#iw UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES SOUTH AUSTEALIA: ITS HISTORY, RESOURCES, AND PRODUCTIONS, EDITED BV ATILLIAM HARCUS, Esq., J.P. ILLUSTRATED FROM PHOTOGRAPHS TAKEN IN THE COLONY. WITH MAPS. Published by Authoritv of the Government of South Australia, and Dedicated (BY Permission) to his Excellency Sir Anthony Musgrave, K.C.M.G., &c., uO'SEiiNOR AND COMMANDER-. N-CniEr' OF THf CO'^O.SY. LONDON: SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEAELE, & EIVINGTON, CROWN BUILDINGS, 188 FLEET STREET. 1876. ^All rights Teserved.'] c^€l\ i-osDox: riUNTED BY WILLIAM CXOWES AND SoNS, feTAUruKD bTIIELT AND CHARING CUO&B. 3 t O ^7^ DEDICATION. To His Excellency SIR ANTHONY MUSGEAVE, K.C.M.G., TiiOVEnNOU AND CoMMAXUEn-IX-CHIEP IN AND OVER HeR MaJESTY's Province of Socth Avstralia and the Dependencies thereof, &c. &c. Sec. Sir, — Tliu following work on the Ilistory, Resources, and rroductions of South Australia has been prepared at the request of your Government, and is published in the liope that, by giving useful and accurate information on tile (Jolony, its advantages as a home for intending cinigrants from the ^Mother Country may be more fully made known. I gladly avail myself of your Excellency's kind permission to dedicate the \vork to you. The interest with which you have watched the progress of the Colony during the years you have represented Her Majesty in this Province gives me the hope that your Excellency will regard a work of this kind as useful and well-timed in the present prosperous period of the Colony's History. I have the honour to remain, Sir, Your Excellency's most humble uud obedieut servant, Wir>LL\:M IIARCUS. Hackney, Januunj 1S7G. 47S1 Rl UB SETS PREFACE. This volume on the History and Eesonrces of the Colony of ♦South Australia has been prepared at the request and is pub- lished by the authority of the Government. The Commissioners appointed to collect specimens of our products and industries for the Philadeljohia Centenary Exhi- t)ition suggested to the Government the advisableness of having a Handbook prepared to accompany them, indicating the subjects to be treated and the gentlemen who might be en- trusted with their treatment. The Commissioners did me the honour to suggest that I should Avritc that portion which refers to the General History, Government, and Laws of the Province. They mentioned ]\Ir. Josiah Boothljy, Under Secretary and y 3Ir. J. G. Knight, one of the officers in the Territory. The work is sent forth tt) the })nl)lie with tlic hope that, by giving trustworthy information as to the history, progress, and resources of the Colony, it may direct greater attention than has yet been given to one of the largest, most prosperous, and most promising Colonics under the sway of Her IMajesty the Queen of Great Britain and Ireland ; and that it may be of service to persons in the old country who may be contem- plating a residence in the fair Provinces of Australasia. Three years ago I published, by request of the Govern- ment, a "Handbook for Emigrants," which has been largely- distributed in tlie United Kingdom. So rapidly, however, is history made iu a new Colony that some of the information given in that little work is already out of date. The present volume is more ambitious in its aim and more complete in its finish than the " Handbook " was. I have been considerably indebted in preparing the volume to Ml'. Anthony Forster's well-written and comprehensive work on South Australia, published in 18G6 ; and I am pleased to acknowledge my obligations to a writer whoso information is generally accurate and trustworthy. Thougli tlie volume is published '• By authority of the Government," I am responsible for its contents. The Ministry and the Officers in the various ]-)epartments of the Government Service have assisted me in every possible way, for which I give them my thanks. I am afraid I have tried the patience of some of them — especially that of the Government Printer. ^y. n. IIacknkt, South Austualia, 1876. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTOK Y. PAGE England a Colonizing Nation — Difficulties of Planting a Young Colony — Progress of South Australia 1 CHAPTEE II. EXTENT OF THE COUNTRY. Continent of Australia — Extent of Territory — Number of Colonies — People — British, Irish, Teutonic — -Extent of South Australia in Square Miles — Three Divisions — South Australia Proper, Central Australia, and Northern Territory 5 CHAPTEE III. THE FATHERS AND FOUNDERS OF THE COLONY. Origin of the Colony — The Wakefield System — Combination of Capital and Labour — The South Australian Association — • The Act — Principles on which the Colony was established — To be no Charge on the Mother Country — No State Church — No Convicts — Family Emigration — Mr. G. F. Angas 7 CHAPTEE IV. PIONEERS. Governors — Sir John Ilindmarsh, Colonel Gavvler, Sir George Grey, Colonel llobe. Sir Henry Young, Sir R. G. MacDonnell, Sir Dominic Daly, Sir James Fergusson, Baronet, Sir Anthonj'" Musgravc — The Administration of each Governor 12 VI 11 CONTENTS. CHAPTER V. rilYSICAL FKATURES OF THE COLONY. tagb Productions — Fruits and Flowers — Cereals — Cliniiite Ihvouraltle to Health — JtainlaU 18 CH AFTER VI. CENTRES OF POPULATION. Adelaide the ^Metropolis — Site favourable — Handsome Streets and Buildings — Tort Adelaide, Navigation of Eiver — Shipping — Country Towns and Ports — Mining Townships 22 CHAPTER VJI. GOVERNaiENT AND LAWS. Three Estates — Governor, Legislative Council, House of Assembly — Early Government — First Constitution — Two Houses — Quali- fications of Members and Electors' — Manhood Suffrage — Ministry, Titles and Offices — Civil Service — Powers and Privileges of each House — Parliament Supreme — Liberal Constitution, worked well — Proceedings in Parliament — Governor follows advice of his Ministers 30 CHAPTER YIII. ELECITON OF MEMBERS. Mode of Election for each House — The Ballot — Political Amenities . 42 CHAPTER IX. LOCAL GOVERNIMENT. Corporations and District Councils, Powers of each — Poad Boards — Subsidizing Local Pates by Grants from Public Funds .... 46 CHAPTER X. THE JUDICATURE. Courts — Constitution of Supreme Court — Judges, their Duties and Salaries — Local Court of Appeals — Court of Insolvency — Local Courts — Police Court — Coroners — The Grand Jury — Justices of the Peace — Police — No Military or Volunteer Force — Kifle Clubs and Drill 49 CONTENTS. '. IX CHAPTER XI. THE LAND. page Pastoral Pursuits — Squatter's Life — Wealthy Sheep-farmers, their Hospitality — Valuation and Assessment of Piuns — Agriculture — First Attempts at Wheat Growing — Land Sold — Land under Cultivation — Table of Land Cultivated under AVheat, Yield in Bushels, and Average per Acre — Small Cost of cultivating Wheat — Piidley's Reaping Machine 55 CHAPTER XII. THE LAND LAWS. Upset Price of Land, one Pound per Acre — Division of Land into Hundreds — Original Land Laws — Cash Purchasers — Evils of Land Broking — Strangways's Act — 'Credit Selections — Surveys ■ — Conditions of present Land System — Success of System in Northern Areas — New Townships and Ports 62 CHAPTER XIII. THE HILL EIVER ESTATE. Combining Agriculture with Stockbreeding — Great Farm — The Mechanical Appliances for working it — Regulation for Workmen on Estate — Success C>9 CHAPTER XIV. THE REAL PROPERTY ACT. Sir E, Pi. Torrens — Early Struggles to establish Act — Oi^position of Legal Profession — Principles of Act — Transferring Peal Estate by Registration of Title — Indcfeasibility of Title — Simplicity and Cheapness — Lands' Titles Commissioners and Solicitors — Assurance Fund — Amendment of Original Act — Great Success of the Law — Value of Property brought imder the Act — Taken up in neigh- bouring Colonies 75 CHAPTER XV. RAILWAYS. Difficulties of Carriage in a New Country — Macadamized Roads, Extent and Cost — First Railway to Port Adelaide — Extravagant Cost — Other Lines — Present Extent of Railways — New Lines in process of Construction — New Lines proposed to be carried out — Proposal to borrow £3,000,000 SO X CONTENTS. CHAPTER XVI. MINES AND MINING. page South Australia rich in Minerals — First Discoveries — The Kapnnda Cojipcr Mine — The Burra Burra — South Australian Mining Association — Yorke's Peninsula Mines — Wallaroo, Moonta, Doora — Immense Value of Copper raised — Smelting Works — Mineral Laws and Leases — Getting up Companies on 'Change — Mining a great Benefit to Colony 86 CHAPTER XVII. THE EIVER MURKAY AND ITS TRADE. Discovery of the Murray hy Captain Sturt — Opening of River for Trallic — Sir Henry Young's interest in the River — Goolwa, Port Elliot, and Victor Harbour — Neg'lect of Trade — Efforts of Victorians to secure it — Railway to the Murray from Port Adelaide — The Murray Mouth — A proposed Canal to Ooolwa — Value of River to the Colony 92 CHAPTER XVIII. THE TRANS-AUSTRALUN TELEGRAPH. Origin of Idea — Stuart's Travels — Cable Company's Proposal — Com- mander Noel Osborn — Act passed for Construction — Mr. Todd's Preparations — Difficulties of the Undertaking — First Failures — Mr. Patterson's Expedition — IMr. Todd's Expedition — Completion of Work — First Telegram — Banquet in Adelaide to celebrate Cumpletion of Work — Great Success — Conflicts with Natives — Lines and Cables to New Zealand and Western Australia ... OS CHAPTER XIX. EXPLORATION. Captain Sturt — Mr. E. J. Eyre — I^yre's Journey to King George's Sound — J. MacDouall Stuart — Victoria Exploring Exjiedition : Death of Burke and Wills — Colonel Warburton, John Forrest, Mr. Gosse, and Mr. Lewis — Hon. T. Elder's valuable Assistance in Work of Exploration 110 CHAPTER XX. COLONIAL INDUSTRIES. Staple Industries — Wool, Wheat, and Copjier — Meat Preserving — Manu- liicture of Leather — Woollen Manufactures — Wine-making, Vine- yards — Other Industries — Chamber of Manufactures 121 CONTENTS. XI CHAPTEE XXL IMMIGRATION. i-agk Necessity for ImjX)rting Labour — Efforts of Colony in this Direction — Temporary Cessation of Immigration — Wages high — Good Colony for Working Men — Nationalities — Provisions of Emigration Act — Voyage and Outfit — Hints to Immigrants on Arrival .... 12G CHAPTER XXII. ItELIGIOUS. No State Church — Strong ru,'ligious Feeling — Success of the Churches — Sects and Parties — Places of Worship 135 CHAPTER XXIII. EDUCATION. First Education Act passed, 1851 — Its Principles and Organization — • Good done by it — Colony outgrown it — Attempts to pass a New Act — Now successful — Higher Education — Universitj' — Princely Gifts of Mr. W. W. Hughes and Hon. T. Elder — Council of University — Institutes 130 CHAPTER XXIV. CONCLUSION. Colonization an Imperial Question — Federation — No Degeneracy in Population in Australia — Advantages of South Australia — Wealthy Colonists — Comfort of Colonists — No Poverty — Colony needs to be better known — A great Future before it lH SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER. THE NOllTHEllN TEERITORY. Acquisition of Territory by South Australia — First Attempts at Settle- ment — Failure of first Party — Kecall of Government Eesident — Subsequent History — Survey of Land by Mr. G. W. Goyder — Country rich and auriferous — Gold Mining — Tropical Industries — Wreck of the Gothenhurg — Papers on Territory by Ilesidents : General Sketch by Mr. J. G, Knight ; Settlement, by Mr. G. 11. McMinn; Climate and Overland Telegraph, by Mr. J. A. G. Little ; the GoUlficlds, by Mr. J. A. Plunkett ; Indigenous Vegetation, &c., by Mr. J. G. Knight ; Conchology, by Mr. W. T. Bednall . 148 XII CONTEXTS. ADDITIONAL CHAPTER. CENTRAL AUSTRALIA. pace Mr. J. A. Giles's Paper on Central Australia — Description of Country along 'rclegra}ih Line — Pine Creek — Tclegrapli Stations at Katherine River, Daly AVaters, Powell's Creek, Tennant's Creek, Parrow Creek, Alice Springs, Charlotte Waters — The IMacDonneil Panges — Natives along Route — Supi>ly of Water 187 Flora of South Australl\. By R. Schojiburgk, Phil. Dr., Director 205 The Fauxa of South Australl\. By F. G. Wateriioupe, Esq. . 281 Mines axd Minerals of South Australia. By J. B. Austin, Esq. 297 Statistical Sketch of South Australia. By Josiaii Boothby, Esq., J.P., Under-Secretary and Government Statist 313 South Australia: its Observatory and METE0Ritiiicu's Land, and they resolved that hou\ the first hour of its history the new Colony should 1)0 preserved from this fatal taint. The law has boeu carried out. Indeed no convicted felon from any i)art of the \\i)rld, whose sentence has not expired, even thougli he may hold a ticket-of-lcave, is allowed to live in South Australia. At the present time every passeng-er landing here from A\'estern Australia, where trans- ported convicts are still found, is obliged to show his official clearance before he is permitted to take up his residence in the Colony. Another clause in the Act provides that no part of the expense of founding and governing the Colony shall fall on the Mother Country ; and another, that if at the end of ten years the population of the Colony shall be less than 20,000, the unsold lands shall revert to the Crown. This Act was subsequently amended in certain particulars, especially repealing the authority given to the Commissioners to appoint ofiKcers, chaplains, and clergymen, and since then the State has iiad no connexion with any form of religion or church organization. The first Commissioners appointed were —Colonel Torrens (chairman), Messrs. George Fife Angas,. Edward Barnard, William Hutt, J. G. Shaw Lefevre, W. A» 3[ackinnon, Sam. Mills, Jacob Montefiore, Geo. Palmer, Geo. Barnes, and Bowland Hill. The latter gentleman (afterwards- Sir liowland Hill, originator of the penny postal reform) sub- sequently became secretary to the Commissioners. Of the foundation principles on which South Australia was established, we may here mention these three : — That it was never to be a charge on the Mother Country ; that there ^^ as to be no State Church recognized ; and that the trans})orted ])risoners from Great Britain were never to be admitted to its shores. These three principles have been fully carried out. The Colony has been no expense to TJ reat Britain ; there is no State Church ; and convicts, except those convicted in the Colony, are unknown. The first Commissioners found considerable difficulty in starting their scheme, and at one time there was a danger of the thing falling through and becoming a grand failure. To prevent this, Mr. George Fife Angas, one of the Commissioners, Chap. III.] MR. G. F. ANGAS. 11 was largely iustrumental in starting the South Australian Company, for the purchase of land and the settlement of a population on the land. Mr. Angas is one of the best and most useful colonists the Province has ever had. He devoted time and labour to the Colony when it needed the best assist- ance of its best friends. More than this, he risked to a large extent his considerable private means to give the Province a start on a safe footing. This venerable gentleman still lives amongst us, and he has the satisfaction of seeing the prosperity of the community which he did so much to aid at first. In that prosperity, as was fitting, Mr. Angas greatly shared ; and now full of years, honours, and usefulness, he is spending the close of his days in the quietude of his beautiful Lindsay House, one of the loveliest spots in the whole Colony. When- ever the history of South Australia is written, the name of George Fife Angas must occupy a prominent position in its records. 12 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. [Chap. 1Y. CHAPTEE IV. PIONEEKS. Governors — Sir John Himlmarsh, ("olouel Gawlcr, Sir George Grey, Colonel Eobe, Sir lleury Young, Sir E. G. MacDonnell, Sir Dominic Daly, Sir James Fergusson, Baronet, Sir Anthony LIusgraye — The Adminis- tration of each Governor. The first Governor of Soiitli Australia was Captain (afterwards 8ir John) Hindmarsli, who received his appointment early in 1836. Mr. James Hurtle Fisher {afterwards Sir James) was appointed Eesident Commissioner for the sale of Crown Lands, and Colonel Light was appointed Surveyor-General. Colonel Light arrived at Kang-aroo Island in August of that year, and on December 28, 1836, Governor Hindmarsh and his party landed at Holdfast Bay from the Buffalo, and under a venerable gum tree, a short distance from the shore, the Members of the Coun(!il and other officers were collected, and the Orders in Council creating South Australia a British Colony, and the Commission of Governor Hindmarsh, were read. This is our commemoration day ; and on the 28th of December every year very large crowds of persons, from various parts of the Colony, assemble at Glenelg — a marine townshi}) which has sprung up in Holdfast Bay — to celebrate the foundation of the Colony. When the official party arrived, there were considerable disputes as to the site of the capital city. Colonel Light from the first fixed u]):il)l(' that it may \><' rcoricanizod. liiflo clubs are kept uj) in sonic parts of the Coh)ny for competition in rifle practice ; and we have several very superior marksmen amongst us who would not be afraid to compete at AVimbledon if it were not so. far away. In friendly comi)etitions here some lireat scores have been made by our crack marksmen. It is felt that it is hardly creditable that a wealthy Colony lilce this should be absolutely without any defensive force at all. AVe have, however, amongst us a considerable number of young men Avho have been trained to the use of arms, and know something of drill ; and, if the necessity should arise to organize a force, they would form a useful nucleus around w^hich others could gather, and from whom they could learn something of soldiership. The present (lovernment intend to give great prominence to drill in the Xew Education Eeculations. a H p o fl < Ohap. XL] PASTOEAL PUESUITS. 55 CHAPTER XL THE LAND. Pastoral Pursuits — Squatter's Life — Wealtliy Sheep-farmers, their Hospitality — Valuation and Assessment of Runs — Agriculture — First Attempts at AVheat Growing — Land Sold — Land under Cultivation — Table of Land Cultivated under Wheat, Yield in Bushels, and Average per Acre — ■ Small Cost of Cultivating Wheat — Ridley's Reaj^ing Machine. PASTORAL PURSUITS. I HAVE already referred to the immense area of land now com23rised in the Colony of South Australia. Sir Charles Wentworth Dilke, Baronet, in his " Greater Britain," describes it as " The widest of all the British Colonies, and nearly as large as English Hindostan." Very early in the history of the Colony land was taken up in what were then considered very remote districts for pastoral pursuits, including the breeding of sheep and cattle. The settlement of the country in tliis way was closely connected with that daring exploration for which the Colony has obtained a high and deserved reputation, as I shall show in a subsequent chapter on South Australian explorers and exploration. The beginning of this industry was very simple and unpretentious. Young men, with just capital sufficient to purchase a few hundreds or thousands of sheep, a dozen horses, a year or two's rations, and to hire a shepherd or two, sallied out into what was then a te7Ta incognita to seek their fortune. They settled on suitable country, erected a rude liut, and thus laid the foundation of their fortunes. The life at first was a hard and rough one, involving many priva- tions ; but it was not altogether without its compensating plea- sures. There was plenty of work, and tliat of itself ke('i)s life 56 SOUTH AUSTEATJA. [Chap. XI. from stagnating. There was the pleasure of seeing the flocks and herds increase. The himhing season brings a pressure of work which requires the best energies of all liands on the station. Shearing too is always a scene of busy activity, and getting tlic wool to the market before roads were known taxed the ingenuity of the cleverest of the " squatters," as pastoral lessees of the Crown were early eallcil, and the designation sticks to them to the present day, and will do so so long as jiastoral pursuits are carried on. The squatter's life in the beginning was not without a spice of danger, which required continual vigilance and activity to guard against, and a brave heart and a strong arm to meet when it actually came. In those days the natives were enemies not to be despised ; and before they learnt to fear or trust the white man, they were not slow to resent his intrusion upon their hunt- ing grounds. They plundered his huts, killed his sheep and cattle, and sometimes attacked himself or his shepherds. He had, therefore, to be always on the watch to protect himself and his property. The aborigines had been accustomed to kill for food all the indigenous animals found in their country : and it was hard to teach them that they had no right to touch the sheep and cattle of the squatter. They learned this in the end by a rough and bitter kind of experience ; but in the early days of squatting they were a constant dread and annoyance to the settler. As the flocks increased, the squatter had to pusli out into new country, and runs were extended farther and farther inland. Leases of wide stretches of country, compreheuding in some cases hundreds of square miles, were granted on a mere nominal payment, and many of the squatters grew rich rapidly. All pastoral leases are held with the condition that wliencver the land is required for agricultural j)urposes, the squatter must turn out on receiving six months' notice, he being paid for the substantial improvements made on his run. Tlic squatter is therefore the pioneer of the agriculturist. When the land is wanted for agriculture, he has to retire farther into the interior. Many of the wealthiest men in the Colony at the present _J^^__L_J 1 ^tti T Y ' I Chap. XI.] WEALTHY SHEEP-FAEIklEES. 57 time, and several ^\bo liave returned to spend their handsome fortunes and to end their days in the okl country, began here in a very humble way. Some of them went out, as I have mentioned, with a few hundreds or thousands of sheep, and lived far from the abodes of men for years, and only occasion- ally visiting Adelaide to purchase rations or to dispose of their wool; and some did not ev6n do that, but trusted all to agents in town. Others were only shepherds, and by saving their earnings — there were neither temptations nor means of spending them at first — they got a few sheep to- gether, and were eventually enabled to take up a small run for themselves ; and the first start made, in many cases success came rapidly. Shepherds Avho knew all about the management of sheep made good squatters ; they Avent on increasing their flocks and taking up new country, and their Avealth increased in geometrical ratio. They lived in the quietest possible way, spending but a mere fraction of their income. I could point to a score of such men who have made large fortunes, which they have well earned, and, having handed over the hard work of the station to their sons, have retired to enjoy their well-earned leisure and to spend their ample fortunes. As a class, they are honourable and kind- hearted men. A squatter's hospitality has become proverbial in Australia. Having had many opportunities of testing it in the far bush, I can speak from personal experience. The best the station afibrds — accommodation, food, and horses — are freely placed at the disposal of any one who knows how to behave himself. There are, of course, exceptions, and a churlish squatter may sometimes be met Avith, but very rarely, I have more than once been surprised and delighted to meet in some far-distant and out-of-the-way place an elegant and hos- pitable family — the sons manly and intelligent young fellows, and the daughters possessing the accomplishments of elegant young ladyhood, and a few other accomplishments which are only to be picked up in the bush, such as catching and saddling a half wild horse and joining in a kangaroo hunt on his back. This is not often the case, for young ladies' horses on a station are generally not as well broken as they are well ridden. 58 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. [Chap. XT. A few years au'o tlic leases Avliicli the squatters bad held •on exceedingly low terms Avere subjected to a new valuation on their renewal. Tlie Surveyor-General, Mr. CJ. W. Goyder, a highly coni})etent man, was appointed valuatt)r, and he per- formed this onerous and unpleasant duty with great impar- tiality. His work was a very important one, and required for its proper discbarge not only high professional ability, but integrity and firmness of character; and these, it is admitted, 3Ir. Goyder possessed in an eminent degree. His largely increased valuations astonished some of the squatters, and made them indignant ; but be was supported by public opinion throughout the Colony, and the result has shown that the poor ojjpressed squatters, as they represented them- selves, were very well able to pay the increased assessment. Unfortunately for the squatters, but fortunately for the Government, the valuations were succeeded by two years of dnnight, which tried the lessees severely, and under Avliich ssome of them fell poor and almost hopeless. Had the valua- tions been made during the years of drought, they would have been fixed much lower indeed than the actual value would have justified. Indignant as the squatters were, none •of them were killed by the valuations. Some of them fell from the drought, but those who were able to live over the had times became wealthier than ever. At the present time the jJastoral interest is in a highly jn-osperons state. A sub- sequent part of this work gives the full statistics of this industry, from which it will be seen how wonderful has been the progress made by our " Shepherd Kings." AGRICULTURE. When the first colonists arrived, the country was parched iijj, the ground hard-baked and apparently unworkable. Yov some time the early settlers were content to sit down with the •conviction that agriculture on such a soil, and with such a -climate, was impossible. A great deal of suffering resulted from this false inference. The most important of all the necessaries of life had to be imported at a ruinous cost from Tasmania; and fiour was actually sold in Adelaide at £100 Chap. XI.] FIEST ATTEMPTS AT WHEAT-GEOWING. 59 per ton. Some daring colonists, liowcver, tliouglit they would honestly try whether wheat could not be produced on the Adelaide plains. The land was tilled, the seed deposited, and the result anxiously looked for. Happily, wheat-growing became a success from the beginning. Writing, as I do now, Avhen the result of the last harvest enabled us to export some- thing like 180,000 tons of brcadstuffs, after supplying our own wants, it seems almost absurd to think that the early fathers and founders of the Colony should even have enter- tained a doubt as to the productiveness of the soil and climate. For a lonir time, agriculture Avas confined within a radijis of say twenty miles of Adelaide, and persons " who ought to know " gravely asserted that beyond that radius agriculture was impossible. These persons, however, proved to be false prophets. During the last harvest, country 150 miles and more to the north of the metropolis has, without the cultivation necessary in England, produced splendid wheat, averaging from fifteen to eighteen bushels to the acre. And along the wliole distance from Adelaide to these northern areas, the land is covered with industrious and prosperous farmers. Up to the close of the year 1874 the total area of land alienated from the Crown amounted to 4,621,956 acres, 4,504,197 acres having been purchased in fee simple for cash, and 416,650 acres under the system of deferred payments — showing twenty-two and one-third acres per head of the jjopulation. Through the kindness of the Government Statist, I am able to bring down these figures to the present date. The total area alienated by cash sales is 4,319,102^ acres, for which has been realised £5,452,581 9s. 5d. Selec- tions of land on credit have been made to tlio number of 2076, comprising an area of 714,232^ acres, the purchase- money of which amounted to £934,519 13s. At the close of the year there were 1,330,484 acres under cultivation, of which there were under wheat 839,638 acres. The climate is capricious for wheat, and the average yield per acre I'rom year to year varies considerably. 'J'he 2)lagues from which farmers suffer are drought, red rust, takeall, and, very rarely, 60 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. [Chap. XL locusts. Tlie following tabic gives for a series of years the number of acres under wheat, the produce in bushels, the average j^er acre, and the average price per bushel in Adelaide : — Averai ?e per Average Season. Acrfs Acres under Produce. Ac le. I'rice. CultivaUd. AVheat. Bushels. Hush . lbs. s. d. 1858-9 2G4,4o2 188,703 2,109,544 11 11 — 1859-GO . 361,884 218,216 2,103,411 9 38 — ISGO-Gl . 428,816 273,672 3,576,593 13 4 • — 18GI-2. 4S6,(iG7 310,636 3,410,756 10 59 — 1SG2-:j 494,511 320,160 3,841,824 12 4 10 18G3-4 555.91)8 335,758 4,691,919 14 7 10 18G4-5 587,775 390,88G 4,252,949 11 8 7 1S6.VG 660,569 410,603 3,587,800 8 44 6 2 18G6-7 . 739,714 457,628 6,561,451 14 20 4 5 18G7-S 810,734 550,456 2,579,879 4 20 * 7 1 18GS-1) 808,231 533,035 5,173,970 9 42 5 1869-70 . 850,576 532,135 3,052,320 5 45 5 3 1870-71 . 95'.»,0it<; 604,761 6,961,164 11 30 5 1871-2 . 1,044,656 692,508 3,967,069 4 20 5 6 1872-3 . 1,164,846 759,811 8,735,912 11 30 5 5 1873-4 . 1,225,073 784,784 6,178,816 7 52 5 7 1874-r) . . 1,330,484 839,638 9,862,693 11 45 — A moderate estimate of £10 per ton gives £1,800,000 sterling as the result of the harvest, after* supplying all local wants. This fact shows liow important the agricultural interest is to the Colony generally. To this it must be added that South Australian wheat and flour are the finest produced in the world. This is seen by the fact that in London it brings the very highest price, and in the other Colonies it is bought to mix with their own cereal produce. The cost of cultivating wheat in South Australia is very small compared with that of other countries. Anything like scientific farming is rarely, if ever, attempted in the Colony. The old saying, '• Tickle the land with a hoe and it laughs with a harvest," is almost literally true hero. Virgin soil is ploughed up three or four inches deep, and often, without even fallowing it, the seed is thrown in, and, should the season be moderately favourable, a fair crop rewards the small labour of the husbandman. This goes on from year to year — anything like a rotation of crops is never attempted. There are farms in South Australia which have been annually cropped with wheat for twenty or twenty-five years, and yet last harvest they produced as abundantly as ever. W*^ iP^ A£.t--< Chap. XL] SMALL COST OF CULTIVATING WHEAT. 61 Though, the farming is what wouki l)e called slovenly in England, yet as a whole, and over a series of years, it answers the purpose of the agriculturist. There are many farmers who have grown rich in this way. Beginning on a small scale, with a section or two of eighty acres, they have, from the profits of one year, enlarged their freeholdings for the next, until several of them now have very large and valuable estates, which yield them a handsome income. From the table published aboA^e, it will be seen that the average price of wheat is low, and nothing could enable the farmer to thrive, with his comparatively small average per acre, and the low price at which he is compelled to sell, but the cheaj^ness of production. The expense of cultivation is small, and the gathering in of the crop, Mhen it is fully ripe, costs a mere trifle. The greatest invention ever produced for the agriculturists of South Australia is Ridley's reaping machine, which reaps and thrashes the wheat by one simple process. A machine of this kind could be used only where the climate is dry, and where the grain is allowed to ripen and harden in the ear. In some of the Australian Colonies the machine cannot be used, in consequence of the moisture in the air. In South Australia, however, as soon as the crop is fully ripe, the machine is put into the field, and the wheat is reaped and thrashed with amazing rajiidity, and at a very small expenditure. It may safely be said that the cost of farming has been reduced to the minimum in South Australia, It is curious to find that some of the most successful farmers are men who have been brought up to other trades. Thev seem to pick up the art and mystery of the business almost instinctively — proving clearly that in this Province no very great skill or experience is required to make a successful agriculturist. One result of this is, that there is a class of independent yeomanry settling on their own freehold lands, where they enjoy all the comforts of independence and abundance. Below I explain at length the provisions of the existing Land Acts, showing the easy terms on which any industrious man may get on the land, and, in the course of a few years, make it his own. C2 SOUTH AUSTEAIJA. [Chap. XTE. CPIAPTER XII. THE LAND LAWS. Upset Price of Land, One Pound per Acre — Division of Land into Hundreds — Original Land Laws — Cash Purchasers — Evils of Laud Broking — Strangways's Act — Credit Selections — Surveys — Conditions of Present Land System — Success of System in Northern Areas — New Townships and Ports. One principle on which South Australia was started as a Colony was the sale of the Crown lands at a price not under one pound per acre, the proceeds from the sale to be devoted to the introduction of immigrants. This princijile, however, was soon modified, and a large portion of the money obtained for the lands was devoted to the construction of roads and other public works, and sub- sequently to meeting the claims of the National Debt. The minimum price of one pound per acre has been strenuously adhered to. Waste lands, as the unsold Government lands are called, divided into Hundreds, and sub-divided into sections of about eighty acres each, were offered at auction at the upset price of one pound. Competition often ran up the price much beyond this amount, and hard-working farmers had but little chance in competition with mere speculators, who bought the land at a price which the farmer could not afford to give in cash, and subsequently let it to him at a good rental, with a right of purchase at twice or three times the amount of what it had originally cost. On the fall of the hammer, twenty per cent, of the purchase money liad to be paid down, and the remainder in one month from tlic sale. Lands that had been Chap. XII.] LAND LAWS. 63 offered at auction and passed the hannner could be taken up at any time at one pound per acre. ScA^eral attempts were made to alter the Avbole system of the land laws, which had been worked so as to benefit only a very small class of speculators at the expense of the agri- culturists. The average price per acre which the Government had received for the large territory alienated from the Crown was under 25s., but the price to the farmer, who had in many instances to purchase second-hand, was 50s. or 60s., or more — the difference between the two prices going into the hands of the speculators, for the accommodation they gave to the agri- culturists who had no money. Objectionable as the system was, it is only fair to say that many farmers have grown rich under it, and several speculators have done both themselves- and the farmers good, by rendering assistance to jioor men who wanted to get on the land. It Avas felt, however, that the Government might do for moneyless farmers what the capitalists and speculators had been doing, and might do it on much more reasonable terms. Instead of demanding cash, it was resolved to sell the lands on credit, with deferred payments, taking sufficient precautions of course that the land so disjjosed of should be occupied and cultivated. After great consideration, a measure was at last carried through the Legislature for this purpose, and became law. It is not necessary that I should encumber these pages with a minute description of what is known as " Strangways's Act," Avhich has been set aside for one more liberal, and better adapted to the requirements of poor men. It will be better to give a popular description of the law now in force, which \si\\ show intending immigrants how, on their arrival in this Colony, they can get possession of the land. The Land Ad of 1812. — Under this Act (amended in 1874) the whole of the Waste Lands of the Colony south of the 26th parallel of south latitude forms one area, from which, as fast as it is surveyed and declared open to the public, intending jjur- chasers can make their selections. There is no selection before survey, but an efficient staff of survey officers is always at work surveying the land as fast as it is required. Hundreds of C4 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. [Chap. XII. tlioiisands of acres arc always open for selection, and the work of the surveyors is still going forward. Price. — All waste lands, other than township and suburban, have a fixed value put upon them by the Commissioner of Crown Lands, not less than £1 per acre. In improved or re- claimed lands the cost per acre of the improvements and reclamation is added to the upset price of £1 per acre. Those lands which have been open for selection, or which have been offered at auction, and neither selected nor sold, may at the end of five years be offered for sale in blocks of not more than 3000 acres, on lease for ten years, at an annual rental of not less than Qd. per acre, with a right of purchase at any time during the currency of the lease at £1 per acre. How to get on the Land. — When any lands are declared open for selection, by j^roclamation in the Government Gazette, at a fixed price, a day is appointed for receiving applications for sections, not to exceed in the aggregate G40 acres, or one square mile. The person making the application shall pay at the time a deposit of ten per cent, on the fixed price, which sum shall be taken as payment of three years' interest in advance upon the purchase money. If the price of the land is £100, the selector would have to pay a deposit of £10, which Avill be all he will be required to pay to the Government for three years — about three and three-quarters per cent, per annum. At the end of three years he will have to pay another ten per cent., whicli will also be received as interest for the next three years. If at the end of six years he is not prepared to pay the whole of the purchase money, he can obtain other four years' credit, on payment of half the pur- chase money, and interest in advance on the other half at the rate of four per cent, per annum. Lands which have been open for selection two years and not taken up may be pur- rovince of South Australia -was rich in mineral however, amounted to many hundreds of thousands of pounds^ a great portion of which has been hopelessly lost. The colonists are subject to periodical fits of mining mania which runs like wildfire through the community, infecting all classes. It is difticult to know how these fits originate. Something promising is discovered in some likely locality. Mysterious hints are whispered about on 'Change about a " big thing " being discovered. Curiosity is excited, and mining brokers are on the qui vive. They who are in the secret wear an air of mysterious importance. Knots of knowing hands gather on the " flags." There are secret conferences, rushing of brokers to and fro ; hansom cabs are summoned, and one or two of the smartest of the brokers drive off in haste. All this indicates that something is up. Keen mining men, undeterred by past experience, are drawn into the excitement. A j)rospectus (more or less truthful) is draw-n up, shares are offered and taken up. After a while the shares are " bulled " or " bear'd " as occasion may arise. Often the discovery is a genuine one, and samples are shown to prove its A^alue. Then the country in the neigh- bourhood of the discovery is examined and becomes imme- diately valuable. Whei-e the lode is rich in a given locality, it must be rich all around it. If the original discovery, of which the value has been 2)roved, is called, say, the " Nil Des- perandum," there is soon started the '• Xorth Nil Desperan- dum," the " West Nil Desperandum," the " Great Extended Nil Desperandum," and such like. There is then a rush for shares, the brokers put money into their purses, and in a few days the excitement is at fever heat. Most of the con- tiguous "claims prove " duffers," or " shicers ; " and the unfor- tunate shareholders, having rushed into the speculation in haste, have opportunity to repent at leisure. Though a great deal of mischief has been wrought by these headlong panics, it must not be forgotten that mining enter- prise has often been pushed forward by such means. Some Chap. X\L] MINING A GEEAT BENEFIT TO COLONY. 91 have siiftered, but others by risking their property have helped to open out useful mines. The prizes, however, in this mining lotterv are much fewer than the blanks ; and while a few have grown rich by mining, the many have been cleared out of their hard earnings by thoughtlessly yielding to the excitement and being carried away in the rush. Mining at best is but a risky kind of business ; and yet legitimate mining has done much to make the Colony as prosperous as it now is. More detailed information on the mines and mining in South Australia will be found in a subsequent division of this work, by Mr. F. G. Waterhouse. 92 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. [Chap. XVTI. CHATTEE XYII. THE EIYER MURRAY AND ITS TRADE. Discovery of the Murray by Captain Sturt — Opeuing of Eiver for Traflic — Sir Henry Young's interest in the Kiver — Goolwa, Port Elliot, and Victor Harbour — Xcgloct of Trade — Efforts of Victorians to secure it — Eaihvay to the jMurray from Port Adelaide — The IVIurray Mouth — A proposed Canal to Goohva — Value of River to the Colony. The only river in South Australia deserving of the name is the Murray. We owe its discovery to Captain Sturt, one of the bravest and most successful of Australian explorers. In 1828 this intrepid gentleman was appointed by the Sydney Government to trace the River Macquarie to its source. He ran it into another river, which was named the Darling, after the Governor of Xew' South Wales. The following year Cap- tain Sturt was dispatched to follow up tlie discovery he had juade tlie year before, and fortunately for him and for Australia he diverged from his former route, and instead of following the 3Iacquarie and the Darling, he explored the Murrumbidgce. Mr. Anthony Foster, in his interesting and useful work on South Australia, thus describes Captain Sturt's discovery of the Murray : — " This river (the Murrumbidgee) Captain Sturt and his companions followed down for nearly four hundred miles, where, from its increasing narrowness, they were afraid they were about to lose it, and with it anti- cipated the loss of all their toil. But just as their hopes had been depressed to the lowest i)oint, and they were about to give way to despair, they found themselves suddenly projected by the contracting current into a magnificent stream, 350 feet wide, and from 15 to 20 feet deep. And this proved to bo the Chap. XVII.] OPENING OF EIVEE MUEEAY FOE TEAFFIC. 93 Murray, the Antipodean Nile, the prince of Australian rivers, Avhich has since been found to have a navigable course of nearly 2000 miles. Such a discovery was sufficient to have immortalized the name of any single explorer, but it was only the prelude to one of much greater importance — the discovery of the Adelaide Plains, and the extensive tracts of agricultural land which have since constituted South Australia the granary of the Southern Hemisphere." It was not until during the administration of Sir Henry Young that a vigorous attempt was made to navigate the great river. The Government offered a bonus of £4000 for the first two iron steamers, of not less than 40-horse power, and not more than two feet draught of water when loaded, that should successfully navigate the Murray from the Goolwa to the junc- tion of the Darling. The Murray Steam Navigation Comj)any was originated by Captain Cadell, a man of considerable energy and enterprise, and the late Mr. Younghusband, a wealthy merchant, who was subsequently Chief Secretary of the Colony. This Company soon placed a steamer, the Lady Augusta, called after the wife of the Governor, on the waters, and she commenced her trial trip amidst great eclat. In 1853 she started, under the command of Captain Cadell, with a party of ladies and gentlemen on board, including Sir Henry and Lady Young, to 23ut to the test the practicability of navigating the Murray. The little steamer safely pursued her course to Swan Hill, distant 1300 miles from Adelaide, from which His Excellency wrote a despatch to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, announcing the triumph he had achieved, and informing him that the steamer carried back to Adelaide a cargo of wool grown in the district, which was the opening of a great trade that would be for the benefit of the whole of Australia through all future time. This successful beginning was as successfully followed up for a time by other steamers being placed on the river, and a very considerable trade was begun. Ultimately, however, there was a collapse ; money was lost in the trade — some who tf)ok part in it having been almost ruined, amongst whom was the enthusiastic Captain Cadell ; the Company dissolved ; and 1)4 SOUTH AUSTKALIA. [CiiAr. XVIT. all the bright visions of the Murray being the 3Iississippi and Port Elliot the Xew Orleans of Australia vanished as the morning mists vanish before the rising sun. The Murray trade then got into other hands, and it lias been carried on Mitli more or less success until the present time. There are now several steamers on the river, and they are on the whole well supported. They not only navigate the Murray, but when the seasons allow, which is far more frequent now than when the trade at first began, they steam up the Darling as far as Fort Bourke, a distance of 800 miles from Wentworth, the junction of the two rivers. The one drawback to this noble stream is the difficulty and ilanjrer of exit and entrance throuiih its mouth. The Murrav mouth has been a standing difficrdty and disappointment to the Colony. It is continually shifting, silting up in one •channel and opening out anotlier. It is exposed to the full sweep of the gigantic waves of the Southern Ocean. Thougli river steamers have been navigated in and out hundreds of times, there is always some measure of risk about it. What is wanted is a safe and commodious harbour fur large vessels, where they can lie in security and be loaded with the upper river produce brought down by the shallow-bottomed steamers. To a certain extent, Victor Harbour has answered this purpose ; one or two good vessels do indeed load wool there during the season for the London market, and the Melbourne steamers call every voyage. But, however good the harbour itself may be, it has this serious defect — that river- borne wool has to be landed from the steamers at Goolwa, then conveyed about twelve miles by rail to Port Victor, put on board lighters, and then transhipped from the lighters to the ocean-going vessels. All this causes serious expense, and up to the present time has hampered and hindered the trade. ♦Shippers are not willing to send first-class vessels to Victor Harbour, ^^llere they have sometimes to lie for months before they fill up. Wool-growers up the river refuse to send their produce down while uncertainty exists as to finding vessels to take it off. The practical result has been that the produce of the river, wliich ought to liave. come to our seaboard, lias been Ill ill mil lilH Hlillllilllllll illlil •l^": J» Li LiiUiiSIl HIM I Chap. XYII.] BAIL WAY FEOM POET ADELAIDE TO MUEEAY. 95 gradually drifting away to Melbourne. The large and sin- gularly productive tract of country lying between the Upper ]Murray and the Murrumbidgee, called Riverina, ought to send its produce by water carriage to the mouth of the Murray ; our Victorian neighbours, however, have determined — appa- rently, at any cost — to secure this trade for Hobson's Bay. A railway has been carried from Melbourne to Echuca, a point on the Upj)er Murray ; and the Victorian Government are actually conveying the wool at a loss to the revenue. Much of the trade, it is feared, is hopelessly lost to this Colony ; and our object now is to retain that which still remains in our hands. There are two methods by which this is sought to be effected. The first, and most popular, is to connect the river direct with Port Adelaide by means of a railway. All the year round there are magnificent vessels at the Port Avaiting for freight ; and when the produce is once brought to Port Adelaide, it can be immediately dispatched for the home market. This cannot be done if it is sent down to Port Victor, where it may lie for weeks or months, before it can be shipped. To the sheepfarmer much depends on getting the produce early to market ; and wool will not be sent to any port where it cannot get quick dispatch. A railway to connect the Murray with the Port has been talked about for many years ; but there is now a probability of its becoming an accomplished fact. One great difficulty has been to fix upon a route for the line. Local jealousies have prevented unanimity. The present Government have fixed the route, as I have mentioned already, between Kapunda and the North-West Bend, and it is probable that this route will be iidopted by the Parliament. There is a strong and influential party, however, in favour of a line over the Mount Lofty range of hills, which would pass through a fruitful and settled district. The two great arguments in favour of this line are — first,' that it Avould secure a good trade from the very beginning ; and, secondly, that it would be the commencement of a great over- land line of railway connecting Adelaide with Melbourne and Sydney. These two arguments have great force. The time is 96 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. [Chap. XVII. not far distant when we shall ]\a\o the three Colonies joined by railway commnnication ; and if we must tap the Murray, something valuable would be gained by tapping it in such a direction, and the line constructed would be the beginning of an overland route. But the strongest, if not the only, argument against a line over the hills is its enormous cost. The lowest computation makes it about £1,200,000 for the seventy-five miles, which is more than the Colony can afford in its present circumstances. Wc want lines of railway in other parts of the Colony where there is less accommodation for the conveyance of produce to the seaboard. At £4000 per mile we could make 300 miles for the cost of the seventy-five miles over the range ; or at £5000 per mile, 240 miles. And it is considered much wiser at the present time to open out new country with 300 or 240 miles of railway than to spend £16,000 per mile over a line of only seventy-five miles over a country where excellent roads already exist. It is this consideration that outw eiglis the many advan- tages which a line to the river over the hills undoubtedlv possesses. But apart from railways altogether, there is another great scheme before the public, which is enthusiastically advocated by the people in the south. That is to make a new mouth to the Murray, which w-ould enable ocean-going vessels of large tonnage to i)ass in and out without difficulty or danger. Tlie harbour of Goolwa on the river is large and commodious, and has a sufficient depth of water to enable a considerable fleet of large vessels to lie safely, if once they Avere inside. This harbour is not more than a mile from the ocean in a straight line across the sandhills. The scheme proposed is to cut a canal through the sand of sufficient depth and width to permit large vessels to pass in and out. The question is one of engineering and cost ; and these two are closely connected. Engineers say that if a cutting were made the fall in the river would be quite sufficient to scour the channel and to keep it always clear. The great difficulty, however, is the fact that tlic mouth of the canal would have no protection against the full swell of the Southern Ocean, and that there Chap. XVIL] PROPOSED CANAL TO GOOLWA. 97 would be times when it would Le impossible for vessels to attempt the passage in safety. The answer to this is, that such times are by no means frequent, and that when the weather was too stormy for vessels to make the entrance, they could run for Victor Harbour, a few miles off, where they could lie safely until the weather moderated. The Engineer- in-Chief cannot recommend the Government to undertake the work of making a canal ; but the people in the South have obtained an Act to enable a private company to undertake the work, and Mr. B. Boothby, C.E., has prepared plans showing how it can be carried out at a moderate cost. Whether the scheme is feasible, it is not my business tt> say, as it is really a matter of engineering ; but if it is, and is carried out, it will be one of the greatest works ever accom- plished in the Colony. It will be the creation of a new port, and will secure the upper river trade to an extent Avhich it is impossible to estimate. There is untold wealth, agricultural, pastoral, and mineral, in the immense river territory, which cannot be fully developed in consequence of the cost of conveying the produce to a market which would be developed within a very few years if the river were opened to sea-going vessels. If is not too much to say that we have not turned the one great river we possess to full account as a highway for the conveyance of produce. A port at its mouth which would receive large vessels would more than anything else enable us to use the river as we ought ; and if the southern colonists are successful in their bold and spirited scheme, they will do more for the substantial prosperity of the Province than has ever yet been accomplished. Without being over-sanguine, I believe a great future lies before the Colony in the fuller development of the river trade. H 98 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. [CHAr. XVIII. CHAPTEE XYIII. THE TllANS-AUSTRALIAN TELEGEAril. Origin of Idea — Stuart's Travels — Cable Company's Proposal — Commander NoelOsborn — Act passed for Construction — Mr. Todd's Preparations — Difficulties of ihe Undertaking — First Failures — Mr. Patterson's Expe- dition — Mr. Todd's Expedition — Completion of Work — First Telegram — Banquet in Adelaide to celebrate Completion of Work — Great Success — Conflicts -nith Natives — Lines and Cables to Kew Zealand and Western Australia. Probably nothing that has been dune during the history of South Australia has more strikingly brought out the enter- prise of the Colonists than the construction of the Overland Telegraph. A few years ago the heart of the continent was a terra incognita, about -which there were strange dreams and speculations. Now a Mcll-built line of telegraph has been carried nearly 2000 miles from Adelaide in the south to Port Darwin in the north, and this great work has brought the whole of Australia into telegraphic communication with every part of the civilized world. We owe this great work primarily to Charles Todd, C.M.G., the accomplished and indefatigable Superintendent of Telegraphs in the Colony. I purpose 'i-ivinarty, on an exploration to the north. Ilis surgeon was 3Ir. J. H. Browne, now a wealthy squatter, and his draughtsman, 3Ir. J. 3IcDouall 8tuart, who was destined to be the first white man who travelled across the continent from south to north. His- journey would be worth describing if I had space here to de- scribe it. No party ever suffered more than tliis did. For six months they were shut up far away to the north, able neither to advance nor retreat, in a temperature averaging 100 degrees. Again and again Captain Sturt and Mr. Bro\Nne struck out in various directions, trying to find a practicable outlet from the- miserable trap into which they had fallen. The water in the creek on which they were camped was gradually disappearing, and the prospect was a very gloomy one. One of the party, Mr. Poole, became very ill, and the leader of the exploration resolved to send him and Mr. Browne back to Adelaide ; but 3Ir. Browne resolutely resisted, and wished to remain to share the fate of his intrepid chief. Poor Poole sunk under X)riva- tion and disease, and was buried in the far distant bush, another martyr to scientific discovery. Captain Sturt still refused to return. At length sickness broke down the little remaining strength of the party ; Captain Sturt became so feeble that he- lost the use of his limbs. Sturt succumbed at last, and the party had reluctantly to retrace their steps. On reaching Murrundee the party rested for a while, and Mr. Browne pushed on to Adelaide to announce their return. In 18G6, after an absence of eighteen months, Captain Sturt arrived in Adelaide. Mr. Foster, to whom I am much indebted for this chapter, says in his Avork on South Australia : — " The results of an exploring expedition depend so much upon the nature of the season when it is undertaken that it is difficult to say whether or not Captain Sturt might have succeeded in crossing the continent had he followed up some of the advantages he had gained. Cooper's Creek, which he discovered, is now found to be the key to the route across to Port Darwin and tlic Gulf of Car- pentaria. Had he traced it further in its easterly course, it. Chap. XIX.] STUAET'S EXPLOEATIONS. ll'* must Lave brought hiiu to the Barcoo, and from thence the country \voukI have been open to liim either to the north or to the north-east." For a while after Sturt's journey South Australian explora- tion appeared to rest ; but several expeditions were undertaken by the Government between 1857 and 1859, without adding- very much to our knowledge of the interior. In 1859, Mr, Stuart, Sturt's former companion and draughtsman, commenced that grand series of exploring journeys which, after many difficulties and disappointments, at length terminated so successfully. In the first instance he went out as the agent of Messrs. Chambers and Finke, gentlemen interested in pastoral jjursuits ; but the tale he had to tell on his return from these journeys induced the Government to fit out an expedition for further exploration of the continent, of which they gave Mr, Stuart the command. He failed in his first attempt ; but the Government had confidence in his prudence and determi- nation, and they sent him out again. Again he failed, simply because under the circumstances it seemed impossible to succeed. For a third time he offered his services to the Government, which were again accepted. He had an ex- cellent party fitted out at the expense of the Government, con- sisting of himself in command ; W. Kekwick, second ; F. G. Waterhouse, naturalist ; F. W. Thring, third officer ; W. P. Auld, assistant ; S. King, J. Billiat, J. Frew, H. Nash, and J. McGorgery. They pushed on from the terminus of Stuart's former journey, and on the whole the difficulties were fewer than they anticipated. On July 10, 1862, they struck the Adelaide Eiver, and Stuart then knew that his triumph was. near. In his journal he says : — " July 24. Started twenty minutes to eight o'clock, course north. I have taken this course in order to make the sea-coast as soon as possible, which I suppose to be distant about eight and a half miles ; by this I hope to avoid the marsh. I shall travel along the beach to the north of the Adelaide. I did not inform any of the party except Thring and Auld that I was so near the sea, as I wished to give them a surprise on reaching- it. ... At eight and a half miles came up in a broad I 2 116 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. [Chap. XlX. valley of Mack alhivial soil, covered A\ith long grass; from this I can licar tlio Avasli of the sea. . . . Stopped the horses to clear the way whilst I advanced a few yards on to the beach, and was delighted and gratified to behold the water of the Indian Ocean in Van Diemen's Gnlf before the party with the horses knew anytliing of its jiroxiniity. Thring, who rode in advance of me, called out, 'The sea!' which so took Ihcni all by surprise that he had to repeat the call before they understood what was meant ; hearing which they immediately gave three long and hearty cheers. . . . Thus have I through the instrumentality of Divine Providence been led to accomplish the great object of the expedition, and to take the whole party through as witnesses to the fact, and through one of the finest countries man would wish to pass — good to the coast, and with a stream of running water close to the sea." It is impossible to over-estimate the value of Stuart's last and crowning cx})editiou. It threw daylight upon a country of which little or nothing was previously known ; it showed that it was possible to cross this country, and in ordinary seasons to find water at easy distances ; and it led to the commencement of the great work of the transcontinental telegraph line, which has brought the whole of the Australias into daily communication with the old world. Mr. Stuart was rewarded by the Government and the Parliament for the magnificent work he had accomplished ; and full of honours he returned to the old country to end his days. He received the Gold Medal of the Koyal Geographical Society for his important discoveries ; but he did not live long to enjoy his honours and rewards. The hardships he suffered told even- tually even on his iron constitution. His name, however, is imperishably connected with exploration in Australia. He led the way which it is comparatively easy now to follow. He was the pioneer in a land which had never before been trodden by the foot of white man ; and to-day there are thriving cattle stations where a dozen years ago Stuart urged his weary way amidst the unbroken stillness of Nature, when it was doubtful whether he would succeed or lie down in the desert to die. Chap. XIX.] COLONEL WAEBUETON'S EXPEDITION. 117 It docs not come within the scope of this work to describe at length the melancholy and disastrous history of the ex- pedition fitted out by the Victorian Government to find a way across the continent, and of which a brave man — Richard O'Hara Burke — was the leader. The Burke and Wills ex- pedition was sadly mismanaged, and resulted in the sacrifice of the lives of the leaders, who, almost within sight of home, lay down in the bush and died, utterly worn out and exhausted. These men crossed the continent to the shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria, and returned as far as Cooper's Creek, where their strength gave way, and they fell vanquished in the strife bv hunger, thirst, and fatigue. The Victorian Government nobly sent out an expedition to bring back the remains of these brave men to Melbourne for sepulture, and, strangely enough, Mr. A. Hewitt, the officer in charge of the precious burthen, arrived in Adelaide on the very day the colonists here were welcoming Stuart on his return from his successful journey. Our most recent exploration was that of Col. Warburton, who was commissioned by the Hon. T. Elder (who has shown a spirit of large-hearted enterprise, not only with reference to exploration, but in relation to the progress of the Colony in various ways) to search for cattle country to the west of the Telegraph line, in the centre of the continent. The gallant Colonel was an old explorer, and in S23ite of his many years he undertook the trying work. Several camels were placed at his disposal, and he had a small and carefully selected party to accompany him. He started from one of the stations on the Telegraph line in high hope for the west. Many months passed without any news being heard of him, and grave misgivings were felt as to the fate of the expedition. At length, however, after a silence of something like twelve months, news was heard of him. One of his party turned up at one of the most northern stations in Western Australia and reported that the brave old Colonel was camped many miles away, with no provisions but camel's flesh — and very little of that ; ill, wasted to a shadow, gaunt, and half-starved. Imme- diate assistance was sent to him, and it was just in time. The 118 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. [Chap. XIX. imrtv could not liavo surviNcil many davs lonii'er. Nothing could exeoiMl the kindness and Imnianity of the AVestern Australian (Jovornnicnt and |)fo]>l(\ The Chief Secrctavy. the lion. A\'. Jiarh'O, made the ex])edition his special care, supplied them with all that was necessary for their comfort — and that included almost every thina- — and then sent them on to Adelaide, where the gallant Colonrd was received with enthu- siasm. He subsequently visited England, received the Gold Medal of the Royal Geographical Society, and was made C.M.G. in 1875. Happily this Colony had an o[iportuiiity of returning the kindness of our western neighbours to Colonel Warburton and his party. I have already mentioned the fact that Mr. John Forrest, a young West Australian, some years ago travelled from King George's Sound to Adelaide on the route Avhich 3Ir, E. J. Eyre travelled thirty years before. Proud of his success, the AVcstern Australian Government commissioned him again to tind a way from the westward to South Australia, in a latitude nearer the centre of the continent ; in fact, somewhere on the line which Colonel Warburton contemplated when he set out. Mr. Forrest had a very small party, consisting of his brother Alexander, two assistants, and two black fellows. This small party endured great hardship, and were exposed to many dangers. The country through which they passed was wretched in the extreme until they got within a few hundred miles from the Telegraph line. Nothing but indomitable pluck and careful management on the part of the leader could have saved the party. But at length, after four months' weary travelling, they struck the line, and ran it down until they came to a telegraph station, Avhere they received from the master in charge such a welcome as brave men were entitled to. The news of their safe arrival was telegraphed to Adelaide the same day, and caused the greatest delight to the people here. It was resolved that they should have a public reception, and that something should be done to show how we appreciated the kindness of the West Australian people to our veteran explorer. Colonel AVarburton. The day of Air. Forrest's Chap. XIX.] FOEREST — GOSSE — LEWIS. 