■i WmSlS AND CLASSIFfCATlON
OF PERFORMANCE IN
CAIIONAL RELATIONS
J.OSBORNE HOPWOOD
V >
Analysis and Classification
of Performance in
Vocational Relations
BY
J. OSBORNE HOPWOOD, M. S. (Yale)
Of the Personnel Department of The Philadelphia Electric
Company. Form,erly of the Em,ergency Fleet
Corporation, Instructor, Operative, etc.
BOSTON
RICHARD G. BADGER
THE GORHAM PRESS
Copyright 1&22, by Richard G. Badger
All Rights Reserved
AGRIO, OEPT. ^^-^ducd-^'^o
MADE IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
The Gorhjvm Press, Boston, U. S. A.
HF
H77^
PREFACE
In considering occupations and the adaptations
of persons to them, adherence to the idea that
it is necessary to discover specific traits of charac-
ter essential to each situation has not given satis-
factory results because there is no real basis for
analyzing character into traits and therefore no
real basis for its classification. A particular kind
of expression which may be called for in an occu-
pation may be due to different character traits or
combinations of traits, also, the same trait may
give rise to different kinds of expression and there-
fore may apply to a number of situations. If we
could identify character traits and attribute to
them all of their different kinds of expression and
formulate the kinds of expression due to particu-
lar combinations of traits, we would have a sci-
ence of character analysis but no such science ex-
ists and attempts to apply knowledge of this kind
have therefore been misleading.
In this prospectus I have taken the view that
performance, and not the character traits of per-
sons which may prompt it, is the subject of direct
5
31)4877
6 Preface
concern in analyses of occupations and that discov-
ery and conscious direction of the development
of adaptations of persons for specific occupation-
al performance involves consideration of expres-
sion with regard to the specific performance but
does not necessarily require the identification of
character traits concerned, performance being
capable of analysis into its essential component
acts and therefore capable of classification ac-
cording to the kinds of acts which compose it.
This principle has many important extensions
and applications and is verified by inspection of
the true state of affairs in industrial life. In the
Introduction and sections which follow, I have
tried to set forth definite applications with essen-
tial procedure and supporting theory in order to
make a guide book which may be of practical
value. In addition to my own study and industrial
experience, I have made use of various works to
which I have referred In the text.
J. Osborne Hopwood.
Prlmos, Pa.,
February, 1922.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I Introduction 1 1
II The Nature of Performance 25
III Organization in Performance 34
IV Key to Analysis and Classification of
Performance in Vocational Rela-
tions 45
V Standard Specifications and Graded
Classification for Positions 55
VI Individual Placement, Follow-up, and
Training 84
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF
PERFORMANCE IN VOCATIONAL
RELATIONS
Analysis and Classification of
Performance in Vocational
Relations
I
INTRODUCTION
Subject and Object
This prospectus deals with performance in oc-
cupations, its analysis, characterization, graded
classification, and the diagnosis of individual
adaptation for it with respect to placement of
workers or vocational guidance. Its object is to
set forth systematically, essential principles and
procedure which, heretofore, have not been corre-
lated in concrete form.
Phases of Application
There are two phases of application of analysis
and classification of performance in vocational re-
lations. One is to the performance pertaining to
occupations or positions without regard to the
II
'\i ' ' Analysis and Classification of Performance
persons in them, and the other is to the perform-
ance of persons with respect to the requirements
of their positions or occupations. The former ap-
plies in connection with defining and grading ser-
vice and establishing a basis for equitable salary
and wage rates and the latter, in connection with
placement, follow-up, and training, including
judgment and direction of the self and others in
vocational relations broadly.
In corporate work we are studying and devel-
oping organized effort for production and, as in-
dividuals, we are studying and developing our-
selves for application in organized effort, so that,
collectively and individually, we need to appreci-
ate the real nature of performance and to charac-
terize it and classify it upon a scientific basis.
To Performance of Occupations or Positions
Systematic employment methods have been
specifically called for in the awakening of indus-
trial management to the realization that organi-
zation for rational administration in employment
matters has a vital bearing upon efliciency in pro-
duction. In these administrative functions Analy-
sis and Classification of Performance has a rank-
ing importance comparable to that of Analysis and
Introduction
13
Classification of Accounts in the field of Account-
ing.
Development of intensive industry entails the
growth of corporations and the application of sci-
ence, or engineering, and this work is a phase of
Industrial Engineering which has come into recog-
nition in its turn as a field of applied science like
other kinds of engineering work have done in the
past.
The application of this prospectus to develop-
ment of standard practice may be easily seen by
reference to the following synopsis of essential
functions in employment administration.
X ± J^ ± J, ±
h
a
X
jT^i, j^ Ixi
1
x^
??
14 Analysis and Classification of Performance
These functions are of primary importance in
industrial relations because they are the elements
for organized fair dealing and constitute means
for methodical adjustment for stability and effici-
ency in operations. Fair dealing is a condition of
environment which any person must have for effi-
cient performance and it must be provided for like
any other function in an organization, if it is to
be performed proficiently. If, in his industrial
relations, a man gets a fair and square deal all the
way around, with all but not more than he earns,
and realizes it through conferential relations with
the management, his progress is then entirely a
matter of his own productive efficiency in the op-
portunities which develop and he cannot help but
know it and direct his creative effort accordingly
for production.
The procedure suggested in this prospectus
with regard to positions, establishes definition
as to performance, classification as to produc-
tion status, and uniformity and limitations as to
nomenclature and titles throughout the depart-
ments of their organization. With specifications
thus established, irregularities may be clarified,
duplication of effort eliminated, and administra-
tion conducted to better advantage than without
system of this kind.
Introduction 15
Classification according to the Production Stat-
us of Performance is grading upon an equitable
and logical basis and is an incentive to the realiza-
tion by all of "fair dealing," when it is made
known.
To Performance of Persons — For Placement,
Follow-Up and Training
These specifications provide a definite basis up-
on which to judge persons in hiring and placement
by setting forth the specific performance of posi-
tions to which the incumbents must measure up,
and the examiners can then follow a standard pro-
cedure. Principles and steps for this also arc
stated subsequently.
The points set forth as performance require-
ments in positions also serve as a basis in rat-
ing the efliciency and progress of the persons
in the positions in keeping a periodic record for
"follow-up" for adjustment, advancement, etc.
Points in which persons are weak or deficient con-
stitute subjects for training.
In diagnosis for placement, the only scientific
basis is analysis of the performance required and
the discovery in persons of the necessary adapta-
tion for it, as this may be revealed by observable
1 6 Analysis and Classification of Performance
physical structure and general performance. This
cannot be correctly called character analysis.
Character analysis requires discovery in individ-
uals of specific traits* of all kinds and their hered-
itary and environmental detierminers which, if
they are capable of structural determination, are
for the most part unknown. We can, however,
analyse the performance which persons show to us
or give evidence of having executed.
We can describe character as far as we are able
to observe it, but there is no basis for its real or
complete analysis and classification. It is true
that mental processes and physical performance
are inseparably integrated in an organism and
every animal can recognize attitudes and states of
mind in others through physical expressions which
reflect them, and experience in recognition of these
helps us to judge others. Experience of this kind
has been universal for so long that it is intuitive
with animals and men to feign and pose in action,
and to lead and follow leadership. But the mys-
tery of character has led to speculation for ages
and to many false claims as to Its revelations, for
example, in widely advertised employment liter-
*A trait is a peculiarity of organization with both structural
and functional aspects.
Introduction 17
ature which is sold to industrial managers, there
are such "quack" statements as the following:
"We see that for every physical difference be-
tween men there is a corresponding mental differ-
ence, because both the physical differences and the
mental differences are results of the same heredity
and environment."
Science has not shown that there is generally a
causal connection between the individual observ-
able physical differences and the mental differ-
ences in men, and inclines to deny its existence as
a general principle, because these differences are
not usually the results of the same hereditary or
environmental determiners. In any ultimate an-
alysis, mental differences are due to minute organic
physical differences involving the nerve tissue as
well as other tissues, their health and disease,
balance of building up and breaking down, and
their environmental stimuli (physical surround-
ings; blood supply, content, etc.), which are sub-
ject to very limited observation only, and subject
to change. Some of these characters are heredi-
tary and some are of environmental origin, and
their nature is such as to make their individual
determination, at least, exceedingly difficult. All
that we can observe ordinarily are some of the
i8 Analysis and Classification of Performance
gross physical differences among individuals,
which usually have nothing to do with mental dif-
ferences and differences in performance.
The above quotation states the assumption up-
on which the false systems of Phrenology and
Physiognomy were founded, which have misled
men for centuries. Fortunately, to-day, we can
be disillusioned by the revelations of modern sci-
ence and ought not to be misled by "quackery" to
subject either persons or production to failures on
account of judgments based upon such superficial
characters as skin texture and mere form of hands
or other physical features; 'which would fail to
discover an Abraham Lincoln.'
(Refer to "Heredity and Environment," E.
G. Conklin, Princeton University Press, and "Vo-
cational Psychology," Hollingworth, Appletons).
Judgment and direction of the self and
OTHERS in vocational relations broadly, calls for
examination of the individual's self with regard to
the items in a comprehensive list, such as the
"Check List," following, as is necessary in exam-
ing the performance of a position to make up
specifications, in order to appraise adaptions for
performance singly and establish specific features
for a general characterization. With this appre-
Introduction 19
elation of how one is endowed to meet the require-
ments of environment by the faculties which he
has inherited or acquired, he can be directed intel-
ligently to appropriate kinds of work, if the work
available for selection is also examined with re-
gard to the same items which were taken in the
personal examination, and comparisons are made.
Moreover, development may be intelligently di-
rected by giving attention to training relevant to
adaptations and requirements.
We profit as long as we practice the activities
which intelligent realization of the relation be-
tween our faculties and our environment reveals
to us as essential to progress. In this, rational
direction necessitates a plan for co-ordination of
effort towards definite aims and such a plan for
individual guidance may be formulated with the
aid of this prospectus.
In general criticism of persons in their occupa-
tions it is common to discuss such general qualities
as Executive Ability, Leadership, Personality, In-
telligence, etc., without looking into the specific
points in performance called for in connection
with each of them and judgments are often vague
and poor on that account. They are usually re-
garded as more or less indefinable requisites to
20 Analysis and Classification of Performance
be estimated in the lump sum without thought of
analysis. If, however, we consider each quality
from the standpoint of its required performance,
we can determine with considerable clearness, the
items which are essential, as follows : —
Executive Ability is ability to perform executive
service which consists of:
1. Organization — analyzing and classifying
the functions in a division of labor and construct-
ing and integrating the essential positions for the
performance of the functions.
2. Judgment of Others — guaging correctly the
ability of others for placement in the scheme of
organization.
3. Decisions — fair, definite, prompt and logi-
cal, taking fair chances and holding with moral
courage of convictions and self-reliance, regard-
less of criticism.
4. Association — with tact, poise, and spontan-
eous expression of sincerity, confidence, and abili-
ty to carry out a project sufficient to Inspire the
respect, trust, and confidence of others and their
subordination to leadership.
5. Instruction — guaging correctly Its effect and
adapting it accordingly.
6. General Functions of Management, viz. —
Introduction 21
Constructive imagination with formulation and
development of consequent courses of action, even
against environmental and instinctive dictates ;
Accurate observation, including original an-
alyses and syntheses on the basis of fundamental
likenesses and differences;
Establishing standards ;
Resourceful application of course of action.
Analysis of executive service in this manner will
reveal essentials for consideration which would
otherwise be lost sight of and probably cause ser-
ious mistakes in judgment. It is not uncommon
to find persons in executive positions who are true
bosses and little else, and others who attend to de-
tailed routine procedure to the exclusion of larger
problems because they cannot organize, and still
others who are strikingly deficient in other fea-
tures of the requirements.
