HI vf , HI 
 
 e, N N Tt-oo HI HI o ^ y *** V **1 
 
 WfONi-iNOOOOHiOO OONO 
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 b b HI ro N b ioo b N b HI 
 
 a 
 
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 rt 
 
 tjo ; 
 
 to O O 
 
 52 
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 wScocoS^SS^ C=!^r 
 
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 ^ ^-^-^-cor^.-^-cb 
 
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 fi fi T3 
 
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 Cu bfl ex Xi 
 
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 HI ON C^ o ON HI 
 
 ti N P 9 \^ 
 
 C H4 HI H. tOO 
 
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 Nt^QioO 1 ^'-' OHI 
 
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 HifONOO'- 1 '-' HiHit^.iO>O OHIHIHI 
 
 __ \ONNN 
 
 OHIVONN MtOiOfO 
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 oo^oooooo^ 
 
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 ii 7 ii 3 ii ii ii ii ii ii ii 
 
 
 -n 
 *S 
 
CH. IV. PAGAN MEASURES OF EASJ^ERN ASIA. 
 
 363 
 
 
 c .sjj 8 3 V Ii 2" 1 = 
 
 HI : s s "II i llli s || g, ; 
 
 W vo wi 
 4) to ro fO i 
 
 O 00 00 Q^ ^ ro 
 
 ^ W OO ON r^ t~* O 
 
 '-'^-O'^t- ONONTJ-ON 
 
 OO MI Tj- HH t^ HH O 
 
 w oo >-< oo t^ 1-1 vo 
 
 N 10 o "^ 
 
 ON H* ON ON 
 
 PO ONONboNb b -" oo HH cn^oob 
 
 s -S3 '3 a o w 
 
 o 1 SS^oOrGSS ^ <+* v v -" 
 
 w ._ -w Sg l ^^ | -' G o o " x x ^2 cw W 
 
 1 1 J s: s J r l J t t % $ d 3 3 'a 
 
 1) co CD ura co co CD 5 r2 CN CM _< 
 
 p:^co^: fegg- 
 
 c?co ^cocjDap 
 
 i^tCnifcDCO cor^-^r^.^ C3co=fi_ -- 
 
 iCMCOCoScsl COCD^-CDr^ -^CDCp^}- ^-LOCO-^ 
 
 ,-^- cb-^-cb-^-cb cb-^-cbcb co cb ^ CM 
 
 CD i CD CO ^ I 
 
 -r- :?= co 
 
 | * -^g -a*| | 8 1 
 
 >, a of w" 2 ri 'ft'o, S)^ bb O ft O 
 
 r^ r^ Tf N N N 
 
 ^fO O ^ O ^O 
 
 M CO to O OO N 
 
 ON to ro N co fo O 
 
 I-ONONON rfrofOON 
 
 O ON O M O 
 
 -I 
 
 00 
 
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 ^2 QJ d X O :o 
 
 sill 
 
 vg^ b^&22 .222 2 
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 W (/) 
 
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364 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 4> <U 
 
 f 8 fo 6 s S 8 2 I 
 
 a -g is is * ^ S S is = -g 
 
 .> S ^5 'r=3 S tvO bfl ^5 ,5 S 
 
 $ 
 
 s. il 
 
 ^ LO ON ON ON 
 
 C LO'CO O Q 'f5 ON ON -*-OO 
 JJOO pO O pONN ONCX5 
 fa MOvN^-cot^Mwco 
 co f 
 
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 9 r 
 
 00 VO CO LO M 
 
 o" il? co N l ^ ^ 
 
 Thob vb N ^t M b 
 
 w covO 
 
 1 I 
 
 g^ 
 
 ^g^ 
 
 J I 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 Lf>^CNid5Lp 
 
 U 
 
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 CU 0" CT' & 
 
 QQ VO -^-00 CO 
 vO OO vO N co 
 
 
 
 O O 
 
 "5 " t/J U -i 
 
 QJ qj _^ 'yj 
 
 's M "3 c c 
 B I g-1 1 
 
 g- I 
 
 O r* :-i 
 
 1)1 I 
 
 \O LO w 
 
 LOCO LO 
 
 vO O ^ m 
 
 LOVO co 
 
 SvO OO 
 
 N IS 
 
 pNOO 
 
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365 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 MEDICINAL AND LAPIDARIES' SYSTEMS. 
 
 IT is comparatively recently that in Europe medicinal 
 weights and measures have been incorporated in the 
 commercial weights and measures of various countries 
 and nations ; in some cases, more notably in Russia, 
 this has not yet been effected, while in England the 
 transition is now merely imperfectly effected. In 
 Oriental countries under Moslem sway, the medicinal 
 weights, the dram and its subdivisions, appear to have 
 always formed part of the commercial measures, and 
 never a segregated collection ; in Pagan countries the 
 monetary weights most frequently served also as 
 medicinal weights ; and generally in olden time com- 
 pounding was effected entirely by weight, and inde- 
 pendently of measures of capacity. 
 
 The adoption of three distinct systems of commer- 
 cial, of monetary, and of medicinal weight, appears to 
 have been confined to European nations. The typical 
 European unit of monetary weight was the old Coin 
 marc of 8 ounces, with which the old English or Anglo- 
 Saxon marc was nearly identical ; the typical unit of 
 commercial weight in Europe was not a solitary unit, for it 
 is probable that some one Oriental rotal, rottolo, or arratel, 
 or a variety of them, formed the basic units in Southern 
 
365 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 Europe, while in Northern Europe the double-marc 
 became the commercial pound ; the typical or basic 
 unit of medicinal weight in Northern Europe was the 
 Niirnberg pound of 12 ounces, or marc and a half of 
 Niirnberg, though in Southern Europe no corresponding 
 single unit of medicinal weight retained any such marked 
 importance. 
 
 Treating the matter broadly, the monetary unit com- 
 monly used was an eight-ounce marc, the medicinal unit 
 was a twelve-ounce pound, and the commercial unit was 
 a sixteen-ounce pound ; but these marcs and pounds 
 generally belonged to different systems or scales of mea- 
 sure, before their incorporation into a single one. 
 
 Immediately this incorporation is effected, the medi- 
 cinal pound becomes either obsolete or merely nominal, 
 the commercial ounce of the nation becomes the medici- 
 nal ounce, and its mode of subdivision into smaller units 
 alone retains importance in its bearing on the com- 
 pounding of drugs. 
 
 Under these circumstances, which are generally true 
 of Europe in the nineteenth century (the period to 
 which this book is intended to apply), the values of the 
 medicinal ounce and its various modes of subdivision in 
 Europe form the principal part of any useful information 
 on this subject ; these will be found at the end of this 
 section in tabular form, arranged under the heads of the 
 various nations to which it applies. 
 
 On referring to it, it will be noticed that the typical 
 mode of subdividing the ounce in Northern Europe is 
 the Niirnberg method. 
 
 I ounce = 8 drams = 24 scruples = 480 grains. 
 
CH. v. MEDICINAL SYSTEMS. 367 
 
 In Southern Europe, in Italy, Spain, Portugal, and 
 France, the mode was 
 
 i ounce = 8 drams = 24 scruples =5 76 grains, 
 
 the difference between the two consisting in dividing the 
 scruple into 20 grains in Northern Europe, and into 24 
 grains in Southern Europe. In some cases the obolus 
 of half a scruple and in others the carat of four grains 
 were units used in addition to the above. The Neapoli- 
 tan mode of subdivision formed the only exception to 
 the above general type. 
 
 The introduction of metric measures in France, Italy, 
 and the Netherlands in the earlier part of this century 
 and in other countries in recent times, had for its princi- 
 pal effect on medicinal weights the abolition of pounds, 
 ounces, and grains, and the substitution of the gramme 
 for the scruple which it nearly represented ; the gramme 
 thus became the unit of metric medicinal weight, and its 
 decimal multiples and sub-multiples became nominal 
 measures. (See ' Medicinal Measures of France, Italy, 
 and the Netherlands.') 
 
 In England the medicinal measures are particularly 
 unfortunate, not having yet gone through their transi- 
 tion stage, and not being yet cleared of the difficulties 
 resulting from borrowing in ancient times from France 
 both the Troy grain and the avoirdupois pound. The 
 medicinal weight is still old Troy weight, but medi- 
 cinal measures of capacity are avoirdupois fluid ounces 
 with submultiples. The best remedy for this would 
 be in accordance with general improvement of the 
 system ; the adoption of an English millesimal ounce, 
 YoVo f tne foot-weight ; and the subdivision of this 
 ounce into 1000 mils or thousandths. See also ' Pro- 
 
 *A A 8 
 
368 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 posed Systems ' at the end of the book. Under any 
 circumstances, the medical measures of capacity, the 
 fluid ounce, fluid dram, and fluid grain (or liquid grain 
 as it is officially termed) ; or the fluid mil, on the other 
 method, should correspond with the weights of similar 
 name. This correlation is preserved in the French 
 System, where the centimetre cube corresponds to the 
 gramme. 
 
 The entire abolition of separate medicinal measures 
 of all sorts, and the unification of a national series of 
 measures, is the natural course of development, and 
 constitutes progress in this special branch of measures. 
 
 LAPIDARIES' SYSTEMS. 
 
 Diamonds, pearls, and precious stones are frequently 
 estimated in weight-units, distinct from both the com- 
 mercial and medicinal measure of the country or place. 
 They are mentioned as weighing a certain number of 
 carats ; these carats are almost invariably divided into 
 four grains, and these grains are further divided into 
 quarters, sixteenths and sixty-fourths, on a binary scale. 
 Such carats vary in value in various countries, although 
 they may be mere departures from some original 
 Kspdnov, perhaps an ancient Alexandrian carat, or in 
 later times from the Amsterdam carat. 
 
 The estimation of the value of rough and cut dia- 
 monds is a matter closely allied to the values of the carat 
 as a weight-unit, and requires some explanation. The 
 value of an uncut diamond varies with the square of its 
 actual weight expressed in carats ; thus, taking a price 
 of >2 per carat, the value of a five-carat uncut diamond 
 is 5x5x2 = ^50. The value of a five-carat cut dia 
 mond, which has lost about half its weight in cutting, * 
 
CH. V. JEWELLERS' SYSTEMS. 369 
 
 similarly estimated at a price of 2 per carat, but is 
 based on the square of double its actual weight in carats ; 
 thus 10 x 10 x 2 = 200. 
 
 In most places pearls are estimated in diamond- 
 carats ; in others there are special pearl-carats, of dif- 
 ferent value. There are also both real and nominal 
 weight-units applied to pearls. For instance, Bombay 
 pearls are first estimated by weight in tanks of real 
 weight; the tank being = 24 ratti (see table), or 72 
 English grains ; they are secondly estimated in nominal 
 chows by calculation thus. The square of the number of 
 tanks multiplied by 330 and divided by the number of 
 pearls weighed, gives the number of chows ; and the 
 current price is applied to the chow. If 50 pearls weigh 
 4 tanks, and the chow is worth 1 2 rupees, their value = 
 12 rupeeSj or about 
 
 50 
 
 Madras pearls are differently estimated ; they are 
 first weighed in mangals of real weight-units, and then 
 estimated in Madras chows by calculation thus. Three 
 quarters of the square of the weight of the pearls in 
 mangals is divided by the number of the pearls weighed 
 to obtain the number of chows, and the current price is 
 then applied to the Madras chow. Thus, if 60 pearls 
 weigh 50 mangal, and the price of the Madras chow be 
 
 40 rupees, the value of the pearls =J X 5 X S x 4 = 
 
 1250 rupees, or 125. 
 
 In both such cases the chow r is a mere nominal unit 
 of estimation ; although there is also an Indian chow 
 that is a real weight-unit. 
 
 The term carat } when applied to precious metals, 
 fold and silver, is not a weight-unit, but a mere mode of 
 
 B B 
 
370 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 expressing the purity or fineness of the metal in twenty- 
 fourths. Thus 1 8- carat gold is metal in which 18 parts 
 out of 24, or three-fourths, are pure gold ; the remaining 
 6 parts, or one -fourth, being alloy. This method of es- 
 timating fineness is due to the old marc having been 
 divided into twenty- four real carats, or actual weight- 
 units. The more modern method is to estimate fineness 
 in thousandths; thus gold 750 fine has 250 parts alloy, 
 and corresponds to 1 8-carat gold ; three-quarters of the 
 metal being pure gold in each case. 
 
 Reverting to the real carats of various nations, their 
 values will be found in a table immediately following the 
 tables of medicinal measure in this chapter. 
 
 Besides these carats, there are in some countries other, 
 weight-units that are used for precious stones, and occa- 
 sionally for precious metal also. One of the most 
 notable of these is the Indian gonj, gunja, or gundumini ; 
 it is by origin a hard scarlet pea, dotted with black, 
 which when dry is very invariable in weight ; its weight 
 is also termed a ratti or rutti ; but in a few places the 
 gonj and the ratti are distinct, the latter having become 
 an abstract unit apart from the former, subsidiary to the 
 tolah or weight of the local rupee. 
 
 Another of the more notable of these weight-units 
 used for precious stones and precious metal is the can- 
 darin, or condorine, or cantarai, also termed by the 
 Chinese a fun or fan, and by the South-Indians %.fanam, 
 and used all over the Indo-Chinese Archipelago. This 
 is by origin a large lentil, or pea, of a pinkish colour 
 dotted with black, about double the size of the gonj, and 
 possessing the same quality of very slight variability of 
 weight when dry ; is probably a variety of the same 
 botanic genus or species. The value when reduced to 
 
CH. v. JEWELLERS' SYSTEMS. 371 
 
 absolute standard became a subsidiary part or sub- 
 multiple of the weight of some local coin, rupee or 
 pagoda, or a decimal fraction of some local ounce or 
 tchen, as in China and Japan. The term candarin, vul- 
 garised by the English into condorine, is probably a 
 Portuguese corruption of the Indian word cantarai ; the 
 word fanam is also Indian, but the word fan or fun is 
 Chinese, though perhaps of South-Indian origin, and now 
 denotes not only the tenth of a chien or ounce, but is a 
 general term for a tenth, or a decimal fraction. 
 
 The values of the ratti and the fanam are given in 
 tables following that of the carat, at the end of this 
 chapter. 
 
 *B B 2 
 
372 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART II. 
 
 MEDICINAL MEASURES OF WEIGHT AND 
 OF CAPACITY. 
 
 NUREMBERG WEIGHT. 
 
 THE medicinal pound of Nuremberg, = f Nuremberg monetary pound, was 
 formerly universally adopted in Germany and Russia : 
 
 English French 
 
 Value of the Nuremberg pound 5522 grains =357 '85 grammes 
 The Nuremberg ounce = ^ pound 460' 17 grains = 29*821 grammes 
 
 The subdivision of the Nuremberg ounce was : 
 
 Ounce Drachms Scruples Oboles Grains 
 
 I = 8 = 24 = 48 = 480 
 
 i 3 6 60 
 
 I = 2 = 2O 
 
 I = 10 
 
 I 
 
 Grammes 
 29'82I 
 3-726 
 1-243 
 0-622 
 0*062 
 
 Compounding was then mostly done by weight. 
 
 In modern times the commercial ounce of various nations has been 
 mostly taken as the unit of medical weight. The Nuremberg or German 
 mode of subdivision into 480 grains is used by most northern nations of 
 Europe ; the French mode by southern nations. 
 
 DENMARK, NORWAY, AND GERMANY. 
 
 The Nuremberg pound and ounce are generally adopted, with their 
 typical subdivision, for medicinal purposes. (See also Prussia, Austro- 
 Hungary, and Bavaria.) 
 
 SWEDEN. 
 
 The Swedish medicinal pound is iff of the skSlpund, and is 7410 as. 
 Valueof the medicinal pound = 5478 -5 English grains = 35 5 grammes. 
 Value of the medicinal ounce = 456*54 English grains = 29-583 grammes. 
 Its subdivision follows the Nuremberg type as given above. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 The medicinal weights and measures are now in a state of transition. 
 
 At present (1881) the English medicinal ounce (for weight) is the old 
 Troy ounce of 480 grains ; this grain being identical with the commercial 
 grain (a Troy grain). 
 
 The subdivision of the medicinal ounce is thus : 
 
 Troy Ounce Med. Drachms Scruples G>ains 
 
 I = 8 -'24 = 480 
 
 i 3 60 
 
 I = 20 
 
 Grammes 
 31-103 
 
 3-888 
 1-296 
 0-065 
 
CH. V. 
 
 MEDICINAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 373 
 
 The English medicinal measures of capacity are arranged on two alter- 
 native systems, based on the commercial fluid ounce at 62 Fahrenheit 
 normal temperature. 
 First 
 
 Cubic Centim. 
 
 28-350 
 I 
 
 Fluid Ounce 
 
 I 
 
 Fluid Med. Drms. 
 8 
 
 Minims 
 480 
 60 
 I 
 
 Secondly 
 Fluid Ounce 
 
 I 
 
 3 '544 
 0-059 
 
 Fluid Med. Drms. 
 
 Liquid Grains 
 437-50 
 
 Cubic Centim. 
 28-350 
 
 3-544 
 00648 
 
 The latter system is not yet customary, although standards have been sup- 
 plied to the public. 
 
 A preferable mode of subdivision may be used for technical purposes, 
 both in weight and in capacity, thus^ 
 
 i ounce = looo mils I i foot-weight = looo ounces 
 
 I fluid ounce = looo fluid mils { I cubic foot = looo fluid ounces 
 
 but this method is not yet customary. 
 
 PRUSSIA. 
 
 The medicinal ounce is identical with the commercial ounce. Value 
 of the ounce 451-11 English grains, or 29-232 grammes. Its subdivision 
 follows the Nuremberg type (see preceding page) into 480 medicinal grains. 
 
 AUSTRO-HUNGARY. 
 
 The medicinal ounce is identical with the commercial ounce. Value of 
 the ounce 540-19 English grains, or 35*004 grammes. Its subdivision 
 follows the Nuremberg type (see preceding page) into 480 grains. 
 
 BAVARIA. 
 
 The medicinal ounce is identical with the commercial ounce. Value of 
 the unze 462-97 English grains, or 30 grammes. Its subdivision follows the 
 Nuremberg type, or it may be divided into grammes, and decimal parts of 
 the gramme. 
 
 RUSSIA. 
 
 The Russian medicinal funt = commercial funt, and is divided into 
 12 ounces. 
 
 Medicinal pound = 5529 -765 Eng. grs. =358-323 grammes 
 Medicinal ounce = 460-814 ,, = 29-860 
 
 The subdivision of the ounce into 480 grains is that of the Nuremberg 
 type (see above). 
 
374 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 The former Russian medical weights were those of Nuremberg. 
 
 The former Polish medicinal pound of 1819 was fixed at 358-5 grammes 
 = 5532 '49 grains English, and the ounce at 29*875 grammes = 46 1-04 
 grains English ; its subdivision was like that of Nuremberg. 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 The gramme is the unit of medicinal weight ; and the cubic centimetre 
 or millimetre that of medicinal capacity ; the decimal multiples and sub- 
 multiples of both are solely employed. 
 
 I gramme . . =15-4321 English grains 
 
 I cubic centimetre = 15-4321 ,, liquid grains 
 
 the mode of subdivision is : 
 
 I kilogramme = IOOO grammes = I OOO ooo milligrammes 
 I gramme 1000 milligrammes 
 and 
 
 I litre = 1000 centim. cub. = I ooo ooo millim. cub. 
 i centim. cub. = 1000 millim. cub. 
 
 From 1812 to 1840, the mesures usttelles were : 
 
 the livre usuelle = 5oo grammes = 7716-05 English grains 
 the once ,, =32 ,, = 493'83 ,, 
 
 and the following was the mode of subdivision (codex) : 
 
 Once Gros Grammes Grains 
 
 I = 8 = 32 = 640 
 
 I 4 80 
 
 I = 20 
 
 Before 1840, the Iivre = 367'i3 grammes = 5665 -67 English grains 
 
 the once = i livre = 30-594 472'H 
 
 and the following was the old French mode of subdivision : 
 
 Drachmas or Deniers or 
 Once Gros Scrupules Grains 
 
 i = 8 = 24 = 576 
 
 i 3 72 
 
 i = 24 
 
 This old French mode of subdivision into 576 grains was typical in 
 Southern Europe, and was employed in Italy, Spain, and Portugal. 
 
 ITALY. 
 Metric units as in France, but with local names : 
 
 Oncia = 100 grammes = 1543-210 English grains 
 Grosso =10 ,, = 154-321 ,, 
 
 Denaro= I gramme = 15*432 ,, 
 
 Grano = o-i ,, = 1-543 English grain 
 
CH. V. 
 
 MEDICINAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 375 
 
 The former Italian medicinal ounces were local light commercial ounces, 
 or twelfths of the light commercial pound, peso sottile, and had the follow- 
 ing values : 
 
 28-296 grammes = 436 '67 English grains 
 28-258 =436-08 
 
 Tuscany . 
 
 Roman States of the Church 
 Sardinia, Genoa . 
 Turin . 
 Lombardy, Milan 
 Venetia, Venice . 
 Kingdom of Naples 
 
 . 25-617 =395-32 
 
 . 26-500 =408-95 
 
 . 27-233 =420-37 
 
 . 25-108 =387-47 
 
 . 26729 =412-49 
 
 The typical mode of subdivision was, excepting at Venice and Naples, 
 the same as the old French method, into 576 grains (see France). 
 
 At Venice, the sazio of one-sixth of the ounce was an additional unit of 
 subdivision. 
 
 The Neapolitan mode of subdivision into 10 drams was of Oriental type. 
 
 Trapezi or 
 Onzia Drammi Scrupoli Acini 
 
 i = 10 = 30 - 600 
 
 i 3 60 
 
 i = 20 
 
 THE NETHERLANDS. 
 
 The metric units as in France, but with local names : 
 Wigtje or Gramme 
 
 Ons 
 I 
 
 Lood Wigtje or Gramme Korrel 
 
 IO = IOO = IOOO 
 
 The medicinal pound of Holland and Belgium was | kilogram 
 or grammes. 
 
 For values of metric units, see France and Italy. 
 
 375wigte 
 
 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 At present the French metric measures are used for medicinal purposes. 
 From 1822 till lately the old mesures usuelles (see France) ; before 1822, 
 the Nuremberg pound in most- cantons, but at Basle, Friberg, Berne, 
 Neufchatel, and Soleure the older Parisian livre of 12 onces poids de marc 
 of 367-13 grammes. 
 
 For all these see France, and Nuremberg measures. 
 
 SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 
 
 The Spanish and Portuguese medicinal ounces are identical with the 
 respective commercial ounces. 
 
 Spanish ounce = 443 -67 English grains = 28-75 grammes 
 Portuguese ounce = 442-75 ,, =28-69 
 
 The mode of subdivision is the same in both cases, and is nearly identical 
 with the typical old French mode. 
 
 Ochavas or 
 Onza Dracmas Escrupulos Caracters Granos 
 
 i - 8 - 24 = 144 576 
 
 i = 3 = 18 = 72 
 
 i 6 = 24 
 
 I = 4 
 
376 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART H, 
 
 THE LEVANT. 
 
 The Venetian medicinal weights (see Venice, Italy). Also Oriental 
 commercial dirhams, &c. (see Commercial Systems of Turkey, Syria, &c.) 
 
 ORIENTAL COUNTRIES. 
 
 The medicinal weights are identical with both the commercial and 
 the monetary weights, all of which are arranged in a single system. See 
 subdivisions of commercial measures. 
 
 PAGAN COUNTRIES. 
 
 The medicinal weights for compounding are identical with the monetary 
 weights in many cases ; in others sufficient information is not available. 
 
 TABLE OF MEDICINAL OUNCES. 
 
 
 is! s 
 
 n 
 
 1 
 
 
 "G 
 
 
 
 In some cases identical with commercial 
 
 ill 
 
 <e~ 
 
 -s|l 
 
 ounces. 
 
 Ml 
 
 wow 
 
 H_S'3 
 
 fewW 
 
 
 Grains 
 
 Mill. oz. 
 
 Grammes 
 
 D Norway & } Nurember g UnCe = 4 8 grains. 
 
 460-17 
 
 1-0532 
 
 29-821 
 
 Sweden. Medicinal ounce . =480 grains 
 
 456*44 
 
 1-0448 
 
 29-583 
 
 England. Troy ounce . . =480 grains | 480 | 1-0985 
 
 3I-I03 
 
 Millesimal ounce . = 1000 mils 
 
 436-97 
 
 1 
 
 28-315 
 
 Prussia. Commercial ounce . =480 grains 
 
 451-11 
 
 1-0324 
 
 29-232 
 
 Austro- Hungary. Com. ounce =480 grains 
 
 540-I9 
 
 1-1362 
 
 35-004 
 
 Bavaria. Commercial ounce . =480 grains 
 
 462-97 
 
 1-0595 
 
 30 
 
 Germany. Nuremberg ounce . = 480 grains 
 
 460-17 
 
 1-0532 
 
 29*821 
 
 Russia. Medicinal ounce . = 480 grains 
 
 460-81 
 
 1-0546 
 
 29'860 
 
 France, Italy, Netherlands, Switzerland, and 
 
 
 
 
 Greece. The gramme . = 1000 milgr. 
 
 I5-43 
 
 0-0353 
 
 I 
 
 Spain. Commercial ounce . =576 grains 
 
 443-67 
 
 1-0154 
 
 28-750 
 
 Portugal. Commercial ounce = 576 grains 
 
 442-75 
 
 1-0132 
 
 28-690 
 
 Levant. Venetian com. ounce. =576 grains 
 
 387-47 
 
 0-9574 
 
 27-108 
 
CH. V. 
 
 MEDICINAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 377 
 
 MEDICINAL MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
 
 
 
 ill 
 
 ill 
 
 
 
 WCJH 
 
 *.a 
 
 ww 
 
 
 
 Fluid oz. 
 
 Fluid oz- 
 
 England. Fluid ounce avoir. = 
 grains = 480 minims . 
 
 437i liquid 
 
 I 
 
 1-0025 
 
 England. Fluid ounce millesimal 
 
 = 1000 fluid 
 
 
 
 
 
 O-QQ7C 
 
 1 
 
 France. Centimetre cube =1000 
 
 millimetres 
 
 yy/j 
 
 
 cube ..... 
 
 . 
 
 0-0352 
 
 0-0353 
 
 N.B. For details, see preceding pages. 
 
 LAPIDARIES' WEIGHT-UNITS. 
 
 Reputed values of the carat, 
 The carat invariably is = 4 carat grain?. 
 
 England. Diamond carat .... 
 ,, Pearl carat . . 
 
 Germany. Kolnische diamant-karat 
 
 Austro- Hungary. Vienna diamond carat 
 
 Holland. Amsterdam diamond carat . 
 
 Russia. Amsterdam diamond carat 
 
 France. Old diamond carat = 3 '876 grains 
 poids de marc ...... 
 
 Spain. Diamond carat = 4 Castilian grains . 
 
 Portugal and Brazil. Quilate^4'i32 granos 
 peso de mardo ...... 
 
 Italy. Bologna carat ..... 
 ,, Florence carat ..... 
 ,, Turin carat ..... 
 ,, Venice carat ..... 
 
 Turkey. Kara, killo or taim 
 
 Egypt. Alexandrian kerat .... 
 
 Arabia. Mokha karat ..... 
 
 Persia. Kirat=i6una . . 
 