119 entrance into Adelaide "was kept as a general holiday. Thousands of persons crowded into the city from all parts of the Colony ; the streets through which the little party passed were gaily decorated ; they were greeted with en- thusiasm as they rode in their travelling equipage on their poor lean horses ; and congratulatory addresses were presented to them. Not even when the Duke of Edinburgh entered Adelaide was there a greater, or a more enthusiastic, crowd to welcome him. We have had other explorers of late years also, who, through no fault of their own, have been less successful than those we have referred to. Mr. Gosse and Mr. Lewis have made some valuable discoveries of country to the west of the Telegraph line, and they have added considerably to our knowledge of the country ; but their discoveries have not been of a character so vividly to strike the imagination as those I have briefly attempted to describe. They have had their uses, however, and their value will be acknowledged in time to come. As a Colony we are very proud of what we have accom- plished in the way of exploration. No community so small has ever done what we have in this respect, and the cost has been very trifling to the Colony. Our explorers soon learnt the important lesson, that to be successful they must travel lightly, with as few impedimenta as possible. Some of the earlier expeditions broke down by their own weight ; and it was found that a lightly equipped party of about half-a-dozen men of the right sort could accomplish a great deal more than one provided on a more ambitious scale. Poor Burke discovered this, and he left his cumbersome party behind, and ]nade a dash across the continent with only two or three companions. Australia has a beadroll of martyrs to scientific exploration of which any country might feel proud ; and we feel proud of them. Their material rewards have been but little, but their names are written in ineffaceable letters on the annals of the (Jolony, and future generations Avill point to them as amongst the bravest and noblest of Australia's sons. Amongst the 120 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. [CnAr. XIX. Colonies who have furnished some of the bravest of these. South Australia oceupies a prominent place. Indeed, when- ever a man has loeen needed for any special 'work, requiring peculiar gifts and qualities, that man has been forthcoming ; and in nothing has this been more manifest than in the; number and character of our explorers. Chap. XX.] STAPLE INDUSTRIES. 121 CHAPTEE XX. COLONIAL INDUSTKIES. Stajile Industries — AVool, Wheat, and Copper — Meat Preserving — Manu- facture of Leather — Woollen Manufactures — Wine-making; Vineyards — Other Industries — Chamber of Manufactures. I HAVE already mentioned the three great staple industries of the Colony which over a series of years have been the source of our wealth — pastoral, agricultural, and mining jDursuits. All these are established on a permanent basis, and bid fair to enrich us for ages to come. The immense tracts of country which lie far away in the interior must be devoted to pastoral occupation with yearly increasing flocks and herds, the source of untold wealth to the squatters or sheep-farmers. The quantity of agricultural land taken up for industrial 'settle- ment is increasing year by year, and there are millions of acres which, with the manifest changes now taking place in our climate, will yet be surveyed and purchased for agri- cultural industry. All that is wanted to open out a large portion of this valuable territory is facile means of communi- cation with a market. Unless carriage of produce be made cheap, we shall soon reach the boundary beyond which wheat cannot be profitably cultivated. The Colony is awakening to the importance of this subject, and there is a determination to build light and cheap lines of railway to various parts of the province, by wliich the produce can be carried at a moderate rate. Wheat-growing is certain to extend, and wo shall have to look more steadily to the old countries of Europe fur a market. As the shipping charges for freight to England 122 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. [Chap. XX. jiiiuniiit to soiuctliiii;^- like half tlie value — soinetimos cunsicU-r- iibly more — of the grain as sold here, every means will have to be tried to cheapen carriage within the Colony. Our great ■copper mines on the Peninsula show no signs of failure, but are AS rich now as ever they were. In addition to these there are vast tracts of country which are full of minerals, and which will be developed as mining property so soon as we can get •over the serious cost of transit to the seaboard. Our three ^reat staple industries, then, bid fair to be permanent. But there are other industries which are slowly taking root amongst us, and which only want a little fostering care to develop into something greater and more profitable. Amongst these I may mention the preserving of meat, which has become a very important trade. Its progress, however, is dependent on the price of sheep, AVhen they fetch a good price in the open market, it does not pay to preserve them, h^o far as the sheep-farmer is concerned, one of the uses of preserving is to keep the price of sheep from falling below a <;ertain price. In this way the price can always be kept up to a •certain remunerative figure. Of course this is better for the pro- maintain the proportion of the nationalities — English, Irish^ and Scotch — according to the proportion in the United King- 7 important and a numerons body. The first Bishop was Dr. 3[urphy, who was respected by the whole Colony and beloved by his own people. He was succeeded by Bishop Geohegan, who, after a few years of service, gave place to .-Bishop Shiel, a genial, fine-spirited old ecclesiastic, who died in the Colony amidst general expressions of regret. The present Bishop is Dr. Eeynolds, a quiet, hard-working clergyman, who served his Church in the Colony for many years as an industrious, toiling priest. His co-religionists are proud of the fact that one of their own priests, whose self-denying labours were so well known to them, was selected by His Holiness the Pope for the highest ecclesiastical honours in the Colony. Bishop Keynolds has a large staff of priests and sisters under him, a considerable portion of them being connected with the Society of Jesus. The Jesuits devote themselves very largely to the work of education, and they have a college in the North for religious and secular students, which is said to be very ably conducted. There is also a convent in Adelaide, under the management of Dominican nuns, which is devoted to the education of young ladies. The ordinary schools are con- ducted by several sisterhoods, members of which also devote themselves extensively to works of charity. The Wesley an Methodists are a large body, and the country districts owe much to them for the religious ordi- nances which they enjoy. In this work they are ably sup- ported by the Primitive Methodists and Bible Christians, who have erected chapels in and supplied religious teaching to every little village and hamlet in the Province. Their ministers, regular and lay, work hard, and the sparsely popu- lated districts owe much to them. The Wesleyans have a large number of churches and preaching places, a numerous body of preachers and Sunday School teachers, and they constitute one of the most powerful of all the religious bodies. The other two bodies I have mentioned, who have a close resemblance in doctrine and organization to the old Wesleyans, have less influence in society than the old Wesleyans, but in the extent of their self-denying labours they are second to none. The Congregationalists, Baptists, and Presbyterians, occupy lo8 SOUTH AUSTEALTA. [Chap. XXII. a different ecclesiastical position, and aim at a more restricted Avork than the churches I have already referred to. Their work lies principally in the centres of population, where they manage to attract the intelligent, hard-headed, and practical men amongst us. 3Iembers of these Churches are foremost in political life, and they come to the front in business and political organizations. They are rich in handsome churches^ and strong in social influence. Their ministers are amongst the best educated and the most eloquent preachers in the Colony, and their people amongst the well-to-do colonists. The conduct of the Press of the Colony has been very much in their hands. Possibly the freedom of thought engendered by democratic ecclesiastical institutions has something to do with the position they take in the politics and Press of the Province. Amongst the smaller denominations, the Unitarians, who have one pretty little church in the City, occupy a prominent l)osition for their intelligence and social influence. All these Churches build their places of A\orship, support their ministers^ carry on their Sunday Schools, and engage in many works of benevolence, without receiving one penny from the State. I ought to say also that the Jews, Avho form a very respectable and influential section of the community, have erected a. handsome synagogue in Adelaide, which is presided over by an accomplished minister. Chap. XXIII.I FIEST EDUCATION ACT, 1851. 139 CHAPTER XXIII. EDUCATIOX. First Education Act passed, 1851 — Its Piinciples and Organization — Good done by it — Colony outgrown it — Attempts to pass a New Act — Now successful — Higher Education — University — Princely Gifts of Mr. W. W. Hughes and Hon. T. Elder — Council of University — Institutes. The system of public education in South Australia has existed for nearly a quarter of a century, the Act constituting it having- been passed in 1851. Its original intention was to assist, by Government grants, the people to educate their children, giving them "a good secular instruction, based on the Christian religion, but apart from all theological and con- troversial differences on discipline and doctrine." The Act has been administered by an Education Board, with paid secretary and inspectors. The Board licenses schoolhouses and teachers, and, within certain restrictions, assists teachers by annual grants which they receive in addition to the school fees. Though over a series of years the system worked mode- rately well, and under it a considerable proportion of the population have received a fair amount of elementary instruc- tion, it has been felt of late that something better and more adapted to the present state of the Colony was needed. Under the old system the teachers were miserably j)aid, and the qualifications of many of them far below the growing necessi- ties of the community. Several attempts have been made to pass an improved Bill through Parliament, but until the pre- sent time these have not been successful. It has been difficult to settle the principles of a great and comprehensive measure, and until these were settled, no further step could be taken. 140 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. [CHAr. XX HI. Tliis year, however, the Government introduced, and luive carried through Parliament, a greatly improved measure, whi(^h has received the Governor's assent, and is now the law of the land. The future management of the public education will be in the hands of a Council of Education, with a paid presi- dent, secretary, and insj)ectors, directly responsible to the 3[inister of Education. Schools will bo established wherever there is a certain number of children of a school age, who will 23ay a moderate fee to the teachers. In addition to the fees, the teachers will be paid, by the Government, through the Council, salaries varying from £100 to £300 per annum. Schoolhouses will be provided, and the necessary education, material. Grants of public lands will be set apart every year, and placed under the control of the Council, the rents from which will be devoted to school purposes. Four and a half hours each day will be devoted to secular instruction, previous to which the Bible may be read without note or explanation : practically, the instruction will be secular. All children of school age will be required to be under instruction until a certain standard of attainment, to be fixed by the Council, is reached : so far, the system will be compulsory. Provision is made for the gratuitous instruction of children whose parents can show that they are not able to pay for it ; but fees may be enforced in all cases where inability to pay them has not been proved. It will thus be seen that the three great prin- ciples of public education which are now so much in vogue are adopted in the Bill, with certain modifications. The education is secular — but not to the exclusion of the Bible ; free to those who cannot afford to pay a small fee ; and com- pulsory wherever practicable. Provision is also made for the establishment of model and training schools, of boards of advice, and for the systematic examination of teachers, and their classification according to their attainments and pro- ficiency. The Government propose to borrow for the present erection of schoolhouses, and has voted a large sum for the payment of teachers' stipends out of the general revenue. No one claims anything like perfection for the measure, but it is the best that could be carried under the present circum- Chap. XXIII.] NEW ACT— HIGHEE EDUCATION. 141 stances of the Colony, and it is a very great improvement on the system which it is intended to snppLxnt. For higher education we have some admirable educational institutions, at the head of which stands St. Peter's Collegiate School, belonging tQ the Church of England, and under the very efficient management of the Kev. Canon Farr, M.A. This school was established in 1818, mainly by the exertions of the Bishop, and it was incorporated the following year. It occupies very handsome and commodious premises in a pleasant suburb about a mile from Adelaide. The course of education is liberal, and some valuable exhibitions and scholarships are connected with it. Several of the youths trained in it have taken good positions at the English Uni- versities. It is pursuing a career of usefulness which will increase every year. Prince Alfred College belongs to the Wesleyan Methodists, and is a more recent institution. The fine pile of buildings, a ])ortion of which, however, is only completed, occupies a pleasant site a little way out of town ; and the first stone was laid in 1867 by H.E.H. the Duke of Edinburgh, on his first visit to the Colony. The branches of a liberal education are taught, under the head mastership of Mr. J. A. Hartley, B.A., who vacates his position shortly in order to enter U2)on the responsible duties of President of the Council of Education ; and the institution has been well supported from the beginning. In addition to these two public institutions, there are several high-class private schools in the Colony, several of which have been eminently successful in turning out fairly educated young men, many of whom are now occupying honourable positions in the Colony. Our most recent success in education has been the esta- blishment of the Adelaide University, which is now in process of formation. We owe this institution to the generosity and public spirit of a wealthy colonist, Mr. W. W. Hughes, who has been very successful in connection with copper mining on Yorke's Peninsula. A few gentlemen anxious to found a 142 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. [Chap. XXIII. oolle<^e, primarily lor the education of candidates for the Christian ministry, waited upon Mr. Hughes to ask for a con- tribution in aid of the movement. The intimation they received of Mr. Hughes's proposed benevolence pointed to a sum so much beyond their largest expectations that for a moment they were somewhat bewildered by the munificence of the proposed gift. Mr. Hughes offered £20,000 ; and the projectors of the Union College, principally clergymen of various denominations, very much to their credit, suggested the establishment of a University rather than a college. My. Hughes consented, and endowed two chairs of £600 per annum each, simply reserving the right of nominating the two first professors. The movement grew, an Act was passed bv Parliament for the incorporation of the University, and a grant of 50,000 acresof land was made towards its support, with a building site of five acres on Xorth-terrace ; and an annual grant of 5 per cent, from the public funds on all sums contri- buted for the University. The only conditions required were that no religious tests should be required of either students or professors, and that the first council should be nominated by the Governor as soon as the Bill was carried through Parlia- ment. The Hon. Thomas Elder, a wealthy merchant and sheep-farmer, spontaneously gave a donation similar to that of Mr. Hughes, £20,000, without any conditions or restrictions -whatever. These acts of princely generosity are creditable to •ijentlemen who have made their wealth in the Colony, and will 110 doubt be followed by others on whose industry Providence has smiled. The whole control of the University is vested in a council of twenty members. The Chief Justice, Sir Richard Davies Hanson, Knight, has been elected Chancellor ; and the Bishop of Adelaide, Dr. Short, Yice-Chancellor. These ap- pointments gave general satisfaction. The two '' Hughes Professors," the Rev. John Davidson and the Rev. Henry Read, M.A., occupy the chairs of I'^nglish Language and Literature and Mental and floral Philosophy, and Classics and Comparative Philology. The Council have secured in England a Professor of Mathematics, 3Ir. Horace Lamb, and I'll liiii'r Waterfall. Mortalta, Adelaide. Chap. XXIII.] ADELAIDE TJNIVEKSITY— INSTITUTES. 143 another of Natural Sciences, Mr. Tate, who are expected to arrive in the Colony early in 1876. The University is at present in its infancy, but it will soon be in full working order. My short sketch of our educational means and appliances would be incomplete without some reference to the South Australian Institute and Museum. It was incorporated by Act of Parliament in 1855, to promote the general study of the arts, sciences, literature, and philosojihy. It possesses a valuable library, and a good museum. A j)art of the library is circulating, and a part for reference and perusal in the read- ing-room. The Museum is under the competent management of Mr. Waterhouse, whose interesting chapter on the Fauna and Minerology of South Australia will be found in this volume. Both the Institute and Museum are sadly crippled for want of space, but this will be remedied shortly, as plans for a new building have been selected by the Government. The Institute is supj)orted by an annual vote from the public funds, and by the personal subscriptions of members. The Society of Arts and the Philosophical Society are affiliated to the Institute, and have a share in its management. Country Institutes, which are widely spread over the Colony, are branches of the principal Institute in the city, and are supplied with books and periodicals from town. The Parliament have always contributed pound for pound raised by voluntary subscriptions towards the erection of the country Institutes, and to assist towards the annual expenses. Looking at all these facts, I think it will be admitted that for so young a Colony, with so limited a population as South Australia, it is to our credit that we have not forgotten the necessity and importance of having trained up amongst us an intelligent and well-taught people. The results have been satisfactory on the whole. The majority of our young people are fairly educated and fitted for the positions which they occupy, or to which they aspire. Several of our Members of Parliament were born and have been educated in the Colony, and they shape well in the performance of their legislative duties. 144 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. [Chap. XXTV. CHAPTEK XXIY. CONCLUSION. Colonization an Imperial Qu(;stion — Federation — No Degeneracy in Popula- tion in Australia — Advantages of South Australia — Wealthy Colonists — Comfort of Colonists — Ko Poverty — Colony needs to be better known — A great Future before it. There is no doubt that colonization will continue to be a question of the greatest interest to the British people. Our old island home in the North Sea is getting over-crowded, and an outlet is wauted for its surplus population. This has been felt for years past, and some millions of the Queen's subjects have been forced out of the land of their fathers to find or make a " Greater Britain " in the lands of the west and the south, and to reproduce there — shall I say with amendments and improvements ? — the institutions under which they were nurtured. Most of these have settled in the United States of America, and have been lost to the nation as British subjects. Great numbers, however, have settled in Canada, where the separate Colonies now form one great confederated people, with a history before them the magnificence of which it is impossible to forecast. These Colonies of Australia arc of more recent origin ; but their progress has been great and remarkable. Wo must bear in mind tliat we are 15,000 miles away from the mother country, and tliat under ordinary circumstances about three months must be spent on the ocean by those who immigrate before they can reach the new country of their adoption. This fact, of course, places the Colonies of Australia at a disadvantage when compared with Canada or the United States. Notwithstanding this, however, Ave have made large Chap. XXIV.] ADVANTAGES OF SOUTH AUSTEALIA. 145 progress during the last forty or fifty years. The foundation of future greatness has been well laid ; and when we become a confederated nation, A\hich must happen within a very few years, we shall reproduce in the Southern Pacific, with such modifica- tions as are duo to soil and climate, another Britain, which will play its part in the future history of the world. So far we see no signs of degeneracy in the race. There are differences slowly going on, and probably in the course of a few years the physical peculiarities of Australians will be as distinctively marked and separate from the native-born Britons as the American type has become in 200 years. There may be alteration without deterioration ; and I believe the intellectual and moral life of the peoj)le here will sufter no decline. We shall differ in accidentals from the old stock, as the man differs from the child — but the real manhood of the Anfflo- Saxon race will remain, in spite of all accidental changes ; and those qualities which have made our fathers great will not be lost by their far-off children. So I believe it will be with our political institutions and our social life. We shall modify these without destroying their higher qualities. In some respects the new generation of the south may improve upon the old tyjie, while we hold fast by the underlying principles which have made it famous. Amongst the Colonies which are destined to greatness, I believe South Australia is in the foremost rank. She possesses most of the elements of expansion and progress. I know no Colony which presents greater attractions or gives a higher promise of success to careful, industrious, hopeful settlers than South Australia does. It has a magnificent and salubrious climate, a fruitful soil, an abundance of mineral Avealth, millions of acres of unoccupied land inviting the industrv of man. It has a free Government, liberal institutions, the smallest amount of taxation, and the necessaries of life are obtainable at the cheapest rate. Its land laws will enable any industrious man to get on the soil, and in the course of a few years to make a handsome estate his own with only hard work and moderate self-denial. No man in South Australia who has health, and is willing to work, need be poor — as poverty is L 146 SOrXH AUSTIIALIA. [(HAr. XXIV. miderstooil and iVlt in the older eoniitrics of liUrope, There are hundreds who came here with nothing!: who are now wealthy men, whose families are growing- up around them in positions of respectability and lionour. Some have returned to the old country to educate their (diildren, and to show them something- of the relinements which belong to the more settled states of society ; but most of tliem, after a few years' absence, return to the land where they liave acquired their wealth, made their homes, and formed those associations which are most abiding. With a wise forethought, the Imperial Government have from time to time recommended some of the most useful of the Colonists to Her Majesty for special distinction, as those who have served their country well ; and, as a rule, honours thus conferred have been worthily w orn. Some names have already taken root amongst us, brought by worthy settlers in the beginning of the Colony's history, which will go down with honour to the coming generation as the names of the Pilgrim Fatliers are now honoured in New England. While large fortunes have been acquired by a special class, the savings of the poorer have been considerable. More than three-quarters of a million sterling is deposited in the Savings Bank, the interest on which varies from 4 per cent, to 5 per cent. Most of this belongs to the humbler classes, and repre- sents a portion of their savings. It is, however, only a small portion. Many of the artisan class have, through the aid of building societies, erected for themselves comfortable cottages, surrounded by pretty, fruitful gardens, and they are thus able to live rent-free — a matter of no small moment in a country where house rent is high. For real substantial comfort there arc few countries more highly favoured than South Australia. The large sums of money which liavo been raised ^oluntarily for the building of churches and the support of religious and educational institutions, show a well-to-do people, who, after supplying their own wants, can si)are considerable sums for such objects. I have been many years in the Colony, and I can honestly say I have never seen anything approaching to the terrible poverty and consequent suffering Avhich I remember existing P Chap. XXH'.] THE COLONIAL QUESTION. 147 in such towns as Liverpool, Birmingham, Newcastlc-on-Tvne, and London. When I have seen the comfort in which the l^oorest, who can work and are willing to work, live in this Province, the abundance of good food — not to mention the luxuries — which they enjoy, I have wished that we could transjjort to our shores such of the sufiering English poor as are willing to work if they could only obtain remunerative emjjloyment. I honestly believe that if the Colony of South Australia were better known ; if the advantages it offers to the working classes and industrious men with some little capital were under- stood, thousands of families w'ould soon be attracted to its shores. Very much land remains to be possessed and subdued and brought into use. For this, above all things, we want people, and I believe the people will come when they know ■what we have to offer them. The " Colonial Question " is one for the Empire as well as for the Colonies. As the father lives jigain in his children and grandchildren, so Great Britain lives again, perhaps a more vigorous and a grander life, in her Oolonies. All we ask from home is a word of encouragement now and then, and a spirit of forbearance and a forgiving sympathy if we do occasionally make a mistake or two. To make mistakes belongs to the period of youth, and as we grow older we shall grow wiser. We do not ask for money — we can make plenty of that for ourselves ; but we sometimes hunger for a kind word of recognition, and we do ask that our efforts — blundering as they may sometimes prove — to raise up a new England in the south, not unworthy of the old stock from ■which we came, may be treated with respect. We are even now the best customers England has for her merchandise ; we supply her ^^■ith a great deal tliat she needs, and without w hicli she would be less ju-osperous than she is. We take her as our model, and try to be what she has been in her grandest days, and we say, " Do not look coldly upon us ; for one day vou will be as proud of us as a father is proud of his brave and stalwart sons." L 2 148 SOUTH AUSTEATJA. [Surr. Chap. SUPPLEMENTAEY CHAPTER. THE NOETHERN TERRITOEY. Acquisition of Territory by South Australia — First Attempts at Settlement — Failure ol' first Party — Recall of Government llcsiilent — Subsequent History — Survey of Land hy Mr. G. W. Goyder — Country rich and aurifei-ous — Gold Minin;:^ — Tropical Industries — Wreck of the Gothen- hurg — Papers on Territory by Eesidents — General Sketch by Mr. J. G. Knight ; Settlement, by Mr. G. R. McMinn ; Climate and Overland Telegraph, by Mr. J. A. G. Little ; the Goldfields, by Mr. .T. A. Plunkett ; Indigenous Vegetation, &-c., by Mr. J. G. Knight ; Con- chology, by Mr. W. T. Bednall. The Xortlicrn Territory, or Alexandra Land, comprises the immense tract of country which "was made over to .South Australia as one of the results of the explorations of Mr. J. 31cI)ouall Stuart. It contains an area of 531,402 square miles, or 340,097,280 acres. It is bounded on the north by the Indian Ocean ; on the south by the 26th parallel of south latitude ; on the east by the 138th meridian of east longitude ; and on the west by the 129th meridian of east longitude. When Stuart returned from his last journey across the Continent, after having successfully shown the practicability of the overland route, our Government entered into negotiations with the Imperial Government for tlie cession of the newly discovered territory to South Australia. Whether it was wise for the Colony, having ample territory already, and possessing but a limited population, to undertake the responsibility of settling a new and immense district, may admit of grave doubt. The matter, however, was taken up with considerable enthusiasm at the time. It was resolved to survey and offer for sale a considerable quantity of land on the north-western Sdpp. Chai>.] first attempts AT SETTLEMENT. 149 portion of the Continent. The land sales took place in Adelaide, in ]\[arcli, 18G4, before the surveys had commenced. The land was divided into country sections and town blocks — the proprietor of a section being entitled to a town block. The land was sold in order that the funds might be devoted to the cost of surveying and settling the country in the first instance. A considerable number of sections were purchased by English speculators, who risked their money on the chance of its becoming a profitable investment in the future. Priority in choice of selections amongst the purchasers was to be deter- mined by lot ; and the Government entered into an arrange- ment with the selectors to have the land surveyed and readv for selection within five years of the time of the sale. The land was readily taken up, and preparations were immediatelv made for dispatching a party to North Australia to carry on the work of survey, and to protect life and property there. The most important question the Government had to deter- mine was the choice of a Government Resident, who should be at the head of the j)arty, and under whom the surveys were to be carried out, and by whom the first little community of settlers were to be governed. The gentleman selected for this responsible position, Lieut.-Colonel Boyle Travers Finniss, was believed to possess high qualifications for the office. He was an old colonist, who had large experience in public life. He had been Treasurer of the colony, and at one time Acting- Governor. He was an officer of high rank in the A^olunteer force, and he was a surveyor by profession. The Government who appointed him were highly commended for their judicious selection ; and the general impression was that a better choice could not have been made. Mr. Finniss set to work imme- diately to prepare for the departure of the first expedition, in which he was liberally assisted by the Government. The officers of the party were : — B. T. Finniss, Government Eesi- dent; J. F. Manton, Engineer and Surveyor; F. E. Goldsmith, Surgeon and Protector of the Aborigines; Ebenezer Ward, Clerk in charge and Accountant ; Stephen King, Storekeeper ; John Davis, Assistant Storekeeper and Postmaster; W. Pearson. J. AVadham, and A. R. Hamilton, Surveyors ; R. Watson and 150 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. [Supp. Chap. J. W. ( >. iM'iinrtt, (Iraiigiitsmen. In addition to these there was a strong- party of chainmon, labonrers, and able-bodied seamen. It is worth noticing- that Mr. Ward, who went ont as Clerk in charge, is at the present time the Minister in the Government who, from his position, has official charge of the Northern Territory. The Government cliartered a good vessel — the Henry Ellis — for the first expedition, and fitted her np in such a way as in all respects to promote the comfort of the men during the voyage, and amply sup])lied her with stores, instruments, and weapons for the protection of the party on their arrival. In the instructions given to the Government Kesident, Adam Bay was suggested as a likely place for the first town ; but he was left with full discretion to select another site if, after examina- tion, he found that unsuitable. Mr. Finniss was also instructed to establish and cultivate friendly and confidential relations with his party, and especially to see that no injustice was done to the natives of the country. Before the expedition sailed a luncheon Avas given to the party at Port Adelaide, presided over by the Chief Secretary, ]Mr. (now Sir Henry) Ayers, and in tlie presence of Governor Sir Dominic Daly. It was an exceedingly interesting gather- ing, and high hopes were cherished of the success of this bold attempt to establish a new settlement in Northern Australia. j\[r. Finniss made an admirable speech, in the course of which he expressed the fullest confidence in his officers. A few days afterwards the expedition sailed, carrying with it the best wishes of the whole people of the Colony. In June, 1864, the Henry Ellis cast anchor in Adam Bay, and the party landed. Unfortunately, before the voyage was over, misunderstandings had grown np between the head of the party and some of his officers, and thes(} misunderstandings became more serious after the pavtv had taken possession of the Territory. The first river camp was fixed on July 1, and the men celebrated what they regarded as the actual commencement of their work by broaching a barrel of beer which some one of the party had brought to the tent. It is not mv business here to refer at anv length to the- Supp. Ch.U'.] EECALL of MR. FINNISS. 151 iinfortuuate disasters which attended the first attempt to settle the Xorthern Territory, or to pronounce any judgment as to t]ie causes of these disasters. I have to describe results rather than causes. The expedition resulted in a decided failure. (Quarrels between the CTOvernment Eesident and his officers led to a state of utter disorganization. The head of the party seemed to lose all control o^er it. Mr. Finniss selected Escape Cliffs as the site of the town against the protests and remonstrances of some of his officers and gentlemen Avho repre- sented the selectors. But little progress Avas made with the survey ; the party became dissatisfied, insubordinate, and idle. Quarrels took place with the natives, who stole the insuffi- ciently protected stores, and who were punished without dis- crimination. The reports which came from the Territory to Adelaide were of the most disheartening character. The Government Resident complained of his officers, and his officers complained of him. Meanwhile precious time was being wasted, and but little was being done towards the survey of the country. Some of the settlers purchased a small boat — the Forlorn Hope—wiilx which to leave the settlement. In this boat they sailed 1600 miles to Champion Bay, and proceeded thence to Adelaide, where they brought before the Government what they averred to be the actual state of things at Adam Bay. The Colony was indignant at what they heard. Mr. Finniss was called upon for explanations, which, being deemed unsatis- factory, he was finally recalled to Adelaide, and Mr. IManton was left in command. A Court of Inquiry was appointed by the Government to investio:ate certain charo-es which had been laid against Mr. Finniss, and the evidence was fully reported. The Court found that the Government Eesident was wanting in tact in the management of his men, that he had not shown skill in organizing their labour, and that he had not taken sufficient care to protect the stores upon which the party were dependent. A majority of tlie Commission also blamed Mr. Finniss for selecting sucli an unsuitable site as Escape Cliffs for the townsliip. They alsi» found tliat he had not shown sufficient tact and care in his dealings witli tlie natives, and 152 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. [Supp. Chap. tliat he had unnecessarily left the Territory without leave. The report, however, stated that the party entrusted to Mr. Finniss included many persons unfitted for the work for which they were engaged, and that some of the witnesses called manifested so much personal animosity towards 3Ir. Finniss as to render their testimony of comparatively little value. The result of the inquiry was the removal of the Government Resident from his position. Under the administration of IMr. ^Eanton there was not much improvement. The impression became stronger and more pronounced that Adam Bay was not the proper place for the settlement ; and the question was gravely discussed whether it would not be better to pay back to the selectors their money with interest, withdraw the expedition, and abandon the settlement — thus confessing that we had failed in our first attemjit at colonizing. Looking back now, many persons believe that this would have been the best course to adopt ; but neither our pride nor our self-interest would allow us to come to this determination. The next step taken by the Government Avas to find, if possible, a better site for a new settlement. Captain Cadell was dispatched to the Gulf of Carjientaria to see what advan- tages offered there. With his usual enthusiasm he undertook the congenial work, and on his return he presented a highly poetical report of his explorations and investigations, which was received with ridicule, almost amounting to contempt. The state of things was now becoming serious. The five years within which the Government had pledged themselves to have the surveys completed, and the land open for selection, were rapidly jjassing away, and nothing practical had been done. Escape Cliffs was abandoned, and the party recalled, and the Government were at their wits' end to know what was to be done. The London selectors banded themselves together, and somewhat insolently demanded back their money with interest. This demand was resisted by the Government, who still hoped to iinisli the survey. They passed a ]')ill through the Parliament to give to the original selectors a greatly increased area over that to whicli tliey were entitled, in Scpp. Chap.] SUEVEY BY ME. G. W. GOYDEK. 153 consideration of the delay which had taken phice in the surveys ; but this offer was limited to those who undertook to withdraw the threatened legal action against the Government. Many of the selectors acceiDted this offer, but the bulk of those in London refused it, and persisted in their demand for a return of their money. At this time Mr. G. W. Goyder, the energetic Surveyor- General of the Province, was requested by the Government to go personally to the Northern Territory with a competent and thoroughly equipped j)arty, to select a site, and to complete the survey without delay. Mr, Goyder undertook this re- sponsible work, and soon got a fine party together. The Government justly had confidence in his judgment and energy, and left the work very much to his discretion. He selected Port Darwin for the site, and laid the foundation of Palmerston as the chief town. As soon as he arrived, without allowing one day for idleness, he set his band of surveyors to work in various parties, he himself moving amongst them from place to place, directing, encouraging, and animating them all by his personal presence and labours. There was no dissatis- faction, grumbling, or insurbordination ; and, under the controlling spirit of one energetic man, the great work, which five years had failed to accomplish, was completed in a few months. Had Mr. Goyder been dispatched in the first instance, the Colony would have been saved the shameful disasters which attended the first attempts to settle the Northern Territory, and the large sums of money which they cost, and V hich were extravagantly wasted in the most reckless way. In another part of this work I have described the con- struction of the Overland Telegraph, which has its northern terminus at Port Darwin. In the course of its construction ample evidence was given of the auriferous nature of much of the Territory, and when the surveys were completed, a con- siderable number of settlers went there principally with a view to gold digging. A form of government was provided I'or the settlement, which still exists, and which has been modified to some extent especially in the judicial and ad- 154 SOUTH AUSTEATJA. [Supp. Chap. nuiiistrative dopartnu'iits. The jiapors Avliieh follow — and to "whieli these remarks are intended as an introduction — which have been written by competent gentlemen in the Territory, and edited by Mr. J. G. Knight, describe better than I could do the present condition and prospects of the Territory, They may be accepted as perfectly trustworthy, as they are the result of personal observation and experience. That the Xorthcrn Territory, notwithstanding all its disas- trous and humiliating history, is a rich country, and destined to become a great settlement, every one who knows it is. convinced. It has been grossly mismanaged, and therefore it has so far been a huge failure. Its resources, however, only need to be prudently and energetically developed to bring* wealth to the settlers. The Parliament has made Palmerston a free port, with a view to encourage trade with other countries. In this respect it possesses greater advantages than Singapore. It is almost certain to become the entrepot from which. Australian horses will be supplied to the Indian Government as remounts for the army. Mr, R, D, Eoss pointed out th& advantages of Port Darwin for such a purpose years ago, and went, accredited from Governor Fergusson to the Governor- General of India, in order to point out the advantages of the place as a remount station for collecting and dispatching- Australian horses, and the matter has not been lost sight of. The Northern Territory has cost this Colony a great deal of money, but there can be no doubt that every })enny will one day be paid back with interest. The adojition of a wise and energetic policy for the encouragement of semi-tropical pro- ducts and for developing the mines will give it a start ; and a fair start is all that it really needs to ensure ultimato success. Before allowing the residents in the Xorthern Territory to speak for themselves in the papers which follow, there is one more point to which I must refer, I have mentioned above that a new scheme of law administration is to be adopted in North Australia, Until now the system in existence in South Australia had noeessarily to be a})plic(l in the North. Prisoners- Supp. Chap.] WEECK OF THE " GOTHENBUEG." 155 charged with serious offences, which could not be dealt witli in the Local Court at Palmerston, had to be brought down to Adelaide, with all the expense of conveying witnesses, and all the delays consequent on the distance of the Territory from Adelaide. This year the Government determined to hold a Circuit Court at Palmerston, presided over by one of the Judges of the Suj^reme Court of the Province. Mr. Justice AVearing, the Third Judge, was therefore dispatched to hold a Court, and was attended by the necessary officers. He and his. party reached Port Darwin in safety ; the Court was held, and they embarked in the steamer Gothenburg for the return voyage. Unfortunately, however, the steamer ran on a reef lying off the coast of Queensland, and in the course of a few hours became a total wreck — the greater portion of her passengers and a crew thus meeting with an untimely death. Over a hundred persons — men, women, and little children — M ere ruthlessly swept from the deck of the ill-fated vessel. A few escaped in boats, but the great majority went down making- no sign. Amongst the sufferers were Judge Wearing ; his Associate, Mr. Pelham ; IMr. AVhitby, acting Crown Prosecutor ; the Honourable T. Reynolds, who for many years had been a leading politician of the Province, and his wife ; and the Captain and his chief officers. No calamity that ever befel the Colony produced such a feeling of sorrow or such a kind expression of heartfelt sympathy as this. For a time we were stunned by the news, and walked like those in a dream. But when the first shock passed away, there was an immediate cry for help for the families of those who had gone down in the sea. The Parliament took care of the families of those who died in the service of the Government, and made liberal provision for them ; and the generous benevolence of the l)ublic took charge of the rest. A sum of between £9000 and £10,000 was at once contributed and judicicmsly distributed amongst the sufferers ; and when this act of justice \Nas done, the Colony breathed more freely. The law is now so altered that all offences except felonies punishable by death shall be dealt witli by a Local Court, at Palmerston, and other cases, of whicli it is not. })robable there 156 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. [Supp. Chap. ^vill be many for some time to come, will be brought down to Adelaide for trial. With these introductory remarks, I now give the Papers on the Northern Territory, which have been edited by Mr. Knight. [T/ie ivhole of the following Section is edited by Mr. J. G. Knight.'] GEOGRAPHICAL SITUATION. The Northern Territory, of which Port Darwin is the har- bour for shipping, is situate in latitude (of Fort Hill) 12^ 28' 30" soutli ; longitude 130^ 52' east. The harbour is very spacious, comprising many square miles of water, varying in depth from four to fifteen fathoms. It is high water, at full and change, 5 hours 25 minutes. Springs rise from sixteen to twenty-four feet; neaps, two to twelve feet. The tides are irregular — the ebb stream making 40 minutes before high water. There are numerous branches from the Port, as will be seen on reference to the charts — one of the principal being that running to 8outhport, twenty-four miles from Palmerston, and the chief inland depot for landing and forwarding goods to the goldfields. This tributary is navigable for vessels of large burthen. A substantial jetty is erected at Southport for the accommodation of shipping and lightering. At Port Darwin preparations are being made for the construction of a jetty, to be carried out so as to afford a depth of twenty feet at low Avater spring tides. Two causeways' have already been formed for present use, by which lighters can discharge into drays at almost any time of tide. The charge now made for lightering and landing goods from vessels is fourteen shillings per ton. The largest ships afloat can easily enter and safely anchor in Port Darwin. THE SETTLEMENT. By G. E. McMiNN, Esq., Senior Surveyor. Two hundred and seventy years have elapsed since the Dutch navigators first explored the north coast of Australia, making many discoveries in the shape of rivers and harbours, Sui'p. Chap.] SETTLEMENT OF NOKTHERX TEERITOEY. 157 that to the present day are little further known. Even pre- vious to this date the Portuguese are su^^posed to have been acquainted with the existence of the present country. In the year 1772 Captain Cook circumnavigated Australia, adding further to the geographical knowledge previously obtained. After this but very little appears to have been done on the north coast until the settlement at Port Essington (one of the best harbours within the limits of the Northern Territory) was formed in 1831, by Sir Gordon Bremer. The settlement at Port Essington was established by the Imperial Government as a military post and harbour of refuge for distressed vessels. It received no support from private settlers ; consequently it secured very little public attention. No attempt ajDpears to have been made, on any extensive scale, to test the producing (capabilities of the country. This establishment existed for nineteen years, being finally abandoned in 1850. It was during that period that Leichardt made his memorable journey from Sydney to Port Essington. In 1862 Mr. John McDouall Stuart, a South Australian explorer (whose name, with the names of Gregory and Leichardt, is historically associated Avith the Northern Terri- tory, and well deserves remembrance), succeeded in crossing- the continent from Adelaide to Adam Bay on the north coast ; and having reported the country as suitable for settlement, an application was made to, and a grant obtained from, the Imperial Government, by which all that portion of Australia lying between the 129th and 138th meridians of east longitude, and north of the 26th parallel of soutli latitude, together with the adjacent islands, was ceded to the Colony of South Australia ; containing, independently of the islands, an area of about 531,402 square miles. In 18G4 the South Australian Government, for the purj^ose of inducing settlement on the north coast, sold a large quantitv of land at a low rate ; and Colonel Finniss, first Government Resident of the Northern Territorv, was sent out with a larire staff to execute the surveying. This expedition, from various causes, but chiefly from the land-owners objecting to the site selected by Mr. Finniss for settlement (Esca23e Cliffs), 2>roved 158 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. [Supp. ("hvp. a total fiiiluvo, and was recalled, after having undergone many changes, in 1808, without having accomplished the survey, thus causing an immense waste of valuable time. In 1869 another expedition was fitted out under the com- mand of IMr. Ct. AV. Goyder, Surveyor-General of South Australia, by whom the whole of the survey required was made in the following year. The site selected this time was Port ])av\vin and its immediate neighbourhood. Gold was iliscovered in different localities, during the execution of the work, by some of the survey parties, but not in sufficient <[uantities to warrant any one at that time in saying a payable goldiield existed. Shortly after this. Captain Douglas was appointed Government Eesident of the Territory, and a per- manent staff selected to assist in the official manas-ement of the new settlement. Captain Douglas retired in May, 1874, and Dr. Millner became Acting-Kesident till the end of October, 1874, when the present Government Resident, ^Iv. G. B. Scott, assumed the direction of affairs. As before mentioned, the area of the Xorthern Territory is •computed at 531,402 square miles, the greater portion of which is admirably adapted for pastoral purposes, being well-grassed aud watered. At present about 7000 miles are held by intend- ing settlers. The amount of land surveyed was 653,000 acres : of this 274,000 have been selected, leaving the balance of 379,000 acres open for selection. The whole of this lies imme- diately around Port Darwin, and contains some very valuable blocks suitable for tropical agriculture. The goldfields of the Xorthern Territory are now ascer- tained to be very extensive. At present gold is known to exist over a block of country containing about 1700 square miles, which has been indifferently prospected ; and as countrv of a similar character extends for a much greater distance, it is more than probable that, when it has been prospected, the area alread}' known will be but a small portion of the whole auriferous country, ^tany valuable gold-bearing quartz reefs have been discovered and worked ; about ninety leases for mining have been granted, the larger portion of which are at present lying idle, owing to want of capital to develop them. 8upr. Chap.] MINERAL WEALTH OF N. TERRITORY. loO Ivieli deposits of alluvial gold have also been found ; but it is believed that the main lead or deposit has not yet been struck ; many competent mining authorities who have visited the Northern Territory giving it as their unqualified opinion that ultimately this will be one of the largest and best pro- ducing goldfields known. At present there are several prospecting parties out at considerable distances ; some of these have been largely assisted by Government, and considerable interest is evinced in connexion with their movements. Should the parties who are now prospecting haj)pen to find a good alluvial goldfield, their success will be no more than is expected by a great number of experienced persons. Eich deposits of copper, iron, and lead, are known to exist throughout the country. These, however, will remain comparatively valueless until the con- struction of a railway to a place of shipment reduces the cost of carriage. The coast is annually visited by a large number of Malay j)roas from Macassar, their object being " trepang fish- ing;" and, judging from the perseverance displayed by these people in making a long yearly voyage, and the risks they encounter from other sources, they must find it a profitable occu- pation. Pearl-shell is also known to exist in many of the waters. It should have been mentioned before that settlements Mere formed by Sir Gordon Bremer, both on 3Ielville Island, in 1824, and also at Eafiles Bay, near Port Essington, previous to the final adoption of Port Essington. At each of these places a number of buffalo were turned out, and these have increased to such an extent that at the present day large herds may be met with for more than 100 miles along the coast in the neighbourhood of Port Essington (where there are also a few English cattle and Timor ponies), also for a considerable distance along the coast. THE LAND ACT for the Northern Territory, as will be seen, has been framed with a view to liberality, and offers the following advantages to intending settlers : — Any ap})licant may apply for and re- ceive the fee simple of any unselected country land which has 160 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. [Supp. Chap. been first offered at auction and passed the lianinior, or which has been dech\red open for selection, on jiayment of seven shillings and sixpence per acre. Persons so desirous may pur- chase lanil to the extent of 1280 acres upon " credit," that is, the land is applied for at the same price as before-mentioned ; but, instead of paying the purchase-money down, the purchaser obtains a lease of the land for ten years at an annual rental of sixpence per acre, and the purchaser has the option of paying the full amount of purchase-money at any time during the currency of the term, and on so doing receives a grant of the land. Any person applying to the Commissioner for a s})ecial survey of 10,000 acres in any locality may obtain the same on paying the cost of survey, and receive the fee simple on pay- ment of seven shillings and sixpence per acre. A special clause of the Act that will unfortunately be of no avail after the expiry of the present year, but which it is hoped may be re-enacted, provides that whenever any applicant for country land states in his application that he intends to use tlie land applied for in the cultivation of rice, sugar, coffee, tea, indigo, tobacco, or cotton, or any other tropical or semi- tropical productions, he shall be allowed to select a. block of country land not less than 320 acres nor more than 1280 at an annual rental of sixpence per acre ; and if such applicant shall prove to the satisfaction of the Commissioner, at the expira- tion of five years, that he had at the expiration of two years cultivated one-fifth of the land selected, and after the second year an additional one-tenth of tlie entire area, and at the ex- jiiration of five years he had one-half of the whole of the land selected under cultivation with any of the aforesaid produc- tions, and that the whole is enclosed with a fence, then the money that has been paid for rent will be considered to be the purcluise-money for the land, and on application the pur- chaser can obtain the grant thereof. Thus the fee simple of such land only costs the applicant two shillings and sixpence per acre. Land may also be leased for j)astoral purposes at a rental of sixpence per square mile for a term of twenty-five years ; blocks applied for not to consist of less than twenty- five square miles nor more than 300 square miles. The run Supp. Chap.] CHAEACTER OF NOETHEEN TEEEITOEY. 161 must be declared stocked Mitliiii tliroe years from the quarter date next succeeding the date of the application, at the rate of two head of large cattle or ten head of small for every square mile of country applied for. CHARACTER OF THE COUNTRY. The laud bounding the coast is in a great measure low and uninteresting, in very few instances being more than 100 feet above the sea level; wherever the coast is high, it is generally in the nature of cliffs, composed of sandstone, marl, and ironstone ; the lower portions are partly sandy beaches, but principally mud flats, thickly fringed with man- groves. The country inland is, generally speaking, of a very level character, over which railways could be easily con- structed, and is in a great measure destitute of conspicuous landmarks. At a distance of from 30 to 100 miles from the coast a tableland is met with, varying in height from 300 to 900 feet, and near the Victoria River it attains a height of nearly 1700 feet. The rivers of the Northern Territory must not be over- looked, for many of them — the " Roper," " Adelaide," " South Alligator," " Liverpool," and " Victoria " — will hereafter prove to be of considerable importance for inland navigation. THE CLIMATE. By J. A. G. Little, Esq., Senior and Inspecting Of3ficer of the Post and Telegraphic Department, Port Darwin. The year has two climatic divisions, consisting of the wet season, from October to April, and the dry period, from May to September. The different changes of these seasons are so uniform and regular that they may be predicted almost to a day. Signs of the approach of the Avet season appear imme- diately after the sun has crossed the equator during the spring- equinox, in September, Avhen the strong E.S.E. monsoon — which has been blowing continually throughout the dry season — ceases, and is succeeded by calms and light variable winds ; the weather becomes intensely hot, and small thunder clouds gather over the land, increasing in size and density day by M 162 80UTH AFSTItAl.lA. [Surp. Chap. (lay. until they burst in terrific thunderstorms, accompani(Ml I>y liuiricaiic squalls of \viiul and rain, '^riiese storms at iirst take place every four or ti\c (la\s. uiailually increasinji" in number until the eml of X(>\enil)er. \\lien they occur almost daily. I'lu-y come uj) in a dense black hank, and travel so ^•ery rapidly that they are generally out of sight on thc!- western horizon within forty minutes. About an inch, or sometimes more, of heavy driving rain accompanies each storm ; but in the year 1871 the writer of this article saw tw(> inches and three quarters of rain gauged within ten minutes during one of these squalls. iJurino- December the K.W. monsoon <;raduallv iiains the ascendency, and blows steadily, with an occasional break of calm weather. The thunderstorms disappear, the sky becomes overcast and clouded, and the atmosphere gets thoroughly saturated with moisture, so much so that leatherwork becomes green with milde\\', if not constantly attended to ; the binding of books becomes soft, and sugar or salt, if exposed in an open vessel, will soon liquefy. This is felt to be an agreeable chanire after the intensclv hot A\cat]iei-. duriiii'- the change of the monsoon in October and November; and tdthough the humid atmosphere induces profuse persjjiration, the effects of the weather arc not nearly so unpleasant or severe as those attending the dry heat experienced in the southern portion of Australia during the same and two suc- ceeding months. The N.W, monsoon is accompanied by rain almost daily ., and increases in force until the latter end of January or be- ginning of February, when it is blowing in lull heart, and penetrates with its copious and fertilizing showers into the- very centre of Australia. During this period thick, dam]> weather prevails, the clouds being very low, and scud and banks of nimbus })ass over almost constantly from the N.W.. to the S.1%. with great rapidity. The maximum temperature- in the shade during the day in this weather is l)G^, and tho minijuuni during the night is 05°. On the approach of the autumn e([uinox, the N.W. mon- soon gradually dies away, and is succei-ded again by the calms^ Sui'P. Chap.] CLIMATE OF NOETHEEN TEEEITOEY, 163 variable winds, tliunderstorins, and oppressive weather, until, abuut the end of April, when cooler weather is felt, the S.E. monsoon sets in, and the dry season may be said to have fairly commenced. This wind is characterized by a clear sky, enjoy- able weather, heavy de\\s, and. cold mornings and nights, so' much so that blankets can be used when sleeping. It blows, oft" the coast without intermission, and with great force, almost throughout the season, being in full heart during June and July. At Port Darwin and other places adjacent to the coast the monsoon generally drops in the afternoon, and is some- times succeeded by a sea breeze, which is merely local, and only extends a few miles inland. The atmosphere is clear and dry, and rather hot during the middle of the day. The maximum temperature in the day being 89^, and the minimum during the night 56^. AVith regard to the suitability of the country for European labour, the writer of this article can affirm — after four years' experience — that a man cannot perform the amount of con- stant AYork that he is capable of accomplishing in a more temperate climate ; but still there is nothing to prevent a moderate day's work being done — and further, there is an almost entire absence of those enervating influences which prostrate the European labourer in other tropical countries,, such as India, Java, Singapore, or Africa. Workmen carry out their various avocations throughout the day without taking any precaution to ward off the rays of the sun — the eight hours' system being usually adopted, as in other parts of Australia. The climate, in fact, may be said to be more of that type which is generally known as Australian, rather than tropical ; and the same remark will — with very few exceptions — also apply to the Jlora, fauna, and perspective of the country. It is free from cholera and other scourges of hot countries, and on the whole may be considered healthy. Intermittent fever, commonly known as fever and ague, is prevalent at times, especially in low-lying localities, or immediately after the w et season ; but this complaint is not dangerous in itself^ and can often be prevented by a moderate and judicious use of medicine and a small amount of bodily exercise. M 2 164 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. [Surr. Chap. Tlio iusuct nuisances, such as flics, mosquitos, or sandflies, disappear very quickly on any oxt(!nt of timber and grass l)eing cleared away. C'lutliin<;- of a light description is worn throughout the year — Avhitc llrill^• tlie Lest; hut, owing to the ahsence of " dobios," or native washerwomen, any new comers should for the present bring a plentiful supply of coloured articles. Cloth or tweed clothing is not often used, and flannel is not recommended, as it produces attacks of prickly heat. Persons contemplating planting any kind of tropical produce should arrange to have their ground cleared in the dry season, and ready for seed during the commencement of the rains in October, so that the plants may have the full benefit of the wet season and humid weather. Vegetable growth is very rapid immediately after tlie rains set in, and the country becomes covered with grass knee-deep in the course of a few weeks. This grass runs up to a lieight of about six or eight feet during the wet season, and ripens early in May, when it is burnt. It springs again on flats or damp places, and generally continues green and fit for fodder throughout the year. The following is a statement of the raiiitall for tlie last four seasons : — Wet season— 1871-72 77-801 inches. „ 1872-73 (;2-254 „ ., 1873-74 ."w-oSO „ „ 1874-73 5(5-000 „ THE OVERLAND TELEGRAni. 15y J. A. G. Little, Esq. On the ]'eturn of Mr. John McDouall Stuart, the explorer, to Adelaide in the year 18G2, after having successfully crossed the Australian Continent from the southern seaboard to the northern coast, in the course of which journey he proved the existence of a practicable route interspersed with tracts of valuable country in a region hitherto considered an impassable desert, the idea of constructing a line of telegraph — two thousand miles in length — through to the northern coast, and so opening up aud utilising the country discovered by Mr. Stuart, and also to connect with an An 2:lo- Australian cable to Sui'P. Chap.] THE OYEELAND TELEGEAPH. 165 bo brought down to meet it from Singapore or Java, was at once grasped by 3Ir. Charles Todd, the present Postmaster- General of the Colony, and speedily cast into form by him and brought before the authorities of the day. The measure, though generally approved of, was considered a little too large for the then resources of the Colony, which at that time contained a population of only about 150,000 people, and yielded an annual revenue of £500,000 sterling ; so the question was postponed from year to year in an indefinite form, although Mr. Todd never lost sight of it, and frequently urged the importance of the matter on the Government. In the meantime the Colony had formed a small settlement under the management of Lieut.