UC-NRLF B 3 137 2flS V / THE AMERICAN SCHOOL LIBRARY. PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFUSION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. " Knowledge is like the light of heaven ; free, pure, pleasant, exhaustless. It invitei aU to possession : it admits of no pre-emption, no rights exclusive, no monopoly." "Promote, as objects of primary importance, institutions for the general diffusion of hnowledfe.o—fVathington's Farewell Address. NEW-YORK: HARPER & BROTHERS, NO. 82 CLIFF-STREET. 183 8. THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFUSION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. President : Honourable Stephen Van Rensselakr. Vice-Presidents : His Excellency Gov. Marcy, Albany. His Ex. Gov. Everett, LL D, Mass. Hon. Albert Gallatin, New- York. Hon. Dan. VVebster, LL.U., Boston. Hon. Reuben H. VValwonli, N. Y. James Milnor, D.D., New- York. JRt. Rev. Benj. T. Oiiderdonk, N. Y. His Excellency Gov. Dunlap, Me. Hon. Franklin Pierce, N. H.jHon. Ruel Williams, Me. Francis Wayland, D.D., R. I. Hon. Horace Everett, Hon. Theodore Frelinghuysen, N. .I.iHon. Roger M. Sherman, Hon. Samuel li. Southard, N. J Hon. Robert C. Greer, Penn. Hon. Roger B. Taney, Md. Hon Windham Robertson, Va. Hon. William C, Rives, Va. GeneralJames Hamilton, S. C. Hon. Henry Hitchcock, Ala. Hon. Alexander Porter, La. Hon. Felix Grimdy, Tenn. Rt. Rev. Charles P. M'llvaine, Ohio. His Excellency Gov. Duncan, 111. Henry R. Schoolcraft, E^5q., Mich. I Board of Directors Hon. Horace Binney, LL.D., Hon. James Hayard, Thomas Sewall, M.D., Hon. William Gaston, Hon. John M. Berrien, Hon. Robert J. Walker, Hon. Thomas J. Lacy, Hon. Henry Clay, LL.D., John C. Young, D.D., Hon William Hendricks, Hon. Lewis F. Lion, Vt. Conn. Penn. Del. D. C. N. C. Geo. Miss. Ark. Kv. Ky. Ind. Mo. Alonzo Potter, D.D., New- York. John Knox, D.D., Jacob Janeway, D.D., " Rev. John A. Vaushan, " Rev. Gorham D. Abbott, " Hon. Benj. F. Hutler, LL.D., " Hon. Samuel T. Armstrong, Mass. Hon. Samuel Hubbard. LL D., " Hon. John Sergeant, Pennsylvania. Peter G. Stuyvesant, Esq., N. Y. Hugh Maxwell, Esq , " Charles Butler, Esq., '• Hiram Ketchum, Ksq., " James Brown, Esq., " Frederic A. Tracy, Esq., " Eleazer Lord, Esq., " Thomas Cock, M D., " John T. Gilchrist, Ksq , " Samuel W. Seton, Esq., " Isaac Collins, Esq., Pennsylvania.' Executive Committee: J.\MEs Brown, Esq., New-York, Chairman. Thomas M'Auley, D.D., New- York, Francis L. Hawks, D.D., " Thomas Dewitt, D.D., " Rev. George Potts, " Rev. .Tohn Proudfit, " Prof. Benj. Silliman, LL.D., Hon. Samuel Jones, Hon. Myndert Van Schaick, Hon. Heiiian Lincoln, Bradford Sumner, Esq., David Graham, Esq.. Timothy R. Green, Esq. George S. Robbins, Esq., Cornelius Baker, Esq., John Griscom, LL D., " Anthony P. Halsey, Esq., " Robert Kelly, Esq., " Isaac S. Loyd, Fsq., Pennsylvania. Thomas J. Wharton, Esq., Conn, NY. ■1 Mass. •( N. Y. (( << N. Y. N. Y. John Torrey, M.D., Med. Coll Alonzo Potter, D.D., U. Col., Wilbur Fisk, D.D., Wes. Uni., Conn. Rev. Jacob .Abbott, Boston. Rev. Bela B. Edwards, Rev. Leonard Bacon. New-Haven. Rev. Calvin E. Stowe, Ohio. Charles Butler, Esq., New-York. GoRHAM D. Abbott, Secretary. Anthony P. Halsev; Treasurer Thomas Cock, M.D., New- York. Lewis C. Beck, NY. University," William Cooper, Lye. Nat. Hist., " .John T. Gilchrist, Esq, ** Timothy R. Green. Esq., •• Marlnus Willett. M.D., " William Betts, Esq., Henry E. Davies, Esq., « THE AMERICAN SCHOOL LIBRARY. The Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge present to the country the commencement of their Library for schools, designed to em- brace, when completed, a few hundred volumes, wriiten and compiled with special reference to the wants of the youth of our country. It will include in the range of its subjects works in the various departments of knowledge most interesting and useful to the great body of the people, including history, voyages and travels, biography, natural history, the physical, intellectual, moral, and political sciences, agriculture, manufac- tures, arts, commerce, the belles lettres, and the history and philosophy of education. The increasing interest in the subject of school libraries in several of the States, and the repeated calls upon the Committee for their Library, have induced them to issue the present selection from existing publica- tions to meet the immediate wants of our schools, while they go on, as fast as possible, to complete the plan announced in their pubUshed pro- spectus. They will regard, in the execution of it, the different ages, tastes, circumstances, and capacities of readers. The Committee present the following fifty volumes, chiefly standard ■works of permanent interest and value, which have already received ex- tensively the public approbation in this country and in Europe, as the commencement of the series, to be extended from time to time, until it shall comprise a well-selected and comprehensive Library of Useful Knowledge, worthy of a place in every schoolroom of our country. It will be the greatest care of the Committee, that the whole be per- vaded and characterized by a spirit of Christian morality calculated to refine and elevate the moral character of our nation. HISTORY. A View of Ancient and Modern Egypt. By Rev. M. Russell, LL.D. Pale.stine, or the Holy Land. From the Earliest Period to the Present Time. By Rev. M. Russell, LL.D. History of Chivalry and the Cru- sades. By G. P. R. James. En- gravings. The History of Arabia, Ancient and Modern. By Andrew Crichton. 2 vols. Engravings, &c. The Chinese. A general Description of (he Empire of China and its Inhabitants. By John Francis Davis, F.R.S. With Engravings. American History. By the Author of '-American Popular Lessons." With Engravings. 3 vols. American Revolution. By B. B. Thatcher, Esq. History of New- York. By William Dunlap. History of Virginia. By Uncle rbilip. VOYAGES AND TRAVELS. An Historical Account of the Cir- cumnavigation of the Globe. En- gravings. Narrative of Discovery and Adven- ture in Africa. From the Earliest Ages to the Present Time. By Professor Jameson, and James Wilson and Hugh Murray, Esqrs. Lives and Voyages of Early Navi- gators. Portraits. BIOGRAPHY. A Life of Washington. By J. K. Paulding, Esq. In 2 vols. With Engravings. The Life of Napoleon Bonaparte, By J. G. Lockhart, Esq. In 2 vols. With Portraits. The Life and Actions of Ale.xander the Great. By the Rev. J. Wil- liams. With a Map. Memoir of the Life of Peter the Great. By John Barrow, Es^ Portrait, The Life of Oliver Cromwell. Bv the Rev. M. Russell, LL.D. 2 vols. Portrait. Lives of Celebriited Travellers. By- James Augustus St. John. 3 vols. Memoirs of Celebrated Female Sov- ereigns. By Mrs. Jameson. 2 vols. NATURAL HISTORY. A Popular Guide to the Observation of Nature ; or, Hints of Induce- ment to the Study of Natural Pro- ductions and Appearances, in their Connexions and Relations. By Robert Mudie. Engravings. The Swiss Family Robinson ; or, Adventures of a Father and Mo- ther and Four Sons on a Desert Island. 2 vols. With Engravings. The American Forest ; or, Uncle Philip's Conversations with the Children about the Trees of Amer- ica. With numerous Engravings. The Natural History of Insects. In 2 vols. With Engravings. Natural History ; or, Tools and Trades among Inferior Animals. By Uncle Philip. PHYSICAL SCIENCE. The Principles of Physiology, ap- plied to the Preservation of Health, and to the Improvement of Physi- cal and Mental Education. By Andrew Combe, M.D. Letters of Euier on Different Sub- jects of Natural Philosophy. Ad-j dressed to a German Princess.! At a regular meeting of the Executive Committee, it was unanimously Resolved, That the above-named fifty volumes be approved and adopted as the commencement of" The American School Library," and that the same be earnestly recommended to public patronage. In behalf of the Committee, Jamks Brown, Chairman, J. T. Gilchrist, Secretary. A. P. Halsky, John Torrky, Thomas Cock, Charles Butler. At a general meeting of the Society, held on the 10th of May, 1838, at the Stuyvesant Institute, Broadway, his Excellency Governor MaRcy hi the chair, Anthony P. Halsky, Secretary, it was unanimously Resoli^ed, That we recommend the immediate introduction of a suitable Library of Useful Knowledge in every schoolroom in our State ; and that we invite the attention of teachers, of school committees, and of every friend of education and of the universal diffusion of knowledge in this and in other States, to " The American School Library," now commenced by this Society. A. P. Halsky, Secretary. GoRHAM D. Abbott, Sec^y A. S. D. U.K. Translated by Hunter. With Notes, and a Life of Euler, by Sir David Brewster ; and Additional Notes, by John Griscom, LL.D. With a Glossary of Scientific Terms, and Engravings. INTELLECTUAL SCIENCE. Inquiries concerning the Intellectual Powers, and the Investigation of Truth. By John Abercrombie, M.D.,F.R.S. With Questions. BELLES LETTRES. Lectures on General Literature, Poetry, &c. By Jas. Montgomery. MISCELLANEOUS. Indian Traits ; being Sketches of the Manners, Customs, and Char- acter of the North American Na- tives. By B. B. Thatcher, Esq. 2 vols. With Engravings. Perils of the Sea ; being Authentic Narratives of Remarkable and Af- fecting Disasters upon the Deep. With Engravings. The Poor Rich Man and the Rich Poor Man. By Miss C. M. Sedg- wick. The Ornaments Discovered. By Mary Hughs. The Son of a Genius. By Mrs. Hofland. The Whale-fishery and the Polar Seas. By Uncle Philip. ARABIA VOL. II. MOCHA. HARPER & BROTHERS, NEW-YORK. Harper's Slej-enlype Edition. THE HISTORY OF ARABIA ANCIENT AND MODERN. CONTAINING* A DESCRIPTION OF THK COUNTRY — AN ACCOUNT OY ITS INHABITANTS, ANTIQUITIES, POLITICAL CONDITION, AND EARLY COMMERCE — THK LIFE AND RELIGION OF MOHAMMED — THE CONQUESTS, ARTS, AND LITERATURE OF THE SARACENS — THE CALIPHS OF DAMASCUS, BAGDAD, AFRICA, AND SPAIN — THE CIVIL GOVERNMENT AND RELIGIOUS CERE- MONIES OF THE MODERN ARABS— ORIGIN AND SUPPRESSION OF THE WAHABEES — THE INSTITUTIONS, CHARACTER, MANNERS, AND CUS- TOMS OF THE BEDOUINS — AND A COMPREHENSIVE VIEW OF ITS NATU- RAL HISTORY. BY ANDREW CRICHTON. WITH A MAP AND ENGRAVINGS. IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. II. NEW-YORK: PUBLISHED BY HARPER & BROTHERS, NO. 82 CLIFF-STREET. 18 3 7. ENGRAVINGS m VOL. II. Vignette.— View of the South Quarter of Mocha. An Arab of Rankin the Costume of Yemen . . . . Page 127 Mecca and the Grand Temple during the Pilgrimage . . . 185 Convent of EI Bourg near Tor [ [ 251 Abdallah ibn Saoud, Chief of the Wahabees .....'. 301 A Young Female of the Coffee Mountains , . , . [ .313 CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME, CHAPTER I. THE ABBASSIDES, OR CALIPHS OF BAGDAD, Accession of the Abbassides — Caliphs of that Dynasty — Almau- sor — Haroun al Raschid — Almamoun — Motassem — Capri- cious Craeltyof Motawakkel — Magnificence of the Caliphs — Weakness and Corruption of their Government — Their MiU- tary Operations — Wars of Haroun al Raschid and his Suc- cessors with the Romans — Victories of Nicephonis Phocas and John Zimisces over the Moslems — Causes of the Down- fall of the Abbassides — Despotic Power of the Turkish Guards — Ravages and Cruelties of the Karmathians — Dismember- ment of the Empire into independent Principalities — Persia usurped by petty DjTiasties — Conquests of Mahmoud of Ghizni in India — Irruptions of the Tartars — Togrul Beg ap- pointed Viceroy of the Mohammedan Dominions — Hookku lays Siege to Bagdad — Surrender and Pillage of that Capital — Death of Mostasem and Extinction of the Caliphate Page 9 CHAPTER II. CALIPHS OF AFRICA, EGYPT, AND SPAIN. The Aglabites or Caliphs of Cairoan — Military Exploits of the Western Arabs — Reduction of Crete — Conquest of Sicily — Invasion of Italy — Pillage of Rome — Siege of Gaeta— Naval Victory of the Christians — Subjugation of Corsica and Sardi- nia by the Saracens — Expulsion of the Aglabites — Moorish Kingdom of Timbuctoo — Dynasty of the Fatimites in Egypt — Their Subversion by Saladm, Founder of the Ayubites — Dynasty of the Ommiades in Spain founded by Abdalrahman — Their Power and Magnificence — Extinction of the Caliph 4 CONTENTS. ate — Conquest of Granada by Ferdinand — Wealth and Popu- lation of the Moorish Capitals — The Government, Arms, and Military Tactics of the Arabs — Revenue, Trade, and Marine of Spain under the Saracens — Reduction of Sicily by the Normans, and final Overthrow of the Mohammedan Power in Europe 39 CHAPTER III. LITERATURE OP THE ARABS. The Arabs turn their Attention to Learning — Their rapid Pro- gress — Literary Ardour and Patronage of the CaHphs — Haroun al Raschid — Almamoun — Vathek — College of Mostanser at Bagdad — Academies and Libraries founded in Persia, Syria, Egypt, Africa, and Spain — Course of Study in the Saracen Schools — Grammar — Rhetoric — Poetry — Tales — Arabian Nights' Entertainments— Story-tellers— History— Biography- Numismatics — Geography — Statistics — Metaphysics — Medi- cine and Medical Authors — Rhazes — Avicenna — Pharmacy — Anatomy and Surgery — Botany — Chymistry — Astrology — As- tronomy — Optics — Mathematics — Trigonometry — Algebra — Arithmetic — Architecture — The Fine Arts — Painting — Cal- ligraphy — Music — Agriculture — Manufactures in Steel, Por- celain, and Leather — Claims of the Arabs as the Restorers of Letters and the Importers of useful Arts and Inventions into Europe 60 CHAPTER IV. CIVIL HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. Extinction of the SaracenPower— Formation of new Kingdoms in the East — Victories and Dominions of Timur — Conquests of the Turks and Portuguese in Arabia— Selim I. obtains the Investiture of the Caliphate — Expulsion of the Turks by the Independent Arab Chiefs — Dominions of the Imam of Sanaa — His Government, Revenues, and Military Force — Descrip- tion of Sanaa — Visits of European Travellers to that Capital — Principal Towns in Yemen— Beit el Fakih— Taas — Mocha — Aden— Government of Hadramaut — Of Oman — Description of Muscat — Court, Revenues, and Commercial Enterprise of the Imam — Islands of Bahrein — Pearl Fisheries — Depreda tions of the Joassamee Pirates in the Persian Gulf— Various Expeditions from India to suppress them — Reduction of Ras el Khyma and their principal Fortresses — Arab Settlers on the Persian Frontier — Classification of the wandering Be- douin Tribes— Their migratory Habits and Military Strength — Government of their Sheiks— Their Laws and Judicial Trials— Reflections on their Political Institutions . . .108 CONTENTS. 5 CHAPTER V. HEJAZ, OR HOLY LAND OF THE MOSLEM. Government of Hejaz— Succession and Power of the Sheriffs — Reign of Ghaleb — Sheriff FamiHes at Mecca— Cities and Towns in Hejaz— Jidda— Yembo — Ta'if— Mecca— Description of the Beituilah or Grand Temple— The Court and Colon- nades—The Kaaba— The Black Stone— The Tob or Cover- ing of the Kaaba — The Zemzem Well — Servants and Reve- nues of the Mosque — Inhabitants of IMecca — Their Character, Domestic Manners and Employments — Low State of Arts and Learning in Hejaz 168 CHAPTER VL THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. The Pilgrim-caravans — Their different Routes — Description and Number of Pilgrims — The Mahmal — The Ihram — Duties of the Pilgrims on arriving at Mecca — Walk to Safra and Omra — Journey to Arafat — Sermon of the Cadi — Curious Appear- ance of the Scene — Stoning of the Devil — The Feast of Sa- crifice — Return of the Procession to Mecca — Visit to the Inte- rior of the Kaaba — Departure of the Caravans — Altered Appearance of the City — Holy Places round Mecca — Pil- grimage to Medina — Description of the City — Its Inhabitants — Their Character and Occupation — The Mosque of the Prophet — The famous Tomb of Mohammed — Ceremonies required of the Hajjis — Servants and Revenues of the Mosque — Sacred Places near Medina — Return of the Pilgrims— Bedr — Suez — Convent of St. Catherine — Regulations and Hospi- tality of the Monks — Places of Superstitious Resort about Mount Sinai— The Cave of Elijah— The Rock of iMeribah— Gebel Mokkateb or the Written Mountain — The Convent near Tor — Gebel Narkous or Mountain of the Bell . . . 205 CHAPTER VII. HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES. Origin of the Wahabees — Their Founder, Abdel Wahab— Ac count of their Doctrines — Success of Ibn Saoud and Abdela zeez in Nejed — Siege and Plunder of Kerbela — Submission of Mecca and IMedina — Destruction of religious Monuments — Murder of Abdelazeez — Accession of Saoud — His Charac- ter — Govemnnent — Revenues — Military Tactics — Re'vival of the pilgrimage — Predatory Incursions of the Wahabees — At- tempts of the Turkish Government to suppress them — Expe- b CONTENTS, ditionfrom Egypt lands at Yembo— Defeat of Toussoun Bey at Jedeida— Recapture of Medina by the Turks— Thomas Keith, a Native of Edinburgh, made Governor of the City- Recovery of Mecca and Hejaz— Moharhmed Ali takes the Command in Person— Arrest and Death of Ghaleb— Repulse of the Turks at Taraba— Capture of Gonfode— Death of Saoud— Accession of Abdallah— Strength of the Turkish Army— Defeat of the Wahabees at Bissel— Surrender of Ta- raba and Beishe— Cruelties of Ali— His Return to Egypt- Campaign of Toussoun in Nejed — Treaty of Peace with Ab- dallah— Treachery of Ali and Renewal of Hostilities— Expe- dition under Ibrahim Pasha — His success in Nejed^Siege and Surrender of Deraiah— Death of Abdallah— Suppression of the Wahabees and Destruction of their Capital— Reflec tions on the Character of their Government and Religion 254 CHAPTER VIII. SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS. National Character ot the Arabs — Their Family Pride — Orders of Nobility— Their Domestic Life— Their Tents— Furniture- Mode of Encamping — Dress — Personal Appearance — Acute- ness of their Senses — Sagacity in tracing Footsteps — Their Arms— Food and Cookery — Manner of Eating — Diseases — Wealth and Industry — Marriage — Divorce — Education of their Children — Funerals — Modes of Salutation — Hospitality Warfare — Robbery and Theft — The Blood-revenge — Amuse- ments — Poetry and Music — Learning — Medicine — Supersti tions — Language — Arts — Commerce — Proposed SteamRoutes by the Euphrates and the Red Sea — Population — Concluding Reflections 306 CHAPTER IX. NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA Want of Information on the Natural History of Arabia— Scien- tific Discoveries of the Danish Travellers— Geologv — Mount Sinai— Hills of Hejaz and Yemen— Volcanic Rocks— Hot Spring's — Soil— Agriculture — Crops — Harvest— Comparative Fertility of different Districts— Mineralogy— No Gold or Silver Mines in Arabia— Precious Stones— Botany— Vegeta- bles— Plants— Coloquintida— Tobacco — Hemp— Trees and Shrubs— Fruit-trees — The Palm — Date-groves— Manna— Gum-arabic— Honey— Shrubs— The Nebek— Tamarisk — Balsam of Mecca— The Gharkad— Henna— Acacia— Incense Tree— Coffee— Zoology— Wild Animals — Hyenas — Mon- keys — Rock-goats— Hares — Jerboas, &c 349 ARABIA; ANCIENT AND MODERN. CHAPTER I. THE ABBASSIDES, OR CALIPHS OF BAGDAD. Accession of the Abbassides— Caliphs of that DjTiasty— Alman- sor — Haroun al Raschid — Almamoun — Motassem — Capri- cious Cruelty of Motawakkel — Magnificence of the CaUphs — Weakness and Corruption of their Government — Their Mili- tary Operations — Wars of Haroun al Raschid and his Suc- cessors with the Romans— Victories of Nicephorus Phocas and John Zimisces over the Moslems — Causes of the Down- fall of the Abbassides— Despotic Power of the Turkish Guards — Ravages and Cruelties of the Karmathians — Dismember- ment of the Empire into independent PrincipaUties — Persia usurped by petty Dynasties — Conquests of Mahmoud of Ghizni in India— Irruptions of the Tartars— Togrul Beg ap- pointed Viceroy of the Mohammedan Dominions— Hoolaku lays Siege to Bagdad— Surrender and Pillage of that Capital —Death of Mostasem and Extinction of the Caliphate. With the elevation of the house of Abbas the family of Mohammed ascended once more the pulpit and the throne of their ancestor ; and so long- as the Saracen power continued to exist, they ruled the greater part of the Moslem world. The Arabs have marked the several dynasties with different degrees of reverence and respect. The reigns of Abu Beker, Omar, Othman, and Ali are distinguished by the title of the Perfect Caliphate, as that of then- successors 10 CALIPHS OF BAGDAD. is called the Imperfect. The Ommiades are gene- rally styled Caliphs of Syria, their capital being Da- mascus ; while the Abbassides are known in history as the Caliphs of Bagdad, the city to which they transferred their court. In the rise of the Moham- medan monarchy, the empire, however menaced by revolt, was still one and undivided ; but in its de- cline and fall this indivisibility ceased, and the Mos- lems beheld three independent sovereignties erected, towards the close of the eighth century, within dif- ferent parts of their dominions — one seated at Bag- dad, another in Egypt and Africa, and a third in Spain. The house of Abbas, whose accession to the throne was attended with circumstances of such unparalleled cruelty as to procure for its first caliph the epithet of Al Saffah, or the Sanguinary, ruled over the Eastern World with various degrees of authority for a period of five hundred years. The first century beheld their power undiminished ; though the dismemberment of several provinces showed that their government w^as inherently w^eak, and that the unwieldly fabric could not long main- tain its stability. Like other great nations of an- tiquity, the policy of the Saracens seemed better adapted for the acquisition of empire than for its preservation ; and though, by a surprising efibrt of arms, they had compelled the world to acknowledge the might of the Commander of the Faithful, they could not infuse into their system those principles of wholesome and vigorous administration essential to its perpetuity. The incessant workings of fac- tion made it necessary to invest the lieutenants of provinces with absolute command ; and these, as the monarchy grew feeble and degenerate, were enabled to make their governments hereditary, and to assume every thing except tlie name of kings. The seeds of dissolution were slowly matured by foreign wars and domestic revolts ; and the first CALIPHS OF BAGDAD. 11 twenty reigns are all that can be assigned as the prosperous era of the Abbassides. In Arabia their authority was nominally maintained by their vice-- roys ; though the sheiks of the desert gradually re- sumed their ancient independence, and regarded the successors of Mohammed merely as the chiefs of their religion. As their power commenced in blood, so it will be found in the sequel to have terminated its career in the most dreadful scenes of cruelty and carnage. The middle of the thirteenth century brought the tragic history of their fallen race to a close, when the proud capital of Islam fell into the hands of the Tartars. DYNASTY OF THE ABBASSIDES, OR CALIPHS OF BAGDAD. A. D. A. H. A. D. A. H. 949 132 Saflfah 934 322 Rhadi 754 136 Almansor 941 329 Mottaki 775 158 Mahadi 944 333 Mostakfi 785 169 Alhadi 946 334 Almoti 786 170 Haroun al Raschid 974 363 Altai 809 193 Alamin 991 381 Alkadir 813 198 Almamoun 1031 422 Alkayem 833 218 Motassem 1075 467 Moktadi 842 227 Vathek 1094 487 Mostader 847 232 Motawakkel 1118 512 Mostarshed 861 247 Montaser 1135 529 Alrashed 862 248 Mostain 1136 530 Moktafi II. 866 252 Motazz 1160 555 Mostanjed 867 255 Mohtadi 1170 566 Mostadi 870 256 Motamed 1180 575 Almaser 892 279 Motaded 1225 622 Daher 902 289. Moktafi I. 1226 623 Mostanser 90S 295 Moktader 1242 640 Mostasem 932 320 Kaher Of the earlier princes of this dynasty, several were not more distinguished for their warlike prow- ess than for their love and encouragement of science. The reigns of Saffah and his successor were chiefly occupied in extirpating the race of Ommiah, whose hapless adherents were persecuted with unsparing vengeance. Almansor had established his court at 12 CALIPHS OF BAGDAD. Hashemiah, a city founded by his brother on the Bite or in the vicinity of Anbar ; but an insurrection compelled him to resort to the erection of a new- capital — and in the 145th year of the Hejira the foundation of Bagdad was laid. The aid of astrol- ogy was called in to ascertain a propitious season for commencement ; and in a short time rose the City of Peace, a splendid metropolis, on the banks of the Tigris, which continued the seat of imperial luxury for nearly five centuries. The rural scenery was beautiful ; the spacious river had a width of 250 yards, and a depth, when the waters were at the highest, of forty-six feet. The neighbourhood was rich in gardens and villages ; and some idea of its ancient population may be formed, when we learn that 800,000 men and 60,000 women could attend the funeral of Hanbal, their popular saint. Yet all this magnificence seemed but ill adapted to the temper of Almansor, whose extraordinary penury obtained for him the nickname of Abu Dawanek, or Father Halfpenny. After his wars and buildings, he left behind him 600,000,000 drachms and 24,000,000 dinars of gold (about 24,850,000/. sterling) — a trea- sure which the vices or the munificence of his chil- dren scattered in a few years. In a single pilgrim- age to Mecca, Mahadi expended 6,000,000 dinars (2,775,000Z.), and distributed 150,000 dresses to the poor. Haroun al Raschid (Aaron the Just), whose name Eastern romance has made so familiar to European ears, yielded to none of his predecessors in the fame and splendour of his reign. He was eminently libe- ral and humane ; and excelled as a warrior, a states- man, and a scholar. He conversed familiarly with all classes of his subjects ; and from these adven- tures sprang numerous anecdotes, which historians aave been careful to preserve. To obviate the jeal- 'jusies and collisions likely to arise from the nomina- tion of a successor, he had proposed an equal division CALIPHS OF BAGDAD. 13 of the empire among his sons — a scheme which created the very evils it was intended to avert. One trait contrary to the general complexion of his character was his unrelenting cruelty to the Barme- cides, especially Yahia and his son Jaafar, who had served him long, and given the most distinguished proofs of zeal and fidelity. To this illustrious fam- ily, well known to the Western World through the same enchanting tales that have celebrated their royal master, Haroun had entrusted the entire ad- ministration of his extensive dominions. But court favour is precarious : circumstances confirmed and exasperated the caliph's aversion, and death or im- prisonment extirpated the unhappy race of Barmec. The ingratitude of Haroun in this instance inflicted its own punishment ; for with their destruction his affairs fell into immediate and irretrievable con- fusion. The reign of Alamin was one continued scene of insurrection, revolt, and fraternal discord. His treasures were exhausted ; and to supply the de- ficiency he was obliged to commit to the crucible his gold and silver plate. The precious contents of his warehouses were openly exposed to sale, that he might have wherewithal to stimulate his soldiers to exert themselves in defence of the capital, then besieged by his brother Almamoun, who was pro- claimed caliph in Khorasan. A body of 5000 mer- cenary troops had joined his standard; but, as he had neither rich dresses nor pecuniary rewards to bestow, they were compelled to rest satisfied with a fumigation of their beards over pans of civet, which were supplied in great profusion by the ca- liph's orders ; and from this species of luxury the inhabitants of Bagdad gave them in ridicule the ap- pellation of the Civet corps. The head of this unfor- tunate monarch, who was assassinated by a slave, exhibited on the walls of Bagdad, announced to his brother that he enjoyed an undivided throne. Vol. II.— B 14 CALIPUS OF BAGDAD. Almamoun, who, but for his own imprudence, might have rendered his government as peaceful as it was splendid, is generally regarded as the most magnificent of the Abbassidan caliphs. At his nup- tials a thousand pearls of the largest size were showered on the head of the bride ; while gifts of lands and houses, scattered in lottery-tickets among the populace, announced to the astonished holders the capricious profusion of the royal bounty. Be- fore drawing his foot from th€ stirrup, he gave away 2,400,000 gold dinars (1,110,000/.), being four-fifths of the income of a province. In the encouragement of literature he was the Maecenas of the East. Learned men from all parts of the world were in- vited to resort to the court of Bagdad, where their talents and their works received the most distin- guished tokens of imperial favour ; and in return, these happy scholars laboured to the utmost of their power in extolling the glory of their generous patron, and gratifying his taste by collecting and presenting to him the most rare and curious productions of ori- ental genins. Notwithstanding his many eminent virtues and endowments, his panegyrists complain that he evinced a favourable disposition to that heretical doctrine of the Motazalites which denies to the Koran the authority of a divine revelation ; and the last years of his life were spent in enforcing on his subjects, by severe persecution, the acknow- ledgment that it was of human origin. His capital and his army he threw into commotion, by com- manding them to assume the green uniform instead of the black, the symbol of his family. His military talents, which were great, found exercise in making incursions against the Greeks, or in quelling insur- rections in Persia, Arabia, and various parts of his dominions ; for in one year not fewer than four usurpers made their appearance in Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and Western Africa. The errors of Almamoun, both political and CALIPHS OF BAGDAD. 15 spiritual, devolved on his brother and successor, Mo- tassem. The name of the Ocionary, by which he is designated in history, originated from the remark- able coincidences, that he was the eighth caliph of his family — the eighth in descent from Abbas — he gained eight distinguislied victories — eight sons of princes were enrolled in his service — he possessed eight thousand male, and as many female, slaves — he had eight sons and eight daughters — he was master of eighty thousand horses — and left in his coffers eight minions of gold dinars, with eighteen millions of drachms of silver. His strength was so prodigious that he is said to have carried a burden of 1000 pounds' weight ; and such was the muscular power of his arm, that he could hold a sheep in each hand until his attendants flayed them alive. Among other luxuries he kept 130,000 piebald horses in his stables at Samarra, and maintained 50,000 boys at court, to each of whom he furnished a satchel or little bag for provisions. He was the first caliph that added to his name the title of Billah, or B^AUahy equivalent to the Dei Gratia of Christian sove- reigns. Vathek was a liberal patron of learned men, and so charitable to the poor, that not a single beggar, through the whole course of his reign, was to be met with in his dominions. His brother Motawak- kel displayed all the caprice and cruelty of a tyrant. He evinced his displeasure against the Jews and Christians by compelling them to use wooden in- stead of iron stirrups — to wear leathern girdles, to have badges on their clothes, and to paint the figures of devils or hogs and apes on their door, to distin- guish them from the IMussulmans. Among other instances of his folly and depravity, it is recorded that one of the amusements in which he chose to indulge himself was to give a magnificent entertain^ ment, and in the moment of convivial gayety to turn a lion loose among the terrified guests. Sometimes 16 CALIPHS OF BAGDAD. he would introduce a snake into the sleeve of an un- fortunate courtier, or cast leathern jars full of scor- pions into a crowded assembly, or in the middle of the hall where he had prepared a banquet for his favourites, without suffering any one to rise from the table or change his place. Besides these mis- chievous diversions, he exercised great severity on his subjects, of whom not less than 80,000 perished in the Armenian rebellion. Persons of distinction, who had the misfortune to incur his displeasure, he enclosed in an iron stove lined with pointed nails, which he caused to be heated in proportion to the enormity of the crime he intended to punish. But the tyrant met with his deserts, having fallen by the hands of his own slaves, who employed against his life those scimitars which he had recently distrib- uted among them for the defence of his person and throne. From the death of this prince the destina- tion of the crown was usually fixed by the fierce and mercenary chiefs of the Tartar slaves or guards, and in their power it continued for twelve succes- sions, including a period of about eighty-four years. Yet with all this weakness a show of external strength and magnificence was maintained. Of Moktader's court and camp at Bagdad (A. D. 917) we find a curious picture in Abulfeda, little accord- ant with the declining state of his authority. " The caliph's whole army," says he, " both horse and foot, was under arms, which together made a body of 160,000 men. His state-officers, the favourite slaves, stood near him in splendid apparel, their belts glittering with gold and gems. Near them were 7000 eunuchs ; 4000 of them white, the re- mainder black. The porters or doorkeepers were in number 700. Barges and boats with the most superb decorations were seen floating upon the Ti- gris. Nor was the palace itself less splendid, in which were hung up 38,000 pieces of tapestry; 12,500 of which were of silk, embroidered with gold. CALIPHS OF BAGDAD. 17 The carpets on the floor were 22,000. A hundred lions were brought out with a keeper to each. Among the other spectacles of rare and stupendous luxury, was a tree of gold and silver, spreading into eighteen larger branches, on which, and on the lesser boughs, sat a variety of birds, made of the same precious metals, as well as the leaves of the tree. The birds warbled their natural harmony, each in its own strains ; the whole being effected by the spontaneous motions of machinery." Such was the marvellous luxury of the Abbassides, seated amid the riches of the East. The ambassadors of the Greek Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus, on whose account such courtly grandeur was dis- played, were led by the vizier, himself splendidly dressed, through all this magnificence, to the foot of the caliph's throne. The arts by which this ingenious splendour was supported seem then to have flourished in great per- fection; and we are told that Hallaj, a famous jug- gler and fanatic, who was executed at Bagdad (A . D. 922), could astonish his numerous spectators by making winter fruits appear in summer, and summer fruits in winter ; and even bring showers of drachms from the clouds, by merely stretching out his hands in the air. The viziers and other officers of state imitated the extravagance of their master. Kimar, the emir of Mostadi, carried his ideas of magnifi- cence so far, that in his chamber of retirement, a chain of gold was suspended from the roof to rest his hands on ; and in the same apartment stood a golden vase, charged with musk, amber, and the most expensive aromatics. But the nations of the East had learned to despise these idle pageantries, and trample on the degraded successors of the prophet. Of the first twenty caliphs of the house of Abbas, nine had been cut off by poison, hunger, or assassination. Kaher was dethroned by the Tartar guards ; the searing instni- B2 18 CALIPHS OF BAGDAD.. merit was passed across his eyes, and in this wretched state he is said to have prolonged an existence of sixteen years, during which he was regularly seen every Friday, with other blind men- dicants, at the gates of the principal mosque of his own capital, soliciting the alms of the charitable. Of the succeeding monarchs, five, Mottaki, Mostakfi, Mostarched, Alrashed, and Mostasem, met the same fate. With a few exceptions, the power of the Abbassides, after Rhadi, was reduced to an empty pageant, — a mere gilded phantom. Sometimes their condition was so degraded, that they were confined like prisoners in their palace, exposed to blows and insults, and scarcely allowed the ordinary means of subsistence. So entirely was Rhadi the creature of Ibn Rayek, his Emir al Omra (commander of com- manders), an officer first instituted by him, and supe- rior to the vizier, that he could not draw a single dinar from the treasury for his own use without the permission of this absolute minister, who even officiated in the great mosque, and had his name inserted in the public prayers. Usurpers had risen up in almost every province, and erected themselves into independent sovereigns. The dominions of the once mighty Emperors of the Faithful were nearly circumscribed within the walls of Bagdad, which still contained an innumerable multitude of inhabitants, vain of their past fortune, discontented with their present state, and oppressed by the demands of a needy government, whose exchequer had heretofore been replenished by the spoil and the tribute of nations. Irak, the greater part of Persia, the provinces round the Cas- pian and beyond the Oxus, had recognised other masters. Syria and Arabia no longer obeyed the caliph ; while the rulers of Egypt and the West had withdrawn their allegiance from the humbled pon- tiff on the banks of the Tigris. Corruption and venality pervaded every department of the state ; CALIPHS OF BAGDAD. 19 the office of cadi of Bagdad, first exposed to sale in the reign of Almoti, was purchased for 200,000 drachms (4583/. 6s. Sd.) ; and we learn from Abulfeda, that all the chief offices of government were dis- posed of in a similar manner. The administration was sometimes put into the hands of women belong- ing to the court ; and among the secretaries and counsellors of Moktader was a damsel named Ya- mek, who was so thoroughly versed in the weightier points of legislation, that the judges in the determi- nation of criminal causes, as well as the doctors of the law in their most important decisions, were fre- quently obliged to have recourse to her for assist- ance. Religious differences gave rise to bitter and incessant animosities. In every profession which allowed room for two persons, the one was gene- rally a votary, and the other a persecutor, of the sect of Ali. The rigid disciples of the famous Han- bal carried their phrensy so far as to invade the pri- vileges and the pleasures of domestic life. Enter- ing the houses of the citizens, they spilled the wine wherever they found it, beat the musicians, and broke their instruments to pieces ; nor could they be reduced to submission except by the publication of a severe edict. This state of corruption and licentiousness was occasionally checked by a firm and determined hand ; and some of the last of the Abbassidan princes acted with an energy that would have done credit to the brightest days of the caliphate. The policy of Alkayem and Moctadi led them to strengthen their interests by powerful matrimonial alliances. The latter espoused the daughter of Malek Shah, who was received at Bagdad amid an illumination of waxen torches, " which echpsed the stars, and set the firmament in a blaze." Of the luxury or expenditure of their nuptial banquet, some estimate may be formed from the assertion, that in the arti- cle of sugar alone, 500 tons weight was consumed. so CALIPHS OF BAGDAD. Such was the vigilant prudence of Mostader, that during the whole of his reign not a single insurrec- tion occurred to disturb the tranquillity of his gov- ernment. His son Mostarched has obtained a dis- tinguished name among the few latter sovereigns of the house of Abbas, who, in the decline of its power, displayed some portion of zeal to revive the expiring lustre of the caliphate. Mostanjed was a prince of considerable energy, and scrupled not to throw some unfortunate ladies of the harem into the Tigris, for intriguing against his successor. tinder Mostanser and Mostasem the taste for ex- pensive magnificence revived. Previous to one of the religious festivals, the former ordered his jew- eller to prepare avast quantity of small golden balls, which he caused to be distributed among his domes- tics, and shot from pellet-bows over all parts of the city. Mostasem, the last of his line, whose power had dwindled to a mere pre-eminence in dignity, affected a higher degree of pomp and ceremony than the most splendid of his predecessors. The greatest princes were with difficulty allowed access to his presence. In imitation of the Kaaba, the gate of his palace was furnished with a stone and apiece of black velvet, to which his subjects paid almost divine honours ; and when the principal officers of state made their court, they did homage to the proud pon- tiff, by rubbing their eyes and forehead on these vene- rable emblems, and kissing them with profound humility. When he went abroad he generally wore a mask or a veil, to inspire his people with the greater respect ; as he passed, the crowded streets were too narrow to contain the multitudes that flocked to behold him ; and the windows or balco- nies were let at an extravagant price. The few conquests achieved by the Abbassides were chiefly due to the talents of their earlier princes ; and of these it will be necessary to give a cursory sketch before recording the entire downfall CALIPHS OF BAGDAD. 21 of their house. During the sanguinary feuds that followed, and confirmed their elevation to the throne, the Greeks had stolen the opportunity of avenging their wrongs and enlarging their limits. With an army of 100,000 men they had invaded Syria, and defeated a body of Arabs, of whom they killed 2000, with five emirs or principal officers. But a severe retribution was exacted by Mahadi, who despatched a force of 95,000 Persians and Arabs to the shores of the Bosphorus, under his second son the renowned Haroun al Raschid. A body of the imperial troops was defeated, and seve- ral of the provinces laid waste with fire and sword. A woman then occupied the Byzantine throne ; and the encampment of the Saracens on the opposite heights of Scutari informed Irene, in her palace at Constantinople, of the loss of her troops and the devastation of her territories. The helpless sove- reign, or her ministers, consented to sign an igno- minious peace ; nor could the exchange of some royal presents disguise the annual tribute of 70,000 pieces of gold, which was imposed on the Roman empire. Fifteen years afterward (A. D. 796), when Ha- roun had ascended the throne, he renewed his incur- sions into the imperial dominions, and ravaged Lydia and Lycaonia, whence he carried oflf an immense quantity of booty. Eight times were these preda- tory inroads repeated ; and as often as the Greeks declined the regular payment, they were taught to feel that a month of depredation was more costly than a year of tribute. On the deposition and ban- ishment of the empress, her successor Nicephorus resolved to obliterate this badge of servitude and disgrace, which, in his epistle to the caliph, he ascribed to the weakness of a female reign. " The queen," said he, borrowing his allusion from the game of chess, " considered you as a rook, and her- self a pawn. That pusillanimous woman submitted 22 CALIPHS OF BAGDAD. to pay a tribute, the double of which she ought to have exacted from the barbarians. Restore, there- fore, the fruits of j'-our injustice, or abide the deter- mination of the sword." At these words, by way of bravado, the ambassador made Haroun a present of several excellent sabres. The caliph smiled at the threat, and drawing his famous scimitar {Sam- samah), a weapon of historic or fabulous renown, he cut them asunder one by one, like so many radishes, before the eyes of the astonished Greeks, without seeming to exert the strength of his arm or turning the edge of his well-tempered blade. He then dic- tated an epistle of tremendous brevity : " In the name of the most merciful God ! Haroun al Raschid, Commander of the Faithful, to Nicephorus the Ro- man dog, I have read thy letter, thou son of an unbe- lieving mother. Thou shalt not hear, — thou shalt behold my reply." A war of desolation ensued. With a force of 100,000 men, Haroun invaded the imperial territories. Nicephorus was overthrown in Lycaonia, with the loss of 40,000 of his best troops, having received three wounds in the action. In this campaign the Saracens ravaged the adja- cent provinces, and took a considerable number of the principal towns ; after which they compelled the emperor to a treaty of peace, by which he engaged to pay annually 300,000 dinars (138,750/.), and ab- stain from hostile encroachments in future. On the faith of this stipulation the caliph withdrew into Western Irak ; but the distance of 500 miles, and the inclemency of the season, which set in with un- usual severity, encouraged Nicephorus to violate the truce by assailing the Moslem dominions. The Commander of the Faithful was not slow to punish the aggression. In a rapid march during the depth of winter, he passed the snows of Mount Taurus, and landed a regular army of 135,000 men in the plains of Phrygia. A large body of volunteers swelled this huge armament to 300,000 persons. ii CALIPHS OF BAGDAD* 23 Like a host of locusts they swept the surface of Asia Minor far beyond Tayana and Ancyra, and invested the Pontic Heraclea, now a paltry town, but then a flourishing- place, whose ships had conveyed home the intrepid Xenophon and his ten thousand ; and whose walls, 1200 years afterward, were capable of sustaining a month's siege agcfinst the combined forces of the Arabs. The ruin was complete ; the city was reduced to ashes ; and, besides immense spoil, 16,000 captives enhanced the triumph of the conqueror. Several other towns met a similar fate. Cyprus was attacked, and the inhabitants pillaged without mercy ; after which, the " Roman dog" was com- pelled to retract his haughty defiance, and submit to an annual assessment. As a further mark of hi& degradation, the coin of the tribute-money was stamped with the image and superscription of Ha- roun and his three sons. It v/as perhaps for- tunate for Nicephorus, as the terms might have been still more humiliating, that his adversary was hastily called away to check the progress of revolt at Samarcand, where the usurper, Ibn al Leith, had assumed the title of cahph. The insurrection spread over the Transoxian provinces, and extended also to Khorasan and Kerman. Haroun had left his favourite palace at Racca to march against the rebels, when death put an end to his triumphant career. His general Harethmah, laid siege to Sa- marcand, and conveyed the refractory chief in chains to the presence of Almamoun. The Emperor Theophilus, one of the most aetive and high-spirited princes that reigned at Constan- tinople during the middle ages, had led an army five times in person against the Saracens. In the last of these expeditions (A. D. 838) he invaded Syria at the head of a hundred thousand men, and besieged the obscure town of Sozometra, the birth-place of Motassem, which he took and levelled with JJje 24 CALIPHS OF BAGDAD. ground. The male inhabitants Avere all put to the sword, and the women and children carried into captivity. At Malatia, in Cappadocia, 1000 females were made prisoners ; these, and the natives of other towns which he reduced, were treated with exces- sive cruelty, their eyes put out, or their noses and ears cut off. The drms of Motassem were at that moment occupied with the revolt of the Persian im- postor Babec, who was taken in 837 and put to an ignominious death. This fanatic had for twenty years maintained his power against the caliphs ; during which time he had massacred above 250,000 individuals. Nud, one of his officers, employed in these executions, acknowledged that he had de- stroyed with his own hand more than twenty thou- sand Moslems. On the suppression of this rebellion, Motassem conducted a formidable army into Asia Minor. An- cyra was laid in ashes, and not a town or fortress belonging to the Christians could withstand him. Amorium was invested ; and after an obstinate siege of fifty-five days, and the loss of 30,000 Greeks, the place was betrayed by one of the inhabitants, wlio had abjured the Christian religion. The walls were levelled with the ground, and 30,000 wretched cap- tives gratified the vengeance of the conqueror. The- ophilus had marched to the relief of his native city ; but he was opposed by a body of ten thousand Sa- racens. The two armies came to a general action at Dazymenum. The Arabs at first were broken ; but the Greeks, in the pursuit, were so galled by the arrows of the Turks, that they were in their turn thrown into complete disorder; and had not the enemy's bowstrings been damped and relaxed by the evening rain, very few of the Christians would have escaped with their emperor from the field of battle. Tired of destruction, Motassem returned to his new palace of Samarra. The loss of 70,000 Moslems in the siege of Amo- CALIPHS OF BAGDAD. 25 riura entailed a severer fate on the imhappy captives, who were treated hke the most atrocious criminals. Mutual necessity sometimes extorted the exchange or ransom of prisoners ; but, in the religious conflict of these great empires, peace was without con- fidence, and war without mercy. Quarter was sel- dom given in the field ; those who escaped the edge of the sword were condemned to hopeless servi- tude, or cruel torture ; and a Catholic emperor relates, with visible satisfaction, the execution of the Saracens of Crete, who were flayed alive, or plunged into caldrons of boiling oil. Vathek nego- tiated with Michael III. for an exchange of captives. The Christians and the Moslems were drawn up on the banks of the Lamus, near Tarsus. Of the Arabs, 4460 men, 800 women and children, and 100 con- federates were exchanged for an equal number of Greeks ; and more might have been redeemed, had not the caliph excluded from the benefit of the car- tel all heretics who refused to assert the creation of the Koran. The two bands passed each other on the middle of the bridge, and the shouts of Allah akbar ! on the one side, and Kyrie eleison ! on the other, announced the grateful tidings that they had joined the respective camps of their countrymen. Under tho feeble successors of Moktader and Rhadi, irruptions were occasionally made into the Grecian territories, both by sea and land ; but, in proportion as the Eastern World v/as convulsed and broken, the Byzantine empire had recovered its prosperity, especially after the accession of the Basilian race, whose wisdom and talents infused a new strength into the government. The lofty titles of the Morning Star ard the Death of the Saracens were applied in the public acclamations to Nicepho- rus Phocas, a sovereign as renowned in the camp as he was unpopular in the city. The twelve years' reign (A. D. 963-975), or military command of this prince, and of his assassin and successor John Zi- VoL. IL— C 26 CALIPHS OF BAGDAD. misces, the two heroes of the age, form the most splendid period of the Byzantine annals. In a series of bloody combats, they extended their victories from the mountainous defiles of Cappadocia to the deserts of Bagdad. The conqest of Cilicia may be said to have been achieved by the surrender of Ma- sifia or Mopsuestia, and Tarsus. In the siege of the former city, which was taken by assault, 200,000 Moslems, including probably the inhabitants of the dependant districts, were predestined to death or slavery. Tarsus was reduced by the slow progress- of famine. The besieged held out in the hope of succour from Egypt ; and no sooner had the Sara^ cens yielded on honourable terms, than they were mortified by the distant view of their supplies, the arrival of which by sea was too late to avail them. The Mohammedan population were dismissed in safety to the confines of Syria, and their places replenished with a colony of Christians. Having forced and secured the narrow passes of Mount Amanus, the Greeks repeatedly carried their arms into the heart of Syria. Antioch and Aleppo were once more restored to the faith of Christ and the dominion of the Caesars. Nicephorus, with a strong army, invested the latter place, and having applied his military engines to the walls, he made his attack with great fury. After a fruitless assault of three days, a dissension of the inhabitants left the gates unguarded, and afforded the Greeks an oppor- tunity of entering the town. Vast multitudes of men and women were put to the sword. In the palace the victors seized a well-furnished magazine of arms, a stable of 1400 mules, and 300 bags of sil- ver and gold. Ten thousand youths of both sexes were led into captivity ; the weight of the precious spoil exceeded the strength and number of the beasts of burden ; the remainder was consumed with- fire, and after a licentious possession of ten days, the Romans abandoned the scene of desolation. In. CALIPHS OF BAGDAD. 