 India. English diamond carat 
 
 Java, Borneo, &c. A Dutch carat of 4-096 as 
 
 For China, Japan, and the Chinese Archi- 
 pelago, see fan, fanam, or candarin, 
 
 ll 
 
 og 
 
 js 4513 
 
 SSI 
 
 lit 
 
 HOW 
 
 ||| 
 
 Grains 
 
 Mils. 
 
 3-168 
 
 7-250 
 
 3-2OO 
 
 7-323 
 
 3'17I 
 
 7-2s7 
 
 3'lSl 
 
 7-280 
 
 3-I65 
 
 7-243 
 
 
 7-243 
 
 3-I77 
 
 7-270 
 
 3-085 
 
 7-060 
 
 3-I76 
 
 7-268 
 
 2-9IO 
 
 6-660 
 
 3-033 
 
 6-941 
 
 
 7-543 
 
 3-I96 
 
 7-314 
 
 3-094 
 
 7-081 
 
 2'959 
 
 6-772 
 
 3 
 
 6-865 
 
 3-232 
 
 7-397 
 
 3-168 
 
 7-250 
 
 3-038 
 
 6'952 
 
378 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS 
 
 PART II. 
 
 LAPIDARIES' WEIGHT-UNITS 
 
 continued. 
 
 Values of the gonj or ratti. 
 Bombay gonza -= 6 chow 
 Puna gunja = 2 wat . 
 Ahmadnagar, Chandor, & Nassick gonja 
 Bombay ratti = 13! takka = 16 ana . 
 Ahmadabad ratti ..... 
 Aurangabandar ratti = 24 mun 
 Calcutta ratti = 4 dhan = 8 nelli= 16 pan- 
 
 kho 
 
 Calcutta pearl ratti or pakka ratti . 
 Dehli jewellers' ratti .... 
 Jaulna ratti = 2 wheat grains = 4 urd -grains 
 
 = 8 rice grains ..... 
 
 Malwa ratti = 8 chaul .... 
 
 Patna ratti ...... 
 
 Sindhi ratti = 24 mun .... 
 
 ,, pearl ratti = 8 hubla 
 Surat ratti = 6 chauwal .... 
 
 , , pearl ratti = 20 vassa 
 
 Values of the fan, fanam, or candarin. 
 
 Bangalur fanam or cantarai = 4 grumatri 
 = 1 6 paddy grains .... 
 
 Ballari fanam or cantarai 
 
 Calicut fanam, ii^toamiskal 
 
 Cochin fanam ..... 
 
 Pondicheri fanam = 16 nelli . 
 
 Masulipatam chunam or fanam 
 
 Madras. Mangal= 16 ana 
 
 Sumatra. Bencoolen fanam or candarin. 
 ,, Natal fanam or candarin 
 
 ,, Padang fanam or candarin . 
 
 Moluccas. Timor fanam cr candarin 
 
 Sulu Islands. Chusuk or candarin 
 
 China. Fan, or candarin = 10 li or cash 
 
 Japan. Fan (old value) = 10 ring . 
 ,, Modern value of fan = 10 ring . 
 
 Madagascar. Nanke .... 
 
 
 "a c" 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 'o g 
 
 ."a |l5 
 
 2 w*S 
 
 M 
 
 I 
 
 "So s '3 
 
 G & 
 
 wow 
 
 '"lag. 
 
 i ^ 
 
 Grains 
 
 Mils. 
 
 100 
 
 I-790 
 
 4-095 
 
 96 
 
 1-997 
 
 4-570 
 
 96 
 
 1-960 
 
 4-485 
 
 
 3 
 
 6-865 
 
 96 
 
 2-015 
 
 4-611 
 
 72 
 
 2-486 
 
 5-689 
 
 100 
 
 2-246 
 
 5-140 
 
 
 2-825 
 
 6-465 
 
 
 1-250 
 
 2-861 
 
 96 
 
 1-923 
 
 4-401 
 
 
 1-979 
 
 4-529 
 
 
 
 6-980 
 
 72 
 
 2-486 
 
 5-689 
 
 
 16 
 
 36-616 
 
 96 
 
 J "953 
 
 4-469 
 
 
 2-846 
 
 6-513 
 
 30 
 
 5-870 
 
 13-433 
 
 30 
 
 5-875 
 
 13-445 
 
 
 5-800 
 
 13-273 
 
 31 
 
 5-796 
 
 13-264 
 
 
 5-871 
 
 13-436 
 
 30 
 
 5-968 
 
 13-657 
 
 
 6 
 
 13-731 
 
 
 6-380 
 
 14-601 
 
 
 5-840 
 
 13-365 
 
 
 6-360 
 
 14-555 
 
 
 5-800 
 
 13-273 
 
 
 
 13-349 
 
 
 5798 
 
 13-269 
 
 
 5-688 
 
 13-217 
 
 
 5-824 
 
 13-328 
 
 
 5 
 
 11-442 
 

 379 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 ON SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS. 
 
 WHILE a commercial system of measures has for its 
 principal object the convenience of the general public 
 and of the wholesale and the retail tradesman, in buying 
 and selling any saleable commodity, and in measuring, 
 weighing, and subdividing it in accordance with a rigid 
 unalterable set of commercial units of known value and 
 fixed ratio, a scientific system of measures on the con- 
 trary may be almost independent of retail trade-conve- 
 nience, and, comparatively speaking, unsuited to purposes 
 of ordinary and frequent measuring and weighing. 
 Thus, while in a commercial system some recognised 
 suitable unit with an appropriate mode of subdivision 
 must be forthcoming at almost every point where any 
 brr.nch of trade may require one, such a heavy demand 
 is not made on a scientific system, which is sufficiently 
 complete in this respect, if it supplies only one unit of 
 length, one of surface, one of capacity, and one of 
 weight, in accordance with the commercial measures of 
 the same country. 
 
 A scientific set of measures is made use of by a com- 
 paratively very small section of the public, scientific and 
 professional men, who are nearly indifferent to the units 
 cf retail trade, the pecks, pots, and pounds, and the 
 quarters, eighths, and sixteenths of perpetual daily 
 
380 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n 
 
 weighing and measuring ; in fact, for the purposes of a 
 certain number of scientific men, a set of scientific 
 measures belonging to any foreign nation, and totally 
 disconnected with their own national commercial system, 
 might be quite suitable, provided it was convenient in 
 other respects. For professional men, however, who 
 form a connecting link between scientific men and the 
 general public, it is an absolute necessity that the 
 scientific system shall have the small amount of accord- 
 ance with the commercial measures of their own 
 country already mentioned. 
 
 The second distinctive element in a scientific system 
 is that, as convenience of calculation on an extensive 
 scale is more important than facility in measuring, 
 weighing, and subdividing, the decimal mode of sub- 
 division, with decimal multiples and submultiples, 
 becomes as necessary in it as a binary or a mixed 
 binary-decimal subdivision is in commerce ; for the 
 professional man wishes to calculate with facility from 
 the ounce to the bushel, from the pint to the ton (using 
 commercial units for illustration) or from the gallon to 
 the acre and the inch, while the retail tradesman and 
 those dealing with him calculate in a very limited range 
 peculiar to one single trade. 
 
 In the third place, the scientific and professional 
 man is contented with units set far apart, such as hun- 
 dreds or thousands of the next lower unit, while the 
 tradesmen requires his commercial units at comparatively 
 short distances, generally counting and dividing merely 
 to quarters, eighths, twelfths, or sixteenths before coming 
 to another commercial unit of distinctive name and 
 value, from which he may make a fresh start in his 
 small calculations. 
 
CH. vi. SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS. 381 
 
 The fourth distinctive element in a perfect scientific 
 system is that the standard units, though few in number, 
 should be absolutely correct and truly determined, most 
 especially in the connection between the standard unit 
 of capacity or cubic measure and the standard unit of 
 weight ; any defect in this respect being liable to vitiate 
 the deductions and calculated results of scientific men, 
 many of which are based on very small and excessively 
 meagre data, and are thus liable to superimposed and 
 cumulative error from such a cause. As regards the 
 connection between the standard unit of cubic measure 
 or capacity, which in a scientific system are identical, 
 and the standard unit of weight, there is no doubt that 
 the method of comparison by distilled water at its utmost 
 density that is, at a temperature of about 39 Fahren- 
 heit has been accepted as the most convenient mode 
 in principle, and that most commonly recognised as the 
 best at present. Whether it really is so or not may be 
 doubtful, but the determination of this point should rest 
 with special experts. When the investigations and 
 labours of scientific men have arrived at a preferable 
 liquid of uniform density, at a solid of uniform density 
 preferable to a brass or platinum weight, and at an 
 improved mode of conducting scientific comparisons 
 of weight and capacity on a far larger scale than is at 
 present usual, an immensely higher degree of exactitude 
 will be attainable. At present only one of these three 
 important desiderata has been arrived at in the form of 
 the quartz weights introduced by Steinheil. 
 
 There is, however, another desideratum that would 
 give a stimulus to the development of all the others ; 
 it is that the governments of civilised countries should 
 depart from the old methods of accepting gratuitously 
 
382 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 the labours of scientific men, or of nominally and tardily 
 rewarding the latter by some official post, the retention 
 of which may require courtierlike finesse and intrigue 
 rather than skill. When the whole system of charitable 
 patronage of scientific labour and of appropriating 
 foreign results is swept away, and when substantial en- 
 couragement replaces detraction, more rapid progress 
 may be expected in this branch of science. 
 
 As regards actual scientific systems of measures, very 
 few may be said to exist at present. In ancient times 
 commercial measures were formed on a scientific basis, 
 were developments from a set of scientific units, or 
 derived from a scientific system. The ancient Baby- 
 lonian, Egyptian, Indian, the Hashemic, Ptolemaic, 
 Greek, and Roman systems, were all scientific, being 
 based on a cubit or a foot, and the weight of water or 
 of wine contained in a cubic cubit or a cubic foot. 
 
 Ancient Scientific Systems. 
 
 The earliest of these ancient scientific systems, of 
 which any mention is made, appears to have been Chal- 
 daean ; and it is very probable that the earliest of the 
 Egyptian and Phoenician systems were Chaldaean by 
 origin. Both decimal and sexagesimal modes of sub- 
 division were employed at a very early epoch ; but the 
 systems were probably very simple, and unembarrassed 
 by an infinity of commercial requirements ; a cubit once 
 determined and accurately fixed, its square, its cube, and 
 the weight of water, wine, or grain in its cube, were four 
 standard units of length, surface, capacity, and weight ; 
 the rest was probably nearly left to the habits of the 
 people. The cubits themselves were very various, and" 
 
CH. vi. SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS. 383 
 
 perhaps changed with each dynasty as the foot does in 
 China to the present day ; but there is also sufficient 
 reason to suppose that some of these ancient cubits were 
 geodetic, or based either on a theoretical geodetic unit, 
 or a measured terrestrial arc ; some were historic, and 
 venerated for their antiquity ; and others were carefully 
 systematised, so that the submultiples of the weight-units 
 dependent on them might be in convenient accordance 
 with monetary and commercial requirements. About 
 this purely-cubitic period there is little direct evidence, 
 its probable existence can only be inferred from analogies 
 that appear conclusive. 
 
 At a later period, the foot, diversely derived from 
 natural, royal, and sacred cubits, became the recognised 
 standard unit ; and the same principles were applied to 
 it. The talent or foot-weight of water, wine, or grain 
 was the unit of weight, and was divided either sexa- 
 gesimally into manah or pounds, or into fiftieths and 
 hundredths in the decimal mode. The ancient weights, 
 discovered by Layard (see Layard's ' Nineveh and 
 Babylon') and now existing in the British Museum, 
 afford ample evidence of the modes adopted in this 
 period. This historic method of dealing with the foot 
 and the talent as standard units has never yet been 
 improved upon, and is as applicable in England in the 
 present day as it ever was. (The revival of the English 
 foot-weight as a legal unit in 1859 affords evidence of 
 this.) It has unfortunately been considered fashionable 
 to decry this ancient system as unscientific, and to over- 
 rate the importance of the modern French system from 
 a scientific point of view. No valid reason can be urged 
 against the existence of carefully computed and ingeni- 
 ously arranged metrical units and systems at the earliest 
 
384 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 periods, when the Chaldaeans, the Phoenicians, and the 
 Egyptians were the civilised races. Ignorance and bar- 
 barism may be imputed to them, but cannot be proved 
 except as regards the masses. Of our own ignorance 
 and barbarism at the present day as regards an infinity 
 of subjects there is not the slightest doubt ; our ignorance 
 also extends to not knowing enough about the ancients, 
 and their scientific doings (which were necessarily 
 secluded), to be able to say what they could not do ; it 
 is hence safer to assume that they could do about as 
 much as ourselves in most matters, although probably in 
 very different ways, and with very different means and 
 appliances. 
 
 When we reflect on the vastness of the ancient Tyrian 
 mole, in comparison with our puny breakwaters ; on the 
 stupendous Egyptian pyramids and monoliths compared 
 with our buildings and fragmentary monuments ; on the 
 2O-ton shot used by the Turks at the siege of Byzan- 
 tium, and not yet attempted by ourselves, and on many 
 other similar or corresponding facts, we cannot but con- 
 clude that skill of a high description must have been 
 employed in such matters, and that the vastness and 
 grandeur of scale was not due to a thoughtless or coarse 
 aggregation of small things. 
 
 Comparatively uncivilised races at the present day 
 can achieve wonderful results with hardly any visible 
 appliances or mechanism ; travellers meet with many 
 such cases, of which one may be quoted in illustration. 
 After the Burmese war, a very heavy bell was taken as 
 a trophy, lowered from a pagoda, and, probably from 
 mismanagement, never arrived at the ship ; it was left 
 imbedded on the muddy shore ; the English could not 
 move it. One day a Burmese ecclesiastic asked if he 
 
CH. vi. SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS. 385 
 
 might have the bell, as the English apparently did not 
 want it ; he was informed that he might take it, if he 
 could ; the next morning the bell was hanging in its 
 former place at the pagoda. 
 
 Can we reasonably believe that the Phoenicians and 
 Chaldaeans were less skilful than the Burmese ? 
 
 As regards geodesy and astronomy in ancient times, 
 it is possible that the masses may have considered the 
 stars to be holes pricked through a concave, and the 
 earth a plane bounded by an immensity of ocean ; but 
 the enlightened priests, chiefs, and astrologers could not 
 have had such ideas. The ruins of enormous observa- 
 tories in India prove that angular observations must have 
 been made with very minute accuracy, even though 
 verniers and micrometers may have been wanting. The 
 knowledge of cycles, the Chaldaean Saros, the Indian 
 Vrihaspati Chacram or cycle of Jupiter, and the Indian 
 very correct knowledge of lunar motions, were based on 
 actual and extended series of astronomical observations. 
 Yet a large number of persons at the present day would 
 not hesitate to assert that ' black people, without even a 
 telescope, could not possibly know much about as- 
 tronomy.' 
 
 Some corresponding argument is also used to prove 
 that the ancients could not measure a geodetic arc, nor 
 even weigh or measure anything with precision. The 
 following is one : f 
 
 ' It is obvious that without a thermometer or other ' 
 ' adequate means, and without a barometer or knowledge ' 
 ' of pressure and density of air, all weighings and measur- ' 
 ' ings must have been wanting in scientific precision.' 
 
 The want of uniformity in the battered specimens of 
 ancient weights and measures that now exist is also 
 
 C C 
 
386 . METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 brought forward as an argument against precision in 
 early periods. Yet how would a few stray unselected 
 specimens of English units, Anglo-Saxon, British, 
 early Elizabethan standards (condemned as inaccurate), 
 Georgian and Victorian, appear to anyone two thousand 
 years hence ? 
 
 It is quite true that the appliances and means em- 
 ployed for many purposes in ancient times are wholly 
 unknown to us. The ancients and their astrologers had, 
 however, always the privilege of choosing a lucky moment 
 and a secluded place for their operations ; their moments 
 and their places and conditions may have been well 
 selected, so as to secure uniformity of temperature as well 
 as other objects ; they may also have had some superior 
 knowledge about the animal and the vegetable world 
 which could be utilised in a way rendering many of 
 our present appliances quite unnecessary within certain 
 limits. Also, by employing very large units, they may 
 through them have arrived by some process of their own 
 at accurate submultiples with quite as much accuracy as 
 is now done with small units and minute instrumental 
 readings. 
 
 There is therefore no more cogent reason for dis- 
 believing the powers of the ancients to measure a geo- 
 detic arc than to compute the cycle of Jupiter. 
 
 It has been believed for a long time that the Great 
 Pyramid, though probably a tomb, was also a perfect 
 storehouse of standard Egyptian units of measurement, 
 length, surface, capacity, and weight ; and that the units 
 of length were also formed on a geodetic basis. Many 
 have taken measurements there, and their deductions 
 differ widely ; yet this would hardly be sufficient ground 
 for condemning the opinion. It is far more probable 
 
CH. vi. SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS, 387 
 
 than otherwise that any constructors would under any 
 circumstances build a mass of that description in accord- 
 ance with, and in some definite ratio to, the units of 
 measurement used by them ; and this probability would 
 hold independently of any presumed object in forming a 
 permanent record of those units for future reference. It 
 would also be more convenient to the constructors that 
 certain standard units should be adhered to throughout 
 the work. 
 
 The discrepancies in the measurements of the base 
 of the Great Pyramid made at various times may be 
 easily accounted for ; the base is irregularly covered up 
 by accumulations of sand, the visible base is therefore a 
 very fluctuating length, and even if shafts be sunk at the 
 corners, and horizontal measurements made between 
 them, there is yet then some doubt as to which is the 
 real exact base, or where the original foundation ceased. 
 
 The astronomer Ptolemy determined the base to be 
 600 Phileterian feet, =690 English feet, and to be also 
 -g-Jpo of a degree of the meridian ; the most modern 
 measurements by the English Ordnance Surveyors made 
 the base about 760 English feet, or nearly -^-oth of the 
 mean degree. 
 
 Taking this latter as correct, a side would then be 
 nearly an eighth of a minute, and the sum of the four sides 
 half a minute ; so that there still remains as much 
 reason as ever to believe that some geodetic unit was 
 used in the construction of the Great Pyramid ; and 
 perhaps also more than one. 
 
 Ancient authors assert that the length of one of the 
 sides of the Great Pyramid was 500 cubits ; presuming 
 these to have been natural cubits from which the natural 
 Egyptian, Phoenician, and Olympic foot was derived by 
 
 c c 2 
 
388 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 taking two-thirds of it ; the natural cubit, 1-520 English 
 feet, and the natural foot, 1*013 English foot, must both 
 have been geodetic units. Taking another view of the 
 matter, and supposing that a sacred cubit was the unit 
 adopted, of Tin English feet, the length of the base 
 would be nearly if not exactly 360 sacred cubits ; a 
 species of sexagesimal stadium in harmony with ancient 
 Chaldaean multiples, and corresponding to the Chinese li 
 of 360 paces as regards mode of formation ; in that case 
 the sacred cubit may also have been geodetic in origin. 
 
 It is beyond the scope of this work to enter deeply 
 into ancient measures ; the reader is hence referred to 
 works on ancient metrology, and more especially to 
 Piazzi Smyth's book on the Pyramid for further informa- 
 tion regarding Pyramidal units. The object of the 
 foregoing digression has been simply to show that the 
 ancients may have been capable of producing accurate, 
 scientific, and geodetic units in very early periods of the 
 world's history. 
 
 Between the Pyramidal epoch and the later Arab or 
 Moslem period, several metrical systems, some of which 
 were scientific reconstructions, and others mere rearrange- 
 ments, were adopted by various nations at different times 
 and places. 
 
 The latest of these ancient systems recorded was the 
 Arab, or Almamun system, of the fifth or sixth century, 
 since which time, until nearly the present, 1 the nineteenth 
 century, not a single new scientific weight-unit appears to 
 have been formed; while the whole of the commercial 
 weights and measures of the world during that period appa- 
 rently consisted of the debris of ancient scientific systems. 
 
 Modern scientific systems, of which there are very 
 
 1 The kilogramme dates from 1795. 
 
CH. vi. SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS. 389 
 
 few, and these confined to Europe, are necessarily based 
 on some existing standard units of the country. 
 
 The most perfect of these, taken generally, is the 
 metric system of France, nominally dating from Decem- 
 ber 9, 1799, as regards the acceptance of its standards 
 by the nation as a scientific system. 
 
 The French Metric System. 
 
 The basic unit of this system, termed the metre, is a 
 slightly enlarged half-toise, half-fathom, or yard of the old 
 French system of commercial measures, and was at one 
 time imagined to be the ten-millionth part of the 
 meridian-quadrant passing through Paris, as deduced 
 from French geodetic measurements made in 1740. Later 
 investigation proved the incorrectness of the metre as a 
 geodetic unit, and thus placed it in the category of arbi- 
 trary units, the prototype or primary unit being the metre 
 des archives, made by Lenoir at Paris, in or about 1799. 
 
 The unit of surface of the metric system was the are 
 of 100 square metres, and the unit of cubic measure, the 
 litre, which was nominally the loooth part of a cubic 
 metre, though at a later date it lost its pifrely scientific 
 and theoretical value by becoming a measure containing 
 a kilogramme weight of distilled water at 4 Centigrade, 
 while the measure itself was supposed to remain at the 
 temperature of o Centigrade. This unfortunate depar- 
 ture from uniformity of temperature for the system is a 
 most serious defect annulling practical certainty, and 
 forcing a recourse to calculated adjustment. 
 
 The nominal basic unit of weight is the gramme, but 
 the real unit is in actual fact the kilogramme, of 1,000 
 grammes, as exemplified in the kilogramme des archives 
 
390 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 made at Paris about 1799, representing its legally defined 
 value, the weight in vacuo of a cubic decimetre of dis- 
 tilled water at 4 Centigrade. 
 
 The scientific value of this prototype is open to 
 much doubt ; its density cannot be directly determined 
 from fear of damage, while the calculated weight of a 
 cubic decimetre of water, according to Stampfer in 1830, 
 was 999^653 grammes, and according to Kupffer in 1841 
 was 999^989 grammes. 
 
 The French basic units, though small compared with 
 the cubic cubits of ancient times, thus appear to be par- 
 ticularly unfortunate in their practical development, both 
 as regards geodesy and adherence to original intention 
 in every respect. The other units of the system are, as 
 may be seen in the subjoined table, mere decimal multi- 
 ples and sub-multiples of these four basic units ; their 
 names being well arranged with Latin and Greek affixes, 
 so as to denote their positions in the scale. 
 
 Though decimalisation may thus be easily applied to 
 any arbitrary units, and corresponding advantages may 
 be obtained to a far higher degree by a more exact and 
 accurate scientific management, the fact remains that 
 the French and the Chinese and Japanese systems are the 
 only ones in which it is actually carried out and fully 
 applied at the present day. ' 
 
 In the period from 1812-1840, when the French 
 mesures usuelles were the commercial measures used in 
 France, the metric system formed a nearly perfect scien- 
 tific system for French professional and scientific men, 
 not only on account of its simplicity and its decimal 
 advantages, but from its convenient relation to the com- 
 mercial measures then used in France. This advantage 
 would not accrue from the adoption of the metric system 
 
CH. V7. SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS. 391 
 
 in England for the purposes of the professional and 
 scientific man as a purely scientific system ; nor would 
 the same advantage be obtained in any country where 
 the ordinary commercial measures are not metric. 
 
 Excellent, then, as the metric system is, as a scientific 
 system under certain circumstances, it would be entirely 
 inapplicable under others ; decimalisation on local or 
 national commercial units, then, affords the only con- 
 venient alternative for the scientific and professional 
 man in many countries, including England. 
 
 The English Scientific System. 
 
 The English scientific system, though incomplete and 
 unpretentious, may yet be said to exist. It practically 
 consists in a selected few of the principal commercial 
 English units, reduced from the commercial standard 
 temperature, 62 Fahrenheit, to the accepted scientific 
 standard temperature, 3 2 Fahrenheit, thus corresponding 
 to the metric system in this respect, and thereby ob- 
 taining the advantage of maintaining the correct con- 
 nection between the units of capacity or cubic measure 
 and the units of weight. 
 
 It may be here noticed that under the conditions ap- 
 plied by law to English commercial measures, which 
 are that the units are correct at a normal temperature of 
 62 Fahrenheit in air under a barometric pressure of 30 
 inches, the important advantage of a perfect relation of 
 weight to volume theoretically obtained in the metric 
 system either does not exist ; or if it does, is different. 
 
 This will become apparent on noticing the different 
 values of the weight of an English cubic foot of water 
 under different conditions according to such information 
 as is at present available. 
 
392 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 VALUES OF THE ENGLISH TALENT OR FOOT-WEIGHT. 
 
 At 39 Fahrenheit in vacuo, according to 
 
 Miller, 'Phil. Trans.' 1856 . . 62-4245 Ibs. 
 
 At 62 Fahrenheit 62-3548 Ibs. 
 
 At 62 Fahrenheit, bar. 30", the legal or 
 
 commercial English value determined 
 
 by Shuckburgh in 1798 . . . 62-3210 Ibs. 
 
 If, too, the values of a cubic decimetre of water be 
 considered in the same way, they are, according to 
 Chisholm (see page 20 of his work on the ' Science of 
 Weighing and Measuring/ London, 1877) : 
 
 VALUES OF THE CUBIC DECIMETRE OF WATER. 
 
 Theoretic French value at 39 Fahrenheit 
 
 in vacuo, against brass weights at 32 1,000 grammes. 
 
 French value at 62 Fahrenheit, baro- 
 meter 30" . 998-717 
 
 According to the English ratio under the 
 
 same conditions .... 998*680 
 
 The causes of this marked variety in value is not 
 only the varying density of water at different tempera- 
 ture, but the loss of weight by displacement of air, 
 which is greater in the case of water than in that of its 
 brass counterpoise an important consideration, as the 
 weight of a cubic foot of air at the temperature 62 
 Fahrenheit with the barometer at 30" is reputed to be 
 53i'33 grains. 
 
 There can be little doubt that both the English com- 
 mercial value of the foot-weight, determined by 
 Shuckburgh, and the theoretic French value of the 
 decimetre-weight are rather inaccurate, thus producing 
 two sources of discrepancy in the comparison of French 
 and English weight by volume ; but apart from these two 
 
en. V7. SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS. 393 
 
 causes the alteration in the relation of weight to volume 
 due to departure from the scientific standard temperature 
 of comparison and from the vacuum is clearly illustrated 
 by the above figures. 
 
 In point of fact such figures are merely computed, as 
 it is obviously a practical impossibility to weigh a 
 vessel of water at one fixed temperature while the water 
 contained in it must have another fixed temperature ; 
 hence the necessity for a thorough re-investigation of 
 the matter by scientific men, and probably too the 
 desirability of fixing some one single temperature, per- 
 haps that of the extreme density of water (about 39 
 Fahrenheit), as the single normal temperature for scientific 
 standard purposes in Europe generally. 
 
 In the meantime, and with the object of maintaining 
 the accepted relation with metric standards, it may be 
 best to apply the French ratio in the English scientific 
 measures and weights, and thus avoid one of the two 
 above-mentioned sources of complication. 
 