-Colonel Finniss on the northern coast at Escape Cliffs, near the mouth of the Adelaide Eiver, which after two or three years had to be abandoned in favour of another at Port Darwin,^ under the control of Mr. G, W. Goyder, Surveyor-General of the Colony ; and sub- sequently of Captain B. Douglas, Collector of Customs of South Australia. These settlements suffered very much from their isolated position and want of communication with the settled districts in the more southern portion of Australia, and so the idea of a line of Telegraph from Adelaide to Port Darwin slowly and steadily found favour until 1870, when the successful and profitable working of the Atlantic and Anglo-Indian cables gave an impetus to telegraph extension all over the world, resulting in the formation of the British- Australian Telegraph Company, for the purpose of putting down a cable from Singapore to Port Darwin via Java. The South Australian Government, acting under the power- ful advice of the Governor — Sir James Fergusson — and also of ]\Iessrs. Strangways, Ayers, and other leading politicians of the day, decided at once to carry out the scheme of the Overland Telegraph recommended by Mr. Todd, and undertook to com- plete the whole and have it ready to meet the cable on January 1, 1872, a period of about twenty months. The work Avas then placed in the hands of Mr. Todd for execution, and he, with an admirable system of organization and ingenuity, ion ■ SOrTTT AT-STT^ATJA. [Srrr. Ciur. tided it ovor many great and unforeseen dinieulti(\s, and l)ron<^lit it to a suecessfnl completion. Six hundred miles of the work at eai-h re(|uircd, over long stages — the furthest nearly twelve hundred miles in lengtli — before they got on to their ground ; and over an uninlial)ited region, Avhore water was supposed to be scarce, where roads had to be made, bridges constructed, Avells sunk, liigh jDrecipitous ranges, and belts of desert and lofty sandliills crossed ; the three latter obstacles having proved in previous times almost insurmountable difficulties to ^Ir. Stuart's ex- ploratory expeditions. This region A\as so utterly unproductive with regard to game and other articles of sustenance that every ounce of food required, until the completion of the work, and also for the return journey, had to be taken with them. The parties proved to be so well organized and ably led that they ;irri\(Ml dii their ground witlioiit any liitch whatever, Jind not only complet('recting about 220 miles of poles, collapsed entirely — most of tlie draught stock required for transit having died, and nearly idl the men returned to Adelaide. The Government immediately sent round to Port Darwin hj sea a large and most powerfully equipped expedition under tlie command of Mr. E. C. Patterson, the Assistant Engineer- in-Chief of the Colony, to promptly finish off the work ; and, as an additional inducement, offered the Assistant Engineer a ])onus of £1.")00 if he managed to get the work done in time ; hut this party also encountered difficulties, which rendered the completion of the work within the specified time hopeless. The Government tlierefore sent Mr. Todd himself round with reinforcements, and he very wisely took his steamers 100 miles up the Eiver Eoper in the Gulf of Carpentaria, and made that place the base of operations, instead of Port Darwin, thus .saving about 300 miles of carting, and obtaining a better road. An unprecedentedly wet season was encountered immediately after his arrival, rendering the country impassable for loaded teams for some time ; but as soon as the weather improved, great activity took place, and 31r. Todd completed the line on August 22nd, 1872, being a little over eight months after time The British- Australian Cable, after being successfully laid, lu'oke for some little time, and was not repaired until October •i2nd, 1872, when telegraphic communication was estaltlishcd between Austi'aJia and all parts of the World — the first recipients 168 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. [Supp. Chap. of a message from London being Messrs. ^FacEwans & Co., of ^rdbourno. The bcnctieial results of this great work became apparent at once. AVitliin six months after the opening of the line the Colony netted nearly a quarter of a million .sterling extra on their wheat harvest through the telegraph enabling sales to 1)C made in foreign markets. Gold, discovered in payable quantities by the jSTorthern contractors' party, led to the opening up of valuable goldfields and the settlement of a considera1)le number of peojile in the Xurtlicru Territory. J'iiic deposits of copper, load, and iron, have since been discovered, and will no doubt at some future time prove highly remunerative. Stockholders quickly pushed their lierds out along the line, and at the present moment the cduntry near the centre of Australia is being rapidly taken up for pastoral purj)oses. All classes were directly or indirectly benefited, seeing at once the utility of this great reproduc- tive work, A\hich it is hoped will soon be followed by a railway along the same route, and which, witli a corresjjonding measure for the introduction of a proportional amount of popu- lation, will still further develop the lino resources of the whole country. »Siuce the completion of the line, iron poles have been gradually introduced to replace the wooden ones, which, when finished, \\ ill render the work thoroughly substantial, and reduce the maintenance expenditure to a miuiminn. THE (iOLDFIELDS. By J. A. Pllnkktt, Esq., Chief Warden. From Palmcrston, the chief town of the Northern Territory, to the nearest officially recognized gold-bearing reefs — those at Stapleton — the distance is about sixty-four miles in a south- south-eastern direction. To avoid a long detour by land, the first part of this journey — as far as 8outhport, which is twenty- five miles, is usually made l)y water, up an estuary of Port Darwin Bay. For the remainder of the distance — and, indeed, all tlie way to the most soutliern and distant reefs — there is an excellent bush road; wliieli, moreover, has been improved in various places, and is maintained in good order by road parties employed by the Government. Here it may be observed that Supp. Chap.] GOLDFIELDS OF NORTHERN TERRITORY. 1G9 all tliroiigli the settled parts of the Territory the bush roads are exceedingly good, and generally keep in excellent order for traffic — excej)t, of course, during the four or five months of the rainy season, when they are nearly impassable. From Stapleton to the most southern reefs — those at Pine Creek — the road is about ninety miles : it runs the entire Avay close to the Overland Telegraph Line ; and though it winds about hero and there, it takes on the whole a south-eastern course. All the quartz reefs in the Territory on which any work Avorth mentioning has been done, and all the alluvial diggings, lie either east or west of this road: — most of them being within a few miles of it, and the furthest from it not being more than twelve miles to the east. From this it will be seen that the whole of the gold-bearing country which, as yet, has been proved to be of any value stretches away in a south- eastern direction from Stapleton ; though it must be added that small quantities of gold have been discovered in many other parts of the Territory. In a brief sketch like this, it would be impossible to notice separately the fifteen or sixteen •lifferent places in Avhich gold-mining operations have, at some time or other, been carried on ; and so the remarks made here must, for the most part, be of a general nature. In none of the places just mentioned has the search for gold been entirely unsuccessful ; and nothing surprises one more than the little difficulty people appear to have had in discovering, anywhere in the country between Stapleton and Pine Creek, either auriferous quartz or auriferous clay. It must, though, be admitted that the amount of success has been far from uniform, and that in many instances the gold obtained has been altogether inadequate to compensate for the labour expended in getting it : but, as will be shown further on, the ill luck in these cases has been more than counterbalanced by fortunate results in others. Except one or two reefs, which run nearly du(! north, the reefs for the most part extend in a north-western or a north- north-western direction, and in several instances they can be traced for two or three miles. They lie, generally, in ranges of scjmewhat rugged hills ; though in one or two [)la(;cs they are in ITO SOUTH AUSTRALIA. [Supp. Chav. iiat jivonnd, Tliose, however, in tlir hills have hitherto jn-ovccl tar iiKtrc valnalile than the others. As iiiiii'ht he cxpcctctl, there is i^reat diversity in the si/e and qiuilitv ot the dift'ereiit reefs. Some of them are several feet wide, w 1 1 i 1 e ( it hers, properly .speaking, should not be called "reefs" at all, heing only narrow ""leaders " — thongh the latter are nsnallv more clearly defined, and. ill projiortion to size, nuich richer than the tornier. Gene- rally speaking, the owners of a qnartz claim in the Territory obtain anriferons stone from the very surface of their ground, Itiit lind that, as they sink, the reef or leader, as the case may be, widens considerably, but decreases in richness : hence it hap- pens that the results of the first crushings are usually much richer in proportion to the stone operated on than those of -subsequent crushings — though, owing to the increased quantity of stone, and the increased ease with which it is obtained, the latter crushings are generally more remunerative in proportion to the money and the labour expended. This last rennirk ^ipplies more especially to some of the hill claims, where, to facilitate operations, tunnels have been driven to meet tlie bottoms of the shafts. It may be said of all the reefs in the Territory that, whether the gold-l)earing stone in them is rich or not, there are but few difticulties to contend with in getting it : in fact, if some means could be devised for storing, during tlie wet season, large quantities of water sufficient to last tlie ililferent batteries , through the remainder of the year, the engineering difficulties connected with (piartz mining in the Territory wouhl be very small indeed. ^N'o very (h^ej) sinking has been necessary as yet ; the shafts, even in tin; midst of the rainy season, are quite free from water; and nowhere are there any obstacles to prevent the making of a good road or tramway, either to a battery already erected or to a convenient site for a battery. 1 p to th(! present, thougli a great deal of money has been expended in quartz-reeling on the goldfields, and a good deal •of st(me raised and crushed, it cannot be said that as an industry (piartz-mining has been fairly tried in the Territory. The fact is^ the work done has been distril)uted over too many l^laces ; — too many claims have been tested in a superficial and Supr. Chap.] GOLDFIELDS OF NOETHEEN TEEEITOEY. 171 desultory way, and too few systematically worked. Xotwitli- staiiding- this, lioweyer, it is an nndeniable fact that, conntinii; ■all the stone crushed in the Territory from the yery lirst till now, the average yield of gold has been more than one ounce for every ton of stone crushed ; and, if we take as a criterion the more recent crushings only — that is, those of the List seven months — there is good reason for expecting that in future the iiverage yield will be considerably greater. At present the only reefs to which any attention is being devoted are (taking them in order from north to south) the iStapleton Reefs, the Howley Reefs, the Britannia Reef, the. Yam Creek Reefs, the Extended Union Reef, the Union and the Lady Alice Reefs, and the Pine Creek Reefs. But of these, the Union and the Lady Alice Reefs, and the Pine Creek Reefs, are the only ones on which work is being done on anything like an extensive system. As has been already indi- cated, it is impossible in this sketch to notice specially the different claims ; but the following facts will, it is hoped, help the reader to form something like a correct estimate of the value of the quartz reefs generally. The present writer, in his capacity as Chief Warden, has made it his business to collect from time to time, for his official reports, all the information he possibly could about the gold- fields ; and in this Avay he has managed to obtain full and, he Ijelieves, pretty accurate accounts of no less than thirty-three crushings, all of which have taken place since the resumption of crushing operations in the early part of last December. For some of these crushings, no doubt, care was exercised in select- ing the stone ; while in other instances quartz and mullock were indiscriminately collected and passed through the bat- teries. From some of the crushings, the yield of gold was as low as a few pennyweights to the ton of stone ; but from others it was four, or five, or six ounces to the ton : a\ hilc in one in- .stance, a few tons of qaartz yielded eighty-one ounces of gold to the ton of stone. The total result, however, of the thirty-tliree crushings is AS follows : — 2732^ tons of stone have yielded 4.">27 oz. IN dwt. of gold, or a little inore tlian 1 oz. 12 dwt. lor every ton ; — a 172 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. [Suit. Chap. result uliicli speaks for itscH'. .'ind i^-ocs lar t«» warrant the good opinion \\liich many jtcvsons still ciitrrtaiii respecting the Xorthern 'rciritniy i|uartz reels. This calculation does not include all the cnishings iu the Tcrrilory since the 1st of December; but it includes every one since then of Avhich the writer bus been able to obtain the particulars, and there have been but few others, Th(Dre are at present ten crusliing- machines in the Territory ; — one at Stapleton, one at Howley, four at Yam C^reek, two at Union, and two at Pine Creek. So much having been said about quartz-reefing, it becomes necessary now^ to say a few words about the alluvial diggings. Alluvial digging has been tried in a small way, and with varying success, in the neighbourhood of several of the reefs ; but the only diggings that can be noticed here are the prin- cipal ones — those at Sandy Creek, at Stewart's Gully, and at Sailor's Gully, all of which lie near the Yam Creek reefs. Sandy Creek and Stewart's Gully extend nortli and south, but Sailor's Gully runs east and west. The first-named place is on a confined flat in a valley, while the two otlier diggings are — as their names im})ly — in narrow glens. In these places about fifty j^cople are engaged in alluvial mini]ig ; but only very few of the claims can bo said to pay well, and from many of them the yield of gold is very small indeed. The ground seems to be what diggers call " very patchy," that is, the owners of a claim may find a fair amount of gold one day, but after that work for several days without getting any. Up to the present, there has been no deep sinking on any of these diggings. A nugget weighing over twenty-two ounces — the largest ever discovered in the Territory — was found recently in Stewart's Gully ; but this piece of luck must be regarded as somewhat excei^tional, and Stewart's Gully is gradually being deserted owing to the scarcity of Avater, the diggers moving for the dry season to Sandy Creek, where there is water all the year round. There exists great diversity of opinion as to the value of these diggings. Some persons of good experience maintain tliat, if the claims were smaller and the number of diggers increased, the more thorough examination of the irround which this would cause would be Supp. Chap.] GOLDFIELDS OF NORTHEEN TEEEITOEY. 173 sure to result in some valuable discoveries. There are others, however, of equally good experience, Avho hold quite the opposite opinion, and consider the ground to be naturally very poor. The writer ventures to think that the latter persons are correct in their opinion ; and though it cannot be denied that many persons have done pretty well on these diggings, he considers that, on the whole, alluvial digging in the Territory has so far resulted in but little success. It only remains now to say a few words about the Gold Mining Law and Eegulations. A gold-mining claim in the Territory can be held under either a miner's right or a lease. A miner's right costs 10s., and remains in force till the first of December following the date on which it is issued. It can, of course, be renewed like any other licence. It empowers a man to hold as an " ordinary claim " an area of ground, 25 yards by 25 yards for an alluvial claim ; or 30 yards by 30 yards (in old ground) for a puddling claim ; or 200 yards by 250 yards for a quartz-reef claim. In the event of fresh discoveries being made at certain con- siderable distances from ground already worked on, "pro- specting claims " are granted varying in size according to the distance from the old claims ; but the smallest " prosjDecting claim" is double the area of an ordinary claim. Besides complying with a few necessary formalities, the holder of a claim has only to work it properly in order to retain it, and for every three months' work done on it, he is entitled to obtain three months' exemption from working it. If he does not comply with the formal regulations, or if he does not work his claim, he is liable to forfeit it ; while, if he abandons it altogether for a certain time, anyone else having a miner's right can go on the claim and take possession of it. Under the Eegulations, too, very liberal provisions are made for enabling the holders of miners' rights to obtain, on the payment of certain fees, the right to take up areas of ground for residence sites, business sites, dam and machine sites, &c. &c. All disputes respecting ground held under miners' rights are settled by the Warden, from whose decision, however, an appeal to the Palmerston Local Court is allowed. 1 74 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. [Srrr. Chap. The holders of quartz claims, or of '*' deep shiJcing " alluvial claiius (of Avliich latter, however, there are none in the Terri- tory), hv ;iji|il\ iim- to the Government Resident, through the ^^':lnlt■ll. call olitaiii leases for their claims, varying in duration from seven to twenty-one years, and at a yearly rent of 10s. an acre. Leases for similar periods, and at a similar rent, can also be obtained, for machine, race, dam, or reservoir sites, of areas of ground varying in extent from ten to twenty acres. The regulations respecting the working of leased claims are nearly the same as those for the working of claims held under miners' rights. The great advantage of having a lease is — that the holders cannot be compelled to give up their ground, unless by the Warden's taking proceedings against them in the Local Court at Palmerston, which, of course, would not be done for any mere technical breach of the Eegulations, or unless there were very good cause. In concluding this brief sketch, the writer wishes to say tliat, in the space allotted to him, he has not been able to give, nor has he- aimed at giving, anything more tlian a general account of the goldtields. He hopes, however, that notwith- standing this his remarks may be found useful in assisting- persons at a distane(3 to form some idea about the prospects of gold-niininir in the Xorthern Territorv. DO . INDIGENOUS YEGETATIOX. By J. C. Knight, Esq. The indigenous products of the jSTorthern Territory, like the rest of the Australian Colonies, yield little or nothing, ailapted to sustain civilized life, while they afford sufticient to support the aboriginal pDjuiIanon. The native grasses have, hoNvever, l)een practically tested, and found to yield abundant nutrition to fatten horned cattle and horses. When it is stated as a fact that for liundreds of luih'S inland there is scarcely a foot of ground which is uncovered by trc-es, plants, or herbage of one kind or another, growing in rank luxuriance (in some cases on rocky strata, without any apparent soil to sustain vegetable existence), and that such fruits as the banana, cocoa-nut, custard-apple, pine-apple, and tamarind, thrive on a Supr. Chap.] AYOODS OF NOETHEEN TEEEITOEY. 175 hard elayoy or iron-stone soil, within a few yards of the sea, it may not be unreasonable to infer that the jungle and swamp might be speedily reclaimed and made to yield, under the genial tropical influence of this peculiar clime, productions of great commercial yalue. NATIVE WOODS. \_This Article refers ixirtlcularly to Specimens of Timler forioarded to the Tliiladd'plda Exhibit ion. '\ ■ The coast of the Northern Territory does not apj^ear to be so abundantly furnished with useful and ornamental woods as some other of the Australian Colonies ; but as no steps have yet been taken to explore the country for timber, it would be j)remature to speak very positively on the subject. In starting to make a collection of native timber, the writer has been agreeably surprised at the variety and beauty of som'e of the specimens he has met Avith. They have been obtained in haste, and do not represent a fiftieth part of the different kinds growing in the Territory ; allowance must also be made for the specimens being cut from the growing trees, and forwarded witliout the slightest chance of " seasonino-." Notwithstanding these drawbacks, some of the samples will be found well worthy of examination, particularly the following : — No, 1. Locally called " paper bark " — is one of the most abundant as well as one of the best woods in the Territory ; it grows to a diameter of three to four feet, and is admirably adapted for piles, girders, bed-plates for engines and stamjjing machinery, ship's knees, and heavy carjientering in generaL This is one of the few timbers not attacked by the Avhite ant. No. 2. Termed " iron bark " — is an excellent wood, very dense and durable ; might be used in many cases as a sub- stitute for lignum vitm. The tree grows to an average diameter of eighteen inches, and is j)retty plentiful. I think the A\o()d is superior to the iron bark of the Southern and "Western Colonies of Australia, and it is certainly handsomer in grain. It is ])roof against the white ant. No. v^ Known as cypress pine — is an excellent timber, well 176 SOUTH AUSTTJATJA. [Scrp. Chap. adapted both for carpenter's and joiner's work, being clean in the o-rain and easily wronirht. The tree grows to a diameter of twelve to eighteen inches, and is rarely touched by the ant pest. No. 4. Called bloodwood — is one of the most abundant of the useful woods — both it and paper bark being chiefly used in the construction of bridges on the road to the goldfields. It is a fine sound timber, and is found up to two feet six inches in diameter. No. 5. Tccoma — is worthy of special examination as a liandsomc wood for furniture, resembling, as it does, the much admired tulip wood of Queensland. It is found near Palmerston, and in many of the jungles. The bark of this tree is said to yield valuable tannin matter for medical purposes. No. 6. Termed red cedar — is another showy furniture wood, capable of being successfully introduced in decorative work. No. 7. Usually called cedar — is a furniture wood, suitable to be worked in with No. 0. No. 8. Called milkwood, from the fact of the tree, on being- tapped, yielding a fluid resembling milk. This wood, being easily wrought, is adapted for many kinds of cabinet work. No. 9. White cedar. The texture of this wood is very similar to pine ; it may, therefore, be classed as a useful and inexpensive timber. No. 10. Blackwood. This timber does not grow to a very larf>*e size, the trees usually met with not exceeding fifteen inches in diameter ; it is a sound and valuable wood, and, for some purposes, a not inelegant substitute for walnut. No. 11. Banyan. This tree yields but a small quantity of straight v/ood, the trunks and branches being always greatly contorted. It might be tried for wood engraving. No. 12. IMangrove. This most extraordinary tree forms a dense belt of vegetation along the banks of the rivers, as well as on the sea coast. It appears to flourish under tidal influence — its numerous roots branching from the trunk above o-round and appearing as resting on the surface, rather than penetrating the soil. There are many varieties of this timber, Sdpp. Ch.kv.] acclimatized VEGETATION. 177 some of which show wood of great beauty in the variations of colour, those being apparently due to the chemical action of the sea water upon the fibrous structure of the timber, and not to changes of tint due to the annular growth of the tree. The bark of the mangrove is valuable for tannin, and is believed to be rich in potash, but I have not yet had the means of testing it. It also yields a good dye. A sample of the bark is exhibited, to A\liich the attention of chemists and tanners is particularly invited. Xo. 13. Called cedar — a good useful wood. No. 14. A rich yellow wood. No. 15. Plum tree. 'No. 16. Eugene apple ; a curiously striped wood. No. 17. Called lancewood, useful for boat-building. Xo. 18. Satinwood, a bright yellow timber, useful for fur- niture. No. 19. Prickly ash. No. 20. Honeysuckle. No. 21. Called the quinine tree. A decoction of the wood yields a strong bitter, said to be good in cases of fever. No. 22. Fan Palm. Tliis wood is prized for making walk- ing-sticks, picture-frames, &:g. No. 23. Wild nutmeg tree. - No. 24. Cabbage Palm. This wood is much sought after for making walking-sticks, billiard cues, and the like. No. 25. Prickly ash. No. 26. He-oak. No. 27. A wood plentiful in the jungles. No. 28. Bamboos grow to a diameter of four or five inches, and often used in the interim for making houses. Some very pretty cottages luxve been built entirely (including the roof) of bamboo. ACCLIMATIZED VEGETATIOX. Nature appears to have bequeathed to Art a soil and climate capable of yielding, under proper treatment, a prodigal return for skilled cultivation. Nearly all the kinds of tropical fruits -and vegetables whicli liave been fairly tried are found to thrive N ■ 178 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. [Surr. Chap. and flourish in these latitudes. The phmtain and banana grow wherever tliey are stuck in the ground, and produce excellent fruit. A number of cocoa-nut trees phinted three or four years- ago look in splendid condition. Pine-applos of delicious flavour reach maturity with great rapidity in the Government Botanic- Garden. The "custard apple," also known as "sour sop," and the papaya yield most delicious fruit. The tamarind tree- gro\\s well. The guava thrives also, as likewise the rosella. Splendid specimens of the mango are obtained at Port Essing- ton. The lemon and orange trees in the Government Garden are growing rapidly, and appear to take kindly to the soil and climate. In vegetables, the melon tribe succeeds admirably,, and will soon grow as weeds in certain favourable localities. The yam and sweet potato are being cultivated with great success. Arrowroot has been tried on a small scale, and thrives exceedingly well. Excellent " sugar cane " is grown at the Government Gar- dens. It is believed that the tea phxnt would thrive well in certain districts, and the same may be said of sj^ices, but none have yet been planted. One or two cotton trees in the grounds- of the Government Eesident have yielded excellent-looking- staple. " Indian corn " lias been sown in several portions of the Territory, and from the success which has attended the- experiments its cultivation will soon be greatly extended. In. provender for cattle, the couch grass thrives in a wonderful manner, and is eaten with avidity. The buflalo grass also- promises to grow both rapidly and well. The few fruits and vegetables above referred to afford but a faint idea of what is capable of being successfully culti- vated, for, as a matter of fact, there has not yet been any ex- perimental gardening attempted beyond the little done at the- Government liutanical Garden and in the grounds of Mr. Li111<\ llie Sub-Inspector of the Telegraph. However, the- trilling amount of work already done has sliown such excellent results that gardening is now beginning to be thought of in t.'arnest. Gardens have been formed on tlic })rinci2)al quartz; mines at the goldfields, and the benefits of liaving a supply of fresh vegetables are beiug manifested in the imj^roved health Supp. Chap.] NATIVE AXBEALS IN N. TEEEITOEY. 170 of those engaged on the claims. All the cultivation u])- country is being performed hj Chinese Coolies — white labour Ijeing by far too expensive for such work. NATIVE ANIMALS. The ordinary types of the Australian Fauna are found here. The irrepressible kangaroo and emu, bustard (wild turkey); the pelican, wild goose, and duck, teal, widgeon, •j^lover, quail, and several varieties of beautiful pigeons, king- fishers, black and white cockatoos, and parrots, are met with, and plentiful in their particular haunts. The waters of Port Darwin may be said to be full of fish, but, unfortunately for the people, they are very difficult to catch with hook and line. The supply of the local market is now in the hands of one or two Malay boatmen, who frequently manage to net in the course of an hour as many fish as they can sell for £4 or £5. With this money they retire to enjoy • themselves, and only return to marine pursuits when they ■ require fresh funds, leaving the townspeople in the interval craving for this kind of food, so suitable for a hot climate. A steady and constant fisherman, properly equipped, would soon realize a fortune in Port Darwin. Fine large turtle are often seen in the harbour, but are rarely caught. Oysters of excellent flavour are plentiful at Port Essington, where an establishment for curing trepang has been started by some enterj)rising settlers. Snakes are not so frequently met with in the Northern Territory as in many other parts of Australia. Those of the Python kind appear to be the most numerous. They are found sometimes fifteen feet in length, and are very fond of visiting hen-roosts. The writer has never heard of any fatal case of snake poisoning. Crocodiles abound in some of the rivers, especially the Koper and the Adelaide ; they are sometimes seen and have also been felt in Port Darwin and in the river to Southport. Some small specimens are exhibited in bottles, and also the eggs. Centipedes, big spiders, and scorpions are sometimes met N 2 180 SOFTTT AT'ST'RATJA. [Supp. Chap. -witli when not sought for— cliioHy in old wooden buildings, (oek roaches and crickets are pretty plentiful and very de- structive. However, as good stone buildings with cemented or tile floors supersede those of wood, these domestic nuisances will become less and less. Our old friend, the " rodent," has not neglected visiting the Northern Territory. One of his favourite nocturnal pastimes is to run along the framing of your roof and tumble on the sleeper in his hammock. The white ant pest deserves a special paragraph ; in appearance it is fat and yellow, about the size of the gentles used by anglers — the creature is rarely seen unless unearthed, always working under cover, protecting itself by a shield of glutinous earth as a shelter from the attacks of its constant enemy, the small black ant. The white ant ai)pears to have a wide margin for taste— it eats through almost anything — leather, wood, tobacco, soap, books, clothes, — nothing short of sheet-iron will arrest its ravages. Ordinary fir or pine, or ordinary hard wood, afford this ravenous insect a special feast, and no timber except cypress, pine, and paper-bark, iron-bark, bloodwood, and a few other woods, obtained in tlie Northern Territory, or the jarrah from Western Australia, is capable of Avithstanding its attacks. Some si:)ecimens of ant-eaten wood are exhibited, as well as a portion of the ant-hill. There are hundreds of thousands of those hills in the Territory, many being upwards of 23 feet in height, and 6 feet to 10 feet in diameter. They are very strong, resisting the heavy j)ressure of tropical rains, the larger ones appearing to be of great age — possibly some hundreds of years. There is another destruc- tive insect called the " borer," not met with near the sea- coast, but very active and mischievous inland, its attacks being chiefly levelled against timber. This creature is about the size of a small fly. Its head is armed with a kind of auger, which it drives with great force against the wood pro- posed to be attacked. The point of the auger is inserted while the body performs a series of rapid revolutions, perhaps a thousand in a minute, and thus bores a hole into the timber as perfectly as could be exocutod by a carpenter's gimlet. On a still night the nois(,' of this boring operation can be dis- SUPP. Chap.] LIVE STOCK IN NOETHEEN TEEEITOEY. 181 tinctly heard. In consequence of the destruction caused to wooden buildings by the ravages of the white ant, the Govern- ment authorities have determined on erecting all future struc- tures of stone, with concrete floors faced with Portland cement. Mosquitos and sandflies are very troublesome, especially be- tween the months of January to April, and mosquito nets are very generally used ; the best material for this purpose is cheesecloth — muslin not being strong enough to stand the wear and tear to Avhich they are liable. These nets are usually made about 6 feet 6 inches long, and 3 feet high, with a strong calico top and bottom — a slit being made along the centre of the bottom, through which the person enters, and as the body covers the opening thus made, the curtain is proof against the inroads of all insects ; it is like getting into a cage, and placing your back against the door. Travellers in the bush- usually have a fly, i.e. a light awning, nine or ten feet square, over their curtains, to keep oft' the night dew, and with this arrange- ment over a hammock, slung between two trees, enjoy the most healthy and undisturbed repose. The writer has been nearly as much troubled with mosquitos in South Australia, Victoria, and New South Wales, as in the Northern Territory, but not for so many months in the year. LIVE STOCK. The buffalo appears to thrive well in the Northern Territory ; large herds are met with on Melville Island, thirty-five miles from Port Darwin. At Port Essington they are so numerous, together with Timor ponies, that large tracts of country (over 1200 square miles) have lately been taken up under lease by Messrs. Lewis, Levi, and Way for the purpose of collecting these wild possessions of the soil, to supply the market at J^ort Darwin. It is also intended to form a cattle station there. Imported horned cattle fatten well; a herd of bullocks, In-ought over from Queensland by Mr. de Lautour, were in splendid condition, which was further improved by grazing for a time at Knuckey's I^agoon, thirteen miles from Palmerston. The sheep driven from Queensland to the inland stations of the Telegraph Department thrive well, but do not appear to 182 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. [Surr. Chap. •ret on so lavonralily near tlic soa-coast. The tSuxuii merino sheep seem to take more kindly to the pasturage, and will pro- l>a1>ly he selected as the sort hest fitted to the Territory. A solitary deer hrought from Timor became quite fat, when it was sacrificed to the demand for fresh meat. It is to be hoped tliat some deer will bo introduced and set loose for the benefit of the sportsmen, as well as for the purposes of trade. BUILDING MATERIALS. The woods having been already referred to, a few words may be devoted to some other of the materials used in building. Granite is met with in immense masses at the Finniss Tiiver, fortv-six miles from Palmerston, and over hundreds of S([uare miles beyond. Sandstone is abundant, especially along the coast ; the town of Palmerston rests on a bed of this material, whicli appears to consist of a fine loamy sand or marl, hardened l)y pressure and chemical action, and interspersed with numerous fossil impressions. Fossils are very rarely met with ; the samples marked A show two or three, which are all that could be found after a good deal of searching. The stone makes ex- cellent rubble masonry, but is too full of shakes and veins to admit of its being wrought into large ashlar. The harder seams yield fair road metal. Clays. — Fine micaceous clays of a marly character, both white and yellow, are readily found. These clays, when mixed with ironstone sand, make excellent bricks, and will no doubt be largely used when the real City of Palmerston begins to be erected. Lime. — Xo limestone has yet been met with in the settled districts, and, so far as a superficial examination of out-cropping strata enables one to judge, it is not likely to be found. In the absence of limestone, Nature has provided some large deposits of shells close to the town, from which excellent lime is made. Sand. — After several experiments made by the writer of drift and pit sands, it has been found that the dark-coloured ironstone detritus with lime makes the best setting mortar. A fair substitute for lime mortar is found in the earth of which •vSupp. Chap.] THE TOWNSHIP OF PALMEESTON. 18o tlie ant-hills are formed, the ant producing a glutinous sub- stance to bind the earthy particles together. This material, when moistened and beaten up, makes an excellent floor, and answers for bedding brick or stone. Barh. — Eough buildings and settlers' huts are usually roofed with bark, which is cut and brought in by the blacks. This bark makes a cool and weather-proof roof for two or three years, but looks rough and unsightly. The better class of buildings are covered with galvanized corrugated iron, Xo. 26 gauge, which, when coated with white on the outside, is found to be the best kind of roofing. The new settler can readily make for himself a comfortable log-hut by using upright poles about six inches diameter, two feet in the ground and ten feet above, and covered with a roof of bark. PALMERSTOX. The township of Palmerston is well selected on the margin of Port Darwin. A plan of the town shows that it occupies an area of about 800 acres, including roads and reserves, and embraces 946 allotments, each being half an acre. The prin- cipal buildings are the G-overnment Residence, the offices of the British-Australian Telegraph Company, the offices of the South Australian Overland Telegraph, and residences for the officers, the new Police Station and Gaol, the Government Offices, Local Court House, and residence of Colonial Surgeon, the Palmerston Hospital. Several of the Government officers have quarters in a place called the Camp, at the foot of Fort Hill. The principal stores are those belonging to Mr. Lindsay, ]\[r. Adcock, Mr. Allen, and Mr. Skelton. A large auction room is established by Messrs. Cohen and Solomon. The only bank is a branch of the English, Scottish, and Australian Chartered Bank. The geographical situation of Port Darwin is superior to that of Singapore or Macassar for trading with the neighbour- ing islands, as vessels can sail to the northern groups either in the east or west monsoons, Avhereas in the case of Singapore •or Macassar the proas can only visit them once in the course of .a year. Many of the islands within a week or two's sailing I'Sl sni ril Al'STKAI.IA. [Suit. Chai-, • listaiH-c tVoia l\)it Darwin contain largo and intelligent popn- latiojis ready to trad r with English Colonies in preference to the Dntcli. Yalnahlc })rodncts, such as tortoiseshell, pearl- shill. trcpang. iintniegs, ])alni wine, S:c., are obtainable from these places, as ucll as valuable and cheap labour of the kind so much needed in the Northern Territory. Tlie wages paid to meclianics in l*almerston arc 15s. per day. lal>ourers lO.s. ; those working up llic country receive luglier rates ; good working miners on the goldtields are paid £o })er week, with tlieir board, or £4 10s. per week without board. A few steady domestic servants would tind ready engagements at £1 per week or more. The charge made for board and lodging at the hotels i:> S.js. joer week. Of course where two or three live together, and cater for themselves, the cost is less than the above- amount. The following are about the average prices of pro- visions : — Fresh meat i)er lb., Is. dd. ; bread the 2 lb. loaf, i)ch ; preserved meat in tins, per lb., Is. ; fresh potatoes per cwt., £1 5s. ; fresh onions per lb., 9f?. to Is. ; flour per cwt.. £1 Gs. Few people pay rent, mostly living in tents, huts, or houses built by themselves. A good deal of domestic drudgery- is saved by the labour of the aborigines, who cut wood, carry water, and wash clothes, in return for whicli they receive a little flour, and the scra})s from the table. The foregoing ])lain and unvarnished facts and figures are submitted alike for the information of the capitalist and the working classes. To the former it is suggested that there are few places in the- world which offer land capable of yielding all kinds of tropical and subtropical products so readily and on such advantageous, terms as this Northern Territory of South Australia ; and witli regard to its resources in gold, there is an immense area known to be auriferous, in which hundreds of quartz reefs have alread\- been found, many of tliem luiving been proved, even by in- adequate machinery and too costly labour, to be remunerative. To the latter, if belonging to the really industrious classes, it may be said that no man able and willing to do a fair dav's- work for good wages is likely t(j remain unemployed. To another — unfortnnately too numerous — class, which. Supp. Chap.] CONCHOLOGY OF POET DAEWIX. 185 includes neither the capitalist, the trader, nor the bona fide working man, the earnest advice of the compiler of this sketch is— stay away. As to the climate, the writer Avith his son have been two years in the Territory, and have never had an hour's sickness. CONCHOLOOY OF POET DAEWIN. By AV. T. Bed:;all, Esq. The northern coast of Australia forms the southern boundary of the Indo-Pacific molluscan province, and Port Darwin is situated about the centre of it — having New Guinea to the north-east, and the islands of the Malayan Archipelago to the north and north-west. The harbour of Port Darwin was visited by King in his survey of the north coast in 1818 to 1822, Avith whom sailed the now celebrated Dr. Darwin, after Avhom the Port has been named. It is a splendid, deep, and tranquil harbour, and would, no doubt, if the dredge were used, yield a splendid harvest to the naturalist. There are many reefs in it, which are left uncovered at Ioav Avater. The coast line is formed of high cliffs, and large masses of broken rocks and immense boulders, alternating Avith of patches sandy beach — tropical vegetation luxuriantly groAving to the Avater's edge ; and in the indented arms it is thickly fringed Avith the man- grove. The molluscan fauna of this (natural) province are mostly carnivorous, the vegetable feeders being very poorly represented — probably OAving to the absence of any large extent of seaAveed. The pearly nautilus is found outside the heads. The genus Miirex is Avell represented, including the beautiful M. monodon ; so also is Fusus, by a giant sjDCcies — probably F. eolosseus (Lk.) ; the lovely Scalaria pretiosa is also occasionally taken here ; and the pearl oyster occurs too, but has not yet been found in large quantity — the specimens taken, however, are very fine. The mangrove swamps are the home of Ceri- tliium telescopium, Pyrazus ijolustre and sidcatum, Ceritliidea Kleneri, Auricida auris-jiuhe, Cassidida angulifera, a species of Flacuna, &c. &:c. The followino- genera occur in Port Darwin : — Murex, 186 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. [Supp. Chap. TnqiJion, Fiisiis, Tugilina, Pleurotoma, Triton, llanella, Buc- cinum, Nassa, Purjnira, AncUlaria, Fasciolaria, Turhinella, Vol Ufa, McJo, Miira, ColiimbeUa, Cassis, Dolium, Natica, Rnma (?), Scalaria, Terehra, Solarium, Convs, Stromhus, Cijp'xa, Yolva, Cerithium, Vertagus, Pyrazus, Cerithidea, Littorma, Planaxis, Turritella, Vermetns, Siliquaria, Onustrus, Caluptrxa, Nerita, Turbo, Trochus, Delphinula, Polydonia, Clancidus, Monodonfa, Euchelus, Monilea, Stomatia, Haliotris, Fissurella, Emargimda, Parmapliorus, Dentalium, Patella, Chiton, Pholas, Solen, Cid- tellus, Saxicava, Corhula, Anatina, dfactra, Psammohia, Tellina, Tellinella, Donax, Venus, Cliione, Cytlierea, Circe, Cardium, Hemieardium, Chama, Lucina, Pijthina, Cardita, Mytilus, Modis- laria, LitJiodomus, Meleagrina, Perna, Malleus, Pinna, Area, Pecten, Spondylus, Placunanomia, Placuna, Vulsella, ;ind Osfrea. The following species are common to Ceylon and Port Darwin : — Psammohia cxrulescens, Tellina {Phylloda) foliacea, Cytlierea gihhia, Venus corhis, Cardium rugosum, Meleagrina margaritifera (the pearl oyster), Pecten joleuronectes, DelpliinuJa laciniata, Monodonta lahis. Turbo versicolor, Pyrazus ixdustre, CeritJdum telescojpium, and Cyprxa tigris. Three species of land shells are found in the neigh bonrhood of Port Darwin — Helix pomum (Fer.) ; a brown, horny species of the same type as H. Grayi ; and H. Jjseudo-Meadei (Brazier), intermediate between H. Pomum and H. Meadei (H. Edivardsi, Cox.), a Queensland species : it differs from H. jpomum in the surface of the columellar margin, in being stippled like tlie surface of a thimble — and from H. Meadei in colour. Tlie fresh-water species comprise Paludina, Lymnea, Physa, Cyclas, and Unio. Altoo-ether the molluscau fauna obtained in the immediate neighbourhood of Port Darwin is of a very interesting charac- ter; comprising many shells worthy of our notice from their beautiful and curious forms, and also tlioir rarity in the cabinet of the collector. Add. Chap.] CENTEAL AUSTRALIA. 187 ADDITIONAL CHAPTER. CENTRAL AUSTRALIA. Mr. J. A. Giles's Paper on Central Australia — Description of Country along Telegraph Line — Pine Creek — Telegraph Stations at Katherine Pdver, Daly AVaters, Powell's Creek, Tennant's Creek, Barrow Creek, Alice Springs, Charlotte Waters — The MacDonnell Ranges — Natives along Route — Supply of Water, Since the foregoing was in type, tlie following interesting and well-written account of Central Australia, along the line of telegraph, has appeared in the Register. The writer, Mr. J. A. Giles, is well acquainted with the whole of the country which he describes. It is the best and most trustworthy ac- count of Central Australia which has yet been published, and I gladly transfer it to these pages. It will be seen that Cen- tral Australia is by no means the barren desert which it was, and is, supposed to be. There is an immense tract of country, with good feed for cattle, and water to be depended on, over almost the whole of the line. The description of the several telegraph stations is worth reading. With these few prefatory remarks, I now reprint Mr. Giles's interesting and instructive paper : — " The country from Palmerston to the reefs at Pine Creek has been so often described that repetition would be simply tedious, and as Pine Creek is the last settlement south of Pal- merston on the overland route, it will suffice to take tliat locality as a starting-point. A description of the country, with the waters and distances, may not be only interesting, but of material service to those likely to undertake the journey. " Starting from Pine Creek, the first water is at ' Stuck-up 188 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. [Ai-u. Chap. < 'aiiij).' lour miles distant, the road passinij;' through low slate hills, with iiuinerous quartz roofs. Tho hills are lightly tim- bered with gum, bloodwood, and other trees, and tolerably well grassed. ' Stuck-up Camp,' so called by the telegraph ])arty, they having been detained there by the wet season, is on the head of the Cullen Eiver. There is a fine hole of per- manent water here, and the road to tho Cullen Crossing, nine miles off, is through a granite country, with low timbered rises, and broad, open, and well-grassed flats between. There is plenty of 2)ermancnt water at the crossing, where the river is a deep sandy channel. On tho south side open and w'ell-grassed country extends to a distance of eight miles to tho Fergusson River. The route is also marked by the same characteristics. The Fergusson is a broad and deep river, running for several months in the year. Plenty of water is to be obtained in the driest seasons, and the surrounding land is good. The stream, after meeting the Cullen about eight miles to the westward, joins the Katherine River, about forty milos further to the south-west. From the Fergusson Crossing to Driffield's Creek, four miles away, the road passes over slate and quartz hills, splendidly grassed and timbered with gums, stringybark, bloodwood, and other trees. The Driffield is a tributary of the Fergusson, w ith a deep sandy bed, and some good water- holes above the crossing. From hero to the Edith River, ten mih's on, the road passes through another hilly region of slate, quartz, and ironstone, thickly timbered in places, and well grassed. " The Edith is a small stream flowing to the west, and running throughout the year. There are fine paper-barks, gums, and palms growing along the banks ; the surrounding country being hilly, open, and sjilendidly grassed, with black- soil flats along the river. The locality is similar for the next four miles to the Phillips Creek, a tributary of the Edith. Here the land changes, becoming very stony, with high broken ranges of slate, quartz, ironstone, and trap rock. This con- tinues for about three miles, and then come very rough broken hills covere(l with honeycombed boulders of basaltic rock. The road winds tlirouirh those, ascendinc: ofraduallv for about Add. Chap.] KATHERINE STATION. 189 tliree miles to the top of the tablehxnd, from which the countrv has a gradual fall to the Katherine Eiver, a distance of twenty miles. ' Bay of Biscay ' Plains, covered with quartz, ironstone, agate, and flint pebbles, are now met with, and the soil gra- dually becomes richer towards the Katherine, the hills being capped with immense masses of blue limestone, and here and there are huge isolated rocks of sandstone. The soil is a rich chocolate loam, magnificently grassed and lightly timbered, while nearer the Katherine are flats of rich black soil. " The Katherine Eiver is, at the crossing, about 500 yards broad, from cliff to cliff, and 90 to 100 feet in depth. The stream itself is, at the driest time of the year, about 150 feet wide, and has an average depth at the fording-place of 2^ feet. This is at the driest time of the year, but during the wet season the water often rises to within a few feet of the tops of the cliffs. From what I know of this river, and from information obtained from others who have lived for some time on it, I am strongly of opinion that it will, when explored, be found navigable, at a moderate flood, to the Telegraph Station. Should it be so, it will save 200 miles of land carriage. The land on either side is magnificent, consisting of rich black loam, chocolate, and brown clay, with lighter soils, all splen- didly grassed and timbered. From the Katherine Station the road passes through similar country to that on the northern bank, but with more limestone, which is piled up in the most singular manner, forming pillars, arches, and passages. All this limestone country is full of caves. At 12 miles from the Katherine the road enters a sandy tableland, well grassed, and heavily timbered with gums, bloodwood, ironbark, &c., with here and there belts of large pines. It is about six miles across this tableland, from which the road descends into heavy forest country, well grassed. At four miles the country changes to thick ragged scrub, scantily grassed. The soil is of a light description, covered with small brown ironstone gravel. This extends to the King Creek — three miles. This creek rises in the rough hills to the eastward, and flows to the westward, and is permanently watered. At the crossing the country is jjoor 190 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. [Add. Chap. and sciul»l>y, l)ut a tVnv miles do\\n the creek arc fine open Llue- grassed plains, with line la<>;ouns. '• From this creek to Abraham's Lagoon, a distance of 40 miles, the road passes through alternate patches of good and inferior country, crossing three creeks. The Eoper Creek is three miles from the King, the Gum Billabongs 14, and thence to the Stirling the distance is 15 miles. None of these creeks contain permanent water. Abraham's Billabongs are long deep ponds, in heavy paper-bark and gum forests, and are permanent, and well stocked with several kinds of fish, including black cod, catfish, and a small wliito fish. There is a splendid black soil all along these lagoons. Three miles from here is the Bitter .S})ring, tdose to the road, in a small hollow on the banks of the Roper River. An immense volume of water issues from under a ledge of limestone rock, and the water is of a slightly bitter and sweet taste. It is a dangerous place to water stock.- The channel is only about three feet wide, and of great depth, with a thick growth of corkscrew palms overhanging. There is a small extent of open Avell-grassed plains on the west side of the road. To the east, about 200 yards distant, is one of the branches of the Upper Roper, rendered conspicuous by the lofty and dense mass of vegetation growing along the banks, consisting of gigantic paper-barks, gums, corkscrew palms, and in places the tall stately fan palm, which here grows to the height of 60 feet. At Bitter Spring the road branches into two, the left hand track following the river to the Roper Depot, and the Leichardt's Bar, 130 miles, the overland tract turning off to the right, to the AVarlock Ponds on the Upper Elsie, I'l miles, through rather sandy and heavy timbered country, well-grassed. " The Warlock Ponds, in the Elsie Yalley, are large deep ponds of permanent water from two to three hundred yards long and from eighty to a hundred yards broad in the dry season. In the wet season, and for a month or two after, the valley is full, and is two hundred yards broad and about three to four feet deep. Some few miles down the Elsie are vast paper- l»ark swamj)s, the sources of the Elsie proper, which is a strong Add. Chap.] DALY AVATEES STATIOX. 191 running stream. At the lower crossing on the Roper road the bed is composed of minute white shells of a great depth, and is worse to cross than a quicksand. From the Warlock Ponds the road crosses undulating country for 25 miles to the Birdum Creek, timbered with stringybark, gum, bloodwood, ironbark, and other trees. The Birdum Creek is in a broad shallow valley, rising at Stuart's Swamp and Daly Waters, and run- nino; north to the Elsie, a distance of from 95 to 100 miles. There are plenty of fine clay waterholes all the way, but none are permanent. In the wet season the whole valley, which is from half a mile to three or four miles broad, is inundated. It is timbered with box and gutta-percha trees, and covered with a thick growth of blue grass. About 20 miles from the Daly • it is covered with wild rice, which grows to the height of seven or eight feet, and bears a grain a little smaller than the com- mon rice, and with a black husk. On either side of the valley the country is undulating, and in some places sandy, with thick clumps of trees and shrubs interlaced with creepers and vines. The ebony tree is first met with here, and towards the ,Daly dense belts of hedge trees and open forest country well- grassed are met with. The road from the Elsie, after striking the Birdum, follows along the eastern side of the valley for about 70 miles, then crossing it and following the western bank for 20 miles to Daly Waters Telegraph Station, which is situated on the Daly Creek at Stuart's Camp. The station is a strong; wooden buildino; of sawn slabs of bloodwood and ironbark, roofed Avith galvanized iron, and contains officers' quarters, office, store, and kitchen. There is also a large iron store used for the telegraph construction stores. In front of the building is a securely fenced garden well stocked with sweet potatoes, Timor pears, bananas, pine-apples, lettuces, radishes, beans, &c., and a tamarind tree, grown from seed planted in 1872 by Mr. R. C. Burton. It is now about ten feet high. There is also a well-grassed paddock, a mile square, enclosed by a wire fence. The stock at this station consists of horses, cows, sheep, and goats, all of which dt> remarkably well, and arc in splendid condition. The region round the station is open forest, splendidly grassed. A road 192 SOUTH AUSTIN A LI A. [Add. Chap. o-oes from here to I.oicliardt's Bar, on the Roper Kiver. From Daly AVaters to Frew's Ironstone Pond, a stretch of 50 miles, the route passes through alternate patches of open forest land, well grassed, and dense hedge-tree and mulga scrubs. The usual halting-places on the journey arc ^EcGorrorey's Pond, 14 miles on Auld's Pond, three miles furtlier ^Fillner's Lagoon, iinothcr 14 miles then Johnston's Lagoon (12 miles distant), and next on eight miles to Frew's Pond. None of these waters, however, are permanent. " Frew's Pond is a circular basin, about 300 yards in cir- cumference, Avith a depth of about twenty feet for a tliird of the circumference on the west side, ^here the bank slopes gradually into the water. On the other side are perpendicular walls of conglomerate ironstone. When full, the pond is a fine one, but as the water gets low, it becomes almost undrinkable in consequence of the thousands of divers and cormorants which frequent it. There are some splendid sturdy old box trees growing round, and the ground is covered with a thick short green grass like a carpet, making it one of the prettiest and best camps on the road. T'o the east the country is scrubby, and to the west and south arc open plains of black ^ Bay of Biscay,' subject to inundation. Tlie drainage is all to the westward. Four miles from Frew's Pond the road enters Sturt's Plains, crossing it in seventeen miles. To the east the forest runs parallel to the road at a distance of about six miles, but on the west not a tree is to be seen as far as the eye can reach, until the traveller is about halfway over, when a point of forest appears in the distance. This plain is entirely •composed of black soil, and during the wet season is com- pletely under water to a depth of a foot, with a very gradual flow to tlic \\ est ward. After the water lias drained off, the herbage and grass is most luxuriant. " The plains having been crossed, belts of hedge tree with fine open stretches of land are met with for seven miles to the north, when the Newcastle Waters are reached. This- water- course rises to the eastwanl of the Ashburton Eange, comes close round to tlie north end, flows south for thirty-five miles, and finally empties itself into Lake AVoods. Along the whole Add. Chap.] POWELL'S CEEEK STATION. 1J^'^» of its course there are magnificent reaches of permanent water, varying in length from one to two miles and from 100 to 200 yards in breadth, with broad, open, and gently sloping banks covered with a short green grass. There are thousands of pelicans, ducks, geese, and immense numbers of cormorants in the vicinity. The district is also thickly populated with natives, who have always shown a hostile feeling to the whites. They are a fine race, tall and well-made, with faces free from beard or moustache — a peculiarity observable in all the tribes from the north coast to the MacDonnell Eanges. The Ashburton Eange runs parallel to the. Newcastle the whole way, and is from two to four miles distant from it, the road going between the two, through splendidly grassed country. The range is rough and stony, composed of a hard white sandstone. The camping-places along here are the North Newcastle Reach, thence nine miles to the Express Reach, twelve miles to the South-East Bend, and ten miles to the South Newcastle Reach. From the South Newcastle to the Lawson Creek is six miles. The creek rises in the Ash- burton Range, and flows to the west into Lake Woods, which is about two miles from the crossing of the creek. There is no permanent water at the crossing, but about a mile and a half up the creek in the range is a fine spring. There is good land on both sides. From here to the Fergusson Creek, twelve miles off, the route passes over good country, lightly timbered and well grassed, and skirting the foot of the range. The Fergusson is a large deep creek rising in the range, and emptying into Lake Woods. It has some fine waterholes and several springs in the range, and is surrounded by splendidly grassed valleys and flats. " From the Fergusson Crossing to Powell's Creek Station is fourteen miles, the intermediate territory being patchy. The way leads through the ranges, and a short distance to the westward good land opens out into extensive well-grassed plains. The station on the Powell's Creek is a fine substantial stone building, roofed with galvanized iron. There is a fine spring of good water within fifty yards of the station. On the east and south sides are high rocky liills, witli a valley to the 104 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. [Add. Chap. south-east, through \\liich the creek, which is ph'utifully sup- plied with permanent water, conies. The stock here consists of horses, cows, and sheep, and they all do well. " From Powell's Creek to Eenner's Springs is nineteen miles, the road for the first seven miles winding through the Powell's Creek Valley. It then ascends a small range, and after four miles crosses the Ringwood Creek, which is the first creek falling to the eastward from the Ringwood to Renner's Springs, a distance of eight miles, mostly through scrub and spinifex. " Renner's Springs -.ux' close to a high pile of rot-ks, and consist of mounds covered with reeds. There are several fine gum-trees growing round, and on the east is a fine open well- grassed plain with a range of hills beyond, about two miles from the springs. From here for the next forty miles the land is poor, with patches of scrub and spinifex and stony hills. Three creeks are met with, all running to the westward, but without permanent water. The first is the North Tomkinson, sixteen miles from starting-point. The Middle Tomkinson is seven miles on, the South Tomkinson seven miles further, and ten miles from this are Kirchner's Ponds. These are not j)er- manent, but hold water for a long time after rain. The sur- rounding district is good and well grassed with several different varieties. Permanent water also is obtainable by following the creek to the eastward for about six miles. From these ponds to the Morphett Creek — eight miles — the country is for the first four or five miles very good ; but it then becomes scrubby, and in places stony. The Morphett is a very broad gravelly creek running to the eastward, with permanent water obtainable about three miles down it, and ^\ itli some good land on both sides. From here it is three miles to Attack Creek, the region being open and well grassed to the eastward, with a low, rocky range about a mile on the west side of and parallel to the road. Attack Creek is large, rising in high ranges to the westward, and running to the north-east. There are fine holes of water in it, but they are not permanent. " From Attack Creek it is forty miles to Tennant's Creek Telegraph Station, the journey winding through stony hills covered with sj^nifex for the first twenty miles, and crossing -Add. Chap.] TENNANT'S CEEEK STATION. 195 "the North Hay ward Kiver after eight miles ; the South Hay- ward two miles further, and the Gibson at the end of another five miles. All these creeks flow to the eastward, and have Tio permanent water near the crossings. The Phillips Creek, five miles from the Gibson, is in better country, and, though not permanent, contains water for several months after rain. There is no water between this and Tennant's Creek, twenty miles away, and the country is scrubby and poor. Tennant's •Creek Telegraph Station is another creditably and sub- stantially built stone structure, situated on rising ground -about a quarter of a mile on the western bank of the creek, in which, however, there is no permanent water ; but a well has T3een sunk, and a sufficient supply obtained for station pur- poses. The surrounding district is open, and well grassed ^long both sides of the creek. There are horses, cows, and sheep here, and all in fine order. About t^velve miles down the creek there is splendid country. From the station to Kelly's Well, a thirty-two miles' stage, the way passes through •a wretched locality of nearly all scrub and spinifex, and •destitute of water close to the road. Near Mount Samuel there is a small patch of good grassed land and a little water, but it is not permanent. Mount Samuel is a high hill with ^n immense dome-shaped mass of shiny black magnetic iron on the summit, Avhich gives it a most peculiar appearance. At Kelly's Well there is plenty of water to be had by clearing out the sand which washes in after every rain, the well being sunk in the bed of a small creek. The vicinity is well grassed. From here the road passes through fair country to the Gilbert Creek, excepting one or two patches of spinifex, and there is a high range all the way about five miles to the east of the road. The Gilbert, twenty miles from Kelly's Well, is a large sandy 8 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. [Add. Chap . miles— the coTintry is very good, fine, open, short-grassed' ])lains, with here and there a few chimps of trees. The Wood- I'orde is a deep sandy creek rising in the 3Ioimt Freeling Rancres, and runnini'- to tlie eastward. There is no surface- water at this crossing, and only a small supply obtainable by- digging in the sand. The route, after crossing the creek,, follows the eastern bank for three miles, crossing again, and then following the west side for nine miles, and re-crosses. Plenty of water is to be got by digging in the sand at this crossing. The locality on both sides of the creek is excellent. The road now leaves the Woodforde and enters a long valley formed by the ]\[ount Freeling Eange on the west, and the Mount Boothby lianges on the east. This valley is about twelve miles through, and water may be obtained by turning off when about nine miles up, and making for IMount Freeling, striking a creek after about half a mile, and following it ui> into a deep rocky gorge, where there is a plentiful supply of the pure element. The route, before leaving the valley, passes the foot of Mount Boothby — a very high, black-looking, and frightfully rugged elevation. Coming out of the valley, the- traveller skirts along the foot of the western range to the- Xative Well, an irregular-shaped hole about ten feet deep. There is a slight soakage from the bottom of this well, but not more than a few gallons in the twenty-four hours ; probably^ if it were sunk a few feet, a good supply might be obtained,, as it is favourably situated, being in the centre of a gap in a. high range running east and west, and through which the road })asses. From this point thirty-six miles on to Burt Creek,, the district traversed is extremely poor, the first sixteen miles- being spinifex and sand, with poplar trees scattered about, and the remaining twenty miles are characterized by thick mulga scrub, but the land is tolerably well grassed. The Burt is a small creek rising in the Strangways Eange to the eastward,, and emptying out on to o})en plains ; there is no water here,. but nevertheless the surrounding region is magnificent, and would do splendidly for sheep, being thickly grassed with short,, line grass, salt and blue bush, and geranium and other herbs. " From the Burt to Alice Springs Telegraph Station is- thirty-six miles, the first six miles being througli country Add. Chap.] ALICE SPKINGS STATIOX. 