Leadership essentially involves association with
poise and the physical expression of self reliance
and sincerity to command the respect, confidence
and co-operation of others, in addition to —
Decisions, fair, definite, prompt and logical,
taking fair chances and holding with moral cour-
age and self reliance ;
Accurate observation including —
22 Analysis and Classification of Performance
Judgment of qualities by comparison with es-
tablished standards and
Analyses and classifications by established pro-
cedure ;
Resourceful application of courses of action.
This performance may not include more than
supervision of routine standard practice, that is,
leadership does not essentially involve a high
order of constructive imagination or other func-
tions of management which are essential in execu-
tive service ; it may be concerned only with estab-
lished procedure. Its most essential features are
in expression for effect upon others.
Because of lack of definition and due consider-
ation to analysis, leadership is often mistaken for
executive ability and inefficiency is the result. An
executive is a leader but a leader is not necessarily
an executive. Leadership is essentially a spectac-
ular kind of performance and therefore frequently
suggestive of more than it really is, so that, with-
out means for analysis and examination for essen-
tials, it may be easily mistaken for executive abil-
ity.
Personality is the combination of qualities
peculiar to a person. We judge its character by
its expression. But when asked to judge it, what
Introduction 23
are we to judge? No two persons would have
very similar ideas of how to appraise it without
specifications for analysis of its performance. If
a situation requires a certain type of personality
there must be certain features of performance in
the requirements which can be specified, and, in
order to judge intelligently as to the fitness of a
person for the situation, we must determine the
nature of these features or items and consider
them separately. For example, in salesmanship
certain items stand out more prominently than
others, namely —
Judging human temperament,
Intuitive action to command and sustain favor-
able attention,
Resourceful treatment to sustain interest.
These things, of course, involve spontaneous
expressions of confidence and sincerity of a kind
appropriate to circumstances, and other items es-
sential in a situation should be considered.
Intelligence is capacity for accomplishment
through powers of observation, memory, decision,
skill, reasoning, and constructive imagination. It
is manifest in different degrees among individuals
by the grades of work in which they are able to
perform. Many individuals can acquire a high
24 Analysis and Classification of Performance
degree of skill and apply themselves efficiently
when their performance is determined by dir/sc-
tion and long experience but cannot step up any
higher into original analysis and the establishment
of new standards and courses of action because
they lack vision or constructive imagination. Oth-
ers are capable only of acquiring a low degree of
skill in established standard practice.
In judging intelligence, therefore, we must con-
sider the nature of the performance expected by
careful analysis and weigh a person's capabilities
according to evidence given of performance of the
same grade, though not necessarily consisting of
the same acts.
With due consideration of these points it will
be obvious that "Analysis and Classification of
Performance in Vocational Relations" is a subject
of vital importance in industrial life.
II
THE NATURE OF PERFORMANCE
Occupational performance may be analyzed,
defined, and graded, if we will recognize funda-
mental scientific principles, and the procedure may
at the same time be simple and practical. In this
it is of first importance to appreciate the nature
of performance in general and its relation to
thought. The two are integrated and the grade
attained in performance is determined by the
grade of thought which is integrated with it.
Therefore, in tracing the progressive stages of
thought we can recognize corresponding degrees
of simplicity or complexity in performance and es-
tablish a basis for its analysis and classification.
Progressive Stages of Thought
Thought, like all other processes in nature, Is
progressive from early stages, in which it has
simple characteristics, to more advanced stages in
which it is more complex, involving organization
(differentiation of the whole into integrated divis-
ions and sub-divisions). Its stages require corre-
25
26 Analysis and Classification of Performance
spending degrees of attention to the objects of
impression. Impressions are accordingly, at first,
vague and general with regard to their objects as
a whole in associated relations. With more at-
tention, the impressions become more exact and
include perception of numbers, likeness and differ-
entiation of parts, and their integration, compris-
ing analyses, syntheses, and organization of ideas.
These ideas, or mental pictures, are then avail-
able for recall by suggestion in recurring experi-
ences and enable comparisons and judgments of
likenesses and differences between new and former
observations. Thinking may then advance into
reasoning by the derivation of conceptions from
combinations of premises.
Attention is application of the consciousness to
objects of impression directly or by the recall of
their impressions, and the extension of these im-
pressions into mental pictures or ideas of other
proportions than real experiences portray, con-
stitutes imagination, which is constructive when it
is rational.
While the processes which constitute thought
are at any moment numerous, complex, and in-
separable, we can summarize its progressive
stages to be about as follows, although there are
The Nature of Performance 27
no sharp lines of demarkation between them be-
cause they grade into each other : —
I. Observation —
Perception of objects of impression —
( 1 ) as a whole in associated relations
and
(2) as to parts, their number, likeness,
differentiation, and integration —
comprising analyses, syntheses, and
organization of ideas.
II. Reasoning —
Conception of facts by conclusion from
established premises —
( 1 ) Inductive — conception of general
principles from observed specific
relations.
(2) Deductive — conception of specific
relations from previously conceiv-
ed general principles.
III. Constructive Imagination —
Extension of past experiences into con-
ceptions of new combinations or situations
of feasible existence.
28 Analysis and Classification of Performance
Capacity for the progress of thought through
these stages of development and for perform-
ance to which it is essential, which is capacity for
volitional accomplishment, is intelligence and this
accords with the complexity of an animal's gen-
eral organization.
Performance
Performance consists of correlated acts rang-
ing from the simplest "Reflexes" to "Rational
Acts." Reflexes are automatic or subconscious
responses to stimuli, such as blinking, breath-
ing, walking, feeding, talking, etc. These acts
are instinctive when they are induced by in-
herited traits instead of by traits acquired through
learning by experiences. They are subconscious
responses to feelings or impulses and include
such acts as the familiar breeding habits of
birds and other animals, struggles for self pres-
ervation, etc. Then there are "Intelligent"
acts, their performance consisting in the conscious
recognition of recurring experiences and the selec-
tion and repetition of relevant acts which were
previously dictated by contact with environment,
such as the behavior of a dog as he learns to open
a gate. He knows that it opens because he has
The Nature of Performance 29
seen it open. Otherwise he would not know its
difference from the other parts of the fence. He
paws until he strikes the latch in the right way to
open the gate, and afterwards he repeats the act
from memory of past experiences. This is learn-
ing by experience and many of our own acts are
of like character to such acts of lower animals.
At the upper end of the scale there arc "Rational"
acts. These acts include definite reasoning from
premises and comprise the most complex kinds of
performance, such as constructive planning and
execution of new courses of action involving the
imagination and are peculiar to man. They are
Intelligent acts developed to greater complexity,
and performance on the whole is more or less in-
telligent according to the complexity or simplicity
of the acts involved.
Among the lower animals it is doubtful if Ra-
tional performance reaches any degree of devel-
opment but Intelligent performance and Reflexive
performance are intermingled, the latter becom-
ing more and more pronounced as we descend the
scale of animal forms from the mammals to the
lower types like fishes and invertebrates.
The mammals include man and the highest
types of lower animals such as the monkey, cat,
30 Analysis and Classification of Performance
dog, seal, horse, etc. They exhibit the highest
faculties for learning of all animals, and, of
course, man supercedes the other mammals by vir-
tue of his reasoning power and constructive Imag-
ination.
The birds exhibit interesting instinctive habits
of nest building, migration, etc. and much less
ability to learn than the mammals.
The reptiles are more stupid than the birds, the
frogs and toads more so than the reptiles, and the
fishes show the lowest degree of ability to acquire
new habits by learning of all vertebrate animals.
The invertebrates Include the insects, crabs,
moUusks, worms, and the simplest animals whose
acts are all principally of the character of reflexes.
They smell their food and move toward it, see
lights and dash toward them, and perform many
other acts of a simple Impulsive nature.
In the training of animals, the mammals, there-
fore, show the highest capabilities for skillful
feats.
In the DEVELOPMENT of an animal, its thought
and performance progress from stages with
simple characteristics In the Infant to stages with
more complex characteristics in the adult accord-
ing to the degree of development reached by the
J
The Nature of Performance 31
adult, man showing the greatest amount of devel-
opment and the simplest animals, the least.
Thus, in either way that we consider it, from
the standpoint of the comparison of animal forms,
or from the standpoint of the development of
the single animal, intelligence accords with degree
of organization, as is true of capacity for accom-
plishment generally.
The Degree or Status of Intelligence of
a living being is therefore shown by the position
on the scale of acts (ranging from simple reflexes
to rational acts) at which we can place the acts
which he is capable of performing and this prin-
ciple applies if we take the human race alone and
consider the types of intelligence observed. Some
minds are not able to think and reason to a high
degree but act much the same as lower animals do,
obeying their instinctive impulses and acting as
their environment has required them to act, that
is, their performance is the result of their instinc-
tive impulses plus the experiences gained by
knocking about in their environment. Others can
imagine new situations and plan new courses of
action which they have never performed before.
In all normal persons however, we find reflexive,
intelligent, and rational acts intermingled in their
32 Analysis and Classification of Performance
behavior and the rating of one's intelligence is
therefore a question of relative values entirely.
New acts require close attention but repetition
tends to make their performance standard and
more and more mechanical and spontaneous until
they may be performed with little or no conscious
effort more perfectly than by the application of
conscious effort. For example, 'we cannot walk
as well, or talk as well, or drive a car as well when
we apply conscious effort to every move as when
we allow our movements to flow freely and uncon-
sciously.' In this manner, higher acts become re-
flexive and we become expert by experience be-
cause the physical organization has become ex-
tended or specialized for this eflSlciency. We are
adaptable through this correlation of acts and the
physical adjustment essential to it, otherwise we
could not survive in the struggle with the changing
elements of our environment.
Reflexes become so deeply seated that they
characterize us In a large measure. Many of them
(instinctive) are Inherent and vital to our exist-
ence. They result from intuitive feelings which are
often the most powerful motives of action, strong-
er than rational decisions and, accordingly. In our
daily lives, most of the things that we do are
The Nature of Performance 33
prompted by feelings. We enjoy acting in re-
sponse to our feelings and often have to make
strong effort for self-control in order to use rea-
son. This is true with even the highest types of
persons and requires us to be tactful in our asso-
ciations. Therefore, if we are to understand hu-
man nature we must realize that it is animal na-
ture and obeys biologic laws.
Ill
ORGANIZATION IN PERFORMANCE
In all relations in which we are concerned with
efficiency in action, we are subject to the natural
laws of organization. That is to say — efficiency
involves organization, which is differentiation of a
whole into parts with special functions in a divis-
ion of labor, and integration of these parts to
function as a whole. This is standardization, al-
location and co-ordination of procedure and the
structural units essential to it, restricting the indi-
vidual freedom of units for the sake of intensive
action and its compensations. Organization there-
fore, is specialization for efficiency and efficiency
in any one or all functions is high or low according
to the degree of specialization attained by the or-
ganization for their performance. The functions
which constitute life processes are the same in a
clam as in the human organism but the degree of
specialization differs greatly. Likewise, with cor-
porate organizations, great differences in degree
of specialization exist among them and intensive
34
Organization in Performance 35
industry can develop only as organization becomes
more and more complex.
Transformations in energy can take place only
through corresponding changes in matter and pro-
cedure of all kinds depends upon correlated struc-
ture. Structure and function are therefore in-
separable; neither precedes the other in organi-
zation. They develop simultaneously and in any
consideration they are merely two aspects of the
one thing — Organization. We cannot, therefore,
have a function highly developed in any organiza-
tion unless we have also the physical structure de-
veloped accordingly and we must recognize this
principle when we work out efficiency problems.
The engineers may work out efficiency methods
and procedure but It is not until the physical or-
ganization is adjusted that new procedure be-
comes actual.