 The English scientific units consist of the inch, foot, 
 a^d yard, the square inch, square foot, and square yard, 
 the cubic inch, cubic foot, and cubic yard, and the inch- 
 weight, foot-weight, and yard-weight, with their decimal 
 multiples and sub-multiples to any required extent ; these 
 form a complete series which, if taken at the scientific 
 standard temperatures 32 and 39 Fahrenheit, answer 
 most of the purposes attained by the metric system, 
 without adopting the pecks, gallons, and pounds of the 
 tradesman. 
 
 When it is desired to compare quantities expressed 
 in scientific units with quantities expressed in commercial 
 values of units of the same name, some care is necessary 
 to avoid error or confusion. To take the single case of a 
 
394 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n 
 
 quantity expressed in inches, for instance 2 scientific 
 inches at the temperature 32, which has to be reduced to 
 commercial inches at the temperature 62. The original 
 scientific inch when expanded to the extent afforded by 
 this increase of temperature becomes = 1*0003 of its former 
 value taken rigidly, hence 2 scientific inches = 2*0006 com- 
 mercial inches ; correspondingly also 2 commercial inches 
 = r 9994 scientific inches. 
 
 For all ordinary purposes, a simple percentage of 
 reduction may be applied in such numerical reductions 
 as follows : 
 
 1. In linear scientific units, at 32, I = 1*00029 commercial 
 
 units. 
 
 2. In superficial scientific units,, 1 = 1*00057 
 
 3. In cubic scientific units 1 = 1*00086 
 
 Some corresponding reduction for weights at dif- 
 ferent temperatures would also be strictly necessary, 
 were it not that the ordinary mode of comparing weight, 
 namely, by balance, practically nearly annuls any result- 
 ing effect of temperature ; the actual effect of tempera- 
 ture and gravity on weight is hence most frequently 
 ignored, and an ounce at the equator is thus placed in 
 mechanical identity with an ounce at the pole. 
 
 The values of the scientific units in metric measures 
 are given in the table following this section ; the scienti- 
 fic values of the furlong and mile and of the square fur- 
 long and square mile have been added to make up an 
 obvious deficiency by the most simple means, though a 
 further improvement as regards itinerary and land-mea- 
 sure may effect desirable change in the future. 
 
 The units of scientific weight have been arranged 
 according to the best of the author's ability with the 
 view of simple decimal systematisation. 
 
CH. vi. SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS. 395 
 
 JYie English Decimal Scientific Series. 
 
 Taking the three scientific units of weight at 32 
 Fahrenheit, the inch-weight, or weight of a cubic inch of 
 water is about 0-578005 commercial ounce, and neither 
 it nor its decimal multiples or sub-multiples have any 
 simple convenient or even any approximate relation to 
 the English commercial units of weight ; this series is 
 consequently discarded as unnecessary and is therefore 
 omitted in the table. The corresponding weight of a 
 cubic yard of water is about 15-04877 commercial 
 hundredweights, and both it and its decimal multiples 
 and sub-multiples are similarly out of accordance with 
 commercial units, and hence are also rejected. 
 
 The weight of a cubic foot of water has, however, 
 been a legalised standard unit of weight since the year 
 1859, and its legally declared value at 62 Fahrenheit, 
 barometer 30", was 62-3210 pounds; taking then the 
 correct value of this unit at 32 Fahrenheit as 62-4245 
 pounds, or 998-79 commercial ounces, its relation to the 
 ounce of commercial weight is tolerably well-defined 
 and more convenient for purposes of calculation and 
 comparison with commercial weight than any other 
 unit that might be proposed. Denominating this foot- 
 weight of water at 32 Fahrenheit in accordance with 
 ancient nomenclature, it is an English talent, in the same 
 way as the Greek rakavrov, or talant, was the weight of 
 a Greek or Olympic cubic foot of water. 
 
 Decimalising on this talent at intervals of 1000 
 (which are sufficiently small for scientific purposes, and 
 extending the decimalisation to include every possible 
 requirement beyond the two extremes of the com- 
 
390 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 mercial ton and grain), the thousandth part of the 
 English talent is 0*99879 commercial ounce, thus varying 
 from it by only O'I2 per cent, and may hence be termed 
 a scientific or a millesimal ounce. The thousandth part 
 of the scientific ounce, here named a mil, is 0-43697 
 commercial grain, or about T V^s of it ; and if a very 
 small unit be required as is sometimes the case in 
 monetary weight and in scientific matters, the thou- 
 sandth part of the mil, termed a doit, is 0*000437 of a 
 grain, or very nearly a fifth of the now obsolete English 
 doit, which was -^th of a grain. A unit of 1000 
 talents, to which the hitherto appropriated term thou- 
 sand-weight might be applied, having a value of 27-868 
 tons, and just exceeding the largest known commercial 
 unit of weight, completes this decimal series of scientific 
 measures of weight. It is actually a rod-weight or 
 weight of a cubic rod of water. 
 
 } \ =1000 talents or foot-weight, 
 
 l-weight J 
 
 Units of Water-weight, 
 
 at 32 Fahrenheit, 
 based on the weight of an English cubic foot of water. 
 
 i Rod-weight or 
 
 thousand- 
 
 i Foot-weight or 1 I000 scient in c ounces. 
 
 talent J 
 
 i Scientific ounce =1000 mils. 
 i Mil =1000 doits. 
 
 This small category has thus been newly arranged and 
 put in definite form to suit professional purposes and 
 wants until such time as the Government of the country, 
 aided by scientific investigation, makes some move in 
 this long-deferred matter, and completes the English 
 scientific series in some way by permissive legal enact- 
 
CH. vi. SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS. 397 
 
 ment. It will perhaps be noticed by professional men 
 that the advantages of the above units are : 
 
 1. That they are based on a recognised legal unit 
 
 2. That they are transmutable into commercial units 
 through the ounce by a reduction of O'I2 per cent. 
 
 3. That they are purely decimal, and evenly spaced 
 at intervals of 1000 so as to cover the requisite range. 
 
 4. That conversion from weight to volume, and from 
 volume is practicable with them as with metric units. 
 
 5. That the actual weight of any body of known 
 volume and density is easily ascertained. For example, 
 the weight of two cubic feet of wrought iron, having a 
 specific gravity of 778, is 15-56 talents. 
 
 6. That the reduction of units of pressure in which 
 these weight-units are applied is as easily effected as 
 with metric pressure-units. 
 
 Taking the English scientific system as a whole, with 
 the addition of the decimal weight-units, it appears 
 practical, rational, and effectual ; it is, however, not yet 
 purely decimal throughout, as the inch-units and yard- 
 units of length, surface, and cubic measure, entering so 
 largely into trade-matters in direct connection with 
 professional business, cannot be entirely dispensed with 
 for a very long time to come. When such a period does 
 arrive, the system may be reduced to a simply decimal 
 one based on the foot alone ; but even then some new 
 itinerary and superficial units will be required to take the 
 place of the incongruous furlong of 220 yards, the mile of 
 8 furlongs, the square furlong of 10 acres or 48400 
 square yards, and the square mile of 64 square furlongs 
 or 640 acres. 
 
 At such an epoch, extended decimalisation on the 
 
398 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 foot and square foot will probably be necessary ; and 
 the subjoined mode will probably be inevitable : 
 
 Linear. The foot. 
 
 The rod =10 feet. 
 
 The chain (Ramsden's)=ioo feet. 
 
 The cable =1000 feet. 
 
 The league =100 chains = 10000 feet. 
 
 Superficial. The square foot. 
 
 The square rod =100 square feet. 
 
 The square chain =10000 square feet. 
 
 The square cable or 1 
 
 century | =100 square chains. 
 
 The square league =10000 square chains. 
 
 Also, if the principle adopted in the weight-units be 
 also applied to cubic units, they would become thus : 
 
 Cubic measure. Corresponding 
 
 water-weight units. 
 
 i cubic rod 1 The rod-weight or 
 
 or mass } ' thousand-weight, 
 
 i cubic foot = 1000 fluid ounces . The talent, or foot- 
 weight. 
 
 i fluid ounce = 1000 fluid mils . . The scientific ounce, 
 i fluid mil = 1000 fluid doits . . The mil = 1000 doits. 
 
 The proposed league of two old London miles or 
 10000 feet, which is nearly 3 kilometres, though conve- 
 nient in value, is open to a slight objection as regards 
 its name, but as the ancient English league of three 
 miles is very nearly practically obsolete, and has long 
 ceased to be a legal unit, any confusion arising from 
 this cause is hardly probable, while the necessity for 
 adopting some name indicative of itinerary measure is 
 sufficiently evident. 
 
 When the decimalisation of the English scientific 
 system thus becomes perfect, it will be as convenient for 
 
en. vi. SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS 399 
 
 the English scientific and professional man as the French 
 metric system now is for the French scientific and pro- 
 fessional men ; and will also be in correlation with 
 English commercial measures. There is, as far as can 
 be ascertained, no reason for deferring the adoption of 
 the simplified English scientific system l to any future 
 time, apart from the need of a nominal retention of the 
 inch-units and yard-units. They are hence used through- 
 out the tables in this book. 
 
 Other Scientific Systems. 
 
 While in France a scientific system has now been 
 long in use (since 1800), and in England a scientific 
 system is just barely complete, in other European 
 countries local or national scientific systems are either 
 entirely wanting or are merely partial and incomplete, 
 and are sometimes replaced by foreign measures, more 
 frequently by the French metric units. 
 
 The partial and incomplete scientific systems are, 
 however, worthy of some notice, although they should 
 more properly be considered as mere attempts. It may 
 be urged that almost all nations possess linear, square, and 
 cubic measure based on some one or two units, such as 
 a foot, or an ell or cubit, and that so far a scientific 
 system generally exists ; but the incompleteness or 
 non-existence of a scientific system precisely consists in 
 the absence of a series of weight-units in simple correla- 
 tion with cubic units and measures of volume. Such a 
 deficiency is due to the fact that European commercial 
 systems of measure are mostly based on two totally 
 independent units, one of length and one of weight. 
 
 1 Treating it as a permissive system for technical purposes. 
 
4 oo METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 Two exceptional cases may be noticed, the Danish, 
 in which the Rheinfuss is the linear unit, and the pound 
 is -J-nd part of the cubic foot of water, and the Prussian 
 in which the same Rheinfuss is the linear unit, and the 
 pound is -Jgth of the cubic foot of water at 1 5 Reaumur 
 or 657 Fahrenheit ; but in neither of these cases does 
 the ounce fall sufficiently near the loooth part of the 
 foot-weight of water to admit of small adjustment and 
 the adoption of a decimal series on that basis, the 
 Rhein foot-weight being equal to 992 Danish ounces, or 
 to I 056 Prussian ounces, any adjustment involving a 
 change of nearly I per cent, in the former case, and of 
 5 -6 per cent, in the latter ; compared with which the 
 present English discrepancy of about 0*12 per cent, is a 
 trifle. 
 
 The Swedish commercial system of measures, so 
 perfect in every respect except as regards the whole of 
 the weights, would be capable of a superimposed scien- 
 tific system only by a complete rejection of these ; in 
 that case, if a new pound = 5-V tn f the Swedish foot- 
 weight of water were adopted (which would be about 
 523*26 grammes), a decimal series of weight-units might 
 be formed for scientific purposes, which would then hold 
 a most convenient correlation with local commercial 
 measures and weights throughout. 
 
 At present there exists merely an incomplete local 
 decimal system in Sweden. In length and distance the 
 fot, or foot, is divided decimally, and the multiples of 
 the fot are the stong, or rod, of 10 feet, and the ref, or 
 chain of 100 feet, beyond this there is a mil or league of 
 360 chains. In surface, the measures are the square 
 foot, the square stong = 100 square feet, and the square 
 ref= 100 square stanger. In cubic measure, the cubic 
 
CH. vi. SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS. 401 
 
 foot= 1000 cubic turn, the kannar= 100 cubic turn, and 
 the cubic ell = 4 cubic feet. In weight, there is no 
 weight-unit in correct correspondence with cubic measure 
 and it is in this respect that the system fails from a 
 scientific point of view. The commercial skalpund, 
 apparently an arbitrary unit, is the basis ; its sub- 
 multiples are the crt^y^- skalpund, and the korn = 3-^ 
 ort ; its multiples, the centner = 100 skalpund and the 
 nylast= 100 centner ; the arrangement being centesimal. 
 The system itself is applied at the standard temperature 
 adopted by the Swedes for commercial units, namely 
 1 5 Celsius. The centesimal subdivision, so convenient 
 in surface measures, is a defective mode of arranging 
 either cubic units or weight-units, which, for scientific 
 purposes, should be arranged in strict correspondence, 
 either decimally or millesimally. 
 
 The Russians, not possessing any distinct scientific 
 system of their own at present, more frequently adopt 
 French units in scientific matters ; and it seems as 
 difficult to forecast the future of Russian scientific 
 measures as to prophesy their future internal and politi- 
 cal development. In commercial measures, they possess 
 a series of units Oriental or semi-Oriental by origin ; 
 these, by the order of their most practical and renowned 
 Peter the Great, were modified slightly to be in ac- 
 cordance with English units, so that the Russian foot 
 and the English foot became identical. One might 
 imagine that the Russians would adhere to this principle 
 in the future development and systematisation of their 
 measures. 
 
 Since that time, however, a semi- French regime, 
 accompanied with an assumption that everything French, 
 from corsets to kilometres, was highly civilised, has held 
 
 D D 
 
402 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 temporary sway in that country ; this was carried so far 
 that most Russians of the higher classes spoke French 
 and were comparatively ignorant of their own language ; 
 among the lower classes the revolutionary and com- 
 munistic ideas of the French became a sort of propa- 
 gated gospel, taking various forms of Nihilism. At a 
 later period these national follies were counteracted to a 
 certain extent by German proclivities, while lastly the 
 most recent tendency has been towards Slavonism, local 
 and national development of the purely Slavonic branches 
 of the Russian nation. Possibly the Finnish Ugrian 
 and true Russian portion of the nation may, at some 
 period, reject the Slavonic idea and take their turn at 
 preponderance ; or perhaps the nation may revert to 
 and stand by the principles of the time of Peter the 
 Great In the meantime a curious mixture of ideas 
 seems to reign, and the same holds true in the measures, 
 where the Oriental arsheen and sasheen exist side by 
 side with the Anglo-Russian foot and a werst that is an 
 approximate kilometre, though by origin an Oriental 
 and a Persian unit, about one seventh of a Persian 
 farsakh. 
 
 Probably the best scientific system for the Russians 
 would be the English decimal scientific system, based 
 on the international foot. 
 
 Among remaining European nations a complete 
 scientific system in correlation with local commercial 
 measures in use seems hardly practicable. 
 
 As regards partial attempts at decimalisation and the 
 formation of a scientific system in North-European 
 countries, these have been generally limited. First, the 
 substitution of a decimal inch, tithe or tenth of a foot, 
 for a true duodecimal inch ; thus making the subdi- 
 
CH. vi. SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS. 403 
 
 visions in square and cubic measure strictly decimal. 
 Second, the employment of a ruthe or pole of 10 feet, 
 so as to make the square ruthe or perch 100 square feet, 
 and afford convenience in surveys and land -measurement, 
 though to a very small extent. Another and an inferior 
 alternative mode of doing this was adopted by intro- 
 ducing a special land-measuring foot equal to the tenth 
 of the local ruthe or pole. Third, the berglachter or 
 dumpflachter system adopted by mining engineers in 
 Germany was a combination of the two last as regards 
 principle, the unit being a lachter, klafter, or large 
 fathom (in Prussia equal to 6f feet, in Saxony equal to 
 7 feet, and in Bohemia 4 ells, which was decimally 
 divided into 10 feet, loo inches, or 1000 lines, and on 
 this was formed a decimal system of linear, superficial, 
 and cubic measure, distinct from ordinary commercial 
 units, though in correlation with them. But beyond 
 these three things decimalisation was not carried, and 
 never extended into the units of weight, so as to form a 
 complete decimal system. There is no doubt that not 
 only a complete system of scientific measures might 
 have been based on the Rheinfuss of Northern Ger- 
 many and Denmark and Norway, but that a uniform 
 commercial system for Germany might have been 
 satisfactorily carried out on that basis, without the 
 degradation of borrowing French measures. A sketch 
 of such a German system, as a typical proposition, is 
 given among the proposed systems at the end of this 
 book. 
 
 In Southern Europe, an incomplete scientific system 
 was adopted in the kingdom of Naples or, more 
 properly, the two Sicilies in April 1840, and lasted 
 until the unification of Italy. 
 
 D D 2 
 
4 o 4 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART IT. 
 
 The basis of this system was a geodetic mile, or 
 miglio, equal to one minute of arc of the meridional 
 quadrant ; and the mode of subdivision was principally 
 but not entirely decimal. The scale of linear units was 
 thus : 
 
 i miglio = 700 canne=iooo passi = 7OOO palmi, 
 
 and the palmo (corresponding to a foot) was 0*2646 
 metre, or about 0*868 foot English ; and was divided 
 both decimally into decimi and centesimi, and duode- 
 cimally into 12 oncie, 60 minuti and 120 punti. 
 The scale of surface units was thus : 
 
 I moggio=ioo square canne =10000 square palmi, 
 
 the moggio being nearly 7*0013 ares or 0*69264 rood. 
 The cubic measures were : 
 
 i cubic canna = 1000 cubic palmi, 
 
 the cubic canna being about 18*5255 cubic metres or 
 653*97 cubic feet 
 
 Beyond this, the system did not go, as apparently 
 the old units of weight, the libbra of 320*76 grammes, 
 the rottolo of 2-J- libbre, the cantaro piccolo of 100 
 libbre, and the cantaro grosso of 100 rottoli, were re- 
 tained ; while no new units of weight were adopted ; 
 nor, as far as present inquiry reaches, was any attempt 
 made to form any cubicised unit of weight on the cubic 
 palmo. 
 
 In Tuscany there were some decimalised units, based 
 on the ordinary palmo of Florence ; they were : 
 
 In length, I canna or pertica = 10 palmi = 100 soldi. 
 
 In surface, i pertica quadrata = 100 palmi quad. = 10000 soldi quad. 
 In cubicity, I palmo cubico = 1000 palmi cubichi. 
 In weight, the old commercial units unmodified ; the libbra, centinajo, 
 
 and migliajo. 
 
CH. VI. SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS. 405 
 
 This system was therefore both non-geodetic and in- 
 complete, while the range of its decimalised units was 
 exceedingly limited, not even arriving at units near 
 either the rood or the furlong. 
 
 Such very partial attempts at scientific system- 
 atisation, though deserving notice, will not be found 
 classified as scientific systems in the tables devoted to 
 that branch of the subject. 
 
 The following tables give the values of the English 
 and the French scientific units in terms of each other, 
 and afford a means of converting quantities without 
 need of multiplication. 
 
4 o6 
 
 ^METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 The French 
 
 French 
 Commercial 
 
 
 
 
 
 Values 
 
 Millimetre 
 
 
 
 O'OO I 
 
 metre . 
 
 g>jg 
 
 Centimetre 
 
 ss 
 
 O'OI 
 
 metre . 
 
 'S ' M 
 
 Decimetre 
 
 = 
 
 O'l 
 
 metre . 
 
 5 ^ 
 
 Metre 
 
 
 
 
 
 metre . 
 
 o ~ 
 
 Decametre 
 
 = 
 
 10' 
 
 metres 
 
 r-| 
 
 Hectometre 
 
 - 
 
 100* 
 
 metres 
 
 gfr|j 
 
 Kilometre 
 
 
 
 IOOO' 
 
 metres 
 
 j3 > 
 
 Cj 
 
 Myriametre 
 
 = 10000* 
 
 metres 
 
 L> ""^ 
 
 U"*P w 
 
 Centiare 
 
 = 
 
 I 
 
 metre carre 
 
 1 1 I* ! 
 
 Deciare 
 
 = 
 
 10 
 
 metres carres 
 
 '0 S *^ . 
 
 Are 
 
 = 
 
 IOO 
 
 metres carres 
 
 w 8 ro . 
 
 Hectare 
 
 ca 
 
 IOO 
 
 ares 
 
 rC P- . 
 
 Kilometre carre* 
 
 = 
 
 IOO 
 
 hectares 
 
 ^5 . 
 
 Myriametre carrd 
 
 = 
 
 IOO 
 
 kilometres carres. 
 
 '1 ^ '. 
 
 
 
 
 
 , M d) 
 
 Millilitre 
 
 
 
 O'OO I 
 
 litre . 
 
 ^ _S ^ 
 
 Centilitre 
 
 
 
 0*01 
 
 litre . 
 
 '" *'' J2 
 
 Decilitre 
 
 = 
 
 O'l 
 
 litre . 
 
 'S .2 ' 
 
 Litre 
 
 = 
 
 I 
 
 litre . 
 
 g 53 
 
 Decalitre 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 litres . 
 
 ^ -4-S 
 
 Hectolitre 
 
 
 
 IOO 
 
 litres . 
 
 S.S | ' 
 
 Stere or metre cube 
 
 = 
 
 IOOO 
 
 litres . 
 
 "i ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 > tCl) 
 
 Milligramme 
 Centigramme 
 Decigramme 
 
 = 
 
 O'OO I 
 O'OI 
 O'l 
 
 gramme 
 gramme 
 gramme 
 
 111 
 
 8?i: 
 
 Gramme 
 
 = 
 
 I* 
 
 gramme 
 
 g as "K 
 
 Decagramme 
 
 = 
 
 10 
 
 grammes 
 
 ^c^ 
 
 Hectogramme 
 
 = 
 
 IOO 
 
 grammes 
 
 ^ I'C '. 
 
 Kilogramme 
 
 = 
 
 IOOO 
 
 grammes 
 
 C 5 O 
 
 <u f* <u 
 
 Myriagramme 
 
 = 
 
 IO 
 
 kilogrammes 
 
 ^ ^ ^d * 
 
 Quintal 
 Millier ou tonne 
 
 = 
 
 IOO 
 IOOO 
 
 kilogrammes 
 kilogrammes 
 
 1 : 
 
 See Tables of English 
 
CH. VI. 
 
 SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS. 
 
 407 
 
 System. 
 
 English Decimal 
 
 English 
 
 Scien. Values based 
 
 Scientific Values 
 
 on the Foot at 32 Fahr. 1 
 
 in other units at 32 Fahr, 
 
 . 0-032809 tithe . 
 
 . 0-039371 inch 
 
 . 0-328090 tithe . 
 
 . 0-393708 inch 
 
 . 0-328090 foot . . - . 
 
 . 3-937079 inches 
 
 . 3-280899 feet . 
 
 . 1 -093633 yard 
 
 . 3-280899 rods (Ramsden) . 
 
 . 10 -936330 yards 
 
 . 3-280899 chains (Ramsden) 
 
 . 0-4971 06 furlong 
 
 . 0-328090 league. 
 
 . 0-621 382 mile 
 
 . 3-280899 leagues 
 
 . 6 -21 3820 miles 
 
 . 10764299 square feet . 
 
 . 1196033 sq. yard 
 
 1 -076430 square rod . 
 
 . 11 -960330 sq. yards 
 
 . 10764299 sq. rods (Ramsden) 
 
 11 9-603300 sq. yards 
 
 . 10764299 sq. chains (Ramsden) 
 
 . 0'247114sq. furlong 
 
 . 1 07630 sq. league . 
 
 . 0-386116 sq. mile 
 
 , 10764299 sq. leagues . 
 
 . 38-611611 sq. miles 
 
 , 35-316581 fluid-mils . 
 
 . 0-061027 cubic inch 
 
 . 353165810 fluid-mils . 
 
 . 0-610271 cubic inch 
 
 3-531658 fluid-ounces (milles.) 
 
 . 6102705 cubic inches 
 
 . 35-316581 fluid-ounces (milles.) 
 
 . 61 -027052 cubic inches 
 
 353*165810 fluid-ounces (milles.) 
 
 610-270515 cubic inches 
 
 3-531658 cubic feet . 
 
 . 0130802 cubic yard 
 
 . 35*316581 cubic feet . 
 
 . 1 -308022 cubic yard 
 
 35-316581 doits . 
 
 . 0-000061 inch-weight 
 
 .353-1 65810 doits . 
 
 . 0-000610 inch-weight 
 
 3 '531 658 mils . 
 
 . 0-006102 inch- weight 
 
 35-316581 mils . 
 
 . 0-061027 inch-weight 
 
 .353-1 65810 mils . 
 
 . 0-610271 inch-weight 
 
 3-531658 ounces (milles.) . 
 
 . 6 102705 inch-weight 
 
 35-316581 ounces (milles.) . 
 
 . 61 -027052 inch-weight 
 
 . 353165810 ounces (milles.) . 
 
 61 0-27051 5 inch-weight 
 
 ! 3*531658 foot-weight or talents 
 
 . 01 30802 yard- weight 
 
 . 35*316581 foot-weight or talents 
 
 . 1 '308022 yard-weight 
 
 Scientific Values. 
 
4 o8 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 English Decimal Scientific System ; of Units based on the Foot 
 
 French 
 
 LENGTH. 
 
 FRENCH VALUES. 
 
 The foot 
 The rod 
 The Ramsden "1 
 chain J 
 
 = 10 tithes 
 = 10 feet . 
 
 = 10 rods . 
 
 3'04794 
 3 '4794 
 
 3 '04794 
 
 decimetres 
 metres 
 
 decametres 
 
 The cable 
 The (decimal) "1 
 league / 
 
 = 10 chains 
 100 chains or 1 
 "10000 feet / 
 
 3 '04794 
 
 hectometres 
 kilometres 
 
 SURFACE. 
 
 
 
 
 The sq. foot 
 The sq. rod 
 The sq. chain 
 The sq. cable "1 
 or century J 
 The sq. league 
 
 = 100 sq. tithes . 
 = lOOsq. feet . 
 = 100 sq. rods . 
 
 = 100 sq, chains . 
 = 100 centuries . 
 
 9-28997 
 9-28997 
 9-28997 
 
 9-28997 
 9-28997 
 
 decim. car. 
 metres car. 
 ares 
 
 hectares 
 kilom. car. 
 
 CAPACITY. 
 
 
 
 
 Fluid-mil 
 (Millesimal) "1 
 fluid-ounce j 
 
 = 1000 fld. -doits . 
 = 1000 fld. -mils . 
 
 28-31531 
 28-31531 
 
 millim. cub. 
 centim. cub. 
 
 Cubic foot 
 Cubic rod 
 
 = 1000 fld. -ounces 
 = 1000 cubic feet . 
 
 28-31531 
 28-31531 
 
 decim. cub. 
 met. cub. 
 
 WEIGHT. 
 
 
 
 
 Mil 
 (Milles.) ounce 
 Foot-weight or 1 
 talent J 
 
 = 1000 doits. 
 = 1000 mil . 
 
 = 1000 ounces 
 
 28-31531 
 28-31531 
 
 28-31531 
 
 milligrammes 
 grammes 
 
 kilogrammes 
 
 Rod-weight 
 
 = 1000 foot-weight 
 
 28-31531 
 
 milliers 
 
 This system, containing a legal unit of length, surface, capacity, and weight, 
 under legal statute, which allows the use of decimal multiples and submultiples 
 
CH. VI. 
 
 SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS, 
 
 409 
 
 alone, at Temperature 32 Fahr. in Vacuo^ with Corresponding 
 Values. 
 
 LENGTH. 
 
 Metre 
 Decametre 
 Hectometre 
 Kilometre 
 
 = 10 decimetres 
 = 10 metres . 
 = 100 metres . 
 ==1000 metres . 
 
