GIFT OF Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/elementsofcomposOOwaddrich HARVEY'S LANGUAGE COURSE ELEMENTS COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC COPIOUS EXERCISES IN BOTH CRITICISM AND CONSTRUCTION BY VIRGINIA WADDY Teacher of Rhetoric in the Bichmond High School^ Richmond^ Va, NEW-YORK •:• CINCINNATI .:• CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY Copyright, 1889, by V-^ VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG, AND COMPANY ^.- Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1888, by VIRGINIA WADDY, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress. WAODY'S RHET. r l^dnteb at tTbe Bclectic pxc99 Cincinnati, Til. S. B. PREFACE. The object aimed at in the preparation of this work has been to furnish a practical treatise on Composition and Rhetoric, — one sufficiently elementary for the lower grades of the high school, and at the same time comprehensive enough to give a fair knowledge of the principles and graces of Rhetoric. While the discussion of simple, complex, and compound sentences is the province of Grammar, — a subject usually com- pleted before that of Rhetoric is begun, — it has been deemed advisable to include these topics, for the pupil seldom possesses the maturity of mind to comprehend thoroughly the laws of Grammar, even when he undertakes to master the elements of Rhetoric; moreover, his attention has been directed almost ex- clusively to analytical processes, to the neglect of synthetical; hence, he may be skillful in discovering the relations of words in sentences formed by others, and be but a bungler in giving expression to his own ideas. For a like reason, also, the sub- ject of Concord, which perhaps belongs still more strictly to Grammar, is included; not all of the syntactical arrangements are noticed, only those wherein the grammatical principle re- ceives a special signification from the rhetorical point of view. The Reproductions furnish material for practice upon the principles under discussion. As a means of securing ease of ex- pression, they are of great value ; the material for the discourse being furnished, the pupil is thus enabled to concentrate his at- tention upon the form. A more advanced step towards original writing is found in the Developments. These give play to the imagination, and supply the details of a connected story; they also furnish an excellent test of style, because they give no (iii) r%^ r^.r^ >« r^ iv PREFACE. assistance. In the first Developments, hints are given to guide the pupil. This aid should be given with succeeding Develop- ments only where the pupil may not fully understand the poem, or where he might be discouraged without such assistance. Although it may be said that the finer principles of literary taste, fancy, and allusion, and the subtle music of rhythm, are obtained only through a special sense developed by long and minute discipline, and belong to the delicate and difficult sci- ence of criticism, there are included in this treatise extracts from masters of style, to which attention is directed; for it must be conceded that, since a true appreciation of what is best in our literature requires years of careful criticism, the student's attention should be given to such criticism as soon as his mind has attained sufficient maturity for the consideration of the subject. The ^'Exercises'' with which the book abounds are given, that the pupil may learn discourse by applying it. Some learn- ers may, perhaps, need less of such practice than others; the teacher can, therefore, omit what is deemed superfluous. This work is in every respect the outgrowth of the class- room; much of the subject-matter and many of the exercises have been given as oral instruction in the author's classes, and it is hoped that in other hands it will stand the only true test of a school-book, — the test of trial. Most grateful acknowledgment is due to Prof. W. F. Fox, Principal of the Richmond High School, for assistance and en- couragement during the progress of the work. Thanks are also due to several publishers for kindness in allowing selections to be made from their publications, — to Messrs. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co., to the Century Company, to Messrs. J. B. Lippincott Co., to Messrs. Chas. Scribner's Sons, to Messrs. Roberts Bros., to Mr. Parke Godwin, and to others whose names are mentioned in connection with the selections copied. Richmond, Va., January, 1890. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. — The Simple Sentence Elements of the Simple Sentence . Position of Phrases Synthesis of the Simple Sentence . II. — The Complex Sentence . Clauses of the Complex Sentence . Synthesis of the Complex Sentence III. IV.- -The Compound Sentence Connectives Contracted Compound Sentences , Synthesis of the Compound Sentence Exercises in Composition -Transformation of Elements Contraction of Sentences Expansion of Sentences . Exercises in Composition V. — Concord .... Rules of Syntax Exercises in Composition VI. — Synthesis of Sentences into a Paragraph Exercises in Composition VII. — Variety of Expression . Change of Structure Change of Phraseology . Exercises in Composition (V) PACK 9 II 14 16 21 21 29 35 35 39 41 45 52 54 64 66 76 76 88 93 98 106 106 120 125 VI CONTENTS. CHAPTER VIIL- ■Style Diction . Purity of Diction . Propriety of Diction Precision of Diction Synonyms Simplicity of Diction Construction of Sentences Clearness of Construction Unity of Construction . Energy of Construction . Harmony of Construction IX. — Figures of Speech Simile Metaphor Personification Allegory . Metonymy Synecdoche Apostrophe Vision Antithesis Epigram . Irony Hyperbole Litotes . Exercise in Figures Exercises in Composition X.— The Paragraph Construction of the Paragraph Exercises in the Paragraph XI.— The Special Properties of Style Wit Humor Pathos Beauty and Sublimity Extracts for the Critical Study of Style CONTENTS. vii CHAPTER PAGE XII.— The Paraphrase 297 Selections for Paraphrase 299 XIII. — Prose Composition 309 Discourses ......... 309 Letters 312 Essays , . . .» 318 Treatises 318 Travels 319 History 319 Fiction 322 News . 323 Exercise in Paraphrase and Composition . . . 325 XIV. — Prosody and Versification 336 Meter 336 Rhyme 347 Stanza 350 Poetical Pauses 367 XV.— Poetry 368 Lyric 369 Elegiac 370 Pastoral . , 370 Didactic 371 Satirical 372 Epic 372 Dramatic . , . , 374 XVI. — Capitals and Punctuation 375 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. CHAPTER I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. / Composition is the art of combining ideas, or thoughts, ■and arranging them in order. As an art, it is regulated by ^he principles of Rhetoric. Rhetoric, derived from a Greek verb meaning to speak, is the science that discusses the means whereby thoughts may be forcibly presented. Aristotle, the oldest writer on 'the subject, detmes rhetoric as ''the faculty of perceiving all the possible means of persuasion on every subject." As its etymology suggests, it was originally limited to spoken discourse; but since the principles which apply to spoken discourse apply with equal force to written discourse, the meaning of the term has been so extended as to include both written and spoken composition. Composition and Style. — The two important divisions of Rhetoric are Composition and Style. ^A Simple Sentence co nsists of one independent prop- osition. I t contains o j ily one su bje ct~and one predicate; but an indefinite number of words and phrases may be brought into the sentence, and grouped about the subject and the predicate as modifiers of these elements. (9) lO CGNlPOSrnON AND RHETORIC. 'The subject and the predicate can be enlarged onl^ by the addition oTwords and phrases; for, if another proposi- tion, either subordinate or independent, be introduced, the sentence is no longer simple, but complex or compound, according to the nature of the proposition introduced. The following examples will severally illustrate the simple, the complex, and the compound sentence: After reading the papers, I returned them. Since this sentence contains but one subject and one predicate, it is restricted to a single proposition, and is, therefore, sirnple. When I had read the papers, I returned them. What was expressed in the first sentence by means of the phrase ** after reading the papers," is in the second sentence expressed by means of the clause * * when I had read the papers." This clause contains a subject and a predicate, but, for completeness of meaning, depends on some word in the succeeding clause. Such clauses are subordinate, or dependent, and sentences containing such clauses are co7n' plex. I read the papers, and I returned them. In the third sentence we use neither the phrase nor the dependent clause, but express the ideas by means of in- dependent propositions. Such a sentence is compound. In its simplest form, the simple sentence consists of sub- ject and predicate, without adjuncts. The first of the fol- lowing sentences is in its simplest form. Observe how the subject and the predicate are enlarged, in the three sen- tences following, by the gradual addition of certain particu- lars. Thus: / THE SliMPLE SENTENCE. II John Merry John Merry John, the blacksmith's son, Merry John, son of the black- smith of White Plains, ran quickly. ran quickly down the hill, ran quickly down the hill to bring a bucket of water. We see, therefore, that, by a skillful introduction of words and phrases, even the simple sentence may be long and difficult, and may express much. Words introduced as modifiers are: (i) Adjectives; as, ''Honest men can speak for them- selves." (2) Adverbs; as, ''The house fell .y^/^^^;^/^." (3) Nouns used as complements; as, ''He is considered a good man.'' (4) Nouns used as adjective modifiers — either possessive or explanatory; as, ''Thy fat/ur's virtue is not thine"; "Mr. Barret, a surgeon, was writing a history of Bristol." (5) Words used independently; as, "(9, sir, hear me!" Direction. — Write sentences illustrating all the points made above. Phrases introduced as modifiers ^ may be preposi- tional, infinitive^^ participial, or adjecd yaL Prepositional Phrase.— ^A jreposition an dj ts object formn2£_a_prepositional phr^^^ f", m^y he hrqught^i nto the sentence and perform the office of: (1) An adjective modifier; as, "The clouds of smoke will disappear." (2) An adverb modifier; as, "They walked beyond us.'' Without its preposition the noun may be used adverbi- ally and become: (i) An indirect object; as, ''Giwo: John the book"; or (2) A noun of measure, direction, or time; as, "He sat hour." 12 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. An infinitive phrase, *^to" with its verb, may be brought into the sentence, and become: (i) A subject; as, ''To forget an injury is noble." (2) A complement; as, *'The duty is to act''; '*He told me to go home''; *'The doctor bade the man {to^ walk." (3) An adjective modifier; as, ''Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast." (4) An adverb modifier; as, ''Aim to speak well." (5) An explanatory modifier; as, "This law, to love^ is recognized by Christians." (6) An independent phrase ; as, " To speak plainly, your habits are your worst enemies." (7) It may be the principal term of another phrase ; as, "They are about to fall," A participle or a participial phrase may be brought into the sentence and become: (i) A subject; as, ''Dying for a principle is a high de- gree of virtue." (2) An adjective modifier; as, "Flowers, withering, soon perish"; "The Knight, having called the squire aloud, dis- mounted." (3) A complement; as, ^' Hope appeared smiling"; "I sdiw Si vmxi laughing." (4) The principal word of a prepositional phrase; as, "By taking pains, you will succeed." (5) The principal word in a phrase used as a comple- ment; as, "Excuse my answering your question " (6) It may be independent; as, "Confessing the truth, there were many bad traits in the character of Queen Eliz- ^eth." The adjective phrase is one introduced by a word used regularly as an adjective. Thus: "He was a man THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 1 3 generous in all things "; *' His garden, gay ivith flowers, was open to us.'* The ^bsolute phrase is without grammatical d epend- ence onany ^other word. It may consist of the name of a person or thing spoken of in exclamatory phrases; as, ^^0 their dreadful end!'' or of a noun with a Hmiting adjective or participle; as, *'The storm having ceased, we departed"; or of the name of the person or thing addressed, modified by words or phrases; as, **0, pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth.'' Direction. — Write sentences illustrating all the points made above. EXERCISE I. Direction. — Supply appropriate subjects, so as to make complete simple sen" tences. Thus : tends his flock. The shcj>herd tends his flock, commends the scholar. overcomes difficulties. promotes health. make long voyages. buries its eggs in the sand. lies between the tropics. will prove a source of happiness. . yields a costly fur. sounds the charge. walks rapidly over the hot desert. Direction. — Supply appropriate predicates, so as to make complete simple sentences. Thus : King John of France King John of France was led in triumph through the streets of London. A child eighteen months old The President of the United States • Two honest tradesmen In the flower of youth and beauty, she . 14 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. Montcalm, fighting gallantly at the head of the French, .... Patrick Henry, styled by his contemporaries the " Orator of Nat- ure," Tea and coffee, for a long time used only as luxuries, The gleaming rushes After walking at a brisk pace for half an hour, he .... . General Arnold, commander of West Point, * Position of Phrases. As a simple sentence may consist of an indefinite number of words and phrases, a variety of changes in the arrange- ment of its parts may be made. Thus the sentence, *'On a pleasant spring morning, with my little curious friend beside me, I stood on the beach opposite the promontory," may be arranged in several ways; as. With my little curious friend beside me, I stood, on a pleasant spring morning, on the beach opposite the promontory. I stood on the beach opposite the promontory, with my little curi- ous friend beside me, on a pleasant spring morning. On a pleasant spring morning, I stood on the beach opposite the promontory, with my Httle curious friend beside me. The particular position that a phrase should occupy will generally depend on the sense intended; therefore, phrases should usually be placed beside the parts of the sentence they are designed to modify. This is especially true of all phrases used as adjective elements, but phrases used adverbially may be placed in almost any part of the sentence. The taste of the writer must determine which is the best place. Should the sentence contain a number of phrases, they should not be grouped together at the be- * To THE Teacher. — The pupil should here be taught the punctuation of simple sentences. The rules for such punctuation, together with examples illus- trating the rules, will be found in Chapter XVI. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. I 5 ginning, at the end, or in the middle, but they should be distributed in such a way that the sentence shall be agree- able to the ear. For example, in the sentence, ''They were imprisoned for three months in the town of Clinch in an old stone house, dark and damp, and altogether bar- ren of human comforts," the phrases are all placed together after the verb, and the effect is unpleasant. By distribut- ing the phrases, the statement may be more neatly ex- pressed; thus. For three months, they were imprisoned in the town of Clinch in an old stone house, etc.; or. They were, for three months, imprisoned in the town of CHnch in an old stone house, etc. Clearness of meaning is of the utmost importance, and often depends upon the arrangement of phrases. Hence it is well in constructing sentences to try several arrange- ments and carefully avoid those that admit the least doubt as to the meaning. It sometimes happens that several arrangements of a simple sentence present the meaning with equal clearness ; yet there may be still a choice of structure. It is not enough that we express ourselves so as to be clearly un- derstood; we should endeavor to arrange our sentences neatly, elegantly, and harmoniously. Hence, when the several varieties of structure have been made, ask yourself the following questions: Which construction is clearest? Which is neatest ? Which is most harmonious ? EXERCISE II. Direction. — Change the position of the words and phrases in the following sentences in four ways, without altering the meaning : 1. Dogs, in their love for man, play a part in nearly every tragedy. 2. The sea for many hundred miles rolls and flashes over a shallow bottom. l6 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 3. In the far East, tiny humming-birds are eagerly sought by the ladies of high rank. 4. You have but to peep, in any lane, or brake, in spring, into a bird's nest to see a number of mysterious spheres lying cozily in their mossy couch. 5. Directly in front of the tent, and at no great distance from it, a thick net-work of vines stretched between two trees. 6. The sun has thrown its shadow upon the pewter dial two hours beyond the meridian time. 7. Nations, therefore, have fittingly rejoiced in every century since the creation, in the joy fulness of harvest. 8. Then, standing in the center of his court, in the great hall of Hatfield House, the Lord of Misrule bade his herald declare him Lord Supreme from Christmas Eve to Twelfth Night. 9. Alone, in unuttered sympathy, the two ascended the steps of the sacred temple to approach the shrine. 10. With a merry heart and a glad countenance, he eagerly en- tered his mother's room early in the morning before breakfast. Synthesis of Simple Sentences. Synthesis is the process of combining separate state- ments into a single~sentence: The following is the me thod : 1. An Italian mariner made his appearance at various courts. 2. He made his appearance successively. Separate J 3- These courts were in the south and west of Europe. Stateinetits. I 4. He was a citizen of Genoa. 5. Genoa was a little republic. 6. He made his appearance in the fifteenth century. 7. It was in the last quarter of the century. Combined. — In the last quarter of the fifteenth century, an Italian mariner, a citizen of the little republic of Genoa, made his appearance successively at various courts in the south and west of Europe.* * Note. — It will be observed that in the combined sentence all the elements contained in each of the separate statements are woven together. .Statement i is the principal propositien. or skeleton sentence. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. I7 ^Rhetorical analysis, the opposite of synthesis, is the separation of a single sentence into^tFe ditierent statenients ,.-'4mpiieiJ m it7 iFhe foHowing^^^^^^^^ The Natural Bridge, over Cedar Creek, is a rocky mass spanning the bed of the stream at a height of 2 1 5 feet. The Natural Bridge is a rocky mass. It is over Cedar Creek. It spans the bed of the stream. It spans it at a height of 2 1 5 feet. Analysis. EXERCISE III. Direction. — Combine each of the following groups of statements into a sim- ple sentence. Try the sentence in various orders, and tell which construction you prefer, and why. Attend carefully to the punctuation : 1. A favorite diversion was hunting. A favorite diversion was hawking. These were diversions of the Middle Ages. They occurred at intervals. They occurred during the intervals of war. 2. Former kings possessed large forests. These forests were in all parts of England. The Conqueror was not content with these forests. He resolved to make a new forest. He decided to make it near Win- chester. Winchester was the usual place of his residence. 3. Ahce Gary and her sister Phoebe planted the tree. They planted it in their youth. It is the large, beautiful sycamore. It is seen in passing along the Hamilton turnpike. It is seen in passing from Col- lege Hill to Mt. Pleasant. These places are in Ohio. 4. It was an idle question. It was put to a railway acquaintance. A name was spoken. It was spoken in a moment. The landlady's Statement 2 contributes the single word "successively." Statement 3 furnishes the adjective phrase *' in the south and west of Europe." Statement 4 adds the phrase "a citizen of Genoa"; this phrase is put in appo- sition with the subject. Statement 5 adds the words "little republic." Statements 6 and 7, combined, appear in the form of an adverbial phrase, " in the last quarter of the fifteenth century," which serves as a modifier of the predi- cate. Rhet.--2. 1 8 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. name was spoken. She was the best landlady in all Germany. She was the dearest in all Germany. She was the joUiest in all Germany. 5. The youth was Narcissus. He was hunting one day. He was hunting in the forest. He chanced to see the fountain. The fountain was flashing. It was flashing beneath a stray sunbeam. 6. The daylight faded away. The moonbeams crept down. They crept into the little glade. They came to bear him company. They came to be with him in his faithful watch. They came to stay till morning. 7. The prince was a dissolute young man. He was a debauched young man. He was eighteen years of age. He bore no love to the English. He declared his intention. He intended to yoke the En- glish to the plow. He would yoke them like oxen. He would do this on coming to the throne. 8. It was a monster of a bee. It had been wandering overhead. It was now among the leaves. It was now flashing through the strips of sunshine. It was now lost in the dark shade. It finally appeared to be settling. It appeared to be settling on the eyelid of David Swan. 9. Their two faces were grim. Their two faces were wrinkled. They were ghastly with guilt and fear. Their faces bent over their victim. They looked horrible. Their looks might have caused them to be mistaken for fiends. 10. We should suit our behavior to men. We should suit it to the several degrees of men. Of these degrees, there are three. We should suit our behavior to our superiors. We should suit it to our equals. We should suit it to those below us. This is the principal point of good breeding. 11. Ben was still stunned by the change. The change was sudden. It was terrible. The change was in his affairs. Ben sat gazing out of the window. It was the window of the coach. He hoped to see some phenomenon. He wished the phenomenon to be monstrous. He hoped to see it in the street. He wished it to prove the awful state to be only a dream. The awful state of his affairs inspired this hope. 12. The glow showed him a figure. The figure was shown by the fire's glow. It was a wood fire. The glow was a dull red. The fig- ure was seated. It had its back to him. The figure sat on the hearth. It bent over the light. The light was fitful. 13. To come alone was to remind him. To come thus with the chaise was to remind Sampson Brass. It was for Kit to come in this THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. I9 way. Brass was reminded of some mission. The mission called Mr. Swiveller to some place. It might be to Peckham Rye again. It would surely be to some distant place. From this distant place he could not be expected to return for two or three hours. It might be for a much longer period. This longer stay was altogether prob- able. 14. The water sports with its freight. The water is resistless. The freight is ghastly. The water bruises its freight against the slimy piles. It hides it in mud. It hides it in long grass. The grass is rank. The water drags its freight heavily. It drags it over rough stones. It drags it over gravel. It feigns to yield it to its own element. It lures it away. It flings it at last on a swamp. The swamp is a dismal place. The water flings its freight to remain there forever. 15. Miriam bade farewell to this nest. It was a dove's nest. She bade farewell from the threshold. She did this with a long regard. She turned from this one httle nook. It was a nook of pure thoughts. It was a nook of innocent enthusiasms. She had now stained it with her dark trouble. 16. The Niobe of Nations is made to bewail. She is made to be- wail anew. She bewails with sincerity. This is doubtless. She is made to bewail the loss of part of her population. It is a large part. She derives this part from other lands. This part affords her prosper- ity. It is a remnant of prosperity. She still enjoys this remnant. She is made to bewail this loss on the approach of summer. 17. The Indian wife sailed with her husband for England. She sailed in 1616. She had been instructed in the English language. She bore an English name. She was "the first Christian of her na- tion." 18. The first band of emigrants sailed from England, November, 1633. This band consisted of about two hundred gentlemen. They possessed considerable rank and fortune. They professed the Roman Catholic faith. They had with them a number of inferior adherents. They sailed in a vessel called The Ark a7id the Dove. The band was under the command of Leonard Calvert. 19. Patrick Henry electrified the minds of his colleagues. He did this by his briUiant displays of argument and eloquence. This was in March, 1775. He had electrified them before. His colleagues were hesitating and reluctant. They hesitated to enter upon a contest with the mother-country. This occurred in the Virginia Convention. Pat- rick Henry was styled by his contemporaries the "Orator of Nature." 20 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 20. Edward Plantagenet was the eldest son of King Edward III. He was born at Woodstock, in 1330. He was commonly called the Black Prince. He was called the Black Prince from the color of his armor. The color of the armor was specially chosen. It set off the fairness of his skin and hair. EXERCISE IV. Direction. — Analyze the following simple sentences : 1. Indian Territory is a large tract originally set apart for Indian tribes removed from their homes east of the Mississippi. 2. The South Atlantic States were the scene of stirring events in the Revolutionary War, being at one time the chief battle-ground. 3. Its mountain-ranges, clad in forests, contain great mineral wealth, to some extent developed. 4. Indigo is a blue dye obtained from the leaves of several species of plants largely cultivated throughout the warm regions of Asia. 5. In 1520, Magellan entered the Pacific by passing through the strait since called by his name. 6. At the dawn of day, on the 12th of October, 1492, Columbus saw before him a level island, several leagues in extent, and covered with trees like a continuous orchard. 7. The Spaniards found the native tribes, everywhere on the route, in a state of cultivation beyond that of nomadic hordes, with fixed places of abode and a liberal subsistence from the tillage of their lands. 8. The national vanity of the English, highly stimulated by the victory of Agincourt, and the short-lived conquest of French territory, was now exasperated by the reverses of the war in France. 9. According to a tradition in our family, Henry Hudson, the greaf^ navigator, on being blessed with a view of the enchanting island of Manhattan, exhibited, for the first and only time in his life, strong symptoms of astonishment and admiration. 10. At daybreak the next morning, the red ensign, the well-known signal for battle, was seen flying over Varro's headquarters, just in front of the main army then forming in order of battle on the right bank of the river. CHAPTER II. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. /" A Complex Sentence consists of one independent, or / principal, proposition, and one or more subordinate propo- Vsitions, or clauses. Every clause contains a subject and a predicate, and every proposition contains a subject and a predicate, hence, inde- pendent propositions are likewise clauses; but, as subordi- nate propositions perform merely the functions of adjectives, or adverbs, or nouns, we shall use the word '* clause" with special reference to those dependent, or subordinate, prop- ositions, introduced by connectives. Clauses. There are three kinds of clauses : (i) The adjective clause ; (2) The adverbial clause; (3) The substantive, or noun, clause. I. An adjective clause performs the office of an ad- jective: IFmay^ modify any noun or pronoun in the prmci- pal proposition. It is generally joined to the principal statement by a relative pronoun or by a conjunctive adverb, as ^* where," ''when," ''why"; thus, He prayed for those whose love had beefi his shield. "Whose love had been his shield " is an adjective clause, connected with the principal statement, "he prayed for those," by means of the relative "whose." The clause modifies the pronoun "those." (21) 22 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. He came to a garden where rich roses bloomed. *^ Where rich roses bloomed" is an adjective clause, in- troduced by the conjunctive adverb ''where," and modify- ing the noun ''garden." This was a time when brave hearts trembled, *'When brave hearts trembled" is an adjective clause, introduced by the conjunctive adverb "when," and modi- fying the noun "time." The hate which we all bear with the most Christian pa- tience, is the hate of those who envy us. "Which we all bear," etc., is an adjective clause modify- ing the noun "hate." "Who envy us" is an adjective clause modifying the pronoun "those." Adjective clauses may be classified as restrictive and non- restri ctive. A~~ Tebtiictive clause limits the applica tion, or the meaning, of the word it modifies; as, "The person who stole my money is in this company." A non-restrictive clause does not so limit, or restrict, the application of the word it modifies ; thus, ' ' Their dark faces were set off by cloth caps, which were drawn down aslant over their brows. " * The relative pronoun introducing an adjective clause not restrictive, should be "who" or "which." Example: "I heard this from the commander, who (and he) heard it from the aid that carried the message." The relative introducing a restrictive clause should be "that," if euphony allows. Abbott says, "'Who,' 'which,' etc., introduce a new *NOTE. — For fuller explanation of restrictive and non-restrictive clauses, the pupil is referred to "Adjective Clauses" under the rules for the punctuation of complex sentences, Chapter XVI. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 23 fact about the antecedent, whereas *that' introduces some- thing without which the antecedent is incomplete or unde- fined." The principal cases where ''who" and *' which" are used, instead of ''that," to introduce restrictive clauses are : 1. If the antecedent is qualified by the adjective "that," the relative pronoun must not be "that." Notice how disagreeable the repetition of "that" in the sentence, ' ' That cloak that I wore to-day is not that that you admire." 2. Near "that" used as a conjunction it is sometimes unadvisable to use ' ' that " as a relative. Example : ' ' There is the horse that I said that I regretted that I had bought." 3. To avoid ending a sentence with a preposition, it is often necessary to place the preposition before the relative ; now, since "that" can not be preceded by a preposition, "whom" or "which" must in such cases be used instead. Example: "This is the fence that I fell over,'' This would be more agreeably expressed thus : ' ' This is the fence over which I fell." 4. After pronominal adjectives used as personal pronouns, "who" is preferred to "that." Thus: "There are some, others, several, v^dXiy who hold," etc. 5. When "that" is separated from its antecedent and from its verb, and made emphatic by its separation, "who" or "which" should be used instead. Abbott illustrates this objectionable use of "that" by the sentence, "There are many persons that, though unscrupulous, are commonly good-tempered, and that, if not strongly incited by self- interest, are ready for the most part to think of the interest of their neighbors." 6. Since "that" applies to both persons and things, its use may be somewhat ambiguous when the antecedent does c 24 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. not express which is meant. This is the case with such antecedents as **one" and **all." Now **who" instead of **that" would decide at once for persons; ** which" for things. EXERCISE V. Direction. — Point out and classify the adjective clauses in the following sen- tences, and tell what they modify. In cases where the restrictive relative "that" is not used to introduce restrictive relative clauses, state the reason why : 1. Behavior is a mirror, in which every one shows his image. 2. Books that you may carry to the fire and hold readily in your hand are the most useful after all. 3. Tall are the oaks whose acorns drop into dark Auser's rill. 4. Earnest people, who try to get a reality out of human existence, are necessarily absurd in the view of the revelers. 5. Hilda's disappearance, which took place the day before, was known to them through a secret channel. 6. We paint such qualities as we do not possess. 7. The evil that men do lives after them. 8. The sorrows that wring our hearts often leave them better fitted for life's realities. 9. Cats that wear gloves catch no mice. 10. I have something that will suit you. 1 1 . There are times when every active mind feels itself above any and all human books. 12. Thrice is he armed that hath his quarrel just. 13. Congress, which was in session since last December, has ad- journed. 14. They remind me of that portion of Aladdin's palace which he left unfinished. T5. Kenyon saw that she was in one of those moods of elevated feeUng which is really more passionate than emotions far exceeding it in violence. 16. This is the mark beyond which I jumped. 2. An adverbial clause is a clause equivalent to an ad- verb. It modifies a verb, an adjective, an adverb, or a THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 2$ participle, and denotes the various circumstances of place, time, cause, manner, degree, consequence, etc. It is joined to the principal statement by a subordinate conjunction or by a conjunctive adverb. The subordinate conjunctions most frequently used to introduce adverbial clauses are: if since though supposing that than as whether inasmuch as unless for that reason as if in order that except that notwithstanding so — as because lest provided that as — as for The conjunctive adverbs used to introduce adverbial clauses are: when as ere* after while until before since If all be well, we shall leave home in a week. **If all be well" is an adverbial clause, expressing con- dition, introduced by the subordinate conjunction '*if," and modifying the principal predicate *' shall leave home in a week." Expect nothing, lest you be disappointed, ''Lest you be disappointed" is an adverbial clause ex- pressing result, introduced by the subordinate conjunction *'lest." Corruption wins not more than honesty receives, ''Than honesty receives" is an adverbial clause of com- parison, introduced by the subordinate conjunction "than." We listened while he played. "While he played" is an adverbial clause of time, intro Rhet.— 3. r-- 26 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. duced by the conjunctive adverb *■ while," and modifying the principal predicate ** listened." V/here your treasure iSy there will your heart be also. "Where your treasure is " is an adverbial clause of place, introduced by the conjunctive adverb '* where." EXERCISE VI. Direction. — Classify the adverbial clauses in the following sentences, and tell what they modify : 1. Though they fell, they fell like stars. 2. Halt, where thou art. 3. We only did as we were politely requested. 4. Had he thy reason, would he skip and play? 5. We set out early in fihe morning, that we might reach the sum- mit of the mountain by sunset. 6. Stay a little, that we may make an end the sooner. 7. The colorless substance known in ancient times as bird-lime, is the gluten remaining after the starch in flour has been washed away. 8. When love begins to sicken and decay, it useth an enforced cer- emony. 9. It is turning out a fine day, notwithstanding the morning was wet. 10. Long and curious speeches are as fit for despatch as a robe or a mantle, with a long train, is for a race. 11. He died as he had lived. 12. He then treated me with such unaffected kindness, that I was moved to copious tears. 13. When you run into debt, you give another power over your own liberty. 14. She saw not the bird, though it whirled untroubled by fear in wanton circles about her head. 15. This law is short, in order that it may be more easily understood Dy the ignorant. 3. A substantive, or noun, clause is a clause equiva- lent to a noun. A noun clause may be: THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 2/ (i) The subject of a verb; as, ^^ That you have wronged me doth appear in this." (2) An attribute complement, or predicate clause; as, ** Plato's definition of man is, 'Man is a two-legged atihnal wit 1 tout feathers,' " (3) An explanatory modifier — in apposition; as, *'Dr. Watts' statement, that 'Birds in their littk nests agree y' is very far from being true." (4) An object complement — the direct object of a verb or participle ; as, * ' Then the maiden clasped her hands and prayed that saved sJie might be "; ' ' Having learned that it was best to visit the ruins at midnig^J, we set out just after dark. " (5) The object of a preposition, the preposition being \ either expressed or understood; as, *' Bonaparte thought ^ little about what he should do in case of success,'' The noun clause is generally introduced by an in- terrogative or relative adverb, by a subordinate conjunction, or by the interrogative pronouns * ' who "or * * what. " Thus : Who had handled the gtm^ perplexed the good hunter no little. ''Who had handled the gun" is a noun clause, subject of ''perplexed," and is introduced by the interrogative pro- noun "who." Some said that she had not been seen for six days, "That she had not been," etc., is a noun clause, object of "said," and is introduced by the subordinate conjunction "that." When he will come, is hidden from us. "When he will come" is a noun clause, subject of "is hidden," and is introduced by the interrogative adverb "when." \ 28 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. EXERCISE VII. Direction. — Point out the noun clauses in the following sentences, and tell what functions they perform : 1. The whole force of conversation depends on how much you can take for granted. 2. That fortune favors the brave is a cheering maxim. 3. I heard that a battle had been fought. 4. How far I have succeeded is for you to judge. 5. I will find out whence you derive that idea. 6. We could never understand why he left so suddenly. 7. Mark, now, how a plain tale shall put you down. 8. Tell me not in mournful numbers, Life is but an empty dream. 9. Charles Lamb, reading the epitaphs in the church-yard, inquired, "Where be all the bad people buried?" 10. A sober melancholy was spread over my mind by the idea, that I had taken everlasting leave of an old and agreeable companion. 11. We hstened attentively to them relating what they had seen in their travels. 12. I attempt to impress nothing upon you except, "Be careful still of the main chance." 13. What man dare, I dare. 14. Know ye not that a little leaven leaveneth the whole lump? 15. What has chiefly perplexed us, however, among our friend's ad- ventures, is the mode of her release."^ EXERCISE VIII. Direction. — Complete the following complex sentences by supplying a^V^^zV^ clauses: 1. The man shows prudence. 2. France is the country where 3. He received the reward * To THE Teacher. — The pupil should here be taught those rules that ap- ply specially to the punctuation of complex sentences. See Chapter XVI. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 2g 4. A metal is said to be ductile. 5. The house has been burnt. 6. Botany is the science 7. Offices of trust should be conferred only on those 8. John Wychffe ...... died in 1384. Direction. — Complete the following complex sentences by supplying adverb-y ial clauses : 1. Be ready 2 the temperature of the ground seldom falls bcA low the freezing point. 3. The chase did not end //// 4. Are friends as numerous in adversity ? 5. When be not terrified. 6. The Romans took Cincinnatus from the plow, that . . . . . 7. Foul deeds will rise 8. He calls pleasure the bait of evil, because Direction. — Complete the following complex sentences by supplying noun clauses: I requires no demonstration. 2. His excuse for not being present was 3. The King could not understand 4. We believe 5 is right. 6. . ... . . . is a traitor. 7. When the trial is concluded, we shall know 8. His courage and success illustrate the proverb 9. I am more willing to give .... than to ask Synthesis of Complex Sentences. Statements may be combined into a complex sentence by making one statement the principal proposition, and the other statement, or statements, dependent upon it. The dependent statements may be embodied in the sentence by means of modifying words, phrases, or clauses. Thus: 30 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. Separate Statements. Analysis, Egypt has recently annexed large territory on the south. By this annexation, it now extends to the equator. Egypt was once the most powerful country in the world. Egypt was once the most civiHzed country in the world. [ Egypt is still the most important division of Africa. Combined, — Egypt, once the most powerful and civilized country in the world, and still the most important division of Africa, has re- cently annexed large territory on the south, so that it now extends to the equator. ( The rhetorical analysis of a complex sentence is ef- \ fected by separating the sentence into the statements im- ^ phed in it. Thus: "A caliph, who once reigned in Bagdad, built a palace renowned for beauty and magnificence." A caliph built a palace. The caliph reigned in Bagdad. The palace was renowned for beauty. The palace was renowned for magnificence. Variety of Arrangement, — As in the simple sentence variety of arrangement is obtained by changiiig the position of phrases, so in the complex sentence variety is effected by changing thejposition of phrases and clauses. Thus the sen- tence, ' ' Into the lock of the wicket which opened into the castle garden, at the dead hour of midnight, the page put the key, when all was silent in the garden, ' ' may be varied thus: At the dead hour of midnight, when all was silent in the garden, the page put the key into the lock of the wicket which opened into the castle garden. When all was silent in the garden, at the dead hour of midnight, the page put the key into the lock of the wicket which opened into the castle garden. At the dead hour of midnight, the page, when all was silent in the garden, put the key into the lock of the wicket which opened into the castle garden. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 3 1 EXERCISE IX. Direction. — Change the position of the clauses and phrases in the following sentences in at least three ways, without altering the construction or destroying the sense. In making the changes, bear in mind the directions given for the - proper placing of the clauses : 1. Last night, as I lay fettered in my dungeon, I heard a strange, ominous sound. 2. In prayer you will find that a state of mind is generated which will shed a holy influence over the whole character. 3. In days long ago, when birds and flowers and trees could talk, in a country far over the sea, there was a beautiful fountain. 4. If I were a prince, I would hire or buy a private literary teapot, in which I would steep all the leaves of new books that promised well. 5. In the meantime, I talked on with our boarders, much as usual, as you may see by what I have reported. 6. As I rode along the pleasant way, watching eagerly for the ob- ject of my journey, the rounded tops of the elms rose from time to time at the roadside. 7. However, before their astonished eyes, a little flower rose from the water's edge, just where their friend had died. 8. His ear, though he did not seem to hsten, caught every word of the boastful talk. 9. When, at last, the White Ship shot out of the harbor of Barfleur, there was not a sober seaman on board. 10. Soon after, the royal family, perceiving, too late, that they were mere prisoners in the Tuileries, undertook to escape to Coblentz, where the great body of emigrants resided. / Directions for the Synthesis of Complex Senten- / ces. — In combining a number of given statements into a j complex sentence, be guided by the following directions: I I. Consider carefully the nature of the assertion in each I of the given statements so as to select the leading thought A for the principal proposition, and to determine what con- \nection the remaining statements have with the leading thought. COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 2. A clause should be placed beside the statement con- taining the word it modifies, or to which it is grammatically- related. 3. An adjective clause must follow the noun it modifies; an adverbial clause usually follows the word it modifies, but a clause denoting time, place, cause, condition, conces- sion, may precede it. 4. Words, phrases, and clauses should be placed as near as possible to the words with which they are grammatically connected. 5. In a long conditional sentence, where the condition is introduced by '*if" or ''though," place the antecedent, or ' ' if-clause, " first. Never, except when the ''if-clause" is very emphatic^ should it be placed after the consequent EXERCISE X. Direction. — Combine each of the following groups into on^ complex sentence: 1. The portrait of Parris is one of the best things in Mr. Upham's book. Parris was the minister of Salem village. In the household of Parris three children began their tricks. These children became ac- cusers and witnesses. They became such under the assumed posses- sion of evil spirits. 2. Benvenuto CelHni saw a salamander come out of the fire. He saw it in his boyhood. On seeing the salamander, his grandfather gave him a sound beating. He gave him the beating forthwith. By means of the beating Cellini might better remember the unique prod- igy. CelHni tells us this. 3. A youthful angel comes to us. At his coming, we are as yet small children. At his coming, those two grown ladies have not of- fered us the choice of Hercules. He holds in his right hand cubes like dice. In his left hand, he holds spheres like marbles. 4. Wilham Pitt entered public life at a very early age. He was the second son of the first Earl of Chatham. WiUiam Pitt was the prime minister of George III. He held this office at an early period of hfe. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 33 At such period, most men are just completing a professional educa- tion. 5. The battle of Bunker Hill was fought on the 17th of June. It was fought in the year 1775. It proved the bravery of the Americans. It was followed by great moral results. 6. Some persons seem to be preparing themselves for eternity. They seem to be preparing even in this life. They prepare for a smileless eternity. They look hopefully forward to this eternity. They prepare for it by banishing all gayety from their hearts. They pre- pare for it by banishing all joyousness from their countenances. 7. The natives of Virginia seized on a quantity of gunpowder. It was their first seizure of gunpowder. They sowed it for grain. They 'expected to reap a plentiful crop of combustion. They expected to reap this by the next harvest. They expected a crop so plentiful as to blow away the whole colony. The gunpowder seized by the natives belonged to the English colony. 8. Again and again, the frigate appeared to be rushing on shoals. It appeared to be rushing blindly. The sea was covered with foam. Destruction would have been certain. It would likewise have been sudden. Then the clear voice of the stranger was heard. The voice warned them of their danger. The voice incited them to their duty. 9. To behold the peasantry is a pleasing sight. To behold them in their best finery is a pleasing sight. Their ruddy faces are pleasing. Their modest cheerfulness is delightful. To see them on a Sunday morning is a pleasing sight. To see them thronging tranquilly along the green lanes to church is most pleasant. At the time of their going the bell is sending its sober melody across the quiet fields. 10. A clear river ran at the foot of this hill. The river was deep- banked. It was bounded on one side by a slip of rich level meadow. On the other side it was bounded by a kind of common. The com- mon was for the village geese. The white feathers of the geese lay scattered over its green surface. They were scattered there in the summer season. 1 1. It is a sad thing to be born a sneaking fellow. It is much worse than to inherit a hump-back. It is worse than to inherit a couple of. club-feet. Looking upon such a fellow causes me sometimes a pecul- iar feeling. The feeling tells of the necessity of our loving the crip- pled souls. May I be allowed to use the expression " crippled souls"? We should love them with a certain tenderness. This tenderness we need not waste on noble natures. 34 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 12. You may observe a toil-worn man. He is seated upon a hob at the door. He is without coat or waistcoat. His shoulder is peeping through the remnant of a shirt. The shoulder is red. Muscular. Sun- burnt. The man is mending his shoes. He mends them with a piece of twisted flax. The twisted flax is called lingeL 13. Johnson showed roughness and violence. He showed these qualities in society. They were to be expected in such a man. This man's temper was not naturally gentle. It had been long tried by the bitterest calamities. It had been tried by the want of meat. It had been long tried by the want of fire and clothes. It had been tried by the importunity of creditors. It had been tried by the insolence of booksellers. The derision of fools had tried it. The insincerity of patrons had tried it. It had been tried by bread. Such bread is the bitterest of all food. It had been tried by those stairs — the most toil- some of all paths. It had been tried by deferred hope. Deferred hope makes the heart sick. EXERCISE XI. Direction. — Separate the following complex sentences into the different statements contained in them : 1. In the month of July, when the grass on the meadow was long, many an hour have I spent in sohtary enjoyment, watching the wavy motion produced on its pliant surface by the sunny winds, or the flight of the cloud shadows, like gigantic phantoms, as they swept rapidly over it. 2. On Christmas day, 1770, I was surprised by a message from my godfather, saying that he had sent a man and a horse to bring me to Ashburton, and desiring me to set out without delay. 3. Straghan made such haste, that the Earl of Sutherland, who at least pretended to have gathered together a body of fifteen hundred men to meet Montrose, chose rather to join with Straghan. 4. Of these, one was a man of six or eight and fifty, who sat on a ' chair near one of the entrances of the booth, with his hands folded on the top of his stick, and his chin appearing above them. 5. The walls of Sir Roger's great hall are covered with the horns of several kinds of deer that he has killed in the chase, which he thinks the most valuable furniture of his house, as they afford him frequent topics of discourse, and show that he has not been idle. CHAPTER III. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. /^ A Compound Sentence consists of two or more inde- / pendent propositions. f The propositions joined to form a compound sentence are 1 of equal rank (co-ordinate). They are usually connected \ by means of co-ordinate conjunctions ; but they may stand joined by their very position in the sentence — connected without any conjunction expressed. ( Co-ordinate Conjunctions are divided into four classes; namely, copulative, adversative, alternative, illative. Copulative Conjunctions. — When the members of a compound sentence are in the same line of thought, the second adding to the first, the third to the second, and so on, they should be joined by copulative conjun ctions^ The following is a list of the principal copulative conjunctions: and as well as not only — but moreover also secondly partly — partly now likewise first — then further well Adversative Conjunctions. — When the propositions present thoughts in contrast or in opposition to one another, they should be joined by adversative conjunctions^ The following are the principal adversative conjunctions! but still yet however but then nevertheless only notwithstanding (35) 36 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. Alternative Conjunctions. — When the members pre- sent thoughts in alternation — expressing that which may be chosen or omitted, they should be joined by alternative conjunctionsA The following are the principal alternative conjuncTions: else or either — or whether — or otherwise nor neither — nor [Uative Conjunctions. — When the members express thougiits~one"oflvhich shall be an effect or consequence of the other, or an inference from it, they should be joined by illative conjunctions.) The following are the principal illative conjunctionsi therefore whence so consequently wherefore thus so that accordingly hence so then then for The following sentences illustrate the various kinds of connection : (^Copulative) All the world's a stage, and all the men and women merely players. (^Adversative) True, he served the state in his youth ; but then he betrayed it in his old age. (^Alternative) Either Rome must destroy Carthage, or Carthage will be a perpetual threat to Rome. (^Illative) They went away from town abruptly, so that I had no opportunity of seeing them again. Conjunction Omitted. — Where the connection between the members is either copulative or adversative, the con- junction is frequently omitted. Abbott says, *'When sen- tences are short, conjunctions may be advantageously omit- ted. The omission gives a certain forcible abruptness ; as, 'You say this; I (on the other hand) dony it.'" Other illustrations are: THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 37 Moderate lamentation is the right of the dead ; excessive grief, the enemy to the Uving. Fools build houses; wise men live in them. Ideas quickly fade; they ofwcn vanish quite out of the understand- ing. Some sentences complex m fo7'in are equivalent to com- pound sentences. When the relation of the members is cop- ulative, the conjunction may be^ absorbed in a relative p7^o~ iioiin or a conjunctive advei^b ; as, James called for John, who \j=a?td he] responded at once. They shouted at the dog, which \=and it] fled in affright. We shall discuss this next week, when \=and then] we may pos^ sibly come to a decision. The monkey climbed into a tree, where \=and there] it sat chat- tering to me. While such constructions are frequently met with even in good authors, it is better to avoid them. Modern writers seldom use relative pronouns or conjunctive adverbs to in- troduce independent propositions ; and where we find forms passing into disuse, it is safer not to employ them. The following lines from Prof Bain's Composition and Rhetoric furnish additional explanation on this point: "A relative pronoun refers one clause to another in the same sentence, but rarely connects two successive sentences. The old En- glish usage of commencing a sentence with wJio for and he is now obsolete ; the reason being that the relative expresses a close connection between the members joined. " EXERCISE XII. Direction. — Add to each of the following statements another statement, so as to make a copulative compound sentence. Thus : Return, and RQiMXXv, 2iWd I will deal with thee. 1. He turned from the road, and .... 2. His action was not only considerate, but 38 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 3. Raleigh persevered in his attempts at colonization .... 4. Steam is used to propel great trains across the continent ; it is also Direction.— Add to each of the following statements another statement, so as to make an adversative compound sentence. Thus : He was often warned of the danger, but He was often warned of the danger, but, for all that, he persisted in his mad attempts. 1. Philosophy makes US wis A" men ; 2. It is a hard case ; still 3. Charms strike the sight, but 4. We seek ever the light of knowledge .... 5. He was wise and virtuous, yet 6. A whole city on fire is a spectacle full of horror Direction. — Add to each of the following statements another statement, so as to make an alternative compound sentence. Thus : He must return soon He must return soon, or his affairs will ^o wrong. 1. I have no tears, else 2. Be generous, otherwise 3. Come ye in peace here, or. 4. We must take the current when it serves, or 5. Man does not stand in awe of man, nor Direction. — Add to each of the following statements another statement, so as to make an illative compound sentence. Thus : They are idle; consequently They are idle; consequently they are discontented. 1. This agreeth not well with me ; wherefore, . . . . . 2. Pope desired to excel ; therefore 3. Our memories are most retentive in youth ; consequently . . . 4. Happiness does not consist in self-love ; hence 5. The Turkish government has possessed only two secrets for gov- erning — to drain and to brutify its subjects; he7ice 6. These barbarous tribes meet only to attack and to destroy each other; so that 7. Infancy conforms to nobody ; so that 8. The shadow of the earth, in every position, is round ; . . . . 9. Pittsburgh is the center of a rich coal region ; hence .... THE COxMPOUND SENTENCE. 