27 their Syrian inroads, the Greeks reduced more than 100 cities ; eighteen pulpits of the principal mosques were committed to the ^imes, to expiate the sacri- lege of the disciples of Mohammed. On the shift- ing scene of conquest, the names of Hierapolis, Apamea, Emesa, Acre, and Baalbec, again appear. The Emperor Zimisces encamped in the Paradise of Damascus, where he accepted the ransom of a submissive people ; and the torrent was only stopped at the impregnable fortress of Tripoli, on the Phe- nician coast. From the passage of Mount Taurus to the Persian Gulf, the Euphrates had been impervious to the Greeks since the days of Heraclius. It was crossed by the victorious Zimisces: and the historian may imitate the speed with which he overran the once famous cities of Samos-ata, Edessa, Martyropolis, Amida, and Nisibis, the ancient limit of the Roman empire in the neighbourhood of the Tigris. His ardour was quickened by the desire of grasping the imaginary wealth of the Abbassides in their own capital. But Bagdad was relieved of its apprehen- sions by his sudden retreat. Satiated with glory and laden with plunder, Zimisces returned to Con- stantinople, where he displayed in his triumph the silks and aromatics of Asia, with 300 myriads of gold and silver. The Saracen states recovered from the effects of this transient hurricane. On the de- parture of the Greeks, the fugitive princes returned lo their capitals ; the Nestorian and Jacobite Chris- tians broke their involuntary oaths and exchanged the drops of rain," were never idle. The conquests of the father were extended by his immediate suc- cessors into Russia, Bulgaria, and Poland ; but it was to Hoolaku that fortune reserved the aehiev- ment of destroying the capital of Islam and the last of the Abbassidan caliphs. With 120,000 horse and 1000 families of Chinese artificers, skilled in the art of throwing naphtlia and other inflammable substances, he quitted the Mogul territory ; and, traversing the plains of Irak, he appeared (October 1757) at the head of this prodigious force before the walls of Bagdad. The caliph courted accommodation by sending him valuable presents : and it was not till all hopes of peace had departed, that he discovered the treachery of his prime minister, by whose advice he had dispersed his troops, and left the capital defenceless. Forgetting their own weakness, the citizens assumed a tone of defiance, and treated with scorn the proposal to surrender. "Who is Hoolaku, and what is his power, that he should pre-- sume to make war on the house of Abbas'? Their empire is derived from God alone ; and, therefore, no prince can meet with success that endeavours to overturn it. Let him return to Hamadan, and we will intercede with the Commander of the Faithful to forgive the enormous crime he has committed." The Tartar smiled at this affectation of imperturba- ble majesty, and being joined by all his detachments, immediately laid seige to the metropolis. On each side of the city mounds and trenches were drawn, with high towers, in which the assail- ants planted their stone-engines, fire-engines, and other warlike machines. For the space of nearly two months the inhabitants, though exposed to every species of violence and injury, defended themselves with considerable obstinacy. But the enemy having made themselves masters of the walls, and every thing being ready for storming the place, Mostasem resolved to commit his person to the hazard of an 36 CALIPHS OF BAGDAD. interview with the Tartar chief. Accompanied by his two sons, together with a numerous group of relatives and the most distinguished members of his court, he quitted Bagdad by the Gate of Peace, and approached the paviUon of Hoolaku. The cahph and a few of his attendants were admitted without difficulty, but the remainder were excluded ; and many of them were doomed, the very same day, to the fatal distinction of becoming the first victims of the conqueror's unsparing ferocity. In this melan- choly retmue were about 700 women belonging ta the caliph and his sons, with 300 eunuchs. The traitorous vizier was set at liberty ; but his master was detained in captivity. The two sons were con- denmed to death ; but the eldest had already found a more honourable grave in defending one of the gates of his father's capital. On Friday, the ninth of Saphar (Feb. 14, A. D. 1258), Hoolaku made his entry into Bagdad, where he treated his generals and principal officers to a sumptuous entertainment. To this display of bar- barous festivity and triumph the last of the Abbas- sides was now summoned, and required, as the host of his conqueror, to produce something that should be worthy the acceptance of such an exalted guest. Conceiving that nothing more was intended than expressed, the unhappy monarch gave direction that a present of 2000 costly and magnificent robes, 2000 dinars of gold (925/.), together with a variety of gold and silver plate, vases, and other articles, enriched with jewels of the greatest price and beauty, should be selected from his treasury and wardrobe, and laid in the usual style, in trays, before Hoolaku. Sur- veying them with an eye of contempt, the proud Mogul distributed every article among his attend- ants. " The whole of thy visible property, ' ad- dressing Mostasem, " as well as that of the inhabit- ants of Bagdad, is already at the disposal of my followers. Of that it was needless to make an CALIPHS OF BAGDAD. 37 offering. What we require of thee is to give us some indication with respect to thy hidden treasures." The object of the barbarian could no longer be mis- understood. The captive prince pointed in s-ilence to the area in the court of his palace ; and on open- ing the ground there was discovered what might have been amply sufficient to glut the utmost crav- ings of avarice; — a tank, or covered reservoir, loaded to the brim with ingots of solid gold, each weighing 100 meskals, or nearly a pound and a quarter avoirdupois. This immense wealth did not satiate the vengeance of the remorseless Hoolaku, who is said to have kept his illustrious but unfor- tunate prisoner several days without food or sus- tenance of any kind. When the pangs of hunger could no longer be endured, the wretched Mostasem sent to implore relief ; but the tyrant, in mockery of his distress, ordered his attendants to set before him a dish full of gold and jewels. The last act of the tragedy approached ; and it became a subject of deliberation how the sacred person of the caliph should be disposed of, as it was superstitiously be- lieved that the shedding of his blood would be fol- lowed by some awful and tremendous convulsion of nature. " To quiet these uneasy apprehensions, the ferocious Tartar resolved that he should be sewed up in a leathern bag ; others say wrapt tightly in felt, or coarse hair blankets, and in this manner dragged through the streets of the city until he ex- pired ; every joint and bone of his frame being pounded as in a mortar. The rest of his children, his brothers, his relations, his household officers, and every agent of his government, were cut off with the same unsparing cruelty. The devoted city was now surrendered to the license of the Mogul Hrmy, and, for the space of forty days, such a scene of pil- lage, massacre, and blood ensued, as outraged hu- manity, and almost surpassed the bounds of be- lief. The Persian authors assure us, that in the Vol. II.— D 38 CALIPHS OF BAGDAD city alone the number of the slain amounted to 800,000 persons, exclusive of the multitudes that were butchered in the adjoining villages. If this estimate be correct, we may believe that the waters of the Tigris were reddened, and its usual dimen- sions swelled, with the tributary streams of human gore. This memorable revolution terminated the dynasty of the Abbassides, after it had subsisted for a period of 523 lunar years. The regal authority of this celebrated race, and the greater part of their remaining dominions, now devolved on the Mogul princes of the blood of Zingis. Since that event Bagdad has witnessed various other sieges and revolutions. It was burnt and plundered by the ferocious Timur(A. D. 1401), who erected a pyramid of human heads on its ruins. In 1637, it incurred the vengeance of Amurath IV., the Turkish sultan : 300,000 troops encamped under its walls, and by the incessant play of 200 pieces of artillery, its towers and ramparts were levelled with tlie ground. The vaults and cellars were filled with the dead bodies of those who had fled to these recesses for security. The sobs and cries of 15,000 women and children were drowned by the shouts of the enemy exulting over the fallen Queen of the East ; and the trembling remnant is said to have owed their preservation to the music of Shah Kali, whose touching strains are alleged to have melted Amurath to tears of compas- sion. Since that period the once illustrious city of the Abbassides lias been degraded to the seat of a Turkish pashalic. In the present century it can number 200,000 inhabitants. The rich merchants and the beautiful princesses of the A rabian Tales have all disappeared ; but it retains the tomb of the charming Zobeide, and can b^ast of its numerous gardens and its well stocked bazars. The citizens live in greater security than is usually enjoyed in the East ; and a European might fancy that the shade of old Haroun al Raschid still preserves the CALIPHS OF AFRICA. 39 same admirable order which was formerly main- tained among- all classes by the terror of meeting that redoubted caliph as he wandered the streets of his capital in disguise. CHAPTER II. CALIPHS OF AFRICA, EGYPT, AND SPAIN. The Aglabites or Caliphs of Cairoan — Military Exploits of the Western Arabs— Reduction of Crete — Conquest of Sicily — Invasion of Italy — Pillage of Rome — Siege of Gaeta— Naval Victory of the Christians — Subjugation of Corsica and Sardi- nia by the Siracens — Expulsion of the Aglabites — Moorish Kingdom of Timbuctoo — Dynasty of the Fatimites in Egypt — Their Subversion by Saladin, Founder of the Ayubites — Dynasty of the Ommiades in Spain founded by Abdalrahman — Their Power and Magnificence — Extinction of the Caliph- ate — Conquest of Granada by Ferdinand — Wealth and Popu- lation of the Moorish capitals — The Government, Arms, and Military Tactics of the Arabs — Revenue, Trade, and Marine of Spain under the Saracens — Reduction of Sicily by the Normans, and final Overthrow of the Mohammedan power in Europe. Various dynasties of Arab princes rose and succes- sively ruled in Africa and Egypt. In the year of Christianity 797, Ibrahim ibn Aglab had been sent, by the Caliph Haroun al Raschid, governor into the western parts of Africa. Fifteen years after, en- couraged by the rebellious state of the Moslem em- pire at the accession of Almamoun, he assumed to himself an almost absolute power in that country, and conquered a large extent of territory, over which he and his descendants ruled as sovereign princes, under the name of the Aglabites, for more than a cen- tury. This new empire, whose capital was Cairoan, included the ancient kingdoms of Maurit ia and 40 CALIPHS OF AFRICA. Massylia, with the repubhc of Carthage. Several of these cahphs took the name of Mohammed, and signahzed their reigns by exploits, both naval and military, not unworthy the heroic age of the Moslem conquests. Numerous bodies of their troops occa- sionally served in the mercenary armies of Bagdad, and assisted the Abbassides in maintaining their au- thority over the insurrectionary provinces of the East. It was in the time of Almamoun that the islands of Crete and Sicily were subdued by the Western Arabs. The former of these conquests is passed m silence by their own writers, who were indiffer- ent to the fame of Jupiter and Minos. But we learn from the Byzantine historians, that a piratical band of Andalusian volunteers, discontented with the climate or the government of Spain, had set out with only a few galleys on an exploratory voyage, in quest of a more genial settlement. Landing at Alexan- dria, they were introduced into that city by a re- bellious faction, where they cut in pieces both friends and foes, pillaged the churches and mosques, sold above 6000 Christian captives, and maintained their station in the capital of Egypt, till they were repulsed by the forces of Almamoun, who had taken the command in person. In their excursions among the Mediterranean islands they had seen and tasted of the fertility of Crete ; and with forty galleys they soon returned to make a more serious attack. Loaded with spoil they prepared to retreat; but, on descending to the shore, they were dismayed to find their vessels in flames, and still more sur- prised when their chief Abu Caab confessed him- self the author of the disaster. In their indignation they suspected him of madness or treachery. " Of what do you complain V said the crafty leader in reply to their clamours. " I have lirought you to a land flowing with milk and honey. Here is your true country ; repose from your toils, and forget CALIPHS OF AFRICA, 41 the barren place of your nativity. As for your wives and children, your beautiful captives v^^ill supply the place of the one ; and in their embraces you will soon become the fathers of a new progeny." Their first habitation was their camp, surrounded with a ditch and a rampart, in the Bay of Suda. An apostate monk pointed out to them a more de- sirable residence ; and the modern appellation of Candia, from Candax, the fortress and colony of the Spanish Arabs, has superseded the ancient name, and been extended to the whole island. Of its thirty cities the inhabitants of Cydonia alone had courage to retain their freedom and their Christianity. The timbers of Mount Ida soon repaired the loss of the Saracen navy ; and during a period of 138 years, these licentious freebooters defied the curses and the arms of the Byzantine emperors, until they were extirpated by the valour of Nicephorus Phocas; '* when the natives," to use the words of a contem- porary writer, " exchanged the detested supersti- tion of the Hagarenes for the baptism and discipline of the Catholic church." In the reign of Motamed they captured the imperial fleet in the Mediterra- nean, and put 5000 Greeks to the sword at Melazzo in Sicily. A short time after, they reduced the island of Lemnos, ravaged without control the coasts of Asia, made themselves masters of Thessalonica, and threatened to invest Constantinople. Sicily had been repeatedly attacked by the West- ern Arabs ; but its loss was occasioned by an act of injudicious rigour. Euphemius, an amorous youth, who had stolen a nun from her cloister, was sen- tenced by the emperor to the amputation of his tongue. He appealed to the Saracens of Africa, who sent him back with a fleet of 100 ships, and an army of 700 horse and 10,000 foot. These troops landed at Mazara, near the ancient Silenus, and after some partial victories, in which they made themselves masters of Ragusa, Messina, Emia, and other places, D2 42 CALIPHS OF AFRICA. they invested Syracuse. This city was delivered by the Greeks ; the apostate youth was slain, and his African auxiliaries reduced to the necessity of feeding on the flesh of their own horses. In their turn they were assisted by a powerful rein- forcement from Andalusia; and by degrees the western and largest portion of the island was sub- dued. Palermo became the seat of the emir or governor (A. H. 228), and the navy of the Saracens rode with ease in its commodious harbour. Syra- cuse resisted the Moslem yoke for a period of fifty years ; and in the last fatal siege, her citizens dis- played some remnant of the valour which had for- merly baffled the power of Athens and Carthage. The cruelties and exactions of the Arabs were enor- mous. The silver plate of the cathedral weighed 5000 pounds, and the entire spoil was computed at 1,000,000 pieces of gold (about 462,500/.). For more than two centuries the emperors of Constantinople, the princes of Beneventum, and the Moslem armies, contended in all the horrors of war for the possession of Sicily. By degrees, the reli- gion and language of the Greeks were eradicated ; and such was the docility of the new proselytes, that 15,000 boys submitted to be circumcised and clothed on the same day with the son of the African caliph. In the year 953, Hassan, governor of Sicily, sent a powerful army to the coast of Italy. At Reggio the innabitants and the garrison had fled ; but the imperial forces were overthrown, and their com- mander, with several ofliicers of note, taken prison- ers in the action. Successive squadrons issued from the harbours of Palermo, Biserta, and Tunis. A hundred and fifty towns of Calabria and Campania were attacked and pillaged ; and had the Saracens been united, the land of Romulus, and the patrimony of St. Peter's successors, must have fallen an easy and glorious accession to the empire of Mohammed- No event in the military history of the Arabs CALIPHS OF AFRICA. 43 awakens our curiosity or surprise more than their invasion of the Roman territories. Who could have foretold that the roving Bedouins should have in- sulted the majesty of the Caesars in their own capi- tal, or raised their tecbar in the neighbourhood of the eternal city ] In full possession of Sicily, these " Sons of Satan," as the Librarian Anastasius with pious indignation calls them, entered with a fleet the mouth of the Tiber, and presumed to approach the venerated metropolis of the Christian world. The gates and ramparts were guarded by a trem- bhng people ; but the church and tombs of St. Peter and St. Paul, without the walls, whose sanctity had been respected by Goths, Vandals and Lombards, were pillaged by the rapacious disciples of the Ko- ran. The images, or Christian idols, were stripped of their costly offerings ; a silver altar was torn away from the shrine of St. Peter; and if any thing escaped their destructive hands, it must be imputed to the haste rather than the scruples of the spoilers. But their divisions saved the capital. Directing their course along the Appian Way, they pillaged Fundi, and laid siege to Gaeta. In the hour of dan- her the Romans implored the protection of the Latin sovereign Lothaire ; but the imperial army was overthrown by a detatchment of the Moslems- The church and the city owed their safety to the courage and energy of Pope Leo IV., who, fiom the pressing crisis of affairs, was unanimously caQed to the chair without the forms and intrigues of an election. The welcome news that the siege of Gaeta had been raised, and a part of the enemy with their sa- crilegious plunder immersed in the waves, gave the harassed Romans the assurance of a short respite. But the storm soon burst upon them with redoubled violence. A fleet of Arabs and Moors from Africa, after a short refreshment in the harbours of Sar- dinia, again cast anchor off the mouth of the Tiber, 44 CALIPHS OF AFRICA. sixteen miles from the city. The vigilance of the pontiff had provided for the emergency, by his alliance with the maritime states of Naples and Amalfi -, and in the hour of danger their galleys appeared in the port of Ostia, under the command of Caesarius, a noble and valiant youth, who had al- ready humbled the naval pride of the Saracens, Leo hastened to meet the descent of the enemy, not in the garb of a warrior, but with the solemnity of a Christian bishop. The allies and city bands in arms attended him to Ostia, where they were re- viewed, and animated by his paternal benediction. The pious soldiers kissed his feet, received the com- munion with martial devotion, and listened to the papal supplication, that the same God who had sup- ported St. Peter and St. Paul on the waters of the sea, \yould strengthen the hands of his champions against the adversaries of the Holy Faith. The Moslems preferred a similar prayer against the in- fidels, and with equal resolution advanced to the attack. The Christian galleys bravely maintained their advantageous position along the coast, and victory was inclined to their side, when it was less glorfously terminated in their favour by a sudden tempest, which confounded and appalled the stout- est mariners. While they enjoyed the shelter of a friendly harbour, the Saracens were scattered and dashed in pieces among the neighbouring rocks and islands. Those who escaped the disasters of ship- wreck and hunger neither found nor deserved mercy at the hands of their implacable pursuers. The sword and the gibbet reduced the dangerous multi- tude of captives ; and the remainder were usefully employed in restoring the fortifications and sacred edifices which they had attempted to destroy. Among the spoils of this naval victory, thirteen Arabian bows of pure and massy silver were sus- pended round the shrines of the apostles, where the pontiff, at the head of the wariiors and citizens, paid CALIPHS OF AFRICA. 45 their grateful devotions for so happy a dehverance. By the care of Leo, Rome was soon restored to its wonted splendour. The churches were renewed and embelhshed; nearly 4000 pounds of silver were consecrated to repair the losses of St. Peter ; and his sanctuary was decorated with a plate of gold, weighing 216 pounds, embossed with portraits of the pope and the emperor, and encircled with a etring of pearls. Had the Arabs been inspired with the impetuous energies of the first soldiers of the Koran, a different fate might have awaited the capi- tal of Christendom. In the year 810 Corsica submitted to the Moham- medan yoke. A powerful Saracen, named Lanza Ancisa, introduced some troops into the island; and, by the united influence of arms and eloquence, the inhabitants were induced to expel the Greeks and embrace the Moslem faith. For 166 years Lanza and his successors were sovereigns of the island. At the close of that period, the zeal of the Christians in Italy burst into a flame of war ; the last king was driven away, and Corsica again ac- knowledged the pope for her supreme lord. Sar- dinia was invaded and subdued about the same time. The natives did not long submit to the yoke ; they expelled their assailants ; and, for a safeguard against future aggressions, placed themselves under the protection of Louis le Debonnaire, at that period King of France and Emperor of the West. The successors of Charlemagne were as feeble as the representatives of the Prophet in the F]ast ; and the Sardinians, driven to their own resources, invested their leaders, under the title of judges, with full military power ; and,' for a while, the island was re- lieved from the inroads of the Africans and Spanish Moors. At the end of the ninth or beginning of the tenth century, it seems to have again become a Moslem province, and 100 years elapsed before its state was changed. Pope John XVIII. , touched 46 CALIPHS OF AFRICA. with its unhappy condition, invited the Cathohc princes to relieve it from the cruel devastations of the Arabs. The piety and cupidity of the republics of Genoa and Pisa were awakened at the call ; and, notwithstanding the dreadful annoyance of the Greek fire, they succeeded in annihilating the po\ver of the Saracens. The liberators contended long and ve- hemently for the possession of the island, and the skill of Italian diplomacy was exhausted in settling the rival claims. The Emperor Frederic Barba- rossa, in the year 1165, bestowed the investiture of the whole island on the Pisans. These measures, however, were ill calculated to procure repose ; an equal partition was soon after made between the contending states, which induced those jealous re- publics to lay aside their animosities, and enjoy their booty in peace.* In the year of Christianity 909, Abu Abdallah, emir or governor of Sicily, defeated the caliph of Cairoan, and drove the family of the Aglabites from the throne, which they had occupied more than a century. The conqueror, having seized the western capital, bestowed the vacant caliphate on Obeidallah, one of the posterity of Ali, who assumed the title of Mahadi, or Director of the Faithful, built a new city which he called Mahadia, and claimed the distinction of being the founder of the Fa//mi7e dynasty in Africa, where he soon put an end to the power of the Edris- ties, so called from their founder Edris, a descendant of Ali, who fled from Mecca (A. D. 784), and had wrested the countries of Fez and Tangier from the caliphs of Bagdad. For five centuries a succession * For the conquests of the Saracens in Italy and the Mediter- ranean, in addition to the authorities already cited, the reader may consult the annalists Baronius and Pagi ; De Guignes (Hist, des H>ins, tome i.) ; Muratori (Script, rer. Ital.) ; Carusii (Bibl. Hist. Sicil); Cod. Diplom. Arabo-Sicil., Malaterva, and GJannone (Istoria Civil di Nap.); Anuzi (Hist, de Sardaigne) ; Meursins (lib. ii. cap. 7, 15, 21); Belon. (Observations, &c. chap. 3-20); and Tournefort (Voyage du Levant, tome i.), CALIPHS OF EGYPT. 47 of fleeting dynasties ravaged and distracted these western provinces. Various kingdoms Avere formed, the most considerable of which were those of Mo- rocco, Algiers, and Tunis. From Leo Africanus, it appears that in the year 1215 a flourishing kingdom was founded at Timbuctoo by a Moorish chief. Some of its rulers had the reputation of warlike princes, who maintained a splendid court, encouraged com- merce, and extended their frontiers in all directions. Of their prosperity the Portuguese voyagers received the most flattering accounts, but were never tempted to ascertain their authenticity by ocular evidence. Other adventurers were equally negligent ; and it is only at the present day that the successful career of African discovery has made this mysterious capital known to Europeans. It were out of our province to pursue further the history of Northern Africa. Scenes of horror and bloodshed fill its pages. The grand seignior, since tlie time when Solyman assisted the two Greek corsairs, Hayradin and Barbarossa, with his fleets in reducing Tunis and Algiers, has always claimed the Barbary States as fiefs of Con- stantinople ; and the proud list of his titles is still swelled by their names. Egypt was reduced by Moez, the last of the Afri- can caliphs, who built Grand Cairo (A. D. 972), and established there the dynasty of the Fatimites ; leaving his western dominions to be holden in fief by one of his generals. His g-enealogy was doubt- ful ; but he had now an argument to prove his legiti- macy, which it might have been dangerous to call in question, and which silenced the indiscreet demand of one of the Arabian princes of the sacred blood, who inquired from what branch of the family he drew his title. " This," exclaimed Moez, drawing his scimitar, " is my pedigree ; and these," throwing a handful of gold among his soldiers, " are my kindred and my children." His general Jauher had sent a detachment of troops towards Syria and Palestine ; 48 CALIPHS OF EGYPT. and with such gallantry were his orders executed, that Ramla, Tiberias, and Damascus were compelled to swear allegiance to the conqueror of Egypt. The name of Almoti was suppressed, and that of Moez substituted in the mosques, not only of Egypt, but in Syria and Arabia, as far as the city of Medina; Mecca being the only place of importance that per- sisted in recognising the house of Abbas. Saladin, whose name stands associated with the most bril- liant achievements of Mohammedan valour, was first elevated to the dignity of vizier; and by a series of artful and energetic measures, he soon became absolute ruler of the country, and the founder of a new dynasty (A. D. 1171). From the Indian Ocean to the Mountains of Armenia, from Tripoli to the Tigris, his power was felt and acknowledged. Even in Arabia, the greater part of which owned his authority, his name was inserted in the public prayers. The title of Ayubites, by which he and his successors are distinguished in history, was derived from the name of his father. Under his descendants Egypt was repeatedly assailed by the Crusaders, Too feeble to defend themselves, the Ayubite princes had recourse to the protection of foreigners. Twelve thousand Turks from the shores of the Cas- pian had been purchased, and trained to military service as attendants of the royal person. From being slaves, these Mamlouks soon became masters; and at the end of twenty years from their first intro duction into the country, they murdered the last suc- cessor of Saladin, and placed one of their own chiefs, Azzaddin, on the throne (A. D. 1250). The sway of the Mamlouks and Borghites, two branches of the same dynasty, endured for two centuries and a half; when the victorious arms of the Turks in 1517, re duced that kingdom to the condition of a province. Spain was one of the first of the Moslem conquests that detached itself from the parent stock. In the general proscription and massacre of the Ommiades CALIPKS OF SPAIN, 49 that ensued on the accession of the house of Abbas, a royal youth of the name of Abdab-ahman, a younger son of Merwan, escaped the fury of his enemies. With his brother and his child he fled, and concealed himself in the woods on the banks of the Euphrates. His persecutors discovered his retreat ; the child was slain, and the two brothers plunged into the river. Fainting with fatigue, Soly- man accepted the proffered mercy of the pursuers, and returned to the shore, where he was basely put to death. The more robust Abdalrahman swam the dangerous passage, and was hunted by the ruthless foe from the deserts of Irak to the recesses of Mount Atlas in Africa. The Saracens of Spain retained their attachment to the family of Moawiyah ; their zeal was rekindled by the presence of a prince of that race in their neighbourhood, and they immediately invited the wandering exile to ascend the throne of his ances- tors. Dreading the implacable vengeance of his enemies, and dazzled by the splendours of a crown, Abdalrahman received the message with joy, and was saluted with acclamations on the shore of Granada. The cities of Malaga, Ronda, Xeres, and Seville, tendered him their allegiance ; and the descendants of Merwan saw restored in Spain (A. D. 755) the honours of the caliphate, which they had lost in the East, His elevation was not gained without opposition and bloodshed ; but all the efforts of the Abbassides were in vain. In a battle of several days near Seville, their lieutenant, Alala, fell with 7000 of his followers ; his head, in salt and camphor, was sent to Mecca, and suspended before the gate of the palace ; the streets of that city and of Cairoan were strown with similar trophies ; and the Caliph Almansor expressed his thankfulness that he was separated by seas and lands from an adver- sary who appeared to be not a man, but a demon. After a successful struggle he established himself Vol. II.— E 50 CALIPHS OF SPAIN. firmly on the throne of Cordova, where death put an end to his projects (A. D. 788) after a reign of thirty- three years. The renown of this prince acquired him the friendship and esteem of Charlemagne, who, after having tried his prowess in war, courted his alliance by offering him his daughter in marriage. His rival, the Caliph of Bagdad, spoke of him with admiration, calling him the Hawk of the Koreish, on account of the ability he displayed in surn»^unting difficulties in his flight from Asia to Europe, and of the celerity with which he made Ijimself master of a kingdom, without the assistance of friends or followers. The dynasty of the Spanish Ommiades existed for nearly three centuries. In wealth and grandeur some of their princes equalled, if not surpassed^ their gorgeous rivals in the East. Under Alnasar (A. D. 939), the annual revenue of Spain from the towns and villages is said to have amounted to 5,480,000 dinars (2,534,500/.) ; and from spoils taken in war, to 765,000 dinars (353,812/. lOs.), besides a fifth of the soldiers' plunder, not computed' in the register of the treasury. Of this vast income, one- third was appropriated to the army, one-third to building, and the remaining third to the royal ex- chequer. Our imagination is dazzled with this pic- ture of courtly splendour; yet, if we consult the experience of the possessor, it will perhaps excite our pity, rather than our envy or admiration. In a memorial, written Nvith his own hand, and found in his closet after his decease, he has left an authentic estimate of his felicity. Amid riches and honours, power and pleasure, Alnasar, " the heir of pros- perity," found, in a reign of fifty years and seven months, only fourteen days of undisturbed enjoy- ment. The glories of this period were even eclipsed by that of his son Hakem, who subdued the provinces of Barbary, and annexed to his other dominions the sovereignty of Western Africa. But the luxury, the CALIPHS OF SPAIN. ijl tyranny, and the negligence of the last princes of the house, lost them the conquests which had been won by the valour of their ancestors, and were the causes of this fine kingdom passing into other hands. Lieutenants and viziers rebelled, and aspired to inde- pendent rule. The Caliph Hesham was deposed by the army, and with him was finally extinguished the power of the Spanish Ommiades (A. D. 1036). Their downfall became the signal for feuds and contentions ; usurpers divided the sovereignty among themselves, and there arose as many dynasties as there were principal towns. Malaga, Algesiras, Cordova, Toledo, Seville, Jaen, Lisbon, Tortosa, Badajos, Saragossa, Valencia, Murcia, Almeria, Denia, and the Balearic Isles, had each its separate king and government. In consequence of their mutual jealousies, frequent wars, massacres, and intestine commotions, these petty monarchs either fell a prey to each other, or were gradually subdued by the ancient possessors of the country. The little province of Granada alone maintained its inde- pendence, reinforced by subsidies from Africa and the fugitive Moslems from the cities conquered by the Christians. For nearly three centuries it con- tinued to increase in population, wealth, and power ; and was governed by the laws and religion of Mo- hammed, until it was finally destroyed by the arms of Ferdinand and Isabella, whose fortunate marriage united the crowns of Castile and Arragon, and an- nexed to their dominions all the inferior principali- ties of the kingdom. Thousands of the zealous and conscientious followers.of the Arabian Prophet were put to the sword or driven into exile, and the more timid compelled to a nominal acknowledgment of the gospel. The surrender of Granada, after ten years of incessant fighting, terminated the dominion of the Moors in Spain, which had endured 778 years, and engaged the Christians in 3700 battles. " This great triumph of our holy Catholic faith," says the 52 CALIPHS OF SPAIN. pious and minute Fray Agapida, " took place in the beginning: of January "in the year of our Lord 1492, being 3655 years from the population of Spain by the patriarch Tubal ; 3797 from the general deluge ; 5453 from the creation of the world; and in the month Rebiah, in the 897th year of the Hejira, or flight of Mohammed, whom God confound !"* This detested nation, whose conquest and expul- sion were attended with such atrocities, and such triumphs to the Catholic church, Avere by far the most industrious and skilful part of the Spanish popu- lation ; and their loss was a blow to the greatness and prosperity of that kingdom, from which it lias never recovered. The literary activity and com- mercial enterprise of the Arabs, which the wise policy of their caliphs encouraged, contributed both to en- rich and adorn their adopted country. Cordova, the seat of the Ommiades, was scarcely inferior in point of wealth and magnitude to its proud rival on the banks of the Tigris. A space of twenty-four miles in length and six in breadth, along the margin of the Guadalquiver, was occupied with palaces, streets, gardens, and public edifices ; and for ten miles the citizens could travel by the light of lamps along an uninterrupted extent of buildings. In the reign of Almansor it could boast of 270,000 houses, 80,455 shops, 911 baths, 3877 mosques, from the minarets of which a population of 800,000 were daily sum- moned to prayers. The seraglio of the caliph,— his wives, concubines, and black eunuchs, amounted to 0300 persons ; and he was attended to the field by a guard of 12,000 horsemen, Avhose belts and scimitars were studded with gold. Granada was equally cele- brated for its luxury and its learning. The royal demesnes extended to the distance of twenty miles, the revenues of which were set apart to maintain the fortifications of the city. Of the duty on grain, * Conquest of Granada by Washington Irving. CALIPHS OF SPAiy. 63 the king's exchequer received about 15,000Z. yearly — an immense sum at that time, when wheat sold at the rate of sixpence a bushel. The consumption of 250,000 inhabitants kept 130 water-mills con- stantly at work in the suburbs. The population of this small kingdom under tlie Moors is said to have amounted to 3,000,000, which is now diminished per- haps to one-fifth of that number. Its temples and palaces have shared the same decay. The Alham- bra stands solitary, dismantled, and neglected. The interior remains of the palace are in tolerable pres- ervation, and present a melancholy picture of the romantic magnificence of its former kings. Seville, which had continued nearly 200 years the seat of a petty kmgdom, enjoyed considerable reputation as a place of wealth and commerce. The population in 1247 was computed at 300,000 persons, which, in the sixteenth century, had decreased one-third. It was one of the principal marts for olives in the Moorish dominions ; and so extensive was the trade in this article alone, that the axarafe, or plantations round the subftrbs, employed farm-houses and olive- presses to the amount of 100,000, being more than is now to be found in the whole province of An- dalusia. The government of the Arabs in Spain was a military despotism — tempered, however, by man- ners and customs which made it preferable to the irresponsible rule of Eastern tyranny. The throne was elective ; yet the reigning monarch had seldom much difficulty in transferring the sovereign power to a favourite son. Though a military people, the Saracens were but little skilled in what may be called the tactics of the profession. Hakem was the first of the caliphs that organized an army, paid his soldiers regularly, and formed magazines of war- like scores. The command of the native Spanish troops was usually given to some relation of the monarch, or other confidential person; and their E2 54 CALIPHS OF SPAIN. arms consisted of a short coat-of-mail, a light hel- met, Arabian horse furniture, a leathern buckler, and a slender spear. The African mercenaiies sometimes used camels in battle, so equipped as to make the hump on their backs appear larger than its natural size — a stratagem that frequently threw the Christian army into confusion. Their arms were a peculiar kind of knotted staves, or rather pikes, termed annas, which they drove furiously against the enemy. The massy silver of their belts, their bridles, and their swords displayed the magnificence of a prosperous nation. Their ac- coutrements were light, and not like those of the Christians, who were completely cased in steel. Their combats generally consisted in personal en- counters rather than regular engagements ; each man fighting for himself until the strongest or bravest remained masters of the field. Beyond this, indeed, the military knowledge of the Span- iards themselves was not much advanced ; but their infantry was superior to that of the Moors, inasmuch as they could both attack and resist a charge in a body — while the latter, unaccustomed to such a mode of assault, was scarcely of any service. This defect, however, was amply compensated by the superiority of the Moorish cavalry, which was com- posed of horsemen selected from the best famihes, and mounted on excellent chargers, to the manage- ment of which they were trained from infancy. Instead of wagons, they were attended by a long train of camels, mules, and asses ; the multitude of these animals, whom tliey bedecked with flags and ensigns, appeared to swell the pomp and magnitude of their host ; and the horses of the enemy were often thrown into disorder by the uncouth figure and odious smell of the camels of the East. Their order of battle was a long square of two deep and solid lines, the first consisting of archers, the second of cavalry. In general actions they were accus- CALIPHS OF SPAIK. 55 tomi'd to make their first onset with wild cries and bowlings, in order to intimidate the foe — a practice which is said to have been introduced in the reign of Almansor, and was adopted by the Turks. In military tactics the Arabs were, upon the whole, inferior to the Christians ; but their skill in the arts and sciences gave them, during part of their con- quests, an incalculable advantage over the latter. With the composition of gunpowder, and the differ- ent ways of applying it in war, they were not un- acquainted ; and we know from various authorities that they employed artillery. Casiri has cited two native historians, who prove that it was both known and used by the Spanish Arabs in the latter part of the twelfth and beginning of the thirteenth century ; and he has given extracts from two contemporary Spanish writers, who describe these destructive en- gines as being certain iron tubes or mortars, which emitted thunder and fire. The annual revenue of the Spanish caliphs was immense. In the reign of Abdalrahman III., the greatest sovereign that ever sat on the Moorish throne, it was reckoned equivalent to 5,500,000/. of sterling money, which at that time probably ex- ceeded the united income of all the Western mon- archies. It was derived, first, from a tithe of all pro- duce whatsoever, which was paid in kind ; secondlj^, from a duty of twelve and a half per cent, on every commodity imported or exported ; of an impost of one-tenth part on every species of goods transferred by sale ; and, lastly, of a tribute of one-fifth levied on property belonging to Jews and Christians. How Spain could supply all this magnificence and expense may be a subject of wonder or dispute to pohtical economists. But the fact is certain, and perhaps not of very difficult solution. Her population, not- withstanding all the devastations of civil war, was on the same grand scale with her palaces and her productions both natural and artificial. Under the 56 CALIPHS OF SPAIN. Saracens she boasted of eighty great cities — 300 of the second and third order ; besides smaller towns and villages innumerable. Most of these were planted with nurseries of art and industry, which gave an unexampled activity to trade and manufactures. There was scarcely a country in the civilized world to which their traffic did not ex- tend. Throughout Africa, arms and accoutrements, silks and woollen cloths of various colours, were in great demand. With Egypt and the Grecian states they bartered their different exports, to a still greater amount, for such commodities as were in popular request in Spain. Their drugs and dies were ex- changed for oriental perfumes ; and the luxuries of India were brought from Alexandria to Malaga to supply the wants of the court. The manufactories of Spain w^ere the arsenals from w^hich France and England drew their best military accoutrements — such as helmets, lances, swordblades, and coats-of- mail, which had reached a perfection in that coun- try unknown to the rest of Europe. The profits de- rived from these successful speculations must have been incalculable ; and, while abundantly remuner- ating the merchant, they afforded a prodigious source of revenue to the sovereign. In the fourteenth century the Arabs had an im- mense marine ; the woods and forests of Spain fur- nished them with timber, and they are said to have possessed a fleet of more than 1000 merchant ves- sels. From an Arabian waiter on commerce, of the tenth century, it appears that the balance of trade was decidedly in favour of the Moors, w^hom Cdairi, from their maritime traffic and the distant voyages they undertook by sea, compares to the ancient Phenicians and Carthaginians. Gold, silver, cop- per, raw and wrought silks, sugar, cochineal, quick- silver, iron, olives, oil, myrrh, corals fished on the coast of Andalusia, pearls on that of Catalonia, rubies and amethysts from mines in the neighbour- CALIPHS OF SPAIN. 57 hood of Malaga and Carthacrena, were among the most valuable and lucrative articles of exportation. These facts, attested by native authors, v^ill throw light on the hitherto unexplained magnificence of the Western caliphs. Commerce was the true foundation of their greatness — the secret spring that filled the treasures of Spain, and fed the wealth and industry of her inhabitants. At length the fleets of the Christians, as well as of the kings of Arragon and Portugal, gradually defeated the maritime forces of the I\Ioors, until they were totally annihilated after the conquest of Algesiras, Seville, and Al- meria. In all their actions by sea and land, the Arabs re- tained their characteristic mode of warfare; they sustained with patient firmness the fury of attack, and seldom advanced to the charge until the enemy were thrown off their guard or overcome with fa- tigue. But if they were broken and repulsed, they knew not how to rally or renew the combat ; and their dismay was always heightened by a super- stitious presentiment that they were abandoned of Heaven. The decline and fall of the caliphs coun- tenanced the fearful opinion that God had declared himself on the side of the foe ; nor were there want- ing, both among Mohammedans and Christians, some obscure oracles which predicted their alternate de- feats. In their various encounters with the Arabs, the princes, both of Asia and Europe, too often felt that these barbarians had nothing barbarous in their discipline. If their ships, engines, and fortifications were of a less skilful construction, they had the vanity to think it was a defect of nature rather than any fault of their own ; for they readily acknow- ledged that the same God who had given a tongue to the Arabians had more nicely fashioned the hands of the Chinese and the heads of the Greeks. Since the reduction of Sicily by the Moslems, the Greeks had been anxious to regain that valuable b8 CALIPHS OF SPAIN. f possession. The southern provinces, which now compose the kingdom of Naples, were in the ninth century divided into the rival principahties of Bene- vento, Salerno, and Capua, whose mutual jealousies had invited the Arabs to the ruin of their common niheritance. Their shores were visited almost an- nually by the squadrons which issued from the har- bour of Palermo ; while a colony of Saracens had fixed themselves at Bari, which commands the en- trance to the Adriatic Gulf. The depredations of these adventurers called down the vengeance of the Greeks and Franks, whose combined strength was necessary to root out this nest of pirates. The for- tress was invested by sea and land ; and, after a defence of four years, the Arabs submitted to the clemency of Louis, grandson of Charlemagne, who commanded in person the operations of the siege. But they still continued to infest the country, pil- laging the monasteries and profaning the churches, Tn the work of devastation they were joined by a new enemy from the north. The citizens of Bari had invited the Normans (A. D. 1016) to assist in shaking off the Grecian yoke. These ferocious auxiliaries soon established themselves permanently in the dukedom of Naples, and ultimately assisted 8uch of the petty princes as appealed to their sword. In every enterprise of war or danger they promptly volunteered their aid, and Sicily at that time opened tin inviting scene for their services. In their first efforts against that island, the Latin emperors had been unsuccessful ; 20,000 of their best troops were lost in a single expedition, and the victorious Mos- lems ridiculed the policy of a nation which entrusted eunuchs, not only with the custody of their women, but with the command of their armies. Internal divisions, however, effected what the Byzantine armaments had attempted in vain. The emirs aspired to independence ; the people rebelled against the emirs, and the cities and castles were CALIPHS OF SPAIN. 59 inurped by their respective chiefs. In these do mestic quarrels the weaker of two rival brothers implored the friendship of the Christians ; and a band of 500 Norman warriors, knights on horseback, landed in Sicily under the standard of the Governor of Lombardy. The valour of the Arabs quailed be- fore the ponderous swords of this new and untried foe. In three successive engagements they were defeated ; in the second their leader fell ; and in the last, 60,000 of their troops were left dead on the field. Thirteen cities, and the greater part of the island, after a possession of 200 years, w^ere reduced to the obedience of the Greek emperor. Twenty years afterward, Sicily felt the prowess of a new conqueror, the famous Count Roger, the twelfth and youngest son of Tancred, a Norman ban- neret, who had joined the fortunes of his brothers and countrymen, then possessors of the fertile rC' gion of Apulia. In an open boat he crossed the strait, landed with only sixty soldiers, drove the Saracens to the gates of Messina, and returned in safety with the spoils of the adjacent country. Nei- ther difficulties nor dangers could repress his activ- ity. Before the walls of Trani, 300 Normans with- stood and repulsed the whole force of the island. At the battle of Ceramio, 50,000 horse and foot were overthrown by only 136 Christian soldiers (most probably knights, but so stands the narrative of the historian), without reckoning St. George, who fought on horseback in the foremost ranks. Notwithstanding the frequent and powerful suc- cours which the Sicilian Arabs obtained from their brethren in Africa, town after town yielded to the bravery of the Normans, who added those splendid conquests in the Mediterranean to the list of their achievements in England, France, and other king- doms of Europe. After a war of thirty years, Roger obtained the sovereignty of Sicily, with the title of Great Count ; that of king being afterward bestowed 60 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. cn his son. The Saracens were protected in th& enjoyment of their property and religion ; but tli© island was restored to the jurisdiction of the Roniari pontiff, who planted the principal cities with new bishops, and gratified the clergy by a liberal endow- ment of the churches and monasteries. CHAPTER IIL LITERATURE OP THE ARABS. The Arabs turn their Attention to Learning— Their rapid Pro- gress—Literary Ardour and Patronage of the Caliphs— Haroui? al Raschid—Almamoun—Vathek— College of Mostanser at Bagdad— Academies and Libraries founded in Persia, Syria Egypt, Africa, and Spain— Course of Study in the Saracex Schools — Grammar — Rhetoric — Poetry — Tales — Arabian Nights' Entertamments— Story-tellers— History— Biography— N umismatics— Geography— Statistics— Metaphysics — Medl cine and Medical Authors— Rhazes—Avicenna— Pharmacy-- Anatomy and Surgery— Botany— Chymistry— Astrology— As tronomy— Optics — Mathematics— Trigonometry— Algebra- Arithmetic— Architecture— The Fme Arts— Painting— Cal ligraphy— Music— Agriculture— Manufactures in Steel, Por celain, and Leather— Claims of the Arabs as the Restorers of Letters and the Importers of useful Arts and Inventions in Europe. It was at a period when ignorance and barbarism overspread every part of the Western AVorld, that literature and philosophy found an asylum in the schools of the Saracens. Unlike the Goths and Huns, they became the instructers and enlighteners of the countries they had conquered. Their stern fanaticism yielded to the 'mild influence of letters; and, by a singular anomaly in the history of nations, Europe became indebted to the implacable enemies of her religion and her liberties for her most valu- LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 61 able lessons in science and the arts. In the pre- ceding- chapters of this work we have beheld the disciples of Mohammed in the character of warriors and conquerors. Their success in arms had been enough to satiate even the most unmeasured ambi- tion. But, great and splendid as were the events we have just detailed, we shall turn with pleasure from fields of blood, from scenes of misery and vice, to contemplate the more g-entle and useful progress of the Arabs in the cultivation of learning. The first Mussulmans knew, or at least esteemed, no other book than the Koran. But this aversion to intellectual pursuits gradually relaxed, in proportion as their faith and their empire extended. The pos- session of those happy countries, so long the seats of ancient taste and splendour, naturally introduced among them a spirit of refinement ; and here their career was as rapid and surprising as it had been in the field. The literature of Greece, such as it was in the days of Pericles, required the slow growth of nearly eight centuries of progressive cultivation. The same period elapsed between the foundation of Rome and the age of Augustus. In France, the reign of Louis XIV., the brilliant era of wit and genius, was 1200 years subsequent to that of Clovis. But among the Saracens, such was their enthusiasm for learning, that little more than a single centui^ elapsed from the period of their deepest barbarism to the universal diffusion of science over the vast extent of their dominions. It was in the year 641 that Omar committed the Alexandrian library to the flames, and in 750 the house of Abbas, the munifi- cent patrons of letters, mounted the throne. Under the first of the Ommiadan caliphs, the genius of Greece had begun to obtain an influence over the Arabs. But it was not till the great and final division of the empire — till Bagdad arose, a fair and splendid city — that the golden age of A rabian literature commenced in the East, and the Muses Vol. XL— F 62 LITERATURE OF THE ARAfiS. were courted from their hallowed retreats beyond the Bosphorus, to expiate the giiilt of conquest and illustrate the fame of the Abbassides, Almansor, successful in his domestic wars, turned his thoughts to the acquisition of science. Accident brought him acquainted with a Greek physician, named George, who was invited to court to prescribe for the re- moval of a temporary indigestion. To him the Sara- cens were indebted for the introduction of medicine. The famous Haroun al Raschid has acquired a splen- did name as the encourager of letters. He was fond of poetry and music, and himself considerably skilled in these divine arts. Volumes have been written on the learning of the Moslem empire during this cahph's reign. Whenever he undertook a journey, or a pilgrimage, he carried with him a retinue of a hundred learned men. The Arabs were deeply in- debted to him for their rapid progress in education, for he issued a law that a school should be attached to every mosque erected within his dominions. With a toleration superior to the fanaticism of his creed, he did not despise the knowledge which the believers of another faith possessed. The head of his schools, and the chief director of academical studies in his empire, was a Nestorian Christian of Damascus, of the name of John ibn Messue. His generous example was imitated by his successors : and in a short time the sciences that were cultivated in the capital were diffused to the distant extremi ties of the caliphate. But the Augustus of Arabian literature was Alma moun, whose attention from his youth had been chiefly engrossed with books and study. Even in his father's lifetime, and during his journey to Kho rasan, of which he was appointed governor, he had selected for his companions the most eminent scholars among the Greeks, Persians, and Chal- deans. His accession to the throne did not abate his ardour for knowledge. Bagdad became the resort LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 63 of poets, philosophers, and mathematicians, from every country and of every creed. His ambassa- dors and agents in Armenia, Syria, and Egypt were ordered to collect the most important books that could be discovered. The literary relics of the con- quered provinces, which his governors amassed with infinite care, were brought to the foot of the throne . as the most precious tribute he could demand. Hundreds of camels might be seen entering Bagdad loaded with volumes of Greek, Hebrew, and Per- sian literature ; and such of them as were thought to be adapted to the purposes of instruction, were at the royal command translated by the most skilful interpreters into the Arabic language, that all classes might read and understand them. Masters, instruct- ors, translators, and commentators formed the court of Bagdad, which appeared rather to be a learned academy than the capital of a luxurious and warlike government. Aware of the vast treasures that were deposited in the libraries of Constantino- ple, Almamoun, in concluding a treaty of peace with the Grecian emperor, Michael HI., stipulated, as one of the conditions, that a collection of rare and valuable authors should be delivered up to him. These were immediately subjected to the process of translation ; but it must be recorded with regret that, through an ill-judged partiality for his native tongue, he gave orders that after the Arabic ver- sions were finished, the original manuscripts should be burned. The Caliph Vathek not only admired and coun- tenanced literature and the sciences, but was him- self a proficient in some of them, especially poetry and music. He was particularly addicted to astrol- ogy ; and having conferred with some of his learned fraternity in his last illness, they assured him, on consulting his horoscope, that his reign was yet to endure fifty years. His death in ten days falsified this prediction, and ruined the credit of Hassan ibu 64 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. Sohal. Abu Masher, an eminent astrologer, flour- ished in the reign of Mostain; but his talents re- ceived sorry encouragement, for that prince ordered him to be severely whipped, because an event which he had foretold actually came to pass. Long after the power of the Abbassides had dwindled into a mere pageant of state, they affected to patronise and cultivate learning. Many distin- guished men in almost every science illustrated this period of Saracen history ; but the capital of the muses in the East had seen innumerable rivals spring up in other parts of the empire. The last prince that shed a ray of departing glory on his race was the Caliph Mostanser, who adorned Bagdad by the celebrated college that bore his name. Accord- ing to oriental historians, this edifice had no equal in the Moslem world, w^hether Ave consider the beauty and elegance of the building, the number of students it contained, or the splendid revenues as- signed it by its founder. Each of the four chief sects of the Sonnees had its appointed professor, with a monthly salary and a maintenance from the royal exchequer. Every student had daily a very hand- some allowance of provisions of all kinds. There were baths set apart for their use, and a physician employed to attend them at the caliph's expense. The example of the sovereign was sometimes fol- lowed by viziers and governors. Achmed ibn Tolun, viceroy of Egypt, distributed every month among the most distinguished ecclesiastics in that country 1000 dinars of gold (46-2Z. 10s.) ; and sent to Bagdad not less than 2,200,000 dinars (1,017,500/.) for the benefit of the poor and learned in that city. An- other vizier founded a college there at the expense of 200,000 (92,500/.), and endowed it with an annual revenue of 15,000 dinars (6937/. 