 SURFACE. 
 
 Metre carre = 100 decim. Carre's 
 Are = 100 metres carres 
 
 Hectare = 100 ares 
 
 Kilom. carre =- 100 hectares . 
 Myriam. carre' =. 100 kilom. carres 
 
 CAPACITY. 
 
 Millilitre or centimetre cube . 
 Litre =1000 millilitres 
 
 Metre cube =1000 litres 
 Kilostere =1000 metres cubes 
 
 WEIGHT. 
 
 Milligramme .... 
 
 Gramme =1000 milligrammes 
 
 Kilogramme =1000 grammes 
 
 Millier =1000 kilogrammes 
 
 ENGLISH VALUES. 
 
 3-280899 feet 
 3-280899 rods 
 3-280899 chains 
 0-328090 league 
 
 107643 sq. feet 
 
 107643 sq. rods 
 
 10*7643 sq. chains 
 
 010764 sq. leagues 
 
 107643 sq. leagues 
 
 35-316581 fluid-mils 
 35-316581 fluid-oz. 
 35-316581 cubic feet 
 35*316581 cubic rods 
 
 35-316581 doits 
 35-316581 mils 
 35-316581 ounces 
 35-316581 foot- weights 
 
 and merely decimal multiples and submultiples of them, is doubtfully permissible 
 applied to any unit, provided they are so mentioned. 
 
4 ro 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 Conversion Tables for Reducing French Values into English 
 Scientific Equivalents at 32. 
 
 
 Metres into ft., and 
 
 
 Units Metres into inches for corn dec. mult. 
 
 Metres into y^rds 
 
 1 39-37079 
 
 3-28090 
 
 1 -09363 
 
 2. 7874158 
 
 6-56180 
 
 218727 
 
 3. 11811237 
 
 9-84270 
 
 3-28090 
 
 4. 15748316 
 
 1312360 
 
 4-37453 
 
 5. 196*85395 
 
 16-40450 
 
 5-46817 
 
 6. 236-22474 
 
 19-68539 
 
 6-56180 
 
 7. 275-59553 
 
 22-96629 
 
 7-65543 
 
 8. 314-96632 
 
 26-24719 
 
 874906 
 
 9. 354-33701 
 
 29-52809 
 
 9-84270 
 
 10. 39370790 
 
 32-80899 
 
 10-93633 
 
 
 Square meties 
 
 
 Square metres 
 
 into square feet, and 
 
 Square metres 
 
 into square inches 
 
 forcorr. dec. mult. 
 
 into square yards 
 
 1. 1550-06 
 
 1076430 
 
 119603 
 
 2. 3100-12 
 
 21 -52860 
 
 2-39207 
 
 3. 465018 
 
 32-29290 
 
 3-58810 
 
 4. 6200 24 
 
 43-05720 
 
 478413 
 
 5. 7750-80 
 
 53-82150 
 
 5-98017 
 
 6. 9300*35 
 
 64-58579 
 
 717620 
 
 7. 10850-41 
 
 75-35009 
 
 8-37223 
 
 8. 12400-47 
 
 8611439 
 
 9-56826 
 
 9. 13950-53 
 
 96-87869 
 
 10-76430 
 
 10- 15500-59 
 
 107-64299 
 
 11-96033 
 
 
 Cubic decimetres 
 
 
 Cubic decimetres 
 
 into cubic feet, and 
 
 Cubic metres 
 
 into cubic inche? 
 
 for corr. dec. mult. 
 
 into cubic yards 
 
 1. 61-02705 
 
 0-035317 
 
 1 -30802 
 
 2. 122-05410 
 
 0-070634 
 
 2-61604 
 
 a 183-08115 
 
 0105950 
 
 3-92407 
 
 4. 244-10821 
 
 0141266 
 
 5-23209 
 
 5. 30513526 
 
 0176583 
 
 6-54011 
 
 6. 36616231 
 
 0-211900 
 
 7-84813 
 
 7. 42718936 
 
 0-247216 
 
 915615 
 
 a 488-21642 
 
 0-282533 
 
 10-46418 
 
 a 549-24347 
 
 0-317849 
 
 1177220 
 
 10- 610-27052 
 
 0-353166 
 
 13-08022 
 
 Also for 
 
 Also for kilogrammes 
 
 Also for 
 
 kilogrammes into 
 
 into talents, or 
 
 milliers into 
 
 inch-weight units 
 
 foot-weight units 
 
 yard-weight units 
 
CH. 
 
 SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS. 
 
 411 
 
 Conversion Tables for Reducing English Scientific Values at 32 
 into French Values. 
 Ft. into metres, and 
 
 Units In. into centimetres 
 
 for corr. dec. mult. 
 
 Yards into metres 
 
 1- 2-539954 
 
 0-30479 
 
 0-91438 
 
 2. 5-079908 
 
 0*60959 
 
 1-82877 
 
 3. 7-619862 
 
 0*91438 
 
 2743*5 
 
 4. 10*159816 
 
 1*21918 
 
 
 5. 12*699771 
 
 1*52397 
 
 4-57192 
 
 6. 15*239725 
 
 1*82876 
 
 5 -48630 
 
 7. 17*779679 
 
 2-I3356 
 
 6*40068 
 
 8. 20*319633 
 
 2-43835 
 
 7-31506 
 
 9. 22*859587 
 
 2743*5 
 
 8-22945 
 
 10. 25*399541 
 
 3*04794 
 
 9*14383 
 
 
 Square feet into 
 
 
 Square inches into 
 
 square metres, and 
 
 Square yards into 
 
 square centimetres 
 
 for corr. dec. mult. 
 
 square metres 
 
 1. 6*45137 
 
 0*09290 
 
 0*83610 
 
 2. 12*90273 
 
 0-18580 
 
 1*67219 
 
 3. 19*35410 
 
 0-27870 
 
 2*50829 
 
 4. 25*80547 
 
 0-37160 
 
 3*34439 
 
 5. 32*25684 
 
 0*46450 
 
 4*18049 
 
 6. 38*70820 
 
 0*55740 
 
 5*01658 
 
 7. 45*15957 
 
 0*65030 
 
 5*85268 
 
 8. 51*61094 
 
 074320 
 
 6-68878 
 
 9- 58-06230 
 
 0*83610 
 
 7*52487 
 
 10. 64-51367 
 
 0-92900 
 
 8*36097 
 
 
 Cubic feet into 
 
 
 Cubic inches into 
 
 cub. decimetres, and 
 
 Cubic yards into 
 
 cubic centimetres 
 
 for corr. dec. mul. 
 
 cubic metres 
 
 1. 16-38618 
 
 28-31531 
 
 0*76451 
 
 2. 3277235 
 
 56*63062 
 
 1-52903 
 
 a 49*15853 
 
 84-94594 
 
 2-29354 
 
 4. 65-54470 
 
 113*26125 
 
 
 5. 81-93088 
 
 141*57656 
 
 3-82257 
 
 6. 98-31706 
 
 169*89187 
 
 4-58708 
 
 7. 114-70323 
 
 198*20718 
 
 5*35*59 
 
 8. 131-08941 
 
 226*52250 
 
 6"ii6io 
 
 9. 147*47558 
 
 254*83781 
 
 6-88062 
 
 10. 163-86176 
 
 283*15312 
 
 7*645*3 
 
 Also for 
 
 Also for 
 
 Also for 
 
 inch-weight units 
 
 foot-weight units 
 
 yard-weight units 
 
 into grammes 
 
 into kilogrammes 
 
 into millier 
 
412 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 The English Decimal Scientific System, at 32' 
 
 Scientific Units 
 
 Commercial Values 
 
 LENGTH. 
 
 
 The foot = 10 tithes . 
 The rod = 10 feet . 
 The chain = 100 feet . 
 The cable = 1000 feet . 
 
 1*00029 f ee t 
 
 3*3343 Y ards 
 6*06236 poles 
 0*15156 furlong 
 
 ^eaguT 11 " 1 }^ 10000 ^ ' 
 
 1*89449 miles 
 
 SURFACE. 
 
 
 The sq. foot = 100 sq. tithes . 
 The sq. rod = 100 sq. feet 
 The sq. chain 10000 sq. feet 
 
 Th o e r S c q en?u b r y}= 1 00 sq. chains . 
 The sq. league =1 0000 sq. chains . 
 
 1*00057 sq. feet 
 0*36752 sq. poles 
 0*91880 rood 
 
 22*96991 acres 
 3*58905 sq. miles 
 
 CAPACITY. 
 
 
 Fluid-mil = 1000 fluid-doits . 
 Fluid-ounce = 1000 fluid-mils . 
 
 Cubic foot = lOOOfluid-oz. 
 Cubic rod = 1000 cubic feet . 
 
 2*07804 minims 
 50*99746 fluid-oz. 
 1*72903 cub. inch 
 1*00086 cub. feet 
 6*2344 gallons 
 37*06892 cub. yards 
 
 WEIGHT. 
 
 
 Mil = 1000 doits . 
 Ounce = 1 000 mils . 
 
 ^JSS? }= 1000 ounces { 
 Rod-weight = 1000 foot- weight 
 
 *43697 grain 
 0*99879 ounce 
 62*42454 pounds 
 1*00 1 66 foot-weight 
 27*86810 tons 
 
 The reduction from and to scientific units merely consists in reduction foi 
 
 cimalisation of the ounce ; these unite to form the cubicity of the decimal 
 
 In calculations the reductions can be effected by conversion into foot-units 
 
CH. VI. 
 
 SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS. 
 
 413 
 
 Fahr., compared with English Commercial Values at 62' 
 
 Commercial Units 
 
 Scientific Values 
 
 LENGTH 
 
 
 Foot = 12 inches . 
 
 . 0-99971 foot 
 
 Yard = 3 feet 
 
 . 2 -9991 3 feet 
 
 Pole = 5^ yards 
 
 . 1-64952 rod 
 
 Furlong = 40 poles 
 
 . 6-59809 chains 
 
 Mile = 8 furlongs . 
 
 . 0-52785 league 
 
 SURFACE. 
 
 
 Square foot =144 sq. inches 
 
 . 0-99943 sq. foot 
 
 Square yard = 9 sq. feet . 
 
 . 8-99487 sq. feet 
 
 Square pole = 30^ sq. yards 
 
 . 272095 sq. rod 
 
 Rood = 40 sq. poles. 
 
 . 1 -08838 sq. chain 
 
 Acre = 4 roods 
 
 . 4-35352 sq. chains 
 
 Square furlong = 10 acres 
 
 . 43-53517 sq. chains 
 
 Square mile = 64 sq. furlongs 
 
 . 0-27863 sq. leagues 
 
 CAPACITY. 
 
 
 Cubic inch .... 
 
 . 0'57821 fluid-ounce 
 
 Cubic foot = 1 72*8 cub. inches 
 
 . 0-9991 4 cubic foot 
 
 Fluid ounce = 480 minims . 
 
 . 1 -00254 fluid-ounce 
 
 Gallon = 1 60 fld. -ounces 
 
 160*40606 fluid-ounces 
 
 Bushel = 8 gallons . 
 
 . 1 -28325 cubic feet 
 
 Quarter = 8 bushels . 
 
 . 10-26599 cubic feet 
 
 WEIGHT. 
 
 
 Grain . . 
 
 . 2-28848 mils 
 
 Ounce =43 7 '5 grains 
 
 . 1-00121 ounce 
 
 Pound = 1 6 ounces 
 
 . 16-01934 ounces 
 
 Foot- weight = 62*3210 pounds 
 
 . 0*99834 foot- weight 
 
 Hundred weight = 112 pounds 
 Ton = 20 cwt. 
 
 . 1 -7941 7 foot-weight 
 . 35-88322 foot- weights 
 
 temperature, change of standard, and the slight modification due to exact de- 
 scientific system, as in the French system at 32. 
 and application of a percentage. 
 
4 i4 METRICAL SYSTEMS, PART n. 
 
 COMPOUND UNITS. 
 
 The foregoing systems of all sorts, whether com- 
 mercial or scientific, have been hitherto dealt with 
 merely as systems composed of simple units ; it will be 
 evident, however, that well-arranged systems can only be 
 perfect when they afford convenient compound as well 
 as simple units, and that resulting compound units thus 
 form an important test of a system. 
 
 In commercial systems, the principal tests of con- 
 venience are, that a unit shall be forthcoming at any 
 part of the series where trade, or any branch of trade, 
 demands it as necessary ; that these units shall be taken 
 as estimated in air at some mean temperature well 
 suited to the country ; that the mode of subdivision shall 
 be in accordance with the habits or forms of thought of 
 the people, either binary or decimal, or a combination of 
 the two ; and that the framework or skeleton of the 
 commercial system shall be thoroughly systematised on 
 scientific principles. 
 
 For a scientific system, the principal tests are that 
 it shall be complete and convenient for all scientific and 
 professional purposes, that the units shall be very 
 exactly defined and easily recoverable, that the corre- 
 spondence or connection between any two units in the 
 system, however far apart or different in kind, shall be 
 exceedingly simple and arranged on a decimal basis ; 
 also that the system shall be in some convenient 
 accordance with the commercial measures of the 
 country. 
 
 The extent to which the English commercial system 
 and the just-completed English scientific system ap- 
 
CH. vi. SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS. 415 
 
 proximate to these conditions has been a subject 
 frequently referred to in the foregoing chapters. 
 
 Compound units, however, require a higher amount 
 of simplicity than simple units, as their nature renders 
 them more difficult to manipulate or calculate. Gene- 
 rally speaking, they are regarded as scientific units, and 
 hence should form part of a scientific system ; frequently 
 however, they are taken as commercial units, even 
 when having but slight connection with commercial 
 matters. 
 
 Strictly speaking, and taking matters as they should 
 be rather than as they are, the commercial compound 
 units are units compounded of monetary and commercial 
 simple units, while scientific compound units should 
 include all technical compound units and be calculated 
 and dealt with as parts of a scientific system. 
 
 The most common type of compound unit is purely 
 commercial, being compounded of a commercial and 
 a monetary unit, and taking the forms, i per acre, 
 I shilling per gallon, I penny a pound, and so forth. 
 Now, though coinage and monetary matters generally 
 are beyond the scope of this book, yet when com- 
 pound units of the above type are so important, it 
 becomes necessary to take moneys of account into 
 consideration. 
 
 The following list of the moneys of account and 
 modes of subdivision used in various countries, with 
 their nominal values at par in English money and in 
 Canadian dollars, may be useful for reference, while 
 considering the effect of compounding commercial and 
 monetary units in foreign transactions. 
 
4 i6 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 MONEY OF ACCOUNT 
 
 USED IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 
 
 EUROPE : 
 
 England and "\ th d = 2Q shillings 
 
 English Colonies J 
 
 the shilling = 12 pence 
 the penny = 4 farthings 
 
 France and 1 th f = 100 centimes 
 
 French Colonies / 
 
 the centime 
 German Empire : reichsmark = 100 pfennige 
 
 pfennige 
 Denmark : the kroner = 100 ore . 
 
 ore ...... 
 
 Sweden : the riksdaler = 100 ore 
 
 ore ..... 
 
 Norway : Specie-daler = 4 kroner 
 
 kroner =100 ore 
 
 Holland and Colonies, "I Ud = 
 Java, Surinam J & 
 
 cent .... 
 
 Belgium : franc = 100 centimes .... 
 
 centime ...... 
 
 Switzerland : franc = 100 rappen .... 
 
 rap or centime .... 
 
 Austro-Hungarian Empire : gulden = 100 kreutzer 
 
 kreutzer . 
 Russia : silver ruble = 100 copek 
 
 copek ....... 
 
 Spain : peseta = 100 centimes .... 
 
 centimo 
 
 Gibraltar : duro = 20 reals 
 
 real = 10 decimas . 
 Portugal : milrei = 1000 reis 
 
 rei . . 
 
 Italy : lira = 100 centimes 
 
 centime ....... 
 
 Malta : scudo = 12 tari 
 
 taro = 2 carlini ..... 
 
 carlino = 10 grani 
 
 Turkey : lira turca = 100 piastres 
 
 piastre = 40 paras 
 
 Greece : drachma = 100 lepta .... 
 lepton 
 
 AFRICA : 
 Egypt : piastre = 40 fuddah .... 
 
 fuddah 
 
 Abyssinia : pataka, or old Austrian thaler = 23 harf 
 
 harf=4 divani 
 
 Tripoli : mahbub = 20 piastres .... 
 
 Nominal Values at par 
 
 $> 
 
 s. d. 
 
 4-80 
 
 1 
 
 0-24 
 
 1 
 
 0-02 
 
 1 
 
 0-19 
 
 9* 
 
 0-0019 
 
 0-095 
 
 0-24 
 
 1 
 
 0-0024 
 
 0-12 
 
 0-2666 
 
 1 11 
 
 0-0027 
 
 0-133 
 
 0-2666 
 
 1 i^ 
 
 0-0027 
 
 0-133 
 
 0-2666 
 
 1 1- 
 
 0-0027 
 
 ? 133 
 
 0-40 
 
 1 8 
 
 0-0040 
 
 0-2 
 
 0-19 
 
 9- 
 
 0-0019 
 
 2 095 
 
 0-19 
 
 91 
 
 0-0019 
 
 0-095 
 
 0-47 
 
 1 111 
 
 0-0047 
 
 0-235 
 
 0-76 
 
 3 2 
 
 0-0076 
 
 0-38 
 
 0-19 
 
 91 
 
 0-0019 
 
 0-095 
 
 0-98 
 
 4 1 
 
 0-0490 
 
 2-45 
 
 1-0667 
 
 4 51 
 
 0-0011 
 
 0-053 
 
 0-19 
 
 91 
 
 0-0019 
 
 0095 
 
 0-40 
 
 1 8 
 
 0-0333 
 
 If 
 
 0167 
 
 0-633 
 
 4-32 
 
 18 
 
 00432 
 
 2-16 
 
 0-19 
 
 91 
 
 0-0019 
 
 2 095 
 
 0-05 
 
 a 
 
 0-0013 
 
 JL 
 
 1 
 
 4 2** 
 
 0-0435 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 4 2 23 
 
CH. VI. 
 
 SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS. 
 
 417 
 
 MONEY OF ACCOUN1 -continued. 
 
 AFRICA continued. 
 
 piastre = 40 para 
 para 
 Tunis : piastre = 16 karub . 
 
 karub . 
 
 Morocco : mitkal = 10 wakia 
 waki = 4 blankil 
 blankil 
 
 ASIA : 
 Arabia : piastre = 80 kavir 
 
 kavir . 
 
 Persia : toman = 10 keran 
 keran = 20shahi 
 shahi = 50 dinar 
 India : rupi = 16 anna 
 anna = 12 pai 
 
 100 cents 
 
 8 mus 
 
 Ceylon : Rupi 
 cent 
 
 Burma : tikal, or kyat 
 mus = 2 bai 
 bai = 8 rewh 
 
 Siam : tikal, or bat = 4 miam 
 
 miam = 2 fuan 
 
 fuan = 4 fainun 
 
 : quan = 10 mas 
 
 mas = 60 cash 
 
 Philippines and Borneo 
 
 Anam 
 
 China : liang=10 tsin 
 tsin = 10 fan . 
 fan = 101i . 
 
 Japan : yen = 100 sen 
 sen = 10 rin , 
 
 peso: 
 real = 
 
 = 20 reals 
 100 cents 
 
 AMERICA : 
 Dominion of Canada : dollar = 100 cents 
 
 cent 
 
 United States : dollar =100 cents 
 cent . 
 
 Central America :- 
 Mexico : dollar =100 cents 
 Guatemala 
 Nicaragua 
 
 Honduras J> dollar = 100 centavos 
 
 Costa Rica 
 Spanish Antilles 
 
 E E 
 
 Nominal Values at par 
 
 $ s. d. 
 
 0-05 
 
 2 
 
 0-0013 
 0-1167 
 
 3 
 
 0-0073 
 
 If 
 
 0-74 
 
 3 i 
 
 0-0740 
 
 3-7 
 
 0-0185 
 
 0-925 
 
 0-82 
 
 3 5 
 
 0-0103 
 
 i 
 
 2-230 
 
 9 3| 
 
 0-1115 
 
 lU 
 
 0-0056 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 0-48 
 
 2 
 
 0-03 
 
 If 
 
 0-0025 
 0-48 
 
 i 
 
 0-0048 
 
 0-24 
 
 0-48 
 
 2 
 
 0-06 
 
 3 
 
 003 
 
 1| 
 
 0-60 
 
 2 6 
 
 0-15 
 
 7| 
 
 0-07 
 
 
 0-6667 
 
 2 9i 
 
 0-0667 
 
 31 
 
 1 
 
 4 2 
 
 0-01 
 1-40 
 
 2* 
 5 10 
 
 0-14 
 
 7 
 
 00140 
 
 0-7 
 
 1 
 
 4 2 
 
 o-oi 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 4 2 
 
 0-01 
 
 i 
 j 
 
 0-9863 
 
 * Ii 5 
 
 0-0099 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 4 2 
 
 0-96 
 
 4 
 
4 i8 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 MONEY OF ACCOUNT continued. 
 
 South America : 
 
 Colombia : peso, or fuerte = 100 centavos . 
 Venezuela : peso, or old Prussian thaler =* 100 cen- 
 
 tavos ..... 
 British Guiana : dollar = 100 cents 
 Ecuador : peso = 100 centavos 
 Peru : sol = 100 centesimos 
 Bolivia : peso = 100 centenas 
 Chili : peso = 100 centavos . 
 Buenos Ayres : patacon = 100 centesimos 
 
 Nominal Values at par 
 
 Brazil : milreis = 1000 reis . 
 
 096 
 
 0-72 
 
 1 
 
 0-96 
 
 0-96 
 
 0-74 
 
 090 
 
 0-96 
 
 0-96 
 054 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 3 1 
 
 3 9 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 2 3 
 
 At some places and countries in Asia and Africa, where there is no 
 established money account, the precious metals, whether coined or not, or 
 in the form of gold-dust, are estimated by weight : thus, weight-units and 
 their subdivision take the place of monetary units and subdivision, in 
 dealing with compound commercial units. 
 
 An examination of this list shows the general pre- 
 valence of decimalised moneys of account, and as it may 
 be accepted as a principle that compound units are 
 more simple in calculation when the two units from 
 which they are compounded are similar in mode of sub- 
 division, the conclusion becomes inevitable that for 
 purposes of foreign trade generally, decimalisation is 
 the most convenient method for arranging compound 
 units. 
 
 It is on this basis that the decimalisation of all 
 commercial measures has been strenuously advocated ; 
 but while granting the correctness of the basis, it may 
 be noticed that it also affords a strong argument against 
 the decimalisation of English commercial measures, 
 until the English money of account is decimalised. 
 
 On the same basis also the general adoption of 
 French commercial measures has been urged ; if, how- 
 ever, there is any advantage in that, it would only 
 
CH. vi. SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS. 419 
 
 be when adopting the French monetary system 
 also. 
 
 There is a very wide distinction between decimalising 
 English measures and English money and adopting 
 French measures and French money ; but whatever 
 opinions may be held as to the advisability of either mode, 
 it seems an inevitable conclusion that the measures and 
 the money should be of the same sort. When the pre- 
 ponderance of commerce is French, it may become 
 advisable to adopt French measures and monetary units 
 in foreign trade ; until that time it is certainly unneces- 
 sary, while for purposes of home-trade it would be a mis- 
 chievous innovation. 
 
 The decimalisation of English commercial measures 
 and money together may be advisable ; but this seems 
 a matter open to much doubt ; probably the rectification, 
 improvement, and simplification of the commercial 
 measures through small changes, not exceeding fluctua- 
 tion due to change of temperature, and their rearrange- 
 ment on a decimal framework, such as that of the 
 English scientific system already described, would serve 
 every required purpose and pressing need at present. 
 The compound units and calculations of cost in con- 
 nection with foreign trade would, as hitherto, be carried 
 out by clerks and others conversant with the business ; 
 and as far as personal injury goes, neither the number 
 of clerks employed nor the amount of trade done would 
 be much affected under any system of measures and 
 moneys of account. 
 
 Should at any time decimalisation become inevitable 
 in both English commercial measures and monetary units, 
 the decimalised framework of the commercial system 
 comprised in the English scientific decimal series can 
 
 E E 2 
 
420 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 then serve the requirements of the case, with but few 
 additional units ; and the monetary decimalisation will 
 be most conveniently effected by slightly altering the 
 copper money, making the penny J^th of the pound, 
 and the farthing 3-^oiyth of the pound, without altering 
 the gold or the silver money in any way. 
 
 The principal inconvenience in this latter plan is that 
 1 2\ pence would go to a shilling, and that a half-shilling 
 would no longer be called sixpence l ; but any other mode 
 of effecting monetary decimalisation in England would 
 be more subversive in effect. The arrangement pro- 
 posed, being millesimal, has also some advantages over a 
 centesimal subdivision. 
 
 Proceeding to compound units of another sort ; the 
 principal of these are Pressure-units, Irrigation-units 
 and Water-supply-units, Power-units, Heat-units, and 
 Electro-magnetic-units. Most of these are dealt with 
 entirely by technical, professional, and scientific men, and 
 hence should fall entirely in a scientific series or system, 
 although in England hitherto this has not been possible 
 owing to the want of fixity and completeness of any 
 distinct scientific system 
 
 Pressure-units. Taking the pressure-units first in 
 order, those ordinarily used in England, the pound per 
 square inch, the pound per square foot, and the ton per 
 square inch. Adopting the simple units at the commercial 
 or normal standard temperature, 62 Fahrenheit in air, the 
 compound units are thus compared with French com- 
 pound units : 
 
 Since I pound =0-45 3 593 kilog. ; and I square 
 inch = 6*447 68 cent. car. ; hence I Ib. per sq. inch = 
 0*070 3498 kilog. per cent. car. 
 
 1 Perhaps the term tester, testoon, or some other old name could be re- 
 applied. 
 
CH. vi. SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS. 421 
 
 In the same way also 
 
 I Ib. per sq. foot = 4-8 8 5 403 kilog. per cent. car. 
 I ton per sq. inch= 1*57583 quintals per cent. car. 
 
 Conversely also in the reduction of French com- 
 pound units to English values on the commercial scale ; 
 
 Since I kilogramme = 2*20462 Ibs. ; and I centimetre 
 car. = 0*15509 square inch; hence I kilog. per centim. 
 car. = 14*21468 Ibs. per sq. inch. 
 
 In the same way also 
 
 I kilog. per metre car. = 0*204692 Ibs. per sq. foot. 
 I millier per cent. carre = 6*345 87 tons per sq. inch. 
 I quintal per metre car. = 0*182761 cwtper square foot. 
 
 The reduction and manipulation of such quantities 
 and units is evidently troublesome and inconvenient. 
 
 If, however, the English units of the decimal scientific 
 system at 32 be applied to form compound units of 
 pressure, the calculation is not only more simple, but 
 requires merely the movement of the decimal point in 
 the values of the simple units. 
 
 In compound units of this system, it is preferable to 
 use the term talent instead of foot-weight, so as to avoid 
 much repetition of the word foot in the combined terms ; 
 but this not often of great consequence. 
 
 Using the foot-weight and the square foot, it is thus 
 effected ; 
 
 Since 1 foot-weight = 28*3 15 312 kilogrammes, and 
 1 square foot = 0*092 899 68 metre carr^ ; hence 1 foot- 
 weight per sq. ft. = 304*7945 kilog. per met. car. Also, 
 
 1 foot-weight per square foot = 0*304 7945 milliers per 
 metre car. 
 