199 similar to that just described. The next four or five miles are covered with rather scrubby rises ; then follow eight miles of open mulga scrub, splendidly grassed, and with plenty of geranium and other herbage, the soil being a rich red loam. The next two miles consist of open and splendidly grassed land, with srtltbush and herbage ; and here also is the Ten-Mile Creek, the water of which is slightly impregnated with soda. The creek is on the top of the MacDonnell tableland, over 2000 feet above the sea level. From this j)oint the road descends for ten miles to the Alice Springs, winding about in every possible direction through a perfect jumble of granite hillocks, the last descent being down a very steep hill covered with immense granite boulders, with only just room enough for a dray to pass between. From the hilltop a most magni- ficent view is obtained. Right in front is an immense range stretching to the east and west as far as the eye can reach, having the appearance of an enormous red wall. No animal, excepting the rock wallaby, could scale it. At intervals of several miles there are gorges, through which creeks find their way, but it is only through one or two of these gorges that it is possible to take a dray, and then only when the creeks are dry. xifter descending this hill, the track, after winding about a little further, reaches the Alice Springs. The station is situated on the western bank of the Todd Creek. On the opposite side is a rocky hill composed of large granite boulders, at the foot of which is a large and deep waterhole. Close behind the building is another high hill of huge boulders, and all round are rocky hills. In front of the station, about half a mile off", are two gaps, through one of which goes the Todd Creek, and the road to Messrs. Bagot and Smith's station through the other, a high rocky hill dividing them. Through these gaps a view of the before-mentioned red range, distant about three miles, is obtained. The station is built on the same principle as that at Barrow Creek. Messrs. Bagot and Smith's property is twelve miles east of the telegraph station on the Jessie Creek. About 200 yards at the back of the station is a high rocky range, in which the Jessie takes its rise, running over ledges of rock and falling into a most re- markable gorge, the mouth of which, close to the station, is -("> S(^rTH AUSTKAT.IA. [Add. Chap. ubout thirty yards wide, the walls rising up perpendicularly to a great height. On entering the range, the gorge opens out in a circular form with perpendicuhir cliti's over a hundred feet in lieight all nmiid. The bottom is tilled with enormous ))()ulders. Where the creek comes from seems to be a complete mystery, and it is only by threading your way amongst the rocks right up to the very fctot of the cliff at the end of the gorge that the traveller solves the problem by discovering a \evy narrow passage leading skywards, and down which a nice little stream of (dear water is always running. In front of the st ition, about ibur miles away, is the red range through a gorge of which the Jessie Creek flows. The e:oro:e referred to is onlv to be got through by swimming a deep pool of water occupy- ing the whole width of the gorge, and the cliffs rise from the water perpendicularly to a height of 200 feet. ISix miles further along the range towards the Alice Springs is another gorge, the Emily, also full of water, but not deeper than about three feet. This is about 300 yards through and about thirty yards wide. The eastern cliff is a solid mass of rock, rising up quite smoothly and perpendicularly for 300 feet. The western wall is the same height, but more broken. Five miles from this along the range is the Heavitree Gorge, through which the Todd Creek runs. This gorge is eighty yards wide, and the (;reek which occupies the whole width, is dry here, with a smooth bed of white sand. The cliffs are very rough, and rise perpendicularly to the height of 500 feet. The next gap — T'cmple Bar — is twelve miles away. Tlic Roc Creek, the over- land telegraph line, and the road go through it. The creek is dry, and, like the Todd, has a level sandy bed. The cliffs here are not so high, and slightly sloping. The country l)etwecn this rani>:e and the northern one forms the finest ffrazino- land in Australia. The northern range is composed of coarse, grey hornblende, granite, blue slate and tra|) rock, steatite, and several other rocks ; and the southern of a hard, close-grained red and white sandstone, the grains highly crystalline. A complete jumble of low sharp-pointed slate hills make up the intervening district, covered with ironstone, quartz, and mica. " After passing through Temple Bar, twelve miles from Alice Springs, the traveller turns to the westward, crossing Add. Chap.] ALICE SPRINGS TO CHAELOTTE WATEES. 201 limestone ranges, and descending into a deep valley about a mile wide, with another high parallel range on the south side. The valley is well grassed, and the route follows it for about eight miles, and then turns through Fenn's Gap in the southern range, entering another parallel valley about a quarter of a mile wide, with a very high rocky range on the south side. The road now tracks this valley for about fourteen miles to the Jay Creek, close under an immense range, the highest points of which are 3Iount Conway, a stupendous dome-shaped mountain, Brinkley's Bluff to the west, and Mount Charles on the east. It is said that they have been estimated as being over 4000 feet above the sea level. The road, after crossing the Jay Creek, passes over a low hilly region to the Hugh, an immense gum creek rising in the range and flowing to the south. There is abundance of water here. Following along the eastern bank of the Hugh for eight miles — about three miles through a splendid district belonging to Mr. Gilbert — the track crosses over lightly timbered mulga rises, well grassed, for five miles to Messrs. Gilbert and Conway's station, Owen Springs, on the Hugh, at the Waterhouse Kange, which is long and composed of dark-red, cross-grained sandstone. The station is pleasantly situated on rising ground, at the foot of the range, close to the gorge which the Hugh passes through. The locality is fine and open to the north-east. From here the road follows the bed of the Hugh through the gorge for about two miles, thence across open country, striking the creek again after five miles, and crossing it, passes through mulga country for ten miles, again reaches the creek at McClure's Springs, in the James Range, and follows it through gorges, crossing it repeatedly for seven miles to Stuart's Waterhole. From here, the route passes over spinifex country for twenty-eight miles to the Long Waterhole, ^^ here there is good country. Four miles further on, the track again crosses the Hugh at the Deep Crossing, thence passing tlirough a fine region to Mount Burrell, on the Hugh, fourteen mihjs distant. This is a fine open liilly district, watered, well grassed, and with plenty of herbage and cotton-lnish. " The next water from here is Percy's Hill, a distance of seventeen miles, on the Hugh, the journey being through the same description of country. From Percy's Hill to the double 202 80 1'T I r AUSTRALIA. [Add. Chap. crossing of the Hn^h — ten miles — the road passes over a luiserahle sandhill region covered with spinifex in most })laces. The creek here runs down to the foot of high broken cliffs, under which plenty of water is to be obtained by digging in the sand, liunning along the foot of the cliffs for about half a mile the creek suddenly turns, and doubles back, almost on its former course. There being no way round the bend by the cliffs, the track has to cross it twice, and, continuing through high sandhills for twenty-two miles, reaches the B Depot, on the Hugh, near its junction w'ith the Finke River, crossing it here for the last time. The [whole course of the Hugh is thickly timbered with splendid gums, from three to four inches in dia- meter, to several feet, growing to a great height, and perfectly straight. From the B Depot to the Horseshoe Bend, on the Finke Eiver, is twelve miles, the intermediate country con- sisting of sandhills^' for the first three or four miles, though the remainder is well grassed open mulga land. " The Finke at this point is considerably over a mile in width, and the mainV-hannel has a clear smooth bed of fine white sand over half a mile wide. There is plenty of surface water, which towards the dry season becomes brackish. The river rises in the northernmost of the MacDonnell Ranges, and runs to the S.E. for 400 miles, passing to the east of the Char- lotte Waters Station, about nine miles off, gradually trending to the eastward, and beyond is unexplored. It was supposed that it emptied itself into Lake Eyre. But the explorations of the lake by Mr. Lewis give no clue to the supposition. There must be a much largcn- lake to the north of Lake Eyre, as there is, besides the Finke, Todd, Roe, and several other streams — all of which are very large gum creeks — the whole of the drainage from the MacDonnell Ranges east of the Alice Springs, and which extends for, as far as is at present known, over a hun- dred miles. " From the Horseshoe Bend to the Finke at Blount Mus- grave, fifteen miles, the road passes through the mulga forest, well-grassed, and with a few sandhills, for about seven miles, and then comes open grassed country and high-peaked hills to the east, north, and west, the summits covered with gypsum and having a snow-capped appearance. From Blount IMusgrave, Add. Chap.] CHARLOTTE WATERS STATION. 203 where there is plenty of water, both salt and fresh, the way passes over stony, undulating, well grassed, and open territory to the Finke. Crossing ten miles thence, it goes to the Goyder Creek, thirty miles, through a fairly grassed, hilly, and rather stony region, with here and there patches of mulga scrub. Crossing the Goyder, a large sandy creek running into the Finke from high ranges to the westward, the road for the next thirty miles, to Charlotte Waters Telegraph Station, is charac- terized by mulga scrub, open plains, sandhills, and stony rises poorly grassed. " Charlotte Waters Station, situated on the creek of that name, is a fine substantial building of white freestone, and erected on the same plan as the Alice Springs and Barrow Creek Stations. The surrounding country is open, level, and thickly strewn with fragments of brown clinker-looking iron- stone and gypsum. From this point 200 miles on to the Peake Station the district is stony, barren, and, with one or two exceptions, the picture of desolation. The redeeming features are the Adminga Creek locality — eighteen miles from Charlotte Waters — and the Macumba Creek, about 102 miles further on, both of which are well grassed ; and at the latter there is a horse station belonging to Mr. Gilbert, of Pewsey Vale, from whence to the Peake the country is exceedingly stony. About two miles from and on the south side of the Peake Creek is Messrs. J. and C. M. Bagot's cattle station. All the buildings are substantial stone structures, and situated on the side of a stony range immediately above a cluster of fine springs. Although the country has a stony and barren appear- ance, the cattle are in excellent condition. From the Peake to Beltana, a distance of 270 miles, the same stony indications are met with. The road passes several mound springs, some of which are thirty or forty feet in height, with a circular basin on the top, from which the water runs in streams to the plain beneath. To the left of the road is Lake Eyre, and on the right, several miles distant, are liigh bold ranges. " The MacDonnell Eango country, from the James Eange to Barrow Creek, 250 miles, is, as far as climate, water, grasses, and herbage are concerned, admirably adapted for sheep, cattle, and horses, but the carriage of stores constitutes a serious. *iO-± SOUTH AUSTEALIA. [Add. Chap. "li'iiwliack bnth in rr^L^'ard t(t })ric(' and time. This must form a doc'id(.'d (obstacle to tlic iiitrodut'tion of sheep. Should ever the railway to Port Darwin he started, the whole of this country would be available for pastoral jjurposes. The climate is much milder than in the Northern runs of South Australia, and the country is infinitely better grassed. With regard to the natives on the overland route, there is this difference observable between them. From the MacDonnell Ranges to the north coast they are hostile and treacherous to the whites. This is especially the case along the Newcastle, where they are very numerous. The men are generally tall and well formed, with faces destitute of beard and whiskers. The w omen and children are rarely to be seen, and then only by coming upon them unawares. The MacDonnell Eanges tribes are the very oppo- site to this. The men have long sharp-pointed beards, with the head shaved from the forehead to near the top of the head. Their foreheads are painted jet black with some filthy com- l)ound of grease, charcoal, and gum, and they are the most villainous-looking rascals on the whole route. The Finke natives are a much finer looking race, but have the same long 2)ointed beard. All the tribes south of the MacDonnell Ranges are, so far, peaceably disposed towards the whites. " In conclusion, it may be stated that the foregoing de- scription faithfully represents the country and the w^aters as tliey actually are on the route of the Overland Telegraph line in comparatively dry seasons. In ordinary wet seasons there is water in abundance for nine months out of the year ; but in many of the places above alluded to it is not permanent, as. for instance, on the Tomkinson Creek and between Daly Waters and Frew's Pond. Water in abundance is often found from one season to the other in Attack Creek and the Phillips. All to east of the line from Charlotte to Daly Waters tlie region is a terra incognita. All the best country appears to be to the eastward, there being more ranges and open country, and it ouglit to be worth exploring. From Barrow Creek on tlie west of the line the country is also unexplored, and there must be an extensive lake country west of Lake Woods, as tlie drainasT'' in tliat dircH-tion is immense." ITS FLOEA. 205 FLOEA OF SOUTH AUSTEALTA. By E. ScnoMBUEGK, PniL.Dr... Dirfxtoh, KMiJUT OF THE ISirERlAL ORDER OF THE CROWN ; OF THE ORDER OF MERIT OF PHILIPPE THE MAGNANIMOUS, AND THE ORDER OF THE CROWN OF ITALY; MEM. OF THE IMPERIAL CAROL. LEOPOLD. ACADEMY ; HON. MEM. BOT. SOC. MAGDEBURG ; COR. MEM. ZOOL. SOC. LONDON; C.M.R.B.S. LOND. ; C.M.B.S. EDIN. ; C.M.G.S. liERL. AND DRESD.; CM. fOC. NAT. CHERB. FRANCE; C.M.H.S. BERL. AND FRANK. ON M.; CM. SOC. PHYS. JIEDICA, ERLANGEN ; H.M.R.S. N. S. WALES ; ETC. ETC. iSouTH AuSTKALiA cloGS not oifei' the contrasts and changes in its configuration and climatical condition that are found to exist in the east, north, and west of the vast continent. It is deficient in high wooded mountain chains and deep moist gullies ; and, with the exception of the Eiver Murray, has no great rivers, and but few lakes or swamps. The rainy season is of short duration, and its rainfall limited, the average being only 19 to 21 inches during the year. Its climate also, with the exception of the intra-tropical part, is of a more equal ' character than that of the other parts of Australia. xVll these characteristics may account for the flora of South Australia being less numerous in genera and species of plants, compared with those of the other j^axts of Australia. Throughout its varied zones there is not a greatly marked diversity in the ^physiognomy of its vegetation, and its exhibits on the greater part of its area are of a similar character. In character the South Australian flora is intermediate between the south-eastern, south-western, and the tropical floras of Australia. The absence of high mountain chains imparts to the country and vegetation a degree of monotony from the absence of the umbrageous forest region. The most predominant orders of the South Australian flora> like those of the other parts of the Continent, are — Lepu- minosx, Myrtaceic, Comjyositse, Proteaeepo, CvKciferop, Iiul)iacea\ •Ani\. Graminese ; abundant in genera, species, and individuals. 200 Sdl'l'll ATSTKALIA. A'ery siiijj;ularly ciicuniserilKMl .iic tli(? genera and species in urea ; many are found in one s[»ot alone, and a diversity in 8oil and locality hrings forth otlier genera and species; the rapid succession of forms and the contrast in this respect between the northern and southern parts being remarkable. The bark of most of the trees is usually smooth and of a greyish colour, which no doubt is accounted for by the slight atmospheric changes — the contrast not being so sudden and great as in colder climates. Most of the leaves of the trees and shrubs are coriaceous, rigid, and pungent, and of a shining- glaucous colour, which is especially perceptible in the orders Proteacem and Epacrldeie. Yellow-coloured flowers are the most predominant. The preponderance of the two great genera of the Austra- lian flora, viz., Eucahjptas and Acacia, also prevails over the wliole area of South Australia, but with a deficiency in species in comparison with those of the west and east flora. The number of species of Eucahjpts known at jjresent in Australia is about 134 ; of these only 30, and of Acacia, of which 300 species are described, only 70 appear in South Australia. The trees of South Australia do not reach so great a height as those in the east, north, and west; the average that our tidiest trees, the Eucahjpts, obtain being from 100 feet to 120 feet, with a stem of from 4 feet to 5 feet in diameter ; and such trees are only found in districts favoured by good soil, or on the banks of the rivers ; but these heights sink into insignificance compared with those of trees indigenous to Victoria, Tasmania, and Western Australia, where it is stated that Eucalyptus glohulus reaches 300 feet and E. collosa, F. Muell., of Western Australia, 400 feet ; but, more astonishing still, tliat a fallen tree of E. aniijgdallna, Labill., in the Dandenong Mountains, Victoria, measured 420 feet in length. The presence of different species of trees in South Australia is also limited in comparison to the other parts of Australia, According to Baron von Mueller, the list of trees above 30 feet in height in Australia comj)rises 950 kinds. Of these 88 are found in South- Western Australia, only 63 in South Australia, 146 in "S'ictoria, 385 in New South Wales, 526 in Queensland, ITS FLORA. 207 212 in Xortli Australia, and 29 in Central Australia. Onlv the Eucalijpts furnish South Australia with timber. They are found in all parts over the area of the Colony, and constitute most useful timber-producing trees. Amongst the eighteen to twenty species of Eiicahjjjts appearing in the extra-tropical part of South Australia, there are only four to six kinds which are most valued. These are distinguished by certain colonial names, such as red, white, and blue gum, stringybark, and j)eppermint, Eucalyi)tus rostrata, Schlecht. ; viminalis, Labill. ; odorata, Behr. Their timber is highly valued for building, railway, water, and wheelwright work, as naves, felloes, and s^^okes, and as posts for fencing and other purposes. The stringybark, Eiicahj2)tus obliqua, Lher., is much valued, being^ the only kind fit for shingles, and, as a free-splitting wood, the best for forming rails ; but it is not so durable as the other kinds. The wood of the Acacia tribe is only useful for cabinet- work and turning, for which purpose the blackwood. Acacia melanoxylon, R. Br., is very much valued. The wattle of the colonists, Acacia 2')l/cnantha, Benth., is very valuable, on account of its freely exuding gum, and also for its bark, the latter containing excellent tanning qualities ; and both these pro- ducts form a very important article of export. The wood of the so-called sheaoak, Casuarina stricta, Ait., is of an excellent character and used for cabinetwork, turning, and handles for tools. The tea-trees, a name applied by the colonists to the genera Melaleuca and Leptospermiim, constitute a class of hardwood usually found in low, moist situations, and on the banks of creeks ; is valuable on account of its imperishable nature when used underground, or even in water. The timber is remarkably close-grained, extremely hard when dry, very heavy, and gene- rally sound in the heartwood, which is not always the case with other hard-wooded trees. The pretty mottled wood of the native pines of South Australia, Frenela robusta, A. Cunn., and rliomhoidea, Endl., lack durability, and are mostly used for fencing stuff and fuel. The native cherry, Exocarpus cwpressiformis, Labill., the honev- 208 SOUTH AUSlTvALIA. sucklo, Banlcsia marginata, Cuv., furnish also handsome woods for cabinetwork; and Myoporum af?n»/»rtf?r»i,Il. Br., has a white soft timber, extremely tough, forming excellent knees for boats. A most remarkable fact in South Australian vegetation is the absence of native eatable fruits, of which there are none de- serving the name, except a few berry-bearing shrubs belonging to the order of Ejxicrideas and Santalacepe, Astroloma, and Leu- copogon, the principal species of which, the native currant of the colonists, Astroloma humifusum, R. Br., and the so-called native peach, Fusanus acuminahis, R. Br., bearing a globular fruit of the size of a small peach, with a succulent epicarp and a hard, bony, much-pitted endocarp, are all South Australia can boast of. There is also a deficiency in eatable root-bearing plants. A great many genera of i)lauts of other countries which possess valuable and powerful medicinal properties have numerous congeners in the extra-tropical and more especially in the intra-tropical portions of South Australia, of which I will only mention the following orders, viz. — Euphorhiacefe, TJrticem, Campanulacese, Solanese, Apocyneee, Leguminossp, Asclepiadese, Gentianem, Scrojjhidarinese, &c. ; containing numerous genera and species, probably possessing similar valuable properties, which may be considered as so much buried riches hitherto un- heeded, and therefore not utilized. Only lately the wonderful febrifugal properties of the Eucahjpts have been discovered in Europe. The polygonaceous plant, MuehJenheclda adpressa, Meisn., called by the colonists " Native Sarsaparilla," produces the same effects as the true Smilax Sarsaparilla, Lin. ; and the Erijtlirfea avstralis, R. Br., contains the same bitter as its con- gener in J']urope, Erythroea Centaurium, Pers. There are, no ss. They ai)pcar mostly on the ridges and declivities of rocky and stony hills, almost devoid of any other vegetation, and are also found on some wooded lands, but never on the plains. Xantliorrhoea quadrangulata grows from 10 to 12 feet high, often with a trunk about one foot or eighteen inches in diameter, and the flower stalk from 6 to 10 feet high. Sometimes speci- mens are found repeatedly branched in a dichotomous manner, all the branches of equal thickness, which gives them a most o ITS FLOEA. 213 grotesque appearance. This species appears only in hilly districts ou the most rocky declivities ; they drive their straggling roots into the crevices of the rocks several feet down amongst the accumulated vegetable soil. The grass trees are of slow growth ; the largest specimens must be several hundred years old. The second species, Xanthorrhoea semipJana, is often found at the base of the hills in sandy soil ; it forms its stem underground, which extends often two to three feet before the few straggling roots appear, and the leaves lie close on the ground. This species is also of an ornamental character. The valuable brownish yellow, resinous exudation of the root and lower part of the stem, I have already mentioned. The deep gullies formed by the ridges and hills, in which the dew most frequently supplies the place of rain during the dry season, are covered with shrubs and ferns. The soil is generally formed of black or sandy peat of a very humid nature, being watered by streamlets running throughout the year, and forming, in some rocky situations, picturesque cas- cades. In such gullies are associated the most delicate and beautiful plants the flora of South Australia produces. Only in such places do ^^e find assembled the handsomest ferns in great profusion, the stately Toclea africana, Willd., Avith trunks often 5 feet to G feet in circumference, often formine; im- jienetrable thickets along the rocky banks of the streamlets ; Gleichenia microphjlla , R. Br., thriving luxuriantly in the crevices of the rocks ; with the elegant Adianium iethiopicurn, Lin., Botrijcliiuhi ternatum, Swartz, Lomaria discolor, Willd., and capensis, Willd., Aspidium moUe, 8w., Grammitis lepto- piliijlla, Swartz, and rutifolia, R. Br., interspersed with tlio lovely Viola hetonicxfoUa, Sw., and hederacea, Labill., which border the water edges ; and the blue flowers of Cae&ia and white of Burchardia give a great charm to such waterfalls not easily described. The declivities of the gullies are mostly taken possession of by the luxuriant-growing Pteris esciilenta, Forst., massed toge- gether and forming often impenetrable thickets, while the graceful Cheilanthes tenuifolia, Swartz, is generall}'' found in the grass land at the base of the hills, extending even a sliort - 1 1 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. distance into ihc [)laiiis. There also grow magnificent trees of Eucahjjptis. In sncli gullies, with their fertile soil and cool cliine, the greatest part of our culinary vegetables are grown for the market to a degree of perfection unknown elsewhere, and un- interruptedly supplied throughout the year. Not vegetables alone, but fruits, viz. : — Gooseberries, strawberries, raspberries and currants, &c., are raised in the same perfection. At the base, and also extending further up on the slopes of the hills generally, in spots least covered with underwood. a[»])ear the various and beautiful terrestrial Orchids, Avith their delicate and quaint flowers, together with other monocotyle- donous plants, A'iz. : — Patersonia longiscajm, Sweet, Hyporh qlahella, E. Br., Civsia ixirvi flora, R. Br., Arthropoclium laxum^ 11. Br. The most conspicuous Orchids are : — Glossoclia major, E. Br., Caladenia Patersoni, E. Br., latifolia, E. Br., carnea, E. Br., Gyrtostylis reniformis, E. Br., Pterostytis cucullata, E. Br., reflexa, E. Br., harhata, Lindl., longi folia, E. Br., Tlichjmitra aristata, E. Br., carnea, E. Br., Diiiris iMliistris, Lindl., macu- lata, Sm., Joiigifolia, E. Br. The genus Pterostylis is repre- sented by numerous species. This asjiect of the forest region applies to the Barossa Eange, the most prominent near the coast. Other mountain ranges in the far north may present different features. The Scrub Land Eegion. — The regions of the so-called scrub land appear over the whole area of South Australia, ex- tending more or less in the different district ; but more so in the north and east, occupying about one-eighth of the whole area of the Colony. They form loug stretches of desolate arid plains — the soil being of the poorest description, and unfit for cultivation, changing from loamy clay to pure sand ; the surface is covered -with fragments of silieious rock, ferrugi- nous sand, and ironstone ; of water in these tracts there is no indication. The vegetation is of a stunted character, and the scrub is nearly destitute of grasses and other herbage ; the few genera of the first are mostly Neurachne, Stijm, Isolejms, Sinnifex, tlw well-known kangaroo grass, Antliistiria ciJiata,. ITS FLOEA. 21.3 and a few Juncacex, viz., Xerotes f/Janca, 11. Br., and filiformis, IX. Br. ; and these grow only in tufts, considerably apart from each other.- The absence of other herbage is as great during tlie summer ; but this almost entire deficiency is compensated by an endless variety of genera and species of shrubs. The general impression given by the scrub is dismal, although the great varietv of shrubby plants associated there makes it highly interesting to the botanist. These shrubs reach generally the height of four to six feet, interspersed with stunted and rami- fied trees of the genera Casuarina, Eucahiptus, Santalum, Mela- leuca, Exocarjnis, CamijJioromyrtus, Dodonsea, FreneJa, BanJcsia, cVc. Smaller shrubs of the genera Fimelea, Leucopogon, Dill- injnia, Hibhertia, Acrotriche, Calythrix, cover the ground, and are overtopped by higher growing ones, such as HaJcea, Logania, Alyxia, Mi/ojyorum, Stenochilus, Euphrasia, Thomasia, Bursaria, Pomaderris, Haloragis, Melaleuca, Leptospermum, Eutaxia, Acacia, Isopogon, Correa, Fihagodia, &c., forming sometimes impenetrable thickets ; in other localities the scrub consists only of Eucalyptus dumosa, A. Cunn, ; sometimes formed by other bushy Eucalypds, viz., Eucalypjhis uncinata, Turcz. ; H- color, A. Cunn. ; and incrassata, Labill., growing only six to eiofht feet hio-h, and extending; hundreds of miles. The most predominant colour of the leaves of the scrub is a glaucous green, interspersed hero and there with whitish leaves of the Bhagodia and other shrubs, having reddish brown leaves. Most of the leaves are ovate, entire, coriaceous, and pungent ; shrubs with pinnated leaves are seldom met with. The monotonous and dismal look of an extensive scrub is depressing, especially when viewed from an eminence. The e({ual height of the vegetation, tin* dull glaucous colour of the foliage, look in the distance like a rt)lling sea reaching the jiorizon — at least the first sight of the Murray scrub, extend- ing hundreds of miles, produced this impression on my mind. Everyone avoids the scrub as much as possible — many have lost their way there and perished for want of water. All the scrubs in the different districts produce the sanu' common impression, but the plants comprising them are not 216 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. tlio same genera and species, locality and soil affecting the character of the flora. Shrubs of one kind or another are found in flower in the seruh throughout the year. 3lost kinds produce tlieir flowers in September and October, tlie rainy season therefore alters the physiognomy of the scrub very little ; but it calls into life numerous terrestrial orchids, of Avhich a good many kinds inhal)it the scrub, viz. : — Erochihis, Caladenia, Diuris, Prasso- phyllum, Bipodium, Microtis, Cyrtoshjiis, &c. These appear with some perennial and annual plants, viz. : — Helichrysum, Drosera, Helipterum, Scsevola, Brunouia, Thysonanthus, Eiq^hra- sia, Goodenia, Hypoxis, Senecio, &c., and annual grasses ; but their duration is short, as with the setting in of the dry season they disappear as rapidly as they appeared. A most valuable scrub plant, at least for the pastoral com- munity, and appearing copious in the northern districts, is the so-called salt bush, Atri])lex nummularia, I\. Br., on which during the summer and in times of drought the sheep subsist. If all other vegetation is suffering from the drought, the salt bush alone withstands the intense heat of the sun and main- tains it freshness, and saves thousands of sheep from starvation. The Geass Land Kegion. — The so-called grass land forms the principal part over the whole area of South Australia, consisting in endless undulating plains, stretching from the coast towards the north and east. Along the coast and hun- dreds of miles inland the grass plains have mostly disaj^peared, and now form agricultural districts producing the finest cereals known — the soil varying from the best to some indif- ferently good. But the grass plains of the interior, especially towards the north, so extensive as to be lost in the horizon, are like deserts, emphatically monotonous and desolate. Only here and there will be found some fertile spots of grass land, but not of large extent, alternating with bare sandstone ridges or I'olling sandhills, interspersed with gravelly and waterless flats. Their surface is often saline, covered with sharp angular or weatherworn fragments of various sizes of ironstone, quartz, rcddisli-colourcd sandstone, and conglomerate, sujiporting only ITS FLOEA. 217 a scanty herbage of Atriplex, Kocliia, Salkoniia, and Sahola, Spinifex and other perennial grasses, growing in tufts, tinging the sandy surface. Groups of stunted shrubs and small ramified trees, sometimes of a limited extent, rise from the plains like islands of the ocean. They mostly consist of tlie sheaoak, Casuarina stricta, Ait., glauca, Sieb., and dishjJa, Vent., Eucalyptus odorata, Behr., dumosa, A, Cunn., virgata, 8ieb., wattle, Acacia injcnantlm. The plains near the coast are of a different character, the soil mostly fertile, extending often to the sea, and constituting a great part of our arable land. The stratum of humus or fertile soil covering these plains occasions also an essential alteration in their vegetation. The grasses consist of more nourishing kinds, viz. : — Foa, Panicum, Festuca, Agrostis, Airia, Andropogon, Cynodon, Stipa, Fennisetum, Bromus, Eriachne, Anthistiria, Hordeum, &c. Here appear also a great number of low-growing shrubs, such as B'ursera, Grevillea, and small ramified trees of peppermint, Myoporum, Fittosporum, Casuarina, and Acacia, either single, or sometimes forming groves, without underwood, like oases in the desert. The banks of the rivers and creeks, which mostly cease running during the summer, are lined with majestic gum trees, often of immense dimensions, and shrubs extending more or less upon the plains, according to the nature of the soil. This vegetation, on both sides of the rivers, appears like green ribbons, following their curves ; these banks have their peculiar flora ; here ajjpears Viminaria, LeptosjJermum, Mela- leuca, Myoporum, Hardenhergia, &c. ; herbaceous plants, Sitim, Mimidus, Myriogyne, Senecio, Lobelia, Feiroselinum, Eryngium, Lotus, and the following Juncaceae and Gramineae — Juncus, Luzula, Xerotes, Neurachne, Deyeuxia, Stipa, &c. The grass land, in fact the whole configuration of the plains, has a great similarity to the Savannas of 'British < \ uiana — naturally there is a great discrepancy with regard to the two vegetations ; but the Savannas have mostly the undulating ground, the scattered ramified trees, the oases, the rivers lined with a green bolt ; and the appearance of the grasses and herbage covering the area, has, during the dry season, the same sunburnt yellow character, and is destitute of 218 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. all green herbage. After the setting in of the rainy season, there is the sanic magic appearance of the grasses and herbage. In the month of ^fay the rainy season generally com- mences, 'which has a magical effect npon the herbage of the plains ; a few heavy showers change the aspect of the dried-up grasses and herbage into a green and beautiful carpet. The rapidity witli -which especially the annual grasses spring up is such that in a few days the plains appear clothed ^\ith luxuriant verdure, which only northern countries ordi- narily produce. With the grass are also recalled to new life the yellow flowers of Ranunculus aquatiUs, Lin. ; Jafj^aceus^ >Sm. ; rirularis, Banks ; Oxalis cognata, Steud. ; llypoxis (/lahclla, 1\. Br. ; with the white flowers of Drosera rosulata, J^ehm. ; tlic bine of the Wahlenhergia gracilis, Dec. ; Anguil- laria higlandulosa, E. Br. ; StacJchoiisia ohtusa, Lindl., with its perfume-spreading flowers. Every week adds new colours to the beautiful carpet. The scarlet flowers of Kenncdya p-ostrata, the violet ones of Sicain- sona procumhens, F. Muell. ; and lessertifoUa, Dec. ; the delicate flowers of Thysanotiis Patersoni climbing up the dry grass stalks, or overrunning small shrubs. The flowers of the isolated trees or copses of the wattles soon glitter in their yellow clothing. The Loranthus Exocarpi, Behr., and Miqiieliy Lehm., growing parasitical of the Casnarinas and Eucalyptus, odorata, adorned with their red flowers hanging in the air. The small shrubs of Bursera sjnnosa are covered with their white flowers, mingled with the red of different shrubby Grevilhas, Conijwsitu', arc seen blooming over tlu^ plains in all cohairs; and every week brings new representatives of floral beauty. But by the middle of November the number of flowering 1)1 ants already lessens considerably, the annual grasses and other herbaceous plants begin to dry up, droop, and disappear, and in January the grass land resembles a ripe thinly sown cornfield, and we find only solitary shrubs covered with a few flowers or a few plants of Convolvulus eruhescens, Lobelia gihhosa^ ].abill,, the latter with their leafless and fleshy stalks, and i^Mli o o ITS FLOEA. 21 & Mesemhrijanthemum. aiistrale, Soland. In some localities this period apj)ears earlier or later. The seeds of the annual plants have been scattered, perennial herbage returned to its dormant state, to awake to new life at the setting in of the following rainy seasons ; and the plains have during the summer months a dismal dried up appearance. There is another kind of grass land, appearing here and there in large tracts called "Bay of Biscay land." Such tracts have a peculiar, undulating surface, and look like a vaving sea which has suddenly become motionless. The soil is considered very good, of a chocolate colour and produces fine wheat crops, but it must be ploughed several years before the surface becomes level. The flora of the Bay of Biscay land too has its peculiarity ; the Eucalypts shunning such tracts, which, however, are rich in Comjpositx and grasses, but poor in Monocotyledons. The sea beach is mostly bordered with a belt of arborescent shrubs and small trees of ramified growth, viz. : — Melaleuca Preissiana, Schau, decussata, R. Br., Alyxia, shrubby Eucahji^ts, Myojporum, Pittos]porum, and Santalum, interrupted ^^ ith a thick Jjelt of Avicennia officinalis, Lin., extending along the coast. The sandy, often saline, tracts stretching towards the plains are covered a\ ith Atriplex, Tetragona, Aster, Ajnum, Eui^lirasia, Zygophyllum, Nitraria, Erir/eron, Cotida, Podolepis, Erodium, Helichrysum, Leptorhynchus, Dianella, ArthroiJodium, Salsola, and Mesemlryanthemum, which are often supplanted by tracts of Spinifex, Xei'odes, Juncus, Anthistiria, Leindosperma, Isolejns, CJiictosj)ora, Cladium, and Carex. Intka-teopical Eegion. — According to CJ. W. Goyder, Esq., Surveyor-General, the country, especially near the coast <»f the intra-tropical part of South Australia, consists prin- cipally of tableland of from 60 to 150 feet above the level of the sea, falling thence gently towards the sea, although form- ing liero and there into cliffs, which are fringed with dense tliickets of various sized timber, matted together witli bamboo, and a variety of climbing plants and shrubs. The low lands near tin; sea, especially such as arc under the influence of the 220 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. tide, are covered \\\\]\ dense mangvoYes, Avicennia officinalis, Lhi., and lihixopliora mucroiiata, Lam. These, as the land ascends to a higher level, give place to palms, Pandanus, MelaJeucas, LeptosjJer'tmims, GreviUeas, JEucahjids, and Acacias, forming an open forest. Amongst the nnderwood are found ferns, Avoids, as AmotyJiojiJialhis cam])anuJatus, Dec, and Taccaceie, Tacca innnatifida, Lin. The grass over the whole, or nearly the Mhole, of the surface of the ground, grows luxuriantly, of A\hich the most prominent genera are the following : — Fuirena, Cyin'us, Eleo- charis, Cimhopogon, FimhristyJis, Panicum, Setaria, Sporoholus, Anthistiria, Eriachne, &:c. The soil is mostly good, and of a dark brown colour, with small nodules of ferruginous sandstone upon the surface. Near the sea, and generally upon a watercourse near its junction with the sea, swampy flats occur, containing timber of large gro\\th and rank vegetation. Tlio lakes and waterpools are covered with waterlilies, Nijmjplixa gigantea and Nelumhimii speciosum, Willd., showing their beautiful flowers in various shades of blue, pink, or crimson. The flats on either side of large rivers also contain good soil, except where they join the higher land, where there is a belt of sandy character, poor to look at, though covered with timber and grass. The same kind of open forest, undulating and flat land, exists over the area, sometimes the soil changing suddenly from a dark brown to a very light loam, the soil improving and the vegetation along the rivers becoming luxuriant. Judging from the plants collected by Mr. Schultz, who was employed for about two years there as a naturalist, during which time he obtained about 700 species of plants, the intra- tropical flora of South Australia does not present the luxuriant growth and umbrageous foliage we are used to see in other tropical floras. The number of species is also very small, owing, no doubt, to the dryness of the climate ; and from the same cause it is deficient in Epiphytal Orchids, palms and ferns. Acacias, Eucalypts, Ficus, Bomhax, Cupania, Terminalea, PsycJio- tria, Grevillea, form tlie prevailing timber trees, and line the rivers ; but the Eucalypts and Acacias do not reach the gigantic ITS FLOEA. 221 size of their brethren in the extra-tropical region. The follow- ing- orders are well represented, viz. : — EujyJiorhiacew, Comioositx, Convolvulacepe, Buhiacese, Goodenoviaceoe, Ler/iiminosw, TJrticefe. The representatives of the intra-tropical flora of South Australia seem to extend towards the east, as a great number of genera and species reach to the Gulf of Carpentaria, and even further. A great many species of the Indian flora appear along the coast of the intra-tropical part, viz. : — Strychnos, Tamarindus, the Cajuput tree, Melaleuca leucadendron, appear abundant along the banks of the rivers, and even over the dry- sandstone tableland, but of less luxuriant growth. The Naturalized Plants of South Australia. — It is an historical fact that whenever man settles in a new country, he not only carries the weeds that are most troublesome in cultivated ground along with him, but he also exercises a potent influence over the indigenous vegetation, especially when he engages in agricultural and pastoral pursuits. The jDlough, the axe, the flocks and herds, are enemies to existing vegetation ; and as cultivation advances one representative after another succumbs to the foreign influence. But the j)lough, axe, and herds are not the sole destroyers of the native herbage, for with cultivation are introduced noxious weeds, and the new comers, finding a suitable soil and climate, spread with alarming rapidity, and become possessors of the ground — ejecting the native plants, or taking their places by them as if they Avere truly indigenous. In proof of this I will only mention the names of a few of such intruders, not only upon cultivated ground, but also over the uncultivated districts, to the great injury of the native herbage, viz. : — The Cockspur, Centaurea melitensis, Lin. ; the Scotch thistle, Carduus Marianiis, Lin., and Onopordoii Acan- thiimi, Lin. ; the Cape Dandelion, Cryptostemma calendidacea, R. Lr. ; the Bathurst burr, Xantliium spinosum, Lin. ; the French catchfly, Silene gallica, Lin. ; the Stink Aster, Anthemis Cotula, Lin. ; the so-called sheepweed, Litliospermum davuricum, Lelim. ; and ai'vense, Lin., which already cover large tracts of pasture land, and will extend further and further, to the destruction of the native herbage. Legislation has not succeeded, notwith- 222 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. stainliiii:- lame siiiiis liavc l)ccn (>x])on(l(^er gallon, the retail price being 12s. for best quality. Large plantations have lately been made, and this indnstry may now be considered an established fact. There is a large home consumption and an unlimited export market. EiciNUS OR Castor Oil Plant. — This tree, considered as worthless as the almond, we see thrive in every locality, and in every soil, poor or rich. We see it grow close to the coast in almost pure sand, covered with seed, and generally regarded as a nuisance. But the hundrcdweiefht of seed of this nuisance is noted, according to the last Prices Current, as worth 10s. to 12s. The ricinus, as I remarked, will grow where scarcely any other vegetation will grow, and such spots are generally found on farms. Why not plant them with ricinus ? After })lunting, there is little or no trouble except gathering the seeds, which can be accomplished by children ; and if a tree brings only 3s. to 4s. a year, it is worth the little attention bestowed on it. Mustard furnishes a very important, and, I believe, a paying article of commerce, and I am satisfied would thrive with us in all our districts if it were not for the aphis. The mustard plant belongs to the same natural order as the cabbage plant — the Cruciferai — whose representatives are, without exception, so unmercifully attacked by this scourge that I fear the mus- tard plant would not escape its ravages ; but, as Australia is the land of anomalies, my fear may be premature, and the aphis may afti'r all not do so much harm to the plant as I ITS FLOEA. 231 fcav. Our fanners should at least make some trials. The northern plains would probably be well adapted for the growth of the mustard, as the plants in too rich a soil would grow too luxuriant in their stalks and leayes. If we consider the great quantity of mustard imported into this Colony, there is no doubt the cultivation of the plant would pay. Eape. — If I did not fear the ravages of the aphis, as rape belongs to the same natural order as that of the mustard, I would strongly recommend the culture of this most valuable oil-producing plant, as its oil maintains high prices in the European markets, in consequence of the crops on the Con- tinent not being with certainty depended on, as they are often destroyed by frost or snow, which we have not to fear in South Australia. SuNFLOWEK.'— The extensive culture of the sunflower, es- jiecially in Russia and Germany, is a fact. The chief profit from this plant is procured from the seed, which contains forty per cent, of a sweet oil only second in value to the olive oil. It is now more than 200 years since this valuable plant, a native of Peru and Mexico, was introduced into Europe ; and, strange to say, until now its valuable qualities were never brought to account. The Russian husbandmen were the first who bestowed their attention on the useful oil which the seeds contain. They commenced the cultivation of the sunflower first on a small scale, planting the seeds in nooks and corners, on the sides of walks, &c. The value of the oil soon became known, and was more and more appreciated, so that at the present time the cultivation of the sunflower in Russia is carried on to such an extent that in the year 1866 more than 100,000 cwt. of sun- flower oil was manufactured, the value of which was one and a half million roubles. The third part of this oil was exported to the Prussian port of Stettin, whore it was rapidly sold Avitli rising prices. This export from Russia, and the steady increase of the culture of the sunflower there, opened the eyes of the German farmers, and they began the cultivation of tlie sun- flower with the same j)rofitable result. The oil, as I have al- ready mentioned, is only second to the olive oil, and is not only used in house-keeping like the former, but mostly as a lubri- cator for the delicate machinery of textile fabrics which in- 232 SOUTH AUSTKALIA. crease throughout Euto])c. nud Avliich m consequence liave in- creased the demand Inr the expensive olive oil. From the stalks of the plant the liussians manufacture a valuable potash, the residuum is used as oil-cake ior fattening- cattle, and the leaves of the plant for manure. Should not this profitable culture of the sunflower in Tiussia and Germany also l>ean inducement to our farmers to introduce this payable branch of industry tt) keep the em- bankments of rivers from falling in, but it would also give a profit to the grower, having the advantage of giving employ- ment to the basketmakers. I need only mention the great number of baskets and various other osier work yearly im- ported into this Colony from Europe and America. For favourable places for its cultivation, I mention only the banks of the Onkaparinga, the jMurray Flats, and Inman Yalley ; but many other localities undoubtedly would be found. Broom Millet supplies the material of a not unimportant article, viz., American brooms, which are so much imported, and for which we send a large sum of money away, that could be retained in the Colony, as there is not the slightest doubt that the broom millet will grow just as well with us as the Sorghum saccharatuni does, and the skill for manufacturing the broom might soon be obtained. The millet will grow well especially in the hills and the Southern Districts. It should be sown in the latter end of August, but rather thin, so that the plants may grow vigorous, and produce a greater develop- ment of inflorescence, which part is used for the manufactun^ of the broom. This industry has already been introduced into Victoria and New South Wales ; and in the latter Colony, especially Newcastle, the brooms are largely manufactured, and already exported to South Australia. TuE Esparto Crass (MacrocMoa tenacissima). — A native of Sj)ain, Portugal, Greece, and N(u-th Africa. It has gained during the last few years a great mercantile rejiutation in regard to the valuable fibre, not alone for the manufacture of ropes and other articles, but as contributing also an excellent material i'or the best writing paper, without any other admix- ITS FLOEA. 237 ture. Tiiiis from the great use now made of it by the paper- makers, it has become an essential article of import into England and other places, and a source of wealth to the countries producing it. The import in 1871 into England alone is considered about 140,000 tons, and that of Esparto grass, ropes, and other articles manufactured from it, about 19,000 tons. Notwithstanding this large importation of the raw material for paper-making, and that the paper-makers use of late a good many other substances for jjaper-making not used before, the scarcity of material becomes more evident every day, and the consequence is the constant rise in the price of paper. The Gardeners^ Chronicle, 15th June, 1872, says : — -" It is with some concern that we learn that both in Algeria and Spain, instead of mowing the Esparto grass at the proper season, the natives pluck it up in the most reckless manner." Consul Turner, of Cartagena, says : — ■" It is very evident to all concerned that these people are destroying the growth of the grass by their manner of plucking it." From the above-named port there was a falling-off during the past year in quantity exported to the amount of 5000 tons, which in a great measure is to be accounted for by the present reckless system of collecting it. Here again is an instance of natural production being wantonly destroyed by man, in sjjite of his deriving a benefit from it ; we may thus say the j^rogress of civilization is the occasion of waste and destruction. The value of dry Esparto grass is about £5 to £5 10s. per ton ; and it is said that, under favourable circumstances, as much as from six to eight tons can be obtained from an acre. It grows on the poorest soil, especially limestone or sand; in fact, Avliere the soil will produce no other A^egetation the Espart( > grass will grow. It grows even in the sands of the Sahara, on stcmy hills, and on the very brink of the coast. I liave not the slightest doubt that the grass will thrive with us, and that the many thousands of acres of arid land, of a limestone or sandy nature, whicli is scarcely fit for pasture, may, by sowing with Esparto grass, become useful. Considering the similarity of our climate with that of Sj)ain, and, in fact, the north of Africa, we have no fear that our droughts would affect its 2:>8 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. uvowtli — mil] lidw its introdnction woulil l)onelit South Australia if om- dcsorts could be changed into productive districts ! For a long time past I have endeavoured to intro- duce seed of this valuable grass as an experiment, but without success. I communicated with the ]5otanic Gardens and seedsmen in Europe on the sul)ject ; the answer was — " Not obtainable, the seed is not in the trade ; the Spaniards won't part with it " — and I had already given up the hope of (obtaining any. The more agreeably therefore was I surprised by receiving one ounce of seed from Mr. Bull, of London. I am glad to say that this seed arrived in good condition, though it is said the Spaniards, before parting with the seed, destroy its power of germinating, to prevent its introduction into other countries. IMy seed must have escaped such manipulation, as it has nearly all grown, and I am now in possession of about 1000 plants, all of which I intend to jdant tmt to procure as much seed as possible for distrilnition next year. It is now most extensively planted in the south of France ; and it is said that no other crop will pay better, especially considering that it "will grow on the poorest soils. It is propagated by seeds, and also by dividing the roots. The question will naturally be asked — Suppose we succeed in growing the grass here, where shall we iind a market for it ? Our enterprising and go-ahead neighbours in Victoria have already established a paper-mill, and a second one is con- templated in Sydney ; so that, if we succeed, the market for the grass is close at hand, and I think it would even jjay to export to England, as a hydraulic press would reduce the bulk materially. Opium. — South Australia, as far as climate and soil are (concerned, offers no difficulty to the cultivation of the poppy, as we see it thriving in many parts of the Colony, and probably we could produce a good sample of the drug. Mr. G. Francis exhibited not long ago, at the Agricultural Show, opium prepared by him, ^hich was considered as fair a samphi as could be derived from the first experiment. If we consider the enormous sum which isj yearly expended in opium, and that the cidtivatiun and niaiiui'acture can be undertaken by ITS FLOEA. 230 young people, it is highly desirable that an attempt should be made to cultivate the poppy. Cochineal. — Every one of us is acquainted with the cochineal insect which produces the splendid, valuable, and much used dye called " carmine," and of which Mexico and the West India Islands export large quantities every year. The trade is likewise supplied with the same article from Brazil and East India, but Mexico furnishes the largest quantity, and at the same time the finest quality. Till the year 1725, the breeding of the cochineal insect was entirely confined to Mexico ; and the Government, with the strictest care, kept it secret ; and till then it was generally believed in Europe that the cochineal was not an insect, but a kind of seed. In the year 1785, Thierre de Menonville, a Frenchman, with the greatest danger to his life, brought a few living- insects to French Domingo, where they soon were acclimatized. During 1827 the insect was, by Bertholet, introduced to the Canary Islands, and lately, with the best results, in Corsica and Spain. If the insect thrives well in Spain and Corsica, why should it not do the same in Australia ? Both kinds of the cochineal plant, Opuntia Tuna and Opuntia coccinellifera, which I introduced by raising from seed, grow luxuriantly in the borders at the garden, without having had the slightest care bestowed upon them ; this proves that the plant will thrive in South Australia. The second and most important question is, how to introduce the insect. This could be done only on living plants in so-called Wardian cases. It is not the place to give a description of the treatment of the cochineal insect, and the prejiaration of the carmine ; but to give you only one instance of the extent of the cochineal trade, I will mention that the export of cochineal alone of the Mexican Province Oaxaca amounts to three-fourths of a million dollars annually. Xow, assuming that one pound of cochineal is worth $10, and that 70,000 insects make a pound, they must rear an immense quantity of insects. Not that I am sanguine of its success in this Colony, but we should try it. It is true the discovery of the splendid aniline colours have done the 240 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. (■aniline trade some liaviii ; notwithstanding -wliicli it is still a most flourishing trade. Perfumes. — An abler pen than mine has already drawn tlie attention of the public to this one of the great indnstries. 3[r. S. Davenport, in his able pamphlet on the same subject^ has referred to the great benefit to be derived from this source ; and I have much j^leasure in commending its perusal. If we consider that British India and Europe consume about 150,000 gallons of handkerchief perfume yearly ; that the English revenue for Eau de Cologne alone is about £8000 a year ; that the total revenue for imjDorted perfumes is estimated at about £40,000, and that one great j)erfume distillery at (/annes, in France, uses annually about one hundred and forty thousand jiounds of orange blossoms, twenty thousand pounds of acacia flowers {Acacia Farnesiana), one hundred and forty thousand pounds of rose flower-leaves, thirty-two thousand pounds of jasmin blossoms, twenty thousand pounds of tube- roses, together Avith a great many other sweet her1)s, we may judge of the immense quantity of material used for perfumes. Most of the flowers which provide the material for perfumes grow luxuriantly with us, namely, mignonette, verbena, jasmin, rose, lavender, Acacia Farnesiana, heliotrope, rosemary, pepper- mint, violets, Avall-flowers, laurel, and oranges, from which alone three different scents are produced. These plants thrivo probably in greater perfection here than in any part of the ' world. Xo doubt South Australia should be a perfume-pro- ducing country. We see flourishing here some of the most valuable scent plants. We have the wattle, myall wood, and other native plants, yielding valuable scents. But two things arc needed to encourage the enterprise. First — Freedom of the still, so as to license distilling in vessels of less than twenty-five gallons' capacity ; and, secondly, the hona fide advertisement of a capitalist manufacturer, that he will buy any quantity of specified flowers, leaves, roots, or plants, at a marketable price. Then some farmer may be temiited to plant a few acres of lavender or mint, another geraniums or rosemary, another aniseed, whilst plantations in hedgerows, or ITS FLOEA. 241 suck like places, of roses, cassia, together with contributions from gardens, would lay the foundation for an export trade. Then it must be also noted that whatever the value which the jilants yield in flower, fruit, leaves, and stems, it is increased threefold under manufacture, and this manufacture consumes other local produce, called into existence by it, such as olive and other oils, fats, alkalies, wheaten flower, colouring matter, pottery and glass ware, which combine to make the farmers and the manufacturers contribute largely to the maintenance of population and the wealth of the perfume countries. To advance this highly remunerative industry, as I have already mentioned, a modification in the law of licensing stills should be made to hond fide perfume distillers, as the present law restricts stills to a range of capacity between 25 and 50 gallons. Perfume stills for the finer perfumes are best at about 8 to 10 gallons. It is therefore to be hoped that our legislators would take this into their earnest consideration. To encourage the development of new industries, every facility, with respect to distillation of perfumes, should be given, even at the sacrifice of a small amount of revenue. To show the value of perfumes to the countries adapted for their pro- duction, the following table, compiled from the publications of Piesse and Brande, and the Cornhill MagayAne, October, 1864, may show why it is so : — £ One acre of jasmin plants, 80,000, •will produce 5000 lbs. of flowers, value Is. . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 One acre rose trees, 10,000, will produce 2000 lbs. of flowers, value 9d. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 One acre of orange trees, 100, at ten years old, 2000 lbs. of flowers, value 6(/. . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 One acre of violets, IGOO lbs. of flowers, value 2s. . . . . 160 One acre of cassia trees {Acacia Farnesiana), 302, at three years, 900 lbs. of flowers, value 2s. . . . . . . . . 90 One acre geranium plants, 16,000, 40,0001bs. leaves, producing 2 oz. of distilled otto per cwt., at 5s. per oz. . . . . 200 One acre of lavender, 3547, giving flowers for distillation, value 30 Further, without knowing the produce per acre, I add the otto j)er cwt., which the following plants are said to yield : — Rose- mary, per cwt., will yield 24 oz. of otto oil ; aniseed, 35 oz. ; caraways, from 3 lbs. to 4 lbs. 12 oz. fennel seed, 2 lbs. ; pachouli, 28 oz. 242 SOUTH AUSTKALIA. TITR XOKTHERN TEERITOEY. Ill addition to what is said in a previous chapter, giving a general outline of the Northern Territory, it is now my intention to state how far its capabilities and resources may l)rove of advantage to colonists and the Mother Country, in regard to its capabilities for tropical agriculture. I will first say a few words on the great importance of my scheme proposed to the late Government, for the establishment of a standard experimental nursery for tropical commercial plants, at our young settlement. Port Darwin, My idea is, to lay out about eighty acres of land adapted to the growth (jf tropical commercial plants, so that at least plants or cuttings may be available for cultivation by the settlers ; and it would be a matter of very considerable moment to new settlers who contemplate tropical agriculture, to obtain from such an esta- blishment suitable plants, seeds, &c., at a low price, to commence with. If the grower had to import his own, the delays would be great, as there would be, at least during the first few years, little opportunity to import such plants from other countries. The cost of such an establishment would not be great ; and, in a few years, if the Government charges a trifle for the plants, ])robably the garden would pay its own expenses. I made the following proposal to the late Government : — " Sir — I have the lionour to lay before you a scheme for forming at Port Darwin a standard experimental nursery of troj^ical commercial plants, for the benefit of future colonists who may settle there as tro- pical agriculturists. Of all the vegetable products capable of being propagated within the tropics, a very large proportion are objects of commercial value in Eurojje. The favourable re- port of competent judges who have visited the country leaves no doubt that Port Darwin is eminently suited to the cultiva- tion of such productions. Having had now an opportunity of examining various soils from the Northern Territory, I find they are very similar, and by no means inferior, to the soils which I have received from Java, Hongkong, Ceylon, Mauri- tius, and other tropical countries with which I am acquainted, r am strongly of opinion that the soils of tlie Northern Terri- ITS FLOEA. 