10.?.). The benefits of public instruction in that capital were communi- cated, perhaps at different times, to 6000 students of every degree, from the son of the noble to that LITERATURE OF THE ARABS, 65 of the mechanic. The celebrity of its schools may be inferred from the vast numbers of poets, histo- rians, physicians, and astronomers which it pro- duced ; and for several ages it abounded in learned men, in the various departments of science, more than any other place in the IMoslem dominions. In every considerable town, schools, academies, and libraries were established. Bussora and Cufa almost equalled the capital itself in reputation, and in the number of celebrated authors and treatises w^hich they produced. Damascus, Aleppo, Balkh, Ipsahan, and Samarcand became renowned as seats of science. It was the glory of every city to col- lect the treasures of literature ; and we are told that a private doctor refused the invitation of the sove- reign of Bokhara, because the carriage of his books would have required 400 camels. The same enthu- siasm was carried by the Saracens beyond the fron- tiers of Asia. Egypt became a second time the asy- lum of letters and art ; and the Spanish Jew, Benja- min Tudela, relates in his Itinerary that he found in Alexandria more than twenty schools for the cul- tivation of philosophy. At a later period Cairo pos- sessed numerous colleges, some of which were so substantially built as to serve, during a rebellion, the purpose of a citadel for the army. The royal library consisted of 100,000 manuscripts, elegantly tran- scribed and splendidly bound, which were lent out to the students without jealousy or avarice. In its arrangement, the first place was given to copies and interpretations of the Koran ; the next to writings on the traditions of Mohammed; books on law suc- ceeded ; and after these philology, poetry, and sci- ence, in their respective order. The historians of Africa dwell with pride on the academical institutions which adorned the towns scattered along its northern coasts. Cairoan, La- race, Fez, and Morocco, were endowed with magni- ficent establishments for the instruction of the peo- F2 66 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. pie ; and their rich Hbraries preserved to Europe many valuable works which nowhere else existed. It was in Spain that Arabian learning shone with a brighter lustre, and continued to flourish to a later period, than in the schools of the East. Cordova, Seville, and Granada rivalled each other in the magnificence of their academies, colleges, and libra- ries. The former city, celebrated as the birthplace of the poet Lucan and the two Senecas, possessed a celebrated university in the time of the Romans. Its reputation did not degenerate under the Sara- cens, and Casiri has enumerated the names and writings of nearly 170 eminent men, natives of this place. Hakem founded here a college and a royal library comprising 400,000 volumes : he had care- fully examined every work, and with his own hand wrote in each the genealogies, births, and deaths of their respective authors. The academy of Granada was long under the direction of Shamseddin of Murcia, so famous among the Arabs for his skill in polite literature. Ibn Almotawakkel, who reigned there in the twelfth century, possessed a valuable library, many of whose original manuscripts are still preserved in the Escurial. Casiri has given a cata- logue of those accounted the most rare in the time of the Moors ; and has recorded the names and works of 120 authors, theologians, civilians, his- torians, philosophers, and other professors, whose talents conferred dignity and fame on the university of Granada. Toledo, Malaga, Murcia, and Valencia, were all furnished with splendid literary apparatus. In the cities of the Andalusian kingdom alone, seventy libraries were open for the instruction of the public. Middeldorpf has enumerated seventeen distinguished colleges and academies that flourished under the patronage of the Saracens in Spain, and has given lists of the eminent professors and authors who taught or studied in them. A few scattered notices are all that we possess LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 67 respecting the course of study and internal govern- ment of the Arabian schools. Every institution for the education of youth, strictly speaking, was con- nected with religion ; lience public establishments for this purpose were always found in conjunction with the mosques. Of these foundations there were two classes ; — one was composed of inferior schools, where children, chiefly of the lower orders, were instructed in the elements of reading, v/riting, and religion. From the Arabic alphabet they gradually advanced to the Koran, for the correct pronunciation of which, rules were carefully prescribed. A second description of colleges called the Madras^ though sometimes connected with the mosques like the preceding, were occasionally erected as independ- ent institutions. Here were taught the higher branches of grammar, logic, theology, and juris- prudence. Many of these colleges v/ere so consti- tuted as to contain thirty apartments, each of which was occupied by three or four students. The government of every school and academy was con- fided to a rector, chosen from the most eminent of the learned, and often without regard to his religious opinions. That academical examinations took place among all the pupils seems highly probable ; — with respect to medical students the fact is certain. In Egypt and Spain this class were subjected to a very strict investigation as to their proficiency. Casiri has noticed a treatise by a professor of Cordova, containing seventy-seven questions to be proposed to medical candidates, and when the Achimbasi or chief physician was satisfied of their qualifications, they received a testimonial or diploma, under his hand, authorizing them to practise. The different professors were furnished with text-books, on which they lectured, authorized by the colleges, and ac- counted classical by the Arabs. Whatever might be the real progress of the Sara- cens in the speculative or the useful sciences, their 68 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. studies embraced a course sufficiently ample to ex- ercise every faculty of the human mind. Grammar and rhetoric were cultivated with singular assiduity by all who aspired to literary honours and dis- tinctions. As always happens, the precepts of elegant composition have succeeded the models; — the inimitable Koran, and the pure dialect of the Koreish, had refined the Arabian tongue long before its rules were fixed and its beauties analyzed in the rival schools of Cufa and Bussora. The literati of Spain were not inferior to those of the East in the prosecution of their philological investigations. We learn from Casiri that Abdallah ibn Hescham, in his " Introduction to a Chastised Mode of Speaking," reviews and corrects the errors of hundreds of former grammarians. Eloquence, one of the three national distinctions of the ancient Arabs, had ceased to be cultivated after the time of Mohammed and his immediate successors, when oriental despotism had banished the freedom of the desert. But this art was revived by the Saracens, who exercised themselves alter- nately in the compositions of the academy and the pulpit. Among these distinguished orators ]Malek was considered the most pathetic ; while Sharaif possessed beyond all others the art of blending the brilliancy of poetry with the vigour of prose. Ho- rairi was placed in the same rank with Cicero and Demosthenes ; and his academical orations, we are assured, deserved to be written, not on paper or vellum, but on silk and gold. In the sixth century, Granada could boast of Bedreddin, surnamed the Torch of Eloquence ; while Sekaki, the most cele- brated wTiter on the belles-lettres, produced a work on rhetoric called the Key of the Sciences, which obtained him the title of the Arabian Quinctilian. Poetry, anciently a favourite occupation of the Arabs, continued, after the restoration of learning, to be cultivated with enthusiasm ; and such was tho LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 69 fertility of their genius, that they are said to have produced more works in this department than all other nations united. Owing to the distractions of the caliphate, the Arabian muses seem to have be-en silent till the reign of the Abbassides. It was in the courts of Haroun and Almamoim, and more especially under ^he Ommiades of Sp^in, that poetry arrived at its highest pitch of splendour. At this era flourished that bright assemblage of bards, chivalrous lovers, and romantic princesses, whom the oriental writers compare to Anacreon, Pindar, and Sappho. Among their most eminent improvers of versification were Motanabbi of Cufa, styled the Prince of Poets, and Khalil ibn Ahmed, who first subjected it to regular rules. Several of the latter caliphs of Bagdad cultivated this elegant art with the greatest ardour ; as did the sultans of Mosul, Aleppo, Seville, and Cordova. Even ladies entered the lists as votaries of the muse. Valadata, daughter of the Caliph of Cordova, en- dowed with equal beauty and genius, was considered as the Arabian Sappho. Aysha, another princess at the same court, was scarcely less distinguished ; her orations and poems were frequently read in the royal academy of that city with the greatest ap- plause. Labana, also a native of that learned capi- tal, not only excelled as a poetess, but was deeply skilled in philosophy and arithmetic, and held an office not often enjoyed by females, that of private secretary to the Caliph Hakem. Seville could boast of Safia, whose poetry and beautiful penmanship were the subject of equal admiration; of Algasania, who wrote verses in praise of the caliphs ; and of Maria, who has been honoured with the title of the Arabian Corinna. So great was the number of poets, that Abul Abbas, son of the Caliph IMotassem, wrote an abridgment of Iheir lives, which contains notices of 130. Casiri has further recorded the fragment of a work entitled the " Theatre of the Poets," which 70 LICERAHURE OF THE ARABS. originally consisted of twenty-four volumes. Hejiaz composed a biography of the Arabian bards in fifty volumes ; and Safadi another in thirty, besides the lives of illustrious men distinguished for extraordin- ary valour. In the large Miscellany of Thaalebi, called Yatima, may be seen a specimen of the united beauty, elegance, and dignity of the Arabian muse. It contains the lives and some of the verses of the finest writers who flourished in Syria, Egypt, Meso- potamia, Chaldea, Arabia, Persia, and Tartary. Numerous collections of poems exist in Spain, termed Dwans or Academical Prolusions, from the circumstance of their having been honoured with a recital in the colleges or academies. These com- prise idyls, elegies, epigrams, odes, satires, and almost every other species of poetry familiar to the Greeks and Romans. The structure of the rhymes and verses, as may be seen in the Commentaries of Sir William Jones, was subjected to particular laws, which imparted a degi'ee of harmony and regularity to the whole com- position. The two forms of versification most in use were the Gazdla and the Cassida ; both of which were compositions in distichs, the alternate lines in every couplet being made to rhyme with each othei throughout the whole poem. The Gazella was an amatory or lyrical ode, which ought not to contain less than seven, nor more than thirteen couplets ; while the length of the Cassida, employed in songs of love or war, might extend from ten to a hundred distichs. The most celebrated of these Divans were those of Abu Nowas, and Ibn Mokannas whose epi- grammatic wit procured him the title of the Arabian Martial.* Of all the different kinds of poetical com- * The Arabs were extremely fond of reiterations and jingling Bounds in the poetry, — " When shall it be, and when shall it be, and when shall it be, and when, That I shall be, and love shall be. and music shall be, and wine ?" LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 71 position, the moral and didactic appear to have been in the highest repute with the Saracens ; hence they wrote in verse, with as much facihty as in prose, treatises on grammar, rhetoric, theology, medicine, and even on the abstruse sciences of mathematics and astronomy. Amid this luxuriant variety, it has been remarked as a curious circumstance that the Arabs have not a single poem which is strictly epic. The nearest approach to dramatic writing are a few dialogues in rhyme ; but these belong rather to satire than comedy. The classic models of the Greeks and Romans, the works of Sophocles and Euripides, of Terence and Seneca, were desp''=5ed by the Arabs as timid, cold, and constrained ; and among all the books which, with an almost superstitious venera- tion, they borrowed from these nations, there is scarcely a single poem. Neither Homer nor Pindar, Virgil nor Horace, were allowed to enter into a com- parison with their own writers ; and consequently none of those relics of classical genius were judged worthy of translation. A Syriac version of the bard of Troy was made so early as the reign of Haroun al Raschid by Theophilus, a Christian Maronite of Mount Libanus ; but much as the oriental muse de- lighted in the themes of love and wine, she was an entire stranger to the effusions of Ovid and the lyrics of Sappho and Anacreon. The heroes of Plutarch, and Livy, and Tacitus, were left to slumber in Of their epigrammatic wit, Professor Carlyle (Specim. of Arab. Poetry) has translated some examples. The following stanzas are by Ibn Alrumi, who lived and clied at Emesa, in the reign of Motaded, and who excelled in every species of versification : — TO A VALETUDINARIAN. " So careful is Isa, and anxious to last, So afraid of himself he is grown, He swears through two nostrils the breath goes too fast. And he's trying to breathe through but one." 72 LITERATURE OF HE ARABS. oblivion; and the eloquence of Koss and Horairi superseded that of Cicero and Demosthenes. Fully to appreciate the beauties of Arabian poe- try would require an acquaintance with the produc- tions of the country, and with the manners and peculiarities of the inhabitants. For want of this knowledge the oriental muses have been criticised with extreme severity and injustice. Nor is it per- haps very surprising that those who have read the most celebrated compositions of the Eastern poets, in Latin or French translations only, should feel but an indifferent relish for their charms, or form a cold judgment of their merits. Comparisons and similes founded on local objects have a point and beauty that can only be felt in the land that gave them birth ; though we may easily comprehend what force and propriety such metaphors as the odour of reputation and the dews of liberality must have had in the mouths of those who so much needed refreshment on their journeys, and were accustomed to regale their senses with the sweetest fragrance in the world. The same remark is true of the figures and images drawn from those beautiful and agreeable scenes with which the Eastern nations are perpetually conversant. The Hebrew muse delighted in the roses of Sharon, the verdure of Carmel, and the cedars of Lebanon ; so did the Arabs adorn their verses with the pearls of Oman, the musk of Hadramaut, the woods and nightingales of Aden, and the spicy odours of Ye- men. Compared to our idiom, such emblems may appear fantastic and extravagant, however striking and just in the glowing language of the East. They differ essentially from those we meet with in the schools of Greece and Rome. The acacia and the tamarisk of the rocks bloomed not in their famed Parnassus, nor in the groves of their academy ; and were we to attempt to transplant these exotic flow- ers to the gardens of Europe, perhaps we should ITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 73 not be surprised to find a portion of their beauty gone, and our gratification diminished. "With the Arabs the want of epic and dramatic poetry was abundantly compensated by a species of composition which in some degree combined the nature of both. It is to their brilliant imagination that we owe those beautiful tales, which surprise us not more by their prodigious number than their ex- haustless variety. With the Arabian Nights' Enter- tainments, the AUf Lila wa Lilin, or the Thousand- and-One Stories told by the Sultaness of the Indies, who is not acquainted T The pleasure we derive from their perusal makes us regret that we possess only a comparatively small part of these truly en- chanting fictions. The author or authors of this immense collection of tales are unknown, and the learned in Europe differ as to their origin. Von Hammer, on the authority of Masoudi, suggested some years ago that they were not originally Ara- bian, but translated from the Indian or Persian in the reign of the Caliph Almamoun, — an opinion cer- tainly opposed by the circumstance, that a foreigner could scarcely have succeeded in giving so accurate a description of Arabian life and scenery. Mons. Galland, who first supplied a French version (A. D. 1706), supposed that not more than a six-and-thir- tieth part of them were known in Europe ; and a late traveller (Dr. Daniel Clarke) has given a list of 172 tales contained in a manuscript purchased by him in Egypt, divided in the same manner as the celebrated Nights' Entertainments. It rarely hap- pens, this author remarks, that any two copies of the Alif Lila wa Lilin resemble each other ; and the title is indiscriminately bestowed on every compila- tion of popular stories that embraces the same num- ber of parts, — a fact which may help to account for our comparative deficiency in this department of oriental literature. Besides those committed to writing, a vast num- VoL. II.— G 74 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. ber of these diverting- legends had no more durable tablet than the memory of itinerating story-tellers. Crowds of both sexes in every region of the Mo- hammedan world still earn their livelihood by their wonderful talent for recital ; and they never fail to attract an audience ; for the indolent natives of Tur- key, Persia, and India willingly bury their present cares in the pleasing dreams of the imagination. The Africans, in the midst of their deserts, assem- ble nightly round the blazing fire in their tents, and learn to forget their own hardships and fatigues in the captivating narrative of ideal adventures. The public squares of the cities in the Levant abound with these wandering reciters, and their assistance is called in to fill up the heavy hours of the palace and the seraglio. Their art is even prescribed as a substitute for medicine ; and physicians not unfre- quently recommend them to their patients in order to sooth pain, to calm the agitated spirits, or pro- duce sleep after long watchfulness. Of their astonishing powers of memory we find an instance recorded in Hamad of Damascus, known by the title oi Arawiyah, or the Narrator, one of the literary suite of the second Walid, and reckoned the most conversant of men in the history, poetry, genealogy, and language of the Arabs. " Com- mander of the Faithful,"' he replied to the caliph, " I can relate the works of every poet with which you are acquainted, or have heard of; I can, more- over, relate the works of those wdth whom you are not acquainted ; and no one can repeat to me a poem, ancient or modern, but I can tell to which of the two classes it belongs. I will undertake to repeat to you, for every letter of the alphabet, 100 poems of the larger description, besides small pieces, all made before the introduction of Mohammedanism, independently of the poetry that has appeared since that era." In proof that this was no idle boast, Hamad continued to relate till the caliph grew LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 75 tired, and appointed another to hear him ; and when informed that the narrator had actually repeated 2900 odes from authors before the time of Moham- med, he ordered him a present of 100,000 drachms (2291/. 135. id). An equal sum was paid him by the Emir Yussuf, governor of Irak, who was exceed- ingly puzzled on account of a stanza which had occurred to his mind, and of which he did not know the author. Hamad not only told him the name of the poet, but repeated the entire composition from which the verse was taken. History, so much neglected by the ancient Arabs, was cultivated with great assiduity by the Mos- lems ; and there is extant an immense number of works in this department, comprising annals, chron- icles, and memoirs ; besides descriptions of particu- lar kingdoms, provinces, and towns. A catalogue of the authors' names would fill a volume ; and we can only notice a few of the more celebrated. The works of Abulfarage, a Christian physician of Ma- latia, in Lesser Armenia, who flourished in the thir-- teenth century, and of Abulfeda, a writer of high repute both in the East and the West, we have already noticed. Ibn Katib, another eminent histo- rian of the fourteenth century, was descended of a noble family, and vizier to Mohammed, caliph of Granada. He was deeply versed in every branch of science, but chiefly remarkable for the extent and accuracy of his historical knowledge. He wrote treatises on forty-one different subjects, some of ■ them consisting of many volumes ; and there is scarcely a topic in elegant or scientific literature that he left untouched. His Chronology of the Caliphs and Kings of Spain and Africa has the lofty appellation of the " Silken Vest embroidered with the Needle." A treatise on the Choice of Sentences he designates "Pure Gold." His Lives of Eminent Spanish Arabs, celebrated for their learning and piety, are perhaps not inaptly termed "Fragrant 76 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. Plants ;" but it might puzzle a modern reader to discover that "Approved Butter' means a disserta- tion on Constancy of Mind ; or to find a History of Granada in a " Specimen of the Full Moon." Ibn Hassem, a native of Cordova, was equally renowned for poetic g-enius, historical information, and attain- ments as a linguist. His writings on various sub- jects, both in prose and verse, were so multitudinous, that, after his decease, his son is said to have col- lected 400 volumes of them, comprising about 80,000 leaves. Ibn Haion, an inhabitant of the same city, wrote an account of Spain in ten volumes ; and ano- ther work on history, embracing the occurrences of his own times, which extends to sixty. It were tedious to specify the " Golden Chains of Faith," a highly-celebrated performance on the Character and Productions of Royal and Eminent Spanish Authors in the fifth century of the Hejira ; or the " Mines of Silver," a biographical work of the famed Ibn Ab- bar ; or the " Fallen Pearls and Picked-up Flowers" of Abu Bakri. Every state, every province, every city and town, possessed its individual chronicler and historian. A full history of Spain, from the time when it was first peopled to the close of the thirteenth century, giving an account of its geogra- phy, productions, and literary institutions, was con- tinued by six authors in succession, and cost the labour of 115 years. Works on biography, memoirs of the diflferent caliphs, and of men peculiarly distinguished for their virtues, talents, or achievements, were innumerable. The two Razis of Cordova, father and son, filled many large volumes with illustrious genealogies, and annals of distinguished viziers. Abul Walid, a statesman and historian of Seville, wrote an account of the Ommiades in Spain, similar to that given by Masoudi of tlie Caliphs of Asia. These Arabian Plutarchs descended even to the brute creation. Such was the passion for every species of composi- LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 77 tion, and the desire to leave no subject untouclied, that Ibn Zaid of Cordova, and Abul Mondar of Valencia, wrote a Genealogical History of celebrated Horses ; as did Alasueco and Abdolmalec that of Camels which had risen to distinction. This last- mentioned author and eminent antiquary rendered to his countrymen the same literary service that Bayle and Moreri conferred on Europeans, by giv- ing them a copious historical dictionary. The Arabs possessed encyclopaedias, gazetteers, and other simi- lar compilations on critical and biographical sub- jects. They were familiar, in short, with all those inventions which curtail labour, dispense with the necessity of research, and afford facilities to indo- lence or curiosity. The Dictionary of the Sciences, by Mohammed Abu Abdallah of Granada, was an elaborate work, consisting of eleven parts, of which a fragment of the seventh and the four last are still extant. A similar compilation was made by the renowned Farabi, who spoke seventy-two languages, and wrote on every science then known. With numismatics the Saracens were well ac- quainted. Namari and Makrizi wrote histories of Arabian money ; the latter also produced a treatise on the legal weights and measures. Azaker wrote commentaries on the first inventors of the arts ; and Gazali, in his learned work on Arabian antiquities, treated in a profound manner of the studies and dis- coveries of his countrymen. Of geography they had, so far as their limited means went, a tolerably accurate knowledge. The library at Cairo could boast of two massive globes, one of which was of brass, the other of pure silver, constructed by an Arabian cosmogi-apher, which weighed 3000 drachms, and is said to have cost as many thousand crowns of gold. In this department Abulfeda holds a conspicuous rank. The Sheriff Edrisi of Cordova, who made the celebrated silver globe for Roger H., king of Sicily, is justly distin- G2 f§ LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. guishedforhis " Geographical Amusements," which he wrote and dedicated to that monarch. Of this, however, only an abridgment has appeared in print, published by the Maronites under the absurd title of " Geographia Nubiensis." The Saracens of Spain were at great pains to cultivate this science by actual surveys ; and Casiri has described not less than eighteen Voyages or Itineraries of learned men, who travelled for the express purpose of acquiring and diffusi'ng a knowledge of geography. Ibn Raschid, one of them, journeyed through Africa, Egypt, and Syria, hearing and conversing with the most emi- nent scholars in those countries ; of whom, as well as of their most remarkable libraries and academies, he has given some account in his travels. Statistics and political economy, though of slow growth among the Arabs, did not escape their atten tion. The ambition of conquest was succeeded by a spirit of inquiry into the wealth and resources of the countries that had yielded to their arms. So early as the reign of Omar II., Assam ibn Malec his viceroy in Spain, transplanted into that country much of the wisdom of the East as respects the improvements of productive industry. In the sta- tistical survey which he composed for the caliph's information, he described not only the different prov- inces and cities, together with their respective rivers, ports, and harbours, but also the nature of the cli- .mate and different soils of Spain, its mountains, .plants, and minerals ; giving an exact account of its imports, and of the manner in which its various pro- ductions, natural or artificial, might be manufactured and applied to the best advantage. In the speculative sciences the Arabs excelled a? much as they did in polite literature. Their acute temperament of mind was well adapted to the study of philosophy and metaphysics, and on these ac quirements is founded the reputation of many inge nious and celebrated men, whose names are still revered in Europe. Gazali applied the doctrines of LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 79 metaphysics to theology ; and Alkendi, a native of Bussora, who flourished in the caliphate of Alma- moun, was so celebrated among his contemporaries, that he was called, by way of eminence, the Arabian Philosopher, the Great Astrologer, the Phcenix of his age. Notwithstanding the extravagant enco- miums of his friends, he was unquestionably en- dowed with rare talents ; the 200 different works which he composed show him to have been deeply versed in all the learning of the Greeks, Persians, and Indians. But, however enthusiastically the Arabs pursued these ingenious studies, their progress was more spe- cious than real. Their ardour was ill-regulated, pre- ferring the subtleties to the more important and practical lessons of the science. The system of Aristotle was well fitted to this prevailing taste of the Saracens. Though they were neither unac- quainted with Plato, nor insensible to the merits of his works, the Stag}Tite became their exclusive favourite, and received from them an intellectual homage that was almost divine. All parties ac- knowledged his authority and appealed to his assist- ance, whether in attack or defence ; and the most solid arguments both of Jews and Christians against the truth of the Koran were laid prostrate before the resistless artillery of his syllogisms. An accu- rate translation, or a learned commentary on his works, appeared to them the highest pitch of ex- cellence to which the genius of man could attain. At the head of all these subtle expounders stood Averroes, who, in the felicitous obscurity of his opinions, was by some reckoned superior to his master. The library of the Escurial comprises many authors on ascetic and mystic divinity ; but for a detail of their lives and writings the curious reader is referred to the elaborate pages of D'Her- belot and Casiri.* * For the state of literature among the Arabs the authorities are numerous : — Middeldorpf (De Instit. Lit. Arab, in Hisp.), 80 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. The natural sciences were cultivated by the Arabs not only with great ardour and success, but with judicious views of the means whereby their progress might be promoted. The knowledge which they possessed of medicine is a subject of curious inquiry. In a country where the climate is healthful and the inhabitants abstemious, the healing art was not likely to be highly esteemed ; and accordingly we find the starving physicians of Arabia complaining that exer- cise and temperance deprived them of the greatest part of their practice. About the time of Moham- med the profession appears to have been held in better repute. His contemporary, Hareth ibn Kal- dah, an eminent practitioner, who had settled at Mecca, was occasionally honoured with his conver- sation and applause. This learned personage was physician to Abu Beker, and a pupil of the Greek Abulfarage (Dynast, a Pococke), Asseman (Bibl. Orient.), Ca- siri (Bibl. Arab. Hisp.), Toderini (Litter, des Turcs), Anciies (Deir Orig. Prog, e Stat. d'Ogni Litterat.), Schnurrer (Bibl. Arab.), Renaudot (Hist. Pat Alex.), Fabricius (Bibl. Graec). Each department of learning has been treated by particular wri- ters : — Philosophy, — Brucker (Hist. Grit. Philos.), Leo Africanus (De Virib. Illust. Arab.). Poetry, — Sir W. Jones (Comment de Poes. Asiat.), Carlyle (Specim. of Arabian Poetry), Sismondi (Litt. du Midi.). Medicine, — Le Clerc (Hist, de la Med.). Freind (Hist, of Med.), Sprengel (Hist.de la Med.), Moir (Ancient Hist. of Med.). Botany, — Haller (Bibl. Botanlca, tome i.). Chymis- try, — Beckmann (Hist, of Inventions), Watson (Chemic. Es- says), Boerhaave (Chymistry). Mathematics, — Montucla (Hist. deMathemat.), Encyclopasd. Britannica(Playfair's Supplement). Astronomy, — Lalande (Astronom. tome i.), Bailly (Hist, de I'As- tronornie), Halley (Philosoph. Transact, vol. xvii.), La Place (Sysl^me du Monde). Architecture, — Murphy (Arabian Antiqui- ties of Spain), Sw^inburne (Travels in Spain), Professor Shak- spear and Hartwell Plorne (Hist, of the Mohammedan Emp. in Spain.) Agricultiire, — Jacob (Travels in Spain), Tovvnshend (ditto), La Borde (Voyage, Pittoresque et Historique, de I'Es- pagne), Masdeu (Hist. Grit. d'Esp.), Gregorius (Rerum Ara- bic. quae ad Hist. Siculam spectant Gollectio). The most valu- able collection of Arabic literature is that of Casiri, who has preserved and classed 1851 manuscripts ; but it is to be regretted that the work was not executed, until a fire, in the year 1671, had consumed the greater part of the Escurial library. LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 81 school of Jondisabour in Persia, founded by Shapoor I. who, according to Abulfarage, married a daughter of the Emperor Aurehan, and by her means intro- duced the doctrines of Hippocrates into the East. When conquest had supphed the Arabs with the means of kixury and intemperance, this science was better appreciated. In the schools of Bagdad and Alexandria, the study of physic was encouraged with the usual munificence of the caliphs. Trans- lations of Hippocrates and Galen issued from the same manufactory that had clothed Plato and Aris- totle in an oriental dress. Most of these versions, the merit of which is freely discussed by Renaudot, and piously defended by Casiri, are ascribed to Ho- nain^ an eminent physician of the Nestorian sect, who died A. D. 576 ; and Messue, the celebrated preceptor of Almamoun, who was principal or su- perintendent of the College of Bagdad. Serapion, Alkhendi, Thibet ibn Korra, the friend and astrolo- ger of the Caliph ^Motaded, Baktishua and his son Gabriel, with a host of others, are names which adorn the medical annals of the Saracens. The lives of more than 300 Mohammedan physicians, consist- ing of Arabs, Syrians, Persians, and Egyptians, were recorded by an author named Osaiba, part of whose work, about a century ago, Mr. Mead, at his own expense, caused to be translated from the ori- ginal ; but it proved so incoherent and so full of puerile stories, that the task was abandoned. To Ah ibn Al Abbas, surnamed the Magian, from the sect to which he belonged, we are indebted for the earliest as well as the best account of Arabian phy- sic. This eminent author was a star of the first mag- nitude m the galaxy of learned men who flourished at the court ofAdodowlah, sultan of Aleppo. His book, called Al Meleki or Royal Work, which ap- peared about the year 980, was intended to be a com- plete system of medicine, and continued to maintain its ascendency till superseded by the Canon oi Avicenna. S2 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. Al Razi, or Rhazes as he is commonly desig- nated, is a name of which Arabian literature has reason to be proud. He flourished in the tenth cen- tury, and had the reputation of being deeply skilled in almost all sciences as well as in medicine. He was appointed director of the hospital at Rhe, in Irak, his native city, and afterward delivered lec- tures in the College of Bagdad, in which he was by far the most distinguished professor of his time. His fame rests chiefly on his medical writings, the principal of which, Alhawi or the Continent, com- prehended his account of diseases. He wrote, among other works, a small but curious tract on quacks, whom he characterizes with a fidelity that makes his descriptions applicable to the pretending knaves of modern times. This treatise is remarkable, from being the earliest medical work in which Eau de vie is mentioned, as also different kinds of beer manu- factured from rice, barley, and rye. Another merit of this distinguished scholar, and what perhaps above all has tended to heighten his reputation as an author, is his treatise on small-pox and measles, being the first account of these diseases ever given. His remarks on climate, season, situation, and consti- tution, denote the accurate and philosophic observer. Indeed, from the minute and excellent descriptions of disease to be found in his works, embracing not only the more commonly known, but others of rare oc- currence, and some recorded for the first time, such as tic douloureux and hypochondria, there can be as little doubt that his opportunities of observation were immense, as that his genius enabled him to turn his experience to the best account. But in learning and reputation, Rhazes was sur- passed by the famous Abdallah ibn Sina, a name which the Jews abbreviated into Abensina, and the Christians into the well-known appellation of Avi- :;enna. This Prince of Physicians, as the Arabs ienominate him, was a person nearly as remarkable *or the extent and variety of his precocious attain- LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 82 ments as the Admirable Crichton ; while in the med- ical world he attained a celebrity rivalled only by the fame of Hippocrates and Galen. He was bora in the year 980, at a small village near Bokhara. Removing- to Bagdad for the prosecution of hia studies, he there applied himself to the cultivation of philosophy and medicine, in both of which his progress was surprisingly rapid. Besides physic, the range of his acquirements comprehended logic, morals, metaphysics, astronomy, philology, mathe- matics, natural history, and theology. While yet in his nineteenth year, Avicenna was regarded even by the old and experienced as a complete pro- digy of learning, and the deference paid to his judg- ment was sufficient to flatter his utmost vanity. During his residence at Hamadan, he was chosen first physician to the sultan, and afterward raised to the dignity of vizier. His hterary fame, and that of the brilliant court to which he was attached, drew the admiration of surrounding princes. But his popularity was short-lived, and his life seemed des- tined to be a restless one. Finding his liberty endangered, for having refused the invitation of Mahmoud of Ghizni to honour his capital with a visit, he withdrew to Jorjan, where the splendour of his reputation, not only as a physician but a man of science, increased beyond all rivalry. The subsequent history of this remarkable person- age is short. Though possessed of an excellent con- stitution, he had so impaired it by the use of wine, and its accompanying vice, that he died from intes- tinal inflammation, in his 56th year, at Hamadan. Avicenna is one of those on whom praise and vitu- peration have been lavished with equal excess. It may be somewhat ditficult to account for the despotic supremacy which his writings acquired in the Sa- racen schools ; for they were not only translated, abridged, and commented on, but formed text-books for the professors in the principal colleges of Europe, and continued the oracles of medical knowledge for S4 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. nearly 600 years. His Cunon consists of five books, each of which has its subdivisions. His Materia Medica must have been sufficiently absurd, as we find him recommending the administration of gold, silver, and precious stones, with a view to purify the blood. It is to this ridiculous belief that the custom of gilding and silvering pills is to be re- ferred. In anatomical knowledge he appears to have been extremely superficial. To follow out the intri- cacies of his pathology, his speculations on the func- tions of the brain, the vital spirits, pleurisies, fevers, faculties, and temperaments, is unnecessary for our purpose. Posterior to Avicenna, flourished, among many others of lesser note, Abulcasis, Avenzoar, and his pupil Averroes, whose fame was as distin- guished in medical as in metaphysical science. To pharmacy the Arabs paid particular attention ; and they deserve the credit of having set the first example of publishing pharmacopoeias or regular dispensatories, containing collections of authorized formula. The shops of the .Saracen apothecaries were placed under the immediate superintendence of the magistrates, who took care that they should be provided with genuine drugs, and that these should be sold at reasonable prices. Many of the pharmaceutical terms, as naphtha, camphor, syrup, and jalap, are of Arabian origin. In this branch of the science Avenzoar was well versed ; and in his treatise we find accounts of both simple and com- pound medicines not elsewhere to be met with. The discovering of antidotes for poisonous plants seems to have been a favourite research with him. Vari- ous other writers enlarged the limits of pharmacy. The elder Messue employed, as emetics, powder of. fine bark, and decoctions of hyssop ; and as a styptic in violent bowel-complaints he had recourse to the •rennet of different animals, particularly the hare. In curing similar disorders, Serapion advised boiled milk, in which red-hot iron had been dipped. LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 85 In anatomy and surgery, the Arabs never attained to any remarkable proficiency. The polhited touch of the dead alarmed the most determined naturalist ; and the orthodox Mussulman felt himself debarred from this impious knowledge by the prejudices of his creed. When Toderini asked a mufti if it was allowable to practise human dissection, he Avas told ') that the very question itself was an infringement of ^ their divine law. To mutilate a corpse was prohibited by the religious belief that the soul does not depart from the body at the moment of death, but remains, after deserting the other members, for a consider- able time in the breast. Besides, it was deemed necessary to appear entire at the stern tribunal of IMunkir and Nakir, to undergo the sepulchral exami- nation. Hence the anatomical studies of the Arabs were restricted to the lower animals, and skeletons in the cemeteries. In their writings on the subject, they did little piore than translate and paraphrase the works of the Greeks. The surgery of Ali Abbas has some distinctive features ; for though he modestly professed only to be a copyist, he made a great many observations peculiar to himself. His son, Avho followed the same profession, was the author of a book on the diseases of the eye. In operating for cataract, i^vi- cenna recommended depression ; and speaks of ex- traction, which he had several times seen practised, as a very dangerous experiment. The most emi- nent of the Arabian surgeons was Abulcasis, whose name has been already introduced. He complained of the deplorable state into which the art had fallen in his day ; and informs us that the Spanish prac- titioners dashed into all kinds of operations without knowing in the least degree the nature of the parts they were dividing, and consequently without at- tending to the precautions necessary for averting danger. His surgery is arranged into three books ; the first treating of caustics, the second of surgical Vol. II.— H 86 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. diseases, and the third of luxations, together with some miscellaneous particulars. * Abulcasis is the only ancient writer on anatomy that has described the instruments used in each par- ticular operation. To him we owe the invention of the pro^ang, an elastic rod tipped with sponge, for dislodgmg extraneous substances from the gullet. Another instrument of his own, was that for ope- rating in fistula lachrj'malis, which he has explained, as also the needle used by the oriental surgeons for cataract. The knife, which he calls alnessil, and used in the section of a vein, as distinct from punc- ture, is by some presumed to be our common lancet — a term which the French borrowed from the an- cient Gauls- The myrtle and olive knives, so called from resembling in shape the leaves of these plants, were employed for blood-letting by incision. For opening veins in the forehead, use was made of the fosserium, said to resemble the phl^me for bleeding cattle, and which required percussion to make it penetrate the skin. We jearn"?rom Casiri, that among the Escurial manuscripts there is a treatise in the Cufic character, which contains a collection of plates of surgical instruments. Botany, as subsidiary to medicine, was cultivated by the Arabs with considerable success. This sci- ence they advanced far beyond the state in which it had been left by Dioscorides, who flourished about the commencement of the Christian era. His herbal they enriched by the addition of 2000 plants ; and their knowledge of the vegetable world enabled them to insert in their pharmacopoeias several ' remedies which had been unknown to the Greeks. Rhazes, Ali Abbas, and Avicenna are names that adorn the annals of this elegant and useful study ; but the most distinguished of all the Arabian bota- nists was Ibn al Beithar, a native of Malaga. In his zeal for herborizing, he travelled over every part of Europe, Africa, and Asia ; inspected and analyzed every thing that was rare, curious, or valuable in the LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 87 three kingdoms of nature ; and, on his return, pub- lished the result of his investigations in three books : first, on the nature and virtues of plants — second, on metals and minerals — and third, on animals. He died at Damascus in the year 1248, in which city- he held the dignity of vizier. Casiri mentions an- other eminent botanist, Ibn Phara, a celebrated phy- sician of Corella, who was appointed curator of the botanical garden of the Sultan Alnasar. Albiruni, who died in 941, travelled in India during the long, period of forty years, to observe the nature and properties of the mineral and vegetable kingdoms ; and has given the result of his researches in a rare and exceedingly valuable treatise on precious stones. The praise of originality, however, is more justly due to the Saracens for their discoveries in chymis- try, of which they may be considered as the invent- ors, in so far as regards its introduction into medi- cine. Before their time this science was degraded to the same level with magic and astrology, and confounded with the reveries of alchymy, or the art of making gold by means of the philosopher's stone, which is usually described as a red powder, having a peculiar smell. Besides the virtue of transmuting metals, this precious compound was beheved to have the inherent property of charming evil spirits, curing all diseases, aiid protracting the span of human ex- istence to an indefinite extent. The history of al- chymy, from first to last, is full of fiction and obscu- rity, and consists of little else than an account of dupes and impostors who made a livelihood by vend- ing their mystic nostrums to the ignorant at an ex- travagant price ; for, strange as it may appear, mul- titudes were found credulous enough to believe that wealth and immortality could be bottled up in thumb- vials, or extracted by means of the crucible from oxides and powders. This study, however, was attended witji many incidental advantages, by extending the boundaries 88 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. of chymical knowledge, teaching a greater degree of facility in operations, and leading to the discov- ery of many new and valuable sulDstances which, without some such strong incentive, would have perhaps remained much longer in obscurity. Struck with the result of investigations which they did not understand, the Arabs applied themselves to this de- partment of science, with the view of making it subservient to the composition of medicines and the cure of diseases. In conducting distillations, and detecting the properties of various bodies, they made great improvements. The three mineral acids were discovered ; the vegetable and mineral alkalies were distinguished from each other ; and the preparation of alcohol made known. Rhazes is generally allowed to be the first regular practi- tioner that made use of chymical remedies ; and from his mentioning corrosive sublimate and mer- curia.1 ointment, various preparations of arsenic, the sulphates of copper and iron, saltpetre, and borax, it is evident that the science had already passed its infancy. But the true patriarch of Arabian chymistry was the famous Geber, a native of Harran in Mesopota- mia, who lived in the eighth century. Little is known of this writer, except his works, which con- tain many and important chymical facts. Besides the metals, sulphur, and salt, with which the Greeks and Romans were familiar, he knew the method of preparing sulphuric acid, nitric acid, and aqua regia. He was familiar with the art of dissolving the metals, by means of these acids, and actually prepared nitrate of silver and corrosive sublimate. He was acquainted with potash and soda, both in the state of carbonates and caustic. He was aware that these alkalies dissolve sulphur, and he employed the process to obtain it in a state of purity. Of Geber's works, so far as they have appeared in Latin or English, we possess only four tracts ; LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. ^9 though D'Herbelot states that he wrote 500 volumes on chymistry. The greater number of chymical processes, such as they were almost to the end of the eighteenth century, were perfectly known to him ; and if we compare his writings with those of Dioscorides and Pliny, we shall perceive the vast progress which chymistry, or rather pharmacy, had made in the schools of the Saracens.^The early nomenclature of the science demj9ilstrates how much it owes to the Arabs^^.