me Elizabeth Dopp
 
 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 RIVERSIDE
 
 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION
 
 Place of Induftrkj 
 in Glementary &ducation 
 
 By Katharine Elizabeth Dopp 
 
 Third Edition 
 
 Chicago: ^/ JC Uwvqyity of Chicago Prej? 
 mdccccv
 
 L& 
 TD&G 
 1105 
 
 Copyright 1902 
 
 BY THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 
 CHICAGO
 
 CONTENTS. 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 INTRODUCTION - i 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 SIGNIFICANCE OF INDUSTRIAL EPOCHS - - 14 
 
 1. The House Industries, or the Period of 
 Domestic Economy - 14 
 
 a. The Hunting Stage - - 16 
 
 b. The Fishing Stage - - 31 
 
 c. The Pastoral Stage - - 35 
 
 d. The Agricultural Stage - - 40 
 
 e. The Age of Metals - - 44 
 /. Travel, Trade, and Transportation - - 48 
 g. The City-State - 51 
 h. The Feudal System - 53 
 
 2. The Handicraft System, or the Period of 
 Town Economy - - 54 
 
 3. The Factory System, or the Period of National 
 Economy - - 56 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 ORIGINS OF ATTITUDES THAT UNDERLIE INDUSTRY 60 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS - - 97 
 
 j. Guiding Principles - 97 
 
 2. Stage of Infancy - - 104 
 
 3. Transitional Stage from Infancy to Childhood 121 
 
 4. Stage of Childhood - - 155
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS Continued - 173 
 
 1. The Problem of the Teacher who is not Fur- 
 nished with Materials and Tools for Industrial 
 Activities - 173 
 
 2. Suggestions for Industrial Activities which 
 May be Introduced in Schools not Equipped 
 
 for Manual Training - - 192 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 CONCLUSION - 243 
 
 INDEX ---...--. 261
 
 AUTHOR'S NOTE. 
 
 THE difficulties that beset the way of those 
 interested in elementary education are many. 
 They have called forth much discussion during 
 the past decade, and already a great advance has 
 been made. If this book contributes to the gen- 
 eral movement it will doubtless be due to the 
 fact that it suggests ways of bringing into vital 
 relations forces and materials which, hitherto, 
 have remained almost untouched. 
 
 The study here made is based upon several 
 years' practical experience, during which many 
 tentative efforts were made along lines marked 
 out in this book, as well as upon research work 
 in the Departments of Education and Sociology 
 in the University of Chicago. To the men and 
 women of these departments, from whom I have 
 received much in the way of guidance and inspira- 
 tion, I am greatly indebted. They all, I am 
 sure, will recognize in the discussion of the stages 
 of mental development the influence of Profes- 
 sor Dewey; and in the interpretation of primitive 
 activities, that of Professor W. I. Thomas. 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, 
 March, 1902.
 
 AUTHOR'S NOTE TO THIRD EDITION. 
 
 SOON after the publication of the first edition 
 of this book, letters were received suggesting 
 that it be expanded so as to serve as a teachers' 
 manual. Although I had already undertaken a 
 series which is a concrete expression of the the- 
 ory presented, the length of time required to 
 complete the work is so great that it has seemed 
 fitting to take the suggestion and to present in 
 the new edition of this book a chapter which it is 
 hoped will prove helpful in bridging the gap be- 
 tween what we as teachers are actually doing 
 and what we believe we should do. Compara- 
 tively few schools are yet equipped for practical 
 activities, and few teachers are familiar with 
 methods of using them as laboratory courses to 
 the content studies. It has seemed best, there- 
 fore, to devote the new chapter (i) to ways of 
 procuring a material equipment, and (2) to ways 
 of using it so as to enhance the value of colonial 
 history a subject familiar to every teacher and 
 taught in every school. 
 
 With the exception of the frontispiece, which 
 is from the School of Education of the Univer- 
 sity of Chicago, the sources of the illustrations 
 are indicated. These illustrations show more 
 clearly than words the hold which practical ac- 
 tivities have already taken upon the schools. No 
 more powerful appeal can be made for such work 
 than that which may be read from the faces of 
 the children. K. E. D. 
 
 JANUARY, 1905.
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 ONE of the most striking characteristics of 
 society today is the marvelous development that 
 is everywhere manifest along industrial lines. In 
 nearly every department of industry the simple 
 processes which formerly prevailed have become 
 differentiated into a great variety of activities, 
 and all have been organized into a definite sys- 
 tem. Methods of exploiting the earth in the 
 search for raw materials, processes of manufac- 
 ture, and modes of distribution and exchange 
 have become wonderfully complex. The influence 
 of this change is far-reaching. It permeates 
 every department of life. It operates in the 
 church as well as in the state, in the home as well 
 as in the school. No institution of society can 
 escape its influence. 
 
 Society today differs from earlier societies, not 
 in its organic character, by virtue of which the 
 life of one institution affects that of every other ; 
 it differs, rather, in^the complexity of its organi- 
 zation, which frequently obscures the more fun- 
 damental relations which, in primitive societies, 
 are laid bare to the view. 
 
 From the remotest to the most recent times,
 
 2 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 in the simplest as well as in the most highly or- 
 ganized societies, indjigtry has been ^dominant 
 force in^hie upbuilding and maintaining of socia] 
 structures. In the more simple social groups it 
 is possible to perceive very clearly the fundamen- 
 tal place of industry in society and the vitality of 
 its relation to all other activities in life. In such 
 societies it appears as the matrix that holds 
 within itself the other interests of life, which it 
 nourishes until they become strong enough to 
 support themselves. The vitality of this relation 
 is illustrated in more developed societies in the 
 decadence of those arts whose connection with 
 the parent stock has been severed, as well as in 
 the remarkable development of the same arts dur- 
 ing the times when they have stood in such rela- 
 tions to the industrial life of the people as to be 
 constantly receiving and giving strong currents 
 of inspiration. 
 
 Human beings of all times have doubtless been 
 impelled by other desires than those which under- 
 lie industrial activities ; they have always been 
 dimly conscious of unfulfilled desires. The fact 
 that industry has ever exercised such a promi- 
 nent place in conditioning other activities is not 
 because others, at times, have not been valued 
 more highly, but because industry is the sub- 
 sjructure of society, which conditions its very 
 existence. It was necessary to the maintenance
 
 77V ELEMENTAL Y ED UCA TION 3 
 
 of life before individuals had united to form 
 social groups. It was an essential factor in the 
 formation and maintenance of such groups, and 
 has been a permanent factor throughout the ages 
 in the development of the institutions of com- 
 munity life. 
 
 It seems evident, then, that that which is the 
 condition of life itself and the fountain source of 
 the arts and institutions of society should L have 
 aplacein the education, of the young, upon whom 
 will soon fall the responsibility of maintaining 
 and advancing the activities by which society is 
 sustained and strengthened. This need has always 
 beenfelt, and provision of some kind has always 
 been made for putting young people in posses- 
 sion of such experience as is calculated to fit 
 them for the serious work of life. The character 
 of this training has varied with the people and 
 the age, but in some form or other it has per- 
 sisted throughout all time. 
 
 Among Aryan peoples, from the earliest time to 
 the latter part of the Middle Ages, this training 
 was generally attejidedtob^^hej^;^'/^, whether 
 it was the original clan, the patriarchal group, the 
 tribal circle, or the family artificially extended by 
 personal servitude. During the period of town 
 economy, which extended from the rise of the 
 towns and the development of handicrafts in the 
 latter part of the Middle Ages until the industrial
 
 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 revolution of the eighteenth century, the train- 
 
 ing of the family was supplemented and in some 
 
 ^"txtX T cases superseded by the system of apprenticeship. 
 
 ^*With the rise of national economy, technical insti- 
 
 tutions and engineering and commercial courses 
 :*& were established in order to meet the demand for 
 
 trained workers to manage the various depart- 
 ments of highly complex industrial undertakings. 
 No provision, however, was made for the training 
 of the great mass of the workers for their life- 
 work. This was partly due, no doubt, to the fact 
 that the new inventions made it possible to utilize 
 unskilled labor to a degree not known before that 
 time. 
 
 The rapid development of means for cheap 
 -&(* , r 
 
 manufacture and transportation has resulted, as is 
 
 well known, in the withdrawal of the industries 
 ffj\ formerly carried on in the home and the trans- 
 x '; planting of the same into factories where the work 
 is carried on with closed doors. The child of 
 today is thus deprived, except in a few cases, of 
 the opportunity to observe or to participate in 
 the industrial processes that form the substratum 
 of all of our social achievements. If the conse- 
 quences of this situation were felt only in the out- 
 put of our industrial institutions, the consideration 
 of this subject might well be left in the hands of 
 the captains of industry and the economists. If, 
 however, the consequences are such as to affect
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 5 
 
 the quality of life itself, the subject is surely one 
 that cannot safely be neglected by those inter- 
 ested in the cause of education. 
 
 It is because it is believed that the industrial 
 training of the young holds in solution the essen- 
 tial ideas that underlie the various activities of 
 society, and that this substratum of experience 
 in industrial processes is as necessary a condition 
 for the normal development of the individual as 
 racial industry has been for the maintenance and 
 advance of society itself, that the question is 
 beginning to command the attention of thought- 
 ful people. 
 
 Under the conditions of modern life we can no 
 longer expect the home to furnish the child with 
 experience in industrial processes ; we must look 
 to some other institution. The institution that 
 we look to most naturally is the school ; but the 
 cojnnipji^school curriculum is^ _aJLready__over- 
 crowded, and, if new subjects are to be added by 
 the process of aggregation, all interested in the 
 work must object to any such change. Happily, 
 however, in respect to the subject under consid- 
 eration, industrial training, it is not so much a 
 question of imposing greater burdens from with- 
 out as it is of finding the means of reconciliation 
 between_the child^ and_the subjects already there. 
 The mere fact that every one recognizes the child 
 as being burdened with his school work is signifi-
 
 6 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 cant. While it must not be expected that indus- 
 try will of itself exercise a magic touch by means 
 of which all the burdens of the school will be trans- 
 formed, it is not too much to expect that it will 
 exercise a potent influence, if introduced into the 
 schools in an organic way, satisfying at the same 
 time the demands of the child and of society. The 
 difficulty in elementary education has not been in 
 the child nor in the demands made by society; 
 it has been in the failure to make use of that by 
 means of which the two may be brought into 
 vital relationship. 
 
 This work is an attempt to make clear that 
 
 . theie is a closer jrelation than is usually recog- 
 
 t *; nized between the attitudes of the child and the 
 
 PTr ~ 
 
 serious activities of society in all ages. It is an 
 attempt to bring together from the domain of 
 education, on the one hand, and of anthropology, 
 sociology, and history, on the other, ideas that 
 will mutually reinforce each other. The territory 
 is so vast, and the state of knowledge in the de- 
 partments concerned is as yet in such an empirical 
 state, that the value of a work of this kind con- 
 sists rather in its power of suggesting new ways 
 of dealing with old problems than in offering 
 definite solutions to them. It is more important 
 at this stage of the subject to get a general sur- 
 vey of the field than it is to work out in detail 
 a small portion, without regard to its relations
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 7 
 
 to a larger whole. The scope of this work for- 
 bids a minute examination of any one phase. 
 The subject is treated in some of its more general 
 aspects, and illustrations are introduced, particu- 
 larly with reference to those phases to which 
 little attention has yet been given. 
 
 In order to secure a basis for the work it has 
 seemed best to consider, on the one hand, the 
 several stages of industrial development in the ' '*? ** 
 race with reference to the educational significance 
 of each, and, on the other, the successive periods 
 in the development of the child. In the consid- 
 eration of an industrial epoch an attempt is made 
 to discover (i) some of the more important inter- 
 actions that take place between man and his nat- 
 ural and social environment, (2) how these result 
 in different forms of industry, and (3) how forms 
 of industry influence the social organization of 
 the people and the development of the sciences 
 and arts. The attempt is also made to show 
 that there is more than an accidental relation 
 between the technique represented in the tool, 
 and the intellectual^ moral, and social condition 
 of the people. Attention is given to those racial ^ 
 activities which, through physical heredity, have . n 
 beenpotent jn determining the psychical attitudes 
 of _the__child t as well as to those which have sur- 
 vived as ideas, customs, and habits of thought, 
 and which operate, through social heredity, in
 
 8 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 shaping our attitudes toward industry of various 
 forms. 
 
 In the light of these facts regarding racial devel- 
 opment and what is known of the successive stages 
 in the life of the child, some of the more important 
 critical periods in racial and in industrial develop- 
 ment will be noted, and a deeper significance of 
 each sought by reference to the other, as well as to 
 the natural and social environment in which each 
 is set. The attempt is made to separate the 
 transient from the permanent factors in the suc- 
 cessive stages of an activity, and to make use of 
 the permanent factors in such a way as to secure 
 a principle of selection and a guiding principle 
 which will be of service in determining the con- 
 ditions of education in the successive stages of 
 child life. 
 
 In the selection of materials upon which to 
 base this discussion, it may seem that the activi- 
 ties of primitive life have received an undue share 
 of attention. But if it is taken into consideration 
 that civilization is only as yesterday when viewed 
 with reference to the long period of human de- 
 velopment ; that the deep-seated, permanent, 
 and^ abiding impjulses are__the result of racial 
 experiences before man had emerged ^rom the 
 savage stage ; and that later racial activities influ- 
 ence psychical attitudes in a much less permanent 
 
 ** - . r "T ---._-**' " ~ ' ' i __ m 
 
 and effective way, this method will, from the
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION g 
 
 point of view of one who would interpret the 
 child's interests and attitudes, perhaps be justified. 
 It is hoped, moreover, that it will be shown to be 
 justified from the point of view of the course of 
 study. 
 
 The consideration of primitive life, then, will 
 have a twofold purpose, (i) with reference to 
 its significance in interpreting the attitudes of the 
 child, and (2) with reference to what it has to 
 yield, especially along social and technological 
 lines, for the course of study. Only by laying 
 hold of both our physical and social heredity can 
 we be fully equipped Tor furthering the work of 
 education. 
 
 Typical selections of materials from later stages 
 of culture will be used to illustrate the character 
 of work in the higher grades. To organize and 
 adapt such material to purposes of elementary 
 education is the work of years and requires 
 co-operative effort. In this place little more can 
 be done than to determine the principles of selec- 
 tion and to illustrate one method of applica- 
 tion. 
 
 Advance in almost every line of culture con- 
 sists in a more economical use of forces already 
 applied, orjn the harnessing of qew force^ to a, 
 work _a.lready^_begun. The educational process 
 has been such as to involve a great amount of 
 waste. The strongest forces available in the
 
 10 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 work of education have been almost untouched. 
 In a few cases the relation of the child's psy- 
 chical attitudes to their origin and to organized 
 social life have been recognized sufficiently to 
 arouse a demand in the educational world for 
 literature dealing with the successive stages of 
 racial development ; but only rarely has it been 
 recognized that, however valuable such work 
 may be as one factor in the solution of the prob- 
 lem, and however much the child may enjoy 
 such stories, to stop at this point is to throw 
 away the kernel and be satisfied with the husk. 
 Such an application substitutes stories about activi- 
 ties for the activities themselves ; it is an undue 
 emphasis upon the more passive, the receptive 
 powers of human nature, and a neglect of the 
 'more active, the expressive ones ; it is a stim- 
 ulation of the imagination without a provision 
 for a corresponding motor manifestation. How 
 to make use of the emotional attitudes of the 
 child that are usually allowed to discharge 
 themselves without further educational signi- 
 ficance than that they afford physical develop- 
 ment and keep alive the emotions normal to 
 children and necessary to vigorous growth ; how 
 to direct them in such a way as to afford the 
 child, in each stage of his development, an 
 experience suited to his capacity in the funda- 
 mental processes by which society in all ages
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 1 1 
 
 sustains itself; how to transform the dramatic 
 and play instincts of the child into the real inter- 
 ests of adult life without diminution in their 
 vigor and purity these are most vital problems \ 
 in education. 
 
 Such problems will, doubtless, be solved in 
 many ways in future times, for it cannot be sup- 
 posed that any solution of a practical question 
 will satisfy even all the people of any one period. 
 The solution that is offered at this time is based 
 upon the fact that the child, in the successive 
 stages_of his development, always has important 
 problems of his own, which, if worked out, en-' 
 larged, and interpreted in the light of similar ex- 
 periences of the race, represent a process which 
 is a genuine reconciliation of the individual and 
 society. 
 
 The child's problem arises in a present diffi- 
 culty that he realizes with reference to his 
 
 natural or social environment. The enriching ma-/ 
 terial, the subject-matter, may be selected from 
 the racial experiences of any age. That which de- 
 termines its fitness for the purpose is not the age 
 from which it is chosen, but the psychicaj_ attitude 
 to which it corresponds, the difficulty of the 
 technique involved, the Complexity of organiza- 
 
 Under such conditions 
 
 the past is no longer isolated from the present in 
 the mind of the child. It is an organic part of
 
 1 2 THE PLA CE OF IND US TRIES 
 
 society as it is today. It is a fundamental factor 
 in the educational process. 
 
 The history of industrial activities represents a 
 fundamental factor in the education of the child, 
 because it furnishes a seriejsjof Atypical problems 
 jhat correspond to the changes in his own atti- 
 tudes. Because the past still lives in the present, 
 because its problems are simpler statements of 
 the most fundamental problems of the present, 
 the history of the industrial activities of the past 
 is especially valuable as subject-matter in ele- 
 mentary education. That it is used no more than 
 it is at present is due to the fact that no one has 
 yet given sufficient attention to the subject to 
 organize it with reference to present educational 
 needs. 
 
 Nowhere is it more evident that a thorough 
 examination of one line of culture leads one into 
 the whole of life than in such an investigation as 
 this. At each step one is brought face to face 
 with problems which were not previously thought 
 to be a part of the subject under investigation. It 
 has not seemed wise to thrust these altogether 
 to one side, for by so doing the purpose of the 
 investigation would be, in a measure, defeated. 
 There is some reason to believe that if, at times, 
 what was considered a minor matter assumes 
 a greater prominence, it is a factor that de- 
 serves attention. It is just because industry
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 1 3 
 
 holds so many factors bound up in it that it is of 
 such consequence in education. Hpw.these_vari- 
 ous factors become free, how they become strong 
 enough to set up ends on their own account, how 
 society is affected by these changes all these 
 questions promise rich suggestions with reference 
 to present problems. 
 
 Such an examination as will bring to view the 
 necessary conditions for the development of 
 industries cannot ignore the vital relations that 
 they sustain to the sciences and the arts. They 
 are organic parts of the subject and should be rec- 
 ognized as such. If, in many places, relations of 
 this character are passed by with little notice or 
 even ignored, it is due to the limitations to 
 which one is subject in dealing with a problem 
 of so wide a scope, and not to the failure to rec- 
 ognize that they represent essential factors in the 
 development of the subject.
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 SIGNIFICANCE OF INDUSTRIAL EPOCHS. 
 
 THE industrial activities of the race have been 
 classified by economists into three main divisions. 
 The earliest and by far the most prolonged period 
 is that of domestic ecojiomy, or the period of 
 touse_Jndustries t which lasted from the earliest 
 times until the rise of the towns in the tenth cen- 
 tury. The second is the period of town economy, 
 or the period of the handicrafts, lasting from the 
 tenth century until the beginning of modern 
 times. The third is the period of national econ- 
 omy, or the age of machinery and the factory in 
 which we are living. 
 
 THE HOUSE INDUSTRIES, OR THE PERIOD OF 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. 
 
 The house industries are especially significant 
 with reference to elementary education. They 
 represent the experience of the race in industrial 
 activities, whether private or public, through the 
 long ages which preceded the handicraft period. 
 They are important as factors in the shaping of 
 the early forms of our institutions, and give a 
 significance to much that would be meaningless 
 apart from such a relation. They represent the 
 activities which were instrumental in the forma- 
 
 14
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION I 5 
 
 tion of our physical co-ordinations and psychical 
 attitudes. In relation to the early years of devel- 
 opment they are much more important than the 
 industrial activities of later periods, because they 
 correspond more closely to the psychical attitudes 
 of the child than do the activities of later periods. 
 The activities of later epochs are not without 
 their influence in shaping the attitudes of the 
 child, but they operate more through social than 
 through physical heredity. 
 
 No classification of the stages of domestic 
 industry has yet been made that is not open to 
 some objection. The activities of human life are 
 not subject to a rigid classification. The more 
 characteristic features of racial activities may, 
 however, be organized under such terms as the 
 hunting, fishing, pastoral, and agricultural stages, 
 the age of metals, trade and transportation, the 
 city-state, and the feudal system. Such terms 
 serve the purpose of organizing activities which 
 represent an increasing development of mind 
 and a corresponding complexity in social struc- 
 ture. 
 
 In order to discover what place industry has 
 had in these successive stages of racial develop- 
 ment it may be well to consider the successive 
 situations in which man found himself, the na- 
 ture oi his equipment, and the ways in which he 
 dealt with the problems at hand.
 
 16 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 THE HUNTING STAGE. 
 
 From what the researches of the palaeontologist, 
 the geologist, and the anthropologist have revealed 
 we are able to reconstruct in outline some of the 
 more characteristic features of the life of man in 
 western Europe during the mid-Pleistocene period. 
 
 Man found himself in a dangerous situation. 
 The cave-bear, the cave-lion, the sabre-toothed 
 felis (Machairodus latidens), the big-nosed, the 
 small-nosed, and the woolly rhinoceros, the 
 hippopotamus, and the mammoth were a con- 
 stant source of terror. Packs of hyenas, wolves, 
 panthers, and wild-cats were always near, ready 
 to pounce upon their prey ; and even the urus, 
 the aurochs, the wild boar, and the wild horse, 
 though usually peaceable, were formidable antag- 
 onists when aroused. 
 
 It is quite certain that all these beasts were 
 not present at the same season, for some of them 
 are tropical, while others are arctic species. Mr. 
 Boyd Dawkins, who has given careful attention 
 to these problems, believes that during the early 
 part of the mid-Pleistocene period the different 
 species migrated with the seasons. 
 
 The climate of this early period was character- 
 ized by less extreme temperature in summer 
 and in winter than at present, and it was very 
 damp. Toward the close of the mid-Pleistocene 
 period it became much colder.
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 1 7 
 
 The chief forms of plant life were evergreen 
 trees, of which the spruce, the fir, and the yew 
 tree were most abundant. Trees which shed their 
 foliage were represented by the oak and the 
 birch. The rivers were bright in places with yel- 
 low and white water-lilies, and their banks were 
 shaded by laurels. A thick undergrowth of the 
 sloe, the original form of the wild plum tree, 
 formed thorny thickets which were places of 
 refuge for the animals that were in need of pro- 
 tection. The marshes offered a heavy growth of 
 grass, and were partly covered with alders, os- 
 mund royal, and marsh trefoil. Hornworts and 
 weeds grew in the pools. Wild peas and beans, 
 stringy-rooted carrots, rutabagas, and turnips 
 grew in the open spaces on the hillsides. The 
 cabbage, with its thick leaves, was found, but it 
 had not yet developed a hard head. Wild flax 
 and a variety of wild grasses covered the tree- 
 less plains and the open spaces of the upland 
 regions. Such was the environment of the ear- 
 liest people in western Europe of which we have 
 any record. What was man's equipment at this 
 time ? How was he fitted to live in such a diffi- 
 cult situation ? 
 
 The change from organic to human evolution 
 was a gradual one. Such animal instincts as 
 could lend themselves to social service survived. 
 Advance from this point consisted, not in devel-
 
 1 8 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 oping new or better bodily organs, but in Qon- 
 trolling them and in supplementing and mul- 
 tiplying their power by the use of external 
 means. 
 
 Various scientists and artists have combined 
 their efforts at different times to make restora- 
 tions of the skeletons found in or near the caves 
 of France. Huxley gives the following descrip- 
 tion of them : ' " The anatomical characters of the 
 skeletons bear out conclusions which are not flat- 
 tering to the appearance of the owners. They are 
 short of stature, but powerfully built, with strong, 
 curiously curved thigh bones, the lower ends of 
 which are so fastened that they must have walked 
 with a bend at the knees. Their long, depressed 
 skulls had very strong brow ridges ; their lower 
 jaws, of brutal depth and solidity, sloped away 
 from the teeth downward and backward, in con- 
 sequence of the absence of that specially char- 
 acteristic feature of the higher type of man, the 
 chin prominence." 
 
 Mr. Boaz is authority for the statement that 
 the savage had as great brain capacity as civil- 
 ized man and that his mental processes were very 
 similar. 2 In the early part of the mid-Pleisto- 
 
 *For further information on this line see WORTHINGTON 
 SMITH, Man the Primeval Savage, Chap. I, and H. N. HUTCH- 
 INSON, Prehistoric Man and Beast. 
 
 3 FRANZ BOAZ, "The Mind of Primitive Man," Journal oj 
 American Folk- Lore, Vol. XIV, p. I.
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 1 9 
 
 cene period man must have needed his hands 
 for purposes of locomotion, for until he had con- 
 quered fire and learned to manufacture and use 
 weapons the trees offered him the safest retreat 
 from his numerous enemies. Man of this period 
 had hands, but they were not yet free for the 
 service of the mind ; he was destitute of all 
 means of shelter except those supplied by 
 nature; he had no assurance of a regular food 
 supply; he was without clothing, without imple- 
 ments of labor, and the weapons of offense and 
 defense. 
 
 Compared with any one of the animals man 
 
 1 J 
 
 was outranked in some respect. He could not 
 run as fast as the horse, swim as well as the fish, 
 fly as the eagle, crawl as the serpent, or ren- 
 der himself inconspicuous by changing his color 
 to correspond with the natural objects with which 
 he habitually came in contact, or by maintaining 
 such a control of his muscles as the wild calf 
 and other animals do when they remain motion- 
 less in order to be unobserved. He was not pro- 
 tected with armor as the turtle is, with a thick 
 skin as the rhinoceros, with a heavy coat as 
 the mammoth, or with feathers and fur as the 
 birds and beasts of prey. In his conflicts he 
 could not strike as the cave-bear, kick as the 
 horse, crush as the rhinoceros, gore as the urus, 
 or pierce and rend as the tiger. In the exer-
 
 20 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 cise of the senses and in muscular force he was 
 surpassed by many of them. 
 
 In what then did man's superiority consist? 
 How was he able to exercise control over such 
 an environment? His advantage seems to have 
 consisted in this: he had developed associative 
 memory to a degree surpassing that of any 
 creature; and, although physically he was sur- 
 passed in some respect by every species of ani- 
 mal, 1 he united in one body the variety of move- 
 ments and methods of resistance used by every 
 species of animal. The special superiority of 
 each animal had been gained by surrendering the 
 possibility to advance along other lines. Ani- 
 mals have paid a dear price for their special 
 skill. The hope of the future seems to lie in the 
 undifferentiated form. This appears to be true 
 of both animal and human life. 
 
 Associative memory by means of which man 
 is able to inhibit instinctive action and so se- 
 cure an advantage that a former experience has 
 shown to be desirable, and an^erect_body with 
 free hands by means of which he can perform 
 a variety of activities, are the points of lever- 
 age by means of which man has lifted himself 
 above other forms of animal life. 
 
 The body is thus a storehouse of the principles 
 
 *O. T. MASON, "Primitive Travel and Transportation," 
 Smithsonian Report of the United States National Museum, 1894, 
 P- 257-
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 2 1 
 
 of invention ; T it furnishes the motive power, and 
 contains the pattern of the various types of tools 
 and several mechanical principles and simple 
 machines; it has furnished the original standards 
 of all modes of measurement; it is the predom- 
 inant factor in rhythm, which is the germ of the 
 fine arts; it^ ha^Jujrmsjh.ed_ J thje--^c.tiyities which 
 form ^the root words of our language, and the 
 meter of our poetry; and its activities are the 
 basis of all possible expressions of emotional 
 life. 
 
 The early history of human activity is an 
 account of how man, by means of associative 
 memory and the powers of his body, succeeded 
 in establishing relations with his environment. 
 Whether man originally was a social or solitary 
 creature is not settled beyond dispute. That all 
 
 *Ibid, 1894, p. 252: "Jeremiah Head, in speaking of the mechani- 
 cal principles of invention actually existing in the body of man and 
 referring to some involving the carrying art, says that the human 
 foot contains instances of the first and second, and the forearm of 
 the third order of lever. The patella is a part of a pulley; there 
 are hinges and ball-and-socket joints with lubricating arrange- 
 ments; lungs are bellows, and the heart is a combination of 
 force pumps; the wrist, ankle and spinal vertebrae form univer- 
 sal joints; the nerves form a complete telegraph system with up 
 and down lines and a central exchange; the circulation of blood 
 is a double line of canals, in which the liquid and the boats 
 move together, making the circuit twice a minute, distributing 
 supplies wherever required, and taking up return loads without 
 stopping; it is also a heat distributing apparatus, establishing a 
 general average, as engineers endeavor to do in building."
 
 22 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 other interests were dominated for a considerable 
 time by the need of the individual for food and 
 protection there is little question. That for a 
 considerable period man lived chiefly upon veg- 
 etable food and such forms of animal food as he 
 could obtain without weapons is undoubtedly 
 true. The instinct of self-preservation compelled 
 him to seek to escape conflict with the beasts of 
 prey. In the exploitation of his environment in 
 search of food it was necessary for him to be alert 
 in recognizing sights and sounds. Noise meant 
 danger, and he who did not respond to this 
 instinctively was liable to lose his life. Reflec- 
 tion, under such circumstances, was too expensive 
 a^form of specialization to be indulged in. Fear 
 at this time waju_a_\dtu--necessary to the pre- 
 servation ofjife. 
 
 Previous to the use of fire, owing to the burden 
 placed upon the hands in locomotion, upon the 
 teeth and digestive apparatus in grinding, crush- 
 ing, and digesting uncooked food, and on 
 account of the expenditure of energy in main- 
 taining the necessary temperature of the body 
 without the aid of clothing and fire, man had 
 liil^ sqrglu^energy upon _which__to draw for 
 satisfying other needs than those directly rela- 
 ted to gathering food and escaping from the 
 attacks of wild animals. Yet even in this age he 
 began the work of supplementing the power of
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 2 3 
 
 his body by means of the simplest implements 
 and weapons. 
 
 In this earliest period of which we have records 
 man established destructive relations with plants 
 and the smaller animals. He sought to avoid con- 
 flict with the larger animals ; yet he could not 
 help being curious about them, for curiosity was 
 a necessary quality in such an environment as 
 the one in which he lived. The curiosity, the 
 fear, and the wonder with which he regarded 
 these_creatures undoubtedly were serviceable in 
 the conquest of fire which was first regarded jis 
 a wild, beast. The significance of this conquest 
 is inestimable, and it is not strange that people 
 worshipped the fire, for many ages, and that, in 
 later times, the unknown hero who made the con- 
 quest was thought of as a god. The change in 
 industrial and social life wrought by this con- 
 quest ought, even in present times, to place the 
 conqueror high in the ranks of industrial heroes. 
 
 Sympathetic relations with fire once estab- 
 lished, social life is assured. The protection thus 
 afforded from the attacks of wild beasts was suf- 
 ficient to relieve man of a great strain as well as 
 to free his hands for a higher service. Under 
 such conditions it was possible to accumulate a 
 greater surplus of nervous energy than before, 
 which could be drawn upon for various purposes. 
 Although in many respects the individual still
 
 24 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 supplied his own needs, the use of fire involved 
 the beginning of the division of labor and 
 co-operative action. The women naturally cared 
 for the children and stayed near the fire. Be- 
 cause they were not free to travel far from the 
 fireplace, they gathered such plant foods as were 
 available and attended to the household duties. 
 The men were free to engage in a more vigorous 
 and strenuous life. The presence of a common 
 enemy aroused common action, which required 
 more thought than individual action and was by 
 no means achieved without many tentative efforts. 
 The successful conflict with wild beasts was 
 apt to exhaust the stored-up nervous energy, but 
 it provided food and hence leisure for some time. 
 Abundance of food and leisure resulted in the 
 accumulation of new stores of energy, which 
 were bound to find expression. Such animals as 
 the dog and the cat can remain in a passive con- 
 dition for long periods, but with the human be- 
 ing it is impossible. The stored-up energy must 
 find expression. It is in such periods as these 
 that we find activities similar in kind to those per- 
 formed at other times, but different in their end. 
 Free from the conditions imposed by the real hunt, 
 the savage plajrs he is hunting and we have the 
 beginning of the^dance. In the real hunt men 
 are united by a common need and participate in 
 a common emotional reaction; in the dramatic
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 2 5 
 
 representation of the hunt they are aroused by a 
 common feeling and purpose, and spontaneously 
 respond to the same. The rhythmic response of 
 the individual receives stimulus from that of his 
 fellows, and, through suggestion, becomes modi- 
 fied until each one surrenders himself to the com- 
 mon feeling through which the individuality of 
 each becomes fused in that of the group. 
 
 At other times man may expend his surplus 
 energy in the search for bright and shining ob- 
 jects, which he may pierce and string, and we 
 have the beginning of dress and decoration ; or 
 he may trace in tire sand, or on the walls of 
 his cave, or on the bones of animals he has 
 slain, mere lines at haphazard, until by a happy 
 co-ordination he produces a semblance to some 
 familiar form, and we have the beginning of 
 drawing. It would be easy to multiply instances 
 of this kind ; but these are sufficient to illus- 
 trate the fact that the_beginnings_joi__art depend" 
 upon leisure and an accumulation of energy, and 
 that th^arjjnstinct, 
 
 the workmanship_instinct. becomes free only as 
 less strenuous conditions of life afford room for . 
 its manifestation. The pleasure afforded on ac- 
 count of the intellectual perception of likeness 
 and the emotional feeling of power stimulate to 
 further activity as opportunity is afforded, and 
 the action passes from the domain of the acci-
 
 26 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 dental and becomes more and more subservient 
 to the dominant desires of the individual. 
 
 The fact that hunting peoples surpass pastoral 
 and agricultural peoples in representative art is 
 largely due to the fact that among hunting tribes 
 every man is obliged to hunt and to provide him- 
 self with weapons. In the hunting stage every one 
 had to be a good hunter and a good handworker 
 or die. The co-ordinations made use of in his cratts 
 supplied the necessary skill for the early drafts- 
 man and carver; the intimate acquaintance with 
 animals made necessary by his mode of life de- 
 veloped a sympathetic interest in animal forms; 
 hence it is not strange that the drawings and 
 carvings of the cavemen of the late Pleistocene 
 period have never been surpassed among nature 
 peoples. Neither is it surprising that the arts 
 which require considerable leisure were not culti- 
 vated. 
 
 Social life reacted upon industrial activities 
 in various ways. Even in cases where the in- 
 dividual supplied his own needs the mere pres- 
 ence of his associates was sufficient to give a 
 richer meaning to his own work. It no longer 
 meant the mere satisfaction of physical needs. 
 The need of social approval was felt, and efforts 
 to exhibit self so as to gain that approval were 
 aroused. The greatest social need of the age 
 was for courage, daring, muscular strength, sup-
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 2 7 
 
 pleness, alertness, endurance, and power to secure 
 co-operative action. He who could prove that he 
 possessed such traits found favor with his people. 
 It is this fact that makes the trophy of a success- 
 ful encounter significant. This, too, may ac- 
 count for the method of showing superiority by 
 means of boasting, or by taunting the enemy, or 
 of attracting attent^qnjb^niea.ris_of_scarification 
 o ornament. Anything that could secure fa- 
 vorable attention to himself from members of his 
 group, and particularly from those of the oppo- 
 site sex, was quickly appropriated. 
 
 Any one who has taken the pains to study the 
 subject of primitive decoration knows that in 
 many cases the ornaments must have cost many 
 days of what we should call tedious, persistent 
 effort. What was it that sustained the savage in 
 such activities as these ? It was the sustaining 
 power of an idea. The savage had an ideal 
 which he was striving to realize. He was creat- 
 ing something. He was not engaged in pro- 
 ducing something foreign to himself, but that 
 which was considered as much a part of him as 
 one of the organs of his body. He was increasing 
 his own power, he was enhancing his personality. 
 This was what sustained him as he worked. This 
 was what stimulated him to renewed effort in 
 carrying to completion a work which, deprived of 
 these personal and social associations, would have
 
 28 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 been intolerable. The self -exhibitive instinct 
 thus appears to have beeji one of the most 
 potent forces in the training of man to persistent. 
 
 intellectual control of his powers through the use 
 qfjiisjiands. 
 
 As man increased his power by refraining from 
 purely instinctive action and by making use of 
 his experiences in devising more and more 
 indirect modes of reaction; as he came more 
 under the influence of social forces, he began to 
 dominate his environment to such an extent that 
 the minds of the animals were affected by it. 
 Man's cunning thus developed animal cunning. 
 It is probable that this change t9ok place in 
 the grass-eating animals as early as the begin- 
 ning of the late Pleistocene period. At this 
 time the arctic mammalia took possession of 
 the land and occupied it in company with those 
 forms that characterized the preceding age, with 
 the exception of the Machairodus latidens and the 
 big-nosed rhinoceros, both of which had become 
 extinct, and those living species that migrated at 
 this time on account of the intense cold. There 
 was thus a change in the situation brought about 
 by the intense cold, the absence of so great a 
 supply of vegetable food, the presence of new 
 animal forms, the extinction or migration of 
 others, and the change, in the habits of those that 
 remained, due to the cunning of man.
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 2g 
 
 The increasing complexity in the situation 
 made it necessary for man to find new resources 
 within himself by means of which he could cope 
 with the new and difficult problems. There was 
 greater need of craft, foresight, endurance, and 
 the speed that can result only from careful atten- 
 tion to means of preserving the suppleness of the 
 limbs. 1 And man responded to the demands 
 of the age. Each new difficulty was removed 
 or lessened by the invention of ^trajjs. the 
 improvement of weapons and other devices _bv 
 means ofjvhich the warfare upon animals could^ 
 be^ maintained ; the earth was rendered more 
 habitable by the removal of the more formidable 
 antagonists ; man learned to carry on more com- 
 plicated co-operative activities made necessary 
 by the complexity of the situation ; and he 
 made use of his leisure time in developing the 
 industries and arts. Such forward steps consti- 
 tute the history of the intellectual advance that 
 man made at this time. They reveal the path by 
 which man learned to modify his instinctive reac- 
 tions by the use of associative memory under the 
 impulse of the social needs of the age in which 
 he lived. Physical needs alone could have been 
 satisfied without so great an effort. It was the 
 
 1 PROFESSOR W. I. THOMAS has called attention to the signifi- 
 cance of this fact in relation to the division of labor between the 
 sexes, in an article entitled "Sexes in Primitive Industry," pub- 
 lished in the American Journal of Sociology, Vol. IV, p. 474.
 
 30 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 social needs which stimulated man to his bravest 
 deeds as well as to those quiet, tedious activities 
 necessary in order to manufacture the weapons, 
 implements, and ornaments without which it was 
 impossible to gain the approval of his group. 
 
 A superficial examination of the activities of 
 the age may seem to warrant the conclusion that 
 it was an age characterized by the destructive 
 spirit. A deeper study reveals the fact that in 
 its outcome, at least, it was constructive. Viewed 
 with reference to the social need of the age 
 destruction was more significant than construc- 
 tion ; but then, as now, destruction and construc- 
 tion were but the two phases of one activity. 
 
 Although man of the hunting stage had not 
 reduced his knowledge to intellectual formulas, 
 he had made considerable progress in the 
 sciences and the arts. He had gained this 
 knowledge under the impulse of his need of 
 food, protection, shelter, and clothing. He was 
 familiar with the habits of all the wild animals of 
 his locality, and with most of the useful and 
 poisonous plants. He was familiar with the 
 topography of the various regions in which he 
 lived and with the special advantages afforded 
 by each. He knew the signs of the weather and 
 the relation of the changing position of some of 
 the heavenly bodies to coming changes in his 
 own activities. He had learned the limitations
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 3 I 
 
 and the possibilities of the raw materials with 
 which he worked, how to select the best materials 
 for his weapons, implements, and utensils, and 
 how to manufacture and manipulate the same. 
 He had learned how to submit himself to a leader 
 in time of danger and how to take the lead. He 
 had learned how to live in sympathetic relations 
 with members of his own clan and how to gain 
 the social approval of the members of his group. 
 
 THE FISHING STAGE. 
 
 The earliest fishing peoples of whom we have 
 any records are those whose history has been 
 preserved in the kitchen-middens or shell 
 mounds, which are still found along the coasts 
 of the Atlantic as well as along the lower courses 
 of many rivers tributary to that ocean. These 
 people are usually placed in the epoch immedi- 
 ately following the Pleistocene period, and they 
 represent the earliest people of the age fre- 
 quently characterized as the Polished Stone Age. 
 
 The climate had become more like what it is 
 today. All the larger forms of animal life which 
 had characterized the preceding age were now 
 extinct with the exception of the Irish deer, 
 which was becoming rare. The arctic mam- 
 malia had withdrawn to the north, and the forms 
 which have existed either wild or in a state of 
 domestication from that time till within com- 
 paratively recent times prevailed.
 
 32 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 The situation at this time was less dangerous 
 than during the Pleistocene period, owing to the 
 destruction of the more formidable of the wild 
 animals and the enlistment in man's cause of the 
 dog, which was domesticated during this period. 
 The problems of the hunter of this period were 
 similar in kind to those of the Eskimo before the 
 introduction of improved implements. In fowl- 
 ing and fishing man had new problems to solve. 
 In hunting the conflict was with the animals that 
 lived only on the land, but in fowling and fish- 
 ing man had to deal with animals that inhabited 
 elements inaccessible to him. How man learned 
 to lengthen his arms by means of poles, sub- 
 stitute pieces of bone or hard wood in place 
 of fingers, rude rakes for hands, dip-nets in 
 place of the scoop made with the two hands, 
 hooks in place of the bent fingers, fish-weirs and 
 stones in place of natural means of enclosing fish 
 in a shallow place ; how he learned to wall in 
 with stones large flats, and so pen in the fish 
 brought in by the tides ; how he made fish-weirs 
 in the shallow waters these are some of the 
 problems that man dealt with in the simplest 
 stages of life by the sea. 
 
 Even after man learned to hunt the animals on 
 the land and catch the fish in the water he was 
 unable to capture the birds that lived on the sea. 
 They presented to him a complex problem, f:>r
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 3 3 
 
 they could walk or run on the land, fly in the air, 
 and swim in the water. Buffon, the great naturalist, 
 wrote that if the wild duck had not been obliged 
 to come to the land in nesting time it probably 
 would have escaped from man, if not altogether, 
 yet for a much longer time than it did. Man 
 early learned to take advantage of the young 
 ducks of the marshes before they had learned to 
 fly ; he learned to swim below the surface of the 
 water, breathing through a hollow reed while he 
 grasped and drew one after another of the unsus- 
 pecting fowls beneath the water; he learned to 
 out-wit them with smoke, baits, and traps, and, 
 later, after he had domesticated some of them, 
 with their own kind. In so doing he grappled 
 with problems that made demands for less force 
 but more foresight, more cunning than had been 
 necessary before. 
 
 The shoals of deep-sea fish that came to the 
 shores or up the rivers in the spawning season 
 and later disappeared, tempted man to follow. 
 The desire to find access to these stores of food 
 supply added its weight to curiosity already 
 reaching out to comprehend the mysteries of the 
 winds, the waves, and the changing character of 
 the ever-present sea. 
 
 An account of the ways in which man utilized 
 his own body, and the suggestions of his en- 
 vironment in selecting and manufacturing devices
 
 34 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 by means of which he made himself master of the 
 sea and the fowls of the air, is a chapter not only 
 in the history of industry but in the acquisition 
 of human freedom. 
 
 In general the activities of this period may be 
 characterized as less dominated by physical force, 
 and affording a larger place for the play of the 
 mind in more subtle fields. The life of the hunter 
 was spasmodic, irregular : that of the fisher- 
 man was more regular, more continuous, more 
 characterized by co-operative action. So im- 
 portant was the dance as a means of securing 
 union of effort, so close was the relation between 
 the co-ordinated movements there represented 
 and those in the actual operation, that the per- 
 son who was so careless as to make a mistake in 
 the dance met with the severest disapproval of 
 his group. Few of the activities of the fisher- 
 man could be carried out successfully without 
 co-operative action. Co-operation in deep-sea 
 expeditions was impossible without careful or- 
 ganization, which was made possible only through 
 the unifying power of rhythm. The man who 
 could feel the situation in advance, and who 
 could represent it in the form of a dance, was 
 the industrial chief, who led in the adventurous 
 undertakings on the deep sea. 
 
 Relations once established with the inhabitants 
 of the land, the sea, and the air, a more steady
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 3 5 
 
 supply of food was possible than before; a greater 
 surplus of energy was available. This was largely 
 utilized in the manufacture of fishing tackle of 
 various kinds, boats, rafts, basketry, pottery, and 
 in the invention of different forms of the dance, 
 which had not yet set free poetry and song, and 
 which had not itself become free from the con- 
 trolling power of industrial activities. 
 
 Just as the hunter read into the natural features 
 of his environment the meaning of his own activi- 
 ties and gave us the germs of our hunting myths, 
 so the fisherman interpreted the natural life about 
 him in the light of his own experience, and gave 
 to the world the beginnings of sea-lore. The 
 subtlety of the elements with which he had to 
 deal was not without its influence in determining 
 the character of his thought and feeling. The 
 ever-present yet ever-changing sea and sky were 
 real lessons in the philosophy of life. 
 
 THE PASTORAL STAGE. 
 