Performance, when completely standardized, is
mechanical and, as to the maintenance of routine
standard performance under fixed conditions, an
organization is a machine but mechanical per-
formance is the limit of the capacity of machines
in performance. They cannot undertake new pro-
cedure, even to the extent of slight adaptations to
new conditions, because they lack power of per-
ception, discrimination, recall, and of the selection
36 Analysis and Classification of Performance
of courses of action. There are thus two phases
of performance essential to organization in its
higher types, one is mechanical performance and
the other is intelligent performance. Both phases
are characteristic of organisms and therefore, cor-
porate groups of organisms, but the first only is
characteristic of machines. Organization in its
higher types therefore involves intelligent direc-
tion over specialized operating units, in so far
as their activities must be varied and co-ordinated,
and means for automatic apprisal of the neces-
sity for variation of procedure. This relationship
between controlling authority and specialized
units with respect to any or all functions is called
"centralization." Specific procedure, when com-
pletely standardized, is performed with least ex-
penditure of energy and most perfectly when left
to its respective operating units without reference
to central authority and this delegation of respon-
sibility by controlling authority to specialized
units is called "decentralization." Increasing
complexity, as organization develops, is shown by
the appearance of intermediate directorates of
various degrees of authority between the most
highly specialized operating units and the central
directorate, and differentiation along intelligence
levels.
Organization in Performance 37
Decision by controlling authority is therefore
essential in organization and this is autocratic
but, on the other hand, efficiency in production
requires that every unit of structure, however
small, be so integrated in the whole that its expres-
sion will be perceived by controlling authority and
administration effected accordingly for rational
procedure which, in a corporate organization, in-
cludes justice and equality in dealing for all mem-
bers, uniform standards, restriction of arbitrary
practices and personal favoritism, etc. Thus, ac-
cording to natural law, there is a balance between
autocratic direction and democratic recognition
of all rational dictates of structural units in organ-
ization, which is essential to maximum production,
no matter what the form of organization may be.
If autocratic direction does not heed the expres-
sion of the operating units, production is retarded
and, if the operating units obstruct controlling
authority, production is retarded and the survival
of an organization depends upon the maintenance
of this balance in the struggle with the elements
of its environment.
In industry then, channels for honest expres-
sion by individual workers and its perception by
controlling authority are vital to organization.
'.VMH'77
38 Analysis and Classification of Performance
When the members of departments or working
units of an industrial organization meet together
frequently under conditions of fair dealing and
sincere conferential relations with administrative
officers who seriously give intelligible explana-
tions, demonstrations, and progress reports and
inspire free expression of individual views, con-
ceptions of differences of interests between man-
agers and line workers do not prevail. Incentives
to production under such relations are vastly
greater than under an autocratic regime which
fosters only master and servant relations stifling
cooperation for maximum production and its just
distribution because conflicting interests between
managers and line workers obviously exist.
Organization in performance is universal in
nature. It is the basis of all development. It is
real, not artificial, and our performance must con-
form to it as the scheme of nature for progressive
action. In an industrial organization we are a
group of persons occupying differentiated and in-
tegrated positions in a division of labor and we
are banded together as a whole to carry out our
project. Persons in positions correlated for
special sets of functions constitute units of the or-
ganization and, as aggregated for more general
functions, constitute larger parts.
Organization in Performance 39
When a single unit of the organization has
many functions it is generalized and the functions,
though they exist, are performed with much less
precision, harmony, and efficiency than when there
is a more complete division of labor effected
through differentiation of the structure into more
specific parts, and integration of the parts. In
spite of all individual efforts, we cannot perform
functions with highest efficiency unless we are or-
ganized to perform them, that is, we must devel-
op systems for procedure and fix co-ordinated re-
sponsibilities in positions with clear definition as
to performance and status.
The development of an organization in this
way subscribes to the principle in industry that
workers occupy specific positions in a division of
labor utilizing and developing capital. This con-
ception differs vitally from the traditional view
of labor as a commodity to be bought by the own-
ers or representatives of capital and utilized upon
their capital. The one view gives the worker
membership for efficiency in the industrial in-
stitution and is democratic. The other view
disregards the organization of workers as living
individuals and gives them no position as such in
industry; it admits only of bargaining for their
40 Analysis and Classification of Performance
labor at market prices, or for what they are forced
by circumstances to take. This is arbitrary, auto-
cratic, and "short sighted" and, with development
in industrial organization, it cannot hold because
it is against the principles of organization, which
are primarily biological and not mechanical.
The traditional view that labor is a commodity
parallels another instance in our economic life of
an arbitrary view point once taken and later aban-
doned. The theory of John Stuart Mill that
those who worked directly upon commodities
were producers of wealth and that others, such
as accountants, sales people, etc., who performed
other services, were non-producers of it, made a
purely superficial distinction. Material wealth
has value only as It can render service and there-
fore, in the end, all labor is for production of ser-
vice and It Is now recognized that every one who
performs a useful service, whether a producer of
material wealth or not, is a producer.
Fundamentally, all persons in industry, from
president to laborer, are workers, utilizing and
developing capital, and each worker occupies a
specific position In an organization for the division
of labor, which must be defined and integrated as
a part of the organization as a whole for efficiency
HOieivia moit:^
TRAK) \nMJlZ
.»^^»A )
^ni/fi3C 3MIJ
(&)
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r
MOSti^MJ'?'
' > Jt 2 J H P
r~,\i^App
.':n!';'*3i?0^}i t
HBJJ3 n
r
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"iM
FIGURE 1.
SPECIMEN CHART.
(EMEMNCV FLEET CORPORATION )
( ittttr ■iymtols reftr to ^b"<ltrd^p.c^fitJtlot^i
LEGEND
Organization in Performance 41
in production to the extent at least to warrant pro-
viding for the incumbent, the working conditions,
the means for conference with management, and
the financial returns which are necessary to meet
the essential demands of his living relations to en-
vironment on and off the "job." Therefore, as
we develop special organization for standardizing
operations and fixing responsibilities, including
proper placement, follow-up, conference, and ad-
justment of workers, we develop efficiency in pro-
duction and reduction of its unit cost.
Organization Charting is a means of
graphically representing the structure, the func-
tions, and the positions of a corporate organiza-
tion and indicating the lines of authority and re-
sponsibility in order that the scheme of organiza-
tion may be visualized. This is of importance in
analyzing, planning, defining, standardizing, and
for instruction as to status of positions and the
character of the organization.
An organization chart must figure the differen-
tiation and integration in the organization. Struc-
ture is the visible aspect of the organization by
which this is shown and therefore can be drawn.
The identity of parts and their functions may then
be shown by labeling (See Fig. i). A chart set-
42 Analysis and Classification of Performance
ting forth functions alone may be useful in func-
tional analyses (see page 13) but it does not fig-
ure differentiation and integration in organization
and is therefore not an organization chart in a
complete sense.
Procedure in Organization Charting
(See Fig. i)
1. A clear distinction should be made between
structure and function.
2. Units of structure should be drawn to repre-
sent persons in positions or groups of positions
with distinct functions as a whole, but co-ordinat-
ed with other units (one person may, under un-
usual circumstances, occupy more than one posi-
tion).
3. Each unit should be labeled as to Name,
Functions, and the Positions included, and the
Names of Incumbents, if desired.
4. A standard system of naming the units
should be followed throughout — Department,
Division, Section, Branch or Bureau, Unit — ac-
cording to ranking importance.
In this series of divisions the Department is
a major division of the organization, coming under
the immediate direction of the General Manage-
ment. The Division is the main sub-division of a
Organization in Performance 43
Department, the Section is the main sub-division
of a Division, etc. Each one of these parts of the
organization from Department to Unit must have
an identity as an organization in itself, that is, it
must consists of persons in differentiated positions
with distinct functions as a whole, i. e., a group of
ledger clerks in the "Billing Unit" would not
usually constitute a special unit of organization
because they probably would not be performing a
complete set of functions, differentiated and in-
tegrated as a whole.
There are frequently small sub-divisions of an
organization coming under the immediate direc-
tion of the General Management, such as Clerical,
Buildings, etc., which do not have the ranking
importance to be classed as Departments. It is
usual in such cases to give a designation of min-
or significance, such as Section, Branch or Unit.
5. Lines of authority and Executive, Staff, and
Line relationship are shown as follows;
Executive — Square cornered block in dominant
position.
(Executive Service — Establishing procedure
and organization; Issuing orders and directions;
Making decisions, etc.).
Staf — Round cornered block in subordinate po-
44 Analysis and Classification of Performance
sition connected from the center of the top to the
bottom of the block of its next superior unit at
point to one side of the center.
(Furnishing information and advice to Execu-
tives; Collecting data ; Making reports; Propos-
ing plans, etc.).
Line — Square cornered block in subordinate
position connected from the center of the top to
the center of the bottom of its next superior execu-
tive block.
(Carrying out orders and executive directions
and the routine operations of the business).
IV
KEY TO ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICA-
TION OF PERFORMANCE IN VOCA-
TIONAL RELATIONS
Note: — This Key embraces an analytical "Check List
of Items in Performance Essential to Technique in Oc-
cupations" for use in examining persons and occupations
and an "Outline of Intelligent Performance in Organi-
zation" so that with it, required performance in oc-
cupations and the performance for which persons are
adapted may be characterized and then classified accord-
ing to production status and also according to the kinds
of technique involved.
Performance may be analyzed into its component acts
and therefore classified according to the kinds of acts
which compose it. Concerning any occupation or position,
there are items in performance which are not technical
but are essential to technique and consideration of the
technique is required for relevant judgment. Discovery
of these items and their collection into a concrete statement
constitutes a characterization of performance by which
the nature of its acts will be distinctly set forth. Charac-
terization of performance in this manner therefore con-
stitutes a basis for rational judgment of workers, or pro-
spective workers, and for graded classification of their
occupations or positions, as well as for functional classifica-
tion according to the kinds of technique involved.
45
46 Analysis and Classification of Performance
CHECK LIST OF ITEMS IN PERFORMANCE ESSENTIAL TO
TECHNIQUE IN OCCUPATIONS
Note: — ^We can observe the developmental stages of
thought and performance and outline them by noting items
which are characteristic. On this basis, degrees of in-
telligence may be determined and stated, and, in character-
izing performance, we must consider its intelligence fea-
tures as of primary importance because they specify ca-
pacity for volitional accomplishment. Second to this, the
inclusion in the performance of features pertaining to
particular kinds of thought and action, association, and
enforced living conditions, should be considered.
The following list should be regarded as suggestive but
not exhaustive.
Check, Weigh (by checking once, twice, or three
times). Extend, and Summarize Items for Characteriza-
tion.
Physical —
( 1 ) General application with good health.
(2) Application enduring under specially ardent cir-
cumstances of ; ?
(3) Application of physical strength to the par-
ticular degree of ?
(4) Application of certain parts of the body though
others may be impaired ; ;
(5) Standing,
(6) Walking.
(7) Lifting.
(8) Pulling.
(9) Handling.
(10) Delicate application of the sense of touch, sight,
hearing, etc.
(11) Presenting a military bearing, etc.
Key to Analysis and Classification 47
Mental —
Perception.
(i) Accurate observation —
a — Attention to objects with concentration and
with trust in and intention to recall their
impressions,
b — Quick perception of essential elements and
their integration — original analyses and
syntheses and organization of ideas.
Memory.
(2) Recognition of associations, real or accidental,
essential to the memory of ideas.
Discrimination.
(3) Judgment of qualities by comparison with es-
tablished standards.
(4) Analyses and classifications by established pro-
cedure.
Response to dictates.
(5) Initiation of action.
(6) Maintenance of established standards; ?
(7) Resourceful application of courses of action.
(8) Close application in routine standard practice;
? ordering, scheduling, dispatching.
Planning.
(9) Constructive imagination and the development
of new courses of action; ?
(10) Establishing standards; ?
Adherence to truth and trust.
(11) Tenacious adherence to fact in spite of adverse
consequences.
(12) Custody of property and information in trust.
Dealing, Association, and Expression as to Kinds of
Thought and Action.
(13) Dealing with fairness.
48 Analysis and Classification of Performance
(14
(15
(16
(17
(18
(19
(20
(21
(22
(23
(24
(25
(26
(27
(28
(29
(30
(31
(32
(33
Promptly making and holding to decisions with
self reliance and courage of convictions.