^he terms alcohol, alembic, alkali, aludel, au&'mhers, clearly indicate their derivation ; nor should it be forgotten that those characters of drugs, essences, extracts, and medicines which are frequently to be found in apothe- caries' shops, and which to vulgar eyes appear to be vested with occult powers of healing, are all to be traced to them. It is the opinion of Sprengel, that the writings of the Arabs, even at the present day, might be of service, were our chymists and physi- cians capable of perusing the works of Geber, Mes- sue, Rhazes, Averroes, and Avicenna in the native tongue. Allied to medicine was the science of astrology, which the Saracens cultivated with'great zeal. The doctrine of sidereal influences is very ancient ; and at a later peridfreach part and member of the human body was assigned to the custody or dominion of a particular star. The heart, brain, liver, spleen, bile, kidneys, and other viscera were successively aflfected by the sun and moon, and by the planets Jupiter, Saturn, Mercury, Mars, and Venus ; so that a physician, before he could understand or attempt to cure a disease, had to ascertain the magical harmony between the planets and the habits of his patient. He durst not venture to draw blood with- out consulting the position of the heavens, nor order a cathartic unless the constellations were favoura- ble. With a people so superstitious as the Arabs, such a science could not fail to be popular. Accord- H2 90 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. ingly its professors, independently of all medical considerations, were seen in the courts, and con- sulted in the cabinets of princes ; and no public or even private enterprise of moment was undertaken without previously obtaining the concurrence of the heavenly bodies. The most flourishing period of Arabian astron- omy was the reign of Almamoun, who was himself devoted to the study of this science. He caused a complete digest of it to be composed by the most eminent men of his court, and provided at his own cost the necessary instruments of observation. The land of the Chaldeans still supplied the same spacious level, the same unclouded horizon ; and under his munificent patronage the. philosophers of Bagdad, first on the plains of Shinar, and a second time on those of Cufa, accurately measured a de- gree of the great circle of the earth, and determined at 24,000 miles the entire circumference of our globe. The process by which this remarkable mea- surement was conducted is described by Abulfeda, from the relation of Ibn Khallican and the best his- torians. The obliquity of the ecliptic was calcu- lated at about ^venty-three degrees and a half; but not a single step was made towards the discov- ery of the solar system beyond the "hypothesis of Ptolemy. Among the Arabian astronomers were several who distinguished themselves both by their writings and observations. Albumazar published an Intro- duction to Astronomy — a Treatise on the Conjunc- tion of the Planets — and another on the Origin, De- rivation, and End of the World. The celebrated Alfragani composed a classical work entitled Ele- ments of Astronomy, of which a translation, with notes, has been given by Professor Golius, and which presents a concise exposition of Ptolemy's Almagest. This author likewise produced a trea- tise on solar clocks, and on the astrolabe. Moham- « LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 91 med ibn Musa, Abdallah ibn Salial, and Yahia ibn Mansor were eminent writers on this science, and their astronomical tables were admired for their exactness. Albathani (or Albategni), one of the most learned men that adorned the court of Mokta- der, was justly renowned as the author of the Sabian tables, drawn up from the astronomical observa- tions which he made in the course of forty years (A. D. 879-921), at Racca, on the Euphrates. His laborious researches were of the highest importance to the science. He gave a new and improved theory of the sun, from which some valuable results were derived ; and supplied the defects of the Ptolemsean tables by his more accurate observations. His work on " The Science of the Stars," which is still extant, long held a very high place in the estima- tion of philosophers. We owe to him a more cor- rect calculation of the obliquity of the ecliptic than had hitherto been made ; he also determined the annual movement of the equinoxes, and found the duration of the tropical year to be 365 days and a decimal fraction. His contemporaiy, Ibn Korrah, likewise observed the declination of the ecliptic — distinguished the motion of the apogee of the sun and planets from that of the stars in longitude ; and, Avhat is most im- portant of all, ascertained that the solar revolution was completed in 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, and 12 seconds — a calculation not very different from that now in use. Arzakel, the reputed author of the Toledan tables, who flourished towards the end of the eleventh century, was famous for his hypothesis to account for the diminution of the sun's eccen- tricity, which he conceived to have taken place since the time of Ptolemy, and the motion of the sun's apogee. His idea was adopted by Coperni- cus ; and subsequently applied to the moon by Ho- roccius, Newton, Flamstead, and Halley. Modern astronomy is indebted to the Saracens for 92 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. the introduction of observatories. Appended to the celebrated mosque at Seville was the lofty tower of the Giraldo, built under the superintendence of the famous mathematician Geber (A. D. 1196), which long served this purpose, and which still remains one of the most noble and ancient monuments, per- haps, in Christendom, in honour of this science. The learned Bailly attributes the revival of astron- omy to the Spanish Arabs, and the translations of the works of Alfragani. He affirms that Kepler drew the ideas that led to his discovery of the ellip- tical orbits of planets from Nureddin Petrucci, whose Treatise on the Sphere is preserved in the Escurial. From Lalande and Andres we learn that Alfonso X., king of Castile, who has immortalized himself by his astronomical pursuits, and whose tables have contributed so much to promote the knowledge of the heavenly bodies, received his information chiefly from the Moors, whom his liberality induced to settle at Toledo. The schools of Bagdad and Cordova did not neg- lect the study of optics. Alfarabi, Ibn Haitim, and Alhazen devoted their attention to this subject ; but the works of the two former are lost. The treatise of the latter, who wrote in the twelfth century, has been frequently noticed. It is cited by our distin- guished countryman Roger Bacon ; and was illus- trated by Vitellio, a native of Poland, who lived in the thirteenth century. In mathematics, though the Saracens did not ascend to the higher branches, yet in the other division of the science their know- ledge was far from being inconsiderable. The works of the most eminent Greek geometricians were translated, and the schools of the East sup- plied in their vernacular tongue with versions of Euclid, Theodosius, Hypsicles, Menelaus, and Apol- lonius of Perga. How highly these studies were valued by Alma- moim, may be imagined from his liberal offer of 100 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 93 pounds' weight of gold to engage in his service the famous mathematician Leo of Constantinople, who was then employed by the Emperor Theophilus in delivering lectures and establishing schools in his capital. But the invitation was declined ; as the Greeks, from a foolish vanity of their superior ex- cellence, were jealous of imparting to heathen the sacred fire of their learning. Ibn Korrah enriched the literature of his country with translations of Archimedes and the Conies of ApoUonius. But none of them seem to have bequeathed to the world any treatises of importance ; and, at the revival of letters in the fifteenth century, this branch of the science is said to have been found nearly in the state in which it was left by Euclid. Brucker, in his History of Philosophy, maintains that the Sara- cens owed their mathematical knowledge solely to the Greeks, and that the study made no progress w^hatever in their hands. But later writers, par- ticularly Montucla, have done ample justice to their researches in certain departments of this sublime science. Trigonometry derived from the Arabs the form which it still retains. They substituted the use of sines for that of the chord, which had been employed by the ancients. Ibn Musa and Geber composed original works on spherical trigonometry ; and Al- kendi, besides his own treatise, De Sex Quantitatihus, translated that of Autolycus, De Sphara Mota. Al- gebra, though not the invention of the Saracens, received valuable accessions from their talents ; and, on comparing them with their predecessors, their advances will perhaps be found as conspicuous as the improvements which have been suggested and the progress that has been made by later and even by modern proficients. Ibn Korrah and Ibn Musa are the earliest Arabian mathematicians who have treated on this science. The former wrote on the certainty of the demonstrations of the 94 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. algebraic calculus, and the latter is accounted the inventor of the solution of equations of the second degree. There is an original treatise by Omar ibn Ibrahim, on the Algebra of Cubic Equations, which exists in manuscript in the library of the Univer- sity at Leyden ; and we learn from Casiri that the principles and the praises of this science were sung in an elaborate poem by Alcassem, a native of Granada. The numerical characters, w^hich have tended so much to simphfy and abridge calculations, and with- out which none of the exact sciences could have been carried to the point at which they have arrived in our day, were beyond all doubt communicated to us by the Arabs. They were not, however, the inventors of these digits, which, as well as their arithmetic, they acknowledge to have received from the East ; and many of their treatises on this sub- ject they denominate " Indian Arithmetic," " The Art of Computing according to the Indians," &c. It is well known that the Hebrews, Greeks, and Ro- mans, and perhaps other nations, used alphabetical letters for the representation of numbers. The Indians adopted this simple and natural method ; and their original numerals, of which the Arabic ciphers are merely an abridgement, may be consid- ered as primitive words or characters. Their use and general diffusion in Europe must be ascribed to the persevering industry of the famous Gerbert, afterward Pope Sylvester II., who is the first phi- losopher known to have visited Spain in the pursuit of knowledge. On his return he founded two schools — one at Bobbio in Italy, and another at Rheims in France, both of which were numerously attended, and contributed to give a new turn to the study of philosophy. Their mathematical and mechanical knowledge the Arabs turned to various purposes of multiplying and improving the conveniences of life — such as the LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 95 construction of aqueducts, baths, cisterns, and ca- nals. Their acquaintance with hydrauhcs is mani- fest from the number of mills and other waterworks employed in the useful process of irrigation. Ac- customed to an arid and sultry climate, they consid- ered the command of water to be a material requi- site in every country Avhere they settled. The pon- tanos or reservoirs in Spain, and the tanks in Africa, were either erected or restored by them. Their palaces and mosques were furnished with capacious cisterns. The gardens of the Alhambra contained sheets of water, in the surface of which the build- ings were reflected ; and in most of the principal cities fountains played in the streets, as well as in the courts of the houses, by which the atmosphere was attempered during summer. Tn the famous palace of Toledo was a pond, in the midst of which rose a vaulted room of stained glass adorned with gold. Into this apartment the caliph could enter untouched by the water, and sit while a cascade poured from above, with tapers burning before him. We are not aware that any discoveries of theirs in hydrostatics have been transmitted to us ; but the titles of two works by the celebrated Alkendi are mentioned in Casiri, viz. on Bodies that Float on Water, and on Bodies that Sink. Architecture was an art in which the Arabs par- ticularly excelled ; and the revenues of kingdoms were expended in erecting public buildings, of which Jerusalem, Babylon, and Baalbec, afforded the most stupendous models. It has been observed as a cir- cumstance worthy of remark, that no people ever constructed so many edifices as the Arabs, who ex- tracted fewer materials from the quarry. From the Tigris to the Orontes, from the Nile to the Guadal- quiver, the buildings of the first settlers were raised from the wreck of cities, castles, and fortresses, which they had destroyed. In the style of architecture, the Arabs both of the LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. East and the West had a kindred resemblance, as appears by contrasting- the disposition of the apart- ments of the Alhambra, and other remains of Moor- ish art, with the accounts given by travellers relative to the general mode of oriental buildings. While little attention, comparatively, was bestowed on the exterior of their mansions, on the furniture and ac- commodation within every thing was lavished that could promote luxurious ease and personal comfort. Their rooms v/ere so contrived that no reverberation of sound was heard. The light was generally ad- mitted in such a manner as, by excluding external prospects, to confine the admiration of the spectator chiefly to the ornaments and beauties of the interior. Their arrangements for ventilation were admirable ; and by means of caleducts, or tubes of baked earth, warm air was admitted, so as to preserve a uniform temperature. The utmost labour and skill were expended in embellishing the walls and ceilings. Their tiles had a blue glazing over them ; their paving-bricks were made of different colours, — blue, white, black, or yellow, — which, when properly con- trasted, had a very agreeable effect. Nothing is more astonishing than the durability of the Moorish edifices. The stucco composition on their walls became hard as stone ; and, even in the present century, specimens are found without a crack or a flaw on their whole surface. Their woodwork also, which is of a more fragile nature, still remains in a state of wonderful preservation. The floors and ceilings of the Alhambra have withstood the neglect and dilapidation of nearly 700 years ; the pine-wood continues perfectly sound, without exhibiting the slightest mark of dry-rot, worm, or insect. The coat of white paint retains its colour so bright and rich, that it may be mistaken for mother-of-pearl. The history of Arabian architecture comprises a period of about 800 years ; which M. Laborde has divided into three distinct epochs, marking its rise, LITERATURE OF THE ARABS 97 progress, and decay. From the end of the thirteenth century, the era of its dechne in Spain, it exhibited a mixture of styles borrowed from the revival of the arts in Italy. The origin of what is called Gothic architecture, we know, has been much disputed ; but among the different hypotheses, that of Sir Chris- topher Wren, which derives it from the Arabs, is certainly the most probable. The crescent arch, said to be the symbol of a celebrated goddess whose worship among the ancients was universal, was first adopted by the Arabs of Syria, and invariably used in the edifices erected by them during the reigns of the Ommiades. After their dethronement the Ab- bassides, disdaining to imitate their rivals, introduced at Bagdad an arch resembhng the section of an oval taken below the transverse diameter. A similar form was adopted by the sovereigns of Granada ; but it is worthy of remark, that so long as the house of Moawiyah ruled in Spain, the arch of their Syrian ancestors prevailed from the Atlantic to the Pyre- nees. The Mohammedan religion was unfriendly to what we usually denominate the fine arts. To the first Moslems painting and sculpture were considered odious, as leading to idolatry and a breach of their Divine law. Subsequently, however, these scruples decreased as literature and the arts were introduced ; and the caliphs, both of the East and the West, evaded or violated with impunity the prohibitions of the Koran. At first, as a substitute for pictorial delineation, the orthodox artists patiently traced those Hneal ornaments of Mosaic and network which covered the interior of their mosques and palaces. It was the same religious feelings that gave birth to that peculiar style of embellishment, which from the Arabs has been denominated the Arabesque^ and which rejects human or animal figures ; the subjects, whether painted or sculptured, consisting wholly of imaginary plants, flowers, or foliage. In later times Vol. II.— I 98 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. the restraints of religion yielded more and more to the progress of the arts. Some of the Eastern caliphs caused their images to be stamped on their coins. In Spain, Abdalrahman 111. ventured to place the statue of his favourite mistress over the magnifi- cent palace which he had erected for her reception. The Alhambra had its sculptured lions, its orna- mented tiles, and historical paintings. In one branch of the fine arts, that of calligraphy or ornamental writing, the Saracens particularly ex- celled. The extensive manufacture of translations brought this necessary accomplishment to a very high degree of perfection. Afrihi ibn Adi, a Jacob- ite Christian, who flourished at Bagdad under the caliphs Mostakfi and Almoti, and was much em- ployed in transcribing books of literature, wrote so fine a hand as to resemble tj^ography ; and with such expedition, that in the course of a day and a night he could finish 200 pages. His contemporary Ahdab, surnamed Al Mozawer, or the Falsifier, was the most ingenious forger and imitator of penman- ship that any country ever produced. He could counterfeit any hand ; and with such dexterity, that even the person whose autograph was imitated could not distinguish the copy from the original. Ado- dowlah, the vizier of Almoti and Altai, turned this singular faculty to his own advantage, by causing him to write letters calculated to sow jealousy and dissension between such of the neighbouring princes as he wished to subdue ; and this fictitious corres- pondence often produced the desired effect. To the Chinese and Persians, the Arabs were indebted for their method of imparting a remarkable purity and neatness to their paper. They employed inks of extraordinary lustre, and studied to adorn their manuscripts with beautiful and vivid colours, so as to render them more pleasing to the eye. Music was an art to which the Arabs were ar- dently attached. But the rude and natural strains in LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 99 which the shepherds of the Desert sung their loves and their wars, became under the cahphs a study and a science. Its professors were cherished and honoured in the courts of their sovereigns, who en- couraged their exertions, as they did those of the poets, by handsome rewards. At Bagdad and Cor- dova schools were established expressly for the cultivation of this delightful art ; and from these seminaries issued many illustrious performers. Ot the effects of their skill some very extraordinary but well-attested instances have been recorded, which may justify the remark that, like the famed Timo- theus of old, they could, by the magic touches of their lute, raise or depress at pleasure the passions of their masters. Isaac Almouseli, so called from Mosul where he resided, is ranked by the orientals among the most distinguished musicians that ever lived. Mahadi, father of Haroun al Raschid, having accidentally heard him sing one of his compositions, accompanied by a lute, was so charmed with the performance that he appointed him chief musician to the court, — an office which he filled with univer- sal applause during the reign of five successive ca- liphs. Haroun, whose inauguration he commemo- rated in a short poem still extant, was delighted with his talents, and considered his presence neces- sary in every part of amusement. This prince had other reasons for admiring his musical powers. He had quarrelled with his fa- vourite mistress Meridah, and determined never to see her more. The lady became inconsolable. Jaaf- far, the vizier, imparted her distress to Almouseli, and requested him to perform before the caliph a song composed on the occasion ; which he did with such pathos of execution, that in a fit of sudden affec- tion, the repentant monarch rushed into the presence of Meridah, implored her to forgive his indiscretion, and bury their unhappy discords in eternal oblivion. Overjoyed at this unexpected revolution of fortune. 100 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. the lady ordered 10,000 drachms (229Z. 3^. 4^.) to be given to Jaaffar, and as much to Almouseli ; while the caliph doubled the present to both. Abu Mohammed, another musician of Bagdad, flourished in the reign of the Caliph Vathek, who was so enchanted with one of his compositions, that he threw his own robe over the shoulders of the performer, and ordered him a donation of 100,000 drachms (0291^. 13s. 6d.). The famous Al Farabi, whose universal attainments have been already no- ticed, was so eminently skilled in music, that he has been styled the Arabian Orpheus. On his return from the pilgrimage to Mecca, he introduced himself at the court of Saifadowlah, the first sultan of Alep- po, whom he astonished with the variety of his accomplishments. After disputing with the most learned doctors of the court, whom he put to silence, he joined a band of musicians that were accidentally performing, and accompanied them with his lute. The prince was delighted, and requested to hear some composition of his own, — one of which in three parts he immediately produced and distributed among the band. The first movement, we are told, threw the sultan and his courtiers into a fit of excessive laughter ; — the second melted them into tears ; — and the last lulled even the performers themselves to sleep. Al Farabi wrote a work on the subject, en- titled the Elements of Music, preserved in the Es- curial, which treats on the principles of the art, the harmony of natural and artificial sounds, and the va- rious kinds of musical composition, besides contain- ing the notes or gamut of the Arabs, and upwards of thirty figures of their musical instruments. Another work on the same subject is the Kitab Al Agani, or Great Collection of Songs, by the celebrated com- poser and poet Abulfaraji. Of two volumes, the first only is extant, which contains 150 ariettas, the lives of fourteen distinguished musicians, and four emi- nent female singers. There is a striking similitude LITERATrRE OF THE ARABS. 101 between the Arabian and the Italian gamut ; and it is highly probable that the terms, sol, fa, ut, &;c. used in the old mode of teaching music, were borrowed from the Moors of Spain. To the Saracens we are indebted for the invention of the lute, which they accounted the most beautiful of all instruments. They had likewise the organ, flute, harp, tabor, and the mandoline, with which they serenaded their mistresses. On these occasions, not only the words and air of their songs, but even the colour of their dress, indicated the triumph of the fortunate, or the despair of the rejected lover. Black and yellow denoted grief; green was expressive of hope ; blue, of jealousy ; and the violet or flame-colour, of im- passioned love. In addition to the musical instru- ments just mentioned, a recent traveller alleges that the bagpipe, which has so long been considered na- tional among the Scottish Highlanders, was unques- tionably of Arabic origin.* Without pretending to decide whether it be a native of Asia or Europe, we may remark that, in the two countries, there is a wonderful similarity both in the shape of the instru- ment and in the mode of playing it. The tube is perforated in the same manner ; the bag is angular, and pressed with the arm. The gaspah of the Arabs is a common reed open at both ends, like the Ger- man flute, with three or more holes in the side, ac- cordins: to the extent of the musician's abilities. The tarr, another of their instruments (the tympanum of the ancients), consists of a thin hoop of wood, with a skin of parchment stretched over the top like a sieve. This serves for bass in their concerts, and they touch it, like the tambourine, very dexterously with their fingers, knuckles, or palms. Connected with this art was the practice of employing j/'on»-Zewr5, who accompanied with their instruments the recita- tions of the poets. Dancing was a favourite amuse- * Colonel Johnson's Overland Journey. 12 102 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. ment with the Spanish Arabs ; and from them our ancestors borrowed the morris-dance, which formed a part of their May-games. To the diversions of hunting, hawking, and horsemanship, they were passionately addicted. Of all the sciences cultivated by the Arabs, agri- culture is that in which they made the greatest pro- gress. No civilized nation of their times possessed a code of husbandry more judicious or more perfect. Many of their learned men turned their attention to this subject, Kutsami, author of the Nabathaean Agriculture, Abu Omar, Abu Abdallah, Abu Zacha- ria, and others, afforded to their countrymen valuable instruction in the different branches of rural econ- omy. From these treatises it appears that the Saracens were well acquainted with the nature and properties of soils and manures ; and the proper application of them to every particular species of crops, trees, and plants. They were familiar with the rearing and management of cattle ; and the Eu- ropean horse was greatly improved by a mixture with the Arabian breed. They had a thorough knowledge of climate, and possessed the happy art of appropriating, in their various productions, the different soils to that kind of culture best adapted to them. Great care and skill were also bestowed on the formation of gardens, and the choice and ar- rangement of plants ; and by this means many valu- able exotics were naturalized. Besides rice, olives, oranges, and the sugar-cane, we are indebted to the Saracens for the introduction of the cotton-tree, the pistachio, ginger, myrrh, henna, sesame, saffron, spinach, and a variety of fine fruits and vegetables, now considered as indigenous. In ornamental gar- dening they took great delight ; studying the grati- fication of the eye as well as of the palate. Flowers and fountains of water they had in the richest abundance. A monument of their horticultural taste still remains in the garden of the Alcazar at Seville, LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 103 which is preserved in its original state. There are walks paved with marble, and so contrived that they can be turned into continuous fountains, by forcing up small jets of water from minute pipes inserted between the joining of the slabs. In metallurgy, or the working of mines and me- tals, there is evidence that the Arabs had arrived at considerable perfection. Their skill in the different manufactures of hardware was remarkable, and kno^vn to every civilized nation in the world. The blades of Mushraf and Damascus were not more renowned in the East than the swords of Granada and Toledo in the West. The temper of the Spa- nish arms was held in the highest repute ; that coun- try being the arsenal which supplied Europe and Africa with cuirasses, bucklers, casques, sciniitars, and daggers. The celebrated Alkendi, among his numerous works, produced a treatise on the differ- ent kinds of swords, in which the perfections of the metal are particularly discussed ; and another, on the art of preparing steel in such a manner that the edge of the weapon could neither be broken nor blunted. Of the skill of the Saracens in the forma- tion of porcelain, some exquisite proofs remain in the superb vases still preserved in the Alhambra, and in the glazed tiles which formed a distinguished ornament of their palaces. One species of manu- facture in which they pre-eminently excelled was that of tanning, currying, and dying leather ; which, though almost lost in Spain by the expulsion of the Moors, was transferred to Fez, where great numbers of them settled. The skins were stained with green, blue, or scarlet, of the liveliest tints, for which a peculiar sort of woad was used, and then finished with such a degree of brilliancy as to resemble var- nish. The art was afterward carried to England, where the terms Morocco and Cordovan are still ap- phed to leather prepared after their mode. Such then, was the state of perfection to which 1 104 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. literature, science, and the arts were carried, and continued to flourish from the ninth to the four- teenth century of our era, in those vast countries which had submitted to the yoke of Islam. The literary apparatus of the Saracens was splendid, and their progress merits all the eulogy that has been bestowed on it. Certain prejudices, however, de- prived them of part of the benefits which they might have reaped from a familiar intercourse with classic authors ;-and, as has been remarked, with all their enthusiasm for European learning, there is no ex- ample of a poet, an orator, or even an historian of Greece and Rome being translated into their lan- guage.* Though the Saracens cannot claim to rank high as inventors and discoverers, they must be acknow- ledged as the restorers of letters and the great deposi- taries of science. Many useful treatises, now lost in the original, were preserved in their language. Besides some of the commentaries of Galen mid Hippocrates, we owe to this cause the completion of the mathematical works of Apollonius Perggeus; part of ivhich, in Arabic, was discovered about the middle of the seventeenth century, in the Medicean Library, and part among the Bodleian Collection, of which a Latin version was given by the Savilian professors, Bernard and Halley. It is unquestion- able that a great number of the inventions which ^at the present day add to the comforts of life, and '^without which literature and the arts could never 'have flourished, are due to the Arabs. They taught ) us the use of the pendulum in the measurement of time ; and also of the telegraph, though not with all . the speed and efi'ect of modern ipiprovement. The [ manufacture of silk and cotton was brought by them * We must make one exception. Erpenius states, that in the great library at Fez, which contained 32,000 volumes, there was preserved an entire copy of Livy in Arabic— iower, deBiblioth. LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 105 into Spain, as was probably the art of dying black with indigo. They introduced the use of camels and carrier pigeons into Sicily. The art of enam- elling steel, the system of a national police, the principles of taxation, and the benefits of public libraries, were all derived from the same source. Rhyme, a pleasing characteristic of modern verse, though some have assigned to it a Gothic origin, was doubtless borrowed from the Saracens by the troubadours and Proven9al bards, w^ho derived from the same source the sentiment of honour, the mysticism of love, and the spirit of chivalry, so copiously infused into our early romances. Even Descartes, as Huet has asserted, was indebted to them for his celebrated metaphysical principle, Cogito, ergo sum. To them also belongs the honour of making us acquainted with the manufacture and I use of paper. This invaluable commodity, it is true, had from a very remote period been made in China from the refuse of silk, bamboo, and other sub- stances. About the year 649 the invention was introduced at Samarcand by the Tartars, who used cotton instead of silk ; and when that flourishing city was subdued by the Moslems, the process was conveyed to Mecca, by Yussuf Amru (A. D. 706), where paper was made similar to that now manu- factured, though it does not appear to have come immediately into general use. From Mecca, the art spread through all the Arabian dominions. In Spain, which was renowned for this article from the twelfth century downwards, flax, which grew there abundantly, was substituted for cotton, the latter being scarce and dear. Alphonso X. established paper-mills, and his example passed successively into France, Germany, and England. Gunpowder, the discovery of which is generally ^ attributed to Schwartz, a German chymist, was , known to the Arabs at least a century before any traces of it appear in European history. Though it 106 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. is probable they may have derived their knowledge I of this composition from the Indians, they certainly ''y improved its preparation, and found out different ways of employing it in war. The mariner's com- pass has been alternately given to the Italians and the French; but Tiraboschi, notwithstanding his partiality for his country, is decidedly of opinion that the honour of its invention is due to the Arabs. Its adoption in Europe is not older than the thir- teenth centmy, while among the Arabs it was known in the eleventh. The polarity of the magnet is alleged to have been known to Aristotle ; and something like the compass was in use among the Chinese ; but as the Saracens paid considerable attention to navigation, and often undertook long and laborious voyages, history has, with much probability, assigned to them the discovery of the magnetic needle. Some writers have offered a conjecture that this singular people paved the v/ay for our immortal Nev/ton towards discovering the doctrine of attrac- tion ; but as the astronomical treatises of the famous mathematician Mohammed ibn Musa, upon which this supposition is founded, are not extant, the hon- our of the English philosopher remains unimpaired. It is worthy of remark, that wdien the historians of the middle ages mention most of these inventions for the first time, they treat them, not as novelties, but as things in general use ; hence the presumption is, that they were all gradually imported by obscure individuals, and not by men of genius ; and that however much they may have altered our system of war, commerce, science, and education, they were brought by a people familiar with their practice, and from a country where they were already universally known. But whatever may be the claims of the Saracens to the praise of original genius, they formed the link which unites ancient and modern' letters. Their schools and academies were the shrines at LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 107 which the barbarized nations of the West rekindled the torch of science and philosophy ; and thus the ravages occasioned by their wars were, in some degree, expiated by their scattering the germs of social and intellectual improvement over the wide regions which they successively occupied. In the colleges of Cordova, Seville, and Toledo, the scho- lars of Italy, France, Germany, and England drank from the copious fountain of Arabian literature. Among the number of their distinguished students were Adelard, a monk of Bath, in the eleventh cen- tury, Morley, a native of Norfolk, and our country- man, the celebrated Michael Scott, who is only known in Scotland by his reputation as a wizard. By the command of Charlemagne, the principal Arabic books were translated into Latin, for the use of the people in the various provinces of his empire. For several centuries medicine found a secure re- treat at Salerno and Montpellier, whither students flocked from all quarters of Europe, and where the Christians became acquainted with the works of Galen and Hippocrates, Even the Greeks and Jews did not disdain to learn the healing art from the Saracens, many of whom were induced by the liberality of Alphonso X. to settle at Toledo, The Arabian arithmetic, introduced by Gerbert, was im- proved by Leonardo, a merchant of Pisa, who learned the art during his residence at Algiers, about the commencement of the thirteenth century ; and to thai commercial republic may be attributed the dis- tinction of being the first among the Christian states of the West which employed this system of nota- tion. In short, without exaggerating the labours of the Arabs, it may be said that we are indebted to them, not only for the revival of the exact and phy- sical sciences, but for most of those useful arts and inventions that have wrought so total a change, and given so beneficial an impulse to the literature and civilization of Europe. It \\ 108 CIVIL HISTORY AND CHAPTER IV. CIVIL HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. Extinction of the Saracen Power— Formation of new Kingdoms in the East— Victories and Dominions of Timur— Conquests of the Turks and Portuguese in Arabia— Selim I. obtains the Investiture of the CaUphate — Expulsion of the Turks by the Independent Arab Chiefs— Dominions of the Imam of Sanaa — His Government, Revenues, and Military Force — Descrip tion of Sanaa— Visits of European Travellers to that Capital — Principal Town in Yemen— Beit el Fakih — Taas— Mocha — Aden — Government of Hadramaut — Of Oman — Description of Muscat — Court, Revenues, and Commercial Enterprise of the Imam— Islands of Bahrein — Pearl Fisheries — Depreda- tions of the Joassamee Pirates in the Persian Gulf— Various Expeditions from India to suppress them — Reduction of Ras el Khyma and their principal Fortresses — Arab Settlers on the Persian Frontier — Classification of the wandering Be- douin Tribes — Their migratory Habits and Military Strength — Government of their Sheiks — Their Laws and Judicial Trials — Reflections on their Political Institutions. The history of the Saracens, both as a military and a political nation, may be said to have expired with the reduction of Bagdad by the grandson of Zingis Khan. The successors of Mostasem, to the number of eighteen, called the Second Dynasty of the Ab- bassides, were merely the spiritual chiefs of the Mo- hammedan religion. For two centuries and a half the ecclesiastical supremacy continued in the hands of these venerable phantoms ; when at length the tide of invasion swept away the only remaining vestige, and feeble representative, of the once proud caliphs of the East. Long before the downfall of the Abbassides, Arabia had shared in the declining fortunes of its masters. Instead of being the seat of the successors of the Prophet, or the centre of GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 109 B mighty empire, it had dwindled into the condi* tion of a province ; where, except in the charactef of pontiff, the power of the sovereign was httle re^ garded. Amid the distractions of foreign wars many- chiefs of the interior shook off their precarious alle- giance, and resumed their ancient habits of inde- pendence. Only the coast and the principal cities acknowledged the yoke of the neighbouring mon- archs ; and during the hostilities which for 300 years desolated the continent of Asia, the Arabs mingled with the auxiliary bands that swelled the ranks of the Egyptians and Persians in their san-» guinary campaigns against the Turks and Tartars. In the West, their unwieldy empire, despoiled of Spain, Africa, and the Mediterranean islands, had shrunk within its original boundary, the Red Sea,' but their power was not increased by the dismem* berment of these remote provinces. The com* manders of the faithful had been stripped of miich val* uable territory in Asia by Mahmoud of Ghizni and his successors, the founders of the Mohammedan powei* in India. The race of the Gaurides and the Afghans, Who had supplanted the descendants of that warlike sultan (A. D. 1160), and extended the dominions and the faith of Islam from Delhi and Lahore to the dis- tant extremity of the vast province of Bengal, yielded in their turn to the swords of the Moguls (A. D.1413)| Who, from being the conquerors, became the sove- reigns of that peninsula. Persia, whose jewelled sceptre had fallen from the nerveless grasp of the despicable successors of Omar and AU, was long a prey to every daring adventurer who had the courage to seize it. For a hundred years it was ruled by Hoolaku and his descendants, whose fortunes may be said to have ended with the weak and indolent Abu Seyd (A. D. 1356) ; for the few princes that sue-' ceeded him were mere pageants, whom the nobles of the court elevated or cast down as suited the purposes of their ambition. From an obscure ad' Vol. II.— K ^rO" CIVIL HISTORY AND venturer, Ismael, at the age of eig-hteen, became^ sole monarch of the country (A. D. 1502), and founder of the Suffavean dynasty, which continued to hold the reins of government till the beginning of the last century. The empire of the great Zingis, which had de- stroyed and superseded the temporal power of the caliphs, was itself doomed to experience the same fate from the fierce Tartars, who, bursting in swarms from their immeasurable steppes, and rolling on- ward like a resistless torrent, overthrew in one common ruin the thrones of the principal dynasties of the East, The renowned Timur, or Tamerlane, who as chief of one of these tribes had ascended the throne of Zagatai in 1370, was the leader of those barbarous invaders. A fertile kingdom of 500 miles in length and as many in breadth might have satisfied a man of ordinary ambition ; but this Alexander of the Desert aspired to the conquest and monarchy of the Avhole world : and before his death he had the rare fortune to place twenty-seven crowns on his head. With an army occupying a space of thirteen miles from wing to wing he left his capital of Samarcand. The hostile nations yielded in succession to his arms, and his name was pronounced with terror from the Ganges to the distant wilds of Siberia. Penetrating to the " regions of perpetual daylight," he made himself master of the Russian capital of Moscow; where the astonished Moslems found themselves for the first time relieved from the obligations of evening prayer. Everywhere his course was tracked by desolation and blood. At Ispahan, Bagdad, and two other places on the road to Delhi, pyramids of human sculls, amounting to 70,000, 90,000, and 100,000 respectively, were raised as the barbarous monu- ments of his triumphs. The battle of Angora (A. D. 1402) has immortalized the glory of Timur and the defeat of his rival Bajazet, the fourth of the Ottomas^ GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. ' 111 emirs, who gratified the pride and vengeance of his conqueror in the captivity of an iron cage. This decisive victory cost the Uvcs of about 200,000 Turks and nearly as many Tartars. The dominions of this wonderful man were inferior in extent only to those of the Saracens in the zenith of their power. The star of Timur rose and set amid scenes of carnage ; and his race, as well as his empire, might have become extinct, had not Baber, the grandson of Abu Seyd already mentioned, after a long and noble struggle against the Uzbeck Tartars, the ene- mies and subverters of his family, retired to India, where his great talents obtained 'for him one of the most splendid thrones in the world. This sultan was the first that received the title of Emperor of Hin- dostan, and Avith him commenced (A. D. 1526) the sovereignty of the Great Mogul in that peninsula, which flourished till the beginning of the eighteenth century, when it received its death-blow in the fall of Aurengzebe (A. D. 1707),— a prince who raised it to the zenith of its glory, and whose sway extended over a region containing 64,000,000 inhabitants. His successors have in their turn vanished from the scene ; and their richest kingdoms are now pos- sessed by a company of British merchants. Though the Turkish sultans could not, like the Arabian cahphs, style themselves the descendants and successors of the apostle of God, they piously espoused the cause of the Koran ; and, like the Sa- racens, affected to wage war only for the interest* of Islam. Selim I., after reducing the whole penin- sula of Mesopotamia, made himself master, in 1516, of Syria and Eg>^pt. The Arabs alone refused him their obedience. Since the ruin of the caliphate, they had in a great measure shaken off the foreign authorities to which they had been partly subject. The neighbouring powers, too much engrossed with their own quarrels, had never attempted their sub- jugation ; till the Portuguese, under Gama, made their appearance in the Red Sea (A. D. 1504). 12 CIVIL HISTORY AND Instigated by the fanatical ambition of founding- an Eastern empire, the King of Portugal had assumed, among other magnificent titles, that of *' Lord of the Navigation, Conquest, and Commerce of Arabia;" and commenced the exercise of his prerogative by capturing a Moorish vessel, the crew of which were treated in the most savage manner. From the beginning of the sixteenth century dif- ferent expeditions from Lisbon visited the Arabian eoast, Alphonso Albuquerque, in 1506, reduced Curiat, Muscat, and other important cities on both sides of the Persian Gulf. Gauri, the last of the Mamlouk sultans of Egypt, before his overthrow by Selim, desirous to rid his neighbourhood of these troublesome adventurers, fitted out an expc' dition, and seized most of the ports on the Red Sea. But on the extinction of that dynasty the greater part of these cities fell again into the hands of their European masters. The Ottomans, in order to secure the possession of Egypt, and restore to its ports the lucrative trade of the East, found it ne,. cessary to continue the war against the Portuguese in co-operation with the sultans of India. Solyman Pasha, the governor of Cairo, was ordered by Selim to equip at Suez a fleet of seventy galleys, manned by 7000 of the best Turkish soldiers. With this powerful armament he recovered all the towns on the Arabian Gulf as far as Aden. Another circumstance tended to confirm the do- minion of Selim over Arabia. One of the descend-, ants of the caliphs of Bagdad (Mohammed XL), on the ruin of that capital by the Moguls, had fled to Egypt ; and being the last of the sacred race, his family were treated with all the respect due to the successor of the successors of the Prophet. A scion of this fallen trunk of the Abbassides was found by Selim at Cairo in 1517, and conducted to Con- stantinople, where he maintained him at his own expense, and at his demise received from him the formal renunciation of the caliphate. In this emptv GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 113 title the Turkish sovereign obtained a distinction, which secured to him and his descendants the veneration of all Mussulmans of the Sonnee sect. The posterity of this last of the caliphs have sunk to the level of subjects ; but the spiritual influence and supremacy derived from this investiture is by no means a barren privilege, even to the present occupant of the Turkish throne. Partly by gifts, and partly by intimidation, Selim allured many of the Arabian chiefs and commanders to his al- legiance. Even the Sheriff of Mecca delivered to him the keys of the sacred city, and openly acknovi^- ledged his sovereignty. By the influence of this venerated personage, many of the wandering tribes of the Desert were induced voluntarily to submit to his authority, and to deliver hostages for their future obedience. From this circumstance, and from this period, may be traced the duty which has been annually performed by the Turkish sultans, as commanders of the faithful, of conducting the zealous Moslems on their pilgrimage to the sacred territory, — a privilege which was henceforth dele- gated to the Pasha of Damascus, and to whom it still belongs. The conquests of Selim left his son, Solyman I., little to achieve in Asia, except to preserve and con- solidate the vast empire which he had acquired. In Arabia this sultan, who appears to have carried the^ Ottoman name to the highest pitch of glory, em- ployed his arms with great success. From Suez to Aden the whole coasts acknowledged his power. Penetrating inland, he obtained possession of Yemen, and even carried his victories into some of the mountainous regions beyond its northern frontier ; so that the peninsvila became almost entirely an appendage of the Turkish empire, governed by pashas or beglerbegs appointed by the Porte. The reigns of Achmet II. and Mustapha II. (A. D. 1696) were disturbed by revolts of the Arab tribes, K2 i 14 CIVIL HISTORY AND who plundered and impeded the pilgi-ims on their >'Oute, and even made the Khan of the Tartars himself their prisoner. The former, unable to con- quer, was glad to compound with the sheiks of the Desert ; while the latter, through the bravery of Arslan, the Pasha of Tripoli, defeated the free' hooters, and upheld the authority of the Turkish emperor as protector of the sacred territory. Nadir Shah made an attempt to subdue the Arabs who constantly infested his frontier; and, in the pro^ secution of this object, had at an immense expense equipped a fleet of twenty-five sail on the Persian Gulf. But the success of the expedition was frus- trated by religious animosities ; for the sailors, being Indians, who were Sonnees, refused to fight against their brethren of the same orthodox faith ; and after massacring their Sheah oflicers they carried off the ships. Another of his schemes was to transport these troublesome neighbours to the shores of the Caspian Sea, and settle a colony of Persians in their room ; but his tragical death, in 1747, prevented the execution of this project. The precarious authority of the Turks received frequent shocks from the independent princes and sheiks in the interior, who had never been sub' dued. So early as 1630 they were expelled from Yemen, where their name and their government were alike odious, and obliged to evacuate all the 1 places on the coasts, which they had occupied for more than a century. The sultans style themselves sovereigns of Hejaz ; but their sole title to this distinction consists in a few slender prerogatives, which may now be considered as nearly annihi- lated. As lord-paramount, the grand seignior can appoint or depose a governor, though lie dare not always venture to punish a rebel. The revenues which he draws from this capricious province are proportionate to his diminished authority, being limited to a few trifling dues at certain ports. These GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 115 are, however, more than counterbalanced by his ex- penditure in pensions, grants, and pious foundations estabhshed at the different sacred places. Except under the reigiis of the warlike caliphs, the same primitive and simple form of government may be said to have subsisted in Arabia from the most remote period of its history. Among the modern Bedouins it remains in all its purity; in other parts it has undergone some changes, without, however, being materially altered. The whole pe- ninsula is divided unequally among a vast number of petty sovereigns, under different titles, and ex- ercising various degrees of authority ; bearing a strong analogy to those social arrangements which appear to have prevailed in Europe in the middle ages, and more recently among the Highland clans of Scotland ; except only that the inferior chiefs have seldom been in a state of vassalage, and never knew the feudal government. In the fertile and civilized districts, monarchies more or less exten- sive have been formed, either by conquest or by re- ligious prejudices. Among the most considerable of the Arabian princes is the imam, who resides at Sanaa, and who may be styled King of Yemen, as his dominions ex- tend over the greater part of that large and fertile province. The elevation of this royal family is coeval with the expulsion of the Tui'ks in 1630, — a revolution which was achieved by their ancestor the famous Khassem, who traced his descent from the Prophet. It was while residing privately ov his patrimonial inheritance, on the mountains nei Loheia, that with the aid of the neighbouring sheiks he freed his country from the odious swa) of the Ottoman pashas. Raised thus to the dig- nity of a sovereign, he assumed the modest title of sejid, or lord ; but, after his death, the gratitude of the nation bestowed on him the epithet of The Great. 116 CIVIL HISTORY AND His son Ismael adopted the title of imam : he was so economical that he made and sold bonnets for his livelihood, to save the public revenue, and re- stricted his household to one wife and a female slave. He died after a reign of thirty years, and was held in the highest esteem, both for his talents and his piety. His descendants, to the number of eleven in succession, had filled the throne at the time when the traveller Niebuhr visited that coun- try. The interval had been signalized by the con- tests of various pretenders to the crown, chiefly of the reigning family. The imam Mahadi, who as- cended the throne in 1746, had some formidable adversaries to oppose, particularly the heroic Ab- durrab, governor of the small province of Hosjerie, who proclaimed himself an independent sheik. After taking possession of Kataba, Taas, and other districts, on which he levied heaiy contributions, the imam was obliged to conclude a peace with him. Though the throne of Yemen is hereditary, and devolves, if generally approved by the subjects, on the eldest legitimate son, yet the rightful succes- sion is often violated. The jurisdiction of the imam in ecclesiastical matters, though absolute among his own subjects, extends not over the dominions of other sovereigns of the same sect, who employ a mufti or cadi as their spiritual ruler. In the exer- cise of his prerogative he is controlled by the su- preme tribunal of Sanaa, of which he is only presi- dent, and which consists of a certain number of cadis, possessing the sole power of life and death. These assessors, generally persons of incorruptible integrity, are nominated by the sovereign, and re- movable at his pleasure — a circumstance which, if he is disposed to abuse his authority, puts it in his power to extort their suffrages by threatening them with disgrace ; but this extreme measure is seldom resorted to. The public offices at court are numer- GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 117 ous, but titles of honour are few. The first minister is simply styled fakih — an appellation so vague as to include all holding place or employment who are in any degree above the vulgar. Every petty dis- trict has its governor, who, if not of princely or noble birth, is called walih and dowlah, or sometimes emir, when he happens to be of low extraction. A dowlah in Yemen resembles a pasha in Turkey, only acting in a more restricted sphere. He com- mands the forces in his province, regulates the po- lice, and collects the taxes. They are all obliged to render frequent account of their administration ; and to prevent their accumulating too much wealth where the governments are lucrative, they are re- called every two or three years. When guilty of high misdemeanors, or convicted of malversation, they are punished by imprisonment or confiscation, but seldom capitally. Every city in which a dowlah resides has likewise a cadi, who is sole judge in civil and ecclesiastical affairs. In large villages the chief is a sheik ; and in every little town a sub-dow- lah resides, with a small garrison of soldiers to pre- serve order. The emir hahr is the inspector of sea^ ports ; and in the inland districts the sheik el belled is the officer who levies taxes, and determines what each individual must pay. Sales and markets are regulated by their own emir ; the principal gates in cities and fortresses are intrusted to similar ofiicers ; even the post of chief jailer and watchman is hon- ourable, and an object of ambition. Where the governments are considerable, the dowlahs are at- tended by a bas-kateh, or comptroller, whose business it is to keep a strict eye upon their conduct, and acquaint the imam with the general state of affairs. This spy, by his misrepresentations, often supplants the governor ; but he is himself placed at the mercy of another bas-kateb, and shares in his turn the fate of his predecessor. The revenues of the img,m arise both from a land 118 CIVIL HISTORY AXD and a poll tax, and from duties payable on articles of merchandise. Coffee affords a very considerable income, as the crown is entitled to receive a fourth part of the selling price before it can be put on board ship for exportation. The different departments vary in their contributions according to circum- stances. Niebuhr learned that Mocha, in the sum- mer season, when vessels from India arrive and de- part, paid 7000 crowns per month — at other times only 4000 ; Loheia yielded 3000 crowns ; Hodeida, 1400; Beit el Fakih, 3600; and Zebid 1400.