 The transition from the hunting and fishing 
 stages to the pastoral stage is a gradual one. The 
 situation differs with local conditions, but there 
 are always permanent factors operating to induce 
 man to make the change. The hunting life 
 becomes more and more strenuous as the wild 
 animals develop more and more cunning under 
 the influence of man's presence. Even though 
 man in the Pleistocene period succeeded in rid-
 
 36 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 ding the earth of the most terrible of his antago- 
 nists, beasts of prey still survive and prey upon 
 the more gentle grass-eating animals, and even 
 make attacks upon man himself. The grass- 
 eating animals, which form the food supply of 
 these creatures as well as the larger part of the 
 food of man, become more alert, more skilful in 
 eluding their enemies ; but in spite of this their 
 numbers become reduced. The natural increase 
 in population, together with that caused by 
 invading tribes, tends to reduce the number of 
 animals to such a degree that it is no longer 
 possible for a given area to support the life of 
 the beasts of prey and the human inhabitants, 
 who depend upon hunting as their chief means 
 of subsistence. 
 
 Parallel to the changes already noted there 
 take place changes which represent more and 
 more complex methods of hunting. Traps by 
 means of which animals may be deceived and 
 captured alive are invented. Frequently, no 
 doubt, young animals are caught in traps and 
 taken home for pets for the little ones. These, 
 which remain in the care of the women and 
 children for the most part, are found useful as 
 food in times of scarcity. The advantage of the 
 presence of animals in a semi-domesticated or 
 domesticated state is perceived and remembered. 
 That which took place by an accident or for the
 
 A DEEP-SEATED AND PERMANENT INSTINCT. 
 
 (WORK OF MISS L. M. CHILLINGWORTH, NEW HAVEN, CONN.)
 
 IN ELEMENTARY EDUCA TION 37 
 
 sake of pleasure, finally becomes a serious busi- 
 ness. 
 
 Man finds that by establishing sympathetic 
 relations with the grass-eating animals he can live 
 on a smaller area than by hunting them. These 
 relations, however, bring him face to face with a 
 whole range of new problems which require more 
 forethought and regularity than were necessary 
 before. When man lived as a hunter or a fisher 
 the animals that furnished his food cared for 
 themselves. He merely found ways of capturing 
 them as he needed a supply. Now he has a\ , 
 whole range of duties, which bring little jreturn 
 for some time. The end of his action is more 
 distant. It is no wonder that many tribes, dis- 
 couraged in their efforts to find good pastures 
 and water for their flocks, and in futile attempts 
 to protect them from wild animals, hostile tribes, 
 and the winter's cold, revert to their previous 
 mode of life. But it is equally apparent that the 
 tribe that meets these difficulties successfully, that 
 increases in wealth by the rapid increase of flocks 
 and herds, as well as by the spoils of war, will 
 become attached to this mode of life a life that 
 offers sufficient play for the conflict interest to 
 afford satisfactory emotional reactions, and that 
 affords, for the first time, a regular supply of 
 nourishing food and a great deal of leisure time. 
 
 It is not accidental that art flourished in the
 
 38 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 pastoral period. Music and musical instruments, 
 which were used for purposes of signals and for 
 regulating rhythmical movements of the hunting 
 and fishing dances, now made a rapid advance ; 
 and, although they did not become entirely free 
 from the industrial activities of the times, they 
 'were not so distinctly subservient to utilitarian 
 , needs as before. It was during this period that 
 the" story-teller, the dancer, and the singer 
 emerged from the mass in response to the need 
 of a more adequate means oj securing satisfac- 
 tory emotional reactions. 
 
 It was at this time that the arts of spinning, 
 weaving, dyeing and the subsidiary activities con- 
 nected with the textile art were developed. The 
 skill acquired in the hunting and fishing stages 
 with sinews and various forms of woody fibers, 
 when applied to wool and flax resulted in greatly 
 improved methods of clothing, in a higher degree 
 of skill, and in a development of art forms in 
 which music, poetry, and the dance were still 
 intimately associated. 
 
 Much of the surplus energy afforded by_the 
 ea J^Hfe_J^Lj^hjL~de^dop^^ 
 exended_Jri^ warfare. The accumulation of 
 property offered a sufficient material inducement, 
 but this was subordinate to the pressing needs of 
 a strong, emotional reaction _which the ordinary 
 duties in the tranquil life_of_the shepherd did not
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 39 
 
 afford. In so far as the destructive^ spirit of 
 warfare prevailed, it interfered with the develop- 
 ment of broad sympathies, which are necessary to 
 the highest manifestation of art; but it fulfilled 
 a social service in so far as it secured a necessary 
 means of recreation, and organized society into 
 larger and larger political groups. It was 
 through war that_sogiety became organized, that 
 political institutions were established. Even 
 though these institutions never attained stability 
 in the pastoral stage, the framework was laid, so 
 that later tribes could utilize the results achieved 
 in the upbuilding of more permanent and better 
 organized societies. 
 
 Perhaps the most valuable contribution that tv\^vvA 
 this stage of culture has made to the world is its i^ 
 humanizing element. This was developed partly /' \ 
 by the need of sympathetic relations with the 
 domestic animals, and partly by the spirit of 
 reverence and veneration that was fostered by 
 the patriarchal family, which was formed in 
 response to the centralizing tendency of the 
 activities of the pastoral life. The young hunter 
 depended largely upon his own efforts and could 
 easily withdraw himself from his group, for a 
 time at least. The shepherd boy was bound to 
 his flocks. He had no means of support outside 
 of the family ruled by a patriarch. 
 
 Industrial dependence undoubtedly was a
 
 40 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 potent factor in developing a sense of social 
 dependence. Both fostered a peaceful life within 
 the group. Even though the pastoral peoples 
 were undoubtedly hostile to strangers, their 
 mode of life developed sympathetic relations 
 within the group. The kindness of old age found 
 its counterpart in the gentleness that it fos- 
 tered in the care of the young. The establish- 
 ment of these sympathetic relations at home and 
 hostile ones abroad secured in social and political 
 life a co-operative action and an organization of 
 effort, which could not have been secured by the 
 industrial activities alone. 
 
 THE AGRICULTURAL STAGE. 
 
 While still in the hunting stage considerable 
 progress had been made in agriculture by women. 
 The irregular life of the time, however, seriously 
 interfered with its development, and often the 
 crop had to be left before it was ripe for the 
 harvest. Although developed agriculture is found 
 in the fertile lowlands it was not in such places 
 that^jtpriginated. It is probable that the 
 hunters on the wooded hills, on account of the 
 pressure of the population, depended more and 
 more upon the exertion of the women to eke out 
 an existence, and that the terrace gardens whose 
 remains are still found on many hillsides repre- 
 sent the first organized attempt to maintain soci- 
 ety by the cultivation of plants.
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 4 1 
 
 In many cases the domestication of animals by 
 the men and the cultivation of plants by the women 
 developed side by side. But unless the men of 
 the tribe were strong enough to protect their ani- 
 mals from the raids of the strongest shepherds, 
 they were obliged sooner or later to take upon 
 themselves the work of the women. By bringing 
 to woman's work the superior technological skill 
 developed in the contests with wild animals during 
 the hunting stage, and by being able to specialize 
 to an extent that woman has never been able to 
 do, man was able to get far greater results from 
 the cultivation of the soil than had been possible 
 under conditions that had prevailed previous to 
 this time. Agriculture was no longer one of the 
 many occupations of woman ; it had become the 
 principal occupation of man. 
 
 Where conditions were such as to secure the 
 necessary protection, the agricultural life was of 
 great educational value to the race. Protection 
 was often gained by establishing settlements 
 upon islands, naturally fortified peninsulas, barri- 
 caded marshes and, finally, resort was had to pile- 
 dwellings erected upon the lakes. It is significant 
 that fortification appeared with the settled agri- 
 cultural life. Agriculture required much thought 
 and severe bodily exertion. The products of 
 such labor were too precious to be left unpro- 
 tected. The hunter, the fisherman, or the shep-
 
 42 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 herd, if driven from one site, could find many 
 others equally satisfactory ; but the farmer, who 
 put his thought and his labor into the soil, 
 valued it too highly to yield it without a 
 struggle. Because the shepherd's life cost him 
 so little bodily exertion, because he could in- 
 crease his property so rapidly, he esteemed it 
 lightly ; but it was very different with the man 
 who tilled the soil. He not only expended mus- 
 cular force but he busied himself in discovering 
 nature's secrets. He had to learn how to prepare 
 the soil in the best way with the crude tools at 
 his disposal ; he had to learn the best time to 
 sow the seed and what seeds would grow rapidly 
 enough to mature before the early frosts ; he had 
 to invent ways in which to protect the growing 
 crop from birds and beasts and from the thought- 
 less members of his own clan, who were with 
 difficulty prevented from consuming the crop be- 
 fore it was ready for the harvest. He had also to 
 invent tools and to learn how to utilize animals 
 as a motive power in work ; he had to invent 
 harnesses, evolve carts, measure time, and regu- 
 late consumption as well, as production. 
 
 The conditions which man had to take into 
 consideration in agriculture were rnore^omplex 
 tjian jJjLjmy other mode of life yet attempted. 
 Plants, unlike animals, cannot be depended upon 
 to reproduce and preserve themselves. They
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 4 3 
 
 are subject to constantly varying dangers. There 
 is need of constant observation of the phenomena 
 of climate, unceasing prevision, and unremitting 
 toil in order to deal successfully with the series 
 of difficulties that beset the way from seedtime 
 to harvest. The agricultural life thus made ex- 
 demands upon both mind and body an d 
 littlp opportunity for a satisfactory 
 emotional reaction. The stimulus was so slight, 
 the problem so vague, the end jso distant, the 
 conflict interest so reduced, that there was diffi- 
 culty in maintaining interest sufficient to secure 
 a successful outcome. For this reason it was 
 necessary to reinforce the stimulus by artificial 
 means. This is the^ significance o_f the festivals 
 which accompanied every important step in the 
 season's work. This is why religion was sum- 
 moned to lend its support in securing the neces- 
 sary regulation of activities of this difficult mode 
 of life. 
 
 The advantages of agriculture as a means of 
 furnishing an abundant supply of food from a 
 small area soon became apparent. Man's labor 
 acquired a value hitherto unknown. Captives 
 in war were now too valuable to be put tcTdeath. 
 They were enslaved and compelled to carry on 
 agriculture under the supervision of their con- 
 querors. 
 
 On the wide prairies the shepherds could
 
 44 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 live for a long time, but as they came nearer 
 the forests and banks of the lakes and streams 
 it was necessary to take up the plow; but land 
 once under the plow does not turn back into 
 pasture land. The advances of the pastoral peo- 
 ple were sudden and rapid, and their losses were 
 the same. The advances of the agricultural 
 people were gradual but permanent. In the 
 conflict agriculture was bound to win in the end. 
 The predatory instinct, which was developed 
 by the warlike pastoral peoples who would not 
 submit to a life of labor was, then as now, turned 
 to social ends. In those days it united people 
 and produced a feeling for political order and 
 subordination to which the settled life of agricul- 
 ture served to give stability. In these later 
 times it survives in the organizer of great indus- 
 trial and commercial enterprises, and in the lead- 
 ers of great scientific explorations and discoveries. 
 
 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 During the earlier stages of culture man fre- 
 quently made use of such metals as he could find 
 in the pure state for ornaments ; and it not infre- 
 quently happened, in localities rich in native cop- 
 per, that it was made use of for implements and 
 weapons. But this process involved little of the 
 insight and skill of the real work in metallurgy. 
 How man first discovered the secret treasures of
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 4 5 
 
 the earth, how he harnessed the wind and fire to 
 do his bidding, will probably ever remain one of 
 the unwritten chapters of history. Yet, it is pos- 
 sible, within certain limits, to reconstruct the situ- 
 ation and to determine the problems with which 
 man had to deal, as well as the experience which 
 he could bring to bear upon the same. 
 
 Hunting tribes had long been familiar with the 
 use of fire in shaping weapons, and had learned 
 the effect of heat upon the various stones upon 
 which they worked. This experience and that 
 gained in firing pottery, especially such as con- 
 tained bits of shells, united with experience in 
 the use of blowguns, formed a substructure upon 
 which itwas possible to build theart of metallurgy. 
 
 Whether the first experience in reducing ores 
 came about through the presence of such ore in 
 the camp-fire, or whether it was the result of 
 some great conflagration in a region abounding 
 in ore, is not a matter of any great consequence. 
 The significant fact is that the result of the acci- 
 dent was noted, and that the effort was made to 
 produce consciously a product similar to that 
 which was the result of an accident. The name of 
 the genius who made the discovery is not known. 
 The stories that people who have passed through 
 this stage tell of him indicate his superiority, the 
 significance of his work, and his place in the 
 society in which he lived.
 
 46 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 Tradition points to the fact that the art of 
 metal-working was founded by a warrior disabled 
 in battle, who, no longer able to engage in the 
 more strenuous conflict of war, turned his ener- 
 gies in another direction. It is very probable 
 that such a man, chafing under his physical weak- 
 ness and eager to avail himself of any opportunity 
 to make good his lost strength, would be quicker 
 to recognize the significance of an accidental 
 process of smelting ore than one whose ener- 
 gies found expression in a more active life. The 
 problem, presented under these circumstances 
 to a man accustomed to lead, would not be given 
 up without a thorough testing of all available 
 means. The difficulty of the various steps in 
 the process, as well as the significance of the 
 application of the new material in the manufac- 
 ture of implements and weapons, would unite in 
 causing the founder of this art to guard the pro- 
 cess from the public. It cost too much labor, 
 too much thought, to be lightly parted with. 
 Besides, it was a means of support under con- 
 ditions in which it was impossible to engage in 
 other occupations. 
 
 Perhaps it was the secrecy which surrounded 
 the art, as well as the almost magical character 
 of the new implements, that caused strange 
 stories to be told of the early smiths and metal 
 workers. It surely was for the interest of the
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 47 
 
 worker who would protect his art to encourage 
 the belief in his supernatural character. The 
 prevalence of such superstitions accounts for the 
 fact that when any one not initiated into the mys- 
 teries of the process wished some product of the 
 metal worker's craft, he would approach to a 
 spot some rods away from the workshop and 
 there hang in a conspicuous place a leaf, the 
 shape of the weapon or implement desired, 
 together with a quarter of meat or some other 
 useful object. The fact that a weapon of the 
 desired shape was found the next morning on the 
 spot was accounted for by the magical power of 
 the mysterious man who dwelt in the obscure 
 place, secluded from the gaze of men. 
 
 The significance of the use of metals is incal- 
 culable. The fact that the process was so diffi- 
 cult and so much more indirect than most 
 industrial processes of the time made it necessary 
 for the people who practiced this art to devote a 
 considerable part of their time to this work 
 alone. When the advantage of the use of metal 
 in place of stone was once perceived, a demand 
 sufficient to enable the workers to devote their 
 whole time to the art was made. This greatly 
 influenced the development of trade, which from 
 this time becomes a more regular feature of life. 
 The use of metals affected agriculture so as to al- 
 most revolutionize its methods of work. It was
 
 48 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 no less powerful in its influence on warfare, both 
 offensive and defensive, thus indirectly affecting 
 the location and character of habitations. So 
 powerfully has it influenced the mechanical arts 
 that it is not uncommon to read that they origi- 
 nated in the art of metallurgy. This statement 
 is too extreme, for it ignores the humble efforts 
 of countless workers of the long ages that pre- 
 ceded this discovery, but it serves to emphasize 
 the fact that this art has put into man's hands 
 tools, without which he could never have grap- 
 pled with the difficulties he has been able to over- 
 come by their use. 
 
 TRAVEL, TRADE, AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 Man has ever been a wanderer. The original 
 stimulus to travel was found in the search for 
 food. If man would gain the fruits of the plant 
 world he had to travel to the favored places in 
 the proper season. Animals came to him, but 
 they also migrated again, and he followed them, 
 utilizing the trails that they made. The birds in 
 their flight suggested that there might be better 
 places beyond ; and even the movements of clouds 
 and the heavenly bodies were not without their 
 influence. Man's route was the trail of wild ani- 
 mals, his guides their familiar forms, the stars, 
 currents of wind and water, and his own instincts 
 and experiences. As societies became established
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 49 
 
 man traveled to attend tribal gatherings. These, 
 although they partook largely of a religious or 
 festive character, actually served to promote trade, 
 which for a long time consisted of the exchange 
 of presents. 
 
 The increase in population, which tended more 
 and more to confine people to more restricted 
 territories, and the specialization of tribal indus- 
 tries due to the difference in the distribution of 
 the raw materials of production, tended to foster 
 a more regular exchange. In some cases this 
 took place in the form of tribal visits to the 
 favored spots on the payment of tribute ; in other 
 cases temporary markets and fairs were estab- 
 lished on neutral territory, or at places that 
 marke3 a break in_tra.nsportation. The advan- ^~aj^ 
 tage of this exchange was such as to make i 
 desirable for all to foster it ; and so in many 
 places regular markets were allowed, even in hos- 
 tile territory ; and traders, travelers, and carriers 
 were allowed to pass through an enemy's country 
 unmolested. 
 
 The need of standards of measurement gave 
 the mind more precise problems with which to 
 deal, and artificial standards were gradually devel- ~ 
 oped to take the place of the natural units that 
 were subject to too great a variation to satisfy the 
 sense of justice that was being developed by 
 trade. The possibility of acquiring the special
 
 50 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 productions of other tribes through trade oper- 
 ated to increase the desires of man. He was no 
 longer satisfied with the necessities of life and 
 such ornaments as he could manufacture by util- 
 izing the resources of his own environment. He 
 began to demand the luxuries of life, and for a 
 long time trade with remote regions consisted 
 chiefly in an exchange of such articles. But it 
 was as true then as now that the luxuries of one 
 age are the necessities of the next ; and so it was 
 brought about that the demand for exchange be- 
 came more sure and steady, and people occupied 
 themselves with improving its technique. 
 
 Whether the trade was by sea or by land, it 
 was necessary to consider routes of travel and 
 ways of improving the same ; it was necessary 
 to consider the motive power, the vehicle, the 
 devices for attaching the burden ; it was neces- 
 sary to consider means of caring for the comfort 
 of the carriers, and a multitude of problems origi- 
 nating in the various activities concerned in the 
 process of taking the goods from the producer 
 to the consumer. 
 
 The activities that cluster about primitive trade, 
 travel, and transportation were significant not only 
 with reference_to the develapjrnent Q man's intel- 
 lect, but with referencjeJ^Jy_ejno^n^l_jiature. 
 The satisfaction of human desires now made it 
 necessary to establish sympathetic relations with
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 5 l 
 
 people related by no recognized bonds of fellow- 
 ship. The contact with strange people at fairs, 
 at the market places, or by means of nomadic 
 trade, broadened the ideas and widened the sym- 
 pathies. The influence of travel and trade in all 
 time has been to establish and maintain peaceful 
 relations excejat when it has been necessar^to 
 e2cploitnew_fields ; but even this temporary atti- 
 tude of hostility is, from the point of view of the 
 trader, a necessary step in establishing wider rela- 
 tions of a peaceful and industrial character. 
 
 But while the development of trade tends to 
 unite peoples, for a time, at least, it separates 
 individuals. 1 Hospitality gives way to a sense of 
 exact justice which makes the rendering of the 
 most trifling things which humanity would de- 
 mand a subject of trade. 
 
 The growth of commerce develops a new type 
 of man. Each day brings a multitude of prob- 
 lems which must be dispatched with the least 
 possible delay. The similarity of the problems 
 that arise day after day, appearing under particu- 
 lar differences, develops the habit of deciding 
 questions with directness and dispatch. It secures 
 the habit of ready adaptation within certain pre- 
 scribed limits. 
 
 THE CITY-STATE. 
 
 The succeeding epochs in the period of house 
 1 MONTESQUIEU, The Spirit of Laws, Vol. I, p. 365.
 
 52 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 industries differ from those already outlined 
 chiefly in degree. The city-state is merely an 
 expression for that stage of culture in which man 
 in eastern Europe, western Asia, and northern 
 Africa made the conquest of the river-valleys, 
 which previously had defied his efforts to bring 
 them under cultivation because of the inadequacy 
 of his implements and the limitations of his politi- 
 cal institutions. The history of the development 
 of the city-state is an account of the growth of a 
 more and more prosperous tribal towtTbrnomadic 
 village wTiich gradually subjugates the less^pow- 
 erful neighboring peoples^ IT is the history of 
 the transition of these peoples from barbarism 
 to civilization. 
 
 The city-state introduced a new principle of 
 rank, and with this a division of operative func- 
 tions. In its earliest development it failed to 
 recognize the necessity of a "general homogene- 
 ity and interdependence of parts and that unifi- 
 cation which gives solidarity." It simply sought 
 to compel the outlying subject cities to acknowl- 
 edge allegiance and to pay tribute. "Gradu- 
 ally," writes Mr. Powell, 1 " the lesson was learned 
 that universal empire can be but transient with- 
 out the universal adoption of the institutions and 
 religions and even the languages of the conquer- 
 
 1 J. W. POWELL, " From Barbarism to Civilization," American 
 Anthropologist, Vol. I, p. 1 10.
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 5 3 
 
 ors Then it was that a new class of 
 
 nations developed nations organized for the col- 
 lection of tribute and the establishment of solidar- 
 ity Sometimes the center was on the 
 
 Nile, sometimes on the Euphrates, sometimes on 
 the shores of the Mediterranean and at last con- 
 querors dreamed of being masters of the world." 
 
 THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 
 
 What the city-state was to the tribal towns 
 and nomadic villages of the East, feudalisrn_was 
 to those of the West. With the pressure of new 
 populations there arose the need of defending 
 and rendering more habitable the lands already 
 possessed. There was constant danger of attacks 
 from barbarian tribes on every hand. The cen- 
 tral governments were too weak to render effec- 
 tive service in the absence of ready means of 
 intercommunication, and the isolated village 
 communities were too weak to act alone. There 
 was need of more concerted action. The small 
 land owners were in need of protection, and the 
 large ones in need of working and fighting men. 
 There were few places of defense and little or 
 no money available for rents and wages. Under 
 these circumstances willing hands erected the 
 great feudal castles to which all might flee in 
 time of danger, and gladly rendered personal 
 service in return for protection.
 
 54 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 The feudal castle with encircling villages be- 
 neath its walls represented an enlarged family, and 
 was regulated in much the same way as the patri- 
 archal family of earlier days. Under this regime 
 such skill in special lines was developed that 
 when the time came for emancipation, the work- 
 ers were ready to take up the free work which 
 characterizes the handicraft period. Feudal in- 
 dustries thus, in_a special sense, represent the 
 transition^ from domestic or house industries to 
 the Jiandicraft system, which characterized_the_ 
 periodpf town economy. 
 
 THE HANDICRAFT SYSTEM, OK THE PERIOD OF 
 TOWN ECONOMY. 
 
 The handicraft system of labor arose in west- 
 ern Europe with_the use^of jmpney, the freeing 
 \.\ of the slaves and serfs, the development of com- 
 t merce, and the rise of the free towns. Services 
 
 which had been rendered by slaves were now 
 performed by free men. People who no longer 
 had slaves still had the need of service, and under 
 the new conditions they employed the various 
 handicraftsmen to do the work which was paid 
 i for in money. "The handicraftsman," writes 
 /Professor Bucher, " is distinguished from the 
 wage-worker only in the fact that he possesses 
 all the means of production, and sells for a defi- 
 nite price the finished article which is the 
 product of his own raw material and his own
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 5 5 
 
 incorporated labor, while the wage-worker merely 
 receives a recompense for his labor." x The fact 
 that the handicraftsman always worked for the 
 consumer served to place responsibility for the 
 quality of the work. 
 
 This period is characterized by a marked 
 differentiation of the activities of producing the 
 raw material from those of jnanuf acturing^ it jnto 
 the required form. It is true that these activi- 
 ties had previously been performed by different 
 people, but the different activities had been 
 under the direction of one man who controlled 
 the entire process. Under this regime there was 
 a continual narrowing of the activity belonging 
 to any one craft, and there grew up with the 
 development of the craft-guilds a spirit of " in- 
 ternal bickerings." 
 
 During the period of house industries the labor 
 of the individual was significant in relation to the 
 family or clan. Under the system of handicraft 
 labor it was significant in relation to the local 
 market ofthe community in which the handicrafts- 
 man resided. Modes of travel and transportation 
 were such that in respect to the necessaries of life 
 each community had to be self-sufficing. When, 
 upon the application of other than human power 
 to industrial processes, handicraft labor was forced 
 to give way to the factory, and the local market 
 
 CARL BUCHER, Industrial Evolution, p- 170.
 
 5 6 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 to the national or international market, it became 
 restricted to a narrower sphere. In that sphere it 
 still performs a distinct social service. " That 
 sphere," writes Professor Bucher, " today is the 
 country, the districts where it still finds the con- 
 ditions of existence that gave birth to it in the 
 Middle Ages." * 
 
 During this period there was a remarkable 
 application of wind and water power to indus- 
 trial processes formerly carried on by human or 
 animal power. This fact, together with the many 
 inventions which were expressions of ways of 
 utilizing these new forces, is significant when 
 considered with reference to the inauguration of 
 free labor. 
 
 THE FACTORY SYSTEM, OR THE PERIOD OF 
 NATIONAL ECONOMY. 
 
 The factory system arose in response to the 
 use of steam as a motive power. Before steam 
 could be utilized as a motive power it was neces- 
 sary to invent means of applying it to a given 
 work. At this point science came to the aid of 
 industry and contributed the knowledge by 
 means of which steam could be applied and con- 
 trolled. 
 
 The history of the application of steam to 
 means of travel and transportation is the record 
 1 Industrial Evolution, p. 211.
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 5 7 
 
 of the change from e2plpiting the immediate 
 localitv_Jn the_interests of industry to_that of 
 exploiting the^remotest regiQ_ns_of^^the^jcnown 
 world. It is a record of the change from the 
 sale of goods at a loc^l__rnarket to the sale of 
 them in the great markets of the world. The 
 history of the application of steam to the manu- 
 facturing process is the history of the change 
 from the simple handicraft labor with simple 
 tools in the interests of the immediate locality, 
 to the centrali^edl^s^stem, which represents the 
 organization of the entire process of production 
 for a national market in the most effective way 
 yet known. 
 
 While it is a serious question whether the 
 economy gained through the minute division of 
 labor which separates the skilled from the un- 
 skilled, the mechanical from the intellectual, is 
 not at the expense of the workers themselves, it 
 cannot be denied that all classes have received 
 benefits from the introduction of the factory 
 system. The complexity of the social life which 
 has resulted from the use of steam as a motive 
 power has presented problems that baffle the 
 powers of the most acute. Whether they will 
 be settled in this stage or whether they will give 
 way to a new set of problems that will come 
 with the application of a new power is a question 
 for the future.
 
 58 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 The use of electricity or some other power 
 that can easily be transported would certainly 
 operate to check the centralizing tendency 
 brought about by the use of the steam engine. 
 There is little doubt that science will again come 
 to the aid of mankind and afford a solution to 
 many of the vexed social questions by means of 
 promoting the advance of industrial methods. 
 
 " The unwillingness to use machinery," writes 
 Mr. Burges, "may perhaps be traced to the 
 teaching of Mr. Ruskin and of the late Mr. 
 Pugin, but then these gentlemen have unfortu- 
 nately been misunderstood. What they have 
 battled for was the disuse of mechanical means 
 in the production of architectural ornaments. 
 Thus, in a building, they objected to cast leaves 
 in a cornice because one would be exactly like 
 another and because the undercuttings could not 
 be obtained from a mould; but, as far as I can 
 see, they never objected to the proper employ- 
 ment of machinery as a help to either the artist 
 or the workman. In fact, Pugin says in one of 
 his works that had he 'a cathedral to build, one 
 of the first things he would do would be to set 
 up a lathe to turn the smaller columns.'" 1 
 
 A careful study of the various forms of in- 
 dustry that prevail in our own age in various parts 
 of the world, together with the consideration 
 
 1 SURGES, Art Applied to Industry,
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 5 9 
 
 of such thoughts as Mr. Mitchell presents in his 
 book entitled The Past in the Present, leads one to 
 appreciate the closing words of one of the chap- 
 ters in Professor Bucher's Industrial Evolution 
 where he writes, " For after all, the comforting 
 result of every serious consideration of history 
 is, that no single element of culture which has I 
 once entered into the ^ife of men is lost, that I 
 even after the hour of its predominance has ex- 
 pired, it continues in some more modest posi- 
 tion to co-operate in the realization of the great 
 end in which we all believe, the helping of man- 
 kind toward more and more perfect forms of ex- 
 istence." 1 
 
 CARL BUCHER, Industrial Evolution, p. 184.
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 ORIGINS OF THE ATTITUDES THAT UNDERLIE 
 INDUSTRY. 
 
 " If we could obtain an ultimate analysis of 
 what is at work in the world about us, shaping 
 the minds and the destinies of mankind, we 
 would doubtless find there the deeds of all the 
 vanished units of the race, each having a share, 
 great or small, in the human activity of the 
 present moment." 1 The truth which this state- 
 ment of Professor Shaler's expresses compels 
 one who would understand the attitudes of the 
 child to take into account their origin ; for, how- 
 ever closely we focus our attention to the facts 
 of the present, much of their significance escapes 
 if they are not illumined by the light derived 
 from a study of the past activities of the race in 
 which they first took root. 
 
 Human nature is too complex to lend itself to 
 precise formulation. In studying the child we 
 may be able to discover attitudes due to physical 
 heredity, those due to social heredity, those due to 
 environment, those due to the interaction of two 
 or"rrTore of these, and we may discover types of 
 activity characteristic of the different stages of 
 development ; but when we have finished our 
 
 'N. S. SHALER, The Individual, p. 78. 
 60
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 6 1 
 
 classification we cannot superimpose it upon any 
 child so as to make it represent his whole nature. 
 It is always necessary to make allowance for ' 
 individual variation. There is something in 
 each individual that escapes formulation. 
 
 It is an accepted truth that those racial activi- 
 ties which are most ancient and most prolonged 
 have had the most potent influence in determin- 
 ing the attitudes of mankind. Attitudes due to 
 such causes appear earliest, and although they 
 may early be overlaid with more complex habits, 
 they remain strong throughout life; and when, as 
 decay sets in, the more complex habits one by one 
 Disappear, these native instincts reassert them- 
 selves and persist till the last. 
 
 There are instincts that have resulted from 
 later racial activities, but their early appearance , 
 as well as their permanence is in direct proper-! 
 tion to the remoteness and duration of the 1 
 activities which produced them. Comparatively 
 recent racial activities certainly operate in deter-' 
 mining the attitudes of the child; but they oper- 
 ate not through physical, but through social he- 
 redity. 
 
 Darwin is a notable example of those scientists 
 who have attempted to explain human emotional 
 attitudes by reference to those of animals. How- 
 ever fruitful such an investigation may be, it 
 seems to promise less for educational purposes
 
 62 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 than investigations along racial lines; for it 
 must be remembered that continuity in emotional 
 attitudes can be explained only on the basis of 
 continuity in biological function. For this reason 
 education must wait upon biological science 
 until the connections needed are established, and 
 even then the use of the materials offered is 
 open to the charge of explaining the more clear 
 by the less clear. Until we know more of the 
 consciousness of animals we are scarcely in a 
 position to make a profitable use of animal 
 psychology in interpreting the activities of the 
 child. 
 
 Wheh we attempt to interpret the attitudes of 
 the child in the light of the activities of the race 
 there is more hope of success ; for the continuity 
 of the biological function upon which the con- 
 tinuity of emotional attitudes depends is assured. 
 But even here we are liable to error in the inter- 
 pretation of the conscious states of people living 
 under social conditions so much more simple 
 than our own. The means of rectifying these 
 errors, however, are becoming more and more 
 available through the results of the different 
 methods of research which serve mutually to 
 check one another. The especial value of this 
 method is that it reveals a rich educational sig- 
 nificance to attitudes which, from the point of 
 view of our more complex social life, are trivial
 
 IN ELEMENTARY EDUCA TION 63 
 
 and meaningless. This method of investigation, 
 more than any other, is rich in suggestions of 
 ways of utilizing for educational purposes forces 
 which usually are allowed to expend themselves 
 without becoming the basis of social habits. 
 
 The importance of the body in the study of 
 emotional attitudes can scarcely be overrated. It is 
 through the body that heredity acts. Dr. Loeb 
 is authority for the statement that the only traits 
 we know to be due to heredity are the form of 
 the body and the instincts; and he states that for 
 the inheritance of instincts "it is only necessary 
 that the egg contain certain substances which 
 will determine the different tropisms tand the 
 conditions for producing bilateral symmetry of 
 the embryo." 1 That these substances which de- 
 termine the different tropisms are the product of 
 remote and long-continued racial activities is now 
 recognized. How the racial activities, through 
 the mediation of these "substances," have re- 
 sulted in the different tropisms ; how these trop- 
 isms reveal the continuity of human life from the 
 earliest times to the present ; how they have the 
 most profound significance for educational pur- 
 poses, it is the purpose of the following pages to 
 make clear. 
 
 Emotional attitudes undoubtedly owe their 
 origin to physiological causes. They are organic 
 
 1 JACQUES LOEB, The Physiology of the Brain, p. 7.
 
 64 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 \ strains which may easily be recognized in the 
 
 case of the coarser emotions. The difficulty in 
 
 recognizing the organic reverberations in the case 
 
 of the more refined emotions is on account of the 
 
 subtlety of the movements involved. 
 
 To understand the attitudes of the child we 
 must know the activities that are bound up with 
 them. Knowing, feeling, and willing are bound 
 up with those activities that developed with refer- 
 ence to maintaining the life of the individual and 
 the race. Those activities that have for their 
 object the nourishment of the individual and the 
 perpetuation of the species represent the most 
 fundamental processes in the life of primitive 
 people. That these activities should be accom- 
 panied by pleasure is an indication that, in their 
 outcome, they contribute to the welfare of the 
 individual and the race. It seems to be the nat- 
 ural method in organic development to place a 
 premium upon the activity needed to further the 
 normal growth of the individual as well as the 
 species. 
 
 Long before man learned to manufacture tools 
 to supplement his feeble strength he exploited 
 his environment for food, which he consumed 
 upon the spot, his hands, his teeth and his diges- 
 v tive tracts performing, unaided by mechanical 
 means, the functions later lightened by the use of 
 tools and mechanical devices. Activities with
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 6 5 
 
 reference to the exploitation of environment lie 
 at the very basis of the industrial processes of all 
 times. That the child early manifests such an 
 instinct, and that in some form it continues 
 throughout life, if not atrophied through disuse, 
 is apparent to any one who will observe the hab- 
 its of the people in any community. 
 
 The most ancient activities which have pro- 
 duced this instinct are undoubtedly those of the 
 race during the period preceding the use of tools. 
 When the whole burden of production and con- 
 sumption was placed upon the body alone, there 
 was need of searching for the most nutritious and 
 easily digested food that the environment could 
 afford. Later, when man's strength was supple- 
 mented by the use of weapons, the desire for 
 food and for social approval impelled him to 
 become skilful in the hunt. Those activities of 
 the hunting people that developed alertness with 
 reference to the animal, vegetable, and mineral 
 resources of the environment, that developed 
 fear of that with which man felt himself unable 
 to cope, and courage with reference to difficulties 
 within the possibility of a successful achieve- 
 ment, resulted in the most generic instincts of 
 human kind. Whether the activities of fishing 
 people were grafted upon these instincts, or 
 whether they are as fundamental as those devel- 
 oped in the hunting stage, is not known with
 
 66 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 certainty. Similar habits, with a difference in 
 manifestation to suit the difference in the situa- 
 tions, would result in either case. 
 
 While the hunter exploited the various topo- 
 graphical features with reference to the possibili- 
 ties in satisfying his needs, the fisherman 
 exploited the sea and the coasts. In the pas- 
 toral stage this fundamental activity found ex- 
 pression in the domestication of animals, in the 
 search for new pastures, in the protection of 
 the flocks and herds, and especially in aggress- 
 ive warfare, which is but another form of ex- 
 ploitation of environment for the satisfaction of 
 human needs. 
 
 Each succeeding stage of development makes 
 use of this instinct in a way to suit its own needs. 
 Now the exploitation takes the form of discover- 
 ing the species of plants that will respond most 
 readily to man's care; again it is a search for 
 earth's hidden secrets ; at one time it is an at- 
 tempt to find the most favorable routes of travel 
 or the most advantageous sites for trade ; at 
 another it is a search for the choicest soils which 
 can be made subject to man's needs by the use of 
 new instruments and the means of maintaining 
 collective activity. It may be a search in the sky 
 for the means of determining the approach of a 
 new season or a means of guiding the traveler at 
 sea ; perhaps it is a series of experiments with
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 67 
 
 new materials in order to bring about desirable 
 features accidentally revealed ; and sometimes it is 
 an attempt to discover different forms of motive 
 power or the means of applying the same. There 
 is no need of extending the list. To make it 
 complete would be to make an inventory of the 
 initial steps in all forms of progress. That this 
 instinct has sometimes been misdirected, that its 
 influence has sometimes been detrimental to the 
 best interests of society, is not due to any quality 
 that inheres in the instinct itself, but to the 
 fact that it has not been placed properly with 
 reference to the other activities of life without 
 which, except in the most elementary stages of 
 life, it has no raison d'etre. 
 
 Whether we interpret the activities of the 
 earliest people of mid-Pleistocene times, when 
 life was sustained by the acquisition of mate- 
 rials that were consumed upon the spot with- 
 out the intervention of tools, as giving rise to the 
 instinct to exploit one's environment or to the 
 workmanship instinct depends upon the point of 
 view. Perhaps it would be the wiser plan to 
 regard this period in which production and con- 
 sumption are not separated in time, as the undif- 
 ferentiated form out of which both emerge at a 
 later date. 
 
 The term workmanship instinct is one that is 
 
 ^ v >?>-^ 
 
 used somewhat loosely. As used by Professor
 
 68 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 Veblen x it is broad enough to include not only 
 those activities involved in reshaping materials 
 to suit one's needs, but the whole round of activi- 
 ties to which this lesser activity is related as a 
 part to a larger whole. It is possible that it is 
 due to this use of the term that he has failed to 
 recognize the fact that there was ample room for 
 the development of prowess before the advent 
 of the barbarian form of culture. If it be true, 
 as is accepted by the best authorities in anthro- 
 pology, that the extinction of the huge creatures 
 that characterized the Pleistocene period was due 
 to man's efforts, and if we can accept the state- 
 
 1 The following quotation from Professor Veblen's article, 
 "The Instinct of Workmanship and the Irksomeness of Labor," 
 published in Vol. IV of the American Journal of Sociology, will 
 show the sense in which he uses the term : " A process or method 
 of life, once understood, assimilated in thought works into the 
 scheme of life and becomes a norm of conduct, simply because 
 the thinking, knowing agent is also the acting agent. What is 
 apprehended with facility and is consistent with the process of 
 life and knowledge is thereby apprehended as right and good. 
 
 "Where habituation is enforced by selective elimination the 
 acquired proclivity passes from the status of habit to that of 
 aptitude or propensity. It becomes a transmissible trait, and 
 action under its guidance becomes right and good, and the longer 
 and more consistent the selective adaptation through which the 
 aptitude arises the more firmly is the resulting aptitude settled 
 on the race, and the more unquestioned becomes the sanction of 
 the resulting canon of conduct. 
 
 " So far as regards his relation to the material means of life, 
 the canon of thought and of conduct which was in this way 
 enforced upon early man was what is here called the instinct of 
 workmanship."
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 69 
 
 ment that the pastoral stage did not develop until 
 after the climate of western Europe and its char- 
 acteristic fauna and flora had become similar to 
 the climate and characteristic fauna and flora 
 that still prevail, except as modified by human 
 action, man of the Pleistocene period, who 
 invented the bow and arrow and all the weapons 
 which precede it, who made use of poison, traps, 
 pitfalls, and countless other devices in his work 
 of exterminating the creatures that impeded his 
 progress, must have been characterized by a 
 spirit of mastery over conditions and a disposi- 
 
 ^^ J. . .r 
 
 tion to take the initiative in a greater degree than 
 that for which Professor Veblen 1 gives him credit; 
 and, this being the case, there is less reason to 
 interpret the predatory life of the barbarian 
 stage of culture as an abrupt transition in racial 
 development than there would otherwise be. 
 
 'THORSTEIN VEBLEN, Theory of the Leisure Class, p. 219. 
 "The circumstances of life and the ends of human effort that pre- 
 vailed before the advent of barbarian culture, shaped human 
 nature and fixed it as regards certain fundamental human traits. 
 And it is to these ancient, generic features that modern men are 
 prone to take back in case of variation from human nature of the 
 hereditary present. The conditions under which men lived in 
 the most primitive stages of associated life that can properly be 
 called human, seem to have been of a peaceful kind ; and the 
 character the temperament and spiritual attitude of men 
 under these early conditions of environment and institutions seems 
 to have been peaceful and unaggressive, not to say an indolent, 
 cast. For the immediate purpose this peaceable cultural stage 
 may be taken to mark the initial phase of social development."
 
 70 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 For purposes of clearness the use of the term 
 workmanship instinct in this discussion will be 
 limited to those activities which are involved in 
 the reshaping of material for purposes that suit 
 man's needs. 
 
 Even if the earliest activities which involved 
 the mere acquisition of food for immediate con- 
 sumption be waived, there yet remained a long 
 period in this most ancient stage of culture in 
 which a large share of man's energy was expended 
 in constructive activities. When we consider the 
 skill he acquired in working in stone, in bone, in 
 shell, in horn, in wood, in ivory, in textiles, in 
 skins, and in clay, the simplicity of his tools, and 
 the finish of his products ; when we consider his 
 insight into the nature of the materials with 
 which he worked, and how he made use of this 
 insight in the various processes of construction 
 in such a way as to respect the limitations and 
 the possibilities of each, as well as the use which 
 the object was to serve ; and when we consider 
 the amount of labor that was performed by these 
 people, we are convinced that these activities, 
 which were prolonged for so great a period, are a 
 sufficient basis for the belief that the workman- 
 ship instinct is one of the most deep-seated and 
 permanent possessions of mankind. 
 
 That the savage dislikes work, in the sense in 
 which we commonly use the term, is true. That
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 7 1 
 
 he accomplished what we would call work, is 
 equally true. What the savage objects to in our 
 work is not the strain of the muscles, but the 
 strain of attention. The latter is painful to him 
 because it is not conducive to the welfare of 
 either the individual or the species in the stage 
 of culture in which he lives. Reflection in the 
 savage life is a more expensive form of specializa- 
 tion than the perfected instinct of any animal is 
 to itself and its species. The pain which accom- 
 panies intellectual activity can be interpreted only 
 as a warning of nature to proceed no farther in 
 that direction. 
 
 The savage does not work according to an 
 intellectually ordered plan. He works in response 
 to his own feeling of need. He finds his prob- 
 lems in the necessities of the situations. They 
 therefore have a real significance for him. They 
 call out a response. At each step of the process 
 he thus feels the emotional glow that accom- 
 panies the sense of enlargement of one's per- 
 sonality, the mastery of a new power. As long 
 as the problem appeals to him, as long as there 
 is a store of nervous energy upon which to draw, 
 he continues the work ; but when the problem 
 loses its force, when the nervous energy is dis- 
 charged, he ceases. He is unable to hold him- 
 self to his work by an act of the will. His 
 activity is characterized by the same lack of
 
 72 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 patience, the same lack of persistence, as is char- 
 acteristic of the child when the emotional reac- 
 tions fail, and by the same patience, the same 
 persistence, which frequently is pushed to the 
 limits of complete physical exhaustion, when the 
 emotional reactions remain strong. So necessary 
 are the emotional reactions to the maintenance 
 of an activity, that in those monotonous activities 
 that made a great demand for sustained physi- 
 cal activity without occupying the mind, the 
 introduction of artificial means of securing emo- 
 tional reactions was almost universally practiced. 
 In some cases this was accomplished merely by 
 social conversation and jests made possible when 
 several individuals were performing their work 
 in company ; the rhythmical character of the 
 automatic movements exercised such an influence 
 upon the social intercourse that it often found 
 expression in song. The feelings thus aroused, it 
 was possible to accomplish easily tasks impossi- 
 ble without such support. In the case of co- 
 operative work the support of rhythm was neces- 
 sary in order to regulate the co-ordinations as 
 well as to sustain the activity. 
 
 Y^ The workmanship instinct dominates some 
 stages of development, to be sure, to a greater 
 degree than it does others ; but no community 
 can ignore the claims of this instinct for any 
 length of time without serious consequences. To
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 73 
 
 such a degree was it the normal expression of 
 each individual in the hunting and fishing stages, 
 and so strong a support did it find in social 
 approval that if, perchance, some individual in 
 the clan failed to provide himself with proper 
 weapons for the hunt, and failed to bring his 
 share of meat to the common meal, he was 
 excluded from participation in the common life 
 of the clan. 
 
 While the less strenuous conditions of the pas- 
 toral life made less vigorous demands for the 
 products of workmanship, the leisure afforded, 
 together with the more regular supply of nour- 
 ishing food, made available a larger store of 
 nervous energy than ever before. As more 
 energy was accumulated in the nerve centers 
 than was needed in the serious activities of life, 
 it instinctively sought expression. This expres- 
 sion was naturally along the lines of established 
 co-ordinations, but often without any further 
 object than the activity itself. 
 
 The pastoral stage was pre-eminently the play 
 period of the race. On equally good grounds it 
 may be called the period in which art made rapid 
 development. Human culture had not advanced 
 sufficiently to secure a clear differentiation 
 between art and play. Neither was there any 
 well defined boundary between work and play. 
 Now an activity is more like work, in a moment
 
 74 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 it is more like play, and again it is art, or, possi- 
 bly, all three at the same time. 
 
 There was leisure enough at this time for a 
 large amount of playful experimentation, which 
 found expression in the further modification of 
 instinctive activities already adapted to the social 
 needs of the time. In following the herds across 
 the boggy marshes it was desirable to be able to 
 walk on stilts. In leisure hours the shepherds 
 played in such contests. In caring for the flocks 
 among the rocky chasms, the shepherd had to be 
 ready at a moment's notice to leap across a gorge, 
 to climb a precipitous height, or to jump across 
 a mountain torrent. In their leisure hours we 
 find them occupied in leaping, jumping, vaulting, 
 and climbing games with the element of danger 
 added, at times, by the introduction of a blazing 
 fire over which the vault was to be made. On 
 the uplands and grassy plains an animal that be- 
 gan to stray from the herd was brought back 
 by a stone thrown with or without artificial 
 devices. Leisure hours saw the shepherd boys 
 engaged in contests of this kind. The value of 
 these games in securing the power of concentra- 
 tion and the capacity for swift and sure reaction, 
 is incalculable. 
 