Spontaneous expression of self-reliance and
ability to carry out a project, sufficient to inspire
the respect, trust, and confidence of others and
their subordination to leadership.
Delegating performance.
Organizing division of labor.
Gauging correctly the ability of others.
Gauging correctly the effect of instruction of
others and adapting it accordingly.
Ardent search for fact.
Invention — combination of structural elements
for advantage in performance.
Accepting circumstances as a matter of course
without generalizing as conspiringly antagon-
istic.
Judging human temperament.
Intuitive action to command and sustain favor-
able attention.
Resourceful treatment to sustain interest.
Association with poise and good address.
Tactful association with others.
Expression of inspired sentiment and thought
through some medium to inspire similar senti-
ment and thought in others — literature, science,
art, religion, etc.
Devising propoganda.
Spontaneous expression of simple tastes and
cleanliness.
Spontaneous expression of desire to serve rather
than to be served.
Spontaneous expression of humility.
Modest spontaneous expression of liking for in-
tellectual pleasures.
Key to Analysis and Classification 49
(34) Spontaneous expression in any particular fields
of thought or endeavor which may be relevant in
performance —
Science — pursuit of (research) or application of
(professions and engineering) ;
Mathematics, Accounting, etc.
Physical Sciences.
Natural Sciences.
Economics, Political and Social Sciences, inc.
hz-w Government, Finance, etc.
Letters —
Journalism and Literature.
Acting.
Public Speaking.
Lexicography and Spelling.
Language.
Art —
Music.
Sketching, Painting, Photography.
Designing.
Modeling.
Architecture.
Drafting.
Penmanship.
Craftmanship and Manufacture —
Mechanical Trades.
Machine Operating.
Other Mechanical Manipulations.
Clerical Routine Operations —
Stenography.
General Office Practice.
Agriculture and Animal Industry —
Farming.
Darying.
Stock Raising.
50 Analysis and Classification of Performance
Commerce —
Selling.
Purchasing.
Distributing.
General Trading.
Social Development —
Teaching.
Industrial Relations.
Preaching.
Missionary Work — religious, medical and
social service or philanthropy.
(35) Spontaneous expression toward any particular
conditions of living environment which may be relevant
in performance, either during or outside of working hours,
i. e. —
Expression as to Enforced Living Conditions.
Motion and Activity.
Shifting Scenes.
Transient Abodes.
City Life and Artificial Things.
Individual Freedom.
Social Activities.
Out of Door Pursuits.
Sea Life.
Military Life.
Sport.
Quiet and Stillness.
Sameness.
Home Life.
Rural Life and Nature.
Family Responsibilities.
Solitary Activities.
In Door Pursuits.
Note: — Add any other items which may be relevant to
the performance being considered.
Key to Analysis and Classification 51
OUTLINE OF INTELLIGENT PERFORMANCE IN ORGANIZA-
TION CLASSIFYING PERFORMANCE ACCORDING TO
ITS PRODUCTION STATUS
Note: — The production status of performance in organ-
ized division of labor corresponds to its intelligence status
because performance ranges through management and
routine standard practice according to its production con-
trol on account of the degree and scope of reasoning and
planning or decision and skill involved, w^hich verifies the
fact that intelligence is capacity for volitional accomplish-
ment. Grading occupational performance according to
its intelligence status therefore classifies it according to its
production status and the intelligence status of perform-
ance is the basis for its classification according to the fol-
lowing outline.
/. Management
Constructive imagination with formulation and develop-
ment of consequent courses of action even against environ-
mental and instinctive dictates;
Orignial analyses and classifications on the basis of
fundamental likenesses and differences ; Establishing stand-
ards ;
Accurate observation ; Resourceful application of courses
of action.
Constituting two kinds of service applying in an or-
ganization either with general scope or in departmental
relationship :
I. Executive Service, including all of the following
kinds of performance :
Organization — analyzing and classifying the func-
52 Analysis and Classification of Performance
tions in a division of labor; Constructing and integrating
the essential positions for the performance of the functions.
Judgment of others — gauging correctly the ability
of others for placement in the scheme of organization.
Decisions — fair, definite, prompt, and logical, taking
fair chances and holding with moral courage of convictions
and self-reliance regardless of criticism.
Association — ^viath poise and spontaneous expression
of self-reliance and ability to carry out a project, sufficient
to inspire the respect, trust and confidence of others and
their subordination to leadership.
Instruction — gauging correctly its effect and adapt-
ing it accordingly.
2. Staff Service, including informational, advisory, or
development performance of various kinds, such as the fol-
lowing :
Investigation or research — ardent search for dis-
covery of facts, scientific, commercial, etc.; Systematizing
and interpreting the meaning of disclosures in concrete
relations; reporting results of research with recommenda-
tions.
Invention — study of known facts and methods and
devising means for operation with improvement in quality
of product, greater economy, efficiency, etc. ; Devising new
combinations of elements for these purposes.
Compilation of data — to furnish information of any
kind — events, current operations, financial status, environ-
mental conditions, etc. ; Reporting information ; Publica-
tion.
Reflecting inspired sentiment through some me-
dium of expression to inspire similar sentiment in others
(includes the performance of all kinds of art.).
Devising propoganda — advertising, etc.
Key to Analysis and Classification 53
A. General Management Class i
Executive service of the general organization including
organization and administration for efficiency in Financ-
ing, Production, Sales, and adjustment of relations with
Investors, the Public, and the Personnel.
In this class is the performance of various grades per-
taining to the positions of President, Vice President, Gen-
eral Manager, etc., in any organization.
B. Departmental and Associate Management Class 2
Executive and Staff Service of departmental scope or
of interdepartmental scope but specialized or limited as to
function.
In this class is the performance of various grades per-
taining to positions of managers of divisions and sub-
divisions of the organization and to the various positions
of Executive and Staff Assistants, the number of grades
depending upon the complexity of the organization.
//. Line Service
Routine standard performance dictated by authority or
experience; Constructive imagination of a more limited
character than in "I" or of negligible importance,
A. Supervision Class 3
Judgment of qualities by comparison with established
standards; Analyses and Classifications by established pro-
cedure ; Execution of intricate standard practice including
delegation of performance and direction of others; Deal-
ing with fairness and association with poise and the spon-
taneous expression of self-reliance, and ability to carry
out a project, sufficient to inspire the respect, trust and
54 Analysis and Classification of Performance
confidence of others and their subordination to leadership ;
Promptly making and holding to decisions with self re-
liance and courage of convictions; Accurate observation;
Resourceful application of courses of action; Limited in-
vestigations and recommendations.
B. Highly Skilled Service Class 4
Judgment of qualities by comparison v^^ith established
standards; Analyses by established procedure; Perform-
ance of intricate, complicated and exacting details un-
der limited supervison — dictated by long experience; Ad-
ministration in detailed procedure concerning only per-
formance in positions of lower grade.
C. Skilled Service Class 5
General performance as for "B" but less intricate and
exacting and subject to more supervision; Administra-
tion over minor details only concerning performance in
positions of lower grade.
D. Semi-skilled Service Class 6
Tasks requiring skill acquired by comparatively short
periods of experience; Routine of limited scope — without
close supervision ; Assumption of minor responsibilities
with self reliance.
E. Unskilled Service Class 7
Simple tasks in which skill is acquired with compara-
tively little experience and performance requires no pre-
vious technical training or experience — subject to super-
vision or direction almost entirely.
STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS AND
GRADED CLASSIFICATION FOR
POSITIONS
The essential performance in any position or
OCCUPATION may be specifically determined and
GRADED upon a natural Intelligence Scale with the aid of
the Key, preceding, and the first qualification of incum-
bents must be that they can meet these performance re-
quirements by corresponding intelligence endowments.
Moreover, grading the performance of a position or oc-
cupation upon this scale classifies it according to its pro-
duction status because it is a fact that the production
value of performance in organized division of labor is in
proportion to its intelligence status. That is to say, in
organized division of labor, all positions are concerned
with production and performance ranges through man-
agement and routine standard practice according to the
status of reasoning and planning, or of the decisions and
skill involved in production control. The higher the
degree or the greater the extent of the intelligence which
characterizes the performance required in a position, the
greater is the control of production and the lower the de-
gree or the less the extent, the more is the performance
machine like and the less is its control. Men and ma-
chines, however, are not to be confused. The man is
always called upon for voluntary control but the machine
never can exercise such functions as this involves.
55
56 Analysis and Classification of Performance
The performance in any position also may be
REGARDED as of TWO PHASES, namely, — ^technical, or
that pertaining to a special industry and kind of work
and requiring technical experience; and non-techni-
cal, or that pertaining to personal adaptations to the
environment of the position and essential to its technical
performance, though not necessarily specific, physical and
mental, as developed from hereditary endowments under
environmental influences as a whole. The non-technical
features of performance determine efficiency or involve
reactions upon others — superiors, subordinates, associates,
patrons, or competitors. Characteristics, physical and
mental, by which this performance is prompted, are the
variables which make personal differences. They develop
under environmental influences from the chance combin-
ations of elements derived paternally and in the living
world broadly, produce the varieties which we call adap-
tations or misfits according to the environmental relations
in which we find them.
The essential performance in any position may there-
fore be analyzed according to these principles, and speci-
fications made up (See Fig. ii, 12, 13).
Procedure of Analyses, Specification, and Graded Classi-
fication of Positions
In General
Before positions can be definitely classified it is neces-
sary to establish specifications by which they shall be de-
fined and standard titles by which they shall be desig-
nated. These specifications should include a concise sum-
mary analysis of the essential performance pertaining to
each position. It is also important to include, for each
Standard Specifications for Positions 57
position, a statement of the training and experience neces-
sary to qualify persons for appointment to the position.
The information necessary for making up correct speci-
fications is not possessed by any one person. It must there-
fore be collected from a number of persons according to
their acquaintance with the various positions. Among
these should be the incumbents of the positions themselves
because they know the performance of their positions bet-
ter than others.
After specifications have been established, positions
should be graded according to their relative control of pro-
duction on account of the reasoning and planning or de-
cisions and skill involved in their performance.
Positions should then be segregated into graded series
according to kinds of service, by functional classification.
Essential Steps
0. Preliminary Step, see No. 8.*
1. By means of a questionnaire or instruction blank,
collect data as to the performance of positions from their
incumbents and their supervisors (see Fig. 14).
2. Classify these returns tentatively, according to the
kinds of work involved and the positions included.
3. Note the positions which have essentially the same
•performance under different titles and collect their blanks
under the same title.
4. Note the positions which have the same title but
different performance and separate their blanks, giving
them different titles.
5. Using an "Analyses Record" form (see Fig. 10)
for each position, list the essential items of technical per-
formance, making a complete study of the performance
in each case.
6. In the Analyses Record, list the essential items of
58 Analysis and Classification of Performance
non-technical performance, using the "Check List" of the
Key preceding.
As to exactly what this performance is, the determina-
tion requires careful study of the position in question.
Every position from president to laborer has a series of
requirements, not technical, but essential to technique,
which should be set forth in its specifications and called
for in the examination of its prospective incumbents, (see
specimen Analyses Records, Figs, ii, 12, 13),
7. In the Analyses Record, state briefly the training and
experience necessary for performance.
8. According to the "Outline of Intelligent Perform-
ance in Organization" of the Key preceding, carefully
classify the positions, using the Analyses Records made and
note the classification in the Record in each case.
Sub-divide any class if there is a difference as to in-
telligence grade of performance between positions included.
This specifies the intelligence status of the performance
in each position, and therefore the standard for the incum-
bent selected and grades the positions upon this as a
fundamental basis for appraisal in compensation rating.
This work may be facilitated by having this Outline of
Performance, as far as its several classes are concerned,
arranged as a series of forms on loose guides (see Figs.
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8), one of each class, with interleaves
(Fig. 9) for sub-division and extension, so that the Analy-
sis Record cards for positions may be readily sorted and
placed according to the guides.