* It is difficult to obtain accurate knowledge either of the Tevenue or expenditure of the Arabian princes. Strangers are obliged to use great caution in putting questions on this subject, otherwise their curiosity may cost them their head. Oraki, a Jew, and sur- veyor-general of buildings, the person whom the Danish traveller consulted, estimated the income of Mahadi at 830,000 crowns, or 188,306Z., a month ; but in consequence of the temporary loss of Kataba, Aden, Abu Arish, Taas, and some other provinces, it was reduced nearly one-half. The military force of Sanaa, though not precisely known, consisted, according to Niebuhr, of about 4000 infantry and 1000 cavalry. The chief com- mand of the army was intrusted to four sheiks ; and under them were many nakibs, or officers of an in- ferior class, some of whom had been raised from the condition of slaves. Nakib is the highest title that the sovereign can confer, that of sheik being hered- itary, and peculiar to petty princes or independent Arabs. In tinies of peace the military are employed as state pageants, or engaged in civil occupations. The cavalry attend the imam or the dowlah to the mosque, wherever their head-quarters may happen to be ; and, after conducting their master home, they exercise themselves in arms and horsemanship, * The German crown is equal to 4s. 6^d. nearly. GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 119 which they perform with great dexterity. The cav- alry have no uniform, every one dressing according to his own fancy. Their arms are a long lance, a sabre, a curved dirk stuck in their girdle, and some- times a pair of pistols in the holsters of their sad- dles. A pair of boots are drawn on their naked legs, and the ends of their turbans flow down be- tween their shoulders. The infantry, while in garrison, have little else to do than act as sentinels or foot-guards to the dow- lah. In accompanying him to the mosque they use wild and grotesque gestures, flourishing their scimi- tars or their muskets in the air, and singing and leaping like men insane or intoxicated — a practice ivhich is supposed to have some reference to an ancient usage of exciting courage when marching to battle. Their pay Niebuhr states at two crowns and a half per month, and their dress is as irregular as that of the cavalry. The greater number wear nothing but apiece of short linen around their loins, and over that is a girdle in which their curved dag- ger is fixed. Their heads are covered M'ith a ker- chief or a cap of blue linen ; and their hair, which is long, is knotted or folded up into a kind of bag. A buckler, sabre, and lance are their ordinary arms ; and they are trained in the use of musketry. They have a singular method of displaying their courage and fidelity in battle, resembling that of the soldurit among the Romans. A soldier willing to evince his devoted attachment to his chief binds up. his leg to his thigh, and continues to fight until the enemy are routed, or himself cut to pieces. The marine of Yemen is on a very limited scale, a naval force being unnecessary, as there is little to dread from enemies or corsairs. Sanaa, the capital of the imam, stands at the foot of Mount Nikkum. Abulfeda describes it as being the largest city in Yemen, and resembling Damas- cus for the multitude of its waters and orchards y 120 CIVIL HISTORY AND but the wealth and populousness which it enjoyed under the Hamyarite kings no longer exist. Nie- buhr, who resided in it for a short time, says the cir-^ cumference is not more than an hour's walk ; and the inhabitants are not so numerous as this extent might lead us to suppose^ a considerable part of the space being occupied with gardens. The walls are constructed of earthy faced with unburnt brick, and surmounted by a great many small turrets ; and if we can believe the report of the French travellers Who visited Yemen in 1712, their breadth is suffi- cient to admit of driving eight horses abreast.* It has seven gates, and a number of mosques, some of which were erected by the Turkish pashas. The public baths are only twelve ; but there are several noble edifices built in the Arabian style. No less than three palaces were erected by the imam Ma- hadi : these are constructed partly of brick, and partly of hewn stone ; but they must not be judged, ill point of elegance or accommodation, by the standard of European taste. Only one of them could boast the luxury of glass windows, though they are provided with extensive gardens. Some of the principal inhabitants have in their country- houses small panes of stained glass, brought fronl Venice. In the city the windows have merely shut- ters, which are closed in time of rain, and the house is then lighted by a round wicket fitted with a piece of Muscovy glass. Here, as in most other places in the East, there are large simseras or caravansaries for merchants and travellers ; as also separate bazars for wood^ coal, iron, grapes, corn, butter, salt, bread, and the bartering of old clothes for new. The other trades^ including all who traffic in the merchandise of India, Persia, and Turkey, as well as those who deal in all sorts of spices and drugs — the fruiterers, carpen- * Voyage de 1' Arable Heureuse. GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 121 ters, smiths, shoemakers, saddlers, tailors, stone- cutters, goldsmiths, barbers, cooks, and writers or scribes, have each their respective stand in the open street, with their little portable shops. Jews are not permitted to live in the city ; they reside, to the number of about 2000, in a village in the suburbs. They are treated with great contempt ; yet the best artisans in Arabia are of this nation, especially pot- ters and goldsmiths, who come within the walls by day to work in their little shops, and in the evening retire to their own habitations. Many of them carry on a very considerable trade, and are occa- sionally advanced to places of trust. Oraki was an eminent merchant before he was made by the imam comptroller of customs and surveyor of the royal buildings and gardens. He had incurred the dis- pleasure of his master shortly before the arrival of the Danish traveller, and his disgrace involved his countrymen in a severe persecution. Fourteen of their synagogues were demolished by order of the government ; all the stone pitchers in which they kept their wine were broken ; all their houses above 14 cubits high (25i feet) were pulled down, and none exceeding that height w^ere permitted to be raised in future. Fruits are very abundant. It is said there are more than twenty different species of grapes, one of which is without stones ; and as they do not all ripen at the same time, they continue to afford a de- licious refreshment for several months. By pre- serving and hanging them in their cellars the citi- zens secure an agreeable food the greater part of the year. Vast quantities of them are dried ; and the exportation of raisins forms a considerable branch of traffic. The adjacent plain of Rodda is covered with gardens, and watered by small streams. Timber for firewood is scarce and dear, the hills in the vicinity being bleak and bare ; so that this article is brought from the distance of three days' journey, Vol,. TI.— L 122 CIVIL HISTORY AND and a camel's load costs two crowns. There is a partial supply of pit-coal, and even peat is used, but of so bad a quality as to require a mixture of straw to make it burn. The castle contains a mint, and a series of prisons for persons of different ranks. It is the residence of several princes of the blood. The battery consisted, when Niebuhr visited it, of seven iron cannons, partly buried in the sand and partly mounted upon broken carriages ; and these, with six others near the gates, which are fired on festival-days, were all the artillery of the metropolis of Yemen. The first Europeans that visited the court of Sa- naa were the deputation of a company of French merchants of St. Malo engaged in the coffee-trade, during their second expedition in 1711 and the two following years. The residence of the imams was then at Mohaib or Mouab, a small town to the north of Sanaa, and eight days' journey from Mocha. It was built by the sovereign then on the throne, Mo- hammed, who was involved in perpetual wars ; and appeared remarkable for nothing but its palace, which consisted of two large wings three stories high. The walls and most part of the houses were of mud. That prince is described as an old man, eighty- seven years of age, of a complexion inclining to tawny, and an agreeable aspect. In his dress he maintained the greatest simplicity, never wearing any other habit than a fine cloth of a green or yellow colour, without any ornament. His legs and feet were bare, with the exception of slippers after the Turkish fashion. The only mark of distinction was a kind of veil of white silk over his turban, which covered his head, and, falling down before, was tied under his chin like a woman's hood. The same plainness and modesty of attire were observed in the courtiers and other officers of the household. The grandees never approached him without taking hold of his right hand, which was laid upon his GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 123 knee, and kissing it with the most profound re- spect. The only thing Uke state ceremony, and in which the simple manners of the court were laid aside, occurred when his majesty went to the mosque. On these occasions there was a splendid military pa- rade, including infantry, cavalry, and officers of the palace. The king rode a beautiful wliite charger, which nobody else was permitted to mount. By his side were the two princes, his sons, on horses richly caparisoned. Over his head, as a screen from the heat, was borne a large parasol or canopy of green damask, with a red fringe ornamented with gold tassels, and surmounted by a globe of gilt sil- ver. Immediately before the royal person rode an officer carrying the Koran in a bag of red cloth ; the sword-bearer rode behind. During the march of this pageant, tambours, timbrels, and hautboys ceased not to play ; and, to swell the train, they were joined by fifty led horses and as many camels from the king's stables at Damar, which had sad- dles, bridles, and housings, ornamented with gold and silver, with a battle-axe suspended on the one side, and a beautiful sabre on the other. The heads of the camels were furnished with tall plumes of black ostrich feathers. The place of prayer was a pavilion or open tent, into which the sovereign alone entered, the spectators performing their de- votions at the same time, and imitating the imam in the various motions of the requisite ceremonies. The French deputies were astonished at contrast- ing the size and elegance of the palace with the homeliness of its furniture. The walls were merely hung round with a piece of printed calico, five or six feet in breadth ; and its only accommodation was a sofa, with plain cushions and carpets, which served the purposes of chair, table, and bed. The plains in the vicinity were sown with rice and wheat ; Avhile nearly all' "the hills and valleys were covered with 124 CIVIL HISTORY AND vines, coffee, and fruit trees of every description. The royal gardens were extensive, but presented nothing particular, except in the arrangement of the shrubberies, which contained specimens of all the trees known in the kingdom. The harem was kept in the castle, and replenished with 600 or 700 women. When they ventured abroad, their ordinary convey- ance was on the backs of camels, enclosed in a sort of cage covered with scarlet and stuffed with cush- ions, on which they sat or lolled at pleasure. The only entrance into this sedan was by a small open- ing before, which was covered with a curtain or veil of fine linen. The ladies in general used a pro- fusion of scents and odours ; many of them had large gold rings suspended from the end of their nose, besides bracelets of the same metal on their arms, neck, and ankles. When Niebuhr visited the court of Yemen, fifty years afterward, Mohaib had ceased to be the royal residence. Damar contained about 5000 houses, with a dowlah, and a university attended by nearly 500 students. At Sanaa the Danish travellers were conducted to the royal presence by the secretary of the vizier. The court of the palace (the Bustan el Motakkel) was so crowded with horses, officers, and servants, that it would have been impossible for the strangers to force their way, had not the principal equerry, who had formerly been a slave, opened a passage through the crowd with the aid of a ponder- ous staff in his hand. The hall was a spacious square chamber, having an arched roof, lighted from the top. In the centre was a large basin, with some jets d'eau rising to the height of fourteen feet. Be- hind this reservoir was a platform about a foot and a half high, and five feet in length. On this was set the throne slightly elevated, and resembling a square pedestal or altar, covered with silk stuffs. The floor of the apartment was spread with Persian carpets. The imam sat half-buried in cushions, with his legs GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 125 across. His dress was a bright green robe with full sleeves, such as were worn by the caliphs. On each side of his breast was a rich filleting of gold lace, and on his head he wore a white turban of ample dimensions. His sons sat on his right-hand, and his brothers on his left. Opposite to them was the vizier, Fakih Achmed, and on the lower elevation were placed the European visiters. On each side of the hall were ranged the principal grandees and officers of the court, who all shouted, " God save the imam !" as the strangers kissed the hem of the royal robe. The pompous manner of going to mosque, which is described by the French travellers, was witnessed by the Danes. The better to display his magni- ficence, the imam usually made along and circuitous progress, passing out by one gate of the city and entering by another ; his train, after prayers, being joined by all the inhabitants who have performed their devotions. A large body of soldiers marched before ; and, besides the princes of the blood, there were in the procession at least 600 noblemen, eccle- siastics, civil and military oflicers, all superbly dressed and mounted ; the rear was brought up by a vast concourse of people on foot, and by a number of camels in pairs, bearing empty sedans, and small flags fixed by way of ornament to their saddles. On eacn side of the imam was borne a standard, sur- mounted by a small box or casket of silver filled with amulets, whose virtues were supposed to render him invincible. Various other banners were forti- fied with similar talismans. The same rich cano- pies, called medallas, were extended over the heads of the king and some other members of his family ; these being a distinction peculiar to the sovereign and princes of the blood, and claimed by the sheiks, sheriffs, and nobility in other parts of Yemen, who constantly display this mark of their independence. Altogether, the cortege was magnificent but disor- L2 126 CIVIL HISTORY AND derly, the multitude crossing and jostling each other. The firing of the military was awkward, as were their evolutions and exercises in front of the palace. After their audience with the imam, the strangers paid their respects to Fakih Achmed. The vizier's house was not large, and on one side entirely open on account of the heat. The garden was stocked with fruit trees, and in the middle was a jet (Teau, wrought by an odd sort of hydraulic machinery ; the water being put in motion by means of an ass and a man alternately mounting and descending an. inclined plane. This apparatus was less for orna- ment than use in cooling the air, and was common in the gardens of all the principal inhabitants of Sanaa. The traveller and his companions, on the eve of their departure, received from the imam each a complete suit of clothes, with a letter to the Dowlah of Mocha, desiring him to pay them 200 crowns as a farewell present ; while the secretary had orders to furnish camels and asses for the whole of their journey, besides a quantity of provisions. The dress Niebuhr describes as being exactly like that worn by the Arabs of distinction throughout Yemen, con- sisting of a shirt over wide drawers of cotton cloth, and a vest with straight sleeves covered by a flow- ing gown. The turban is very large, falling down between the shoulders. The jambea, a sort of crooked cutlass or dagger, is inserted in a broad girdle, and to the handle is sometimes attached a kind of chaplet or rosary, which the Mohammedans use at prayers. Since the visit of the Danish travellers internal wars and political revolutions have MTOUght many changes in Yemen, and greatly eclipsed the splen- dour of that ancient monarchy. About the com- mencement of the present century, Mr. Pringle, the British resident at Mocha, twice visited Sanaa, which he describes as a handsome town surrounded with An Arab of Rank in the Costume of Yemen, GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 129 gardens. The palace was an elegant building ; and at court a considerable degree of dignity and splen- dour was maintained. The imam, whom Lord Va- lentia represents as a person about 78 years old, and fast approaching to dotage, was still endeavouring to amuse himself in his harem of 400 Abyssinian slaves ; apparently insensible of the danger that threatened him from the encroachments of the Wa- habees. His family, consisting of 19 brothers and 24 sons and grandsons, was torn by domestic quar- rels. The whole disposable force of the kingdom did not then exceed 600 horse and 3000 foot, though it is reckoned in ordinary times at 1000 cavalry and 4000 infantry. The dominions of this prince in Niebuhr's time were subdivided into thirty governments or prov- inces, of which the Tehama contained six, and the inland country twenty-four. These petty districts were not all equally populous or important, and to describe them in detail would be as irksome as it is superfluous. The territory of Loheia, the most north- ern part of the kingdom, is arid and barren. The city was built about the middle of the fifteenth cen- tury ; and, like several others in these parts, owed its foundation to a Mohammedan saint, whose hut stood near the shore, where a town gradually accu- mulated round his tomb. The houses, with the exception of a few stone edifices, are mere mud hovels thatched with grass, having a straw mat for a door, and scarcely any windows. The harbour is so indifferent that even the smallest vessels are obliged to anchor at a considerable distance. Its staple trade is coffee, of which annual purchases are made by merchants from Cairo and other places. The journey to Beit el Fakih is represented as lying generally through a parched and barren tract of country. The only accommodation are WTctched coff'ee-houses intended to serve the purposes of our inns. These mokeias, as they are called, are paltry 130 CIVIL HISTORY AND huts, furnished merely with a sevir, or long bench of straw ropes ; nor do they afford any refreshment but kischer, a hot infusion of coffee-beans, or some- times millet-cakes with camel's milk and butter. The kischer is served out in coarse earthen cups ; wheaten-bread was a rarity in the province, and the water was scarce and bad. The owner or master of the inn generally resides in some neighbouring village, whence he comes daily to wait for passen- gers. Another description of coffee-houses is the monsale, where travellers are received and enter- tained gratuitously, if they will be content with the usual fare of the country. The guests are all lodged in one common apartment, which is served and furnished in the same homely style as the mokeias. The city of Beit el Fakih (or House of the Sage) derived its name and origin from a famous saint, Achmed ibn Mousa, whose sepulchre is shown in a handsome mosque near the touTi. His reputation for miraculous cures was as celebrated as that of any martyr or confessor in the Romish calendar. One of his most wonderful performances was the liberation of a Turkish pasha who had been for twenty years a captive in Spain, where he was bound in a dungeon to two huge stones, with ponderous and massy chains. Long and in vain had he invoked every canonized name in the annals of Islam ; but when the aid of Achmed was solicited, the compas- sionate saint stretched his hand from the tomb, and at this signal the pasha instantly arrived from Spain, carrying with him both fetters and stones, to the great amazement of the inhabitants of Beit el Fakih, who were then met to celebrate the amiiversary fes- tival of their ghostly patron. The city contains little of an interesting nature. The houses stand separate from each other; many of them are built of stone, others of mud mixed with dung. The sur- rounding plain, though not fertile, is well cultivated ; and the authority of the resident dowlah extends GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 131 over a wide district. Hodeida has a tolerable har- bour, a small citadel, a patron saint, and a dowlah, whose jurisdiction is confined to the town. Zebid, once the capital of Tehama, the residence of a sove- reign, and the most commercial city on the Arabian Gulf, now retains little but the shadow of its former splendour. It is furnished with a dowlah, a mufti, three cadis, and an academy. After visiting the coffee-mountains in the neigh- bourhood, and the towns of Kahme, Bulgosa, and Kusma, which last stood on the loftiest peak of the range, Niebuhr proceeded to Udden and Jobla. The country was solitary ; and in the few villages which they passed the houses were still more wretched than in Tehama : they had no walls, and consisted merely of poles laid together and covered with reeds, some of which grew in the valley to the height of twenty feet, forming an agreeable shade. Taas, a place of some celebrity, stands at the foot of the fertile hill of Sabber, and is encompassed with a wall varying from sixteen to thirty feet thick, and flanked with several towers. Within this rampart rises a steep rock about 400 feet high, on which the citadel or fortress of Kahre is built, defended by an exterior coating of brick. The present town is of comparatively modern origin, and owed its founda- tion to the attractive virtues of the tomb of Ismael Malec, its patron saint, who according to tradition was once king of that country. A mosque bearing his name was reared on the spot where his remains were buried ; but nobody has been permitted to ap- proach his tomb since on one occasion he thought proper to work a miracle which gave great dissatis- faction to the authorities of the place. This mar- vellous event was related to Niebuhr : — Two beggars had asked charity from the dowlah, of whom one only received alms ; the other repaired to the sepul- chre of Ismael to implore his interposition. The holy man, who when ahve had been liberal of his 132 CIVIL HISTORY AND bounty, gave the mendicant a letter containing an order on the dowlah for the payment of 100 crowns. Upon examination the document was found to be in the handwriting of the deceased, and sealed with his seal. With such evidence before his eyes the governor durst not refuse, and paid the beggar the demand in full ; but, to avoid such troublesome drafts in future, the tomb was enclosed with a lofty wall. In the city and neighbourhood stood many deserted and ruinous mosques, some of which appeared to be erected by the Turkish pashas. The subsequent governors of the place had built several noble pal- aces, which were the greatest ornaments in it ; but many of the houses had been destroyed, and the sur- rounding country almost depopulated, during the civil wars occasioned by the revolt of the governor, Dowlah Achmed, brother to the imam El Mansor Hossein. On being recalled, this officer refused to obey ; and with a force of 2000 men he stood out for twelve years, leaving the succession to his eldest son Abdallah. The place was taken and pillaged about the end of the year 1760. On the route from Taas to Sanaa the principal cities are Abb, Jerim or Yerim, and Damar. Abb is situate on the summit of a hill, surrounded by a strong wall, and contains about 800 houses, most of them well built. Jerim, which some suppose to be Dafar, an ancient capital of the Hamyaric kings, is but a small town ; the houses are built of stone or sun-dried bricks. The castle stands on a rock, and is the residence of the dowlah. In all the markets locusts were sold at a low price ; and these the peasants dry and lay up for winter provisions. In Yemen the usual method of travelling is on asses, which in that country are large, strong, and spirited, walking at a pace not very agreeable to the rider. As Christians, however, are not prohibited the use of horses, Niebuhr and his companions pre- (JOVERNSiENT Of ARABIA. 133 ferred that animal ; hiring camels for their baggage. A bucket of water is sometimes suspended from the saddle, — that being an article indispensable in these arid regions. The roads in general are of a very bad description. Among the mountains the path is sometimes so narrow that a single camel only can pass at a time ; in other places it winds up steep and rugged acclivities, and is formed of a causeway or pavement, which is occasionally broken and ren- dered impassable by the descending torrents. The town of Mocha, the name of which a cele- brated article of its eXport-trade has rendered so familiar to our ears, has no pretensions to antiquity. It Was not in existence 400 years ago ; and nothing was known of it till the adventures of the Dutch and Portuguese in India opened the Red Sea to the nations of Europe. Its place, as a commercial port, was originally supplied by the village of Moosa. This wretched hamlet, which now consists of a few circular huts with conical roofs, built of matting or leaves of the date-palm, must have then stood on the shore of the Arabian Gulf, though the retirement of the waters at this spot, as elsewhere, has left it a distance of five hours' journey from the modern town. It is still the residence of a sub-dowlah, and distinguished for its delicious water and its excel- lent fowls. The origifi of Mocha is ascribed to the great reputation of its patron saint, the famous Sheik Schaedeli, \vho had here a hermitage, which was eagerly resorted to by disciples from all parts of the country to drink his coffee and receive his benedictions. After his death an elegant mosque was raised over his tomb : the principal wall and one of the gates of the city still bear his name ; the people swear by him, and thank Heaven every morning on his account for having taught mankind the use of that delightful beverage, the heahng vir-' tues of which were long reckoned as efficacious as- Vol. II.— M CIVIL HISTORY AND .is prayers ; they implore the Divine favour on his descendants, who are held in gi'eat honour, and enjoy the title of sheik. Such is the oriental history of the founding of Mocha. When the Portuguese^ under Don Alphonso Albuquerque, first visited it in 1513, it was with the intention of uniting themselves to the Abyssinian Christians against their common enemy the INIoslems; but they returned without deriving any advantage from the attempt. In 1538, it seems to have been a place of little importance, probably under a Turkish governor; as Solyman Pasha, who commanded the Eg^^ptian fleet, men- tioned it as a castle where he stopped on returning from his disgraceful expedition against Diu. In the beginning of the seventeenth century, when the Red Sea was first visited by the English under Captain Alexander Sharpey of the Ascension (1609), Mocha had become the grand mart for the trade be- tween India and Egypt. The Turkish governor was courteous and liberal, and allowed the foreigners to traffic without injury ; but the succeeding pasha was a man of a very different character, as Admiral Sir Henry Middleton, who was sent by the East India Company on a trading voyage the following year, experienced to his cost. The treacherous Turks not only assaulted the strangers in the town, but made an attack on their ships in the harbour. The gallant commander and part of the crew "were manacled like so many slaves;" Sir Henry was threatened with the loss of his head for daring to set his polluted foot on the soil where the city of their holy Prophet stood^ and consigned to a dun- geon, where " he had a hard floor for his bed, a great stone for his pillow, and good store of rats and mice to keep him company." After lying in captivity for some time, he was conveyed a prisoner to Sanaa, Avhich he describes as something bigger than Bris- tol ; but by the interposition of certain friends he GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 135 obtained his release, and was remanded to Mocha, with a stern injunction that neither he nor any of his nation should again revisit these ports. Captain Saris with a small expedition arrived in the course of next year, when he found the Turks more hberal, and met with greater civility ; but the spirit of religious antipathy was too fierce to admit the continuance of trade. Monsieur de la Merveille, with the French deputation from St. Malo, had visited Mocha in 1708, and obtained a treaty of commerce and the establishment of a factory for his countrymen ; previous to which time, the only foreign settlement in the town belonged to the Dutch. It was not till the year 1618 that Captain Shilling of the Royal Anne obtained a firman from the Imam of Sanaa and the Governor of Mocha, granting to the English, " on the faith of the Prophet's beard, liberty to sell and buy without let or molestation in that or any other port within their dominions." Twenty years afterward the French bombarded the town, in order to extort payment of a debt of 82,000 crowns (18,620/.) from the dowlah, which they obliged him to reimburse ; besides reducing the duties from three to two and a half per cent. During this temporary warfare, the trade of the English and Dutch, who had formed a union of interests, remained in perfect security. Several of the Arabs in Niebuhr's time recollected the siege, and were well pleased at the punishment of the avaricious dowlah, whom they represented as pursued backward and forward wher- ever he went with " pots of fire." This was the last city in Yemen of which the Turks retained posses- sion ; the Arabs having recovered it, according to report, not by conquest, but by purchase. Since the Ottomans were dislodged, it has had no other master than the Imam of Sanaa. In the present century Mocha has been described by various Europeans. Viewed from a distance;, 136 CIVIL HISTORY AND the town looks handsome and cheerful, the houses seem lofty, and have a square solid appearance. Their unvaried whiteness contrasts beautifully with the dark-blue sea, and, no shrub or tree intervening to break the uniformity of colour, gives it the sem- blance of being excavated from a quarry of marble. Over the tabular line of flat roofs, the minarets of three mosques rise to a considerable height, with several circular domes of kubbets or chapels. The roadstead is almost open, being only protected by two narrow tongues of land, on one of which is a ruined castle, and on the other an insignificant fort, A grove of date-trees adjoins the city, and extends nearly two miles along the southern beach ; a pleasing object for the eye to repose upon, con- trasted with the interminable expanse in every other direction of brown and desolate sterility. The wall, by which it is completely surrounded, is not more than sixteen feet high towards the sea ; though, on the land side, it may in some places be double that height. The two forts that guard the harbour stand about a mile and a half asunder ; a single broadside from an English man-of-war would level the whole to the ground. The internal condition of the city corresponds not with the imposing aspect of the exterior ; and the moment the traveller passes the gates, his romantic ideas are put to flight by the filth that abounds in every street. The houses of the lower class of the people, who rarely change their under-dress until it is worn to rags, are circular huts composed of wickerwork, covered inside with mats, and some- times on the outside with a little clay. The roofs are uniformly thatched; and in front each has a small area or yard fenced off. The inhabitants have a singular fancy for crowding their dwellings in clusters, though there is ample space within the walls left unoccupied. All the principal buildings face the sea, and consist chiefly of public edifices GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 137 The British factory is a large and lofty structure ; those of the French and Dutch are rapidly falling into decay. The mansion of the dowlah is the best in the city, having one front to the sea ; while on two other sides are a square for military exercises, and a range of official dwellings. None of these have much pretension to architectural elegance. The walls have fantastic ornaments in white stucco. The windows are in general small, and not arranged in any regular order ; they are closed with lattices, and sometimes open into a wooden carved-work balcony. The town, according to Lord Valentia, does not contain a population of more than 5000 souls, though the French travellers made it amount to twice that number. The garrison consists of about 80 horse and 200 matchlock-men, who receive a regular pay of two dollars and a half per month. There is not a vestige of discipline among them. When on guard at the different gates they recline on couches, with their matchlocks lying negligently by their side, while the right hand is occupied with sustaining either a pipe or a cup of coffee. Their greatest dis- play takes place when they attend the dowlah to the mosque, with the usual pomp of gay streamers, and of green and red flags. A lively writer has described a procession which he witnessed at Mocha ten years ago. The dowlah rode a beautiful little iron-gray charger, and was accompanied by about half a dozen persons, well dressed and of some condition ; the rest of the attendants, amounting to the like number, were meanly clothed, and mounted on wretched horses. A large band of regular infantry from the garrison followed, in plain costume, — a common blue shirt, small dark turbans, a rude body-belt for their cartridges, and a priming-horn. They marched m a wide front, their matchlocks sloped upon their shoulders, their free hands grasping the firearms of their comrades singing as they proceeded some war« M3 138 CIVIL HISTORY AND song in loud chorus. When the dowlah reined up at the gateway of his residence, the military ranged themselves on one side of the square, and fired three volleys in the air, retiring every time to the wall to load. The only thing remarkable in their exercise was their address with the lance, and the extremely small space within which the combatants wheeled their horses. The streets of Mocha present a motley appear- ance, both as to the dress and character of the in- habitants. Under the coarse awnings of its narrow bazars are to be seen brown and black complexions, half-naked peasants, and richly-attired merchants, in robes of woollen cloth, with a red woollen cap, and a tassel of purple silk, peering above the folds of their snow-white turban. There is the Jew, the Banian, the Persian, the Egyptian, and the jetty Abyssinian, straight as the young areca, and having his short curled hair died with a reddish yellow, — the foppery of his country. There is the stout Arab porter in his coarse brown garment, bowing under a heavy load of dates, the matting all oozing and clammy with the luscious burden. Lastly, there is the Bedouin, with the hue of the desert on his cheek, the sinewy hmb, the eye dark and fiery, his legs and arms bare, sandals on his feet, and his bronzed bosom open to the sun and wind. He walks erect, and moves onward giving place to none ; — a broad, straight, two-edged sword in his hand, and a long poniard in his girdle. Other objects in these bazars attract attention : — extended rows of camels and asses, the large coarse sheep of Abys- sinia, the small thin species of Arabia, the tall brown goats ; — the shops of the armorers, with their long polished swordblades, daggers, spears, matchlocks, and here and there the half- worn shield of other days ; — then there are the cooks' shops, with their hot cakes of bread, and their large coppers with portions of meat and fowls swimming in ghee, and GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 139 ready for the traveller ; — besides there are the cara- vansaries and coffee-houses, with groups of towns- men and traders reclining on couches of the date- leaf, smoking their small hookahs, sipping their kischer, and perpetually stroking their long beards. The government of Mocha is one of the best in the gift of the imam, owing to the large sums which the dowlah is able to extort from the Banians and foreign traders. Formerly an Arab of high rank was appointed to the office ; but of late it has been , deemed more prudent to give it to a slave, who can easily be removed, and from whom it is more safe to take the profits of his situation. From the avaricious temper of the local authorities, Niebuhr and his companions experienced the most vexatious treatment in the seizure of their baggage, and the destruction of some of their valuable instruments. Lord Valentia makes the same remark as to the covetous and tyramiical character of the ruler of Mocha, and ascribes to him a new method of ex- torting money from the Banians, by confining them in a room, and fumigating them with sulphur till they complied with his demands. The dowlah in 1823 is represented as a more amiable personage, quiet and civil to Europeans, and not oppressive to the people. He was an Abyssinian, not at all sUiking either in his figure or appearance, who had been a slave in the family of the imam, and pro- moted for his good conduct. Without the walls of the town are three extensive suburbs ; one occupied by common labourers ; one by the Abyssinian mar- iners, who detest the natives ; and the third by the Jews, who are not allowed to wear a turban, and held in such contempt that an Arab may spit upon and strike them. These last carry on an ex- tensive illicit trade in brandy distilled from dates. These suburbs are not more cleanly than the town. The bed of the river Moosa is filled with an accu- ulation of filth and rubbish ; its waters never 140 CIVIL HISTORY AND reach the sea except after heavy rains, on one of which occasions it swept away a considerable part of the Jewish village that had been built in its dusty channel. In the territory of Yemen, besides the govern- ments already mentioned, there are an immense number of small hereditary princes, sheiks, and dowlahs, w^ho live in a state of vassalage or in- dependence, according to the ability of the imam to retain them in subjection. In nobility of descent and dignity of rank, many of them acknowledge no superior, and assume the symbols and preroga- tives of royalty. To enumerate these petty sove- reigns would be impossible. The mountain of Scheehava, north-east from Loheia, contained 300 villages, which were divided among a great many sheiks, most of whom claimed kindred with the reigning family at Sanaa. The famous hill of Sab- ber, near Taas, was said to be parcelled out to more than a hundred free and hereditary sheiks. Of independent states in Yemen, besides those within the imam's dominions, Niebuhr has specified no fewer than thirteen ; and others doubtless might exist, of which he had obtained no information. These were Aden, Kaukeban, Kobail or Heschid-u.- Bekel, Abu-Arish, Khaulan, Sahan, Saade, Nejeran, Kahtan, Nehm, East Khaulan, Jof, and Jafa, Aden belonged to the imam until 1730, when the J inhabitants expelled the governor, elected a sheik, ' and declared themselves independent. Abulfeda and Ibn-Haukul describe it as a flourishing town ; but it suffered repeated devastations in the wars between the Turks and Portuguese, and its com- merce was transferred to Mocha, When Sharpey visited it (1609), " it belonged to the Great Turk, and was the key that let him into all the treasures and sweetnesses of the Happy Arabia." A hundred years afterward the French, who put into the har- bour, describe the town as of considerable extent, GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 141 .and containing several elegant buildings. Of these the finest were the public baths : they were all lined with marble or jasper, covered with a handsome dome, open at the top for the admission of light, and adorned inside with galleries, supported by magnificent pillars. The markets were stored with meat, fish, and other provisions of excellent quality. Many of the houses were handsome, and two stories high; but the heaps of rubbish and ruins testified that its ancient splendour was gone. The town lies at the foot of high rocky mountains, which surround it almost on every side ; on their summits and in the narrow passes were several forts. Towards the sea, by which alone the city can be approached by a very narrow causeway or peninsula, the access was guarded by five or six batteries of brass can- non. The bay is eight or nine leagues wide at the opening, and affords good anchorage, from eighteen to twenty fathoms. The scenery around is of a wild and savage character, giving few indications of that felicity or delight of which its name is said to be the expression. Cape Aden is a very lofty and steep rock, which the mariner can descry at the distance of 15 or 20 leagues. To this small state pertain a number of inferior towns and castles. The principality of Kaukeban was ruled by imams of its own, claiming their descent from Mohammed., until they were obliged to yield up the title to Khas- sem, the new Arabian conqueror. The chiefs of Kobail compose a sort of confederacy (Heschid-u Bekel) for their mutual defence ; their subjects make excellent soldiers. The territory of Jafa i,* surrounded by that of Aden, and was under I'ne dominion of Sanaa until the end of the 17th century, when the inhabitants revolted from the imam. In these districts are a multitude of petty sovereigns, the chief of whom take the title of sultans ; Jafa and Jof being he only part of Arabia where that name is used. Abu-Arish and Mareb are governed by sheriffs ; the latter lies 16 leagues north-east from 142 CIVIL HISTORY AND Sanaa, and, though containing only about 300 houses of mean appearance, is the capital of the province. The province of Hadramaut is ruled by a num- ber of petty independent sovereigns, of whose his- tory or dominions little has been recorded beyond the names of a few cities on the coast. These have their particular sheiks, many of whom may have descended in patriarchal succession from the most remote antiquity. Among those princes, some have been dignified by travellers, but improperly, with the title of kings. The city of Doan is said to be more elegant than the capital of Yemen, from which it is distant five-and-twenty days' journe3^ The most powerful of these sovereigns is the Sheik of Keshin, whose dominions composed the imaginary kingdom of Fartach, as laid down in the older maps ; ■ — an error which may, perhaps, have arisen from his occasional residence in the town of that name. He possesses the island of Socotra, of which the heir-presumptive of the reigning family is always the governor. Dafar and Shibam have their resi- dent sheiks, Aidan used to be celebrated for its annual fair, and the pilgrimage to the tomb of Kahtan. The province of Oman is governed by an imam, but contains a number of petty sovereigns, of whom the princes of Jau, Gabria, Gafar, Rank, Gabbi, Dahara, Makaniat, and Seer have the title of sheik. Seer, which the Persians call Julfar, ex- tends from Cape Mussendom along the Gulf, and js ruled by a chief of considerable maritime power. It is one of those districts which withdrew from the authority of the imam- Of the cities and towns of Oman little is known. Rostak was formerly the capital of the sovereign. Sohar and Kalbat were once flourishing cities, but now greatly decayed. The modern capital, from which the sovereign takes his title, is Muscat. The Portuguese made themselves masters of it in 1508, and built two GOVERNMENT OV ARABIA. 143 churches, one of which was afterward converted into a magazine, and the other into the residence of the wah, or governor. From this possession they were driven by the Arabs about the middle of the seventeenth century, through the treacherous aid of a Banian, who had been robbed of his daughter by the Portuguese commander. In 1746, Oman was invaded by Nadir Shah, who subdued all the coun-' try as far as Muscat, which he also tookj with the exception of two forts. On the death of that war- like prince the Persians abandoned their conquests. The ancient reigning families, the Gaffri, the Ha- mani, and the Arrabi (the latter pretended to be the descendants of the Koreish), again resumed the su^ preme power. It was at this period that Ahmed ibn Said, ancestor to the present imam, succeeded in establishing his independence, after a feeble re- sistance from the Gaffri. Several years ago, when the government of India was engaged in suppress" ing Arab pirates (the Joassamees) who infested the Persian Gulf, this prince acted in alliance with the British ; and it is to this circumstance that we owe much of our recent information as to the state of his capital, and the resources of his government.* The town of Muscat is romantically situated, being built on a small sandy beach, and lying in a sort of glen or recess behind the bay. On either hand it is surrounded v/ith bleak and rugged cliffs ; without a tree, a flower, or a blade of grass to break their uniformity of nakedness. Occasionally their tops are shrouded in mist^ with here and there a hoary waterfall, dashing from rock to rock until it reaches the ocean below. The harbour, the best and almost the only one oil that part of the Arabian * Buckingham's Travels in Assyria. Fraser's Journey. Sir J. Malcolm's Sketches of Persia. An interesting account of Seid-Said. who mounted the throne in 1807, is given by his phy- eicisin, Tmcenzo, a native of Italy, under the name of Sheik Mansfcur. 144 CIVIL HISTOR-? AND coast, has a singular appearance. It is bounded on each side with bold and abrupt rocks, from two to three hundred feet high, on which are numerous small forts. The town is protected by several bat- teries ; but the greater part of the city is composed of ill-built houses, and huts of date-tree leaves of the most wretched description, all huddled together in the greatest confusion. The streets are rough, narrow, and crooked. The windows, ^vhich are without glass, resemble loopholes, and the walls are covered with a white plaster or cement. The Water is good ; the fruit of the best quality, — grapes mangoes, peaches, plantains, figs, pomegranates, limes, melons, and dates. Nowhere is there greater variety of fish ; in the bay they swarm like gnats in a summer evening ; the rocks supply oysters and other shell-fish, all of which are sold at a very cheap rate. As the pasturage is scanty in thiS' neighbourhood, dried fish a little salted, and pounded date-stones, form the chief articles of food for their' cattle, of which they are very fond. Horses and sheep as well as cows are fed on this diet. The property of the inhabitants consists for the most part in thehr live-stock ; but the most valu- able species is the date-tree, the price of which, individually, varies from seven to ten dollars ; and by this standard they estimate landed estates, which are said to be worth three, four, or five thousand date-trees, according to the number that growls upon them. Property of every kind descends by inherit- ance, the son possessing the liberty of disposing of it as he pleases. The sovereign has no right in the soil, farther tlian the tenth of its produce ; nor can he in any way interfere with the privileges of the owner. Lands are commonly let on lease, or for an annual rent, usually payable in produce. Slaves are here, as in all other parts of Arabia, employed in agricultural labour ; but they are treated with uni form kindness and indulgence. Oman is by no means GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 145 celebrated for its manufactures. Turbans and waist- bands, or girdles of cotton and silk, striped or checked with blue ; cloaks, cotton, canvass, gunpowder, and arms of inferior quality; earthen jars, called murht- ban, for the Zanguebar market,— comprise almost all their fabrics. They also prepare an esteemed sweet- meat, named hulwo.h, from honey or sugar, with the gluten of wheat, and ghee, and a few almonds. The price of live-stock at Muscat is extremely various. Camels, according to their blood and qual- ity, will bring from thirty to three hundred dollars apiece ; goats from four to six ; sheep from one and a half to six ; mules are not reared, neither are horses abundant ; but the asses of Oman are cele- brated as the finest in Arabia. The price of the common kind varies from one to forty dollars ; but the best breeds sell for very extravagant sums. The present imam is considered the richest and most powerful sovereign on the Persian Gulf. Such of the British officers and merchants as have visited that port represent him as a man of amiable dis- positions, and possessed of superior talents and in- formation ; being much superior to the Arab chiefs in general, and adored by his subjects. He admin- isters justice daily in person, sitting under a portico in the vicinity of his palace ; and his decisions in general are received without a murmur. Mr. Fraser describes his countenance as of mild and pleasing features, — his complexion of a light yellow, — his eyes dark and expressive, though rendered almost sleepy at times by their heavy lids and long dark lashes; his beard was full and black, without the assistance of die ; his mustachios being clipped rather short, and allowing part of the cheek to be seen. His dress was the plain Arab costume, — a white cotton gown with wide sleeves, opening down the breast, but buttoned to the throat, and reaching to the ankles ; round his waist was a scarf of blue checked cotton, in which was stuck a silver-hilted Vol. II.— N 146 CIVIL HISTORY AND dagger or jambea. A blue checked cotton handker- chief was wound round his head, the ends hanging down, and bordered with red, green, and yellow. His sword was of the Persian form, in a plain black scabbard. The chief minister. Said Abdul Kaher was as plainly dressed as his master. Neither of them wore jewel or ornament of any kind. The palace is the most conspicuous edifice in the town : it stands close by the sea, is three stories high, and might be mistaken for a merchant's count- ing-house and store-rooms. The hall of audience is a veranda overhanging the water, under the ter- race of which boats pull up to land visiters. The floor was covered v/ith a common Persian carpet, and the furniture consisted of a table and a few plain chairs in the European fashion. A collation was served of fruits, sweetmeats, and sherbets, set out in cut crystal of the most elegant fabric. Though naturally gentle, this prince is not deficient in energy and decision when occasion requires. His courage in battle was frequently signalized while co-operating with the British forces ; particularly in the expedi- tion with Sir John Malcolm against the Arab pirates in the Gulf, where his assistance materially con- tributed to their suppression. At the attack of one of the towns, when the British were compelled to retire, the imam observed at some distance a sergeant alone, and surrounded by a detachment of the enemy. Unsupported as he was, he did not hesitate a mo- ment ; returning instantly, he dashed singly among the rebels, and, after killing several of them, brought off the man in safety. The revenues of the imam are derived from various sources. Besides receiving a tenth of the produce of the soil, he possesses considerable landed prop- erty of his own, and rents extensive tracts of country from the Persian government, including valuable mines of sulphur. A more lucrative source income is the duty of one-half pe^' cent on all GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 147 merchandise passing up the Gulf in Arab bottoms. From the province of Oman alone, it has been reckoned at more than 120,000 dollars (26,250/.) amiually; and from all other ports of Arabia, and from Zanguebar, to about 30,000 or 40,000 dollars more. Commerce, however, is the chief fountain of his wealth. Besides the ports on the Gulf, he trades to all parts of the East ; to the coasts of Arabia and Africa ; to Madagascar and the Mauritius. His capital is the great entrepot for warehousing and exchanging the produce of various nations ; and in such a traffic, the sovereign doubtless possesses many advantages over his subjects. His expendi- ture is light compared to his income ; he has no regular military establishment to keep up, nor any expensive machinery of government ; and after all his outlay, it is supposed that he may deposite an- nually a surplus of nearly 100,000 dollars. In addition to his hereditary dominions on the Arabian coast, the imam holds in possession the islands of Kishma and Ormuz ; and rents, from the crown of Persia, Gombroon with its dependencies, including a tract of coast of about ninety miles in extent. The inhabitants of Muscat, in point of manners, cleanliness, and liberality to strangers, are reckoned the most civilized of their countrymen; and, though not addicted to war, they are esteemed the best mariners in Arabia. They use small mer- chant-vessels called trankis, the sails of which are not formed of matting, as in Yemen, but of linen. The planks are not nailed, but tied or sewed toge- ther. A little to the north-west of Muscat, and seated at the bottom of a cove nearly resembling its own, lies the town of Muttra. Though a place of less business, it contains a greater number of well-built houses, and affords a cooler and more agreeable residence than the capital. The province of Hajar, or El Ha^sa, belonged to the sheiks of the Beni Khaled, one of the most 148 CIVIL HISTORY AND powerful tribes in Arabia, whose jurisdiction ex- tended so far through the Desert as often to harass the caravans passing between Bagdad and Aleppo. Katif, or El Katif, is a port and a large trading town, with a deep bay and the ruins of an old Por- tuguese fortress. The inhabitants share with the Bahrein islands in their pearl-fishery as well as in their general commerce, though the governments are independent of each other. Graine is a large and populous town, seated on a fine bay; though the sandy desert presses close upon its walls, and not a blade of vegetation enlivens the dreary scenery around. It stands about fifty miles from the bar of the Euphrates ; and is chiefly inhabited by mer- cantile and trading people, who engage in all the branches of commerce carried on throughout the Gulf. Their principal employment is fishing, and Niebuhr states that more than 800 boats were engaged in this species of naval industry. The isles of Bahrein may be considered as part of Hajar, and were formerly sul)ject to the lords or kings of Lahsa. They were taken possession of, after many revolutions and changes of masters, by the combined arms of the Portuguese and Persians ; and Antonio Correa, the leader of the former, added the title of Bahrein to his name. The cause of this expedition was the refusal of Mocrim, sheik of Lahsa, to pay tribute. The chief was beheaded, and the Portuguese commander, in memory of the share which he had in this event, was authorized to bear a king's head in his coat-of-arms, which the historians of his own country say is still borne by his descendants. These islands are two in number ; the larger is called Bahrein, an appellation which seems modern, for Abulfeda. and the Arabs of the coast call it Aval; the smaller retains its ancient name of Arad. The length of the former is about ten miles, and its breadth five. Its general appear- ance is low ; but it is everywhere fertile, well GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 149 watered, and supports a numerous population. The whole soil is industriously cultivated, producing dates, figs, citrons, peaches, and other fruits. It is reckoned to contain no fewer than 300 villages Minawah, the principal town, is large and populous, and has a good harbour, with twelve caravansaries. Here many wealthy merchants reside, and carry on an extensive commerce with India, as well as in supplying the Arabian markets with the manufac- , tures and productions of that country. This island is remarkable for its springs of fresh water arising in the sea. One of these gushes up with great force through a sandy bottom, at the depth of three fathoms. A jar is fitted to the mouth of this spring ; and to procure the water a person dives with an empty bag of goat's skin rolled under his arm : this he dexterously places over the mouth of the jar, and being filled in a few seconds, it floats up with him to the surface. There are four or five springs of this kind round the island, and in this way is obtained all the water that is drunk at Arad. Strabo mentions a similar spring near the Phenician island of Aradus, on the coast of Syria, from which the ingenious inhabitants contrived to draw a supply by means of a leaden ball and a leathern pipe. The chief celebrity of these islands is derived from their valuable pearl-fishery, which is carried on in June, July, and August. In the sixteenth century, the produce was estimated at five hundred thousand ducats (147,395Z.) ; at present it is calculated to yield annually pearls to the value of about twenty lacks of rupees (193,750/.) : the greatest portion of which is shipped for India, and the remainder are dispersed throughout the Persian and Turkish em- pires, by way of Bushire, Bussora, and Bagdad. From thence the best specimens are conveyed to Constantinople, Syria, Egypt, and even the great capitals of Europe. The bank on which this fishery is carried on ex ends nearly southward to Ras el N2 150 CIVIL HISTORY AND Khyma, and the finest of the pearls are found among the group of Maude's islands, near Haloola, so called probably from loolo, the Arabic name for a pearl. About two thousand boats are annually employed in this trade, of which the islands of Bahrein fur- nish one-half, and the small ports on the coast the remainder. In the summer months the bank pre- sents a busy scene. The divers are Arabs and negro slaves, who are generally trained to the practice from their youth. They go down in all depths, from five to fifteen fathoms, remaining from two to five minutes, and bringing up from eight to twelve oysters in both hands. On reaching the surface they merely take time to recover breath, and then dive again immediately. The largest and finest pearls are brought up from the deepest water ; and all of them are said to be as hard when taken out of the fish as they are ever afterward. At first they are of a purer white than after they have been exposed to the air; and in this respect they are calculated to lose annually one per cent, in value. Of the two kinds, the yellow are chiefly sent to India, where this tinge is preferred ; the pure white are most esteemed in Europe, and even find a better market in all the great Turkish and Persian towns. The pearl of Bahrein is considered very superior to that of Ceylon, both in quality and colour. Before sending them off from the island, they are carefully assorted as to size, shape, and tint ; then, being drilled through, are strung on threads, and made up into round bundles of about three inches diameter, sealed and directed, and sent in that form to their various destinations. They are then called by the metaphorical name of Roomaan el Bahr, or " pome- granates of the sea," to which these bundles bear a pretty exact resemblance. All the gains of the fishery are divided in the most equitable way, by shares in proportion to the capital embarked in the boats. The food of the divers GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 151 during the season is chiefly fish, dates, and a small allowance of bread, rice, and oil. Their earnings are barely enough to support them through the winter, which they pass in a state of indolence and dissipa- tion. They use the precaution of oiling the orifice of their ears, and placing a horn over the nose when they dive, to prevent the water from entering by these apertures ; but when they have been long engaged in this service, their bodies are subject to break out in sores, their eyes become bloodshot and weak, and all their faculties seem to undergo a pre- mature decay.