39 Contracted Compound Sentences. The members of a compound sentence may have a com- '^arrihr^t¥eiTEe^~suT5jec^ predicate^ iiTwliicir ^caseTHe~sentence is said to be contracted. Thus: rr^^'^'^The 1cmg~lTuist reacliTtaiyT-oi'-forfeit his crown for- ever," is equivalent to, ''The king must reach Italy, or the king must forfeit his crown forever" — (contracted in the subject; partly, also, in the predicate). 2. *'A man of real information becomes a center of opin- ion, and therefore of action "=*' A man of real informa- tion becomes a center of opinion, and therefore a man of real information becomes a center of action" — (contraction in the subject and adjunct, and in the predicate). 3. **I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him" = ''I come to bury Caesar; I come not to praise him" — (contrac- tion in the subject and in the predicate). 4. * ' Stone walls do not a prison make, nor iron bars a cage" = '* Stone walls do not a prison make, nor do iron bars make a cage" — (contraction in the predicate). 5 . * * Religious controversy sharpens the understanding by the subtlety and remoteness of the topics it discusses, and embraces the will by their infinite importance "= * ' Religious controversy sharpens the understanding by the subtlety and remoteness of the topics it discusses, and religious co7ttivversy embraces the will by the infinite im- portance of the topics it discusses'' — (contraction in the subject, and in adjuncts). When the predicate relates to two or more subjects in combination, the sentence is not contracted but simple ; as, '* (Four and three) make seven " ; '' (Tennyson and Swin- burne) are the only great living poets." 40 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. EXERCISE XIII. Direction. — Contract the following compound sentences, and. state the nat- ure of the contraction : 1. How France was saved from this humiliation will now be seen, and how the great alliance was preserved will now be seen. 2. The apple-trees slope with the hill, and in the spring the apple- trees are covered with a profusion of the most beautiful blossoms, and in the autumn the apple-trees are generally weighed down with their load of red fruit. 3. In a few years, perhaps next year, the fine gentleman will shut up his umbrella, and the fine gentleman will give it to his sister, and the fine gentleman will fill his hand with a crab-tree cudgel instead of the umbrella. 4. In the strength and ardor of youth, Rome sustained the storms of war; in the strength and ardor of youth, Rome carried her victorious arms beyond the seas and mountains ; in the strength and ardor of youth, Rome brought home triumphant laurels from every country of the globe. 5. I was buried for a thousaiid years ; I was buried in stone coffins ; I was buried with mummies and sphinxes ; I was buried in narrow chambers at the heart of the eternal pyramids. 6. The island does not abound in grand prospects ; the island does not abound in subhme prospects ; but the island abounds rather in little home-scenes of rural repose and sheltered quiet. 7. My Uncle Toby went to his bureau, and my uncle Toby put his purse into his breeches pocket, and, having ordered the corporal to go early in the morning for a physician, my Uncle Toby went to bed and fell asleep. 8. The fowls of the air furnish sustenance to man, and the beasts of the field furnish sustenance to man, and the dwellers of the deep furnish sustenance to man,^ •'''Note. — The members of a compound sentence are subject to the rules of punctuation that have been given for the simple and for the complex sentence; but the pupil should here be taught the rules that apply specially to the punctua- tion of the compound sentence. See Chapter XVI. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 41 Synthesis of Compound Sentences. In combining detached statements into compound sen- tences, the nature of the separate statements should be carefully considered, so as to connect in construction the members that are connected in sense ; the closest attention should be given to the selection of the proper conjunction when one is required. Remember that conjunctions mark every turn, every change of relation ; therefore, it is of the highest importance that the writer be able to estimate closely, in every instance, the nature and extent of their in- fluence. In the synthesis of compound sentences, much use is made of contraction ; the participial phrase is very useful, and it is often advantageous to express certain ideas by means of dependent clauses. The members of a compound sentence may be: (i) Simple; as, "Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight, And all the air a solemn stillness holds." (2) Simple and Complex ; as, ' ' My uncle is a tall, hard- faced man; I fear him when he calls me 'child.' " (3) Complex ; as, *' To be content with what is sufficient, is the greatest wisdom; he who increases his riches, in- creases his cares." (4) Compound sentences are sometimes made up of two or more members used in pairs ; as, '' Homer was the greater genius ; Virgil, the better artist ; in the one we most admire the man; in the other, the work." The following examples illustrate the combination of de- tached statements into a compound sentence : Rhet.— 4. 42 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. Separate Statements. The Royal George went down with all her crew. Cowper wrote an exquisitely simple poem about it. The leaf holding this poem is smooth. The leaf bearing the lines on his mother's portrait is blistered with tears. Combined. — When the Royal George went down with all her crew, Cowper wrote an exquisitely simple poem about it ; but the leaf which holds it is smooth, while that which bears the lines on his mother's portrait is blistered with tears. 1. Sir Roger went out fully satisfied with his entertain- ment. 2. We guarded him to his lodging. 3. We guarded him in a certain manner. 4. In this same manner we brought him to the play- house. 5. We were highly pleased. 6. I, for my own part, was highly pleased with the per- formance of the piece. 7. I was pleased not only with this. 8. The piece was excellent. 9. I was highly pleased by the satisfaction given by the piece. 10. This satisfaction it had given to the good old man. Combined. — Sir Roger went out fully satisfied with his entertain- ment, and we guarded him to his lodging in the same manner that we brought him to the playhouse, being highly pleased, for my own part, not only with the performance of the excellent piece, but with the satisfaction which it had given to the good old man. — Addison.'^ Separate Statements. *NOTE. — In combining the statements embraced in the second group of the examples given above, statement i forms the first member. Statement 2 forms the second member. Statement 3 is changed to a prepositional phrase, used adverbially. Statement 4 forms a dependent clause of comparison. Statement 5 becomes a participial phrase. Statements 6 and 9 are expressed as co-ordinate phrases. Statement 7 is given in the words " not only." Statement 8 is e:cpressed by the word "excellent." ' Statement 10 appears as a relative clause. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 43 EXERCISE XIV. Direction. — Combine the statements in each of the following groups into a compound sentence: 1 . The slow, regular swells of the great Pacific may be heard through the day. One, listening, may hear them. They may be heard like a solemn undertone. It is like a solemn undertone to all the noises of the town. At midnight those successive shocks fall upon the ear. They produce a sensation of inexpressible solemnity. All else is still at midnight. 2. Only one sound fell upon the ear. That sound was the steady step of the camel. Its feet were crunching through the hard crust. We passed through long stretches of soft sand. Then even the sound of the steady step seemed muffled. The broad foot sank under us almost without a sound. This foot equals the tiger's in being soft and springy. 3. The merchant was impressed with awe. This awe the humblest sleeper usually sheds around him. The merchant trod lightly. The gout would not allow him to tread more lightly. His spouse took good heed not to rustle her silk gown. By reason of the rustling, David might possibly start up all of a sudden. 4. In spite of her fatness, Fraulein Hahlreiner's step was elastic and light. Her hands and feet were delicately shaped. Her broken En- glish was the most dehciously comic and effectively eloquent language. I have never heard spoken a language exceeding it in eloquence. She cooked our dinner for us at two. She went shopping for or with us at five. She threw us into fits of laughter at eight. She threw us into laughter by some unexpected bit of mimicry or droll story. She tucked us up at bedtime with an affectionate " Good night. Sleep well ! " All these things, I can say for her. 5. The first introduction of tea into Europe is not known. It came into England from Holland, in 1666. According to common accounts it came thus. At this time Lord Arlington and Lord Ossory brought over a small quantity. A pound of tea then sold for sixty shillings. The custom of drinking tea became fashionable. 6. Ten years afterwards coffee as a beverage became highly fash- ionable in France. It was made fashionable by the Turkish embas- sador. He was in Paris. The elegance of the equipage recommended 44 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. it to the eye. The elegance of the equipage charmed the women. The coffee was poured into briUiant porcelain cups. The napkins were fringed with gold. Turkish slaves presented it on their knees to the ladies. The ladies were seated on the ground on cushions. These things turned the heads of the Parisian dames. 7. We must sail sometimes with the wind. We must sail sometimes against it. We must do these things to reach the port of heaven. We must not drift. We must not He at anchor. We must sail. 8. In Naples, even the lowest class enjoy every blessing. Every blessing to make the animal happy is theirs. They rejoice in a deli- cious cUmate. They revel in high spirits. They have a happy facility of satisfying every appetite. They enjoy a conscience giving no pain. They are happy in a convenient ignorance of their duty. 9. This scene was silent. All the figures might have been shad- ows — [adverbial clause c^ comparison]. The fire-lit apartment might have been a picture — [adverbial clause of comparison]. This scene was hushed. I could hear the cinder fall from the grate — [adverbial clause of result]. I could hear the clock tick in its obscure corner — [adverbial clause of result]. I even fancied — [something]. I could distinguish the click-click of the woman's knitting-needles. 10. The royal htter reeled more and more. Several of the nobles supporting it were slain. At length it was overturned. The Indian prince would have come with violence to the ground. His fall was broken by the efforts of Pizarro. His fall was also broken by the efforts of some other of the cavaliers. They caught him in their arms. 1 1. At break of day the kind people saw all the country under water. The country included rr.any fields. These fields, the day before, were beautiful with yellow wheat. They were beautiful with the green tops of turnips. Other crops had beautified these fields. These kind peo- ple were, at break of day, looking out for Sandy Smith and his family. The surface of the flood was strewed with trees. It was strewed with every kind of wreck from farms. Every kind of wreck from barns and from houses strewed the surface of the flood. 12. The Indian men are hunters. The Indian men are warriors. Such they are in their youth. The Indian men are counselors. They are counselors in their old age. All their government is by counsel of the sages. There is no force. There ar« no officers to compel obedience. There are no officers to inflict pu-n^"shment. 13. The mocking-bird many times deceivei? Ithe sportsman. He sends the sportsman in search of birds. These birds, perhaps, are not THE COxM POUND SENTENCE. 45 within miles of the sportsman. The mocking-bird exactly imitates their notes. This admirable mimic frequently imposes on birds them- selves. The birds are decoyed by the fancied calls of their mates. They dive, with precipitation, into the depths of thickets. . They dive because of a scream. This scream seems to be the sparrow-hawk's. 14. Caesar was killed. Brutus came forward. He evidently wanted to say something about the deed. The Senators did not wait to listen. They rushed through the door. They made their escape. They filled the people with confusion. They filled the people with indescribable alarm. Some people closed their houses. Others left their tables and places of business. Some ran to the place. They ran to the place to see — [something]. This something had happened. Others ran away. These others had seen it. EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. The following selections are designed to give practice in connected composition. The exercise is to be a Reproduction of the poem in prose. To make a pleasing reproduction, it is necessary: (i) To read the poem until it is thoroughly understood. (2) To know the essential parts so well as to be able to write a continuous story, preserving a careful proportion of parts. (3) To give the poem fully enough and gracefully enough to produce an agreeable effect. To insure a pleasing effect in prose composition, it is nec- essary to avoid rhyme. To be independent in the expression of the ideas it is necessary to avoid the language of the poem. When the poem is clearly understood it should be laid aside, and the list of topics used to assist the memory. The pupil should, from this list, write out the story in his ozvn words. 4^ COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. REPRODUCTION T. A NEST IN A POCKET. A LITTLE bird went to and fro, Once in the nesting season, And sought for shelter high and low, Until, for some queer reason, She flew into a granary Where, on a nail suspended. The farmer's coat she chanced to see. And there her search was ended. The granary was in a loft. Where not a creature met her ; The coat had hollows deep and soft- Could anything be better ? And where it hung, how safe it was. Without a breeze to rock it ! Come, little busy beak and claws, Build quick inside the pocket ! You never saw a prettier nest In rye-field or in clover. Than this wherein she sat at rest When building work was over. Three speckled eggs soon warmly lay Beneath the happy sitter ; Three little birds — oh, joy ! — one day Began to chirp and twitter. You would have laughed to see them lie Within the good man's pocket, Securely hid from every eye As pictures in a locket ! Busy, and blissfully content, With such a place for hiding, The little mother came and went To do their small providing. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 47 And not a creature wandered in, Her nestlings to discover, (Except a wasp that now and then About her head would hover.) Until — ah, can you guess the tale ? — The farmer came one morning, And took his coat down from the nail Without a word of warning ! Poor little frightened motherling ! Up from her nest she fluttered. And straightway every gaping thing Its wide-mouthed terror uttered. The good man started back aghast; But merry was his wonder When in the pocket he at last Found such unlooked-for plunder. He laughed and laughed. "Upon my ward," He said aloud, " I never! — Who could suppose a little bird Would do a thing so clever ? Come, now! 'twould be a shame to harm The fruit of such wise labor. I wouldn't hurt you for a farm, My pretty little neighbor!" He put the coat back carefully : "I think I have another; So don't you be afraid of me. You little bright-eyed mother. I know just how you feel, poor thing, For I have youngsters, bless you ! There, stop your foolish fluttering — Nobody shall distress you." Then merrily he ran away To tell his wife about it, — How in his coat the nesthngs lay, 48 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. And he must do without it. She laughed and said she thought he could ! And so, all unmolested, The mother-birdie and her brood Safe in the pocket rested, Till all the little wings were set In proper flying feather, And then there was a nest to let — For off they flocked together. The farmer keeps it still to show. And says that he 's the debtor; His coat is none the worse, you know, While he's a little better. Mary E. Bradley, in 5/. Nicholas. Topical Outline. Introduction. — The bird's search for shelter. She flies into a granary. She finds the soft hollows in the farmer's coat. She builds a nest. Soon there chirp three little birds. The mother undisturbed provides for them. The farmer comes for his coat. The fright of the mother and the nesthngs. The farmer quiets their fears. He runs to tell his wife. What the wife says. The birds take their flight. The farmer keeps the nest to show. Conclusion. — The effect of the farmer's kindness on his own heart."'^ Discussion, - -'•Note. — In all kinds of discourse there are but three main divisions — the in- troduciion, the discussion, and the conclusion. The introduction is short, and is designed to pave the way for the discussion. The discussion includes all that bears directly on the subject. The conclusion con"5l?ts of an inference or appli- cation, and fjtly closes the discourse. Rhet.— s. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 49 REPRODUCTION II. THE PUPIL OF CIMABUE. A SHEPHERD boy beneath the pines That clothe the solemn Apennines. All through the day he played his pipe, Or watched the wanderings of his sheep. Or, when the pine-cone seeds were ripe, He stored them like a squirrel's heap, Or, half-awake and half-asleep. He dreamed among the tangled vines. Below him, shining in the sun. Through Vespignano's verdant vale He saw the slender rivulets run ; Above him, by the day made pale, The moon, a phantom vessel, sail Past reefs of cloud in rugged lines. Of stray lost sheep or lonely lamb Sometimes he heard the plaintive bleat. Then he would answer, ** Here I am," And on his pipe make music sweet. And run to meet and gladly greet The animal with friendly signs. A shepherd boy beneath the pines That clothe the solemn Apennines. Once, as he sat beside a rock, For his caress the favorite came, The gentlest sheep of all the flock. Shapely of form, full-fleeced, and tame ; He stroked her head and called her name, While in his mind grew grand designs. JO COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. "Can I not picture her?" he thought. Then, satisfied with pats and praise, The sheep a tuft of clover sought, And with bent head began to graze ; The child, not moving from his place, Upon the rock drew rapid Hnes. And while the boy was busy still With pencil made of sharpened slate, A mounted man rode up the hill, And seeing the child, he chose to wait And watch the work — for he was great In art, and knew Ait's countersigns. A shepherd boy beneath the pines That clothe the solemn Apennines. And when he saw, the task being done, The sheep depicted faithfully, Old Cimabue said, "My son, Will you not come to live with me. My pupil and my friend to be. And leave your lonely Apennines?'* The boy, all blushing at his words, Said, "Ah, my master, if I may ! My father, leading home his herds. Comes even now along the way ; And I must do as he shall say — His yes' accepts, his 'no' declines.** Right readily the father yields His son the ''yes'' of his desire; And Giotto left his upland fields, With heart and fancy all on fire, To climb the hill of Fame — far higher Than any slope of Apennines. A shepherd boy beneath the pines That clothe the solemn Apennines. E. Cavazza, in St. Nicholas, THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 51 Topical Outline. Introduction, — Describe the place of pasture, and tell how the shep- herd passed the time while tending his sheep. The favorite of the flock comes one day for his caress. His love for her awakens in him a great desire. His effort to picture her on the rock. The great artist finds the boy busy with pencil of sharp- ened slate. Discussion, \ Cimabue waits to see the work completed. The artist requests the boy to go with him and live as his pupil and his friend. The boy's strong wish to go, provided his father's con- sent can be obtained. The father readily gives the desired permission. Conclusion, — Giotto's success as an artist. CHAPTER IV. TRANSFORMATION OF ELEMENTS. The elements of a sentence may be transformed by sub- stituting one part of speech, or modifier, for another. Words may be transformed to phrases or other zvord ele- ments. By omission and contraction, clauses, dependent 'or independent, may be transformed to phrases or single words ; phrases y to single words or to other phrase elements, EXERCISE XV. Direction. — In the following sentences, change, where you can, the adjec- tives, adverbs, and nouns in the possessive case, to prepositional phrases. Thus: The sensible man, the man of sense ; He labored cheerfully, he labored with cheer- fulness ; The soldier's duty, the duty of the soldier, 1. The country's food may have been lessened only by a fourth part of its usual supply. 2. This dreadful object might quell the bravest men's courage. 3. I noticed these objects cursorily. 4. A large old pointer dog rested its head on the girl's knee. 5. The other girl's lap was the black cat's cushion. 6. With the servant's aid, I contrived to mount a stair-case. 7. Let his shames quickly drive him to Rome. 8. Have you perused the duke's letters? 9. The sun really gives vigor. 10. The passengers walk through the woods fearing and dreading. 11. Uninterrupted sunshine would parch our hearts. 12. Natural good is closely connected with moral good and natural evil. 13. To an energetic man this is easy. "* 14. The water is flowing very rapidly. (52) TRANSFORMATION OF ELEMENTS. 53 EXERCISE XVI. Direction. — Change, if possible, the prepositional phrases in these senten- ces to adjectives, to adverbs, or to nouns in the possessive case. Thus: Wines of France, French wines ; He spoke with calmness, he spoke calmly ; The word of God, God's word. 1. A soul without reflection runs to ruin. 2. Too soon the flowers of spring will fade. 3. Shakespeare is without doubt the poet of nature. 4. The flowers of late sprung a beauteous sisterhood. 5. The palace of the royal family was destroyed by fire on the fifth night. 6. He knew the subtle art of no school-man. 7. He spoke with decision. 8. They rest in peace. 9. Three fishers went sailing toward the west. 10. Hope is the dream of a waking man. 11. In a laughing manner, they accept my reflections. 12. Our actions disclose the secret in the heart. 13. A strong mind, in all cases, hopes. 14. A fine day is commended by every one. 15. The animal with long ears gives a kick to the bucket. 16. The age, without question, produces daring profligates, and hypocrites of an insidious character. EXERCISE XVII. Direction. — In the following sentences, change, where you can, the parti- ciples to infinitive phrases, and the infinitive phrases to participles. Thus : Earn- ing is having, to earn is to have. 1. Dying, but dying bravely — . 2. Lying is base. 3. To bear your father's name is indeed an honor to you. 4. To laugh would be want of grace. 5. Waiting on the bank for the river to run by is foolish, indeed. 6. To smile at the jest is to become a principal in the mischief. 7. Walking by moonlight was her favorite amusement. 54 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 8. To take offence at every trifling scorn shows great pride or little sense. 9. Praying is contemplating the facts of life from the highest point of view. 10. To believe your own thought, to believe that what is true for you in your private heart is true for all men, — that is genius. 11. To tell all that we think is inexpedient. ^ 12. Confessing the truth, I was greatly to blame for my indiscretion. 13. To pull down the false and to build up the true, and to uphold what there is of true in the old, — ^let this be our endeavor. 14. Striving to make men contented is undertaking an impossibility. 1 5. The stranger was heard to warn them of the danger, and to in- cite them to duty. 16. This duty, to obey, is recognized. 17. In this place, they at first began meeting, singing, praying, preaching, and baptizing. 18. Being delightful is being classic. 19. To spend too much time in studies is sloth ; to use them too much for ornament is affectation. 20. Hoping too much from the patronage of powerful individuals is dooming one's self to disappointment. 21. To take only the historical parts of the Old Testament, there is nothing like them in the power of exciting awe and admiration. * Contraction. / By means of contraction, compound sentences are reduced V^to complex and to simple sentences. To contract a com- pound sentence into a complex sentence, we convert one of the independent members into a clause; to contract a complex sentence into a simple sentence, we convert the dependent clauses into words or phrases. The following examples illustrate the method : Compound. — You are perplexed, and I see it. Complex. — I see that you are perplexed. Simple. — I %^ 94 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 5. Aim at variety of construction; that is, do not form a succession of sentences of any one kind ; but make them simple, complex, or compound, as seems best suited to the purpose. No one kind of sentence is pre-eminently the best ; each kind has its own peculiar advantages ; but where \ excellence in composition is aimed at, there should be a Xproper intermixture of the several kinds. jThe following will illustrate the method of combining sentences into a paragraph: A husbandman set a net in his field. He placed it there to catch the cranes. The cranes came to pluck up his newly-plapted corn. The husbandman went to examine the net. He went to see the cranes thus taken. A stork was found among the number. The stork begged to be spared. The stork begged to be let go. It professed to be no crane. It denied having eaten any of the corn. It declared itself to be a poor, innocent stork, the most pious and dutiful of birds. It professed to honor and succor its father and mother. The husbandman would hear no more. He owned this to be possibly true enough. He acknowledged this in his reply to the stork. The husbandman knew one thing plainly. He had caught the stork with the destroyers of his crop. For this the stork must suffer with the company. In such company it had been taken. Combined. — A husbandman set a net in his field to catch the cranes that came to pluck up his newly-planted corn. When he went to examine the net, to see what cranes he had taken, a stork was found among the number. "Spare me," cried the stork, "and let me go. I am no crane ; I have not eaten any of your corn ; I am a poor in- nocent stork — the most pious and dutiful of birds. I honor and suc- cor my father and mother." But the husbandman would hear no SYNTHESIS OF SENTENCES INTO A PARAGRAPH. 95 more, and replied, "All this may be true enough ; but this I plainly know, that I have caught you with those that were destroying my crops, and you must suffer with the company in which you were taken." — JEsop. EXERCISE XXIX. Direction. — Combine the following statements into well-constructed sen- tences, forming a single paragraph : 1. The Mistake of a Life. — A piece of money was lying in the road. A young man picked it up. He hoped he should find another. He kept his eyes fixed steadily on the ground. He did this always afterward, as he walked along. He did pick up a good amount of gold and silver. This was in the course of a long life. He was look- ing for money all this time. The heavens were bright above him. Nature was beautiful around him. He did not see them. He never looked up from the mud and filth. He sought treasure in them. He died a rich old man. He knew this fair earth, even up to his death, only as a dirty road. He thought it was to pick money from. 2. A Missionary's Experience. — I was riding alone across one of the South Pacific Islands. The night was dark and rainy. I was delighted to see, just ahead, a Hght. Seemingly, there was a man carrying a lighted torch. I shouted to my supposed companion to wait a little. I wished to get up to him. I received no reply. I spurred my horse. The animal made its way with difficulty. The mire was deep. I was not a little annoyed to see the light dancing on and on. A clump of trees now hid the windings of the road. This mocking companion seemed to dart through its gloomiest recesses. It moved in a most inexplicable manner. A long and weary chas^ followed. The light forsook the beaten track. It hovered over the deep waters of a little lake in that neighborhood. I reached home that night. I related my adventure. The natives jestingly remarked upon the adventure. An elf had been lighting my path with her torch. I had been chasing a Will-o'-the-wisp. 3. A Curious Insect. — There is a certain black beetle. It is fa- miliar to all dwellers in the country. It swims on the surface of the summer brook. It loves to hold conventions in some quiet eddy. It 96 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. loves to spend the hours in whirling around. In all manner of tangled curves. There is one curious thing. It is in the construction of this diminutive insect. The insect possesses two pairs of eyes. These eyes are placed in a pecuHar way. The insect floats along. It is enabled to have one pair above the surface of the water. The other pair is below the surface of the water. All these eyes are designed to be used. One pair is to view things beneath the water. The other pair is to view things above the water. One pair looks out for food. The other pair looks out for danger and for enjoyment. The two to- gether fit the insect for its life. This life is on the dividing line be- tween air and water. 