243 tory would prove appropriate for the same tropical productions as are cultivated in the countries above named ; and the climate may be also considered very favourable for the growth, leaving every prospect of success for tropical agriculture. With re- spect to the mode with which these objects might be usefullv carried out, I would suggest that about thirty acres of land should be selected as a standard nursery. In making a choice of such land, it would be very desirable that due regard should be had to the variety of soil and undulating character of the country, as suitable to the various physical requirements of the j)lants intended to be cultivated. The following plants I have good reason to believe could be cultivated with success, viz., sugar, cotton, coffee, tea, rice, cassava, arrowroot, indigo, ginger, cardamom, nutmeg, cocoa, tobacco, maize, pepper, castor oil plant, pimento, vanilla, sarsaparilla, rhea or Chinese grass plant, cocoa-nut palm, and many more. From the information I have received, I think that the tableland situated about thirty miles from the coast would prove favourable for the cultivation of the cinchona or quinine tree ; the importance of which is so well known that most of the Governments of tropical and subtro- pical countries are now turning their attention to its cultivation, the demand for quinine now exceeding the supply rendering it a matter of great consideration. I would beg to add, in laying out such a standard experimental nursery the success would greatly depend, on the ability and experience of the superin- tendent appointed. It would j^rove highly important, if judi- ciously managed, to the future settlers by enabling them to procure from such an establishment plants, cuttings, seeds, &c., only to commence the cultivation of such as are suitable to the country. As director of this Garden I could materially assist the carrying out of this project, as being in constant communi- cation with the Botanic Gardens of tropical countries, I could readily procure from them such plants, seeds, &c., as might bi^ required, and conveniently forward them when the intended communication with the new settlement is established." We have the proof how important and necessary such an establish- ment would be for the development of the resources of our new- Province. It would be useless to dwell U2)on the importance R 2 244 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. of the cultivation of sugiir iiml cotton, wliicli lias been the f(juiidation of the prosperity of many Colonies ; and I do not hesitate to sav that all kinds of cotton, from the best long staple down to the finest short staple, might be cultivated, which would vie with the best in the world ; nor do I hesitate to say tluit sugar and cotton will become in future the great staples of Port Darwin. But the fertility of the soil is adapted for numerous other branches of tropical agriculture, and we may expect a safe re- turn for the investment of capital in the cultivation of other crops demanding less capital and less manual labour than sugar and cotton, of which other crops I will enumerate a few. Of the cereal grains, Indian corn deserves more attention than it has hitherto received. Indian millet, which, under the name of Guinea corn, is so extensively cultivated in the West Indies, might be raised to a large extent. The cultivation of (iocoa will be most suitable to the less wealthy individual, as it demands so little labour and outlay. Alexander Humboldt ob- serves, in alluding to Spanish America, that cocoa plantations are occupied by persons in humble condition, who prepare for themselves and their children a slow but certain fortune. A single labourer is sufficient to aid them in their plantations, and thirty thousand trees assure competence for a generation and a half. Of equal interest would prove the cultivation of cinnamon and nutmeg, of Avhich the average home consumption is esti- mated at one hundred and twenty thousand pounds' weight per annum. Pepper, jumento, could undoubtedly be cultivated with great success in Port Darwin, and form an article of ex- port. A rich soil in mountains, valleys, or along the banks of rivers which are not subjected to inundations, is considered to be the most eligible for the growth of ginger, cardamoms, and turmeric. 'I'Uese valuable commercial plants I am convinced will grow in marshy situations. Also the valuable dye indigo, which thrives so well in a moist climate, would pay the cultivator most handsomely. Numerous other articles might be recommended to be ITS FLOEA. 245 raised, viz., senna and numerous species of cassia, to wiiicli genus that drug belongs ; sarsaparilla, and many other medical l)lants, for all of which the Northern Territory would afford proper soil for cultivation. Before closing, I must say a few words in regard to the cul- tivation of the cinchona or quinine tree, for which every possible attempt should be made at Port Darwin. It is a well-known fact that the consumption of quinine has increased enormously, but in consequence of the wanton destruction of the quinine- tree forest in South America, the demand has exceeded the supply duriDg the last few years ; and any effort that can be made to increase the supply, and thus reduce the high price, is well worthy the attentive consideration of every one interested in alleviating the sufferings of humanity. Thousands of people died in the late fever in Mauritius and the East Indies for want of quinine ; they had not the means to give the enormous prices asked for it. Probably the tree might thrive at Port Darwin. Why should we not make the attempt to grow quinine there, and thus become benefactors to ourselves and others ? It is well known that most of the Governments of tropical and sub- tropical countries are now turning their attention to its cultiva- tion. About 1000 quinine trees have lately been planted in the Island of St. Helena. The quinine trees do well in Mauritius, Queensland, Ceylon. Probably their cultivation can also be successfully accomplished at Port Darwin. The synopsis of the Flora of South Australia is mostly com- piled from the valuable work of G. Bentham and F. Mueller's " Flora Australiensis." By the constantly occurring new dis- coveries, esiiecially in the central part of South Australia, the synopsis cannot be considered quite complete. The plants enumerated in the intra-tropical Flora have been mostly collected by Mr. Schultz in that locality. 24G SOUTH AUSTEALIA. DICOTYLEDONS. EANUNCULACE^. Indigenous in Australia, 5 G enera. South Australia, 2 Genera. Extra-Trojiical Flora. rinnatif: micropbylla, Dec. I Ranunculus lappucous, Sm. li'aiiiiuculu.s u'luatilis, Lin. | rivularis, J'>auks. liitra-T/ojjicaJ. Clematis glvcinoiilos, Dec. DILLENIACE^. Indigenous in Australia, 5 Genera. South Australia, 2 Genera. Extra- Tropical. llililxTtia sericea, JBenth. virguta, K. Br. Billardicri, F. Mucll. Hiblicitia dcalbata, Bentli. angustitblia, Beuth. Icpidota, E. Br. Hibbortia stricta, R. Br. faseiculata, R. I'r. {rlaberrima, F. MuclL Iiitra-Tropicnl. Hibbertia oblongata, R. Br. Pachynema dilatatum, Benth junceuni, Bcntli. MACtXOLIACE^. Indigenous in Australia, 1 Geniis. No representative in South Australia. AN0NACEJ3. Indigenous in Australia, 6 Genera. South Australia, 1 Genus, Intra-Tropical. Pulyaltliia nitiJissinia, Benth. MEXISPERMACE.E. Indigenous in Australia, 7 Genera. South Australia, 1 Genera. Intm-Tropical. Stephuniii hernanditcfolia, "Wulp. NYMPHiEACE^. Indigenous in Australia, 3 Genera. South Australia, 2 Genera. Inira-Tropical. Nymphwa gigantea, Hook. | Nclumbiuin spiciosuni. AVilld. I'.\1'AYERACE.E. In(liMollugo orygioides, F. Muell. Tetragonia expaus>a, JMurr. Cerviana, Ser. 258 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. Sesiivium portulacastrum. Liii. Trianthema crystullina, Y:ilil. pilosii, F. Jlucll. Intra-Tropical. Trianthema rhyncliocalvptra, F. Muell. Mollugo triprastrotheca. F. MiioU. ump.kltjfeh.t:. In(liy,enoiis in Australia, 13 Genera. South Australia, 7 Genera, Ex tra- Tropica 1. Tracliymenc glaucifolia, Bentli. Xanthosia piisilla, Bung:e. dissecta, Hook. Eryngium rostratum, Cav. vesifulosum, Laliill. Apiiim australe, Thou. Crantzia lino;ita, Nutt. Daiiciis brachiatus, Sieb. Ilyilrocotyle viils;aris, Lin. liirta, K. Br. laxiflora, Uec. callioarpa, Bungo. capillaris. F. Muell asiatica, Lin. Trachymene australis, Bentli. jjilosa. Sm. criocarpa, Bentli. Intra-Tropical. TTydrocotyle grnnimatocarpa, F. Muell. I Trachymene glandulosa, Bcutli. Trachymene villoma, Benth. | hemicarim, Benth. ARALIACE^. Indigenous in Australia, 6 Genera. No representative in South Australia. COKNACE.E. Indigenous in Australia, 1 Genus. No representative in South Australia. T.oranthus angustifnlins, H. Br liiiearifolius. Hook. Exocarpi, Belir. linophyllus, Fenzl. LOPtANTHACE^. Indigenous in Australia, 5 Genera. South Australia, 2 Genera. Extra-Tropical. Loranthus pcndulus, Sieb. Quandang, Lindl. grandibracteus, F. jMnell. Yiscum articulatum, Bnrin. Loranthus eelastroides, i^ieb. longiflorus, Desv. pendulus, Sieb. Exocarpi, Belir. Tnlra-TiopicaJ. Loranthus siguatus, F. Muell. Quandang, Tiindl. grandibracteus, F. INIuell. Yiscum angulatuin, Ileyne. CArRIFOLTACEiE. Indigenous in Australia, 1 Genus. Extra- Trop icul. Sanibucus Caudicliaudiana, Dec. ITS FLORA. 259 RUBIACEiE. Indigenous in Australia, 29 Genera. South Australia, 7 Genera. Hedyotis tillreacea, F. Muell. Dentella repens. Forst. C'anthiiim latifoliura, F. 3Iiicll. Opercularia scabrida, Schlcfht. hispida, Siireug. ovata, Hook. varia, Hook. Extra-Tropical. Opercularia umbellata, Gatrt. Asperula scoparia, Hook. Galium geminifolium, F. INIuell. Gaudichaudi, Dec. australe, Dec. Aparine, Liu. lledyotis Auricularia, Lin. pterospora, F. Muell. Dentella repeus, Forst. Knoxia corymbosa, AVilld. Gardenia megasperma, F. Muell. suffruticosa, E. Br. Eandia densiflora. Benth. Ixora timorensis, Dec. tomeutosa, Eoxb. coccinea, Lin. Timonius Eumphii, Dec. Guettarda speciosa, Lin. Inlra-Tropical. Canthium lucidum, Hook. coprosmoides, F. ]Muell. Coclospermum reticulatum, Beuth. Psychotria nesophila, F. Muell. Spermacoce breviflora, F. Muell. exserta, Benth. leptoloba, Benth. brachystema, E. Br. membranacea, E. Br. marginata, Benth. auriculata, F. Muell. Scyphiphora hydrophylacea, Gaert. COMPOSITE. Indigenous in Australia, 94 Genera. South Australia, 66 Genera. Adenostemma viscosuiu, Forst. iJlearia grandiflora, Hook. pannosa, Hook. stellulata, Dec. tubuliflora, Benth. ramulosa, Benth. floribunda, Benth. lepidophylla, Benth. pimeleoides, Benth. conoeephala, P. Muell. Muelleri, Benth. Stuartii, F. Muell. decurrens, Bentli. glutinosa, Benth. teretifolia, F. Muell. glandulosa, Benth. rudis, F. Muell. picridifolia. Benth. ciliata, F. Muell. Yitfadiuia australis, A. Eich, Podocoma cuneifolia, E. Br. Erigerou liuifolius, Willd. Mhiuria leptophylla, Dec. Candollei, F. Muell. Cunninghamii, Benth. integerrima, Benth. Extra-Tropical. Minuria dcnticulata, Benth. susedifolia, F. Muell. Calotis cuneifolia, E. Br. cymbacantha, F. Muell. erinacea, Steetz. scabiosifolia, Sond. scapigera. Hook, lappulacea, Bentli. plumulifera, F. ]Muell. porphyroglossa, F. Muell. hispidula, P. Muell. dentex, E. Br. Lagenophora Billardieri, Cass. Huegelii, Benth. Brachycome diversifolia, Fisch. goniocarpa, 8i>nd. pachyptera, Turez. Muelleri, Sond. graminea, P. INIuell. basaltica, P. IMuell. trachycarpa, F. ^Muell. exilis, Sond. debilis, Sond. decipicns, Honk, cardiocarpa, F. Muell. ciliaris, Less. s 2 20O SOUTH AUSTEALIA. IJnicliycoiiic ealocarpa, F. ^[lu II. colliiia, Ik'iitli. Moueutelf.s si)liiiccliitiis, I.ubill. Pliichea Eyreii, F. .^Imll. Epaltes aii.stnilis, I.uss. Siegesbeckiii oricntalis, I. in. Eclipta platyglossii, F. Muell. Glossogyne teniiifolia, Cass. C'otula iilifolia, 'r]miil>. coronopi folia. Tan. aiislralis. Hook, reptaus, ]Jt-nth. Myriogync luimita. I-et^s. Blachanthiis jmsilliKs, F. IMucll. MyriocL'plialiis rliizoccphahis, Beutb. Itudallii, Ikuth. Stuaitii, ]>i'Utli. Augiautlius toiucutuKu.-:, AVciidl. ])kuropappus, Bcntli. biachypa])piis, F. MiK'll. ])iisillus, Bcntli. Preissianiis, Bentb. strictus, Bcnth. Gnephosis Burkittii, Bmtli. skirropliora , B' -nth. arachnoidea, Tuicz. Calocephalus Brownii, F. ^Mucll. Sondfii, F. Muell. lacteus, Les.s. citrens, Less, platycophalus. Bontli. Ceplialipterum Dnimmondii, A. Gray. Gnaphalodcs uligiuosum, A. Gray. Craspedia Richea, Cass. pleiocephala, F. Muoll. chrysantha, Beuth. globosa, Benth. Chthonocepiiahis psendnevax, Steetz. I.Kodia achilleoides, 11. Br. Cassinia aculeata, R. Br. la^vis, R. Br. aculeata, R. Br. spectabilis, R. Br. laiochlamys Behrii, Sond. Toxantlnis ])erpiisillus, Tiircz. iluelleri, Bentli. Rutidosis lielichrysoides, Dec. Piimilo, Bentli. Millotia teniiifolia, Cass. Ixiohena leptolepis, Benth. sui)ina, F. IMuell. toiiientcsa, Sond. Atlirixia tenella, Bentli. Podotheca angustifolia, Cass. Podolepis acuminata, R. Br. canescens. A. Cunn. rugata, I.abill. I.essoni, Bentli. Sienissenia. F. Muell. pallida, Turcz. Leptorliyuclius squamatus. Less, aiiibiguus, Benth. pulchellus, F. MuelL elongatus, Dec. "Waitzia, Sond. Schcenia Cassiniana, Steetz. Ilelichrysum Lawrencella, F. ^luclL Cotula, Dec. Baxteri, A. Cuun. scorpioides, Labill. rutidolepis, Dec. fibtusifolium, F. IMuelL bracteatum, Willd. leucopsidium. Dee. Blandowskianum, Steetz. podolepideum, F. Muell. apiculatuni, Dec. adnatum, Benth. forrugincum, Less. Waitzia corynibosa, Wendl. lielipterum anthenioides, Dec. polygalifoliuni, Dec. tloriljundum, Dec. stipitatum, F. Muell. incanuni, Dec. hyalospermuDi, F. Muell. striatum, Benth. corymbiHornm, Schlecht. pygmieum, Benth. moscliatnui, Benth. pteroeliietuni. Bentli. exiguuui, F. 3Iuell. dimorpholepi.s, Benth. Gnaphalium luteo-album. Liu. japonicum. TJxunb. indutum. Hook, Stuartina IMuelleri, Soud. Erechthites arguta. Dee. mixta, Dec. quadridentata, Dec. hispidula, Dec. Senecio Gregorii, F. Muell. megaglossus, F. MuelL magnificus, F. Muell. lautus, Forst. australis, 'Willd. Behrianus, Sond. bracliyglossus, F. Muell. odoratus, Hornem. Cunninghamii, Dec. bypoleucus, F. Muell. velleioides, A. Cunn. Cymbonotus Lawsonianus, Gaudicb. Microseris Forsteri, Hook. Hypocbffiris glabra, Lin. Picris hieracioides, Lin. Soncbus oleraceus. Lin. Erodiophyllum Elderi, F. IMuell. Pterigeroii densatifolius, F Muell. ITS FLOEA. 201 Intra- Vevnonia cinerea, Less. I'leurocarpioa denticulata, Benth. Elephantopus scabei', Lin. YittacUnia brachycomoicles, F. Muell. macrorhiza, A. Gray. Oalotis breviseta, Benth. JSphajranthus liirtus, Willd. microceplialns, Willd. Monciiteles spliacelatus, Labill. .'ipliseranthoides, Dec. .Blnniea integrifolia, Dec. .liffusa, K. Br. Cunninghamii, Dec. I'lucliea iiidica, Less. Eyrea, F. Muell. I'lpaltes australis, Less. Pterigeron filitbliiis, Benth. Tropical. j Pterigeron macrocephalus, Benth. odoriLS, Benth. Coleocoma centaurea, F. Muell. Thespidium basillorum, F. Muell. Eclipta platyglossa, F. ]\[uell. Wedelia verbesinoides, F. Muell. I biflora, Dec. Moonia ecliptoides, Benth. procumliens, Benth. Spilantlies grandidora, Turcz. Bidens bipinnata, Liu. Glossogyne tenuifolia, Cass. Flaveria australasica, Hook. Myriogyne miuuta, Less. Eutidosis Brownii, Bentli. Helichrysum bracteatum, Willd. apiculatuiii, Dec. STYLIDIE^E. Indigenous in Australia, 3 Genera. South Australia, 2 Genera. Extra-Tropical. Stylidium graminlfolium, Swartz. CiBspitosum, R. Br. calcaratuni, 1!. Br. Stylidium Floodii, F. Muoll. tioribundum, B. Br. leptorhizum, F. Muell. Stylidium despectum, E. Br. Levenhookia dubia, Sond. latra-Tropical. I Stylidium alsinoides, R. Br. I schizanthum, F. Muell. I iiedunculatum, K. Br. GOODENOVIEJ]:. Indigenous in Australia, 12 Genera. South Australia, 8 Genera. Extra-Tropical. Leschenaultia divaricata, F. Muell. Vellcia connata, F. Muell. paradoxa, E. Br. Goodeuia ovata, Sm. amplexans, F. INIuell. varia, E. Br. cserulea, E. Br. geniculata, E. Br. hirsuta, F. Muell. calcarata, F. Muell. Nicholsoui, F. Muell. grandiflora, Sims. Mitchellii, Bentli. Chambersii, F. ]Miiell. albifiora, Schlecht. cycloptera, E. Br. Goodeuia piunatifida, Sclileeht. glauca, F. Muell. Selliera radicans, Cav. Scajvola spinescens, E. Br. (lepauperata, E. Br. eollaris, F. Muell. •suaveolens, E. Br. ovalifolia, E. Br. crassifolia, Labill. ajmula, E. Br. liumilis, E. Br. juicrocarpa, Cav. linearis, E. Br. Dampiera rosmariuifolia, Schlecht. Brunonia australis, Sm. Goodeuia Armstrongiana, Doc. pumilio, E. Br. })urpurascens, E. Br. .sepalosa, F. ^Nluell. Intra-Tropical. 1 Goodeuia azurea, F. ]Muell. I heterochila, F. Muell. hispida, E,. Br. j auriculata, Bentli. 202 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. Goodenia coronopifolia, E. Br. microptera, F. JIiull. lampiospeinia, F. jMucll. Calogyiic pilosa, 11. Br. fc«c£evola Kcenisfii, Vahl. Sca^Yola CunningLamii, Doc. angulata, R. Br. icvoluta, It. Br. ovalifolia, 11. Br. T.uliclia gibLosa, T-abill. rhombifolia, Vr. anceps, Tluinb. pratioides, Beiith Lobflia mcmbranacea, I>. Br. hitc'iioi)hylla, Benth. (j^uadrangularis, R. Br ERICACEAE. Indigenous in Australia, 3 Genera. Xo representative in South. Australia. CAMPANULACE/E. Indigenous in Australia, 4 Genera. South Australia, 4 Genera. Extra- Tropical. I Lobelia lieterophylla,'Labill. I Pratia puborula, Bcnth. I Isotoma petrrea, F. Muell. I AVahlenbcrgia gracilis, A. Dec. Inlra-Tropical. Lobelia dioica, R. Br. Wahleubcrgia gracili.s, A. Dec. EPACRIDE/E. Indigenous in Austialia, 24 Genera. South Australia, 8 Genera. jLxtra-Trojjical. 8typhelia pusilliflora, F. IMuell. Abtroloma humifusum, R. Br. cono.stepliioides, F. Muell. Brachyloma ericoides, Sond. daphuoides, Benth. Lissanthe strigosa, R. Br. Leucopogon Richei, R. Br. australis, R. Br. virgatus, R. Br. Leucopogon ericoides, R. Br. cordifolius, Lindl. hirtellus, F. Muell. rufus, Lindl. Woodsii, F. INIuell. Acrotriclie serrulata, R. Br. ovalifolia, R. Br. Epacris imprcssa, Labill. Sprengelia incarnata, Sni. PLUMBAGINEiE. Indigenous in Australia, 3 Genera. South Australia, 2 Genera. Intra-Tropical. Plumbago zeylanictt, Lin. | Acgialitis annulata, R. Br. PEIMULACEiE. Indigenous in Australia, 3 Genera. South Australia, 2 Genera. Extra-Tropical. Aiuigallis arvensis, Tan. | Samolus repens, Pers. MYRSINE.E. Indigenous in Australia, 5 Genera. South Australia, 1 Genus. Iiitra-Tropical. iEgiccras majus. Gat rtn. ITS FLOEA. 263 SAPOTACE^. Indigenous in Australia, 5 Genera. South Australia, 3 Genera. Sersalisia sericca, R. Br. I Mimusops parvifolia, E. Br. Acliras myrsinoides, A. Cunn. [ EBENACEiE. Indigenous in Australia, 3 Genera. South Australia, 3 Genera. Infra-Tropical. Diospyros cordifolia, Eoxb. I Maba humilis, E. Br. Cargillia laxa, E. Br. | STYRACACE.E. Indigenous in Australia, 1 Genus. No representative in South Australia. JASMINES. Indigenous in Australia, 5 Genera. South Australia, 2 Genera. Intra- Trop ica I. Jasmiuum didymum, Forst. I Jasminum semuhim, E. Br. lineare, E. Br. Notelsea microcarpa, E. Br. simplicifo]ium, Forst. I APOCYNE^. Indigenous in Australia, 12 Genera. South Australia, 6 Genera. Extra-Tropical. Alyxia buxiColia, E. Br. Intra-Tropical. Carissa lanceolata, E. Br. Alyxia spicata, E. Br. thyrsiliora, Benth. Tabernoemontana orientalis, E. Br. pubescens, E. Br. Alstonia verticillosa, F. Muell. Wrightia pubescens. E. Br. saligna, F. Muell. Parsonsia velutina, E. Br. . ASCLEPIADE^. Indigenous in Australia, 14 Genera. South Australia, 9 Genera. Ex tra-Tropical. Sarcostemma australe, E. Br. I Marsdenia Leicliardtiana, F. Muull. Cynauchum floribundum, E. Br. | Intra-Tropical. Gymnantbera nitida, E. Br. Secamone elliptica, E. Br. Sarcostemma australe, E. Br. Vincetoxicum carnosum, Benth. Cynanchum pedunculatuin, E. Br. floribundum, U. Br. Tylophora macrophylla, Bentli. Tylophora flexuosa, E. Br. Marsdenia cinerascens, E. Br. velutina, E. Br. Hullsii, F. Muell.' Gymncma stenophyllum, A. Gray. sylvestre, E. Br. Hiiya Nicholsoniaj, F. Muell. 2CA SOriH ArSTRALTA. Aritrasacnio pai'iuloxa, Tl. I5r. J.ogania longifolia, H. iU: crassifolia, R. Br. L()(:iAX[.\CK.E. Iiulio-oiunis in Australia, G Genera. South Australia, 4 Genera. l-lxfra-Tnipiral. Logania onata. E. Br. linifolia, Hchloclit. 3Iitrasacrac stcUata, R. Br. tenuiflnra, Bcnth. lutea, F. Miicll. lot)giflora, F. Miiell. hevifi, Benth. iiulica, Wight. Iiifra-Tropical. Mitrasacmc cnnnata, I\. Br. data, Iv. Br. laricifolia, K. Br. Fagrrca racemosa, Jack. Strychnos lucida, K. ]ir. psilo-spcrma, F. Mucll. St-bsea ovata, R. Br. Frythrjiea australis, R. Br. Erytliraea australis, E. Br. Canscora dift'usa, R. ]{r. GENTIANE.E. Indigenous in Australia, 7 Genera. South Australia, 5 Genera. Extra-Tropical. I Gentiana montana, Forst. I Yillarsia reniformis, R. Br. Itdra-Troplial. I Liiniianthemiim grininatiim, Griseb. I iiHliciun, Thw. HYDROPHYLLACEiE. Indigenous in Australia, 1 Geniis. South Australia, 1 Genus. Iiitra-Tropical. Ilyih-olca zcylanica, Vahl. BORAGINE^. Indigenous in Australia, 12 Genera. South Australia, 10 Geneia. Extra- Tropica I. GiiliU'iiia prociunbens, Lin. Jlcliotropiuin curasr^avicum, Lin. curopreum, Lin. nodulatum, Valil. aspcrrinuim, R. Br. ovalifoliiiin, Forsk. plciopterum, F. Mucll. Heliotropium filaginnidts, Bcnth. Halgania strigosa, Sohlccht. Trichodesma zcylanioum, R. Br. ^lyosotis australis, R. Br. I">itrichiura anstralasicuni, A. Doc. Echinospermiim concavum, F. 3IueiL Cordia ily.xa, Lin. subcordata, Lam. Eliretia acuminata, R. Br. saligna, R. Br. Tournefortia argcntca, Lin. Cohlenia proeumbons, Lin. Heliotropium fasciculatum, R. Br ovalifolium, Forsk. Jiilra-Tropical. Hcliotrojiium prostratnm, ]{. Br. vcntricosum, 1!. I$r. paucifloruia, R. Br. tenuifolium, R. Br. ])aniculatum, R. Br. divcrsifoliujii. F. Muell. 'J'richodosma zcylanioum, R. Br. ITS FLOEA. 205 CONVOLVULACE^. lucligeuous in Australia, 11 Genera. Sunth Australia, 8 Genera. Il)Oinoea costata, F. Muell. Convolvulus erubescens, Sims. Cressa cretica, Lin. Evnlvulus alsinoides, Lin. Ipnmoca alata, E. Br. angustifolia, Jacq. criocarpa, K. Br. dissecta, Wilkl. diversifolia, E. Br. riava, F. Muell. l^es-caprse, Eoth. sessiliflora, Eoth. paniculata, E. Br. quinata, E. Br. hederacea. Jacq. lougiflora. E. Br. carnosa, E. Br. reptans, Poir. abrujita, E. Br. Extra- Trojnca I. I Dicliondra repens, ForsL I Wilsouia humilis, E. Br. roUmdifolia, Hook. Intra -Tropical. Ipomcea gracilis, E. Br. Muelleri, Bentb. incisa, E. Br. heterophylla, E. Br. erecta, E. Br. Convolvulus parviHorus, Yahl. Polymeria angusta, F. Muell. ambigua, E. Br. Breweria linearis, E. Br. media, E. Br. brevifolia, Bentb. pannosa, E. Br. Cressa cretica, Lin. Evolvulus alsinoides, Lin. Dichondra repens, Forst. SOLANE^. Indigenous in Australia, 7 Genera. South Australia, 3 Genera. Solaunm nigrum, Lin. aviculare, Forst. simile, F. Muell. oligacantbum, F. Muell. esuriale, Lindl. Extra- Tropical. Solanum chenopodinum, F. ^Mueil. Sturtianum. F. Muell. hystrix, E. Br. petropbilum, F. ^lucli. iSolanum nigrum, Lin. tetrandrum, E. Br. discolor, E. Br. esuriale, Lindl. diversiflorum, F. Muell horridum, Dun. Ititra-Tropicul. Solanum quadriloculatum, F. ^Muell. ellipticum, E. Br. Physalis minima, Lin. peruviana, Liu. Nicotiana suaveolens, Lehm. SCROPHULARINE.E. Indigenous in Australia, 30 Genera. South Australia, 15 Genera. Extra- Tropical. Aiithocercis anisantba, Endl. angustifolia. F. Muell. Eadesii, F. Muell. !Mimulus repens, E. Br. prostratus, Bentb. Mnrgania lloribunda, Benth. <'3!ratiola peruviana, Lin. Liriiosella aquatica, Lin. Veronica decorosa, F. Muell. Derwentia, Andr. gracilis, E. Br. distans, E. Br. calycina, E. Br. Eupbrasia coUina, E. Br. scabra, E. Br. -^(j SOUTH AUSTRALIA. Adeiinsma Mucllei-i, Benth. Slcinodia viscoaa, Ivoxb. debilis, Bcnth. Morgauia glabra, Iv. ]5r. Linmophila gratioloides, E. Br. punctata, Blumc. hirsuta, Benth. scriata, Gaudicb. Yandellia pubescens, Benth. Intra-Tropical. Vandellia subidata, Benth. Centmnthera hisj)ida, B. Br. Buchucra tetragnna, E. Br. urtieil'dlia, 11. Br. linearis, K. Br. tenella, K. Br. Striga cnrviilora, Benth. multillora, Benth. Ilcmiarrhena plantaginea, Benth. LENTIBULAKIE^. Indigenous in Australia, 2 Genera. South Australia, I Genus. Ititra-Trojncal. Utricularia stellaris, Lin. I Utricularia chrysautha, li. Br. fulva, F. Muell. | exoleta, K. Br. OllOBANCHACE^. Indigenous in Australia, 1 Genus. South Australia, 1 Genus. Extra-Tropica I. Orobanche ceniua, TjOoA. GESXEPJACE^. Indigenous in Australia, 2 Genera. No representative in South Australia. BIGNONL\CE/E. Indigenous in Australia, 4 Genera. South Australia, 1 Genus. Intra-Tropical. Spathodea filiformis, Dec. | Spathodea heterophylla. II. Br. ACANTHACE.E. Indigenous in Australia, 11 Genera. South Australia, 7 Genera. Extra-Tropical. Justicia procumbens, Lin. Intra-Tropical. Nclsonia campestris, 11. Br. I Justicia procumbens, Lin. Hygrophila salicifolia, Nees. Dicliptcra glabra, Dec. Kuellia acaulis, K. Br. Hypoestes Horibnnda, 11. Bi\ Acanthus ilieit'olius, I>in. | PEDALTNE.E. Indigenous in Australia, 1 Genus. South Australia, 1 Genus. Extra-Tropical. Josephinia Eugenise, F. 3Iuell. Intra-Tropical. Josephinia imperatricis, Vent. ITS FLOEA. 261 MYOPORINE.E. Indigenous in Australia, 13 Genera, South Australia, 3 Genera. Extra- IMyoporum serratum, R. Br. deserti, A. Cunn. parvifolium, E. Br. platycarpum, li. Br. Pholidia Dalyana, F. Muell. scoparia, R. Br. crassifolia, F. Muell. Behriana, F. IVIuell. Sibbifolia, F. Muell. divaricata, F. Muell. santalina, F. Muell. Eremophila rotundifolia, F. Muell. oppositifolia, R. Br. Paisleyi, F. Muell. Intra- Eremopliila Latrobei, F. Muell. longifolia, F. Muell. Tropical. Eremophila Sturtii, R. Br. Christophori, F. Muell. Latrobei. F. Muell. Macdouellii. F. Mnell. longifolia, F. Muell. polyclada, F. Muell. Freelingii, F. Muell. Goodwinii, F. Muell. Brownii, F. ]Muell. scoparia, F. Muell. Duttoni, F. Muell. maculata, F. Mm-ll. latifolia, F. Muell. aiternitbiia, R. Br. Tropical. I Eremophila Willsii, F. Muell. SELAGINEiE. Indigenous in Australia, 1 Genus. No representative in South Australia. VERBENACE^. Indigenous in Australia, 20 Genera. South Australia, 8 Genera. Extra- Tropical. Verbena officinalis, Lin, 1 Avicennia officinalis, Lin. Clerodendron floribundum, R, Br. | Intra-Tropical. Dicrastyles ochrotricha, F. Muell. Denisonia ternifolia, F. Muell. Premiia obtusifolia, R. Br. integrifolia, Lin. acuminata, R. Br. Clerodendron inerme, R. Br. floribundum, R. Br. Clerodendron Cunninghamii, Beuth. Gmelina macrophylla, Benth. Vitex trifolia, Lin. acuminata, R. Br. glabrata, R. Br. Avicennia officinalis, Lin. Mentha australis, B. Br. gracilis, B. Br. .serpyllifolia, Benth. grandiflora, Benth. satureioides, li. Br, Lycopus australis, R. Br, Prunella vulgaris, liin. Scutellaria humilis, R. Br. Prostanthera rotundifolia, R. Br, spinosa, F. Muell. Behriana, Schlecht. LABIAT.E. Indigenous in Australia, 21 Genera. South Australia, 15 Genera. Extra-Tropical. Prostanthera striatiflora, F. Muell. eurybioidcs, F. Muell. microphylla, A. Cunn. aspalathoides, A. Cunn calycina, F. ^Muell. chlorantha, F. JIuell. Westringia rigida, R. Br. T eucrium racemosum, R. Br. corymbosuni, R. l$r. sessiliflorum, Benth. Ajuga australis, R. Br. :2(;s SOUTH AUSTEALIA. < )('iiiuim sanctum, I.in. IM(i.sc-}iosniii iiustralf, Bontli. rkotruntliiis parvillorus, Willd. Colcus scutullarioicks, Bcnth. Iidra-Tioji'tad. I Ilyptis suaveolcns, Poit. I Dysopliylla vcrtioillata. Beuth. I -Vuisomelcs salviFolia, Jl. ]5r. PLANTAGINE^. Indigenous in Australia, 8 Genera. iSouth Australia, 1 ( Jenus. Ej-lia-Tropical. ]']aiitago coroiiojnis, Lin. | Plantago varia, 1!. ]3r. rilYTOLACCACE.E. Indigenous in Australia, 5 Genera. South Australia, 3 Genera. Extra-Tropical. Didymotheca thesioides, Hook. I Codonocarpus pyraniidalii*, F. Muell. Oyrostemon cyclotheca, Benth. J cotinifolius, F. Muell. lutra-Tropical. <]!yrostemon ramulosus, Dcsf. CtlEXOrODIACE^. Indigenous in Australia, 1 o Genera. South Australia, 13 (Iniera. Extra- Trop tea I. lihagodia Billardieri, R. Br. paiabolica, 11. Br. Gaudichaudiana, Mii|. crassifolia, R. Br. spinescens, R. Br. nuUms, 11. Br. p. vittata, R. Hr. rostrata, F. IMuell. rugosi), R. Br. leucoptera, R. Br. cycloptera, R. Br. inultilineata, Meissn. nlicina, R. Br, flexilis, F. IMuell. Banksia marginata, Cav. ornata, F, Muell. Infra-Tropical. Grevillea dimidiata, F. ^rucll. pungens, R. Br. leucadendron, A. Cunn. Hakea cbordopiiylla, F. Muell. I lorea, R. Br. ' arborescens, R. Br. Stenocarpus Cunninghamii, R, Br. ITS FLOEA. 271 THYMELE^J. Indigenous in Australia, 4 Genera. South Australia, 1 Genus. Pimc'lea glaxici, E. Br. spathulata, Labill. ligustrina, Labill. liumilis, R. Br. simplex, F. Muell. microcephala, R. Br, serpyllifolia, R. Br. Pimelea punicea, R, Br. Extra-Tropical. Pimelea flava, R. Br. petrophila, F. Muell. curviflora, R. Br. octophylla, R. Br. petrsDa, Meissn. phylicoides, Meissn. stricta, Meissn. Intra- Tropical. 1 Pimelea concreta, F. Muell. EL^AGNACE^. Indigenous in Australia, 1 Genus. No representative in South Australia. NEPENTHACE^. Indigenous in Australia, 1 Genus. No representative in Soutli Australia. EUPHORBIACE^. Indigenous in Australia, 37 Genera. South Australia, 18 Genera. Euphorbia australis, Boiss. Drummondii, Boiss. Wheeleri, Baill. eremophila, A. Cunu. Poranthera ericoides, Klotzsch. microphylla, Brongn. Beyeria opaca, F. Muell. uncinata, F. Muell. Intra- Euphorbia atoto, Forst. Schultzii, Benth. Armstrongiana, Boiss. INIuelleri, Boiss. Drummondii, Boiss. micradenia, Boiss. serrulata, Reinw. eremophila, A. Cunn. Poranthera microphylla, Brongn. Antidesma Ghaesembilla, Gaertn. Sf'hultzii, Benth. Dissiliaria baloghioides, F. Muell. tricornis, Benth. Petalostigma quadriloculare, F. Muell. Phyllantiius ditassoides, F. Muell. Adami, F. Muell. ochropliyllus, Benth. rigidulus, F. Muell. baccatus, F. IMuell. Extra- Tropical. Bertya rotundifolia, F. Muell. Amperea spartioides, Brongn. Phyllanthus calycinus, Labill. Fuemrohrii, F. Muell. thymoides, Sieb. I Gunnii, Hook. Adriana Klotzschii, F. Muell. Tropical. ] Phyllanthus Urinaria, Lin. I trachygyne, Benth. maderaspatanus, Lin. Carpentaria?, F. Muell. gratidisepalus, F. Muell. miuutiflorus. F. Muell. lacunarius, F. Muell. Breynia stipitata, F. Muell. Securinega obovata, F. IMuell. Hemicyclia sepiaria, W. & Am. lasiogyne, F. Muell. Briedelia tomentosa, Blume. Croton Schultzii, Benth. Verreauxii, Baill. arnhemicus, F. IMuell. Mallotus nesophilus, F. Muell. Sebastiania chamelaja, F. IMuell. Excrecaria Agallocha, Tan. parvifolia, F. Muell. o-o SOUTH AUSTRALIA. I'ariutiiria debilis, Forst. Celtis pbilippincnsis, Blanco, paniculata, Planch. Treraa amboinensis, Blume. aspera, Blunie. Ficus nesophila, IM^^. retusa, Lin. leucotricha, I^Iiq. coronulata, F. jMuclI. URTICE.E. Indigenous in Australia, 17 Genera. South Australia, 7 Genera. Extra- Trop ical. I Urtica incisa, Puir. Jidru-Tropical. Ficus orbicularis, A. Cunn. aculeata, A. Cunn. scobina, Bentli. aspera. Foist. !Malaisia tortuo.^a, Blanco. Fatoua pilosa, Gaudich. I'aiiutaria debilis, Forst. Casiiarina stricta. Ait. glauca, Sieb. distyla, Vent CASUAEINE/E. Indigenous in Australia, 1 Genus. South Australia, 1 Genus. Ex tra - Tropica I. Casuarina torulosa, Ait. bicuspidata, Beiith. Casuarina suberosa, Otto. Intra-Tropical. I Casuarina equisetifolia, Forst. PIPEEACEiE. Indigenous in Australia, 2 Genera. No representative in South Australia. ARISTOLGCHIACE^. Indigenous in Australia, 1 Genus. South Australia, 1 Genus. Intra-Trojncal. Aristolochia Thozetii, F. Muell. CQPULIFER^. Indigenous in Australia, 1 Genus. Ko representative in South Australia. SANTALACEiE. Indigenous in Australia, 8 Genera. South Australia, 5 Genera. Ex tra- Trop ical. Ijoptomcria aphylla, R. Br. Fiisauus acuniinatis, E. Br. persicarius, F. Mucll. spicatus, R. Br. crassifolius, R. Br. ('Imictnuii plomeratuni, R. Br. .si)icatuni, F. ]Muoll 8antahnu lanocolaiuiiu R. Br. uvatum, R. Br. Exocarpus cupressit'orniis, Labill. spartea, R. Br. aphylla. R. Br. stricta, R. Br. Jutra-Tropical. I Exocarpus latifolia, R. Br. ITS FLOEA. BALANOPHORE.E. Indigenons in Australia, 1 Genus. Ko representative in South Australia. CONIFEEiE. Indigenous in Australia, 11 Genera. South Australia, 1 Genus. Extra-Tropical. Freuela robusta, A. Cunn. | Frencla rhomboidea, Eiull. Intra-Tropical. Frenela robusta, A. Cimn. CYCADE.E. Indigenous in Australia, 3 Genera. South Australia, 1 Genus. Infra-Tropical. C3'cas media, E. Br. MONOCOTYLEDONS. HYDROCHARIDE^. Indigenous in Australia, 5 Genera. South Australia, 3 Genera. Infra-Tropical. Ottelia alismoidcs, Peis. I ValUsneria spiralis, Liu. Blyxa Iloxburgbii, Eicb. | SCITAMINE.E. Indigenous in Australia, 7 Genera. Ko representative in South Australia. OECHIDE^. Indigenous in Australia, 48 Genera. South Australia, 20 Genera. Exfra-Tropical. Prasopbyllum fuscum, E. Br. nigricans, E. Br. IMicrotis porrifolia, Spreng. Corysantlics fimbriata, E. Br. Ijyperantbus nigricans, E. Br. Pterostylis concinna, E. Br. curta, E. Br. nutans, E. Br. cucullata, E. Br. reflexa, E. Br. barbata, Lindl. mutica, E. JJr. rufa, E. Br. longifolia, E. Br. Tlielyniitra ixioides, Sw. aristata, Lindl. longifolia, Forst. fusco-lutea, E. Br. carnea, E. Br. antennifera, Hook. Diuris jialustris, Lindl. ]iiaculata, Sm. pedunculata, E. Br. isulphvirea, E. Br. longifolia, E. Br. Ortboceras strictum, E. Br. rrasopbylluiu striatum. 11. Br. patens, B. Br. 27-1 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. Pterostylis vittata, I-indl. Acianthus exsertus, 11. IJr. Eriochilus autumiialis, 1*. Br. Cyitostylis rcuifornns. It. Br. Caladenia 3Ifiiziesii, 1\. Br. filamentosa, R. Br. Tiilra-Tropical Caladeuia Patorsoni, R. Br. latifolia, R. Br. carnea, R. Br. deformis, R. Br. Glassodia major, R. Br. Dondrnbium dicupluim, F. IMucll. Vanda Hindsii, Lindl. Qeodiirum pictum. I.iiidl. Kulopliia VL'HOsa, Rciclil). Dipodium pimctatum, R. Br. Ilabeuaria triiicrvi.s, "Wielit. clongata, R. Br. gramini'a, T.indl. Calautlio veratritblia, R. Br. BURMANNIACE.E. Indigenous in Australia, 1 Genns. South Australia, 1 Genus. Iidva-TropicaJ. Burmannia disticlm, Lin. | Burmannia juucca, Soland. Ii;iUE/E. Indigenous in Australia, 7 Genera. South Australia,' 2 Genera. Ex tra- Trap ica ?. Patcrsonia longiscapa. Sweet. | Ortbrosanthus multiQorus, Sweet. AMAPxYLLIDE.E. Indigenous in Australia, 13 Genera. South Australia, 8 Genera. Extra-Tro}yical. Crinum flaccidum, Herb. 1 Hypoxis glabella, R. Br. pedunciUatum, R. Br. | pusilla, Honk. Calostemma purpnreum, R. Br. I bygrometrica, Labill. luteum, Siius. | I}itm-Tropical. na3modonim laxum, R. Br. I Cnrciiligo on.'fifolia, R. Br. brevicaule, F. JNIuelL | llypoxis maruiiiata. R. Br. cocciueum, R. Br. | Criuuin asiaticum, Lin. Hubvirens, F. Muell. venosuiu, R. Br. jjarvifiorum, Bentb. | Calostemma album, R. Br. TACCACE^. Indigenous in Australia, 1 Genus. South Australia, 1 Genus. Ldra-Troincal. Tacca pinnatilida, Forst. DIOSCORIDE.E. Indigenous in Australia, 2 Genera. South Australia, 1 Genus. Intra-Tropical. Dioscorea trans ver.sa, R. Br. I Dioscorca sativa, Lin. gUibra, Roxb. | ITS FLOEA. 275 ALISMACE^. Indlgenoiis in Australia, 3 Genera. South Australia, 3 Genera. Extra-Tropical. Posidonia australis, Hook. | Cymodocea antartica, Endl. Intra-Tropical. Alisma oligococcum, F. Muell. PALM.E. Indigenous in Australia, G Genera. South Australia, 3 Genera. Intra-Tropical. lavistona incrmis, R. Br. 1 Seaforthia elegans, R. Br. liumilis, E. Br. j Corypha australiSj R. Br. PANDANE^. Indigenous in Australia, 1 Genus. South Australia, 1 Genus. Intra-Tropical. Paudanus pcdunculatns, E. Br. | Pandanus spiralis, E. Br. TYPHACEZE. Indigenous in Aiistralia, 2 Genera. South Australia, 2 Genera. Extra-Tropical. Typlia angustifolia, Liu. | Sparganium angustifolium, Mich. AE0IDEJ5. Indigenous in Australia, 4 Genera. South Australia, 3 Genera. Extra-Tropical. Arum orixeuse, Eoxb. | Gymnostachys auceps, Benth. Intra-Tropical. Amorphophallus campanulatus, Dec. LBMNACE.E. Indigenous in Australia, 1 Genus. South Australia, 1 Genus. Extra- Tr epical. Lemua miuor, Liu. | Lemna trisulca, Lin. LILIACEiE. Indigenous in Australia, 14 Genera. South Australia, 6 Genera. Extra-Tropical. Thysanotus paniculatus. E. Br. I'atcrsoni, R. Br. Stypandra cajspitosa, R. Br. Arthropodium pauiculatum, R. Br. fiinbriatuui, R. Br. pendulum, Spr. minus, R. Br. Arthropodium laxum, R. Br. Bulbiuo bulbosa, Haw. semibarbata, Spr. Tricoryne scabra, R. Br. Ctesia parvillora, R. Br. vittata, R. Br. 27G SOUTH AUSTEALIA. Iiilra-Trnpicnl. Tricoryne ehitiur, R. Br. | Thysaiiotus chiysantlms, F. Mucll. Imligfuuiis in .Vustralia, .'5 Genera. South Australia, ;) (u'liora. Extra-Tropical. Anj,'uillaria liii;laiiiluli>sa, II. Br. • lidica, 11. Br. miilldra. 1!. Br. imlica. It. Br. Burcliardia iimlK'llata, IJ. Br. Sclit'lhamracrii undiilata, B. Br. multitloni, 11. Br. smilace.t:. ludigenons in Australia, 3 Genera. South Australia, 3 Genera. Intra-Tropical. Smilax latifolia, B. Br. I Biposnniim album, E. Br. elliptica, 1!. Br. | Drymnphila cyanocarpa, R. Br. ASPAEAGE.E. Indigenous in Australia, G Genera. South Australia, 4 Genera. E.i:tra-Troji/riil. Eu.streplius lutifolius, 11. Br. I Diauella casrulea, Tiiii.s. augustifolius, R. Br. | revoluta, E. Br. Tnfra-J'ropical. Cnrdyline canna-folia, R. Br. I Asparagus fasciculutus, R. Br. Dracasua angustifolia, Roxb. | ^T^ROTIDE/E. Indigenous in Australia, G (Jenera. South Australia, 4 Genera. Exfra-TrojncaL Xe/otcs glauca, R. Br. liliformis, R. ]>r. leucocephala, 1!. Br. rigida, R. Br. longifolia, R. Br. fluviatilis, R. Br. Xerotcs tenuifolin. R. Br. iDiuula, R. Br. Dasypogon bromeliiKfolius. R. Br. Xantliorrhani semiplana, F. Muell. quadraimulata,F. Muell. JUNCE.E. Indigenous in Australia, 2 Genera. South Aiistralia, 2 Genera. Exlra-TropicuJ. Juncu.s i)alli(liis, R. ]!r. Juncus CT'si)it().«a, Iv 'Sivy pri.^iiiatocarpo.s, R. Br. ])!aiiifolius, R. Br. inai-itiums, R. Br. iiustralis, Desf. vagiiiatus, R. Br. j pallidum, R. Br. gracilis, R. Br. | coimnunis, E. Mey. revnlutus, R. Br. l)auciilorus, R. Br. Holoscha'Dus, R. Br. I>tizula canipestris, Des. ITS FLOEA. 277 PHILYDREiE. Indigenous in Ai;stralia, 1 Gemis, South Australia, 1 Genus. Intra-Trojncal. Pliilydrum laniiginosimi, R. Br. COMMELINACE^. Indigenous in Australia, 3 Genera. South Australia, 3 Genera. Ejctra-Tropical. Conimelina ensifolia, R. Br. I Aneilema acuminata, R. Br. lanceolata, R. Br. i Cartonema spicatuni, R. Br. Aneilema anthericoides, R. Br. \ XYRIDE.E. Indigenovis in Australia, 2 Genera. South Australia, 1 Genus. Exfra-Trnpical. Xyris o}ierculata, Labill. gracilis, R. Br. bracteata, R. Br, Xyris paludosa, R. Br. scabra, R. Br. denticulata, R. Br. FLAG ELL AIlIEiE. Indigenous in Australia, 1 Genus. South Australia, 1 Genus. Intra-Tropical. Flagellaria indica, Lin. ERIOCAULONE^. Indigenous'in Australia, 1 Genus. South Australia, 1 Genus. Extia-Tioi)ii;al. Eriocaulon australe, R. Br. I Eriocaulon nanum, R. Br. imlliduQj, R. Br. | cinereum. It. Br. Intra-Tropical. Eriocaulon scariosum, R. B. I Eriocaulon nutans, F. ]Muell. stillulatum, Hook. | RESTL\CE/E. Indigenous in Australia, G Genera. South Australia, 6 Genera. Extra-Tropical. Restio australis, R. Br. tetraphyllus, Labill. complanatus, R. Br. Leiitocarpus tenax, R. Br. Brownii, Hook. Hypolaena fastigiata, R. Br. Caloroplius clongatus, Labill. Centrolepis aristata, Roem. & Scliult. jiulvinata, Roem. & Scliult. Alepyrum Muelleri, Hook. polygonum, R. Br. 278 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. Cyijcrus Guuuii, Hook. vap^inatiis, K. 13 r. carinatus, I{. 15r. lucidus, It. Br. alopecuroidcs, Rottb. Chffitospora tfiuiissiina. Hook. niteus, U. Vn: imborbis, li. Br. axillaris, K. Hr. Gymnosr-hceuus spha'rocephalus, Hk. Chorizaiulra enodis, Xtes. Eleocliaris sphacelata, Pi. Br. gracilis, II. Br. pahistris, R. Br. Isolepis multicaulis, Schlecht. riuitans, R. Br. nodosa, R. Br. CYPERACEiE. Indigenous in Australia, 29 Genera. Sontli Aiistralia, 15 Genera. Ej:tra-Tropical. Isolepis prolifera, R. Br. setacea, R. Br. cartilaginea, R. Br. riparia, R. Br. Sc'irpus maritinms, Liu. triqiicter, Lin. Lepidosperma concavmn, R. Br. gladiatuni, Labill. longitudinale, LabilL laterale, R. Br. linearis, R. Br. C'ladium junceum. Hook. tetraquetriim. Hook, scha-uoidcs, R. Br. Gabnia trifida, Labill. Psittacorum, Labill. Cyperus Ilaspan, Liu. Abildgardia monostachya, Yahl, Echoenoides, R. Br. Carex inversa, R. Br. apprcssa, R. Br. littorea, Labill. fascicularis, Soland. lougifolia, R. Br. Finibristylis dichotoma, Vahl. Intra-T topical. Fimbristylis sqnarrulosa, F. jMuclL acuminata, Nees. rythicarpa, F. Mucll. j communis, R. Br. Fuirena glomerata, Vahl. Isolepis barbata. R. Br. , Diplacrum carieiuum, R. Br. j Eleocliaris acuta, R. Br. GRAMIKE.T]. Indigenous in Australia, 64 Genera. South Australia, 44 Genera. Tetrarrhena tcnacissima, Nees. acuminata, R. Br. ItEvis, R. J3r. iSpinifcx birsutus, Labill. fragilis, R. Br. sericeus, R. Br. ^licrolajna stipoides, R. Br. Anthcsteria australis, R. Br. Hemartbria compressa, R. Bi'. uncinata, R. Br. Hicrochloa rariflora, Nob. antarctica, R. Br. Alopecurus geniculatus, Lin. Stipa semibarbata, R. Br. pubescens, R. Br. setacea, R. Br. elegantissima, R. Br. micrantha, R. Br. mollis, R. Br. ramoi-issima, Tiin. Diclielachne crinita, Xob. Extra-Tropical. Diclielachne stipoides, Xob. Pcutapfgon Billardieri, R. Br. Eragi'ostis lacunaria, F. INIuell. Agrostis quadriseta, R. Br. stolonifera, Tiin. Billardieri, R. Br. £emula, R. Br. scabra, R. Br. parviflora, R. Br. Echinopogon ovatus, Pal. Polypogon monspeliensis, Desf. Phragmites communis, Trin. Danthonia semi-annularis, R. Br. nervosa. Hook, pilosa, R. Br. pauoiflora, R. Br. palli.la, R. Br. paradoxa, R. Br. Glyceria fluitaus, R. Br. Poa australis, R. Br. allinis, R. Br. ITS FLOEA. 279 Too. parviflora, E. Br. dlgitata, R. Br. concinna, II. Br. tenera, F. Muell. Kccleria cristata, Pers. Festiica bromoides, Liu. distichophylla, Hook, littoralis, Labill. plebeia, E. Br. Triticum scabrum, E. Br. Audropogon tenuis, E. Br. triticeus, E. Br. sericeus, E. Br. Lagurus ovatus, Lin. stipoides, E. Br. Aristida contorta, F. Muell. vagaus, Cav. Arundo Pliragmites, Lin. Cynodon Dactylon, Pers. teuellus, E. Br. Chloris truncata, E. Br. Sporobolus pidcliellus, E. Br. Authesteria ciliata, Lin. frondosa, E. Br. Eragrostis polymorpha, E. Br. Eriachne aveuacea, E. Br. Lselisemum triticum, E. Br. i^etaria glauea, Beauv. iSpinifex fragilis, E. Br. Cymbopogon procerus, E. Br. Chloris latevalvis, F. Muell. meccana, Hoclist. Hordeum pratense, Huds. Microlaina stipoides, E. Br. Pauicum Crus-galli, Liu. decompositum, E. Br. Triraphis mollis, E. Br. Ciuna ovata, Kunth. Cenchrus australis, E. Bi-. Brownii, E. S. Sporobolus elongatus, E. Br. actiuoclados, F. Muell. Eriauthus fulvus, Benth. Pappophorum commune, F. Muell. Setaria glauea, Beauv. Lappago racemosa, Willd. Deyeuxia Forsteri, Kunth. Dactyloctenium ^gyptiacum, Willd. Monachather paradoxa, Steud. Cymbopogon cygnorum, Minor. Tntra-Tropical. Pauicum angustum, Trin. polyphylhmi, E. Br. effusum, E. Br. ovalifolium, Beauv. Petiverii, Triu. decomijositum, E. Br. Ectrosia leporina, E. Br. Aristida stipoides, E. Br. ACOTYLEDONS. FILICES. Indigenous in Australia, 35 Genera. Soiith Australia, 23 Genera. Botrychium Luuaria, Siv. ternatum, Siv. Ophioglossum vulgatum, Lin. Schiza^a dichotoma, S\v. Todea africana, Willd. Gleicheuia circinata, E. Br. Ijindssea linearis, S\v. Adiautum sethiopicum, Lin. Lomaria capensis, Willd. discolor, Willd. procera, S\v. lanceolata, Spreng. Patorsoni, Spreng. fluviatilis, Spreng. Chcilanthes tenuitblius, Sw. distans, A. Br. Siebcrii, Kunz. vellea, F. Muell. Pteris falcata, E. Br. incisa, Thuub. iinibrosa, E. Br. esculenta, Forst. Asplenium flabelliformis, Cav. obtusatum, Forat. bulbiferum, Forst. Aspidium molle, S\v. decompositum, Spreng. Grammitis leptophylla, Sw. rutitblia, E. Br. australis, E. Br. Gymnogramuia Pozoi, Kuiiz. NotochUena Eeynoldii, F. INluell. tVagdis, Hook. Polystichium vestitum, Presl. Ncphrodium dLCompositum, E. Br. 280 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. Jntra-T. Scliiztca dichotoma, S\v. Acrostichum aureiim, JAn. pteroidcs, Hook. Adiantiim Immlatuni, Be auv. l.iudsaya oiisifolia, S\v. tciiera, Drvaud. llabcllulata. J )nand. I-ygodiiim bcaiulcns, S\v. semibipinnatiuii, 1'. 15r. luicropbylluni, 11. lir. (ileichenia dichotoma, "NVilld. I'olypodium quercifolium, Lin. 'fO]i/rnl. I'olyiiodiuin Uinnrei, Borg. Asiiidiiim unituni, S\v. Blccluium oiicntalc, I. in. scirulatum, ]!i('h. striatum, It. Br. Ccratoptoiis tlialictroidcs, Biongn. CluilantliL's fragillina, V. ^Muull. tcnuifolia, Sw. Ptoris aqiiiliua, F. 3Iiioll. Opbioglossum viilgatiim, liin. Botrycliium Yirgiiiianiim, Hw. Noto'cbla^na fragilis, Ilumb. & Bonpl. LYCOrODIACE.'E. Indigenous in Australia, 2 Genera. South Australia, 2 Genera. Kxtra-Tiopical. Lycopodiiim deiisum, Labill. I I^ycopodium volubik\ Forst. varium, E. Br. | Scdaginclla Belangeri, Sw. MARSILEACE^. Indigenous in Australia, 1 Genus. South Australia, 1 Genus. Extra-Tropical. ilarsiloa macropiis, Ilook. | Marsilea quadrifolia, Lin. SALVINIE/E. Indigenous in Australia, 1 Genus. South Australia, 1 Genus. Extra-Tropical. -Vzolla rubra, E. Br. Azolla pinnata, R. Br. ITS FAUNA. 281 THE FAUNA OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. Bv F. G. Waterhouse, Esq., C.M.Z.S., H.M.E.S. and F.L.S. New South Wales, &c. &c. In order to make this work as complete as possible, it was arranged to give a classified list of fauna indigenous to the Colony. Mr. F. G. Waterhouse, the able Curator of the Mu- seum, whose fitness for the work will be admitted by all who know him, undertook to present a classified catalogue of the animals and birds which are met with in South Australia. For a series of years ]Mr. Waterhouse has been collecting materials, the results of which are embodied in the following pages. With other forms of animal life he has not dealt. Keptiles, insects, and fishes, to have been exhaustively catalogued and classified, would have taken more time than Mr. Waterhouse has at his disposal, and would have required a lifetime to prepare carefully. It would have exceeded, too, the limits of this volume. The mammals and birds are of greatest interest. It will be borne in mind that Mr. Waterhouse confines his attention to the indigenous fauna of the Colony. All the domestic animals, and most of the birds known in Europe, have been acclimatized here, and without a single exception they seem to do well. The third chapter in this division of the book is on mines and minerals, in the preparation of which Mr. Waterhouse has been assisted by Mr. J. B. Austin — a gentleman who has paid a great deal attention of to the sul)jcct. In the former part of the work, I have glanced generally at the mining interest ; but this chapter goes more into details than I could do, and it is the result of personal and practical knowledge on the part of the writer. With these few prefatory remarks, I now allow 3Ir. Water- house to speak for himself. 282 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. "AUSTKALIAN VERTEBEATA : MAMIMAT.S. " According to Mr. Gerard Krefi't, the able Curator of the Australian Museum, Sydney, the fauna of Australia is distin- guished by a large number of marsupial animals, -which are now extinct in almost every other part of the world, and con- sidered to be the oldest mammals known. A few living species allied to our Dasyures still exist in America, and fossil remains were found in France and England, which indicate the presence of marsupials at a very early jieriod, when mammalian life was at its infancy ; in fact the general belief is, that the first mammals belonged to the marsupial or pouched tribe. The isohited position of Australia may have caused these animals to retain their stronghohl licre much longer than in other countries ; and it is almost certain that many of their prede- cessors were also marsupials, equal in size to the rhinoceros and the hippopotamus. •• The living species arc of moderate growth, and the largest do not exceed two hundred pounds in weight ; they are divided into carnivorous or flesh-eating and herbivorous or grass-eating sections, with a few genera of mixed feeders. " At a rough estimate, we know 110 marsupials in Australia, to which must be added — twenty-four bats, one dog, thirty rats and mice ; and a number of seals and whales, which, inhabiting the ocean, are not restricted in their habitat. The most peculiar Australian animals are the duck-billed platypus, and the spiny ant-eater ; both of which are peculiar to this country. " Of the placental series — the curious water-rats or beaver- rats must be mentioned as being purely Australian. The dog was, no doubt, a very early introduction, because fossil remains were discovered contemporaneous with the great ex- tinct marsupials of post-pleiocenc times. Of man we have but scanty evidence regarding the length of his existence here ; in not one instance were weapons or implements obtained ^yit]^ the remains of fossil animals. Stone weapons are still used by many tribes, and the primitive art of splitting, grinding, and shaping various rocks into hatchets and spear heads is not yet lost. ITS FAUNA. 283 " The subjoined is a list of the mammals found in the ProAdnce of South Australia ; those marked with an asterisk came from the Northern tropical portion of this Colony : — MAMMALIA. CHEIROPTERA. a. Frugivorous Bats. P. poliocephalus PTEROPUS. . Grey-headed ] * P. funereus Funeral vampire. vampire ] h. Insectivorous Bats. MOLOSSUS. M. australis Australian molossiis. TAPHOZOUS. * T. flaviventris Yellow-bellied taplxozous. RHINOLOPHUS. * E. aurantius Orange horse-shoe bat. SGOTOPHILUS. S. Gouldi Gould's bat I S. picatus Pied bat. morio Chocolate bat | VESPERTILIO. V. macropus Great-footed bat. CANIDiE.— DOG TRIBE. CANIS. C. Dingo The dingo. PHOCIDiE.— SEAL TRIBE. STENORHYNCHUS. S. leptonyx Sea leopard. ARCTOCEPHALUS. A. lobatus Cowled seal. EODENTIA.— EAT TRIBE. a. Long-eared Rats. HAPALOTIS. II. alliiics "White-footed bapa- H. Mitchellii... IMitdiell's hapalotis lot is cervina Fawn-coloured liapa- conditor ... Building hapalotis lotis. h. Short-eared Rats. 284 SOUTH AUSTKALIA. MUS. M. fuscipcs "Dusky-footed rnt I M. Ciouldi "Wliite-footcd rat vcllerosiis ... Tawny .. luiiui.s Little „ assimilis ... Allied „ | c. Water Hats. ]I. ehrysogastcr Goldeu-bcUicd bea- ver rat fulvolavatus Fulvous beaver rat HYDI^OMYS. H. leucoiraster "White-bellied beaver rat lutrilla Small beaver rat. CETACEA.— WHALE TEIBE. BAL.ENA. B. Australi.s. MARSUPIALIA. EHIZOPHAGA.— WOMBAT TRIBE. PHASCOLOMYS. P. latifrons ... Broad-fronted worn- I P. platyrhinus Hairy-nosed wombat bat I niger Black „ CAEPOPHAGA.-PHALAXGER TEIBE. PHASCOLARCTOS. P. cinereus Koala or native bear. PHALANGISTA. P. vulpina Vulpine plialangcr [ P. viverrina ... Yivcrrine pbalanger. DROMICIA. D. glirifonnis Thick-tailed dromicia. CUSCUS. * C. brevicaudatus Short-tailed cuscus. rETA"URISTA. P. taguanoides Great flying phalanger. BELIDEUS. B. flaviventer TiOng-tailed belideus sciureus ... Squirrel-like „ brcvicei)s ... Sliort-headed „ B. notatus Striped-tailed belideus * ariel Ariel. AC ROB AT A. A. pygmrea Pigmy aerobates. POEPHAGA.— KANGAROO TRIBE. MACROPUS. JM. major ( J reat grey kangaroo ] M. fuliginosus Sooty kangaroo. OSPHRANTA. O. rufns Great red kangaroo | O. crebescens... Uroo kangaroo. ITS FAUNA. 285 HALMATURUS.— WALLABY. II. Greyi Grey's wallaby | H. DerLiauus... Derby's -wallaby. PETROGALE.— ROCK WALLABY. P. xauthopus Y'ellow-footed rock wallaby. ONYCHOGOLEA.— XAIL-TAILED KANGAROO. 0. luuata. LAGORCHESTER.— HARE KANGAROO. L. le^TOroides Hare kangaroo. BETTONGIA.— BETTONGS, OR JERBOA KANGAROOS. B. Graii Gray's jerboa kangaroo I B. Ogilbyi ... Ogilby's jerboa kan- caiupestris Plain „ „ | garoo. HYPSIPRYMORUS.— RAT KANGAROO, H. Gilberti... Gilbert's rat kangaroo | H. i^latyops Broad-faced kangaroo. ENTOMOPHAGA.— BANDICOOT TEIBE. PERAMELES. P. fasciata... Banded bandicoot | P. obesula ... Short-nosed bandicoot. PERAGALIA. P. lagotis Long-eared peragalia. CHCEROPUS. C. castanotis Chestnut-eared chceropus. SATJCOPHAGA.— NATIVE CAT TEIBE. DAS YURUS.— NATIVE CAT. D. maculatus Spotted-tailed dasy- I D. vlverrinns Variable dasyurus urus. I Geofi'royi Geofiroy's „ PHASCOGALE.— BRUSH-TAILS. P. penicillata Brush-tailed phasco- 1 P. calura ... Handsome-tailed gale I phascogale. ANTECHINUS.— BROAD-FOOTED "POUCHED MICE." A. Swainsoni Swainson's antechinus I A. leucopus "White-footed flavipes... Rusty-footed ante- | antechinus. chinus I POD ABRUS— SLENDER-FOOTED "POUCHED MICE." P. crassicaudatus Thick-tailed poda- I P. allipcs ... Wliite-footed brus I podaljrus. MYRMECOBIUS.— BRUSH-TAILED ANT-EATER. M. fasciutus Branded niyrmecobius. c. Mouotremata. ECHIDNA.— SPINY ANT-EATER. E. hystrix Spiny ant-eater. ORNITHORHYNCHUS. 0. aup.tinus Duck-bill platj'pus. 280 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. "BIRDS. " Tho Avi Fauna of Australia is considcral)lo, t]iouj2,ii por- lia])S not so rich as that of other countries under the same hititu(h\ Australia is famous for the beauty of lier many parrots, over sixty species of which are found here ; the lioney- eaters are also numerous and varied in plumage, Avhile bower- buihling birds, mound-raising- mcgapodes, and stately emus, are peculiar to this favoured region. Game species abound ; there are many pigeons, ducks, geese, plovers, and quail, and every bay or island along the coast-line is swarming with noisy sea- birds. Some large groups are however absent ; we have no woodpeckers, no humming-birds, no trogons, and but a few good songsters. Other handsome forms compensate in some measure for this loss. Numerous game and singing birds luive been imported from other parts, and all thrive Avell. " I'lie total number of species is nearly 700. '*' The following is a list of the species found in the Pro- vince of South Australia ; those marked with an asterisk are from the northern tropical portion of tlie Colony : — AYES. ORDEE EAPTOPiES. FAM. FALCONID.E. Aquila aiidax Wodgc-tailed eagle morplinoick's Tjittle ctigle Polioat'tus Iciicogaster White-bellied sea-eagle Haliastur leucostenms White-breasted eagle spheimnis Whistling eagle Paiidionlcucocephalu.s AVJiitc-headed os])rey Falco hypoleucus ittle acanthiza Geobasileus chrysorrhous Yellow-rumped acanthiza reguloidos Buff-rumped acanthiza Ephthianura albifrons White-fronted ephthianura aurifrons Orange-fronted ephthianura tricolor Tricoloured ephthianura Xerophilla leucopsis White-faced xerophila pectoralis Gibson's xerophila Pyrrholemus brunneus Red tliroat Calamanthus fuliginosus Striated calamanthus campestris I'ield calamanthus Chthonicola sagittata Little chthonicola. FAM. MOTACILLID^. Anthus australis Australian pipit Cincloramphus cruralis Brown cinclonimphus cantilans I Mack-breasted cincloramphus Ptenoedus rufescens Rufous-tinted cincloramphus Sphenceacus galactotcs Tawny grass bird gramineus Little grass bird. FAM. SYLVIAD^. Calamolierpc australis Reed warbler Mirafra Ilorsficldii Ilorslield's brush lark. U 290 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. FAM. FRINGILLID^. ^Egintlia temporalis Eed-eyebrowed finch Neochmia phaeton Crimson finch St;i,i;;onopleina guttatu Spotted-sided finch Tivniopygia castcnutis Chestnut-cared fnicli *roephihv Gouklia) Gouldian grass finch * mirubilis Beautiful grass finch * acuticauda Long-taikd grass finch * personatii Masked grass finch Emblama picta Painted finch. FAM. MELURID/E. Pitta iris Rainbow pitta Cinclosoma punctatum Spotted ground thrush castanotum Chcstnut-backed ground thrush cinnamoenunu Cinnamon ground thrush Oreocincla lunulata Mountain thrush. FAM. PARADISEIDJi:. *Chlamydera nuchalis Great bower bird maculata Spotted bower bird Mimeta viridis New South Wales oriole * aflinis Allied oriole * flavocincta Chestnut-marked oriole *Specotheres flaviventris Northern sphecothcros Corcorax mdanoramphus White-winged corcorax Struthidea cinerea Grey struthidea. FAM. CORVID/E. Corvus australis White-eyed crow. FAM. CRATEROPODID.E. Pomatostomus temporalis Temporal pomatostomus rubeculus Red-breasted pomatostomus superciliosus White-eyebrowcd pomatostomus ruficeps Chestnut-crowned pomatostomus, FA^r. MELIPHAGID.E. Meliornis Nov£e-Hollandife New Holland honey-eater Lichmera australasiana Tasmanian honey-cater Glycyphila fulvilrons Fulvous honcy-euter albifrons White-fronted honey-cater * fasciata Fasciated honey-eater Stigniatops ocularis Brown honey-eater * subocularis Least honey-eater Ptilotis sonora Singing honey-eater fiavigula Yellow-throated honey-eater luucotis Wliite-cared honey-eater cratitia Wattle-cheeked honey-eater ornata Graceful honey-eater plumula Plumed honey-eater * fiava Yellow honey-cater penicillata White-plumed honey-eater chryso|)S Yellow-faced honey-eater *Stomiopera unicolor Uniform honey-eater Plectorhynclia lanceolata I-anceolate honey-eater Meliphaga phrygia Warty-faced honey-eater Lichnotentlia picata Pied honey-eater Conophophila albigularis White-throated honey-eater ITS FAUNA. 291 Conophophila rufigularis Ked-throated honoy-eater Acantbogenys lufigularis Spring-cheeked honey-eater Anthocbsera caruuculata Wattled lioncy-eater Anellobia mellivora Brush wattle bird Tropidorbynchus corniculatus Friar bird * buceroides Helmeted friar bird * argenticeps Silvery-crowned friar bird * sordidus Sordid friar bird Acantborbynchiis tenuirostris Spine-bill *MyzomeIa sanguinolenta Sanguineous honey-eater * crythrocephala Red-headed honey-eater * pectoralis Banded honey-eater * nigra Black honey-eater * obscura Obscure honey-eater *Entomyza albipennis White-quilled honey-eater Melithreptus gularis Black-throated honey-eater lunulatus Lunated honey-eater * albogularis White-throated honey-eater Myzantha garrula Garrulous honey-eater obscura Sombre honey-eater * lutea Luteous honey-eater Dicseum hirundinaccum Swallow dica;um Zosteroi^s cser ulescens Grey-backed zosterops * luteus Yellow zosterops. FAM. CERTHIAD^. Climacteris scandens Brown tree-creeper rufa Rufous tree-creeper * melanura Black-tailed tree-creeper leucophta White-throated tree-creeper *Sittella leucoptera White- winged bittella pileata Black-capped sittella. FAM. CUCULIDiE. Cacomantis i^allidus Pallid cuckoo tlabelliformis Fan-tailed cuckoo insperatus Brush cuckoo * dumatorum Square-tailed cuckoo Mesocalius osculans Black-eared cuckoo Lamprococcyx plagosus Bronze cuckoo * minutillus Little bronze cuckoo basalis Narrow-billed cuckoo Scythrops Novse-Hollandige Channel-bill *Eudynamis Flindersi Australian koel *Centropus macrourus Great-tailed coucal. FAM. PSITTACIDiE. Cacatua galerita Sulphiu--crcsted cockatoo Leadbeateri Leadbeater's cockiitoo sanguinea Blood-stained cockatoo roseicapilla Rose-breasted cockatoo Licmetis tenuirostris Long-billed cockatoo *Calyptorhynchus raacrorhynclms Great-billed black cockatoo Leacliii I>each's black cockatoo xanthonotus Yellow-eared black cockatoo Callocephalon galeatum Gan-gan cockatoo *Polytelis Alexandra) The Princess of Wales's parrakeet u 2 292 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. Polytelis nulainira Black-tailed pairakcet *Ptistes coccincoptenis ("rimson-winfjed lory , Platyccrcus Barnardi Barnard's jiainikeot Z(jnariiis Banded parrakcet Pennantii Pennant's parrakeet adclaidensis Adelaide parrakcet venustus Beautiful parrakeet exiniius IiO;e-ljill jianakeet Psopliotus ha'Ui'.itorrlious Ived-veuted parrakeet xantliorrliuus Yellow-vented parrakeet multicolor A'aried parrakcet liainiatonotus Ped-rumped parrakeet Pupliema elegans ]''Jegant ijrn.s.s parrakeet aurantia Orange-bellied grass parrakeet petrophila Pock grass parrakeet splendida Splendid grass parrakeet Bourkii Bourk's grass parrakeet IMelopsittacus undulatus "Warbling grass parrakeet Calopsitta Novaj-Hollandiie Cockatoo parrakeet Pezoporus formosus Ground parrakeet Geopsittacus oecidentalis Western ground parrakeet Tvatbamus discolor Swift lorikeet Trichoglossus multicolor Blue-bellied lorikeet * rubritorquis Iled-collared lorikeet *Ptilocliera versicolor Varied lorikeet Glossopsitta australis Musk lorikeet porpliyroceiihalus Porphyro-crowned lorikeet pulsilfa Little lorikeet. ORDER RASORES. FAM. COLUMBIDJ^. *Myristictivora spilorrhoa White nutmeg pigeon *Ptlinopus Ewingii Ewing's fruit pigeon *Chalci)phaps chrysocLlora Tattle green pigeon I'liaps chalcoptera Comnion bronzewing elegans l?rusli bronzewing hist rionica Harlequin bronzewing *Gcophaps Smithii Snath's bronzewing Pophophaps i)luniifera Plumed bronzewing ferruginea Pust-coloured bronze winj Ocyphaps lophotes Crested bronzewing Erythrauchaina humeralis Barred-shouldered dove Geopelia tranquilla Peaceful dove * placida Placid dove Stictopelia cuneata Little turtle-dove FAM. MEGAPODID.E. Leipoa occllata Ocellafed leipoa *Megapodius tumulus Australian megapode. FAM. TURNICID.E. Turnix varius Varied turnix * castanotus Chestnut-backed turnix velox Swift-flying turnix pyrrhothorax Eed-crested turnix Pedionomus torquatus Collared jiluin wanderer. ITS FAUNA. 29^ FAM. PERDICID^. Cotumix pectoralis Pectoral quail Synoicus australis Swamp quail sordidus Sombre quail * cervinus Northern quail Excalfatoria australis Least swamp quail. ORDER GRALLATORES. FAM. STRUTHIDIONIDJ]:. Dromanius Novse-Hollandise Emu inornatus Spotted emu. FAM. OTIDID^. Clioriotis australis Australian bustard. FAM. CHAPADPJD^. (Edicnemus grallarius Southern stone plover *Esacus magnirostris Large-billed shore plover Hsematopus longirostris White-breasted oyster-catcher fuliginosus Sooty oyster-catcher Lobivanellus lobatus Wattled plover * personatus Masked plover Sarciophorus pectoralis Black-breasted plover Squatarola helvetica Grey plover Charadrius orientalis Australian plover Eudromius austral is Australian dottrell Cirrepidesmus asiaticus Asiatic dottrell * Geoifroyi Geoffroy's dottrell JEglalites monacha Hooded dottrell nigrifrons Black-fronted dottrell -^gialophilus ruiicapillus Bed-capped dottrell Ochthodromus inornatus Allied dottrell bicinctus Double-banded doltrell Erythrogonyx cinctus Red-kneed dottrell. FAM. GLAREOLID^. *Glareola grallaria Practincole Australian. FAM. HIMANTOPODID^. Himantopus leucocephalus White-headed stilt Cladorhynchus pectoralis Banded stilt. FAM. RECURVIROSTRID^. Eecurvirostris rubicoll is Red-necked vaocet. FAM. LIMOSTDiE. *Limosa uropygialis Barred-rumped godwit. FAM. TRINGID^. Limnocinclus acuminatus Marsh tringa Ancylochilus subarquatus Curlew sandpiper Actodromas australis Little sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos Common sandpiper Glottis glottoides Greenshank Strepsilas interpres Turnstone 294 SOUTH AUSTKALIA. FAM. SCOLOPACID^. Galliiiago ausfralis New Holland snipe Khynchifa aiistralis Australian rhyncba?a. FA:\r. • ? Niimcnius cyanopus xVustmlian curlew m-opygialis Australian winibrel juiuor Littlo wimbrel. FAM. TANTALID-E. Carphibis spinicollis Straw-necked ibis Tlireskiornis strictipeunis White ibis Falcinellus igneus Glos.-y ibis I'latakaregia Eoyal spoonbill riatibis flavipes Yellow-legged spoonbill. FAM. GRUID.E. Grus australasianus Australian crane. FA^I. CICONID.E. *Xenorliyncliiis australis Australian jabiru. FAM. ARDEIDJ^.. Ardea cinerea Common heron pacifica Pacitic heron Novffi-Hollandi:e Whit e-fronted heron Herodias alba Australian egret egrettoides Phmud egret melauopus Spotless egret aslia Sombre egret * picata Pied egret Demiegretta jugulari.-. . Black-reef heron * Greyi White-reef heron Nycticorax ealadonieus Nankeen night heron Botaurus poiciloptilus Australian bittern But'jroides flavicollis Yellow-necked mangrove bittern Ardetta pusilla Minute bittern Porphyrio m* lanotus Black-backed porphy rio Tribonyx ventralis Black-tailed tribonyx Gallinulatenebrosa Sombre gallinule Fulica australis Australian coot Hypotaiuidia philippensis Pectoral rail Rallus brachypus Lcwiu's water rail *Eulabeornis eastaneiveutris Chestnut-bellied rail Porzana fluminea Spotted water crake palustris Little water crake tabuensis Tabuau water crake. ORDER NATATORES. FAM. ANATID.E. Chenopis atrata Black swan Cereopsis Novai-Hollandiic Cereopsis goose Anseranas melanoleuca Scmipalmated goose Chlamydochen jubata Maiied goose *Xettapu3 pulchellus Green pigmy goose Tadurna radjah Kajah sheldrake ITS FAUNA. 295 Casarca tadornoides Chestnut-coloured sheldrake Anas superbosa Australian ■wild duck punctata Australian teal Stictonetta najvosa Freckled duck Spatula rhynchotis Australian shoveller duck Malacorhy nchus menibranaceus Pink-eyed duck Dendrucygua Gouldi Gould's A\Iiistling tree duck Eytoni Eyton's tree duck Nyroca australis White-eyed duck Biziura lohata Musk duck. FAM. LAEIDiE. Larus pacificus Pacific gull Bruchigavia Jamesonii Silver gill Stercorarius catarrhactes Great skua. FAM. STERNID^. Sylochelidon caspia Caspian tern *Thalasseus cristatus Torres Straits tern jDoliocercus Bass's Straits tern Sterna melanorhyncha Southern tern Sternula nereis Little tern Hydrochelidon leucopareia Marsh tern Onychoprion I'uliginosa Sooty tern paiiayen.sis Panayan tern Anous stolidud Noddy tern melanops Lesser tern * leucocei^halus White-capped tern. FAM. PROCELLA.EID^. Diomedia cxulans Wandering albatross cauta Shy albatross culminata Culminated albatross nielanophrys Black-eyebrowed albatross Phocbetria fuligiuosus Sooty albatross Ossifragra gigantea Great petrel Adamastor ciuerea Great grey petrel Pterodroma Solandri Solander's petrel .iEstrelata leucocephala White-headed petrel leucoptera White-winged jaetrel Haloboena cserulea Blue petrel Puffinus uugax Allied petrel Nectris brevicaudus Short-tailed petrel Thiellus sphenurus Wedge-tailed petrel Thalassoica glacialoides Silvery-grey petrel Darpion capenais Cape petrel Prion turtur Dove-like prion ariel Fairy prion Bankii Bank's prion vittatus Broad-billed prion Procellaria nereis Grey-backed storm petrel Oceanites oceanica Yellow-webbed storm petrel Frcgetta melauogastcr Black-backed storm petrel grallaria White-bellied storm petrel Pelagodroma fregata White-faced storm petrel Halladroma urinatrix Diving petrel. 296 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. FAM. PELICANID.^. Pelicanus conspicillatvis Australian pelican Phalacrocnrax Novre-IIollaiuli;u Australian cormorant varius Pied corraoraut leucogaster AV'hitc-breastcd cormorant melanoleucus Tjittle cormorant stictocephalns Little black cormorant Plotus Xovse-Hollandiso New Holland darter Sula au.stralis Australian gaunet cyanops ^lasked gaunet * liber Brown gannet * piscator Red-legged gannet. FAM. PODICIPEDiE. Podiceps australis Australian tii>pet grebe nestor Hoary-headed grebe gularis Black-throated grebe. FAM. SPHENISCID^. Eudyptnla minor Little penguin. ITS MINES AND MINEEALS. 