422 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 And this corresponds to the metric value of the linear 
 foot, at the scientific standard, which is 0^304 7945 
 metre. 
 
 In the same way also 
 
 1 foot-weight per sq. foot = 0^030 479 45 kilog. per 
 cent. car. 
 
 1 rod-weight per sq. foot = 3047945 milliers per metre 
 car. 
 
 And conversely also 
 
 I kilogramme per metre carre = 0'003 280 899 foot- 
 weight per sq. foot. 
 
 I millier per metre carre = 3'280 899 foot-weight per 
 sq. foot ; 
 
 where the values correspond to that of the linear 
 metre, as regards figures apart fron\ their decimal posi- 
 tion, the latter being 3'280 899 feet of the scientific 
 system. 
 
 The figures can thus be taken in all cases of pressure- 
 units from the values of simple linear units of the 
 scientific system, given in the preceding chapter ; and 
 there is no need of special tables, or of troublesome reduc- 
 tion. 
 
 Pressure is frequently estimated in simple, in prefer- 
 ence to compound, units ; in that case the unit adopted 
 is the theoretical pressure of one atmosphere. Its values 
 expressed in other terms are thus 
 
 I atmosphere = 1471 Ibs. per sq. inch =1*03 3 kilog. 
 per cent. car. 
 
 Its equivalents in counterbalancing water column 
 and mercurial column are 
 
CH. vi. SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS. 423 
 
 I atmosphere = 33-9 ft. of water = 10-33 met. of water. 
 = 2*5 feet of mercury = 76 centimetres of 
 mercury. 
 
 Irrigation-units. Treating irrigation-units in the 
 same manner as the compound units of pressure, and 
 using the English commercial units, such as cubic feet of 
 water per acre irrigated : 
 
 Since I cubic foot 0*028 291 metre cube; and 
 I acre = 0*404 440 hectare ; 
 
 Hence I cubic foot per acre = 0*069 951 metre cube 
 per hectare. 
 
 Conversely also 
 
 i metre cube per hectare = 14*2958 cubic feet per 
 acre. 
 
 But if the English scientific units are used at 32 
 Fahr., the cubic foot and the square chain, or the cen- 
 tury : 
 
 Since 1 cubic foot = 0*028 3153 metre cube; and 
 1 square chain = 0-092 8997 hectare; 
 
 Hence 1 cubic foot per sq. chain = 0*304 7945 metre 
 cube per hectare ; and 1 cubic rod per century = 3 "047 94 5 
 metres cubes per hectare. 
 
 Conversely also 
 
 i met. cube per hectare = 3*2:80 899 cub. ft. per sq. chain. 
 =0-328090 cubic rods per 
 century. 
 
 The figures in each case being those of values of the 
 linear units, the foot and the metre. 
 
 Irrigation is also sometimes estimated in simple in 
 preference to compound units ; in that case the unit 
 
424 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 adopted is the linear unit of depth of water when the 
 irrigation is theoretically spread over, or is standing on a 
 surface. 
 
 I foot of standing water = 10 000 cubic feet per sq. 
 chain. 
 
 0*1 foot of standing water = 10 cubic feet per century. 
 ,, =0-030479 metre cub. per 
 
 hectare. 
 And 
 
 i decimetre of standing water=iooo met. cub. per 
 
 hectare. 
 
 =328-090 cubic rods 
 per century. 
 
 Water-supply-units. These, being units of continuous 
 supply, are irrigation-units, compounded with time- 
 units ; the second being the time-unit most commonly 
 adopted both by the English and French. 
 
 With commercial units, then 
 
 i cub. ft. per second per acre = 0*069 951 met. cub. 
 per sec. per hectare. 
 
 i met. cub. per second per hectare = 14*2958 cub. ft. 
 per sec. per acre. 
 
 And with scientific units 
 
 1 cub. ft. per sec. per sq. chain 0*304 79 met cub. 
 per sec. per hectare. 
 
 i met. cub. per sec. per hectare = 3*2809 cub. ft. per 
 sec. per sq. chain. 
 
 Power-units and Units of Work. The ordinary 
 English power-units on the commercial scale at 62 
 Fahr. are the foot-pound and the horse-power; the 
 
CH vi. SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS. 425 
 
 French corresponding units on the scientific scale at 32 
 Fahr. are the kilogrammetre and the force de chevaL 
 The relation is as follows 
 
 i foot =0*304708 metre. 
 
 i pound =0*453593 kilogramme. 
 
 I foot-pound =0*1382134 kilogramme-metre. 
 
 Conversely also 
 
 i kilogrammetre = 7*23 5 1 87 foot-pounds. 
 
 The English horse-power is 33000 Ibs. raised i foot 
 in one minute, or 5 50 foot-pounds per second ; the French 
 force de cheval, or cheval-vapcvr is 4500 kilogram- 
 metres per minute, or 75 kilogrammetres per second. 
 
 Hence 
 
 i H.-P. English= 33000 foot-pounds = 4561 -0422 
 
 kilog.-metres per minute. 
 =1*0135649 C.-V. French. 
 And 
 i cheval-vapeur = 4500 kilog.-metres = 32558*3415 
 
 foot-pounds per minute. 
 =0*9866164 H.-P. English. 
 
 In applying English decimal and scientific units at 
 32 Fahr. in compound units of this class, it may be 
 noticed that as the standard value of the ounce is slightly 
 altered, the millesimal ounce being 0*99879 of a com- 
 mercial ounce, there may be two modes of obtaining the 
 compound unit, one by reduction and forming an exactly 
 equivalent unit in other terms, the other by simple sub- 
 stitution of the millesimal ounce for the commercial 
 ounce, and thus slightly varying the absolute value of the 
 compound unit. 
 
426 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 The latter method is to be preferred, from the advan- 
 tage of adherence to round numbers. 
 
 Next, as the pound does not exist in the decimal 
 series, either the foot-weight, here more conveniently 
 termed a talent, or the millesimal ounce must be adopted. 
 Adopting the talent, the new compound unit will be the 
 foot-talent ; then 
 
 I foot =0*3047945 metre. 
 
 I talent =28315 312 kilogrammes. 
 Hence I foot-talent = 8-630 3504 kilogrammetres. 
 
 And conversely 
 i kilogrammetre = 011 5870 foot-talents. 
 
 Hence also 
 
 I cheval-vapeuraa45oo kilog.-metres per minute. 
 =521'4150 foot-talents per minute. 
 
 Adopting also the slightly modified value of the 
 English H.-P. unit, instead of being 528000 foot-ounces of 
 the commercial ounce, it becomes 528000 foot-ounces of 
 the millesimal ounce in the scientific series. 
 
 Hence I H.-P. = 528 foot-talents exactly per minute. 
 
 = 4556*825 kilogrammetres. 
 
 = roi2 6277 cheval-vapeur. 
 
 Conversely i cheval-vapeur =3'9875284 H.-P. of this 
 sort. 
 
 While thus keeping as close to the old value of the 
 English H.-P. unit as is possible with corresponding 
 numbers on the scientific scale, no very important altera- 
 tion is effected, as the change is less than one-tenth 
 per cent, being 0*0009. 
 
 It may, however, be noticed that this theoretical 
 
SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS. 427 
 
 horse-power unit would be much more convenient, if 
 entirely altered in value, so as to be in more simple ratio 
 to the lower units and the whole scale of scientific 
 units ; 600 foot-talents per minute or 1 foot-talents per 
 second would be a much more convenient value for 
 English H.-P. 
 
 Thermal and Electro-magnetic units. The units 
 adopted in calculations involving heat, thermal equiva- 
 lents, mechanical equivalents of heat, and calculations of 
 quantity and current, are frequently very complicated 
 and require logarithmic computation. Most of the 
 units involve the foot-grain in English, and the metre- 
 gramme in French measure, and the second is the unit 
 of time with both. 
 
 Taking the commercial values of these 
 
 The foot-grain =0-30471 x 0-0648 = ( ' OI 974 met- 
 
 L gramme. 
 
 Themetre-gramme = 3'28i8x 15-4323 = 
 
 I grains. 
 
 For purposes of this description in scientific units the 
 mil, T -oV o tn f tne millesimal ounce, would be the unit 
 to replace the grain, being somewhere about half of it, or 
 0*43697 grain ; and the new compound scientific unit 
 would be the foot-mil, so that 
 
 1 foot-mil = 0-30479x0-0283 1 5 =0-0086303 5 metre- 
 gramme. 
 
 i metre-gramme = 3-2809x35-31 66 = 11 5-870 foot-mils. 
 
 The change effected by the adoption of these units 
 would run through the whole system of thermal and 
 magnetic quantities and equivalents ; but it would cer- 
 tainly be an advantage, on the whole, to carry out the 
 
428 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 English decimal scientific system in every branch of 
 scientific work, and thus to become perfectly independent 
 of French terms and units, while obtaining all the 
 advantages of decimalisation and simple systematisation. 
 At some future period it may be hoped that the whole 
 series of English scientific units may be arranged to a 
 single temperature ; but at present, and as long as the 
 French adopt two temperatures in their system, the ad- 
 vantages of exact correlation in this respect, and easy 
 interchange of scientific results with exactitude, perhaps 
 counterbalance that of adopting a single standard 
 temperature. 
 
CH. vi. SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS. 429 
 
 COMPOUND UNITS. 
 At the English Commercial Standard, Temp. 62, Bar. 30". 
 
 PRESSURE. Commercial Equivalents. 
 
 i pound per square inch = 0-070 3498 kilog. per centim. carre* 
 
 I ,, foot = 4-885 40 kilog. per metre carre 
 
 i cwt. ,, ,, = 5-471645 quintals per metre carre 
 
 i ton ,, inch = 0*157 583 milliers per centim. carre* 
 
 i kilogramme per centim. carre* = 14-21468 pounds per square inch 
 
 i ,, metre ,, = 0-204692 ,, ,, foot 
 
 i millier ,, ,, = 1-82761 cwt. per ,, ,, 
 
 I ,, per centim. ,, = 6-34587 tons per inch 
 
 IRRIGATION. Commercial Equivalents. 
 
 i cubic foot per acre = 0-069 95 J metre cube per hectare 
 
 * ,, rood = 0-279804 
 
 i metre cube per hectare = 14-2958 cubic feet per acre 
 
 i = 3*57395 rood 
 
 POWER AND WORK. Commercial Equivalents. 
 
 I foot-pound = 0-138 2134 kilogrammetres 
 
 i h.-p. = 33000 ft.-lbs. per min. = 1-013 5649 force de cheval, c.-v. 
 
 I kilogrammetre = 7-235 187 foot-pounds 
 
 i c.-v., or force de cheval (4500) = 0-986 6164 h. p., horse-power 
 
 HEAT AND ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. Commercial Equivalents. 
 i foot-grain 0*019 7448 metre-grammes 
 
 i metre-gramme = 50-6464 foot-grains 
 
 UNITS OF REDUCTION. 
 
 The units of reduction required with the English commercial equivalents 
 are hence many and diverse ; the preferable mode is to use the following 
 scientific equivalents, which involve only four units of reduction and their 
 reciprocals apart from the position of the decimal point. 
 
430 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 COMPOUND UNITS. 
 At the English Scientific Standard, Temp. 32 Fahr. in vacua. 
 
 PRESSURE. Scientific Equivalents. 
 
 I talent (or foot-weight) per sq. foot. =3047945 kilog. per met. car. 
 
 ,, ,, = 0-03047945 kilog. per cent. car. 
 
 = 0-304 7945 milliers per met. car. 
 = 304-7945 milliers per met. car. 
 
 I rod-weight per square foot 
 
 I kilogramme per metre carre 
 I kilogramme per centim. carre . 
 I millier per metre carre . 
 I millier per centim. carre . 
 
 0-003 2809 talents per sq. foot 
 0-328 0899 talents per sq. tithe 
 3-280 899 talents per sq. foot 
 32-808 990 rod-weight per sq. foot 
 
 IRRIGATION. Scientific Equivalents. 
 
 I cubic foot per square chain . = 0-304 7945 met. cub. per hectare 
 
 I cubic foot per century . . = 0-003 0479 met. cub. per hectare 
 
 I cubic rod per century . . = 3 -047 945 met. cub. per hectare 
 
 I metre cube per hectare . 
 
 3-280 899 cubic feet per sq. chain 
 328-089 9 cubic feet per century 
 0-328 090 cubic rods per century 
 
 POWER AND WORK. Scientific Equivalents. 
 
 I foot-talent = 8*6303542 kilogrammetres 
 
 i h-p. = 528 ft. -talents per min. = I '012 63 c-v. force de cheval 
 
 i kilogrammetre = 0-115 870 foot-talents 
 
 i c-v. force de cheval (4500) = 0-987 528 h-p. (scientific) 
 
 HEAT AND ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. Scientific Equivalents. 
 I foot-mil = 0-00863035 metre-grammes 
 
 I metre-gramme 
 
 = 115-870 154 foot-mils 
 
 UNITS OF REDUCTION. 
 
 English into French 
 
 Simple . . 0-304794494 
 Square . . 0-092899683 
 Cubic . . . 0-028315312 
 Fourth power . 0-008630354 
 
 French into English 
 
 Simple . . . 3-2808992 
 
 Square . . . 107642993 
 
 Cubic . . . 35-3165807 
 
 Fourth power . . 115-8701450 
 
CH. VI. 
 
 SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS. 
 
 43' 
 
 CONSTANTS, CORRECTIONS, AND QUANTITIES 
 
 Used in connection with Standards. 
 Comparison of Standard Temperatures on Various 
 
 Former English normal temperature . 
 
 Temperature of melting ice . . . ~\ 
 
 French commercial and scientific normal . . J 
 
 English scientific normal . . . . . J 
 
 English temperature for max. density of water . 
 
 French temperature for max. density of water . 
 Hassler's temperature for max. density of water . 
 
 Mean atmospheric temperature in connection with 
 barom. pressure ...... 
 
 Former French temperature of comparison 
 Swedish normal commercial temperature . 
 Former French normal, for the toise de Perou . 
 English normal commercial temperature, since 
 
 1872 generally ; since 1824 partially 
 Prussian normal commercial temperature . 
 Normal temperature for Tha'i (Siam) . 
 
 Various Scales. 
 
 Fahr. Cent. 
 
 o o 
 30 -1-11 
 
 RSau. 
 o 
 -0-89 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 
 
 39-2 
 
 3-945 
 4 
 4-35 
 
 E 
 
 50 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 54-5 
 59 
 61-25 
 
 12-5 
 15 
 16-25 
 
 10 
 12 
 13 
 
 62 
 
 6575 
 85 
 
 16-66 
 18-75 
 29-44 
 
 15 
 23-55 
 
 Compensating Temperatures for verifying Measures of Capacity 
 by the weight of water contained. 
 
 For a Litre Measure, according to Van der Toorn. 
 
 o 
 
 Glass vessel . . . . . . 45 
 
 Copper ,, 51-8 
 
 Brass ,, 52-8 
 
 Pewter , 5 tin to I lead . . . . 56-3 
 
 for English Commercial Measures Standards 
 Department^ applicable to the gallon, 
 
 Glass vessel ....... 5 
 
 Brass 57'4 
 
 7-22 
 11-00 
 11-56 
 13-50 
 
 10 
 14-1 
 
 5-8 
 8-8 
 
 9 '2A 
 10-8* 
 
 8 
 11-83 
 
432 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 DENSITY AND EXPANSION. 
 
 Mean Densities of materials used in Standard measures. 
 
 At temp. 32 Fahr. 
 Pure platinum 
 Annealed platinum . 
 Pure iridium . 
 Platinum - iridium of ~ 
 
 iridium 
 
 Ditto annealed 
 Brass .... 
 Gun-metal 
 
 Ordinary mean densities of metals, accepted. 
 
 At temp. 62 Fahr. 
 
 Platinum . 
 
 
 21-1572 
 
 Brass 
 
 
 8-1430 
 
 Bronze gilt 
 
 
 8-2829 
 
 Iron adjusted 
 
 witl 
 
 i 
 
 lead . 
 
 
 7-1270 
 
 Quartz 
 
 
 2-6505 
 
 Glass 
 
 
 2-5179 
 
 Water . 
 
 
 0-9988834 
 
 Brass, 3 copper to i zinc . 
 Gun-metal, 9 copper to I tin 
 Bailey's metal, 16 copper, 
 
 8-435 
 8-694 
 
 Copper . 
 Zinc 
 Tin 
 
 z\ tin, i zinc . 
 Nickel .... 
 
 8-554 
 8-670 
 
 Iron (cast) . 
 Steel 
 
 Wrought iron . 
 
 7750 
 
 
 21-402 
 
 21 -326 
 22-194 
 
 21-449 
 21-429 
 8-0298 
 
 8-4947 
 
 8-85 
 7-19 
 7-29 
 7-00 
 8-00 
 
 Mean densities of grain. 
 
 Wheat 
 Barley 
 Linseed 
 Colza 
 
 0-76 
 0-63 
 0-64 
 0-66 
 
 Rye 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 Millet 
 
 Oats 
 
 0-69 
 0-68 
 0-68 
 0-44 
 
 Rice 
 
 Peas, lentils 
 
 Maize 
 
 Hemp 
 
 0-80 
 0-80 
 0-60 
 0-52 
 
 Table of Linear Expansion of Metal Bars between temperatures 0/36 and 
 79 Fahr. applicable to any linear unit. 
 
 For i Fahr. 
 
 For 30 Fahr. 
 
 For i Cent. 
 
 For 15 Cent. 
 
 Platinum . o-ooo 00476 
 
 o-ooo 1428 
 
 0-00000857 
 
 o-ooo 1285 
 
 Brass . . 0-00000956 
 
 0-0002870 
 
 O-OOOOI72I 
 
 o-ooo 2581 
 
 Bronze . . 0-00000947 
 
 0-000284I 
 
 0-OOOOI705 
 
 0-0002557 
 
 Copper . . 0-00000873 
 
 O-OOO26l8 
 
 O-OOOOI57I 
 
 o-ooo 2357 
 
 Wrought iron 0-00000550 
 
 o-ooo 1650 
 
 0-00000990 
 
 o-ooo 1485 
 
 Cast iron . o-ooo 00611 
 
 o-ooo 1833 
 
 O'OOO OIIOO 
 
 o-ooo 1650 
 
 Cast steel . 0-00000575 
 
 o-ooo 1725 
 
 0-00001035 
 
 o-ooo 1553 
 
 Glass . . 0-00000492 
 
 o-ooo 1477 
 
 0-00000886 
 
 o-ooo 1328 
 
 Pinewood . 0-00000275 
 
 0-0000827 
 
 0-00000495 
 
 0-0000743 
 
 Table of Cubic Expansion. 
 
 For 1 Fahr. 
 Platinum-iridium . . . . . 0-00001428 
 
 Brass 0-00002870 
 
 Glass 0-00001476 
 
 Mercur 0-0000998 
 
 Dry air . 0-0002031 
 
 For i Cent. 
 0-00002570 
 0-00005166 
 0-00002658 
 o-ooo 17971 
 0-00036560 
 
CH. VI. 
 
 SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS. 
 
 433 
 
 WEIGHT OF AIR. 
 
 Observed values of the weight of a Litre of dry air. 
 
 Observer. Place. 
 
 Hegnault. Paris. 
 
 Miller. Cambridge. 
 
 Lasch. Paris. 
 
 Berlin. 
 Calculated for mean position 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 48 50' 14" 
 50 12' 18" 
 48 50' 14" 
 52 30' O' 
 45 
 
 Height 
 60 m 
 8m 
 
 60 m 
 40 m 
 O m 
 
 Weight in 
 grammes. 
 1-293496 
 1-293893 
 I -293 204 
 I -293 880 
 I -293 030 
 
 Formula for calculating the weight of a Litre of dry air at any place. 
 
 W = weight in grammes at O Centigrade, barom. 760 mm. 
 
 h = height of place above mean sea level. 
 
 L = latitude. 
 
 R = terrestrial radius = 6 -366198 metres. 
 
 Then W = i -293 0693 ( I ~- I< 3 2 ^) (1-0-0025659 cos 2L). 
 
 7'able of Corrections for applying to the mean value I '29303 for other 
 heights and latitudes, at o Cent. , bar. 760 mm. 
 
 tat. 
 
 h = m 
 
 50 m 
 
 100 m 
 
 150 m 
 
 200 m 
 
 250 m 
 
 40 
 
 0-00058 
 
 59 
 
 60 
 
 62 
 
 63 
 
 64 
 
 41 
 
 0-00046 
 
 48 
 
 49 
 
 50 
 
 52 
 
 53 
 
 42 
 
 0-00035 
 
 36 
 
 37 
 
 39 
 
 40 
 
 4i 
 
 43 
 
 0-00023 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 44 
 
 0-00012 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 45 
 
 O'OOOOO 
 
 OI 
 
 03 
 
 04 
 
 05 
 
 07 
 
 46 
 
 + 0-00012 
 
 10 
 
 09 
 
 08 
 
 06 
 
 05 
 
 47 
 
 + O'OOO23 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 48 
 
 4-0-00035 
 
 33 
 
 32 
 
 31 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 49 
 
 + O-OOO46 
 
 45 
 
 43 
 
 42 
 
 4i 
 
 39 
 
 50 
 
 + 0-00058 
 
 56 
 
 
 54 
 
 ' 52 
 
 51 
 
 51 
 
 + 0-00069 
 
 68 
 
 66 
 
 65 
 
 64 
 
 62 
 
 52 
 
 + 0-00080 
 
 79 
 
 77 
 
 76 
 
 75 
 
 74 
 
 53 
 
 + 0-0009I 
 
 90 
 
 89 
 
 87 
 
 86 
 
 85 
 
 54 
 
 + O-OOIO2 
 
 01 
 
 oo 
 
 98 
 
 97 
 
 96 
 
 55 
 
 + 0-OOII3 
 
 12 
 
 ii 
 
 09 
 
 08 
 
 07 
 
 Having thus obtained a value (W) at o Cent, and 760 mm. bar., 
 allowance may be made for any other temperature (t Cent.) between o 
 and 50 Cent. ; also for pressure of vapour (v) present, and barometric 
 pressure (b), both in millimetres of mercury at o Cent., by the following 
 formula : 
 
 Corrected value = VMb-o;378v)_ 
 (i +0-003656 t) . 760 
 
 F F 
 
434 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n r 
 
 WEIGHT OF AIR continued. 
 
 Weight of air displaced by Standard Kilogrammes of various materials 
 at temp. i6| Cent., barom. 761-986 mm. 
 
 Weight of air displace 
 
 Density. in milligrammes. 
 
 French platinum .... 20*5487 59 -25 
 
 English platinum .... 21*1379 57*60 
 
 French brass . . . ... 8*2063 I 5 I '7S 
 
 English bronze gilt .... 8*3291 146*23 
 
 ,, iron adjusted with lead . . 7*1270 170*84 
 
 quartz 2*6505 459 -32 
 
 Weight of air that wotttd be displaced by Standard Foot-weights (or Talents) 
 ofvarioits materials, at temp. 62 Fahr., barom. 30 inches. 
 
 Weight of air displaced 
 Density. in English mils. 
 
 Platinum 21*1572 57'476 
 
 Brass ..... 
 Bronze gilt .... 
 Iron adjusted with lead 
 Quartz . . . . 
 
 8*1430 
 8*2829 
 . 7-1270 
 
 149*324 
 146757 
 170-575 
 458-812 
 482-772 
 
 
 
 2*<;i7Q 
 
 The allowance to be applied for other temperatures and pressures. 
 
 For 10 Fahr. less, deduct 2*12 per cent. ; for i" bar. less, deduct 3*54; 
 
 per cent. 
 For 10 Cent, less, deduct 3*82 per cent. ; for 10 mm. bar. less, deduct 
 
 1*31 per cent. 
 
 English and French Values. 
 
 At 62 Fahr. At 32 Fahr, 
 
 At Westminster. foot-wt. foot-wt. 
 
 Weight of I cubic foot of dry air, bar. 30" . . 0*001 215 0001 294 
 Weight of a talent or foot-weight of water on the 
 
 scientific scale I *ooi 657 1 
 
 Weight of a talent or foot- weight of water on the 
 
 commercial scale I 0-998343 
 
 At o Cent, 
 At Pans. kilogt 
 
 Weight of I decimetre cube of dry air, bar. 760 
 
 mm. (Biot) ... ... 0*001 299 
 
 Weight of i decimetre cube of water in vacuo 
 
 (nominally) . I 
 
CH. vr. SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS. 435 
 
 ALLOWANCE; OR ERROR ALLOWED. 
 ENGLISH STANDARD MEASURES. 
 
 In length and in capacity the error allowed in excess is the 
 same as in deficiency. In weight-units and gas measures the 
 error allowed in excess is double that in deficiency. 
 
 LENGTH : 
 
 Allowance in excess 
 
 In rod of 10 feet, and in 6 feet . 0*01 inch 
 In 3 feet, 2 feet, and i foot , . 0*005 i ncn 
 In i inch to 0*01 inch . . . o'ooi inch 
 
 CAPACITY : 
 
 Allowance in excess in grain-weights of water. 
 
 Grain-weights 
 In bushel . . 280 | 
 In half-bushel . 140 
 In peck . . 70 
 In gallon . . 50 
 In half-gallon t 25 
 In quart, or pint . 10 
 
 Grain-weights 
 In half-pint and gill . 8 
 In half-gill . . 4 
 In quarter-gill . . 2 
 
 In bottle . 
 In half-bottle . 
 
 . 10 
 
 5 
 
 For gas-standards. 
 
 Allowance in excess 
 10 cubic feet, 5 cubic feet, and i cubic 
 
 foot dry test 2\ and . . . 0-5 per cent, fast 
 
 Burette measures. 
 
 Allowance in excess 
 10 cubic inches, 5 cubic inches, 2 
 
 cubic inches . . . . i grain-weight 
 i cubic inch, 0-5 cubic inch, 0-2, and 
 
 o.i cubic inch .... 0-5 grain- weight 
 
 F F 2 
 
436 METRICAL SYSTEMS. PART n. 
 
 WEIGHT : 
 
 Allowance in excess 
 In 56 pounds, in 28 pounds, and in 14 
 
 pounds 5 grs. 
 
 In 7 pounds, in four pounds, and in 2 
 
 pounds 2 grs. 
 
 In i pound, in 8 ounces, in 4 oz., in 2 
 
 oz., and in i oz. . . . . 0*25 grs. 
 In 8 drams, in 4 drs., in 2 drs., in i dr., 
 
 and in ^ dr. . . . . 0-05 gr& 
 
 In bullion : 
 
 In 500 ounces, in 400 oz., in 300 oz., 
 
 and in 200 oz. . . . . i gr. 
 In 100 ounces, in 50 oz., in 40 oz., in 
 
 30 oz., in 20 oz. . . . 0-25 grs. 
 
 In 10 ounces, 5 oz., 4 oz., 3 oz., and in 
 
 2 oz 0-025 grs. 
 
 In weights between i ounce and 0*001 
 
 ounce ..... 0*005 g rs> 
 
 In burette measures, for specified weight 
 
 of water : 
 
 In bottle of ii 666f grains ... 6 grs. 
 
 In half-bottle 4 grs. 
 