4. Small Gardens in Devonshire. — Nothing can exceed in pret- tiness these gardens in Devonshire. They are attached to thatched cottages. They are frequently seen on the side of a hill. They are oftener at the bottom of a hill. Down this hill a narrow road leads. A rude, single-arched stone bridge. Here a shallow stream may be seen flowing rapidly. The stream now and then " stickles " over a pavement. Pebbles or rag-stone. " Stickles " is a Devonshire phrase. A little rill descends by the side of the lane. The rill descends close to the hedge. The hedge is approached by a broad stepping-stone over the rill. Beyond the hedge is a gate made of rough sticks. The gate leads to the cottage. At a short distance from the cottage, an excavation has been cut in the bank. It has been paved round with rough stones. Into this the water finds its way. It makes its way out clear and sparkling. This is the cottager's well. His garden is gay with flowers. His bees are placed on each side of a window. The window is surrounded with honeysuckle, jessamine, or a flourish- ing vine. The rustic porch is covered with these or other creepers. The gorgeous hollyhock may be seen in perfection. The hollyhock delights in the rich red soil of Devonshire. Giantstocks, carnations, and china-asters flourish from the same cause. These make the gar- den appear like Flora's. It appears to belong to Flora herself. Direction. — Combine each of the following groups of statements into a paragraph, and write on the first line of each paragraph the topic it develops : I. The deer seem to foresee every change of weather. In this re- spect they are like many other animals. At the approach of a storm, deer leave the higher hills. They descend to the-low grounds. Some- times even two days in advance of the change. At the approach of SYNTHESIS OF SfiNTExNCES INTO A PARAGRAPH. 97 a thaw, they leave the low grounds. They go to the mountains. They never perish in snow-drifts. In this, they are not like sheep. Not sheltering themselves in hollows prevents their perishing in snow- drifts. Keeping the bare ground prevents their perishing. Further, they eat the tops of the heather. 2. There was at hand no cotton in the seed. Whitney went to Savannah to procure some. He searched there among warehouses and boats. He found a small parcel. He carried it home. He se- cluded it with himself in a basement-room. Here he set to work. He worked to devise and construct the implement required. The tools were rude and few. He was constrained to make better ones. He was forced to draw his own wire. No wire could be bought in Savannah. There were but two persons allowed to enter his work- shop. These were Mrs. Greene and her next friend, Mr. Miller. They were, in fact, the only ones having a clear knowledge of his efforts and intentions. His mysterious hammering and tinkering in that sol- itary cell were subjects of infinite curiosity. They were subjects of marvel. They were subjects of ridicule. This was among the youngei members of the family. He did not interfere with their merriment. He did not allow them to interfere with his enterprise. Before the close of the winter, his machine was nearly completed. Its success was no longer doubtful. 3. The immediate loss of Constantinople may be ascribed to a bullet. An arrow. This bullet or arrow pierced the gauntlet of John Justiniani. The sight of his blood appalled the courage of the chief. The exquisite pain destroyed his courage. His arms and counsels were the firmest ramparts of the city. He withdrew from his station. He went in quest of a surgeon. His flight was perceived. He was stopped by the emperor. The emperor was indefatigable. "Your wound is slight." "The danger is pressing." "Your presence is necessary." "Whither will you retire ?" These words were said by Palaeologus. The Genoese trembled. "I will retire by a certain road." God had opened this road to the Turks. He passed hastily through a breach in the wall. It was one of the breaches of the inner wall. The act was pusillanimous. He stained the honors of a mili- tary hfe. His example was imitated. The greater part of the Latin auxiharies followed his example. The defense began to slacken. The attack was pressed with redoubled vigor. Constantinople was irre- trievably subdued. Mahomet the Second was its conqueror. Rhet.— 9. 98 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. REPRODUCTION VIT. PROSE READINGS. To THE Teacher. — It will be found advantageous to give also prose selec- tions for reproduction. These have been omitted for want of space. They can, however, be given whenever desired by reading the class something suited to the purpose. Selections by Prof. Edward R. Shaw, will furnish excellent material for such reproduction. REPRODUCTION VIII. ENVY AND AVARICE. Envy and Avarice, one summer day, Sauntering abroad In quest of the abode Of some poor wretch or fool who lived that way — You — or myself, perhaps — I can not say — Along the road, scarce heeding where it tended, Their way in sullen, sulky silence wended ; For, though twin sisters, these two charming creatures. Rivals in hideousness of form and features, Wasted no great love between them as they went. Pale Avarice, With gloating eyes, And back and shoulders almost double bent, Was hugging close that fatal box For which she 's ever on the watch Some glance to catch Suspiciously directed to its locks ; And Envy, too, no doubt with silent winking At her green, greedy orbs, no single minute Withdrawn from it, was hard a-thinking- Of all the shining dollars in it. SYNTHESIS OF SENTENCES INTO A PARAGRAPH. 99 The only words that Avarice could utter, Her constant doom, in a low, frightened mutter, "There's not enough, enough, yet in my store!'* While Envy, as she scanned the glittering sight. Groaned as she gnashed her yellow teeth with spite, "She's more than I, more, still forever more!" Thus, each in her own fashion, as they wandered. Upon the coffer's precious contents pondered, When suddenly, to their surprise, The God Desire stood before their eyes. Desire, that courteous deity, who grants All wishes, prayers, and wants ; Said he to the two sisters, " Beauteous ladies, As I 'm a gentleman, my task and trade is To be the slave of your behest — Choose therefore at your own sweet will and pleasure, Honors or treasure ! Or in one word, whatever you 'd like best. But, let us understand each other — she Who speaks the first, her prayers shall certainly Receive — the other, the same boon redoubled T* Imagine how our amiable pair, At this proposal, all so frank and fair, Were mutually troubled ! Misers and enviers of our human race. Say, what would you have done in such a case ? Each of the sisters murmured, sad and low, " What boots it, oh, Desire, to me to have Crowns, treasures, all the goods that heart can crave, Or power divine bestow. Since still another must have always more?" So each, lest she should speak before The other, hesitating slow and long 'Till the god lost all patience, held her tongue. He was enraged in such a way. To be kept waiting there all day, lOO COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. With two such beauties in the pubhc road ; Scarce able to be civil even, He wished them both — well, not in heaven. Envy at last the silence broke, And smiling, with malignant sneer, Upon her sister dear, Who stood in expectation by. Ever implacable and cruel, spoke : " I would be blinded of one eye ! '* Victor Hugo. REPRODUCTION IX. nora's charm. 'TwAS the fisher's wife at her neighbor's door, And she cried, as she wrung her hands, "O Nora, get your cloak and hood. And haste with me o'er the sands." Now a kind man was the fisherman. And a lucky man was he ; And never a steadier sailed away From the Bay of Cromarty. And the wife had plenty on her board. And the babe in her arms was fair ; But her heart was always full of fear, And her brow was black with care. And she stood at her neighbor's door and cried, "Oh, woe is me this night! For the fairies have stolen my pretty babe And left me an ugly sprite. " My pretty babe, that was more than all The wealth of the world to me ; With his coral lips, and his hair of geld. And his teeth like pearls of the sea ! SYNTHESIS OF SENTENCES INTO A PARAGRAPH. lOI *' I went to look for his father's boat, When I heard the stroke of the oar ; And I left him cooing soft in his bed, As the bird in her nest by the door. "And there was the father fair in sight, And puUing hard to the land ; And my foot was back o'er the sill again, Ere his keel had struck the sand. " But the fairies had time to steal my babe, And leave me in his place A restless imp, with a wicked grin, And never a smile on his face." And Nora took her cloak and hood. And softly by the hand She led the fisher's wife through the night Across the yellow sand. ** Nay, do not rave, and talk so wild; " 'Twas Nora thus that spoke; ** We must have our wits to work against The arts of fairy folk. "There's a charm to help us in our need, But its power we can not try. With the black cloud hanging o'er the brow, And the salt tear in the eye. " For wicked things may gibe and grin With noisy cheer and shout, But the joyous peal of a happy laugh Has power to drive them out. "And if this sprite we can but please Till he laughs with merry glee. We shall break the spell that holds him here, And keeps the babe from your knee." I02 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. So the mother wiped her tears away. And patiently and long They plied the restless, stubborn imp With cunning trick and song. They blew a blast on the fisher's horn. Each curious prank they tried ; They rocked the cradle where he lay. As a boat is rocked on the tide. But there the hateful creature kept, In place of the human child ; And never once his writhing ceased. And never once he smiled. Then Nora cried, "Take yonder egg That lies upon the shelf, And make of it two hollow cups, Like tiny cups of delf." And the mother took the sea-mew's egg. And broke in twain the shell, And made of it two tiny cups. And filled them at the well. She filled them up as Nora bade, And set them on the coals : And the imp grew still, for he ne'er had seen In fairy-land such bowls. And when the water bubbled and boiled. Like a fountain in its play, Mirth bubbled up to his lips, and he laughed Till he laughed himself away ! And the mother turned about, and felt The heart in her bosom leap ; For the imp was gone, and there in his place Lay her baby fast asleep. SYNTHESIS OF SENTENCES INTO A PARAGRAPH. 103 And Nora said to her neighbor, " Now There sure can be no doubt But a merry heart and a merry laugh Drive evil spirits out ! "And who can say but the dismal frown And the doleful sigh are the sin That keeps the good from our homes and hearts, And lets the evil in ! " Phcebe Gary. DEVELOPMENT V. "O Mary, go and call the cattle home, And call the cattle home, And call the cattle home. Across the sands o' Dee ; " The western wind was wild and dank wi' foam, And all alone went she. The creeping tide came up along the sand, And o'er and o'er the sand, And round and round the sand, As far as eye could see ; The blinding mist came down and hid the land — And never home came she. " Oh, is it weed, or fish, or floating hair — A tress o' golden hair, C drowned maiden's hair, Above the nets at sea ? Was never salmon yet that shone so fair Among the stakes on Dee." They rowed her in across the rolling foam. The cruel, crawling foam, The cruel, hungry foam. To her grave beside the sea ; But still the boatmen hear her call the cattle home, Across the sands o' Dee. Chas. Kingsley. I04 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. DEVELOPMENT VI Oh ! many a shaft at random sent Finds mark the archer httle meant ; And many a word at random spoken May soothe or wound the heart that's broken. Sir Walter Scott, DEVELOPMENT VIL DRIFTING. Oh, the winds were all a-blowing down the blue, blue sky, And the tide was outward flowing, and the rushes flitted by ; All the lilies seemed to quiver On the fair and dimpled river, All the west was golden red ; We were children four together, In the pleasant summer weather, And merrily down we sped. Oh, the town behind us faded in the pale, pale gray. As we left the river shaded, and we drifted down the bay ; And across the harbor bar, Where the angry breakers are, — You and Grace, and Tom and I, — To the Golden Land with laughter. Where we'd hve in peace thereafter, Just beyond the golden sky. Oh, the winds were chilly growing o'er the gray, gray sea, When a white-winged bark came blowing o'er the billows on our lee. Cried the skipper all a-wonder : "Mercy on us! over yonder — Bear a hand, my lads, with me — Four young children all together. In this pleasant evening weather, — Go a-drifting out to sea ! " SYNTHESIS OF SENTENCES INTO A PARAGRAPH. 105 All our prayers were unavailing, all our fond, fond hopes. For our Golden Land had vanished with its fair and blooming slopes, As the skipper, with loud laughter, Towed our little shallop after, — Homeward by the dreary bay. Fast our childish tears were flowing, Chill the western wind was blowing, And the gold had turned to gray. E. Vinton Blake, in SL Nicholas, DEVELOPMENT VIII, FABLE. A CERTAIN bird in a certain wood, Feeling the spring-time warm and good, Sang to it in melodious mood. On other neighboring branches stood Other birds who heard his song : Loudly he sang and clear and strong ; Sweetly he sang, and it stirred their gall There should be a voice so musical. They said to themselves: "We must stop that bird, He's the sweetest voice was ever heard. That rich, deep chest-note, crystal clear, Is a mortifying thing to hear. We have sharper beaks and hardier wings. Yet we but croak : this fellow sings ! " So they planned arfd planned, and killed the bird With the sweetest voice was ever heard. T. B. Aldkich. CHAPTER VII. VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. Variety is the opposite of uniformity, or sameness, and we soon grow weary of sameness ; hence variety in com- position is one of the sources of exce llencg ^ It keeps up the attention of the reader or hearer, and, for this reason, conduces to the vivacity and strength of the discourse. On this point Blair says : ' * Sentences constructed in a sim- ilar manner, with the pauses falling at equal intervals, should never follow one another. Short sentences should be intermixed with long and swelling ones, to render dis- course sprightly as well as magnificent. Even discords, properly introduced, abrupt sounds, departures from regu- lar cadence, have sometimes a good effect. Monotony is the great fault into which writers are apt to fall who are fond of harmonious arrangement ; and to have only one tune or measure is not much better than having none at all." Variety of expression may be secured in two ways: (i) By changing the arrangement, or structure, of the sen- tence. (2) By changing the phraseology, or language, used to express the thought. Change of Structure. V Change of structure may be secured : - V (i) By changing the voice of the verb. Thus: (106) I I VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. lO/ Active — Caesar defeated Pompey. Passive — Pompey was defeated by Caesar. (2) By substituting an interrogative for a declarative sen- nee. The interrogative form is often the more forcible. Thus : Interrogative — Is this the character of true manhood ? Declarative — ^This is not the character of true manhood. (3) By substituting an exclamatory for a declarative sen- ence. Thus : Declarative — It is a beautiful sunset. Exclamatory— Whdit a beautiful sunset ! I r (4) By the use of '* there" or **it" as an introductory word. Thus: 1. There is no place like home. 2. No place is like home. The first of these sentences is more impressive ; the im- pressiveness is effected by the use of the introductory ^* there." t (5) By substituting the direct form of statement for the mdirect. Thus : Direct — General Wolfe said, *^I die happy." Indirect — General Wolfe said that he died happy. r (6) By transposing the parts of the sentence. ^This transposition may take place in either prose or poetry, but it occurs most frequently in poetry. Thus : Natural order — Honor and shame rise from no condition. Transposed — Honor and shame from no condition rise. (7) By abridging clauses. I08 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. I (8) By substituting phrases for words, or words for phrases. \ (9) By expanding words or phrases into clauses.* Method I. — To change the voice of a verb. EXERCISE XXX. Direction. — Vary the structure of the following sentences by changing the verbs in the active voice to the passive, and those in the passive to the active : 1. Some one calls a blush the color of virtue. 2. Snow is melted by the sun. 3. The general surrendered the fort. 4. Much practice is required to write well. 5. Health is promoted by temperance; ruined by intemperance, 6. Great men are measured by their character. 7. The sweet song of the birds delighted his ears, 8. Hands of angels hidden from mortal eyes, shifted the scenery of the heavens. 9. Neglect of duty often produces unhappiness. 10. What evil has smitten the pinnace? 11. The Norman Conquest introduced Chivalry and the Feudal System into England. 12. In 1 512, Albert Diirer was first employed by the Emperor Max- imilian. 13. The press of England is guarded by the hearts and arms of Englishmen. 14. This system did not promote the good order of society. 15. A cold, sleety rain accompanied the cart and the foot travelers all the way to the city. 16. Every gentleman, born a soldier, scorns any other occupation. 17. The writings of Cicero represent, in the most lively colors, the ignorance, the errors, and the uncertainty of the ancient philosophers with regard to the immortality of the soul. *N0TE. — The last three methods have been treated under "Transformation of Elements." VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 109 Method II. — To change a declarative to an interrogative sentence. The natural, or primary, use of interrogation is to ask a question; but when declarative sentences are expressed in the interrogative form, no answer is expected ; the inter- rogative form is used merely to make the statement more emphatic and convincing than the declarative form could make it. When using interrogation as a means of emphasis, we should observe two things : (i) A negative interrogation affirms. Thus, ^* Do we not bear the image of our Maker?" is but a forcible way of saying, ^* We bear the image of our Maker." (2) An affirmative interrogation denies. Thus : ' ^ Doth God pervert judgment ? or doth the Almighty pervert jus- tice?" Here the effect is to deny or to give a negative answer to the question. EXERCISE XXXI. Direction, — Vary the structure of the following sentences by substituting the interrogative form for the declarative, and the declarative for the interroga- tive. Note the gain or loss in emphasis. 1. Who shall lay anything to the charge of God's elect? 2. Life is not so dear, nor peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery. 3. We shall not gather strength by irresolution and inaction. 4. Life can never be too short, which brings nothing but disgrace and oppression. • 5. What fairer prospects of success could be presented? 6. Despair is followed by courage. 7. Where there is injury, will there not be resentment? 8. When a king is lost in a wood, what is he more than other men? no COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 9. Evil so reacts upon good, as not only to retard its motion, but to change its nature. 10. If we repent of our good actions, what is left for our faults and follies ? 11. You can not expect to do justice when you will not hear the ac- cused. 12. Your troops and your ships have made a vain and insulting parade in their streets and in their harbors. 13. You can not expect to be well informed when you Hsten only to partisans. 14. Men do not gather grapes of thorns, nor figs of thistles. 15. It is lawful for me to do what I will with my own. 16. Nothing remains, then, but for us to stand foremost in the breach, to repair it, or perish in it. 17. Can you put the dearest interest of society at risk, without guilt and without remorse ? 18. A man can not contrive to be hereafter in England on a day that is past. Method III. — To change a declarative to an exclamatory sentence. By this change, a plain or simple fact is expressed with emotion. Care should be taken, therefore, to use the ex- clamatory form only where strong feeling or great earnest- ness is to be expressed. In exclamative sentences the verb is frequently omitted ; as, * ' What a terrible crime ! ' ' This is equivalent to, ' ' What a terrible crime this is ! " To express this idea in the de- clarative form we would say, **This is a terrible crime." EXERCISE XXXII. Direction. — Vary the structure of the following sentences by changing the declarative to the exclamatory form : 1. She is fruitful in resources and corhpreherfSive in her views. 2. A silence came with the snow. VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. I i i 3. A wilderness of floral beauty was hidden upon the tropic islands. 4. The chime of the Sabbath bells is sweet. 5. The hot tears fall. 6. This bleak old house will look lonely next year, 7. It is hard to follow, with lips that quiver, that moving speck on the far-off side. 8. Vast motives press upon us for lofty efforts. 9. That a nation could be thus deluded is wonderful. 10. The music of those evening bells, those evening bells, tells many a tale. 11. It is a bitter thing to look into happiness through another man's eyes. 12. This hour of calm is sweet and soothing. 13. Man is a wonderful piece of work; noble in reason, infinite in faculties ; in form and moving, express and admirable ; in action, like an angel ; in apprehension, like a god. 14. The poor country is almost afraid to know itself. 15. I wish that a man might know the end of this day's business. 16. Mischiel is swift to enter into the thoughts of desperate men. 17. It is too true ; that speech doth give my conscience a smart lash. 18. A noble mind is here o'erthrown. 19. He hath accumulated piles of wealth to his own portion. 20. Ye eagerly follow my disgrace, as if it fed ye. 21. The poor man that hangs on princes' favors is wretched. Method IV. — To use ^' there'' as an introductory wordy or ^^ it'' as the anticipative subject. The beginning of the sentence is the usual place for the subject; now, to use the introductory ** there" or the an- ticipative subject ''it" removes the real subject from the beginning, and thus emphasizes it. The idiom 'Ht is" introducing a sentence or a clause, is one of great value ; yet it is a frequent source of ambi- guity. Whenever doubt arises from its use, substitute for the impersonal verb, the corresponding noun; as, "// is asserted," *'the assertion is made"; ''//will be explained," *'the explanation will be given." 112 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. EXERCISE XXXIII. Direction. — Vary the following expressions by using the anticipative subject "There" or " It": 1. To twist iron anchors and braid cannons is as easy as to braid straw. 2. That paint costs nothing is a Dutch proverb. 3. None were so brave as he. 4. Some men are full of affection for themselves. 5. We crossed the AUeghanies just about daybreak. 6. Several of us are in the secret. 7. Much may be said in favor of our project. 8. For men to deceive is wrong. 9. To avoid harshness in such a case is not necessary. 10. That we only believe as deep as we live is curious. 11. For a man to rest in ignorance of the structure of his own body is a shame. 12. That the little mill can never resist this mighty rush of waters is plain enough. 13. What you ought to deny already exists. 14. To learn caution by the misfortunes of others is a good thing. 1 5. Anger seldom deprived him of power over himself. 16. He appeared to understand me well enough. 17. Judgment had better be deferred. 18. Probably the ship will sail to-morrow. 19. Hope soothes us under misfortune. 20. A poor exile of Erin came to the beach. 21. Faith, hope, and charity are three noble virtues. 22. Moral principles slumber in the souls of the most depraved. 23. Many able minds are considering this matter. Method V. — To substitttte the direct form of discourse for the indirect. The direct form of speech gives the words of the speaker exactly as uttered by himself; the indirect form gives them as reported by another. In the direct form ^ the words of VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. II3 the statement must be inclosed in quotation marks ; in the indirect, the marks are not used. In substituting the indirect form of speech for the direct, the principal variations are : (i) The first and second persons are changed to the third. (2) The present tense is changed to its corresponding past. (3) The near demonstrative this is changed to the more remote that, EXERCISE XXXIV. Direction. — In the following passages, vary the structure by substituting the direct form for the indirect, and the indirect for the direct : 1. Patrick Henry said that the war was inevitable, and that he was willing it should come. Then he repeated that he wished it to come. 2. The Senate, he observed, must have heard with pleasure, that Csesar condemned the conspiracy. 3. When the Emperor signaled that he had no further charge to make, Augustus said, "Next time, when you give ear to information against honest men, take care that your informants are honest men themselves." 4. He told us that he had been thirty years employing his thoughts for the improvement of mankind. 5. "I beseech you, O Athenians," said Themistocles, "to betake yourselves to your ships ; for I perceive that there is no longer any hope." 6. Bion, seeing a person who was tearing the hair of his head for sorrow, said, "Does this man think that baldness is a remedy for grief?" 7. Down the long street he walked, as one who said that a town which boasted inhabitants like him could have no lack of good society. 8. A drunkard once reeled up to Whitefield with the remark, "Mr. Whitefield, I am one of your converts." "I think it very likely," was the reply; "for I am sure you are none of God's." 9. The Samnites told the Romans that there should be no peace in Italy till the forests were rooted up in which the Roman wolves had made themselves a covert. Rhet.— 10. 114 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 10. When his architect offered to build him a house in which he could screen all his acts from his neighbors, Drusus said, "Build me rather a dwelhng wherein all my countrymen may witness all I do." 11. When Plato heard that his enemies called him a bad man, he said that he should take care so to hve that no one would believe them. 12. "See you yon light on the southern headland?" returned the pilot; "you may know it from the star near it by its sinking, at times, into the ocean. If we keep that light open from the hill, we shall do well — but, if not, we surely go to pieces."*^ 13. To the lords of convention 'twas Claverhouse spoke, "Ere the king's crown shall fall there are crowns to be broke; So let each cavalier who loves honor and me. Come and follow the bonnets of bonnie Dundee! " 14. "I have been thinking all day," said gently the Puritan maiden, "Dreaming all night, and thinking all day, of the hedge-rows of England, — They are in blossom now, and the country is all like a garden ; Thinking of lanes and fields, and the song of the lark and the linnet. Seeing the village street, and familiar faces of neighbors Going about as of old, and stopping to gossip together. And, at the end of the street, the village church, with the ivy Climbing the old gray tower, and the quiet graves in the church- yard. Kind are the people I live with, and dear to me my religion ; Still my heart is so sad, that I wish myself back in Old England." 