297 MINES AND MINEEALS OF SOUTH AUSTEALIA. By J. B. Austin, Esq. The vast mineral deposits (existing over thousands of square miles of country) in the Colony of South Australia have, for the past thirty years, contributed very largely to our national wealth. At times the mineral products of the Colony have been the highest in point of value of any of our staples ; but they have for some years past taken the third place — wheat now ranking first, and wool second. The history of mining in the Colony dates from the year 1843, when the Kapunda Mine was discovered on Captain Bagot's sheep run, fifty miles from Adelaide. In January, 1844, about ten tons of rich copper ore were sent down from the mine, and caused considerable excitement. In 1848 the first steam-engine commenced to pump the water from the mine, the depth of which had at that time reached nearly twenty fathoms. Subsequently the workings have been car- ried down to nearly four times that depth. In December, 1849, the smelting of the ores was commenced, and they were reduced to regulus, thus effecting a great saving in cartage and freight. More recently the production of fine copper, in place of regulus, was for many years successfully carried on. The quantity of ore raised since the opening of the mine until it was made over to an English Company, averaged 2000 tons a year, giving an average produce of about 19 per cent, of fine copper. The Kapunda Mine was the means of the establish- ment of one of the principal provincial towns in the Colony, and which formed the nucleus of a large and thriving popu- lation. The Burra Mine was discovered about two years after the Kapunda, and at double the distance from Adelaide — 100 miles 298 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. north of the city. In the year 18-45, one hundred mjles north was considered rather a forniidaLle journey, but the astounding reports of the wonderful richness of the new mine induced many persons of all classes to undertake the trip, in spite of the hardsliips and privations to he experienced. The "'Special Survey " of 2U,U0U acres requisite to secure this valuable pro- perty according to the land regulations of the period was taken uj) on 16th August, 1845, and six weeks after the first shot was fired, blasting a large mass of rich ore, with which several bullock drays were loaded and dispatched to Port Adelaide. For many years the carriage of stores, machinery, &c., to the mine, and of ore to the Port, was done entirely l>y bullock drays, and the traffic on the Burra road was something enor- mous. When it is remembered that the journey under most favourable circumstances would occupy a bullock team from eight to ten days, and more frequently longer, and that there was a constant stream of about 800 teams on the road, some idea may be formed of the traffic. AYhen we add to this the facts that each team consisted of eight bullocks, and that for the first six years of the mine's existence nearly 80,000 tons of ore, or 13,000 tons a year, were sent to the Port and shipped to England, the magnitude of the interest becomes apparent. An immense deposit of exceedingly rich ore — red oxide, mala- chite, and blue and green carbonates of copper — was found on the surface, and at first the removal of it was more like quarry- ing than mining. Some thousands of tons were taken away before any very great depth was sunk in the shafts. Subse- quently shafts and drives were sunk and extended, until in the a<»:o;re2;ate the 2:alleries measured some miles in length. But Co O O D the sinking was not carried do^\n to a greater depth than seventy-five fathoms. For some years past the yield of ore has been but small, but under the vigorous management of Captain Sanders efforts are being made to clear out some of the old workings, and to open up new ground, and the Captain is sanguine of ultimate success. For several years upwards of 1000 jDcrsons were employed on the mine, and some five or six townshij^s sprang up in the neighbourhood, containing a considerable number of ITS -MHiES AND MINEEALS. 299 inhabitants besides the miners and their families. The Burra is now connected with Adehxide by railway. The total quantity of ore raised from the Burra Mine during the twenty-one years from its commencement was 215,132 tons, giving an average produce of 22 per cent, of fine copper, worth over £4,000,000. The total amount expended by the Company was £1,982,005, of which no less than £1,568,859 represents wages. The gross profits amounted to £882,436, of which £776,160 was paid to the shareholders in fifty-five dividends, or £315 on each share of £5. In years gone by many thousands of pounds' worth of ore in fine particles was lost by being washed away in the creek, for want of means to save it. More recently thousands of tons of this waste material have been recovered and passed through jiggers and other machines for saving the ore. The Burra Mine was for many years one of the richest in the world, and its discovery saved the Colony from impending ruin after the terrible crisis of 1842. For sixteen years the Burra Mine was without a rival, as to the vast extent and rich- ness of its deposits of ore. But in 1860 the discovery of the Wallaroo, and shortly after of the Moonta Mines, on Yorke's Peninsula, bid fair to disprove the often repeated saying that " there was only one Burra in the Colony." Although the AVallaroo Mines promised to turn out well, it was many months before the proprietors felt sure that their enterprise would not prove a losing one. A very large amount of capital was expended by the wealthy firm of Elder and Co. and Mr. W. W. Hughes, until the mine account stood with above £80,000 on the debit side. A few months after this, however, their pluck and perseverance were rewarded by rich discoveries of ore, Avhich ensured profitable results from the large outlay incurred. The development of the mine now proceeded so rapidly as to induce the proprietors to erect smelting works at AVallaroo Bay, about five miles from the mine, for the reduction of the ore. Since 1862 the progress of the Wallaroo Mines has been very encouraging and satisfactory. The lodes in some parts of the mine are extraordinarily large and productive, measuring from ten to thirty feet in width of nearly solid ore, 300 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. wovih aLout 12 per cent, of fine copper, and producing as mucli as sixty tons of ore to the fathom. The general run of the lodes, however, is from five to ten feet in thickness. The total number of miners and labourers employed in the Wallaroo Mines is 833. The rate of wages is as follows : — Tributers, £2 2s. per week ; tutworkmen, £2 per week ; under- ground and surface labourers, £1 13s. per week ; boys, from 4s. 6d. to 18s. per week. In connexion with the Wallaroo Mines, extensive smelting works were erected at W^allaroo Bay, and are probably the largest and most complete in the Southern Hemisphere. They comprise thirty-six furnaces and t\Acnty-one calcining kilns, where 210 men are employed. The same proprietary have another smelting establishment at the Hunter Kiver, in New South Wales, where they have erected twenty-one furnaces, and employ 101 men. By this arrangement the vessels which bring coal from New South Wales to Wallaroo take back copper ore to the Hunter River smelting works, so that a saving of freight is effected. During the fifteen years since the opening of the Wallaroo Mines, the total quantity of ore raised has been 290,GG9 tons of 21 cwt., but the average of the first five years was under 8000 tons, Avhile the average of the five years ending 1874 was over 26,000 tons. The total quantity of coi:)per made at these smelting works is 58,777 tons up to 1874. This includes a jjortion of the produce of the Wallaroo ]\ Lines, and of 197,394 tons purchased from the Moonta and other mines. The country in the neighbourhood of the Wallaroo Mines being evidently metalliferous, numerous other claims were taken up in the vicinity, and a great deal of work was done with the view of finding payable copper mines. In some instances good lodes were struck, and worked for a few years Avith fair results ; but of all that were opened only three, besides the original Wallaroo Mine, are being worked with anytliing like payable returns. These are the Devon Consols, the Kurilla, and a more recently discovered mine, the Doora. This last is the property of Mr. W. W. Hughes, and is yielding large quantities of payable ore. About a year after the discovery of the Wallaroo Mines, a ITS MINES AND MINEEALS. 301 still more valuable find was made eleven miles to the south- west, and two from the sea-coast. A quantity of small stones of green carbonate of copj^er being found on the surface of the ground, some pits were sunk, and a fine lode of ore was cut at a small depth. This was the commencement of the now world- renowned Moonta Mines. Several eighty-acre sections were secured by the Messrs. Elder & Co. and Mr. Hughes, and subsequently the Moonta Mining Company was formed. The 1600 acres of mineral land now held by the Company is the richest mineral property in the Colony, and not far from being the richest in the world. Since the first discovery several very rich and productive lodes have been cut, the most recent being a sjjlendid course of fine yellow ore, four feet in width, at the depth of 100 fathoms. This lode alone will give employment to a large number of persons for many years to come. During the first twenty months after the opening of the Moonta Mine 8000 tons of ore, averaging nearly 25 per cent, of fine copper, were raised, and dividends amounting to £64,000 were paid from the proceeds. During this early period of the mine's existence — in September, 1862 — a large quantity of ore being required for shipment at Port Wallaroo, eleven miles from Moonta, 1700 tons were delivered in nine days by means of bullock drays. On another occasion, since the construction of the railway between Moonta and Wallaroo, forty tons of malleable or native copper were sent away in one train of ore trucks by rail. There are twenty-seven shafts on the mine, all in active work ; the least in depth is twenty-seven fathoms, and the deepest 143 fathoms. The others vary from about 75 to 115 fathoms, and are for the most part yielding profitable returns. The last report from the mine states : " At the 130 fathoms level the lode is turning out seven tons of 20 per cent, ore per fathom. In a winze below the 115 fathoms level (in another shaft) the value of the lode is five tons of 25 per cent, ore per fathom. ... At the 100 fathoms level the lode has turned out on the average six tons or 18 per cent, ore per fathom," and so on. In some places we read tlie lode is j)oor, turning out only one ton of 16 per cent, ore per fathom, &c. But the great productiveness of the mine is seen from the fact 302 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. that the average yearly returns from the commencement have been 18,220 tons of ore (twenty-one cwt. to the ton), of an average yearly value of £197,270 lis. od. The present rate of production is nearly 2000 tons per month, the average pro- duce of the ore being about 20 per cent, of fine copper. During the half-year £32,000 has been paid in dividends. This notice of the 3Ioonta Mine may be appropriately closed by the fol- lowing statistics for the fourteen years since the mine was opened : — Total ore raised (twenty-ono cwt. to tlio ton) 2o5,089 tons 1 cwt. Amount realized on ore sold £2.761,787 18«. Id. AVorking expenses £1,710,906 9s. 6d. Expended on buildings and plant £137,608 3s. 9d. Dividends paid to shareholders £928,000. The total number of hands at present in the employ of the Company is 1525, including eighteen officers in the mine, and three in the Adelaide office. There are several mines in the neighbourhood of the Moonta, Avhich have for some years been worked witli more or less success. The Yelta is the oldest of these, and it has turned out a considerable quantity of ore. The Hamley and Para- matta mines have done rather better, and recently have shown great improvement ; the latter has paid dividends, and the lormer is about to do so. They are both very valuable pro- perties. Some other adjacent mines, as the North Yelta, the Mid-Moonta, &c., are being worked with fair prospects of success. In two or three localities, near the River jMurray, copper has been found and mines opened. At Callington, near the Bremer, and about thirty-six miles from Adelaide in the direc- tion of the Murray, a copper mine has been worked for many years with a moderate degree of success. There are also several other mines in the neighbourhood which have turned out a considerable quantity of copper. A few miles from this there is a remarkable mine, the Wheal Ellen, about three miles from the Town of Strathalbyn. It was originally worked for silver- lead, and some fine lodes of galena were opened. About 2000 tons were raised, yielding a good percentage (about 70 per cent, of lead), and 90,000 ounces of silver, besides a proportion of gold, varying from one to two ounces to each ton of pig lead. ITS MINES AND MINEEALS. 303 A large quantity of auriferous gossan is found in this mine, and the assay of samples sent to England gave at the rate of from four to six ounces of gold to the ton. In another silver-lead mine near Normanville, on the south- west coast, gold at the rate of two ounces to the ton was ob- tained from the lead. At the depth of thirty fathoms, in the Wheal Ellen, a fine lode of red oxide of copper was discovered, and in this part of the mine, at any rate, the lead seemed likely to give place to the copper. This mine, like many other promising mineral properties in the Colony, is at present idle ; but if labour were more abundant, it might probably be worked at a good profit. The gold alone ought to pay for extracting. The most extensive mineral district in the Colony is that lying to the north, north-east, and east of Port Augusta. It has, for convenience of description, been divided into four large districts. The central, comprising the following mines : — The Blinman, Sliding Eock, 3Iount Rose, Warrioota, Vocovo- cana, Mallee Hutt, Mount Emily, &c. The Mount Plantagenet district, comprising the Mount Craig, Kanyaka, Willow Creek, Prince Alfred, Matawarangala, and other mines. The Western, comprising the Beltana, Lake Torrens, Mount Deception, Wirtaweena, Mount Lyndhurst, &c. And the Northern, in- cluding the Yudanamutana, the Daly, and Stanley mines, &c. That portion of the country is for the most part ill- adapted to agricultural purposes, on account of the dryness of the climate, the nature of the soil, and the distance from a market. It is, however, good pastoral country, and abounds in vast mineral wealth. Enormous lodes of the richest iron ore may be seen rising high above the surface of the ground. Huge lodes of copper are traceable for miles through the country, and in some places the green ore may be seen for a considerable distance, though generally speaking the nature of the ore is only discovered on a closer examination. In certain parts the copper ore lies scattered in quantities over the ground, like broken road metal. Occasionally a huge " boil " of rich ore is found on some elevated part of the lode, as at the Yuda- namutana and the Nuccaleena mines, from the latter of which 304 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. COO tons were quarried from near the surface. Ores of 60 and 70 per cent, are frequently found cropping out above ground, consisting of red oxides and rich grey and other ores. Some- times green and bhie carbonates, green muriates and malachites are met with. A common form of copjior ore in the North is a brown livcr-colourod ore, largely mixed with iron, but contain- ing from 30 to 40 per cent, of fine copper. Crystallized red oxide and rul)y copper, also malleable or virgin copper, are frequently found. The extent and richness of the mineral deposits in the North are almost incredible to those who have not seen them ; but hitherto the high cost of cartage and labour has operated very much against their development. If a grand trunk line of railway were constructed at least 200 miles north, to near Yudanamutana, leaving the mining companies to connect their properties with it by branch lines or wire tramways, the one great obstacle to the successful working of the mines would bo removed. Such a railway is in contemplation by the present Government, and when carried out, it will pro- bably do more to advance South Australia than any public work yet undertaken in the Colony. ■ The opinion has sometimes been expressed, with reference to our northern mines, that the ore will not hold down to any depth. In one or two instances there would seem to have been some little warrant for such an opinion, but there are several other cases showing that it is by no means the rule. In the Yudanamutana and Blinman Mines, regular, well- defined, and productive lodes were worked to a considerable depth without showing any signs of running out. In other mines also, as the Mount Rose, the Kanyaka, and the Daly and Stanley 3Iines, the nature of the country as well as the appearance of the lodes, at a depth of ten to fifteen fathoms, would warrant every expectation of their proving permanent. It may sometimes happen, as at the Nuccaleena Mine, that an immensely ricli deposit of ore on the surftice has left the lode poor for some fathoms below, and the country becoming hard, the lode has got pinched, but probably at a greater depth it would " make " again. ITS MINES AND MINEKALS. 305 A very remarkable mine is being worked at Sliding Eock Creek, about thirty miles north of the Blinman. It contains a very large quantity of malleable copper in a finely divided state, and mixed with a kind of clay, which is easily worked. The stuff as raised does not contain more perhaps than 5 per cent, of copper, but by the aid of jDuddlers, jiggers, &c., it is easily dressed up to 75 per cent. Water being plentiful, the dressing operations can be carried on Avithout difficulty. The depth of the workings is at present thirty-five fathoms, and there appears to be a large quantity of native coj)i)er and rich oxides in the mine. The total number of hands em^^loyed at present is about 120, but probably more will be put on shortly. Smelting works have been erected on the mine, and some smelting done. It may be mentioned, also, that the English and Australian Copper Company have smelting works at Port Adelaide and at i^ewcastle (in New South Wales). Each of these establish- ments has twelve furnaces, with room for extension, when a larger suj)ply of ore is obtained from the working of the mines in the North and elsewhere. The works at Port Adelaide smelt from 7000 to 8000 tons of copper ore per year, using from 10,000 to 12,000 tons of coal. At Newcastle they smelt about 5000 tons of ore. The quantity of fine copper turned out is about 3000 tons a year from both establishments, and the total number of hands employed is about 140. The fire clay used in the furnace is obtained from the Company's property at the Burra. The Company is under the manage- ment of Mr. E. Cooke, M.P., Mr. V. Laurence being sub- manager and accountant, and is paying dividends at the rate of ten per cent, per annum. From personal inspection of the northern mines, the writer of this article holds a very strong opinion that when railwav communication affords facilities for Avorking them, which do not at present exist, the mineral wealth of that part of the country will be developed in an extraordinary degree. The ore is generally rich, and the ground easy to work. A large extent of the country presents no serious engineering diffi- culties in the way of railway construction. X 30G SOUTH AUSTEALIA. lu an article like this it is not necessary to enumerate all or even a large proportion of our mines. It may be stated that mineral deposits of greater or less richness are very ■widely diffused throughout the Colony. These deposits have been traced over an area of country extending COO miles from south to north, and 250 miles from east to west. The mineral that has been most largely and profitably worked is copper ; and during three years, ending December 31st, 1862, when a mining mania was at its height, no less than 1576 mineral sections, of eighty acres each, had been taken up. Our deposits of iron are also of wonderful richness and enormous extent, but, owing to the absence of coal, and the high price of labour in the Colony, they have been but little worked. Native iron has been found so pure that it has, without any preparation, been welded on to a piece of manu- factured iron, and stood well. An attempt was made, about two years since, to undertake the smelting of iron in the southern part of the Colony, where certain facilities, as fuel, lime, (fcc, existed in close proximity to exceedingly rich ore. As far as concerned the production of first-class pig iron, and its subsequent manufacture into wrought iron and steel, the attempt was highly successful, but owing to two or three hitches at starting, the shareholders in the company which had been formed lost heart, and the project was for a time abandoned. Several of those who first took the matter up, however, have still great faith in the ultimate success of iron smelting in South Australia, and as our population increases, and other favourable circumstances arise, we may expect to see this important industry revived. Lead ore also abounds in the Colony, and contains a pro- portion of silver, in many cases, as high as fifty and even sixty ounces to the ton of galena. For many years, our lead mines were worked, but they were not considered sufficiently re- munerative to warrant the continuance of operations. If however, at some future time, circumstances should enable the ore to be raised, or the metal extracted at less cost than at present, there is abundance of galena to be found in South Australia. Silver ore yielding as high as thirty per cent, of silver has been found, and some rich ore is known to exist on ITS MINES AND JUINEEALS. 307 private property, but the largest attempt to work a silver mine in the Colony proved a failure. Besides the metals already mentioned, many others have been met with. Tin has only been found in small quantities. 3Ianganese exists in certain localities, associated with a small percentage of cobalt ; and a very large deposit of manganese of 80 per cent., showing cobalt, is reported in the north. Plumbago is found in the Port Lincoln District and elsewhere, and zinc occurs with copper and other ores. Bismuth is found in various parts of the Colony, some hundreds of miles distant from each other — :on the western side of Spencer's Gulf, above Franklin Harbour ; in the Stanley Mine, 230 miles north of Port Augusta ; and near Balhannah, sixteen miles to the south-east of Adelaide. The Balhannah 3Iine contains an exceedingly rich deposit of bismuth, and in other respects claims to be one of the most remarkable mines in the world. Copper was first found in considerable quantities, associated with bismuth, and about £25,000 worth was raised. Then gold made its appearance, and after the bismuth was smelted, it was found to contain on an average about five ounces of gold to the hundredweight of metal. Some of the specimens from this mine are exceed- ingly curious and beautiful — showing copper, native bismuth, and gold in the same stone. Cobalt in small quantities, and antimony and plumbago also exist in the ore from this mine. About £7000 worth of bismuth has been disposed of at prices ranging from 4s. to lis. per pound. The ore contains from 20 to 80 per cent, of pure metal, and some pure (native) bismuth is also found. The sinking has been carried down to the depth of fifty fathoms, where the lode is very wide, but " drcdgy," yielding about a ton of bismuth to the fathom. Although South Australia was the first of the Australasian Colonies in which gold was discovered, gold mining has hitherto made but little progress here. There are now, however, three or four gold mines giving such promises of success as to make it appear not impossible that in a few years we may have extensive reefs of the precious metal developed. Gold was found in the hills, about twelve miles from Adelaide, about X 2 308 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. the year 1844, Liit at the time the finder Avas not aware of the nature and importance of his discovery. About the year 1852-3, alhivial diggings were discovered in the hills, near Echunga, ahout twenty miles south-east of Adelaide. The goldfield did nut prove very rich, nor of any great extent, but a few hundreds of diggers did tolerably well by steady work, and some small fortunes were realized by the more suc- cessful. For many years a number of plodding people made a fair living at these diggings, and in the aggregate a con- siderable amount of gold — about £600,000 — was obtained. It is the opinion of several persons of experience that deep sinking in this locality would be very likely to result in the opening up of rich leads. Gold-bearing reefs are known to exist in these diggings ; and another inducement for trying the ground is the existence there of a deposit of diamonds, over a hundred having been unearthed at various times. It is very difficult to ascertain how many, or what value of precious stones have been found on the Echunga diggings, but actual knowledge enables me to speak confidently of over one hundred, varying in value from £1 to £20 for a single diamond. Even this return shoidd be sufficient to stimulate the search for more. Some years later another goldfield was discovered a few miles farther south, at Jupiter Creek, where a good deal of gold was obtained, including a few respectable nuggets, the largest weighing 12 oz. Farther away still, in a south-easterly direction, gold has been found at the Meadows, but the wet nature of the ground has proved a great hindrance to working. ]More recently another patch of auriferous country was opened and successfully worked, about three miles north-west of the old Echunga diggings, about a mile from the village of Hahn- dorf, and within the same distance of the Onkaparinga Eiver, which has been proved auriferous in many parts of its course. Some very good finds were made, and one or two promising- reefs opened. A few diggers are still at work on all these dijrerinecs, and one at least of the reefs is being worked with very good prospects. About 18G0 a goldfield was discovered in the Barossa ITS MINES AND MINEEALS. 309 Itanges, ten miles east of Gawler. For three or four years it was worked with a fair amount of success, and proved in places to be rich in the precious metal. But little is being done there now, as the payable ground was limited in extent, and no fresh discoveries of importance were made. However, the prosj)ecting which was carried on in the neighbourhood resulted in the discovery of a payable quartz-reef, where the Lady Alice Gold Mine has been successfully worked for about two years. A singular feature in this mine is that a rich lode of copper ore was cut within 100 feet from the surface, and the gold is frequently seen sticking in the copper. It was thought that the copper would " kill the gold," but up to the present time both metals appear to have improved as a greater depth has been reached. The returns of gold have varied considerably — from 7 dwts. to 1^ oz. to the ton of quartz. During the first twelve months 3049 tons of stone were crushed, yielding 1913^ oz. of gold, the value of which was £7415, being £683 more than the total paid-up capital of the Com- pany. About £500 worth of copper was also raised. The profits for the first year, over working expenses, amounted to £1895 12s. 5d. On a subsequent occasion, after some very rich crushings, the profits for five weeks were £1400. At the present time operations are being extended, and machinery of double power has been erected. Other mines are being worked on the same line of reef, with good prospects of success. Another locality where a very rich deposit of gold was found is near Mount Pleasant, and thirty-one miles east from Adelaide. A few inches below ths surface at " Scott's Gold Mine " the soil was rich in the precious metal, and many loose stones of quartz were turned up containing lumps of gold. One stone, about half the size of a man's head, contained thirty ounces of gold ! Upwards of £2000 worth was obtained in a short time, after which a Company was formed with the view of carrying on more extensive operations, and searching for the reef supposed to exist on the land. The Comj)any pur- chased the lease of the Section for twenty-one years, and expended some £3000 without obtaining any great return, the gold produced only amounting to £510 in value. Kecently, however, a j^romising-looking quartz leader has been followed 310 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. dowu to a depth of eighty feet, where it has rim into a good soKd reef three feet thick. From the wonderful richness of the stuff found on the surface, and the nature of the strata below, it is the opinion of experienced persons that a very- payable reef should be found here. Other similar deposits of gold were discovered in the same neighbourhood, and within a mile of Scott's, The best-looking and richest gold reef yet found in the Colony is at Waukaringa, 200 miles north of Adelaide. It is well defined, and, geologically speaking, in excellent gold country, and extends for many miles nearly east and west. Sufficient work has been done to prove the reef to be gold- bearing — at least at intervals — for a length of seven miles, and forty miles to the eastward in the same line of country gold has been found in the reef. Three good mines have been opened, and the value of the reef proved in them for above a mile in length. Here at a depth of seventy feet the reef varies from 5 feet to 18 feet in width. The Alma Mine has during little more than six months, and in less than four months' actual work, with the battery (ten head of stamps) turned out above £5000 worth of gold, the stone averaging all through from one and a quarter to one and a half ounce to the ton. A great deal of the stone might be picked so as to get at least five ounces to the ton from a number of tons. The matrix is chiefly a kind of loose rotten-looking ironstone, mixed with quartz. On the Balaclava Company's claims, 700 yards to the east of the Alma, the reef (over eight feet wide), carries solid quartz for about half its thickness, and ironstone in the other half. There are several other localities in various parts of the Colony where very promising discoveries of gold have been made, but where the amount of work done has been insufficient to fairly test the value of the deposits. The belief, however, is gradually gaining ground that the precious metal is far more extensively difiused throughout South Australia than has hitherto been thought to be the case. From the progress of gold discovery in the Colony during the past four or five years, it is highly probable that before long we may find numerous reefs that will pay for working. ITS MINES AND MINEEALS. 311 Unfortunately too muck money lias been wasted in the Colony, either through the ignorance or design of persons engaged in mining operations, otherwise the sums expended, had they been judiciously applied, would have produced in many cases far better results. The constant practice of " mining on the Ex- change " interferes greatly with the legitimate work of de- veloping the vast mineral resources of the Colony, and even good and payable mines have been nearly ruined by this repre- hensible practice. Allusion has been made to the finding of diamonds on the Echunga goldfields. Other precious stones have also been found in the same neighbourhood, and a number and variety of gems in different parts of the Colony. One of the Echunga diamonds is unique as a specimen of perfect crystallization. Forty-eight facets may be distinctly counted by the aid of a magnifying glass, and are as regular as though they had been cut by a lapidary. This diamond weighs one and a half carat, and is of fine brilliancy. It is the property of Mr. H.. Henzen- roder, a connoisseur in gems. Other stones and gems which have been found in the Colony may be enumerated as follows : Amethyst, agate, beryl (both precious and common), blood- stone, carnelian, cairn-gorm, calcedony, emerald, garnet, lapis- lazuli, onyx, opal (both precious and common), spinal ruby and sapphire, sardonyx, and topas. Of the last-named some fine yellow specimens have been obtained, equal to the Brazilian, and many colourless stones ; but these are generally inferior in point of hardness. The Anglican Bishop of Adelaide, some time since, had a pastoral staff presented to him set with a number of native gems, including most of those named above. Other useful mineral productions found in South Australia are : — Antimony, asbestos, baryta, bitumen, cobalt, calcsjjar, dolomite, fireclay, fluorspar, fuller's-earth, gypsum, kaolin clay, lignite, marble, magnesia, magnesian limestone, mica, mercury, nickle, ochre, platinum, salt, schorl, slate (very fine, both roof- ing and paving), soapstone, native sulphur, tellurium, tourma- line, wolfram, &c. In the South-East, near the Coorong, there is a remarkable substance found on the surface ; it occurs in tough thin cakes, and from its resemblance to india-rubber it has been called o 12 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. luincml cauiitcLuuc. These cakes vary iu thickness from that of a sheet of coarse brown paper to an inch. Many tons of it lie scattered over a considcrahlo area of f^ronnd. A quantity of tlic substance was collected and brought to Adelaide, where a brilliant illuminating korosine oil was obtained from it by distillation. This oil was found to be superior to the best American, in at least one very important quality, that of being non-explosive, and not becoming inflammable under a tem- perature of 150° Fahrenheit, whereas the Amercan oil ignites at 108^. The soil in the neighbourhood whore it is found appears to be impregnated with inflammable oil, which can be extracted by means of distillation. Borings have been com- menced, but not carried to any great depth ; the indications met with, however, were very encouraging, as oil was found floating on the water in the holes. Shale, dolomite containing pectens, and other fossils, have been met with in sinking. A few gentle- men have secured from the Government a fifteen years' lease of 10,000 acres on which to search for petroleum, and they are about to seek the assistance of English capital to carry on the work. The following brief summary of our mineral exports at different periods will helji to show the progress made in this respect : — 111 1845, the first year when copper was exported from tlio Kapunda and liurra Mines, the value was stated £ at 10,02n ., 1846 the export of minerals amounted to 143,231 „ 1856 „ ,. „ 408,042 ., 18r.rt ., ., ,. 824,501 „ 1874 „ „ „ 700,323 It should, however, be cx})laiiied that the greater value of the mineral exports in 1866 arose from the higher price of copper in that year, and not from the greater quantity pro- duced : in fact the quantity was much less in 1866 than in 1874. In the former year the exports amounted to 6463 tons, 12 cwt. of copper, and 16,824 tons of ore, while in 1874 they were 6629 tons 7 cwt. of copper, and 22,854 tons of copper ore. In 1864 the value of the lead exported was £13,318, and in 1866, £11,318, since which time it has almost ceased. Our })roduction of gold is probably over £25,000 a year. ITS STATISTICS. 313 STATISTICAL SKETCH OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. By Josiah Boothby, Esq., J.P., UNDER SECRETARY AND GOVERNMENT STATIST ; HONORARY CORRESPONDING SIEMBER OF THE STATISTICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. CONTENTS, Geographical Position — General Government — Local Government — Popu- lation — Births, Deaths, and Marriages — Immigration and Emigration • — Education — Public Worship — Charitable Institutions — Administra- tion of Justice — Land Transfer — Revenue and Expenditure — Loans for Public Works — Banking — Savings Banks — Land and its Occupation — Agriculture — Pastoral Occupation — Manufactures — Import and Export Trade — Staple Products: Wheat, Wool, Copper — Shipping — Eiver Murray Trade — Railways — Roads — Waterworks — Postal Com- munication — Telegraphs — Rates of Wages — Prices of Provisions, &c. — Meteorological. The following paragraphs furnisli a statement of facts, based upon official records, showing the present position of South Australia, and the progress made from time to time since her colonization in 1836 — not forty years ago. Exhaustless natural resources, a salubrious climate, indomitable industry and enter- prise in her jjeople, and a freedom and stability in her insti- tutions, have together placed South Australia in the high rank she occupies amongst the dependencies of the British Crown. GEOGKAPHICAL POSITION. That portion of the Continent of Australia bounded on the cast by the 141st degree of east longitude, on the north by the 2i')ih degree of south latitude, on the west by the 132nd degree of east longitude, and on the south by the Southern Ocean, 314 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. WHS cuustitutcd a lUitish l*rovinco by Act of Parliament 4 t^' 5 AVilliain IV. c. 95, under the designation South Australia. The area contained within those limits is estimated to be oOO,000 square miles, or 192,000,000 acres, nearly twice and a half that of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1861, the territory known as " No Man's Land," about 80,000 square miles, lying between the boundaries of South and Western Australia, was added, by Act 24 and 25 Vict. c. 44, making the western boundary the 129th degree of east longitude. All the country north of the 26th parallel of south lati- tude, between the 129th and 138th degrees of cast longitude, has also been annexed to South Australia, and is known as the Northern Territory. The present northern boundary is the Indian Ocean, latitude 11° S. ; the southern boundary, the Southern Ocean, in latitude 38° S. The Province of South Australia covers twenty-seven degrees of latitude, and twelve degrees of longitude, forming, at present, the largest British colony — the area extending over more than 900,000 square miles. The northern coast-line included in the before-mentioned limits, starting from the 138th degree of east longitude, about 120 miles west of the Albert Eiver, comprises the western shore of the Gulf of Carpentaria, trending northward to Cape Arnhcim ; thence west to Port Essington (latitude 11° S,), thence south-west across Van Diemen's Gulf, into which the Adelaide Eiver (Stuart's furthest) flows, opposite Melville Island ; and thence to longitude 129° E., Cambridge Gulf, into which, about 100 miles within the boundary, the Victoria River flows. The western boundary is in the 129th degree of east longitude, running from Cambridge Gulf to a point west of the head of the Great Australian Bight, in latitude 32° S,, whilst the eastern boundary runs northerly on the 141st degree of east longitude to latitude 20° S., thence west to longitude 138° E., thuncc north to the Gulf of Carpentaria. The southern coast-line extends from latitude 38° S. longi- tude, 141° E. to latitude 31° 45' S., longitude 129° E., and from its peculiar configuration presents a sea-board of over ITS STATISTICS. 315 2000 miles in length. Between the eastern boundary, near Cajje Northumberland, and Encounter Bay, west of the mouth of the Kiver Murray, the coast is generally low and sandy. There are, however, excellent shipping places available for large vessels — among them Port Victor, Lacepede Bay, Guichen Bay, Kivoli Bay, and Port MacDonnell. Westward of Spencer's Gulf is a succession of secure harbours, several of large extent, and with good anchorage for ships of considerable tonnage. Port Lincoln, Smoky, Denial, Venus, Streaky, and Fowler's Bays are important shipping places to the westward. The coast-line is also deeply indented by two large gulfs — the eastern, St. Vincent's Gulf, running inland to the north- ward for eighty-five miles, and the larger, Spencer's Gulf, run- ning N.N.E. towards the heart of the colony for one hundred and eighty miles. These gulfs have a mean breadth of thirty and fifty miles respectively, and both taper towards their northern ends. St. Vincent's Gulf is sheltered by Kangaroo Island, ninety miles in length, which lies to the southward of it, leaving two fine entrances, one from the westward through Investigator's Straits, twenty-eight miles broad, and the other from the eastward through Backstairs Passage, eight miles in width. The principal agricultural and mineral districts of the Colony are contiguous to the two gulfs, the shores of which are seven hundred and eighty miles in length, the greater part being entirely protected from the ocean swell. Numerous out- ports and shipping places, of which there are over fifty, enable settlers to ship their produce at a very small cost. These gulfs are divided by Yorke's Peninsula, some one hundred and twenty miles long, and twenty miles broad, having large tracts of wheat-growing land, and the principal seat of mining- industry. Situate on the eastern side of St. Vincent's Gulf are the following ports : — Ports Adelaide, Glenelg, Wakefield, Wil- lunga, Noarlunga, and Yankalilla ; and on the west, or penin- sula side, shipping places at Edithburg, Stansbury, and Ardrossan. The eastern side of Spencer's Gulf is supplied by olG SOUTH AUSTKALIA. Ports Moonta, A\'allaroo, Broiighton, Pirie, and Port Augusta at the head of the gulf, while Franklin Harbour, Tunhy Bay, and Port Lincoln, are on the western side of the same gulf. A mountain range commences at Cape Jervis, at the eastern entrance to Gulf St. Vincent, and extends in a northerly direc- tion, averaging some thirty miles in breadth, and dividing the waters flowing eastwards into the Eiver Murray and lakes, and Avestwards into the gulf. The highest point is Mount Lofty, after which the range is named, having an elevation of 2334 feet above sea level. Descending rapidly on the western side, marked by numerous glens and valleys for about three miles, it declines gently over the extensive Adelaide Plains for five miles, to the capital, from thence a plain of six miles (almost level) stretches to the sea-coast. Oj)posite the north end of the gulf the range separates into parallel ridges, divided by fertile plains of an average width of eight miles. On the eastern side of Spencer's Gulf, and about ten miles from its shore, the Hummocks and Flinders lianges rise to a considerable height. Mounts Remarkable, Brown, and Arden, and other points, being about 3000 feet above the level of the sea. From the head of the gulf the range sweeps easterly and then northerly, and forms a chain of hills extending to latitude 29° 30'. This chain, however, separates into distinct ridges, with wide valleys, generally north and south, intervening. In the south-eastern portion of the Colony there are several volcanic craters, Mounts Gambler and Schanck being the most remarkable ; the former being 900 feet high, and having at its base soil of the richest description. Throughout the remainder of the district are low ridges parallel to the coast, with intervening swamps and j^lains. Adelaide, the capital of the Province, is situate about five miles from the eastern shore of St. Vincent's Gulf, in latitude 34" ;j7' S. and longitude 138" 38' E., and Port Adelaide, the principal port, is about seven miles north-west from the City, and connected therewith by rail. • ITS STATISTICS. 317 GENERAL GOVERNMENT. The Constitution granted to South Australia by Her Majesty, by virtue of Imperial Act 13 and 14 Victoria, c. 59, was proclaimed on the 24th October 1856, on which day the Queen's' assent to the Constitution Act, No. 2 of 1855-6, was received in the Colony. Under that Statute the Parliament consists of two Houses — the Legislative Council and the House of Assembly — the former being composed of eighteen members, and the latter, at that time, of thirty-six. In 1873 the electoral districts of the House of Assembly were increased from eighteen to twenty-two, and the number of members from thirty-six to forty-six. The Legislative Council, which cannot be dissolved by the Governor, is elected by ballot, the whole Province forming one electoral district for that purpose. Each member is elected for twelve years ; and every four years the six members who have been longest on the roll of the Council retire. The qualification for a member of the Legislative Council is that he shall have attained the age of thirty years, that he is a subject of the Queen, and that he has resided in the Province for three years. The qualification of a voter for this branch of the Legislature is that he shall be twenty-one years of ao-e, a natural-born or naturalized subject of Her Majesty, and have been on the electoral roll for a period of six months. He must also either be possessed of a freehold of the value of fifty pounds, or of a leasehold of the annual value of twenty pounds, having three years to run, or with right of purchase ; or be in occupation of a dwelling-house of the annual rent value of twenty-five pounds. The constitution of the Legis- lative Council is unaltered by the late amendment of the Electoral Act. The total number of voters for the Legislative Council is 18,445, or forty per cent, of the adult male popula- tion. The House of Assembly, which is liable to dissolution by the Governor, is elected for three years ; and of the twenty- two districts represented in it, three return three members each, eighteen two members each, and the other returns one 318 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. member only. The Constitution 'Act prescribes no other <|nrtlirication as necessary for a member of the House of Assembly than that lie shall be an elector. An elector's qualification to vote is that he shall be of full age, and have been six months on the electoral roll. The total number of electors on the roll for the Assembly is 34,404, or seventy- five per cent, of the adult male population. Eesponsible Government is carried on by six Ministers, members of the Legislature, who form the Cabinet, and who are ex officio members of the Executive Council, advising the Crown, in the person of Her Majesty's representative. His Excellency the Governor of the Province. The following are the titles of the ministerial officers, viz. : — Chief Secretary, Attorney-General, Treasurer, Commis- sioner of Crown Lands and Immigration, Commissioner of Public AVorks, and Minister of Agriculture and Education. Each Minister has control over several departments of the public service, the duties of which are conducted by i)erma- nent official heads. LOCAL GOVERNMENT. Local self-government was established in South Australia as far back as 1840, in which year the Corporation of Adelaide was constituted ; but elective Municipal Institutions only became general during the administration of Sir Henry Young. Most beneficial results have flowed from the adop- tion of the principle. Under it the people have been taught the lesson of self-reliance, and have cheerfully taxed them- selves for the prosecution of public works of general utility, over which the local authorities — a Board of from five to seven members elected by and from the ratepayers of the District — exercise control. Although the State supplements pound for pound all sums raised and expended on public works in the District, the Council liave in their hands the entire manage- ment of such expenditure^ and of all municipal affairs. With- out such Councils it Avonld have been difficult to introduce into sparsely populated and unsettled districts many of the ITS STATISTICS. 319 social and political advantages now enjoyed by people resident at considerable distances from the seat of Government. Corporations have been established in the principal centres of population to the number of sixteen, and ninety District Councils, constituted throughout the settled districts. The total annual rateable value of property is £1,045,711, of which £391,929 is within the limits of 3Iunicipal Corporations, and £653,782 is within the boundaries of District Councils. The usual rate declared upon the assessment is one shilling in the pound sterling. The total revenue of these local bodies in 1874 was £125,351, and the amount expended on works of l)ermanent utility £80,945. The following return of the aggregate assessments and receipts of the several Municipal Corporations and District Councils, and the amount expended on local improvements, affords a reliable index of the steady settlement of the country during the last ten years : — Expended Local Improvement. £ 43,185 72,865 80,944 Of the total municipal income, about one-fifth was con- tributed by the State in the shape of grants, and the expen- diture on local improvements of a permanent character was two-thirds of the total receipts. POPULATION. Inhabitants. — The population of South Australia at the close of 1875 was estimated to be 210,442 souls. The last Census was taken on 2nd April 1871, on the same day and in the same manner as those of Great Britain and her other Australian Colonies. A general idea of the social condition of the people at the present time may be gathered from a review of the chief points then inquired into, bearing in mind the fact that whilst the number of the population has increased by one-third, a more than proportionate advance has been made in industrial progress, material wealth, and social prosperity. Rateable Year. Annual Value. Eeceipts. £ £ 1865 684,095 75,296 1870 920,951 86,499 1874 ... 1,045,711 125,351 520 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. Altogether seven enumerations have taken place since the establishment of the Colony— latterly at intervals of five veavs- -as sliown in the following; tahlo : — I'orui.ATios. Date of EsusiF.UATroK. Jlales. Females. Total. 1844. February 26 9,526 7,840 17,366 1846. February 26' 12,670 9,720 20,390 1851. January 1 35,302 28,398 63,700 1855. March 31 43,720 42,101 85,821 1861. Ai)ril 8 65,048 61,782 126,830 1866. INIiircli 20 85,334 78,118 163,452 1S71. April 2 ... 95,408 90,218 185,626 ISTf). December 31 (estira ited) 107,914 102,498 210,442 In the foregoing table the aborigines are not included. At the Census of 1871 they numbered 3369, so far as could be ascertained. It will be observed that during the last ten years there has been a numerical increase of population to the extent of 46,990, or nearly one-third. The total population enumerated in 1871 was 185,626, of which 95,804 were male, and 90,218 females. The number at the close of 1875 is estimated, as before said, to be 210,442, namely, 107,944 males and 102,498 females. So close an approximation to equality in the numbers of the sexes is highly satisfactory, and testifies to the settled character of the people. Distribution. — One of the most important facts brought out by the Census is the way in which the population is dis- tributed throughout the country. A frequent review of the movements of the people is essential to the carrying on of the duties of Government in a country where settlement advances so rapidly that centres of population arise where but a few vears before sheep only depastured. The returns under this head are exceedingly satisfactory, as showing that eighty-five per cent, of the whole number of the poo})lo arc resident in the country districts, and employed directly or indirectly in the cultivation of the soil, or in the ITS STATISTICS. 321 production of mineral and pastoral wealth. Since 1861 the residents in the city have increased from 18,303 to 27,208, or by forty-eight per cent. During the same ten years the settlers in the country districts have increased from 108,527 to 158,413, or by forty-six per cent. The table on page 322 shows the number of inhabitants, the number of males and females, the number of houses, and the number of adult males in each county, and in the Province, at the date of the Census of 1861 and of 1871. In a country where so large a proportion of the people is engaged in agricultural and kindred pursuits, population must be widely distributed. There are, however, in addition to the City of Adelaide, with a present population of over 30,000 (exclusive of suburbs, which may be computed at as many more), other populous townships, viz. Kensington and Norwood, with 5132 inhabitants ; Moonta, 4775 ; Hindmarsh, 3221 ; Port Adelaide, 2482 ; Kapunda, 2273 ; Wallaroo, 1983 ; Kadina, 1855 ; Gawler, 1652 ; Gambierton, 1604 ; Kooringa, 1561, Glenelg, 1324 ; and Clare, 1004. There are 20 town- ships with between 500 and 1000, and 60 with between 200 and 500, and some 150 villages with an average of less than 200 inhabitants. Birth-places. — The returns showing the birth-places of the people indicate a steady increase in the number of the South Australian born and of British birth, as well as, in a lesser degree, of those from British possessions other than the United Kingdom. The native-born element, of course, preponderates, forming 55 per cent, of- the population ; the next largest class being persons of English birth, who form twenty-five per cent. Ireland has contributed eight per cent., and Germany and Scotland each 4*5 per cent. The proportion of males and f(>males in the settled districts is about equal. There are more English men than English women, and more Irish women than Irish men. Out of 8309 Germans, 4681 are males and 3628 females. Of the 185,626 enumerated in 1871, 102,676 were native-born, 46,752 were of English birth, 14,255 came from Ireland, 8309 from Germany, 8167 from Scotland, 3469 from other British possessions, and 1356 from other foreign Y 322 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. States. The eliildrcn of CJcnnau aiul other eolonists from foreiirn countries are returned us South Australians. v. -M 1" f~ — I- ri :* iS — I- i^ 'f ^1 * ~ "*; — oi :": 1-1 — y -^ -ti '-^ ■>! I^ -J cc X CO (M -tl •_r — r r — i.'^ c^ lO "fl co iM o — I - :- c; r. : ^3 -" ~ '-^ rC '^ • ^ . 5^ -f O -M o X — v: r: -+■ 2 --5 X X r-; ir: ^ 30 i-H :<; rH (M ' ■ i-^ — -1^ X r Tl -f ri " '^ M -r X 1- -^ w r-^ -r X r; (M -H --0 -f -+i c?o c; a: ^ :r Tl -+■ Tl "-I ^ -+- 1-1 t^ TI is r; ir :f : t5 3 •5< CO 9 -' -*ii.'cr;-Huoot— S5t>Tj>noo(MCOh-r^TiTio--r^co lO -H Tl O --^ -H I— CO O ^ t^ l.O -f Ifi -tl -^f 'O l^ IM iT 1^ CO Tl -S»l^COCOlOlOCOOiCCC5C Tl * Ca (M T^l o :o o -H ■ -^ — I I- CO : -tl X x: -t^ Tl "O CO C r. i-O X CO ^ C3 Tl O Tl — O Tl l.O Tl CO — . X — I- 10 — " -^ X — I lO I- CO -J CO CO O X l^ l^ l~ ~. C Tl I ~ C: — ' ■ O -^ C: l^ X CO lO ons engaged in literature, | fine arts, and sciences ... ... ... i IV. Trading : persons who buy, sell, keep, or lend mom-y on goods f V. Personal offices: persons engaged in enter- taining, clothing, and performing personal offices for man YI. Manufacturing : persons engaged in art and meclianical productions, and in working and dealing iu mineral, vegetabk", and animal matters VTI. Mining: persons engaged in VIII. Agricultural, horticultural, and pastoral: jiersons working land and engaged in growing grain, fruit, animals, aiid other products IX. Carrying : persons engaged iu the convey- ance of men and goods X. Persons dealing in food and drinks XI. Miscrllaneous pursuits : persons engaged iu occupations not embraced in other classes XII. Indipendont means: persons of property or rank not returned under any office or occupation ... XIII. Persons engaged iu domestic othces or dutits, and of no six^citied occupation, scholars, &c XIV. Persons maintained at public cost or by the community ... XV. Persons whose pursuits have not been speci- fied, or were luiemploycd, &c Tota] of tlie j)opulaIion 1,405 1,482 G45 1,575 4,301 7,.S49 3,338 24,224 644 765 3,960 7,842 3,338 23,600 1 810 341 10,802 2.712 8,09C» 618 2,917 1,7:52 2,915 1,672 2 60 6,060 5,919 141 543 3GS 175 117.706 38,262 79,504r 914 620 324 1,4.35 1,;!03 1 132 185,626 I 95,408 90.21S ITS STATISTICS. 325 Agricultural, pastoral, and horticultural pursuits are those upon which the labour of the majority of the industrial popu- lation is bestowed, the number actually engaged therein being 24,224, or forty-three per cent, of the specified occupations of males. Mining is the next prominent branch of industry. Its importance cannot be judged of by the comparatively small number of persons returned as directly engaged in it. The great extent and richness of our mineral jjroperties afford profitable employment to large numbers of artisans, mechanics, and others, who are returned under the lieadings " Trades " and " Manufactures," but who are in fact dependant upon the prosecution of mining industry. The total number of miners was 3338 in 1871, 1504 in 1861, and 840 in 1855. The next most important class of manufacturers, persons engaged in art and mechanical productions and working and dealing in mineral, vegetable, and animal matters, numbers 7849, of whom only seven are females. The next class in point of importance are persons, chiefly females, engaged in entertaining, clothing, and performing- personal offices for man, numbering altogether 10,802. The trading class amounts to 4301 ; persons engaged in conveying men and goods, 2917 ; persons dealing in food and drink, 1732 ; professional j)ersons engaged in literature and the fine arts, 1575 ; persons in the learned ^professions, 645 ; persons engaged in the general and local Government, police, ifcc, 1495 ; persons engaged in miscellaneous occupations not enumerated in the above classes, 6000 ; and the residue of the population, 120,688, composed chiefly of persons engaged in domestic duties, scholars, &c., including those whose pursuits have not been specified and also persons of independent means. The following table sliows the occupations of the poj^ula- tion and the number of persons engaged in them, arranged in numerical order : — 326 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. MALES. Orici'ATiox. Number. Farm labourers ami servants 11,128 Farmers 8,531 Lalioun^rs (branch nf Ial)onr iiii(l<(iiic(l) ... ... 5,013 OviTseers on stations, stockmen, slicpherds, hutkeepers, station labonrcrs ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2,500 Miners— C'(>pi)Lr 2,100 Carters, slabbers, engine-ilrivcrs, stokers, and otliers on mines ... ... ... ... 530 (^old 319 Smelters, ore-dressers, ifcc... ... ... ... 223 ^liners and diggers (otherwise undefined) ... 124 Lead ... 42 3,338 C'onnnercial clerks, assistants in shops, storcmen, &c. ... ... 2,057 Builders, carpenters, building surveyors, timber merchants, Biiwyers, i;c. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1,786 Blacksmiths, whitesmiths, founders, mechanical engineers, iVi'. ... 1,682 Tailors, shoemakers, dretsmakers, ontlitters, liatters, &c. ... 1,439 Slioj) and storekeepers, warehousemen, dealers, hawkers, «S:c. ... 1,200 Other artisans and mechanics — printeis, bookbindei s, coopers, &c. 1 , 162 Masons, bricklayers, slaters, hodmen, stucco-men, &c. ... ... 1,137 Carriers, draymen, bid lock-drivers on roads, lightermen, &c, ... 1,108 Engaged in sea navigation — sailors, ship stewards, &c. ... ... 927 Horticultural— market gardeners, gardeners (master), &c. ... 867 Vegetable food chiefly and driidis — bakers, confectioners, green- grocers, &c. ... ... ... ... ... 840 Animal food chiefly — butchers, potdterers, fishmongers, &e. ... 832 Domestic servants (general) — cooks, coachmen, grooms (private servants) 791 Qnarrymen, brickmakers, road and railway labourers, &c. ... 726 Workmen in Government employment — messengeis, oftice- keepers, chainmen in survey parties, telegraph con.itructf)rs, &e 6G4 Other occupations — ])roprietors of labour markets, billiard-tablo keepers, &c 594 Owners and drivers of coaches, cabs, watermen, &c 555 Officers of general government fudges, resident magistrates, government clerks, surveyors, &c. ... ... ... ... 524 Bankers, brokers, accountants, auctioneers, commission agents, &c 499 Coach and cart makers, wheelwrights, implement makers, &c. ... 493 Inn and lodging-house keepers, inn servants, &c. ... ... 482 Teachers, schoolmasters, tutors, &c. ... ... ... ... 405 I'astoral — squatters, stockholders, graziers, sheepfarmers, &c. ... 393 "\Vood.s])litteis, fencers, bushmen (otherwise undefined), &c. ... 312 Cabinetmukeis, fnrniture dealers, carvers and gilders, turners, itc. 299 Tanners, fellniongers, soapboilers, woolsorters, charcoal burners, &c. 249 Clergy, ministers. i)riests, missionaries and their subordinates, pew-openers, v'tc 245 Other professions — authors, editors, reporters, photographers, musicians, &c 237 Police, wardens, turnkeys, &c. 217 Annuitants, indejiendent means, &c. ... ... ... ... 211 Merchants, imiiorters, Arc. ... ... ... ... ... ... 204 I'orters and messengers (not assistants in shops or stores) ... 171 Contractors (branch undefined) ... ... ... ... ... 160 Carried forward 53,978 ITS STATISTICS. 327 OCCLTATIOK. ■ Brought forward Vignerons, dressers, gardeners, &c "Woodcutters, water-carriers, woodmen, &e. Overseers (branch of labour undefined) Physicians, surgeons, oculists, dentists, &c. Architects, civil engineers, surveyors (laud), draughtsmen, &c. Dispensing chemists, druggists, &c. Lawyers, barristers, attorneys, conveyancers, &c Persons deriving income from houses — -householders, house pro prietors, &c. Law clerks, law stationers, bailiffs, &c. Officers of corporations, district councils, &c. Gentlemen (not otherwise defined) Cattle-dealers and saleyard keepers, farriers, poundkeepers, &c. Church officers, vergers, sextons, &c. Eesidte of the Male Population. Children, relatives, visitors, &c. (not otherwise defined) ... Scholars, whether in public or private schools, or at home Unemployed, " No occupation at present "... Occupation not stated Patients in hospitals, asylums, depots, &c. Prisoners Total of the male popidation ... NUMBKB. 53,978 154 154 148 123 123 9G 90 87 80 77 70 10 55,223 40,185 95,408 FEMALES. Occupation. Domestic servants (general), cooks, &c. Dressmakers, milliners, tailoresses, &c. Teachers, schoolmistresses, governesses, music teachers, &c. Farm labourers and servants, &c. ... Farmers Assistants in shops, &c. Shop and store keepers, dealers, hawkers, &c Other occupations Annuitants, independent means, &c. Inn and lodging-house keepers, inn servants, &c. Persons deriving income from houses — house proprietors, &c, Vegetable food chiefly and drinks — bakers, confectioners, green grocers, &c. Animal food chiefly — butchers, poulterers, fishmongers, &c. Ladies (not otherwise described) Horticultural — market gardeners, &c. Shepherds' wives assisting as hutkeepers, &c Vigncrons, dressers, &c. In Government employment — office keepers, nurses, &c. Otlier professions — -authors, musicians, &c. Merchants, importers, &c Pastoral — squatters, stockholders, graziers, shccpfarmers, &e Registry office keepers, (S:c In Goveriunent employment Employed by corporation — office keepers, &c. ... Other artisans and mechanics — -bookbinders, iSrc. Chemist and druggist (proprietor) Mason (ditto) Blacksmith (ditto) Carried forward NUMBF.n. 6,443 1,552 803 330 244 170 IGl 141 117 95 38 32 28 20 18 11 9 8 7 <; G 4 3 2 2 1 1 1 10,253 328 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. OCCITATION. Brou'jlit fdiwiinl Guilder 'proprietor) C'abiiit tiuaktr (ditto) Tann. r, \o. (tlitt..) .. Wood and watir (-trtci Porter and URSsen'rir Resiuie of the Female Population. Cliildrcn, relatives, visitors, &c. (not otherwise defined) AVives, widows, Arc. ... Scholars, wlictlicr in jjiililic or private schools, or at lionu; Patients in hospitals, asyUinis, depots, kc. Occnputions not stated Unemployed, " Xo occupation at present," I'cc Prisoners Xl'MBER. 10,253 1 1 1 1 1 34,826 30,555 14,123 284 84 48 40 10.258 Total of the female pojjulation 79,900 90,218 Eeligions of the People. — The various religious de- nominations were ascertained at the census taken in 1871, and the numbers in connection with each were found to be as follows : — Number. Tor cent, of the Cliurch of England Koman Catholic ... ... "NVesleyan Methodist Lutheran, German I'resbvterian Baptist Primitive Jlethoilist Congregational or Independent ... Bible Christian Cliristian Brethren Methodist New Connectii'U Unitarian ... Moravian Society of Friends ... New Jerusalem Church ... Jews Protestants (not otherwise defined Other Eeligions Object Not stated Excluding those cases in which objection was taken to affording the information, or tlie information was not given, it would ajjpoar that about eiglity-tive per cent, of the whole population are members of I'rotestant Churches, and the remaining fifteen per cent, are Koman Catholics. The Church of England is represented by twenty-seven per cent., the Wesleyan Methodi.sts by fifteen per cent., the German Luther- ans by eight per cent., Presbyterians by seven per cent., and Number. i'or cer Popu I. n Utic 50,849 27 39 28,r)(!8 15 44 27,075 14 59 15,412 8 30 13,371 7 20 8,731 4 70 8,207 4 42 7,9()9 4 29 7,758 4 18 1,188 64 363 20 ()62- 36 210 11 92 05 137 07 4.35 23 4,753 2 55 508 27 5,436 2 92 3,808 2 04 ITS STATISTICS. 329 the Congregationalists, Bible Christians, Primitive MetliodistS) and Baptists each by about five per cent, of the total population. Education. — The returns under this head only show the number of persons able to read and write, those able te read only, and those unable to read. Omitting children under five years of age, the proportion of each class is as follows :^ — ■ Seventy-five per cent, of the population can read and write, fourteen per cent, can only read, and ten per cent, can neither read nor write. Of the rising youth, say from fifteen to twenty-one years of age, ninety-one per cent, can read and write, six per cent, can read only, and only three in every hundred are totally uneducated. That j)arents are alive to the necessity of giving their children a degree of education which they, from the circum- stances of their early life, were precluded from receiving, is proved from the fact that whilst among the adult population sixty-one in every 1000 are returned as unable to read, the number of youths of both sexes between the ages of fifteen and twenty-one who cannot read is only thirty in every 1000 ; the numbers specified ten years before being respectively eighty- three in every 1000 adults as against fifty-one in every 1000 youths unable to read. The following table affords a comparison of the degree of education in the different Australian colonies : — Xame of CoLOsy. Proportion of every 1000 Children between five and fifteen years of age who could Read and Write. Kcad only. Not Read. South Australia Victoria New South Wales Queensiaud 57G (J40 53(j 512 234 207 209 246 190 154 2.^5 242 BIKTHS, MAERIAGES, AND DEATHS. The Province is divided into twenty-eight registration districts for the purpose of recording births and deaths and for the registration of marriages. The number of births registered during 1875, was 7408, namely, males o774, and ooO SOUTH AUSTEALIA. femalos 3C)?A. Tbo following tables show the number of births at ([uiiKnu'uniul jx'ricxls: — Years. 185« 1861 1800 1871 1 ST.") IMales. 2336 2808 3470 3(;!)5 :'.77i Femnles. 2152 2683 3312 3387 3.j:i4 Total. 4488 5551 ti782 70S2 71 OS The avei'age birth-rate is thirty-seven per thousand of the population, which compares favourably with the birth- rate in Enjifland and AYales, viz, thirty-three per thousand. The jiroportion of births is 104 males to 100 females, or the same proportion as is recorded at home. The number of marriajres reo-istered in 1875 was 1G8S. There is an average of eight marriages per thousand of the population, being almost identical with the rate in the IMother Country. The annexed statement shows the number of marriages solemnized by each denomination in 1866, 1871, and 1875 : — MARRIAGES. Solemnized 1866. 1871. 1875. Bv the ( 'Inm-h of Enp:liiml 325 284 .391 „ lioniiin (.'atholie.'s... 183 177 199 „ IjHthcran.s ... 101 82 99 ,, CoTij^resational Intlfpciulcuts 122 95 110 „ Wc'slcvans ... 164 178 300 Frt'O Churrli of Sfothuul 1 3 9 ., Presbyterian 108 88 92 C^hrisliaTis ... 