 Like children of today, the shepherds delighted 
 in many games that were imitative of the actions 
 of the domestic animals. Some of these were
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION / 5 
 
 doubtless related to serious activities, but many, 
 such as the imitation of a cock-fight, appear to 
 be pure play. The representation of stealing 
 sheep from a village by a predatory animal or 
 thief probably had a more utilitarian aspect. 
 The various activities of pastoral life domes- 
 ticating the wild animals, watching the flocks, 
 protecting them from animals and predatory 
 tribes, seeking the lost, migrating for change of 
 pasture, driving home the cows, milking, sheep- 
 shearing, washing and picking the wool, carding, 
 spinning, weaving, fulling, and knitting all 
 found expression in games which afforded recre- 
 ation or relief from the tedium of a monotonous 
 occupation. Many of these have descended, with 
 little change, as a part of the heritage of all suc- 
 ceeding ages. 
 
 The Virginia reel, as is well known, is the sur- 
 vival of a weaving game. Weaving songs which 
 imitate the shooting of the shuttle from side to 
 side, the passage of the woof over and under 
 the threads of the warp, and other related activi- 
 ties, are common. Weaving rhymes and panto- 
 mimic dances are to be found in the folklore of 
 almost every people who have practiced this 
 art. 
 
 The stage in which we find the pantomimic 
 dance and song is evidently not the earliest 
 stage in the development of these arts. The
 
 76 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 dance is a representation of a serious process. 
 As women became more and more skilful in 
 weaving, their bodily activities were rendered 
 more and more rhythmical. As the worker sur- 
 renders herself to the rhythm of the movement 
 there is a tendency for the entire organism to 
 respond to the rhythm, and we thus have a tone 
 rhythm, which accompanies the movement rhythm. 
 Sometimes words are used, but they are often 
 nonsense words, being significant chiefly on ac- 
 count of the support they lend to the bodily 
 movements. It is very probable that mothers 
 made use of these suggestions in teaching their 
 daughters, and that later the activity was repre- 
 sented in play. The survival of such rhymes as 
 the following indicates the ancient habit of sus- 
 taining the activity in a monotonous work, as 
 well as the influence of the industrial occupation 
 in the development of poetry and song. 
 
 Any one who has ever used a dash churn will 
 have no difficulty in recognizing the rhythmic 
 activity which gave the impulse to this rhyme, 
 which, no doubt, originally was accompanied 
 with song: 
 
 CHURNING RHYME. 
 
 Come, butter, come ; come, butter, come ; 
 
 Peter stands at the gate waiting for a butter'd cake. 
 
 Come, butter, come. 
 
 Journal of American Folk-Lore, Vol. VIII, p. 82.
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 77 
 
 In this the rhythmic movement of the bark- 
 beaters can be detected : 
 
 Sip, sap, say ; sip, sap, say ; 
 
 Lig in a nettle bed while (until) May day. 
 
 Ibid., p. 82. 
 
 WOOL-CARDER'S RHYME. 
 
 Taary woo", taary woo', taary woo' is all to spin. 
 Card it well, card it well, card it well ere you begin, 
 For when carded, row'd, and spun, 
 Then the work is hofelins (half) done ; 
 But when woven, drest and clean, 
 It may cleading (clothing) for a queen. 
 
 Ibid.,?. 81. 
 
 KNITTING RHYME. 
 
 Needle to needle, and stitch to stitch, 
 
 Pull the old woman out of the ditch. 
 
 If you ain't out by the time I'm in, 
 
 I'll rap your knuckles with my knitting pin. 
 
 Ibid. 
 
 All of these rhymes show the effect of the more 
 recent stages of culture ; but all had a very early 
 origin, and, doubtless, in connection with indus- 
 trial processes. Numerous illustrations can 
 readily be found in the folklore of any people. 
 In places not yet dominated by the influence of 
 the factory, it is still possible to gather many 
 songs and rhymes of this character that are still 
 in use. Doubtless, most adults of this country 
 have personal experience in the use of some such 
 device for relieving the drudgery of a monotonous
 
 78 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 occupation of childhood. 1 Where school condi- 
 tions are flexible enough to permit freedom of 
 expression, it is possible to observe spontaneous 
 manifestations of the use of rhythm in indus- 
 trial occupations. 2 
 
 Without taking the extreme position that Pro- 
 fessor Bucher has taken in Arbeit und Rhythmus, 
 we cannot fail to recognize that industry has had 
 a powerful influence in the development of art of 
 all kinds. Just as the musical instruments of the 
 hunting stage were subservient to the needs of 
 the people in regulating the movements in the 
 hunt, and in the dance which was, in many cases, 
 a preparation for or a celebration of the hunt, so 
 those of the pastoral stage were such as would 
 
 1 1 well remember hearing my mother as she tried to teach me 
 how to knit, make use of this formula, " Put the needle in, put the 
 thread over, pick it through , and pull it off." Since finding the more 
 interesting rhyme given above, I have wondered if that would 
 have been more successful in my case, and whether I should have 
 been compelled to resort to as many devices as I did in order to 
 hold myself to the monotonous work. The formula had little 
 effect, but on being told that I must do my own knitting, I was 
 able to keep at the work under the combined influence of the 
 whistling cold wind, the sound of the spinning-wheel, which, 
 together with the wind, in some way suggested the possibility of 
 freezing, and such a regular tying of knots in the yarn at inter- 
 vals of about four inches as would make it evident that I had 
 made some progress when I came to a knot. 
 
 3 During this year I have observed in the laboratory of the 
 Department of Education of the University of Chicago many 
 instances of this kind. Children of six years, while modelling in 
 Clay, spontaneously express themselves in rhythmic parallelism.
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 79 
 
 facilitate the activities of the shepherd during 
 his hours of work or afford him pleasure during 
 his leisure hours. The development of the horn 
 is closely bound up with the needs of pastoral 
 people in giving a signal of alarm when watching 
 the flocks. In time of war the desire to com- 
 municate more precise information stimulated 
 the mind to invent instruments which could be 
 used to express the differences. Such instru- 
 ments were invented in the hunting and fishing 
 stages in connection with the co-operative activi- 
 ties of those times, and were still further devel- 
 oped during the pastoral period. In so far as 
 the conditions of life in the pastoral stage 
 
 On finishing modelling a chicken in clay, a little boy, apparently 
 without thinking of any one in the group, said : 
 
 Run away little chick, 
 Run home, home, home. 
 
 The following tendency toward rhythmic form was observed 
 in a lesson in co-operative composition : " Beyond the plots was 
 the cultivated land. Outside the cultivated land were broad 
 strips of pasture land. Beyond this was woodland." 
 
 A group of children, aged nine years, when polishing pen 
 trays that they had made, spontaneously began to recount their 
 experience in the earlier, less interesting processes. As they 
 continued the monotonous movement of rubbing in the wax, a 
 girl said that she was washing her baby's face. A boy rejoined 
 that he was getting his little boy ready for school. The sug- 
 gested images furnished an emotional reaction which seemed to 
 afford the children much satisfaction, and probably were quite 
 similar in effect to that of the conversation and jests of primitive 
 people when engaged in individual work in the company of 
 others.
 
 80 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 afforded freedom to the individual to express his 
 thoughts and feelings for the sake of the pleas- 
 ure in the activity itself, poetry and music were 
 freed from the necessities of industrial occupa- 
 tions ; but because nature places a premium upon 
 the co-ordinations necessary to maintain the 
 necessary activities of life, and because of the 
 need of being ready for an emergency, the art 
 and play activities of the period are along the 
 lines marked out by the industrial activities of 
 the race. 
 
 The problems presented by the agricultural 
 life were so much more complex, and the end 
 was so much farther removed, that there was dif- 
 ficulty in fixing the attention to the problem ; 
 the reflexes were lost and the emotional reaction 
 was not secured. It was impossible under these 
 conditions for the worker to continue the activity 
 for its own sake. Interest, if secured, had to 
 come through the perception of the relation of 
 the activity to a desired end, or through the real- 
 ization of the moral and ethical ideas involved. 
 Where free labor prevailed there arose in 
 response to this need a series of festivals, par- 
 taking more or less of a religious character, 
 marking each important phase of the whole 
 round of activities, from the clearing of the 
 ground to the harvesting and storing of the 
 crops. In this way attention was fixed, and the 
 needed response secured.
 
 IN ELEMENT A RY ED UCA TION 8 1 
 
 It is very probable that many who shared in 
 these festivities acted in response to the immedi- 
 ate stimulus of the occasion without thought of 
 the more distant end ; yet the importance that 
 the harvest festival assumed as marking the cul- 
 mination of the entire activity served to fix 
 attention upon the end, while the whole series 
 gradually exercised an educative influence far 
 beyond the immediate utilitarian need. 
 
 The festive character of many agricultural 
 activities has been maintained until within recent 
 times, when the introduction of more complicated 
 machinery has so lightened the burdens that it 
 is no longer necessary to rely upon such means 
 of support. The distaste for agricultural life 
 which is so common among young people is 
 largely due at present not so much to the work 
 itself, as to the fact that in the separation of 
 industrial processes from festivals the emotional 
 element of the latter, instead of becoming trans- 
 lated into an art interest, has, in too many cases, 
 suffered atrophy from disuse. 
 
 While tribes in which free labor prevailed were 
 solving their labor problems, as just stated, other 
 tribes, particularly those shepherd tribes that 
 were being compelled to take up agriculture on 
 account of the pressure of new populations upon 
 lands that had already reached their limit in 
 supplying the needs of pastoral people, were
 
 82 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 working out the solution of their problems in a 
 different way. Accustomed to the easy life of 
 the pastoral people, which afforded the emo- 
 tional reactions of art and play as well as the 
 stronger ones of war, it was not strange that they 
 preferred it to the settled agricultural life. But it 
 was necessary to till the soil ; so they preserved 
 the lives of captives in war and required them to 
 render assistance in the work of cultivating the 
 land. 
 
 In the early stages of slavery there was little 
 difference between the position of master and 
 slave. Both did the same kind of work. With 
 the increase in the number of slaves and in the 
 property of the master it became necessary to 
 organize the slave labor in gangs with overseers. 
 Labor thus became compulsory, and disgrace 
 was attached to the unfortunate members of 
 society who became the victims of a stronger 
 power. Society was cleft in twain, and the chasm 
 has not yet been completely bridged. From this 
 time labor became distasteful to the leisure class 
 not so much on its own account, as because of its 
 associations with an inferior class and with 
 domesticated animals. It was conceived as 
 requiring little intelligence. It became irksome 
 to the slave because the problem was external to 
 his own interests and needs. He was no longer 
 free to choose his problems or to control the
 
 IN ELEMENT A RY ED UCA TION 8 3 
 
 conditions under which he carried on his work. 
 Deprived of the conditions for attention, the 
 organism failed to respond, and the emotional 
 reactions were thus lost. 
 
 Succeeding stages of culture have tended to 
 perpetuate the distinction between the leisure 
 and the industrial classes first drawn in the 
 pastoral and agricultural stages. Labor, which 
 at first was a free manifestation of the whole 
 being and the part of each member of society, 
 came to be a forced expression of muscular move- 
 ment of certain members of society. As society 
 became more and more fixed in castes, labor of 
 certain kinds was conceived not merely as ignoble, 
 but as wrong, and a taboo was placed on many 
 forms of activity. 
 
 The freeing of the slaves and serfs in the latter 
 part of the Middle Ages helped to restore normal 
 conditions of labor. But the long ages of servi- 
 tude had done much to overlay the primitive 
 instincts that underlie industrial processes with 
 such habits of submission and indifference that 
 it was not possible for them to reassert them- 
 selves in their native vigor for some time. Nor 
 have they been able to accomplish this work 
 during ages that have succeeded. Although the 
 removal of external restrictions witnessed a 
 remarkable manifestation of the inventive spirit 
 in the application of wind and water power to
 
 84 THE PLACE Ofi INDUSTRIES 
 
 industrial processes, the breaking up of the pro- 
 cess of production into lesser activities, and the 
 assignment of each division to some particular 
 craft, has, in a measure, counteracted the advance 
 movement, which was taking place at this time. 
 The handicraft worker, deprived of the rich, 
 broad experience afforded by the free house 
 industries of the earlier period, when each indi- 
 vidual carried on the whole round of activities 
 from the search for the raw material to the con- 
 sumption of the finished product, developed 
 special skill at the expense of an all-round ex- 
 perience. Yet in spite of this the handicrafts- 
 man, as compared with the factory laborer of 
 today, had considerable range for the exercise 
 of his ability. Handicraft labor, so long as it 
 was treated in an artistic spirit, reacted in a 
 wholesome way upon the worker, who became 
 more intelligent, more interested in his work, and 
 consequently happier. The direct relation which 
 was maintained between the producer and con- 
 sumer at this time served to maintain ethical 
 relations in the industrial activities of the period. 
 The application of simple machinery to the 
 various manufacturing processes during the elev- 
 enth, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries involved 
 an advance in the organization and division of 
 labor. Work, which heretofore had in most 
 cases been a personal occupation, now became a
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 8 5 
 
 civic function. 1 The removal of the end of labor 
 added new dignity to the process. It afforded 
 the worker the joy of hope and the conscious- 
 ness of an enlarged personality. The mind 
 became less occupied with the particular ques- 
 tions of the moment and more interested in 
 questions of general welfare. The spirit of 
 exploitation, which manifested itself in the Cru- 
 sades, in the establishment of great commercial 
 companies, and in the exploration of the New 
 World, reacted upon society and thus created a 
 demand for more powerful motive forces and 
 more adequate means of application than ever 
 before. The development of science in modern 
 times is largely a response to this demand. 
 
 Industry, enriched by the contributions of sci- 
 ence, becomes more and more complex. The 
 end becomes farther and farther removed. The 
 worker, no longer being able to perceive the 
 whole process of production, has need of a greater 
 consciousness of collective life than ever before. 
 His activity is no longer a personal occupation that 
 brings him honor as in the period of house-indus- 
 tries, nor a civic function, the actions and inter- 
 actions of which are within the range of his per- 
 ception, as in the period of handicraft labor, but 
 a social function in a national if not a cosmopoli- 
 tan society. 
 
 'AUGUST COMTE, Positive Polity, Vol. Ill, p. 413.
 
 86 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 That the welfare of the workers has been lost 
 sight of in the excitement attending such stu- 
 pendous changes, is not strange. The balance 
 has become lost between the character of the 
 machine and motive power on the one hand, and 
 the intellectual and moral condition of the worker 
 on the other. To restore this balance it is nec- 
 essary to parallel the advance in the character of 
 the machinery and the motive power by an 
 improvement in the intellectual and spiritual 
 condition of the worker. He must be able to 
 perceive the relation of the small part of the 
 work which he undertakes to the entire process 
 from its earliest to its latest stages. He must 
 have such a sense of responsibility as will enable 
 him to have as great regard for the character of 
 the work that he produces for a foreign market, 
 as for that produced for a consumer in the imme- 
 diate neighborhood where he is well known. In 
 short, the industrial development that has ad- 
 vanced from being a function of the household 
 to that of the city, and finally to that of the 
 ion and nations of the earth, needs to be par- 
 alleled by an enlargement of social consciousness 
 from the personal, through the municipal, to 
 such a consciousness as recognizes the brother- 
 hood of all men. Not until this consciousness 
 is aroused will it be possible for the problem, in 
 its entirety, to be present in the mind of the
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 8 7 
 
 individual worker. Only when it is thus present, 
 only when labor is a voluntary expression, is the 
 full moral value of the act secured. 
 
 In so far as the development of industry has . 
 made a separation between industry and art ; inf 
 so far as the substitution of machinery for hand 
 labor has resulted in the decline of the festival 
 in connection with the more laborious forms of 
 work, there is need of some more adequate pro- 
 vision for the satisfaction oj[ the emotions than 
 is found in the work itself. Just as the intellect 
 needs the illumination that comes from the contri- 
 butions of science, so the emotions need the sus- 
 taining and socializing power of art. The recog- 
 nition of this fact is the root of the more recent 
 advance in municipal government, and it prom- 
 ises much for the future of the public schools. 
 
 Such are some of the origins of the attitudes 
 of the child toward activity. In the beginning, 
 when societies were simple and unstable, physical *f\v v \ 4 * 
 heredity was the most potent factor in determin- ^ , 
 ing the attitude, although it was always modified 
 by the exigencies of the natural and social envi- 
 ronment. With the growth of more complex 
 societies social heredity, in the form of tradi- 
 tions, customs, and habits of conduct, plays a 
 more and more important part in forming the 
 attitudes of mind through the agency of social 
 approval. In proportion as activities modified
 
 88 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 by social standards are remote and long con- 
 tinued are they transmuted into psychical atti- 
 tudes. So in the child of today there is present 
 not merely the original psychical attitude of the 
 most remote period, but such attitudes reduced and 
 embodied in new and more complicated co-ordi- 
 nations. The more recent modifications of racial 
 activities operate in society today, not through 
 physical heredity, but through social heredity. 
 Society in each age offers a premium of approval 
 on the activity that is deemed at the time most 
 necessary. 
 
 i ^ In proportion as society lays hold of instinctive 
 t&P reactions and harnesses them to present social 
 needs, the process of education is promoted. The 
 most serious mistake has been the tendency to 
 ignore the psychical attitudes of the child by im- 
 posing upon him the highly organized products of 
 \ present social life. It is beginning to be more gen- 
 erally recognized, however, that education, to be 
 vital, must be grounded deep in physical heredity, 
 and to be of real social service, must be guided 
 and refined in the light of our highest social 
 ideals. The natural emotional reactions are 
 fixed, and we need not expect any fundamental 
 change. It is the part of wisdom to build upon 
 
 this sure foundation rather than to seek one 
 rtC* 
 
 ^^ among the shifting sands of more recent times. 
 
 The achievements of recent civilization are of
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 89 
 
 value not in determining the foundation, but in 
 fashioning the structure that is reared upon it. 
 
 Because the life of the child, with reference to 
 that of the adult, is an embryonic life; because it 
 is the period for the formation rather than for 
 the serious use of co-ordinations, with reference 
 to adult life it is a period of preparation. But * 
 however valuable such an idea may be to the 
 adult in the consideration of educational ques- 
 tions, it offers no adequate motive to the child. 
 Not until the mind is able to conceive of an end 
 and the relation^ of the successive steps in the ^^ rt i 
 means to this end, can the idea of the serious l/ 
 work of the future have any direct influence in 
 shaping the motives of the child. Not until this 
 power is more fully developed than we find ife in 
 the period of childhood can it be relied upon to 
 such a degree as to be an important factor in de- 
 termining the attitude of the child. The child 
 lives in the present. He must find his satisfac- 
 tion in an immediate way. His pleasurable emo- 
 tions are bound up with his instinctive reactions. 
 Because these reactions have been marked out 
 by the serious activities of the race in its first 
 steps in human progress, because they represent 
 the processes of modern civilization in their most 
 rudimentary forms, they serve to present the edu- 
 cational opportunity for establishing helpful rela- 
 tions between the life of the past and that of the
 
 QO THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 present. By making use of these instinctive 
 reactions it is possible to make a gradual transi- 
 tion from the dramatic and play interests of the 
 child to the more serious interests of the adult. 
 
 Although childhood has not yet been studied 
 carefully enough so that it is possible to know 
 with scientific accuracy the best time to lay hold 
 of each of the various emotional reactions, enough 
 is known to make it no longer justifiable to con- 
 fine education to formulated intellectual concep- 
 tions that have no meaning apart from the pro- 
 cess of which they form but one of the less 
 important phases. It is now evident to thought- 
 ful people who have given attention to these 
 questions, that if we would develop the powers of 
 the child, we must utilize and refine those insjtinct- 
 ive reactions that are seeking expression, and 
 that, if we would cultivate in him a social con- 
 sciousness to a degree sufficient to enable him to 
 live an ethical life in a complex social system, 
 we must furnish him the means of participating 
 in the more fundamental processes of life to such 
 a degree as to afford him a measuring unit by 
 means of which he can interpret materials which 
 are presented to him in less direct ways. Only 
 in this way is it possible for the child to appreci- 
 ate the significance of different activities and 
 their relative place in the organization of society. 
 
 The fact that few of the child's activities under
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION g I 
 
 ordinary conditions result in products of com- 
 mercial value favors, rather than obstructs, the 
 educational process. There is less inclination on 
 the part of society to withdraw the child from 
 the more direct educational influences than would 
 otherwise be the case. This fact operates also 
 in determining what forms the activity may take. 
 
 The demand for the completion of a situation 
 is characteristic of the mind in all stages of 
 development, but it takes less to complete it in 
 some stages than in others. For this reason the 
 earlier activities of children along industrial lines 
 comprehend a much shorter circuit than the later. 
 While the processes of projduction and consump- 
 tion which represent the complete situation 
 the entire circuit may be so simple in the kin- 
 dergarten as to be scarcely distinguishable from 
 each other, the process grows more and more 
 complex until, in the later years of childhood, it 
 represents a comprehensive view of the typical 
 phases of the more complex industrial processes. 
 
 In so far as the marginal difference between 
 the child's interests and his power to satisfy 
 them in a real way presents a stimulus that 
 retains its power to the end, real construction 
 finds its place as an instrument in education. 
 To deprive the child of the opportunity to con- 
 struct objects of real utility would be to remove 
 certain wholesome limits, which are quite neces-
 
 92 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 sary in order that he may learn to make his 
 adjustments in the world in which he lives. To 
 confine his activity to such processes would be 
 to seriously limit his development. 
 
 Interest and the power to do, seldom or never 
 form an equation. Where interest is greatly in 
 excess illustration, rather than real construction, 
 finds its place. The illustration may be of the 
 constructive type, but it differs from it in being 
 intended chiefly to satisfy the demand for a 
 rich imagery rather than to serve any direct 
 utilitarian purpose. Such a situation presents a 
 favorable opportunity for the development of 
 technique. There is a normal motive for it at 
 this time. The time devoted to technique under 
 such circumstances depends upon the time the 
 child is able to keep in view the relation between 
 the technical work and the whole of which it is 
 merely a phase. 
 
 In so far as the completion of the situation 
 requires the child to exploit his own environ- 
 ment in the search for real or illustrative mate- 
 rials of industrial processes, observation and sim- 
 ple experimentation find their place. In so far 
 as it requires the modification of old habits to 
 new purposes in the process of manufacture, 
 experimentation finds its place. In so far as it 
 requires a recognition of the satisfaction that 
 comes with the consumption of the results of
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 93 
 
 production, occasions which provide for this need, 
 such as social entertainments and exhibitions, 
 find their place as a supplement to the more 
 regular demands of the home and the school. 
 
 With the child, as with the race, the pleasure 
 that comes from the direct exercise of bodily 
 activities becomes more and more subordinate to 
 that which comes from the augmentation or 
 transformation of muscular power through the 
 use of tools, and later to that which springs from 
 the substitution of animal or physical and chemi- 
 cal forces. During this process there is an' 
 increasing demand for intellectual activity, which, 
 by its effectiveness in substituting other forces 
 than those of the human body in the processes 
 of industry, secures more and more favorable 
 conditions for a freer expression of the emotions 
 than was possible when bodily activity was so 
 largely subservient to industrial needs. At a 
 later stage the intellect acquires freedom in the 
 same way. The freeing of the emotions mani- 
 fests itself in art, while the freeing of the intel- 
 lect manifests itself in science. Both were orig- 
 inally bound up in the industrial process, both 
 are conditioned by it for a long period, and both 
 separate themselves for a time from this process 
 only to return again to give and to receive fresh 
 impulse to a higher activity. 
 
 If the increase in power is not accompanied by
 
 94 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 the enlargement of social consciousness, it is apt 
 to manifest itself in a dominating or competitive 
 spirit. If, however, the socializing process pro- 
 ceeds in harmony with the increasing power and 
 means of control, the force which would other- 
 wise express itself in a competitive way manifests 
 itself in co-operation. The transformation of 
 power from the purely competitive to the co-oper- 
 ative form takes rise in the need of greater force 
 than the individual can produce or in an appli- 
 cation of force that is possible only with the 
 combined action of several persons. By means 
 of rhythm people learn to work together and in 
 so doing become conscious of the value of 
 co-operative action within certain limits. How 
 these limits are gradually extended so as to 
 include larger and larger groups, how purely 
 commercial relations established between groups 
 lead to the recognition of helpful social relations, 
 how the application of new forces by more and 
 more highly complicated machinery makes the 
 recognition of national and international rela- 
 tions necessary these are questions that are 
 significant to society; and because they are signi- 
 ficant to society they are of vital importance in 
 education. The development of the spirit of 
 co-operation does not imply a disuse of the 
 spirit of conflict. The instinct which underlies 
 this spirit was developed so early and during
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 9 5 
 
 such a long period that, do what we may, it will 
 abide as one of our most permanent possessions. 1 
 It means, rather, a gradual refining of the method 
 of conflict and a restriction of it to fields that 
 are legitimate with reference to the other inter- 
 ests of community life. 
 
 The original impulse to manual training came 
 from the house industries, not from the handi- 
 crafts. 2 As a mode of production it is not desirable 
 to perpetuate either except within certain limits. 
 As a means of education there seems to be noth- 
 ing s^ojven_sjaited_tpjbring _ about an adjustment 
 between the attitudes of the child and the later 
 differentiated_subjects of knowledge, which each 
 individual needs to appropriate, as the house 
 industries. 3 The difference between the house 
 
 1 W. I. THOMAS, " The Gaming Instinct," American Journal 
 of Sociology, Vol. VI, p. 750. 
 
 2 CARL BUCHER, Industrial Evolution, p. 155. 
 
 3 Such statements as the following from GEORGE H. BRYANT, 
 in the Manual Training Magazine, July, 1901, p. 205, fail to dis- 
 tinguish between the educational_j>rocess and the final result, as 
 well as between the emotional attitudes of the child amTthose of 
 the adult. It is probable that there will be much confusion in 
 thought along these lines until we distinguish more carefully 
 between the meaning of utility to the adult and to the child, as 
 well as between the social and psychological needs of the different 
 periods of life. Mr. Bryant writes : " No tool or process should 
 be retained in a course after its general use in the mechanical 
 world has passed. Such courses, like the shops employing the 
 obsolete methods, soon become 'back numbers.' Such an obso- 
 lete exercise or process may have a certain ' disciplinary value,' 
 or use as a practice piece ; but mere disciplinary exercises, with- 
 out practical application, should have no more place in a school-
 
 96 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 industries and the handicrafts is this : the house 
 industries introduce the child in a vital way to a 
 great number of materials and afford him activity 
 in a great variety of processes. The handicrafts 
 require a concentration of attention upon some 
 one form of production and a mastery of that. 
 The house industries are significant in their fit- 
 ness to present situations for the breaking up of 
 instincts into a great variety of combinations. 
 The handicrafts, on the other hand, are signifi- 
 cant in their tendency to narrow the range of 
 interests and fix habits, which are broken up with 
 difficulty in later years. 
 
 The handicrafts and machinery labor have a 
 place in elementary education, but it is a differ- 
 ent one from that of the house industries. The 
 house industries correspond to the many-sided 
 interests and activities of the child that can 
 be most fruitfully cultivated in the early years. 
 The handicraft and factory systems correspond, 
 rather, to the differentiation that begins to take 
 place in interests during the later years of child- 
 hood, and should be so treated as to preserve for 
 the child the view of the essential factors in the 
 complete situation. It is here that education 
 begins to make more vigorous demands upon both 
 science and art. 
 
 shop course nowadays than in arithmetic or grammar. The same 
 or sufficient discipline can be obtained with infinitely greater 
 stimulus by a problem having a direct practical bearing."
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS. 
 GUIDING PRINCIPLES. 
 
 AT the beginning of the preceding chapter we 
 had occasion to state the principles upon which 
 the continuity of psychical attitudes depends. 
 We there stated that continuity in psychical atti- 
 tudes depends upon continuity in biological 
 function, and concluded that for educational 
 purposes, at least, little is to be gained at present 
 by the study of animal activities. It was further 
 stated that even though continuity in biological 
 functions were" established, until we know more 
 of the states of consciousness of animals, the 
 method of interpreting the activities of the child 
 by those of the animal would be to still further 
 complicate the question, because we are more 
 familiar with the child than with the animal. In 
 the case of explaining the attitudes of the child 
 by those of primitive people we found that it is 
 possible to make the biological connection, and 
 that the inaccuracies resulting from the failure to 
 interpret the conscious states of the savage can 
 be rectified by the results of other methods of 
 study. We stated also that those activities 
 which are most remote and most prolonged are 
 
 97
 
 98 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 most permanent in their effect upon the instinct- 
 ive reactions of all times, and that later activities, 
 in so far as they affect the psychical attitudes, 
 appear later in the development of the individual, 
 and are less permanent. 
 
 We found that those attitudes that represent 
 the emotional reactions of organic strains under- 
 gone in the serious activities of primitive people 
 have not been transmitted unchanged, but have 
 suffered reduction and become incorporated in 
 new co-ordinations through the influence of suc- 
 ceeding activities. They appear in the child 
 today as play-impulses, which only in an ideal- 
 ized way represent the serious activities of indus- 
 trial life. 
 
 We also have considered briefly the situation 
 in which man was placed in the successive 
 periods, his equipment, the character of his prob- 
 lems, and his manner of response. We have seen 
 how in these as in the attitudes themselves there 
 has been a gradual change from the simple to the 
 more and more complex. 
 
 We have now to consider what the guiding 
 principles are with reference to the application 
 of the results of this study to the practical work 
 in the different stages of development in the ele- 
 mentary-school period. Keeping in mind the 
 changes in the psv^chkial attitudes as well as those 
 in the natural and social environment, we ought
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 99 
 
 to be able to separate from the tangled web in a 
 particular situation those factors that are due to 
 the special .a.ge and those that are characteristic 
 of all time. We ought to be able to separate 
 the factors in a given activity that are due to the 
 operation of temporary conditions in the natural 
 or social environment from those that are due to 
 the permanent forces of the environment or to 
 the organism itself. Unless we are able to dis- 
 tinguish the transient from the permanent factors 
 in experience, we are scarcely in a position to 
 utilize the stores that the past has to yield. 
 
 Whatever activity we consider, of whatever 
 age, if it be a significant one we find that it is 
 because of its relation to its natural and social 
 environment. Any activity is what it is largely 
 because of the natural and social environment 
 in which it is placed. History is full of records 
 of abortive inventions, which were such not be- 
 cause of the thought in the mind of the inventor, 
 but because there was not present a social need, 
 or because there was not present the material 
 by means of which the thought could secure ade- 
 quate expression. It was not an accident that 
 the mariner's compass, gunpowder, and the print- 
 ing press appeared when they did. Neither was 
 it an accident that the pyramids were erected in 
 regions abounding with limestone and syenite, or 
 that sculpture developed so remarkably in the
 
 100 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 region containing the whitest, finest, and richest 
 marble quarries in the world. The permanent 
 element in all these activities is the fact that the 
 activity is directly related to the natural and 
 social environment of the age and not to that of 
 some other place or time. 
 
 Let us apply this truth to the education of the 
 child. How are we to make sure that the child's 
 activities are with reference to his own environ- 
 ment ? The question of natural environment 
 presents no serious difficulty ; what constitutes 
 the child's social environment is a question that 
 the American people have not yet settled. That 
 it has been rapidly extended in the past two 
 decades is very apparent ; that it will gradually 
 be simplified in the future is probable. We 
 would not, like Rousseau, remove the child from 
 ; almost all social influences, but we would guard 
 him from the highly artificial stimuli of our com- 
 plex social life. To present the child with such 
 complex stimuli at the stage when he naturally 
 responds in a simple and direct way, is to force 
 upon him prematurely a complex reaction. It is 
 a question of premature specialization. The^ft? 
 W/*t-<u',>of the child's social relations may be sought in 
 
 in the typical 
 
 activities jif^th^ earlier^tages_jof_culture. The 
 particular manifestation of this type must be de- 
 termined not by the past, nor by the standards
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION I O I 
 
 of adult life, but by the social needs of the child 
 of today. 
 
 It must not be forgotten that that which satis- 
 fies the child's need of play is as much the 
 satisfaction of his social need as that which satis- 
 fies a serious need in the life of an adult. The 
 demand that the activity be related to the social 
 needs of the child must then be interpreted so as 
 to afford ample room for the satisfaction of the 
 need of play. 
 
 Taking into consideration the transformations 
 that have taken place with reference to the 
 psychical attitudes, we may conclude that with 
 reference to the child we have separated the 
 transient from the permanent when we have 
 selected from an experience that which appeals 
 to the emotional attitude that is in most need of 
 development, and when we have provided an 
 opportunity for the child to make use of his en- 
 vironment in responding to the stimulus. When 
 the child manifests an attitude corresponding to 
 
 - - 4- O f ^ 
 
 the activities of a simpler stage of life, if he be 
 encouraged to exploit his environment with ref- 
 erence t p jsat i s fying this dominant instinct, and 
 if the experience thus gained be enriched by the 
 race experience to which it is a parallel, he is 
 making vital relations with his own natural en- 
 vironment and constructing such a social one as 
 corresponds to his power to appreciate. Atten-
 
 102 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 tion directed to normal ways of utilizing the ener- 
 gies of the child will prevent an immense amount 
 of mischief, which is the result of unemployed or 
 misdirected energy. The statement that the 
 child's activities should be with reference to his 
 own natural environment should not be construed 
 to mean that the world beyond the child's sense 
 perception should be closed to him, but rather 
 that he utilize his own environment in his attempt 
 to understand that which is beyond the range of 
 his senses. The form of the problem and its 
 general character persist ; the content is subject 
 to change. 
 
 The socializing power that comes from a well- 
 directed study of the past is secured chiefly 
 through the recognition of the principle that in the 
 adaptation of the materials of the past such a con- 
 densation of the experience of ages should be 
 telescoped into the activities of a few hours as 
 corresponds to the parallel changes in the child's 
 attitudes with reference to their more instinctive 
 ' origin. To attempt to carry the child through 
 I the actual stages of racial development in a mi- 
 nute way would be to arrest development ; the 
 child represents something of the present as well 
 as of the past. Although the child enters sym- 
 pathetically into the problems of primitive life, 
 he never for a moment identifies himself with the 
 people except in a dramatic way. He is looking
 
 IN ELEMENTARY EDUCA TION 103 
 
 down from above, and he knows it. At the same 
 time he is leading up to a fuller realization of 
 forces in his own life which, hitherto, have been 
 unrelated. 
 
 It is important also in making use of the ma- 
 terials of the past that we distinguish between 
 the experiences of free and slave peoples. While 
 it is instructive to discover how slavery arose, 
 and under what conditions it developed, it is 
 surely not the part of wisdom to attempt to per- 
 petuate such conditions ; we should rather seek 
 to avoid them. 
 
 In seeking in the past for typical activities to 
 be adapted to educational purposes it is impor- 
 tant to bear in mind that while the child is still 
 in the stage of undeveloped technique, a highly 
 educative value may be secured by exercise in 
 the simple house industries, if only the simple 
 technical processes involved are applied " in the 
 simplest and at the same time most comprehen- 
 sive manner." 1 As the child develops in techni- 
 cal skill he may be introduced to more and more 
 complicated tools, but at no time should the 
 complexity of the technique that is represented 
 by the tool be such as to destroy the rela- 
 tion that should always be preserved between 
 the skill of the child and the character of his 
 tools. 
 
 1 CARL BUCHER, Industrial Evolution, p. 42.
 
 1 04 THE PLA CE OF IND USTRIES 
 
 With these more general statements regarding 
 the limits within which racial experiences may 
 be utilized for educational ends, let us pass to the 
 more practical consideration of the character of 
 the materials adapted to the psychical attitudes 
 of the successive stages of child life. 
 
 STAGE OF INFANCY. 
 
 The most fundamental steps in the establish- 
 ment of community life have ever been those of 
 establishing helpful relations with one's environ- 
 ment. How to come into sympathetic relations 
 with the earth and its raw materials, how to estab- 
 lish helpful relations with neighboring peoples, 
 are problems that all people, who have advanced, 
 have had to face. The solutions of these prob- 
 lems furnish the foundation upon which civiliza- 
 tion rests. Just because the scientific interests are 
 not yet differentiated from the industrial, because 
 the intellectual interests are not differentiated 
 from the practical, because the emotional ele- 
 ment is not yet free to express itself on its own 
 j account, there is no separation between industry, 
 | science, and art. Those interests which corre- 
 spond most closely to the scientific interest find 
 in industry their excuse for being ; those which 
 correspond most closely to the later differentiated 
 art interests are present at this time as a quality 
 corresponding to an attitude of mind.
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 1 5 
 
 If by the scientific attitude is meant the desire l 
 to discover facts and to verify principles, it does 
 not appear before the period of adolescence, and 
 probably not until that stage is well advanced. If, 
 however, the scientific attitude is construed as 
 meaning a phase of experience that is not freed 
 from the social and practical needs of the child, 
 yet, when taken in such relations, has a profound 
 significance, the case is different. 
 
 The first efforts of the infant are with reference 
 to his environment. And although he is confined 
 by the necessities of the case to a limited space, and 
 obliged to use his hands to assist in locomotion, 
 no one doubts the thoroughness of his exploita- 
 tion. Like primeval man, who has not yet devel- 
 oped free hands and an erect posture, he is unable 
 to use tools. His only tools are in his body, and 
 he is just beginning to learn their use. The 
 motive power at his disposal is furnished by his 
 own muscles. His first activities are largely in- 
 stinctive ; but he soon begins the process of 
 experimentation by means of which the inherited 
 instincts, so well fitted to serve a few needs, 
 become broken up so as to meet the demands of 
 many. The achievements of early infancy, which 
 lasts until about the age of two and one-half years, 
 are the QOHprdination of the reflexes connected 
 with the various senses, a ready response to sense 
 stimuli, the acquisition of milk-teeth which affect
 
 1 06 THE PLA CE OF IND VSTRIES 
 
 the problem of nutrition, and the erect posture 
 which relieves the hands from the function of 
 locomotion and sets them free for higher pur- 
 poses. 
 
 During the period of later infancy, 1 which lasts 
 W*i. from two and a half years until seven or eight, the 
 child begins to exploit an environment which 
 takes in not only the home and its immediate 
 surroundings, but the school and the immediate 
 neighborhood. The tendency to run away which 
 has been noticed in the third year is an expres- 
 -ision of the disposition to explore the environ- 
 ment. 
 
 Later infancy is pre-eminently the period of 
 play, and it is for the satisfaction of the play 
 instincts that the environment is exploited. The 
 child's interest in a snowstorm is largely bound 
 up with the pleasurable experiences of sight and 
 touch which he experiences if allowed to be out 
 of doors while it is snowing ; or it may be the 
 anticipation of the delight of playing snowball, 
 making a snow man, or rolling and tumbling in 
 the snow without any further object than the 
 pleasure the activity affords. The changing phe- 
 nomena of the seasons are significant to the child 
 of this period chiefly because of their relation to 
 
 1 The classifications of the stages of psychical development fol- 
 lowed is that given by Professor Dewey in his syllabus of Educa- 
 tional Psychology, pp. 8-10.
 
 77V ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 1 ^ 
 
 his play- To lay hold of this interest, to direct \^ ii 
 
 it so that it will lead to useful ends, to enrich the *-****"'* 
 
 narrow personal experience by that of the group, 
 
 and to supplement both by stories of animals and 
 
 of people whose activities are conditioned by the 
 
 phenomenon under consideration at the time, is 
 
 the part of parents and teachers. The impulse to 
 
 utilize the results of the more striking natural 
 
 phenomena is so strong that it will assert itself in 
 
 spite of repressive measures. Observation seems 
 
 to indicate that this is not true with respect to 
 
 the utilization of the more constant elements of 
 
 environment. 
 
 The development of the factory system, by 
 crowding people into large cities, has tended 
 to deprive many children of the opportunity 
 to come into close contact with nature. But 
 even under more favorable conditions there has 
 been a tendency in the home, as well as in the 
 school, to superimpose upon the child empty 
 reproductions of complex social life. This is 
 nowhere more clearly illustrated than in the do- 
 main of children's amusements. The marvelous 
 increase in the number and variety of children's 
 toys is a subject worthy of more serious attention 
 than it has yet received. Even a superficial ob- 
 servation of these toys indicates that many of 
 them are of such a character as to leave the child 
 comparatively passive. The activity is handed
 
 108 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 over to a mechanism. The child gets his emo- 
 tional excitement without regard to its legitimate 
 expenditure. The balance between the sensory 
 and rnotor nerves is destroyed, the organic cir- 
 cuit is broken, the tendency to rely on an exter- 
 nal stimulus is fostered. The mere fact that the 
 stimulus calls for so little motor response is suf- 
 ficient to explain its temporary effect and the 
 constant demand for some new means of stimu- 
 lation. 
 
 Could parents and teachers take even a few 
 minutes a day or a few hours a week to help 
 children to see the possibilities in a pile of sand, 
 an unoccupied piece of ground, the tough grasses 
 and woody fibers growing in the waste places, a 
 neighboring tree, dry-goods boxes, paper and 
 paste, in short, in any of the legitimate materials 
 in the environment of the child, there would be a 
 saving of time for adults and a more normal and 
 happy growth in the child. Such conditions would 
 afford a normal outlet for the constructive in- 
 stincts, which need nutrition at this period when 
 the hands are first free to serve their needs. 
 
 The injurious effect that our highly organized 
 social environment is apt to exert upon the child 
 may be largely nullified if, at this time, the child 
 be supplied with sufficient wholesome nutrition 
 for his impulses that are striving for expression. 
 There is no doubt that the child gets greater
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 1 09 
 
 satisfaction in activities that are normal to his 
 stage of development than in those for which he 
 is not yet ready. But if prevented in any way 
 from realizing himself through normal activities, 
 he inevitably occupies himself with that which 
 cannot fail to harm him because of its lack of 
 adjustment to his needs. 
 
 In the earlier part of this period, personal 
 experience is enlarged by participating in the life 
 of the group, and by stories of people and ani- 
 mals under similar situations ; in the later part, 
 it may be enriched by leading out from those 
 activities of the child which are a crude imita- 
 tion of the activities of adults about him, to the 
 activities of people in a similar natural environ- 
 ment so far as climatic conditions are con- 
 cerned but a simpler social environment. 
 Agricultural life, preferably that before the 
 introduction of complicated machinery, and 
 simple village life afford excellent materials for 
 this purpose. On the other hand, experience of 
 this period may be enriched by leading out from 
 the artificial products that are significant to the 
 child, to the people engaged in the preparation 
 and transportation of the same. This makes 
 more vigorous demands upon the child's con- 
 structive imagination than the preceding, but it 
 seems to meet a demand on the part of a child 
 of six years for the links that unite him to that
 
 1 1 THE PLA CE OF IND USTRIES 
 
 which is beyond the limits of his sense per- 
 ception. 
 
 Throughout this period the child shows a 
 strong interest in animals and plants. He is 
 interested in some animals because they are his 
 playfellows. It is largely a social interest. He 
 is interested in others because he wants to see 
 what they will do. Seldom, under ordinary con- 
 ditions, does the interest at this period have any 
 relation to the question of food. The child's 
 interest in animals can be most profitably utilized 
 in home-life on the farm, but even the crowded 
 part of a city can offer something to the child in 
 this respect. It is an easy matter to gather 
 cocoons, and their transformation into moths or 
 butterflies is a wonderful revelation to the little 
 ones who are fortunate enough to see it. Canaries 
 are always of interest to children, who well may be 
 allowed to care for them. Fish, frogs, and other 
 animal forms may be brought into the schoolroom 
 for a time if aquaria are available. An occasional 
 visit of a domestic animal is welcomed by the chil- 
 dren. The value of the visits of animal friends 
 depends largely upon the attention given by the 
 teacher and children to the conditions which will 
 provide for the needs of the animals during their 
 stay. To hire a man to do all the work neces- 
 sary in order to bring an animal into the school- 
 room is to deprive the child of the chief value of
 
 IN ELEMENTARY EDUCA TION 1 1 1 
 
 the occurrence. It would seem to be a better 
 plan for the teacher and children to consider the 
 matter together, to decide what animal they 
 should like to have in the room for a few days, 
 to find out what animals are available, how they 
 are living now, what they will need if they come, 
 and what provisions can be made to satisfy these 
 needs. If, after such conferences and investiga- 
 tions as are necessary in order to determine these 
 points, the children are disposed to undertake 
 the responsibilities, they may be given such 
 assistance as may be needed in order to make 
 everything ready. By putting the subject in 
 this light the children readily see the need of 
 doing what is done ; and if failure to meet 
 their responsibilities in regard to the care of the 
 animal results in its return to its native environ- 
 ment, they can readily see the justice of the act. 
 By emphasizing the thought of care and pro- 
 tection in this practical way the child's instincts, 
 which at times lead to cruelty, become tempered 
 by the social forces of present life. His instincts 
 with reference to animal life are recognized suffi- 
 ciently to give him satisfaction, while social 
 forces operate sufficiently to adapt their expres- 
 sion to the social life of the community in which 
 he lives. These habits are of more importance 
 than the knowledge that he gains, though that 
 may be considerable.
 