15. "Ah, how short are the days ! How soon the night overtakes us ! In the old country the twilight is longer; but here in the forest Suddenly comes the dark, with hardly a pause in its coming, Hardly a moment between the two lights, the day and the lamp- light ; Yet how grand is the winter ! How spotless the snow is, and per- fect!" *NoTE. — It is not expected that the required substitution be made in the fol- lowing stanzas without destroying the meter. VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 115 Thus spake Elizabeth Haddon at nightfall to Hannah the house- maid, As in the farm-house kitchen, that served for kitchen and parlor, By the window she sat with her work, and looked on a landscape White as the great white sheet that Peter saw in his vision. By the four corners let down and descending out of the heavens. Method VI. — To transpose the parts of a sentence. Every word in a sentence has its natural position, where it performs its office, but attracts no special attention. In this statural ox grammatical order we have, (i) the subject with its modifiers ; (2) the verb ; (3) the object or comple- ment ; (4) the adverbial phrases or clauses. Now, for the sake of emphasis or adornment, the writer has frequent occasion to invert the grammatical order of parts in a sen- tence, — to put verbs before their subjects, objects and predicate adjectives before their verbs, or adverbial words and phrases at the beginning of the sentence. The mere fact that the word is in an unwonted place gives it distinc- tion. The inverted, or rhetorical order belongs peculiarly to poetry, where the utmost freedom is allowed for the sake of rhyme and meter. The use of this order in prose is mainly for emphasis ; and, being a feature more natural to impassioned style, it should be used sparingly, and only when there is a sufficient reason for the inversion. To secure emphasis by means of inversion it should be borne in mind that — Emphatic words must stand in prominent positions ; that is, for the most part, at the beginning of the sentence or at the end. Example: Now is the accepted time. no COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. The following are some of the principal poetical construc- tions : 1. The omission of the article ; as, When ( ) day was gone. Not fearing toil nor ( ) length of weary days. 2. The omission of conjunctive particles ; as, But ( ) soon as Luke could stand. ( ) Dear as the blood ye gave. 3. The antecedent is omitted; as, Happy who walks with him. Who overcomes by force, hath overcome but half his foe. 4. The auxiliary verb ''to do'' is omitted in an interroga- tion; as, Know ye aught of mercy ? Lovest thou thy native land ? Ho ! come ye in peace here, or come ye in war? 5. The verb precedes the nominative ; as. Then shook the hills, with thunder riven, Then rushed the steed, to battle driven, And louder than the bolts of heaven Y2iX flashed the red artillery. 6. The object precedes the verb ; as, The doors wide open fling. These abilities Charles V. possessed. His look on me he bent. Lands he could measure, times and tides presage. 7. The noun precedes the adjective ; as. Across the meadows bare and brown, Hadst thou sent warning /^/r and true, "** Each wolf that dies in the woodland brown. VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. II7 8. The adjective precedes the verb ''to be''; as, Sweet is the breath of vernal showers. Bitter but unavailing were my regrets. 9. The pronoun is expressed in the imperative; as, Be thou as lightning in the eyes of France. But, blench not thou. Hope thou in God. 10. Adjectives are used for adverbs ; as, So strode he back slow to the wounded King. Then he would whistle rapid as any lark. Swift fly the years, and rise the expected morn. 11. Personal pronouns are used with their antecedents ; as. The winds and the waves of ocean, They rested quietly. For the deck, it was their field of fame. 12. Prepositions are suppressed; as. He flies ( ) the event. ( ) Chisel in hand stood a sculptor boy. Despair and anguish fled ( ) the struggling soul. 13. Adverbial phrases are not placed beside ttie words to which they grammatically belong; as, On through the camp the column trod. In coat of mail the pools are bound. Under a spreading chestnut-tree The village smithy stands. 1 4. * 'And — and* * is used /or ' ' both — and ' '; * ' or — or ' ' for ' ' either — or "; " 7ior — nor ' ' for ' ' neither — nor ' '; as, Nor war's wild note nor glory's peal. And the starlight and moonlight. Or trust or doubt give o'er. Our acts our angels are, or good or ill. Il8 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. EXERCISE XXXV. Direction. — In the following passages are found both orders — the rhe- torical and the natural. Transpose the passages in the rhetorical, or poetical, order to the natural, or prose, order, and those in the natural order to the rhetorical.^ 1. Fancy then spread her magical pinion. 2. Gusty and raw was the morning. 3. They were moving slow in weeds of woe. 4. The sun is still shining behind the clouds. 5. Nature's darling was laid in thy green lap. 6. Thou art no boding maid of divine skill. 7. Prepare the rich repast. 8. From every face He wipes off every tear. 9. Far, vague, and dim, the mountains swim. 10. The waves had gone to sleep. 11. The spring greets my senses in vain. 12. Beneath her torn hat glowed the wealth Of simple beauty and rustic health. 13. These delights if thou canst give, Mirth, with thee I mean to hve. 14. O, the root was evil, and the fruit was bitter, and the juice of the vintage that we trod was crimson. 15. Like lions leaping at a fold, when mad with hunger's pang, Right up against the English line the Irish exiles sprang. 16. No more on life's parade shall meet That brave and fallen few. On fame's eternal camping-ground Their silent tents are spread. 17. He goes onward, toiling, rejoicing, sorrowing through life. 18. Their juice is drugged for foreign use. *NoTE. — In transposing poetical passages from the metrical to the prose order, all ellipses should be supplied, and the elements of each sentence should be arranged in natural order. This order may afterwajds be modified in re- spect to the arrangement of the phrases and clauses, so as to make the sen- tence more graceful and harmonious. VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 1 19 19. The only hope of courage dwells in native swords and native ranks. 20. I do not grieve for past pleasures nor for perils gathering near. 21. Flows there a tear of pity for the dead ? 22. Sudden he stops ; his eye is fixed. 23. Here giant weeds a passage scarce allow, To halls deserted, portals gaping wide. 24. Hark ! heard you not those hoofs of dreadful note ? Sounds not the clang of conflict on the heath ? 25. Who wickedly is wise, or madly brave. Is but the more a fool, the more a knave. 26. He falls slowly, and, amidst triumphant cries, he dies without a groan, without a struggle. 27. The swallows sang wild and high from their nests beneath the rafters ; and the world, sleeping beneath me, seemed more distant than the sky. 28. The golden sun poured in a dusty beam through the closed blinds. 29. Long at the scene, bewildered and amazed, The trembling clerks in speechless wonder gazed. 30. Golden and red above it The clouds float gorgeously. 31. Then stirs the feeling infinite, so felt In solitude, when we are least alone. 32. Brunswick's fated chieftain sat within a niche of that high wall. 33. I feel within me a peace above all earthly dignities, a still and quiet conscience. 34. I obtained this freedom with a great sum. 35. And every soul, it passed me by. 36. Him serve with mirth, his praise forth tell. 37. Headlong themselves they threw down from the verge of heaven. 38. That divine messenger comes with a slow and noiseless step. 39. The ancient splendor is vanished, and these mingled shapes and figures wave like a faded tapestry, before my dreamy eyes. 40. Life's goblet is filled to the brim; and though my eyes are dim with tears, I see its sparkling bubbles swim, and chant with slow and solemn voice a melancholy hymn. I20 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. Change of Phraseology. Change of phraseology may be secured : (i) By using words of similar meaning. Thus, '*We rejoice in hxs fidelity'' and, ^'We rejoice in his faithftilness " express substantially the same idea. *' He giveth grace to the ImmbW and, ''He giveth grace to the lowly " do not differ materially in meaning. (2) By denying the contrary of a proposition. Thus, ''It is easy to manage the matter" is equivalent to, "It is not difficult to manage the matter." (3) By euphemism. This change is similar to "denying the contrary," but its special use is to avoid the harshness of a direct state- ment. Euphemism means "soft-speaking." Thus: Direct — He is cowardly. Eiipheniisfn — He could hardly be called a brave man. (4) By circumlocution. This is effected by saying indirectly what might be said directly, or by using several words to express the sense of one; as, "the terrestrial sphere" for "the earth," "night's gentle radiance" for "the moon," and similar expressions. In general, this mode of variation is not advisable, as the statement is likely to lose in force. (5) By recasting the sentence. Frequently, this is the only manner in which variety can be secured. No rule can be given for such recasting; practice alone will enable the writer to express the idea in different forms. The following illustration exemplifies^ this method of variation : VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 121 Statement: Youth is hopeful. Variations, - The young look not anxiously upon the future. The young are full of eager trust. In life's morning we think not of its clouds. Bright-eyed youth sees nothing to dread. Hope is the birthright of the young. 'Tis as natural for young hearts to hope as for roses to blossom in June. Doubt and fear can not daunt the youthful spirit. Though life's pathway is rugged and steep, the feet of the young press bravely on. Keen-edged despair seldom pierces a youthful breast. To the spring-time of life belong the radiant buds of promise. Youth sees no darkness ahead; its open, trustful ey«s look upon the future as a realm of glorious beauty.* EXERCISE XXXVI. Direction. — Vary the phraseology of the following sentences by substitut- ing words of similar meaning for those in italics : 1. The lamb has a gentle disposition. 2. He continued the work without resting, 3. He is free from care. 4. I found that he was an enemy. 5. Law and order are not observed. 6. A pile of dust is all that remains of thee. 7. I began fo thi7ik the whole thing a gross deception, 8. The boy carried the book to my lodgings. 9. I will attend the conference, if I can do it conveniently. * Note. — Each of these eleven sentences conveys the meaning of the orig- inal statement, yet how different are the forms obtained by aid of the art of varying expression. Readiness in changing the form of a statement is of prac- tical importance ; we can never be sure that we have used the best mode of wording a sentence until we have thought of the various ways in which it may be worded. By practice we learn to think promptly of many forms of expres- sion, and to select the best. Rhet.— II. 122 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 10. Among all our bad passions there is a strong and close connec- tion, 1 1 . James deserved reproof far more than John did. 12. This quiet sail is as a noiseless wing to waft me from distrac- tion. 13. She pined in thought. 14. There is no malice in this burning coal. 15. Socrates was one of the greatest sages the world has ever seen. 16. To confess the truth, I was wrong. 17. Make me a cottage in the vale, where I may inourn and pray. 18. See how the morning opes her golden gates. 19. This is the begi?t?iing of civility. 20. 'Tis hard \.o fiJid the right Homer. 21. My traveling companions were ver}^ disagreeable individuals. 22. A person who looked on the waters only for a inoment might fancy that they were retiring.* EXERCISE XXXVII. Direction. — Vary the following by denying the contrary of each proposi- tion : t 1 . Men laugh at the infirmities of others. 2. He that is wise may be profitable unto himself. 3. Cold is Cadwallo's tongue. 4. The robin visits us frequently. 5. They were satisfied with the result. 6. He is without wit. 7. Chastening for the present seems grievous. 8. I shall ever remember the waking next morning. 9. The evil that men do lives after them. 10. He favors our project. 1 1 . This seems probable. *To THE Teacher. — The object of the foregoing exercise is not to exact strict verbal accuracy, but merely to assist the pupil in acquiring a command of language. f Note. — This change may often be effected by the use of a word of op- posite meaning in the predicate. Thus, "Mary is diligent" is equivalent to, "Mary is not idle.'' VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 1 23 12. The flowers smell sweet. 13. Her step was light. 14. Only a small part of Arabia is fertile. 15. I will remain with you. 16. She is disposed to help you. 17. Time is as precious as gold. 18. She is more beautiful than her sister. 19. He is a brave man. 20. A large part of the company were pleased with his remarks. 2 1 . The character of the Patriarch Joseph is the most remarkable and instructive exhibited by the records of Scripture. 22. She who studies her glass neglects her heart. 23. The elegance of her manners is as conspicuous as the beauty of her person. 24. Strong expressions suit only strong feelings. EXERCISE XXXVIII. Direction. — Vary the following by substituting euphemisms for the direct statements : 1 . He is a very dirty fellow. 2. Major Andr^ was hanged, although he earnestly requested that he might be shot. 3. I consider him an impudent puppy. 4. The man was drunk when he uttered the indecent words. 5. He thought the man a scoundrel, and therefore would not pay him the money. 6. A genteel man never uses low language. 7. He eats like a pig. 8. His conceit and incessant gabble render him a great bore. 9. John is too lazy to succeed in any undertaking. 10. It is thought that he came into possession of his great wealth by means of fraud and theft. 11. He was inchned to drink too much. 12. His greediness and stinginess made him an object of contempt. 13. Disaster stared them in the face, for they were led by a hot- headed dolt. 14. He is a vagrant — a disgrace to himself and to his friends. 124 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. EXERCISE XXXIX. Direction, — Vary the following expressions by using circumlocution : The grass is green. Jenny Lind is dead. Men delve for gold. Knowledge is power. Contentment is peace. Her manners are gentle. The moon shines bright. She has disappointed me. Washington was a patriot. The sun gives light and heat. Our school-mates seldom forget us. Victoria sways the English scepter. Palaces and cottages alike must fall. I. Despair not. 14. 2. Fishes swim. 15. 3. Forsake evil. 16. 4. The sun rises. 17. 5. Know thyself. 18. 6. Bread is dear. 19. 7. Life is fleeting. 20. 8. Death is certain. 21. 9- Time is precious. 22. 10. Pity excites love. 23. II. The sky is clear. 24. 12. Man lives by toil. 25. 13- Avarice is a curse. 26. EXERCISE XL. Direction. — Recast each of the following sentences, expressing the sense in as many different ways as possible : I. 2. 3- 4. 5- 6. 7- 8. takes. She resolved to become entirely free. Fortune was still as unkind as ever. The king was thoroughly alarmed at this invasion. These successes did not long continue. We should love our enemies. Many a man sacrifices his life to the acquisition of wealth. The world is still deceived with ornament. Mercy is twice blessed ; it blesseth him that gives, and him that 9. The sumach is staining the hedges with red. 10. One may hide his sorrow beneath a smiling face. 11. Rome, the capital of Italy, is the world's art-center. 12. The heart is not satisfied. 13. Trust thyself. "* 14. He who is honest is noble, whatever his fortunes or birth. VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 125 15. The way-worn traveler longs for rest. 16. The fields are gay with buttercups and clover. 17. P>w persons have the courage of their convictions. 18. Neither man nor angel can discern hypocrisy, the only evil that walks invisible, except to God alone. 19. Our unwise purposes are wisely crossed. 20. As thy day is, so shall thy strength be. 21. Form your taste on the classics, and your principles on the book of all truth. 22. Let the first fruits of your intellect be laid before the altar of Him who breathed into your nostrils the breath of life ; and with that breath your immortal spirit. 23. God's angel, Sleep, with manifold Soft touches, smoothing brows of care, Dwells not beyond the gates of gold, Because no night is there. 24. Time hath, my lord, a wallet at his back, Wherein he puts alms for oblivion. 25. Out of the earthly years we live, How small a profit springs ! EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. REPRODUCTION X. AN INCIDENT OF THE FIRE AT HAMBURG. The tower of old Saint Nicholas soared upward to the skies, Like some huge piece of Nature's make, the growth of centuries; You could not deem its crowding spires a work of human art, They seemed to struggle lightward from a sturdy living heart. Not Nature's self more freely speaks in crystal or in oak. Than, through the pious builder's hand, in that gray pile she spoke; And as from acorn springs the oak, so, freely and alone. Sprang from his heart this hymn to God, sung in obedient stone. 126 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. It seemed a wondrous freak of chance, so perfect, yet so rough, A whim of Nature crystallized slowly in granite tough ; The thick spires yearned towards the sky in quaint, harmonious lines, And in broad sunlight basked and slept, like a grove of blasted pines. Never did rock or stream or tree lay claim with better right To all the adorning sympathies of shadow and of light ; And, in that forest petrified, as forester there dwells Stout Herman, the old sacristan, sole lord of all its bells. Surge leaping after surge, the fire roared onward red as blood, Till half of Hamburg lay engulfed beneath the eddying flood ; For miles away the fiery spray poured down its deadly rain. And back and forth the billows sucked, and paused, and burst again. From square to square with tiger leaps panted the lustful fire ; The air to leeward shuddered with the gasps of its desire ; And church and palace, which even now stood whelmed but to the knee, Lift their black roofs like breakers lone amid the whirling sea. Up in his tower old Herman sat and watched with quiet look; His soul had trusted God too long to be at last forsook ; He could not fear, for surely God a pathway would unfold Through this red sea for faithful hearts, as once he did of old. But scarcely can he cross himself, or on his good saint call, Before the sacrilegious flood o'erleaped the church-yard wall ; And, ere a pater half was said, mid smoke and crackling glare, His island tower scarce juts its head above the wide despair. Upon the peril's desperate peak his heart stood up sublime ; His first thought was for God above, his next was for his chime ; " Sing now and make your voices heard in hymns of praise," cried he, "As did the Israelites of old, safe walking through the sea! "Through this red sea our God hath made the pathway safe to shore; Our promised land stands full in sight; shout now as ne'er before!" And as the tower came crushing down, the bells, in clear accord. Pealed forth the grand old German hymn, — "All good souls, praise the Lord!" J. R. Lowell. 127 VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. REPRODUCTION XL PRAYING FOR RAIN. How difficult, alas ! to please mankind ! One or the other every moment mutters : This wants an eastern, that a western, wind : A third, petition for a southern, utters. Some pray for rain, and some for frost and snow: How can Heaven suit all palates ? — I don't know. Good Lamb, the curate, much approved. Indeed, by all his flock beloved. Was one dry summer begged to pray for rain. The parson most devoutly prayed — The powers of prayer were soon displayed ; Immediately a torrent drenched the plain. It chanced that the church-warden, Robin Jay, Had of his meadow not yet saved the hay : Thus was his hay to health quite past restoring. It happened, too, that Robin was from home; But when he heard the story, in a foam He sought the parson, like a lion roaring. "Zounds! Parson Lamb, why, what have you been doing? A pretty storm, indeed, ye have been brewing ! What ! pray for rain before I saved my hay ? Oh ! you 're a cruel and ungrateful man ! I that forever help you all I can ; Ask you to dine with me and Mistress Jay, Whenever we have something on the spit. Or in the pot a nice and dainty bit ; " Send you a goose, a pair bf chicken. Whose bones you are so fond of picking ; And often, too, a cag of brandy ! You that were welcome to a treat. To smoke and chat, and drink and eat ; Making my house so very handy ! " 128 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. •X- ^-x- -jf * * -je ^ " Dear Mister Jay ! " quoth Lamb, " alas ! alas ! 1 never thought upon your field of grass." "Lord! parson, you're a fool, one might suppose — Was not the field just underneath your nosef This is a very pretty losing job ! " — "Sir," quoth the curate, "know that Harry Cobb, Your brother warden, joined to have the prayer." "Cobb! Cobb! why, this for Cobb was only sport: What doth Cobb own that any rain can hurt?" Roared furious Jay as broad as he could stare. " Besides — why could you not for drizzle pray? Why force it down in buckets on the hay ? Would I have played with your hay such a freak ? No ! I 'd have stopped the weather for a week." " Dear Mister Jay, I do protest, I acted solely for the best ; I do affirm it, Mr. Jay, indeed. Your anger for this once restrain, I '11 never bring a drop again Till you and all the parish are agreed.'' Peter Pindar. DE VEL OPMENT IX. LOST. Without a hat upon his head, Or shoes upon his tired feet, Poor little Dick had roamed along The miles of hot and dusty street. Where was his home ? He could not say ; His mother ? She was far away. A kind pohceman picked him up. And held him in his strong right arm, And there the wandering little boy Was snugly kept from every harm. "Come, little man, you'll go with me; I '11 find out where you ought to be." VARIETY OF EXPRESSION, But first, a, biscuit, large and sweet, Was placed within his fingers small, And, oh ! it was a perfect treat ! Poor little Dick, he ate it all, And wished, no doubt, that every day A treat so good would come his way. And did he ever reach his home ? And was he welcomed there with joy? Alas, that I should have to tell That none had missed the little boy. Poor little Dick ! he had no one To care for him beneath the sun I DE VEL OPMENT X, Four bluish eggs all in the moss ! Soft-lined home on the cherry bough ! Life is trouble, and love is loss — There 's only one robin now. 129 D. B. T. B. Aldrich. DE VEL OPMENT XL YUSSOUF. A STRANGER Came one night to Yussouf 's tent Saying, "Behold one outcast and in dread, Against whose life the bow of power is bent. Who flies, and hath not where to lay his head ; I come to thee for shelter and for food, To Yussouf, called through all our tribes 'The Good.' '* "This tent is mine,'* said* Yussouf, "but no more Than it is God's; come in, and be at peace; Freely shalt thou partake of all my store,^ As I of His who buildeth over these Our tents His glorious roof of night and day, And at whose door none ever yet heard Nay." 130 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. So Yussouf entertained his guest 4:hat night, And, waking him ere day, said: " Here is gold; My swiftest horse is saddled for thy flight ; Depart before the prying day grow bold." As one lamp lights another, nor grows less, So nobleness enkindleth nobleness. That inward light the stranger's face made grand, Which shines from all self-conqwest ; kneeling low, He bowed his forehead upon Yussouf 's hand. Sobbing: "O Sheik, I can not leave thee so; I will repay thee ; all this thou hast done Unto that Ibrahim who slew thy son ! " "Take thrice the gold," said Yussouf, "for with thee Into the desert, never to return. My one black thought shall ride away from me. First-born, for whom by day and night I yearn, Balanced and just are all of God's decrees; Thou art avenged, my first-born, sleep in peace !" J. R. Lowell. DEVELOPMENT XII. Direction. — Write a story from the following heads, supplying whatever is needed to preserve the connection, and to sustain the interest: THE STORY OF GRUMBLE TONE. He was sick of land. He ran away to sea. Into foreign lands he wandered. There were wondrous sights. He dined in courts with kings and fair ladies. Naught pleased him. Over the wide world he wandered. His hair grew white as snow. He still found only discontent. ** He took his disposition everywhere he went. VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. I3I SUBJECTS FOR STORY. Direction. — Write short stories from the following heads: 1. The Snow Man. 2. Dollie's Education. 3. Our Cooking Club. 4. The Cricket's Song. 5. The Story of a Wolf. 6. Miss Butterfly's Party. 7. The Way to Fairyland. 8. Mrs. Simpson's Poodle. 9. A Day in the Hayfield. 10. The Three Little Fishes. * 11. The Story of a Lost Dog. 12. The Dance of the Leaves. 13. The Crow and the Scarecrow. 14. The Voyage of a Paper Canoe. 15. The Flight of John's New Kite. 16. How Madge Learned to Skate. 17. The Three Boys of Marshtown. 18. Ellen's Hunt for her Lost Kitten. 19. The Complaint of the Foot-ball. 20. The History of my Work-basket. 2 1 . The Experience of a Silver Dollar. 22. My Visit to the Children's Hospital. CHAPTER VIII. STYLE. Style is that part of Rhetoric which treats of the modes of expressing thought in language, whether oral or written. It depends partly on the nature and importance of the sub- ject, but chiefly on the character and disposition of the w^ter. It reveals how one thinks as well as what one thinks^ The word ''style" comes from the Latin stylus^ a small pointed instrument used by the Romans for writing on waxen tablets. The stylus was to the Roman writer what the pen is to us, and became, by an easy metaphor, the means of ex- pressing any one's method of composition, just as we now, by like metaphor, speak of a gifted pen, a ready pen, mean- ing thereby a gifted or ready author. A close attention to style is of the utmost importance. All know that the reception of a truth is owing, not wholly to the truth itself, but partly to the manner in which it is presented. The same facts which, when stated by one, gain the understanding and affections, will, as shown by another, produce weariness and disgust. To give our thoughts their full and just expression is not an easy task ; it demands care and perseverance. The greatest masters of style have composed slowly and labo»- riously. No work, however, takes a permanent place in literature that is not distinguished for the perfection of its style as well as for the solidity of its thought. y (132) STYLE. 133 The excellence of the style of any piece of writing de- pends primarily upon two things : (i) Upon the choice of words. (2) Upon the construction of the sentences, ^he first requisite, namely, the choice of words, is treated under the head of Diction. Diction. / Diction is that property of style which has reference to Vthe words and phrases used by a writer or speaker. /^ Words at best are only imperfect representations of our Xjioughts, in general expressing too little or too much. Therefore, * * A man that seeketh precise truth had need to remember what every name he useth stands for, and to place it accordingly ; or else he will find himself entangled in words as a bird in lime-twigs ; the more he struggles, the more belimed." — Hobbes. The secret of literary power is chiefly the art of putting the right word in the right place ; hence, it is important that a writer or speaker should have a great number of words at his command, and that he should have such a knowledge of the precise meaning of each as to be able in all cases to select just that word which expresses most per- fectly the idea intended. As a means towards acquiring such knowledge, it is well to carry out the following sug- gestions : / I . Always note a new word, with a view to ascertaining its Vprecise meaning and use. 2. Make constant use of a dictionary. It is the practice of jmany great scholars never to allow a word to pass with- 134 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. out an examination, if there is the least doubt about its origin, pronunciation, meaning, or spelli-ng. / 3. Study etymology. It is useful to trace out the origin, composition, and primary meaning of wqrds^ It should not be forgotten, however, that many words do not now mean what they once did, or what their derivation would seem to imply. The etymology of ** prevent" signifies to go before. In this sense it was once actually used; as, *'I preveyited the dawning of the morning." — Ps, 1 19. **Your xn^sstng^r preverited mine but an hour." — Bishop Taylor. The accepted meaning of the word at the present time is to hinder. *' Resent" means etymologically to reciprocate or re- spond to any kind of feeling, good or bad. It once had this meaning. Three centuries ago a man could speak of resenting a benefit, as well as resenting an injury. The use of later times restricts the word to the single meaning; /ence ** resent" is now to take ill. 4. Seek good society. There is great advantage to be derived from a frequent association with intelligent and cultivated persons. One who has this advantage will ac- quire a good vocabulary without great effort. / 5. Read the best books carefully. Observe the selection * and combination of words as illustrated by the best au- thors, if you would be profited by formal rhetorical rules. You must not, however, imitate your author in a slavish spirit. / The words of any composition should be pure, appro- / priate, precise, and simple. We shall, therefore, consider I separately, (i) Purity, (2) Propriety, (3) Precision, and \ (4) Simplicity. STYLE. 