Spaces on the guides, as shown, are arranged for listing
the titles of positions included. (The titles appearing on
the guides, as shown, are merely illustrative). If these
are entered across the guides and those of the same or
allied lines of work are given the same order of entry in
all classes, definite lines of advancement will be indi-
Standard Specifications for Positions 59
cated, as shown by some of the specimen entries made.
The spacing for entry of titles may be extended by using
an interleaf (Fig. 9). *This summary classification
MAY BE MADE TENTATIVELY BEFORE MAKING OUT THE
COMPLETE SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE POSITIONS BY
SIMPLY ENTERING THE TITLES UPON THESE BLANKS
FROM THE MENTAL CONCEPTIONS OF THE POSITIONS AS
ACCEPTED IN GENERAL USUAGE. WHEN THIS IS DONE,
THE IMPORTANCE OF DEFINITE ANALYSES AND SPECIFI-
CATIONS WILL BE REALIZED AND THE COMPREHENSIVE-
NESS OF THE PLAN AND THE LACK OF DEFINITION AND
UNIFORMITY WITHOUT IT WILL BE APPRECIATED. FOR
THIS REASON IT IS WELL TO DO THIS AS A PRELIxMINARY
STEP IN A SURVEY.
9. Assemble the Analysis Records thus completed and
arrange them by their graded classification after segre-
gating them according to kinds of service by a final func-
tional classification.
Conclusion
This will then constitute the "Standard Specifications
and Graded Classification" for the positions of your or-
ganization and may be kept in a vertical file or as a loose
leaf book. The entries on the guides will give a "Sum-
mary Classification."
Note:
The kinds of service into which positions may be classi-
fied differ, of course, among companies or corporations.
Some, which are typical, are as follows: —
Auditing and Finance Service — controlling and ac-
counting.
Clerical Service — general office practice.
6o Analysis and Classification of Performance
Commercial Service — selling, purchasing, and general
trade.
Custodial Service — care taking, maintenance and oper-
ation of buildings.
Inspectional Service — making examinations and reports
as to the maintenance of standards in materials and prac-
tice.
Investigational Service — research and recommendations
as to new standards and procedure.
Mechanical Service — practice in mechanical opera-
tions and manual labor, specialized and unspecialized.
Miscellaneous Professional Service — engineering and
other established practice in scientific applications, general
organization and administration, etc.
Taking each of these with a definition as to its general
character, division may be made into groups, in order to
further segregate positions by function or nature of work
performed, thus —
Clerical Service
Including positions in which the incumbents perform
or supervise routine work in general office practice.
Clerk Group, Dispatcher Group, Stenographer and
Typist Group, Storekeeper Group, Telephone Operator
Group.
Clerk Group — Chief Clerk, Senior Clerk, Clerk, As-
sistant Clerk, Junior Clerk, Messenger. Titles such as
Computer, Time Checker, Comparer, etc., may be read-
ily included by these titles for the various grades of the
Clerk Group.
(See "Job Specifications," Federal Board for Vocation-
al Education, Nov., 19 19).
Standard Specifications for Positions
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62 Analysis and Classification of Performance
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Manager
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Engineer
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Manager
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Standard Specifications for Positions
63
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rapher
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keeper
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keeper
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rapher
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man
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Standard Specifications for Positions
67
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68 Analysis and Classification of Performance
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Standard Specifications for Positions
69
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Standard Specifications for Positions
71
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73
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Standard Specifications for Positions
75
76 Analysis and Classification of Performance
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Standard Specifications for Positions 79
Compensation Rating
Basis the Control of Production
Under natural conditions, individuals are paid for
SUPPLY of commodities or services according to the con-
trol which they exercise over it, whether they actually
produce the commodities or services, or not. Therefore,
the control of production by service is the fundamental
basis upon which it should be rated for returns.
Two Phases of Control by Service
There are two phases through which control of produc-
tion is exercised by service of any kind which is essential
to it. One is through its supply in the abstract, and the
other is through its organization status, that is, through
its application in the organized scheme for division of
labor necessary for production as a whole, as shown by
classification according to the procedure outlined above.
Control of Production by Supply of Service in the Ab-
stract Rated by Bargaining
Control of production by service through its supply in
the abstract is rated by bargaining, as with commodities,
and the relation between supply and demand fixes an eco-
nomic rate. Recognition of relative control of production
on account of the organization status of service is usually
more or less eclipsed by bargaining for service in the ab-
stract and this is conducive to a consciousness on the part
of workers of inequities in dealing, or inequality of pay
for equality of service, and that progress is not a conse-
quence of accomplishment. This condition requires auto-
cratic methods and induces low morale.
8o Analysis and Classification of Performance
Rating the Production Control by Service Must Meet the
Prevailing Economic Rates and also Reflect Or-
ganization Status
The rating of production control by service, therefore,
must meet the economic rate for its supply in the ab-
stract and also must express its relative production control
on account of its organization status when compared with
other rates in the same organization, that is, pay rates
should co-ordinate. Membership in an organization mer-
its recognition of both of these phases of production con-
trol because the worker becomes adapted to special re-
quirements and cannot be readily replaced and he is also
withdrawn, to a considerable extent, from the open labor
market because of his special application. This condition
is favorable to stability. If we offer, however, only the
economic rate for labor as a commodity, we encourage the
worker to keep his services always on the open market and
encourage turnover. The members of an organization,
therefore, if they are completely integrated, should be
worth more to that organization than they could merit in
similar work in any other organization and more than
others in the open market who are not so integrated.
Organized service has thus more worth than labor in
a commodity sense and rates which reflect organization
status and are higher than market rates for similar labor
as a commodity, are just. Just compensation rating is
therefore not so much a question of what others pay as it
is a question of participation in the yield of production
control, rates for similar service in different organizations
selling their products at corresponding prices being dif-
ferent according to their differences in efficiency in pro-
duction.
Standard Specifications for Positions 8i
Minimum Rate Established as a Base in a Rating Scale
A position which requires a mature person's full time
must pay a return sufficient to meet the demands of his
necessary living environmental relations, otherwise he can-
not furnish the kind of service required. Therefore, the
cost of living is a primary factor in rating and a mini-
mum rate should be established for mature workers to
comply with a rational estimate of living demands. This
must be regarded as a constant factor in the cost of pro-
duction. The actual rate may change with the purchas-
ing power of money but any self-sustaining organization
should, at least, support all of its members.
A scale of rates should then be established ranging up-
ward from the minimum rate for mature persons of low-
est organization status and applying to positions accord-
ing to their classification as to intelligence status of per-
formance. At the same time, these rates must be ade-
quate to meet prevailing economic rates for any kind of
service essential and should be subject to rise and fall with
the minimum rate.
Pay Ranges
A range, including, minimum, maximum, and interme-
diate rates, should apply to the positions of each grade in
order to place the service of every position within its
proper limits and to give latitude in the application of
rates according to the efficiency or merit of incumbents'
performance, taking the minimum rate of a range as the
rate for the new worker in a position within the range,
under normal conditions.
Working Conditions Meriting Special Compensation
Especially hazardous, arduous, or disagreeable working
conditions, which are real and unavoidable, should be
82 Analysis and Classification of Performance
compensated for in some manner. This may be accom-
plished by adding a bonus or other form of added pay-
ment to the rates which would apply to positions effected
without regard to these special conditions.
Special Incentives to Efficiency
Financial incentives are essential to maximum produc-
tion and should apply with equal opportunity to all work-
ers in an organization. There is no real distinction be-
tween workers in the mechanical trades and those in the
offices, as to production. All are producers, and, accord-
ing to efficiency, should receive compensation equivalent
to the rates ranging from the minimum to the maximum
applying to their respective positions. A "Follow-Up
of Progress Record" should reveal the facts with regard
to individual efficiency by exhibiting periodic notations of
data regarding specifications of work, whether they relate
to daily production on the basis of specific operations in
shop work, or periodic rating with respect to other kinds
of items in performance (See Fig. i6).
Financial incentives, to be effective, must be clearly
visible to the worker as applying directly to his individual
efforts by appreciable remuneration and must be deter-
mined upon a basis simple enough to be clearly understood
by the individuals concerned. Secrecy in matters of this
kind, as in most other matters of management, is disas-
trous to co-operate relations.
Summary of Elements Concerned in Compensation Rat-
ing.
Following are the elements, therefore, with which we
are concerned in compensation rating: — Economic Rate,
Organization Status, Cost of Living, Merit or Efficiency
of Incumbent, and Working Conditions Meriting Special
Compensation.
Standard Specifications for Positions 83
The Advancement of Incumbents
Advancement Not Involving Change in Position
As stated above, advancement of an incumbent from
rate to rate, within a range allowed for his position, on
the basis of productive efficiency, is essential as an incen-
tive to his development in efficiency and continuance in
service.
In salaried positions, periodic limits of eligibility for
advancement from rate to rate, i. e., 6 months, one year,
etc., promote equity in dealing and simplify the procedure
of adjustment, especially because of the fact that deter-
mination of efficiency cannot be upon an exact basis and
practical distinctions therefore cannot be made without
due time for collection of data.
Adjustment according to merit necessitates advance-
ment when it is due, therefore, when the time of eligi-
bility arrives, an incumbent should be advanced according
to data shown by a "Follow-Up of Progress Record" and
advancement should be noted in and followed up from this
record.
Promotion
Positions of the higher grades should be filled by pro-
motion of the incumbents of positions of the lower grades,
as far as these persons can meet necessary qualifications,
and their standing with respect to this should be taken
from the "Follow-Up of Progress Record."
VI
INDIVIDUAL PLACEMENT, FOLLOW-
UP, AND TRAINING
In General
If we specify the essential performance re-
quirements for positions or occupations clearly
and determine the intelligence status of the per-
formance in each case. We Can Match Up
Prospective Incumbents to Them by knowing
definitely what to look for in the individuals, and
in cases of inexperienced persons, when we have
matched their personal aptitudes to the specified
non-technical performance of positions, we can
give vocational guidance and specify trainnig
courses. Moreover, by standardizing the method
for judgment by different examiners, their judg-
ments will be upon a fair basis for comparison
as they will be derived by the same procedure.
The accuracy of a decision obtained will depend
upon the intelligence and experience of the exam-
iner, the accuracy of the analysis of performance
in positions, and the amount of evidence which
84
Individual Placement and Training 85
the examiner is able to collect with regard to cap-
abilities in the individuals examined to meet the
requirements called for in the specifications. Test-
ing, or collecting evidence, should therefore be as
complete as possible with methods available but
rational and pertinent to the points called for and
we thus avoid "lump sum" judgments and guesses
(See Fig. 15).
Procedure in Diagnosis for Placement
STEPS
1. Using an "Analysis Record" blank (See
Form 9, the same form as for the position) for
each prospective incumbent, have each one make
out his record for Previous Positions and Essen-
tial Training and Experience by years (as pro-
vided for in the blank).
If anyone is unable to do this for himself, the
examiner should do it from his answers to ques-
tions.
2. Complete the record of information with
reference to items called for upon the blank.
3. It may be helpful to enter as Models the
names of two persons known to you whose place-
ment is regarded as correct. This forms a tang-
86 Analysis and Classification of Performance
ible reference basis in the examination of prospec-
tive incumbents.
4. Interview each person directly or indirectly
and give any tests which may be feasible with
The phases in an examination of candidates may be listed
as follows : Personal Interviews, Tests, References.
Personal Interviews, given by a single examiner or by sev-
eral, individually or collectively, should be so conducted as
to put the candidate at ease and call forth his free expression
relevant to the essentials of performance under consideration.
Determinations by interview are judgments, impressionistic
in character, which are the only kinds of judgments obtain-
able with regard to many items of performance and therefore
the interview is the most important phase in examination.
Tests are Physical and Mental. The physical tests usually
are of the character of a medical examination. Mental tests
include psychological tests, trade tests, and educational tests.