14 21 33 Bapti-sts 47 58 82 Bil.le Cliristians 81 93 109 ., Piiniitivo Mftli(iili.st.s !t4 107 162 ., Metlmdist New Coniiectioii 7 S ., ISIoraviaiis ... 1 2 3 „ Ilnitaiiaiis ... 6 4 „ .T.ws 3 ... 2 „ Di.striot lvf2:i.strars 43 76 76 „ Cliristiaii Bretlireii 2 1 „ Mi.ssion to Abnrif,M!ics 3 ... „ New Jerusalem Church ... ... 4 2 1299 1250 1688 ITS STATISTICS. The rate of mortality throughout the Province was much higher in 1875 than usual, owing to the jjrevalence of zymotic diseases — measles and scarlatina — which caused (local diseases sujiervening) an advance of the death-rate, especially amongst infants and children. The total deaths registered were 2118 males and 1918 females, the mortality in the years mentioned : — The following is a table showing- Years. Males. 18.56 658 489 1861 1095 867 ISfiG 1537 1216 1871 1852 1026 1875 2118 1918 1147 1962 2753 2378 4036 Xearly one-half of the mortality is of infants under two years — a rate not so high as rules in England. A larger number of male than of female children die at that period of infimcy. The following table shows the average death-rate for ten years under each class of disease in England and in South Australia : — Deatii-kate per 1000 of Populaiiox Class. I. Zymotic . . . II. Constitutioiiiil III. Local IV. Developmental V. Violent ... VI. Unspecified All causes The average death-rate in South Australia is fifteen per thousand, as compared with twenty-two per thousand in Enofland. 332 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION. Last year, G56G persons arrived in South Australia, and 4019 left it, yielding an increase of the popnlation from this source of 2547 persons. During that and tlic preceding- twelve months assisted immigration A\as resumed by Grovern- ment after a lapse of several years. The sum voted by Pari lament for the introduction of immigrants during the coming year (1876) is £100,000, and the balance of the amount voted for expenditure in 1875, equal to £18,551, is also available for the like purpose. These sums provide a fund sufficient for the introduction of about six thousand adults, or between four and live hundred souls monthly. When it is considered that tluring the jiast live years nearly two and a half millions of acres of land have been taken up for agricultural settlement, a steady and moderate increase of man power, suitable to the requirements of the country, becomes an absolute necessity. Such additional labour will be readily absorbed into the general population without pro- ducing any disturbance of social interests. This large aug- mentation of the area occupied by tlie farming classes has taken place during a period in which the influx of population from abroad oidy amounted to 4555 souls. The followino; statement shows the total immigration and emigration during each of the past five years, and also the number of immigrants introduced at the public expense : — Immigration. Immigration. Ininiignints nt Public ' E.xpensc. Year. Males. Fema',ei.| Total. Males. 1 Females. Total. ' Males. iFemalfs. Total. 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1,(581 851 1,(504 797 3,0(54 1,4S4 3,555 2,002 4,311 2,255 2,532 2,401 4,548 5,557 G,5GG 2,037 1,145 2,173 1,232 2,12G 1,04(5 2,22G 1,045 2,718 1,301 3,182 3,405 .3,172 3,271 4,019 1 104 122 1,192 1 9G0 1,156 911 226 2,152 2,067 Total . . . 14.215 7,389 21,004 11,280 5,769 17,049 2,452 ! 1,993 4,445 Government immigration was resumed in 1873 ; since the commencement of which year the balance of immigration over omiiifration lias amounted to 0200 souls, or 1704 more than ITS STATISTICS. 333 the number introduced at the expense of the »State. It will also be noticed that the jtroportion of immigrants at their own cost largely increased during tlie past year. EDUCATION. The administration of the public votes for educational purposes, and the control and management of State assisted schools throughout the Province, have been vested, since 1851, in a Central Board of Education. The number of schools licensed by the Board in 1874 was three hundred and twenty, of which fourteen were within the City of Adelaide, twenty-seven in other corporate towns, and two hundred and seventy-nine in the country districts. Pre- siding over these schools, were two hundred and seventeen licensed schoolmasters and ninety-eight licensed schoolmis- tresses. The number of scholars attending was 17,426 ; of whom 9625 w^ere boys,' and 7801 girls. The average attendance at all schools was 13,774 for one month ; the average number on the roll at each school was fifty-four, and the average attend- ance forty-three, w^hilst the percentage of attendance to the number on the rolls, during one month, was 79. The following table shows the operations of the Board last year as compared with 1870. ISrO. 1874. Number of licensed schools ... ... ... 300 Number of licensed schoolmasters 222 Number of licensed schoolmistresses 72 IBovs 8 491 UllLS.. .b,bl/ 15 108 Average attendance ' 11,9G9 320 217 98 Boys... 9,025 Giils... 7,801 17,42G 13,773 The expenditure of the Board in 1874 was £29,689, being an advance of £9266 upon that of 1870. The total sum expended in aid of erecting district school-houses has been £22,207. The average amount of school fees paid for each scholar by parents, &c. was 19s. 7^d. The average expense to the State of each licensed scliool was £83 10s. Qd. 334 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. Ju addition to schools rocoivin*!; aid from the (Jovernnioiit, there have always existed a large niiinber of private schools ■with an average attendance of about 700U scholars. During the past year, a new Education Act was passed, providing that the future management of public education shall be committed to a Council, with a paid president and staff of officers directly responsible to the Minister of Education — a member of the Cabinet. Mr. Harcus thus describes the nature of the improvements contemplated by the new measure : — " Schools will be established wherever there is a certain number of children of a school age a\ ho will pay a moderate fee to the teachers" [viz. M. per child per week]. "In addition to the fees, the teachers will be paid by the Government, through the Council, salaries varying from £100 to £300 per annum. .Schoolhouses will be provided, and the necessary education material. Grants of puljlic lands will be set apart every year, and placed under the control of the Council, the rents from which will be devoted to school purposes. Four and a half hours each day will be devoted to secular instruction, previous to which the Bible may be read — without note or explanation : practically, the instruction will be secular. All children of school age will be required to be under instruction until a certain standard of attainment (to be fixed by the Council) is reached : so far, the system will be compulsory. Provision is made for the gratuitous instruction of children whose parents can show that they are not able to pay for it ; but fees may be enforced in all cases where inability to pay them has not been proved. It will thus be seen that the three great principles of public education which are now so much in vogue are adopted, in the Bill, with certain modifications — the education is secular, but not to the exclusion of the Bible ; free, to those who cannot afford to pay a small fee ; and compulsory, wherever practicable. Provision is also made for the establishment of model and training schools, of Boards of Advice, and for the systematic examination of teachers and their classification according to their attainments and proficiency, and for scho- larships." ^^'ith a view of sho^^ing that Parliament is desirous of ITS STATISTICS. 335 fostering and encouraging tlie growth of a comprehensive system of public instruction, it may be stated that the follow- ing grants of money and land have lately been made : — Towards the exj)enses of the Education Department, payment of teachers, &c., a yearly sum of £60,000 ; and a like amount for the erection of public school-buildings. One hundred and twenty thousand acres of the public estate were also granted to the Council, and provision made for setting apart 20,000 acres in future years. To the University of Adelaide, lately esta- blished, an annual grant of five per cent, on all sums contributed to the University from private sources (at present amounting to over £40,000), and also an endowment of 50,000 acres of land. For the maintenance of Institutes, and for the erection of buildings connected therewith, the sum of £16,000. The South Australian Institute, established in 1856, contains, under one roof, a Public Library and Museum, a Circulating Liljrary, and a Public Beading and News Eoom. It has also incorporated with it societies for the promotion and study of Philosophy and the Fine Arts. The Institute is managed by a Board of Governors, and is subsidized by the State. The seventy-five country institutes which the parent institute has affiliated are scattered over the length and breadth of the Pnwince. They are governed by Committees elected by the members of each institute. About twenty possess buildings half the cost of which has, in each case, been defrayed from the public revenue. The number of volumes in the Library of the South Australian Institute is 18,837 ; the number of subscribers is 715 ; and the number of volumes in circulation during the year, 54,648. In the country institutes, the number of volumes is 42,393 ; the number of members, 2904 ; the aggregate income (exclusive of the Government grant), £3360 ; and the number of volumes circulated during the year has been 76,487. PUBLIC WORSHIP. The voluntary principle, or freedom of religion from State assistance and consequent control, was established in South Australia from the date of its foundation. The beneficial oor* SOUTH AUSTEALIA. results (if its opcratidu under tlic eireumstances of this com- iiumitv may be estimated by the fact that two-thirds of the jiopulation are provichnl with suitable accommodation for the observance of jtublic worsliip. The number of eliurehes, chapels, rooms, and other buildin;j:s used for public worship at the end of 1874 was 87G, jiroviding 132,000 sittings, dis- tributed in the proportion sliown in the following table : — Number of Number of Rooms Number of Number of Sittings and other Sittinpa Churches in sucli BuiMing!!, In such Denomi.vatios. or Cliapels. Churches or Chai)el3. used for I'uhlic Worship. Koonis, &c. 1874. 1874. 1874. 1874. Cliurch of England 7.-5 19,4.V2 38 1,273 Church of Bci.tUiiKl 2 150 — — Konian CathoHcs 42 11,500 5 4 SO Congrcgationalists or Iinlepcndeiitd 36 8,400 10 40(^ Baptists 27 5,725 11 680 Wosleyau MetliodUts ItiO 30,296 104 2,000 German Lutherans 31 5,324 8 400 Bihhf Cliristians 86 14,000 20 750 Primitive Methodists 106 14,000 41 1,000 Methodist New Connection 2 625 2 90 Free Presbyterian 4 600 4 300 Prcsbyteria'n Church of South Austraha... 15 3,960 13 1,190 Unitarians 1 300 1 100 Moravians ... 1 200 — — Friends, Society of 2 200 — - — New J erusah'u'i Cliurch 1 130 — — Christians (Brethren, Disciples, Sec) 20 5,000 9 2,450 Hebrews 1 200 — — Totals (ill) 120, 062 26(J 11,113 Ten years ago there were 535 churches, containing SG,000 sittings. Tlio number of Sunday schools in 1874: was 525, attended by 35,G71 children, instructed by 4650 teachers, of whom 2200 were male and 2450 female. The average attend- ance of scholars has been uninterruptedly increasing year by year since 1865, when the number reached 23,739. < ITS STATISTICS. 337 CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS. Ample provision is made by the state for the relief aud support of that helj^less section of the community A\hich may be divided into aged and sick, persons mentally infirm, and orphan children. The Adelaide Hospital is a Government institution, under the management of a Board consisting of professional and non- j)rofessional members, who with an efficient staff of officers administer the affairs of the institution. During the year 1874, there were 1806 inmates of the Hospital, of whom 98 died, 1579 were discharged, cured, or relieved, and 129 re- mained on the last day of the year. The daily average number of patients was 134. There are five hospitals in the <'()untry districts, and in addition thereto provision is made for medical attendance on the indigent sick throughout the settled portions of the Colony. Two hospitals for the insane are also provided by the State, and are conducted on the same principles as similar asylums in the Mother Country, and with great efficiency. For every 100,000 of the population, South Australia has 195 insane persons ; England has 226. The total number of cases treated Mas 464 ; the daily average number in the asylums was 352 ; tlie number of admissions was 106 ; the number of patients discharged, cured, or relieved, was 81 ; and the number of •deaths Avas 32. Patients able to maintain themselves are also admitted for treatment upon paying reasonable fees. The asylum for the relief of infirm and destitute persons not requiring active medical treatment affords assistance to the necessitous. The rule is rigidly followed of excluding from in-door relief any able-bodied person, and out-door relief is only given to males in consequence of sickness — and then 0 „ £100 „ £100, "liy consent " 3,8fl6 1,134 1,014 3fl3 3-27 •US 2 5,264 1,879 1,348 610 468 373 1 6,074 i,yj6 1,318 507 369 280 £ 9,(J56 10,251 14,478 9,388 12,720 18,3.4 240 £ 11,653 13,184 19,376 14,813 18,281 29,490 134 £ 14,')32 14,363 17,985 12,635 H,-'G5 20,508 2,699 3,345 5,120 3,419 3,! '30 5,416 3,430 4,615 6,703 5,240 6,153 8,789 205 3,345 3,i*86 5.46U 4,187 4,809 4,856 7,314 9,U43 11,074 74,528 104,931 94,191 23,931 35,138 26,616 ITS STATISTICS. 341 The legal profession numbers eighty-five members ; the two branches of barrister and attorney are united. A valuable law library, containing about two thousand volumes, is attached to the Supreme Court. The criminal records of the Courts are calculated to convey a favourable impression of the law-abiding impulses of the South Australian community, the proportion of serious crimes being exceedingly small. In fact, the " criminal class " may be said to be unknown in South xiustralia. Following is a statement of the number of convictions in the Supreme Court during the years named : — Number of Felonies — Against the person Against property Total number of Mibdenieanours Total ... ie65. IS-CJ. 1«7(. 12 24 17 87 17 7 53 14 134 121 74 The annual number of convictions in the Supreme Court has averaged during the last three years seventy-two, or only one in three thousand of the population. During the past ten years capital punishment has been inflicted in four instances — amongst them one aborigine suffered the extreme penalty of the law. The following table shows the number of cases of felony and misdemeanour preliminarily investigated in the Police Courts, and how they were disposed of — whether by committal to the Supreme Court, summary convictions under the Minor Offences Act, conviction of juvenile offenders, or by dismissal of cases : — How disposed of. 1865. 1869. 18T4. Committed to Supreme Court Committed to Local Court Full Jurisdiction Convicted — ^Minor Ort"t;nces Act Convicted — Juvenile Offenders Cases dismissed 197 79 155 237 61 ^7 l.-)0 150 22 132 Total 431 505 454 342 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. About uiu'-lmlf of tlio commitments for trial in the Supreme Court resulted in eonvietion. In addition to the preliminary investigations above referred to, the Stipendiary ^Magistrates liave summary jurisdiction in cases of breaches of the provisions of Acts of Parliament where the penalty is limited to fine, or to fine and imprison- ment. Tliis class of offences is principally composed of cases of drunkenness in the streets, offences under the Police Act, common assaults, breaches of the Waste I.ands and Impounding Acts, the Merchant Shipping and Marine Board Acts, and non-compliance with IMunicipal bylaws. The following table indicates the number of cases heard and determined in the years 18G5, 1869, and 1874 : — Informations under Acts of Councils, Sec. — Dismissals 732 749 688 Convictions 2,632 3,129 3,445 Drunkenness . . . Dismissals 105 8(> 55 Convictions Total 1,530 1,540 1,615 4,999 5,504 5,803 Considering the increase of population during the ten years, the relative number of convictions, especially in cases of drunkenness, has materially declined. LAND TRANSFER, LIENS, MORTGAGES, ETC. The Statute known as the Real Property Act of South Australia affords a facile and convenient process by which the transfer of landed property may be accomplished in as easy and cheap a manner as any ordinary commercial transaction. Where almost every man is a landowner, or is interested in land — either as vendor or vendee, lessor or lessee, mortgagor or mortgagee — dealings in real estate become a matter of almost everyday occurrence. It may be said to be quite exceptional for an individual in South Australia not to be, more or less, personally interested in the establishment of a simple and inexpensive method of dealing with this description of property. There can bo no question that the operation of 1^ > o ITS STATISTICS. 543 Siupnpnt 'pv J"^ uojivjado O O to i(^ M (C O -^ TD -1- O to O O O «o r^ a iS •^ ■* f^ iC 00 to M rH lO W5 -^ u? to O lO if5 ■^ TT ^J" COU^--CO'^COtOr^OClt^ tOinfOODOSOOXtOtOrH f-iMC^C^CO'^'WtOIQCOtOtOtO C^ •* O .-- CO 00 rt to O CO <^ 00 00 o •sainsopajoj •si!-iA\. ■^jnog JO sjapjQ •sao8S3T Xq sauaAoaay; •pajtsod -ap '-Dry 's^uatunSissy •S}»aAi30 iCttBapqjiAV •3:y 'snoissttnsuBix •saDaaoiq; ■sjsnjx JO sainpaqas •sasoai JO sjapuauntj •sasBaT; jo sjajsuBjjL •saDUBjqinnoua' •saajsujx JO saopBuiniojij; •o:y 'sjBaABO •spuiisqv noi^vjfsiSag •-CaiUO^lY JO BIBAiOjJ ■sa3B3jwi\[ JO sa3jBqDst(j II"! rt^woac^iftcoro (-i.-ii-i'^xicio-^cir-Mio I I I I I I I I I O N OS O M ■-t w ^ C^ c< O t^ 00 t- CO «D CI C« CO CO fC r-i « rt -^ <7S to lO 00 CS O 00 OS ^ c^ rH M -C^ i-l M COtO-*C1 .-I C^ r-» rH 1-1 - Cfl <-« CI ^ lO O ^ C« « M CI rH M .-I r- d CO CO d Oi 00 lO CD *^ »* t^ ^ OS P5 J- Od 00 CD i-C OS CO r-i rii-HCO'^COC^eO^ OS o in CO 00 -*< 1- -•»< -^ -J* -^ CO CD 1* O CI ^ ^ lO CD ** -f 1- CC I I I 1 I I I I I I I I I I 'xj' OS CO CI -^ Ift CD CO ■* M 1-1 COC»CI<-IC?^"-lr-(MC«ClC0 osootcoswcokncooo ■^tOCONOSwO-^ !D t^ CO OS O w5'««-s0ooa>^co t^ccSci^F-icoift •so9u3^oj^ JO sjajsuBJx CO O OS CO 00 lO r-( C^ W ^ ■"^ OS CO W CO ^ CO OO o © -^ CO o •saswaT; i«-^i--*-O-*'O--0f0*'0ii«*-'iOC0 lI3,l^C)CIOSCOC10SCO^COCOkrtOSi— ( .-if-iC1NClC0C0C OD I— s rH CI d c< CO "V to *- to •^ fT, '^ < >H ^ -* in 1^ T) o> o ,_( CJ M -# o CO CO CO CO CD 2 s s 22 I— ( 00 2 2 ]44 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. the iiu^ismx' lias liccu lii;^lily advaiita^f^oiis to tlic comnmnity : and as considerable interest is attached to the working of so important a reform, a detailed statement is c^iven of the trans- actions of the office in each year since its establishment in IS.IS. (See page 343.) The total value of the lands brought under the operation of this law amounts to nearly ten millions sterling. An Assurance i'lmd in connection Avitli the Act was esta- blished with a view of meeting claims for compensation on the part of any person who, through error or fraud, might suffer from the carrying out of the jjrinciples of absolute inde- feasibilitv of title. This fund is derived from a contribution of one halfpenny in the i)ound levied on all property brought under thcOj^n-ation of the Act; it now amounts to over £30,000, and is invested in Government securities. The claims (»n the fund have reached £308 up to the present time. The follo^^ing statement shows the number and amount of liens, mortgages, and other securities for advances of money reffistered during: the vears mentioned : — Years. Jlortgages on Land. !iIortgages on Stock. Liens on Wool. Bills of Sale, &c. No. £ No. £ No. £ No. £ 1866 ... 2,252 1,033,422 91 266,031 22 51,072 158 130,153 1871 ... l,9r2 920,891 151 116,875 36 82,513 259 67,498 1-::. ... ■2,<:-n I,2s9,6;i5 15. 254,508 41 55.043 268 168,194 Of the total amount of mortgages on land registered last year, £997,77.") — or three-fourths of the whole — were advances u})on land uiuler tlie o}K'ration of the Real Property Act. REVENUE AND EXFENDITUIIE. The finances of the Colony of South Australia have never been in a more ])rosperous condition than at present. The returns of receipts from all sources of revenue indicate the stinidy progress and growth of the community, and there is a tone of elasticity which promises well for the future. The (icneral Ivevciiue for the vcar ended 31st December ITS STATISTICS. 345 1875 amounted to £1,143,312 5s. lOcl, to wliicli must be added the balance to credit at the commencement of the year, £92,077 2s. '2d., making a total income of £1,235,989 8s. The Total Expenditure by the Government during the same period was £1,176,412 18s. lOd., leaving a balance at the end of the twelve months of £59,576 9s. 2d. The Public Loan Account is kept distinct from that of the General Eevenue. The receipts of the year amounted to five pounds twelve shillings per head of the population. The amount of revenue contributed through the Customs — the only source of general taxation — was thirty-three shillings per head, an amount lower than the rate of taxation in the Mother Country, or in any of the other Australian Colonies. The following table gives the amount of revenue derived under the several heads of receipt : — Heads of Keceipt. Customs Marine Rents, &c., crown lands Rents — ordinary Licences — business ... Postages and telegraphs Fines, fees, and forfeitures . . . Sales of Government property Reimbursements in aid Miscellaneous ... Interest and excliange Railways and tramways Waterworks T„„i, 1 (Proceeds of Ijand sales 30,895 177,530 112,038 4,473 £1,143.312 In young communities the general Government has neces- sarily imjiosed upon it functions and duties from which, in more advanced conditions of society, the State is exempt. The construction of railways, waterworks, telegraphs, roads, public buildings, &c. must, if entered into at all, be undertaken at the public cost. Moreover, such works must, in common pru- dence, be constructed on a scale in advance of the actual 346 SOITII AUSTEALIA. requirements of th<' moniont. In South Australia siu^li ex- penditure forms a large proijortion of the whol(\ will benefit future Lrt-norations >Mjually with the present, and must not be regarded as ordinary current cost of Government. Tile sid)joined talde shows the expenditure, specified under the respective heads of service for which it was incurred : — Hkads of Expenditure. Civil li^t IS, 900 The legislature 10,803 Civil estaltlisliiiieiits ... ... ... ... ... HG,0:;J5 Judicial ami legal deitiirtineiitri ... ... ... 3l,0o9 Police r)0,245 (Jaols anil prisons 1'2,337 Education 42,(j3G (charitable institution.s ... ... ... ... 54,042 Military defences 882 I'obtal and telegraph services 132,744 Customs ... ... ... ... ... ... ll,o77 Harbours and lights 10.498 rublic works 247,940 Hallways and tramways ... ... ... ... 177,456 "Waterworks ... .". 18,117 Survey and crown lands ... ... ... ... 37,46G Retiring allowances, &c. ... ... ... ... 9,919 Interest and e.xchange 4.838 iVIiscellaneous ... ... ... ... ... ... 58,894 Immigration 27,139 Interest on loans for public works 142, 476 Redemption of ditto 34,400 £1,17(5,412 The payments may be summarised as follows : — The ordinary expenses of Government (including judicial and legal depart- nu'uts, police, gaols, prisons, &c.) amount to £262,000, or twenty-five shillings per head of the population, being eight shillings less than the taxation; £43,000 is devoted to educa- tion ; £54,000 to charitable institutions ; and £328,000 is required for the service of reju'oductive works. Among these latter, railways require £177,000, the receipts from that source being £183,000. The waterworks take £18,000, and the re- ceipts therefrom are £31,000. The post and telegraph services absorb £132,000, and the revenue contributed by them is £78,000. Tlie interest on the bonded debt amounts to £142,000, averaging fourteen shillings per head of the popu- ITS STATISTICS. 347 lation ; but an amount very much larger than this is annually saved by the reduced cost of carriage and other facilities afforded to the public by the works constructed out of the loans upon which this interest accrues. The cost of the sur- vey and management of Crown lands was last year £37,000 ; and £27,000 was devoted to the introduction of immigrants. The expenditure on public works and in reduction of loans amounted to £282,000, being 105,000 more than the sum re- ceived during the year from the proceeds of the sales of waste lands. The Crown lands being the capital of the Colony, it is important to note that not only were the receipts derived from their sale devoted intact to improving the public estate, but a sum equal to one-third more, derived from the general revenue, was also expended in the same direction. LOANS FOR PUBLIC WORKS. Legislative sanction has been accorded from time to time for the raising of moneys by way of loan for the prosecution of re})roductive public works, such as railways, tramways, water- works, telegraphs, harbour improvements, and other public purposes. The following return shows the amount of Public Debt outstanding on 31st December 1875 for each of the several Public Works, and the total rate of indebtedness per head of the population, and for each undertaking : — - Public Debt. Amount. Rate per Heml. £ £ #>. (1. Railways ... 1,381,000 6 110 Tramways ... 131,500 12 Waterworks 511,600 2 8 6 Telegraphs 378,400 1 16 Harbours and lights 328,000 1 12 Roads 236,000 1 2 Public purposes 168,500 16 Northern Territory... 185,000 17 6 Total ... £3,320,600 £15 15 If it be asked what the Ci)lony has to show in the shai)e of permanent improvements, it may be answered that there are three hundred and forty miles of railway. The city, port, and 348 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. siil»iirl»s ol' Adelaide, with sixtv thousand residents, have an aliiiiidaiit and euiistaid \vater supply. Harbours have been deepened and improved, and navigation rendered easy by an almost perfect system of li<,ditlionses. Eighteen hundred miles of macadamised roads are in effective order, and the Province' is traversed from nortli to soutli and from east to west by tele- graphs, over live thousand miles in length, bringing us into instantaneous communication with the whole world. The earlier loans were issued bearing six per cent, interest, but those of late years bear four per cent. only. The present price of South Australian four per cents is 95^. Interest and reclemption is payable in London on 1st January and 1st July in each year. The currency of the bonds is generally thirty years. Kedemptions to the amount of £678,400 have been made since the first issue of bonds in 1854. BANKING. Six banking institutions carry on business within the Province, namely, the Bank of South Australia, Bank of Australasia, Union Bank of Australia, National Bank of Australasia, English, Scottish, and Australian Chartered Bank, and Bank of Adelaide, all of which have establishments in the principal seaports and inland townships, numbering altogether sixty-four branches and agencies. Quarterly general abstracts are published of the average amount of liabilities and assets of the several Banks, taken from their weekly statements, and they comprise in each case a return of the notes and bills in eireulation, the balances due to other Banks, and deposits with and without interest. The total average liabilities of the six Banks amount to £3,278,121, and the total average assets to £5,157,868. The following tal)le shows the total average assets and liabilities of all the Banks taken for the last quarter of each of the years mentioned : — 18C1. ISCG. 1871. 1S7!>. £ £ £ £ Liabilities ... 1, 024, CSC 1,71. "),;«),■) 1 , 802 , (J^I 3.278,121 Asset:* l,8(Ji),0(J8 3,(i20.0(;2 3,524,412 5,1.')7,868 mm mm ii'i II' „,,,„:., !lv";W: if "'"''"' m^^ Ml m* II « pq ITS STATISTICS. 349 The annexed statement shows the position of each Bank as set forth in the quarterly return of December 1875 : — ITS STATISTICS. 551 principal townships throughout the Colony, in connection with Telegraph and Money Order Offices. Deposits are received in sums from One 8hilling up to £500 ; but interest is only allowed up to £250. The rate of interest paid is now five pounds per cent, per annum. The following statement shows the operations and progress of the institution, at intervals, and gives a iair index of the jjosition of the Avorking classes who most largely avail themselves of the facilities afforded by the bank for the safe investment of small sums at a fair rate of interest. 184S 18.")! 1S5(; 18(51 IBGtJ 1871 1875 Number of Deposilora. Amount depubited. Amount withdittwn. 214 732 1,4ecember 1S75. Extent of Land held by- Freeholders. Land open for Selection. Acres. Acres. Adelaide 1,1G1 743,040 594,369 313,010 1,220 Gawler 979 626,560 438,667 220,731 27,652 Light 84S 542,720 518,183 372,598 198 Stanley 1,420 908,800 773,300 438,863 29,873 Victoria 1,527 977,280 603,793 178,464 5,128 Kimberley 1,440 921,600 39,793 1,737 9,414 Daliiousie ... 1,220 780,800 206,789 41,061 22,845 Fergusson 2,000 1,280,000 304,424 147,142 77,635 Daly 1,236 791,040 283,684 62,016 68,112 Frome 1,404 898,560 269,384 19,481 39,363 Hindmar.sh ... 1,032 660.480 340,788 207,311 38,362 8tm-t 1,343 859,520 337,443 212,209 87,653 I'^yre 1,340 857,600 245,403 138,203 61,796 Buna 1,767 1,130,880 217,473 151,950 2,279 Young 2,015 1,289,600 690 320 Hamley 2,135 1,366,400 80 80 Alfred 1,855 1,187,200 Albert 2,136 1,367,040 1,765 1,735 Iiussell 1,542 986,880 157,498 86,097 16,693 Buckingham 1,612 1,031,680 34,616 2,198 829 Card well 1,856 1,187,840 1,234 794 IVIacDonnell 1,944 1,244,160 119,835 52,824 15,165 Eobe 2,028 1,297,920 236,922 239,552 9,286 «irey 2,347 1,502,080 453,418 368,221 11,352 Flinders 1,100 704,000 100,979 67', 663 44,873 Carnarvon ... 1,680 1,075,200 2,884 4,062 — Total 40,967 26,218,880 6,283,414 3,323,322 569,728 Pastoral Districts ... — — 2,238 , 352 r; rand Total . . . 40,967 26,218,880 0,285,652 3,323,674 569,728 Ihd. per acre above the upset price of one pound. SG,784 of the acres which have been sold on credit, and the purchase of wliich is now completed, realized £1 4s. Id. an acre, or 4s. 7d. above the upset price of one pound. Turning to the sales of Crown lands on credit during the year 1875, and which have been stated as amounting to 2 A ^'-^-i SOUTH AUSTEALTA. 555,971 acres, 51C,G40 acres wvw sfleetud Ly agriculturists wlio entered into an agreement to reside upon the land either l^crsonally or by a servant, and to carry out the necessary coiiditiuiis of inipruvement and cultivation, agreeing to pay ttn the average £1 7s. 6d. per acre at the termination of their agreement, when they would become entitled to the fee simple of the land. Selections whieh had been taken up previously, and hail been i'orfeited eitlier voluntarily or by reason of neglect in carrying out the requirements of the Act, were re-selected to the extent of 25,087 acres, and the average l)riec agreed to be paid by the new holders was £1 10s. Sd. \)CT acre. The following table shows the number of acres sold on credit since the introduction of the existing land system and the aggregate amount to be paid on the termination of the ao-reements : — Area in Acres. Amount. 1871 'J 89,802 £372,536 1872 2;trt,'J."i7 397.284 1873 279,512 435,485 1874 352,166 596 096 1875 .555,971 764,140 Total . .. 1,777,498 _ £2,565,544 The total quantit}' of land taken up during the five years since the Act has been in operation is 1,777,498 acres, for which £2,5G5,544 was agreed to be paid. Of this amount, £2,406,251 still remains on credit awaiting the termination of the agree- ments. The following are the principal provisions of the Land Act of 1872 : — " All waste lands, other than township and sub- urljan, have a fixed value put upon them by the Commissioner of Crown Lands, not less than £1 per acre. In improved or reclaimed lands the cost per acre of the improvements and reclamation is added to ,the upset price of £1 per acre. Those lands wliicli have been o})en for selection, or which have been offered at auction, and neither selected nor sold, may at the end of five years be offered for sale in blocks of not more than 3000 acres, on lease for ten years, at an annual rental of not less than Gd. per acre, with a right of j^urchasc at any time during the currency of the lease at £1 per acre. ITS STATISTICS. 355 "When any lands are declared open for selection, by proclamation in the Government Gazette, at a fixed price, a day is appointed for receiving applications for sections, not to exceed in the aggregate 640 acres, or one square mile. The person making the application shall pay at the time a deposit of ten per cent, on the fixed price, which ' sum shall be taken as payment of three years' interest in advance upon the purchase money. If the price of the land is £100, the selector would have to pay a deposit of £10, which will be all he will be required to pay the Government for three years— about three and three-quarters per cent, per annum. At the end of three years he will have to pay another ten per cent., which will also be received as interest for the next three years. If at the end of six years he is not prepared to pay the whole of the purchase money, he can obtain other four years' credit on payment of half the purchase money, and interest in advance on the other half, at the rate of four per cent, per annum. Lands which have been open for selection two years, and not taken up, may be purchased for cash. The scrub lands may also be taken up on very favourable terms, on long leases. " A credit selector may reside on his land either personally or by substitute. The personal resident, however, has advan- tages which he who resides by deputy has not. In cases of simultaneous applications for the same block, the personal resident has the preference over the other ; and at the end of five years, the selector who has resided on the land and made all the required improvements and complied with all the con- ditions may, by paying his purchase money, obtain the fee simple of his selection. The selector who occupies by sub- stitute cannot get the freehold until the end of six years. " Purchasers upon credit will be required to reside, either personally or by deputy, upon the land at least nine months in the year ; and absence for any longer time than three months in one year renders the agreement liable to forfeiture. " The credit purchaser will be required to make substantial imj)rovements upon the land before the end of the second year, to the extent of i)s. per acre ; before the end of the third year, 7s. Qd. per acre ; before the end of the fourtli yeai', 2 A 2 o5G SOUTH AUSTEALIA. J (Is. per acre. 'Such iinprovcinonts to consist of all or any of tlio following, tluit is to say: — Erecting a dwelling-house or farm building, sinking wells, constructing water tanks or reservoirs, putting up fencing, draining, or clearing or grubbing the said land.' The fences must be of a substantial character. " The credit purchaser is required, during each year until the purchase money is paid off. to plough and have under cultivation at least onc-lifth of the land; but in the event of his not cultivating this quantity during the first year, he will be required to cultivate two-fifths during the second year." Tli(^ diagram A (opposite) shows at a glance the progress made in settlement and agriculture during the last twenty-five years. . AGRICULTUEE. Where over four-tenths of the male population of a community are engaged in farming pursuits, the necessity for (•ollecting authentic information regarding the progress of agriculture is sufficiently apparent. For many years past the annual statistics collected on this subject have afforded a mass of records the value of which every year becomes greater. The Special Commissioner of the Crown Colonies at the A'ieuna Exliibition (3Ir. William Robinson, now Governor of the Bahamas), in reporting to the Imperial Government, said : — " Of all the British Colonies, South Australia exhibits the most striking picture at present of farming industry, and on the whole seems to be the place where, good as the ]al)ourer's condition may be elsewhere, he has, by prudence and industry, the best clianco of rising in the social scale, and becoming in his turn the employer of labour," and further, " the yeomanry who have found a home in South Australia, and who are at once tillers of the soil and employers of labour, are more than any one class the real bone and sinew of the Colony ; and the industry which has so widely covered the land with farms, homesteads, tillage, and fencing of every description, has probably never been equalled in its result in any British Colony in the same number of years by the same amount of population. It is by tlie spread of agriculture that the greatest amount of industrial prosperity has been created. A. ADELAIDE, SOUTH AUSTEALIA. Diagram showing the Population, Acres Sold, Acres Cultivated, Acres ix AViieat, AND Wheat Harvested. 0'-•c2cori^loco^•oo®0'-^wc0'^l0®^•oo®o«-«c^o^• ITS STATISTICS. 359 year, yielding an aggregate of 9,862,693 busliels, the largest quantity yet produced in the Colony. The crop was a fair average one, of excellent quality, and, considering the scarcity of farm labour, was safely and early secured. It is important to note that, whilst the area of wheat grown has increased more than one hundred per cent, during the last ten years, the population has only increased thirty per cent. The harvest now being gathered is expected to produce twelve million bushels, which will permit of an export of over 230,000 tons of bread-stuffs, after providing for home require- ments. Annexed is a statement showing the total area of land under cultivation, the acreage under wheat, the gross produce of the harvest, and the average yield per acre at intervals of five years : — Seasous. Acres Ac-res under Protiucp, Average per Cultivtuwi. Wheat. Wheat. Acre. Bushels. ]5iish. lbs. 1860-61 428,810 273,672 :i,576,593 13 4 1865-6 660,509 410,608 3,587,800 8 44 1870-71 959,006 604,761 6,961,164 11 30 1874-5 ],:^30,484 839,638 9,862,693 11 45 With regard to the comparatively low average yield above shown, it must be borne in mind, in judging of the relative productiveness of the soil of South Australia as compared with that of other countries, that a great portion of the land has been sown with wheat continuously for many successive years without manure or rest, and, being in the hands of small proprietors, lias received only the minimum of cultivation. This, of course, tends to reduce the general average ; but there are many districts where farming is carried on on a large scale, and with proper appliances, where tlie yield of this cereal is from ten to fifteen bushels per acre beyond the average shown above. As evidence of the high quality of the South Australian grain, it may be mentioned that the prize wheat exhibited at the Agricultural Show s during the past ten years has averaged 68 lbs. weiglit to the Imperial bushel. In 1865-6 there were 423,881 acres under grain, viz. wheat. :5G0 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. barley, oats, and peas, and in 1874-3 tliero were 8G0,475 acres ; so that within the j)eriod specified the acreage so occupied was more than (h)ubled. Under other cro})s, Hax, hay, potatoes, orchard, garden, vine- yard, and falhtw land, there w-ere 229,182 acres in 1865-G, and 442,900 in 1874-5, or nearly double. The total quantity under cultivation at the earlier date was 660,569, and at the later, 1,330,484, or more than double the acreage. The extent of land now under hay cultivation is 160,931, and of fallow-land, 264,327 acres. In 1858, only eighteen years after the Province was founded, there were 89,945 acres of land under wheat culture ; in 1865-6, there were 410,608 ; and in 1874-5, no less than 8oi),()o8 acres. The following table shows the extent of land under cultiva- tion, and each descrij^tion of crop, at quin(piennial intervals since 1860-61 : — Acres under Cultivatiuii in Years Crops. 1860-61. 1 1865-6. isTo-n. isT-i-.-.. For Grain — Wlicat ... 273,072 410,008 604,761 839,638 Burley 11,386 9,302 22,912 13,724 Oats ... 2,273 2,872 0,188 2,785 Peas ... 969 3,719 4,328 For Green Forage — Wilt at, Barley, Oat.s, &c. 2,174 2,514 2.000 ],117 Sorghum IIG 230 — . — Lucerne 1.72U 1,424 1 3,445 6,699 Permanent Artificial Grassc s. . . 1,830 3,408 3,712 1 19,200 Flax- ... * 186 274 Other Crops 584 1,272 829 1 434 Hay 55,818 101,990 140,316 160,931 Potatoes ... 2,348 2,775 t 3,370 4,. 582 Orchard ... 2,147 2,554 2,763 ! 3,077 Garden ... 3,!ll0 3,919 4,345 4,2.57 Vineyard ... 3,180 0,029 6,131 5,051 Fallow Land 67,090 110,037 153,723 264,327 Tut,.!- 428,810 000,509 959,006 1 ,330,484 \ ine culture is an important and progressive industry. Tliei-e are 5050 acres of land devoted to this purpose, the total number of vines being 5,155,988, of which 4,874,507 are in o ITS STATISTICS. 361 bearing. The produce of these vineyards for the year ended ]\rarch 1875 was 648,186 gallons of wine, about one hundred and thirty gallons per acre. The suitability of the soil and climate of South Australia to the growth of wine was soon discovered by the early settlers, some of whom had brought from Europe a variety of high class vine cuttings. The slopes of the hills produce wines of a full- bodied character similar to those of Spain and Portugal, whilst those made in the more elevated districts resemble the lighter wines of the Khine. Whilst the local demand is fully supplied at very cheap rates, a considerable export trade in wines of a higher character is carried on, and which might be increased to a great extent but for obstructive fiscal laws. Whilst the lower class wines of the Continent are admitted to the ports of the Mother Country at a minimum rate of duty, the Customs dues charged upon superior wines from Australia are so high as to be almost prohibitory- That the wines of South Australia are, as a rule, of a high character is proved by the fact that they have always been awarded prizes at the several Great International Exhibitions. The introduction of flax-growing into the ordinary routine of farm operations, has been followed by considerable success. The prices realized for this commodity in the European markets have been very encouraging. Considerable attention has also been paid to the manufacture of preserved fruits, and the drying of raisins and currants. This branch of industry is rapidly progressing, and, whilst it now goes far to supply local requirements, will probably soon develop into an export trade. Almond trees are of rapid growth, and large quantities of a superior description of soft-shell almond are gathered yearly for home consumption and for shipment. South Australia possesses all the conditions requisite for the successful and prx)fitable culture of the olive. This tree, like the vine, was early introduced into the Colony, and its growth and productiveness have been so remarkable that large planta- tions have been established and stocked with the best Con- 362 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. tiueiital varieties. Ulive uil of tlio most delicate character has been expressed, aiul gained awards at the various Exhibitions. Its purity and general superiority over the imported article of commerce has acquired for it a first position in the market. The produce of the plantations is eag-erly purchased by persons who have entered upon the business of the manufacture of oil. It may be stated, as showing the importance which is attached to the cultivation of the olive, as of the mulberry (of which several i)lantations of the most suitable kinds exist for the developmcMit of sericulture), the almond, vine, orange, fig, and hop, that the land laws provide that the planting and cultiva- tion of one acre of land with any of these trees shall be equivalent to the cultivation of six acres of cereals. Orclianls, gardens, and vineyards abound, and, in short, the variety and excellence of the fruits and vegetables produced in the Colony cannot be surpassed. The climate and soil enables the productions of temperate and tropical regions to be cultivated almost side by side, and throughout the year ; and offers an unlimited field of profitable occupation in connection with ordinary farming pursuits. PASTORAL OCCUPATION. Notwithstanding the large area of land lately alienated from the Crown, and the extension of agricultural operations, the acreage of land taken up for squatting purposes and the increase in the number of ilocks and herds have been very ccmsiderable. All descri}»tions of stock, wlietlier horses, cattle, or sheep, have thriven and increased rapidly. Of late years the enclosure and sub-division of runs (enabling the shec]) to roam at will during the whole year) has been found to produce greatly improved results, both as regards the quality of the stock and of the wool. Large numbers of sheep are owned by settlers, wIkj advantageously combine sheep-farming with agriculture. tSome conception of the growth of the pastoral interest may be formed from the fact that, whilst in 1851 the total area of land leased from the Crown for pastoral purposes was 15,000 sqiuire miles, at the present time there are no less than 200,000 ITS STATISTICS. oCo square miles in occupation. During the same period tlie number of horses has increased from 6500 to 93,000 ; of horned cattle from 75,000 to 185,000 ; and of sheep from 1,000,000 to over G,000,000, whilst the exports of wool have increased from 4000 to 118,000 bales. The following table shows the progressive increase in horses, cattle, and sheep, at each quinquennial period between 185G and 1875 : — Sheep. 1856 22,260 272,746 1,962,460 ISGI 52,. 097 265,434 ' 3,038,356 1866 70,829 123,820 3,911,610 1871 78,125 143,463 4,412,055 1875 93,122 185,342 6,120,211 With reference to the slight comparative increase in cattle it should be noted that more profitable results are found to accrue from the breeding of sheep than from great cattle. The latter pursuit is more extensively followed in the neighbouring colonies. During the last ten years the average price of first-class fat bullocks has averaged £14 10s., and of first-class fat wethers, 15s. per head. The enclosure of the sheep runs, the formation of dams and reservoirs in which large bodies of water can be stored, and the sinking of wells, are the most important improvements required, and are those to Avhich the greatest attention is now being- paid. By these means an immense area of land has been opened up, and stocked with both sheep and cattle. Almost limitless tracts of country bordering on the trans- continental telegraph line, as well as land laid open by recent exjjlorations, are awaiting pastoral occupation. MANUFACTUEES. A few years ago, flour mills and tanneries were almost the only representatives of local manufactures ; A\hilst these have largely increased in number and efficiency, many important 364 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. additions luive been made to the list. The fulluuiiig is a statement of the more important ; some are conducted on an extensive scale, and, from the constantly increasing number of hands employed, manufacturing industry generally would ajjpear to be in a highly flourishing state. It will be noticed that most of the industries mentioned have their raw material at hand in the produce of the country, and are for that reason much more likely to be permanent in their character. Milling is a very important branch of trade, over seventy- five thousand tons of flour having been exported during the past year. There are eighty-five steam flour mills in the Pro- vince, with 1500 horse-power, driving 275 pairs of stones. Four moat-preserving establishments are in operation, and there are eight boiling-down works. Sixty tanneries and follmougeries, and several large wool- washing works, are distributed throughout the country; ten soap and candle factories ; five bone-dust mills ; and two glue and size works. Thirty-one steam saw mills, twenty-seven foundries, eighty- six agricultural implement works (chiefly for reaping and winnowing machines), and twenty-nine coach and waggon builders' shoi)s are in active work. In addition to five patent slips, there are eight ship and twelve boat building yards. Several marble and sixteen slate quarries of excellent quality, and over one hundred building-stone quarries, have been opened, of \\liich latter nineteen are free-stone, a superior descri])tion being largely used in public and private buildings. There are seventy brickyards in operation (including six for fire-bricks), sixty limekilns, and seven potteries and tile and pipe works. The gasworks of the Colony are eight in number, of which two are for the supply of the City of Adelaide and suburbs^ one is at Port Adelaide, and the remaining five are in the prin- cipal country towns. Besides one woollen tweed factorv, there are six clothino; factories, four hat factories, twelve boot and shoe factories. ITS STATISTICS. 3G5 and four dye w(3rks. There are also three flax mills, tliree iNjpe walks, and two brush manufactories at work. There are twenty-nine breweries ; thirty soda-water and cordial factories ; one hundred and two wine-making establish- ments ; ten biscuit bakeries ; ten jam and preserve and seven confectionery manufactories ; six dried fruit and three olive- oil factories, and one ice-work. Among other miscellaneous local productions and manu- factures, are the following : — Barilla, billiard table, baking 2)owder, blacking, cayenne pepper, cement, cigars, filjre, glass bottles, plaster of Paris, washing machines, sauces and pickles, salt, safety fuze, gas stoves, iron safes, bedsteads, galvanized iron and tin ware. BirORT AND EXPORT TRADE. The expansion of commerce and the development of the material resources of South Australia are clearly exhibited in the returns under the above head. Although able, as large agricultural and pastoral producers, to supply ourselves with the greater portion of the necessaries of life, we are dependent upon Great Britain and foreign markets for a considerable number of articles which enter into general consumption. T'he total value of the imports and exports to and from «'ach country, exhibiting tlie balance of trade, is shown in the .subjoined table. Tlie combined import and export trade of 1875 amounted to £9,000,000 sterling, of which £4,200,000 were imports, and £4,800,000 exports, showing a balance in favour of .South Australia of £GO0,000. The total external trade averaged £45 per head of the population, or £175 for each adult male. The imports amounted to £20 per head of the population, and the exports to £24 ; or, taking the adult male population as the basis of the calculation, the imports amounted to £80, and the exports to £9G, or an excess of exports over imjiorts of £10 per adult male. 366 SOUTH AUSTKALIA. Kxcr-ssof Kxcfs. of Countries. Imports. Kxjiorts. Impoits. Expo Its. £ £ 4.- £ Great Britain 2,381,673 2,612.817 231.143 Victoria 822,600 ' 852,715 30,054 New South Willr^ 477,147 689.115 211,967 Western Australia 36,347 62.372 26,025 New Zealand 9,406 44,115 34,709 Queensland 22,888 216,800 193,912 Tasmania 40,272 2,794 37,478 — India 36,969 30,679 6,289 — Ceylon 3,972 4.187 — 215 Cape Colonv 1,133 137,018 — 135,885 Natal... ' 5,653 44,445 — 38,792 jManritiws 95,743 38,732 57,011 — 8ingai)oie 5,226 241 4,984 — Hon,!^ Kon;;- ... 28,379 40 28,339 — Canada 21.687 — 21,687 — United State.s 28,502 — 28,502 — New Caledonia SI 46,315 — 46,234 China 82,933 9 82.924 — Sweden and Norway 63.068 — 63,068 — . Java 40,061 19,583 20,477 — Brazil 3,000 — 3,000 Franco — 70 — 70 Total £4,203,802 £4,805,051 £350,761 £952,010 Of the total imports, £4,203,802 in value, mure than one- half, viz. £2,381,673, came from the United Kingdom, £882,000 from Victoria, £477,147 from New South AYales, £214,045 from Foreign States, and the remainder from various British pos- sessions. Of the total exports, £4,805,031 value, products represent- ing £2,012,817 were exported to the Mother Country, £852,715 to Victoria, £089,115 to New South Wales, £08,977 to Foreign States, and the remainder to other British possessions. The following table shows the total imports and exports for the years stated :— Imi'out and Export Tkade. YiMis. Tutul. Imports. Expoi ts. £ £ f 1851 1.292,864 690.777 602.087 1856 3,032,269 1.366.529 1.665,740 1861 4,008.329 1,976,018 2,o:;2.:;ii 1866 5,693,879 2,835,142 2,8.")S.7:17 1871 5.740,419 2,158,022 3,.^s2,:;n7 IST.-. '.i,(H)s,s,"i:; 4,2(13,802 4,805,0.")! ITS STATISTICS. 367 Since 1851, the commerce of the Colony has increased seven-fold, from £1,292,864 to £9,008,853 sterling. This is clearly shown in Diagram B (page 368). The last five years have shown a rapid expansion, trade having increased from £5,740,419 to £9,008,853, or by sixty per cent. The following table shows for each of the past ten years the total import and export trade, the total imports showing the home consumption and re-exportations ; also, the total exports, distinguishing those of the f)roduce of the Colony, and showing the balances of produce exported over imports consumed : — Imports retained for Home Consump- tion. Balance Years. Combined Import iind Export Trade. Total Imports. Imports re- exported. Total Exports. Exports of Produce of the ColoDy. Produce exported over Imports consumed. ^ £ £ £ £ £ £ I860 5, 69,;, 879 2,835,142 2,516,128 319,014 2,858,737 2,539,723 23,595 1867 5,671,016 2,506,394 2,117,867 388,527 3,164,622 2,776,095 658,228 186S 5,057,810 2,238,510 2,023,036 215,474 2,819,300 2,603,826 580,796 1869 5,747,805 2,754,770 2,484,174 270,596 2,993,035 2,722,438 238,264 187U 4,449,281 1 2,029,793 1,733,603 296,190 2,419,488 2,123,297 389,694 1X71 5,740,420 t 2,158,022 1,868,368 292,536 3,582,397 3,289,861 1,521,493 1872 6,540,194 2,801,571 2,587,233 214,536 1 3,738,623 3,524,087 936,854 1873 8,428,960 3,841,101 3,527,163 302,667 4,587,859 4,285,192 758, 02» 1874 8,386,145 3,983,290 3,438,874 534,580 4,402,855 3,868,275 429,401 1875 9,008,853 4,203,802 3,840,851 362,951 4,805,051 4,442,100 601,249 In order further to illustrate the description of our external trade, the following statements are appended, showing resj)ec- tively the quantities or values of the chief articles imported and exported in the five years ending with 1874 : — I.aiports^Chief Articles, 1870-1874. j\pparel and slops, value (£) 15ags and sacki — Cornbags, bales ... Woolpacks, do. ... Beer, porter, ale, cider and perry, galls . Rlasiing-powder, lbs. Bouts and shoes, value (£)... Candles, lbs Chicory, lbs Coals, coke, and other fuel, tons ... Cocoa and chocolate, lbs. ... Cotfee, lbs Cutlery and hardware, value (£) ... lirapery do. Earthenware and china do. Fruit (dried), cwt Groceries and oilmen's stores, value (£)., Hops, lb.-* Iron — Bar and rod, tons Sheet and hoop, do Pit;, do Manufactures, value (,£) 19,383 8,256 3,358 215,211 179,676 60,010 807,497 106,281 88,756 84,196 413,896 33,579 863,865 25,979 13,243 48,231 227,953 3,601 1,137 749 212,489 20,951 11,900 3,216 283,375 315,252 73,422 618,189 191,072 83,583 90,911 371,770 30,447 947,455 21,807 15,167 53,902 274,770 2,778 1,2S9 512 232,091 2,832 1,246 3,407 5,064 1,886 1,818 218,455 174,295 418,120 156,720 62,018 48,441 461,900 416,338 73,926 55,886 82,502 73,983 59,337 52,089 346,234 380,060 21,734 14,011 647,062 467,697 10,429 7,764 9,019 11,110 26,834 26,805 246,853 238,790 3,964 2,457 713 667 331 144 95,811 98,183 6,452 3,822 1,135 191,114 145,750 53,496 471,589 107,532 52,310 56,402 549,167 38,617 499,046 11,493 8,267 30,154 ;il 0,558 1,954 1,460 0S6 70,254 B. ADELAIDE, SOUTH AUSTRALIA. PlAGIJAM .SllOWIMi THE rOPVLATIOX, Sllirr:N"G, EXPORTS, IjirOIiT-S, AM) COMIUXKD lMroi;r and Export Tkadk. O'-'CQC0TJ^>OC0^•C0ffiO'H0IC0'*^C0^•C0®O'-^02C0rJ^^O oooooooooocooooooocooooooooooooooooooooocooooooooooo POPULATION SHIPPING [Tomi] * ♦ ^ EXPORTS £-i-<-i IMPORTS COMBINED IMPORT AKD EXPORT TRADE £ ITS STATISTICS. 369 Impouts — Chief Articles, 1870-1874 (continued). Implements and tools, value (£) ... Jewellery, plale, and plated good.s, do. Malt, centals Oil — Sperm and other fish nils, gallons Linseed, rape, hemp, &c., do. Mineral and other oils, do. Potatoes, tons Rice, do Saddlery and harness, value (£) ... Sewing machines, do. Spirits — Brandy, gallons Rum, do Gin, do Whisky, do Sugar, cwt Tea, lbs 'i'in— Block, value (£) Tobacco, lbs Cigars, do Wine, gallons Wood-Palings, No. Sawn, hewn, &c., loads ... 1874. 18T3. IS 72. 1871. 1870. 40,130 36,719 23,180 29,128 17,403 39,177 30,670 21,425 15,624 11,367 28,341 36,392 22,585 29,77.! 24,615 6,883 12,698 6,116 12,692 8,693 80,173 79,516 72,742 54,966 33,234 332,230 237,137 210,322 222,456 167,460 1,413 5,022 2,591 4,774 4,717 294 488 310 2.1" 260 20,406 19,223 16,951 11,3^5 7,804, 16,205 18,186 12,998 116,013 83,215 87,148 54,787 32,990 42,941 25,804 29,63-< 27,128 29,634 18,558 21,408 13,560 15,283 16,245 24,407 20,596 11,615 12,403 13,416 159,277 141,262 135,2-27 116,556 59,501 1,699,708 1,678,325 1,025,667 1,221,848 854,887 15,279 25,433 14,895 8,037 5,628 400,623 379,507 277,454 241,820 331,012 21,129 23,275 14,944 13,748 18,715 45,956 34, 8*1 31,6i6 22,966 17,611 1,566,327 1,687,764 1,098,914 840,635 461,315 22,504 29,970 16,450 11,889 15,976 Exports— Chief Articles, 1870-1874. 1874. 1873. 1872. 1871. 1870. Animals — Horses, No 42 74 80 162 273 Sheep, do. 1,385 1,049 1,017 430 62 Bacon and Haras, cwt 35 30 143 29 10 Bark, tons 2,650 4,580 7,850 5,073 5,431 Bones, do 195 210 880 217 520 Beer, galls. 37,710 20,564 21,257 23,746 21,930 Biscuits, cwt. 862 1,084 496 335 233 Butter and cheese, cwt 1,206 615 1,564 565 202 Corn— Flour, tons 58,635 57,171 38,319 46,841 27,371 Barley, bushels 6,678 3,658 20,904 28,152 19,672 Bran and pollard, tons 2,461 1,477 2,220 3,316 2,167 Wheat, bushels 1,538,464 3,837,616 1,261,424 2,520,432 376,632 Dr.npery, value (£) 33,839 29,890 26,605 19,687 31,320 Kggs, do 7,987 8,158 7,965 8,701 8, 4116 Fish (dried), cwt 701 277 509 676 823 Fruit (fresh), value (£) 3,768 3,329 3,385 2,292 2,970 l)ried, cwt 610 1,500 1,590 1,325 822 Groceries, value (£) 1,199 2,962 6,439 9,832 9,575 Gmn, cwt 995 476 851 555 5,415 Hay, tons 198 162 663 297 258 Hides and skins, value (£) 16,139 10,593 13,472 8,798 4,266 Honey, cwt. 4 201 34 131 46 Hops, lbs 21,105 __ Jam, value (£) 3,216 5,969 5,570 4,176 7,396 Leather, cwt. 958 1,329 3,327 4,508 2,884 Metal — Copper, do. 132,587 141,744 149,050 127,911 109,211 Ore — Copper, tons 22,854 27,382 26,964 20,127 20,886 Preserved meats, cwt 11,248 13,943 12,526 10,000 4,885 Salt, tons 80 184 277 70 ' 214 Soap, cwt. 1,533 _ Sugar, do. 917 4,162 15,126 5,015 1,790 Tallow, do. 25,670 40,106 33,700 63,328 30,142 Tea, lbs 21,238 46,648 135,038 69,597 123,798 Tobacco, lbs. 40,509 30,518 42,826 57,752 i 77,631 AVax, cwt 50 173 41 126 51 Wool, do 39,844,024 35,973,434 34,650,631 32,656,427 26.218,t2H4 AVine— South Australian, gallons 59,174 46,400 4t,910 21,788 50,085 Foreign, do. 5,586 S43 2,768 3,101 3,394 Spirits— Brandy, do. 10,657 8,140 9,913 7,590 15,61!» Gin, do. 1,644 331 539 381 1 ,212 Rum, do. 2 , 3iir> 2,023 2,429 1,826 4,980 Whisky, do. 1,537 970 682 732 960 2 B SOUTH AUSTEALIA. STAPLE PRODUCTS. It will be necessary, however, to refer more particularly to the chief sources of the material wealth of the country, which may he classified under the heads of agricultural, pastoral, and mining produce. The following abstract shows the progress made in the exports of staple products from 1851 to the present time, stated at intervals of five years : — SrAri.E PRODrCE Expout:?. VeolS. r.ital. Ilreadsluffs. "Wool. Minerals. £ £ +" £ 1851 540,902 73,3.19 148,036 310,916 1856 I 1,398,867 5.56,371 412,163 408,042 1861 1 1,888,639 i 712,789 623,007 452,172 1866 ' 2,539,723 645,40] 990,173 824,501 1871 3,289,861 ' 1,253,429 1,170,885 648,569 1875 4,442,100 1,680,996 1,833,519 762,386 From the foregoing statement, it appears that out of ■£4,442,100 worth of staple produce, the value of breadstuffs amounted to £1,G80,996, or thirty-six per cent, of the whole ; that wool represented £1,833,519, or forty-two per cent. ; and copper £7G2,38G, or twenty-eight per cent. ; the balance of £165,199, or four per cent., being miscellaneous products. Breadstuffs, — The exports of w heat, flour, and other bread- stuffs, constitute thirty-six per cent, of the total exports of iSouth Australian produce, and have increased from a total value of £73,000 in 1851 to £1,680,000 in 1875. The exports of breadstuffs during the last" twelve months were as follows : — Flour, 76,209 tons, value £819,395 ; wheat, 479,882 quarters, value £831,266 ; and bran and pollard, 5,512 tons, valued at £27,888, or together a total of £1,678,549 sterling. The following table exhibits the remarkable development of this the most important branch of local industry. Giving the (luantities ex})orted will prove more useful than a statement merely showing the value, and furnish a more correct basis upon which to estimate the extent of substantial jirogress made by the agriculturists during the past decade: — ITS STATISTICS. 71 Bran and Pollard. Wheat. Quantity. Quantity. Value. Quantity. 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 Tons. 30,496 43,703 23,591 38,653 27,371 46,842 38,319 57,170 58,635 76,209 498,924 498,222 405,982 495,589 354,012 594,482 510,826 737,160 783,489 819,395 'Ions. £ 2,5;:o 18,517 3,274 14,549 1,787 10,841 2,847 15,303 2,167 12,210 3,816 14,495 2,220 9,525 1,477 7,906 2,461 15,563 5,512 27,888 ars. ■ 46,756 301,543 55,876 195,031 47,079 315,054 157,678 479,702 192,308 479,882 £ 126,601 521,690 148,603 371,221 99,600 639,348 .333,890 965,577 428,753 831,266 The total exports of colonial p-ocluce in breadstuffs and grain during the period referred to was — of flour, 440,989 tons, of the value of £5,698,081 ; of wheat, 2,270,909 quarters, of the value of £4,466,549 ; and of bran and pollard, 28,121 tons, of the value of £146,797. Diagram C (page 372) shows the prices of wheat at Port Adelaide in each month during the past ten years. The quality of South Australian wheat and flour is of such excellence as to command the highest price in the markets of the world. The great bulk of the crop is shipped to the United Kingdom, the daily fluctuations in whose markets are made known here by telegram. Xew South Wales, Queensland, Cape Town, Mauritius, New Caledonia, and several Eastern ports also receive considerable consignments of South Austra- lian flour. The harvest of 1875-6 — now in course of being garnered — is expected to yield 230,000 tons of breadstufis beyond local requirements for food and seed ; or an excess, available for export, of the value of two and a quarter millions sterling. Wool. — That pastoral pursuits are being conducted ^\ith great success in South Australia is illustrated by the state- ment furnished on page 370, showing the export of wool during the last ten years. It will be remarked that the export of wool has increased fifty per cent, during the past five years, and doubled during the decade. The total value of South Australian wool shipped 2 B 2 o B P o o ITS STATISTICS. ill 1856 was £412,163; in 1866, £990,173 reached £1,833,519 sterling. and in 1S75 it Years. S. A. Wool. 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 Lbs. 19.739,523 19,350,195 28,899,190 27,022,671 21,169,256 31,2.10,677 33,709,717 32,967,941 35,593,805 39,723,249 Other Wool. No. of Bales. Lbs. 1,168,562 61,977 3,283,597 66,395 1 730,335 86.913 1 3,510,141 87,150 1 2,049,028 87,394 1,405,750 97,532 940,914 100,017 3,005,493 105,306 4,250,219 114,845 4,785,425 126,046 Total Weight. Total Value. Lbs. ♦; 20,908,085 1,064,486 22,633,792 1,144,341 29,629,525 1,346.323 30,522,812 1,128,568 26.218,284 1,000,344 32,656,427 1,350,689 34,650,631 1,692,609 35,973,434 1,808,622 39,841,024 1,998,939 44.508,674 2,066,227 The aggregate number of bales shipped last year was 126,046, as against 87,394 in 1870, and 61,977 in 1866. Considering the vast extent of available territory at present unoccujDied in South Australia, there would appear to be little doubt that the extraordinary progress already made in the production of wool will steadily continue. The excellent (juality of the staple, the great suitability of the climate, giving almost complete immunity from scab, fluke, and other diseases peculiar to sheep, taken together with the security of tenure enjoyed by the pastoral lessees, conduce to the rapid develop- ment of this profitable industry. Copper. — South Australia owes no little of its j)rosperity to the employment of a large number of its people, directly and indirectly, in the working of her copper mines, several of which, whilst supporting a very considerable section of tlie colonists, have been exceedingly profitable to the ^proprietors. The principal mines are the Burra, the Wallaroo, and th(i Moonta. From the first of these, 215,000 tons of ore were raised during 31 years from the commencement of operations, pro- ducing four millions sterling. The total amount expended by the company was £1,982,000, of which £1,568,000 rejn'esented wages, the gross profits being £882,000. Since the ojjcning of the Wallaroo Mines, the total quantity of ore raised therefrom has been 290,000 tons, and the average of the past five years lias ;74 SOUTH AUSTBALIA. been 20,000 tons. Tlic ^lounta iiiiuos wcro discovered in 18G1, since whicli year 2.3.3,000 tons of ore have been raised, realizing £2,700,000. " A profit of £928,000 has been divided amongst the sharehoklers of this magnificent property. In 1844, shortly after the discovery of copper in South Australia, the t(jtal value of the minerals exported was £0430 ; in 18.31 it reached to £310,910 ; in 1801 it amounted to £4.34,172 ; in 1871, to £048,509 ; and in 1875, to £702,380. The following table exliibits the steady productiveness of South Australian mines, distinguishes the quantity of fine copper shipped from the quantity of ore exported in its crude state, and gives the estimated value of each. Ycura. Fine C upper. Cojipe ■Oie. 'J'otal Valine, all Minerals. Cwt. £ Tons. £ £ 1860 120,272 584.50.-) 16,824 225,683 824.501 18G7 156,863 627,384 11,430 113,409 753,413 1868 104,227 400,691 20,725 207,519 624,022 1869 02,788 371,566 2(!,835 250.259 627,152 1870 109,421 394.919 20,886 173,861 574.090 1871 127,911 518,080 20,127 119,903 648,569 1872 149.050 t;S0,714 26,964 122,020 806.364 187:'. 