135 Purity. — A word is said to be pure when it belongs to the language as it is at present used by the best writers and speakers. \ Campbell defines good usage to be : (i) Reputable, or the practice of intelligent and educated writers ; (2) National, as opposed to provincial and foreign ; (3) Present, or the usage of the generation in which one lives. A violation of purity is called a Barbarism. To avoid such the following rules are given : _j^_^SLVX>id obsolete words, or such as were once in good use, but have ceased to be employed by the best writers. Language, like everything else in the world, is subject to change. Some words go out of fashion; some alter their meaning ; some grow less in value ; some rise in im- portance; while here and there one wakes up from a long sleep to bear again its burden of thought. There is little probability that an obsolete expression will be used except by deliberate intention ; to use it willfully in ordinary prose is affectation. It is allowable, however, where the writer, as in a historical novel, wishes to suggest antiquity, — to characterize the time in which the scene is laid. Within moderate limits it is also allowable in poetry: I wis in all the Senate There was no heart so bold. — Macaulay, Whilom in Albion's isle there dwelt a youth Who ne in virtue's ways did take delight ; Ah, me! in sooth he was«a shameless wight, Childe Harold was he hight. — Byro7i. But come, thou goddess fair and free, In heaven ycleped Euphrosyne. — Milton, 136 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. We should also avoid obsolescent words; that is, such words as are gradually vanishing from the vocabulary of the most polished writers. Among them we find betwixt^ amongst, frowa7'd, Jiearken, whilst, peradventure, trow, quoth, etc. No effort should be made to retain them, for their disuse implies their uselessness. 2. Avoid neAvly-coined words, or such words as have not*Tt!Leivcd the s^nctioTnof good writers. A word is not, however, to be rejected simply because it is new, for some of the best words in the language have been recently in- troduced. Learning, invention, discovery, art, fashion, popular commotions, foreign intercourse, the progress of thought, have brought to the English language accessions of beauty and strength in every age from Chaucer to the present. So long as the language has life this proceSs must continue. But the best course for the young writer or speaker, striving after purity of style, is to shun newly- coined words. He may, indeed, have occasion to speak of a new invention or a new idea, for which there is no word but that originating with the invention or idea itself; but in all ordinary cases the safe plan is to select only well-known and fully sanctioned words. Quintilian says, ''Prefer the oldest of the new and the newest of the old." The same idea is expressed in rhyme: In words, as fashions, die same rule will hold, Alike fantastic if too new or old : Be not the first by whom the new are tried. Nor yet the last to lay the old aside. — Pope. 3. Avoi d^lLforeign words. — This includes words from both the ancient and modern languages. Nothing is more indicative of affectation and pedantry than a free use of Latin, Italian, and French expressions. A writer whose STYLE. 137 heroes are always marked by an air distingue, whose vile men are sure to be blase, whose lady friends dance a mer- veille, and who himself, when lolling on the sofa, luxuri- ates in the dolce far niente, and wonders when he will begin his magnum opus, may possibly have a slight ac- quaintance with the foreign languages with which he has attempted to vary his discourse, but it is evident that his stock of good English words is small. The late poet and journalist Bryant used to say that he never felt the temptation to use a foreign word without being able to find in English a word that expressed his meaning with more exactness and felicity. There are, however, certain words borrowed from other languages that have become so thoroughly incorporated into our language that they are properly regarded as En- glish words. The use of such words is not a violation of* purity. For example, such words as ignoi'amus, omnibtis, quorum, and paradise, though foreign, are familiar to ordi- nary readers. They also express the meaning more pre- cisely than any translation could do; hence there would be more pedantry in translating them than in using them in the form with which the public is already familiar. 4. 7, for make; as, **Try the experiment." 17. Deceiving, for trying to deceive. For example, a person says to another, ** You are deceiving me," when he means exactly the opposite ; namely, ' ' You are trying to deceive me." 18. Either, neither, and both are applicable only to two objects. "Either of the three" should be, *' Any one of the three." 19. Seldom or ever is a common vulgarism. Say, *' Sel- dom, if ever." * 20. Banister, for baluster or balustrade. Banister is a corruption of baluster. 21. Illy, for ill. There is no such word as illy. Ill is the noun, adjective, and adverb. 22. Least, for less; as, **Of two evils, choose the least." Less is the comparative degree o{ little ; least, the superla- tive. When two things are compared, the comparative is used ; when more than two, the superlative. 23. From thence, from whence, for thence or whence. As the adverbs thence and whence literally supply the place of a noun and preposition, there is a solecism in employing a preposition in conjunction with them. 24. No, for not; as, ''Whether I am there or no. " As an adjective ''no" is an abbreviation of "none"; as an ad- verb, of "not." Hence the phrase "whether or no" is appropriate only when there is a suppressed noun ; ' ' whether * While there is authority for " seldom or never," we find the terms inconsist- ent: seldom means happening rarely, never occurring at no time, either past or present. Hence, "Seldom or never has an English word two full accents," would doubtless be better rendered, "Seldom, if ever," etc. 144 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. or not" is the proper phrase, if it is a verb that is sup- pressed. 25. A confirmed invalid. A person, weak and infirm, is an invalid; whatever is made firm, or is strengthened, established, or rendered certain, is confirmed. Hence, we have here a contradiction in terms. How can a man be a coftfirmed, or strengthened, invalid? 26. Such, for so; as, ''I never saw such a high spire.'* This means, * * I never saw a high spire of such a form or of such architecture"; whereas the speaker, in all probability, means only that he never saw so high a spire. » 27. Hoiv, for that. *'I have heard how some critics have been pacified with claret and a supper." How is an adverb, and can not be used as a conjunction. Older writers frequently followed it by thaty but this practice is no longer in good use; as, ''Knowing how that part of the South Sea was utterly unknown." — Bacon. 28. Directly y for as soon as. ''Directly he came, we started home. " Directly, in the sense of as soon as, has not the sanction of careful writers; it must be regarded as a gross solecism. 29. Equally as well, for equally well ; as, " It will do equally as well." Equally, an adverb of degree, should modify well ; hence there is a solecism in joining them by the conjunction. 30. All of them. As the etymology of the preposition of shows its primary meaning to be from, or out from, it can not be correct to say all of them. We may say, ' ' Take one of them," or, "Take two of them," or, "Take them all"; but the phrase we are criticising is wholly unjustifia- ble. 31. Quantity, for number; as, "A quantity of books." We may use quantity in speaking of a collection or mass; STYLE. 145 but in speaking of individual objects, we must use the word number. *'A quantity of meat'* or, ''A quantity of iron" is good English, but not, ''A quantity of bank-notes/' We may say, ''A quantity of wood," but we should say, ''A number of sticks." 32. Whole, for all. Whole refers to the component parts of a single body ; and is, therefore, singular in mean- ing. ^ ' The whole Russians are inspired with the belief that their mission is to conquer the world." This can only mean that those Russians who are entire, — who have not lost a leg, an arm, or some other part of the body, — are inspired with the belief of which he speaks. 33. Stopping, for staying. ''The Hon. John Jones is stopping at the Gait House." In reading such a statement as this, we are tempted to ask. When will Hon. J. Jones stop stopping ? A man may stop many times at a place, or on a journey, but he can not continue stopping. One may stop at a hotel without becoming a guest. 34. Indices, for indexes. ''We have examined our in- dices." Ltdices are algebraic signs; tables of contents are i7tdexes. 35. Refidition, for rendering; as, "Mr. Barrett's rendi- tion of Hamlet was admirable. " Rendition means surrender, giving up, relinquishing to another, as when we speak of the rendition of a beleaguered town to the besieger, or of a pledge upon the satisfaction of a debt. 36. Condign. " He does not deserve the condign pun- ishment he has received." As the meaning of condign is that which is deserved, we have here a contradiction in terms, the statement being equivalent to this: "He does not de- serve the deserved punishment he has received." 37. Folks, for folk. K'^ folk impHes plurality, the "s" is needless. Rhet.— 13. 146 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 38. Older, for elder. Oldei' is properly applied to objects, animate and inanimate ; elde7\ to rational beings. 39. Overfloivn, for overflowed ; as, '' The river has over- flown its banks.'* Flowed is the past participle of **to flow";/^^;^, of ^*to fly." 40. Accord, for grant. ''He accorded them {or, to them), all they asked for." To accoi'd with, means properly to agree or to suit; as, ** He accorded with my views." 41. y^/w^^/, as an adjective ; as, '' The almost universality of opinion." We might properly say, *'The opinion is almost universal. " 42. Mutual, for common, or reciprocal. Mutual means an interchange between two at the same time ; reciprocal. existing in one by way of return to something previously done by another ; conwiou, belonging to all in common. Hence, we may speak of a mutual desire, reciprocal re- proaches, common country. Dean Alford justly protests against the stereotyped vulgarism, **a mutual friend." Mutual is applicable to sentiments and acts, but not to persons. Two friends may have a mutual love, but for either to speak of a third person as being ''their mutual friend," is absurd. The expression should be, '* their com- mon friend." 43. Nice. One of the most offensive barbarisms now prevalent is the use of this pet word to express almost every kind of approbation, and almost every quality. Nice im- plies a union of deHcacy and exactness. In nice food, cook- ery, taste, etc. , delicacy predominates ; in nice discrimina- tion, management, workmanship, etc., exactness predomi- nates. Lately, however, a new sense has been introduced which excludes them both ; this new sense is pleasing, and it is a common thing to hear of "A nice girl," "A nice excursion," ''A nice book." Of the vulgarity of such ex- STYLE. 147 pressions as ''A nice man" (meaning a good or pleasing man), **A nice day," ''A nice party," etc., there can be no question. Archdeacon Hare stigmatizes the word nice a ** characterless domino. " 44. Looks beautifully. The error arises from confound- ing look in the sense of to direct the eye, and look in the sense of to seem, to appear. In English, many verbs take an adjective with them to form the predicate ; as, '' He fell ill "; '' He feels cold "; ** Her smiles amid the blushes love- lier show." No cultivated person would say, '*She is beau- tifully," or, ''She seems beautifully," yet these phrases are no more improper than, ' ' She looks beautifully. " We qual- ify what a person docs by an adverb ; what a person is, or seems to be, by an adjective ; as, * ' She looks coldly on him"; '' She looks cold. " 45. Myself, for I ; as, ''Mrs. Smith and myself will be happy to dine with you "; " Prof. W. and myself have ex- amined the work." The proper use of myself ox tliyself is either as a reflexive pronoun, or for the sake of distinction and emphasis; as, These are thy glorious works, Parent of good, Almighty ! Thine this universal frame. Thus wondrous fair; thyself how wondrous then. — Milton. 46. Previous, for previously ; as, " This occurred previous to my leaving Europe." To describe whatever goes before in time, we use the adjective previous; as, "Sound from the mountain, previous to the storm, rolls o'er the mutter- ing earth." — Thomson. To express the time of an occur- rence, we use the didw^rh previously ; as, "A plan previously formed." 47. Try and, for try to; as, "Try and do it." ''Try to learn, " ' ' Try to lift a weight, " " The horses tried to draw the load, " are instances of correct usage. Try is followed by and 148 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. only when the conjunction occurs between root-fo7ins. Thus, in the sentence, *'If I try and fifid it, I shall be amply re- paid," both try dind find are equally contingent as regards the principal verb. 48. Restive, for uneasy or restless; as, *'A restive horse." A restive horse is one that balks ; but horses that are rest- less or frisky are frequently called restive. The following is an example of its correct use : * * The beasts which were to drag him to the gallows became restive, and went back." — Macatday. 49. Allude, for refer. To allude means to hint at in an indirect way. 50. Balance, for remainder; as, *'The balance of the people went home." Webster says: **To transfer the word 'balance' to the general concerns of hfe, and speak of ' the balance of the week, ' * the balance of the evening, ' etc., meaning remainder, is a gross vulgarism, to be avoided by every one who does not mean to * smell of the shop.' " 5 1 . Calcidate, for design or intend, or as an equivalent to likely, apt; as, *' Sensational newspapers are calculated to injure the morals of the young." They are not calculated to do so ; but they are certainly likely to do so. Calculate means to compute, to reckon, to work out by figures; hence, the essential thought expressed by it is the careful adjustment of means to an end. Thus, ' ' Religion is calculated for our benefit." — Tillotson, 52. Couple, for two; as, ''He gave me a couple of peaches." A couple means properly two that are coupled, 53. Demean, for debase ; as, "I would not demean myself by doing so." To demean is to behave in any way, and has no connection with the term mea^i, 54. Emblem, for motto, sentiment, or^ meaning; gener- ally applied to flowers. "The emblem of this flower is STYLE. 149 'modesty.'" In this case the flower itself is the emblem: *' modesty" is the meaning ^w^n to it. 5 5 . Expect, for suppose, or think ; as, * * I expect you had a pretty hard time of it yesterday." Expect refers only to that which is to come. 56. hiaugurate, for begin or set up. To inaugurate is to induct into office with solemn ceremonies; thus we speak of the President's being inaugurated. But we can not in- augurate a thing. 57. Name, for mention; as, *'I never named the matter to any one." Name is properly used in the sense of ''giv- ing a name to," ''mentioning by name," or ''designating for any purpose by name"; but to use it interchangeably with "mention" is without authority. Be careful in the use of prepositions, conjunctions, and other particles. When prepositions follow nouns, verbs, or ad- jectives, select those which usage has sanctioned. The fol- lowing list from Angus' Ha7td-Book of the English Language will be of use for reference : Accord with (neuter). Accord to (active). Accuse ^ crime, by one's friend. Acquit persons of. Affinity to or between. Adapted to a thing ox for a purpose. Agreeable to. Agree with persons, to things, among ourselves. Amuse with, at, in. Angry with (a person), at (a thing). Anxious y2?r, about, sometimes on. Attend to (listen). Attend upon (wait). Averse to, when describing feel- ing, from when describing an act or state. Bestow upon. Boast of. Call on. Change y^r. Confer on (give), with (converse). Confide in, when intransitive; when transitive, confide it to. Conformable to ; so the verb and adverb. Compliance with. Consonant to, sometimes with. Correspond with (by letter), to (similar things). ISO COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. Dependent on, upon. Derogate from. Derogatory to a person or thing. Die of ox by. T>\^^r from. Difference with a person. Difference betweett things. Difficulty in. Diminution of Disappointed of what we do not get; and /;/ it when we get it and it fails to answer our ex- pectations. Disapprove of. Discouragement to. Dissent yr\s\\ng\i\s\iQdfor,fro7n, sometimes by. Eager in. Entertain by (a person), with (a thing). Exception is taken to statements ; sometimes against; the verb has sometimes from. Expert at or in. Fall M7ider, YxQQfrom. Frightened at. Glad ^something gained, and of or at what befalls another. Convenient to or for. Conversant with persons; in af- fairs ; about subjects. Martyr yi?r a cause, to a disease. Marry to. Need of Notice of. Observance of Prejudicial to. Prejudice agaifist. Profit by. Provide /^r, with, against. Recreant to, from. Reconcile to. Replete with. Resemblance fo^ Resolve on. Respect /^r, to. Grieve at, for. Independent of. Insist tip 071. Made of,for,fro7n, with. Reduce to a state; 2/;/^^r subjection. Regard y^r or to. Smile at, upon. Swerveyr^w. Taste ^what is actually enjoyed, for what we have the capacity of enjoying. Think ^or on. Thirst y^r, after. True of (predicable). True to (faithful). Wait on (serve), at (a place), for (await). Worthy of Many expressions have become so fixed that a change would violate propriety. Bain mentions the following: Use or e7nploy means. Take steps. Acquire knowledge. Take degrees. Contract habits. Lay up treasures. Obtain rewards. Win prizes. Gain celebrity. Arrive at honors. Conduct affairs. Espouse 2l side. Interpose authority. STYLE. 1 5 I Pursue a course. Turn to account. Serve for a warning. Bear maUce. Profess principles. Cultivate acquaintance. Pass over in silence. EXERCISE XLII. Direction. — Substitute appropriate expressions for the italicized words: 1 . They never swerved i7t their allegiance to him. 2. Favors are not always bestowed to the most deserving. 3. A strong young woman was employed to attend to the baby. 4. She was disappointed in not obtaining a reward. 5. He is conversant with the most intricate affairs of state. 6. He spoke most contejnptibly of his assistant. 7. James sings like Charles does. 8. Congratulate to themselves. 9. That variety of faction into which we are still engaged . 10. Nevertheless, it is open, I expect y to serious question. 11. The Irish are perpetually using "shall" for "will." 12. The rains rendered the roads impracticable. 13. Perhaps some people are quite indifferent whether or no it is said that they sip their coffee out of a jar. 14. The greatest masters of critical learning differ among one another. 15. The emblem of the lily is purity. 16. \{^ predicated his action on a misconception of my meaning. 17. Macaulay speaks of an observation of the Sabbath. 18. I thus obtained a character for natural powers of reasoning. 19. I have no doubt but that the pistol is a relic of the buccaneers. 20. Hast thou walked in the world with such little observance as to wonder that men are not what they seem ? 21. A society for the prevention of cruelty to animals has been in- augurated. 22. Triplet disbarrassed Yi^r of a thick mantle and a hood that con- cealed her features. 152 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 23. He looked wretchedly. 24. She feels badly. 25. I doubt his lady could demean herself so low as to accept me. 26. He is resolved of going to the Persian court. 27. He has a good record, I am told, and preaches to acceptance. 28. I have a couple of dollars. 29. He accorded me the privilege. 30. The balajtce of the night was spent in finding a hiding-place. 31. Herschel discovered the telescope. 32. Observe me, Sir Anthony, I would by no means wish a daugh- ter of mine to be a progeny of learning. 33. They stand upon security, and will not liberate him until it be obtained. 34. The children work hard to gain rewards. 35. In their perplexity, they knew not what course to follow. 36. James inserts his authority without due reflection. 37. He owns principles that are opposed to such a line of action. 38. H. D. Osgood has won the honor of representing his country at the court of Austria. Precision. — Precision (from the Latin prcecidere, to cut off, ) is "that property of diction which requires the use of such words as cut off all that we do not mean to express. If, for example, we wish to say, *' He has sufficient vaontyy'' but say instead, ** He has enough money," we express more than we intend. Sufficient means what one actually needs ; enough, what one desires. When one has money to supply all his needs, he has sufficient ; he has enough only when his desires are satisfied. The precise writer chooses words that express what he means to say without any addition or . diminution. / Discourse may lack precision ( i ) Through the use of equiv- 1 ocal terms ; (2) Through the confounding of synonyms. ^^Equivocal terms. — These are words and phrases that admit of being understood in a sense different from that in which the writer applies them.X They are found in every STYLE. 153 part of speech. Thus, 'Mid" is used equivocally in this sentence: *'He admired nothing except what you did." To those who are ignorant of the facts, this might mean, **He admired nothing except your doings or actions," or, *' He admired nothing except what you admired." There are few words in our language which have only one meaning. Some are used in many different senses, and the meaning intended by the writer must be inferred from the connection. There is usually no difficulty in this when the word is used in the same sense throughout a sentence, and in sentences near one another. Obscurity arises, how- ever, if the same word has two different meanings in the same sentence. Synonymous Words. — In the second place, precision is violated by the faulty use of synonymous wo rds. \ As, by the changes of language, the same word is brought to des- ignate different things, so different words are brought to designate the same thing, or nearly the ^me) No two words are the exact equivalents of each other, though it may answer practical purposes to use them as such. * ' Syn- onym" is commonly apphed, therefore, to words not iden- tical, but similar, in meaning ; generically so alike as to be liable to be confounded, yet specifically so different as to require to be distinguished. Thus ''hasten" and "hurry" both imply a quick movement, but "hurry" always adds the idea of excitement or irregularity, while "hasten" con- veys only the notion of rapid movement. The English language, more than any other, has words that are truly synonymous, and this on account of its com- posite character. In many cases we have two sets of de- rivatives, one set from the Latin, the other set from the Anglo-Saxon, which are nearly parallel in meaning; as. 154 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. SAXON. LATIN. motherly = maternal brotherly = fraternal hide = conceal teach = instruct It will generally be found that the Saxon expression is the better understood, and therefore the stronger. Saxon words belong to the mother element of the English tongue ; they name the things known to our ancestors ; they denote the qualities, acts, states, and relations of these things. Thus they are our household words, and are better under- stood by all, even by the educated ; for this reason, it is a good general rule to prefer Saxon terms to Latin. They will not always serve as well as words of Latin origin, but in most cases they will serve much better. Prefer them where you would express yourself with great simplicity, directness, and force. Accuracy in the use of words can not be acquired in a few easy lessons. But get into the habit of thinking about the words you employ, and this habit will gradually bring about correctness in the use of language. The following examples, adapted from Smith's Synonyms Discriminated^ will illustrate the different shades of meaning between words nearly synonymous: Allow [Fr. or Lat.]; Admit [Lat.]. — These terms are here compared only in regard to matters of speculation and argument. Allow is negative, while Admit is positive. I admit what I can not deny. I allow what in fairness ought to be granted. Logical necessity compels me to admit. Argumentative honesty requires that I should allow. Ad- mit denotes what is due to the case ; Allow, what is due to him who argues, as a claira. STYLE. I 5 5 Allow — Permit [Lat.]. — To Pei'init is used in a passive, while Allow has a more active, sense. If I allow him, I give him at least some degree of sanction, however small ; if I permit, I only do not prevent him. But in matters not of the will of individuals only, but of formal or public sanc- tion, Permit is a stronger term than Allow. In this con- nection the case is reversed. If the law permit me to do something, it sanctions my doing it. Allow supposes the thing allowed to be good ; Permit, that it may be good or bad. Animal [Lat.]; Brute [Lat. bnituSy irrational]; Beast [Lat. bestia\. — Animal comprehends every creature en- dowed with that life which is superior to the merely vege- table life of plants, and therefore includes man. It is some- times, however, made to express distinctively other animals than man. In that case we have to suppose a further distinc- tion drawn between the rational and irrational animal life. Brute and Beast stand related each in its own way to man. Bnite is the animal regarded in reference to the ab- sence of that intelligence which man possesses ; Beast y (ex- cept where the word is used in the sense of cattle) in refer- ence to that savage nature of which man is or ought to be devoid. The indolent, senseless, and violent brute; the cruel, savage, vile, or filthy beast. Hence, while the term animal is applicable to insects, neither brute nor beast is so, being insusceptible of moral comparison with man. In ap- plying the terms figuratively to the character and disposi- tion of men. Animal denotes one who follows the instincts and propensities of his lower nature to the neglect of moral restraints and intellectual sympathies ; Beast, one who grov- els in sensuality ; Bnitey one whose nature seems deadened to finer feeling. 156 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. Ask [A. S.]; Request [Lat.]; Beg [O. E. or A. S.]; Beseech [O. E.]; Supplicate [Lat.]; Entreat [O. Fr.]; Implore [Lat.]. — To Ask is to seek to obtain by words. But the character of the words may vary from the humblest entreaty to a demand. Its further sense of obtaining in- formation by words of inquiry is not here considered. It is the simplest and broadest term for making a request. It implies no particular sort of relationship, as of superiority or inferiority between parties. The master asks the servant, and the servant asks the master to do a thing. It is the or- dinary form for expressing ordinary requirements. Request is a more polite word for the same thing. Never- theless, it is sometimes used with an implied sense of au- thority, amounting virtually to a command. Request is not a strong term, carrying with it neither urgency of want nor vehemency of words. To Beg is more earnest; and, except when used in a kind of irony, is the act of an equal or an inferior, as re- quest may be of an equal or a superior. To beg is not a term of marked character. We may beg boldly or timidly, but in any case some degree of dependence is involved. The term is a useful one when the speaker wishes to com- bine impressiveness of entreaty with deference or respect. Neither ask, request, nor beg is so strong as Beseech, To Beseech and to Entreat are much the same, but be- seech belongs more to feeling ; entreat, to argument. We entreat an equal by what he knows, feels, or understands ; we beseech a superior by his goodness or his greatness. There is a condescension when we entreat an inferior, as a father may entreat a son to be more diligent for his own sake. This is to urge on grounds of affection and argu- ment combined. -:.