Psychological Tests are tests in the actual performance of
exercises each of which requires a particular degree of gen-
eral intelligence, or of a phase of intelligence (capacity in
one of the functions — attention, perception, memory, dis-
crimination, response to dictates, reasoning, etc.) for its execu-
tion according to a fixed standard. In the application of such
tests it should be fully appreciated that a single test is subject
to many accidental influences which restrict its revelations to
momentary ability only and it therefore is no proof of ulti-
mate capacity, which is the thing actually to be determined.
The ultimate capacity of an individual is revealed by the kind
of acts which he is capable of performing after repeated ap-
plication and continuous practice and individual differences
shown by a first or preliminary test will not be the same as
at the end of periods of practice during which individuals have
acquired the highest degree of skill attainable by them. How-
ever, in competitive examinations, persons who show ability
at the moment deserve selection, with respect to items in ques-
tion, over those who do not, if the examination takes into ac-
count the item, "Maintenance of Established Standards."
Trade Tests are exercises assigned for the purpose of de-
Individual Placement and Training 87
regard to the essential points listed in the Per-
formance Requirements as given in the Analysis
Record of the position to be filled.
5. Aside from the notice of the applicant, enter
in his Analysis Record a judgment mark for each
of the primary points of the performance require-
ments transcribed from the Analysis Record of
the position to that of the prospective incumbent.
See No. 3. Consider the requirements, knowing
termining the skill which a person may have in a trade. It
has been found that persons who acquire skill in mechanical
trades also acquire a working vocabulary of trade terms and
therefore testing knowledge of trade terms in addition to
knowledge of courses of action applying to specific circum-
stances and established standards by means of a rationally
composed questionnaire, is a fair indication of one's status in
trade performance. Actual exercises in trade operations are
also given at times but such procedure is usually impracticable.
Accidental influences must be taken into account in trade tests,
as with other tests.
Educational tests are the exercises commonly assigned in the
form of a questionnaire for testing knowledge in any sub-
ject. The value of a test of this kind depends mainly upon
the intelligence used in selecting questions and it should be
appreciated also that tests of this kind show only momentary
ability, as is true of psychological tests and trade tests, which
may or may not be the same as ultimate ability.
References are subject to prejudice for or against a person.
His personal references will likely be prejudiced in his favor
and an employer, whose service he is leaving, will in many
instances be resentful, especially if the person was a com-
petent employee. These facts should be fully appreciated in
weighing the merits of letters of references (See "The Selec-
tion and Placement of Employes," Federal Board for Voca-
tional Education, Nov., 1919).
88 Analysis and Classification of Performance
the job and with common sense, especially with
respect to individual supervisors concerned.
These marks should be weighed to represent
relative values and should when added, represent
the final mark or general grade, for which the
most convenient basis is probably lOO.
6. Rate the intelligence status of each person
by the class number for the status of perform-
ance of which he gives evidence of being capable
and enter it in his record.
7. With inexperienced persons who give evi-
dence of non-technical and intelligence qualifica-
tions, prescribe the essential course of training
and experience for the performance requirements.
8. Classify the Analysis Records thus complet-
ed for various subjects in any desired way and file
as a permanent record of examination and place-
ment (See Fig. 15).
Conclusion: We thus consider aptitudes for
performance individually and objectively and ar-
rive at a decision by systematic diagnosis, avoid-
ing "lump sum" estimates. Also, we judge adap-
tations concretely, since we have specific points to
meet in the specifications, and we take standards
for comparisons.
Individual Placement and Training
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Individual Placement and Training 91
Follow-Up of Progress Record
The keeping of "Follow-Up" records of the
performance of members in an organization is
a specialized function in centralizing recognition
of the state of efficiency of the individual members
and a most important point of contact between the
central directorate and local directorates with re-
gard to personnel administration. It requires sys-
tematic periodic registry of data as to specific
items in the performance of each incumbent of a
position and organization of the file of data for
instant reference and reflection of the status of
each individual at the expiration of stated inter-
vals of time ( 3 mo., 6 mo., i yr., etc. ) .
Data as, far as possible, should be with regard
to objective points (clearly observable) and in-
clude observations of more than one judge, when
possible, in order to be free from personal prejud-
ice and arbitrary standards. When comparison
of data regarding the efficiency of any incumbent
at different times indicates a noteworthy change
in efficiency, special explanation should be obtain-
ed and entered in the record.
The procedure of keeping "Follow-Up" rec-
ords is simple and practical if a card is kept for
each person, bearing a form for record such as
92 Analysis and Classification of Performance
shown in Figure i6, including a list of items from
the Analysis Record of the performance of the
position occupied by the incumbent and note as to
method of grading, and these cards are passed to
and returned by the judges concerned, with regu-
larity. If conducted seriously, this procedure will
check up inconsistencies in judgments and place-
ment and, in the long run, will establish a reliable
basis for adjustments.
This procedure is one of the functions most
essential to fair personnel administration. It is
the principal means by which a policy for uniform-
ity and fairness in dealing can be applied to indi-
vidual workers because it is the only means for
systematically presenting the merits of individual
members of an organization to its executives. Its
absence and the consequent existence of much
decentralized despotism or personal favoritism
have been responsible for much of the distrust
and lack of faith in workers for management in
industry. Instances of injustice have been com-
mon enough to be within the experience of every-
one who has worked long in the ranks and are
frequently so common as to be accepted as a mat-
ter of course.
Failure to carry on the procedure with regular-
Individual Placement and Training 93
ity and competent supervision, or with analy-
sis of the performance concerned, is equivalent to
or worse than no attempt to do it at all. For
example, the following cases are cited : —
( 1 ) In a navy yard, a locomotive engineer of
wide experience and long service before and dur-
ing the War was suddenly laid off and given a
notification slip signed by an officer's rubber stamp
and bearing the ratings — Efficiency 65 per cent,
and Conduct 60 per cent. He wrote his Con-
gressman explaining the circumstances and was
personally called upon afterwards by a higher
officer and invited to return to work, whereupon
his ratings were raised by the Commandant to
90 per cent, and 100 per cent.
There were evidently in this case, no tangible
data for placing the original ratings at 6^ per
cent, and 60 per cent, respectfully and, if the man
was important enough to be restored in the man-
ner stated, the reason given for lay off, "no
work," was a ruse.
(2) In a large city school system, a high school
instructor of ten years standing "took a chance"
in 191 8 and resigned to take up government war
work. He had letters in his possession given by
various supervisors at different times during and
94 Analysis and Classification of Performance
at the end of his period of service which gave
unquaHfied approval of his efficiency and compet-
ancy. He applied for reappointment during the
following year and was informed that his Princi-
pal (one of the supervisors who had formerly
given unqualified commendation) had stated, in
an answer to the Superintendent's inquiry, that his
work toward the last was not as good as it had
been formerly because of outside interests. This
disagreed vitally with a written statement which he
had received at the termination of his service
from his Department Head but no data were giv-
en to substantiate the discrepancy and none were
required by the Superintendent because it seemed
most expedient for him to stand by the Princi-
pal. The facts were that during his last year the
instructor did much less outside work than in
previous years and the Principal could not have
produced data to show that his work had de-
teriorated because he had not been in touch with
it. He did not knew even the subjects the
instructor was teaching, to say nothing of his
methods in teaching. The Principal was Ger-
man and had been a German sympathizer during
the War. He was resentful because of the resig-
nation, but nevertheless his sweeping judgment
Individual Placement and Training 95
was all that would be considered by the Superin-
tendent. The Superintendent explained that it
would be a lot of "unnecessary work" to keep up
records of data taken periodically, although the
teachers had always been lead to believe that
such records were kept.
Practice in rating men is thus quite different, in
many organizations, from that of rating machines
and equipment. If a foreman were to discard
a machine costing fifty dollars, some tangible rea-
son would have to be stated which could be veri-
fied and until rational methods under competent
administrators can be used in connection with
workers, distrust of management may be expected
with its consequent effect upon production, and
rational methods will need to be in force long
enough for workers to experience their effects be-
fore their influence can produce results which, if
effective even in a small degree, would justify the
meagre expense of their operation.
THE INSTINCT OF PROGRESS
Follow-up records correctly kept and used are
of great interest to workers in an organization
and an incentive to efficient continuous service be-
cause instinct to make progress is vital and can
be satisfied only under conditions of fair dealing
gS Analysis and Classification of Performance
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Individual Placement and Training
97
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98 Analysis and Classification of Performance
which the correct keeping of follow-up records
promotes. This instinct of progress is a most
important characteristic of all living beings be-
cause the maintenance and perpetuation of life
processes demands specific relations with an ever
changing environment. To meet these demands
we are sensitive to our surroundings and respon-
sive in the performance of our correlated acts and
acquire attitudes with respect to persons and
things about us.
Mental comfort or happiness is enjoyed when
we appreciate that the demands of our environ-
mental relations are met. It instinctively depends
upon the consciousness of success or accomplish-
ment from hour to hour and day to day in what-
ever we may become interested. It is such a vital
instinct to desire this progress that we suffer men-
tal discomfort or the feeling of unhappiness if it
is not satisfied.
To be conscious therefore of making definite
progress is the root of joy in work and joy in fife.
It is an instinct not peculiar to ourselves but to all
living beings in consequence of a universal law
of progress shown everywhere in nature by con-
tinuous change and development.
We are therefore in harmony with our envir-
Individual Placement and Training 99
onment when we can find in it courses of action
which are creative and lead to progressive accom-
plishment as time goes on and, if we fail to find
such courses of action, we are out of harmony and
are unprofitably and unhappily situated, Long-
fellow expresses the idea in the following lines —
i
"Not enjoyment and not sorrow is our destined end or
way,
But to act that each tomorrow find us farther than
today."
For mental comfort and happiness then we
must consider occupational performance and work
along lines which are interesting, moving, doing,
and giving development and inspiration through
new accomplishments, according to our aptitudes,
as time goes on. The performance, unless we are
economically independent, must yield commercial
returns as part of its accomplishment, at least to
the extent required by our living relations to en-
vironment, and must therefore be of a kind which
is in certain demand.
Appreciation of progress is a strong incentive
to effort and it may be very much facilitated by
systematically noting and reviewing occurrences
lOO Analysis and Classification of Performance
and advances. Therefore, it is highly important
to display graphically all available records of
progress to individuals concerned, and to publish
all intelligible information concerning the produc-
tion which they control. The keeping of a jour-
nal and graphic summaries which can be project-
ed perpetually (see Fig. 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22)
is of value to individuals in this respect.
Financial Provisions
Progress on the whole gives satisfaction and
peace of mind only when it is ample to provide for
future wants. A portion of our regular returns,
therefore, must be invested for accumulation of
capital to meet future demands when returns from
service cannot be maintained, or cannot meet an
excessive demand.
There is no maximum limit to the amount which
any one should so invest, provided that it does not
unduly restrict provisions for present needs, but
there is a minimum limit or objective whose at-
tainment is essential to consciousness of progress
in the full or complete sense and therefore essen-
tial to the mental states of confidence, comfort,
and happiness.
The essential provisions beyond present needs
Individual Placement and Training lOi
which progress calls for, which must fix our min-
imum objectives are : —
1. Insurance of acquired property and provis-
ions for dependents in times of disability.
2. Educational and other developmental re-
quirements of self and family.
3. Retirement endowment.
These provisions are therefore of vital concern
to the individual and must be considered, in ad-
justing compensation, as part of his living de-
mands. Beneficial, educational, and thrift plans
should be promoted in these relations by corpora-
tions and participated in by individual members.