 1 1 2 THE PLA CE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 The child's interest in the plant-world and its 
 products is much more closely related to the 
 food interest than his interest in animals. The 
 country child very early learns where to look for 
 the ripe berries, if he has not already exhausted 
 the crop by prematurely gathering it. He learns 
 where to look for nuts and acorns, where the 
 wintergreens grow, and he finds it convenient to 
 make friendly visits to his neighbors during the 
 watermelon or plum season. His interest in a 
 tree is because of its fruits, because it is a favora- 
 ble place to put up a swing, because it is so 
 shaped that he can readily climb it, or perhaps 
 because it has a mysterious hollow at its base 
 into which he can poke countless objects. 1 His 
 interest in topographical features of his environ- 
 ment are with reference to his own activities. 
 He likes to climb a high hill, partly because of 
 the effort, partly because of the view afforded, 
 and partly because he likes to run down it in sum- 
 mer and slide down in the winter. .The clouds 
 are of interest in so far as they seem to represent 
 processions of strange animals, and the beautiful 
 colors of the sunset are interesting as suggesting 
 
 1 1 remember distinctly how my sister and the group of girls to 
 which she belonged kept me and my mates, about six years old, 
 busied during the recesses at school for weeks gathering oak- 
 balls, which they borrowed from us under the name of hens' eggs, 
 and which we afterward found they had poked down such a hole 
 as soon as they got them.
 
 IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 113 
 
 colors of imaginary dresses. To disregard these 
 instinctive attitudes in dealing with such sub- 
 jects in the school is to fail to appeal to the 
 whole child. Without exception the interest of 
 the child of this period in environment is with 
 reference to his own activities, and this relation 
 must be recognized in our courses of study and 
 methods of teaching before we strike at the root 
 of the question. 
 
 With the use of free hands the child begins ^^-^ 
 to show interest in construction, but his con- 
 structions at this time are crude. In a general 
 way, the child of this period corresponds to 
 the stage of racial development in which 
 acquisition of products from the natural re- 
 sources was but meagerly supplemented by the 
 more distinctly industrial processes. The larger 
 co-ordinations are sufficiently developed to de- 
 mand expression, but the development of the hand 
 at this time does not warrant the use of many 
 tools. The imperative demands of touch suggest 
 that the first work in constructive lines should af- 
 ford ample opportunity for the direct contact of 
 the hands with the materials without the interven- 
 tion of tools. Sand and clay are probably the best 60^^ 
 plastic materials for this period, but even clay is 
 apt to make too large demands upon the fingers 
 until the sixth year. 
 
 It is a significant fact, when considered with
 
 1 1 4 THE PLA CE OF IND USTRIES 
 
 reference to racial development, that the serious 
 activities that may be used to advantage in the 
 kindergarten, in contrast with those which are 
 largely bound up with the make-believe element, 
 nearly all cluster about the subject of food. 
 Children in the kindergarten take delight in the 
 care of plants ; they are interested in cooking 
 simple foods ; and if their instinctive efforts, 
 which are so apt to result in " mussing about " 
 when left uncontrolled, are directed with refer- 
 ence to present social conditions, habits may be 
 grafted upon them at this time more easily than 
 at later periods. The same is true of washing 
 dishes, sweeping, dusting, arranging utensils in 
 an orderly way, and other similar activities. 
 
 Activities that are related to questions of 
 clothing and shelter find expression in a more 
 imaginary way. This seems to indicate that the 
 child, as well as the race, takes a serious interest 
 in the activities connected with food earlier than 
 in those connected with shelter and clothing. The 
 interest in shelter is best expressed by the child 
 of this period by means of building-blocks which 
 afford freedom of movement and quick results. 
 The adaptation of a dry-goods box to the pur- 
 pose of a doll's house is suitable for this period, 
 and in its furnishings admits of a variety of 
 activities. 
 
 The wisdom of allowing the use of tools in
 
 y o
 
 IN ELEMENTA RY ED UCA TION 1 1 5 
 
 shaping wood at this time is a much disputed 
 point. Where they are used the work seems to 
 be justified by the joy that the child takes in the 
 full, free movements that call into play the whole 
 organism. The plane and saw, if adapted in 
 weight and size to the powers of the child, afford 
 greater freedom of movement than work in clay 
 as ordinarily introduced. There seems to be little 
 doubt that the use of hammer and nails should 
 be postponed till the next period, especially since 
 glue serves the purpose so much more readily 
 and is more like the paste that most children 
 are accustomed to use in connection with paper- 
 cutting and cardboard construction. Here again 
 the order of procedure is similar to that of the 
 race, which used pitch, glue, and sinew for ages 
 before nails of any kind were invented. 
 
 The earliest manifestation of interest in cloth- 
 ing seems to be associated with the self-exhibi- 
 tive instinct. The child requires an opportunity 
 to express himself in this way in order to de- 
 velop normally. The fact that adults recount 
 such early childhood experiences so seldom is 
 partly accounted for by the fact that the instinct 
 is one of the most permanent ones we possess. 
 Doubtless all people can recount many experi- 
 ences of this kind that they have never told to 
 any one. Just as the savage enlarged his person- 
 ality by the use of feathers and paint, so we all
 
 1 1 6 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 from our earliest years are more or less depend- 
 ent upon similar means in order to realize our full 
 personality. The effect of proper clothing and 
 ornament upon the behavior of the child is very 
 marked. 
 
 Our own habits of dress represent activities so 
 far beyond the child's power of execution that 
 the most that he can do at this period, in this con- 
 nection, is to illustrate the simpler processes. If 
 the first crude attempts at weaving are with refer- 
 ence to making a blanket for a doll's bed, there 
 will be a motive for an otherwise aimless activity. 
 | If weaving is attempted it should be with coarse 
 t fibers, so as not to make too severe demands 
 upon the activities of the child. Upon the whole 
 it would seem that there should be but little work 
 in the nature of weaving or sewing until the 
 child is at least seven years old. It seems better 
 to let the child's interest in clothing express 
 itself in dressing and undressing dolls, in washing 
 and possibly in ironing these articles of dress, in 
 stringing beads, or in related activities that make 
 little demand for precise co-ordinations. 
 
 Up to the sixth year when the object begins to 
 stand out more clearly in the child's mind, when 
 the inner and the outer begin to differentiate, 
 there is no distinction between work and play. 
 To be sure there are differences in activities very 
 early, but if not fettered by external conditions
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 1 1 1 
 
 the activity is equally free play, whether it 
 serves the purpose of utility in the sense of 
 the adult, whether it serves the purposes of play, 
 as making a doll's house, or whether it is purely 
 imaginary as in the case of dramatic play. It is 
 important that the child get his full share of 
 each variety of play and that its free character be 
 maintained. 
 
 One function of dramatic play is its freedom 
 from all limitations. It is an expression of the 
 child's active self. "Play," writes W. T. Harris, 
 "undertakes to reproduce the external semblance 
 of the fact without the causal chain that makes 
 the essential element in it. The farmer mows 
 with a steel scythe and cuts grass. The child 
 mows with a wooden scythe and cuts no grass. 
 He merely 'makes believe' to cut grass." 1 
 
 While dramatic play is the most free of any of 
 the varieties mentioned and is unsurpassed for 
 purposes of enlarging the personality, it is fortu- 
 nate that the child has at his command a form in 
 direct contrast to it, which subjects him to certain 
 wholesome limits. In a measure such play ac- 
 tivities as playing with dolls, and making doll's 
 houses, form an intermediate link between the 
 dramatic play and the free play of work. The 
 interaction of these different forms serves to se- 
 
 1 W. T. HARRIS, "The Place of Geography in Elementary 
 Schools," The Forum, Vol. XXXIl, p. 539.
 
 1 1 8 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 cure a richer experience and a wider range of 
 activities than could be obtained by the use of 
 a more limited range. The chief value of the 
 play of actual work of this period is that it 
 serves as an easy transition to the later stage. 
 When this truth is more fully realized and taken 
 into account in education there will be fewer 
 shocks as the child passes from one stage to 
 another. 
 
 What Mr. Mallery writes concerning the panto- 
 mime of savages applies equally well to the child 
 at this stage. " Pantomime acts movements, re- 
 produces forms and positions, presents pictures, 
 and manifests emotions with greater realization 
 than any other mode of utterance." x The greater 
 reality of this mode of expression is due to its 
 dependence upon the muscular sense, which is the 
 most deep-seated and generic of any of the 
 senses, and the one by which the perceptions of 
 sight and hearing have to be verified. It is by 
 the use of this foundation sense that the child is 
 best able to acquire images. So far as the child's 
 pantomimes and dramatic plays are spontaneous, 
 they have a real significance. It is the purpose 
 of the school, however, to lay hold of these spon- 
 taneous plays and freight them with a richer 
 meaning. To allow them to remain in the purely 
 
 1 GARRICK MALLERY, " Gesture Language," First Report of 
 the Bureau of Ethnology, p. 281.
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 1 1 9 
 
 instinctive form is to forego the educational op- 
 portunity. 
 
 The instinctive expression indicates the type 
 of activity for which the child is ripe. How 
 much content the activity should have, how the 
 child is to gain this content, are important ques- 
 tions at this stage. In cases where the child 
 dramatizes what he has previously performed in a 
 real way, there is no need of attempting to fur- 
 nish him with a fuller content except as occasion 
 is taken to connect his personal experience with 
 that of others. It does seem worth the while to 
 enrich it in this way. It is one of the means of 
 enlarging the self. In case the child is drama- 
 tizing an industrial activity that he has observed 
 it is easy to determine from his attitudes whether 
 the activity has more significance than the stim- 
 ulation afforded to the physical and emotional 
 nature. If it has not there is need of teaching 
 at this point. If the teaching can be by means 
 of closer observation and conversation with the 
 worker, so much the better; if this plan is not 
 feasible the teaching may be by means of stories, 
 pictures, and the clear presentation of conditions 
 which the child is able to grasp. 
 
 The child can be trained to more rhythmical J^Auif^n, 
 action if he is stimulated by music which suggests 
 the rhythm, but this use of music does not seem 
 to be justified where the purpose is educational. 

 
 120 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 The music may stimulate the blood so as to secure 
 a corresponding rhythm in the movement of the 
 muscles quite apart from any idea of the activity 
 represented. It acts somewhat as a hypnotic 
 suggestion. If the child is not able to dramatize 
 an activity in a rhythmical manner without being 
 stimulated and regulated by music supplied by an 
 adult, it is not worth his while to do it. By this 
 it is not meant that music has no place in the 
 child's dramatic activities. It has. When an 
 activity which at first was conscious has become 
 automatic and is used for purposes of recreation, 
 music does not interfere with the purpose of the 
 activity. Again, if the child spontaneously de- 
 velops the music with the activity, it has a natu- 
 ral place. The race parallel is suggestive here, 
 but one must be careful to draw conclusions for 
 the education of the young people in a demo- 
 cratic society from the experience of free people 
 and not from that of slaves. 
 
 There are many records of the use of music as 
 the means of sustaining and regulating the activity 
 of free workers, but except in prolonged un- 
 rhythmical activities which were accompanied by 
 songs having no other relation to the work than 
 that of relieving its tediousness, the music was 
 the product of labor cries, commands, or the 
 musical sounds of the work tools. It was devel- 
 oped with the work and by the workers. In the
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 1 2 1 
 
 case of slave labor it was very different. Here the 
 gang of workers took no part in the music. The 
 music was in the hands of a band or a slave 
 driver, and was used to stimulate and control 
 the laborers. The use of music which we some- 
 times make as a means of controlling activities 
 of children in an external way is not the only 
 instance in which we have failed to discriminate 
 between the conditions of free and slave labor. 
 
 The safest course in regard to the educational 
 use of dramatic play seems to be to keep such 
 activity in close connection with the occupations 
 observed or participated in by the children. 
 Should the teacher desire to make use of the 
 occupations of less complex social conditions she 
 will find it worth the while to introduce the pro- 
 cess first with actual materials. It is important 
 to distinguish between activities which require 
 co-operative action and those that are the result 
 of individual effort, but as this subject is treated 
 in another place it may be left here without 
 further notice. 
 
 STAGE OF TRANSITION FROM INFANCY TO CHILD- 
 HOOD. 
 
 The eighth year is a period of transition from 
 infancy to childhood. The world is not as ob- 
 jective as it is a little later nor is it so purely sub- 
 jective as in the preceding stage. This is pre-
 
 122 THE PLACE OP INDUSTRIES 
 
 eminently the time for making the transition 
 from play to the more serious activities of child- 
 hood. If the emotional attitudes are not trans- 
 formed during this period there is a serious loss 
 in the vigor of life. The intellectual powers be- 
 come stronger at this time. This change mani- 
 fests itself in the interest the child takes in_adU 
 justing means to ends, which becomes so strong 
 that the child is able to conceive with clearness 
 situations which previously had little significance 
 for him. He is able to take more factors into 
 account and to establish clearer relations between 
 them. 
 
 In the earlier period, the child's personal ex- 
 perience is enriched by experiences of others in an 
 environment quite similar, in most respects, to his 
 own. Now he can take a more difficult step. 
 His power to adjust means to an end in an orderly 
 way suggests the possibility of his beginning to 
 -cc'L^-r participate in the experience of the race through 
 its successive steps in the conquest of nature and 
 in the upbuilding of society. 
 
 It would be possible to find types in contem- 
 fa#wx porary life of all but the lowest stages of culture, 
 and it may be that such types may be used at 
 this time with profit; but this is not the method 
 here suggested. Partly because we are more in- 
 terested in our own ancestry than in that of other 
 people, partly because more cumulative results
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 1 2 3 
 
 may be obtained by considering the evolution of 
 one race than by getting more static conceptions 
 of several different ones, partly because we are 
 not so much concerned with the situation at a 
 given stage of culture as we are in the method by 
 which people advanced beyond it, the enrich- 
 ment of the child's experience in this year is 
 secured by the use of the experience of our own 
 ancestors in the stages of savagery and barbarism. 
 The strong contrasts in the social and natural 
 environment to the child's own are sufficient to 
 appeal to his love of the strange while the like- 
 ness to his own is maintained, to a degree, in 
 respect to climatic conditions and certain forms 
 of plant and animal life, as well as in the similar- 
 ity of race. The opportunities such materials 
 afford for utilizing the emotional attitudes of the 
 child in the service of an all-round growth are 
 numerous. 
 
 Although the subject of primitive industries is 
 presented to the child with reference to the life of 
 the people as a whole, and although the interest is 
 in the people rather than in any particular activity 
 or tool, there may be gradually accumulated, if 
 thesubject is well planned, a great many sequences 
 illustrating the successive steps along particular 
 lines. When the child has gained sufficient 
 experience in the life of the people as a whole to 
 form a rich background for differentiation, he
 
 1 2 4 THE PLA CE OF IND USTRIES 
 
 may be encouraged in the act of freeing these 
 sequences from their social setting, not in order 
 to sever their connection with it, but to make 
 this connection more vital. As particular se- 
 quences thus become differentiated from the 
 whole mass of experience, and as the child seeks 
 a deeper meaning for each successive step than 
 he may have realized when the subject first 
 attracted his attention, he naturally sets up a 
 return movement of thought to the mass from 
 which the sequence was differentiated. In this 
 way both the original mass and the particular 
 sequence become clarified and enriched. Such 
 activities serve not only as a means of affording 
 the child the emotional satisfaction that comes 
 with the use of a new power, but as a means of 
 reviewing, of organizing the subject in a manner 
 sufficiently definite to answer the needs of the 
 child. 
 
 The spontaneous hunting plays so character- 
 istic of several years of child-life may be turned 
 to profit at this time. They suggest not that the 
 child is living or should live today the life of a 
 hunter, but that his instinctive emotional atti- 
 tudes are nearly the same. The more important 
 difference is this : with the savage the response 
 to the stimulus was a serious activity, with the 
 child it is an idealized one. To be sure, a certain 
 amount of the child's energy finds expression in
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 1 2 5 
 
 a real way, especially if he lives in the country, 
 but much of it is expressed in some ideal form. 
 Stories that portray contests of primitive people 
 with wild beasts now extinct and the difficulties 
 encountered in finding food and protection ap- 
 peal to the ordinary child of this period much 
 more forcibly than the ordinary events that take 
 place in his own environment, and he craves for 
 the stimulus that they afford. 
 
 It is right here that the mistake may be made ; ' 
 of simply gratifying the child's appetite by the 
 use of stories. To do this would be to promote 
 the separation between the objective and the sub- 
 jective, that is beginning to be made. The pur- 
 pose should rather be at this time to help the 
 child to feel if not to know the essential unity. 
 For this reason the story of the hunter should be 
 related to the child's out-of-door plays in such a 
 way as to lead him to exploit his natural environ- 
 ment with reference to the needs of the ideal .},<- 
 hunting clan in which he has become interested. L 
 His environment now takes on a new meaning. 
 In imagination he now regards it as his one ^/| 
 source of supply. Nuts, berries, and wild grasses, 
 which have always interested him, now take on a 
 fuller significance. Stones which heretofore have 
 been selected chiefly on the basis of their color 
 or luster now are chosen with reference to their 
 adaptation to a need. For this reason the form
 
 1 26 THE PLA CE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 is important ; for the nearer it is to the shape of 
 the desired weapon or implement, the less 
 trouble there will be in shaping it. But the prime 
 consideration in selecting a stone for a cutting 
 implement is to find one that will break with a 
 sharp edge that will not crumble under a blow. 
 
 The child, like the savage, will not make this 
 discovery in his first attempt to make a weapon ; 
 and because the child's activity is an idealized 
 reproduction of the real one he may be satisfied 
 without making it at all. This is where he needs 
 to be reinforced by the teacher. She may give 
 the help needed by means of a story or by set- 
 ting forth the needs of the primitive people more 
 clearly. Unless in some way she helps the child 
 to realize primitive needs and guides him in his 
 efforts to utilize his own environment in supply- 
 ing them, there is no educational value to the 
 work. It is a question of indulging the instincts. 
 
 The topography and the natural resources of the 
 immediate environment when examined by the 
 child with reference to their adaptation to the 
 needs of a hunting, a fishing, a pastoral, an agricul- 
 tural, a mining, or a trading people, take on a new 
 meaning. The fact that so much of our territory 
 has already been brought under cultivation makes 
 it difficult for the child to get an adequate image 
 of what it was under primitive conditions. Yet 
 if such opportunities as are available in the
 
 JN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 1 2 ^ 
 
 line of exploitation of environment are used, 
 and if the experience thus gained is supplemented 
 by the use of gesture, pictures, descriptions, 
 drawings, and careful reconstructions of typical 
 areas, so as to show not only the topography, 
 but the character of the vegetation, the very diffi- 
 culty, instead of offering a real obstacle, is a 
 stimulus to self-activity in the realization of an 
 idea. 
 
 By utilizing the materials that are almost uni- 
 versally available to those who are able to recog- 
 nize them, the child, in the course of a year's 
 work, can realize the special fitness of wooded 
 hills near the river, and probably near its source, 
 for the home of the hunter ; banks of the river 
 and the shores of the sea for the home of the 
 fisherman ; the uplands and open plains for the 
 home of the shepherd ; the fertile river valleys 
 and islands for the home of the farmer ; the moun- 
 tainous places for the home of the miner and 
 metal worker ; the harbor, the head of the tide 
 water, the bend of the river, the fork, the fording 
 place, the rapids or falls, the point of the inter- 
 section of trails, the defiles, the mountain passes, 
 or any other break in transportation for the cen- 
 ter of the trader. He can realize why the hunt- 
 ing, fishing, and pastoral peoples are compelled 
 to lead a migratory life, and why the other forms 
 of culture begin under a nomadic form ; he can
 
 1 2 8 THE PLA CE OF IND USTRIES 
 
 understand better than before why habitations 
 and their furnishings were of such a temporary 
 character. 
 
 When the child considers the causes of the 
 migrations of animals he can realize the signifi- 
 cance of the change of seasons in relation to the 
 activities of the hunters. When he considers 
 that man made friends with the grass-eating 
 animals only after the most formidable of the 
 beasts of prey had been exterminated, and that 
 the grass-eating animals no longer had to supply 
 food to so large a number of beasts of prey, he 
 can see why the pastoral people could live on a 
 smaller territory than the hunting people. He 
 can see that agriculture, of which he found 
 faint traces among the hunting, fishing, and 
 pastoral people, could not develop until people 
 acquired a settled mode of life. He can appre- 
 ciate that there must have been strong forces 
 operating to induce men to give up a mode of 
 life to which they were accustomed, a mode of 
 life that afforded freedom from arduous toil, 
 leisure to cultivate the arts, and the strong emo- 
 tional excitement accompanying cattle-raids and 
 other warlike enterprises. He can see that the 
 weaker and less warlike tribes were forced 
 to seek a place of refuge where they were 
 obliged to depend upon the more systematic cul- 
 tivation of plants, with which the women of their
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 1 29 
 
 tribes were already familiar; and when people 
 found that it was profitable to cultivate plants, 
 they would be apt to spare the lives of captives in 
 war and make slaves of them. He can see why 
 people needed forethought in order to live by 
 farming, and why so many tribes were obliged to 
 go back to the hunting and fishing stages, or 
 to become slaves of their more intelligent and 
 stronger neighbors. 
 
 In this time of conflict the child can readily 
 understand how people living on the hills might 
 defend themselves by means of hill or tree forts ; 
 and how those in the valleys and plains might 
 fortify themselves on the marshes, islands, pen- 
 insulas, or lakes. He can see how these means 
 of defense arose from the need of protecting the 
 settled homes of agricultural people, or in the 
 need of protecting valuable quarries or mines. 
 
 If suitable material is in the hands of the 
 teacher, she can easily lead the children to real- 
 ize the close relation existing between the 
 prevailing form of industry and the form of 
 government as well as the form of the family. 
 It is probably sufficient when dealing with these 
 questions merely to make the proper groupings 
 of facts, allowing the truth, which is held in 
 solution, to precipitate in its own good time. 
 
 The child's interest in metals and certain tools 
 made of them and his intense curiosity in regard
 
 130 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 to such mysterious processes as those by which 
 ores are reduced and metals manufactured, fur- 
 nish the motive for activities by means of which 
 he may master the rudiments of these arts. His 
 own conjectures regarding the discovery of these 
 processes may be supplemented by accounts de- 
 rived from the practices of primitive tribes in 
 many localities today. Such processes as mining, 
 crushing, and reducing the ore ; building the fur- 
 nace so as to utilize the wind for a draft, or 
 inventing bellows by means of which the process 
 may be kept under the control of man ; adapting 
 the shape of the furnace to the particular situa- 
 tion ; introducing fluxes to facilitate the smelt- 
 ing; shaping the metal by means of hammering 
 or by using rude molds constructed for the pur- 
 pose ; providing a means for the escape of gases 
 from the molds ; discovering ways of using 
 alloys ; taking suggestions from previous experi- 
 ence in the art of cooking in outdoor ovens ; 
 making such modifications as are demanded by 
 the special needs of the time and place ; and de- 
 termining the significance of the art in the early 
 stages of its development all these processes 
 can be brought within the easy comprehension 
 of the child, if approached from the point of 
 view of his own activities. 
 
 The child's interest in presents, in the winnings 
 in such games as marbles, and in the various
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 1 3 1 
 
 forms of barter which are so characteristic of 
 child-life, form a natural approach to the earliest 
 forms of trade. The survival of trading games 
 shows that they meet a permanent want. The 
 child of seven may deal with such questions as 
 how trade originated ; why people in the earli- 
 est stages depended entirely upon their own 
 efforts in satisfying their needs ; how gradually 
 it became customary for clansmen occupying 
 special areas of culture to exchange presents 
 with people of other areas on festive occasions ; 
 why such presents were usually exchanged by 
 the leaders of the clans ; how the desire to trade 
 was fostered by this practice as well as by the 
 necessities of pastoral and mining life, robbery, 
 the spoils of war, tribute, fines, Compensations 
 and winnings in gaming; how trade was retarded 
 by hostile relations, and promoted by peace ; why 
 market places were established upon neutral ter- 
 ritories ; why wandering traders were allowed to 
 pass through an enemy's country unmolested ; 
 how the traders carried the news and thus in- 
 creased the intelligence of the people ; how, as 
 trade flourished, there arose the need of more 
 exact modes of measurement ; and why perma- 
 nent market places were established at breaks in 
 transportation. 
 
 The development of the subject of trade in- 
 cludes the development of primitive travel and
 
 1 3 2 THE PLA CE OF 1ND USTRIES 
 
 transportation on land and on water. The for- 
 mer includes the study of the special costume 
 and carrying devices of man as the human beast 
 of burden ; the origin of trails, trading routes, 
 roads, and bridges ; the first steps in engineering ; 
 the domestication of animals and their use, first 
 as pack animals and later for traction and for 
 riding; the origin and simple steps in the develop- 
 ment of the harness ; the evolution of the cart, 
 and many activities subsidiary to these processes. 
 
 The consideration of primitive travel and 
 transportation by water includes an account of 
 the various swimming devices and aids in float- 
 ing; the substitution of the method of displace- 
 ment for the method of flotation ; the develop- 
 ment of the various forms of rafts, passenger 
 and freight boats used in the periods of savagery 
 and barbarism, as well as the methods of making 
 and propelling the same ; and the means of regu- 
 lating and sustaining the workers in the larger 
 undertakings connected with this life. Many of 
 these questions form a natural part of the sub- 
 jects outlined above. When this subject is reached 
 it will be well to gather up those experiences that 
 are related to it and use them as the basis of the 
 new work. 
 
 When considered in relation to the periods 
 between which it forms the transition, this stage 
 is significant with reference to the tool. In later
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION I 3 3 
 
 infancy the dominating emotional attitudes and 
 the formed co-ordinations unite in making it the 
 period of^the hand; in childhood the finer co- 
 ordinations and emotional attitudes make equally 
 strong demands for the tool. The child of seven 
 is in an intermediate stage. The finer co-ordina- 
 tions are beginning to be formed ; the child is 
 not satisfied with his former activities, nor is he 
 quite ready for the new. If the dramatic plays 
 of the preceding years have been utilized to their 
 full extent, and if the child has had the privilege 
 of engaging in simple household activities, the 
 transition may be made more easily than if he 
 has been deprived of his full measure of these 
 activities. 
 
 In meeting the needs of this transitional period 
 it should be borne in mind that as great an injury 
 can be done to the child by giving him tools that 
 represent a technique far beyond his capacity, as 
 has frequently been done to lower races when 
 put in possession of tools that represent an ad- 
 vanced stage of culture. The harm is done to 
 the savage by greatly increasing his leisure time 
 without any corresponding change in his nature. 
 He is relieved from a wholesome physical strain, 
 that accompanies the use of the simple tool, with- 
 out undergoing the many physical, intellectual, and 
 moral strains that make the complex tool and 
 its accompanying stage of culture a possibility.
 
 1 3 4 THE PLA CE OF IND USTRIES 
 
 The result is, almost inevitably, idleness and 
 vice. 
 
 While the race parallel must not be applied 
 literally to the case of the child, there is a truth 
 in it which should influence the selection of tools 
 that make up the child's equipment. In short, 
 tools have a deeper significance than is usually 
 attributed to them. There is more than an acci- 
 dental correspondence between the character of 
 the tool and the stage of development of the 
 individual fitted to use it. In order to make 
 it clear that the attitudes of this period may 
 be utilized in making the transition from the 
 epoch of the hand to that of the tool, let us con- 
 sider them with reference to the conditions which 
 gave rise to the origin and development of tools. 
 
 Emerson in writing of man in the most primi- 
 tive stage said, " His body was a chest of tools, 
 but he had not the knack of using them." 
 Writers on anthropological subjects frequently 
 make allusions of this kind. 1 Just as primitive 
 man learned to use the tools in his body in the 
 early stages of his development, just as he made 
 new physical co-ordinations that made possible 
 more complex movements, so the child in the 
 
 *O. T. MASON, "Primitive Zootechny," American Anthro- 
 pologist, New Series, Vol. I, p. 5 ; EDWARD CLODD, Story of 
 Primitive Man, pp. 14, 15 > Smithsonian Report U. S, National 
 
 Museum, 1894, P- 2 4i Iconographic Dictionary, Vol. VI, p. 
 
 193-
 
 X 
 
 U u 
 O e- 

 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 1 3 5 
 
 period of later infancy by means of free play 
 brings into action the various organs of his body 
 and directs them to a multitude of purposes. At 
 the time of making the transition it is especially 
 fitting that his efforts be reinforced by kindred 
 racial experience. 
 
 No child of seven needs to be taught the uses 
 of his arms, hands, feet, teeth, and nails. He 
 has used them all numberless times and for 
 various purposes. He knows very well how to 
 strike with the fist, knee, or heel ; he knows how 
 to carry burdens on his head, shoulders, back, 
 knees, breast, and arms ; he can use his bent 
 finger for a hook ; he can scoop with his hands ; 
 he can rake with his fingers ; he can dig, scratch, 
 and scrape with his finger-nails ; he can press 
 and rub with his flat hand ; he can drink from 
 the hollow of his hand ; he can tread with his 
 feet ; he can pierce, cut, grind, and grip with 
 his teeth, and he can grip with the closed hand 
 or hands, or the arm held closely to the body. 
 
 On the basis of this universal experience and 
 under the impulse of a need, the child can 
 readily find in his environment the means of 
 improving the tools in his body. He can find 
 suggestions in " nature's workshop." He can 
 find a stone which is harder than his fist and 
 thus gain the use of a more efficient hammer as 
 well as save his fist from the pain attending the
 
 1 3 6 THE PLA CE OF IND USTRIES 
 
 hard blow ; if its rough edges hurt his hand he 
 can wrap the end of it in grass or a bit of skin ; 
 he can search till he finds a smooth hammer- 
 stone ; if it slips and if its rebound jars his hand 
 he can find relief by using a stone that has a pit 
 on either side which will prevent the thumb and 
 finger from slipping and at the same time pre- 
 vent the jar. The child will be interested in 
 comparing his own uses of hammers with those 
 of primitive people. In following the life of the 
 hunting clan he will realize that every savage 
 needed a hammer and that he used it for many 
 purposes. He can see that the women would 
 need hammers to break dry wood for the fires, 
 to crush the bones so as to get the marrow, to 
 pound the dry meat into meal for pemmican 
 when they were advanced far enough to practice 
 drying meat, to drive down pegs for setting the 
 tent, and for beating logs so as to loosen the 
 annual layers which they wished to use in mak- 
 ing baskets. He can see that the men would 
 need hammers for driving wedges into the logs 
 which they wished to split, for breaking stones 
 in the quarry, for pecking or battering stones so 
 as to shape them into rude implements, and for 
 grinding paints, poisons, and other substances. 
 These various uses will be appreciated only after 
 studying the lives of primitive people for some 
 months ; but by dealing with each situation as it
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION I 3 ^ 
 
 arises, so as to induce the child to explore his 
 environment and to experiment with materials in 
 the light of his own experience as well as in that 
 of his knowledge of the conditions of the people 
 under consideration, he gradually acquires a 
 measuring unit for a more correct valuation of 
 the social products of his own community. At 
 the same time he is getting a proper respect for 
 the people, who, under less favorable circum- 
 stances than our own, laid the foundation upon 
 which our civilization rests. 
 
 As the child considers the fitness of the tool 
 for the particular work under consideration he 
 will see that, although one hammer may be used 
 for a variety of purposes, there is need of ham- 
 mers of different shapes and sizes in order to best 
 accomplish each kind of work. In spite of the 
 difference in shape and size, he will find that 
 they are all alike in requiring a tough, compact, 
 fine-grained stone. As he advances in the work 
 he will discover that some kinds of hammering 
 must be done rapidly, requiring little attention 
 to the direction of the blow, while in other cases 
 the blow is deliberate, the force and the direc- 
 tion of the blow being measured with the great- 
 est care. He cannot advance far in the use of 
 the hammer without facing the problem of haft- 
 ing, but since this topic is treated in another place 
 it may be omitted here.
 
 138 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 Without going into further details it may be 
 sufficient to note that the child can proceed from 
 the use of his nails and teeth, as cutting imple- 
 ments, to natural objects that are an improvement 
 upon these. In view of the fact that most child- 
 ren possess knives before they go to school, and 
 have seen a variety of knives used for a variety 
 of purposes throughout their short lives, it will 
 be more difficult for them to realize a situation 
 in which they must find something besides a knife 
 to cut with than almost any other situation 
 that may arise in connection with tools. Those 
 who have tried the experiment, however, find 
 that children enjoy situations of this kind ; and 
 when they get the conditions of the problem 
 clearly in mind they work perseveringly and with 
 much originality in solving it. 
 
 In the presence of knives and other implements 
 made of metal, it would scarcely occur to a child 
 to use a stone to cut with ; and deprived of these 
 means, the use of stone will not be apt to be his first 
 solution. He instinctively uses his nails and teeth 
 for the purpose, and if he has the opportunity to 
 see the teeth, tusks, and horns of animals he 
 may get a suggestion from them. If he lives by 
 the seaside he will doubtless think of using a 
 shell, but it will not be long before he strikes 
 upon the use of a sharp stone. While the child 
 would not be satisfied to resign the use of his
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 1 39 
 
 own knife for any length of time, he takes the 
 satisfaction that he gets in play from experi- 
 menting with various substances in order to find 
 a material that he can shape so as to make a 
 knife. If he stops short of the use he may fail 
 to discriminate in the selection of material. If 
 not, he can quickly learn the lesson that the sav- 
 age learned long ago and thus get a practical 
 lesson in mineralogy. 
 
 When once the child has made a stone knife 
 without a handle, it will be an interesting study 
 to show how successive improvement may be 
 made in it by varying the method by which the 
 handle is attached. If hafted at the point with 
 a short handle it is a hunting-knife, but if at the 
 side, it becomes a woman's scaling, scraping, or cut- 
 ting knife. The connection of the woman's knife 
 with the kitchen mincing-knife on the one hand 
 and with the saddler's round-knife on the other, 
 will serve to illustrate to the children that al- 
 though the material may change, the form and 
 purpose of the knife remain almost the same as 
 they were thousands of years ago. 
 
 The evolution of the man's knife is even more 
 interesting, and serves better to show the close 
 dependence of the implement upon the general 
 state of culture. Before man had any weapons 
 it was not safe for him to meet the wild beasts 
 in open combat. They were more powerful than
 
 140 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 he. When he saw the wild beasts he tried to 
 escape from them. This was the age of fear. 
 When he learned to make his first rude weapons 
 he found that he could pierce and cut better with 
 the stone knife than with his teeth and nails ; 
 he could strike harder blows with a club or a 
 hammer than he could with his heels or fists. 
 Thus armed he got courage to meet the wild 
 beasts in open combat. But it was not safe even 
 then to come into close quarters with some of 
 them ; so he lengthened the handle of his knife 
 and thus supplemented his arms by the use of 
 the spear. This was the age of combat. Gradu- 
 ally man became so formidable that many of the 
 wild beasts began to fear him. Now it was not 
 man that was afraid ; he pursued the animals 
 which fled in fear from his presence. This was 
 the age of the chase. 
 
 It is interesting to note the interactions be- 
 tween the form of the weapon and the relation of 
 >(Jb the people to the animals. As the animals be- 
 came more and more afraid, man was stimulated 
 more and more to invent weapons that could fly 
 faster than they could run. The heavy spear 
 gave way to the dart and the javelin ; the throw- 
 ing-stick was invented in order to increase the 
 force and distance of the weapon hurled. Each 
 invention served either to make such a change 
 in the gripping device as to supplement the
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 1 4 1 
 
 strength of the fingers and arms, or to improve 
 the character of the working part. 
 
 Just how the bow and arrow was invented will 
 probably never be known. The elements which 
 it combines had been in use in different imple- 
 ments for ages. The arrow is but a diffentiation 
 from the primitive hunting-knife or spear. The 
 elastic spring had long been in use in traps. 
 One variety of throwing-stick made use of the 
 bow, but in quite a different way. It is not the 
 use of any one of the principles involved that is 
 so remarkable, but the combination of principles 
 by means of which man was able to co-ordinate 
 mind and body in a most effective manner. The 
 man who hit upon this combination was a genius 
 of a high order. Mr. Wilson, in writing of the 
 significance of the bow and arrow, says : "The 
 bow and arrow was the greatest of all human 
 inventions greatest in that it marked man's 
 first step in mechanics, greatest in adaptation of 
 means to the end, and as an invented machine it 
 manifested in the most practical and marked 
 manner the intellectual and reasoning power of 
 man and his superiority over the brute creation. 
 It, more than any other weapon, demonstrated 
 the triumph of man over the brute, recognizing the 
 limitations of human physical capacity in contests 
 with his enemies and the capture of his game." 1 
 
 1 THOMAS WILSON, "The Swastika," Smithsonian Report 
 of the United States National Museum, 1894, p. 980.
 
 1 4 2 THE PLA CE OF IND US TRIES 
 
 Little does the child realize when he plays 
 with his bow and arrow what such a weapon sig- 
 nified to the hunters of long ago. While it is 
 not at all necessary for the child to formulate 
 the facts, it is highly educative for him to get 
 such interactions between his own experience with 
 digging-sticks, spears, knives, javelins, throwing- 
 sticks, elastic-springs, and bows and arrows on 
 the one hand, and the conditions of life among 
 primitive people who made use of these in the 
 successive stages of their development on the 
 other, as will enable him to appreciate the social 
 need out of which each grew. He can readily 
 grasp the idea that each advance, which was sig- 
 nificant to the people of the time, was made either 
 by making slight changes in the weapon already 
 in use, or by combining in one form ideas for- 
 merly used in different weapons or devices. 
 
 Most children are already familiar with the 
 bow and arrow, and before this subject is taken 
 up in class they will have become familiar with 
 spears, darts, and throwing-sticks. It will be 
 interesting to examine a bow and arrow with ref- 
 erence to the simple implements and weapons 
 from which it was derived. For this purpose it 
 is best to use a bow and arrow of the simplest 
 type. The children can readily trace the evolu- 
 tion of the arrow from the first crude hunting- 
 knife and spear. The new idea seems to be the
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 1 4 3 
 
 bow, but even this is not new. The elastic-spring 
 in the bow had been used in traps and in throw- 
 ing-sticks. Children are very original in solving 
 such problems, and their contributions to the 
 process of tracing the development of primitive 
 implements and weapons are not to be despised. 1 
 The making of the bow and arrow presents the 
 opportunity for acquiring valuable experience. 
 First of all there is the proper selection of mate- 
 rial. The child soon learns that any kind of a stick 
 is not suited for a bow. Experience teaches him 
 to select a branch that is both tough and elastic. 
 If he does not know how long a piece to cut for 
 the bow, after he has estimated the length, he 
 may be told how the Indian hunters made the 
 bow eight times the span from the thumb to the 
 little finger of the hunter using it, and the arrow 
 as long as the distance from the armpit to the 
 end of the thumb-nail measured on the inside of 
 the extended arm. This opens up the whole 
 question of measurement and the selection of 
 natural units. 
 
 'FRANK HAMILTON GUSHING," The Arrow," The American An- 
 thropologist, Vol. VIII, p. 311. " When I was a boy less than ten 
 years of age, my father's hired man, 'while plowing one day, 
 picked up and threw to me across the furrows a little blue flint 
 arrow-point, saying : ' The Indians made that ; it is one of their 
 arrow-heads.' I took it up fearfully, wonderingly, in my hands. 
 It was small, cold, shining, and sharp perfect in shape. Noth- 
 ing had ever aroused my interest so much. That little arrow- 
 point decided the purpose and calling of my whole life."
 
 144 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 The child may be satisfied for a time with the 
 unwrought bow ; but as he discovers in his play 
 that he can send the arrow to the mark better 
 with some bows than with others, he will dis- 
 cover the need of straightening the stick and 
 removing the inequalities of surface. This need 
 makes it all the more imperative that a good 
 selection be made in the first place, and that it 
 be made some time before the bow is needed, so 
 as to afford sufficient time for the wood to be- 
 come seasoned. How the savage straightened 
 the stick with his fingers as he held it near the 
 fire; how he steamed it in order to get it ready to 
 bend and shape with his stone knife; how he 
 scraped the rough edges ; how he rubbed the 
 stick with reindeer fat to make it more elastic ; 
 how he put it away to dry; how later he held it 
 near the fire and rubbed it with bear's oil to make 
 it tough ; how when the stick was ready he took 
 the sinew that he had taken from the lower part of 
 the leg of a reindeer and shredded it with his fin- 
 gers until it was as fine as silk; how he spun it with 
 the palm of his hand on his thigh; how he doubled 
 and twisted the threads until he had cord large 
 enough for a bow-string; how he strung his bow, 
 why he left it unstrung when not in use ; why he 
 was careful to keep it dry; how he made a quiver 
 and bow case ; how and why he rubbed his bow 
 with oil all these are subjects of intense inter-
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 1 4 5 
 
 est and value to the child. They are interesting 
 because they appeal to his instincts ; they are 
 valuable because they hold in solution ideas 
 which underlie the science and industry of the 
 present. They serve to make an easy transition 
 between play and the more serious activities of 
 life. 
 
 How the shaft was straightened by drawing it 
 through a groove in a soft stone, with or without 
 the use of water and fire ; why the feather was 
 split, and the unnecessary parts removed ; how it 
 was carefully trimmed and laid upon the shaft 
 to which it was attached by means of glue and 
 sinew; what the function of the feather was sup- 
 posed to be and what it really was ; how the 
 hunter made use of parts of his body for the 
 bearings of the shaft when binding the arrow- 
 head to it with sinew ; these, too, are subjects of 
 interest and value. 
 
 The child can readily see that in hunting with 
 the simplest kind of an arrow it would be pos- 
 sible for the wounded animal to free itself from 
 the arrow and escape. This condition makes it 
 necessary to think of some way of impeding the 
 progress of the animal or of preventing the 
 withdrawal of the arrow. The perception of this 
 need is sufficient to give significance to the barbs 
 upon the arrow-heads and to the detachable fore- 
 shaft.
 
 146 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 Although the consideration of the methods of 
 making bows and arrows in places where nature 
 has withheld or concealed her gifts may well be 
 postponed to a later year, it is mentioned here in 
 order to show how fruitful in stimulating prob- 
 lems the subject of the bow and arrow is. In dry 
 countries where it is difficult to find much hard 
 wood the hunters are obliged to invent devices 
 for economizing the material. In this way the 
 foreshaft is explained. It is made of hard wood 
 because it is difficult to attach the arrow-head to 
 a pithy twig. The heavy foreshaft makes a good 
 socket for the arrow-head while the lighter wood 
 serves very well for the remaining parts of the 
 shaft. 
 
 The making of the bow is not so simple. Yet 
 the manipulation of the materials at hand so as to 
 secure a bow that is sufficiently rigid and flexible 
 has been effected in several ways, doubtless after 
 unnumbered efforts. In some cases two or three 
 horns are united, "the middle piece giving the 
 columnar resistance, the wings putting the arrow 
 to flight." 1 In other cases the effect is secured 
 by using the white or sap wood of the cedar, 
 which is not so brittle as the dry wood. It is 
 removed from the tree so that the outside of the 
 tree will also be the outside of the bow. After 
 
 MASON, " The Influence of Environment upon Human In- 
 dustries and Arts," Smithsonian Report, 1895, p. 662.
 
 77V ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 1 4 7 
 
 scraping, polishing, bending evenly, and carv- 
 ing the ends so as to point back slightly, finely 
 shredded deer's sinew is glued upon the back until 
 it is a semi-cylindrical shape. By anointing it 
 each day while it is drying with deer's marrow 
 the brittleness is taken away. 
 
 The problem of the Eskimo hunter is even 
 more difficult. Mr. Mason has described how 
 the difficulty is met in this case. " It is true that 
 he has only brittle driftwood, that glue will not 
 hold in his cold, damp clime, and that materials 
 for arrows are scarce. The result of this is the 
 sinew-backed bow and the harpoon-arrow, to- 
 gether the most complicated and ingenious de- 
 vice ever contrived by savage mind. The bow 
 wood had one virtue, that of rigidity. By an 
 ingenious wrapping of hundreds of feet of fine 
 sinew thread or braid from end to end along the 
 back with half hitches on the limbs, at every 
 danger point the virtue of elasticity is added and 
 you have one of the most quickly responsive 
 implements in the world. The arrow is quite as 
 cleverly conceived, for it pierces its victim, acts 
 as a drag or log to impede its progress, and by 
 its feather as a signal to the hunter in following 
 his victim." 1 
 
 When we consider the difficulties that primi- 
 tive people had in making the bow and arrow, 
 
 *I6ut, p. 663.
 
 1 4 8 THE PLA CE OF JND USTRIES 
 
 and when we take into account that in the use of 
 it, it was necessary to consider distance, wind, 
 varying elasticity of the bow, varying weight of 
 the arrow, shape of the weapon, and the pene- 
 trability of the game, and how each of these 
 variables was rendered constant by the hunter 
 skulking, getting to the windward, using wood 
 of the greatest strength for bows, and manipulat- 
 ing it to suit his needs, we cannot fail to see 
 that its use was educative in the real sense of the 
 word. The hunter who was armed with a bow 
 and arrow could not act upon the basis of instinct 
 alone at every point it was necessary for intelli- 
 gence to be used. 
 
 It is equally possible today for the bow and 
 arrow to exercise an educative influence for a brief 
 period in the child's development. It can serve 
 to refine his instinctive activities, to greatly in- 
 crease his power to adapt himself to new con- 
 ditions, and it can introduce him to history and 
 science by means of such practical experience 
 that he may, even in his early years, get an 
 insight into the processes of man in relation to 
 his environment that few attain until they have 
 reached mature years. 
 
 The child's interest in boats appears early and 
 continues throughout the elementary-school pe- 
 riod. The simpler steps in the evolution of boats, 
 which were worked out during the periods of
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 1 49 
 
 savagery and barbarism, may profitably be con- 
 sidered by the child of seven, the more complex 
 problems of early civilization being postponed 
 until a later period. 
 
 The child who lives near the water will have 
 no difficulty in understanding why people learned 
 to swim, and how they depended upon their own 
 bodies in navigating before they learned to make 
 and use boats. The play instincts may be util- 
 ized with reference to the serious problems of 
 life if the child be encouraged to work out the 
 problems that confront one when learning to 
 swim; to discover how the functions of the dif- 
 ferent parts of the body in swimming suggest 
 devices to facilitate the movement of the body 
 and to give it more freedom; and to invent such 
 devices as light wood, gourds, floating logs, 
 inflated skins, and vessels of pottery as a means 
 of support for the body or for a burden, which 
 may be towed along by means of a cord attached 
 to the person. 
 