 In 7000 grains, in 4000 grs., in 2000 
 
 grs., in 1000 grs. ... 4 grs. 
 
 In 500 grains, in 300 grs., in 200 grs . 2 grs. 
 
 In 100 grains . . . . . i gr. 
 In 50 grains, in 30 grs., in 20 grs., in 
 
 10 grs. 0-5 grs. 
 
 In 40 ounces, in 20 ounces ... 5 grs. 
 
 In 10 ounces, 5 oz., 4 oz., 2 oz. . . 2 grs. 
 
 In i ounce, and in oz. . . . i gr. 
 
CH. VI. SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS. 437 
 
 Allowance: (French) Tolerance; (German) Remedium. 
 FRENCH STANDARD MEASURES. 
 
 LENGTH : 
 
 Allowance in excess 
 
 or in deficiency 
 
 Double decametre .... 3 millimetres 
 De'cametre . . . . . 2 
 
 Demi-decametre i 
 
 Double-metre, et metre en me'tal . 0-2 
 Demi-metre, et decimetre en me'tal . o'i 
 
 CAPACITY : 
 
 Allowance in excess 
 
 or in deficiency 
 
 Double litre contenant 2000 grammes 3 grammes 
 Litre 1000 2 ,, 
 
 Demi-litre 500 1-5 
 
 Quart de litre 250 i 
 
 Demi-quart 125 07 
 
 Seizieme 62^5 0*5 
 
 Pour matieres seches. 
 
 La verification se fait par moyen de la graine de 
 navette ; les differences en plus ne doivent pas exce'der un 
 centieme pour les mesures en chene. Les differences en 
 moins ne sont pas tolere"es. 
 
 Pour bois de chauffage. 
 On ne tolere les erreurs aux membrures qu'en plus. 
 
 Excedant tolere 
 
 Stere 5 millimetres 
 
 Double stere 8 
 
 Demi-ddcastere . . . .15 
 
438 
 WEIGHT. 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS'. PART 
 Extreme error allowable in excess only. 
 
 
 
 In 
 
 iron 
 
 In 
 
 copper 
 
 In 50 
 
 kilogrammes 
 
 20 grammes 
 
 20 
 
 33 
 
 10 
 
 150 centigrammes 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 33 
 
 80 
 
 33 
 
 3, 5 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 33 
 
 5 
 
 33 
 
 3, 2 
 
 33 
 
 2 
 
 33 
 
 25 
 
 33 
 
 33 I 
 
 33 
 
 I 
 
 33 
 
 15 
 
 3) 
 
 5 
 
 hectogrammes 
 
 '5 
 
 33 
 
 10 
 
 J> 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 0-3 
 
 , 
 
 5 
 
 M 
 
 33 I 
 
 33 
 
 0'2 
 
 33 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 decagrammes 
 
 O'l 
 
 
 
 2*5 
 
 n 
 
 33 2 
 
 33 
 
 3) 
 
 33 
 
 2'0 
 
 3) 
 
 ,3 I 
 
 33 
 
 . 
 
 33 
 
 x *5 
 
 3) 
 
 5 
 
 grammes 
 
 3) 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 3) 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 0-4 
 
 J) 
 
 * 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 0'2 
 
 n 
 
439 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 PROPOSED ENGLISH COMMERCIAL SYSTEM. 
 
 HAVING set forth and arranged the commercial units of 
 measure used by the greater part of the world, in the foregoing 
 volume, and estimated the values of these units in accordance 
 with English commercial measure at the modern normal stan- 
 dard temperature, in accordance with English scientific measure 
 at 32 Fahrenheit, and in French units ; the work is so far 
 -complete as to enable any one to refer to the foregoing . tables 
 for any detached commercial unit in Part I. and for any com- 
 plete commercial system to Part II. 
 
 The English scientific system, hitherto deficient in several 
 respects, has been rendered more perfect and complete, and is 
 wow available for employment in any scientific and technical 
 work and calculation; the details are given in Chapter VI., Part 
 II. ; the system itself at page 408. 
 
 So far, the object of the book as a work of reference may 
 have been attained. 
 
 This, however, has not been the sole aim of the laborious 
 calculations, compilation, reduction, and arrangement. The 
 rationale of formation, the origin and modes of development, 
 the defects, advantages, redundancies and incongruities of 
 various modern commercial systems and units of measure have 
 been dealt with in the text, so that every possible light may be 
 thrown on the subject of modern metrology without exceeding 
 Ihe limits of a single volume. 
 
 The reasoning and deductions need not necessarily be 
 
440 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 barren talk, but should point to some practical and logical con- 
 clusion that may benefit the English-speaking millions who are 
 at present heirs to a rather incongruous set of commercial 
 measures ; the pro et contra in the argumentation should cer- 
 tainly be borne in mind, but some useful result in the form of 
 an improved English commercial system, drawn up by some 
 one conversant with the whole subject, seems to be impera- 
 tively demanded by the public. 
 
 The author has therefore drawn up the following proposed 
 English system^ as a conclusion to the arguments before ad- 
 vanced. 
 
 If these arguments be recapitulated in broad and firm lines- 
 they may be generally thus expressed : 
 
 1. A commercial system should be sufficiently compre- 
 hensive to meet the requirements of every trade ; and its range 
 should comprise the lowest and the highest values of units in 
 common use. 
 
 2. A commercial system should rest on a scientific basis, 
 and thus be thoroughly systematised throughout. 
 
 3. The basic units should be familiar to the people, and 
 chosen from among such existing units. 
 
 4. Every secondary unit in the whole system should be 
 capable of being conveniently and terminably expressed in 
 terms of the basic units. 
 
 5. The mode of subdivision should be in accordance with 
 geometrical formation, thus in linear units, decimal, in surface 
 units centesimal, in cubic units and in weight units millesimal. 
 Any departure from this principle should alone be permitted at 
 subsidiary points, where the customs of the people imperatively 
 demand a binary or a mixed binary-decimal subdivision. 
 
 6. A strict correspondence should exist between the 
 capacity units and the weight units, which should be formed on 
 cubic measure, and the weight of water contained in cubic 
 measure. 
 
 7. The changes introduced should be as few as a thorough 
 systematisation can admit of : the amount of change in any 
 old value of a unit should be generally less than that due to 
 change of temperature. 
 
APPENDIX. 441 
 
 8. The entire system should be as condensed as possible ; 
 all unnecessary and incongruous units being discarded. 
 
 These principles have been studiously observed in drawing 
 up the following proposed English commercial system. 
 
 This, though probably better suited than any other to the 
 wants of the English at the present day, cannot be considered 
 as absolutely final, or as not susceptible of further improvement 
 at some future time, when the habits of the people have 
 changed to a greater degree. At such a period, the portions 
 of the system that appear slightly incongruous, and are solely 
 retained in deference to old custom in retail trade, may be 
 further modified ; but this can be then done without altering 
 the framework of the system. Such portions can be best 
 referred to when examining the whole. 
 
 The linear measures, it will be observed, are strictly decimal, 
 with one exception ; the mile, which is the old London mile of 
 5000 feet, in use for ages before the innovating statute-mile 
 became obligatory, is exceptional, and might eventually be 
 abolished, in favour of the league. 
 
 In the surface measures, the whole are centesimal with two 
 exceptions, the acre and the square mile, which might eventu- 
 ally be discarded and supplanted by the rood, century, and 
 square league. 
 
 The strictly cubic measures are perfect, but the capacity 
 measures based on cubic measure still retain concession to old 
 habits in retail trade ; a gallon of 200 fluid ounces, and a fluid 
 pound of 20 fluid ounces, would be otherwise preferable. 
 
 The measures of weight also might be correspondingly im- 
 proved by similarly making the stone 200 ounces, and the 
 pound 20 ounces. 
 
 The whole of these possible further improvements appear 
 almost impracticable at present, for it seems necessary to keep 
 both the pound and the gallon at some value very close to the 
 present Georgian values ; the same reason compels the reten- 
 tion of an acre and a mile. 
 
 For the present, therefore, the following simplified and 
 concise English system may be considered as the utmost change 
 practicable. 
 
442 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 THE PROPOSED SYSTEM. 
 BASED ON THE ENGLISH SCIENTIFIC SYSTEM. 
 
 LENGTH. 
 
 FOOT =10 tithes=12 inches 
 Rod 10 feet 
 Chain=10 rods 
 Cable= 10 chains 
 Mile=5000 feet=50 chains 
 League=10 000feet=100 chains 
 
 SURFACE. 
 
 SQUARE FOOT=WO sq. tithes =1 ^4. sq. in. 
 
 Square rod= 100 sq. ft. 
 
 Square chain or rood 10 000 sq. ft. 
 
 Acre=^ roods ^0 000 sq.ft. 
 Square cable or century 100 roods 
 Square mile=25 centuries=625 acres 
 Square league=lOO centuries 
 
 Equivalent in Existing 
 
 English Units 
 = 1 foot 
 
 = 10 feet 
 
 = 100 feet 
 
 = 1000 feet 
 
 = 5000 feet 
 
 = 10 000 feet 
 
 = 1sg.fi. 
 
 = 100 sq. ft. 
 
 = 10 000 sq. ft. 
 
 = 40 000 sq. ft. 
 
 = 1 000 000 sq. ft. 
 
 = 25 000 000 sq. ft. 
 = 100000000 sq. ft. 
 
 CUBIC. 
 
 Cubic tithe, or fluid ounce 
 CUBIC FOOT= WOO cub. tithes-- 
 Cubic rod=1000 cub. ft. 
 
 . n. 
 
 =0-001 cub. ft. 
 = 1 cub. ft. 
 = 1000 cub. ft. 
 
 WET CAPACITY (in retail). 
 
 Fluid ounce= 1 cubic tithe= 1000 fluid mils =0'001 cub. ft. 
 
 Fluid pound= 16 fluid ounces = 0-016 cub. ft. 
 
 Gallon= 10 fluid ounds= 160 fluid ounces =0'160 cub. ft. 
 
 WET AND DR? CAPACITY. 
 
 Hushel orflrkin=1 CUBIC FooT=1000fl. oz. = 1 cub. ft. 
 
 Tun=^0 flrkins or bushels=^0 cubic feet = 1+0 cub. ft 
 
 WEIGHT. 
 
 Ounce= 1000 mils = 0-00 1 ft.-wt. 
 
 Pound= 1 6 ounces =0' 01 6 ft. -wt. 
 
 Stone= 1 pounds= 1 60 ounces =0'l60ft. -wt. 
 
 FOOT- WEIGHT OR TALENT=1 000 OZ. = 6ty pounds = 1 ft.-Wt. 
 
 Ton=^0 foot-weight or talents = 1+0 ft.-wt. 
 
 Jtod-weight=1 000 foot-weight = 1000 ft.-wt. 
 
APPENDIX. 443 
 
 APPENDIX II. 
 
 THE ACTUAL AND THE PROPOSED STANDARD 
 TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE. 
 
 ON referring to the tables giving values of foreign commercial 
 units, it will be noticed that in every case a French metric 
 value, an English commercial value, and an English scientific 
 value, are given. 
 
 The reasons for so doing are that the correct mode of com- 
 paring English and French units is a matter still open to con- 
 sideration and grave doubt, and that either mode might not 
 only be adopted in actual practice, but might also be made 
 legal at any time. The reader can choose for himself, and the 
 tables afford convenience, whichever may be his choice. 
 
 i. The French Conditions. The French system is a two- 
 temperature system, under a pressure of zero, or, as it is termed, 
 a vacuum system ; the temperatures are o Celsius, or centi- 
 grade, for the material of the standard, and 4 C. for the distilled 
 water, through which measures of weight and of capacity and 
 cubic measure are made to correspond. These are laboratory 
 conditions tolerably convenient on the whole, owing their prin- 
 cipal advantage to the absence of pressure and of any need for 
 the consideration of air-displacement; but the two tempera- 
 tures, one for the vessel or material, the other for the water, 
 constitute a defect. 
 
 In French commercial transactions the litre and metre are 
 not used in vacuo at freezing-point, but in open air, under any 
 pressure and at any temperature; no allowance is made either 
 for pressure, displacement, or expansion ; the small loss to the 
 
444 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 seller in length, and the small gain to him by displacement in- 
 capacity and weight, being borne by him. His litre and metre 
 cannot be absolutely true and correct, except under the theo- 
 retical laboratory conditions under which they are formed, and 
 under which they may be verified at any time. 
 
 Hence, to speak with exactitude, the true values of the 
 litre and metre are not used in actual trade ; approximate 
 values take their place. The materials of which measures are 
 constructed are various, with different expansions, but the 
 primary kilogramme and metre are made of platinum. Thus the 
 French in commerce disregard the whole of the discrepancies 
 arising from local conditions and material, and the seller in any 
 transaction, while submitting to the burden, can enhance his 
 prices and recover from the buyer. This mode is probably on 
 the whole the most convenient; and is certainly the best for 
 all ordinary coarse purposes of trade. 
 
 The French law, however, confines this method to trade 
 only, and wisely abstains from interference with the scientific 
 man and his calculated results. It does not say to him, * Thy 
 metre shall not expand,' or 'Thou shalt not calculate on the 
 expansion of thy metre.' Any such edict, whether imperial,, 
 papal, national, or bureaucratic, could only meet with a reply 
 corresponding to the ' E pur si muove ' of the distressed Galileo 
 Galilei. Hence, practically, the French scientific man is in 
 purely scientific matters exempt from the regulation to disregard 
 the before-mentioned discrepancies. 
 
 It may also be noticed that the French do not and cannot 
 lay down the law regarding the use in trade of French metric 
 measures in countries beyond French rule ; far less can they 
 regulate details affected by temperature and local conditions. 
 The country of adoption alone has the requisite regulative 
 power, and that is necessarily then confined to trade alone. 
 
 2. The English Commercial Conditions. The English com- 
 mercial standards are now said to be correct in air under a two- 
 temperature system, in which the material is at a temperature 
 of 62 Fahrenheit, and the distilled water of comparison is 
 taken at a maximum density temperature about 39 -4 F. 
 
APPENDIX. 445 
 
 Probably this method has been too much extolled on 
 account of its advantage of approximating to the mean con- 
 ditions under which English trade weighing and measuring is 
 conducted. Its historic accuracy is also in its favour, as our 
 Anglian, Saxon, and Danish forefathers doubtlessly used open- 
 air standards, and probably verified them at some grand annual 
 gathering that would not have taken place in the winter season. 
 The Georgian normal temperature was artificial and excep- 
 tional. 
 
 Great as the above-mentioned practical advantage may be, 
 it is more imaginary than real : discrepancies due to change of 
 temperature must exist, and it is of slight consequence whether 
 they are a little greater or a little less in value ; while from a 
 scientific point of view any and every open-air system is neces- 
 sarily very clumsy and inconvenient, from the perpetual change 
 of allowance to be made on account of altered air-displacement 
 under different temperatures. The material used is brass, and 
 sometimes bronze, or Baily's metal ; which mixed metals are 
 scientifically inconvenient, on account of variety of expansion 
 and of density in material nominally the same. But the prin- 
 cipal monstrosity is the problem the system presents in re- 
 quiring the gallon or other vessel-measure to be at a tempera- 
 ture of 62 F., while its contents, the distilled water, must be 
 at about 39 '4 F., for actual correct verification. As this is 
 manifestly impossible, recourse is had to theoretical compen- 
 sating temperatures and calculated adjustment : this is a mode 
 of avoiding the correct construction, but cannot be justly said 
 to be doing it. 
 
 A system is most faulty that does not permit of direct and 
 simple determination of every unit belonging to it. 
 
 If the English conditions included a temperature of 62 
 F. for the water as well as the material that is, throughout 
 they would be more defensible in an open-air and a prac- 
 tical commercial system ; but as they are, they both fail greatly 
 from a scientific point of view, and are defective in not suf- 
 ficiently approximating to ordinary commercial conditions. 
 
 Some judicious alteration seems imperatively needed. 
 
446 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 3. The English Scientific Conditions. On account of the 
 extreme clumsiness and incongruity in the English commercial 
 conditions, a great number of scientific men in England have 
 preferred adopting the simpler conditions of the French metric 
 standards ; that is, a vacuum system, with the two temperatures, 
 freezing for material, and that of maximum density for the 
 water. It is of great convenience to them in many ways, 
 especially in exact calculations, and has the advantage of 
 keeping the values of English units exactly parallel with the 
 French units. Having adopted as four basic units, the foot, 
 the square foot, the cubic foot, and the foot-weight, and their 
 decimal multiples and submultiples, under these conditions 
 Englishmen can keep their scientific calculations as simple and 
 clear as the French. 
 
 It may perhaps be said that such conditions are not legal ; 
 and this is true in that English law does not yet acknowledge 
 them. On the other hand, the law does not forbid them, and 
 could not practically hinder their adoption in non-trading 
 matters, even though a bureaucrat should arise that knew not 
 the name of science. 
 
 The former Warden of the Standards, Mr. Chisholm, in his 
 work on 'The Science of Weighing and Measuring,' refers to 
 scientific and commercial units, and thus recognised the two 
 distinct sets of conditions. 
 
 That it would be more advisable to have only one set of 
 conditions in England both for scientific and commercial 
 purposes, is a theory that may be true ; but assuming it to be 
 correct, the trade should then not lay down the law for science, 
 but should follow it, and adopt the conditions preferred by 
 scientific men generally. In the meantime things remain as 
 they are. 
 
 4. Comparison of French and English Units. There are at 
 present two distinct modes of comparing French and English 
 units, and these two methods have each a strong array of sup- 
 porters on various theoretical and logical grounds, in addition 
 to the numerous backers that follow their own likes and dis- 
 
APPENDIX. 447 
 
 likes : they may be briefly termed the expanders and the 
 freezers. 
 
 The expanders believe that the French and English units 
 should be compared in similar material at the same tempera- 
 ture and under the same conditions, and adopting the English 
 commercial conditions as those of comparison in England, use 
 the expanded metre at 62 R, the expanded litre in air in- 
 stead of in vacuo, and the rest of the metric units as they 
 then would be under English conditions, although using such 
 metric standards as were previously originally correct under 
 French conditions. The expanders hence allow for expansion, 
 air-displacement, and for every change in the value of French 
 standards that has practically occurred in the transition from 
 32 in vacuo to 62 F. in air. They thus obtain the English 
 commercial equivalents of French units ; and correspondingly 
 also reduce English commercial to French units in the converse 
 way. 
 
 The former Warden of the Standards was a supporter of 
 this method ; and a great number of men have adopted it for 
 a long time (since 1860); it appears logical, rational, and cor- 
 rect, although it is perhaps not so good as it seems. 
 
 The freezers adopt a different mode of comparison ; they 
 say the French metre is a French metre, by which they mean 
 an abstract unit of length; and they either ignore or avoid 
 expansion or allowance for change by thus denying the presence 
 of material in the unit. They also explain with considerably 
 better argument that the French metric system laid down by 
 the French in vacuo at o and at 4 G, can be correct 
 only under its own conditions. As also the corresponding 
 assertion that the English commercial system can only be 
 accurate under its own conditions is also true ; the freezers 
 arrive at the conclusion that the proper mode of comparison is 
 to allow each system its own conditions, and to compare French 
 and English units side by side under the diverse circumstances. 
 The next thing to decide is, * Can that be actually done ? ' 
 
 In a few special cases it can be done, for a frozen metre 
 can be placed by the side of an English yard heated to 6 2 F., 
 
448 METRICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 and a linear comparison may be easily made ; something 
 similar might also be done with a surface-unit and a cubic unit 
 of French and English measure. 
 
 When, however, it comes to attempting anything similar 
 with either capacity-units or weight-units it seems almost hope- 
 less. 
 
 The practical problem of comparing a frozen metal litre- 
 vessel in vacuo, having water at 4 C, with a gallon at 62 
 F. in air, having water at its maximum density, is indeed 
 too formidable. The comparison even of French and English 
 weight-units seems to involve using a balance with a vacuum- 
 chamber on one side and not on the other a serious matter. 
 The freezer's method hence fails, and recourse has to be had 
 to calculation instead of practical determination. On what 
 basis, then, can the calculations be made? If on the admission 
 of expansion, the method fails ; if on ignoring expansion alto- 
 gether, the deductions must be faulty from a scientific view. 
 
 The results, however, of this method are the so-called English 
 scientific equivalents of French metric units, in which expansion 
 &c. is all ignored, and which necessarily commands the at- 
 tachment of that very large category of persons that delight in 
 trouble saved ; that is, in a less amount of labour, with indif- 
 ference to the intrinsic merits of the result. English enact- 
 ment also supports this method, also a certain number of 
 scientific men. Curiously, however, the commercial and 
 trading communities and chambers seem by no means in its 
 favour generally, but rather follow the expanders. 
 
 In consequence of these two methods being both in vogue, 
 it has been necessary to give two English sets of equivalents, 
 the commercial and the scientific equivalents of foreign units, 
 throughout the whole of this book. It could not rest with the 
 author to exclude either, as either might be required by anyone 
 according to choice, and because the matter cannot yet be said 
 to be definitively and permanently settled. 
 
 The conclusion to which the arguments of both the ex- 
 panders and the freezers point is, that no just precise com- 
 parison between two such different systems as the French and 
 
APPENDIX. 449 
 
 English in their original conditions is practically possible ; and 
 that either system, when transmuted in any way, is spoilt. 
 Hence the necessity for having some international conditions, 
 fit for purposes of comparison, drawn up by scientific men of 
 both nations ; also the further necessity for a single temperature 
 instead of a double temperature in those conditions. 
 
 5. Proposed Normal and International Conditions. The 
 foregoing facts and conclusions lead to the belief that the 
 temperature of maximum density of distilled water would form 
 the best normal temperature for all systems or any system, as 
 long as the method of comparing weight-units and capacity- 
 units by means of water remains in vogue. 
 
 Such a single temperature could be applied equally well to 
 metallic or other material, as it is now applied to water by 
 universal consent. 
 
 Each nation could then declare its units and make its 
 international standards on the basis of that temperature, and 
 in vacuo ; difficulties of comparison would then cease. 
 
 On the same grounds it would also be advisable to reform 
 the English conditions, and construct and verify English 
 standards in vacuo, at a uniform and single temperature ; that 
 of the maximum density of distilled water. 
 
 This temperature has been lately re determined by a com- 
 mittee of scientific English investigators, in communication 
 with the English Standards Department; the way for the change 
 is therefore prepared, the step alone has to be taken. 
 
 LONDON I PRINTED BY 
 
 SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE 
 AND PARLIAMENT STREET 
 
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LONDON, October ; 1881. 
 
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 of Smoke." By C. W. WILLIAMS, A. I. C.E. With extensive 
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 Fuel Coal, Coke, Wood, Peat, Petroleum, &c. ; by D. KIN- 
 NEAR CLARK, C.E., M.I. C.E. Second Edition, revised. With 
 numerous Illustrations. I2mo. 4^. cloth boards. 
 
 " Students should buy the book and read it, as one of the most complete and satis- 
 factory treatises on the combustion and economy of fuel to be had." Engineer. 
 
 Roads and Streets. 
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND STREETS. In 
 Two Parts. I. The Art of Constructing Common Roads. By 
 HENRY LAW, C.E. Revised and Condensed. II. Recent 
 Practice in the Construction of Roads and Streets : including 
 Pavements of Stone, Wood, and Asphalte. By D. KINNEAR 
 CLARK, C.E., M.I. C.E. Second Edit, revised. I2mo, 5.5-. cloth. 
 " A book which every borough surveyor and engineer must possess, and which will 
 
 be of considerable service to architects, builders, and property owners generally. " 
 
 Building News. 
 
PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 9 
 
 Sewing Machine (The]. 
 
 SEWING MACHINERY ; being a Practical Manual of the 
 Sewing Machine, comprising its History and Details of its Con- 
 struction, with full Technical Directions for the Adjusting of Sew- 
 ing Machines. By J. W. URQUHART, Author of "Electro 
 Plating : a Practical Manual ; " " Electric Light : its Production 
 and Use." With Numerous Illustrations. I2mo, 2s. 6d. cloth 
 boards. 
 
 Fie Id- Book for Engineers. 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S, MINING SURVEYOR'S, and CON- 
 TRACTOR'S FIELD-BOOK. By W. DAVIS HASKOLL, C.E. 
 Consisting of a Series of Tables, with Rules, Explanations of 
 Systems, and Use of Theodolite for Traverse Surveying and Plotting 
 the Work with minute accuracy by means of Straight Edge and Set 
 Square only; Levelling with the Theodolite, Casting out and Re- 
 ducing Levels to Datum, and Plotting Sections in the ordinary 
 manner; Setting out Curves with the Theodolite by Tangential 
 Angles and Multiples with Right and Left-hand Readings of the 
 Instrument ; Setting out Curves without Theodolite on the System 
 of Tangential Angles by Sets of Tangents and Offsets ; and Earth- 
 work Tables to 80 feet deep, calculated for every 6 inches in depth. 
 With numerous Woodcuts. 4th Edition, enlarged. Cr. 8vo. 12s. cloth. 
 " The book is very handy, and the author might have added that the separate tables 
 
 of sines and tangents to every minute will make it useful for many other purposes, the 
 
 genuine traverse tables existing all the same." Athen&um. 
 
 " Cannot fail, from its portability and utility, to be extensively patronised by the 
 
 engineering profession.'' Mining Journal. 
 
 Earthwork, Measurement and Calculation of. 
 
 A MANUAL on EARTHWORK. By ALEX. J. S. GRAHAM, 
 C.E., Resident Engineer, Forest of Dean Central Railway. With 
 numerous Diagrams. i8mo, 2s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 " As a really handy book for reference, we know of no work equal to it ; and the 
 railway engineers and others employed in the measurement and calculation of earth- 
 work will find a great amount of practical information very admirably arranged, and 
 available for general or rough estimates, as well as for the more exact calculations 
 required in the engineers' contractor's offices." Artizan. 
 
 Drawing for Engineers, &c. 
 
 THE WORKMAN'S MANUAL OF ENGINEERING 
 DRAWING. By JOHN MAXTON, Instructor in Engineering 
 Drawing, Royal Naval College, Greenwich, formerly of R. S. N. A., 
 South Kensington. Fourth Edition, carefully revised. With upwards 
 of 300 Plates and Diagrams. I2mo, cloth, strongly bound, 4J. 
 " A copy of it should be kept for reference in every drawing office." Engineering, 
 " Indispensable for teachers of engineering drawing." Mechanics' Magazine. 
 
 Weales Dictionary of Terms. 
 
 A DICTIONARY of TERMS used in ARCHITECTURE, 
 BUILDING, ENGINEERING, MINING, METALLURGY, 
 ARCHAEOLOGY, the FINE ARTS, &c. By JOHN WEALE. 
 Fifth Edition, revised by ROBERT HUNT, F.R.S., Keeper of Mining 
 Records, Editor of " Ure's Dictionary of Arts." I2mo, 6s. cl. bds. 
 " The best small technological dictionary in the language." Architect. 
 " The absolute accuracy of a work of this character can only be judged of after 
 extensive consultation, and from our examination it appears very correct and very 
 complete. " Mining Journal. 
 
 B 3 
 
io WORKS IN MINING, METALLURGY, ETC., 
 
 MINING, METALLURGY, ETC. 
 
 Metalliferous Minerals and Mining. 
 