Training and Development
Systematic training is essential in any situation
to provide discipline for the performance which is
required and may be followed according to one's
own plans or under counsel and guidance of oth-
ers, according to the nature of the performance re-
quirements of the work in view and one's endow-
ments and previous experience. This course of
training is not essentially apart from or discontin-
uous with the occupation as a whole, but continuous
with it throughout life as one and the same course
of procedure, the future being built upon the exper-
ience of the past, planned and developed as ingen-
I02 Analysis and Classification of Performance
uity and environmental circumstances offer possi-
bilities. We cannot see clearly ahead but we can
lay out a general course to follow which leads to
opportunities and establish an objective; then
when this is attained, we can establish another,
and so on, as ways open up. We can control the
application and development of our endowed fac-
ulties but we have little or no control over circum-
stances apart from us and therefore must seek
environmental conditions which are opportune to
our adaptations for performance. Intelligence
makes the discovery of opportunities possible and
our ingenuity is constantly being taxed to find the
ways and means for accomplishment but oppor-
tune conditions must exist or nothing can be ac-
complished by any kind of performance.
We attain development by thought control. By
this, states of mind and mental traits may be
greatly modified — "timidity to strength, coward-
ice to bravery, stress and anguish to peace and
poise," Frank Crane. Personal characteristics
are derived paternally and are either developed
or inhibited under environmental influences as we
advance in life, that is, we have an organization
with inherent tendencies to expression but adapt-
able to extrinsic influences. Our acts are greatly
Individual Placement and Training 103
restricted In some respects and enforced in others
as we knock about in our environment and "mud-
dle through," making mistakes and perfecting our
steps along a course of continuous change.
We can apply our intelligence to the ordering
of this process of perfecting our steps, much to
our advantage, by observing essential conditions
to be met and consciously practicing the acts called
for until they become fixed habits in part with our
reflex nature. This Is self-training.
In this we may single out essential points for
mental discipline and practice upon these as essen-
tial In self training, together with those for exper-
ience of a technical character. In these applica-
tions certain facts and principles have been clearly
recognized as follows: — (see "Psychology in
Daily Life," Seashore, Appletons').
IMPRESSIONS
1. Impressions are retained when we attend to
their objects with confidence and trust in mem-
ory, especially of the first impression.
2. Visual and serviceable ideas require clear
observation of essential elements and their Integ-
ration in large units — Analyses and Syntheses.
3. Mental effort can be sustained only during
I04 Analysis and Classification of Performance
comparatively short periods (two hours or there
about), therefor economy requires that concen-
tration of attention should follow periods of re-
laxation.
RECOLLECTION
1. Recognition of relationships and associa-
tions is essential to associated memory and the
flow of ideas.
2. Mental impressions are utilized by being
recalled and persistent effort to recall and its repe-
tition develop its efficiency.
3. Ideas are serviceable only when their recall
is exact and the impression kept clear of unrelat-
ed elements.
4. Cultivation of realistic imagery facilitates
recognition.
5. Expression of recognition develops its effi-
ciency.
SUMMARY OF ESSENTIALS IN TRAINING
From the forgoing statements of principle we
may conclude that the elements of training may
be summarized in the following phases : —
I. Development of habits, of keen sense per-
ception and discrimination — capacity for obser-
vation and inductive thinking.
Individual Placement and Training 105
2. Development of conceptions of systems of
knowledge — capacity for deductive thinking.
3. Practice in essentials until action becomes
easy and automatic.
Habits of Keen Sense Perception and Discrimination
Inquiry and concentration of attention upon
the thing at hand at the moment are essential to
keen perception.
Attention to comparison of impressions is es-
sential to discrimination, intelligent action, and
constructive imagination.
Intelligence, and rational action are developed
in proportion to habits or perception, discrimin-
ation, and vivid recollection.
Training as to these habits is the most impor-
tant phase in education because vital information
and performance will be achieved in consequence.
"The key to the training of the senses is the
habit of directing attention in efficient, economic,
and restful waves," Seashore. The habit of trust-
ing the senses, especially the first impression, is
most important in training. Lack of concentra-
tion gives dull sense perception and concentration
of attention is inhibited by aimless ineffective
strain. Growth occurs only by self-expression in
lo6 Analysis and Classification of Performance
the use of one's own resources and any system to
promote this must allow individual freedom for
initiative. Lock step systems, which are common,
restrict rather than promote this freedom for self-
expression. The individual should be guided in
work which he is able to undertake according to
his resources. He should be advanced as he is
prepared to undertake new achievements, and
should suffer the natural consequences of his own
mistakes. Dealing and association with others
should be an important part of his activities be-
cause of the importance in environment of ele-
ments involving other persons and the necessity of
personal propaganda for his own progress.
Conceptions of Systems of Knowledge
Most knowledge cannot be acquired by one's
own investigations. Life is too short for the in-
dividual to rediscover known facts. We must be-
gin where our ancestors left off, making use of the
heritage which we have received from them. We
must therefore acquire a fund of the knowledge
of our times as a working basis and this must be
organized in order to be of value in deductive
thinking. In acquiring this knowledge the habits
of keen sense perception and discrimination should
Individual Placement and Training 107
be employed in order that the different phases in
training may be taken up together.
Practice in Essentials
Essential acts in performance must be repeated
until they become reflexive in order to acquire fix-
ed graceful habits and economic action in any
field of endeavor and in general association.
JUDGMENT AND DIRECTION OF THE SELF AND
OTHERS IN VOCATIONAL RELATIONS BROADLY
Personal judgment and direction broadly, re-
quires placement of the individual in an occupa-
tion upon the same principles of selection that
apply to the placement of workers in positions in
a corporate organization, namely, examining the
individual for adaptations to the items of required
performance, but the examination of the individ-
ual should be made directly from the "Check
List" of the Key, preceding, in order to obtain a
comprehensive characterization of performance to
which the individual may be adapted (see Form
12). This should then be graded as to intelli-
gence status by means of the "Outline of Intelli-
gent Performance" of the Key and possible occu-
pations should be considered according to the
io8 Analysis and Classification of Performance
same procedure. By comparisons, a rational
choice may then be made.
No one else knows what a person does and
likes better than himself so that he, if he will be
strictly honest with himself, can be his own best
judge and he must exercise this function wisely if
he is to be his own manager and direct his activi-
ties successfully. There is no specific piece of
work for which a person is predestined absolute-
ly. Adaptations are relative and, within a general
field, an individual may apply himself to any one
of a variety of activities equally well because many
items in the performance of an occupation are not
technical, though essential to technique. Occupa-
tional performance will be much more efficient
however, when selected in the field of ones natural
interests than when selected in another field, be-
cause impressions within this field are easily
grasped, retained, and utilized, as much of the
performance will consist in spontaneous expres-
sion for the pleasure of expression alone, that is,
work and play in such a field are strongly corre-
lated and free self expression is the strongest of
influences toward mental development. What we
need to remember under such conditions are the
things in which we are naturally interested and to
Individual Placement and Training 109
which we give attention spontaneously. There-
fore, discovery of one's likes and dislikes reveals
much as to his personal adaptations for different
types of occupational performance and should be
included in systematic procedure for discovery of
his aptitudes.
Judgment of others in their occupations may be
made fairly by using the "Key to Analysis and
Classification of Performance in Vocational Re-
lations" if we have been able to observe the per-
sons in action or collect reliable data of their ac-
tion, and judgment as to strength or weakness in
particular features of their performance may be
of great value in dealing, or in rating or directing
their activities.
Personal Propaganda
The environment in which we live is made up
very extensively of elements involving other per-
sons which require dealing and association. In
these respects, not only ability to perform service
is necessary but propaganda for patronage as
well, executed either by ourselves or by others,
consciously or unconsciously. This is true be-
cause patronage can be extended only according
to the knowledge and belief which others acquire
no Analysis and Classification of Performance
about us, justly or unjustly. We must therefore
take care that our performance is pleasing and
strikingly suggestive of personal power and abil-
ity. There is a medium and admirable course
which we can easily choose between the two ex-
tremes of indifference and false suggestion, either
of which may fail to inspire the respect and confi-
dence of others because the one has never aroused
their interest and the other has fooled them too
often. In these relations the following facts are
clearly established: —
( 1 ) We are patronized according as we are
able to live up to and build upon the first impres-
sion which we make upon other people.
(2) The impressions which we make upon oth-
er people are chiefly by unconscious suggestion
through all of our channels of expression.
Suggestion may be consciously directed and
therefore included in training with appreciation
that —
"Postive suggestion builds up and
Negative suggestion breaks down ;
Indifference, hesitation, and argument act nega-
tively." — Allen, "Personal Efficiency and
Selling," LaSalle Extension University.
Individual Placement and Training ill
Rational Code of Progress
No absolute rules can be given for progress. In
one instance a person progresses while staying in
one organization all his life. In another instance
progress is made by changing to a new environ-
ment and doing it repeatedly. The conditions
which exist in any case are individual and cannot
be generalized. A certain course of action in one
instance will give desired results but in another
instance conditions render it entirely fruitless.
Therefore, the rules which follow can be regarded
only as guides to the formation of habits desir-
able according to general principles.
Rules
( 1 ) Study the nature of performance and or-
ganization in performance in vocational relations.
(2) Judge yourself, according to the outHnes
suggested in the "Key to Analysis and Classifica-
tion of Performance in Vocational Relations."
Select an occupation accordingly and master it
broadly and specifically.
List items in performance to be developed by
training, as you progress, and keep a summary of
items of analysis and of training for reference, on
a blank, as an "Analysis Record" (see Fig. 17).
112 Analysis and Classification of Performance
"Being expert In one thing carries with it power
over other situations, and gives a station, social
ranking, and confidence in self, spreading to other
activities, so that one may live at the level of his
highest achievement." — Seashore.
(3) Follow up your progress and anticipate
the future referring to the Analysis Record:
A. Credit yourself fairly with success and re-
call the steps in your achievements —
Keep a Journal and Graphic Records of events
to date ; tabulate experience and, advances by
years (see Figures 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22).
B. Look forward to the events which you can
expect — provide for financial contingencies by in-
surance and accumulation of invested capital.
Keep a file of notes and memoranda for work
ahead, noting objectives also in the Graphic Rec-
ords for comparison with actual accomplishments
as recorded.
C. Practice daily in the items of training and
play in the activities in which you can exercise ex-
pression spontaneously.
(4) Standardize, schedule, and dispatch your
items, concentrating upon the work at hand and
doing everything as well as it can be done, making
as good a personal impression as possible upon
Individual Placement and Training 113
all others, and let events take their course until it
is certain that no further progress can be made.
(5) If then progress has not been satisfactory
from a reasonable viewpoint, seek a location in a
different environment, but 'do not "detour" until
the road is blocked and you have covered the last
fifty feet ahead. When you do come to a block do
not be afraid to turn for there is always a way
around.' Do not turn back, you cannot; the past
cannot be recalled. Eagerness to work, applied
with ingenuity, will find opportunity with compen-
sation in the long run.
(6) Take your chances fairly; some things
will work out in your favor if you persistently try
out possibilities.
(7) Have the moral courage and self-reliance
to make decisions and stand your ground fighting
your own battles.
Your position is stronger if you are decisive,
although not always correct, than if you are inde-
cisive and uncertain. But when you make a mis-
take have the moral courage to acknowledge it
honorably and honestly.
(8) Work primarily for what you can do and
you will have the potentialities for compensation.
Present these potentialities strikingly and sustain
114 Analysis and Classification of Performance
the interest of others in them through suggestion,
and compensation will follow.
• (9) Bear in mind that efficiency in any organ-
ization would be very low if all of the incumbents
of positions should follow beaten paths laid out
for them. It is frequently on account of the initia-
tive of individuals in minor positions, often
against the opposition of their superiors and un-
der hazard to themselves, that advances are made
in the direction of better organization and in-
creased efficiency.
(10) Bear in mind also that "In a given germ
cell there is the potency of any kind of organism
that could develop from that cell under any kind
of conditions. The potencies of development are
much greater than the actualities. Anything
which could possiby appear in the course of devel-
opment is potential in heredity and under given
conditions of environment is predetermined. Since
the environment cannot be all things at once, many
hereditary possibilities must remain latent or un-
developed. Consequently the results of develop-
ment are not determined by hereditary alone, but
also by extrinsic causes. Things cannot be pre-
determined in hereditary which are not also pre-
determined in environment. Of all animals, man
Individual Placement and Training 115
has the most extensive and the most varied envir-
onment and its effect upon his personality is corre-
spondingly great." E. G. Conklin, "Hereditary
and Environment."