 The consideration of these humble origins is 
 of value partly because it affords an opportunity 
 for the child to experiment along a line that will 
 yield cumulative results, thus meeting the grow- 
 ing demand for a serial arrangement; and partly 
 because it enables the child to grasp concepts 
 represented by the technique in a vital way, 
 thus enabling him to interpret more complex
 
 I 50 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 forms that inevitably come into his environment 
 later. 
 
 The evolution of the wooden boat is a subject 
 that presents many opportunities for utilizing ex- 
 periences gained in hours of play. It includes 
 such problems as the following: How people 
 learned to reduce the friction of the swimming log 
 by pointing the ends, and, after perceiving the 
 advantage of logs hollowed through their former 
 use as fireplaces, they began to manufacture rude 
 dugouts; how these were paddled with the hands 
 and feet until the happy thought occurred of ex- 
 tending these limbs by artificial means; how these 
 primitive paddles, resembling large ladles or pos- 
 sibly shovels, were used to dig or to sweep up 
 the water; what changes were gradually made in 
 their form and in the manner of their use ; how 
 in many cases the hollow log which was so nar- 
 row as to cramp the body was widened by the 
 use of hot stones, water, and braces ; how both 
 height and width were increased by lashing 
 planks to either side, thus increasing the stability 
 of the boat at the same time; how as time went 
 on the center log became smaller and smaller 
 till it dwindled to a keel which still further 
 increased the stability of the boat; how the side 
 planks were increased until a framework with ver- 
 tical ribs was added; and how gradually wooden 
 pins were substituted for stitches, and later nails 
 replaced the wooden pins.
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION I 5 1 
 
 The evolution of the raft is as full of interest. 
 The floating logs brought down by the river in 
 a time of flood offered a strong stimulus to primi- 
 tive people to risk an adventure. The exhilara- 
 tion of such a ride would stimulate them to efforts 
 to make it a more permanent feature of their life. 
 By lashing the logs together with strong cords 
 the risk of a cold plunge was greatly lessened. 
 Doubtless, at first, its course was determined en- 
 tirely by means of the currents of water, but it does 
 not serve man's purposes to leave the control of his 
 affairs to outside forces. He discovers a way of 
 regulating the movement of the raft by the use of 
 long poles. The use to which the raft could be 
 applied in travel and transportation operated so 
 as to bring about further improvements. The 
 clumsy raft gave place to a lighter one, and this 
 to the catamaran a raft of three logs or planks 
 lashed together in five places, the central log 
 being longer than the others in order to reduce 
 the friction. As there was nothing to prevent 
 the waves from washing over this vessel a plat- 
 form was erected in order to keep the cargo dry. 
 
 The catamaran developed into the double 
 canoe on the one hand, and the outrigger on the 
 other. The double canoe at first consisted of 
 two logs laid parallel to each other some distance 
 apart, united by cross-poles upon which a plat- 
 form was reared. Later the logs were replaced
 
 1 5 2 THE PLA CE OF JND USTRIES 
 
 by boats, the platform still being retained. The 
 double canoe was an improvement upon the 
 catamaran because it offered less resistance to 
 the water. 
 
 The outrigger, which is a small log attached 
 by cross-poles to the side of a boat, served to 
 retain some of the advantages of the raft, and by 
 lightening it, to secure at the same time some of 
 the advantages of the boat. Sometimes outrig- 
 gers were attached to both sides of the boat. 
 
 The evolution of boats of bark, skin, and 
 reeds, is equally interesting. How the best ma- 
 terials at hand in the different areas of culture 
 were utilized in the manufacture of water craft ; 
 how these forms were gradually improved in 
 order to secure safety and to economize strength ; 
 how special adaptations were made in order to 
 meet special needs ; why the paddle gave way to 
 the oar and rudder, and these to paddle wheels 
 and sails ; how man devised the shifting sail ; 
 how he contrived meansof storing provisions for 
 long voyages ; why voyages in the deep seas 
 made it necessary for people to guide their 
 course by the stars ; how sailing charts were 
 invented ; how labor became organized by the 
 needs of these undertakings these are some of 
 the problems with which the child may well deal 
 in the study of the life of people who live by the 
 sea.
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION I 5 3 
 
 Perhaps enough illustrations have already been 
 given to show how fruitful the subject of primi- 
 tive industries is in ideas which connect with the 
 subjects of the school, and how many opportuni- 
 ties it presents of connecting these interests with 
 the play activities on the one hand, and the seri- 
 ous activities of society on the other. With one 
 more illustration for the purpose of showing 
 more clearly how the mechanical principles, 
 made use of in a practical way at this time, may 
 be of service later in the interpretation of indus- 
 try in the stage of national economy, this phase 
 of the subject must be concluded. 
 
 We have already seen how man found his first 
 tools in his own body. He found the motive 
 power with which to work them there too. Just4?-4 
 as man's tools supplemented the organs of his 
 body, so the different forces, which after long 
 ages he discovered how to utilize, supplemented 
 his own muscular energy, and were applied in 
 ways marked out by the physical co-ordinations 
 already established. The push, the pull, and the 
 twist of human movements find their counterpart 
 in the forces which we now find in machines. 
 
 The mechanical principles which are involved 
 in the most complex machinery are nearly all 
 met with in a practical way in the study of primi- 
 tive industries. The weight was made use of in 
 the digging stick, the spindle, the hammer, and
 
 I 54 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 the trap; the elastic spring was made use of in 
 traps, in throwing-sticks, and in the bow and 
 arrow ; the inclined plane was made use of in 
 routes of travel, especially if there were burdens 
 to be carried or vehicles to be drawn ; the wedge 
 was used in felling trees, in making planks, in 
 tightening the lashing of haftings, and in num- 
 berless other activities ; the lever was used in 
 flaking stones, in carrying with several varieties 
 of carrying-frames, and in rowing boats ; the 
 sled was made use of on the grass, on snow, 
 and on specially prepared tracks ; the roller was 
 used in landing boats, and it preceded the use of 
 the wheel in the evolution of carts ; the pulley was 
 used in hauling up large animals from the sea, 
 and in moving heavy weights either horizontally 
 or vertically ; the wheel and axle, which we find 
 in primitive carts, may have originated in the 
 spindle-whorl, or in the fly-wheel used in drills 
 for making fire, or drilling holes through stones ; 
 twisting, shrinking, and clamping devices were 
 made use of in the manufacture of implements ; 
 the screw is found in its most primitive form in 
 the device to stop the flow of blood from a wound 
 by means of a wooden plug on which has been 
 cut a sort of a "thread," and it was also used in 
 tightening the back of bows and in several forms 
 of traps. 
 
 The child of seven is too immature to deal
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION I 5 5 
 
 with these mechanical devices as principles, and 
 it is not at all necessary that he be taught their 
 names. What is of importance, is that he be 
 given the opportunity to originate these various 
 ways of interchanging the time, direction, and 
 momentum of the forces of his own body in the 
 typical ways marked out by the savage ways 
 which Mr. Mason says that modern science and 
 industry have been able to improve only by sub- 
 stituting new materials and introducing improved 
 methods of manipulation. 1 
 
 PERIOD OF CHILDHOOD. 
 
 In the treatment of this period we shall attempt 
 at this time nothing further than a general state- 
 ment of the attitudes of the period as a whole 
 and the general character of the work along 
 industrial lines, illustrating only where the situa- 
 tion seems to require it. 
 
 The most characteristic features of the first 
 years of childhood are a retarded physical growth 
 and a development of the co-ordinations that 
 control the movements of the finer muscles. 
 This is pre-eminently a motor period. The fact 
 that new co-ordinations are ready for exercise 
 and that less energy is demanded for external 
 growth than in periods immediately preceding 
 
 1 O. T. MASON, " Primitive Travel and Transportation," 
 Smithsonian Report of the United States National Museum, 1894, 
 p. 241.
 
 I 5 6 THE PLA CE OF IND US TRIES 
 
 or following, suggests a reason for the restless- 
 ness that is so characteristic of this age. The 
 child is embarrassed by a store of energy over 
 which he has not yet established control. He 
 can maintain a quiet position only with the great- 
 est difficulty. The objective world is now well 
 differentiated from the subjective. The separa- 
 tion between means and ends, which began in 
 the earlier stage, is now more pronounced. He is 
 able to grasp more complicated relations in the 
 means than before. This manifests itself in the 
 character of his games, which are no longer 
 played for the interest in winning, although that 
 interest is still strong. The games played at this 
 time seem often to be played for the sake of 
 acquiring skill. 1 The new co-ordinations are 
 demanding an opportunity to function and offer 
 a sufficient reward in the way of pleasure. 
 
 This is the golden opportunity for teaching 
 subjects that require considerable control of 
 technique. The fact that the child's interest in 
 technique is so great that at times he appears to 
 take satisfaction in it when isolated from its 
 vital relations, has led some to characterize this 
 period as the age of drill. A more intimate 
 acquaintance with real children is the best anti- 
 dote for such a conception, which is largely 
 
 'JOHN DKWEY, Mental Development, p. 13 (an unpublished 
 article).
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 1 5 ^ 
 
 responsible for the attitude that many people 
 take toward grade teachers. 
 
 The differentiation between work and play, 
 which began in the earlier period, is now more 
 marked. The restlessness of the period is not 
 occasioned by a lack of a serious interest in life. 
 It is rather because the child has so many serious 
 interests not recognized by older people. The 
 lack of helpful recognition discourages many a 
 child and demoralizes others. 
 
 Because work and play stand out as separate 
 interests, and because the child at this time is so 
 serious, so objective, and so keen in interpreting 
 a situation, the attempt to present work under 
 the guise of play is readily understood by the 
 child and valued accordingly. The separation 
 between work and play at this period is not 
 such as to prevent mutual interaction. Each can 
 profit by its relation to the other. Just as 
 in the earlier period all serious activities were 
 conceived in the spirit of play, now play becomes 
 freighted with the serious interests of life. To 
 force this movement unduly is to arrest devel- 
 opment, but to utilize it in the light of the child's 
 changing interests is to foster the habit of con- 
 ceiving work not as drudgery, but as a free and 
 rich realization of the whole nature. 
 
 The socializing and unifying function that 
 belongs to play in the school-room during later
 
 1 5 8 THE PLA CE OF IND USTRIES 
 
 infancy is now fulfilled by art, which is begin- 
 ning to be differentiated from work and play. 
 The degree to which art is able to exercise this 
 influence is in proportion to the degree that the 
 native instincts have become transformed into a 
 great variety of habits that function with refer- 
 ence to social life. If this change has been made 
 during the earlier periods, art functions normally 
 at this time. If, however, the attitudes have 
 changed without at the same time becoming 
 socialized, the serious activities are apt to be con- 
 ceived as drudgery and emotional satisfaction 
 sought in some anti-social form. The problem 
 here is to restore the missing factor whose absence 
 has caused such an isolation of interests. 
 
 Fortunately the character of the child is not yet 
 determined. He is still in the process of " be- 
 coming." He is still responsive to suggestions 
 especially along the line of the native reactions 
 of the period. 
 
 The spontaneous activities, the traditional 
 games which have had the vitality to survive, and 
 even the activities of children which are interpre- 
 ted as anti-social, 1 as well as many that really are 
 such, unite in showing that during the period of 
 childhood there is a vital interest in such prob- 
 
 1 The case of a boy of nine, who stayed away from the formal 
 work of the school two days without the knowledge of his par- 
 ents in order to learn how to develop photographic plates, illus- 
 trates how often children may be misunderstood.
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION I 5 9 
 
 lems as how man secured dominion over the 
 natural forces, substituting for the motive power 
 of his own muscles that of the beast, the water, 
 the wind, fire, steam, and electricity; and how, 
 in applying these forces successively to the work 
 of society, he invented tools, discovered mechani- 
 cal principles, worked out metrical apparatus, 
 exploited his environment in search of natural 
 forces, and invented and controlled machines 
 for the more advantageous application of these 
 forces. 
 
 Where such work has been offered it has be- 
 come evident that the opportunity to work out 
 such problems by means of construction, illustra- 
 tion, and experiment is the most natural way yet 
 discovered of securing and maintaining a health- 
 ful attitude toward the school. I have in mind 
 the case of a boy in the fifth grade, who, after a 
 change in the work which made room for the 
 use of his own out-of-door experience, acquired 
 such self-respect as to enable him to grapple 
 with the formal work which previously had had 
 no interest for him. The introduction of work 
 of a more practical nature was what he needed 
 in order to establish his relations with the work 
 of the school. Another case of an eighth grade 
 boy points in the same direction. He was so 
 anti-social in his tendencies that he was about to 
 be expelled from school. About this time his
 
 160 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 class, whose work had been of a more formal 
 nature, began the study of the currents of the 
 air by means of constructing fireplaces out of 
 stone and mortar or any other material they 
 might choose to provide. As long as work of 
 this nature continued he was the earliest one at 
 school in the morning and the latest at night. 
 During this time he not only worked at his fire- 
 place, experimenting with it so as to regulate the 
 draft, but he searched through the available 
 reference books for further light upon the sub- 
 ject. As long as he had a problem that he 
 could work out in a practical way he conducted 
 himself in such a manner as to be agreeable to 
 all with whom he had relations. In the same 
 class there was a boy of an entirely different 
 type, in short, he was the "model boy" of the 
 school. While he did not stand in so great need 
 of work of this character he was enthusiastic in 
 working out his problems, and attained very satis- 
 factory results. 
 
 There are different degrees in which children 
 of the same age are socialized. These differ- 
 ences are often matters that the school can do 
 little toward controlling. Work which calls out 
 the emotional reactions normal at the time, which 
 presents the opportunity of getting a clearly de- 
 fined problem, which represents a technique 
 within the possibility of the child's power to
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 1 6 1 
 
 master, and which is related to the achievements 
 of the larger world in the consciousness of the 
 child, is educative to all children of this period 
 of development. 
 
 It would seem, then, that art, which seemed to 
 be the missing factor in the case of the anti- 
 social child, may be restored by means of such 
 appeals as are suggested above. Only gradually, \ 
 however, does art become sufficiently strong to j 
 represent an independent activity. Real art is 
 best promoted throughout childhood by securing 
 and maintaining conditions that make it a quality 
 of the whole life, rather than an independent 
 activity. Since the activity of the child must 
 be rooted in experience, the constructive activity 
 must be vitally related to the content studies of 
 the time. By the necessities of the case con- 
 struction must lay tribute to both art and sci- 
 ence. Under such circumstances it is frequently 
 necessary to give considerable attention to the 
 technical aspects of art, which, isolated from vital 
 interests, would be a matter of indifference if not 
 of dislike. When, however, the isolation is for 
 the sake of acquiring the skill that is needed in 
 order to continue a larger process that appeals to 
 the child, he is persistent in his efforts until the 
 end is accomplished. 
 
 Most of the industrial processes of the child 
 correspond to the stage of house industries.
 
 1 6 2 THE PLA CE OF IND USTRIES 
 
 Although these date historically from the earliest 
 human activities to the tenth century they still 
 linger in communities where development is re- 
 tarded, and they occur in some form in all com- 
 munities. They fall naturally into two classes, of 
 which the first represents each individual of the 
 group as occupied in doing a variety of work, 
 while the second represents several individuals 
 engaged in one undertaking. The latter may be 
 work where co-operation is used merely to facili- 
 tate the work, or it may be work which would be 
 impossible except by means of combined labor. 
 
 When each individual supplies his own wants, 
 when he manufactures what he needs, it is very 
 evident that he has his own problems and that he 
 regulates his own activities. When people begin 
 to co-operate the question has a new element. 
 If the labor is free labor, co-operation implies 
 consent, and, although the work undertaken may 
 not represent what appeals most strongly to all, 
 yet the fact that they are co-operating implies 
 that it appeals to all. The regulation of the 
 labor comes from within the group. 
 
 In early stages of society the regulation of 
 labor was a serious problem, but the key to its 
 solution came from the treasure house from which 
 man's tools were derived his own body. 
 Rhythm, which is the key to all primitive regu- 
 lation of labor, is organic. All accounts which
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 163 
 
 we have of the lowest stages of culture show that 
 all such people have some rhythmical form of 
 regulating their labor. It is probable that the 
 advantage of working in a common rhythm 
 would soon be discovered. The common end 
 and the possession of a similar nature would oper- 
 ate so as to force this upon the attention. The 
 primitive dance, which holds in solution both 
 poetry and music, is an effort to secure co-opera- 
 tive action. 
 
 The regulation of free labor where the regula- 
 tion comes from within, and where the labor is 
 directed toward the accomplishment of a problem 
 that appeals to all, is to be distinguished from 
 slave labor in which the workers are regulated 
 from without and are destitute of a problem 
 that appeals to them. To state the difference 
 ought to be sufficient to enable one to choose be- 
 tween the two methods for educational purposes. 
 
 No epoch of the past is of sufficient impor- 
 tance to claim the entire attention of the child. 
 H^sJn^ejstjs_j:>rirnaT^ No use 
 
 of the past which ignores this fundamental fact 
 can be justified. Its justification must always be 
 found in the nature of the child and in the social 
 needs of the present. Processes wjiich represent 
 work done with simple tools without the aid of 
 rn5chineryjwill^always_be_significant to the child. 
 Cooking, sewing, and other forms of industry
 
 1 64 THE PLA CE OF IND USTRIES 
 
 that may be carried on with the simplest tools 
 are invaluable at this time. To confine indus- 
 trial work in the school to belated forms of indus- 
 try would be to deprive the child of his full 
 heritage. Processes which have been superseded 
 in the industrial world by more complex forms 
 are as significant in education as processes which 
 have not kept pace with the general advance. 
 Processes which represent the co-operation of 
 many individuals in great public works should 
 find a place beside those which represent the sat- 
 isfaction of individual needs. Activities that min- 
 ister to the needs of the social group, whether it 
 be the clan, the tribe, the village community, the 
 manor, the city-state, or the nation, are more sig- 
 nificant to the child, if approached through the 
 medium of his own constructive activities, than 
 those which minister merely to personal needs. 
 
 The transition from barbarism to civilization, 
 if approached through the medium of the child's 
 constructive activities, is as fascinating to the 
 child as to the university student who is able to 
 carry on independent research. If the work is 
 presented so that the child can get his own prob- 
 lems and work them out in a concrete way he 
 can early learn the value of co-operative effort, 
 and, at the same time, get the basis for a clear, 
 historical perspective. The child is interested in 
 determining in what parts of the earth the earli-
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 1 6 5 
 
 est civilizations would be most likely to develop. 
 He can easily be led to see that they first appeared 
 in the fertile river valleys that were protected by 
 natural barriers, and that the work of clearing 
 the forests and draining the marshes and fens 
 presented problems of such difficulty that they 
 could be solved only by organized effort. When 
 this fact is understood it is easy to see why the 
 development of agriculture in the rich river val- 
 leys was always paralleled by the growth of the 
 city-state or by the development of a feudal sys- 
 tem. 
 
 The contrast which the conditions in an arid 
 region present to the situation in the rich river 
 valleys lends an added interest to a subject which 
 represents a native interest of mankind. When 
 the child has the opportunity to study the topog- 
 raphy of the country in a graphic way he is as 
 ready as anyone to suggest ways of changing 
 the course of rivers, building reservoirs, digging 
 ditches, and inventing countless devices which 
 have been used since man first began to reclaim 
 the desert regions. 
 
 Phoenicia presents another interesting type that 
 is appropriate to study in this connection. It is 
 interesting to discover why commerce developed 
 in Phoenicia, how it was carried on, what the sailors 
 knew about the earth, what the routes of travel 
 were, what the nature of their boats and cargoes,
 
 1 66 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 and the nature of other questions with which 
 they had to deal. 
 
 In connection with the study of the state of 
 geographical knowledge at this time, the ques- 
 tion naturally arises how people learned more of 
 the world. This topic makes an easy transition 
 to the subject of exploration, which is especially 
 appropriate in intermediate grades. The child, 
 as well as the adult, is interested in discovering 
 how the exploration of each period has been 
 affected by the knowledge and the inventions of 
 the time, and how by currents of wind and water. 
 He is equally interested in forecasting the effect 
 of the explorations made upon the various peoples 
 concerned, and in reading accounts of the same 
 in books to test the soundness of his own judg- 
 ment. His own experience along constructive 
 lines will lead him to see that a period of explora- 
 tion is apt to be followed by one of colonization. 
 The practical problems connected with colonial 
 life should be treated in such a way as to afford 
 the child a breadth of view which includes a 
 clear picture of conditions in the mother country. 
 This serves as a necessary background for a sym- 
 pathetic appreciation of the life of the people in 
 pioneer conditions. 
 
 There are many problems in primitive engi- 
 neering, architecture, and mechanics that are 
 especially adapted to intermediate grades. In
 
 IN ELEMENTARY EDUCA TION 1 67 
 
 the study of the laying out and building of roads 
 it will be interesting to trace our own routes of 
 travel by land back to the animal trails. We are 
 not accustomed to think of animals as engineers, 
 yet Mr. Hornaday writes concerning the bison : 
 "... the trail of a herd in search of water is 
 usually as good a piece of engineering as could 
 be executed by the best railway surveyor, and is 
 governed by the same principles. It always fol- 
 lows the level of the valley, swerves around the 
 high points, and crosses the stream repeatedly in 
 order to avoid climbing up from the level." z The 
 history of the changes that have taken place in 
 the trails of animals, the causes for the same, 
 the improvements in the means of travel and 
 their effect upon the relations among neighboring 
 cities and states, the digging of tunnels, the con- 
 struction of viaducts and bridges all furnish 
 problems of real value at this time. 
 
 The child's interest in the public buildings of 
 his own vicinity may be utilized by simpler prob- 
 lems which are involved in the understanding 
 of ancient public works. How the immense 
 public buildings of antiquity were constructed ; 
 how the character of the material affected the 
 mode of construction ; how the materials were 
 
 1 W. T. HORNADAY, " The Extermination of the American 
 Bison," Smithsonian Report of the United States National 
 Museum, 1887, p. 417.
 
 1 68 THE PLA CE OF IND USTRIES 
 
 tested ; how the principles of construction were 
 discovered ; how roofs were planned for the 
 massive structures, and how these were related to 
 the climate ; how the immense work was carried 
 on by co-operative labor with the simplest tools 
 and industrial appliances ; how systems of forti- 
 fication were planned ; how heavy objects were 
 transported ; in short, how the simplest begin- 
 nings were made in the departments of hydraulic, 
 bridge and road, sanitary, and mechanical en- 
 gineering, is a subject worthy of the child's atten- 
 tion and one that may be brought within the 
 easy range of his understanding. 
 
 Until our knowledge of education shall have 
 become more scientific it will probably be best 
 to leave considerable margin for optional work. 
 There is need in this as in other work for guid- 
 ance. The teacher's influence should operate 
 to insure the selection of problems of sufficiently 
 difficult technique to be stimulating, but not 
 difficult enough to be discouraging. 
 
 Perhaps the more important questions that 
 cluster about the handicraft period are those 
 bound up with such questions as the freeing of 
 labor, the application of the power of the wind 
 and water to simple machinery, the consequent 
 change in manufactures, the development of 
 commerce, the work of the Hanseatic league, 
 the growth of cities during the Middle Ages, the
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 1 69 
 
 regulation of labor by means of guilds, the advance 
 made in more accurate measurement, the artistic 
 work of the craftsmen, and the spirit which gave 
 rise to the cathedrals. These subjects lend 
 themselves to various forms of expression and 
 serve to enrich many experiences of the child. 
 The handicraft period finds its counterpart in the 
 child, not in such a differentiation of labor as will 
 make him master of a craft, but in a differentia- 
 tion of interests which previously were bound up 
 in a more undifferentiated form. His practical 
 activities in connection with such materials are 
 for psychological and educational rather than for 
 economical ends. 
 
 No better means are available for assisting the 
 child to understand the complex industrial 
 organization of the present than to give him an 
 experience in some of the more fundamental 
 processes. The very fact that he has produced 
 raw material, and that later he manufactured and 
 used it, affords him an experience in a whole 
 round of activities, which enables him to place 
 any isolated activity in relation to the whole 
 system of which it is a part. In some cases it 
 may be found convenient for some members of a 
 class to prepare the material for others to manu- 
 facture. This division of labor is a type of what 
 is going on in the larger world. Some children 
 will excel in one line of work, some in another.
 
 I 70 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 The recognition of this fact is significant with 
 regard to understanding the reason for specializa- 
 tion in industrial activities. 
 
 If such problems as those suggested in the 
 preceding pages be taken up in the elementary 
 school, the way is prepared for a profitable study 
 of the main steps in the industrial revolution in 
 England and the United States during the last 
 year of the course. This study affords an 
 admirable opportunity for summing up the results 
 of the previous years' work and of more con- 
 sciously recognizing inter-relations among the 
 various forces involved. These inter-relations 
 are felt in earlier years; they are recognized 
 practically, and in some cases they are formu- 
 lated ; but at this time there is a more distinct 
 place for formulation. This change corresponds 
 to the larger place that intellectual interests now 
 take in the life of the child in contrast to the 
 purely practical. But even now, care should be 
 taken not to force intellectual activity unduly. 
 
 The child, who has traced the tool from the 
 action of his own body through the various stages 
 of its development, has felt, as he has wielded it, 
 the rhythmic movements of economical adjust- 
 ments. He is now prepared to see how the 
 mechanical principles with which he became 
 familiar in the study of primitive life are utilized 
 by means of better appliances ; and how their
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION I ^ I 
 
 action, which has been rendered rhythmical 
 and hence automatic, may be handed over 
 to a machine. What this machine is, what its 
 purpose, how constructed, how controlled, and 
 how used for the amelioration of society, these 
 are the problems that the school should under- 
 take to teach him to grapple with, rather than 
 to occupy him with activities that tend to render 
 him as automatic, as unfeeling, as a part of the 
 machine itself. 
 
 The construction of simple machines in the 
 workshop, and the tracing of the connections 
 between the steps in the process from the stage 
 of the hand, through the stage of the tool, to that 
 of the machine, with its many possible modifica- 
 tions, is an educative work. It will train the child 
 to control machinery rather than be controlled 
 by it. It will help to advance the movement 
 most necessary at present in order to facilitate 
 the adjustment of labor questions. 
 
 The present difficulty consists largely in the 
 fact that the industrial processes have been 
 improved without a corresponding development 
 in the lives of the workers. As long as the 
 worker could get the reflex effect of his own 
 work, his occupation was an expression of his 
 own desires. Now that the process is so com- 
 plicated it is difficult for the worker to realize 
 that he has a problem or that he has any con- 
 
 tool -
 
 1 7 2 THE PLA CE OF IND USTRIES 
 
 trol over his own activities, He is in need of 
 an intelligence trained to recognize the various 
 stages of the work and his relation to the whole; 
 he is in need of sympathies broad enough to take 
 in, at least in so far as the relations of his acts to 
 them are concerned, all those who are to use the 
 product of his labor. Under such conditions 
 manufacturers will not be obliged to make use of 
 inferior machinery in order to supply labor of an 
 unskilled sort. To promote the realization of an 
 ideal which shall secure this high type of human- 
 ity is certainly a worthy object of education.
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS. Continued. 
 
 THE PROBLEM OF THE TEACHER WHO IS NOT FUR- 
 NISHED WITH MATERIALS AND TOOLS FOR 
 INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITIES. 
 
 BECAUSE the materials necessary for working 
 out many of the problems suggested in the pre- 
 ceding chapter are not yet incorporated in text- 
 books, many teachers may feel at a loss to know 
 how to put the ideas suggested into actual prac- 
 tice. Because the idea prevails that industrial 
 training requires expensive equipments, many 
 teachers fail to see the opportunities presented on 
 every side. To such teachers this chapter is 
 addressed; for the best educational results can 
 be secured only through the co-operation of all 
 the people who have a share in the work. 
 
 To undertake several new kinds of work at 
 one time would certainly be unwise. To under- 
 take nothing new would certainly be more 
 unwise. The better plan is to keep the main 
 part of the work in lines which are fairly familiar, 
 leaving a narrow margin for careful experimen- 
 tation. By following such a method the teacher 
 may feel perfectly safe in introducing a new 
 form of work; for until she becomes convinced
 
 1/4 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 of its value she may treat it merely as a side- 
 light to some phase of the regular work. As 
 time passes, however, the teacher can readily 
 discover in the response made by the children 
 whether it is best to incorporate the new feature 
 into the body of the curriculum, or whether to 
 let it give place to something which proves to be 
 of greater value. The experience which indi- 
 vidual teachers gain in this way is invaluable as 
 a basis upon which to proceed in carrying out 
 the more organized movement which is bound to 
 come. It is the rude structure which bridges 
 the chasm between formal education and that 
 which is real. It is one phase of the pioneer 
 work which must be done before the people are 
 ready to take up the cause. 
 
 Perhaps no better means are available for the 
 teacher to gain courage for going on with such 
 pioneer work, and ideas for enriching the course 
 of study, than to re-read the history of colonial 
 times. The efforts of our forefathers in establish- 
 ing a foothold in a new country may well serve 
 to inspire us with courage in undertaking pioneer 
 educational work. 
 
 The popular conception that industrial training 
 cannot be introduced without a considerable 
 expenditure of money rests upon a misconcep- 
 tion of its nature and purpose. We have recently 
 become so accustomed to the use of commercially
 
 IN ELEMENTA RY ED UCA TION I ^ 5 
 
 prepared materials and finished products that we 
 are disposed to carry the idea over into educa- 
 tion and apply it so as to defeat educational ends. 
 If the purpose of industrial work in the school is 
 to secure certain tangible results, questions of 
 economy dictate the use of prepared materials 
 and ready-made tools. If, however, the purpose 
 is to educate through industrial processes, ques- 
 tions of economy dictate that we should employ 
 methods which produce educative results. To 
 furnish the child with commercially prepared 
 materials is to cut him off from those phases of 
 the industrial process which relate him to the 
 natural resources of his own environment. 
 
 Rather than be discouraged at the outset 
 because of the lack of money for a material 
 equipment, the teacher should see in the situa- 
 tion the opportunity for the children to come 
 into closer relation to nature, and an opportunity 
 for herself to gain an appreciation of the mean- 
 ing of industrial work before a general demand 
 is made for it. She should see in it, also, the 
 opportunity to develop the spirit which alone can 
 give meaning and value to equipments, and which 
 will make of them real instruments in the educa- 
 tion of the child. 
 
 The teacher may not see her way clear, at 
 first, to set aside more than one period a week 
 for practical work. Possibly she may find it
 
 176 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 the wiser plan to begin such work out of school 
 hours and let it be entirely optional. But grad- 
 ually she should try to make it, not something 
 apart from the regular program of the school, but 
 a means of giving new meaning to each and every 
 subject of the curriculum. 
 
 In beginning the work it will be well for the 
 teacher to have in mind several things which the 
 children may make or represent, and give them a 
 chance to consider them with her and to choose 
 that which they think they can do best. Let 
 them suggest ways of getting materials and pre- 
 paring them for use. To be sure children, as well 
 as adults, sometimes make foolish suggestions, but 
 teachers may well profit from the contributions 
 which children make regarding practical matters. 
 The new interest which the children take when 
 they feel responsible for what they do and say is 
 invaluable in the development of self-confidence 
 and self-respect. 
 
 There are many materials which the children 
 may help procure for purposes of practical work 
 in the school. Sand is to be found in most 
 places and is invaluable as a means of represent- 
 ing geographical relations. When the children 
 are trying to get a clear picture of such relations, 
 and trying to express it to others, they are in a 
 position to appreciate the value and the proper 
 use of sand in the schoolroom. Let the children
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 1 77 
 
 suggest ways of getting it and bringing it to the 
 school, and help them to decide which way is the 
 best. Then a box must be prepared for it, which 
 the larger boys can make out of dry-goods boxes. 
 There should be one box as large as the top of a 
 kitchen table, and twice as large if there is room 
 to place it in the schoolroom. The sides of the 
 box need not be more than three or four inches 
 deep. It is a good plan to line the box with 
 oilcloth, but if that is not available the cracks 
 may be stopped with putty or clay. The cumu- 
 lative interest which arises from participating in 
 this co-operative work presents the teacher with 
 an admirable opportunity for directing the chil- 
 dren in a thoughtful study of geography, and in 
 those phases of history in which geographical 
 ideas are important features. But if the way is 
 not prepared, if no idea of the use of the sand is 
 present in the minds of the children, if the 
 strongest suggestion they get from it is to throw 
 it or to use it in annoying a neighbor, the presence 
 of the sand-table will merely be one more oppor- 
 tunity for disorder. The abuse of any material 
 and instrument is possible, but it should in no 
 wise keep us from making a right use of the edu- 
 cational means at our command. 
 
 Clay serves a variety of purposes, and can 
 be purchased at little cost; but where suitable 
 clay-beds are accessible, it is far more educative
 
 1 78 THE PLA CE OF IND USTRIES 
 
 for the children to go to the spot, to notice how 
 it is placed, to dig it out if they have the right 
 to do so to tread, wash, and knead it, and pre- 
 pare it for use. The trip to get the clay is inter- 
 esting to all children in itself. The preparation 
 and care of it might be irksome if there were not 
 present an idea of doing something with it later. 
 Having this idea, the children will gladly co- 
 operate to secure a small barrel or an earthern 
 jar in which to keep the clay, and smooth boards 
 or pieces of oilcloth to protect their desks when 
 they are modeling. 
 
 The gravel pits, the stone quarries, and other 
 mineral resources in the locality are interesting 
 to every child from his earliest years. Collec- 
 tions may be made of the different local varieties, 
 and these should be related to such literature of 
 the subject as the teacher is able to find. Col- 
 lections should also be made of stones shaped 
 into natural tools and weapons, or those which 
 could easily be wrought into such forms. Stones 
 suitable for cutting, pounding, grinding; stones 
 which crumble when heated ; and those which will 
 stand the heat many of these may be gathered 
 and labeled by the children, and be preserved as 
 a part of their industrial museum. 
 
 Lessons in history, geography, and nature- 
 study frequently include lessons about the textile 
 industry. In most places children can find at
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION I 79 
 
 least a few natural materials to illustrate typical 
 stages in the development of the art. Tough 
 barks may be manufactured into utensils or 
 shredded so as to make fibers ; willows, tough 
 branches of all kinds, may be made into splints 
 or woven in their natural form ; tough grasses, 
 rushes, and reeds may be collected from the 
 marshes and meadows, and straw and corn husks 
 from the farm. In country schools it ought not 
 to be difficult to secure a fleece of wool, and, if 
 any of the children have access to a sheep pas- 
 ture in the spring time, enough tags of wool may 
 be collected from the underbrush to provide ma- 
 terial for work for several days. If flax seed can 
 be obtained, the older children can profitably 
 raise some flax in a school garden, and although 
 the products of the garden may not furnish ma- 
 terials for social occupations, the experiment in 
 itself will be of value to the children at the time, 
 will help them to understand related accounts 
 they may read from books, and will furnish expe- 
 rience which will tend to bring them into sympa- 
 thetic relations with people who are sharing in 
 the world's work. 
 
 In connection with the collection of materials 
 for textile work the children may well collect 
 such roots, bark, husks of nuts, flowers, and fruits 
 as will yield a dye which they may use in color- 
 ing. To be sure, they can buy "Diamond
 
 180 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 Dyes" for ten cents a package, but the use of 
 such dyes is not educative. By using prepared 
 dyes the children lose the opportunity to experi- 
 ment with materials. Colored earths and other 
 mineral products which yield color may also be 
 collected and used in experimental ways. Where 
 parents are informed concerning the nature of 
 the work, they will allow much of this experi- 
 mentation to be done in the home. The ever- 
 present stove in the country schoolhouse may be 
 turned into account as part of the equipment. 
 In schools heated from the basement and not 
 equipped with a laboratory, an oil stove may be 
 pressed into the service of furnishing the neces- 
 sary heat for dyeing; but in no case should the 
 teacher permit a careless use of fire. 
 
 Since a large part of the work in geography 
 consists of a study of the production, manufac- 
 ture, and distribution of foods, the teacher ought 
 to find no difficulty in selecting topics which em- 
 body a great variety of industrial processes. 
 Field trips, excursions, and gardening may be 
 used to make the children familiar with the proc- 
 esses of production in their own community. 
 Excursions to mills and bakeries, practical lessons 
 in cooking which may be learned either at home 
 or in the school, and constructive work which 
 represents processes of manufacture which the 
 children may have difficulty in carrying on in a
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 1 8 1 
 
 real way, furnish a sound basis for a study of the 
 processes of manufacturing food-stuffs. A visit 
 to the grocery store, observation of the trade 
 which takes place in the home community, the 
 routes of travel, and modes of transportation, 
 together with the representation of the same 
 in graphic forms, serve as a mode of approach 
 to larger problems of distribution and exchange. 
 
 Collections which illustrate the food-stuffs of 
 the community, as well as those imported to it, 
 may be used as a mode of approach to many 
 problems in commercial geography. A shock of 
 corn or wheat, vegetables, fruit, a pan of milk, 
 may be procured with little trouble, and may 
 furnish material for many practical lessons in the 
 study of foods. 
 
 Although it would be difficult to give sys- 
 tematic work in cooking without an equipment, it 
 is possible to study typical vegetables, fruits, 
 grains, and meats with reference to the best mode 
 of cooking them. In schools where it is neces- 
 sary for many children to remain during the 
 noon hour, it ought to be possible for the school 
 to make provision for giving the children at least 
 one kind of warm food, which could be prepared 
 by one of the classes with the use of only a few 
 cooking utensils. 
 
 Materials for sewing are those most easily 
 procured, and if the articles made are those in
 
 1 82 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 which the children take a genuine interest, the 
 teacher need not be disturbed if she is not able 
 to relate each period devoted to sewing to some 
 other subject pursued in the school. Yet as the 
 work proceeds, much is lost if the children do 
 not get ideas which will help them to understand 
 the social significance of such work. 
 
 Sewing materials for the younger children can 
 readily be obtained from the rolls of scraps 
 which may be found in every home. Merchants 
 often have odds and ends which they are willing 
 to donate for such purposes. These materials 
 may be used in making dolls' clothes, and the 
 bedding, curtains, and other furnishings required 
 for a doll's house. The children may also make 
 bags for their materials, and hem towels and 
 dust-cloths which they need for their school 
 housekeeping. 
 
 The older children may use the period devoted 
 to sewing in making articles of clothing they 
 may need. This is by no means an experiment, 
 but is practiced in many schools. The girls of 
 the eighth-grade graduating class in some schools 
 make their own graduating dresses. Boys take 
 as much interest in sewing as girls, when not 
 influenced by some superficial adult, but they 
 may not care to make the same things. A boy 
 in one of the cities of Illinois asked if he might 
 make a pair of "overalls," and his teacher wisely
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 1 8 3 
 
 permitted him to do it. When parents realize 
 that their children are actually learning to cut, 
 fit, and sew garments, they will be willing to 
 provide all the materials for sewing which the 
 teacher can find time to have used. 
 
 Wood-work as usually carried on in the schools 
 requires a special room equipped with benches 
 and tools, as well as considerable lumber and 
 nails. Much as children enjoy the period when 
 they are allowed to take up such work, they often 
 go through the course in manual training without 
 gaining any conception of its social significance. 
 Where this is true it is largely because manual 
 training is isolated from the other subjects of 
 study and made an end in itself. Such isolated 
 work, no matter how expensive the equipment, 
 cannot compare in educational value with that 
 carried on with the barest equipment, yet con- 
 sciously related to the curriculum as a whole. 
 
 No course of study is so formal that it does 
 not include such topics as the various kinds of 
 shelter which are used by different peoples, the 
 methods of building, and the tools used. To be 
 of any real value to the child, such topics need 
 to be illustrated. Pictures are useful, but the 
 child needs not merely to receive impressions, but 
 to have an outlet for his growing images. Such 
 opportunities need not be denied, for many of 
 the materials are not expensive. Typical dwell-
 
 1 84 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 ings of the primitive type may be represented by 
 the use of bark and twigs. The materials essen- 
 tial to the construction of a model of a log house 
 can be found almost anywhere. These materials 
 can be used with the simplest kind of tools in 
 many cases natural tools. But a few tools are 
 very desirable. Among such the pocketknife 
 owned by every boy, and almost every girl, may 
 be called into service. Undoubtedly volunteers 
 will bring in a hammer, a saw, or any other tool 
 which seems to be needed for the time, in order 
 that the work may go on. 
 
 Building-blocks, which are invaluable in the 
 lower grades for representing houses, barns, 
 fences, wagons, trains of cars, and many other 
 images of the child, may be made by the older 
 children out of short pieces, which can easily be 
 procured in places where lumber is used for 
 manufacturing purposes. In country places it is 
 almost always possible to procure such pieces 
 from the refuse where new buildings are being 
 erected, or from the lumber pile of some gener- 
 ous farmer. In measuring and sawing the blocks 
 there is an opportunity for careful measurement 
 and work of considerable precision. While it is 
 not necessary for the blocks to be of certain 
 sizes, it is desirable that their dimensions be 
 simple enough for the children to work with in an 
 intellectual way. For instance, it is better to
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 1 8 5 
 
 have blocks 2X4X6 inches than i-l X 3f X 6\ 
 inches. Again, it is well in planning the making 
 of blocks to provide for enough of the same shape 
 and size so that in building the children can get 
 the idea of rhythm and order. Square blocks 
 cut diagonally give opportunity for a greater 
 variety in building, and handles of wornout 
 brooms cut in suitable lengths will be found use- 
 ful to the child in expressing many ideas for 
 which the square blocks are inadequate. There 
 are few places where it is not possible to find a 
 pile of discarded brick, which are capable of 
 rendering excellent service as building material. 
 As work with such wood as can be collected 
 in its natural state, and with the waste products of 
 the industrial life, goes on, the difficulties experi- 
 enced, together with the sense of satisfaction in 
 building, are such as to create a demand on the 
 part of the children for commercially prepared 
 materials and a set of tools. The example set 
 by the Ethical Culture Schools in New York in 
 providing a workbench and a set of tools for each 
 room may well be followed. In that school the 
 benches are used to supplement well-equipped 
 manual-training rooms, rather than as a substitute 
 for them ; but in schools not so equipped, the 
 single bench and a set of tools may serve as a 
 means of transition from the cruder work with 
 such tools and materials as can be found, to the
 
 1 86 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 work in a school which is well equipped for in- 
 dustrial training. 
 
 When once the teacher and the children begin 
 to search for materials, it will be surprising to 
 find the number of things which can be found 
 with very little trouble. Such objects as stones, 
 bones, horns, seeds, nuts, acorn-cups, rose-hips, 
 river- and sea-shells, and the shells of gourds 
 and other hard-shelled vegetables, all can be 
 used in a variety of ways which will unite the 
 child by stronger ties to his natural and social 
 environment. 
 
 In exploiting his environment for materials, 
 the child brings back, in addition to the tangible 
 materials which he needs to use, ideas and sug- 
 gestions which affect his work in many ways. 
 The ideas which the child gains from observing 
 nature, and which he represents in dramatic play, 
 in paintings, drawings, quick blackboard sketches, 
 and in modeling in clay and in sand, have a real 
 value as well as the ideas which he gets through 
 selecting and preparing materials which he needs 
 in constructing objects which he can use in a real 
 or a symbolic way. The contact which the child 
 gets with nature is of more value in the early 
 years than the constructions which he makes out 
 of materials brought home. Yet both phases of 
 work are necessary, and as the child advances in 
 years, real construction which requires more and
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 1 8 ^ 
 
 more accurate methods of work deserves a larger 
 and larger place. 
 
 Industrial education need not be delayed on 
 account of difficulty in procuring materials. The 
 children are willing to furnish their share and can 
 find most valuable occupations in so doing. The 
 farmer, the merchant, the lumberman, the manu- 
 facturer, each in turn, may easily be induced to 
 co-operate to the extent of allowing the by-pro- 
 ducts of his industry to be used. In addition 
 to this, the school garden may be used so as to 
 furnish a delightful occupation to the children at 
 the time, and products which may be used in 
 school lunches, for cooking, drying, and preserving 
 foods, as well as for experimental work. When 
 all these sources, and many others which will sug- 
 gest themselves to one who is interested, have 
 been made to yield their share in supplying the 
 necessary materials, there is still another which 
 any school may employ. It is the system of 
 exchanging materials. This exchange may be 
 carried on informally, the child getting an expe- 
 rience in the beginnings of trade; or use may 
 be made of such bureaus of exchange as that 
 of the American Bureau of Geography at Winona, 
 Minn. 
 
 A plan adopted this year by Mrs. Bessie B. 
 Rogers, of Elgin, 111., for directing the children 
 in their vacation work for the summer, is too full
 
 1 8 8 THE PLA CE OF IND US TRIES 
 
 of promise not to be noticed in this connection. 
 The plan arose partly from the desire to help the 
 mothers who have difficulty in finding employ- 
 ment for their children during the long summer 
 vacation, and partly from the desire to have the 
 children procure materials for the practical work 
 of the coming year. It consisted of a notebook 
 made by the children, with directions at the top 
 of each page regarding objects worth collecting 
 and the method of preserving them. The children 
 who had these notebooks resolved that when dur- 
 ing the summer they did not know what to do, 
 instead of asking their mothers, they would go 
 to the little books for suggestions. 
 
 Until school buildings are erected which em- 
 body the idea of industrial education, teachers 
 must be willing to make use of the schoolroom 
 and yard, the cloak-room, or the homes of the 
 children for carrying on certain phases of the 
 work. And we may be sure that, as soon as the 
 value of the work has been clearly demonstrated, 
 the American public will not be slow in res- 
 ponding with buildings properly equipped. The 
 hardships, the struggles, the aspirations, which 
 are beneath the pioneer work will bear fruit in a 
 spirit worthy of the equipment which is bound to 
 be erected by the generosity of the public. 
 