— To Supplicate and to Implore both imply extreme distress STYLE. IS7 and earnestness ; but we may implore equals, we supplicate only superiors ; for supplication denotes abject humility, as in a slave, or an offender, supplicating for pardon. We commonly beseech on the ground of personal influence, as in the phrase, ''I beseech you for my sake." In imploring we strive to move the feelings, as of pity, sympathy, or com- passion. Burial [A. S.]; Interment [Fr. Interrement — Lat. in^ and term, the earth]. Burial is simply the covering of one thing over with others, so as to conceal it from view; as, to bury one's face in one's hands. As used in the above connection, the burial of a body is the laying of it sufficiently deep in the earth to conceal it from view. We can even speak of a burial^at sea. So characteristic is the idea of concealment in the term Bury, that in a secondary sense it is employed in reference to many things of which circumstances combine to prevent the exhibition. A man fitted to adorn society or to be eminently useful to it, is often buried in some remote and obscure locality, beyond which his name is not heard. Interment is a more dignified and polite word than burial, but by its etymology more restricted in meaning, and de- noting any formal and ceremonial or decent placing of the body under ground. We might say, *^ Buried like a dog," but we should be more likely to say, ' ^ Reverently and even sumptuously interred. " Interment involves the idea of earth or soil, not so burial. It is remarkable how the word Inter has in English literature been confined to the burial of the dead. Calumny [Lat.] ; Defamation [Lat.] ; Slander [O. Fr.] ; Libel [Lat.]. — Calumny is that evil speaking which is based in any degree on what the speaker knows to be false, whether 158 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. it be a crime or an offence. The calumniator is both a forger and a propagator of evil report against another, and aims at doing him an injury. For calumny will sear Virtue itself. — Shakespeare. Defamation is essentially public; it is the spreading far and wide of what is injurious to the reputation of persons. Slander differs from defamation in being not only public, but also secret and underhanded. The slanderer is not so inventive as the calumniator. Libel is a written slander of defamation. Originally a libel was a document. So the phrase of the present ver- sion of the Scriptures, ** A writing of divorcement," stood in Wycliffe's version^ ** A libel of forsaking. " It is now any kind of published defamation, whether in print, by pictures, or any other such representation. Defend [Lat.]; Protect [Lat.]. — Defend implies an active repelling of some adverse influence or power. Protect implies a passive placing of something between the object and the power. A fortress is defended by its guns, and protected by its walls. A defence is successful or unsuccessful. A protection is adequate or inadequate. In some cases of a somewhat metaphorical character we use the words interchangeably. So we say, to defend or pro- tect plants from frost: but in the one case we look upon the power we have to resist ; in the other, upon the object we have to guard. One defends what is attacked, one protects what is weak. Defence, therefore, supposes an actual and pressing danger, protection only that feebleness which exposes to it. Both defend and protect may be applied to ourselves. We de- fend ourselves by meeting force with counter-force. We STYLE. 159 protect ourselves by measures of precaution, and by the in- terposition of what may counteract adverse influences. Diffident [Lat] ; MoDEST[Lat.]; Bashful [O. Fr.]. — Bashfulness is a constitutional feeling, Modesty a virtue. Bashfulness is extreme modesty. It is an instinctive, almost animal sensation, though involving intelligence. It is not unbecoming in young persons of either sex, especially in the presence of elders or superiors. It betrays itself in a look of self-conscious timidity, and in grown-up persons is a defect amounting to a mental disease. Modesty is the absence of all tendency to overestimate one's self, while Diffidence is the positive distrust of our- selves. Modesty is in some respects very unlike diffidence, for though inclined to claim less than his due, and to ac- cord more than their due to others, the modest man is not deterred from such efforts in the struggle of life as are need- ful to do justice to himself; while diffidence, if it be a habit of the disposition, leads to positive injustice to one's self and one's own powers. Difficulty [Lat.]; Obstacle [Lat.]; Obstruction [Lat.]; Impediment [Lat.]. — Difficidties are generally complicated, Obstacles and Impediments are usually simple. Difficulties are not usually surmounted by vigor, energy, resolution, hardihood, and the like, but by patience, skill, and perse- verance. The cutting of the Gordian Knot was an escape from, not a solution of, the difficulty. In marching through a foreign country, the general would find difficulties in the incidental things — the badness of the roads, the nature of the climate, the disposition of the na- tives, the scarcity or remoteness of provisions. A precip- itous valley suddenly yawning under the feet of the soldiers would be an obstacle, that is, a barrier, to their progress. l6o COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. A river might be an obstacle, a heavy cloak an imped- iment, to the traveler. In common parlance difficulties are met and solved, obstacles surmounted, impediments removed. It is obvious that the same thing may be some- times all three, according to the point of view from which it is regarded. The eloquence of Demosthenes was to Philip of Macedon a difficulty to be met with his best re- sources, an obstacle to his own ambition, and an imped- iment in his political career. Difficulties perplex, imped- iments embarrass, obstacles deter or retard. Difficulties commonly arise out of the inherent nature and character of the matter in hand. Obstacles come from foreign causes. Impediments come from some established law or superior force. Obstruction is not so strong as obstacle, which latter has also a more abstract sense. We surmount obstacles, and remove obstructions. An obstacle may be moral and in- ternal, as indolence is an obstacle to success. Obstruc- tion is external, and lies in the path. Exceed [Lat.]; Excel [Lat.]. — Exceed \s a relative term, implying some limit, measure, or quantity already exist- ing, whether of bulk, stature, weight, distance, number, or power — moral, mental, or mechanical. It is also used intransitively and abstractedly; as, ''The temperate man will be careful not to exceed"; but even here the measure of sufficiency and sobriety is understood. Excel is never employed but in an honorable sense. It is to go far in good qualities, or laudable actions or ac- quirements, or specifically, as a transitive verb, to go be- yond others in such things. Expect [Lat.]; Hope [A. S.]. — Vf% Expect v^h^n we have arrived at the conclusion that something future will STYLE. l6l really happen in all probability. We may expect what may or may not interest us personally. We may expect, but not hope, for an occurrence which will cause us pain. We Hope when we look with pleasure to the future. In proportion as it is welcome, we hope ; in proportion as it is certain, we expect. Hope is a faculty of the human soul, a quality which diminishes with the increase of age. The young, who live in the future, are full of hope. Excite [Lat.]; Incite [Lat.]. — To Excite is to call out into greater activity what before existed in a calm or calmer state, or to arouse to an active state faculties or powers which before were dormant. The term is also used of purely physical action. We may excite heat by friction. To hicite is to excite to a specific act or end which the inciter has in view. Glance [Sw.]; Glimpse [A. S. or Ger.]. — Glance ex- presses both the sudden shooting of a bright object or ray of light before the eyes, and the rapid casting of the vision itself upon an object. Glimpse differs in implying the seeing momentarily and imperfectly, while Glance implies that the object is seen momentarily and distinctly. Glance is more commonly voluntary; glimpse involuntary. We take glances; we catch glimpses. Gratitude [Fr.]; Thankfulness [A. S.]. — Gratitude relates to the inner state of, Thankfulness to the exhibi- tion of, it in words. We commonly use Grateful in refer- ence to human agents ; "Thankful, to Divine Providence. We may look grateful. We speak our thanks. Thank- fulness is mistrusted if it be not expressed; but gratitude may be too deep for words. Thankfulness is uneasy till Rhet.— 14. l62 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. it has acknowledged a kindness ; gratitude, till it has reo ompensed it. Impostor [Lat.]; Deceiver [Fr.]. — An Impostor is a deceiver of the public, while Deceiver might be of the public or of a private individual. Any one who deceives by word or deed is a deceiver. An impostor assumes a false appearance, and impersonates what is not truly his. An impostor acts for his own benefit ; a deceiver may act simply for the injury of another. Lonely [Fr.]; Solitary [Lat.]. — Lonely conveys the idea of the melancholy or the forsaken. Solitaiy denotes no more than the absence of life or society. The essence of solitariness is separation, not the feeling consequent upon it. A lonely wanderer is not only solitary, but feels it in sadness. Places are solitary as being without inhab- itants. They are lonely, as producing in persons the ef- fects of isolation. So we may be lonely, though not sol- itary, in a crowd. Marine [Lat.]; Maritime [Lat.]; Naval [Lat.]. — Marine means belonging to the sea in its simplest aspect or nat- ural state ; as, marine productions or deposits. Maritime means belonging to the sea as it is employed by man, or in relation to the life of man ; as a maritime people, maritime trade or occupations. Naval means belonging to ships. We speak of a naval life, a naval profession, a naval armament. Mutual [Lat.]; Reciprocal [Lat.]. — Mtitual implies nothing as to time or order of action. Reciprocal involves an idea of priority and succession. A mutual thing is simply a thing which exists between two^ persons ; a re- ciprocal thing so exists as to the result of a giving and STYLE. 163 returning. *'The attachment was mutual," would mean simply that it was felt on both sides; that it was recipro- cal, would mean that what one had given the other also had returned. Noted [Lat.]; Notorious [Lat.]. — Noted is, reserved for that which is well known, favorably or eminently. Notorious is employed to express what is publicly known, and universally in men's mouths, commonly, though not invariably, with an unfavorable meaning. At least, no- torious is never used of what is known purely for good. We speak indiscriminately of a notorious or a noted fact, but not person ; nor are virtue and excellence ever said to be notorious. Nightly [A. S.]; Nocturnal [Lat. noctein\. — Nightly is derived from the English word night ; Nocturnal, from the Latin noctenty night; yet they are somewhat differ- ently employed. The former is a term of more familiar character than the latter; but a further difference is no- ticeable, flowing, however, from the same difference of origin. Nightly means simply at the time of night, or every night, while Nocturnal means connected with the nature of the night. A nightly visit. The nocturnal habits of some birds, insects, and quadrupeds. Occupancy [Lat.]; Occupation [Lat.]. — The difference between these two words flows from the different forces of the verb occupy, to take possession and to hold pos- session. Occupancy is the taking, or having possession in relation to, rights, claims, or privileges; Occupation, in relation to no more than the fact of possessing and holding. We speak of the occupancy of an estate ; and the occupation, not occupancy, of a country by an army. Occupancy has 164 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. a passive sense; Occupation has both an active and a passive sense. Polite [Lat.]; Civil [Lat.]; Polished [Lat]. — Polished may be applied to that which exhibits traces of finish in training or preparation; as, **A poHshed man/' ^'PoHshed manners," ''A poHshed discourse." PoHshed is opposed to rough ; it is an attribute of external things. Civil, The civil man is observant of the slight outward courtesies of intercourse between man and man. True civility is seen in the demeanor of those who respect oth- ers because they respect themselves, and is as far removed from condescension on the one side as from servility on the other. Polite. The polite man is polished in such courtesies, and is in higher training. The courtier is polite, but even the rustic may be civil. The civil man is not necessarily polite. Civility is confined to no class or grade of so- ciety; Politeness is between equals, and that in the society of the better born and educated. People [O. E. or Lat. populus\\ Persons [Lat.]. — In colloquial language, these terms are synonymous; as, ^'^dXiy persons say so"; ''Many people do it." The dif- ference seems to be that in the term Persons, the individ- uals are more thought of, and with more deference ; while in the term People, the individuals are merged in the ag- gregate. '*At the dinner yesterday there were five peo- ple," would be, if not inelegant, expressive of contempt- uousness. ''People of that sort"; "Persons of distinc- tion"; "People say"; "It is said by many respectable persons." It may be observed that Persons in this gen- eral sense does not appear in the objective- case. Again, "This often pleases people" (;^^/ persons). STYLE. 165 Peruse — Read [A. S,]. — To Read is to interpret char- acters into their words whether mentally only or audibly also ; and more generally, to gather the meaning by obser- vation of anything which expresses itself by outward effects or indications ; as, to read character in a face. To Peruse, the etymology of which is quite uncertain, meant formerly to observe closely and in detail. This might be the matter of some book or not. Now to peruse is to read thoughtfully. One peruses at length a work in which one is interested ; one reads, it may be, a name upon a sign-post. Persuade [Lat.] ; Convince [Lat.]. — Persuade has much in common with Convmce ; but conviction is the result of the understanding, persuasion of the will. Conviction is a necessity of the mind ; persuasion, an acquiescence of the inclination. Conviction, being mental, is less active; per- suasion, being moral, is the more active outwardly. We are convinced of truths and facts. We are persuaded to act and to behave. We speak of a persuasive manner, convincing proofs. Purpose [O. Fr.]; Propose [Lat.]. — No two terms are more commonly confounded than Purpose and Propose ; but the former denotes a settled, the latter a contingent, state of the mind. I propose to do something, if I have not yet made up my mind. I purpose when I have made it up. Yet the words Purpose and Propose might often be used in- differently, provided it be remembered that they express different aspects of the same thing. I purpose to do a thing when I have formed a practical intention to do it. I propose to do it when I recognize it as a design which I shall carry out, provided nothing should arise to hinder or deter me. l66 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. Resolution [Lat.]; Determination [Lat.]; Decision [Lat.]. — A choice between action and inaction is Resolu- tion. A choice between one motive and another is Determi- nation. An irrevocable choice is Decision, Decision com- monly impHes a choice among several courses of action. We determine what to do and resolve to carry out our determination. Determination is a less energetic form of decision. Resolution is a promise made to one's self to undertake a thing. It implies a finer moral choice. A stubborn man may be determined, a firm man is resolved, what to do. Both determination and decision are at an end when the action has been entered upon, but resolution may be carried on into the action itself. Decision is an act of the mind, and supposes examination. Resolution is an act of the will, and supposes deliberation. Our decisions should be just, that we may not repent them. Our resolutions should be firm, that we may not break them. In matters of science, we speak of the decision of a ques- tion, and of the resolution of a doubt or difficulty. Watch [A. S.]; Observe [Lat.]. — Watching \s a strict, constant, close, and eager observation. We Observe with coolness the present state of a case. We watch for what is to take place hereafter. Where we are interested, we observe. Where we are suspicious, we watch. Weight [A. S.]; Heaviness [A. S.]. — Weight \s \Yho\\y indefinite, and is opposed to that which is imponderable. The lightest substances have some amount of weight. Weight, however, is used scientifically, while Heaviness is concrete, that is, expresses the sensation of weight. In their secondary senses, Heaviness is the weight of care or trouble, Weightiness, the urgency of fact or reasoning. Heavy STYLE. 167 rather than weighty is the term employed to express the force which results from the weight of a body in motion. Thus we speak of a heavy, not a weighty, blow. The felled tree falls not weightily, but heavily, to the ground. Whole [A. S.]; Entire [O. Fr. or Lat.]; Complete [Lat.]. — Who^e and Entire are very nicely distinguished. In most cases the words are simply interchangeable. The entire house and the whole house are the same thing. But Whole relates to what is made up of parts, and a whole thing is a thing in which no part is wanting. Entire does not relate to any idea of parts, but simply to perfect and undiminished unity. So that in cases in which the idea is not resolvable into parts. Entire is used where Whole could not be. So we say, ''A whole orange," ** A whole number," ''The whole quantity." But, ''His character was marked by an entire absence of selfishness," "entire igno- rance," " entire confidence, " " entire control, " and the like. Complete denotes the possession of all that is needful to constitute a thing, or to fulfill a purpose or a definition. A thing is entire which is not broken, or mutilated, or di- vided; it is complete when it wants nothing. Complete relates to what implies a thing in its perfection. Wing [Dan. Sw.]; Pinion [Fr.]. — The Pinion is a feath- ered wing ; while Wing is more generally a lateral append- age of comparatively light material, moved with a vibratory motion, and supporting the flying body by its pressure upon the atmosphere. Hence, inscQjts, for instance, have wings, but not pinions. Sorry [A. S.] ; Grieved [Lat] ; Hurt [O. Fr.]. — Sorry and Grieved differ from the nouns Soirow and Giief in being used in a lighter sense and of more ordinary matters. l68 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. We are commonly sorry for what is on our own account, and grieved on account of another. To be grieved is more than to be sorry. '*I am sorry that I was not at home when you called"; **I was much grieved to hear the loss he had sustained." Hurt is used of wounded feelings, and denotes the sense of having been treated unfairly, inconsiderately, or without due respect. We are sorry for circumstances. We are grieved for acts and conduct. We are hurt by treatment or behavior. Sorrow ; Grief. — Grief 2.ndi Sorrow are very nearly alike, but Grief is the more active and demonstrative of the two. It expresses a poignant state of mental trouble, while Sor- row is more still and reflexive, and is more commonly tinged with regret. Grief contemplates things as they might have been, and deplores the fact of their occurrence. Being more active than Sorrow, it is often found mingled with compassion for others, and with remorse on our own account. Grief is caused by bitter calamities and misfortunes which come to us from outside. Sorrow may be the consequence of our own acts. Sorrow in the last degree is profound; Grief is violent. Sorrow mourns ; Grief cries aloud. Tedious [Lat.] ; Irksome [O. E.]. — Tedious denotes the weariness caused by time. The nature of the thing to be done makes it irksome. The time taken up in doing a thing makes it tedious. Hence, Tedious denotes what is felt after a work is begun or a process commenced ; while Irksome may denote the feeling which prevents one from undertak- ing at all. Timely [A. S.]; Seasonable [Fr.]; Opportune [Lat.]. — Timely means in good time; Seasonable, in right time. STYLE. 169 Timely aid is that which comes before it is too late ; Sea- sonable aid, that which meets the nature of the occasion. The difference is slight between these and Opportune, which seems to express more the occurrence of that which, by its timeliness, aids some particular project or specific course of things. Like Timely and unlike Seasonable, it qualifies a case rather than a class of cases. Things are opportune for the occasion, and not as a rule. The shower which falls seasonably and in timely preservation of a crop may be inopportune as regards a party of pleasure. EXERCISE XLIII. Direction. — Give the meaning which the synonyms grouped below have in common ; give the meaning which belongs to each separately ; and write sen- tences, using each word correctly : 10. II. 12. 13- 14. l6. Absolve — exonerate — acquit. Adversary — opponent. Afifirm — aver — protest. Alarm — terror. Appreciate — estimate — es- teem. Assault — attack — assail. Kill — murder — assassinate. Battle — combat — engagement. Intricate — complex — compli- cated. Calculate — compute. Care — anxiety. Adorn — decorate — embellish.. Gentle — meek — ^mild — tame. Ingenuous — fair — open — frank. Emotion — feeling. Ferocious — fierce — savage — barbarous. Rhet.— 15. 17. Firmness — constancy. 18. Follow — succeed. 19. Formal — ceremonious. 20. Friendly — amicable. 21. In — into. 22. Acquaintance — intimacy — fa- miliarity. 23. Insolence — insult. 24. Journey — tour — excursion — pilgrimage. 25. Amend — rectify. 26. Axiom — maxim — adage. 27. Mean — ^base — vile. 28. Manifest — evident — plain — clear. 29. Mature — ripe. 30. Motive — incentive — induce- ment. 31. Motherly — maternal. 32. Mute — silent — dumb. 170 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 33. Novel — new. 34. Abundance — plenty. 35. Pleasing — pleasant — agree- able. 36. Pillage — plunder. 37. Poverty — indigence — pauper- ism. 38. Poison — venom. 39. Rest — repose. 40. Resign — relinquish. 41. Sensible — intelligent. 42. Gain — win. 43. Slight — neglect. 44. Tall— high— lofty. EXERCISE XLIV. Direction. — Supply precise words in the following sentences: 1. Hope — Expect, {a) Such was the violence of the storm that none of the passengers the vessel could outlive the gale. {b) The father had that his son would be eminent. 2. Lonely — Solitary, (a) It appeared to the misled and traveler. (p) Hie home unto my chamber, where thou shalt find me sad and 3. Ask — Beg — Request, (a) What shall you of me that I '11 deny? {p) In other inferior things it may become us to be reserved and modest. (c) him to accept the same as a testimony of their tender* ness towards him. 4. Admit — Allow, (a) The ruined spendthrift claimed kindred there, and had his claim . {b) Even a real miracle can not be as such by those who are not assured that the event is contradictory to the course of nature. 5. Excite — Incite, (a) Can the sons of Greece compassion in Achilles' mind ? {d) The concurrence of many circumstances, resembling those which had been so favorable to the late monarch, him to a similar attempt. 6. Poison — Veno77i. (a) As souls, they say, by our first touch take in the of original sin. (d) The God of truth defend you and all others that maintain his truth from the of liars. .^ {c) The of asps is under their tongues. STYLE. 171 7. Modern — Recent, {ci) Yet was much taxed, by that age precise, for faults which times not strange have thought. {p) Amphitryon, from the nether sphere. 8. Curious — Prying — Inquisitive, {a) Bacon says, some have been so as to remark the times and seasons, when the stroke of an envious eye is most effectually pernicious. {b) Man is read in his face, God in his creatures, but not as the philosopher, the creature of his glory, reads him, but as the divine, the servant of humility ; yet he must take care not to be too . (c) So close in poplar shades, her children gone, The mother nightingale laments alone. Whose nest some churl has found. 9. Tedious — Irkso7ne. (a) The length of nine revolving years. (If) It was perhaps less to live the life of a hermit in a sol- itary den than to submit to the humors of a bigot. 10. Defend — Protect, (a) God the right. (b) How poor a thing is man, whom death itself can not from injuries. 11. Gla7ice — Glimpse, {a) The poet's eye, in a fine frenzy rolHng, doth from heaven to earth, from earth to heaven. {b) In His face the of His Father's glory shine. 12. Persuade — Convince, (a) He that a man to rob a house is guilty of the sin he him to. (d) Wise men desire to discover such evident marks of superior wisdom, power, and goodness in the frame of it, as may them that it is truly divine. 13. Timely — Seasonable — Opportune, (a) Mercy is in the time of affliction. {U) The English, coming in to their succor, beat them back into the city. {c) The most place shall never melt mine honor into lust. 14. Sorrow — Grief. (a) is humble and dissolves in tears ; Make not your Hecuba with fury rage. And show a ranting upon the stage. 15. hnpostor — Deceiver, (a) If these things prove true, let me be registered not only for a most notorious , but such an hypocrite as never trod upon the earth before. 172 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. {b) Our Savior wrought his miracles frequently, and for a long time together ; a time sufficient to have detected any in. 16. Propose — Purpose, (a) The ship a helpless hull is left; she quits her way. (d) There are but two plans on which any man can to con- duct himself through the dangers and distresses of human life. 17. Mutual — Reciprocal. (a) But as He framed a whole, the whole to bless, On wants built happiness. (b) Life can not subsist in society but by concessions. 18. Pillage — Plunder, {a) I took away from our men the with which they were loaded, and gave it to the owners. {b) For the of malignants, I answer that I think the parlia- ment never yet approved the , or, in plain English, robbing of any man by any of their forces. 19. Resolution — Deterfnination — Decision, {a) Be it with , then, to fight. (U) The will is said to be when, in consequence of some action or influence, its choice is fixed upon a particular object. if) The of dying to end our miseries does not show such a degree of magnanimity, as a to bear them. 20. Gratitude — Thankfulness, (a) is the lively and power- ful reaction of a well-disposed mind upon whom benevolence has conferred something important. (b) Give us that due sense of all Thy mercies, that our hearts may be unfeignedly . 21. Difficulty — Obstacle — hnpediment — Obstruction. (^) They were all night removing the that had been placed across the road. ip) Was ever any overcome by a sudden cast of thought ? (c) The want of a life conformable to the religion which we profess, hath been an to the progress of Christianity. (d) Because an by nature earthly and foul doth not receive the pure clearness of light — 22. Exceed — Excel, {a) Man's boundless avarice , and on his neighbors round about him feeds. {b) The Power that shuts within its seed the future flower, bids these in elegance of form . ^ 23. Defamation — Calujnny — Slander — Libel, {a) Their aim is STYLE. 173 only men's , not their reformation, since they proclaim men's vices unto others, not lay them open to themselves. {b) Whether we speak evil of a man to his face or behind his back ; the former way indeed seems to be the most generous, but yet is a great fault, and that which we call revihng. The latter is more mean and base, and that which we call . {c) "The way to silence ," says Bias, "is to be always exer- cised in such things as are praiseworthy." {d) We have in a ; (i) the writing; (2) the communication; (3) the apphcation to persons and facts ; (4) the intent and tendency ; (5) the matter — diminution of fame. 24. Bashful— Modest — Diffident, (a) A man is so only in the presence of others. (b) is a kind of shame or bashfulness proceeding from the sense a man has of his own defects, compared with tlie perfections of him whom he comes before. (c) and presumption both arise from the want of knowing, or rather endeavoring to know, ourselves. 