 A TREATISE ON METALLIFEROUS MINERALS AND 
 MINING. By B.C. DAVIES, F.G.S., author of "A Treatise on 
 Slate and Slate Quarrying." With numerous wood engravings. 
 Second Edition, revised. Cr. 8vo. 12s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 " Without question, the most exhaustive and the most practically useful work we 
 have seen ; the amount of information given is enormous, and it is given concisely 
 and intelligibly." Mining Journal. 
 
 " The volume is one which no student of mineralogy should be without" Colliery 
 Guardian. 
 
 " The author has gathered together from all available sources a vast amount of 
 really useful information. As a history of the present state of mining throughout 
 the world this book has a real value, and it supplies an actual want, for no such infor- 
 mation has hitherto been brought together within such limited space." Athenceum. 
 
 Slate and Slate Quarrying. 
 
 A TREATISE ON SLATE AND SLATE QUARRYING, 
 
 Scientific, Practical, and Commercial. By D. C. DAVIES, F.G.S., 
 
 Mining Engineer, &c. With numerous Illustrations and Folding 
 
 Plates. Second Edition, carefully revised. I2mo, 3^. 6d. cloth boards. 
 
 " Mr. Davies has written a useful and practical hand-book on an important industry, 
 
 with Rll the conditions and details of which he appears familiar." Engineering. 
 
 " The work is illustrated by actual practice, and is unusually thorough and lucid. 
 . . . Mr. Davies has completed his work with industry and skill." Builder. 
 
 Metallurgy of Iron. 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE METALLURGY OF IRON : con- 
 taining Outlines of the History of Iron Manufacture, Methods of 
 Assay, and Analyses of Iron Ores, Processes of Manufacture of 
 Iron and Steel, &c. By H. BAUERMAN, F.G.S., Associate of the 
 Royal School of Mines. With numerous Illustrations. Fourth 
 Edition, revised and much enlarged. I2mo, cloth boards, 5-r. 
 " Has the merit of brevity and conciseness, as to less important points, while all 
 material matters are very fully and thoroughly entered into.' Standard. 
 
 Manual of Mining Tools. 
 
 MINING TOOLS. For the use of Mine Managers, Agents, 
 Mining Students, &c. By WILLIAM MORGANS, Lecturer on Prac- 
 tical Mining at the Bristol School of Mines. Volume of Text. 
 I2mo, 3-r. With an Atlas of Plates, containing 235 Illustrations. 
 4to, 6s. Together, gs. cloth boards. 
 " Students in the Science of Mining, and Overmen, Captains, Managers, and 
 
 Viewers may gain practical knowledge and useful hints by the study of Mr. 
 
 Morgans' Manual." Colliery Guardian. 
 
 Mining, Surveying and Valuing. 
 
 THE MINERAL SURVEYOR AND VALUER'S COM- 
 PLETE GUIDE, comprising a Treatise on Improved Mining 
 Surveying, with new Traverse Tables ; and Descriptions of Im- 
 proved Instruments ; also an Exposition of the Correct Principles 
 of Laying out and Valuing Home and Foreign Iron and Coal 
 Mineral Properties. By WILLIAM LINTERN, Mining and Civil 
 Engineer. With four Plates of Diagrams, Plans, &c., I2mo, 4^. cloth. 
 " Contains much valuable information given in a small compass, and which, as far 
 as we have tested it, is thoroughly trustworthy." Iron and Coal Trades Review. 
 
 %* The above, bound with THOMAN'S TABLES. (See page 20.) 
 Price 7*. 6d. cloth. 
 
PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. H 
 
 Coal and Coal Mining. 
 
 COAL AND COAL MINING : a Rudimentary Treatise on. By 
 WARINGTON W. SMYTH, M.A., F.R.S., &c., Chief Inspector 
 of the Mines of the Crown. Fifth edition, revised and corrected. 
 I2mo, with numerous Illustations, 4^. cloth boards. 
 
 " Every portion of the volume appears to have been prepared with much care, and 
 as an outline is given of every known coal-field in this and other countries, as well as 
 of the two principal methods of working, the book will doubtless interest a very 
 large number of readers." Mining Journal. 
 
 Underground Pumping Machinery. 
 
 MINE DRAINAGE ; being a Complete and Practical Treatise 
 on Direct-Acting Underground Steam Pumping Machinery, with 
 a Description of a large number of the best known Engines, their 
 General Utility and the Special Sphere of their Action, the Mode 
 of their Application, and their merits compared with other forms of 
 Pumping Machinery. By STEPHEN MICHELL, Joint- Author of "The 
 Cornish System of Mine Drainage." 8vo, I5j-.cloth. \Just published. 
 
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE, NAVIGATION, ETC. 
 Pocket Book for 'Naval 'Architects & Shipbuilders. 
 
 THE NAVAL ARCHITECT'S AND SHIPBUILDER'S 
 POCKET BOOK OF FORMULA, RULES, AND TABLES 
 AND MARINE ENGINEER'S AND SURVEYOR'S HANDY 
 BOOK OF REFERENCE. By CLEMENT MACKROW, M. Inst. 
 N. A., Naval Draughtsman. Second Edition, revised. With 
 numerous Diagrams. Fcap., 12s. 6d., strongly bound in leather. 
 " Should be used by all who are engaged in the construction or design of vessels." 
 Engineer. 
 
 "There is scarcely a subject on which a naval architect or shipbuilder can require 
 to refresh his memory which will not be found within the covers of Mr. Mackrow's 
 book." English Mechanic. 
 
 " Mr. Mackrow has compressed an extraordinary amount of information into this 
 useful volume." A thenceum. 
 
 Granthams Iron Ship- Building. 
 
 ON IRON SHIP-BUILDING; with Practical Examples and 
 Details. Fifth Edition. Imp. 4to, boards, enlarged from 24 to 40 
 Plates (21 quite new), including the latest Examples. Together 
 with separate Text, also considerably enlarged, I2mo, cloth limp. 
 By JOHN GRANTHAM, M. Inst. C.E., &c. 2/. zs. complete. 
 
 " Mr. Grantham's work is of great interest. It will, we are confident, command an 
 extensive circulation among shipbuilders in general. By order of the Board of Admi- 
 ralty, the work will form the text-book on which the examination in iron ship-building 
 of candidates for promotion in the dockyards will be mainly based." Engineering, 
 
 Pocket-Book for Marine Engineers. 
 
 A POCKET-BOOK OF USEFUL TABLES AND FOR- 
 MULAS FOR MARINE ENGINEERS. By FRANK PROCTOR, 
 A.I.N.A. Second Edition, revised and enlarged. Royal 32mo, 
 leather, gilt edges, with strap, 4.5-. 
 
 " A most useful companion to all marine engineers." United Service Gazette. 
 " Scarcely anything required by a naval engineer appears to have been for- 
 gotten." Iron. 
 
12 WORKS IN NAVAL ARCHITECTURE, ETC., 
 
 L ight-Houses. 
 
 EUROPEAN LIGHT-HOUSE SYSTEMS ; being a Report of 
 a Tour of Inspection made in 1873. By Major GEORGE H. 
 ELLIOT, Corps of Engineers, U.S.A. Illustrated by 51 En- 
 gravings and 31 Woodcuts in the Text. 8vo, 2is. cloth. 
 
 Surveying (Land and Marine). 
 
 LAND AND MARINE SURVEYING, in Reference to the 
 Preparation of Plans for Roads and Railways, Canals, Rivera, 
 Tov-ns' Water Supplies, Docks and Harbours ; with Description 
 and Use of Surveying Instruments. By W. DAVIS HASKOLL, C.E. 
 With 14 folding Plates, and numerous Woodcuts. 8vo, 12s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 "A most useful and well arranged book for the aid of a student" Builder. 
 
 " Of the utmost practical utility, and may be safely recommended to all students 
 who aspiie to become clean and expert surveyors." Mining Journal. 
 
 Storms. 
 
 STORMS : their Nature, Classification, and Laws, with the 
 Means of Predicting them by their Embodiments, the Clouds. 
 By WILLIAM BLASIUS. Crown 8vo, IQJ. 6d. cloth boards. 
 
 Rudimentary Navigation, 
 
 THE SAILOR'S SEA-BOOK: a Rudimentary Treatise on Navi- 
 gation. By JAMES GREEN WCOD, B. A. New and enlarged edition. 
 By W. H. ROSSER. I2mo, 3*. cloth boards. 
 
 Mathematical and Nautical Tables. 
 
 MATHEMATICAL TABLES, for Trigonometrical, Astronomical, 
 and Nautical Calculations ; to which is prefixed a Treatise on 
 Logarithms. By HENRY LAW, C.E. Together with a Series of 
 Tables for Navigation and Nautical Astronomy. By J. R. 
 YOUNG, formerly Professor of Mathematics in Belfast College. 
 New Edition. I2mo, 4-y. cloth boards. 
 
 Navigation (Practical], with Tables. 
 
 PRACTICAL NAVIGATION : consisting of the Sailor's Sea- 
 Book, by JAMES GREENWOOD and W. H. ROSSER ; together 
 with the requisite Mathematical and Nautical Tables for the Work- 
 ing of the Problems. By HENRY LAW, C.E., and Professor 
 J. R. YOUNG. Illustrated with numerous Wood Engravings and 
 Coloured Plates. I2mo, 7^. strongly half bound in leather. 
 
 WEALE'S RUDIMENTARY SERIES. 
 
 The following books in Naval Architecture, etc., are published in the 
 
 above series. 
 MASTING, MAST-MAKING, AND RIGGING OF SHIPS. By 
 
 ROBERT KIPPING, N.A. Fourteenth Edition. I2mo, 2s. 6d. cloth. 
 SAILS AND SAIL-MAKING. Tenth Edition, enlarged. By ROBERT 
 
 KIPPING, N.A. Illustrated. I2mo, 3-r. cloth boards. 
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. By JAMES PEAKE. Fourth Edition, 
 
 with Plates and Diagrams. I2mo, 4^. cloth boards. 
 MARINE ENGINES, AND STEAM VESSELS. By ROBERT 
 
 MURRAY, C.E. Seventh Edition. I2mo, 3-y. 6d. cloth boards. 
 
PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 13 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, ETC. 
 Construction. 
 
 THE SCIENCE of BUILDING : An Elementary Treatise on 
 the Principles of Construction. By E. WYNDHAM TARN, M.A., 
 Architect. With 58 Wood Engravings. 2nd Edition, revised and 
 enlarged. Crown 8vo, 7-r. 6d. cloth. 
 
 " A very valuable book, which we strongly recommend to all students." Builder. 
 
 " No architectural student should be without this hand-book." Architect. 
 
 Villa Architecture. 
 
 A HANDY BOOK of VILLA ARCHITECTURE ; being a 
 Series of Designs for Villa Residences in various Styles. With 
 Detailed Specifications and Estimates. By C. WICKES, Architect, 
 Author of " The Spires and Towers of the Mediaeval Churches of Eng- 
 land," &c. 31 Plates, 4to, half morocco, gilt edges, I/, is. 
 %* Also an Enlarged edition of the above. 61 Plates, with Detailed 
 
 Specifications, Estimates, &c. 2/. 2s. half morocco. 
 " The whole of the designs bear evidence of their being the work of an artistic 
 architect, and they will prove very valuable and suggestive." Building News. 
 
 Useful Text- Book for Architects. 
 
 THE ARCHITECT'S GUIDE : Being a Text-book of Useful 
 Information for Architects, Engineers, Surveyors, Contractors, 
 Clerks of Works, &c. By FREDERICK ROGERS. Author of 
 "Specifications for Practical Architecture, "&c. Cr. 8vo, 6s. cloth. 
 
 "As a text-book of useful information for architects, engineers, surveyors, &c., it 
 would be hard to find a handier or more complete little volume." -Standard. 
 
 Taylor and Cresys Rome. 
 
 "THE ARCHITECTURAL ANTIQUITIES OF ROME. By 
 
 the late G. L. TAYLOR, Esq., F.S.A., and EDWARD CRESY, Esq. 
 New Edition, Edited by the Rev. ALEXANDER TAYLOR, M.A. (son 
 of the late G. L. Taylor, Esq,), Chaplain 'of Gray's Inn. Tkis is 
 the only book which gives on a large scale, and with the precision 
 of architectural measurement, the principal Monuments of Ancient 
 Rome in plan, elevation, and detail. Large folio, with 130 Plates, 
 half-bound, 3/. 3^. 
 %* Originally published in two volumes, folio, at i8/. iSs. 
 
 Viiruvius. A rchitecture. 
 
 THE ARCHITECTURE OF MARCUS VITRUVIUS 
 POLLIO. Translated by JOSEPH GWILT, F.S.A., F.R.A.S. 
 Numerous Plates. I2mo, cloth limp, $s. 
 
 The Young Architect's Book. 
 
 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS. By GEORGE WIGHT- 
 WICK, Architect. New Edition, revised and enlarged. By G. 
 HUSKISSON GUILLAUME, Architect. I2mo, cloth boards, 4^. 
 "Will be found an acquisition to pupils, a ( nd a copy ought to be considered as 
 necessary a purchase as a box of instruments." Architect. 
 
 " A large amount of information, which young architects win do well to acquire, if 
 they wish to succeed in the everyday work of their profession." English Mechanic. 
 
 Drawing for Builders and Students. 
 
 PRACTICAL RULES ON DRAWING for the OPERATIVE 
 BUILDER and YOUNG STUDENT in ARCHITECTURE. 
 By GEORGE PYNE. With 14 Plates, 4to, Is. 6d. boards. 
 
14 WORKS IN ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, ETC., 
 
 Cement. 
 
 PORTLAND CEMENT FOR USERS. By HENRY FAIJA, 
 A.M., Inst. C.E., with Illustrations. Crown 8vo. $s. 6d. cloth. 
 "A useful compendium of results for the practical builder and architect." Build- 
 ing News. 
 
 The House-Owner s Estimator. 
 
 THE HOUSE-OWNER'S ESTIMATOR ; or, What will it 
 Cost to Build, Alter, or Repair? A Price-Book adapted to the 
 Use of Unprofessional People as well as for the Architectural 
 Surveyor and Builder. By the late JAMES D. SIMON, A.R.I. B. A. 
 Edited and Revised by FRANCIS T. W. MILLER, A, R. I.E. A., 
 Surveyor. Third Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, $s. 6</., cloth. 
 " In two years it will repay its cost a hundred times over." Field. 
 " A very handy book for those who want to know what a house will cost to build, 
 alter, or repair." English Mechanic. 
 
 Boiler and Factory Chimneys. 
 
 BOILER AND FACTORY CHIMNEYS ; their Draught -power 
 and Stability, with a chapter on Lightning Conductors. By ROBERT 
 WILSON, C.E. Crown 8vo, -$s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 Civil and Ecclesiastical Building* 
 
 A BOOK ON BUILDING, CIVIL AND ECCLESIASTICAL, 
 Including CHURCH RESTORATION. By Sir EDMUND BECKETT, 
 Bart., LL.D., Q.C., F.R.A.S., Chancellor and Vicar- General 
 of York. Author of "Clocks and Watches and Bells," &c. 
 Second Edition, I2mo, 5-r. cloth boards. 
 "A book which is always amusing and nearly always instructive. Sir E. Beckett 
 
 will be read for the raciness of his style. We are able very cordially to recommend 
 
 all persons to read it for t' emselves.' 1 Timfs. 
 
 " We commend the book to the thoughtful consideration of all who are interested 
 
 in the building art." Builder. 
 
 Architecture, Ancient and Modern. 
 
 RUDIMENTARY ARCHITECTURE, Ancient and Modern. 
 Consisting of VITRUVIUS, translated by JOSEPH GWILT, 
 F.S.A., &c., with 23 fine copper plates; GRECIAN Archi- 
 tecture, by the EARL of ABERDEEN ; the ORDERS of 
 Architecture, by W. H. LEEDS, Esq. ; The STYLES of Archi- 
 tecture of Various Countries, by T. TALBOT BURY; The 
 PRINCIPLES of DESIGN in Architecture, by E. L. GARBETT. 
 In one volume, half-bound (pp. 1,100), copiously illustrated, 12s. 
 *%* Sold separately, in two vols., as follows 
 
 ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE. Containing Gwilt's Vitruvius 
 and Aberdeen's Grecian Architecture. Price 6s. half -bound. 
 
 N.B. This is the only edition of VITRUVIUS procurable at a 
 moderate price. 
 
 MODERN ARCHITECTURE. Containing the Orders, by Leeds ; 
 The Styles, by Bury; and Design, by Garbett. 6s. half-bound. 
 
 House Painting. 
 
 HOUSE PAINTING, GRAINING, MARBLING, AND 
 
 SIGN WRITING : a Practical Manual of. With 9 Coloured 
 
 Plates of Woods and Marbles, and nearly 150 Wood Engravings. 
 
 By ELLIS A. DAVIDSON. Third Edition, Revised. I2mo, 6s. cloth. 
 
 " Contains a mass of infonr.ation of use to the amateur and of value to the practical 
 
 man." English Mechanic. 
 
PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 15 
 
 Plumbing. 
 
 PLUMBING ; aText-book to the Practice of the Art or Craft of the 
 
 Plumber. With chapters upon House-drainage, embodying the 
 
 latest Improvements. By W. P. BUCHAN, Sanitary Engineer. 
 
 Third Edition, enlarged, with 300 illustrations, I2mo. 4^. cloth. 
 
 " The chapters on house-drainage may be usefully consulted, not only by plumbers, 
 
 but also by engineers and all engaged or interested in house-building." Iron. 
 
 Handbook of Specifications. 
 
 THE HANDBOOK OF SPECIFICATIONS; or, Practical 
 Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder, in drawing 
 up Specifications and Contracts for Works and Constructions. 
 Illustrated by Precedents of Buildings actually executed by eminent 
 Architects and Engineers. By Professor THOMAS L. DONALD- 
 SON, M.I.B.A. New Edition, in One large volume, 8vo r with 
 upwards of 1000 pages of text, and 33 Plates, cloth, I/, nj. 6d. 
 " In this work forty-four specifications of executed works are given. . . . Donald- 
 son's Handbook of Specifications must be bought by all architects." Builder, 
 
 Specifications for Practical A rchitecture. 
 
 SPECIFICATIONS FOR PRACTICAL ARCHITECTURE: 
 A Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder ; with 
 an Essay on the Structure and Science of Modern Buildings. By 
 FREDERICK ROGERS, Architect. 8vo, \$s. cloth. 
 
 *** A volumeof specifications of a practical character being greatly required, and the 
 old standard work of Alfred Bartholomew being out of print, the author, on the basis 
 of that work, has produced the above. Extract from Preface. 
 
 Designing, Measuring, and Valuing. 
 
 THE STUDENT'S GUIDE to the PRACTICE of MEA- 
 SURING and VALUING ARTIFICERS' WORKS; containing 
 Directions for taking Dimensions, Abstracting the same, and bringing 
 the Quantities into Bill, with Tables of Constants, and copious 
 Memoranda for the Valuation of Labour and Materials in the re- 
 spective Trades of Bricklayer and Slater, Carpenter and Joiner, 
 Painter and Glazier, Paperhanger, &c. With 43 Plates and Wood- 
 cuts. Originally edited by EDWARD DOBSON, Architect. New 
 Edition, re-written, with Additions on Mensuration and Construc- 
 tion, and useful Tables for facilitating Calculations and Measure- 
 ments. By E. WYNDHAM TARN, M.A., 8vo, icv. bd. cloth. 
 
 " Well fulfils the promise of its title-page. Mr. Tarn's additions and revisions have 
 much increased the usefulness of the work." Engineering. 
 
 Beaton s Pocket Estimator. 
 
 THE POCKET ESTIMATOR FOR THE BUILDING 
 TRADES, being an easy method of estimating the various parts 
 of a Building collectively, more especially applied to Carpenters' 
 and Joiners' work, priced according to the present value of material 
 and labour. By A. C. BEATON, Author of "Quantities and 
 Measurements." Second Edition. Waistcoat-pocket size. u. 6d. 
 
 Beaton's Builders' and Surveyors Technical Guide. 
 
 THE POCKET TECHNICAL GUIDE AND MEASURER 
 FOR BUILDERS AND SURVEYORS: containing a Complete 
 Explanation of the Terms used in Building Construction, Memo- 
 randa for Reference, Technical Directions for Measuring Work in 
 all the Building Trades, &c. By A. C. BEATON, u. 6</. 
 
1 6 WORKS IN CARPENTRY, TIMBER, ETC., 
 
 Builder s and Contractor s Price Book. 
 
 LOCKWOOD & CO.'S BUILDER'S AND CONTRACTOR'S 
 PRICE BOOK, containing the latest prices of all kinds of Builders' 
 Materials and Labour, and of all Trades connected with Building, 
 &c., &c. The whole revised and edited by F. T. W. MILLER, 
 A.R.I.B.A. Fcap. half-bound, 4^. 
 
 CARPENTRY, TIMBER, ETC. 
 
 Tredgold's Carpentry, new and cheaper Edition. 
 
 THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF CARPENTRY : 
 
 a Treatise on the Pressure and Equilibrium of Timber Framing, the 
 Resistance of Timber, and the Construction of Floors, Arches, 
 Bridges, Roofs, Uniting Iron and Stone with Timber, &c. To which 
 is added an Essay on the Nature and Properties of Timber, &c., 
 with Descriptions of the Kinds of Wood used in Building ; also 
 numerous Tables of the Scantlings of Timber for different purposes, 
 the Specific Gravities of Materials, &c. By THOMAS TREDGOLD, 
 C.E. Edited by PETER BARLOW, F.R.S. Fifth Edition, cor- 
 rected and enlarged. With 64 Plates, Portrait of the Author, and 
 Woodcuts. 4to, published at 2/. 2s., reduced to I/. $s. cloth. 
 " Ought to be in every architect's and every builder's library, and those who 
 do not already possess it ought to avail themselves of the new issue." Builder. 
 
 "A work whose monumental excellence must commend it wherever skilful car- 
 pentry is concerned. The Author's principles are rather confirmed than impaired by 
 time. The additional plates are of great intrinsic value." Building News, 
 
 Grandys Timber Tables. 
 
 THE TIMBER IMPORTER'S, TIMBER MERCHANT'S, 
 
 and BUILDER'S STANDARD GUIDE. By RICHARD E. 
 
 GRANDY. 
 
 2nd Edition. Carefully revised and corrected. I2mo, 3-f. 6d. cloth. 
 " Everything it pretends to be : built up gradually, it leads one from a forest to a 
 treenail, and throws in, as a makeweight, a host of material concerning bricks, columns, 
 cisterns, &c. all that the class to whom it appeals requires." English Mechanic. 
 
 Timber Freight Book. 
 
 THE TIMBER IMPORTERS' AND SHIPOWNERS' 
 FREIGHT BOOK : Being a Comprehensive Series of Tables for 
 the Use of Timber Importers, Captains of Ships, Shipbrokers, 
 Builders, and all Dealers in Wood whatsoever. By WILLIAM 
 RICHARDSON, Timber Broker. Crown 8vo, 6s. cloth. 
 
 Tables for Packing-Case Makers. 
 
 PACKING-CASE TABLES ; showing the number of Superficial 
 Feet in Boxes or Packing -Cases, from six inches square and 
 upwards. By W. RICHARDSON. Oblong 410, $s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 " Invaluable labour-saving tables." Ironmonger. 
 
 Coach Building. 
 
 COACH BUILDING: A Practical Treatise, Historical and 
 Descriptive, containing full information of the various Trades and 
 Processes involved, with Hints on the proper keeping of Carriages, 
 &c. With 57 Illustrations. By JAMES W. BURGESS. i2mo, 3^., 
 cloth boards [Just published. 
 
PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 17 
 
 Hortoris Measurer. 
 
 THE COMPLETE MEASURER ; setting forth the Measure- 
 ment of Boards, Glass, &c. ; Unequal-sided, Square-sided, Oc- 
 tagonal-sided, Round Timber and Stone, and Standing Timber. 
 With just allowances for the bark in the respective species of 
 trees, and proper deductions for the waste in hewing the trees, 
 &c. ; also a Table showing the solidity of hewn or eight-sided 
 timber, or of any octagonal-sided column. By RICHARD HORTON. 
 Third edition, with considerable and valuable additions, I2mo, 
 strongly bound in leather, 5-r. 
 
 H or tons Underwood and Woodland Tables. 
 
 TABLES FOR PLANTING AND VALUING UNDER- 
 WOOD AND WOODLAND ; also Lineal, Superficial, Cubical, 
 and Decimal Tables, &c. By R. HORTON. I2mo, 2s. leather. 
 
 Nicholsons Carpenter s Guide. 
 
 THE CARPENTER'S NEW GUIDE ; or, BOOK of LINES 
 for CARPENTERS : comprising all the Elementary Principles 
 essential for acquiring a knowledge of Carpentiy. Founded on the 
 late PETER NICHOLSON'S standard work. A new Edition, revised 
 by ARTHUR ASHPITEL, F.S.A., together with Practical Rules on 
 Drawing, by GEORGE PYNE. With 74 Plates, 4to, i/. u. cloth. 
 
 Dowsing' s Timber Merchant's Companion. 
 
 THE TIMBER MERCHANT'S AND BUILDER'S COM- 
 PANION ; containing New and Copious Tables of the Reduced 
 Weight and Measurement of Deals and Battens, of all sizes, from 
 One to a Thousand Pieces, also the relative Price that each size 
 bears per Lineal Foot to any given Price per Petersburgh Standard 
 Hundred, &c., &c. Also a variety of other valuable information. 
 By WILLIAM DOWSING, Timber Merchant. Third Edition, Re- 
 vised. Crown 8vo, 3^. cloth. 
 
 "Everything is as concise and clear as it can possibly be made. There can be no 
 doubt that every timber merchant and builder ought to possess it." Hull Advertiser. 
 
 Practical Timber Merchant. 
 
 THE PRACTICAL TIMBER MERCHANT, being a Guide 
 for the use of Building Contractors, Surveyors, Builders, &c., 
 comprising useful Tables for all purposes connected with the 
 Timber Trade, Essay on the Strength of Timber, Remarks on the 
 Growth of Timber, &c. By W. RICHARDSON. Fcap. 8vo, y. 6^. cl. 
 
 Woodworking Machinery. 
 
 WOODWORKING MACHINERY; its Rise, Progress, and 
 Construction. With Hints on the Management of Saw Mills and 
 the Economical Conversion of Timber. Illustrated with Examples 
 of Recent Designs by leading English, French, and American 
 Engineers. By M. Powis BALE, M.I.M.E. Large crown 8vo, 
 \2s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 " Mr. Bale is evidently an expert on the subject, and he has collected so much 
 information that his book is all-sufficient for builders and others engaged in the con- 
 version of timber." Architect. 
 
 "The most comprehensive compendium of wood-working machinery we have 
 seen. The author is a thorough master of his subject." Building News. 
 
 " It should be in the office of every wood-working factory." English Mechanic. 
 
i8 WORKS IN MECHANICS, ETC. 
 
 MECHANICS, ETC. 
 Turning. 
 
 LATHE- WORK: a Practical Treatise on the Tools, Appliances, 
 
 and Processes employed in the Art of Turning. By PAUL N. HAS- 
 
 LUCK. With numerous Illustrations drawn by the Author. 
 
 Crown 8vo, $s. cloth. \Just published. 
 
 " Evidently written from personal experience, and gives a large amount of just 
 
 that sort of information which beginners at the lathe require." Builder. 
 