 Pictures which illustrate various phases of in- 
 dustrial processes and modes of living are too
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 1 89 
 
 valuable to be neglected, and, in this day of cheap 
 reproductions and well-illustrated periodicals, a 
 large collection of valuable pictures can be made 
 by any child who is disposed to save what he can 
 readily find. If the teacher will lead in this work 
 and secure the co-operation of the children in 
 collecting and arranging the pictures in suitable 
 ways for ready reference, a most important fea- 
 ture of the school equipment will be secured. 
 Especial emphasis should be placed upon the 
 selection of pictures which illustrate particular 
 subjects of study. For instance, when studying 
 the colonial history of New England the children 
 should be encouraged to collect pictures which 
 illustrate the geographical features, typical land- 
 scapes, pioneer houses, furniture, fireplaces, cook- 
 ing utensils, farming tools, mills, the people them- 
 selves, their modes of dress, their public buildings, 
 and their co-operative industries. 
 
 Pictures found which are valuable for reference 
 and yet not available for cutting, mounting, and 
 filing, may be catalogued so that, when the topic 
 which they illustrate is reached, they may readily 
 be found in the book or periodical in which they 
 occur. Small pictures may be mounted on manila 
 cards and filed in shoe boxes, or they may be 
 mounted on heavy sheets of cardboard or in 
 scrapbooks made of paper cambric. The larger 
 pictures should be mounted on cardboard.
 
 1 90 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 Great impetus is lent to industrial work, espe- 
 cially in the earlier stages, if such products as can 
 be preserved for a few weeks are saved and ex- 
 hibited some afternoon or evening when the 
 parents are invited to inspect them. Exhibits to 
 which the parents and friends of the school are 
 invited are valuable as a means of arousing inter- 
 est in the cause. If the children or representa- 
 tives chosen by classes are present to explain the 
 work to the parents, the exhibit will be of far 
 greater value than if the children are not there. 
 
 When such an exhibit is ended, the teacher 
 may be at a loss to know what to do with the 
 articles made. Those valuable from the strictly 
 utilitarian view readily find a place. Models of 
 houses, furniture, tools, carts, etc., which are in- 
 valuable to the children while they are making 
 them, may accumulate in such numbers as to be 
 in the way. These must be disposed of from time 
 to time. In schools where social occupations are 
 already an important feature it has been found 
 that the children are so eager to take the products 
 of their workmanship home that it is difficult to 
 keep many specimens of their work in the school- 
 room. While this tendency on the part of the 
 children is a good sign, it would be well also to 
 make use of this opportunity to cultivate a more 
 social spirit. It would be well for the children 
 and the teacher to decide which pieces of work
 
 IN ELEMENTA R Y ED UCA TION I Q I 
 
 are most representative of that which they wish 
 to do, and to save such pieces in some place 
 which may prove to be the nucleus of an indus- 
 trial museum. A shelf in the schoolroom may 
 be large enough for some time, but as the articles 
 accumulate, and the need is felt for room to ar- 
 range them in ways which will show the idea 
 intended, there will be a demand for more room. 
 If no vacant room can be found in the building, 
 it may be that some friend will be glad to offer 
 the use of a room for such a purpose until a suit- 
 able room can be found in the school building. 
 If, in addition to the specimens of the children's 
 work, there are gradually collected real imple- 
 ments and tools formerly used in industrial proc- 
 esses, the collection may prove to be of interest, 
 not merely to the children, but to the entire 
 community. The industrial museum at Hull 
 House, Chicago, is worthy of careful study. 
 
 There are few places at present which cannot 
 produce such articles as looms, spinning-wheels, 
 reels, swifts, and hand-cards, used only a few 
 years ago in all the homes of this country. If 
 to this collection be added a Dutch oven, a bake- 
 kettle, and other articles used in cooking at the 
 open fireplace, and if candle-molds, candle- 
 sticks, lamps, lanterns, and other products of 
 pioneer days be added, it will be easy for the 
 teacher to give the children an adequate concep-
 
 1 9 2 THE PLA CE OF IND USTRIES 
 
 tion of the life of our forefathers during the 
 colonial period. Such collections can be made 
 with comparatively little trouble, if made soon. 
 But if the matter is delayed, the simple imple- 
 ments which help to tell the story of the simple 
 mode of life a few generations ago will be difficult 
 to procure. Such collections arranged with ref- 
 erence (i) to giving a picture of the life of a 
 given period, and (2) to giving the sequence of 
 activities during the year, or within a process, 
 will prove helpful in giving related conceptions 
 of the life of a few generations ago. 
 
 Where good reference-books are not available, 
 teachers can learn from the older people of the 
 community much of the life during pioneer days. 
 By enlisting the co-operation of the children in 
 collecting and organizing such information, it can 
 be preserved in a form for future reference. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITIES WHICH 
 MAY BE INTRODUCED IN SCHOOLS NOT EQUIPPED 
 FOR MANUAL TRAINING. 
 
 Suppose that a brief sketch of the situation in 
 England which caused the Pilgrims to migrate first 
 to Holland and later to the New World has been 
 presented, and that the children have followed 
 the narrative to the point where the "Mayflower" 
 dropped her anchor and parties of men went to 
 the shore to choose a suitable site for a home.
 
 IN ELEMENTARY EDUCA TION 193 
 
 To help the children judge intelligently con- 
 cerning the merits of the different places explored 
 as sites for the colony let them express their 
 ideas, even though they be vague at first, con- 
 cerning what the people will have to do in their 
 new home. Remembering their meager equip- 
 ment, and the great distance which separates 
 them from the mother-country, the children can 
 readily see that the colonists must rely chiefly 
 upon their own efforts in supplying food, shelter, 
 clothing, and the other means of maintaining 
 community life. This being the case, they can 
 also see the advantage of a good soil for farming, 
 fresh-water springs and running brooks for sup- 
 plying water, an abundance of wild game for 
 hunting, a variety of fish for fishing, forests for 
 furnishing materials for building purposes, a com- 
 manding view from which the approach of an 
 enemy can be discovered, a place easily protected 
 and so situated as to have the advantage of 
 natural water-ways and inland trails, and a harbor 
 deep enough for the entrance of ships from across 
 the seas as well as smaller boats which might be 
 used in a coast trade. 
 
 Let the children study the geography of Cape 
 Cod and model it, together with the adjacent 
 mainland. Then the distance should be reckoned 
 from Cape Cod to the mainland, so that the chil- 
 dren can realize the time it would take to make
 
 1 94 THE PLA CE OF IND USTRIES 
 
 the trip by boat or on foot. In this way, perhaps, 
 the children may be able to realize the force of 
 Mr. Doyle's statement in English Colonies in 
 America, Vol. I, p. 50, where he says that if the 
 Pilgrims had settled on Cape Cod, "on the point 
 of a peninsula separated from the mainland by a 
 long narrow strip of land or by twenty miles of 
 sea, Plymouth could not have maintained, as it did, 
 a regular and well-organized system of exten- 
 sion." 
 
 When it is evident that Cape Cod is not a 
 favorable place for a settlement, the children are 
 ready to consider the reports of the different par- 
 ties who went out in the mended shallop in search 
 of a favorable site. They will now be ready to 
 understand why the site first discovered by a party 
 lead by Standish on land, and later visited in the 
 shallop by a party of twenty-four colonists, the 
 shipmaster and ten of his sailors, was rejected on 
 account of "the insufficiency of the harbor for 
 the accommodation of large vessels, and the un- 
 certainty as to a supply of fresh water." 1 
 
 As the children consider the comparative 
 advantages of the two sites discovered in the 
 final expedition, they should, as they consider 
 each point, represent it on their sand-map in 
 order to keep the facts in relation to the subject 
 
 'JOHN GORHAM PALFREY, A Compendious History of New 
 England, Vol. I, p. 63.
 
 IN ELEMENTARY EDUCA TION 195 
 
 under discussion. Let the children search books 
 of reference for all the information they can get 
 concerning the two sites, and when they have 
 gained all they can and represented it on their 
 maps, they may be supplied with any of the facts 
 in the following quotations which they may not 
 have succeeded in discovering: 
 
 Monday they sounded the harbor and found it fit for 
 shipping, and marched also into the land and found divers 
 cornfields and little running brooks a place, as they sup- 
 posed fit for situation .... so they returned to their ship 
 again with this news to the rest of their people, which did 
 much comfort their hearts. 1 
 
 The hard work of clearing a site was therefore saved 
 them, which was a matter of grave consequence at this 
 time of year. On one side was a running brook which 
 they found to be excellent water. Good timber trees for 
 building were rather far off, yet even this was better than 
 having the forest too near, for since their fight with the 
 Indians the Pilgrims felt that their chief safety lay in their 
 weapons, and it was better to have the woods, in which 
 they lurked to steal upon them as far off as possible. 3 
 
 Two sites of land seemed to offer themselves as suit- 
 able; one on an island at the mouth of the harbor, the 
 other by a river which fell into the middle of the bay. The 
 security promised by the island was a strong argument in 
 its favor, but the want of spring water there and of cleared 
 ground, finally decided the settlers in favor of the main- 
 
 1 Quoted by PALFREY in A Compendious History of New 
 England, Vol. I, p. 64. 
 
 2 DRAKE, The Making of New England, p. 81.
 
 196 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 land .... Two arms of land, separated by a narrow 
 opening, ran out, the northern one rather more, the 
 southern less, than a mile long inclosing a harbor of about 
 a mile in width. Among the recommendations of this site 
 was the proximity of much cleared corn land, and of a 
 high hill commanding a view over the whole bay. 1 
 
 Having determined the site of the settlement, 
 and having represented it on the sand-map, the 
 next important problem for the children to solve 
 is that of determining what the Pilgrims will do 
 in making the beginnings of a new home and in 
 finding out whether the plans which they make 
 for them were the ones adopted by the Pilgrims. 
 After a brief forecast of the probable events of 
 the winter, the narrative as given in the text- 
 book should be studied, and supplemented by 
 such available references as furnish data which 
 the children can use. 
 
 The position of the "Mayflower" during the 
 winter, as it was anchored a mile and a half from 
 shore, may be shown on the sand-map, so as to 
 help the children realize that in the cold and stormy 
 weather of December and January, when the 
 Pilgrims were beginning to establish themselves, 
 their situation was such that they had to expose 
 themselves constantly to the elements, and that 
 such exposure, following the long hard voyage 
 in which they had been obliged to live under 
 
 1 DOYLE, English Colonies in America, Vol. I, p. 51.
 
 IN ELEMENT A RY ED UCA TION 1 9 ^ 
 
 conditions which were unsanitary, prepared the 
 way for the sickness which cost the lives of half 
 their number. Knowing that the Pilgrims had 
 little ammunition, and that they were not used 
 to hunting, the children can understand why they 
 had little venison and wild fowls at first; and 
 knowing that they were suffering from sickness 
 the children can understand why such food 
 supplies as were left in the "Mayflower" after 
 the voyage, supplemented by coarse mussels, 
 oysters, clams, ground-nuts, and acorns, were not 
 what they needed. The corn which Standish 
 found in the Indian granaries should be noticed, 
 as well as the forethought of the Pilgrims in 
 saving it for seed instead of using it for food. 
 
 While the "Mayflower" was anchored in the 
 harbor, the Pilgrims were busy in laying out the 
 village and in building the first rude structures 
 which were to be their new homes. The repre- 
 sentation of this work in the sand-box, in the 
 school-yard, or in any other available place will 
 be found to secure a willing and an eager 
 study of books, for it serves to place books where 
 they belong. Instead of being an end in them- 
 selves, they now find their place as a means to 
 an end. 
 
 Let the children represent the Pilgrims as they 
 brought their cannon to shore and hauled them 
 up the hill. Let them lay the platform on the
 
 1 9 8 THE PLA CE OF IND US TRIES 
 
 hill, and place models of the cannon upon it in 
 such a way as to command the different ap- 
 proaches to the site of the village. 
 
 As the children plan the best way of laying 
 out the village and the easiest way the Pilgrims 
 can provide a shelter, tell them that in order to 
 save work the Pilgrims divided themselves into 
 nineteen families, and that each family was to be 
 given a lot for a house and garden. These small 
 lots, some of which were two and three-fourths 
 yards in breadth by sixteen and one-half yards 
 in length, were thought to be large enough for 
 the time ; and since they had to be surrounded 
 by a heavy stockade, it seemed best to make 
 them no larger. 
 
 The lots were laid off on opposite sides of "a 
 broad street, about a cannon shot of eight hun- 
 dred yards long, leading down the hill with a 
 street crossing it in the middle, northward to the 
 rivulet" and southward to cleared corn-fields. 
 This plan of a village was one which the Pilgrims 
 had been accustomed to in Holland; and since 
 the double row of houses to be erected promised 
 to be a good means of protection from enemies, 
 it seemed well adapted to their needs in the New 
 World. 
 
 Although the streets were laid out and the lots 
 measured as early as December 28, little pro- 
 gress was made on the private dwellings which
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 1 99 
 
 were to be built by individuals. The most press- 
 ing need was that of erecting a common shelter. 
 In discussing the materials out of which the com- 
 mon house was built, the children should be 
 helped to see why it was made of logs and not of 
 sawn lumber, stone, or brick, why it was covered 
 with thatch instead of shingles or tile, why the 
 chinks between the timbers were plastered with 
 clay or with a mortar made of clam-shells, instead 
 of being covered with clapboards. Knowing 
 that the timber is some distance from the site 
 of the village, that the trees have to be felled, 
 trimmed, hewed, and hauled to the site without 
 the aid of horses or oxen and with only the sim- 
 plest tools, and that the weather was so cold and 
 stormy that the men could not work more than 
 half the time, the children can understand why 
 the work proceeded slowly. 
 
 The common house was twenty feet square 
 and "made of hewn logs, pointed with mortar or 
 mud in the chinks between the timbers, and 
 thatched." By January 9, it lacked only a roof 
 to complete it; and the men worked so busily 
 during the next four days that the roof was half 
 thatched. 
 
 It is not necessary to follow the narrative of 
 life during the first winter any farther in this 
 place. Enough has been given to suggest several 
 kinds of work which the children can do in order
 
 200 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 to make the life real. The representation of the 
 village streets, the plots assigned to individual 
 families, the location of the common house and 
 a small house near it which seems to be the only 
 small house completed that winter, and the be- 
 ginnings of several houses, will serve to give a 
 view of the village as a whole, while the repre- 
 sentation of a larger model of the common house 
 than the scale adopted for the village permits, 
 gives a better idea of the method of building as 
 well as a better idea of the house itself. If, in 
 addition to this work, the children be encouraged 
 to collect pictures which will illustrate different 
 phases of the life at this time, and if they draw or 
 paint pictures illustrating typical activities of the 
 Pilgrims, there will be no lack of interest in 
 the work. 
 
 The following subjects are suggestive of work 
 which the children may do in drawing and paint- 
 ing to help make the life of the first winter more 
 real : 
 
 Mending the shallop. 
 
 Repairing the tools. 
 
 Standish leading a party of men in search of a site. 
 
 Cutting eelgrass and cattails for thatch. 
 
 Lost in the woods. 
 
 The first washday in New England. 
 
 Laying out the village. 
 
 Felling trees for the common house. 
 
 Hauling logs for the common house.
 
 IN E.LEMENTARY ED UCA TION 2O I 
 
 Mixing mortar for the common house. 
 Building the common house. 
 Stormy gusts of February. 
 Life in the " Mayflower." 
 Hunting during the first winter. 
 Fishing during the first winter. 
 Searching for ground-nuts. 
 Digging clams. 
 
 Selections from the above list may also be 
 used for compositions. The children may make 
 such lists for themselves and, if allowed to do so, 
 can help the teacher in furnishing valuable ideas 
 for the recitation period. 
 
 In studying the life of the colonists the first 
 summer, the map or maps showing the site and 
 the village as it looked in the winter will make a 
 good starting-point. To this should now be added 
 such features as are typical of the life in Ply- 
 mouth the first summer. The following subjects 
 lend themselves to sand-modeling, constructive 
 work, dramatization, painting, drawing, and lan- 
 guage : 
 
 Planting the first crops. 
 
 Hunting for wild foods. 
 
 The erection of the public building, which was a church, 
 a fort, and a storehouse, all in one. (This building was 
 placed near the top of the hill which commanded a view of 
 the surrounding country. It occupied the spot where the 
 platform with the cannon stood during the first winter.) 
 
 The erection of seven private dwellings, with a garden 
 made just back of each.
 
 202 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 Building the heavy stockade as a means of protection. 
 
 Guarding the three gates in the stockade. 
 
 Preparing the first cargo to be sent to England. 
 (This cargo consisted of beaver-skins, wainscoting, and 
 sassafras, and was the first payment to the merchants who 
 furnished the money for the voyage of the Pilgrims to 
 America.) 
 
 The arrival of the " Fortune" with fifty new settlers. 
 Relations with the Indians. 
 
 In the case of children who have not had 
 experience on a farm or in working a gar- 
 den, the actual cultivation of a garden is almost 
 essential to an understanding of the farm life of 
 the Pilgrims. Whether an actual garden be used 
 or not, the representation on the sand-map of the 
 cleared corn-fields which the Pilgrims first used, 
 and the twenty-six acres which they succeeded in 
 clearing during that summer will be valuable in 
 picturing the life of the little community. Con- 
 cerning their first work in farming, Mr. Palfrey 
 writes : 
 
 The settlers had no working-cattle. In early spring 
 they opened the ground near their dwellings with the 
 spade, and prepared their rude gardens. They sowed six 
 acres with barley and peas. Their good fortune in the 
 winter at the subterranean storehouses had given them ten 
 bushels of Indian corn for seed. This sufficed for the cul- 
 tivation of twenty acres, Squanto instructing them how to 
 plant and hill it, and to manure it with fish. 1 
 
 'See Compendious History of New England, Vol. I, p. 70.
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 203 
 
 No doubt the Pilgrims made a mistake by be- 
 ginning to work in their gardens March 7. They 
 were not used to the cold New England climate, 
 and they were not expecting so many cold days 
 as they had. The early planting may account 
 for the fact that the "peas failed" and the "bar- 
 ley was indifferent good." But the Pilgrims suc- 
 ceeded in harvesting a good crop of corn, for 
 which they were duly thankful. 
 
 If a shock of corn can be brought to the 
 school, it can be so used as to be very helpful. 
 A few stalks of corn may be used so as to deco- 
 rate the schoolroom ; but the main purpose of 
 bringing it to school is to provide materials for 
 practical lessons. The children can husk the 
 corn, leaving the fine white husks on the better 
 ears so as to braid them and hang them up for 
 seed ; they can save the white husks to illustrate 
 ways the colonists used them for braiding mats, 
 and, at a later period, for making collars for the 
 horses ; or they may use them for making baskets 
 which they may wish to use themselves. 
 
 The drying, shelling, and winnowing of the 
 corn may be done out of school hours, if it seems 
 best to the teacher. The cobs should be saved, 
 and part of them may be given to the little chil- 
 dren to use as substitutes for building-blocks. 
 Others may be used in the representation of 
 phases of life in colonial homes.
 
 204 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 The problem of the children in grinding the 
 shelled corn is, in many respects, like that of the 
 first colonists, and the methods they adopt will 
 be much the same, not because the children are 
 re-living that period, but because the problem in 
 the two cases is similar, as well as the means 
 available for its solution. It would be interesting 
 to find out how many ways the children can dis- 
 cover for grinding the corn by making use of the 
 simple implements they can readily find. When 
 the children begin to compare the different 
 methods they have used in grinding, their attention 
 will doubtless first be given to differences in the 
 means employed. But as they proceed in the 
 comparison, someone will be likely to notice that, 
 in spite of the differences, in every case, the meal 
 was manufactured either by pounding or by rubbing 
 the corn. A mortar and pestle made by the 
 children will serve to illustrate the most typical 
 method of grinding by pounding and an old coffee 
 or spice mill which they may be fortunate enough 
 to find will furnish opportunities for studying 
 methods of grinding by rubbing. After using 
 such a mill by hand, the children may be inter- 
 ested in contriving the apparatus necessary in 
 order to run the mill by animal, wind, or water 
 power. In buildings supplied with water-pipes, 
 the little stream of water from the faucet may 
 be used as a substitute for the river, and where
 
 IN ELEMENT A R Y ED UCA TION 205 
 
 such means are not available, the ingenuity of 
 the children, if it is free to express itself, will 
 not be slow in devising equally satisfactory sub- 
 stitutes. 
 
 Such work opens up the whole question of 
 colonial milling, and while engaged in such work 
 the children will be eager to search books to 
 find out all they can on the subject. This is 
 the time when they will appreciate such facts 
 as those which can be gleaned from Weeden's 
 Economic and Social History of New England 
 and from Bishop's History of American Manu- 
 factures. 
 
 In representing the new buildings which were 
 erected during the first summer, the children will 
 be glad to be able to name them. Just above 
 the common house, which is near the shore on 
 the south side of the street, and opposite the 
 cleared corn-field which has since been known as 
 Burial Hill, were the houses of Mr. Brown, Mr. 
 Gardiner, who became a seaman, and Mr. Brewster, 
 the minister, whose house was on the southeast 
 corner of the intersecting streets. Directly op- 
 posite the houses of Mr. Brewster and Mr. Gar- 
 diner, on the north side of the street, were those 
 of Mr. Hopkins, a man from London, and Mr. 
 Howland. Diagonally across from the house of 
 the minister was that of Governor Bradford. In 
 the large space where the streets intersected four
 
 206 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 cannon were placed so as to guard each part of 
 the two streets. The house adjoining that of 
 Governor Bradford belonged to Miles Standish 
 and John Alden, this house being the farthest up 
 the hill on the north side of the street, and near- 
 est the public house on the hill which served as 
 a church, a fort, and a common storehouse. On 
 the south side of the street, and almost opposite 
 the church, was the house of Mr. Winslow. With 
 these data the children can reconstruct a map of 
 Plymouth as it was in 1621, and in so doing get a 
 far better conception of the place than they could 
 by merely looking at the most elaborate map 
 that could be made. When these houses are rep- 
 resented in a simple way, and when the whole 
 model is surrounded by a representation of a 
 heavy stockade with gates at the northern, south- 
 ern, and western approaches, the relations of 
 the various parts of the village will be clearly 
 expressed. 
 
 As data for the first dwellings of the people, 
 Mr. Weeden's description in his Economic and 
 Social History of New England, p. 214, may be 
 used. The house of the first period was 
 
 a plain, rectangular house of one story, with two rooms, a 
 kitchen or a living-room, and a family bedroom, with one 
 or more beds and a trundle-bed. There were rude sleeping- 
 places in the garret, under thatched roofs, whither those 
 beyond maternal care, and active enough, climbed by a 
 ladder.
 
 IN ELEMENTARY EDUCA TION 2O/ 
 
 The doors to these houses hung on long, 
 heavy, wooden hinges, or on hinges made of 
 thick pieces of leather. The oiled-paper windows 
 were latticed for protection. The chimneys and 
 fireplaces were made of sticks and plastered with 
 clay. The few iron cooking utensils brought 
 from England, the plain chest which served as 
 trunk, table, and chair, were supplemented by 
 such hand-made utensils and furniture as the 
 busy people found time to make. In picturing 
 the life of the Pilgrims during the first few years, 
 the children must remember that they had many 
 things to think about besides their own comfort. 
 The company of merchants in England was com- 
 plaining because the "Mayflower" returned with- 
 out a cargo, and could not understand that, 
 during the hardships of the first winter, the Pil- 
 grims had no time to procure materials to send 
 to them. In representing the work of the first 
 summer the children may make drawings of 
 John Alden as he supervised the men cutting 
 timber and making clapboards to send to Eng- 
 land; they may also represent Dr. Fuller as 
 taking charge of the work of stripping off sassa- 
 fras from the trees, and others buying furs 
 from the Indians. Pictures of loading the cargo, 
 the departure of the " Fortune," the plunder of 
 the cargo by a French cruiser, the dissatisfac- 
 tion of the merchants in England, even though
 
 208 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 executed crudely, will serve to emphasize impor- 
 tant links in the chain of events which makes 
 history. 
 
 Since the New England colonies depended 
 chiefly upon agriculture, the fisheries, and trade, 
 up to 1640 when the civil war in England cut off 
 emigration and trade, and forced the colonies to 
 develop manufactures and the homespun indus- 
 tries, it would be well for the teacher in planning 
 her work to keep these three industries in mind, 
 and to shape the practical work of the children 
 so as to make it give insight into the ways in 
 which these industries helped to mold New 
 England life. 
 
 In the study of New England agriculture the 
 successive steps by means of which the colonists 
 passed from common fields to individual annual 
 holdings assigned by lot, and later to permanent 
 holdings of farm lands, while the meadow lands 
 were still held in common, may be shown in a suc- 
 cession of maps showing the division of the fields. 
 
 Concerning the allotment of land in the spring 
 of 1623, Mr. Palfrey writes: 
 
 To each family, in place of the partnership labor 
 hitherto maintained, had been assigned in the spring the 
 cultivation and usufruct of a separate parcel of land, the 
 unmarried persons being each attached to some family, and 
 a provision being added that each cultivator should at har- 
 vest-time bring in a competent portion for the maintenance 
 of public officers, fishermen, etc. This method made all
 
 * i
 
 IN ELEMENTARY EDUCA TION 209 
 
 hands very industrious, so as much more corn was planted 
 than otherwise would have been, and it gave far better 
 content. The women now went willingly into the field, and 
 took their little ones with them to set corn whom to have 
 compelled would have been thought great tyranny and 
 oppression. 1 
 
 Perhaps the change made in the allotment of 
 land in 1627, the year in which the Pilgrims 
 dissolved partnership with the merchants in Eng- 
 land, is the next one which it is worth the while 
 for the children to take into account. 
 
 The land along the banks of the stream to the south of 
 the town was divided, by officers specially appointed, into 
 patches of twenty acres each, with a river frontage of five 
 acres. These were then assigned by lot to the different 
 householders. At the same time the system of separate 
 holdings did not at once supersede that of common tillage. 
 Since it was beyond the power of a single householder to 
 till twenty acres of ground at once, only those lots which 
 lay near the town were to be taken in hand. Each land- 
 owner whose plot was brought under cultivation was to 
 associate with him a certain number of his neighbors 
 chosen by himself, or, in default, assigned to him by the 
 governor and assistants. This arrangement was to last 
 four years. The owner was to reserve for his own use 
 twice as much land as he could reclaim during that time. 
 Meanwhile his associates were to live on the rest, and at 
 the end of the term to proceed to their own holdings. The 
 owner of each plot was to have full rights over all timber 
 which grew upon it, but he was to enjoy no monopoly of 
 
 1 See Compendious History of New England, Vol. I, pp. 81, 82.
 
 2 1 THE PLA CE OF IND USTRIES 
 
 fowling or fishing and he was bound to leave a footpath 
 through his ground. 1 
 
 The method of farming before the use of 
 cattle and horses can be best appreciated by the 
 children if they are helping take care of a school 
 garden. If to this experience they add the 
 making of drawings of such simple farming 
 implements as those brought by the Pilgrims from 
 England, and if they make models of the simple, 
 natural tools which the people were obliged to 
 make, the earliest period of farm life in New 
 England ought to be fairly well understood. 
 
 We are told that each planter migrating to 
 New England was advised to take one broad hoe, 
 one narrow hoe, one broad ax, one felling ax, one 
 steel hand-saw, one whip-saw, one hammer, one 
 shovel, one spade, two augers, four chisels, two 
 piercers, one gimlet, and one hatchet. 2 We may 
 be very sure that the Pilgrims were not so well 
 equipped with tools as this, but they undoubtedly 
 had iron spades for digging up the soil, hoes for 
 cultivating the crops, and sickles for reaping. 
 For threshing they could easily make a flail out 
 of two straight saplings and a short piece of 
 leather. We may well believe that the Pilgrims 
 had enough hoes to use; for we read of their 
 trading them to the Indians, who gladly substi- 
 
 1 DOYLE, English Colonies in America, Vol. I, p. 63. 
 
 'See DANIEL WAIT HOWE, The Puritan Republic, p. 132.
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 2 1 1 
 
 tuted the more efficient tool for the clam-shell 
 hoe the Indian women had used. An important 
 point to emphasize regarding the tools is that 
 those made at first were chiefly of wood, and that 
 natural forms, which required the least amount of 
 labor to shape, were sought with the greatest 
 care. 
 
 When the mower wanted a new snathe or snead, as he 
 called it, for his scythe, he found in the woods a deformed 
 sapling that had grown under a log or twisted around a 
 rock in a double bend, which made it the exact shape he 
 desired. He then whittled it, dressed it with a draw- 
 shave, fastened the nebs with a neb-wedge, hung it with an 
 iron ring, and was ready for the mowing-field. 1 
 
 With the introduction of cattle and horses the 
 colonial farmers were able to make much more 
 rapid progress. The first cattle, a bull and three 
 heifers, were introduced in 1624. In 1625 there 
 were nine cattle, and in 1627 there were twelve 
 cows in Plymouth. Not until the first ten years 
 of pioneer life had passed did the Pilgrims have 
 many cattle. Their neighbors, the Massachusetts 
 Bay colonists, had cattle from the first, and so 
 were able to make use of them in their farm labor 
 as well as for dairy purposes. 
 
 As the children try to represent the life of the 
 colonists between 1630 and 1640, when they 
 have plenty of cattle and are entering upon a 
 
 'ALICE MORSE EARLE, Home Life in Colonial Days, p. 308.
 
 2 1 2 THE PLA CE OF IND USTRIES 
 
 period of prosperity, let them represent on their 
 maps the meadows and marshes where the native 
 grasses grew, without which the cattle could not 
 have lived. Mr. Weeden, in writing of the best 
 soils where the timber and brushwood had been 
 kept cleared by the fires kindled by the Indians, 
 states: "The grass was close-set, waist-high, 
 and in some places as high as the shoulders." 
 Without this grass the cattle could not have 
 been reared, and without cattle the colonists 
 would scarcely have been able to subdue the 
 wilderness. 
 
 Let the children picture the cowherd as he 
 started on his day's work an hour after sunrise 
 each morning blowing his horn as a signal to the 
 villagers to be ready with their herds. Let them 
 follow him in imagination through the day until, 
 as the sun gets low in the west, he drives the 
 long line of cattle toward the village, again wind- 
 ing his horn as a signal to the villagers to let 
 down their bars and receive their respective herds. 
 Milking the cows, straining the milk, skimming 
 the cream, churning, gathering and working the 
 butter, may be described as a composition exercise 
 by children who have the experience. In the 
 case of those not familiar with such work it is 
 worth while to help the children get the experience 
 by doing some of this work at school. This 
 may be supplemented by pictures, descriptions,
 
 IN ELEMENTARY EDUCA TION 2 1 3 
 
 and illustrative constructive work until the chil- 
 dren have had sufficient opportunity to grasp the 
 subject. 
 
 The presence of cattle means not merely their 
 assistance in farming, but it means that the colo- 
 nists must make plows to take the place of their 
 spades, "horse-hoes" to supplement hand-hoes, 
 carts and racks upon which to load the farm 
 produce, ox-yokes and other forms of harness in 
 order to attach the animals to the machinery 
 which they are to work. Stables and barns, too, 
 must be made to shelter the animals, and corn 
 and hay provided for their food. All these points 
 may be illustrated in graphic ways which will 
 form a variety of useful occupations. 
 
 When the study of the changes wrought in 
 farming by the introduction of cattle has been 
 finished, it may be well to notice that the increased 
 demand for agricultural implements creates in 
 turn a demand for iron works. At the same time, 
 tanneries are erected to manufacture leather for 
 harnesses, straps, and sundry other purposes, and 
 mills to grind grain as well as to manufacture 
 lumber for the buildings and implements needed 
 on the farms. These facts should be noticed at 
 this time, if for no other purpose than that of 
 turning the child's attention to certain factors 
 which were dominant in the following period, 
 beginning about 1640.
 
 2 1 4 THE PLA CE OF JND USTRIES 
 
 Although the settlement of Massachusetts Bay 
 Colony is of much more significance in the 
 development of New England than that of Ply- 
 mouth, if the children have reconstructed the life 
 at Plymouth by means of sand-modeling, con- 
 structive work, drawings, paintings, and drama- 
 tization, they will be prepared to understand the 
 life of the later and more powerful colony with- 
 out taking time for so many practical activities 
 as have been suggested in connection with the 
 study of Plymouth. It will be well, however, 
 after a brief account of the first events in the 
 history of that colony to model a typical town- 
 ship, showing the location of the streets, public 
 buildings, homes, farms, pasture, and woodlands. 
 
 The following quotations may be helpful as a 
 guide in the children's representative work : 
 
 When settlers came over from England to Mass- 
 achusetts, they usually came in congregations led by their 
 ministers, and settled together in parishes, or townships. 
 In this way the soil of Massachusetts gradually became 
 covered with little self-governing republics, called town- 
 ships, or towns, each about six or eight miles square, with 
 a village street for its center, surrounded by spreading 
 farms. The church in the village was used, not only for 
 religious services, but for transacting public business, and 
 was always called the meeting-house. At a later time it 
 was used only as a church, and another building, called 
 the townhouse, or townhall, was used for public business. 
 The meeting-house and townhouse usually stood beside a 
 large open grazing-ground, or common, and in early times
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 2 1 5 
 
 this village center was apt to be placed upon high ground 
 in order that the approach of hostile parties of red men 
 might more easily be detected. On or near the common 
 there was in many villages, a fort, or blockhouse, built of 
 heavy timbers, where the people could take refuge in case 
 of sudden attack. 1 
 
 Land was alloted by a system like that adopted by the 
 Virginia Colony. Each shareholder was to have two 
 hundred acres for every fifty pounds that he had invested. 
 If he settled in the colony, he was to have fifty more for 
 himself and fifty for each member of his family. Emigrants 
 who were not shareholders were to have an allotment of fifty 
 acres, with the same quantity for each servant exported. 
 The governor and council had also power to grant a further 
 quantity to emigrants according to their charge and 
 quality. 2 
 
 The constructive work illustrative of New 
 England life will not be complete without a rep- 
 resentation of the meeting-house. The children, 
 doubtless, will be interested to learn that no 
 provision was made for heating it for one hundred 
 and fifty years, and that it was not lighted until a 
 late period, when it was used for singing school. 
 
 The meeting-house of the first period was the central build- 
 ing of the Puritan town. The village grew up around it, 
 and the country roads were laid out with reference to it. 
 The first meeting-house was built of logs and thatched. 
 The pulpit was a simple desk. There were rough benches 
 on either side of the central aisle. The men sat on one 
 side and the women on the other. Sometimes the meeting- 
 
 "FlSKE, United States History, pp. 94, 95. 
 
 3 DOYLE, English Colonies in America, Vol. I, p. 92.
 
 2l6 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 house was surrounded by palisades, with a sentinel at the 
 gate, and the people used it as a place of deposit for 
 powder, and also for their most valuable possessions. 1 
 
 The home of the minister was a "small log 
 cabin, with the old well-sweep outside, and with 
 cultivated fields about it." 
 
 The meeting-house of the second period was 
 a barn-like structure, nearly square, with a roof 
 the form of a pyramid, from the center of which 
 rose a steeple. A bell was suspended from the 
 steeple and used in place of the drum or conch 
 shell in calling the people to church. 
 
 Although land was alloted by the same 
 methods in New England and in Virginia differ- 
 ences in soil and climate were such as to produce 
 very different modes of agriculture. The failure 
 of attempts in New England to introduce servile 
 labor in agriculture may be noticed, for they serve 
 to bring out essential points of difference in the 
 two sections. If the children have already 
 studied colonial life in Virginia, they will be ready 
 to make the points of contrast ; but if not, time 
 may be saved by taking time to bring out these 
 points in a graphic way. The following quota- 
 tions show important differences in social and 
 economic conditions in the two sections, and 
 these differences may readily be understood by 
 the children if they are given the opportunity to 
 
 1 BYINGTON, Puritans in England and New England, p. 1 10.
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 2 1 7 
 
 represent these differences by illustrative con- 
 structive work : 
 
 A great plantation, with its galleried manor-house, its 
 row of negro quarters, and group of barns and shops, was 
 in a large measure a self-sustaining community. The 
 planter needed little that could be obtained elsewhere in his 
 own colony or in the South, and conducted his commercial 
 operations direct with England, the West Indies, and the 
 northern colonies. Vessels came to his landing, bringing 
 the supplies which he had ordered of his correspondents, 
 and loading for the return trip with such material as he 
 had for export. Under this independent system whereby 
 the rural magnate was his own merchant, and negro slaves 
 his only workmen, neither general trade nor industries 
 could flourish. Manufactures of every sort even tables, 
 chairs, stools, wooden bowls, and birchen brooms were, 
 along with many necessaries of life, imported from Eng- 
 land and neighboring colonies. There were a few negroes 
 on every plantation who were trained to the mechanic 
 arts ; and a small number of white craftsmen found work 
 in traveling around the country, doing such jobs as were 
 beyond the capacity of the slaves. 1 
 
 Small villages, neighborhood centers of the several 
 townships, abounded everywhere. The houses of the 
 minister and school-teacher, with little shops of tradesmen 
 and artisans, formed the nucleus around which the farm- 
 houses were grouped with more or less density. The 
 village streets, overhung with arching elms, were kept in 
 tolerable order by the " hog-reeves," " fence-viewers," and 
 other town officials. The quaint, roomy, gambrel-roofed 
 houses were scroupulously plain and clean, and presided 
 over by model housewifes.* 
 
 1 THWAITES, The Colonies, pp. 102, 103. 3 Ibid., p. 186.
 
 2 1 8 THE PLA CE OF IND USTRIES 
 
 After representing the above, the children will 
 be better able to understand the following differ- 
 ences in political organization, which they may 
 be able to represent in various ways : 
 
 In the southern colonies the country was traversed by 
 deep, broad river highways, leading far inland ; the cli- 
 mate was genial, the savages proved comparatively 
 friendly, and the introduction of slavery tended to foster 
 an aristocratic class of landed proprietors; large planta- 
 tions, therefore, were the rule. There were a few small 
 trading villages, but the bulk of the people were isolated, 
 and township governments were impracticable. The 
 settlers, therefore, adopted a primary government akin to 
 the English rural county, having jurisdiction over a wide 
 tract of country, with a commander of militia, appointed by 
 the governor and styled a lieutenant, whose duties and 
 authority were similar to those of the lords-lieutenant at 
 home, judicial powers being exercised by eight or more 
 gentlemen, also appointed by the governor, serving as a 
 county court. It should be remembered that the southern 
 county was not, as in England, a group of towns ; it was 
 itself the primary organization. The parish was some- 
 times, in newly settled portions, co-extensive with the 
 county; but more often the latter was, for religious pur- 
 poses, divided into parishes, the vestries of which had 
 authority in some civil matters. 1 
 
 The tendency of the southern political and social sys- 
 tem was to concentrate power in the hands of a few men, 
 in sharp distinction to the New England plan, where the 
 people governed themselves in small primary assemblies, 
 only delegating the conduct of details to their agents, the 
 town officers. 2 
 
 id., p. 56. *Ibid^ p. 57.
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 2 1 9 
 
 In New England the narrowness of the Atlantic slope, 
 the shortness of the rivers, the severe climate, the hostility 
 of the savages, the neighborhood of the French, the density 
 of the forests, and the fact that each community was an 
 organized religious congregation people belonging to one 
 church, who had resolved to live together led to the 
 establishment of more or less compact communities, called 
 towns ; and these were the political and ecclesiastical units. 1 
 
 In the middle colonies, which partook of the climatic 
 characteristics of both their northern and southern neigh- 
 bors, and had a population made up of various nationali- 
 ties, there were compact trading towns, as well as large 
 agricultural regions ; and there we find a mixed system of 
 both townships and counties. 2 
 
 Almost from the first the Pilgrims were a 
 trading people, and trading continued to be one 
 of the most important industries of the New 
 England colonies. The problem of the teacher 
 is not that of having the children read and recite 
 these facts. It is rather that of helping them to 
 discover in the situation in which the colonists 
 are placed the need of trade, the manner in which 
 it is carried on, and the means by which it can be 
 developed. 
 
 First of all the children should consider the 
 equipment of the Pilgrims, their natural environ- 
 ment, and the prospect of their being able to live 
 without engaging in trade. The differences in 
 the productions of the northern, middle, and 
 southern colonies should be noticed, as well as 
 *lbid.
 
 220 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 the contrasts between their productions and those 
 of the West Indies. The abundance of raw ma- 
 terials for manufacture in the New World and the 
 poverty of their equipment for manufacturing, 
 should be set over against the exhausted condi- 
 tion of natural resources in the mother-country 
 and its good equipment for manufacturing. Such 
 a contrast will make clear the motive of the 
 mother-country in planting colonies for purposes 
 of trade. 
 
 The problem of finding out what ships came 
 over from England during the first few years, and 
 what cargoes were taken each way, can easily be 
 solved by consulting text-books, and the points 
 learned may be represented in a graphic way on 
 maps made by the children. The routes of the 
 oceanic trade should be noted, and their relations 
 to ocean currents and prevailing winds. Models 
 or drawings of the ships may be made, and of the 
 harbors into which they came. 
 
 A study of the problem of the Pilgrims in 
 securing a cargo to send to the mother-country, 
 leads directly to a consideration of the fishermen, 
 on the one hand, and of the trappers and traders 
 of the New World, on the other. 
 
 Accounts of the fishing expeditions along the 
 Atlantic coast may be given, and the relation of 
 the settlement of Massachusetts Bay to the 
 fisheries. The best fishing grounds should be
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 22 1 
 
 represented on the maps, and a study made of the 
 habits of the fish which frequent these grounds 
 in the different seasons. Illustrations of fishing 
 tackle, fishing boats, and the manner of curing 
 and packing the fish, may be made. 
 
 No phase of this work can be made more fas- 
 cinating to the children than that of the trade 
 with the Indians. Knowing the furs which are 
 most in demand in England, the children may 
 learn to locate on their maps the places where the 
 animals from which they are taken are trapped. 
 A study of the habits of the animals, the kind of 
 traps made, the life of the trappers as they go 
 their daily rounds, the journey of the trappers to 
 the trading-posts of the colonists, the manner of 
 trade, and the method of transporting the furs to 
 the seacoast, are subjects which lend themselves 
 to both story and art. The successive steps in 
 the growth of a trading-post from a meeting- 
 place of the trappers and traders at any spot 
 which suits the convenience of the parties, to the 
 establishment of a permanent trading-post, may 
 be shown on the sand-maps, and by means of 
 drawings and paintings. 
 
 The following description of a typical trading- 
 post may furnish the teacher with data which she 
 may need in guiding the children in their con- 
 structive work. The trading-post stands
 
 222 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 generally upon the second or lower bank of some navigable 
 river or lake, so as to be easily accessible to the boats 
 which annually visit it for supplies. A trading-post is 
 invariably a square, inclosed by immense trees or pickets, 
 one end sunk deeply in the ground and placed close 
 together. A platform, about the height of an ordinary 
 man, is carried along the inner side of the square, so 
 as to enable anyone to peep over without danger from 
 an arrow or bullet. At the four corners are bastions, 
 octagonal in shape, pierced with embrasures, to lead the 
 
 Indians to believe in the existence of cannon The 
 
 entrance to the stockade is closed by two massive gates, an 
 inner and an outer one. In the center of the square stands 
 the residence of the trader in charge, and of the upper class 
 employees, while about its four sides, close to the stockade, 
 are ranged the trading store, the fur-room, the warehouses, 
 servants' quarters, etc. 1 
 
 In representing the routes of inland trade in 
 the early days of New England, the children 
 should indicate on their maps the rivers used, 
 the places where portages would have to be made, 
 the trails, the traders with packs upon their backs 
 following the trail, and the fording-places and 
 foot-bridges which were used at that time. 
 
 After the introduction of domestic animals, 
 the children should make a new map, or change 
 the old one so as to show the changes made in 
 methods of transportation. They should make 
 drawings of long trains of pack-horses laden 
 
 '"The Honorable Hudson Bay Company," Harper's Maga- 
 zine, Vol. LIX, p. 22.
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 22$ 
 
 with furs coming down the trail from the trading- 
 post. They may also make drawings which 
 will show the packing of the horses, the resting- 
 places, or any other phase of the journey which 
 interest in the subject may call up. 
 
 The change made about 1640, when the trails 
 were widened into roads, and ox-carts were used 
 to supplement, if not to supersede, the pack- 
 horse, should also be represented. This map 
 should show ferry-boats at the places where the 
 larger streams intersect the roads, and horse- 
 bridges at the smaller streams. These changes 
 should be related to the changes in the growth 
 of the trading-post. 
 
 The construction of models of the ox-carts, 
 harnesses, rope-ferries, and boats presents oppor- 
 tunities for manual training which should not be 
 neglected. The fact that two-wheeled carts did 
 service in trading and farming until after the War 
 of 1812 should be noticed, together with the fact 
 that for many years iron was so dear that people 
 were not permitted to have iron tires on their 
 cart-wheels. In constructing a model of a rope- 
 ferry the children should be encouraged to work 
 out methods which will illustrate the actual man- 
 ner of moving the ferry across the stream. 
 
 The beginnings of shipbuilding in the colonies 
 may be related, on the one hand, to the demand 
 for means of carrying on trading and fishing
 
 224 THE PL A CE OF IND US TRIES 
 
 expeditions, and, on the other, to the vast forests 
 in which could be found excellent material for 
 shipbuilding. Lumbering, an important industry 
 from the earliest times, should be viewed as an 
 effort of the colonists to supply materials for 
 trade, for the manufacture of ships, and for lum- 
 ber for better houses, furniture, and agricultural 
 and household implements. The saw-mill, when 
 viewed in relation to this network of activities, 
 is seen to be an essential factor in securing com- 
 fortable homes for the people, ships for carrying 
 on trading and fishing expeditions, and cargoes 
 to exchange for articles which are not yet pro- 
 duced in the colonies. 
 
 The middle and southern colonies were able 
 at an early date to supply the New England 
 colonies with domestic animals, grain, cattle, rice, 
 indigo, and cotton in exchange for fur and fish. 
 Long Island Sound served to unite the scattered 
 New England colonists, and to furnish them with 
 a protected route for trade with the middle and 
 southern colonies. These facts may be made 
 clear on the map, which should be referred to 
 from time to time so as to insure real thinking on 
 the part of the children. 
 