25. Scheme — Plan — Design, (a) The vigor of a boundless imag- ination told him how a might be disposed that would embel- lish Nature and restore Art to its proper office. (d) The machine which we are inspecting demonstrates by its con- struction, contrivance, and . (c) The idea of the possibility of multiplying paper money to almost any extent was the real foundation of what is called the Mississippi , the most extravagant project, both of banking and stock-jobbing, that perhaps the world ever saw. 26. Linger — Lag — Saunter — Loiter, (a) We must proceed speed- ily, and persist constantly, nowhere staying or . (d) Yet not content, more to increase his shame, when so she as she needs mote so, he with his spear would thump her forward. (e) On yonder cliffs, a grisly band, I see them sit ; they yet ; Avengers of their native land. (d) Upon the first suspicion a father has that his son is of a temper, he must carefully observe him whether he be listless and in- different in all his actions, or whether in some things he be slow and sluggish, but in others vigorous and eager. 1/4 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. Simplicity. — Simplicity has reference to the choice of simple words and their unaffected presentation. If prop- erly and skillfully used, words readily and generally intel- ligible produce their full effect. Short words require the least attention, and are corre- spondingly strong. Hence the strength of the Anglo- Saxon element, which, as we have seen, comprises the vocabulary of common life, — the language of the emo- tions, of the fireside, street, market, and farm. This ele- ment predominates in the books most widely circulated; as, the Bible y Pilg)'iins Pivgress, Robinson Crusoe y and Gulliver* s Travels; and it is to the home-going Saxon of these books that their popular impressiveness and general intelligibility may be ascribed. Every word in the follow- ing passage from St. John is of Saxon origin: " In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. The same was in the beginning with God. All things were made by him ; and without him was not anything made that was made. In him was life; and the life was the light of men." Bain says: **Our translation of the Bible is usually re- ferred to as showing most remarkably the force of the Saxon element in our language, whereby it is intelligible, familiar, and home -going. These qualities it certainly possesses in a very high degree; but as the translators seem to have been guided rather by an unconscious tact, which must sometimes have failed them, than by a delib- erate preference of Saxon words, the statement must be received with some qualifications." In passages marked by great simplicity, the Saxon element is largely used. Of this the Gospels furnish numerous examples. Again, when emotional effect is chiefly aimed at, the translators often give the Saxon in great purity. Many examples of melody and pathos might be produced from the Psalms; STYLE. 175 none more conspicuous, however, than the twenty-third, the whole of which contains only ten classical words. ** While the great majority of words in the English Bible are native, there is necessarily, also, a considerable mixture of the classical element. One reason of this is that the terms in use for designating ideas peculiar to Ju- daism or Christianity had mostly been derived from the Latin. The following are examples of such words ; some of them were originally Greek, though received by us through the Latin: apostle, evangelist, bishop, baptism, grace, salvation, repent, justify, sanctify, elect, saint, an- gel, eternal, immortal, miracle, creation, sacrifice. These have become household words; we are as much at home with them as we should have been with native terms. Some of them are as easy and homely as the commonest of the words inherited from our simple-minded Teutonic forefathers; while some of our Saxon words, by being sparingly used, or by 'being connected with difficult no- tions (as laws and government), may not be readily fol- lowed. The classical 'flower,' 'gain,' 'branch,' 'gentle,' are quite as familiar as the Saxon 'bloom,' 'win,' 'bough,' and 'riding'; while 'wapentake,' 'wardmote,' 'gavelkind,' though native, are not universally understood." — Bain. We may, therefore, greatly simplify a learned style, without resolving it into the pure Saxon. To simplify a difficult passage by the substitution of Saxon, or, failing that, of easy classical, terms, will form one of the best ex- ercises in applying the pupil's knowledge of the sources of the English. Writers who seek the utmost intelligibility, will avoid foreign words, not because they are foreign, but because they are not current. "I observe," says Emerson, "that all distinguished poetry is written in the oldest and sim- 176 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. plest English words. There is a point, above coarseness and below refinement, where propriety abides." It is well, however, to remember that classical words are more dignified in their associations. The Saxon part of the vocabulary, while favorable to feeling and pathos, con- tains also the coarse and vulgar words of the language. Latin and Greek words not only are freer from coarse- ness, but also are associated with dignity or elevation. For Saxon ** sweat," we have * ^ perspiration " ; and for many coarse, strong Saxon words — words found only in the mouths of the uneducated and unrefined, our language affords equivalents derived from the more refined Latin. We see, then, the necessity as well as the advantage of using simple English words; and these include not only natives, but many foreign derivatives, which are equally brief and clear. EXERCISE XLV. Direction. — Express the following sentences in simple, natural English: 1. I was confronted by a diminutive maiden, whose habiliments were indicative of penury. 2. The poor Indian lay in his last extremity. 3. There is a potentiality of growing rich beyond the dreams of avarice. 4. Your sister was evidently laboring under some hallucination. 5. His spirit quitted its earthly habitation. 6. An individual was precipitated. 7. Who urges into motion corpulent animals of the bovine species should himself be of no mean dimensions. 8. The ruminants repose beneath the umbrageous trees. 9. These youthful personages were engaged in tumultuary rec- reations. 10. The conflagration reached out as if to inclos« the wide city in its fiery embrace. STYLE. 177 11. John and his canine companion unceremoniously disturbed the feHcitous slumbers of the old cat and her young family. 12. Many of our seemingly insignificant and barbarous conso* nental monosyllables are expressive of the mi«[^htiest thoughts. 13. That affluence and power, advantages extrinsic and adventi* tious, should very often flatter the mind with expectations of felicity which they can not give, raises no astonishment. 14. By my side was a square-built, fresh-colored personage. 15. Even if this conciliatory proceeding were a proper device — . 16. I bore the diminution of my riches without any outrages of sorrow or pusillanimity of dejection. 17. Their hearts are like that of the principle of evil himself— in- corporeal, pure, unmixed, dephlegmated, defecated evil. 18. They agreed to homologate the choice that had been made. 19. Out of one of the beds on which we were to repose, started up, at our entrance, a man black as a Cyclops from the forge. 20. I would inculcate the importance of a careful study of genuine English, and a conscientious scrupulosity in its accurate use. 21. I was surprised, after the civilities of my first reception, to find, instead of the leisure and tranquillity which a rural life always prom- ises, and, if well-conducted, might always afford, a confused wilder- ness of care, and a tumultuous hurry of diligence, by which every face was clouded and every motion agitated. 22. Professions lavishly effused and parsimoniously verified are alike inconsistent with the precepts of innate rectitude, and the prac- tice of internal policy. EXERCISE XLVI. Direction. — Write sentences containing shorter or more familiar expres- sions for the following : Aggravate, individual, residence, circumspect, simultaneously, tort- uous, termination, occult, extinguish, transform, accomplish, instruct, preclude, articulate, felicity, exacerbated, antagonist, cognizance, pro- genitor, audacious, inaugurate, approximate, minatory, commence, indoctrinate, penetrate, auxiliaries, invalidate, atmosphere, idiosyn- crasies, ethereal, pabulum, anomaly, isothermal, elimination, interpo- late, aesthetic, disparage, obliterate, circumlocution, supersede. 178 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. EXERCISE XLVII. MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES ON DICTION. DIRECTION. — Tell what quality of diction — purity, propriety, precision, or simplicity — is violated here. Correct all errors in your recast of the sentences : 1 . He is worthy of praise for his observation of filial duty. 2. The sellers of the newest patterns at present give extreme good bargains. 3. But what will fame be to an ephemerae who no longer exists ? 4. The protest laid quietly on the table. 5. The child died from the sequelae of the scarlet fever. 6. The only danger that attends the multiplicity of publications is that some of them may be calculated to injure rather than benefit society. 7. I guess you may speak respectably to your superiors. 8. He was led to the abattoir of pohtical life. 9. He is free of many common faults. 10. Then, mechought, the air grew denser. 1 1 . John lost his avocation by idleness. 12. If we examine with minuteness the falling snow, we will ob- serve that each flake consists of a number of exceedingly delicate particles of ice. 13. The entertainment of last evening was much enjoyed by the juvenile members of the community. 14. The cuisine was perfect. 15. During the ancien regime the peasants were grievously op- pressed. 16. He dispenses favors on every side. 17. I have suffered remorse ever since I sold my flute. 18. My hat never stays where I put it. 19. We propose to spend the greater part of the summer in study- ing music. 20. It was a lapsus linguae. 21. Paterfamihas placed his hands in loving tenderness upon the heads of the children. - 22. A fault inevitable by literary ladies. STYLE. 179 23. The mischievous urchins caught the poor dog, and to his cau- dal appendage they affixed a hollow vessel that reverberated most discordantly as the yelping quadruped ran down the street. 24. I could not tell them apart. 25. I expect it rained last night. 26. He went back on us. 27. Henry had been from his youth attached to the Church of Rome. 28. Sea-birds have places of rendezvous, where they seem to de- liberate on the affairs of the republic. 29. The minister's resignation, in these circumstances, can not be too highly praised. 30. Our cicerone first conducted us through the principal buildings of the city. 31. The queen did not want solicitation to consent to' the measure. 32. The amende honorable having been made, a hostile meeting was prevented. 33. They resplended in purple and gold lace. 34. The patrons of husbandry, having thoroughly examined all the inventions of genius to be found within the machinery hall, retired to an adjoining apartment to partake of liquid refreshments. 35. It is aggravating to be subjected to the rudeness of ill-bred people. 36. His contemporaries were anxious for his repute. 37. He sat upon a rural bench and looked with admiring eyes upon the rustic scene. 38. James Brown, a noted thief, was taken to jail yesterday. 39. Excessive use of wine is a bad custom. 40. By assisting her, you will confer to me a favor. 41. The veracity of a statement is admitted when the truth of its author is unquestioned. 42. Name the time, and let it not excel three days. 43. I have persuaded him that he has made a mistake. 44. This state of things kept us on the qui vive. 45. The constable has abdicated his office. 46. Exile evil thoughts from the heart. 47. Alphonsus ordered a great fire to be prepared, into which, after his majesty and the pubhc had joined in prayer for heavenly assistance in this ordeal, both the rivals were thrown into the flames. l8o COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. Sentences. Sentences. — As regards the arrangement of its parts, there are three quahties which a sentence should possess: (i) Clearness; (2) Unity; (3) Strength; and when it is pos- sible, the sentence should have a pleasing effect by its Harmony. Clearness. — Clearness requires that the parts of a sen- tence — words, phrases, and clauses — should be so arranged as tp leave no possibility of doubt as to the author's mean- ing. Language is the medium of communication. It should reveal the whole thought as the writer or speaker would have it understood by the person addressed. As Quintilian says, the expression should be so clear that the hearer not only may but must understandA Clearness of style should be the first consideration with the young composer. He should not aim so much at being brief or forcible, as at being perspicuous. The faults opposed to clearness are two: (i) Obscurity, which leaves us wholly in doubt as to the author's mean- ing; (2) Ambiguity, which leaves us in doubt as to which of two or more meanings is the one intended. One half of the words of a language qualify the other half; and in English, position is almost the only thing that shows the relation between qualifying adjuncts and the words they modify; hence, it is chiefly through the wrong placing of words, phrases, or clauses that clearness is lost. In the English language, which is very deficient in inflections to mark the grammatical relations of words, position is a matter of prime importance. The sentence, "The savage here the settler slew," is not clear. The sub- ject and the object of the transitive verb arre both placed before the verb; and since there is no peculiar ending, in STYLE. I8l English, for a noun in the singular number, objective case, or singular number, nominative case, it is impossible to know the writer's meaning. In Latin this is not so. ' * Puer magistrum amat, " the boy the master loves ^ means, ''The boy loves the master" no matter what the order of the words. This is indicated by the inflection, or ending, of the Latin nouns. Had ''boy" been the object and "mas- ter" the subject of the verb, the form would have been, ' ' Puerum magister amat. " Clearness is lost usually by the improper placing of words, phrases, and clauses, by the omission of necessary words, or by using words whose meaning is ambiguous. The following ^are- the pr incipaL rules for secu ringclear- ness: CRuLE L — Words y phrase Sy and clauses that are closely re- lated should be placed as near to each other as possible ^ that their mutual relation may clearly appear. This rule is violated most frequently by the improper placing of adverbs, of adverbial phrases and clauses, of participles, and of personal and relative pronouns. The single-word adverbs that are most frequently mis- placed, are "only" and "not." There are some others that often give trouble; as, "never," "even," "always," "enough," and the phrase "at least." Only. — ^The strict rule is, that "only" should be placed before the word affected by it. The following are ambiguous: "The address is only to be written on this side"; "The heavens are not open to the faithful only at intervals." Abbott says : ' ' The best rule is to avoid placing ' only ' between two emphatic words, and to avoid using ' only ' where ' alone ' can be used instead. l82 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. * * In strictness perhaps the three following sentences : He only beat three, He beat only three, He beat three only, ought to be explained, severally, thus: He did no more than beat, did not kill, three. He beat no more than three. He beat three, and that was all he did. (Here only modifies the whole of the sentence and depreciates the ac- tion.)" Not. — *'Not" must be taken as qualifying all that fol- lows, to the first break; as, **Not a drum was heard"; "They have no share in all that's done Beneath the circuit of the sun." Here the **no" is placed so as to command ''share" with all its qualifications. This is correct. ** Enough" is specially understood to follow the word it modifies; as, *'good enough," ''not kindly enough." *'At least" is used with more exactness of meaning when it immediately precedes the word it modifies. ' ' A tear at least is due to the fallen brave." "At least" is intended to qualify "tear"; and while we might readily refer this phrase to the word going before, ther^ would be more precision in this arrangement: "To the fallen brave is due at least a tear," or, "We owe to the fallen brave at least a tear. ' ' "Misplacement is very frequent with the combinations * not — but, ' ' not only — but also. ' ' I am not come to send peace on the earth but a sword. ' This is a contraction for, ' I am not come to send peace on the earth, / am come to send a sword. ' The better order would be, ' I am come not to send peace on the earth but a sword.' " — Bain. STYLE. 183 "He not only gave me advice but also help" is wrong. '' He gave me not only advice, but also help" is the proper form for the sentence. * ' It is not only hard to distinguish between two little and too much reform, but between the good and the evil in- tention of the reformers," should be, ^*It is hard to dis- tinguish, not only between too little and too much reform, but between the good," etc. The strict rule is, * * When * 7iot only ' precedes ^ btit also, * see that each is followed by the same part of speech." — Abbott. For example: **He acted not only wisely but also promptly (adverbs), and this too, not only under trying circumstances, but also in (prepositions) the face of strong opposition; yet his acts were not only successful, but also worthy (adjectives) of success. " We shall now notice the placing of adjuncts generally; that is, the position of qualifying words, phrases, and clauses, whether as adjectives or as adverbs. In the sentence, ''He looked and muttered in a way that could not but fill those whose life it Was to watch him and obey him with great alarm,'' **FiU" is to be qualified, not ''watch" or "obey"; hence, the phrase "with great alarm" should be placed as near as possible to the word "fill." "It was by hunting and fishing that the Indians chiefly subsisted." "Chiefly" is not intended to qualify "sub- sisted"; it restricts the means of gaining a subsistence. "The French nation is not consoled for the misfortunes which it has endured by the incidental triumph of justice in Italy." "Consoled" is the word meant to be qualified. "A pocket-book was found by a boy made of leather.'' "Made" should modify "pocket-book." l84 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. * * * I must not forget the two sons of this aspiring cit- izen, who came to church in a dashing curricle.' Without the context, we can not be quite certain, ahhough we may think it highly probable, that who refers, not to the near noun citizen, but to the prominent noun sons. The possessive — * citizen's two sons, who' — would remove all doubt.'* — Baiti, **This way will direct you to a gentleman's house that hath skill to take off these burdens." Correct to this: *'to the house of a gentleman that hath skill." **The farmer's orchard is respected by the boy who ozvns a large dog.'' Changed: **The boy respects the orchard of the fanner who owns a large dog.'' '*Nor better was their lot who fled." Changed: *'Nor better was the lot of the^n that fled." Each qualifying word or set of words should be looked at in its setting ; we should try the bearing both before and after, and place the word where it will modify only the subject intended. Sometimes we find, thrown into the middle of a sentence, a grammatical expression that can be connected in -meaning either with what goes before, or with what follows. This is a common source of ambiguity. ''Gibbon incurred the imputation of avarice, while he was, in fact, exceeding generous y simply by his ignorance of the purchasing power of money. " The words ''exceeding generous" may be construed either with the words which precede, or with those which follow. We may understand the author as meaning either "exceeding generous not- withstanding the imputation of avarice," or "exceeding generous simply by his ignorance of the purchasing power of money." The proper arrangement would be: "Gib- bon, while, in fact, exceeding generous, incurred the im- putation of avarice, simply by his ignorance," etc. STYLE. 185 Personal pronouns should be used with care. The pro- noun is by nature a kind of universal noun ; it may^reTer to anything of the same gender, number, and person, hence care is required to have it suggest at once its antecedent. The strict rule is that pronouns should follow the nouns to which they refer, without the intervention of another noun. Ambiguity in the use of pronouns may be avoided some- times by substituting direct for indirect narration^ some- times by repeating the antecedent, sometimes by changing the number of one of the antecedents , sometimes by changing the order. Occasionally sentences in themselves not clear may be tolerated if the context gives the meaning unmis- takably. *'John asked his cousin to bring his hat, as he was going on an errand for his mother. " This is objectionable because there is doubt as to the antecedent of ''his," in two cases. To correct it we must in some way make perfectly evident what is meant. By changing to direct narration, we can express every possible meaning with perfect clearness ; as, ''John said to his cousin, 'Bring me my hat; I am going on an errand for your mother.' " "He said that he had conversed with Mr. Smith, and his proposition was impracticable." Here the only escape from ambiguity is to express the antecedent in full. "Mr. Smith's" should be substituted for "his." "They were persons of high hopes, before they (hopes) were clouded over by misfortune." This may be improved by changing the number of one of the antecedents : "They were full of hope until it was clouded over by misfortune." "Joe Brown, the brother of Faith Brown, who gave me this book, has gone to Europe." By changing the order we may effect an improvement ; as, "Faith Brown's brother Joe, who gave me this book, has gone to Europe." Rhet.— 16. ( l86 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. Rule II. — Omit no word that is necessary to the complete expression of the thought. Words which should not be omitted: 1. The subject, or a pronoun standing for it, should be repeated whenever its omission would cause ambiguity or obscurity) The following is ambiguous : 'iHe-^^supposed to be working for his party, which in truth is suffering from his neglect, and (he? or it?) will not permit any one else to give it advice." The relative should be repeated when it is the subject of several verbsj^as, ^'The father was awaiting his son, who had 'liever failed to gather with the family around the Christmas board, and was prompted by the closest ties of natural affection to speed this reunion." Say, ''who was prompted," etc. Otherwise it might mean that ''the father" was prompted. 2. Repeat the preposition after an intervening con- junction, especially if a verb and an object also intervgnej **Had John inherited the great qualities of his father, Henry Beauclerc, or the conqueror," etc. The omission of the preposition is misleading to such as are not ac- quainted with the facts from other sources. Macaulay's arrangement of this sentence is, however, perfectly clear: **Had John inherited the great qualities of his father, of Henry Beauclerc, or ^ the conqueror," etc. 3. Repeat the article, ''A," ''An," or "The," before each of two or more connected nouns denoting things that are to be distinguished from each other or emphasized^ as, "Wanted, a nurse and housemaid." This meansTHat the same person is to be both. If two persons^re wanted, one for each office, the article should be repeated. STYLE. 187 '^The" should be repeated when the object is not suffi- ciently distinguished without it. **They possessed both the civil and criminal jurisdiction." Say, **both the civil and the criminal jurisdiction." '^The pursuers and pursued entered the gates together." The contrast requires the repetition of the article; thus, ^'The pursuers and the pursued entered the gates together. " 4. Conjunctions should be repeated where the omission would cause ambiguity ^Should there be several verbs at some distance from a conjunction on which they depend, the conjunction must be repeated. *'When we look back upon the havoc that two hundred years have made in the ranks of our national authors — and, above all, (when) we refer their rapid disappearance to the " quick succession of new competitors — we can not help being dismayed at the prospect that lies before the writers of the present day." Here, if *'when" is omitted we at once substitute a parenthetical statement for what is really a sub- ordinate clause. In reporting a speech or an opinion, ''that" must be continually repeated, to avoid the danger of confusing what the writer says with what others say. In the examples that follow, notice how the sentences gain in clearness by the repetition of the conjunction: *'He lives in the family rather as a relative, than as a depend- ent." ''Do not forget that the youth was the greater fool of the two, and that the master served such a booby rightly in turning him out-of-doors." 5. The verb, or the verb with its subject should be repeated after the conjunctions "than," "as," etc., when the omission would cause ambiguity\_3Thus : *'Lovest thou me more thaiTtEese?" might convey two l88 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. meanings, either, **more than these love me" or, ''more than thou lovest these." *'I hope you will find me as faithful as William," /. e.y either as faithful as William finds me or as faithful as you find William. . Even auxiliary verbs, as well as principal verbs, must follow the rule of repetition. **The Doctor was a very great favorite, and received with much respect and honor." Say, ''was received." Some- times the principal verb is omitted, much to the injury of the sentence ; as, "I have always and still do believe that the soul is immortal." Say, "I have always believed and still do believe that the soul is immortal." EXERCISE XLVIII. Direction. — Criticise the following sentences with regard to clearness : 1. The English nearly lost two thousand men. 2. Louisiana not only produces cotton in abundance, but sugar also. 3. The Romans, at least, understood liberty, as well as we. 4. Among the numberless contradictions, this one predominates, in our nature. 5. A man would not scruple to pick a pocket who could make so vile a pun. 6. According to his conduct, in this world, a man's worth is esti- mated. 7. It is true what he says, but it is not applicable to the point. 8. Mary told her sister that she was going to get something pretty for her at the store, and that she ought to go along. 9. The Spartans prayed the gods, notwithstanding their austerity, to grant them the beautiful with the good. ID. The slaves were sold by their masters whenever they were forced by their recklessness or by their misfortunes to have their valuQ in money. STYLE. 189 11. People do not simply admire an orator, that he can use big words. 12. He should care no more for meeting that phantom, opinion, than a ghost. 13. The error has and will again be exploded. 14. The lunatic, lover, and poet are of imagination all compact. 15. Six shots were fired by those who were placed to guard the treasure without effect. 16. He left the room very slowly repeating his determination not to obey. 17. Lothair was unaffectedly gratified at not only receiving his friends at his own castle, but under these circumstances of intimacy. 18. You are not obliged to take any money which is not gold or silver: not only the half-pence or farthings of England, but of any other country. 19. The Sabbath was regarded as a day for rest from worldly oc- cupation and holy joy. 20. My rebuke did her good. 21. There are few artists who paint horses as well as Rosa Bon- heur. 22. And thus the son the fervent sire addressed. 23. Those who drove James from his throne, seduced his army, alienated his friends, imprisoned him in his palace, broke in upon his very slumbers by imperious messages, and pursued him with fire and sword from one part of the empire to the other, were his nephew and his two daughters. 24. She has worn to-day a black and white dress. 25. Remember, you must be diligent to be successful, and if the idle have failed it is only because of idleness. 26. I never expect to see you again. 27. Wolsey left at his death many buildings which he had begun, in an unfinished state, and which no one expects to see complete. 28. Cardinal RicheUeu hated Buckingham as sincerely as the Spaniard OHvares. 29. Adversity gives wisdom ; it ought to be greatly prized. 30. The Emperor Alexander presented to the Emperor William a portrait of himself. 31. He aimed at nothing less than the crown. 32. The boy did not want opportunities. 190 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. U nity. — Unity is that property in a sentence which keeps all its parts in connection with the principal thought, and logicall y subor din ate to it