141,744 63.i.i:!I 27.382 133,371 770,590 { 1874 1.32,587 557,306 22,854 136,530 700.323 1875 136,835 578,065 26,436 175,101 1 762,386 The smelting works in connection with these mines are of a very extensive and costly character, employing a large amount of skilled labour.. Miscellaneous Products. — In addition to the chief staples above referred to, a variety of minor articles of produce are annually exported, last year amounting in the aggregate to the value of £174,034, including the following principal items, viz. : — Tallow, 25,070 cwt., £38,511 value ; Preserved Meats, 1,259,820 lbs., £28,241 ; Leather, £4410 ; Hides and Skins, £10,139; AViue, 59,174 gallons, £19,240; Bark, 2050 tons, £14,552 ; Eggs, £7987 ; Dried and Fresh Fruits, £4977 ; Jams and Preserves, £3210 ; Potatoes, 735 tons, £3178 ; Soap, 15.33 cwt., £1804; Salt, 80 tons; Gum, £1251; Slate, £1253; and other articles of less value. ITS STATISTICS. o i . ) SHIPPING. The rapid growth of the external commerce of South Australia necessitates the employment of a largely increased amount of shipping, as will be seen from the following returns. Ko less than 844 vessels entered inwards in 1875, of a total caj)acity of 316,823 tons, and with crews numbering 15,64-4 men ; giving a daily average of 1000 tons register for every working-day throughout the year. Of 95 vessels, having an aggregate carrying capacity of 50,000 tons, lately in Port Adelaide on one day, were the following : — Steamers — one of 1300 tons, three between 400 and 550 tons, and three under 250 tons ; ships and barques — one of 2128 tons, one of 1777 tons, six of 1000 to 1500 tons, nineteen between 500 and 1000 tons, and twenty-five between 200 and 500 tons — besides eight brigs, twelve schooners, and sixteen coasters. The subjoined abstracts relate only to vessels arriving at or departing from South Australian ports from or to other countries, and is exclusive of a large number of steam and sailing vessels employed solely in the coasting trade of the Colony. The following figures represent the aggregate number of vessels inwards and outwards, and the total registered tonnage in the years specified : — Years. 1851 185G 1861 1866 1871 187") Numb?r of Vessels. 538 867 788 1,039 1,238 1,(!31: Tonnage. 1.55,002 230,390 199,331 339,871 373,624 611,381 It will be noted that the increase in the shipping during the last five years has amounted to no less than seventy per cent. In addition to the chief port of the Colony (Port Adelaide), at which two-thirds of the foreign shipping trade is carried on, there are many outports from which there is a direct export trade witli other countries. It has been elsewhere mentioned that the configuration of the coast-line, and the numerous shipping ports, enable vessels of considerable tonnage to be 37G SOUTH AUSTEALIA. laden \\h\\ -whoai, wool, and other produce of the adjacent districts within a short distance of the 2:>lace of production. The folloAving table shows the shipping business done at each of these ports : — Tuiuiage. Namos of Ports. Port Adelaide ... Port Augusta ... Port Bronghton Port Caroline ... Port (ilenelg ... Port MacDounell Port Mooiitji ... Murray Hivcr... Port Noarluiiga Port Hirie Port liobe Port Victor P>.it Wakefield Port Wallaroo ... Port Willunga Port YankallUa i Totals 4S9 418 907 205,998- 169,206 375,204 7,550 6,446 1-3,996 1 8 9 92 5,790 5,882 6 151 157 •) 4 6 1,935 2,658 4,593 39 58 97 31 31 62 b,553 8,863 17.416 689 701 1,390 ■26 26 52 2SI,821 29,630 58,501 3,498 3,645 7,143 69 71 140 15,515 15,511 ^ 31,062 1,256 1,257 2,513 1 1 2 65 44 109 4 4 8 98 86 184 6,425 5,786 12,211 593 516 1,109 2 2 — 373 373 — 17 17 14 23 37 5,776 10,934 16,710 146 280 426 2G 26 A2 8,654 6,854 15,508 612 612 1,224 14 10 24 4,b02 4,619 9,421 377 214 691 7 12 19 3,810 6,221 10,031 100 165 265 64 65 129 26,003 26,920 52,923 760 757 1,517 1 6 7 167 892 1,059 7 39 46 1 1 2 207 207 414 ' " 14 !i44 790 ,1,634 I 316,823 294,558 , 611,381 I 15,644 14,869 30,513 The above return includes the number of steamers arriving at and departing from ports on the River Murray, the arrivals numbering eighty-six, and the departures ninety-eight, during the year. THE KIVER MURRAY TRADE. South Australian enterprise opened the River Murray to navigation in 1853, as well as, at a later period, its great tributaries, the Darling and the Murrumbidgee. Since the t)pening of tliese rivers the whole of that immense tract of pastoral country known as Riverina has been heavily stocked, jirodiicing now about two hundred thousand bales of wool annually. The Murray is navigable for a distance of 2000 miles from its mouth at Goolwa. The Darling, from its junc- tion at Wentworth, is navigable to Fort Bourke, 800 miles, and for a short period some 300 miles further into Queens- land. The Murrumbidgee, entering the Murray some 300 miles frtnn Wentworth, is navigable to Wagga, a distance of 700 miles, to whicli town railway communication with Sydney ITS STATISTICS. 377 will shortly be extended. Forty steamers and fifty barges are occupied in the trade. At present, the larger portion of the upper river traffic is diverted up-stream to Echuca, and thence by railway to Melbourne, owing to special inducements held out by the Victorian Government, who convey wool over that line at less than cost. As, however, the natural advantages of down-stream navigation are so great, saving £2 or £3 per ton in freight, as compared with the railway route, there is little doubt that the bulk of the carrying trade will eventually revert to South Australia. Surveys are being made, and proceedings taken for opening the Murray Mouth to large vessels, alongside which the river boats will thou discharge. EAILWAYS. Including those just approaching completion, there are three hundred and seventy-one miles of railway in South Australia, three hundred miles of which are worked by loco- motives. The following table shows the length of the several lines and their termini : — Government Lines — Adelaide and Port Adelaide, including wharf lines Adelaide, Gawler, Kapunda, and Burra Strathalbyn, Goolwa, and Port Victor Port Wakefield and Blyth's Plains Port Wakefield and Wallaroo Poi-t Piiie and Gladstone Port Broughton I.acepede Bay and Naiacoorto Total I'rivate Cojipanies' Lines — Adelaide ami Glenelg ... ivadina, Wallaroo, and Moonta Grand Total Locomotive. 29S Horse traction. 9^ 12i — — 32 42 — 3^ — 32 — — 14 51 — 46 25 300 71 The cost of construction of the lines at j)resent in working has been £1,155,267. They are single lines, of five-foot three- inch gauge. Sixty miles arc laid witli rails sixty-five pounds to the yard, and tlie remainder with rails of forty pounds to 378 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. the yard. In adilitioii, the cost of rolling- stuck and ()th(U- jjlant amounted to £221,918, making a total of £1,337,185. The cost of construction, exclusive of rolling stock, was, for the Adelaide and I'ort Kaihvay, £17,433 per mile; for the Kapunda liailway, £11,191 ; and for the extension to the Eurra, £5072. The rolling stock on the Government lines consists of the following : — Twenty-nine locomotives, fifty-one passenger carriages, and six hundred and thirty-three goods waggons of all descriptions. The estimated cost of the one hundred and forty-six miles approaching completion is £667,000 — the average cost being £4600 j)er mile. Up to the close of 1874, the total receipts amounted to £1,772,376 ; the working expenses to £1,066,937, reconstruc- tion to £104,147, and maintenance to £420,500, leaving a balance of £180,789 to profit. The receipts for the year 1874 amounted to £132,806, and the expenditure to £124,610, showing a balance of £8196 towards meeting interest on cost of construction. The folloAving statement shows the amount of goods and pas- senger traffic, and the total receipts at intervals of five years : — Years. Miles Passenger (ioods Total open. Traffic. Traffic. Receipts. No. Tons. £ 1856 n 241,886 26,354 19,498 1861 58 306,140 138, 6h3 90,489 1866 58 405,502 161,671 114,131 1871 133 384,389 211,683 110,963 1875 133 386,117 301,530 166,710 The mileage run by trains in 1866 was 128,957 ; in 1871, 275,131 ; and it increased to 386,117 in 1875. The two lines worked by horse traction are, together, forty- six miles in length ; the train mileage run was 135,316, the total receipts £9387, and the working expenses £9037 ; the number of passengers carried was 31,895, and of goods 30,370 tons. The rolling stock consists of fourteen passenger car- riages, and 185 goods trucks, and fifty-six horses are employed. ITS STATISTICS. 379 The average charge for carrying passengers on the Gc>^."ern- ment railways ranges from Id. to l^-cZ. per mile, and the charge for carrying a ton of goods one mile is '2^d. to 2'^d. A bushel of wheat is carried from the Burra to Port Adelaide, a distance of one hundred miles, for Id. — before the construction of the railway it cost double. A ton of ore is now brought from the Burra 3Iines to Port Adelaide for 21.s-., whereas, jirior to the opening of the line, it cost oos. to 4Us. to convey it to a port of shipment. The policy pursued has been to reduce the cost of carriage to a minimum, with a view of developing the resources of the agricultural and mining districts through which the lines of railway pass. Without railway communication the limit within which wheat could be profitably grown would have been reached many years ago, and the quantities now pro- duced could not be brought to a place of shipment except by steam power. As much as twelve hundred tons of wheat has sometimes to be brought down in a day. Although the rail- ways only yield a return but little in excess of the cost of working, and maintaining them in good order, the facilities and cheapness of transit more tlian counterbalance the burthen of interest which falls upon the general public, who benefit in a direct ratio by the prosperity of the producing interests. Frequent communication between distant places situated on the lines of railway is secured to an extent which a private company having to realize dividends could not possibly afford. Two railways have been constructed by private companies — one is a line connecting Adelaide with Glenelg, a populous watering-place, at which the ocean mail steamers call on their arrival from and departure for Suez. This line, under seven miles in length (single line, 5-foot 3-inch gauge), cost in con- struction £15,875, or about £2200 a mile. The great passenger traffic and frequency of communication necessitate the use of a large proportion of rolling stock as compared with the length of the line. It consists of four locomotives and eighteen passenger carriages. The total cost, including roll- ing stock, amounted to £53,432. The traffic receipts since the line was opened in August 1873 have amounted to 'jSO south AUSTRALIA. £25,911, and the working expenses, including maintenance, to £lo,87U, sliowing a balance of £12,041 to profit of the undertaking. The working expenses amunntod to lifty-three per cent, of the receipts. The other private line connects the Wallaroo and Moonta ]Mines with the sea-board at Port AVallaroo. It is twenty-five miles long, and is worked by horse traction. The original capital was £00,000, on which twenty per cent, has been divided during each of the past ten years. The present value of the property is £1)0,000, the difference having accrued from profits expended in improving and extending the works, which include jetty accommodation. ROADS. Large sums of money have been expended on the con- struction and maintenance of main trunk lines of road in the settled districts, through which there are 2700 miles defined. During the past twenty years, about £1,750,000 have been devoted to these works, and, with the exception of £200,000, the whole cost has been defrayed from the general revenue, no special toll or rate having been levied. The aggregate number of miles macadamised is 884, which are maintained in good order. In addition to the main lines, perhaps as many more miles of district or by-roads have been constructed and kept in repair by local municipalities. For this purpose funds are raised by a rate on landed property, supplemented by grants- in-aid from the general revenue. Fifty miles of metalled streets [have already been formed in the City of Adelaide alone. The average cost of construction and metalling main roads is estimated to be £1000 per mile, and of maintaining them in repair £00 to £100 -pev mile annually. WATERWORKS. Considerable attention has been paid to tlie subject of water su]»ply, wliicli was first undertaken as a })ublic work in 1857. In addition to a high-pressure sujiply to the city and suburbs of Adelaide, water has been ]ai servants, 20s. to 30s. per week ; married couples, females to cook, cVc, 20s. to 30s. per week ; harvesters, 25s. to 35s.. per week ; boys, from 10s. to 12s. ; youngsters tailing cattle and sheep, 4s. to 8s. per week ; teamsters, 20s. to 30s. ; hay- harvesters, 25s. to 35s.; all \\ith board and lodging. JMisCELLANEOUS. — Fencers, post and 3-wire fence, £10 to ITS STATISTICS. 389 £20 per mile ; do,, j)er rod, three-rail, 2s. to 3s. ; wire do., 4s. to 7s. ; cabmen, 20s. to 30s. per week with, board and lodging ; busmen, 35s. to 40s. per week without board ; labourers, Gs. to 8s. per diem without board and lodging ; ostlers, 20s. to 25s. per week with board and lodging. Sawyers, logs at pit, 13s. per 100. Average Wages of Miners. — Moonta District — Miners, per week, eight hours' shift, £2 2s. ; breaksmen do., none employed ; engineers, from £1 16s. to £2 15s. ; tribute, £1 18s. to £2 5s.; on contract, from £1 16s. to £2; owners' account, 5s. 6d. per day. Scale of Kations per Week — 10 lbs. flour, 12 lbs. meat, 2 lbs. sugar, ^ lb. tea. pracES OP PROVISIONS. The following are the current quotations in Adelaide, as taken from the public prints, of live stock, farm and garden produce, provisions, groceries, &c. : — Wholesale, Flour, Grain, &c. Flour, fine silk-dressed, por ton of 2000 lbs., at £ s. d. £ s. d. the Port, baj;s Included 11 to 11 5 Ditto ditto, country brand 10 5 „ 11 AVheat, per bushel of GO lbs., larj;o lots, at the Port (old) 5 — Ditto ditto (new) 4 8 „ 4 9 Bran, per bushel Bark, "Wattle, ground Ditto, ditto,^ chopped Bauk. per ton per ton 7 5 10 to G Tallow. Tallow, Beef, for Export Ditto, Mutton, ditto per ton 32 per ton 34 Wool. Washed Greasy Wine (Colonial) Good sound Colonial Wine of Inst year's vintage, for large quan- tities in bulk Superior ditto Colonial Spirits, in bond Basils Colonial Calf... Ditto Kip Ditto Sole Ditto Kangnrno Ditto Wallabv per lb. 11 to 1 2 per lb. 7 ., S per gall. 1 fi to 4 per gall. 5 ., 10 p£'r gall. 3 G — Leather. per doz. 15 to 1 per lb. 4 »> 5 6 per lb. 2 3 9? 2 6 per lb. 1 2 1 7 per doz. 1 15 »> 4 per lb. 12 14 Copper. Wallaroo Burra ... Horses, Draught Ditto, Liglit ... Bullocks. Fat... per ton 82 0' per ton 82 TiivE Stock. 30 to 12 „ 10 „ 45 20 15 Sheep, Fat Wethers, 12s. to 17.s., according to season. IIetail Farm and Dairy I'noDUCE. Quotations: — Bread and Flour — Bread, 'ihl. to 3M. per 2-lb. loaf; do., aiirated, 3'/. 2-lb. loaf ; flour, l.VZ. to 2(7. per lb. Bntdior's meat — Beef, 4d. to Sd. per lb.; mutton, 2d. to M.; lamb, 2s. r,ij. to ^x. Gr/. perquaitcr; pork, 7^/. to 8(Z. ; veal, 5(Z. to 8fZ. Dairy produce — Bacon, Is. to Is. 2d. per lb.; butter, fresh, Is. 2d.; do., salted, l.s'. 2d.; cheese, Ik.; eggs, !.«. per dozen; fowls, 5s. per pair; ducks, (is. to Gs. GfZ. per pair; geese, G.«. each; hams, Is. 2d. per lb. : honev. 5^. per lb.; lard. Is. jier lb.; milk, id. to Od. per ((uart ; pigeons. Is. 3J. to Is. ryl. per pair; rabbits, tame. Is. each ; wild do., l.s'. per pair; turkeys, Gs. to 10s. each. ITS STATISTICS. o9I Groceries. Tea, 2s. to 2s. 6(1. per lb. ; sugar, 3d. to ild. per lb. ; coffee, Is. Gd. per lb. ; rice, 3d. to 5d. per lb. ; salt, Id. per lb. ; tobacco, 4s. to 4s. Gd. ; soap, 3d. to id. per lb. Hay Market. Best wheaten hay, £4 10s. per ton; good mixed do., £3 15s. East-End Market. Vegetables — Beans (broad), 28. to 2s. Gd. per bushel ; beans (French), Is. 3d. to 2s. per dozen lbs. ; beetroot, Is. to Is. Gd. per dozen ; cabbages, Is. Gd. to 4s. per dozen; do. (Savoys), 2s. to 3s. per dozen; capsicums, Is. to Is. 3d. per lb. ; carrots, Is. Gd. to 2s. per dozen bunches; cauliflowers, 3s. to 5s. per dozen; celery, 4s. to 6s. per dozen heads ; chillies. Is. to Is. 3d. per lb. ; horse-radish, Gd. to lOd. per lb. ; garlic, id. to Gd. per lb. ; lettuces, Gd. to Is. 3d. per dozen ; marjoram, Gd. to 8rf. per dozen bunches ; mint, Gd. per dozen bunches ; onions, 6s. Gd. to 8s. Gd. per cwt. ; parsnips, Is. Gd. to 2s. Gd. per dozen bunches ; peas, 3s. to 4s. per bushel; potatoes, 4s. Gd. to 5s. per cwt.; radishes, Gd. to 8d. per dozen bunches; do. (turnip), Gd. to Sd. per dozen bunches; rhubarb, 2s. to 3s. per dozen lbs. ; sage, Gd. to Sd. per dozen bunches ; shalots, id. to Gd. per lb. ; thyme, Gd. to 8d. per dozen bunches; tomatoes. Is. Gd. to 2s. per dozen lbs.; trombones, 4s. to 7s. per dozen ; turnips, Is. Gd. to 2s. per dozen bunches ; vegetable marrows, Is. Gd. to 3s. per dozen ; watercress, Gd. to 8d. per dozen bunches; cucumbers, Gd. to 3s. per dozen. Fruit — Almonds (green), 2d. per lb. ; do. (hprd-shell), 2d. per lb. ; do. (soft-shell), Gd. per lb. ; do. (cracked), 8d. per lb. ; apples, Is. Gd. to 3s. Gd. per bushel; apricots, 20s. to 22s. per cwt. ; do., 2d. to Gd. per dozen ; Barcelona nuts, 7s. per dozen lbs. ; citrons, 15s. per cwt. ; damsons, 2s.'Gd. to 3s. per bushel ; figs, 2d. to Gd. per dozen ; gooseberries (Cape), dd. to lOd. per lb. ; grapes. Is. Gd. to 2s. per doz^n lbs. ; lemons, 9d. to 2s. per dozen; melons (water), 15s. to 18s. per cwt.; nectarines, 2d. to 3d. per dozen ; oranges, Is. to 2s. Gd. per dozen ; peaches, 2d. to Gd. per dozen ; pears, 2s. Gd. to 4s. per bushel; plums, 3s. to 4s. per bushel; strawberries, Gd. to 8d. per lb. Dairy produce — Bacon, lOd. per lb.; do. (green), '3d. per lb.; butter (fresii), 10(7. to Is. per lb. ; cheese (English), Is. Gd. to Is. Sd. per lb.; do. (colonial), 7rf. to 8d. per lb.; dairy pork. Sd. per lb.; ducks, 4s. to 4s. Gd. per jjair; eggs, lid. to Is. per dozen ; fowls, 3s. Gd. to 4s. per pair ; geese, 4s. to 4s. Gd. eacli ; ham, is. to Is. Id. per lb. ; lard, dd. per lb. ; turkeys, 5s. to 9s. each. Miscellaneous — Beeswax, lOd. to Is. 2d. per lb.; colonial wine, 2s. to Gs. per gallon; colonial jam, r)d. to 7d. per lb. ; flowers, 2d. to Is. per bunch ; honey, .32s. to 34s. pei cwt. ; rabbits, Ls. to Is. Gd. per pair; pigeons, Is. 3(7. to Is. Gd. per pair. The rent of a dwelling suitable for an artisan and his family in Adelaide or the immediate suburbs varies from six to fifteen shillings per week, but in the country towns the rate is less. Large numbers of artisans, however, reside in their own freehold cottages. The savings of a few years have in many instances sufficed to enable them to accomplish this. Land is cheap, and the necessary advances for the erection of dwellings are readily obtainable from the several Building Societies. Cottages, with fuel and water, are provided for ploughmen, shepherds, and other labourers employed on farms 392 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. or shecp-nins. The lolli >\\ in i,^ arc (quoted rates for house rent and for lioard and hxh^iiiLi-: — House Rent. Two rooms, 4s. to (jx.; three rooinw, Gk. to lOs. ; fmn- lomns. S.<. to 15s.; six rooms, 12s. to 'J5s. free from taxes; siii<;le room, 2s. (jd. ; ilitt -tl -tl 1-0 uo -H -H ir: ■uns m -ti cr> CO -H ^.4 CO ^ Ci -tl 3 jsaiiSin liinpv ■■^ 10 -tl f— 1 r: CM 1—1 irj CO CO 1.0 -0 1.0 CO -1 (M rH r-H t> 00 I— 1 rH T-H C5 (M CO •uns 10 -*l C5 ,_, CO 1-H 1> tH 1-1 CO ui ^saqSiji UB9H CO I— 1 CO I— 1 CO I— 1 Oi 1-H 1-H r-( i-H cq (M I-H i-H CO t-l CM y—l ■U0I)1!.I CO Tf< t> 00 CO 00 CO CM CO CO -nd8.\a JO 3iui _ ^^ rj cr> (M t^ C5 -H -H |> •^=5 -L'i9dlUaX UKJIVI CO iO LO -tl ■^ LO UO boe papaaaxa •duiax S'.iC"a r> i—i IM TjH CO -H JO "0^ 82Bi8AV -H C5 CO t^ r-l t^ rH ^ Ci -tl r-^ CO 1^ CO o IBuaniQ; UBdj\[ CO Ci CO -t< -tl l^ ~n CM C-1 CM C-l CO •■jqStK Sni-inp -* »o 00 1-1 ■*! I— 1 CM CO I-H CO "5 "3 }sa.\\o'i UBai\[ CO CO CO 10 -+1 10 t- 1-H -tl CO 10 0^1 uo •Xr^d atn Suunp '^^ CO 00 (M ■* 00 CO -^ I> CO 'tl >* >> ^sauSjH ui!ai\[ CO ■X) 00 -+1 CJ3 CO CO 00 CM CO CO CO -f 00 CO 00 CO y. H P CH -H CM r-l CO 1-H Ci uo CM Ed •lanmiutit t^ t^ CO ^ CO r^ -H -tl 10 CO CO -H -tl -f TtH tH CO CO CO CO CO CO -tl -tl CO 10 00 o- CO 10 i> 10 10 o •tunraixcj\[ CO t^ CO 00 CO CM •*! CO CM CO ^ 1— < 1-H uo r^ r^ 00 00 rH rH I-H '"' ■"I " I-H 1-H "-I ^_l t^ c» 1—1 CO (M '^ t- C5 UO 10 -+I CO cc Ttl CO tH ,_, CO CO CM _, CO l^ l- I- 10 10 10 CO CO l^ CO -0 iCi r- -n CO ^ 00 CO t> CO ^ ^ CO Oi CO l-H Ci CM 00 13 •1S3M0T IM •^ TTl CO T—l I— 1 1-H Ci C3 CM -tl (X) CO B •K'v 6 'uwaiv; X Ci C5 C5 Ci 00 00 a C5 Ci C3 C5 Ci C5 Ci . CM (M Oi CO CO CM CO CM CM CM CM CM CM : : ^ : b' .s >% >. rJO S a 5 g < c? 2 a S (13 1 i 6i g 53 CJ ci 394 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. From which the following hygrometric results arc de- duced : — TeniptTiitiire Elastic Force r)cKree of of Dew I'oiiit. of Viipour. Humidity. Degrees. Indies. (Saturation = 100.) Junuary ... o2-8 0-400 48 Fcbrimi y . . . ... r)i5-0 0-40.^> 48 Maicli ... ol-l 0-377 51 April ... r)0-2 0-3U3 fJO May ... 47-lt 0-335 07 June ... 40-3 313 74 J Illy ... 44-0 0-289 77 Aujjust ... 45-0 0-298 73 JSeptcmhor ... 4(5-0 0-310 ()(> October ... 47:{ 0-32G 57 Novoinber ... ... 49-a 0-352 54 Decenibor ... ... so-i 0-3G2 47 Year ... ... 48-3 CONCLUSION. 0-338 GO The general statistical table, appended hereto, gives the principal items of information, illustrating the progress of South Australia from its foundation. In glancing at this retrospect, one cannot fail to recognize the great success that has attended the enterprise of a handful of Englishmen, who, without adventitious aid, have, during a single generation, established a flourishing community, reproducing most of the social and material advantages of the Jlother Country, and much of old world civilization, conducive to the happiness and prosperity of a jjcople. Fifty thousand men, supporting thrice their nundjer of women and children, occupy two hundred thousand square miles of pastoral country, and possess six millions of sheep ; own six million acres of land, and grow twelve million bushels of wheat; conduct an external com- merce of nine millions sterling, and raise one million of revenue. Such is the material result shown in the thirty- ninth voar of the colonization of South Australia. PROVINCE —J'. Other Crops i02 n ts £2,406,251 remains on crcdl ea alienated, 6,283,881 £ Acres. 9,619 16,345 18,896 22,143 29,840 88,458 99,326 113,157 100,604 144,620 130,369 147,965 170,747 162,846 168,555 176,542 213,929 254,336 289,331 298,122 329,915 Horses. 480 800 1,060 890 1,560 1,576 2,000 6,488 10,184 22,260 26,220 34,629 40,471 49,399 52,597 56,251 59,008 62,899 73,993 70,829 74,228 75,409 73,828 83,744 78,125 82,215 87,455 93,122 Minerals. 127 6,436 19,020 143,231 174,017 320,624 219,775 365,464 310,916 374,778 176,744 94,831 155,557 408,042 458,839 373,282 411,018 446,537 452,172 547,619 542,393 691,624 620,112 824,501 753,413 624,022 627,152 574,090 648,569 806,364 770,590 700,323 762,386 SHIPPING, Inwards & Outwards. I Numl)!'..' Tonnage. RAIN- FALL. 425 197 150 104 139 225 278 301 412 549 559 538 739 869 947 711 867 970 741 792 662 788 766 886 1,236 1,220 1,039 1,136 903 1,112 916 1,238 1,033 1,531 1,440 1,634 !,592 83,787 37,036 25,354 15,533 18,489 26,558 49,509 62,641 90,956 155,920 174,455 155,002 202,507 260,917 290,534 225,923 230,390 282,368 192,391 216,128 209,036 199,331 216,521 255,493 321,388 357,290 339,871 343,819 277,872 333,507 287,989 373,624 347,360 515,040 534,550 611,381 19-84 24-23 17-96 20-32 17-19 16-88 18-83 26-89 27-61 19-74 25-44 19-51 30-63 27-34 27 15-35 23-15 24-02 21-16 21-52 14-85 19-67 25-19 22-84 22-92 19-45 14-75 19-94 19-35 17-88 13-85 24-1 23-5 23-17 21-6 19-14 31-45 YEAK. 1836 1837 1838 1839 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1846 1847 1848 1849 1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 1856 1857 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 STATISTICAL VIEW SHOWING THE PROGRESS OF TEE PROVINCE OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA SINCE ITS FOUNDATION. „ „..™. MAIL IlTUICr.A. ..,.^™a™. LTCBE, uv.s™,,. -.OK. »o«ro„r T„». sr.....™c..«o.,K., wS" -oT..^ ..„ --!-- ™», ...... ...„,. ffiS" WW.. ^7 0.,^,.. HOOM. 0.lllt. SLk[., ".„„:.^ i.;r ...». ..„,. ^^.. w„,. >„„„.. ...... ?ia. £ £ Acrcj, AtlM. AtlM. ACfM. 1 £ £ £ £ £ ; £ £ lDeli».~ " 1836 412 1 134 60 915 - [ 9 1836 1837 ~ 18S7 6.000 S3 2,600 167,682 0.442 826 96,186 120 800 108;700 350 1840 30 618 15 565 151665 2.503 1,060 8,740 725 83.787 24-23 18)1 89,999 392:995 288 348 35,485 17-96 18U H3 70 404 68,134 1,560 26,000 j 300,000 319 75 248 1,213 24 1,676 331,000 80 858 160 1814 26 022 61666 6,436 1815 :!•'?? HI 49 658 3331278 184 819 19.020 26,558 1815 2,000 66!986 681)374 330 099 312 838 i": , ™ 5oa 311 7:664 i.mS 48;3S i;?™ - - 888;S94 1 465 Ss - 98 :,'.'»' J .■ ■ - ,:, \mi 1,002:371 1 588 648 - i;,.i ' " UtI; 1?? '?:«! e'n:- 64:728 4i;s07 13,302 9,619 6,188 60_[034 984;i90 572 570 817 54S Sra 73 35I i48:i'ijn 1851 \m V'S 4::;iui. " ,|' !.n - r - - - - - ., -.^.I --.r.'. t 7..7 7.M "■": "::!; 212 144' 230:020 ra:7ii sS, isw 18H !)2'.MS 89.945 23,402 10.184 74.220 18SS 236 HM,708 fiS.Ohti ■20R,423 162.011 o. 13.896 22,260 272,746 .062,4611 556 371 412,163 867 230.390 24-02 1857 !S' "■■:'' ■ ,17-; l.^.^M ■■'■■'■'^ "■'■'° V(.,220 310,400 1 2,075,805 f--"^ ■:"■■■ 77.5.... '"''■™ 4..»,sSll 71° i;7''';i ''1 1 1858 f ': ::^! ',';a! l!031 i:i52 .V27 111 7.:; 2787205 265.434 2,824,811 3.038.356 i's'l i ':::': 'V ;; ;:;^ 1862 1803 1866 '"J" '''-S4 ^ C-"l (M o5 CO -tl Ci o c^ o o (M CO O (M Ci 00 1 '1"".^ T~ — no lS3A\0-[ lll.)l\; CO CO ^M 1^ CO .~( 00 oo o -ti 1- 'O • ^ i-O -* -f -f CO •*! -f -+i ■* o CO (M CO o l^ -+I IQ -t< -tt ".O o o •line; HI -t< 00 ira o -H "O ,-^ o 00 _i o C5 "t }Sitir;![i imnoy ■~o IQ CO T'l fM CO " ■^i l.O CO (M _ rt 1- X ^ CO ^ o ^ c:i (M CO r^ •ans lO -H O ^ a _( CO ,_, 1- -H C5 CO o in isonSjii uBdj^ CO l-H CO CO (M o o r-i -^ 1-H l-H !M l-H IM ■UOflBJOdtJAJ to 00 •*! l> 00 CO 00 CO (M CO O CO l-H JO 3JUI ^ ^ (T5 o (>J o r^ (75 ^ t^ C5 lO -. -u.iodtuax u<-'ajt ■o06 popaa.ixa o « lO >« i-O ".O -ti -tl o 4.01 »o ■dmax s.Cu(i o o I- -^ o o o o !M -n JO -0^ oSlUJAV CO •aSuTTjj -n 05 CO t- r-, o o l-H ^ a ^ l-H ^ CO 05 CO l-H I— 1 I— 1 1-H OS l-H (M Its © CO •Hl3i»^ Suunp O -* »o OD rH -n r-i (M CO l-H CO t- c ■JSJAVOI UBaj^ » 00 in LO O 1> O 4< CO to E a •;Cb([ 0111 Siiijnp -H CO 00 lO (M -# 00 CO tH o t> 00 •^ ^ IsailSlH uiow O i r—i 'ti CJ3 1—1 on fN CO ■* 00 CO CO c CO 00 00 t^ CO CO o CO CO I> l> 00 t- l-H >n m Ci o o (N I— 1 CO l-H OJ no iM ■iuniU!ii!i\r ,^ h- o ^ on r^ ^ -tl »c 00 o CO -tl TtH '^t^ 'ti 'tl CO CO CO CO CO CO ^ '^^ CO >-z O OD o CO o >« o t> o >o o • m •iuum!\\:)\; CO o 1- -/) r/) CO 0<) o -H o CO w CO O Ci OO r^ 1^ oo 00 o l-H - ,, '^ -H I-H i.O l-H l-H CO ^ « (M o t- C5 o •UBO]J -:^ CO o -H rn -H ^H CO CO (N CO ^^ CO 1 I- l^ I- :o lO lO o iC CO CO t- CO l.O 1- o tl CO ^ 00 o CO t^ CO lO CO -t< -^ CO o CO C2 CO 05 o r>i 05 C5 •3 "tSO.ttOI I-J CO -f 'tl CO rH l-H o IM (M l-H O ^ C5 o C5 C5 o o C5 o c:5 CJ C5 C5 1?; ITJ J C^ (>< !M Oi !M Oi a^ CN OJ l '>i CO CO c^ CO o i ITS OBSEEVATOEY AND METEOEOLOGY. 407 Resclt of the Mean Monthly Eaixfall at Adelaide durixg the Thirty-six Years 1839-1874. Months. !Mean. Mei\n No. of W( t Greate=t. Least. Mean Evapora- tion Days. Five Years. January Indies. 0-722 4 4-000 0-000 Inches. 10-641 February 0-G70 3 3-100 0-000 8-802 March ... 0-881 5J 3-753 0-000 7-608 April ... 1-760 8J 6-780 0-250 4-474 Ma y 2-814 13 6-340 0-690 2-902 June 2-915 14 7-800 1-138 1-795 July 2-801 16 5-380 0-726 1-959 Augu.st ... 2-621 16 6-240 0-675 2-667 September - 2-071 13J 4-640 0-711 3-427 October ... 1-739 10 3-834 0-460 5-981 November . 1-203 5 3-550 0-100 6-979 December • 0-894 o.i 3-977 0-105 9-420 21-091 114 — — 66-655 From wliich the following liygrometric results are de- duced : — Temperature ot Dew Point. Elastic Force of Vapour. Degree of Humility. Degrees. ; Indies. (Saturation = 100.) January February . . 52-8 58-0 0-400 0-405 48 48 March 51-1 0-377 51 April 50-2 0-363 60 May June 47-9 46-3 0-335 0-313 67 74 July August 44-0 45-0 0-289 0-298 77 73 September . . October 46-0 47-3 0-310 0-326 66 57 November .. 49-3 0-352 54 December .. 50-1 0-362 47 Year 48- 0-.338 60 408 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. For purjioscs of comparison, tlie following table gives the mean temperature at Adelaide, Clare, Mount Barker, Mount Gambier, and Kobe ; also the maximum and minimum for the year 1874. - ct X r. " :- _ _ y: ^ x -. X = 3 CO (M (M i-l CO IM C5 o CO cc o C^l 03 1 (O O «o o w un •>tl lO »o lO CO CO o 1 (M (M o 00 CO in (M O 05 •o ^H m o ,_l CO t^ (>] CO '^ o o O lO in o -<*H ■*! o o o CO o o o o o »+< o 00 i-O o o o o o • -f O -H (N o CO o -H _l CO Ift ^H .^a -S 1^ o Ci CI cc 1^ CO CO 1^ r^ C5 CO o o Q f— 1 o ^ ^ r^ o o O Ci 1- CO CO 1^ CO crj cyj o o 3 t—i 1— • S J o 1^ O GO 00 m o o o o CO o o < c o ^ M (M ^ <-. o 'M (M -fl (M o is, Tt< ■*! ■«*< M CO CO (M N CO CO CO ^ t- , o o ■* CO '*l uo (M o lO o CO l-H -f o lO -+I ,_, C2 1^ OO ,_c (M CO CO o " t> t~ CO CO o "+1 ■*! ■* »o CO do (M 00 »o OO ^ 00 o o o o o b . s o OO •^ OO CO lO CO -H r- r^ CO Ifl o o 1 C5 05 00 t- CO CO l-~ co 00 1—1 o o o o o o o o o o o o o < CO in »o o t^ >o 00 ,_( CO 00 Oi CO OO )S ■* ■* ■* -^ CO CO (>J CO -t< CD -t< -n 00 t> TfH CO lO OO r-. O-l o Ol CO (M Tt< (M ^H 4 5 - l^ b CO 1--; lO •^ lO tn o 1—1 « o CO o o o o CO CO o J-t o l-H CO .*! o O 05 t^ CO CO t^ t^ a a> o r-< on -H o CO o CO CO -+• ■^ o >o •*! ■* ■<*< CO CO CO CO ■^ ■*! -f c >> >1 '' • 1 3 o "a eS S 1^ o o 3Q a o Cj o ;>H ITS OBSERVATOEY AND METEOEOLOGY. 409 From the foregoing it will be seen that the barometer is highest during the winter months, Avhen the air in the interior is cold and dense, and winds set towards the coast ; and lowest during the summer, when the atmosphere in the heated interior becomes rarified, and the winds have a general set inwards from the coast, the monthly means ranging from 29"809 inches in December to 30*020 in July. The mean reading for each quarter for the decennial period was — or for January February March April May June July Aiigust September October November December Six summer months Six winter months 29-884 inclies. "30-003 inches. 29-978 inches. 29-877 inches. ... 29-880 inches. ... 29-991 inches. The highest reading during the ten years was 30*533 inches, in June 1873, and the lowest 29*096 inches, in September 1867. The fluctuations of the barometer are greatest during the winter months, as shown by the following table, which exhibits the range of the barometer in each month during the ten years 1865 to 1874, the greatest range in any one month being 1*379 inches, which occurred in August 1870, and the least range, 0*474 inches, in January 1865. Range of the Barometeu in each Month dl-ring the Ten Years 1865-1874. Months. 1863. 1866. 1867. 18U8. 1869. 1870. 1871. 1^72. 1873. 1874. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inclies. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Jan. ... 0-474 0-547 0-736 0-536 0-679 0-877 0-589 0-802 0-521 0-666 Feb. ... 0-719 0-716 0-754 0-788 0-573 0-575 0-614 0-637 0-674 0-590 March 0-642 0-761 0-642 0-597 0-766 0-510 0-539 0-477 0-662 0-792 April... 0-693 0-631 0-690 0-958 0-665 0-663 0-549 0-735 0-709 0-559 Wiiy ... 0-818 0-929 0-741 0-669 0-727 0-960 0-834 1-032 0-840 1-060 June... 0-722 0-90t 0-794 1 • 097 0-794 1-037 0-728 I'lie 1-084 0-900 July... 1-231 0-777 0-964 1-019 0-801 0-721 1-145 1-057 0-836 0-725 August 0-894 l-0»8 1-U3 0-827 0-748 1-379 0-768 1-067 0-828 0-849 Sept. ... 0-662 0-«43 1-125 0-853 0-759 0-691 0-942 0-583 0-769 0-944 Oct. ... 0-889 1-079 0-916 0-686 0-957 0-943 0-818 0-808 0-762 0-798 Kov. ... 0-715 0-725 0-831 0-692 0-794 0-682 0-740 0»702 0-553 0-698 Dec. ... 0-807 0-6.-i5 0-540 0-598 0-816 0-808 0-729 0-681 0-914 0-738 410 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. The mean, tlic greatest, and least laimc of the barometer deduced iVom the foregoini:- tahlr is as follows: — Sleai) Riingo. (jrontPft liaiigo. Least Range. Jiiclio.-:. Inches. Inches. Jnnvmiy ... 0(;:!i7 0-S02 in 1872 0-474 in 18G5 Febiuarv ... OiUiiO 0-7SS in 1S(;S 0-.^)7:^ in 1869 March ... 0(;:;ss 0-7'.t2 in 1S74: 0-477 in 1872 April... ... ()C,S.")2 O-'.ioS in 187:5 0-549 in 1865 May ... ... ((SCIO l-OGO in 187-t 0-669 in 1868 June ... ... ()-:i-j-jt; 1-116 in 1872 0-722 in 1865 July ... ... ();)27(i 1-281 in 18G;) 0-721 in 1870 August ... ((•'.•."ii;i l-;579 in 1870 0-768 in 1871 Scjittniber ... (tsiTI 1-125 in 1867 0-(;(;2 in 1870 October ... OSiJ.'tC 1-079 in 18(;(J 0-686 in 1868 Novcnilier ... 0-71:^2 0-8:^1 in 1807 0-55:^ in 1873 December ... o-7:iiu 0-914 in 187:5 0-540 in 1867 The barometer usually rises as the wind, except iu the case of mere local land and sea breezes, veers from north-west round by south to south-east, where it attains its maximum, falling as it goes gradually round by north to north-west, where it reaches its minimum. In the winter gales, when the wdnd clings to west and backs to north-west, the barometer falls, and bad weather may be looked for ; and in the summer, when it holds to the north-east, with a falling barometer, a hot wind is certain. Sir G. S. Kingston, the Speaker of the House of Assembly, whose experience of the colony extends from its first settlement in 1830, and who has kept with scrupulous care a record of the rainfall since the beginning of 1839, speaking of weather prognostics in an elaborate parliamentary paper on the rain- fall of Adelaide, remarks that — '• Tlie heaviest rains throughout the year may be expected with a wind at about north-east, tlie rain then commencing to fall gently and the wind light, both gradually increasing as the latter veers round to the north, and thence to the north-west, when the violence of both rain and wind has much increased ; after this the wind may be expected to draw round to the west with still increasing violence, till the wind has got to the south of west, when the rain generally ceases, or at least rarely falls, except in heavy squalls and showers, and the weather clears uj). The time occupied by a continuous fall of rain, as thus described, rarely exceeds twelve hours. The wind will, however, frequently hang at about west, with a few points' variation to the south ITS OBSERYATOEY AND METEOROLOGY. 411 and north, for some days, during which period rain occurs in showers if to the south, and more steadily in proporti(jn to the northing of the wind. The heaviest rains, assuming a tropical character, may be expected after a hot north-east wind, drawing- round to the north-west, at which point an inch of rain and upwards has often fallen within the hour, accompanied with heavy thunder and lightning ; or, as in October 1854, the rain is represented by tremendous hailstorms, the hail assuming the form of flat pieces of ice. " As regards the use of the barometer in forming a judgment on the weather to be expected, I have to observe that the barometer invariably begins to fall with a north-east wind, continuing to fall as the wind increases in violence, and draws round by the north, north-west, and westerly, at and about which point it reaches it lowest figure ; the barometer im- mediately begins to rise rapidly with the least southing in the wind. Now, although a low barometer thus agrees with the heaviest fall of rain, it is impossible to draw any accurate con- clusions from it as to certainty of rain or otherwise ; unless, indeed, when the wind is violent, as then, even with every appearance of heavy cloudy weather, rain rarely occurs. Calm, murky weather, accompanied by a low state of the barometer, is the most favourable indication for rain. " I have frequently seen the barometer at its lowest point (as observed by me), 29*3, the wind blowing hard, accompanied by cloudy weather, when no rain has fallen. On the other hand, I have known some of the steadiest and most copious rains to occur with the barometer at 30*2 and falling, the wind light or nearly calm. " I may add that, generally during the fine weather, a land and sea breeze alternates during the twenty-four hours. After sunset the wind generally blows from about south-east to cast, dying away about daylight ; and a light south-west wind springs up about 9 A.M. ; but, failing to do so, the night wind towards morning draws round from east to north-east, by north to north-west, and west towards the afternoon ; and, should it hang to the north of east, with a falling barometer, it is a certain precursor of a hot wind. 412 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. "It may not he uninteresting to add hero that whereas Sydney was visited Ly tremendous storms and floods from the 19th to the end of July 18G0, yet during that period the weather here was unusually fine for the time of year ; that the barometer was, during all that time, above oO inches, and very steady, oscillating slightly each day, its whole range not exceeding 0*2 ; the wind was very light from S.E. to N.E. and N.W., and that I did not record a drop of rain all that time — an unjirecedented event at that period of the year." It may be added that the changes or fluctuations of the barometer have almost invariably a progressive march, speak- ing roughly, from west to east, the maximum and minimum occurring in Western Australia, from two to four days in advance of Adelaide, where they are noted from 12 to 24 hours before Melbourne, and about 24 to 40 hours before Sydney and Brisbane. The winds during the summer tend generally on all sides towards the heated interior, which may be roughly described as a vast plain broken by a few ranges, none of which are of any height or magnitude ; on the south coast, the wind being S.E. and S., varied by occasional S.W. gales, following a hot wind from the K.E. and K. ; whilst during the winter, as will be presently seen, N.E. and northerly winds preponderate. On the east coast it is S.E., E., and N.E., whilst further north and round the north coast the north-west monsoon, for some months before and after the summer solstice, presses down south with varying force, often making itself felt as far south as the MacDonnell Ranges on the southern edge of the tropics in the centre of the continent. Xorth of the IMacDonnell Ranges the winds at this the summer season are variable, S.E. and N.W. winds alternating with calms ; and heavy electrical storms with rain prevail \\ith increasing intensity northwards to the coast. South of the MacDonnell Ranges S.E. winds pre- vail during the greater part of the year, but in the summer they are often influenced by the N.W. tropical current, and then, veering to the N.E. and N., will sweep over South Australia as a hot wind, the birthplace of which seems to be, speaking approximately, somewhere about latitude 26". Our ITS OBSEEVATOEY AND IVIETEOEOLOGY. 413 experience of the climate of the interior of Australia is, as yet, liut limited, but the stations on the Great Overland Telegraph now furnish accurate daily reports of the weather, direction of wind, upper currents, and rainfall. These reports show that the prevailing wind, except during the middle of the summer, is S.E. I have long been of opinion that the southerly dip of the monsoon largely influences the climate of South Australia proper, as well as that of Victoria. In seasons of drought, or when the summer in the interior is dry, the north-west monsoon Tains thin off, and barely reach the centre in occasional storms. But when the monsoon is strong, and blows well home, the tropical rains and thunderstorms will stretch right across the continent well into the northern country of South Australia to within about two or three hundred miles of Adelaide ; and occasionally these tropical rains will reach the south coast. A w^et season in the interior will probably coincide with a hot summer in South Australia and Victoria ; whilst a cool summer, when strong polar currents keep the temperature down, and the south-east winds are powerful, will denote or coincide with a dry summer in the interior, and a weak N.W. monsoon. The winter rains of the south, it may be remarked, thin off about three or four degrees north of Adelaide, rarely pene- trating to lat. 28° ; and summer rains are not to be depended upon far south of the tropics. Between those parallels is a wide belt of five or six degrees having an uncertain rainfall, •subject to droughts, very seldom getting rain during the ■winter, but mostly depending on summer thunderstorms, the frequency and intensity of which, it is not improbable, may be found closely to coincide with the magnetic cycle of eleven and a quarter years, which is believed to determine the fre- quency of aurorae, magnetic storms, and solar spots. This, of course, is only conjectural, and is not to be accepted till proved by increased experience. At present we have little or no data. It is, however, remarkable that Mr. Meldrun, the Government Observer at the Mauritius, has recently expressed an opinion that the cyclones of that latitude are found to coincide with the period or cycle referred to. 414 SOUTH AUSTltALTA. It may ami vcvv jdobably ^\ill be found to be that, ^vllile the ^v(■t siumner.s in tlit; north and interior taper off to a dronght, each succeeding- year as a uhoh' becoming drier and drier, the drought will break np stKhlcidy with a heavy down- pour, and yet the electrical storms in regard to their frequency, and the seasons in regard to their general rainfall, may co- incide more or less approximately with the so-called magnetic cycle. Be this as it may, an idea of this possible coincidence, floating as it were in my mind, induced me, in 1870, to expect that we should have a continuance of favourable seasons in the interior for carrying out the overland telegraph, of which advantage should be taken; and it has strangely happened that, since the completion of that undertaking in 1872, up to which time the rains were ample, the summers have got liraduallv drier, and the drought has slowly extended south- ward. The last drought in the north was in 1865, Avhen the country for hundreds of miles was a desert, bare of feed, and strewed with the bones of dead animals, the settlers losing- many thousands of cattle and sheep. This was followed by a succession of good seasons, and in 1870, 1871, and 1872, copious rains fell over the whole of the interior. How far the drought of 1865 extended north, I have no means of knowing, as we had then no telegraph, and it was not till the beginning of 1874 that the rainfall was regularly recorded ; but the seasons following- 1872, south of 19° or 20^ south latitude, became drier, and in 1875, and up to the present date, February 1876, very liittle rain fell between the 24th and 30th parallels, and even farther south. And the country north of Spencer's Gulf, especially on the east side of tlio hlinders Range, is now suffering- somew^hat from drought, ^\hi(•h extends eastward to Queensland and New- South "NN'alos. But to be forewarned is to be forearmed. If man cannot alter the laws of Nature, a correct knowledge of them often serves to mitigate tlieir effects where ignorance would invite disaster. Our large stockowners are not likely to suffer to the same extent in any future drought. Coincidently with this dry season in tlie north, tlu' southern portion of the ITS OBSEEVATOEY AND METEOEOLOGY. 415 Colony, embracing the whole of the agricultnrul districts, say south of Mount Kemarkable, was favoured with rains throughout the year 1875 considerably in excess of the average. The distribution of rain seems somewhat capricious, and places not far apart will often show a very different rainfall, where local causes are apparently insufficient to explain the large difference in the yearly average. Speaking generally, the average annual rainfall on the plains of Adelaide, west of the ranges, for about 100 miles north, is about 18 to 21 inches, the mean at Adelaide for the 36 years 1839 to 1874 being, as we have seen, 21*091 inches. On the Mount Lofty Kanges it is much more, the average at Mount Lofty for the 10 years 1865-74 being 40-677 inches ; at Charleston, 32-981 ; Mount Barker, towards the eastern verge of the range, 29-906 ; Gumeracha, 32-269 ; whilst at Mount Eemarkable, about 180 miles north of Adelaide, immediately round the Mount, it is 24-465 inches. On the eastern side of the Mount Lofty Eanges, and along the valley of the Murray, the rainfall is less than on the Adelaide plains, being at Strathalbyn, immediately at the foot of the ranges, 18-652 inches. At Montura, on the plains about 10 miles to the east of the range, and near the northern shores of Lake Alexandrina, it is 15-876 ; at Goolwa, near the mouth of the Murray, 17-597 ; and at Blanchetown, one hundred miles in a direct line up the river, only 12-739 inches. In the south-east, at Robe (Guiehen Bay), 3Iount Gambler, Penola, and Naracoorte, the average annual rainfall, deduced from the same period (10 years 1865-74), is 25-581, 30-599, 28-026, and 22*775 inches respectively. On Yorke's Pen- insula it is less than at Adelaide, being only 13*016 inches at AVallaroo, and at the head of Spencer's Gulf, Port Augusta, it dwindles down to 9-218 inches. The table on page 407 shows the mean rainfall and tlie greatest and least quantities registered in each month during the thirty-six years 1839-1874, with respect to which I would here explain that })rior to 1857 I have availed myself of the valuable tables prepared by Sir George Kingston. As regards the monthly means, Sir George Kingston's results arc nearly 416 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. identical witli those I have given, but in some years there is a discrepancy in the totals which is probably due to heavy local showers and tl\e efVects of wind. Taking Sir George Kingston's the averatre in the followine: figures, the years :■ — • ill cxceeae led Iiiclips. Days. 1840 24-2y:{ 99 18Jt; 26-88.") 108 1847 27-«13 107 1849 2.T-444 110 1851 30-(JiiS 128 18.^2 27-34 118 1853 26-995 127 1855 23- 145 124 1856 24021 118 Inches. Dayp. 1858 21-522 107 1861 25-187 129 1862 22-844 114 1863 22-915 131 1870 24-100 132 1871 23-505 122 1872 23-155 130 1873 21-595 114 In 1875 the rainfall exceeded the average, the quantity registered at the Observatory being 28"964 in 157 days, and 31-455 inches by Sir George Kingston. The years in which the rainfall fell below the average were :- InchcR. Days 1839 ... ... 19-840 .. ... 102 1841 ... ... 17-95(J .. ... 93 1843 ... ... 17-192 .. ... 104 1S44 ... ... 16-878 ... ... 136 1845 ... ... 18-830 ... ... 124 1848 ... ... 19-735 ... ... 114: 1850 ... ... 19-.504 ... ... 88 1854 ... ... 15-346 ... ... 105 TnchoP. Days. 1859 14-852 95 1860 19-670 119 1864 19-445 109 1865 14-750 96 1866 19-935 115 1867 19-3.50 106 1868 17-880 103 1869 13-850 110 Sir George Kingston's tables show that the average yearly rainfall, arranged in periods of five years, was as follows : — 1839-1843 1844-1848 1849-1853 1854-1858 Inches. 19-907 21-9!S8 25 • 983 21-038 18.59-1863 1864-1868 1869-1873 Inches. 21-093 18-276 21-241 Or, divided into ])criods of seven years- AveraiXf for aeveii vearc;, 1839-1845 Ditto ditto 1846-1852 Ditto ditto 1853-18.59 Ditto (lilto 1860-1866 Ditto ditto 1867-1873 And— Average for ten years, 1839-1848 Ditto ditto 1849-1858 Ditto ditto 1859-1868 Inches. 19-321 25-307 21-005 '20-677 20-190 Inches. 20-940 23-510 19-828 ITS OBSEEVATOEY AND METEOEOLOGY. 417 The total rainfall in some years is unduly swelled by heavy storm rains falling during the summer ; the rains which are most valuable to the agriculturist are those which fall in the months of April, May, June, July, August, September, and October. I have, therefore, shown in the following table the rainfall recorded during those months in each year, from 1839 to 1875, using the Observatory records after 1856. Kainfall registered in Adelaide during the months of A^iril, May, June, July, August, September, and October in each year, from 1839 to 1874, both inclusive : — r.ainfall in Rainfall in Rainfall in Years. 7 months. Years. 7 months. Years. 7 months. Inches* Inches. Inches. 1839 14-436 1851 25-608 1863 20-345 1840 17-315 1852 22-480 1864 17-237 , 1841 14-163 1853 24-437 1865 13-716 1842 15-683 1854 13-050 1866 17-195 1843 13-952 1855 17-090 1867 16-206 1844 13-818 1856 20-094 1868 16 084 1845 15-481 1857 12-678 1869 10-253 1846 19-295 1858 12-650 1870 18-567 1847 22-920 1859 11-647 1871 14-926 1848 15-700 1860 14-696 1872 17-152 1849 22-089 1861 17-508 1873 17-169 1850 11-044 1862 19-484 1874 15-180 Mean quantity of rain registered in the seven niontlis, Apriljli^.^tj, . , May, June, July, Augvist, September, aud October, for 36 years/ '" On this subject. Sir George Kingston, who has been a careful observer since the foundation of the Colony, makes the following valuable remarks in an elaborate report on the rainfall of the Colony, laid before Parliainent last Session. " A careful examination of the rain register tables has induced me to consider the year as divided into three distinct periods or seasons — thus, during the first four months of the year, namely, January, February, Marcli and April, the average amount of rain is found to be 3*74 inches, or not quite one inch, per month. The next five months. May, June, July, August, and September, give an average amount of 13"361 2 E 418 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. inches, or 2*627 inches per month ; whih^ the last three mouths, October, XoYem})er, and Decemher, the rainfall may be expected to reach 4-004, or one and a third inch, per month. I am inclined to disrou^ard the nsual divisions of the year, and to call tlie live months, ]\[ay to Se])tcml)er, spring — (hiring this period are carried on all the most imj)ortant operations of tlu^ agriculturist and horticulturist, in sowing and planting. Tlie three months at the end of the year, October, November, and December, I regard as the summer f)r harvest months — during tliese months, our grain crops are generally secured on the plains, except on rare occasions, and in the hills, where the harvesting of grain extends into January. The tirst four months of the year, January, Feb- ruary, March, and April, as in the old country, following on the harvest, form, to a certain extent, the autumn of this part of the world — the vineyards and orchards then yielding their produce ; but, owing to the deficiency of rain, vegetation is very generally at a standstill. Want of moisture in tln^ atmosphere, accompanied by intense heat, putting a stop to vegetation, and baking the surface of the ground, has a some- what similar effect, in so far as agricultural pursuits are concerned, to that produced by the wet and frosts of the winters in England. " With reference to the inferences to be drawn from these tables, as to the beneficial influence of the rainfall at any period on agricultural or horticultural operations, I must observe that a mere inspection of the tables is of little use in leading to just conclusions ; the benefit of the rainfall depends, not so much on the quantity during a given month, as on the rapidity or otherwise of its fall, as well as the season of the year. " During the months of January and February the ground is so liot that a fall of even half an inch in the twenty-four hours serves only to wash the dust off the trees, does not penetrate into the ground, and eva})orates almost as quickly as it falls. The ground is tlien so dry and parched that nothing under an inch of rain at one fall, during these months. ITS OBSERVATOEY AND METEOROLOGY. 419 is of much value to renew the exhausted energy of vegetation ; while, from the end of April to September, the quantity of rain during the twenty-four hours is of little importance as compared with the frequency of its occurrence — keeping the ground constantly moist, and provided that the average of the monthly falls are fiiirly kept up, the ground is more benefited by the occurrence of numerous rainy days than by a great fall in any one day. However, there is no rule without an excep- tion, and a heavy soaking rain of at least an inch is always to be desired towards the end of March or beginning of April, as, should the -ground then get a good soaking, it will start the grass for the stockowners before the cold weather sets in ; and the sun having tlien lost much of his power, the grass, when then well started, will not be burned up, as is the case after heavy rains at an earlier period of the year. On the other hand, to the agriculturist on the plains, heavy rains in February are beneficial, as enabling him to commence plough- ing ; while as regards the interests of the vinegrowers and proprietors 'of orchards, my opinion is, that so long as the rainfall of the year does not fall below twenty inches, the want of rain during January, February, and the early part of March, is not injurious to them, provided that copious rains have fallen during the months of November and December, so as to promote the growth of the plants and fill out the fruit, leaving it to be matured during the drier weather. Wines made during such seasons will, I imagine, be for superior to those made in years when the rainfall in January and February exceeds the average. " The year 1860 affords a good illustration of the fallaciou-i deductions that may be drawn from these tables, for, while the rainfall of that year is considerably below the average, also much less than in the years 1855, 1856, 1857, and 1858, the harvest is generally admitted to have been in excess of the average yield of those years. " In attempting to account for this anomaly, I would remark that the rainfall of 1860 has differed greatly from that of pre- ceding years in the intensity of its fall. That is to say, while 2 E 2 420 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. ill former years I have recorded as miicli as tbree-foiirths of an inch falling during a violent thunderstorm iu less than half an hour, ilooding the ground and rapidly escaping from the surface, the same quantity of rain this year has occupied many hours in its fall, so that the ground has been gradually soaked, and the greater part absorbed by the soil to a considerable depth. On the 4tli of April, when the fall amounted to 3"15 inches (tlu^ largest (piantity ever recorded by me in one day), the ground had boon partially prepared for it by the rains in the middle of 3Iarch ; the rain fell gently and steadily, lasting, at intervals, the greater part of tlie twenty-four hours, and was nearly all absorbed. It will also be seen that the rain in the first six months of 1860 amounted to 12-709 inches, against an average of 10"028 inches for the same period, and the ground was thus thoroughly soaked to a considerable depth, and enabled the crops to stand the subsequent dry weather. On the other hand, the rainfall of the last six months was only 6"909 inches, or only little more than half that due to the period (11"923 inches). The drought at the end of July and up to the middle of August will, doubtless, bo in the memory of many. Between the 17th July and the 19th August w-e were without any rain (0'002 inch, which fell on the 17th August, may fairly be considered as nothing). A similar drought for five weeks at that season of the year has not been observed, and the fears of the Colonists were justly aroused for the harvest ; providentially, we had about three-fourths of an inch by the end of the month, 0'61 inch having fallen on the 21st August, and although each remaining month of the year shows a rain- fall far below^ the average, a somewhat similar quantity of rain to that in August fell on different days of the month of Sep- tember and October. The rains on these occasions were, as before remarked, gentle, continuing for several hours, soaking into the ground ; and being followed by many days of cloudy weather, little or no evaporation took place, and the crops derived the fullest possible benefit from the limited quantity of rain." The following table shows the rainfall at the under-men- ITS OBSERVATOEY AND IMETEOROLOGY. 421 tionecl places during the year 1875, and the approximate mean annual rainfall at the same places : — Locality. Rainfall in 1875. Adelaide Observatory Adelaide — Sir G. S. Kingston American River, Kangaroo Island Angorichina Auburn Blanchetown Brookside Buchsfelde . . . Bun gar ee Cape Jervis . . . Charleston ... Clare Clarendon ... Collingrove ... Edithbui-gh ... Gawler Georgetown ... Goolwa Gumeraclia ... Kanmantoo ... Kanyaka Kapunda Kingston Kooringa Mannanarie ... Miittawarrangala Melrose Meningie Montura INIoonta Mount Barker Mount Gambia Mount Lofty Naracoorte Normanville O'Hallorun Hill Outalpa Pariiiga Pcnfleld Peiiola Poonindie ... Port Augusta Port Elliot ... Port Lincoln Port Wakefield Robe Stratlialbyn Tanunda Wallaroo Willowie 964 455 777 660 340 640 940 837 127 225 570 520 025 993 868 970 060 330 370 125 155 920 780 400 470 300 833 035 123 194 410 710 495 867 529 640 970 770 000 930 666 830 135 380 893 350 180 740 Approximate Number Annual Mean. of Years. 21-155 36 21-360 38 20-274 9 15-019 9 24-0-24 10 12-739 7 22-279 8 20-433 8 32-981 10 24-440 10 17-3G2 7 17-597 10 32-269 6 12-976 9 19-202 7 19-367 9 20-823 6 13-458 7 24-465 7 19-113 10 15-876 6 29-906 10 30-599 10 40-677 10 22-775 7 19-905 7 22-871 10 12-290 7 28-026 10 9-218 10 20-813 8 18-909 9 25-581 10 18-652 10 21-156 6 13-016 10 — — 422 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. Localitj'. }i;iiiirull in 1875. AjiiproNimat ■ Annual Mean. Niiiubfr of Yfjra. Willunpi I 34-370 Weutwoitli, New South Wales ... ' 13-290 Yankalillu 34-830 Yarroo ' 21-825 Palmerston, Nnrthern Territory ... ;)(J-r)00 Soutliport 50-835 Yam Creek 47-050 Piue Creek 49840 River Katlicriiie 45-993 Daly Waters 35-529 Powell's Creek 22-830 Teanaiit's Creek ... ... ... 18-350 Barrow Creek 15-08G Alice Sprinrjs ... ... ... 15-270 Charlotte Waters 3-975 Peake [ 4-810 Stiangwavs' Sprinirs | 5-238 Beltaiia " 10-390 Blinman 20-829 27-204 15-884 29-170 17-654 03-252 10 7 5 Closely associated with the rainfall, and the relative humidity of the air, is the amount of evaporation from the surface. I have ill previous pages explained the means taken to determine this, and in the table on jiage 407 I have given the mean auKnint of evaporation in each month of the year. The fol- lowing table shows the actual amount of evaporation in each SIean Ajiolxt of Ev.\tonATioN ktjking each Month fou Five Years, AT Adelaide. Mean Months. 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. Jlean. Amount per (lieni. Inches. Inches. inchr. G P.jr. 9 P.M. s 94 86 99 134 139 131 N 58 60 47 19 "s" 15 E 106 72 54 44 68 94 W 62 71 110 116 sl 39 WlNTEi;- -Six Months. S 50 43 38 59 59 51 N 106 99 83 66 44 51 E 129 93 40 28 39 55 W ~ "31" 35 86 112 62 36 144 164 129 159 137 130 193 "85" 198 "52" 182 E W 235 "93" 165 106 94 196 228 107 143 149 426 SOUTH AUSTEALIA. It will thus bo seen that dmiuf!: the summer months south winds largely predominate over north winds — especially in the afternoon and evening, northerly winds bearing a larger pro- portion about and shortly after sunrise, the prevailing direction during the night being E. to S.E. and S.W. during the day ; while in the winter months N. and N.E. winds preponderate, except for a few hours in the afternoon, when local S.W. sea breezes often set in. ITS OBSEKVATOEY AND METEOEOLOGY. 427 CO 833 896 932 029 954 916 058 858 790 9J0 852 8U1 01 £25 sa SS n — (N CH (M ■i 05 -gcOOTO-. OOiOOOOOOJ. 0000 CO XI-Oi-i<.V*-.<3- — lO— .OiOCl .f:x^oa.ocr. xo;Ow<3iXao CO) O Ol O Ol s CO C Ol C Ol ■-( M CO C« CO y'^^:ocOMto^ocooieo-.o J;-ro-<-^oioioouoooitD ^ £?5 a 03 «Oll^iOCOvn.*Q000lOOl^C^ Sioiromoioio-r-^.-inc^o .Ct'.^oosoioioicsoioi-ooo 10 C Ol O Ol >- Cq CO N l-- mo-.co^--»-"0-» — oo 5Jjn=-o — USC^Olt-COOlOl-r ~ ?< a aiooooiacco.^i-.:coioir5co 5iC^(^30CD^Ol40r^01CO-T-0 .3 1-i-o-, OOOlocolt-MOOOOOO c Ol HI C^ a 05 -Ct— 000101010104.^01000100 CI 3 1 3 C 01 01 — C^ CO IM Montbs. January February March April May June July August Sejitember October November December ic r- -; o o fe* -< r-. CO rt CO t- -^ in o 00 • r-. CO C ' O Oi c O OS o 00 o:> -2, July... August Septemb October Novembe Decembe > H a' a' -< ri t; ^ S a 0i' (N -f ci » in * M -T 00 Ul Cl »~ 00 01 Ol 01 01 ^ CO 01 •< c< ■s O -- CO r- kO CO -T O Ci CO o » *- r- 00 Oi 01 00 Sh I 3 5 §.a^ ^ 2 .5 H 'C >i 2 5 1; 3 0.05 g 1-3 ti, ^ <; S "-s 428 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. ts o y-i ;^ -- -M C: _ — 1^ -H 1- -l- o — • --. -H rj3 -jj -M ^.. -+I f i-O ^*i 1- -tl -T" CO -Tl tM -Tl -tl -tl CM S ^ o O O o •O CO irj ou 1- CD -f i.O oo l-H CS CO l^ ^ c^ c^ -J' CO CO CM I— 1 (N o rH •*! e3 u> t-( o o 4 CO CO CO -t< CO Ol 1— CO 1^ -f< -Tl •^ ^ lO -*< CO lO ■^ Tfl LO 'tl -tl "*l o CM C-4 £:2 o o o o " c^ CM fi H o IM 1-1 l« t- CO o -+< CO CO 1— o CO o o o f t^ irs -tl CM CO CO o o CO !N (M o CO C^ c^ CM lO ^ tn 1-5 HH ^ C5 (M « CO CO ^ J (M CM CO &i w CO c^ CO o CO -. : : : S-i o ^> u ^ s 2 5 1-5 g ^ [p f^ S -r" >-> >> to 1 o o S o a < C 1— 1 ITS OBSEKVATOEY AND METEOEOLOGY. 429 3 1-5 •}saii(yi ooc^cnoio-^i-o^ 1 1 CO B 5 1 •»S3M01 O Cl X O C-1 »rt O --* CO C^l 1 1 1 f n 1 Mcocococ^n^:cococo in.oin-^oxnco=o TS3113IH •jsoqSiH 1 1 o 1 I I 1 o CO Mcinoc-J — — ox — •UBare rHoio-*oc^eic^oo CO 1 I co•<^'co^5cococon^^.-i •UEOIt -l-r-cico^ocoo^*- S ■}S3*0^ oocovot-o-*t-Mooeq 1 1 1 O in I aSOOCOOTOOOVXXOOO 3 ■)S3A(yi inoxTfiooiocooin •jsaqSiH oincxoo-^-^^csio O5>no = ^in.^i,i)f0 OO — -•-HO-.goO •jsariSiH QOCOQOOSOCOO^OCO 1 CO 1 •nBaH fOX — XOiOOI-MM -* 1 1 •n«8j[ io->*o-*enorHcoN 1 1 o OCOOOiinrp-J-tO — CO IsaqSiH iOOOOOOO:D:Ot-( COXOOSeOOT:00-Oi-l — OJOSOIOOIC-. OJOOOl I n I < *;saMOi lI^MOl^I-CSO^r^O oinso-^'co^'^inirtr- •UBare ■*-t — inxcocoinx — in CD I I 1 CO •jsaiiStH oootoi^Nincooo 1 !0 o I 1 1 1 r^-ftoxx-i-traasci — 1 •}sa.tt 1 o 1 s 1 •jsa.ttoi oomt-c5-*j^t-ro-< 1 1 o rtOtOOi'~»-OOOX Tf-^CO-dlCOfOTT^COCO ■*C0iO-HMlMtOrtin^ o 1 I ■»saq3iH OOOOMC0OO<-rH 1 30 1 '*OQ0O-*ii0r5O-#O QOX*^OOQ01-XXOOt' TJTOPH toj^xcococq-focoin 05 1 1 1 1 •^ssauvi WlrtO<-tOOC^CSOC^C1 1 I TjiiooiOTjfioioinirtvrs lOioinioiooinioioio 1 s 1 1S8AV01 OMXojcqcoorHtoo -** CO •IsaqStH •iTBau MooncicoonxM 1 00 1 o o 1 1 1 1 COCOCOCOCO^COCOPOCO r^ OT O i.-^ -J Ci CI -- r5 M f^O^C0?0«000MMO •jsaqSiH OOX-*C1!DOCOWO 1 1 o o » 1 1 1 t- t- 1- t- f *- «- t- t- -J •tni9K t-r-«ox-<^^. t-coco 1 S a •}sa.ttOT[ ■nowioin(Nin>n — ;o O C-l OJ X 05 O -1 (M t- ^ 3 •jsa.ttoi otxoioMincoinNM cocococococococococo •;89iigiH COlOiaOWOOlftMOO 1 2 1 •»S3tt3rH 0>nX-t-c>i — •uBon; 3: C^tDint- = f>-)'t-r|l n 1 1 ■awre Ocn<-XCOM05t-05-* « 1 1 owmoj — -tMco-*-* i-IC^MOMrH — — 005 »0»r-0D^O^Mr5-t 1 5 o i in^r-cooo-iMco-* -.O O !0 CO '^ i^ r^ l— t— t— c 03 1 o 430 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. Table Xo. 4. — Mrnii Temperaf are of Erajwraf ion, for each Month diiriiuj Ten Years (lS(;5-74), ,tf Aih'hiiih-. MoDths. 1863. 1866. 1867. IbtiS. 1869. 1«V0. 1871. 1872. 1S73. 1874. January... 590 62-1 Gl-(3 59-G GOl GO-G 62-1 65-8 63-4 Gl-5 Februnry oa-8 63-2 G4-2 Gr4 GO -3 G2-5 63-8 61-7 63-3 57-4 March ... GO-3 GO-0 58-3 Gl-9 59-G 59-5 58-7 Gl-3 57-5 56-9 April ... 57-5 57-G 58-3 5G-G 55-4 57-1 i56-8 54-7 55-9 57-1 May 52-0 55-3 54-4 .la-o 51-0 51-7 54-9 51-G 53-5 51-1 June 48-4 50-7 53-0 49-7 50-4 50-9 51-7 50-7 50-1 47-8 July ... 47-7 49-0 49-4 46-5 47-3 47-4 48-2 49-6 47-6 45-5 August ... 49-8 50-2 50-3 50-0 48-9 48-7 50-1 47-2 50-6 47-3 September 521 51-4 51-0 52-7 49-G 50-2 52-1 51-6 52-3 48-6 October... 53-6 54-2 54-2 5G-2 52-3 55-8 52-9 54-2 56-0 541 November 57-8 55-2 55-1 GO -2 56-6 55-7 56-8 60-6 59-7 52-8 December 57-4 .'-.8 -5 5G'8 Gl-2 58-3 59-6 62-8 58-0 60-7 59-7 Means . . . 54-7 55-6 55-G 55-G 54-1 54-9 56-0 55-6 55-9 53-3 Mean toiiii)eiatuie of evaporation fo ■ January (10 years) Gl-6 Ditto ditto February ditto Gl-8 Ditto ditto March ditto 59-4 Ditto ditto April ditto GG-7 Ditto •litto May ditto 52-8 Ditto ditto June ditto 50-3 Ditto ditto July ditto 47-8 Ditto ditto August ditto 49 3 Ditto ditto September ditto 51-2 Ditto joccooo-+nocqc^ o i ■a is oO'ticoooooocot^ 10 t— 00 ^ O-l (M lO t- t^ cococo-*t-*i-*cocoeoco CO 10»0— iClQOtOt^OOO (Mcqeoi>csco-h:oco-+iod-^ C5 C0050(M-+lrMC0>0 cQtococqtococceoecco o 1 o 1 c 1 OOO-tiC0C0C0O!M-+i (M Ci COCOI o (M o lo o CO '^ ^ CO COCOCqi-HlMOOlOOr^lM -tiir: fM c^ to -+1 10 ■* -tc -ti ir: -ti -fi ■* -ti a. < i i OONOO^OirtOO eocoMccMcoeocococc CO 1 O Oobcoi-Hcoo^coo'* to IM -^-tlCO-tlCOO-tlO'MO cococococococ^cococo CO c Q0O-+IC5-ti>0O'*C0C0 OTfico-^-fcir-icoeoc^ 1 1 OOdtO^iOirs-^'MIM CO 00O(M00i-'0-+i-HOrtC0 !MCOCOeO(MCOCOCO(MiM eot>eot^-tiC5>owrHto 5 r-lO»-+<-tHOC5i.-5COCC CO OOt-^-hOCOOGOCOCO ^ ^ ^ ^ Tt^ Tf* ^ CO CO cO 5^ i 1 o oc^ccoooo-+ ir^ o lo o m o »o lo lo lo t^QOCOt-O— lOCOCCtO cocococc-^fcocococo B cS ►-5 1 lOOOOOOOi-HCSIN 00 CO ■5 5 1 iOG0(M00OOeD(NO(N tOtOOCOl— C5-HC0'+0-*>-HC«(M >CC0Ot^Q0O to to CO t^ r- i^ t- t- CCOOXOOOOGCGOCOOJOO to p OJ SOUTH AUSTEALIA. 3 so O O to 1-1 OS -H -O -M O I- 1^ 1 1 5 ^ oo-t> r^ [3) O O (N O 00 o o to t-- « C-1 -M ^3 O O -H 1- O — . r- IM r; -M ^ fM CO -M -M (M (M o 1 CO c o •a o 5" OX0010(NeOOtO(M 1 to I— ( -+lX!-l-OtOtO^C:CO >0 -t< CO CO -O '-0' -f O CO 'tl C: CO »« O CO 05 o 1 1 1 o r^ iM t^ vs 00 lo 1 1 1 t> to X X l> I- CO CO o s; i-o t^ »o uo »ft 1 1 1 CI to to CO 00 Oi o 1 1 1 C-. — ' O O O O .-1 ^ 1, w c (NOt^CO-^'tiuOOOOCO CO 1 i l-H o 1' ■a c X0(M->*<0'+<0 IS I-H COCOOO-HIO^O^OO t^ t- C5 lO (M f-l 05 C5 ^ t^ -ti-ticoeo-*Tt00(N(NirtiOOtOlO iH 1 t^ r^ -M O — 1 X 0-1 -f -H -+< lO lO 'CO -* -+1 '.O lO l.O i.O itO C5 X lO (M r^ X to O IQ o ^H fM CI rH 0-1 0-J C-1 C-1 C-I CO :« S C5 (M (M t- lO (M lO 1 1 1 t-x i i>o 05 CO 1 1 1 O C5 CM ^ rH -H r-l CO 5 1-H t^ O 05 '*< '^^ CO 1 1 1 -+< CO to CO lO X lO 1 1 1 CO X l> X I- I- X 1^ a ■a s c s COiOOIMtOO-HOOtO o 1 to l-H 3 1-3 "5) 5 (MXXC0O-*X10-fHO COCOO-ltOX— -lrtr-li-H LO i> t> o 0^ t- CO 1 I 1 OO CO l.O CO CO t^ X 1 1 1 o O ^ — 1 C-1 — 1 ^ i 1 i X to O t^ OKM i-< (M 1 1 1 X CO o r^ o ^ CO 1 1 1 O t- l- to I- I- l> 05 1 CO 1 i.-O 'O ^- X C5 O ^ O-l CO -H to o -o -o r- r^ i- r^ i^ X X X X X X X X X X «1 >< OtOt— XCJOr^iMCO-H to to to to to 1^ 1^ t^ [^ l^ xxxxxxxxxx LONDON : I'KINTED BV WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS. 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