 Almost every child learns, while studying 
 geography, that New England is a manufacturing 
 country. In view of this fact, the teacher should 
 so present the study of the history of. this section
 
 IN ELEMENT A RY ED UCA TION 22$ 
 
 as to show the child the beginnings of the indus- 
 tries which are of such importance today. The 
 suggestions thus far emphasize the fact that the 
 New England colonies from 1620 to 1640 were 
 largely producers of raw materials which were 
 manufactured in the mother-country. On account 
 of the poverty of the colonists and the remote- 
 ness from Europe, many of the necessaries of life 
 were manufactured at home during these years, 
 but the main dependence for manufactured articles 
 during this time was the mother-country. 
 
 In studying the beginnings of manufactures, 
 let the children model New England in sand and 
 locate the mountains which, at first, served as a 
 fort and later as a limit to expansion. Then let 
 them model the lowland belt, varying in width 
 from fifty to eighty miles, and contrast it with 
 the much wider belt of fertile land in the middle 
 and southern colonies. Such a view of the 
 country will give a basis for the conclusion that 
 the arable lands will soon be occupied, and that 
 the people must find other work to do. At the 
 same time, it will serve to reinforce the fact that 
 during the first period of the settlement it was far 
 easier for the colonists to maintain themselves by 
 agriculture, fishing, and commerce than by means 
 of manufacturing. Yet even in the early period 
 beginnings were made, and the children may 
 profitably search available books of reference for
 
 226 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 accounts of the first manufactures of salt for the 
 fisheries ; of lime and brick for building purposes ; 
 of iron for tools; of machinery for the manu- 
 facture of agricultural implements ; of leather for 
 clothing and harnesses ; of cotton, flax, hemp, and 
 wool for clothing; and of lumber for shipbuilding 
 and many other forms of manufacture. 
 
 Knowing that the beginnings had already been 
 made before 1640, and that the settlers were 
 pushing westward trying to find larger farms and 
 better pasturage for their cattle, the children are 
 prepared to understand why the civil war in 
 England, which checked emigration and com- 
 merce, turned the community in upon itself, and 
 stimulated all forms of manufacture. 
 
 Of the many forms of manufactures which 
 grew up at this time in New England, the textile 
 industry is one of the most valuable for educa- 
 tional purposes, and one which can be readily 
 introduced into the schools with little or no 
 expense. For these reasons it is selected at this 
 time, although others may be worked out by the 
 teacher in such a way as to be of great value. 
 
 As a supplement to what the text-books state 
 concerning the textile industry, the children may 
 make a brief study of the sources of such raw 
 materials as cotton, flax, hemp, and wool, and the 
 method of preparing them for use. The particu- 
 lar material selected for the children to use in
 
 B S
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 227 
 
 spinning and weaving depends upon the natural 
 resources of the locality. Where sheep are 
 raised, wool is the most appropriate material to 
 use. In connection with the discussion of the 
 best material for the children to use in their own 
 work, they may find out what materials the New 
 England colonists secured directly from their own 
 locality, and what materials they were obliged to 
 import. The laws made during this period which 
 tended to promote the cultivation of flax and the 
 raising of sheep can be appreciated by the chil- 
 dren at this time. 
 
 The accompanying illustration will doubtless 
 speak more forcibly than words to the teacher 
 regarding the method of introducing the textile 
 work into the school. It shows children wash- 
 ing the wool, spinning with simple spindles of 
 their own manufacture, carding the wool with 
 home-made cards and weaving on a simple frame 
 which each child can make for himself out of four 
 narrow strips of wood. In teaching this subject, 
 it is not best to attempt to do all this work at 
 once. One day may well be devoted to a study 
 of the wool and to washing and drying it. 
 Another day may be given to experimenting 
 with the wool so as to find ways of carding and 
 spinning it into yarn. Then the looms are to be 
 invented, not given ready-made, for it is in the 
 invention of the apparatus that the chief value of
 
 228 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 the work consists. The spinning and weaving by 
 such devices as the children can invent for them- 
 selves serves also to illustrate the nature of the 
 work of the colonists before they had spinning- 
 wheels and looms with foot-treadles. 
 
 The children should spin enough yarn with 
 the simple spindle to enable them to appreciate 
 the value of commercial materials and the im- 
 proved devices by means of which they have been 
 prepared. Then it is perfectly legitimate for 
 them to make use of other materials. 
 
 The question regarding what shall be woven 
 in the first work depends largely upon the inter- 
 ests of the children. If they are interested in 
 weaving small pieces to furnish the models of 
 the houses made, they should be allowed to do 
 so ; but if they are more interested in weaving 
 something which can be put to some material 
 use, there is no objection to letting them do it. 
 Perhaps the account of the making of the rug 
 which is shown on the opposite page may be sug- 
 gestive of ways of directing the children's work 
 to ends which combine several valuable points. 
 The children in the fifth grade of the training 
 department of the University of Utah wished to 
 make the principal of that department a present, 
 and thought he might like a rug for his office. 
 When it came to the question of designing the 
 rug, they decided that the pattern they were to
 
 I 5 
 
 W i
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 2 29 
 
 make should have a meaning, and they agreed to 
 let it tell something of the pioneer history of 
 Utah. After discussing the subject they chose 
 the blossom of the sago lily a plant with a nu- 
 tritious bulb which the pioneers used as food in 
 their "starving times" and conventionalized it 
 for one of the units of design. Two other units 
 were made by conventionalizing the form of the 
 grasshopper and of the sea gull, a bird sacred in 
 Utah on account of the belief that the sea gulls 
 saved the crops of Utah by eating the grass- 
 hoppers which threatened them. The fourth unit 
 of design was secured by conventionalizing the 
 form of the ox-cart used by the pioneers in cross- 
 ing the plains. The illustration shows the design 
 made, and the accompanying pieces show the 
 method used in weaving it. It is given here as 
 an excellent example of original work which 
 unites the interests of children to those of the 
 school as well as to the larger movements of 
 history. 
 
 Children should be encouraged to invent 
 simple designs of their own which have a social 
 significance. The beaver, the canoe, or the pack- 
 horse may be used in making designs which will 
 represent the fur trade ; the codfish may be used 
 as a symbol of the fisheries ; the plow, the spade, 
 and the hoe, as symbols of farming; and the dis- 
 taff as a symbol of the textile industry. The
 
 230 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 children should be encouraged, too, to invent 
 ways of improving their spindles and looms, and 
 to discover in the more complex forms which 
 they may have opportunity to observe, the essen- 
 tial principles which are used in the crude devices 
 which they have invented. 1 
 
 Colonial methods of dyeing may also furnish 
 occupations of great interest and value to chil- 
 dren. In approaching this subject the children 
 should be encouraged to experiment with the 
 juices of the various fruits, stems, leaves, and 
 roots which are available, and to determine what 
 color they will yield and what means to use in 
 order to "set" the color so that it will not wash 
 out. 
 
 Mrs. Alice Morse Earle, in Home Life in Co- 
 lonial Days, p. 193, writes: 
 
 Madder, cochineal, and logwood dyed beautiful reds. 
 The bark of red oak or hickory made very pretty shades 
 of brown and yellow. Various flowers growing on the 
 farm could be used for dyes. The flower of the golden- 
 rod, when pressed of its juice, mixed with indigo, and 
 added to alum, made a beautiful green. The juice of the 
 pokeberry boiled with alum made crimson dye, and a 
 
 1 The limits of this chapter forbid giving all the details which 
 the teacher may wish to know. For further information regard- 
 ing methods of spinning and weaving reference is made to ALICE 
 MORSE EARLE, Home Life in Colonial Days, and to an article by 
 OTIS TUFTON MASON, entitled "A Primitive Frame for Weaving 
 Narrow Fabrics," published in the Smithsonian Report of the 
 United States National Museum, 1899, pp. 485-510.
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 2 3 I 
 
 violet juice from the petals of the iris, or "flower-de-luce," 
 that blossomed in the June meadows, gave a delicate 
 purple tinge to white wool. 
 
 The relief map which the children make to 
 represent the period of industrial development 
 beginning about 1640 should show that the 
 villages are no longer isolated, but organized for 
 social life. This organization can be indicated by 
 means of roads, bridges, ferries, boats, carts, pack- 
 horses, etc. In 1643 Plymouth colony consisted 
 of three thousand inhabitants, living in eight dis- 
 tinct towns. In addition to this, it had several in- 
 dependent trading and fishing stations along the 
 coast. These should be shown together with the 
 other settlements in New England which we have 
 not attempted to describe at this time. 
 
 The children may also make models of the 
 houses which are typical of this period, emphasiz- 
 ing the changes which were made possible by 
 the development of home manufactures. The 
 house of the earlier period may do service at 
 this time in illustrating the dwellings on the 
 frontier and in the isolated farming regions. But 
 in the towns the frame house appears to announce 
 the presence of the saw-mill, an occasional struc- 
 ture of brick and stone bears witness of the dawn 
 of quarrying and brickmaking, and the small 
 diamond-shaped window panes tell of the estab- 
 lishment of glass works.
 
 232 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 The following description, from Weedens' 
 Economic and Social History of New England, p. 
 214, may be taken as typical of the better houses 
 of this period : 
 
 Many of the Connecticut villagers had houses two- 
 storied in front with the roof sloping in the rear to the first 
 story, or still nearer to the base, thus giving the structure 
 a firm hold on the ground. A "lean-to" was very com- 
 mon, and closets were around the chimney and dipped 
 into recesses of the attic. Sometimes they were planned 
 for hiding and concealment. This class of houses had four 
 main rooms, the larger ones often twenty feet square, on 
 one floor. On the ground floor was a parlor, or " great 
 room," for company; a bedroom; a kitchen, the main 
 assembling place of the family; and a milk and cheese 
 pantry. 
 
 The sides of the houses were now clapboarded, 
 the roofs shingled, and the windows fitted with 
 glass panes. Stone and brick were now used for 
 chimneys instead of sticks plastered with clay; 
 and hinges of iron replaced those of wood and 
 leather. All these changes bear witness of the 
 progress of the colonists in the manufacturing 
 arts. 
 
 There were velvet chairs in the parlors of the 
 wealthy, and woolen curtains, curtain rods, and 
 "valiants" in parlor chambers. The bedroom 
 was seldom heated, and had it not been for the 
 feather bed and heavy woolen bed-curtains, it 
 would have been exceedingly uncomfortable.
 
 IN ELEMENT A RY ED UCA TION 233 
 
 Let the children read descriptions of the ways in 
 which the different rooms were furnished and 
 make models of the furnished rooms. The 
 "turn-up" bedstead so common in colonial 
 homes was usually placed in the kitchen, the 
 warmest room in the house, and was used by the 
 master and mistress. It consisted of 
 
 a strong frame filled with a network of ropes which was 
 fastened to the bed-head by hinges to the wall. By night 
 the foot of the bed rested on two heavy legs ; by day the 
 frame with its bed furnishings was hooked up to the wall, 
 and covered with homespun curtains or doors. 1 
 
 In the bedroom there was a high-posted bed- 
 stead, with a feather bed above one filled with 
 straw or pine needles. The linen was fine and 
 white, and the bed-quilts were of varied patterns. 
 Coverlets woven in "fanciful and geometric 
 designs" were a favorite bed-covering in colonial 
 days. The warming-pan, used to warm the cold 
 sheets during the winter, was found in the better 
 homes. A bureau with drawers, a washstand, a 
 wash basin, a soap-box, and brush-tray completed 
 the bedroom outfit. 
 
 The kitchen was the most important and the 
 most comfortable room in the house. The signifi- 
 cance of this room as a social and industrial 
 center has been so well described by Mr. Sheldon 
 in his History of Deerfield, Vol. I, pp. 279-81, 
 
 1 ALICE MORSE EARLE, op. tit., p. 55.
 
 234 THE PL A CE OF IND USTRIES 
 
 that the teacher will find it rich in suggestions 
 for a great variety of illustrative work. He 
 writes : 
 
 The ample kitchen was the center of family life, social 
 and industrial. Here around the rough table, seated on 
 rude stools or benches, all partook of the plain and some- 
 times stinted fare. A glance at the family gathered here 
 after nightfall of a winter's day may proof of interest. 
 After a supper of bean porridge, or hasty-pudding and 
 milk, of which all partake in common from a pewter basin, 
 or wooden bowl, with spoons of wood, horn, or pewter; 
 after a reverent reading of the Bible, and fervent suppli- 
 cation to the Most High for caie and guidance ; after the 
 watch was set on the tall mount, and the vigilant sentinel 
 began pacing his lonely beat, the shutters were closed and 
 barred, and with a sense of security the occupations of the 
 long winter evening began. Here was a picture of in- 
 dustry, enjoined alike by the law of the land and the stem 
 necessities of the settlers. All were busy. Idleness was 
 a crime. On the settle, or a low armchair, in the most 
 sheltered nook, sat the revered grandam as a term of 
 endearment called granny in red woolen gown and 
 white linen cap, her gray hair and wrinkled face reflecting 
 the bright firelight, the long stocking growing under her 
 busy needles, while she watched the youngling of the 
 flock in the cradle by her side. The good wife, in linsey- 
 woolsey short-gown and red petticoat, steps lightly back 
 and forth in calf pumps, beside the great wheel, or poising 
 gracefully on the right foot, the left hand extended with the 
 roll or bat, while with a wheel-finger in the other she gives 
 the wheel a few short turns for a final twist to the long- 
 drawn thread of wool or tow. The continuous buzz of the 
 flax wheels, harmonizing with the spasmodic hum of the
 
 IN ELEMENT A RY ED UCA TION 235 
 
 big wheel, shows that the girls are preparing a stock of 
 linen against their wedding-day. Less active and more 
 fitful rattled the quill wheel, where the younger children 
 are filling quills for the morrow's weaving. 
 
 Craftsmen are still scarce, and the yeoman must de- 
 pend largely on his own skill and resources. The grandsire, 
 and the goodman, his son, in blue woolen frocks, buckskin 
 breeches, long stockings, and clouted brogans with pewter 
 buckles, and the older boys, in shirts of brown tow, waist- 
 coat and breeches of butter-nut-colored woolen homespun, 
 surrounded by piles of hickory shavings, are whittling out 
 with keen Barlow jackknives implements for home use ; 
 ox-bows and bow-pins, ax-helves, rakestales, forkstales, 
 handles for spades and billhooks, wooden shovels, flail staff 
 and swingle, swingling knives, or pokes and hog yokes for 
 unruly cattle and swine. The more ingenious perhaps are 
 fashioning buckets, or powdering tubs, or weaving skepes, 
 baskets, or snow-shoes. Some, it may be, sit astride the 
 wooden shovel, shelling corn on its iron-shod edge, while 
 others are pounding it into samp or hominy in the great 
 wooden mortar. 
 
 There are no lamps or candles, but the red light from 
 the burning pine-knots on the hearth glows over all, repeat- 
 ing in fantastic pantomime on the brown walls and closed 
 shutters the varied activities around it. These are occa- 
 sionally brought into a higher relief by the white flashes, 
 as the boys throw handfuls of hickory shavings on to the 
 forestick, or punch the backlog with the long iron-peel, 
 while wishing they had "as many shillings as sparks go up 
 the chimney." Then the smoke-stained joists and boards of 
 the ceiling, with the twisted rings of pumpkin, strings of 
 crimson peppers, and festoons of apples drying on poles 
 hung beneath ; the men's hats, the crook-necked squashes , 
 the skeins of thread and yarn hanging in bunches on the
 
 236 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 wainscot ; the sheen of the pewter plates and basins, stand- 
 ing in rows on the shelves of the dresser ; the trusty fire- 
 lock, with powder horn, bandolier, and bullet pouch, hang- 
 ing on the summertree, and the bright brass warming-pan 
 behind the bedroom door all stand revealed more clearly 
 for an instant, showing the provident care for the comfort 
 and safety of the household. Dimly seen in the corners of 
 the room are baskets, in which are packed hands of flax 
 from the barn, where, under the flax-brake, the swingling- 
 knife, and coarse hackle, the shives and swingling tow 
 have been removed by the men ; tomorrow the more deft 
 manipulations of the women will prepare these bunches of 
 fiber for the little wheel, and granny will card the tow into 
 bats, to be spun into tow yarn on the big wheel. 
 
 Mrs. Alice Morse Earle's description of the 
 fireplace is also suggestive to the teacher. She 
 writes : 
 
 When the great stone chimney was built, there was 
 usually placed on one side of the kitchen fireplace a brick 
 oven which had a smoke uptake into the chimney and an 
 ash-pit below. The great door was of iron. The oven 
 was usually heated once a week. A great fire of dry wood, 
 called oven wood, was kindled within it and kept burning 
 fiercely for some hours. This thoroughly heated all the 
 bricks. The coals and ashes were then swept out, the 
 chimney draught closed, and the oven filled with brown 
 bread, pies, pots of beans, etc. Sometimes bread was 
 baked in pans, sometimes it was baked in a great mass set 
 on cabbage leaves or oak leaves. In some towns an 
 autumn harvest of oak leaves was gathered by children to 
 use throughout the winter. The leaves were strung on 
 sticks. This gathering was called " going a-leafing."
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 237 
 
 The children can easily construct models of 
 the great chimney and fireplace, and the oven, 
 and make models of the implements used to hold 
 the logs and the cooking utensils in place. If 
 they make models of the utensils used in the fire- 
 place and put them in their proper r places, it will 
 be easy for them to discover the reason for the 
 long handles and long legs of the cooking uten- 
 sils used in fireplaces, and why hooks were used 
 from which pots and kettles could be hung at 
 varying heights over the fire. Many of the cook- 
 ing utensils and dishes for serving food may be 
 modeled in clay or whittled out of soft wood. 
 The picture of the fireplace would not be com- 
 plete without the blocks or stools in the chimney 
 corners upon which the children sat, and the 
 high-backed settle which protected the aged from 
 the strong drafts made by the fire. 
 
 In reconstructing the dwellings of colonial 
 times and making models of the furniture, it must 
 be remembered that until 1650 furniture was very 
 scarce. Up to this time it consisted chiefly of a 
 table board which was placed upon trestles, a 
 plain chest which did service as a trunk, a table, 
 or a chair, a settle beside the fireplace and per- 
 haps one high-backed, broad-bottomed armchair 
 for grown-up people only, crickets for the chil- 
 dren, and home-made bedsteads and trundle-beds. 
 With the growth of home manufactures and with
 
 238 THE PLA CE OF IND USTR1ES 
 
 the increased wealth of the people better furni- 
 ture was made, illustrations of which the children 
 will find no difficulty in procuring, if they once 
 begin the search. 
 
 The first of the illustrations on the opposite 
 page shows constructive work which was done by 
 a fifth-grade class without an equipment in con- 
 nection with the study of colonial history. The 
 second illustration shows work done in the Labo- 
 ratory School of the University of Chicago when 
 it was fairly well equipped for industrial work. 
 No school is too poor to make a beginning in 
 such work, and, a beginning once made, the work 
 must stand on its own merits. 
 
 Colonial methods of cooking may be made an 
 interesting and profitable study. Children in 
 schools not equipped for regular work in cooking 
 can find ways of preparing a colonial supper after 
 finishing this phase of the subject. If, in addi- 
 tion to the meal, the children have on exhibition 
 the constructive work which they have made, and 
 if they explain it to their guests, or read brief 
 papers which they have written on the subjects, 
 the enthusiasm of the teacher and the children 
 will be likely to spread to the parents and friends 
 of the school, who may be instrumental in securing 
 more favorable opportunities for carrying on the 
 work.
 
 COLONIAL HISTORY. 
 
 (STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, OSHKOSH, WIS.) 
 
 COLONIAL HISTORY. 
 (THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, LABORATORY SCHOOL.)
 
 IN ELEMENTA RY ED UCA TION 239 
 
 The suggestions regarding the practical work 
 which the children can do in connection with the 
 study of colonial history ought not to be com- 
 pleted without mention of the various kinds of 
 work partaking somewhat of the character of a 
 festival. The spinning, quilting, apple-paring, 
 husking, chopping, and stone-hauling bees, the 
 raisings, and the annual soap-making in the 
 spring and candle-making in the fall were full of 
 social significance for the people of colonial days, 
 and the representation of these occupations by 
 means of illustrative, experimental, and real work 
 may be made as valuable to the child. Excellent 
 descriptions of such co-operative industries can 
 be found in the books of Mrs. Alice Morse Earle, 
 who is an authority on the subject of colonial life. 
 
 As a preparation for the subject of candle- 
 making the children may make lists of the differ- 
 ent ways in which the people lighted their dwell- 
 ings before they had domestic animals. This list 
 should include (i) the firelight from the fire- 
 place, (2) the pine-knots, full of pitch, called 
 candle-wood and gathered in large quantities each 
 fall when they were stored for the winter's use, 
 and (3) rushlights made by stripping part of the 
 outer bark from rushes and dipping the bare pith 
 into melted fat. 
 
 Although most children have seen candles, 
 they may not know the materials used in making
 
 240 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 them. It will be well, then, for the children to find 
 out what materials are used in making candles, 
 and whether the early colonists had such materials. 
 They should compare tallow with lard, so as to 
 understand why candles were made of tallow. 
 Then they can be told of the bayberry wax 
 which the colonists used to make the tallow 
 harder. If they do not know how the tallow is 
 "tried," they may learn in an experimental way 
 by "trying" a small piece of the fat of beef. If 
 tallow cannot be procured easily, paraffin may be 
 substituted for it. 
 
 Mrs. Earle's account of dipping candles may be 
 used as a guide in the real work and in the illus- 
 trative constructive work and drawings. She 
 writes : 
 
 The making of the winter's stock of candles was the 
 special autumnal household duty, and a hard one, too, for 
 the great kettles were tiresome and heavy to handle. An 
 early hour found the work well under way. A good fire 
 was started in the kitchen fireplace under two vast kettles, 
 each two feet, perhaps, in diameter, which were hung on 
 trammels from the lug-pole or crane, and half filled with 
 boiling water and melted tallow, which had had two 
 scaldings and skimmings. At the end of the kitchen or in 
 an adjoining and cooler room, sometimes in the lean-to, 
 two long poles were laid from chair to chair or stool to 
 stool. Across these poles were placed at regular intervals 
 like the rounds of a ladder, smaller sticks about fifteen or 
 eighteen inches long, called candle-rods. These poles and
 
 IN ELEMENT A RY ED UCA TION 2 4 1 
 
 rods were kept from year to year, either in the garret or 
 up on the kitchen beams. 
 
 To each candle-rod was attached about six or eight 
 carefully straightened candle wicks. The wicking was 
 twisted strongly one way; then doubled ; then the loop was 
 slipped over the candle-rod, when the two ends, of course, 
 twisted the other way around each other, making a 
 firm wick. A rod with its row of wicks, was dipped in the 
 melted tallow in the pot, and returned to its place across 
 the poles. Each row was thus dipped in regular turn ; 
 each had time to cool and harden between the dips, and 
 thus grow steadily in size. 1 
 
 In nearly every neighborhood some one has a 
 a pair of candle-molds which are similar to those 
 used by the colonists in New England. The 
 making of candles by using such molds is inter- 
 esting to the child, not merely in itself, but as a 
 a means of understanding a phase of pioneer life 
 throughout all parts of the United States. If 
 candle-molds cannot be found, let the children 
 invent candle-molds and make candles in them. 
 The illustration opposite page 237 shows a candle- 
 mold invented by a boy of about eleven years. 
 Candlesticks, too, may be invented by the chil- 
 dren and modeled in clay. Pictures of candle- 
 sticks, snuffers, and tray may be collected to 
 illustrate this mode of lighting. Simple oil 
 lamps like the old Roman lamps may be modeled 
 by the children in clay. 
 
 1 See Home Life in Colonial Days, p. 36.
 
 242 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 Should the teacher desire to let the children 
 try the colonial method of making soap, she will 
 have no difficulty in getting information regard- 
 ing the process from almost any old lady or 
 gentleman of her acquaintance. It is quite as 
 important for the teacher to acquire the habit of 
 learning from people and from nature, as from 
 books. By making use of different sources of 
 knowledge, and by encouraging the children to 
 do the same, the prevalent habit of regarding 
 the statements made in books as final will be 
 transformed into that of regarding them as means 
 of securing information and helpful suggestions 
 for which a need has been felt. It is hoped that 
 the suggestions given in this chapter will be 
 regarded in this light.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 " The more things thou learnest to know and to enjoy 
 the more complete and full will be for thee the delight of 
 living." Phlalen. 
 
 A COMPLETE consideration of the place of in- 
 dustries in elementary education would require a 
 work of several large volumes. This is merely a 
 preliminary survey of the field for the purpose of 
 getting such a perspective as is necessary in order 
 to evaluate the industrial activities of any age, 
 and to discover the underlying principles which 
 determine the practical application of the ma- 
 terials considered. The applications presented in 
 the preceding chapter are suggestive only. A 
 more detailed application is presented in another 
 place. 1 
 
 In the first chapter we set out with certain 
 fundamental problems. In the succeeding chap- 
 ters we reviewed various phases of social experi- 
 ence with reference to those problems. In the 
 preceding chapter we have suggested some prac- 
 tical applications. At this time let us make a 
 brief summary of the more important results of 
 the work. 
 
 1 "Industrial and Social History Series," Rand, McNally&Co. 
 243
 
 244 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 In reviewing the more important industrial 
 epochs we have found that in each there is a 
 close relation between the dominant industry of 
 the period and the natural and social environ- 
 ment of the people. Each dominant form of 
 industry is conditioned by its environment and, 
 in turn, conditions all other forms of activity. A 
 change introduced into any part of an industrial 
 process affects not merely the entire process, 
 but its influence permeates every department of 
 life. 
 
 The introduction of a new motive power 
 means, on the one hand, the introduction of a 
 new means of applying that power, and, on the 
 other, a new form for the organization of labor. 
 An advance in the use of a new material is 
 attended by similar changes. Whether the 
 advance be in the form of the use of a new 
 material, the conquest of a new force, or in the 
 more economical application of the same, it inev- 
 itably reacts upon the lives of the workers so as 
 to develop a different quality of life, a different 
 mode of interpreting phenomena. 
 
 The type of man's emotional reactions was 
 fixed by the conditions of life in a dangerous 
 situation, but his attitudes have been modified, 
 under the influence of social approval, by the 
 activities of succeeding ages. Throughout long 
 periods all activities were dominated by the con-
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 245 
 
 ditions attending the fierce struggle for exist- 
 ence, the very difficulty of the struggle making 
 it necessary for the individual to accumulate 
 energy sufficient not only for the ordinary affairs 
 of life, but for the emergencies as well. It is due to 
 this fact that man accumulated surplus energy, 
 which, when not needed in the serious activities 
 of life, was expended in some form of art or play. 
 In expressions of playful activity the formed 
 physical co-ordinations and emotional attitudes 
 united in favoring a discharge along lines marked 
 out by the serious activities of life. 
 
 Under the influence of personal need and 
 social approval man gradually learned to refrain 
 more and more from purely instinctive action and 
 to secure, through the exercise of associative 
 memory, more indirect and economical modes of 
 response. The advantage of such acts, once 
 being perceived, was made subject to more con- 
 scious control. The increasing complexity of 
 the situation was thus paralleled by an increasing 
 complexity in man's response. Life became 
 more complex. The problem, which at first was 
 plain and direct, became more and more obscure. 
 The emotional reactions were lost, and it became 
 necessary to rely upon artificial means of sus- 
 taining activity. 
 
 In the earlier periods labor was the part of all 
 and was attended by strong feelings of pleasure
 
 246 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 that always accompany the normal exercise of 
 the workmanship instinct. In the barbarian 
 stage of culture a division of labor was made 
 which assigned the less intellectual occupa- 
 tions to slaves. The associations thus made re- 
 sulted in a disdain for labor which characterized 
 the leisure class of that period. Later, in the 
 ancient civilizations of the city-states, religion 
 placed such restrictions upon labor as to lend its 
 sanction to regard as wrong what had previously 
 been regarded merely as ignoble. These restric- 
 tions deprived the leisure class of the pleasure 
 attending the normal exercise of the workman- 
 ship instinct, and the laboring class of. the condi- 
 tions essential to securing attention and the 
 normal action of the necessary reflexes. The 
 emotional reactions were thus lost, and labor be- 
 came irksome. 
 
 The changes resulting from the organization of 
 labor under the handicraft system were such as to 
 separate the entire process into so many lesser 
 activities as to obscure, in the minds of the 
 workers, the complete view of the situation. 
 Later.when wind and water power were substituted 
 for human and animal power, and, finally, when 
 the almost universal use of steam transformed 
 the entire industrial organization, the minute 
 division of labor made necessary by the change 
 still further obscured the view of the process as
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 2 47 
 
 a whole. Owing to the rapidity of the change 
 wrought by the use of steam, and on account of 
 the fact that under this system it is possible to 
 utilize a great amount of unskilled labor, no ade- 
 quate provision has been made for such an edu- 
 cation of the mass of workers as is necessary in 
 order to preserve the balance between the tech- 
 nique of the entire process and the intellectual 
 and moral character of all classes of workers. 
 
 How the simple forms of industry have affected 
 the development of the arts and sciences ; how 
 the gesture language of the pantomimic dance, 
 which was closely related to practical activities, 
 developed into dramatic poetry ; how, later, it 
 took the form of the festival and only gradually 
 became free from the serious activities of life ; 
 how epic poetry was first bound up with such 
 activities; how, as people became more conscious 
 of the significance of their acts, the heroic song 
 arose, which, first sung by the people, finally was 
 sung by a professional singer ; how, finally, it 
 made itself free from music ; how the freeing of 
 epic, lyric, and dramatic poetry succeeded each 
 other in obedience to laws similar to those which 
 govern the freeing of architecture, sculpture, and 
 painting ; in short, how the typical steps in the 
 evolution of the various arts and sciences have 
 been taken, are problems which we have been 
 obliged to pass with little notice.
 
 248 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 With regard to the child, we have noticed the 
 correspondence between his psychical attitudes 
 and the ancient activities that underlie our indus- 
 trial processes. These attitudes persist in the 
 child, not as serious activities, but as idealized or 
 dramatic representations of the same. In many 
 cases they appear as reductions of the original 
 activity which have become incorporated into 
 later formed co-ordinations. 
 
 It is the function of education to lay hold of 
 these native reactions and to graft upon them 
 habits related to the society in which we live. 
 In later infancy play is the prime agency by 
 means of which the native reactions may be- 
 come transformed into a multitude of co-ordina- 
 tions ; in childhood' play is supplemented and 
 gradually superseded by the constructive activity, 
 which begins to manifest itself in the period of 
 infancy. For several years construction holds 
 the sciences and arts within itself ; but, gradu- 
 ally, they become more and more free. 
 
 The natural demand of the mind in all stages 
 of its development for the completion of a situa- 
 tion requires that an opportunity be presented 
 for the exercise of the instinct to exploit the 
 environment in the search of raw materials, the 
 exercise of the workmanship instinct in the pro- 
 cess of manufacturing the same, and the exercise 
 of the social instinct in the consumption or use
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 2 49 
 
 of the articles produced. In fact, the social 
 instinct affects each step in the process. The 
 desire to enhance one's personality under the 
 stimulus of social approval operates to form 
 habits of industry which condition all higher 
 forms of activity. 
 
 The process of socializing the instinctive ac- 
 tivities of the child is greatly facilitated by 
 the use of racial experiences. Collective in- 
 dustries are of value in this connection, for in 
 such activities the individual for the time loses 
 himself in the consciousness of the group. The 
 representation of great public works, which may 
 lie beyond the limits of sense perception, stimu- 
 lates the imagination, widens the sympathies, 
 and establishes a feeling of kinship with a larger 
 world. 
 
 We have seen that the instincts and attitudes 
 that underlie industry are those that underlie 
 the sciences and the arts. They are the common 
 heritage of mankind. If conditions are such 
 that they can find opportunity for normal expres- 
 sion they afford pleasure to the individual and, 
 at the same time, serve as useful instruments of 
 social service. If denied a normal expression in 
 keeping with the stage of development of the 
 individual and the society in which he lives, they 
 are apt to suffer atrophy through disuse, or to be 
 diverted into anti-social forms. In either case
 
 250 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 the individual is deprived of the joy that attends 
 the normal exercise of his full powers, and so- 
 ciety is deprived of his legitimate service. 
 
 Society can no longer afford to suffer such 
 loss as attends this neglect. It is the part of 
 educators to sift the experiences of the past, so 
 as to preserve that experience which is helpful 
 and to reject that which tends toward the loss 
 of any part of the full heritage of each child. It 
 is only too evident that there has been a ten- 
 dency in the school to neglect the development of 
 the normal attitudes of the child and to cultivate 
 abnormal ones by imposing the formulated results 
 of a highly organized system upon the child, who 
 is not yet able to assimilate such material. Edu- 
 cation is beginning to be established upon a 
 firmer basis, however, and we may hope for more 
 rational methods in the near future. 
 
 It is not too much to expect that the marvel- 
 ous change wrought in the industrial world by 
 the application of modern science to industrial 
 processes will be paralleled by as remarkable an 
 advance in education. It was natural and right 
 that science, whose roots strike deep into the in- 
 dustries of the past, should, on becoming free to 
 express itself on its own account, return with its 
 first fruits to the parent stock from which it 
 sprang. In this way it has laid a broad founda- 
 tion for its own further development; it has
 
 IN ELEMENTARY ED UCA TION 2 5 1 
 
 created a demand for that which it alone can 
 give, and, at the same time, it has suggested the 
 possibility of a similar application to new fields. 
 
 As yet we are only beginning to know the 
 child. We have become well enough acquainted 
 with him to realize that there is an enormous 
 waste in current educational methods, but com- 
 paratively little has yet been done to utilize this 
 waste. We must call science to our aid if we 
 would make an economical adjustment of the 
 motive power in education to the work to be done. 
 We must study the child in his environment. 
 Dr. Loeb 1 has demonstrated with lower forms of 
 life how instincts may be changed by changing 
 the temperature, light, or other external condi- 
 tions. Our own experience in regard to the 
 change in attitude that accompanies a change in 
 our natural or social environment indicates that 
 the truth to which Dr. Loeb has called attention 
 is not confined to the lower orders of life. It 
 ought to be possible to make such a study of 
 child-life under various conditions as to deter- 
 mine in a much more minute way than that here 
 outlined, and with scientific accuracy, the normal 
 attitudes of each stage of development, as well as 
 the conditions best adapted to secure and main- 
 tain them. 
 
 This work can best be accomplished by the 
 1 JACQUES LOEB, The Physiology of the Brain, pp. 198, 199.
 
 252 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 departments of education in our great universi- 
 ties in co-operation with the departments of those 
 sciences that are tributary to the same. The 
 fear that something will be lost in life if it is sub- 
 jected to an interpretation through the media of 
 physical and chemical laws is no better grounded 
 than the fear that the Bible will suffer when sub- 
 jected to the search-light of the higher criticism. 
 That which is true and that which is holy cannot 
 suffer by being subjected to the most rigorous 
 tests. Such processes, by means of separating 
 the transient from the permanent factors, the 
 non-essential from the essential, serve to illumi- 
 nate the truth so as to greatly multiply its power. 
 The various search-lights of truth sent out by the 
 different departments of science cannot fail to 
 disclose facts which will serve to mutually check 
 or reinforce one another. 
 
 From the practical workers in the elementary 
 schools we may expect valuable contributions. 
 By the very nature of their duties they cannot 
 take the attitude of the investigator. Synthesis 
 rather than analysis, art rather than science, gives 
 color to their work. It would be a mistake to 
 destroy this attitude by requiring attention to 
 new questions that make such a demand upon 
 the analytic habit of mind as to interfere with the 
 synthetic. If, however, such a training 1 has pre- 
 
 1 It is to the Normal Schools that we must look for this training.
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 
 
 ceded the practical work as will enable one to 
 duly subordinate analysis to synthesis, results of 
 real value may be expected from such sources. 
 There is need of co-operation here as elsewhere 
 in order to secure the best results. The best 
 results of co-operation between those who are 
 engaged largely in the work of investigation and 
 those who are occupied chiefly with the practical 
 work will come when the latter are free to follow 
 interests which have a direct relation to their 
 own practical problems. In many cases the 
 results of the experience of the practical workers 
 will be best gained by means of informal confer- 
 ences between them and the scientific investi- 
 gator. In other cases more systematic work may 
 be carried on by the practical worker in co-oper- 
 ation with the investigator. Parents and teachers, 
 better than any other people, can know the spon- 
 taneous activities of the child. They can deter- 
 mine the attitude of the child toward various 
 activities and toward the various tools and 
 materials with which he comes in contact. The 
 physician can determine better than any other 
 the physical conditions. The scientific investi- 
 gator can supplement this knowledge by the 
 results of various experimental tests and can 
 correlate the available results of all methods 
 used. 
 
 The work of furnishing nutritious materials for
 
 254 THE PLA CE OF IND USTRIES 
 
 an all-round growth of mind in the successive 
 stages of development is not an unimportant 
 one. While it is true that if there were less 
 pressure from above regarding the question of 
 the acquisition of certain formulated results of 
 civilization, the teacher and children would 
 occupy themselves with more vital questions 
 than many of those to which much attention is 
 now given, we can expect no really cumulative 
 results until the materials of instruction are or- 
 ganized more definitely with reference to the atti- 
 tudes of the child. This fact should be recog- 
 nized by the makers of our text-books. Much 
 of what is vital to the child now remains stored 
 away in the dusty alcoves of our great libraries. 1 
 Few but specialists make use of these materials ; 
 and, hitherto, little effort has been made to make 
 any use of them with reference to the needs of 
 children. There is need of laying hold of these 
 rich stores of experience and of organizing them in 
 such a way as to render them available for gen- 
 eral use. There is need of incorporating in 
 text-books for children such a presentation of 
 the problems of racial life as corresponds to the 
 child's own attitudes. There is need of present- 
 ing these materials in such a way as to enable 
 the child to take the initiative in determining his 
 
 1 This does not imply that there is not much valuable material 
 for the child in the practical life of the present.
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION \2 5 5 
 
 problems and methods of work. In addition to 
 this the text-book should present typical racial 
 experiences that afford an opportunity for the 
 child to grasp a broader significance of his own 
 acts. In the earlier stages, before differentiation 
 of interests becomes strong, such materials rep- 
 resent literature, history, science, arithmetic, 
 reading, language, construction, art, and play 
 all in one. As the child's interests begin to differ- 
 entiate there is a need of a corresponding differ- 
 entiation in subject-matter. 
 
 Arithmetic, which at first is merely one phase 
 of experience, comes more nearly to represent 
 an interest in itself; but for a long time it should 
 not be divorced from the content of life which 
 gave rise to it. It is true that arithmetic has a 
 content of its own, but it is also true that not until 
 the elementary period of education is passed 
 does this content appeal to the ordinary child in 
 such a way as to make the experience gained by 
 such an isolated activity of any great educational 
 significance. Till such a stage is reached the 
 text-books used should be of such a scope as to 
 include the subject-matter out of which problems 
 of the various types arose. It may well be left 
 to the text-book in industrial history to furnish a 
 more complete account of such situations ; enough 
 should be included in the text in arithmetic to 
 insure an easy connection between the technique
 
 2$6 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 of the problem and the experience of which it is 
 but a phase. Only when presented in relation to 
 the industrial activities of which it is a phase is 
 there an excuse for the introduction of an obso- 
 lete method of commercial transaction in our 
 text-books in arithmetic ; only when in such re- 
 lations is it possible for it to become an experi- 
 ence of value to the child. When introduced in 
 such connections, when its function as an instru- 
 ment of life under certain conditions is evident, 
 its introduction into the course of study is justi- 
 fied on the same ground as the introduction of 
 an obsolete industrial process. 
 
 That which is vital in the past lives on through- 
 out all time, but its function appears to change. 
 That which ministers to the physical needs of 
 one age is significant with reference to the intel- 
 lectual and spiritual needs of succeeding ages. 
 This should not be construed to mean that that 
 which ministers to physical needs is not capable 
 of ministering to the higher needs at the same 
 time. It is. The fact that the satisfaction of 
 material needs occupies so large a field of con- 
 sciousness tends to obscure other results of the 
 industrial process. Obsolete processes are more 
 significant in the education of the child than 
 modern ones, not because they are obsolete, but 
 because they represent a technique more nearly 
 adapted to the ability of the child. A conscious
 
 IN ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 2 57 
 
 recognition of the values that are implicit in in- 
 dustrial processes will do much to multiply their 
 power. What the simple obsolete processes are 
 to the child, modern complicated ones should be 
 to each and every worker who participates in the 
 process. 
 
 On this ground the place of the industrial ac- 
 tivities of the past in education is limited only 
 by our ability to appropriate these activities to 
 higher purposes. To pave the way to a more 
 easy appropriation of such resources and agen- 
 cies in the cause of education is an ideal of such 
 potency as to transform the prolonged work 
 necessary to the realization of even a small por- 
 tion of the field into the character of play. 
 
 What is true of arithmetic is also true of sci- 
 ence, art, manual training, 1 and, in short, of each 
 subject of study that has a legitimate place in 
 elementary education. It must not be forgotten 
 that this entire period is pre-eminently an expe- 
 rience stage. The success of the later differ- 
 entiated activities depends largely upon the 
 maintenance of such conditions as will insure a 
 full use of the activities characteristic of the suc- 
 cessive stages. Only when such conditions are 
 
 *In this connection the reader maybe interested in "The 
 Place of Manual Training in the Elementary School," by JOHN 
 DEWEY, Manual Training Magazine, Vol. II, p. 193, and " The 
 Thought Side of Manual Training," by ARTHUR W. RICHARDS, 
 Ibid., Vol. Ill, p 61.
 
 258 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 secured is it possible to transform and preserve 
 the emotional attitudes, which are significant in 
 some form throughout life. Only under such 
 conditions is it possible for the child to acquire 
 a broad, rich, and vital experience sufficiently 
 deep-rooted to furnish the impulse to the many- 
 sided interests of maturer years. 
 
 The fact that so little attention has been given 
 in this place to the selection of simple activities 
 from modern life for purposes of education, 
 should not be interpreted as a failure to recog- 
 nize their educative value. There need be no 
 conflict between that idea and the one here em- 
 phasized. Emphasis is placed upon the evolu- 
 tionary aspect, because it is believed that we can 
 know what we are only by knowing what we 
 have been. It is because this method reveals 
 the principle of growth so clearly that even the 
 child can appreciate it, that it deserves the place 
 in education which we have assigned to it. As 
 this principle comes to stand out more and more 
 clearly, and as the materials for the enrichment 
 of the child's activities are sought from parallel 
 phases in contemporary life, as well as in the 
 past, there is introduced into what otherwise 
 might be a mass of confused ideas regarding the 
 condition of contemporary life a principle of or- 
 der, by means of 'which it is possible to place the 
 various peoples with reference to the forces
 
 77V ELEMENTAR Y ED UCA TION 259 
 
 that have been potent in determining their stage 
 of culture. 
 
 The objection sometimes urged that it is diffi- 
 cult for the child to picture conditions far removed 
 in space and time has no foundation. When we 
 pass beyond the limits of sense perception, it 
 makes no difference to the child, for several 
 years, from what age the subject is drawn, pro- 
 vided that it represent an experience of a type 
 similar to his own emotional attitudes. Not until 
 the transition from infancy to childhood har been 
 made, are space and time important factors in 
 determining the source from which the materi- 
 als for the enrichment of the child's experience 
 should be drawn. At that time his attitude 
 toward the objective world is such as to make 
 them more important factors ; but at no time 
 during the elementary-school period does inter- 
 est in space and time assume such importance 
 as to nullify the principle that finds recognition 
 in the presentation of such problems and materi- 
 als as satisfy the spontaneous activities of the 
 period. 
 
 Practical activity which is an expression of the 
 child's interests and capacities, socialized by 
 racial experience, is not only the best means, 
 but the only means thus far discovered by 
 which the child can organize the subject-matter 
 of education. It finds its justification in the race
 
 260 THE PLACE OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 parallel, in the fact that it is the way the child 
 learns before he comes to school, the way he can 
 lay the best basis for the later activities of life, 
 and the way he will continue to learn after the 
 walls of the schoolroom are left behind. It is a 
 superficial treatment of the question which gives 
 the impression that it is a radical departure in 
 education. A closer examination reveals the fact 
 that it is much more conservative than methods 
 in common use. They represent the radical de- 
 parture from the path marked out by human 
 experience. This method would conserve what 
 is best in the past ; it would build upon it ; it 
 would lay hold of our social inheritance in such 
 a way as to enable the child to reconcile the past 
 with the present and to know himself and his 
 place in the world.
 
 INDEX 
 
 ACHIEVEMENTS OF MANKIND, 14-59, 
 244-7; of early infancy, 105. 
 
 ACTIVITY: significance of industrial 
 activity to the race, 49-59, 64-90, 
 244-9; racial activity as a means of 
 interpreting the child's attitudes 
 (see Attitudes); racial activity as a 
 means of socializing the child, 6-12, 
 122-6, 148, 158-70, 246; forms of 
 the child's activity, 91-6 (see also 
 Construction, Dramatization, Enter- 
 tainments, Exhibitions, Experimen- 
 tation, Exploitation, Illustration, 
 Instincts, Observation, Play, Work, 
 Workmanship instinct); its rela- 
 tion to environment, 104-13, 244 
 (see also Environment). 
 
 ADVANCE IN CULTURE, 9. 
 
 AFRICA, NORTHERN, its transition from 
 barbarism to civilization, 52. 
 
 AGE: of fear, 140; of combat, 140; of 
 the chase, 140; of metals, 44-8; 
 polished stone, 31: of drill, 156 (see 
 also Epoch, Stage). 
 