Therefore, in training for the performance in
vievv^, you must develop qualities not called forth
by past experiences and your capabilities are al-
ways greater than the past has revealed. This
applies all through life and you should conse-
quently seek and develop relevant performance.
Form 12
Figure 17 ANALYSIS RECORD
(Specimen Record)
Performance Revealed in Vocational Relations Broadly.
(Items checked once, twice, or three times according to
aptitudes).
Physical —
V W General application with good health ; applica-
tion with normal endurance and the strength of a slight
physique.
Mental —
(Perception)
Accurate observation —
\/\/ (a) Attention to objects of impression with con-
centration and with trust in and with intention to recall
their impression.
VV (b) Quick perception of essential elements and
their integration.
Ii6 Analysis and Classification of Performance
(Memory)
\/\/ Recognition of associations, real or accidental,
essential to the memory of ideas.
(Discrimination)
\/\/\/ Judgment of qualities by comparison with es-
tablished standards.
\/\/\/ Analyses and classifications by established pro-
cedure.
(Response to Dictates)
\/\/ Initiation of action.
\/\/\/ Maintenance of established standards.
"v/a/ Resourceful application of courses of action.
(Planning)
\/\/\/ Constructive imagination and development of
new courses of action.
\/\/\/ Establishing standards.
(Adherence to Truth and Trust)
WV Tenaceous adherence to fact.
\/\/\/ Custody of property and information in trust.
(Dealing, Association, and Expression as to Kinds of
Thought and Action)
\/\/V Dealing with fairness.
\/\/ Promptly making and holding to decisions with
self reliance and courage.
"\/\/ Spontaneous expression of self reliance and abil-
ity to carry out a project, sufficient to inspire the respect,
trust, and confidence of others and their subordination to
leadership.
W Delegating performance.
\/\/\/ Organizing division of labor.
■\/\/ Gauging correctly the ability of others.
VVV Gauging correctly the effect of instruction of
others and adapting it.
Individual Placement and Training 117
"n/V Invention — combination of structural elements
for advantage in performance.
\/\/\/ Accepting circumstances as a matter of course
without generalizing as conspiringly antagonistic.
\/\/ Judging human temperment.
VVV Association with poise and good address.
VV V Tactful association with others.
y/y/y/ Spontaneous expression of simple tasts and
cleanliness.
W Spontaneous expression of desire to serve
rather than to be served.
's/y/yy Spontaneous expression of humility.
\/\/ Spontaneous expression of liking for intel-
ectual pleasures.
WV Spontaneous expression in thought in natural
sciences generally — biological and social sciences par-
ticularly — as to application; in art — photography par-
ticularly; and in social development — teaching and in-
dustrial relations.
VW Spontaneous expression toward the following
conditions of living environment: Home life, rural life,
and nature, family responsibilities, social activities.
Kinds of Occupations Pertinent
Medical — general practice.
Engineering — utilizing natural science in industrial
production; personnel phases in industrial engineering.
Teaching — in the natural science field.
Grades of Service Attainable
Departmental and Associate Management —
Executive or Sta£E service.
Items to be Especially Developed by Training
Non-technical"^
Ii8 Analysis and Classification of Performance
Attention to objects with concentration and with trust
in and in tention to recall their impression.
Quick perception of essential elements and their in-
tegration — original analyses and syntheses and organiza-
tion of ideas.
Standardizing, scheduling, dispatching.
Extemporaneous expression of formulated ideas.
Inhibition of subjective illusions, fear, etc., and promptly
making and holding to decisions with self reliance and
courage.
Intuitive action to command and sustain favorable at-
tention.
Technical —
Individual Placement and Training
119
SUMMARY ANALYSIS
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I20 Analysis and Classification of Performance
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FIGURE 19
Individual Placement and Training
121
GRAPHIC RECORD - OCCUPATION^. ,
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FIGURE 20
Minimum Objective based upon Minimum Financial Re-
quirements of Figure 19.
Note — In applying for a position a Graphic Record of
Occupations carefully made in detail, if added to a letter, will
contribute much to its selling qualities.
122 Analysis and Classification of Performance
COMPARISON
OF
ANNUAL INCOME
ANO
EXPENSE,
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FIGURE 21
Individual Placement and Training 123
FIGURE 22
INDEX
Action : intensive ; 32
rational 105
Acts : correlation of ; 32
kinds; 28, 29
new ; 32
scale of 31
Adaptable, through correla-
tion of acts 32
Adaptations 108, 109
Advancement of incum-
bents 83
Analysis : 45
and classification of per-
formance, key to; ..45-54
annual expenditures; ... 119
record. .69-76, 89, 90, 115, 118
Animal forms, scale of.. 29, 30
Art 48, 49. 52
Assets and liabilities 123
Association 20, 52, 106, 109
Attention 26
Authority, controlling. . .36, 37
Autocratic : direction ; . . . 37
regime 38
Bargaining 39-40, 79
Capacity, ultimate 86
Centralization 36, 91
Character analysis 16, 17, 18
Characterization: 18, 19
of performance 45, 46
Check list of items in per-
formance 46
Classification: 45, 56-60
of performance, key to ; 45-54
summary 59
Code of progress, ration-
al 111-115
Commercial returns 99
Commodity, labor as — 39.40
Comparison of impressions 105
Compensation: 114
rating ; 79-82
special 81
Conference ...38,41
Constructive imagination.. 26
Control : production ; 55
of production, basis in
rating ; 79
of production by service,
two phases 79
Correlation of acts 32
Criticism of persons in oc-
cupations 19
Dealing 79, 106, 109
Decentralization 36
Decision 20, 21, 37, 52, 113
Democratic recognition 37
Departmental and associate
management 53
Development of an animal,
thought and perform-
ance in 30, 31
Diagnosis for placement
15, 85-88
Directorates 36, 91
Discrimination. .26, 36, 104, 105
Educational tests 87
Efficiency :... 12, 32, 34, 35. 4i,
91, 104, 114, 108
incentives ; 82
in production ; 80
and progress rating 15
Employment : administra-
tion, synopsis of func-
tions ; 13
methods 12
125
126
Index
Environmental relations...
98, 99, 106, 109, III, 113, 114, 115
Examiners, judgments of. 84
Executive : ability 19, 20
service 51, 52
Expert 32, 112
Expression
27, 38, 102, 104, 108, no
Fair dealing.. 14, 15, 38, 92, 95
Feelings 28, 32, 33
Financial : incentives ; 82
provisions ; 100, loi
requirements 120
Follow-up: of progress;.. 112
of progress record ; . . . .
83, 91, 96, 97, 100
record 15
Functions 34, 35, 38, 39
General management 53
Graded Classification of
positions 55-83
Grading occupational per-
formance 51
Graphic : record, occupa-
tions ; 121
records 112, 1 19-123
Growth 105-106
Habits: 103, 107, in
of keen sense perception
and discrimination.. 104-106
Happiness 98
Human nature 33
Imagination : 26
constructive. .. .21, 22, 26, 27
Impressions 26, 103
Incentives : to production ;
15. 38 95
special, to efficiency 82
Income and expense, com-
parison 122
Incumbents prospective 84
Individual placement, fol-
low-up and training. 84-123
Industrial : institution ; . . . 39
organization 38, 39
Industry, intensive. ..13, 34, 35
Initiative 106, 1 14
Instruction 20, 52
Intelligence :
23, 24, 28, 51, 102, 105
degree or status of ; . . 31
features of perform-
ance ; 46
natural scale of 55
Intelligent : acts ; 28, 29
performance ; 36
performance in organiza-
tion, outline of 51-54
Intensive : action ; 32
industry 13, 34, 35
Interviews 86
Invention 52
Investigation or research.. 52
Journal 112
Joy in work and life. . . .98, 99
Judgment : and direction of
the self and others ; 107-109
of others 18, 20, 52, 109
Key to analysis and classifi-
cation 45-54
Knowledge: conceptions of
systems of; 106
fund of 106
Labor: as a commodity;.. 80
division of 34
Leadership 19-21
Learning 29
Line service 53-54
Machines 35
Management: 51-53
departmental and associ-
ate; Si
Index
127
general; 53
general, functions of.. 20-21
Mammals 29-30
Mechanical performance.. 25-36
Minimum rate 81
Morale 79
Objectives 100, 102, 121
Observation 21, 22, 27
Opportunities 102
Organization: 20, 51, 52
charting ; 41-44
definition ; 34
industrial ; 38-39
in performance ; 34-44
status 80, 81
Patronage 109-1 10
Pay ranges 81
Perception. .26, 27, 36, 104, 105
Performance; characteriza-
tion of ; 45
correlation of acts in;.. 28-33
features for characteriza-
tion ; 46
intelligence status ; ... .51-55
intelligent ; 36
mechanical; 35-36
nature of ; 25-34
non-technical ; 45-50
of occupations or posi-
tions, application to;... 12-15
of persons, application
to; 15-24
production status of;.. 51-55
standard; 32, 35, 53-54
technical and non-tech-
nical ; 56
two phases ; 56
two phases in organiza-
tion 36
Personal : adaptations ; . . . . 56
characteristics ; 102, 103
propoganda.., . .106, 109, no
Personality 19, 22, 23
Phases of application 11-12
Phrenology 18
Physiognomy 18
Placement : 15
diagnosis for 85-88
Play 108
Position, definition and in-
tegration in organiza-
tion 41
Positions : 28, 39, 40
graded classification
for; 55-83
performance in, of two
phases ; 56
standard specifications
for 55-83
Potentialities 113-114
Practice in essentials 107
Procedure : dependent upon
correlated structure;.. 35
follow-up ; 91, 92
of analysis, specification
and graded classifica-
tion of positions 56-78
Producers 40
Production: control; ...55, 80
control of, basis in rat-
ing; 79
control of, by service,
two phases ; 79
control, rating ; 80
status of performance.. 51
Progress : consciousness of ;
98-100
instinct of ; 95
rational code of ;. . . . iii-iiS
record, follow-up of;. 91-100
records, graphic, etc
100, 1 19-123
Promotion 83
Propaganda 52
128
Index
Provisions loo-ioi
Psychological tests 86
Rate, minimum 8i
Rates, scale of 8i
Rating : compensation ; . . . 79-82
compensation, summary
of elements ; 82
production control 80
Rational : acts ; 29
code of progress 111-115
Reasoning 27
Recall .. .' 26, 36
Recognition 104
Recollection 104-105
References 86-87
Reflexes 28-32
Rules, progress 111-115
Scale: of acts; 31
of intelligence ; 55
of rates 81
Secrecy 82
Selection of courses of ac-
tion 28, 36, 129
Self : expression ; 105-106
judgment of.. 18, 19, 108, 109
Sense preception and dis-
crimination, habits of
keen 105, 106
Senses, training 105
Service : executive, staflf,
line; 51, 52, 53
grades; 53. 54, 58
highly skilled, skilled,
semi-skilled, unskilled; 54
kinds 59-60
Specialization 34
Staff service 52
Standard : performance ; . .
32, 53. 54
practice ; 13. 22, 53-54
specifications for posi-
tions 55-83
Standardization 34, 35, "2
Standardized performance,
mechanical 35
Standards, establishing.... 21
Statement of performance
of positions 57, 77,7^
Structure and function in-
separable 35
Success 98
Suggestion no
Supervision 53
Systems of knowledge, con-
ceptions of 106
Tests 85,86, 87
Thinking, inductive and de-
ductive 27, 104, 105, 106
Thought: control; 102
progressive stages of . . . .
25, 26, 27
Trade tests 86, 87
Training: 15, 19
and development ; 101-123
essentials in ; 104
phases ; 104, 105
self 103
Traits 16
Voucher, judges' 97
Workers : 40
all producers 82
Working conditions merit-
ing special compensation 81
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, LOS ANGELES
THE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY
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