 " Expounds the art and mystery of the turner in an informative fashion." Scstsnian. 
 " Mr. Hasluck's book will be a boon to amateurs." Architect. 
 
 Mechanic s Workshop Companion. 
 
 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP COM- 
 PANION, and THE SCIENTIFIC GENTLEMAN'S PRAC- 
 TICAL ASSISTANT. By W. TEMPLETON. 1 2th Edit., with 
 Mechanical Tables for Operative Smiths, Millwrights, Engineers, 
 &c. ; and an Extensive Table of Powers and Roots, I2mo, 5-r. bound. 
 " Admirably adapted to the wants of a very large class. It has met with great 
 success in the engineering workshop, as we can testify ; and there are a great many 
 men who, in a great measure, owe their rise in life to this little work. " Building News. 
 
 Engineers and Machinist's Assistant. 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S, MILLWRIGHT'S, and MACHINIST'S 
 PRACTICAL ASSISTANT ; comprising a Collection of Useful 
 Tables, Rules, and Data. By WM. TEMPLETON. i8mo, 2s. 6d. 
 "A more suitable present to an apprentice to any of the mechanical trades could not 
 possibly be made." Building News. 
 
 Superficial Measurement. 
 
 THE TRADESMAN'S GUIDE TO SUPERFICIAL MEA- 
 SUREMENT. Tables calculated from I to 200 inches in length, 
 by i to 108 inches in breadth. For the use of Architects, Engineers, 
 Timber Merchants, Builders, &c. ByJ. HAWKINGS. Fcp. 3^. 6d. cl. 
 
 The High-Pressure Steam Engine. 
 
 THE HIGH-PRESSURE STEAM ENGINE ; an Exposition 
 of its Comparative Merits, and an Essay towards an Improved 
 System of Construction, adapted especially to secure Safety and 
 Economy. By Dr. ERNST ALBAN. Translated from the German, 
 with Notes, by Dr. POLE, F.R.S. 8vo, i6s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 Steam Boilers. 
 
 A TREATISE ON STEAM BOILERS : their Strength, Con- 
 struction, and Economical Working. By R. WILSON, C.E. 
 Fifth Edition. I2mo, 6s. cloth. 
 
 " The best work on boilers which has come under our notice " Engineering. 
 
 " The best treatise that has ever been published on steam boilers." Engineer. 
 
 Power in Motion. 
 
 POWER IN MOTION : Horse Power, Toothed Wheel Gearing, 
 Long and Short Driving Bands, Angular Forces, &c. By JAMES 
 ARMOUR, C.E. With 73 Diagrams. I2mo, 3-5-., cloth. 
 
 Mechanics. 
 
 THE HANDBOOK OF MECHANICS. By DIONYSIUS 
 LARDNER, D.C.L. New Edition, Edited and considerably En- 
 larged, by BENJAMIN LOEWY, F.R.A.S., &c., post 8vo, 6s. cloth. 
 
 " Studiously popular .... The application of the various branches of physics to 
 the industrial arts is carefully shown." Mining Journal. 
 
PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 19 
 
 MATHEMATICS, TABLES, ETC. 
 
 Gregory s Practical Mathematics. 
 
 MATHEMATICS for PRACTICAL MEN ; being a Common- 
 place Book of Pure and Mixed Mathematics. Designed chiefly 
 for the Use of Civil Engineers, Architects, and Surveyors. Part I. 
 PURE MATHEMATICS comprising Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, 
 Mensuration, Trigonometry, Conic Sections, Properties of Curves. 
 Part II. MIXED MATHEMATICS comprising Mechanics in general, 
 Statics, Dynamics, Hydrostatics, Hydrodynamics, Pneumatics, 
 Mechanical Agents, Strength of Materials. With an Appendix of 
 copious Logarithmic and other Tables. By OLINTHUS GREGORY, 
 LL.D., F.R.A.S. Enlarged by HENRY LAW, C.E. 4th Edition, 
 revised by Prof. J. R. YOUNG. With 13 Plates. 8vo, I/, is. cloth, 
 
 " The engineer or architect will here find ready to his hand, rules for solving nearly 
 every mathematical difficulty that may arise in his practice." Builder. 
 
 The Metric System. 
 
 A SERIES OF METRIC TABLES, in which the British 
 Standard Measures and Weights are compared with those of the 
 Metric System at present in use on the Continent. By C. H. 
 DOWLING, C.E. 2nd Edit, revised and enlarged. 8vo, lor. 6d. cl. 
 "Their accuracy has been certified by Prof. Airy, Astronomer-Royal." Builder. 
 
 Inwood's Tables, greatly enlarged and improved. 
 
 TABLES FOR THE PURCHASING of ESTATES, Freehold, 
 Copyhold, or Leasehold; Annuities, Advowsons, &c., and for the 
 Renewing of Leases held under Cathedral Churches, Colleges, or 
 other corporate bodies ; for Terms of Years certain, and for Lives j 
 also for Valuing Reversionary Estates, Deferred Annuities, Next 
 Presentations, &c., together with Smart's Five Tables of Compound 
 Interest, and an Extension of the same to Lower and Intermediate 
 Rates. By WILLIAM INWOOD. 2ist edition, with Tables of 
 Logarithms for the more Difficult Computations of the Interest of 
 Money, Discount,&c. By M. FDOR THOMAN. I2mo. &r. cloth. 
 
 " Those interested in the purchase and sale of estates, and in the adjustment of 
 compensation cases, as well as in transactions in annuities, life insurances, &c., will 
 find the present edition of eminent service." Engineering. 
 
 Geometry for the Architect, Engineer, &c. 
 
 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY, for the Architect, Engineer, and 
 Mechanic. By E. W. TARN, M. A. , Architect. Second Edition, with 
 Appendices on Diagrams of Strains and Isometrical projections. 
 Demy 8vo, gs. cloth. 
 
 Mathematical Instruments-. 
 
 MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTS: Their Construction, 
 Adjustment, Testing, and Use ; comprising Drawing, Measuring, 
 Optical, Surveying, and Astronomical Instruments. By J. F. 
 HEATHER, M.A. Enlarged Edition. I2mo, $s. cloth. 
 
 Weights, Measures, Moneys, &c. 
 
 MEASURES, WEIGHTS, and MONEYS of all NATIONS, 
 and an Analysis of the Christian, Hebrew, and Mahometan 
 Calendars. Entirely New Edition, Revised and Enlarged. By 
 W. S. B. WOOLHOUSE, F.R.A.S. I2mo, 2s. 6d. cloth boards. 
 
20 WORKS IN MATHEMATICS, ETC., 
 
 Compound Interest and Annuities. 
 
 THEORY of COMPOUND INTEREST and ANNUITIES ; 
 
 with Tables of Logarithms for the more Difficult Computations of 
 
 Interest, Discount, Annuities, &c., in all their Applications and 
 
 Uses for Mercantile and State Purposes. By FEDOR THOMAN, 
 
 of the Societe Credit Mobilier, Paris. 3rd Edit., I2mo, 4.5-. 6d. cl. 
 
 "A very powerful work, and the Author has a very remarkable command of his 
 
 subject." Professor A. de Morgan. 
 
 Iron and Metal Trades' Calculator* 
 
 THE IRON AND METAL TRADES' COMPANION : 
 Being a Calculator containing a Series of Tables upon a new and 
 comprehensive plan for expeditiously ascertaining the value of any 
 goods bought or sold by weight, from is. per cwt. to H2J. per 
 cwt., and from one farthing per lb. to is. per Ib. Each Table ex- 
 tends from one lb. to 100 tons. By T. DOWNIE. 396 pp., 9.5-., leather. 
 " A most useful set of tables, and will supply a want, for nothing like them before 
 existed." Building News. 
 
 Iron and Steel. 
 
 'IRON AND STEEL': a Work for the Forge, Foundry, 
 Factory, and Office. Containing Information for Ironmasters and 
 their Stocktakers ; Managers of Bar, Rail, Plate, and Sheet Rolling 
 Mills ; Iron and Metal Founders ; Iron Ship and Bridge Builders ; 
 Mechanical, Mining, and Consulting Engineers ; Architects, Builders, 
 &c. By CHARLES HOARE, Author of 'The Slide Rule,' &c. Eighth 
 Edition. With folding Scales of " Foreign Measures compared 
 with the English Foot," and "fixed Scales of Squares, Cubes, 
 and Roots, Areas, Decimal Equivalents, &c." Oblong, 32mo, 6^., 
 leather, elastic-band. 
 " For comprehensiveness the book has not its equal." Iron. 
 
 Comprehensive Weight Calculator. 
 
 THE WEIGHT CALCULATOR, being a Series of Tables 
 upon a New and Comprehensive Plan, exhibiting at one Reference 
 the exact Value of any Weight from lib. to 15 tons, at 300 Pro- 
 gressive Rates, from I Penny to 168 Shillings per cwt., and con- 
 taining 186,000 Direct Answers, which, with their Combinations, 
 consisting of a single addition (mostly to be performed at sight), 
 will afford an aggregate of 10,266,000 Answers ; the whole being 
 calculated and designed to ensure Correctness and promote 
 Despatch. By HENRV HARBEN, Accountant, Sheffield. New 
 Edition. Royal 8vo, I/. 5-v. , strongly half-bound. 
 
 Comprehensive Discount Guide. 
 
 THE DISCOUNT GUIDE : comprising several Series of Tables 
 for the use of Merchants, Manufacturers, Ironmongers, and others, 
 by which may be ascertained the exact profit arising from any mode 
 of using Discounts, either in the Purchase or Sale of Goods, and 
 the method of either Altering a Rate of Discount, or Advancing a 
 Price, so as to produce, by one operation, a sum that will realise 
 any required profit after allowing one or more Discounts : to which 
 are added Tables of Profit or Advance from i^ to 90 per cent., 
 Tables of Discount from I \ to 98! per cent., and Tables of Commis- 
 sion, &c., from | to 10 per cent. By HENRY HARBEN, Accountant. 
 New Edition. Demy 8vo, I/. 5-r., half-bound. 
 
PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 21 
 
 SCIENCE AND ART. 
 The Construction of the Organ. 
 
 PRACTICAL ORGAN BUILDING. By W. E. DICKSON, 
 M.A., Precentor of Ely Cathedral. Crown 8vo, $s. cloth. 
 " In many respects the book is the best that has yet appeared on the subject. We 
 cordially recommend it." English Mechanic. 
 
 "Any practical amateur following the instructions here given might build an 
 organ to his entire satisfaction." Leeds Mercury. 
 
 Dentistry. 
 
 MECHANICAL DENTISTRY. A Practical Treatise on the 
 Construction of the various kinds of Artificial Dentures. Com- 
 prising also Useful Formulae, Tables, and Receipts for Gold 
 Plate, Clasps, Solders, etc., etc. By CHARLES HUNTER. With 
 numerous Wood Engravings. Crown 8vo, *js. 6d. cloth. 
 "The work is very practical." Monthly Review of Dental Surgery. 
 
 "An authoritative treatise We can strongly recommend Mr. Hunter's 
 
 treatise to all students preparing: for the profession of dentistry, as well as to every 
 
 mechanical dentist." Dublin^ Jouriial of Medical Science. {and Circular. 
 
 " The best book on the subject with which we are acquainted." Medical P 'ress. 
 
 Brewing. 
 
 A HANDBOOK FOR YOUNG BREWERS. By HERBERT 
 EDWARDS WRIGHT, B. A. Crown 8vo, 3^. 6d. cloth. 
 
 "A thoroughly scientific treatise in popular language. It is evident that the 
 author has mastered his subject in its scientific aspects." Morning' Advertiser. 
 
 " We would particularly recommend teachers of the art to place it in every pupil's 
 hands, and we feel sure its perusal will be attended with advantage." Brewer. 
 
 Gold and Gold-Working. 
 
 THE GOLDSMITH'S HANDBOOK : containing full instruc- 
 tions for the Alloying and Working of Gold. Including the Art of 
 Alloying, Melting, Reducing, Colouring, Collecting and Refining. 
 The processes of Manipulation, Recovery of Waste, Chemical and 
 Physical Properties of Gold, with a new System of Mixing its 
 Alloys ; Solders, Enamels, and other useful Rules and Recipes, &c. 
 By GEORGE E. GEE, Goldsmith and Silversmith. Second Edition, 
 considerably enlarged. I2mo, 3^. 6d. cloth boards. 
 " The best work yet printed on its subject for a reasonable price. ' Jeweller. 
 " We consider that the trade owes not a little to Mr. Gee, who has in two volumes 
 
 compressed almost the whole of its literature, and we doubt not that many a young 
 
 beginner will owe a part of his future success to a diligent study of the pages which 
 
 are peculiarly well adapted to his use." Clerkenwell Press. 
 
 " Essentially a practical manual, well adapted to the wants of amateurs and 
 
 apprentices, containing trustworthy information that only a practical man can 
 
 supply." English, Mechanic. 
 
 Silver and Silver Working. 
 
 THE SILVERSMITH'S HANDBOOK, containing full In- 
 structions for the Alloying and Working of Silver, including the 
 different modes of refining and melting the metal, its solders, the 
 preparation of imitation alloys, &c. By GEORGE E. GEE, 
 Jeweller, &c. I2mo, -$s. 6d. cloth boards. 
 
 " The chief merit of the work is its practical character. The workers in the trade 
 will speedily discover its merits when they sit down to study it." English Mechanic. 
 "This work forms a valuable sequel to the author's Practical Goldivorker, and 
 supplies a want long felt in the silver trade." Silversmith's Trade Journal. 
 
22 WORKS IN SCIENCE AND ART, ETC., 
 
 Electric Lighting. 
 
 ELECTRIC LIGHT : Its Production and Use, embodying plain 
 Directions for the Working of Galvanic Batteries, Electric Lamps, 
 and Dynamo-Electric Machines. By J. W. URQUHART, C. E., 
 Author of " Electroplating : a Practical Handbook." Edited by 
 F. C. WEBB, M.I.C.E., M.S.T.E. With 94 Illustrations. 
 Crown 8vo, Js. 6d. cloth. 
 " It is the only work at present available, which gives a general but concise history 
 
 of the means which have been adopted up to the present time in producing the 
 
 electi ic light. " Metropolitan. 
 
 " An important addition to the literature of the electric light. Students of the 
 
 subject should not fail to read it." Colliery Guardian. 
 
 Electroplating, &c. 
 
 ELECTROPLATING: A Practical Handbook. By J. W. 
 URQUHART, C.E. Crown 8vo, 5.?. cloth. 
 
 " A large amount of thoroughly practical information." Telegraphic Journal. 
 
 "An excellent practical manual." Engineering. 
 
 " The information given appears to be based on direct personal knowledge. . . . 
 Its science is sound, and the style is always clear. " A thetusum. 
 
 "Any ordinarily intelligent person may become an adept in electro-deposition 
 with a very little science indeed, and this is the book to show him or her the way." 
 Builder. 
 
 " The volume is without a rival in its particular sphere." Design and Work. 
 
 Electrotyping, &c. 
 
 ELECTR.OTYPING : a Practical Manual on the Reproduction 
 
 and Multiplication of Printing Surfaces and Works of Art by the 
 
 Electro-deposition of Metals. By J. W. URQUHART, C.E. 
 
 Crown 8vo, $s. cloth. \_Justpublished. 
 
 " Will serve as a guide, not only to beginners in the art, but to those who still 
 
 practise the old and imperfect methods of electrotyping." Iron. 
 
 " The book throughout is entirely practical, is lucid and clear in style, and the 
 minutest details are so stated that amateurs will find no difficulty whatever in follow- 
 ing them out. We have no hesitation in recommending it as a reliable work." 
 Paper and Printing Trades Journal. 
 
 The Military Sciences. 
 
 AIDE-MEMOIRE to the MILITARY SCIENCES. Framed 
 from Contributions of Officers and others connected with the dif- 
 ferent Services. Originally edited by a Committee of the Corps of 
 Royal Engineers. Second Edition, most carefully revised by an 
 Officer of the Corps, with many additions ; containing nearly 350 
 Engravings and many hundred Woodcuts. 3 vols. royal 8vo, extra 
 cloth boards, and lettered, 4/. IQJ. 
 
 Field Fortification. 
 
 A TREATISE on FIELD FORTIFICATION, the ATTACK 
 of FORTRESSES, MILITARY MINING, and RECON- 
 NOITRING. By Colonel I. S. MACAULAY, late Professor of 
 Fortification in the R. M. A., Woolwich. Sixth Edition, crown 
 8vo, cloth, with separate Atlas of 12 Plates, 12s. complete. 
 
 Dye- Wares and Colours. 
 
 THE MANUAL of COLOURS and DYE- WARES : their 
 Properties, Applications, Valuation, Impurities, and Sophistications. 
 For the Use of Dyers, Printers, Drysalters, Brokers, c. By J. 
 W. SLATER. Post 8vo, 7*. 6d. cloth. 
 
PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 23 
 
 The Alkali Trade Sulphuric Acid, &c. 
 
 A MANUAL OF THE ALKALI TRADE, including the 
 Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, Sulphate of Soda, and Bleaching 
 Powder. By JOHN LOMAS, Alkali Manufacturer, Newcastle-upon- 
 Tyne and London. With 232 Illustrations and Working Draw- 
 ings, and containing 386 pages of text. Super-royal 8vo, 
 2.1 12s. 6d. cloth. [Just published. 
 
 This work provides (i) a Complete Handbook for intending Alkali and Sulphuric 
 Acid Manufacturers, and for those already in the field who desire to improve their 
 plant, or to become practically acquainted with the latest processes and developments 
 of the trade ; (2) a Handy Volume which Manufacturers can put into the hands of 
 their Managers and Foremen as a useful guide in their daily rounds of duty. 
 
 SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Chap. I. Choice of Site and General 
 Plan of Works II. Sulphuric Acid- 
 Ill. Recovery of the Nitrogen Com- 
 pounds, and Treatment of Small Pyrites 
 IV. The Salt Cake Process- V. Legis- 
 lation upon the. Noxious Vapours Ques- 
 tion VI. The Hargreaves' and Jones' 
 Processes VII. The Balling Process 
 VIII. Lixiviation and Salting Down 
 
 IX. Carbonating or Finishing X. Soda 
 Crystals XI. Refined Alkali XII. 
 Causdc Soda XIII. Bi-carbonate of 
 Soda XIV. Bleaching Powder XV. 
 Utilisation ot Tank Waste XVI. General 
 Remarks Four Appendices, treating of 
 Yields, Sulphuric Acid Calculations, Ane- 
 mometers, and Foreign Legislation upon 
 the Noxious Vapours Question. 
 
 "The author has given the fullest, most practical, and, to all concerned in the 
 alkali trade, most valuable mass of information that, to our knowledge, has been 
 published in any language." Engineer. 
 
 " This book is written by a manufacturer for manufacturers. The working details 
 of the most approved forms of apparatus are given, and these are accompanied by 
 no less than 232 wood engravings, all of which may be used for the purposes of con- 
 struction. Every step in the manufacture is very fully described in this manual, and 
 each improvement explained. Everything which tends to introduce economy into 
 the technical details of this trade receives the fullest attention. The book has been 
 produced with great completeness." Athenceum. 
 
 "The author is not one of those clever compilers who, on short notice, will 'read 
 up" any conceivable subject, but a practical man in the best sense of the word. We 
 find here not merely a sound and luminous explanation of the chemical principles of 
 the trade, but a notice of numerous matters which have a most important bearing 
 on the successiul conduct of alkali works, but which are generally overlooked by 
 even the most experienced technological authors. This most valuable book, which 
 we trust will be generally appreciated, we must pronounce a credit alike to its author 
 and to the enterprising firm who have undertaken its publication." Chemical 
 Re-view. 
 
 Chemical Analysis* 
 
 THE COMMERCIAL HANDBOOK of CHEMICAL ANA- 
 LYSIS ; or Practical Instructions for the determination of the In- 
 trinsic or Commercial Value of Substances used in Manufactures, 
 in Trades, and in the Arts. By A. NORMANDY, Author of " Prac- 
 tical Introduction to Rose's Chemistry," and Editor of Rose's 
 "Treatise on Chemical Analysis." New Edition. Enlarged, and 
 to a great extent re-written, by HENRY M. NOAD, Ph. D., F.R.S. 
 With numerous Illustrations. Cr. 8vo, I2s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 "We recommend this book to the careful perusal of every one ; it may be truly 
 affirmed to be of universal interest, and we strongly recommend it to our readers as a 
 guide, alike indispensable to the housewife as to the pharmaceutical practitioner. " 
 Medical Times. 
 
 " Essential to the analysts appointed under the new Act. The most recent results 
 are given, and the work is well edited and carefully written. " Nature. 
 
24 WORKS IN SCIENCE AND ART, ETC., 
 
 Dr. Lardners Museum of Science and Art. 
 
 THE MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART. Edited by 
 DiONYSlus LARDNER, D.C.L., formerly Professor of Natural Phi- 
 losophy and Astronomy in University College, London. With up- 
 wards of 1 200 Engravings on Wood. In 6 Double Volumes. 
 Price i is., in a new and elegant cloth binding, or handsomely 
 bound in half morocco, $is. 6d. 
 
 OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 
 
 "This series besides affording popular but sound instruction on scientific subjects, 
 with which the humblest man in the country ought to be acquainted, also undertakes 
 that teaching of 'common things' which every well-wisher of his kind is anxious to 
 promote. Many thousand copies of this serviceable publication have been printed, 
 in the belief and hope that the desire for instruction and improvement widely pre- 
 vails ; and we have no fear that such enlightened faith will meet with disappoint- 
 ment." Times. 
 
 " A cheap and interesting publication, alike informing and attractive. The papers 
 combine subjects of importance and great scientific knowledge, considerable induc- 
 tive powers, and a popular style of treatment. " Spectator. 
 
 "The 'Museum of Science and Art' is the most valuable contribution that has 
 ever been made to the Scientific Instruction of every class of society." Sir David 
 Brewster in the North British Re-view. 
 
 "Whether we consider the liberality and beauty of the illustrations, the charm of 
 the writing, or the durable interest of the matter, we must express our belief that 
 there is hardly to be found among the new books, one that would be welcomed by 
 people of so many ages and classes as a valuable present." Examiner. 
 
 %* Separate books formed from the above, suitable for Workmen 1 ! 
 Libraries, Science Classes, &C. 
 
 COMMON THINGS EXPLAINED. Containing Air, Earth, Fire, 
 Water, Time, Man, the Eye, Locomotion, Colour, Clocks and 
 Watches, &c. 233 Illustrations, cloth gilt, $s. 
 
 THE MICROSCOPE. Containing Optical Images, Magnifying 
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 POPULAR GEOLOGY. Containing Earthquakes and Volcanoes, 
 the Crust of the Earth, etc. 201 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2s. 6d. 
 
 POPULAR PHYSICS. Containing Magnitude and Minuteness, the 
 Atmosphere, Meteoric Stones, Popular Fallacies, Weather Prog- 
 nostics, the Thermometer, the Barometer, Sound, &c. 85 Illus- 
 trations, cloth gilt, 2s. 6d. 
 
 STEAM AND ITS USES. Including the Steam Engine, the Lo- 
 comotive, and Steam Navigation. 89 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2s. 
 
 POPULAR ASTRONOMY. Containing How to Observe the 
 Heavens. The Earth, Sun, Moon, Planets. Light, Comets, 
 Eclipses, Astronomical Influences, &c. 182 Illustrations, 4^. 6d. 
 
 THE BEE AND WHITE ANTS : Their Manners and Habits. 
 With Illustrations of Animal Instinct and Intelligence. 135 Illus- 
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PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 25 
 
 Dr. Lardner s Handbooks of Natural Philosophy. 
 
 %* The following five volumes, though each is Complete in itself, and to be pur- 
 chased separately ; form A COMPLETE COURSE OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, and are 
 intended for the general reader who desires to attain accurate knowledge of the 
 de 
 
 departments of Physical Science, "without pursuing' them according to the 
 tnore profound methods of mathematical investigation. The style is studiously 
 pop^<.lar. It has been the author s aim to supply Manuals such as are required by 
 the Student, the Engineer, the Artisan^ and the superior classes in Schools. 
 
 THE HANDBOOK OF MECHANICS. Enlarged and almost 
 rewritten by BENJAMIN LOEWY, F.R.A.S. "With 378 Illustra- 
 tions. Post 8vo, 6s. cloth. 
 
 "The perspicuity of the original ha, been retained, and chapters which had 
 become obsolete, have been replaced by others of more modern character. The 
 explanations throughout are studiously popular, and care has been taken to show 
 the application of the various branches of physics to the industrial arts, aiid to 
 the practical business of life." Mining Journal. 
 
 THE HANDBOOK of HYDROSTATICS and PNEUMATICS. 
 
 New Edition, Revised and Enlarged by BENJAMIN LOEWY, 
 
 F.R.A.S. With 236 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 5^. cloth. 
 " For those ' who desire to attain an accurate knowledge of physical science with- 
 out the profound methods of mathematical investigation,' this work is not merely in- 
 tended, but well adapted." Chemical News. 
 THE HANDBOOK OF HEAT. Edited and almost entirely 
 
 Rewritten by BENJAMIN LOEWY, F.R.A.S., etc. 117 Illustra- 
 
 tions. Post 8vo, 6s. cloth. 
 
 " The style is always clear and precise, and conveys instruction without leaving 
 any cloudiness or lurking doubts behind." Engineering. 
 THE HANDBOOK OF OPTICS. New Edition. Edited by 
 
 T. OLVER HARDING, B. A. 298 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 5.!-. cloth. 
 
 " Written by one of the ablest English scientific writers, beautifully and elaborately 
 illustrated. "Mechanics' Magazine. 
 
 THE HANDBOOK OF ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, and 
 ACOUSTICS. New Edition. Edited by GEO. CAREY FOSTER, 
 B.A., F.C.S. With 400 Illustrations. Post 8vo, $s. cloth. 
 " The book could not have been entrusted to any one better calculated to preserve 
 the terse and lucid style of Lardner, while correcting his errors and bringing up his 
 work to the present state of scientific knowledge." Popular Science Review. 
 
 Dr. Lardner s Handbook of Astronomy. 
 
 THE HANDBOOK OF ASTRONOMY. Forming a Com- 
 panion to the " Handbooks of Natural Philosophy." By DIONY- 
 Sius LARDNER, D.C.L., formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy 
 and Astronomy in University College, London. Fourth Edition. 
 Revised and Edited by EDWIN DUNKIN, F. R.S., Royal Observa- 
 tory, Greenwich. With 38 Plates and upwards of 100 Woodcuts. 
 In I vol., small 8vo, 550 pages, Qs. 6d., cloth. 
 " Probably no other book contains the same amount of information in so com- 
 
 pendious and well-arranged a form certainly none at the price at which this is 
 
 offered to the public." Athen&um. 
 
 " We can do no other than pronounce this work a most valuable manual of astro- 
 
 nomy, and we strongly recommend ii to all who wish to acquire a general but at 
 
 the same time correct acquaintance with this sublime science."- Quarterly Journal 
 
 of Science. 
 
 Dr. Lardners Handbook of Animal Physics. 
 
 THE HANDBOOK OF ANIMAL PHYSICS. By DR. 
 LARDNER. With 520 Illustrations. New edition, small 8vo, 
 cloth, 732 pages, 7-r. 6d. 
 1 We have no hesitation in cordially recommending it." Educational Times,. 
 
26 WORKS IN SCIENCE AND ART, ETC., 
 
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