 AGRICULTURAL STAGE: origin of agri- 
 culture, 40; terrace gardens, 40; 
 why man developed the work begun 
 by woman, 41; effect of man's 
 superior technological skill, 40, 41; 
 educational value, 41-3; beginnings 
 of fortification, 41, 42; why the 
 products of agricultural activity are 
 prized more highly than products 
 of previous activities, 42; demands 
 made by agriculture upon mind 
 and body, 42, 43; character of 
 problems, 42, 43, 80; significance of 
 agricultural festivals, 43, 80, 81; 
 religion as a means of regulating 
 agricultural activities, 43; advan- 
 tages of agricultural life, 43; relation 
 of agriculture to slavery, 43, 8 1, 82; 
 agricultural life contrasted with 
 pastoral life, 42, 43, 82; agriculture 
 gives stability to political organiza- 
 tions, 44; the decline of the agricul- 
 tural festival, 81; its materials of 
 value in elementary education, 109, 
 126-30, 165; in New England, 
 207-18. 
 
 AMERICAN BUREAU OF GEOGRAPHY, 
 187. 
 
 ANALYSIS, its relation to practical 
 activity, 252, 253. 
 
 ANIMAL LIFE: hi mid-Pleistocene 
 period, 16; in the late Pleistocene 
 period, 28, 29, 140; in the post- 
 glacial period, 31; at beginning of 
 pastoral stage, 35, 36. 
 
 ANIMALS: change in animals due to 
 man's influence, 28, 35, 36, 140; 
 extinct forms, 16; living species, 16; 
 domestication of, 36; as pets, 36; 
 as engineers, 167 j in the schoolroom, 
 no, in; migration of, 16, 28, 31; 
 in colonial period, 202, 209, an 
 
 212, 222. 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY as a factor in ele- 
 mentary education, 6 (see also Ac- 
 tivity, Attitudes, House industries, 
 Industry). 
 
 APPLICATIONS, EDUCATIONAL, 97-172. 
 
 APPROVAL, SOCIAL, as a factor in the 
 upbuilding of society, 26, 27, 65, 
 83, 245, 246. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE : problems presented 
 by primitive architecture, 167; law 
 by which it becomes free, 247. 
 
 AREA REQUIRED by people in primi- 
 tive stages of culture, 36, 43. 
 
 ARROW (see Bow and Arrow). 
 
 ART: relation to industrial activities, 
 2, 13, 23-7, 34, 35, 37-9, 43, 73-82, 
 93, 245; origin of, 24; of hunting 
 tribes, 26, 27; of fishing tribes, 34; 
 of pastoral tribes, 37-9, 73-9; of 
 agricultural tribes, 43, 80, 81; 
 not differentiated from work and 
 play, 73-9, 106; tendency to become 
 free, 38, 73, 74, 157; relation to the 
 crafts, 23-7; form influenced _by 
 amount of leisure, 24; a socializing 
 factor, 157, 158; subjects for, 201, 
 224, 229. 
 
 ASIA, WESTERN, its transition from 
 barbarism to civilization, 52. 
 
 ATTENTION: the savage dislikes the 
 strain of attention, 70, 71; of savage 
 compared with that of the child, 
 71, 72; its relation to the character 
 of the problem, 71, 80, 82, 83; con- 
 ditions for securing, 82, 83. 
 
 ATTITUDES, PSYCHICAL: their origin, 
 60-06; remote racial activities as a 
 factor in their formation, 61, 70, 97, 
 98; influence of recent racial activi- 
 ties, 61, 87, 98, 244, 245; physical 
 heredity, 15, 61, 63, 87; social he- 
 
 26l
 
 262 
 
 INDEX 
 
 redity, 15. 61. 87, 88, 98; individual 
 variations, 60, 61; value of animal 
 psychology in the study of the chjld, 
 
 61, 62, 97; value of racial activities, 
 07, 08, 244, 245; liability to error 
 in the interpretation of, 62; impor- 
 tance of the body in the study of 
 instincts, 63; due to physiological 
 causes, 63; bound up with most 
 fundamental activities of the race, 
 64; premium placed upon most es- 
 sential activities, 64; transformation 
 of, 98, 158; reduction of, 61, 08, 
 248; importance of continuity in 
 biological function in explaining, 
 
 62, 97; how socialized (see Enrich- 
 ment of experience); summarized 
 statements concerning, 244-50 (see 
 also Activity). 
 
 AUROCHS in western Europe during 
 the Pleistocene period, 16. 
 
 BEDROOMS, COLONIAL, 232, 233. 
 
 BEDSTEADS, COLONIAL, 232. 
 
 BOASTING, significance of, 27. 
 
 BOATS: origin, 130; their evolution, 
 148, 150-2; methods of construc- 
 tion. 151, 152; origin of the keel, 
 150; the raft, 151; the catamaran, 
 151; the double canoe, 151; the 
 outrigger, 152; relation of boats to 
 environment, 152; educational value 
 of the study of, 148, 150-2; of the 
 Pilgrims, 194, 220. 
 
 BOAZ, FRANZ, statement regarding 
 the brain capacity of the savage, 18. 
 
 BODY: uses of man's body, 19, 20; in 
 relation to principles of invention, 
 
 20, 21 ; in relation to motive power, 
 
 21, 153; in relation to tools, 20, 32, 
 33i 134-40. 149; in relation to me- 
 chanical principles and machines, 
 21, 153, 154, 170, 171; in relation 
 to rhythm, 21, 25, 34, 72, 76-8, 119, 
 120; in relation to the fine arts, 21; 
 in relation to language, 19; in rela- 
 tion to the meter of poetry, 19; in 
 relation to emotional attitudes, 63 
 (see also Attitudes); burden placed 
 upon the body in primitive stages of 
 developement, ip, 22, 65; energy of 
 the body supplemented by tools 
 and the application of other forms 
 of motive power, 22, 32, 34, 36, 42, 
 
 _ 45, 47, 56-8, 64, 84, 93, 133-54, 246. 
 
 BOOKS, a means not an end, 197, 242. 
 
 Bow AND ARROW: evolution of, 141-8; 
 educational value of the problems 
 involved, 141-8. 
 
 BUCHER, CARL: quoted regarding 
 handicrafts, 37, 55, 56; quoted 
 regarding the significance of ele- 
 ments of culture, 59; his position 
 
 regarding the influence oflindustry 
 upon art an extreme on, 78; quoted 
 regarding the house industries, 95, 
 103. 
 
 BUFFON, quoted regarding the domesti- 
 cation of the wild duck, 33. 
 
 BUILDING-BLOCKS, 114, 184. 
 
 BRAIN OF THE SAVAGE, 18. 
 
 BRYANT, GEORGE H., statement re- 
 garding the use of obsolete tools 
 and processes criticized, 05. 
 
 BURGES, quoted regarding the use of 
 machinery, 58. 
 
 BYINGTON, Puritans in England and 
 New England, quoted, 216. 
 
 CANDLE-MAKING, data for children's 
 work in, 230-41. 
 
 CAPTIVES IN WAR ENSLAVED, 43. 
 
 CATAMARAN, origin of, 151. 
 
 CATHEDRALS, 169. 
 
 CAVE-BEAR, 16, 19. 
 
 CAVE-LION, 16. 
 
 CAVES, 18. 
 
 CHIEF, INDUSTRIAL, 23, 34, 45, 46, 82. 
 
 CHILD: lives an embryonic life, 89; 
 character of his motives, 89; atti- 
 tudes of the child a means of recon- 
 ciliation between the past and the 
 present, 89, 90; needs to participate 
 in fundamental activities, 90; has 
 not been studied with sufficient care, 
 oo, 251 (see also Activity, Attitude, 
 Applications, Body). 
 
 CHILDHOOD : physical attitudes, 155-9; 
 physical co-ordinations, 155, 156; 
 differentiation between work and 
 play more marked than before, 
 *56> I 57', function of play, 157; 
 dominant interests, 158, 159; how 
 attitudes may be utilized, 158-72; 
 attitude toward work, 157; function 
 of art, 161; function of science, 161; 
 use of the house industries, 161, 162; 
 individual vs. co-operative activity, 
 162, 163; regulation of labor, 162, 
 163; significance of the past with 
 reference to the present, 163; signifi- 
 cance of public works, 167, 168; 
 place of primitive engineering, 
 architecture, and mechanics, 153-5, 
 166-72; use of the handicrafts, 168, 
 169; its key to the factory system, 
 170-2. 
 
 CHIMNEYS, COLONIAL, 232, 235, 236. 
 
 CHURNING RHYME, 76. 
 
 CIRCUIT, ORGANIC, 82, 86, pi, 108 
 (see also Completion of a situation, 
 demand for). 
 
 CITY-STATE: significance of, 51-3; 
 problems it presents to the child, 
 164, 165, 167, 168. 
 
 CIVILIZATION: foundation of, 164,
 
 INDEX 
 
 263 
 
 165 (see also Industry); its formu- 
 lated results of little educational 
 value, 88, 180. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION: cannot represent the 
 whole nature of the child, 60, 61; 
 of industrial epochs, 14, 15; of stages 
 of mental development, 97-172. 
 
 CLAY, 177, 178, 241. 
 
 CLIMATE: in mid-Pleistocene period, 
 16; in late Pleistocene period, 28; 
 in post-glacial period, 31. 
 
 CLODD, EDWARD, reference to con- 
 cerning origin of tools, 134. 
 
 CLOTHING: need of clothing a motive 
 for the development of sciences and 
 arts, 25; child s interest in clothing, 
 115, 116; self-exhibitive instinct, 
 115; burden placed upon the body 
 in maintaining necessary tempera- 
 ture before the use of clothing, 22 
 (see also Sewing, Textiles). 
 
 COLLECTIONS, 181, 191, 192. 
 
 COLONIZATION, 166. 
 
 COLOR, 230. 
 
 COMMERCE: growth of, 51 168; Phoe- 
 nician, 165; colonial, 219, 220 (see 
 also Trade). 
 
 COMPASS, MARINER'S, invention of. 99. 
 
 COMPLETION OF A SITUATION, demand 
 for, 91-3, 171, 246, 248. 
 
 COMTE, AUGUST, quoted regarding 
 work as a civic function, 85. 
 
 CONFLICT INTEREST: in hunting and 
 fishing stages, 22-4, 34, 69; satis- 
 fied by means of war in the pastoral 
 stage, 37-9; reinforced by the festi- 
 val and by warfare in the agricul- 
 tural stage, 43, 80, 81; gradually 
 restricted to narrower fields, 94, 95; 
 a permanent possession of mankind, 
 PS- 
 CONSTRUCTION : its place in elementary 
 education, pi, 92, 171; how mani- 
 fest in the period of infancy, 113-16; 
 the child should not be obliged to 
 forego the educational opportunity 
 of providing some of the materials 
 for, 108-13, 126, 148, 164; its rela- 
 tion to destruction, 30; origin of atti- 
 tude underlying construction, 67-84; 
 supplies need of the child, 157-61, 
 248; of public works, 167; its rela- 
 tion to the sciences and arts, 247 
 (see also Art, Industry, Science). 
 
 CONSTRUCTIVE WORK, suggestions for, 
 199, 205-7, 212, 222-5. 
 
 CONSUMPTION: of crops before they 
 are ready for the harvest, 42; pro- 
 duction and consumption not origi- 
 nally separated in time, 67-70; 
 round of activities from production 
 to consumption in the handicraft 
 period, 84; the process of produc- 
 
 tion and consumption represent a 
 complete situation, 91. 
 
 CONTINUITY: in biological function, 
 62, 97; in mental attitude, 62, 97. 
 
 CONVERSATION: as a means of reliev- 
 ing monotonous work, 72: the spon- 
 taneous conversation of children 
 while engaged in rhythmical work, 
 78, 79- 
 
 COOKING: its educational value, 114, 
 163, 164; without an equipment, 
 181; colonial methods, 237, 238. 
 
 COOKING UTENSILS, 236. 
 
 CO-OPERATION: beginnings of, 23-6, 
 29; by means of rhythm, 24, 25, 34, 
 72, 78-80, 94, 119-21, 162; of work- 
 ers in the educational field, 2524. 
 
 CO-ORDINATIONS: physical, 08, 105 
 133, iSS, 156; of the hunter sup- 
 plied the basis of the skill he devel- 
 oped in drawing and carving, 26; 
 relation of co-ordinations used in 
 art to those developed by industrial 
 activities, 26, 34, 38, 39, 72, 74-81; 
 premium placed upon the develop- 
 ment of necessary co-ordinations, 
 81, 88; the bow and arrow as a 
 means of co-ordinating mind and 
 body, 141. 
 
 COURSE OF STUDY (see Curriculum). 
 
 CRAFTS : represent particular divisions 
 of the industrial process, 84; supply 
 skill for the development of art (see 
 Art, Co-ordinations); educational 
 significance of (see Handicraft sys- 
 tem). 
 
 CURIOSITY A NECESSARY TRAIT, 23. 
 
 CURRICULUM : overloaded, 5 ; additions, 
 by the process of aggregation, 5; 
 materials for, 97-172, 192-241 . 
 253-7- 
 
 GUSHING, FRANK HAMILTON, quoted 
 regarding the arrow, 143. 
 
 DANCE: origin of, 34; disapproval of 
 one who made a mistake in the 
 dance, 34; the professional dancer 
 emerges, 38; pantomimic dances 
 preserved in folklore, 75. 
 
 DARWIN, CHARLES, his position re- 
 garding animal psychology, 61, 62. 
 
 DAWKINS, BOYD, an authority _ on 
 animal life in the Pleistocene period, 
 16. 
 
 DECORATION: origin of, 25; signifi- 
 cance, 25, 27; relation to the work- 
 manship instinct, 26, 27. 
 
 DEMAND FOR LITERATURE OF PRE- 
 HISTORIC LIFE, 10, 12. 
 
 DEPENDENCE, INDUSTRIAL : in pastoral 
 stage, 39, 40; a factor in the develop- 
 ment of idea of social dependence,
 
 264 
 
 INDEX 
 
 DESIGNS, children's original, 228, 329. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT: industrial, 14-59; psy 
 chical, 60-06; of the child, 97-172. 
 
 DEVICES: of hunter, 25-9, 73, 133-54; 
 of fisher, 32; to facilitate trade, 150- 
 2, 167 (see also Inventions). 
 
 DEWEY. JOHN, referred to, 106, 156, 
 
 **257. 
 
 DIFFERENTIATION OF SCIENCES AND 
 ARTS from industrial activity, 2, 
 23-7, 34, 38, 73-81, 85-7, 93, 106, 
 244 (see also Art, Industry 
 Science). 
 
 DIVISION OF LABOR: beginnings of, 
 24, 47, 5i; minute _ division, 55-8 
 (see also Differentiation, Labor). 
 
 DOG DOMESTICATED by early hunting 
 and fishing tribes, 32. 
 
 DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS, 35-40. 
 
 DOYLE, English Colonies in America, 
 quoted, 194, 196. 
 
 DRAKE, The Making of New England, 
 quoted, 195. 
 
 DRAMATIZATION, its place in elemen- 
 tary education, 117-19, 124, 125, 201 
 (see also Illustration, Play). 
 
 DRAWING: origin of, 25; suggestions 
 for children's work in, 200, 201. 
 
 DRESS: origin of, 25; in relation to 
 child's constructive activities, 115, 
 116 (see also Clothing). 
 
 DWELLINGS, COLONIAL, 183, 184, 198, 
 237- 
 
 DYEING, 179, 180, 229, 230. 
 
 EARLE, MRS. ALICE MORSE, quoted, 
 an, 230, 239. 
 
 ECONOMISTS not the only ones inter- 
 ested in the industrial situation, 4. 
 
 ECONOMY: domestic, 16-54; town, 
 54-6; national, 56-^0. 
 
 EDUCATION: in ancient times, 3; in 
 mediaeval times, 3, 4; in modern 
 times, 4; consequences of neglect to 
 provide for practical activities, 4; 
 waste in present educational meth- 
 ods, o, 10, 180 (see also Activity, 
 Applications, Attitude, Curriculum). 
 
 ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER, 58. 
 
 EMERSON, RALPH WALDO, quoted 
 regarding tools, 134. 
 
 ENERGY (see Surplus energy). 
 
 ENGINEERING, problems in primitive, 
 166, 167. 
 
 ENGINEERS, animals as, 167. 
 
 ENRICHMENT OF EXPERIENCE, 109, 
 122-55, 158. 
 
 ENTERTAINMENTS, school, 93. 
 
 ENVIRONMENT: a factor in the child's 
 problems, 105-13, 125-7, T 49, I 6?; 
 how it takes on a new meaning, 126; 
 its relation to psychical attitudes 
 (see Attitudes); transient vs. perma- 
 
 nent factor in, 99, loo; what "con- 
 stitutes the natural and the social 
 environment of the child, 100-102; 
 man's relation to, 16, 21, 23, 28 31, 
 32, 35, 36, 41, 48, oo, 104, 146; of 
 man in mid-Pleistocene period, 16 
 (see also Exploitation, Situation). 
 
 EPOCHS: industrial, 14-59; psychical, 
 60-96; of the hand, 133; of the tool, 
 133; classification of epochs of devel- 
 opment in the child, 97-172. 
 
 EQUIPMENTS: methods of securing, 
 1 73~O2; work with meager, 192-241. 
 
 ESKIMO, 32, 147. 
 
 EUROPE: environment of western in 
 mid-Pleistocene period, 16, 17; 
 transition from barbarism to civili- 
 zation, 52; handicraft system in, 
 54-6. 
 
 EVOLUTION: change from organic to 
 human, 17; more cumulative results 
 gained by the study of the evolution 
 of one race than by study of diverse 
 contemporary races, 123, 258; of 
 the boat, 140-52; of the bow and 
 arrow, 141-8. 
 
 EXCHANGE, methods of, i, 187. 
 
 EXCURSIONS, 180. 
 
 EXHIBITIONS, 189, 190, 237, 238 (see 
 also Entertainments). 
 
 EXPERIMENT, 149, 224. 
 
 EXPERIMENTATION: its place in ele- 
 mentary education, 92; how mani- 
 fest in period of infancy, 104-6; 
 playful experimentation in pastoral 
 stage, 74 (see also Activity, Exploi- 
 tation). 
 
 EXPLOITATION: how manifest in the 
 successive stages of culture, 57, 64- 
 7; its place with reference to other 
 activities of life, 67; of the child, 
 105, 108-12, 127; its relation to the 
 predatory instinct, 51; history of, 
 64-7- 
 
 EXPLORATION. 166. 
 
 EXPRESSION (see Activity). 
 
 FACTORS: bound up in the industrial 
 process, 2, 12 (see also Art, Differ- 
 entiation, Industry Science); tran- 
 sient vs. permanent, 99, 100. 
 
 FACTORY SYSTEM: arose in response to 
 the use of steam as a motive power, 
 56, 84; changes affected by, 57, 84, 
 85, p4, 96; use of electricity, 58; 
 unwillingness to use machinery, 58; 
 proper use of, 58; educational signifi- 
 cance, 85, 86, 06 169-72, 257. 
 
 FAIRS, 51. 
 
 FAMILY, PATRIARCHAL, spirit of rever- 
 ence fostered by, 39. 
 
 FEAR A VIRTUE, 22. 
 
 FESTIVAL: origin of, 43, 80; decline of.
 
 INDEX 
 
 265 
 
 87; work partaking of the character 
 of, 238-41. 
 
 FEUDAL SYSTEM: the transition from 
 barbarism to civilization, 53, 54; 
 industrial organization, 54 (see also 
 House industries). 
 
 FIELD TRIPS, 180. 
 
 FIRE: significance of its conquest, 23, 
 24; worship of, 23; man's condition 
 previous to the use of, 22. 
 
 FIREPLACES, 236. 
 
 FISHERIES, study of colonial, 217, 220. 
 
 FISHING STAGE : earliest fishing people; 
 31; environment, 31; problems in 
 fowling and fishing, 32; implements 
 and weapons, 32; deep-sea fishing, 
 34; contrasted with hunting stage, 
 34; regulation of industry, 34; pro- 
 gress in industries and arts, 35; 
 genesis of sea-lore, 35; influence of 
 sea and sky upon man's character, 
 
 r, 3S - 
 
 FISH- WEIRS, 32. 
 
 FISKE, U. S. History, quoted, 214. 
 
 FOLKLORE reveals much concerning 
 the early life of mankind, 75, 77. 
 
 FOOD: of man hi Pleistocene period, 
 22, 24, 28; more steady supply in 
 the fishing than in the hunting stage, 
 33, 34; semi-domesticated animals 
 used as food in times of scarcity, 36; 
 first regular supply in pastoral stage, 
 37; how protected from thoughtless 
 members of clan, 42; search for 
 food a stimulus for travel, 48; a 
 stimulus for exploitation of environ- 
 ment, 64; as a factor in the child's 
 interest in plants, 112; not a strong 
 factor in child's interest in animals, 
 no; its preparation a means of 
 education, 114, 163, 164; significance 
 of the change of seasons in relation 
 to the food supply of primitive peo- 
 ples, 128. 
 
 FORCES OPERATING to induce man to 
 make the transition from the pastoral 
 to the agricultural life, 35-7 (see 
 also Surplus energy). 
 
 FORETHOUGHT, developed by pastoral 
 and agricultural life, 37, 42, 43, 129. 
 
 FORTIFICATION (see Protection). 
 
 FOWLING, devices used hi, 33. 
 
 FURNITURE: colonial, 231, 232; data 
 for construction of, 237, 
 
 GAMES: weaving, 75; imitations of 
 serious activities, 24, 25, 74, 75; 
 hunting, 124; trading, 131; games 
 played for the sake of skill, 156 (see 
 Art, Play, Rhythm). 
 
 GARDENING, 180, 202, 209. 
 
 GOVERNMENT: municipal, 87; how the 
 child may be led to realize the need 
 of, 129. 
 
 GROUP : individuality fused in that of 
 the group, 25; disapproval of, 34; 
 political groups, 40, 44; the relation 
 of the child to the group, 109; signifi- 
 cance of larger social groups hi the 
 education of the child, 122, 158, 164, 
 249 (see also Public Works); (see 
 also Approval). 
 
 GUNPOWDER, invention of, 09. 
 
 HABITATIONS, 129. 
 
 HAFTING, 139. 
 
 HAMMER, invention of, 135-7. 
 
 HANDICRAFT SYSTEM: rise of, 54; dis- 
 tinguished from the wage system, 
 54; characterized by a breaking up 
 of the industrial process, 55; 
 significant with reference to the 
 market, 55; relation to travel and 
 transportation, 55; its proper sphere 
 today, 56; application of wind and 
 water as a motive power during this 
 period, 56; inauguration of free 
 labor, 56; educational significance 
 of, 84, 95, 96 169; problems it pre- 
 sents of value hi the period of child- 
 hood, 168. 
 
 HANDS: used in locomotion, 19, 105; 
 epoch of the hand, 133. 
 
 HANSEATIC-LEAGUE, 168. 
 
 HARRIS, W. T., quoted with reference 
 to play, 117. 
 
 HEREDITY: physical, 15, 61, 63, 87 
 (see also Activity, Attitudes, Body, 
 Co-ordinations); social, 15, 61, 87 
 88, 98, 247, 251 (see also Approval, 
 Curriculum, Self-exhibitive instinct). 
 
 HISTORY AN ORGANIC PART OF PRESENT 
 LITE, 12. 
 
 HOME CANNOT SUPPLY INDUSTRIAL 
 TRAINING, 5. 
 
 HORN, development of, 79. 
 
 HORNADAY, W. T., quoted regarding 
 bisons as makers of roads, 167. 
 
 HOSPITALITY, 51. 
 
 HOUSE INDUSTRIES: significant with 
 reference to the clan or household, 
 55, 84; educational significance con- 
 trasted with that of handicrafts, 84, 
 96; as modes of production, 96; 
 value hi childhood, 96, 161-8. 
 
 HOUSES, COLONIAL: of first period, 
 198-201, 206, 231-7. 
 
 HOWE, DANIEL WAIT, quoted, 210. 
 
 HUNTING STAGE: earliest records 
 found, 16; animal life in western 
 Europe in mid-Pleistocene period, 
 16; climate, 15; plant life, 16; 
 man of this period, 16, 18, ip; his 
 superiority over the animals due to 
 what, 20; danger of early speciali- 
 zation, 20; food, 22; fear a virtue, 
 22; little surplus energy at first, 22; 
 relations to plants and animals, 23;
 
 266 
 
 INDEX 
 
 significance of the conquest of fire, 
 23, 24; man seeks conflict, 24; be- 
 ginnings of art, 24, 25; hunting 
 people excel in representative art, 
 26; arts that require leisure not de- 
 veloped, 26; social instincts, and 
 their relation to formation of indus- 
 trial habits, 26-8; man's influence 
 upon wild animals, 28; intellectual 
 advance of the period, 29, 30; stren- 
 uous life of the time, 29; not so cen- 
 tralizing in its tendencies as the 
 pastoral life, 39; educational mate- 
 rials it presents, 123-6, 133-48. 
 
 HUTCHINSON, H. N., referred to ni 
 connection with description of man 
 of earliest period, 18. 
 
 HUXLEY, 18. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION : its place in elementary 
 education, 92; distinguished from 
 construction, 92; opportunities it 
 presents for the development of 
 technique, 92. 
 
 IMPLEMENTS, AGRICULTURAL, 212, 213 
 (see Devices, Inventions, Tools, 
 Weapons). 
 
 IMPULSE (see Attitudes, Instinct). 
 
 INDUSTRIES (see Age of metals, Agri- 
 cultural stage, City-state, Factory 
 system, Feudal system, Fishing, 
 Handicraft system, House indus- 
 tries, Hunting stage, Pastoral stage, 
 Trade, Transportation, Travel). 
 
 INDUSTRY : its relations to sciences and 
 arts, 2, 13, 23-7, 34, 35, 37-9, 43, 
 73, 82 , 93, 242 ; its relation to society, 
 2 > 3, 5, I ^7S9', a means of recon- 
 ciling conflicting factors in the cur- 
 riculum, 5, 104-72; its relation to 
 psychical attitudes, 60^-96. 
 
 INFANCY, stage of: psychical attitudes, 
 104-6; physical co-ordinations, 105, 
 116; achievements of early infancy, 
 105; later infancy the play period; 
 106; music as a means of regulating 
 activity, 119-21; use of rhythm, 
 110-21. 
 
 INSTINCT (see Approval, Attitudes, 
 Conflict interest, Exploitation, Self- 
 exhibitive instinct, Workmanship 
 instinct). 
 
 INTEREST, CHILD'S: in animals, no, 
 in; in plants, 112; in topographical 
 features, 112, 126; in natural phe- 
 nomena, 112; in construction, 113- 
 16; in food, 110-14; m household 
 occupations, 114; in shelter, 114; 
 in clothing, 115, 116; in technique, 
 156; in work, 114, 157; in play, 157 
 (see Play); in art, 157, 158; in met- 
 als, 131; in tools, 134-52, 170; in 
 mechanics, 153-5, i? 1 ', m problems 
 
 of ancient civilizations, 164, 165; in 
 public works, 167. 
 
 INVENTION: in hunting stage, 20-9, 
 64, 65, 134-8; in fishing stage, 32-5, 
 66, 14852; in pastoral stage, 36-9, 
 66, 73-73 m agncultural stage, 41-4, 
 66, So; in age of metals, 45-7, 66; 
 in period of the early development 
 of travel, trade, and transportation, 
 40-51, 66, 148-52; during handi- 
 craft period, 55, 56; during period 
 of national economy, 56-8, 84; of 
 the printing-press, gunpowder, and 
 the mariner s compass, 90; why 
 some inventions are abortive, 99; 
 of the child, 82-93. 
 
 ISOLATION OF THE PAST PREVENTED, 
 
 II, 12. 
 
 KITCHEN, 233-5. 
 
 KITCHEN MIDDENS, 31. 
 
 KNIFE, invention and uses of, 138-40. 
 
 KNITTING RHYMES, 75, 77, 78. 
 
 LABOR: a personal occupation, 84; a 
 civic function, 84; a social function, 
 84; free, 71-3, 80-83, 120, 121; slave, 
 43, 82-4; how labor became irksome, 
 66-95, 246; effect of a minute divis- 
 ion of labor, 84-7, 246. 
 
 LEISURE, due to better means of pro- 
 tection and acquisition of food, 22, 
 24, 28, 33. 34, 37; relation to the 
 development of different forms of 
 art, 26, 37-9, 74 (see Art, Surplus 
 energy). 
 
 LEVER, primitive form of, 154. 
 
 LIGHTING, colonial methods of, 239, 
 240. 
 
 LIMITATIONS : in dealing with a large 
 problem, 13; of materials used in 
 processes of construction, 30, 70, 
 143, 146-8, 152, 167. 
 
 LOEB, JACQUES: statement regarding 
 traits due to heredity, 63; his 
 method of demonstrating the change 
 in the instincts of lower forms of 
 life, 251, 
 
 LOOM, construction of, 227. 
 
 Machairodus latidens, 16, 28. 
 MACHINE, origin of, 21, 153, 154, 170, 
 
 171 (see also Body, Machinery, 
 
 Mechanical principles, Tools). 
 MACHINERY: and the factory system, 
 
 i, 4, 81, 84, 107, 168; unwillingness 
 
 to use, 58; proper use of, 58 (see 
 
 also Factory system). 
 MALLERY, GARRICK, quoted with 
 
 regard to pantomime, 118. 
 MANUAL TRAINING, original impulse 
 
 came from house industries, 95. 
 MANUFACTURE, 224-39 (see Industry, 
 
 Work, Workmanship instinct).
 
 INDEX 
 
 267 
 
 MARKET: local, 55; national and inter- 
 national, 55; origin of, 51, 131. 
 
 MASON, OTIS TUFTON, quoted and 
 referred to, 20, 134, 146, 147, 155, 
 220. 
 
 MATERIALS: for practical activities, 
 173-92 (see also Exploitation, 
 Limitation); for text-books (see 
 Curriculum, Enrichment of experi- 
 ence). 
 
 MEASUREMENT: original units fur- 
 nished by the body, 21, 143; need 
 of more precise standards, 49, 131. 
 
 MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES, 153, 154. 
 
 MEETING-HOUSE, COLONIAL, 215. 
 
 MEMORY, ASSOCIATIVE, 20, 28. 
 
 METALLURGY, 44, 45, 130. 
 
 METALS, AGE OF: first use of, 44; 
 probable origin of smelting, 45, 
 46; experience which man brought 
 to the processes of metallurgy, 45; 
 significance of myths regarding 
 metal workers, 46; significance of 
 the use of metals, 47; educational 
 opportunities presented by the 
 history of this age, 129, 130. 
 
 METHODS (see Process, educational). 
 
 MIGRATIONS OF ANIMALS, 16, 28, 48, 
 128. 
 
 MILLING, child's study of, 203-5. 
 
 MIND, increasing demand for use of, 
 ao, 25, 28, 34, 36, 37, 42-6, 49, 56, 
 57.71,80,81,84-7- 
 
 MONTESQUIEU, 51. 
 
 MOTIVE, preparations as a motive in 
 education, 89. 
 
 MOTIVE POWER: human muscles, 21, 
 93, 105, 153; animal, 55, 56, 82, 
 204; wind and water, 56, 83, 204; 
 steam, 56-8; electricity, 58; a 
 problem in transportation, 51; 
 mode of application patterned after 
 human movements, 21, 153, 154. 
 170, 171. 
 
 MUSEUM, INDUSTRIAL, 178, 191. 
 
 Music: as a means of regulating 
 activity, 43, 82, 83, 110-21; becomes 
 more free hi pastoral stage, 38, 247. 
 
 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, subservient to 
 practical activity, 38, 79. 
 
 MYTHS, genesis of , 35. 
 
 NEED: destruction significant as a 
 response to a social need, 30; 
 utilitarian, 22-6 (see also Food); 
 of artificial stimulus to sustain 
 activity, 43, 70 (see also Conversa- 
 tion, Dance, Festival, Rhythm); 
 social need in relation to invention, 
 26, 99; of child (see Attitudes. 
 Enrichment, Interest). 
 
 OBSERVATION its place in elementary 
 education, 92 (see also Exploitation). 
 
 OCCUPATION (see Activity, Industry). 
 OPTIONAL WORK, 168. 
 ORGANIZATION: of labor (see also 
 
 Regulation of industry, Rhythm); 
 
 political and social, 40, 44, 217, 218 
 
 230. 
 
 ORNAMENT, significance of, 25. 
 OUTRIGGER, 152. 
 OVENS, 130. 
 
 PALEONTOLOGY, 16. 
 
 PALFREY, JOHN GRAHAM, quoted, 194, 
 195, 202. 
 
 PANTOMIME, 75, 118 (see also Art 
 Dance, Dramatization). 
 
 PASTORAL STAGE: how transition was 
 made from hunting and fishing to 
 the pastoral life, 35; sympathetic 
 relations established, 37; smaller 
 area needed, 37: new problems 
 demand forethought, 37; how emo- 
 tional reactions are secured. 37, 38; 
 art, 38; development of textile indus- 
 tries, 38; war, 38; humanizing ele- 
 ment developed, 39; industrial 
 dependence a factor in social depend- 
 ence, 39, 40; compared with agri- 
 cultural stage, 40; predatory instinct 
 strengthened, 39; educational value 
 of, 39-44, no, in, 128. 
 
 PICTURES: easily secured, 183; ar- 
 rangement and use of, 188, 189, 
 
 212. 
 
 PILE-DWELLINGS, 41. 
 
 PILGRIMS, suggestions for study of 
 settlement of, 192-241. 
 
 PLANT LIFE IN PLEISTOCENE PERIOD, 
 17- 
 
 PLANTS: cannot be depended upon 
 to reproduce themselves, 42; culti- 
 vation of, 40-44; child's interest in, 
 110-12 (see also Agricultural stage). 
 
 PLAY: the play period of the race, 73; 
 the play period of the child, 106; 
 dramatic play, 117, 118; hunting 
 plays, 124; socializing function of, 
 157; its relation to work, 122, 157. 
 158; a force that should be utilized 
 in education (see Education, Waste 
 in the educational process). 
 
 PLEASURE : from the exercise of bodily 
 power, 93; from the augmentation 
 or transformation of muscular power , 
 93- 
 
 PLEISTOCENE PERIOD 16, 18, 28, 31, 
 35,67.. 
 
 POETRY, its relation to practical activ- 
 ityi '9i 3S> '77 (s 66 also Rhymes). 
 
 POWELL, J. W., quoted with reference 
 to the city-state, 52. 
 
 PRINCIPLES: of mechanics, 153, 154; 
 the weight, 153; the elastic spring, 
 154; the inclined plane, 154; the
 
 268 
 
 INDEX 
 
 wedge, 154; the lever, 154; the sled, 
 154; the roller, 154; the pulley, 154; 
 the wheel and axle, 154; twisting, 
 shrinking, and clamping devices, 154; 
 the screwj 154; of construction, 167; 
 of invention. 20, ai; of education, 
 9, 97-104; of rank, 52. 
 
 PRINTING, invention of, 99. 
 
 PROBLEM : statement of problems to be 
 considered, 7-13, 173; child's prob- 
 lems, n, 105, 106, 159, 160 (see 
 also Activities, Attitudes, Stages of 
 development); of socializing child's 
 instincts, 122, 126, 160, 161, 166-8 
 (see also Curriculum, Enrichment 
 of experience); of hunting stage, 
 22-9, 71, 72, 147; of fishing stage, 
 34, 149-52; of pastoral stage, 36-8, 
 81, 82; of agricultural people, 41-3, 
 80-82; of metal workers, 45, 46, 130; 
 of travel and trade, 49, 51, 140-52, 
 165-7; unsettled problems, 57, 60, 
 61, 251. 
 
 PROCESS : educational (see Education); 
 place of obselete industrial processes, 
 164, 168, 169, 256, 257 (see also 
 Activity, Industry). 
 
 PROTECTION: of crops, 42; from ani- 
 mals, 41; from enemies, 41, 42 (see 
 also Fortification, Pile-dwellings, 
 Taboo, War). 
 
 PROWESS, 68. 
 
 PUBLIC WORKS, 167, 168, 249. 
 
 RACE PARALLEL must not be applied 
 literally, 134 (see also Principles of 
 education). 
 
 RAFTS, 151. 
 
 REACTIONS, EMOTIONAL: in hunting 
 stage, 24-7, 46, 47, 63-5, 71, 72; in 
 fishing, 34, 35; in pastoral stage, 
 38, 73-9, 82; in agricultural stage, 
 43, 80 (see also Art, Festivals, Music, 
 Rhythm). 
 
 REFLECTION, not adapted to serve the 
 needs of the savage, 22, 71. 
 
 REFLEXES, So (see also Attitudes, 
 Body, Co-ordinations, Instincts). 
 
 REGULATION or INDUSTRY by rhythm 
 and the dance (see Dance, Rhythm); 
 by the festival (see Festival); by 
 religion (see Religion); by overseers 
 (see Slavery); by captains of indus- 
 try (see Factory system). 
 
 RELATIONS : destructive, 23, 24, 30-34, 
 39 (see also Exploitation, War); con- 
 structive, 30 (see also Industry, 
 Workmanship instinct); with fire, 
 23; with animals, 23, 24, 32, 34, 37; 
 with plants, 23, 41 (see also Agri- 
 cultural stage); with natural forces 
 (see Motive power); sympathetic, 
 23, 37. S, 51} ethical, 84-6, 89, 90, 
 93~Si of worker to the work (see 
 
 Work); of child to technique repre- 
 sented by the tool, 105, 107, 108, 
 115, 116, 133, 156, 171, 256; funda- 
 mental relations laid bare in primi- 
 tive societies and obscured in com- 
 plex ones, i. 
 
 RELIGION AS A MEANS OF REGULATING 
 INDUSTRY, 43, 83. 
 
 REVOLUTION, INDUSTRIAL, 170, 250. 
 
 RHYMES, 76-9. 
 
 RHYTHM: the body a factor in, 76 (see 
 also Body); a means of securing 
 co-operative action, 25, 34, 72, 76, 
 162, 163 (see also Art, Music). 
 
 RICHARDS, ARTHUR W., 257. 
 
 ROADS, origin of, 167. 
 
 ROGERS, MRS. BESSIE B., referred to, 
 187, 188. 
 
 ROUSSEAU, 100. 
 
 RUSKIN, 58. 
 
 SAND, 176, 177. 
 
 SAND-BOX, 177. 
 
 SAND-MODELING, 197, 201, 208, 224. 
 
 SAVAGE: brain of the, 18 (see also 
 Mind); attitude toward work, 70. 
 
 SAW-MILL, significance of, 224. 
 
 SCIENCE: its relation to industry, 56 
 (see also Differentiation, Industry); 
 attitude of the child toward, ios;i2 
 (see also Exploitation); its relation 
 to construction, 167, 168; contribu- 
 tions of to child-study, 248, 249; 
 development of in modern times, 85. 
 
 SEA AND SKY AS FACTORS IN EDUCA- 
 TION, 35. 
 
 SELF-EXHIBITIVE INSTINCT, 25-30, 
 72, 115, 116 (see also Approval, Art, 
 Dress, Ornament). 
 
 SEQUENCES OF RACIAL ACTIVITIES, 124, 
 i34~55> 247 (see also Evolution). 
 
 SERFS, 83. 
 
 SEWING, materials for, 181-3. 
 
 SHALER, N. S., 59. 
 
 SHELTER, 19, 114, 129, 183. 
 
 SHEPHERDS (see Pastoral stage). 
 
 SINGER, PROFESSIONAL, 38. 
 
 SITES, EXPLORED BY PILGRIMS, 192-6. 
 
 SITUATION: in mid-Pleistocene period, 
 16, 17; in late Pleistocene period, 28; 
 of early fishing tribes, 31; during 
 transition from hunting and fishing 
 to pastoral and agricultural life, 
 35, 36. 
 
 SKELETONS FOUND IN CAVES IN 
 FRANCE, 18. 
 
 SKILL: in textiles, 38, 76; in crafts 
 transferred to art, 26, 73-9. 
 
 SLAVERY: its relation to agriculture, 
 43,81,82; its conditions should not 
 be perpetuated in the schools, 103, 
 121, 163 (see also Regulation of 
 industry). 
 
 SMELTING, 45, 46, 130.
 
 INDEX 
 
 269 
 
 SMITH, WORTHINGTON P., 18. 
 
 SOAP-MAKING, 242. 
 
 SOCIETY, (see Approval). 
 
 SOCIOLOGY, a factor in elementary 
 education, 6. 
 
 SONG, 72, 75, 247. 
 
 SPECIALIZATION, premature: in ani- 
 mals, 19, 20; in the child, 88, 108, 
 109. 
 
 SPINNING, 38, 75, 144, 226, 227^. 
 
 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT: racial (see 
 Agricultural stage, City-state, Fac- 
 tory system, Feudal system, Fishing 
 stage, Handicraft system, Hunting 
 stage, Metals, Pastoral stage, Trade, 
 Transportation, Travel); individual 
 (see Childhood, Infancy, Transition 
 from infancy to childhood). 
 
 STANDARDS (see Approval, Measure- 
 ment). 
 
 STIMULUS (see Activity, Attitudes, 
 Curriculum, Problem). 
 
 STORY-TELLER EMERGES FROM THE 
 MASS, 38. 
 
 STRAINS, intellectual, moral, and phy- 
 sical, 71, 133 (see also Attention). 
 
 SURPLUS ENERGY : little surplus before 
 the conquest of fire, 22, 24, 28; 
 greater surplus in later stages, 33, 
 34i 36-8, 42; seeks expression in art 
 and play, 74 (see also Art, Food, 
 Play). 
 
 SWIMMING, 149. 
 
 TABOO, 83. 
 
 TECHNIQUE: stage of undeveloped, 64, 
 65, 103; its relation to other factors 
 in the educational process, 133, 134, 
 156, 171, 256 (see also Strains, 
 Tools). 
 
 TEETH, burden placed upon, 22. 
 
 TEXT-BOOKS, need of a change in the 
 character of, 250-55. 
 
 TEXTILES, 38, 75, 178, 179, 225-30. 
 
 THOMAS, W. L., 29, 95. 
 
 THWAITES, The Colonies, quoted, 217- 
 19. 
 
 TOOLS: a means of reinforcing man's 
 body, 22, 32, 34, 36, 48, 82-6, 92, 
 134 (see Body); adapted to later 
 infancy, 115; adapted to transitional 
 period, 133-52; period of the tool, 
 133; relation to machines, 153, 154, 
 170-2. 
 
 TOPOGRAPHY, 112-26. 
 
 TOWN ECONOMY, 54-6. 
 
 TOWNSHIP, NEW ENGLAND, 214. 
 
 TOYS, childrens', 107, 108. 
 
 TRADE: origin of, 48; promoted by 
 religious festivals, 49; markets 
 established, 49; privileges granted to 
 traders, 49; standards of measure- 
 ment established, 49; first articles of 
 
 trade, 50; development of technique 
 of. S. S 1 '. effects of, 51; its use in 
 education, 130-2, 140-52; colonial 
 218-24. 
 
 TRADING-POSTS, data for construction 
 of, 221. 
 
 TRADITION, 46. 
 
 TRAILS, the earliest routes of travel, 
 48, 167. 
 
 TRANSITION FROM INFANCY TO CHILD- 
 HOOD: psychical attitudes, 121, 122; 
 physical co-ordinations, 133; mate- 
 rials for enriching experience in, 122- 
 55; use of primitive industries, 122, 
 123; sequences presented, 124-52; 
 mistake of using stories merely 
 to gratify the child's instincts, 126; 
 relation of stories to play, 126, 127; 
 how topography may become of 
 interest at this time, 129; transition 
 from interest in play to interest in 
 serious activity, 120-55; significance 
 of this period with reference to the 
 tool, 133; relation to tools to the 
 body, 133-52; educational value of 
 child's inventions, 133-55; the ham- 
 mer, 135-7; the knife and spear, 
 138-40; bow and arrow, 141-8; 
 boats, 148-52; mechanical princi- 
 ples, 153, 154. 
 
 TRANSPORTATION: primitive, 48-51, 
 148-52; application of steam to 
 means of, 56; break in, 49, 127; 
 colonial, 222, 223. 
 
 TRAPS, a factor in the domestication of 
 animals, 36. 
 
 TRAVEL: original stimulus, 48; trails 
 the earliest routes, 48, 167; purposes 
 of, 48; influence upon handicraft sys- 
 tem, 54, 55; application of steam to 
 means of, 56; a subject of educa- 
 tional value for the child, 132 (see 
 also Boats, Roads, Trade, Trans- 
 portation). 
 
 TROPHY, significance of, 27. 
 
 TROPISMS, 63. 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, LABORA- 
 TORY SCHOOL, 237. 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF UTAH, TRAINING 
 DEPARTMENT, 228. 
 
 URUS, 16, 19. 
 
 VEBLEN, THORSTEIN, 68, 69. 
 
 WAGE-WORK, 54. 
 
 WAR: upon animals, 24-35; upon man, 
 38, 41, 81, 82; its social service,^, 
 43, 44; beginnings of fortification, 
 41; relation to development of mu- 
 sical instruments, 79. 
 
 WASTE IN THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS, 
 9, 10, 247. 
 
 WEAPONS (see Devices, Inventions).
 
 2/0 
 
 INDEX 
 
 WEAVING, 75, 327, 228 (sec also Tc- 
 Ules). 
 
 WEED EN, Economic and Social His- 
 tory of New England, quoted, 206, 
 231- 
 
 WILSON, THOMAS, 141. 
 
 WOMAN'S SHARE IN THE DIVISION OF 
 LABOR, 24, 41. 
 
 WOOD-WORK, 183. 
 
 WORK: attitude of savage toward, 70; 
 attitude of the child toward, 71, 72, 
 144, 157 (see also Activity, Attitude) 
 inadequate provision made for 
 
 training people for their work, 4, 86; 
 
 optional work in the schools, 168; 
 
 and play, 73, 157. 
 WORKERS : affected by their work, 86; 
 
 by minute division of labor, 57, 84; 
 
 by handicrafts, 84. 
 WORKMANSHIP INSTINCT: origin of, 
 
 6772; looseness in the use of the 
 
 term, 67; how affected by successive 
 
 stages of culture, 60-87; its relation 
 
 to art and play, 73-80 (see also Art, 
 
 Industry, Play).
 
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