* The coast from Cape Mussendom to Bahrein has been, from time immemorial, occupied by a piratical tribe of Arabs called Joassamees, already alluded to. Their local position necessarily engaged them in maritime pursuits, either as traders in their own vessels, or as pilots and sailors hired to navigate the small craft of the Gulf. From their superior skill and industry, and fidelity to their engagements, they maintained a high reputation, until subdued by the arms of the Wahabees, after a resistance of three years. Their principal town, Ras el Khyma, with all its dependencies along the coast, suumitted to the yoke, and embraced the new doctrines of the conquerors. This revolution wrought a total change, not only in the faith but in the character and habits of these refractory tribes. Instead of living quietly on thej scanty productions of their own soil, and the fish of their own waters, the Joassamees directed their views to war and plunder. Their first captures were the small coasting traders which, from their defence- less state, soon fell an easy prey. Imboldened by success, they directed their efforts to higher em- prises, until their prowess was felt and dreaded from the mouth of the Euphrates to the Indian Ocean. * Buckingham's Travels in Assyria, chap, xxiii. Morier's Travels through Persia. 152 CIVIL HISTORY AND It was about the year 1797 that they first came into collision with the British government in the East ; for as they had hitherto waged war only agEiinst what are called native vessels, no hostile measures had been taken against them by the Eng- lish. In that year they had the boldness to violate this neutrality by attacking, under pretext of obtain- ing a supply of ammunition, one of the East India Company's cruisers, the Viper, of ten guns, while lying at anchor in the inner roads of Bushire. The pirates were beaten off; but with the loss of the gallant Lieutenant Carruthers and a considerable number of the crew. This act of daring treachery, however, did not call forth the immediate vengeance of the India government. In 1804, fresh aggressions were commenced, and continued for a series of years with increasing insolence and barbarity. Not fewer than nine British cruisers or ships of war, — the Fly, Shannon, Trimmer, Fury, Mornington, Teign- mouth, Minerva, Sylph, and Nautilus, — were suc- cessively attacked or seized by these daring maraud- ers, and numbers of their crews and passengers put to the sword. This system of lawless aggression, and the seri- ous injury suffered by the Gulf trade, at length in- duced the British government to have recourse to vigorous measures for maintaining the national character, and clearing the seas of these brigands. In 1810, Lieutenant-colonel (afterward Sir Lionel) Smith and Captain Wainwright were sent against them with a considerable armament, which sailed from Bombay in September, and soon anchored off Ras el Khyma, where the troops were landed under cover of the boats and ships. This metropolis of the pirates stands in latitude 25° 47', and longitude 55° 34', on a narrow tongue of sandy land, with a safe harbour, extending about half a mile in length and a quarter in breadth — having several strong points of defence with towers and batteries. Their GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 153 maritime force was considerable ; and if concen- trated might have amounted to at least 100 vessels, with perhaps 400 pieces of cannon, and about 8000 fighting-men, well armed with muskets, swords, and spears. On the landing of the Enghsh, the inhabit- ants assembled in crowds to repel the invaders ; but the regular volleys and steady charge of the troops overcame every obstacle, and multiplied the heaps of slain. A general conflagration was ordered, with unlimited permission to plunder. The town was instantly set on fire in all parts, and about sixty sail of boats and dows, including the captured Minerva, were burned and destroyed. The complete con- quest of the place was thus effected with very trifling loss to the assailants. The expedition then proceeded to Linga, a small port of the Joassamees, on the opposite side of the Gulf, which was taken without resistance. Luft, another of their harbours in the island of Kishma, was attacked ; and, though severely galled with musketry, the British succeeded in getting posses- sion of the place. The town and fortress were de- livered over to the Imam of Muscat, as this was a settlement which had been taken from him by the pirates. Their next exploit was the recovery of Shenaz, a fort that had also belonged to the same prince, nearly midway between Muscat and Cape JNIussendom. When about four thousand shot and shells had been discharged, a breach was reported to be practicable, and the castle was accordingly stormed. The resistance made in the town was still desperate — the Arabs fighting as long as they could wield the sword ; and even thrusting their spears up through the smoking fragments of towers and houses, in whose ruins they remained irrecov- erably buried. Their loss in killed and wounded was computed at upwards of 1000 men. The ex- pedition, having now swept round the bottom of the Gulf, and believing their object was accomplished. 354 CIVIL HISTORY AND returned to India. But the sequel proved that their task was far from being completed. In a few years the piracies were renewed, accompanied with the usual atrocities, and extended as far as the en- trance of the Red Sea. A second expedition was fitted out, which sailed from Bombay in November, 1819. Ras el Khyma and the fort of Zyah were again reduced — the Arabs during these operations displaying a courage and per- tinacity that excited the astonishment of the troops opposed to them. To bind them more strictly, and to try the effect of moral influence, a treaty was con- cluded, which guarantied the cessation of plunder and piracy by sea and land. Matters being so far adjusted, the squadron returned to Bombay, leaving a force of 1200 native troops and artillery at Ras el Khyma, the occupation of which was merely in- tended as a temporary measure. The services of this detachment were soon rendered necessary against a tribe of Arabs called the Beni bu Ali, oc- casioned chiefly by the complaints of the Imam of Muscat. The settlement of this fierce tribe lay near Cape Ras el Hud; but the first attempt of the Brit- ish, who were commanded by Captain Thomson, entirely failed. By a sudden and overwhelming attack of the natives the detachment was totally destroyed. Out of three hundred and eleven that went into action, seven officers and 249 men were murdered on the spot. Scarcely a wounded man escaped, as the khunjer, or dagger, finished what the sword began. This disaster, however, was speedily repaired by a third expedition fitted out at Bombay next year, and which succeeded in getting possession of the town of Bu Ali ; the works were blown up, and such of the guns and heavy stores as could not be carried off were destroyed. The inhabitants defended their fortress with a bravery approaching to phrensy, which an eyewitness compared to that of the Scotch GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 155 Highlanders at Prestonpans, both as to the mode of warfare and the deadly weapon, the broadsword, used on these occasions with such desperate execu- tion. " All," says he, " who beheld this extraordi- nary attack concur in declaring that more deter- mined courage and self-devoting resolution never was displayed by any men than by the Arabs. On that day, not only were they totally unchecked in their advance by the heavy and well-sustained fire which mowed them down in multitudes every in- stant ; but, despising the lines of bayonets opposed to them, they threw themselves upon the troops, seizing their weapons with both hands to break their ranks, and sacrificed themselves to cut dowr their enemies, even with the bayonet sticking in their bodies. All the Indian and European troops that fell were cut down with the broadsword, the match- lock being scarcely used during the whole aifair. Before the firing had entirely ceased, women were to be seen walking among the dead and dying, totally regardless of the danger that surrounded them : their object was, according to custom,, to drag off their friends who had been killed or wounded ; and it appeared that some of them were actually en- gaged in the attack. Notwithstanding the loss of husbands and children, they bore no outward signs of grief; nor did they utter one lamentation, or shed openly one tear of regret or apprehension, at the very moment when their fortress was blown up, and they believed themselves to be included in the work of destruction."* Part of the prisoners were delivered over to the Imam of Muscat, and part car- ried to Daristan, on the island of Kishma, to which the troops left at Ras el Khyma had been trans- ferred, on account of bad health and the scarcity of provisions. On the opposite coast of the Gulf, from the mouths * Fiaser's Journey to Kliorasan. Appendix A. 156 CIVIL HISTORY AND of the Euphrates nearly to those of the Indus, nu- merous Arab tribes have formed settlements, where they live in a state of independence under their own laws. They lead a seafaring hfe. employing them- selves in fishing and gathering pearls. The Boni Houl, a powerful and formidable clan, occupy the barren tract from Gombroon to Cape Berdistan. They are highly esteemed for their valour ; but their mode of government r^-nders that quality of little avail. Bushire and Bendereek are chiefly in- habited by different tribes, originally from Oman. Their fondness for the sea contrasts remarkably with the disposition of the Persians, of whom all classes have an unconquerable antipathy to that element. The territory round the point of the Gulf, extend- ing from the Arabian Desert to Endian, is occupied by the tribe of Kiab, whose sheik, Solyman, acquired some celebrity in consequence of his disputes with the English, in which he captured some of their ves- sels. His principal residence was Ghilan, a town near one of the outlets of the Euphrates. The Beni Lam, a numerous tribe, occupy the banks of the Tigris from Korna to Bagdad. They exact duties on goods conveyed by that route, and sometimes pillage caravans, in spite of the chastisements they occasionally receive from the Turkish pashas. One of the most powerful tribes, both as to the extent of their territories and the number of their depend- encies, is that of Montefik, who possess all tho country on both sides of the Euphrates from Korna to Arja. In winter they pasture their cattle in the desert ; and in summer, when the gi-ass is burnt up, they remove to the banks of the river. They trace their genealogy beyond the era of Mohammed and from time immemorial have been sovereigns of that country. Their nobility is divided into many branches ; and Niebuhr observes that the family then reigning consisted of 150 persons, all of whom GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 157 might aspire to the supreme power, and were in- trusted with a certain share of authority. More than twenty inferior tribes hved in a state of subjec- tion to them, who all, in the event of war, joined the troops of the principal chief. The rich plains of Mesopotamia, once cultivated and populous, are now inhabited, or rather desolated, by wandering Arabs under their respective sheiks, who, if they knew to concentrate their strength, might set tlie Ottoman governors at defiance. The Beni Khasaal are agriculturists, and have a great many petty tribes subject to them, some of which are again subdivided into thirty or forty inferior clans. They can muster a force of 2000 cavalry, and a proportionate number of infantry. The Beni Temin and Beni Tai roam between Bagdad and Mosul, paying a small annual tribute for their As- syrian possessions. The whole extent of country, including the frontiers of Persia almost to the source of the Euphrates, the Hauran or Syrian Desert, Pal- estine, the peninsula of Sinai, the greater part of Nejed, and the central wilderness of Arabia, are oc- cupied by migratory hordes of Bedouins. To detail all the names and minor branches of these tribes would be to fill our pages with a barbarous nomen- clature. Burckhardt, who stands so honourably dis- tinguished as an oriental traveller, has not only enumerated their various classes, but furnished a minute account of their local establishments and military force, as well as of their extraordinary cus- toms, manners, arts, and institutions.* The most celebrated and powerful tribe, perhaps, in the whole Arabian peninsula, is that of the Aenezes. In winter they generally take up their quarters on the plain between the Hauran and Hit, a position on the Euphrates ; though sometimes they pass that limit and pitch their tents in Irak. In * Burckhardt's Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys, 2 vols. Vol. II.— 15S CIVIL HISTORY AND spring they approach the Syrian frontier, and form a line of encampment, extending from near Aleppo to eight days' journey southward of Damascus. The whole summer they spend in seeking pasture and water ; in autumn they purchase their winter provision of wheat and barley, and return after the first rains into the interior of the Desert. They arer divided into four principal clans, — the Wold Ali, the El Hessenne, the El Rawalla, or more properly El Jelas, and the El Besher ; and these again are sepa- rated into numerous inferior bodies. The Sheik of the Wold Ali occupies the first rank among their chiefs, and is therefore styled Abu el Aeneze, or the Father of the Aenezes, The Rawall-^ -^'^nerally oc- cupy the desert from Gebel Shammar towards Jof ; but they frequently encamp beyond the Tigris and the Euphrates. In point of military strength they are formidable, possessing more horses than any of the Aenezes. The El Besher are the most numer- ous of these grand divisions, and have their resi- dence chiefly in Nejed. To ascertain the population of each of the differ- ent tribes is rendered very diflicult, from a prejudice which forbids them to count the horsemen ; as they believe, like the Eastern merchants, that whoever knows the exact amount of his wealth may soon ex- pect to lose part of it. Exclusive of those in Nejed, Burckhardt reckons their forces at about 10,000 cav- alry, and perhaps 90,000 or 100,000 camel-riders ; and thinks that the whole northern Aeneze nation may be estimated at from 300,000 to 350,000 souls, spread over a country of at least 40,000 square miles. Most, though not all, of the great Aeneze tribes are entitled to passage-money from the Syrian caravans. The Hessenne take a yearly surra, or tribute, of fifty purses (about lOOOZ.) ; the Wold Ali levy to the same amount ; while the Fedaan, one of the strongest of these clans, receive nothing in the way of annual impost from the pilgrims. GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 159 The Arabs northward from Palmyra call them- selves Ahl el Shemal, or Northern Nations ; a name which the natives of Hejaz apply, from their relative position, to the whole of the Aeneze tribes. The El Mauali inhabit the district near Aleppo and Hamah. Their emir or sheik receives an annual sum from the Governor of Aleppo, for which he protects the vil- lages of the pashalic against the aggressions of the other Arabs. They are reckoned treacherous and faithless ; an example of which is recorded in one of their chiefs, who murdered at a convivial feast in his own tent above 200 Aeneze guests, that he might get possession of their mares. The Hadedyein, the El Seken, who reckon about 600 tents, the El Berak, and various other tribes, wander in that neighbour- hood. The mountains from Homs towards Pal- myra, the extensive territory of the Hauran, the plains of Leja and Jolan, are traversed by numerous hordes, who are tributary to the Pasha of Damascus ; though circumstances often induce them to throw off their allegiance, and appropriate to their own use the miri, or tax from the peasants, and other dues they are employed to collect. The Beni Sakkar, a tribe of free Arabs, are celebrated for their courage and their robberies. They have a force of about 500 horsemen, who find constant occupation in plun- der, or in defending their possessions from the inroads of the Aenezes. The Arabs of Belka, whose camps extend to the eastern margin of the Dead Sea, comprise about forty small tribes, amountmg in all to between 3000 and 4000 tents. They drive cattle for sale to Jerusalem; and their great sheik pays an annual tribute of 2000 sheep to the Pasha of Damascus. The. plains about the Dead Sea and the Lake of Tiberias are inhabited by the Ghour Arabs. The Ahl el Kebly, or Southern Nations, comprehend the various tribes that dwell south of Palestine, and along the borders of the Red Sea Gebel Shera is peopled by the Hejaje, who num- 160 CIVIL HISTORY AND ber about 400 horsemen. The Howeytat, the Mo- wali, the Omran, Debourt, Bedoul, Hekouk, and various others, occupy the desert from Suez to Akaba. The Omran are a strong clan, and of very independent spirit. Their frequent depredations render them objects of terror to the pilgrims pro- ceeding to Mecca, who are under the necessity of passing through their territories. Five tribes, called the Towara, or Arabs of Tor, inhabit the peninsula of Sinai ; these are the Sowaleha, the Mezeyne, the Aleygat, the Tayaha, and the Terabein, who feed their flocks in the Petr^ean deserts. They maintain very little intercourse with their eastern neighbours, and can muster together a force of more than 600 matchlocks. In dry seasons they occasionally ap- proach towards Gaza or Hebron ; and some have a caravan called Kheleit, of more than 4000 camels, which sets out every year to Cairo, where they pur- chase wheat, barley, and articles of dress. Most of these, with various other branches, called the Sherkyeh Arabs, have colonized the western shore of the Red Sea, from Suez as far as Nubia. During the time of the Mamlouk reign in Egypt, they might be said to have been masters of a con- siderable part of the country. They exacted tribute from the peasants, and engrossed a great share of the transport-trade. The Maazy sometimes pasture their cattle near the Nile, but generally reside in the mountains. From 500 to 600 horsemen constitute the utmost force of all the Sherkyeh tribes. Some years ago, if their own reports are to be credited, they could muster at least 3000 ; but their numbers have been considerably reduced by their wars with the Pasha of Egypt, who at present levies a tribute on them, and observes their movements with so nuich vigilance that they are not even permitted to make war upon each other, — the most galling re- Ktriction under which an Arab can be placed. , On the eastern coast of the Gulf, the Bedouins GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. • 161 extend from the deserts of Akaba to the northern confines of Yemen. The Beni Okaba and the El Bily possess the small town of Moilah and the neighbouring country. The Hateym are one of the most widely dispersed of all these wandering hordes. In Syria, in Lower and Upper Egypt, along the Te- hama, in Nejed and Mesopotamia, encampments of them are always to be found. They are despised as a mean race, with whom the other Bedouins refuse to intermarry ; and for one man to call another a Hateymi is considered an unpardonable insult. The great tribe of the Jeheyne inhabit the country round Yembo, and constitute the chief portion of its popu- lation. They are much addicted to war, and can raise a force amounting to 8000 matchlocks. They acknowledge a nominal allegiance to the Sheriff of Mecca, and, like all the other tribes southward of Akaba, are entitled to the surra or passage-money from the Egyptian pilgrims. The Beni Shammar inhabit the mountains of that name, and are mortal enemies to the Aenezes. They are subdivided into numerous branches, some of which have settlements in Irak, and make fre- quent plundering incursions into the Hauran. The greater part of the country extending from Kasym to Medina is occupied by the Beni Harb, who have also possessions on the coast from Yembo down to Jidda and Leith. In summer they migrate to Pales- tine and Mount Lebanon, on the summits of which they pitch their tents and feed their cattle. From the aggregate of this formidable race, there might perhaps be reckoned a body comprising between 30,000 and 40,000 men armed with matchlocks ; and such is the numerical strength of their main tribes, that each of them is rather to be considered as a dis- tinct clan. Among their branches extending to the east and south of Medina, are the Mezeyne, the Beni Safar, Beni Ammer, El Hamede, Beni Salem, Sobh, El Owf, and Dwy Daher. The Sheik of El 02 162 CIVIL histokv and Hamede is at present considered as chief of all the Beni Harb ; to the Sobh belong the town and district of Bedr, where a market is held, at which some of them are wont to sit during the whole day in their small shops, and in the evening they mount their camels and return to their famihes in the Desert. The principal station of the Zebeyde tribe is to the north of Jidda ; but, as their country is in gene- ral poor, they are obliged to seek for other means of subsistence than what can be derived from pas- ture alone. Many of them are active fishermen, and serve as sailors and pilots to ships navigating the Red Sea. A certain number have established themselves in this capacity on the Shut El Arab below Bagdad. In consequence of their commer- cial pursuits the other Harbs look upon them with disdain. The excellent pasture- ground about Taif, and the chain of mountains eastward, are inhabited by the Ateybe, who formerly were the inveterate ene- mies of the Harb tribe, and could muster a force of from 6000 to 10,000 matchlocks. The Lahyan and other Bedouin tribes about Mecca are all poor, owing to the sterility of the soil and the high price of com- modities. The Beni Fahem regularly supply the city with charcoal and sheep. Of the once cele- brated Koreish, only 300 matchlock-men now re- main, who encamp about Mount Arafat. They are but little esteemed by the other Bedouins, and derive their chief subsistence from the charity of the pil- grims, or the price of the milk and butter which they carry to Mecca. The Adouan, an ancient and power- ful tribe, have been nearly exterminated by a series of continual wars with their neighbours. ' Many of the other tribes in these mountainous regions were known in Arabian history prior to the era of Mo- hammed ; such as the Hodhail, who muster 1000 matchlocks, and are reputed the best marksmen in the whole country ; the Thakif, who compose half GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 163 the inhabitants of Taif ; the Beni Sofian, Beni Ra- biah, Beni Abs, Beni Kelb, and Beni Asyr, who can assemble 15,000 men-at-arms. The Beni Saad and Beni Kahtan are famous from the most remote anti- quity ; the former being the tribe among whom the Prophet himself was educated, and the latter es- teemed more wealthy in camels than any Bedouins of the Eastern desert. A man is reckoned poor who has only forty ; and some even of the middle .classes possess 150. The Abyde, the Senhan, Wa- daa, Sahar, Begoum, Hamadan, Shomran, and Zoh- ran border on the territory of the Imam of Sanaa. Among all these nomadic tribes one form of gov- ernment seems to prevail ; and though at first view it may not seem calculated to secure that grand object of legislation — the protection of the weak against the strong, — yet from the experience of ages, during which their political state has not suf- fered the smallest change, it appears that their civil institutions are well adapted to their habits and mode of hfe. Every tribe has its chief sheik, or emir as he is sometimes styled ; and every camp (for a tribe often comprises many) is headed by a sheik, or at least by an Arab of some consideration. All the sheiks, however, that belong to the same tribe, acknowledge the common chief, who is called the sheik of sheiks. The dignity of grand sheik is hereditary in a certain family, but is not confined to the order of primogeniture ; on his death the inferior sheiks choose his successor, more for his personal qualities than from any regard to age or lineal suc- cession. This right of election, with other privi- leges, obliges the object of their choice to treat them rather as associates than subjects ; and the only ceremony attending the election is the simple an- nouncement to him, that henceforth he is to be regarded as head of the tribe. Disputes occasion- ally arise in choosing between a son, a brother, or some other distinguished relation, and each party 164 CIVIL HISTORY AND adheres to its own favourite. A sheik is sometimes deposed, and a more brave or generous man elected in his place. He has no actual authority over the individuals of his tribe beyond what he derives from his superior abilities ; and though they may pay deference to his advice, they would spurn his com- mands. The real government of the Bedouins maybe said to consist in the separate strength of their different families, who constitute so many armed bodies, ever ready to punish or retaliate aggression ; and it is this mutual counterpoise alone that maintains peace in the tribe. The most powerful Aeneze chief dares not inflict a trifling punishment on the poorest of his subjects, without incurrfng the risk of mortal ven- geance from the injured party. The sheiks, there- fore, exercise a very precarious sway, and must not be regarded as princes of the Desert, — a title with which some travellers have dignified them. Their prerogative consists in leading their troops against the enemy, in conducting public negotiations, and superintending the general economy of the encamp- ment ; and even these privileges are much limited. The sheik cannot declare war or conclude peace without consulting the chief men of his tribe ; if he wish to break up the camp, he must previously ask the opinion and concurrence of his people ; and if the spot which he fixes for the new encampment does not please them, they pitch their own tents at some distance, or join the camp of another tribe. The sheik derives no yearly income from his subjects ; on the contrary, he is obliged to support his title by considerable disbursements, in the way of presents to his friends, and hospitality to strangers. His means of defraying these expenses are the sums which he levies in tribute and plunder, or obtains from the pilgrim-caravans. He acts in a legal as well as in a political capacity ; but in cases of liti- gation he has not the power to execute any sen- GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 165 tence. The Arab can only be persuaded by his own relations ; and if they fail, war commences between the two families and all their kindred respectively. The parties sometimes agree to abide by his deci- sion, or to choose umpires ; but they cannot on any occasion be compelled to yield, though an adversary may be cited before the cadi or judge. The fees of this officer are considerable, and always paid by the gainer of the cause, never by the loser. In cases where difficulties occur which baffle his powers of sagacity to unravel or decide, the cadi sends the litigating parties before the mebesshae, or chief judge, who subjects them to the trial by or- deal, similar to that employed formerly in Europe. Should his endeavours to reconcile the disputants prove vain, he directs a fire to be kindled in his pres- ence ; he then produces a long iron spoon (used by the Arabs in roasting coffee), and having made it red-hot, he takes it from the fire and licks with his tongue the upper end of the spoon on both sides After this ceremony he replaces it in the fire, and commands the accused person first to wash his mouth with water, and then to lick the spoon as he had done. If the accused escape without injury to his tongue he is presumed to be innocent ; other- wise, he loses his cause. Persons have been known to lick the heshaa, as it is called, above twenty times without the slightest harm. In cases of manslaugh- ter or murder, where the accused denies the charge, appeal is always made to this tribunal. Corporal punishments are unknown, pecuniary fines being always awarded, of whatever nature the crime may be. An insulting expression, a blow according to its violence or the part struck, the in- fliction of a wound from which even a single drop of blood flows, have each their respective fines ascer- tained. Calling a man a dog incurs the penalty of a sheep ; a wound on the shoulder, three camels. The forfeit for killing a watch-dog is remarkable : 166 CIVIL HISTORY AND the dead animal is held up by the tail, so that its nose just touches the ground ; its length is then measured, and a stick of equal dimensions is fixed into the earth. Over this the delinquent is obliged to pour as much wheat as will wholly cover it. The wheat is the fine due to the owner of the dog. The evidence of a witness may be given verbally or in writing ; and where there are none, the accused party is acquitted on solemnly attesting his inno- cence by an oath. There are several kinds of judicial oaths in use among the Arabs: one of the most common is to lay hold with one hand of the wa'sat or middle tent- pole, and swear " by the life of this tent and its owners." The " oath of the wood" is more serious, and consists in taking a piece of stick or stone, and swearing " by God and the life of him who caused it to be green and dried up." The " oath of the cross lines" is only used on very important occasions,-— suppose stolen goods, or where the fact of the guilt cannot be proved by witnesses. The accuser leads the suspected person a distance from the camp ; and then with his sekin or crooked knife draws on the sand a large circle with several cross lines inside. The defendant is obliged to put his right foot, some- times both feet, within this magic ring, the accuser doing the same, and charging him to repeat the fol- lowing words : — " By God, and in God, and through God, I did not take it, and it is not in my posses- sion." To make this ceremony still more solemn, a camel's udder-bag (shemle) and an ant (nemle) are placed together within the circle, indicating that the accused swears by the hope of never being de- prived of milk and winter provision. It is called " the oath of the shemle and nemle ;" and to swear falsely by it would for ever disgrace an Arab, Generally speaking, the political institutions of the Bedouins may be traced to that natural authority which the primitive fathers of mankind exercised GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 167 over their families, and which viewed the , duty of obedience as founded less on any legal obligations than upon the opinion of benevolence in the ruler. The office of their sheiks and elders, the maxims which they observe in war and in negotiating peace, must have arisen from the common wants and the common consent of the tribes. They are so simple — so well adapted to the spirit of their free and wandering hfe — that every nation not yet reduced to slavery, if thrown at large upon this wide desert, might be expected to observe the same laws and usages. The case, however, is very different with their civil institutions ; and it is not easy to imagine how so ma"""" arbitrary regulations in their social economy — so inany nice distinctions in estimating the price of wounds and insults — could have sprung up by chance, or originated in the gradual improve- ment of a wild and warlike multitude. Their politi- cal code differs from that most generally prevalent throughout the rest of the Moslem world, and must have been the work of a legislator older than thft revolution achieved by Mohammed. The Prophet Obliged the Bedouin Arabs to renounce their idola try, and to acknowledge the unity of a Divine Crea ■ tor ; but he seems to have been less successful iit forcing his laws upon his own nation than in estab lishing them with their assistance in the surrounding countries. 168 HEJAZ CHAPTER V. HEJAZj OR HOLY LAND OF THE MOSLEM. Government of Hejaz — Succession and Power of the Sheriffs-^ Reign of Ghaleb — Sheriff FamiHes at Mecca — Cities and Towns in Hejaz — Jidda — Yembo — Taif— Mecca — Descrip- tion of the BeituUah or Grand Temple — The Court and Col- onnades—The Kaaba— The Black Stone— The Tob or Cover' ing of the Kaaba — The Zemzem Well — Servants and Reve- nues of the Mosque — Inhabitants of Mecca — Their Character, Domestic Manners, and Employments — Low State of Arts and Learning in Hejaz. The g-overnnient of Hejaz, which includes the territories of Medina, Jidda, Yembo, Taif, and Gon- fode, belongs to the Sheriff of Mecca. The honour attached even to a nominal authority over the holy cities had led, in former tunes, to frequent disputes between the caliphs of Bagdad, the sultans of Egypt^ and the imams of Yemen ; although the possession of that dignity, instead of increasing their income, obliged them to incur great expenses. The sole benefit they derived was the right of clothing the Kaaba, and of having their names inserted in the prayers of the mosque. The supremacy of Egypt over Mecca, so firmly established from the beginning of the fifteenth century, was transferred by Selim I. to the sultans of Constantinople ; in whose hands, with the interruption of a few years, it has since continued. The sheriff was invested annually with a pelisse from the grand seignior, from whom he held his ofhce ; and in tlie Turkish ceremonial he was ranked among the first pashas of the empire. When the Porte became unable, even by means of large armies, to secure its command over that coun- GOVERNMENT OF THE SHERIFFS. 169 try, these subordinate nilers threw off their depend- ence ; although they still called themselves the servants of the sultan, prayed for him in the great mosque, and received the wonted investiture. The succession to the government of this prov- ince, like that of the Bedouin sheiks, is not heredi- tary ; though it usually remained in the same tribe so long as the power of that tribe preponderated The election was always made from one of the sheriff families descended from the Prophet, settled in Hejaz. They were divided into various subordi- nate branches, of which sometimes one sometimes another enjoyed the sovereignty of the holy cities. There were no ceremonies of installation or oaths of allegiance. The new governor received compli- mentary visits ; his band played before the door, — an honour significant of royalty ; and his name was inserted in the public prayers. Succession rarely took place without disputes ; but the contests were in general neither sanguinary nor of long duration. The rivals submitted, or rather withdrew in gloomy silence ; and atonement for the blood shed on both sides was duly made by fines paid to the relations of the slain. The result of these poKtical quarrels was attended with bad consequences to the community ; for though they checked the power of the reigning sheriff, they weakened the state by the frequent occurrence of wars, feuds, and intestine broils. The vicissitudes of fortune to which they gave rise, and the arts of popularity which the chiefs were obiged to employ, gave to the government of Hejaz a character different from that of most other coun- tries in the East. None of that haughty ceremony was observed which draws a line of distinction be- tween oriental sovereigns or vicegerents and their subjects. The court of the sheriff was small, and almost entirely devoid of pomp. He was addressed by the plain title of seidna (our lord), or sadetkum Vol. n.— P 170 HEJAZ. (your highness) ; and the meanest of the peopld considered it no violation of etiquette to represent their grievances personally and boldly though re- spectfully to demand redress. No large body of regular troops was kept up, except a few Mamlouks or Georgians as a body-guard ; and when war was determired upon, he summoned his adherents and partisans to meet the emergency ; but they received no regular pay. The dress of this great functionary is the same as that of all the chiefs of the sheriff families at Mecca, consisting usually of a silk gown, over which is thrown a white abba of the finest manufacture of El Hassa ; the head is enveloped in a Cashmere shawl, and the feet in sandals, or yellow slippers. When he rides out on state occasions, he holds in his hand a short slender stick, called metrek ; and over him a horseman carries the umbrella or canopy. To present an account of the sheriffs of Mecca were only to describe the petty wars of rival fac- tions. Burckhardt shrank from the task of tracing their intricate pedigrees, and the historical notice of them given by D'Ohsson is chargeable with sev eral errors. About the middle of the last century the sovereignty was held by Mesaad ; and after hi* death (in 1770) it was seized by Hossein, the leadei- of an adverse party, but again returned to his fam ily in the person of Serour, who slew his rival in battle (1773), and whose name is still venerated in Hejaz on account of his extraordinary courage and sagacity, which were frequently called into exercise in repressing the turbulence and depredations of th(» inferior chiefs. His death, which happened in 1786 was bewailed as a public calamity, and his remains were followed to the grave by the whole population of Mecca. Two of his brothers aspired to the su preme power, of which Abdelmain kept possession for five days only, when the younger brother, Gha GOVERNMENT OF THE SHERIFFS. 171 leb, by his superior skill and intrigue, and by the great reputation which he had acquired for wisdom and valour, supplanted him in the government. During the first years of his reign the slaves and eunuchs began to indulge in their former disorderly behaviour and acts of oppression; but the new sheriff soon freed himself from their influence, and acquired at length a firmer authority over Hejaz than any of his predecessors had ever enjoyed. His nephews, the sons of Serour, attempted to wrest from him the reins of power, but without success. His government, on the whole, was lenient and cautious, although his extreme avarice betrayed him into many acts of individual oppression. The whole of his private household consisted of fifty or sixty servants and officers, and as many slaves and eunuchs. His harem contained a small establish- ment of wives, being about two dozen of Abyssinians, and twice that number of female attendants to wait upon them and nurse their children. When in the full enjoyment of his power, he possessed a con- siderable influence over.the Bedouin tribes of Hejaz, but without any direct authority. The income of the sheriff is derived chiefly from the customs paid at Jidda and Yembo, which were much increased by Ghaleb, who had also engrossed a large share of the commerce to himself, having eighty dows constantly engaged in the coflTee trade. He also levied a tax upon all cattle and provisions, carried either to the coast for exportation, or into the interior of the country. The other branches of his revenues were the profits realized from the sale of provisions at Mecca ; a capitation-tax on all Per- sian hajjis ; presents, both gratuitous and compul- sory ; part of the money sent from Constantinople for the use of the temple ; and rents to a consider- able amount from landed property, consisting of gardens around Taif, and plantations in many of the lieighbouring wadis ; besides houses and caravansa» 172 HEJAZ. ries at Jidda, which he let out to foreigners. Burck- hardt calculates the annual receipts of Ghaleb, during the plenitude of his power, to have amounted to about 350,000/. sterling ; but when the Wahabees occupied Hejaz, it probably did not exceed half that sum. The maintenance of his household did not perhaps require more than 20,000/. per annum. Tue small force he kept up in time of peace did not exceed 500 men, whose pay was from eight to twelve dollars per month. During war, the increase of his army to 3000 or 4000 troops rendered some additional expense necessary ; but there is reason to conclude, that never at any period of his power did this governor live up to the full amount of his income. The reign of this sheriff has acquired con- siderable importance in Europe from its connexion with the history of the Wahabees ; and his name will again be necessarily introduced in our notice of these fanatical warriors. Of the sheriff families at Mecca, who may be re- garded as the former Mamlouks or janizaries of Arabia, only a small number (Burckhardt enumerates twelve) now remain, who serve as auxiliaries under their respective chiefs, either in the armies of their friends or their enemies. Their great versatility of character and conduct has destroyed their credit for honesty ; and this popular distrust is increased by the suspicion that they belong to the heterodox sect of the Zaidites ; while the Meccawees follow the doctrines of Shafei. In personal appearance and gallant bearing they surpass most other tribes of their countrymen. Those whom Burckhardt had an opportunity of seeing were distinguished by fine manly countenances, strongly expressive of noble extraction ; they had all the bold and frank manners of the Bedouins ; were fond of popularity ; and en- dowed with an innate pride which, in their own eyes, set them far above the Sultan of Constantino- ple. They form a distinct class, into which no for- eigners are admitted. They are spread over several GOVERNMENT OF THE SHERIFFS. 173 other parts of Arabia, and acknowledge most of the sheriffs of Yemen and Hejaz as their distant rela- tions. They delight in arms and civil broils ; and have a singular custom, which was practised in the days of Mohammed, of sending every male child eight days after its birth to the tent of some neigh- bouring Bedouin, where he is brought up with the children for eight or ten years, or till he is able to manage a mare, when the father takes him home. During the whole of this period, except a short visit in his sixth month, the boy never sees his parents, nor enters the town ; nor is he in any instance left longer than thirty days after his birth in the hands of his mother. By this hardy education he becomes familiar with all the perils and vicissitudes of the desert life ; his body is inured to fatigue and priva- tion ; and he acquires an influence among the Bedouins which afterward becomes of much im- portance to him. He acquires for his foster-parents ill the affection of relationship ; and sometimes the sheriff boys steal away from their own homes to rejoin the friends and associates of their infancy. At Mecca, and in every town throughout Hejaz, justice is administered by the cadi. The fees are enormous, and generally swallow up one-fourth of the sum in litigation. The most barefaced acts of corruption, bribery, and oppression occur daily in the Mehkames (halls of judgment), and these dis- orders are countenanced by the Turkish sultan, who had long been in the habit of paying the judges 100 purses per annum out of his treasury, in consider- ation of the emoluments he received from the ofl!ice. In lawsuits of importance, the muftis of the four orthodox sects have considerable influence on the decisions. Within the dominions of the sheriff are compre- hended, as has already been noticed, the cities of Mecca, Medina, Yembo, Taif, Jidda, Gonfode, Hali, and several other places less considerable. 174 HEJAZ. Jidda, views of which are given by Head and Niebuhr, is described by travellers as a pretty town, built upon a slightly-rising ground, the lower part of which is washed by the sea. It extends along the shore more than half a mile. On the land-side it is surrounded by a wall in a tolerable state of repair, but of no strength. Its watch-towers are mounted with a few rusty guns, one of which is famous over all the Red Sea, and may be called the Mons Meg of Arabia, as it is said to carry a ball of 100 lbs. weight, A ditch ten feet wide and twelve deep is carried along its whole extent ; and there is a battery, which guards the entrance from the sea and commands the harbour. The approach from the shore is by the quays, where small boats discharge the cargoes of the large ships ; the latter being obliged to anchor in the roadstead, at the distance of two miles. The entrance is shut every evening at sunset ; and thus, during night, all communication is prevented be- tween the town and the shipping. On the land-side are two gates leading to Mecca and Medina ; opposite these the ditch is filled with -rubbish, which serves instead of a drawbridge. The 'suburbs contain only huts formed of reeds, rushes, or brushwood, inhabited by peasants, labourers, and Bedouins. The streets of the town are unpaved, but, on the whole, regular, spacious, and airy. The houses are two or three stories high, handsome, and generally built of large blocks of very fine madre- pore -, though uniformity of architecture is not ob- served. There is usually a spacious hall at the entrance, where strangers are received, and which, during the heat of the day, is cooler than any other part of the house, the floor being kept continually wet. There the master, with all his male attend- ants, hired servants, and slaves, may be seen at noon enjoying the siesta. The doorways are ele- gantly arched, and covered with zigzag fretwork ornaments carved in the stone. The windows are JIDDA. 175 siumerous, sometimes large sometimes small, with wooden shutters. The bow-windows exhibit a great display of joiners' and carpenters' work, which is often painted with the most gaudy colours. Travel- lers have been struck with the resemblance between the arches at Jidda and those in the Enghsh cathe- drals ; some being pointed, like the Gothic ; others flat, and retiring one within another, like the Saxon. The most respectable inhabitants have their resi- dence near the sea, where a long street running parallel to the shore appears lined with shops, and presents many khans constantly and exclusively frequented by the merchants. The pasha's palace is delightfully situated on the water's edge ; yet the edifice itself is rather paltry than handsome. There are many small mosques, and two of considerable magnitude. Water is scarce ; bat in all the public places there are persons who sell it in glasses, and have near them a small chafing-dish, in which they burn incense and aromatics ; by this means the air is constantly perfumed. The same custom is ob- served in the khans, shops, and even private houses. The markets are well supplied ; but vegetables and other provisions require to be brought from a dis- tance, there being no gardens near the town or verdure of any kind, except such as is afforded by a few shrubs and date-trees. Beyond the gate is held the market for corn, cattle, wood, charcoal, and fruits. Eastward lies the principal burying-ground, containing the sepulchres of several sheiks : here, too, is shown the tomb of Eve, the mother of man- kind, which Burckhardt was informed is a rude structure of stone, about four feet in length, two or three in height, and as many in breadth. The prin- cipal commercial street of Jidda has a vast number of shops, which, as in all parts of Turkey, are raised several feet above the ground; before them are stone benches, on which purchasers seat themselves, and where they are sheltered from the sun by an 176 HEJAZ. awning usually made of mats fastened to high poles. The pipe is the constant companion of the lower classes, and of all the sailors on the Red Sea. The head or bowl consists of an unpolished cocoanut shell which contains water, and the smoke is inhaled through a thick reed, or a long serpentine tube. The coffee-houses are generally filthy, and never fre- quented by the better class of merchants. The dealers in other commodities are very numerous ; sellers of butter, honey, oil, and sugar ; of vege- tables, fruits, and confectionary of all descriptions. There are pancake-makers and bean-sellers, who furnish these articles for breakfast ; soup-sellers, shops for roasted meat or fried fish, stands for bread and lehen or sour-milk (which is sold by the pound, and extremely dear), for Greek cheese, and salted or smoked beef from Asia Minor, to accommodate visiters at mid-day. Corn-dealers have their shops, vv^here Egyptian wheat, barley, beans, lentils, dhourra, rice, and biscuits may be purchased. The druggists, who are mostly natives of India, have their labora- tories ; where, ..besides medical compounds, they retail wax, candles, pepper, perfumery, sugar, and spices of all sorts. A considerable article of their trade consists in rosebuds brought from the gardens of Taif : these the inhabitants of Hejaz, especially the ladies, infuse in water, which they afterward use for their ablutions. Tailors, clothiers, and bar- bers are not numerous ; the latter act here as sur- geons and physicians, as they formerly did in Eng- land. There are a good many shops where small articles of Indian manufacture are sold. Very little European hardware finds its way to these markets, except needles, scissors, thimbles, and files ; copper- vessels, water-skins, and other domestic utensils are generally imported. In a street adjoining the great market-place live a few artisans, blacksmiths, silver- smiths, carpenters, and some butchers, chiefly na* tives of Egypt. JIDDA. 177 Jidda may be called a modern town ; for, although known in ancient times as the harbour of Mecca, its importance as a market for Indian goods can only be traced to the beginning of the fifteenth century. During the predominance of the Wahabees it had been in a declining state ; its trade was much de- pressed, and many of the houses had gone to ruin. Since the conquests of the Egyptians, however, it has recovered its former condition, and is now as flourishing as at any period in its history. In 1823 it had a Turkish governor, Rustan Aga, who lived in great state, and kept a considerable military estab- lishment. Burckhardt states the number of inhab- itants generally at from 12,000 to 15,000; but about the time of the pilgrimage, and during the summer months, there is a great influx of strangers, which increases that amount perhaps one-half: they are almost exclusively foreigners. The settlers from India, Egypt, Syria, Barbary, Turkey, and other nations may be still recognised in the features of their descendants, who are all mixed in one general mass, and live and dress in the same manner. The aboriginal tribes who once peopled the town have either perished by the hands of the governors, or been driven to other parts of the country; those who can be truly called natives are merely a few families of sheriffs, who are attached to the mosques or the courts of justice. This mixture of races is the effect of the pilgrimage, which every year adds fresh numbers to the population. The Jiddawees are almost entirely engaged in commerce, and pur- sue no manufactures or trades but those of immediate necessity. Their traffic by land is confined to Mecca and Medina. A caravan departs for the latter place once in forty or fifty days, and consists of from 60 to 100 camels, conducted by Harb Bedouins. The more common route of intercourse, however, is by Yembo, to which goods are conveyed by sea. The caravans to Mecca set out almost every evening, and 178 HEJAZ. perform the journey in two nights ; the camels rest ing at a station midway during the day. In addition to these, a small caravan of asses lightly laden start? also every evening, and arrives regularly next morn ing. This conveyance is the usual mail for post- letters. The inhabitants evince in their appearance the extremes of wealth and indigence ; there is a great deal of luxury in the costume and apartments of the rich ; while among the lower orders many are almost naked, and in the greatest misery. Ali Bey remarked a prodigious number of dogs and cats in the streets, howUng and roaming without owners, but says there are few flies, and no gnats or other insects. Yembo serves as the port to Medina. Though the sheriffs of Mecca were in the habit of appoint- ing their vizier as governor of the place, he had in most cases httle authority beyond that of collecting the customs; the government being exercised by the great sheik of the Jeheine tribe, to which many of the inhabitants belonged. The town is built on the northern side of a deep spacious bay, which affords good anchorage ; and is protected from the violence of the wind by an island at its entrance. A creek of the bay divides it into two parts, both of which are enclosed by a wall of considerable strength. The houses are low, built of a coarse white calca- reous stone full of fossils, and have a mean and wretched appearance. The inhabitants are prin- cipally Arabs, no foreigners having settled here except two or three Indian shopkeepers, or a few Turks who occasionally take up a temporary resi- dence. Yembo possesses about forty or fifty ships, which engage in all the branches of the Red Sea trade ; but they are daring smugglers,— often eluding the heavy duties of the government by sending a considerable part of their cargoes ashore by stealth. The transport to Medina is chiefly in provisions, and occupies a great number of carriers. Tlie YembJi- YEMBO TAIF. 179 ■Wees are all armed with a dagger and spear, although they seldom appear so in public, and they usually carry a heavy bludgeon in their hand. The situation is healthy, and the markets cheap ; but as a resi- dence it must be extremely disagreeable, from the incredible quantity of flies that infest the coast. The inhabitants never walk out without a fan to drive oflf these troublesome vermin. Taif is under the government of a subordinate officer, with little authority, appointed by the sheriff. The town stands in the middle of a sandy circular plain, encompassed by low mountains, called Gebel Ghazoan. It is in the form of an irregular square, of about two miles in circumference, surrounded by a rampart and ditch, and defended by several towers. The castle occupies a rocky elevated site ; but has no claim to the title of a fortress, except that it is larger than the other edifices, and has stronger walls. The houses in general are small, but well built, and supplied with two copious springs. Taif is cele- brated over all Arabia for its beautiful gardens, which are situated at the foot of the hills. In some of them are neat pavilions, where the inhabitants pass their festive hours, and to which the great merchants of Mecca occasionally retire in summer. Here the fruits of Syria bloom in the centre of the Arabian desert ; and from this circumstance tra- dition has assigned to it the fabulous origin of having been detached from that country, either at the general deluge, or by virtue of the prayers of Abraham, who in this miraculous way obtained for the natives and pilgrims at Mecca that subsistence which their own barren hills refused them, Taif suffered much in the Wahabee war, and since that period it has remained in a state of com- parative ruin. Every thing has the aspect of mis- ery; the principal streets swarm with beggars; and the trade, which consists chiefly in drugs and perfumes, cannot support above fifty shops. For- 180 HEJAZ. merly it was a flourishing commercial town, to- which the Arabs from a great distance resorted to dispose of their caravans of wheat and barley, and to purchase articles of dress. Under the Pasha of Egypt it may perhaps recover from its present de- cay.* The indigenous inhabitants of the place are Arabs of the ancient tribe of Thakif, so famous m the wars of Mohammed ; and in their possession are all the neighbouring gardens, and most of the pro- vision-shops in the town. A few Meccawees are settled here ; but the far greater part of the foreign- ers are Indians by extraction. Mecca, the holy city of the Moslems, so long for- bidden to the profane eyes of Christians, is now familiar to every reader of Arabian travels ; and notwithstanding the growing indifference of the Mohammedans to their religion, it is still visited and revered by all orthodox followers ot the Pro- phet. Among the natives it is dignified with many high-sounding titles, — The Mother of Towns, — The Noble,— The Region of the Faithful. The city hes in a narrow winding valley, the main direction of which is from north to south, and its breadth vary- * Here Ali Pasha had his head-quarters in 1814 when visited by Burckhardt, with whom he held a long and interesting con- versation respecting the atfairs of Europe, of which he appeared' to have a tolerable knowledge. He had already heard of the treaty of peace concluded at Paris, and the captivity of Bona- parte in Elba ; and made some curious comments on the new arrangements, both colonial and contmental, of the Allied Pow- ers. That the Enghsh should be guided in their policy by the laws of honour, or a sense of the general good of Europe, he could not comprehend. "A great king," he exclaimed with much warmth, " knows nothing but his sword and his purse ;. he draws the one to fill the other ; there is no honour among con- querors !" Of the British parliament he had some notion ; and the name of Wellington was familiar to him. He admitted he was a great general ; but doubted whether if his grace had commanded such bad soldiers as the Turkish troops, he would have been able to do what he himself had done in conquering Egypt and Hejaz. MECCA. 181 ing from 100 to 700 yards. The buildings cover a space of about 1500 paces in length ; but the sub- urbs, from one extreme to the other, extend to nearly 3500. The mountains, enclosing the valley and overhanging the town, rise from 200 to 500 feet in height, rugged, and completely barren. Mecca may be styled a handsome town ; its streets are in ^•eneral broader than those of Eastern cities ; the houses lofty, and built of stone, which, being of a dark-gray colour, looks more agreeable than the glaring white that offends the eye at Jidda and Mo- cha. The numerous windows that face the streets give them a lively and European aspect ; the greater number project from the wall, and have their frame- work elaborately carved, or painted with brilliant colours. In front hang blinds made of slight reeds, which exclude flies and gnats while they admit fresh air. The doors are generally approached by a few steps, and have small seats on each side. The city is open on every side ; though in former times its extremities were protected by three walls, ruins of which are still visible. Except four or five large palaces belonging to the sheriff, two colleges, and the great mosque, it cannot boast of any public edifices ; and in this respect it is perhaps more defi- cient than any other oriental town of the same size. Nearly all the common houses are divided into small apartments, for the accommodation of lodgers during the pilgrimage. The terraces on the roof are concealed from view by slight parapet walls; for, throughout the East, it is reckoned discredit- able for a man to appear where he might be accused of looking at the women, who pass the greater part of their time on the terraces, employed in hanging up linen, drying corn, and various domestic occu- pations. The streets, being sandy and mipaved, are disagreeable in summer, and equally so from mud in the rainy season, during which they are scarcely passable ; and the lower parts of the town, where Vol. II.— Q 182 HEJAZ. the water does not run off, are converted into pools, and allowed to remain till they dry. The police of the city is badly regulated : as there are no lamps, the streets are totally dark, and en- cumbered with the rubbish and sweepings cast from the houses. The inhabitants are but poorly sup- phed with water ; the best is conveyed from the vicinity of Arafat, six or seven hours distant, by an aqueduct of vast labour and magnitude, first erected, according to the Arabian historians, by Zobeide, the wife of Haroun al Raschid, and frequently repaired at great expense by the Turkish sultans. In some quarters of the town there are handsome shops, for the sale of all sorts of provisions. The baths, three in number, are of an inferior order, and chiefly fre- quented by foreigners. The only pubhc edifice worthy of note is the Great Mosque or Temple, which the Moslem call Beitullah (the House of God), or El Haram (the Temple of Excellence). This celebrated structure has been so often ruined and repaired, that no traces of remote antiquity are to be found al30ut it. From the days of Omar, who laid its first foundations, to the present century, various caliphs, emperors, sul- tans, and imams have signalized their piety by renewing, altering, or adding to its buildings. Al- mansor enlarged the north and south side to twice its former extent; IMahadi, INIotassem, Motaded, and others of the Abbassides, expended immense sums in the erection of columns, new gates, and marble pavements. After its restoration from the disasters it experienced at the hands of the hereti- cal Karmathians, no changes or additions were made for several centuries. The Sultan Solyman caused all the domes to be raised which cover the roof of the colonnades, and laid the pavement that is now round the Kaaba. From the year 1627, when it was rebuilt, after being partly destroyed by MECCA. 183 a torrent from the hills, no other material altera- tions or improvements took place till the eighteenth century; so that the building, as it now appears, may be almost wholly ascribed to the munificence of the last sultans of Egypt and the Turkish empe- rors. In the autumn of 1816, several artists and workmen sent from Constantinople were employed in repairing the damage done by the Wahabees. The Temple stands near the middle of the city : it is a quadrilateral building, much resembling in form, according to Pitts,* that of the Royal Ex- * Joseph Pitts of Exeter was the first Englishman we know of that visited either of the holy cities. The ship in which he sailed being captured in 1678 by a Moorish pirate, he was car- ried to Algiers, where he remained in slavery fifteen years. By cruel treatment he was compelled to become a Mussulman : — in that capacity he accompanied his master, an old Turkish bachelor, on his pilgrimage to Mecca, who gave him his liberty on their return. His narrative is homely, but surprisingly accu- rate. It is curious that Gibbon seems not to have seen or known of it. A much earlier traveller, and the first Christian in modern times that gave a tolerable account of Arabia, was Ludovico Barthema of Bologna, who, in 1503, &c. visited Egj'pt, Syria, Arabia, Persia, and India. At Damascus he contrived, in the guise of a Mamlouk soldier, to accompany one of the pilgrim caravans to Mecca and Medina, where he paid his devoirs at the tomb of Mohammed, and went through the whole ceremo- nies of the haj ; after which he escaped to Jidda, and thence by way of Aden to Persia. The caravan, he says, consisted of 35,000 persons, and 40,000 camels. (See his travels in Ramu- sio's Raccolta delle Navigat. et Viaggi, tome i.) The Sheik Ibn Batuta, whose travels have been recently translated by Pro- fessor Lee of Cambridge, performed the pilgrimage in 1332 ; but they contain few facts concerning Arabia. His whole ac- count of Mecca is "May God ennoble it !" He observes the same brevity regarding Sanaa, Aden, Muscat, and other towns which he visited. Seetzen was also at Mecca during the time of the pilgrimage, under the protection of a Moorish merchant ; but his stay was short, and his description differs little from those of Ali Bey and Burckhardt. He went to Sanaa, which he represents as superior to most cities that he had seen in Palestine, Syria, or Arabia. 184 HEJAZ. change in London, but nearly ten times larger. It has properly no external front, the walls being con- nected on the outside with the adjoining houses, some of which have windows that look into the interior. These tenements belonged originally to the mosque, but the greater part of them are now the property of individuals, who let out the different apartments to the richer hajjis at very high prices. The gates of the mosque are nineteen in number, dis tributed without any order or symmetry. Most of them have high pointed arches, though some are roivid, or almost semicircular ; and as each gate consists of two or three divisions, the whole num- be ' of these arches is thirty-nine. They are without any ornament except the inscriptions on the exte- rior, which commemorate the merits of the builder. Theie being no doors, the mosque is open at all hours, night and day. The great inner court of the Temple forms a parallelogram or oblong of about 250 paces in length and 200 in breadth. Ali Bey's measurement is 536 feet 9 inches by 356. The whole square is sur- rounded by a colonnade or double piazza, the fronts of the two tonger sides presenting thirty-six and the two shorter twenty-four arches, supported by columns of different proportions, and amounting in all to nearly 500. On the eastern side the row of pillars is four deep, and three deep on the others ; they are above twenty feet in height, and generally from U to 1| feet in diameter. Some of them are of white marble, granite, or porphyry ; but the greater number consist of common stone from the neighbouring mountains. No regular order of archi- tecture is observed, and no two capitals or bases are exactly alike. The former are of coarse Saracen workmanship, while, from the ignorance of the workmen, not a few of them have been placed upside down. Some of the shafts in the weaker MECCA. 187 parts are strengthened with broad iron hoops or bands, as in many other buildings in the East.* The arches that front the great court are all crowned with small conical domes, plastered and whitened on the outside ; beyond these is a second row of low spherical cupolas, amounting in all to 152 ; and above them rise seven minarets or steeples, from the summits of which a beautiful view is ob- tained of the busy crowd below. These are irregu- arly distributed, one being at each angle, and the rest at different parts of the mosque. Some parts of the walls and arches, as well as the minarets, are gaudily painted in stripes of yellow, red, or blue. Around the whole colonnade lamps are suspended from the arches, part of which are lighted every night. The floors of the piazza are paved Avith large stones, badly cemented. The area of the court is below the level of the street, and surromided by a flight of stairs eight or ten steps in descent. From the colonnades seven paved footpaths lead towards the centre, elevated about nine inches above the ground, and of sufficient breadth to admit four or five persons to walk abreast. The intermediate spaces are covered with fine gravel or sand. * The annexed engraving of Mecca and the Temple is from the splendid work of D'Ohsson (Tableau de I'Emp. Ottoman). The appearance of the town has altered materially since the ravages committed by the Wahabees in the present century ; ut the view of the temple Burckhardt has pronounced to be tolerably accurate, only the Kaaba is somewhat large in propor- ion to the rest of the building. The view given in Niebuhr, copied from an ancient Arabic drawing, is less accurate than that by D'Ohsson. The ground-plan of the mosque in Ali Bey is perfectly correct ; but his views in Mecca and the Hejaz are not faithful. The view of Medina (vol. i. p. 262) is also from D'Ohsson. That city has also been altered in its appearance by the fate of war. The suburbs are entirely omitted by the latter writer ; and the mosque of the Prophet, being copied from an old Arabic drawing, differs in several particulars from the modern structure. It is to be regretted that Burckhardt was prevented by severe illness from giving a correct plan of it 188 HEJAZ. Nearly in the middle of the court stands the Kaaba, the " navel of the world," as Ibn Haukal calls it, the most remarkable building about the mosque, and the only part which lays claim to high antiquity. It is an oblong massive structure, the sides and angles of which are unequal, so that its plan forms a trapezium ; but the flat roof, the size of the edifice, and the black cloth covering, give it the appearance of a perfect cube. It is constructed of the gray Mecca stone, in large unpolished blocks of different sizes, and remains as it was when rebuilt in 1627. The length, according to Burckhardt, is eighteen paces, the breadth fourteen, and the height from thirty-five to forty feet. The only entrance is by a door on the north side, which is opened but two or three times in the year, and elevated about seven feet above the ground. In entering it a wooden staircase is used, mounted on six large rol- lers of bronze, with hand-railings on each side, and broad enough to admit four persons abreast. It con- sists of ten steps, and is moved to the wall when visiters ascend. The present door, which was sent from Constantinople in 1633, is wholly coated with silver, and fastened with an enormous padlock of the same metal. It has several gilt ornaments ; and upon the threshold are placed every night va- rious small lighted wax-candles, and perfuming-pans filled with musk, aloes-wood, and other aromatics. On the western side projects tlie myzab or water- spout, through which the rain collected on the roof is discharged. It is about four feet in length, and reported to be of pure gold, but is more probably of gilt bronze. The water falls on two large slabs of fine verde antique, which are said to mark the spot where Ishmael and his mother Hagar were buried. This is enclosed by a semicircular wall (called El Hatim) about three or four feet from the side of the Kaaba. It is built of solid stone, five feet in height and four thick, cased all over with white MECCA. 189 marble, and inscribed with prayers and invocations. The interior of the Kaaba consists only of a hall, the floor of which is paved with the finest marble ; and the lower part of the walls is ornamented with inscriptions, arabesques in relief, and similar deco- rations. The ceiling is supported by two columns, and there is a door through which persons ascend to the roof. The hall is hghted by an infinite num- ber of gold lamps, and almost entirely covered with cloth of a rose-coloured silk, lined with white, and sprinkled with flowers embroidered with silver. Near the entrance, at the north-eastern corner, is the famous Black Stone, called by the Moslems Hajra el Assouad, or Heavenly Stone. It forms a part of the sharp angle of the building, and is inserted four or five feet above the ground. The shape is an irregular oval, about seven inches in diameter. Its colour is now a deep reddish brown, approaching to black ; and it is surrounded by a border of nearly the same colour, resembling a cement of pitch and gravel, and from two to three inches in breadth. Both the border and the stone itself are encircled by a silver band, swelling to a considerable breadth below, where it is studded with nails of the same metal. The surface is undulated, and seems com- posed of about a dozen smaller stones of different sizes and shapes, but perfectly smooth, and well joined with a small quantity of cement. It looks as if the whole had been dashed into many pieces by a severe concussion, and then reunited ; — an appearance that may perhaps be explained by the various disasters to which it has been exposed. During the fire that occurred in the time of Yezzid I. (A. D. 682), the violent heat split it into three pieces; and when the fragments were replaced, it was neces- sary to surround them with a rim of silver, which is said to have been renewed by Haroun al Raschid. It was in two pieces when the Karmathians carried it away, having been broken by a blow from a soldier 190 HEJAZ. during the plunder of Mecca. Hakem, a maa sultan of Egypt, in the eleventh century, endeavoured, while on the pilgrimage, to destroy it with an iron club which he had concealed under his clothes ; but was prevented and slain by the populace. Since that accident it remained unmolested until 1674, when it was found one morning besmeared with dirt, so that every one who kissed it returned with a sullied face. Though suspicion fell on certain Persians, the authors of this sacrilegious joke were never discovered. As for the quality of the stone, it does not seem to be accurately determined. Burckhardt says it appeared to him like a lava, con- taining several small extraneous particles of a whitish and a yellowish substance. Ali Bey calls it a fragment of volcanic basalt, sprinkled with small- pointed coloured crystals, and varied with red feld- spar upon a dark black ground like coal, except one of its protuberances, which is a little reddish. The millions of kisses and touches impressed by the faithful have worn the surface uneven, and to a con- siderable depth. This miraculous block all orthodox Mussulmans believe to have been originally a trans- parent hyacinth, brought from heaven to Abraham by the angel Gabriel ; but its substance, as well as its colour, have long been changed by- coming in contact with the impurities of the human race. The four sides of the Kaaba are covered with a black silk stuff called the kesoua, and the tob or shirt, which is brought from Cairo, and put on every year at the time of the pilgrimage. The roof is left bare, and during the first days the new kesoua is tucked up by means of cords, so as to leave the lower part of the building exposed ; but in course of a short time it is let down so as to cover the whole struc- ture, and is then fastened to strong brass rings below. On this curtain various prayers and passages of the Koran are interwoven ; and a little above the middle is a hue or band of similar ijiscriptions (called MECCA. 191 El Hazem, or the belt) worked in gold thread, and running round the entire edifice. An opening is made for the black stone ; but the part of the kesoua which covers the door is richly embroidered with silver. In the first centuries of Islam the tob was never taken away, — the new one being always put over the old ; but this custom was at length abolished, — the Meccawees fearing that the Kaaba might sink under such an accumulation of clothing. The re- moval of the old kesoua was performed in a very indecorous manner;- — a contest always ensued among the pilgrims and the people for the shreds or rags. Even the dust that adhered to the wall mider it was collected and sold as sacred relics. The curtain and belt belong to the sheriff, who cuts them up and disposes of them at five francs a cubit. Pitts says that a piece the size of a sheet of paper cost nine or ten shillings : it is esteemed an excel- lent amulet, and many have it laid on their breast when dying. The clothing of the Kaaba was a practice of the pagan Arabs, who used two coverings, — one for winter and the other for summer. It appears to have always been considered as an emblem of sovereignty over the Hejaz ; and has in consequence been furnished by the princes of Bagdad, Egypt, or Yemen, according as their influence prevailed at Mecca. It is now supplied at the expense of the grand seignior ; and such a sacredness attaches to it, that the camel which transports it to Mecca is ever after exempted from labour. The black colour of the vestment, and the size of the building, give it at first sight a xQYy singular and imposing appear- ance. Seventy thousand angels have this edifice in their holy care, and are ordered to transport it to paradise when the trumpet of the last judgment shall be sounded. The colour of.the tob was not always black ; in ancient times it was white, and sometimes 192 HEJAZ. red, consisting of the richest brocade. The Waha- bees covered it with a red camlet stuff, of which the fine Arabian abbas are made. The new kesoua is put up fifteen days after the old one has been removed, during which interval the Kaaba continues without a cover. At the moment when the building is clothed, crowds of women surround it, rejoicing with shouts or cries, called ivalwalou. The ground for about forty feet round the Kaaba is paved with fine marble, variously coloured, and forming a very handsome specimen of Mosaic. This space, on which the pilgrims perform the toicaf or circuit, is of an elliptical figure, and surrounded with a sort of railing or enclosure of thirty-two slender gilt pillars, about seven feet and a half in height ; between every two of which are suspended seven lamps of thick green glass of a globular shape, which are always lighted after sunset. Opposite the -four sides of the Kaaba, and in the circular line of the pillars, stand four other small buildings, called makams, where the imams of the four orthodox sects, namely, the Hanifees, Shafees, Hanbalees, and Malekees, take their station, and guide the congregation in their prayers. The Ma- kam Ibrahim, or Place of Abraham, faces the door of the Kaaba, and is supported by six pillars. Near this structure stands the mamhar, or pulpit of the mosque, which is of fine white marble, with many sculptured ornaments. A straight narrow staircase leads up to the post of the khatib or preacher, who officiates, wrapped up in a white cloak, which covers his head and body ; two green flags are placed on each side of him, and in his hand he holds a stick ; — a practice also observed in Egypt and Syria in memory of the first ages of Islam, when the preacher found it necessary to be armed for fear of being surprised. Here sermon is delivered every Friday, and on certain festivals. It is near the mambar that visiters on entering deposite their shoes ; none MECCA. 193 being permitted to walk round the Kaaba with cov- ered feet. The only other building within the court worthy of notice is the Bir Zemzem or Zemzem Well. This building, which was erected about the end of the seventeenth century, is a square of massive con- struction, with an entrance opening into the apart- ment which contains the spring. The room is tastefully ornamented with marbles of various col- ours : it is rather more than seventeen feet square, and lighted by eight windows. The depth of the well is said to be fifty-six feet to the surface of the water ; its mouth is surrounded by a brim of fine white marble, five feet high, and about ten in diam- eter. Upon this the persons stand who draw the water in leathern buckets attached to pulleys ; — an iron railing being so placed as to prevent their fall- ing in. The chief of the well has the somewhat alarming title of the Poisoner ; but Ali Bey assures us, he was a very handsome person, of the most winning and graceful manners. The number of pitchers is immense ; they are of unglazed earth, so porous that the liquid filters through. Their form is long and cylindrical, terminating in a point at the bottom, so that they cannot stand unless placed against the wall. The Turks consider it a miracle that the supply never diminishes, notwithstanding the continual demand ; for it serves the whole town, and there is scarcely a family that does not daily use it for drinking or for ablution ; but it is deemed impious to employ it in culinary or common occa- sions. This phenomenon, however, is explained by Burckhardt, who discovered that the water was supplied by a subterraneous rivulet. When first drawn up it is slightly tepid, resembling in this re- spect many other fountains in Hejaz. It is heavy to the taste, and sometimes of a colour resembling milk ; but it is wholesome and perfectly sweet, dif- VoL, II.— R 194 HEJAZ. fering in this respect from the brackish wells in the town. On the north side of the Zemzem stand two small ugly buildings, one behind the other, called kobbe- iein, in which are kept water-jars, lamps, carpets, brooms, mats, and other articles. They are covered with painted domes ; but are not considered as forming any part of the mosque, no religious im- portance being attached to them. The gravel- ground, from the circular pavement to the colonnade, is covered at the time of evening prayer with carpets of Egyptian manufacture, from sixty to eighty feet in length and four in breadth, which are rolled up after the devotions are over. It is only, however, during the time of prayer, that the sanctity of the mosque is regarded. Every hour of the day per- sons may be seen under the colonnades reading the Koran, or hearing lectures delivered by the ulemas on religious subjects. There many poor Indians and negroes spread their mats, where they are al- lowed to eat and sleep ; and at noon loiterers come to repose under the cool shade of the piazza. In other parts of it are public schools, where the stick of the pedagogue is in constant action among noisy groups of children. Winding-sheets and other linens washed hi the Zemzem water, are constantly seen hanging to dry between the pillars ; for many pil- grims purchase their shrouds {keffen) at Mecca, be- lieving that if their corpse be wrapped in linen which has been wetted in holy water, the peace of the soul after death will be more effectually secured. The square is used as a play-ground for boys ; and servants carry luggage across it, to pass by the nearest route from one quarter of the city to another. Here, too, men of business meet and converse on their affairs ; and sometimes the precincts are so full of mendicants and diseased people lying about in the midst of their tattered baggage, as to make the MECCA. 195 place resemble an hospital rather than a temple ; — even the Kaaba itself is rendered the scene of such indecencies as cannot be particularly described, and which are practised not only with impunity, but it may be almost said without concealment. Near the gate of Bab es Salem, a few Arab sheiks daily take their seat, with their paper and inkstands, ready to write for any applicant, letters, accounts, contracts, amulets, billet-doux, or any similar docu- ments. They are principally employed by the Be- douins, and demand an exorbitant remuneration. One species of inviolable property belonging to the mosque are the flocks of wild pigeons with which Mecca abounds, and which nobody dares venture to kill. Several small stone basins are regularly filled with water for their use ; and as it is consid- ered an act of piety to feed them, there are women who expose corn and dhourra for sale on small straw mats, and who occasionally embrace the op- portunity of intriguing with the pilgrims, under the pretence of selling them corn for the sacred pigeons- The service of the temple employs a vast number of people, consisting of khatibs, imams, muftis, mu- ezzins, ulemas, eunuchs, lamp-hghters, metowafs, or guides, with a host of other menial servants, all of whom receive regular pay from the mosque, besides their share of the presents made to it by the hajjis. The first officer is the Naib el Haram, or guardian, who keeps the keys of tlie Kaaba, and superintends the repairs of the building. Burckhardt says he was one of the heads of the three only families de- scended from the ancient Koreish, then resident in Mecca. Next to him is the aga or chief of the eu- nuchs, who performs the duty of police-officer in the temple. His attendants prevent disorders, and daily wash and sweep the pavement round the Kaaba. Their dress is the Turkish kaouk, and they carry a long stick in their hand, with which they 196 HEJAZ. lay freely about them in cases of quarrels or riots. Their number exceeds forty, and most of them are negroes or copper-coloured Indians. The ag-a is a personage of great importance, entitled to sit in the presence of the pasha and the sheriff. The revenue of the mosque is considerable, al- though it has been deprived of the best branches of its income. There are few towns or districts in the Turkish empire in which it does not possess prop- erty in land or houses ; but the annual amount is often withheld by the provincial governors, or dimin- ished by the number of hands through which it passes. Formerly the sultans of Egypt and Con- stantinople sent it large sums every year ; but at present it is reduced to a state of comparative pov- erty. Notwithstanding the stories about its riches, it possesses no treasures except a few golden lamps. The history of the Beitullah has occupied the pens of many learned Arabs ; but in its construction it differs little from many other buildings of the same kind in Asia. Those of Aleppo, Damascus, and Cairo are exactly on the same plan, with an arched colonnade round an open square. The inhabitants of Mecca may all be called for- eigners or the offspring of foreigners, except a fevr Hejaz Bedouins or their descendants, who have set- tled there. Though a mixed population, they have nearly the same manners, and wear the same dress ; so little tenacious are they of their national cus- toms. There are few families in moderate circum- stances that do not keep slaves ; the male and female servants are negroes ; and most of the wealthier in- habitants, in addition to their lawful wives, keep Abyssinian mistresses. It is considered disgraceful to sell a concubine : if she bears a child, and the master has not already four legally-married wives, he takes her in matrimony ; if not, she remains in his house for life ; and in some instances the num- ber of concubines, old and young, is increased to MECCA. 197 several dozens. The middling and lower classes make a lucrative traffic in young Abyssinians, whom they bring up on speculation, and sell to strangers. The Meccawees are very expensive in their houses ; the rooms being embellished with fine car- pets, and abundance of cushions and sofas covered with brocade. Their furniture is costly — their tables well supplied — and in receiving visits, which are frequent, every mistress mnkes it her endeavour to surpass her acquaintances in show and magnifi- cence. The great merchants, most of whom have country-residences at Jidda or Taif, live very splen- didly, maintaining an establishment of fifty or sixty persons. Every native delicacy is to be found at their tables ; the china and glass ware in which the viands are served up are of the best quality ; rose- water is sprinkled on the beards of the guests after dinner ; and the room is filled with the odours of aloes-wood. The usual custom is two meals daily, — one before midday, the other after sunset. Their mutton is of inferior quality ; they hardly know the existence of fish ; and their pot-herbs are brought from Taif and other neighbouring places. In personal appearance the Meccawees are thin rather than robust ; their features are expressive, particularly in the vivacity and brilliancy of the eyes; their colour is a yellowish sickly broM^n, lighter or darker according to the origin of the mother, who in many cases is an Abyssinian slave. The lower classes are stout and muscular ; but the numerous retainers of the temple appear to be the most meager and emaciated beings imaginable. Ali Bey represents them as absolutely walking skele- tons, clothed with a parchment to cover their bones. From their lean and scraggy frame, their hollow cheeks, large sunken eyes, shrivelled legs and arms, they might be mistaken for true anatomical models ; R2 198 HEJAZ. and but for the prospective felicities of paradise, their existence on earth would seem intolerable. One singular practice has been remarked by trav- ellers, that all the male natives both of Mecca and Jidda, except Bedouins, are tattooed in a particular way, which is performed by their parents when they are forty days old. It is called meshale, and con- sists of three long incisions down both cheeks, and two on the right temple, the scars of which remain through life. Instead of a deformity, this is reck- oned a beauty ; and they pride themselves on a local distinction, which precludes the other in- habitants of Hejaz from claiming in foreign coun- tries the honour of being born in the holy cities. This tattooing is very seldom inflicted on female children. In disposition, the Meccawees are lively ; in the streets, bazars, and even in the mosque itself, they love to laugh and joke. In talking or dealing with each other they often introduce proverbs, puns, and witty allusions ; and as they possess, with all this vivacity of temper, much intellect, sagacity, and suavity of manners, their conversation is very agree- able ; so that whoever cultivates even a merely su- perficial acquaintance with them seldom fails to be delighted with their character. They have a natu- ral politeness, which they display not only to stran- gers, but in their daily intercourse with each other. In exchanging civilities on the streets, the young man kisses the hand of the elder, and the inferior that of his superior in rank ; while the latter returns the compliment by a salute on the forehead. In- dividuals of equal rank and age in the middle classes mutually kiss each other's hand In the ceremony of shaking hands, they lay hold of the thumb with the whole hand, pressing it, and again opening the hand three or four times : this is said to have been the practice of Mohammed. MECCA. 199 The vices of pilfering and theft are not prevalent at Mecca ; robberies are seldom heard of ; although rogues avail themselves of such opportunities during the pilgrimage, and are tempted by the negligence of the inhabitants in not using locks or bars. The streets abound with beggars, who are entirely sup- ported by the charity of strangers. Many adopt mendicity as a profession, and have a ready stock of pious sentences, which they address to all pas- sengers. Some of them are extremely importunate, and demand alms in a tone of authority little ac- cordant with their condition. Mecca is called the paradise of beggars, and this may account both for the number and the insolence of that class. The Meccawees are proud of being natives of the Holy City and countrymen of their Prophet. In this re- spect they consider themselves favoured beyond all other nations, and under the special care of Provi- dence. The consequence is, that they are haughty and intolerant towards Christians and Jews, who profess a different creed ; and though they do not openly persecute them, their name is always coupled with some opprobrious and contemptuous epithet. The sincerity of their own profession, however, does not correspond with their outward zeal. Such of them as have no particular interest in assuming the appearance of extreme strictness are very neg- ligent in observing both the forms and precepts of their religion, thinking it enough to utter pious ejaculations in public, or comply in trivial matters. In imitation of the Prophet, their mustachios are cut short, and their beard kept regularly under the scis- sors ; in like manner they allow the ends of the tur- ban to fall loosely over the cap : they put antimony on their eyelids, and have always a messouak, or toothbrush, in their hands, because such was the custom of Mohammed. They know by heart many passages of the Koran and the sacred traditions, and quote or allude to them every moment ; but they 200 HEJAZ. forget that these precepts were given for rules of conduct, and not for mere repetition. They excuse themselves from the duty of almsgiving, by saying that Providence ordained them to receive charity, not to bestow it ; and instead of attending the Fri- day's prayers, as every Moslem is bound to do, the mosque is filled chiefly with strangers, while the in- habitants are seen smoking in their shops. The law prohibiting wine is evaded, so as to become al- most a dead letter. Intoxicating liquors are sold at the very gates of the temple ; neither the sanctity of the place nor the solemn injunctions of the Koran can deter them from indulging in all the excesses which are the usual consequences of drunkenness. The Indian fleet imports large quantities of raki in barrels ; and when mixed with sugar and an extract of cinnamon, it is sold under the name of cinnamon- water. The rich merchants, ulemas, and grandees are in the habit of drinking this liquor, which they persuade themselves is neither wine nor brandy, and therefore not prohibited by the law. The less wealthy inhabitants, who cannot purchase so dear a commodity, use a fermented liquor made of raisins, while the lower classes drink bouza. Tobacco, hashish, and other intoxicating substances are openly smoked, and cards played in almost every coff'ee-house. The inhabitants of Mecca have but two kinds of employment — trade and the service of the BeituUah. Many of the latter calling, which may be said to in- clude one-half of the population, engage privately in commercial affairs ; but the greater proportion have no other support than their wages, or what they can extort from the charity of pilgrims. The most impudent, idle, and worthless individuals adopt the profession of guides ; and as there is no want of these qualities, nor of a sufficient demand for their services, this class of rogues is very numerous. They besiege strangers with their importunities MECCA. 201 from mom to night ; invite themselves to eat and drink at their expense ; and generally contrive in a month to wheedle from the simplicity or piety of their employers as much as will suffice for the ex- pense of their families during the remainder of the year. The position of Mecca, as it is not situated in the direct route to any country of consequence, and surrounded with perpetual sterility, is unfavour- able to commerce ; and but for its being the centre of the religious enthusiasm of the Moslem w^orld, it must have long ago sunk into poverty and insig- nificance. In ordinary times there is a consider- able trade with the Bedouins and inhabitants of Nejed, who are in want of India goods, drugs, and articles of dress. The less opulent merchants usu- ally employ their capital in the traffic of corn and provisions ; and, though the Pasha of Egypt has made these articles a strict monopoly of his own, the grain-dealers, after paying freight, have usually a profit of fifteen or twenty per cent. The consump- tion of this species of commodity, it may be ob- served, is much greater in Arabia than in any of the surrounding countries ; the great mass of the people living almost entirely on wheat, barley, lentils, or rice ; using few vegetables, but a great deal of butter and spicery. The natural disadvantages of the place are coun- terbalanced by a source of opulence possessed by no other city in the world. During the pilgrimage, and for some months preceding it, the magazines of foreign commerce are opened, as it were, by thou- sands of wealthy hajjis, who bring the productions of every Moslem country to Jidda, either by sea or across the desert, exchanging them with one an- other, or receiving from the native merchants the goods of India and Arabia, which the latter have accumulated the whole year in their warehouses. At this period Mecca becomes one of the largest fairs in the East, and certainly the most interesting, 202 HEJAZ. from the variety of nations that frequent it. The value of the exports is, however, greatly superior to that of the imports, and requires a considerable balance in dollars and sequins, part of which find their way to Yemen and India, and about one-fourth remains in the hands of the Meccawees. So profit- able is this trade, that goods brought from Jidda yield a clear gain, varying from thirty to fifty per cent. Much profit is also fraudulently made ; great num- bers of pilgrims are ignorant of the Arabic lan- guage, and are in consequence placed at the mercy of brokers or interpreters, who are generally In- dians, and never fail to make them pay dearly for their services. It is a practice with dealers, when they wish to conceal their business from others, to join their right hands under the corner of the gown or wide sleeve ; where, by touching the different joints of the fingers, they note the numerals, and thus silently conclude the bargain. The wealth that annually flows into Mecca might render it one of the richest cities in the East, were it not for the prodigal and dissipated habits of the people, espe- cially of the lower orders, who are loose and disor- derly spendthrifts, squandering away their gains in dress, gluttony, and the grossest gratifications. Marriage and circumcision feasts are celebrated in a very splendid style ; so that a poor man will some- times in one day throw away the expenditure of half a year. It is owing to their dependence on foreign com- merce that the arts and sciences are so little cul- tivated at Mecca. Travellers have remarked how few artisans inhabit its streets — such as masons, carpenters, tailors, or shoemakers ; and these are inferior in skill to the same class in other parts of the country. With the exception of a few potteries and die-houses, there is not a single manufactory. There are braziers for working in copper, and tin- MECCA. 203 smiths, who make small vessels for the hajjis to carry away some of the Zemzem water ; but not a man is to be found capable of engraving an inscrip- tion, or fabricating a lock and key. All the doors are fastened with large wooden bolts ; and the skill of the cutler is only adequate to the manufacture of matchlocks, lances, and halberds, which are forged in the rudest manner ; a hole in the ground serving for a furnace, and one or two goat-skins, waved before the fire, supplying the place of bel- lows. The swords, watches, and other hardware to be found in the bazars are imported from Europe. In different shops are sold strings of coral and false pearls, rosaries made of aloe, sandal, or kalambar wood, brilliant necklaces of cut carnelions, seals, rings, and similar jewelry; but all these*are kept by Indian merchants. Here, too, are to be seen grocers, druggists, tobacconists, haberdashers, san- dal-makers, and a great many dealers in old clothes. There are a few large flour-mills worked by horses ; but the common practice is to use hand-mills, which are usually turned by women or the slaves of the family. It cannot be expected that learning can flourish in a place where every mind is occupied in the search of gain or of paradise ; and in this respect Mecca is perhaps inferior to any city of equal popu- lation in the East. The whole knowledge of the inhabitants is confined to reading the Koran, and writing but indifferently. There are no public libra- ries, and not a single scliool or seminary ; the mosque being the only place where boys are taught the ele- mentary parts of education. Children from their infancy learn to repeat prayers and ceremonies ; but this is merely to make money by officiating as guides to the pilgrims. The crafts of bookselling and book- binding are of course unknown. The language of the Meccawees, however, is still more pure and ele- gant^ both in phraseology and pronunciation, than 204 HEJAZ. that of any other town where Arabic is spoken. It approaches nearest to the old written Arabic, and is free from those affectations and perversions of the original sense which abound in other provinces. As the sciences form no lucrative profession, they are in consequence totally neglected. The astronomer of the mosque learns to know the exact time of the sun's passing the meridian, to regulate the hours of prayer ; and the few druggists, or venders of medicine, deal in nothing but miraculous balsams and infallible elixirs ; their potions are all sweet and agreeable, while the musk or aloes-wood, which they burn in their shops, diffuses a delicious odour that tends to establish their reputation. As for the number of inhabitants in Mecca, trav- ellers have found it very difficult to calculate with any degree of certainty ; registers are never kept, and even the amount of houses is not ascertained. In former times it is said to have contained more than 100,000 souls ; and when sacked by the Kar- mathian chief in 936, his ferocious soldiers are sup- posed to have put more than 30,000 to the sword. Ali Bey reckoned that it did not shelter more than from 16,000 to 18,000 ; Burckhardt, a later author- ity, gives as the result of his inquiries, for the popu- lation of the city and suburbs between 25,000 and 30,000 stationary inhabitants, besides from 2000 to 4000 Abyssinians and black slaves. The dwellings, however, are capable of containing three times that number, some quarters of the suburbs being entirely deserted and in ruins ; so that, unless the zeal of the hajjis revive, the capital of Islam must gradually sink into decay. THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. 205 CHAPTER VI. THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. The Pilgrim-caravans — Their different Routes — Description and Number of Pilgrims— The Mahmal — The Ihram— Duties of the Pilgrims on arriving at Mecca — Walk to Safra and Omra — Journey to Arafat— Sermon of the Cadi — Curious Appear- ance of the Scene— Stoning of the Devil — The Feast of Sa- crifice — Return of the Procession to Mecca — Visit to the Inte- rior of the Kaaba — Departure of the Caravans — Altered Appearance of the City — Holy Places round Mecca — Pil- grimage to Medina — Description of the City — Its Inhabitants — Their Character and Occupation — The Mosque of the Prophet — The famous Tomb of Mohammed — Ceremonies required of the Hajjis — Servants and Revenues of the Mosque — Sacred Places near Medina — Return of the Pilgrims — Bedr — Suez — Convent of St. Catherine — Regulations and Hospi- tality of the Monks — Places of Superstitious Resort about Mount Sinai— The Cave of Elijah— The Rock of Meribah— Gebel Mokkateb or the Written Mountains— The Convent near Tor — Gebel Narkous or Mountain of the Bell. The law of the Koran, as is well known, enjoins on every Mussulman, who has the means, to per- form a pilgrimage to Mecca once at least in his life. Dulhajja, as the name imports, is the month pecu- liarly set apart for the performance of this solem- nity. To those whom indispensable occupations confine at home, the law permits a substitution of prayers; but even this is often evaded, and the duty executed by commission at the expense of a few dollars. Formerly, when devotional zeal was more ardent, the difficulties of the journey were held to increase the merit of the act ; but at pres- ent many, instead of encountering the perils of des- erts and robbers by land, adopt the more cheap and eavy mode of traveUing by sea. The regular haj- VOL. II.— S 206 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. caravans are six or seven in number, though they do not always make their appearance tog'ether, nor even perform the visit annually. That from Syria, which used to be accompanied by the caliphs in per- son, sets out from Constantinople, and collects the pilgrims from Northern Asia until it reaches Da- mascus. During the Avhole route, for the sake of safety and convenience, it is attended from town to town by the armed force of the district. From Da- mascus to Medina it moves with great pomp across the desert, — a journey of thirty days ; and here a change of camels, for which the Bedouins contract, is necessary ; the Anatolian breed being unable to bear the fatigues of such an expedition. The Pasha of Damascus, or one of his principal officers, always attends it, and gives the signal for encamping and departing by firing a musket. The different classes of hajjis know their exact stations, and always place their tents according to their town or prov- ince. At every stage is a castle or storehouse for provisions, with a small garrison, and a large tank at which the camels water. These stations are sel- dom farther distant from each other than a march of eleven or twelve hours. The usual time of trav- elling is from three o'clock in the afternoon to an hour or two after sunrise next day, torches being lighted during the night. The Egyptian caravan, which starts from Cairo, is under the same regula- tions as the Syrian. Its route is more dangerous and fatiguing, lying by Suez and Akaba, along the shore of the Red Sea, through the territories of wild and warlike tribes, who frequently attack it by open force. The Persian haj departs from Bagdad, and traverses Nejed by Deraiah. As the Persians are reckoned notorious heretics, and are generally per- sons of property, they are subjected to severe im- positions, and have occasionally been prohibited from entering the Holy City. The Moggrebin cara- van brings the pilgrims from Barbary and Morocco. THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. 207 It is usually accompanied by a relative of the king, and proceeds from his capital by slow marches to- wards Tunis and Tripoli, thence along the Mediter- ranean shores to Alexandria or Cairo, collecting the hajjis in every district through which it passes. Ye- men sent two caravans ; one from Saade, which took its course along the mountains to Tai'f, and the other travelled by the coast, taking up such of the Persians and Indians as had arrived in the harbours of the country. A caravan of Indian pilgrims is said to have started from Muscat and travelled through Nejed ; but this route, it appears, has been long dis- continued. Of late the greater portion of the hajjis do not travel with the regular caravans, but arrive by sea at Jidda. Those from the north, including Turks, Tartars, Syrians, Moors, and Africans, em- bark at Suez or Cosseir; but the wretched and crowded state of the vessels renders the passage disagreeable and often dangerous. Crowds of devo- tees arrive in the opposite direction from Yemen, the borders of Persia, Java, Sumatra, and the distant realms watered by the Indus : these comprise Hin- doos and Malays — people from Cashmere and Guze- rat — Arabs from Bussora, Oman, and Hadramaut — natives of Nubia and Upper Egypt — and those from the coasts of Melinda and IMombaza. All Moslems dwelling near the ocean are certain of finding, to- wards the period of the haj, ships departing from some neighbouring harbour to the Red Sea ; but the greater number come with the regular Indian fleet. From all these regions swarms of beggars flock to Mecca ; they get a free passage from charitable in- dividuals among their own countrymen, or their ex- pense is defrayed by those who employ them as proxies in performing the indispensable duties of the pilgrimage. But on landing they are thrown en- tirely on the benevolence of the hajjis, and the alms they collect must serve to carry them back to their homes. All the poorer class of Indians turn mendi- 208 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. cants ; and their wretched appearance would make them worthy objects of commiseration, were it not known that they assume a tone and character of outward misery, because it ensures them a subsist- ence without labour. None of these paupers bear a more respectable character for industry than the negroes of Tekrouris, as they are called, who employ themselves as por- ters for carrying goods, cleaning the court-yards, or fetching firewood from the neighbouring mountains. Some of them manufacture small baskets and mats of date-leaves, or little hearths of clay painted yel- low and red, which they sell to the hajjis, Avho boil their coffeepots upon them. Others serve as water- carriers, or prepare bouza, or occupy themselves in any species of manual labour. Among the pilgrims are to be found dervises of every sect and order in the Turkish empire ; many of them are madmen, or at least assuming the ap- pearance of insanity ; and as the Mohammedans regard them as saints or inspired beings, sent as a blessing to them from Heaven, they are much re- spected by the devotees, who scruple not to fill their pockets with money. The behaviour of some of them is indecent, and so violent, that many willingly give them a trifle to escape from their importuni- ties. Most of the pilgrims that arrive in detach- ments and before the caravans, are professed mer- chants, who occupy the interval very pleasantly in disposing of their wares, praying, smoking, reading the Koran, enjoying the gratifications of sense, and anticipating the happiness of futurity. Except men- dicants, almost every hajji combines with his reli- gious duties some little mercantile adventure, with a view to lessen his expenses. The Moggrebins, for example, bring their red bonnets and woollen cloaks ; the Western Turks, shoes and slippers, hardware, embroidered stuffs, sweetmeats, amber, trinkets of European manufacture, knit silk purses, THE MOHA.MMEDAN PILGRIMAGE, 209 and other small wares ; the Anatolians bring car- pets, silks, and Angora shawls ; the Persians, Cash- mere shawls and large silk handkerchiefs ; the Af- ghans, toothbrushes made of the spongy boughs of a tree in Bokhara, yellow beads, and plain coarse shawls of their own manufacture ; the Indians im- port the numerous productions of their rich and extensive regions ; and the people of Yemen bring snakes for the Persian pipes, sandals, and various articles in leather. In general, the regular caravans have fixed periods for their arrival. Those from Syria and Egypt unite their routes at Bedr, whence they proceed to Mecca at a short distance from each other. The approach of the foremost is announced by a horseman, who comes galloping through the town to the governor's house ; a prize being always awarded to him who brings the first tidings of its safety. The pomp and magnificence of this moving so- lemnity are still considerable, though much dimin- ished since the time of the caliphs, both in point of splendour and attendance. When Solyman per- formed the pilgrimage (A. D. 716), 900 camels were employed in transporting his wardrobe alone. Ma- hadi, besides the vast sums he expended in presents, built fine houses at every station between Bagdad and Mecca, and caused them to be splendidly fur- nished. He was the first caliph that carried snow- water with him to cool his sherbet on the road; a luxury in which he was imitated by many of his successors. Haroun al Raschid, who performed the haj nine times, spent in one of his visits nearly a million and a half of gold dinars (693,750/.) in presents ; in another, he and his wife Zobeide ac- complished the journey from Bagdad (nearly 1000 miles) on foot ; but the merit must have been les- sened, as the whole road was covered daily with fine carpets on which they walked. The retinue of the mother of Mostasem, who visited Mecca in 1231, S2 210 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. was composed of 120,000 camels. On a similar occasion the equipage of the Sultan of Egypt con- sisted of 500 of these animals for the transport solely of sweetmeats and confectionary ; 280 for pomegra- nates, almonds, and other fruits ; besides having his travelling-larder provided with 1000 geese and 3000 fowls. In 1814, the Syrian caravan, which was reckoned small, amounted only to 4000 or 5000 persons, and was attended by 15,000 camels. The Barbary ca- ravan sometimes contained 40,000 men ; but it has not of late exceeded 6000 or 8000. That from Egypt used to be extremely numerous : Barthema states that when he was at Mecca it had 64,000 camels. In 1814, it consisted principally of Mohammed All's troops, with very few pilgrims ; but in 1816, a single grandee of Cairo joined the haj with 110 camels for the transport of his baggage and retinue ; and his travelling expenses alone, Burckhardt supposes, could not have been less than 10,000/. The wife of Ali had a truly royal equipage, comprehending 500 beasts of burden. The tents of the pubUc women and dancing-girls were among the most splendid in this caravan. Females are not excluded from per- forming the pilgrimage ; but the law prescribes that they shall be married women, and accompanied by their husbands or some very near relation. Rich old widows, and such as lose their husbands by the way, are provided with delils or guides, who facili- tate their progress through the sacred territory, and act also in a matrimonial capacity ; but these unions are only temporary, and at the conclusion of their devotions the man must divorce his companion, otherwise the marriage would be considered binding. There is one distinction formerly common to all large caravans, but now used only by the Syrian and Egyptian ; each of these has its holy camel, carry- ing on its back the mahmal with presents for the Kaaba, and which also serves the purpose of a sign THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. 211 or banner to their respective companies. This ap- pendage is mintftely described by Maundrell and D'Ohsson as a high hollow wooden frame, in the shape of a cone, having a pyramidal top covered with fine silk brocade, and adorned with ostrich-fea- thers. A small book of prayers and charms is placed in the middle, wrapped up in a piece of silk. It was not used by the caliphs, having been first introduced (A. D. 1274) by the Sultan of Egypt. Since that time the different Mussulman sovereigns have considered the mahmal as a privilege, and a badge of their own royalty.* On the return of the caravans, the sacred camel, which is never after ■employed in labour, and the book of prayers, are objects of great veneration among the lower class, or such as have not been at Mecca ; men and women flock in crowds to kiss it, and obtain a blessing by rubbing their foreheads upon it. The awful sanctity of Mecca and its territory renders it necessary that every traveller, whether on a religious visit or not, shall undergo a certain transformation in dress the moment he enters the Belled el Haram, or Holy Land of Islam. f From * " The mahmal (of Damascus) is a large pavilion of black silk, pitched upon the back of a very great camel, and spreading Its curtains all round about the beast down to tlie ground. This Hcamel wants not also his ornaments of large ropes of beads, fish- shells, fox-tails, and other such fantastic finery, hanged upon his head, neck, and legs. All this is designed for the Alcoran, which thus rides in state both to and from Mecca, and is accom- panied with a rich new carpet sent every year by the grand seignior for the covering of Mahomet's tomb, — having the old one brought back in return for it, which is esteemed of an ines- timable value, after having been so long next neighbour to the Prophet's rotten bones." — MaundrelVs Travels. t The Belled el Haram is properly the sacred district round Mecca, which has the privileges of a sanctuary or asylum, — the law having forbidden the shedding of blood, kiUing of game, or cutting of trees within it. This sanctity, however, is but little regarded ; criminals are slain without scruple, — persons have oeen assassmated even undej the wails of the Kaaba, -aiid bat 212 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. whatever quarter the hajjis arrive, they are instantly- required to strip themselves nidced, throw away their garments, and put on the ihram or pilgrim's cloak, which consists of two pieces of linen, woollen, or cotton cloth ; one of which is wrapped round the loins, and the other thrown over the neck and shoul- ders, so as to leave part of the right arm uncovered. The law ordains that there shall be no seam in it, no silk, nor ornament of any kind. White Indian cambric, that being considered the preferable colour, is generally employed for the purpose ; buft rich hajjis use Cashmere shawls without flowered bor- ders. In assuming it, certain ceremonies are ob- served ; such as making a general ablution, saying a prayer while naked, taking a few steps in the direction of Mecca, and uttering pious invocations, called telbi. The ihram, whether taken in summer or in winter, is equally inconvenient and prejudicial to health. The head remains totally unprotected, and exposed to the sun's rays : the instep of the foot must like- wise be uncovered ; so that those who wear shoes instead of sandals cut a piece out of the upper lea- ther. The northern Moslem, accustomed to thick woollen clothes, find it a severe experiment on their religious zeal to remain sometimes for months, night and day, with no other vestment than this thin garb. The ihram of the women consists of a cloak, so close that not even their eyes can be seen. Old age and disease are excuses for keeping the head cov- tles, both with infantry and cavalry, fought within the enclo- sure of the Temple. The Umits of this sacred territory are dif- ferently represented. At present it is generally supposed to be bounded within those positions where the ihram is assumed in approaching Mecca, viz. Hadda, on the west ; Asfan, on the north ; Wady Mohrem, on the east ; and Zat Ork, on the south. Ali Bey mistakes when he considered this district a particular prov- ince. Medma has the same privileges, but they are held in aa little veneration. THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE 213 ered; but this indulgence must be purcnased by giving alms to the poor. Umbrellas are not forbid- den, and are used by most of the visiters from colder climates ; but the natives of the south either brave the sun's rays, or screen themselves by means of a rag tied to a stick. Though many have died in con- sequence of this exposure, nobody utters a com- plaint. There are no restrictions now as to parti- cular diet ; but the mohrem, as the vested pilgrim is called, is enjoined to behave decently, not to curse or quarrel, nor to kill any animal, not even the ver- min that may infest his own person ; although, ac- cording to Pitts, " if they cannot well be endured any longer, it is lawful to remove them from one part of the body to another." The laxity of modern times occasionally dispenses altogether with the ceremony of the maharmo, especially among the servants and camel-drivers. All the caravans, as they arrive, pass through the town in procession, accompanied by their guards of soldiers, with martial music. The equipage of the emirs is very splendid. They are mounted in pa- lanquins or taktrouans, — a kind of close litter or cage, carried by two camels, one before and the other behind. The heads of the camels are deco- rated with feathers, tassels, and bells ; the streets are lined with people, who as they move along greet them with loud acclamations. On entering Mecca, the first duty of the pilgrim is to visit the mosque immediately ; and this injunc- tion applies to all strangers whatever. The pre- scribed ceremonies are, first to repeat certain prayers in different parts of the Temple ; namely, at the entrance under the colonnade, two rikats and four prostrations are addressed to the Deity in thankful- ness for having reached the holy spot, and in saluta- tion of the mosque itself: then, advancing into the court, certain ejaculations are uttered while passing under the insulated arch in front of the Kaaba, and 214 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. two rikats are pronounced opposite the black stone ; at the conclusion of which it is touched with the right hand, or kissed, if the pressure of the crowd will admit. The devotee then performs the towaf, keeping the Kaaba on his left-hand ; this ceremony, which was done by the Pagan Arabs in a state of nudity, is repeated seven times, the three first in a quick pace, in imitation of the Prophet ; each circuit is accompanied with prescribed prayers and a salu- tation of the black stone. This done, after a few more rikats, he proceeds to the Zemzen Well, in honour of which he addresses some pious ejacula- tions, and then drinks as much water as he wishes or can get. Some have it poured over them in bucketfuls, " and then," says Barthema, "the fools think their sins are washed into the well." Others swallow it so unreasonably, that they lie for hours extended on the pavement, while their flesh breaks out into pimples : and this, as Pitts wittily re- marks, they call " the purging of their spiritual cor- ruptions." These are the different ceremonies ob- served within the Temple, which the pilgrims repeat after their guides. ' The next ceremony that the hajji has to perform is the sai, or holy walk between Safa and Meroua ; which is done along a level street about six hundred paces in length, and terminated at each end by a stone platform covered with open arches, and ascended by a flight of steps. This perambulation, which for a short space must be run, is to be repeated seven times ; prayers are incessantly recited in a loud voice ; and on the two platforms the face must be turned to the mosque. A third ceremony is that of shaving the head ; and the barbers, whose shops abound in the vicinity of Meroua, during the opera- tion utter a particular prayer, which the hajjis repeat after them. This religious tonsure is followed by the walk to Omra, a place about an hour and a half's distance from Mecca, where the pilgrim prays two THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. 215 rikats in a small chapel ; and must chant the telbi or pious ejaculations all the way. After this the towaf and sai must be again performed, which closes the preliminary ceremonies. Some have only part of the head shaven before the visit to Omra, and the rest completed immediately afterward. The walk round the Kaaba may be repeated as often as the pilgrim thinks fit : and the more frequently the more meritorious. Most foreigners do it twice daily, — in the evening and before daybreak. - When all the necessary rites have been gone through at Mecca, the whole concourse of visiters repair in a body to Mount Arafat, which is the grand day of the pilgrimage. This mountain is a principal object of Moslem veneration ; and some even assert, that a pilgrimage to it would be equally meritorious, though the Kaaba ceased to exist. Tradition says it was here that the common father of mankind met Eve after the long separation of 200 years conse- quent on the Fall ; that he built the chapel on its summit before he retired with his wife to the island of Ceylon ; and was there instructed by the angel Gabriel how to adore his Creator ; the spot still bears the name of Modaa Seidna Adam, or Place of Prayer of our Lord Adam. It was here, too, that Mohammed is said to have addressed his followers, — a practice in which he was imitated by the caliphs, who preached on the same spot when they per- formed the haj. This hill, or rather granite rock, which is about 200 feet high, stands about six hours' journey to the eastward of Mecca, at the foot of a higher mountain, in a sandy plain about three quar- ters of a league in diameter. On the eastern side broad stone steps lead to the top, and these are cov- ered with innumerable handkerchiefs for receiving the pious gifts which are claimed by the families of the Koreish, in whose territory this sacred eminence stands. On the Day of Arafat, or Feast of Sacrifice as it is ai6 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. called, and which can only be performed at a certain time, the pilgrims take their journey, some on ca- mels, others on mules or asses; but the greater number walk barefooted, which is esteemed the most pious mode of travelling. The crowd is so vast, that several hours elapse before they can clear the nar- row outskirts of Mecca. Beyond the town a few miles the road widens, in pass'ing through the valley of Muna, where the law enjoins certain prayers and ceremonies (paring the nails, and cutting the hair) to be observed. This march is necessarily attended with great confusion. " Of the half-naked hajjis," says Burckhardt, " all dressed in the white ihram, some sat reading the Koran upon their camels ; some ejaculating loud prayers ; while others cursed their drivers, and quarrelled with those near them who choked up the passage." Leaving Muna, the plain of Arafat opens through a rocky defile in the mountains; on reaching wiiich the caravans and numerous detachments of pilgrims disperse in quest of their respective places of en- campment. It was about three hours after sunset when Burckhardt arrived ; but stragglers continued to pour in till midnight. Numberless fires were now seen lighted up over an extent of ground three or four miles in length ; while high and brilliant clusters of lamps marked the different places where Mohammed Ali, Solyman Pasha, and other emirs of the haj, had pitched their tents. Pilgrims were seen wandering in every direction from camp to camp, ill search of their companions whom they had lost on the road; and it was several hours before the noise and clamour had subsided. Few persons slept ; the devotees sat up praying and uttering their loud chants ; the merry Meccawees formed them- selves into parties, singing the jovial songs called jok, accompanied by clapping of hands ; while the cofi'ee-tents were crowded the whole night with customers. THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. 217 The dawri was announced by a discharge of mi?s^ ketry, which summoned the faithful to make ready for their morning- prayers. After sunrise Burck- hardt ascended the summit of the mount, which presented a very extensive and singular prospect. Long- streets of tents, fitted up as bazars, furnished the busy crowds with all kinds of provisions. The Syrian and Egyptian cavalry were exercised by their chiefs ; while thousands of camels were feeding- on the dry shrubs all around the camps. About 3000 tents were dispersed over the plain; though the greater number of the assembled multitudes had no such accommodation. The caravans were placed without order ; and many of them in the form of large circles or doioars, in the inside of Which their camels reposed. Of these encampments the most rich and magnifl-= cent were those of Yahia, the sheriff of Mecca, the pasha of Damascus, the viceroy of Egypt, and more particularly his wife, who had lately arrived from Cairo. Her equipage included a dozen tents of dif- ferent sizes, inhabited by her women : the whole Vvas surrounded with a wall of linen cloth 800 paces in circuit, the sole entrance to which was guarded by eunuchs in splendid dresses. Around this enclo- sure were pitched the tents of the men who formed her numerous suite. The beautiful embroidery on the exterior of this linen palace, with the various colours displayed in every part of it, must have re- minded the spectator of the gorgeous descriptions in the Tales of the Thousand and One Nights. Some of the Mecca merchants, especially the family of Jelani, had very elegant tents ; this being almost the only occasion when the Arabian gfafidees ever venture to display their wealth in the presence of a pasha. Burckhardt estimated the whole persons assem- bled on the plain at about 70,000 ; and the numb{»r of camels from 20,000 to 25,000 This seems a Vol. II.— T 218 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. favourite number with the Mohammedans ; but it is deserving of remark, that he is the third traveller* who has made the same calculation. Pitts and All Bey mention this as being the smallest number that must necessarily attend at any pilgrimage on Mount Arafat ; and, in every case where there are fewer, angels are sent down from heaven to make up the deficiency. Burckhardt's 70^000 appears a tolerable assemblage, even without the addition of celestial recruits ; yet he says that two only of the five or six regular caravans had made their appearance that year. When the Spanish Mussulman performed this ceremony, he reckoned the number of hajjis at 80,000 men, 2000 women, and 1000 children ; Avho" must have presented a curious spectacle, with their 60,000 or 70,000 camels, asses, and horses, marching through the narrow valley in a cloud of dust, carry- ing a forest of lances, guns, swivels, and other arms,- and forcing their passage along as they best could. The law ordains that the true position of the haj- should be on Arafat ; but it wisely provides against any possibility arising from its scanty dimensions,- by declaring that the mountain includes the plain in the immediate neighbourhood. A similar provi- sion is made with regard to the great mosque, which can accommodate at prayers about 35,000 persons. There is, however, an opinion prevalent at Mecca, founded on a holy tradition, that it is capable of con- taining any number of the faithful — even the whole Mohammedan community, who might all enter at once, and find ample room. The guardian angels are gifted with the power of invisibly extending the limits of the building, or diminishing the size of the worshipper ; but in modern times there is no occa- sion for this miracle, as the temple is never half filled, and seldom visited, even during the haj, by more than 10,000 individuals at once. About three o'clock the chief ceremony of the day takes place, that of the khoteh or sermon, W'hich is THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. 219 usually preached by the Cadi of Mecca. The whole multitude now unpitch their tents, press forward to- wards the mountain, and cover its sides from top to bottom. The orator takes his stand on the stone-plat- form near the top, whence he addresses the crowed. The discourse lasts till sunset, and no pilgrim, although he may have visited all the holy places of Mecca, is entitled to the name of hajji unless he has been present on this occasion. The cadi, whom Burckhardt describes as mounted on a richly-caparisoned camel, read his sermon from a book in Arabic, which he held in his hand ; at inter- vals of every four or five minutes he paused, and stretched forth his arms to implore blessings on his hearers ; while the congregation around and before him waved the skirts of their ihrams over their heads, and rent the air with shouts of " Lebeik, Al- lahuma, lebeik !" (Here we are at thy commands, O God !) During the wavings of the white garments by the dense crowd, the side of the mountain had the appearance of a cataract of water, and the green umbrellas of the myriads of hajjis sitting on their camels below bore some resemblance to a verdant lawn. The sermon lasted nearly three hours, dur- ing which the cadi was constantly wiping his eyes ; for the law enjoins the preacher to be moved with feelings of compunction, and to consider tears as evidence that he is divinely illuminated, and that his prayers are acceptable. The effect of this scene upon the audience was extremely various. Some of the pilgrims were cry- ing loudly, weeping, and beating their breasts for their sins ; others stood in silent reflection, with tears of adoration in their eyes, But these peni- tents were mostly foreigners. The natives of Ilejaz, and the Turkish soldiers, spent the time in convers- ing and joking, and imitating the waving of the ihrams by violent gestures as if in mockery. Par- ities of Arabs v/ere quietly smoking their nargiles 3 220 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. while the frequenters of the cafes, some of which were kept by pubhc women, by their loud laug-hter and riotous conduct, gave great annoyance to the devotees in their neighbourhood. To every stranger, whether Mohammedan, Jew, or Christian, such an assemblage must furnish a curious and impressive spectacle. " It was a sight," says Pitts, " enough to pierce one's heart, to behold so many in their garments of humility and mortifi- cation, with their naked heads, and cheeks watered with tears ; and to hear their grievous sighs and sobs, begging earnestly for the remission of their sins." Many of the poor pilgrims are in an ecstasy, and believe themselves in actual possession of para- dise. " It is here," observes Ali Bey, " that the grand spectacle of the Mussulman pilgrimage must be seen. An innumerable crowd of men from all nations, and of all colours, coming from the extremi- ties of the earth, through a thousand dangers, and encountering fatigues of every description, to adore together the same Deity ! The native of Circassia presents his hand in a friendly manner to the Ethio- pian, or the negro of Guinea ; the Indian and the Persian embrace the inhabitants of Barbary and Morocco ; all looking upon each other as brothers, or individuals of the same family united by the bonds of religion, and the greater part speaking or under- standing more or less the same language. What a curb to sin," adds this zealous Mussulman, " what an encouragement to virtue ! but what a misfortune, that with all these advantages we should not be better than the CaMnists !" By the time the cadi had finished his discourse, the greater part of the audience seemed to be wearied. The sijn was descending behind the western moun- tains as he shut the book and pronounced the last greeting of " Lebeik." Instantly the crowds pre- pared to quit Arafat on their return ; those behind hurrying and pressing on those before ; so that with THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. 221 Many it is a trial of strength and speed. Formerly, bloody affrays took place almost every year ; each party endeavouring to outrun and carry its mahmal in advance of the other. Two hundred lives have on some occasions been lost in supporting- what was thought the honour of their respective caravans. The cause of this precipitation is, that the ritual orders the mogreb or prayer of the setting sun, to be said at Mezdelifa, a mosque or oratory two hours distant. The departure and march is a scene of splendid confusion ; many pilgrims had lost their companions, others their camels, who were heard calling loudly for their drivers, or searching for them over the plain. As it was dark, innumerable torches were lighted, emitting sparks of fire ; there w^ere continual volleys of artillery ; sky-rockets were let off ; and bands of martial music played till they arrived at the mosque. Here another sermon is preached by torchlight, commencing with the first dawn, and continuing till the sun rises above the horizon, when the pilgrims move onward to Wady Muna, a distance of three miles. This narrow valley, enclosed on both sides by steep barren cliffs of granite, contains a single street of houses, built of stone, some of which are inhab- ited, but the greater part in ruins. It abounds w4th sacred relics. Here is the mosque of Meshed el Kheif, in which the Arabs assert that Adam w^as buried ; here Abraham intended to sacrifice his son, and a granite block is shown, alleged to have been cleft in two by the stroke of his knife ; here Mohanmied was favoured with many of his revelations ; and here the devil had the malice to whisper Tshmael in the ear that he was about to be slain ; — other traditions say, he attempted to obstruct his father in his passage at three different places, which are marked by as many stone pillars. The first duty of the pilgrim is to provide himself with twenty-one small pebbles of the size of a horse-bean : these he must throw at the T2 222 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. proper times and places, seven at each pillar, ex- claiming, " Bismillah ! God is great ! this Ave do to secure ourselves from the devil and his troops!" This ceremony, as may easily be imagined, is at- tended occasionally by accidents. Ali Bey tells us, he came off with two wounds in his left leg. It appears also to be the subject of jocularity ; for a facetious hajji observed to Pitts, "You may save your labour at present, if you please, for I have hit out the devil's eyes already." After the " stoning," which is repeated three days, and without which the pilgrimage is imperfect, comes the grand sacrifice of animals, — a rite that all Mus- sulmans are bound at this time (the 10th day of the month) to perform. In the space of a quarter of an hour, thousands of sheep and goats are slaughtered in the valley: some of which are brought by the hajjis, others purchased from the Bedouins, who demand high prices for them. The law requires that the throats of the animals be cut in the name of the most merciful God, with their faces towards the Kaaba. The number of victims has sometimes been very great. The Caliph Moktader sacrificed 50,000 sheep, besides 40,000 camels and cows. Bar- thema speaks of 30,000 oxen being slain, and their carcasses given to the poor, who seemed " more anxious to have their bellies filled than their sins remitted." We are apt to wonder how so many myriads of animals can subsist in so desolate a re- gion, or how they can be contained in so contracted a space as Wady Muna ; but the Moslems explain it, by pretending that the valley can expand its dimensions ; and that on the Day of Sacrifice, neither vultures nor flies molest the votaries by carrying off the lambs or tainting the raw flesh, vast quantities of which remain unconsumed. On the completion of the sacrifice, the pilgrims throw off the ihram, and resume their ordinary at- tire ; many of them putting on their best dresses to THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. 225 celebrate the day of the feast or beiram. The long street of Muna is converted into a fair ; sheds, booths, and tents being fitted up as shops for provisions and merchandise of all kinds. The Syrian bargains for the goods of India ; the stranger from Borneo and Timbuctoo exhibits his wares to the natives of Geor- gia and Samarcand ; while the poor hajjis cry their small stock, which they carry on their heads. The mixture of nations and tongues, costumes and com- modities, is more striking here than at Mecca. At night the valley blazes with illuminations, fireworks, discharges of artillery, and bonfires on the hills. The second day of the feast ends the pilgrimage to Arafat ; when the devotees return, to Mecca, testify- ing their delight by songs, loud talking, and laugh- ter. Many of the indigent pilgrims remain behind to feast on the offals and putrefying carcasses of the victims that strew the valley. The starved Indians cut the meat into slices for their travelling-provi- sions, which they dry in the sun, or in the mosque, where they are spread on the pavement, or suspended on cords between the columns. On arriving at Mecca, a repetition of the previous ceremonies takes place. The pilgrims must visit the Kaaba, which, in the mean time, has been covered with the new black clothing. The visit to the inte- rior of this building is performed by immense crowds, though it forms no part of the religious duty of the hajjis. On opening the door, which takes place an hour after sunrise, a rush is made up the steps, and sometimes over the heads of the people, in spite of the eunuchs, who endeavour to keep order with their sticks, which fall particularly heavy on such as omit to drop a fee into their hands ; for all the oflScers, from the sheriff who holds the silver key to be kissed at the entrance, to the lowest menial, expect to be paid. The hall is immediately filled, when every visiter must pray eight rikats, and perform sixteen prostrations. Nothing but sighing and moaning is 224 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. heard, — the effect of pressure, perhaps of sincere repentance ; but it is easy to imagine how these de- votions are performed, for while one is bowing- down another walks over his back ; some are unmercifully crushed, and many are carried out with diihculty quite senseless from heat and suffocation. On the first and second days the men and women enter alternately ; on the third, the sheriff, the sheiks, and illustrious hajjis, perform the holy ceremony of sweeping and washing the floor. AH the water- carriers in Mecca advance with pitchers and besoms, which are passed from hand to hand until they reach the guards at the entrance. The negroes then throw the water on the pavement, while the devotees sweep and scrub with both hands, until the floor appears polished like glass. The water flows out by a hole under the door ; and foul as it is, it is eagerly drunk by the Faithful ; while those who are at a distance have quantities of it thrown over them by the eunuchs. It must require no common pitch of fanaticism to reconcile the stomach of the wor- shipper to this practice ; but the Moslem excuse it by alleging, that although the liquid is very dirty, it has the benediction of God, and is besides much per- fumed with the essence of roses. The brooms of palm-leaves, as well as the shreds of the cloth that surrounds the door and bottom of the hall, are di- vided among the pilgrims, and treasured up as relics. Pieces both of the exterior and interior coverings are constantly on sale at a shop before the Bab es Salaam ; the latter are most esteemed, and waist- coats are made of it, which the Believers reckon the safest armour they can wear. During the Ramadan, and especially on the last day, the mosque is particularly brilliant. At the celebration of the evening orisons, the whole square and colonnades are illuminated by thousands of lamps ; and in addition to these, most of the hajjis iiave each his own lantern standing before him. The THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. 225 agreeable coolness of the place induces them to walk about or sit conversing till after midnight. As the legal period of abstinence now terminates, every one brings in his handkerchief a few dates or grapes, with bread and cheese, waiting in suspense until the imam from the top of the Zemzen proclaims, " Al- lah Akbar," when they hasten to break their fast (the lesser heiram) and drink a jar of the holy water. The whole scene presents a curious mix- ture of the gay and the grave. The mind is struck with some degree of awe to witness so many thou- sands performing the towaf, or prostrating them- selves on their carpets ; while the mingled voices of the metowafs, intent on making themselves heard by those to whom they recite their prayers, — the loud conversation of idle spectators, — and the run- ning and laughing of boys, some of whom are divert- ing themselves with swinging machines, or the feats of jugglers in the streets, make the Temple more like a place of public amusement than a sanctuary of religion. Before the caravans take their final departure, the pilgrims, from the highest to the lowest, are occu- pied with commercial transactions, either buying provisions for their journey or engrossed in the pur- suits of gain. The termination of the haj changes the entire aspect both of the town and the Temple. Of the brilliant shops lately filled with the produc- tions and manufactures of every climate in the world, Burckhardt remarks, that not more than a fourth part remained. The streets were deserted, covered with rubbish and filth, which nobody seemed dis- posed to remove, and swarming with beggars, who raised their plaintive voices towards the windows of the houses they supposed to be still inhabited.* * The streets and mosques of Mecca resound with the cries of beggars :—"0 Brethren! O Faithful ! hear me! I ask twenty dollars from God to pay for my passage home; twenty dollars only ! God is all boimtiful, and may send me a hundred dollars : but 226 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. The suburbs were crowded with the carcasses of dead camels, of which above 10,000 are supposed to perish annually ; the smell rendering the air offensive, and spreading pestilence among the inhabitants. The mosque itself is not free from these pollu- tions. Poor hajjis, worn out with disease and hun- ger, are seen dragging their emaciated bodies along the colonnades ; and when no longer able to stretch forth their hand to ask the passengers for charity, they place a bowl to receive alms near the mat on which they lie. All the sick, when they feel their last moments approach, are carried to the Temple, that they may either be cured by a sight of the Kaaba, or have the satisfaction of expiring within the sacred enclosure. The friendless stranger thinks paradise secure if he can obtain a sprinkling of the Zemzen water, and breathe his latest sigh " in the arms of the Prophet and the guardian angels." For a month subsequent to the conclusion of the haj, dead bodies are carried forth almost every morning, and buried by persons in the service of the mosque. Before bidding adieu to the capital of Islam, there are several holy spots in the town and suburbs which the pilgrims visit. Among these are the ?nouleds, or birthplaces of Mohammed, Fatima, Ali, Abu Beker, and Abu Taleb who is the great patron of the city, and whose name is held most sacred. it is twenty dollars only that I ask ! Remember that charity is the sure road to paradise !" Burckhardt mentions a Yemen beggar at Jidda who mounted the minaret daily after noon prayer, and e.-:ciaimed, loud enough to be heard through the whole bazaar, •' I ask. from God fifty dollars, a suit of clothes, and a copy of the Koran. O Faithful, hear me ! I ask of you fifty dollars," &c. This he repeated for several weeks, when a Turkish pilgrim offered him thirty dollars to discontmue his cries : — " No," said the beggar, " I will not take them, because I am convinced God will send me the whole." At length the same haiii gave him his full demand without being thanked for it — " Pull my beard," the needy suppliant will say to the scrupulous pilgrim, "if Go4 4oe» not send ypu ten times more than Vidiat I ask !" MEDINA. 227 The tombs of Kadijah and Amina the Prophet's mo- ther are also objects of veneration. The guardian- ship of these places is shared by several families, principally sheriffs, who attend by turns with a train of servants, and generally expect a contribution from the purse of the visiters. Most of the hills in the vicinity are held as consecrated ground, from being the scene of the miracles or revelations of the Apostle. On the top of Gebel Kobeis, the hajjis are shown the place were the moon was split ; at Gebel Tor, the cavern where the fugitive Prophet and his companions took shelter in their flight to Medina ; and at Hira, now called Gebel Nour, or the i\Iountain of Light, the small grotto is pointed out in the red granite; rock, where several passages of the Koran were revealed by the angel Gabriel. But the tales applied to these places are not supported by any au- thentic traditions ; and a journey to them is enjoined, less out of *iy feeling of reverence than from a desire to extort money. A more attractive object of devotion is the tomb of Mohammed at Medina ; and such of the hajjis as do not immediately disperse to their homes, usually join the Syrian caravan, or form themselves into small detachments, who are supplied with camels by the Bedouins. Their mode of travelling is not the most convenient ; some being mounted on the back of the loaded animal, and others sitting, one on each side, in panniers or machines (she/cdafs), which must be balanced with great care. According to the usual practice in Hejaz, the camels walk in a single row, those behind being tied to the tails of those that precede them ; so that a mistake com- mitted by the foremost leads the whole astray. A journey of ten or eleven days (about 270 miles), through sandy plains, irregular ridges of mountains, and cultivated valleys, brings the pilgrims to the city of the Prophet. On the whole of this route there is not a public khan; nor is any provision 228 THE MOHAMMEDAN PIL6RIMAGE. made for the accommodation of travellers, except the watering-places, which are kept in tolerable repair. Although reckoned sufficiently safe for large bodies, yet daring robberies are occasionally committed by the Arabs. The sacred city of Medina lies on the edge of the Great Arabian Desert. According to the strict pre- cept of Mohammed, a circle of twelve miles round the place should be considered as holy territory ;• but this injunction is completely set aside. The town itself is well built : the houses are generally two stories high, entirely of stone ; and not being whitewashed, they have for the most part a gloomy aspect. The main streets are paved ; the rest are narrow, often only two or three paces across. The wall, which completely surrounds the city, forms a kind of oval of about 2S00 paces in circumference^ ending in a point or small rocky elevation, on which stands the castle. This latter is enclos#id by a thick stone rampart, between thirty-five and forty feet^ high, flanked l3y about thirty towers, and defended' by a ditch. It contains sufficient space for 600 of 800 men, has many arched rooms bomb proof, and is supplied with excellent water. The suburbs extend on the west and south, and cover more ground than the town itself, from which they are separated by an open space occupied with huts, coffee-shops, markets, and gardens. There are very few fine edifices or public buildings, and those here, as well as at Mecca, are the works of the sul- tans of Egypt and Constantinople. There is ari abundant supply of water by means of subterra- neous canals and wells, which are scattered over the town. The number of inhabitants Burckhardt sup- posed might be between 16,000 and 20,000 ; the greater part of whom are of foreign origin, and pre- sent as motley a race as those of Mecca. No year E asses without an influx of new settlers, attracted y the hope of making gain in their religious traffic MEDINA. 229 with the pilgrims. Few descendants of the original Arabs who lived here in the time of Mohammed now remain. Of the Ansars not more than ten families can establish their pedigree ; and these are of the humbler class, living as peasants in the suburbs and gardens. The number of sheriffs descended from Hussein and Hossein were formerly considerable : the latter are reduced to about a dozen families, who live apart by themselves, and still rank among the grandees of the town. A few individuals claiming the honour of descent from the Abbassides still reside at Medina in a state of poverty, and are known by the appellation of Caliphi, implying the illustrious source whence they are sprung. The mixed race, of which the greater portion of the inhabitants are composed, all become Arabs as to features and character in course of the second or third generation. In their disposition they are less lively and cheerful than the Meccawees ; but, though they appear outwardly more religious, and display more gravity and circumspection in their manners, their moral character is not better, nor are their vices fewer than those of their neighbours. Their style of living is poor ; though their houses are well furnished, and their expense in dress and entertain- ments is very considerable. As many of them are descended from northern Turks, they retain much of the costume as well as the habits of that nation. Everybody, from the highest to the lowest, carries in his hand a bludgeon or long heavy stick. The rich have theirs headed with silver ; others fix iron spikes to them, and thus make a formidable weapon, which the Arabs handle with great dexterity in their frequent bloody affrays. No great or wealthy merchants are settled here ; the trade is merely retail, and those who possess capital generally invest it in goods ; their not being any public institution like banks, or commercial companies, or national funds, from which the capi- Vol. II.— U 230 THE MOHAMTVIEDAN PILGRIMAGE. talist might derive interest for his money. As the law rigorously prohibits usury, this source of gain is left wholly in the hands of Jews and Christians, the outcasts of Europe. The produce of the lands around the town is said to be barely sufficient for four month's consumption, which is estimated at the rate of twenty-five or thirty-five camel-loads per day. The rents of fields and gardens, if the crop be good, is very considerable ; the proprietor in ordinary years being able to sell at such a rate as to leave a profit of from twelve to sixteen, and sometimes even forty per cent, upon his capital, after giving up, as is generally done, half the produce to the actual cul- tivators. The middling classes, who have small funds, require exorbitant returns, — none of them are content with less than fifty per cent, annually ; and in general they contrive, by cheating foreigners, to double their fortune in the course of a single pil- grimage. Most of the merchants have trifling capi- tals of 400Z. or 500/. : there are only two or three families that can be considered wealthy, and these are reported to be worth 10,000/. or 12,000/. sterling, half of which perhaps is vested in land, and the rest' in trade. The principal support of the place is drawn from the mosque and the hajjis. The former, from con- taining the tomb of Mohammed, is reckoned the precious jewel of Medina ; which on this account is esteemed equal, and even preferred by some wri- ters and sects of the Arabs, to Mecca itself. This venerated edifice is situated towards the eastern ex- tremity of the town. It is built much on the same plan with the Temple at Mecca, forming an open square, which is divided by a partition into two sep- arate compartments, and surrounded on all sides by covered arcades ; but its dimensions are much smaller, being 165 paces in length and 130 in breadth. The colonnades are less regular, being composed of ten rows of piUars behind each other on the south MEDINA. 231 side ; four rows on the west ; and only three on the north and part of the east side. The cohimns are of stone, of different sizes, and all plastered white. The small domes on the roof are whitewashed, as are the interior walls, except that on the south side, which is cased with slabs of marble nearly up to the top, and adorned with several rows of inscriptions, one above another, in large gilt letters, which have a very brilliant effect. Spacious windows with glass panes, some of which are finely painted, admit the light through this wall : the floor of the colonnade is here formed of marble, one of the best specimens of Mosaic to be seen in the East ; the other parts, as well as the open court, are laid out with a coarse pavement, or merely covered with sand. The history of this mosque resembles that of the Beitullah. It received many donations and im- provements from the caliphs ; and was repeatedly plundered, destroyed, and repaired. In 1250 A. D., a few months after the eruption of a volcano near the town, it caught fire, and was burned to the ground, — an accident which was ascribed to the heterodox Sheahs, who were then the guardians of the tomb. More than 200 years afterward it was again reduced to ashes by a conflagration occasioned by lightning. All the walls, the roof, and 120 col- umns, fell ; the books were consumed, and the only part that escaped was the interior of the tomb. Its restoration was undertaken by the Sultan of Egypt, to whom Hejaz owed a number of public works. The whole mosque then assumed its present form, and since that period (A. D. 1487) only a few imma- terial improvements have been made by the Turks. The approach to the temple is choked up on all sides by private buildings, some of which are sepa- rated from it only by a narrow street, while others are close upon the walls. There are five minarets and four gates ; the principal one, by which the haj- jis are obliged to enter on their first visit, is ex- 232 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. tremely handsome, — its sides being- inlaid with mar- ble and glazed tiles of various colours, which give it a very dazzling appearance. Immediately before it is a small fountain, where it is usual for the devotees to perform their ablutions. There are a few steps of ascent at all the entrances, — the area of the court being on a higher level than the streets. In the centre of the northern division of the square stands a small building with a vaulted roof, where the lamps of the mosque are kept. Near it is an enclosure of low wooden railings, which contain some palm-trees held sacredby the Moslem, because they are believed to have been planted by Fatima. There are no sa- cred pigeons as at Mecca; but thequantity of woollen carpets spread on different parts, where the most dirty Arabs and the best-dressed strangers kneel side by side, have rendered this " inviolable Haram" the favourite abode of millions of other animals less harmless than turtle-doves, and a great pest to all visiters, who transfer them from their persons to their private lodgings, which in consequence swarm with vermin. It is in the south-east corner of this division that the famous sepulchre of Mohammed is placed, so detached from the walls as to leave a space of about twenty-five feet on the one side and fifteen on the other. To defend its hallowed contents from the approach of the impure, or the superstitious adora- tion of the visiter, it is surrounded by an enclosure called El Hejra, in the form of an irregular square of nearly twenty paces, arched overhead and sup- ported by colunms. This space is encircled by an iron railing about thirty feet high, of good work- manship, painted green, which fills up the intervals between the pillars, and rises to about two-thirds of their height, leaving the upper part entirely open. The railing is in imitation of filagree, interwoven with inscriptions of yellow bronze, supposed by the vulgar to be of gold, and of so close a texture that MEDINA. 233 no view can be gained into the interior, except through several very small windows, which are placed on each of the four sides, about five feet above the ground. The two principal windows, before which visiters stand when they pray, are on the south side, where the iron fence is thinly plated over with silver, having the often-repeated inscrip- won of " La Illha" carried across it in silver letters. Tour gates lead into this cage-like enclosure, three of which are kept continually shut, — one only being open night and morning to admit the eunuchs, whose office it is to clean the floor and light the lamps. What appears of the interior is merely a curtain carried round on all sides, resembling a bed, which is of the same height as the railing, and fills nearly the whole space, leaving only an open walk between of a few paces in breadth. This veil is a rich silk brocade, of various colours, interwoven with silver flowers and arabesques ; with a band of inscriptions in gold characters running across the middle, like that on the covering of the Kaaba. Within its holy precincts no person is allowed to enter except the chief eunuchs, who take care of it, and whose business it is to put on during the night the fresh curtain, which is sent from Constantinople whenever the old one is decayed, or when a new sultan ascends the throne. The venerable remnants of this sacred brocade are sent back to the Turkish capital, and serve to cover the tombs of the sove- reigns and princes of the empire. It is within this double frame of silk and rails that the ashes of the Prophet repose, along with the remains of his two earliest friends and immediate successors, Abu Beker and Omar. Authors differ as to the respective position of the three tombs ; but they are said to be of plain masonwork, in the form of a chest, and covered with precious stuffs.* * The vulgar story long prevalent in Christendom, which sus- pended the Prophet's coffin in the air at Mecca by the action of U2 234 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. The historian of Medina, Samhoudi, says, that the coffin which contains the dust of Mohammed is cased with silver and overlaid with a marble slab, inscribed, Bismillai Allahumd Salli alei (In the name of God bestow thy mercy upon him). Glass lamps are suspended all round the curtain, which are kept burning every night : the floor of this part of the mosque is paved with various-coloured marbles in Mosaic. The whole of this enclosure is surmounted by a fine lofty cupola, rising far above the domes on the roof of the colonnades, and visible at a great dis- tance from the town ; it is covered with lead, and has on the top a globe of considerable size and a crescent, both glittering with gold. In the immediate neighbourhood are the tombs of Fatima and other Mohammedan saints. Tradition even alleges, that, when the last trumpet shall sound, the Saviour of the Christians, after having announced the great day of judgment, will die, and be buried by the side of tlie Arabian apostle ; and that, when the dead are raised from their graves, they shall both ascend to heaven together. These and other fables have been invented merely to confer an ideal im- portance on the city and tomb of the Prophet. The same may be said of the exaggerated accounts of its wonders and riches, which have been long propa- gated among strangers. It was in this sanctuary, two powerful magnets, was a ridiculous invention of the Greeks and Latins, and is unknown in Arabia. The Moslem of the present day smile at the credulity of foreigners who talk of these marvels. The fable may easily be explained without the aid of philosophy, and seems to have originated, as Niebuhr supposes, from the rude drawing sold to strangers, in which ^^ the figures of three golden coffins were represented, ^^ not as lying horizontally, but placed one above the BB other, to mark their position within the railing in the _|_ annexed order. Chalcondyles (De Ken. Turc, lib. ^^ iii. p. 66) ; Bayle (Diet. Art. Mahomet) ; Reland (De ReUg. Mah. lib. ii. c. 19) ; Gagnier (Vie, lib. vi. c. 20) ; and Pococke (Sped men, p. 180), will satisfy the curious student of the iron tomb. IHEDINA. 235 indeed, that the treasures of Hejaz were formerly kept, either suspended on silken ropes drawn across the interior of the building, or placed in large chests on the ground. The whole must have formed a col- lection of considerable value, though far from being to that immense extent which many have pretended. Next to the hejra, the most holy place in the mosque is the rodha, where the pulpit is placed, and the two tnehrabs. On the sides of the former and of both the mehrabs huge wax-candles are fixed, twelve feet high and as thick as a man's body, which are lighted every evening with the aid of a ladder kept for the purpose. The ceremonies required of the hajjis are here much easier and shorter than at Mecca. On enter- ing the mosque he must pass his right foot first over the threshold ; while reciting certain supplications he steps forward into the rodha, where he is enjoined to repeat two short chapters of the Koran, and a brief prayer, with four prostrations. His next process is to advance slowly towards the railing of the hejra, before the window of which, on the south side, he takes his stand. With arms half raised he addresses his invocations to the Prophet, repeating the words of the Moslem creed, besides about twenty of the