TRUBNER'S 
 ILLECriON OF SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS 
 
 THE SWEDISH LANGUAGE 
 
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SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR 
 
 SWEDISH LANGUAGE 
 
 BY 
 
 E. C. OTTE. 
 
 LONDON : 
 TRUBNEE & CO., LUDGATE HILL. 
 
 1884. 
 [All rights reserved.} 
 
LONDON : 
 
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 ST. JOHN'S SQUARE, CLEBKENWELL ROAD. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 - 
 
 THE Swedish language belongs to a northern offshoot of 
 the Old Germanic, which in course of time gave origin ,to 
 
 vj 
 
 \ two slightly differing forms of speech, known to Scandina- 
 ^ vian grammarians as Forn-SvensJcan, the Old Swedish, and 
 Forn-NorsJcan, the Old Norse. The former of these was 
 spoken by the Svear and Gotar, or ancient Swedes and 
 Goths; while the latter, as the name implies, was the 
 language of the Norsemen, and probably identical with 
 the Norrcena, or Donsk Tunga, of the Northmen who 
 first made themselves known to the nations of Christian 
 Europe. 
 
 We have evidence that these two main branches of the 
 Old Northern never deviated sufficiently from each other 
 to interfere with their comprehension by all the Scandina- 
 1 vian peoples, although each possessed certain inherent and 
 persistent characters peculiar to itself, of which traces may 
 still be found in the modern forms of cultivated speech, 
 which we distinguish as Swedish, and Dano-Norwegian. 
 These distinctive survivals of the original twin forms of the 
 
 b 
 
VI INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Old Northern have been best preserved in the provincial 
 dialects of the northern kingdoms, and considerable light 
 has been thrown on the history of the development of the 
 Swedish language by a study of the various forms of the 
 so-called "bondesprdk" or peasant-speech, which still 
 maintain their ground in different parts of Sweden. 
 
 The Forn-Svens&an, or Old Swedish, can scarcely be 
 said to have lost its status as the spoken tongue of the 
 people till the beginning of the sixteenth century, when, 
 with the emancipation of Sweden from the dominion of 
 Denmark, and its political and social regeneration under 
 Gustaf Vasa, a new era began in the language, as well as 
 in the political and national life of the people. Gustaf, 
 partly from policy perhaps as much as from conviction, 
 early gave his support to the Reformers, whose zealous en- 
 deavours to provide the laity with trustworthy vernacular 
 translations of the Scriptures he warmly seconded, encou- 
 raging the most learned of the Swedish adherents of the 
 Lutheran doctrines to take part in this praiseworthy labour. 
 Amongst these, the most eminent was Olaus Petri, who, 
 although of peasant birth, was an elegant scholar, alike well 
 versed in the literature of his native land, and in the learn- 
 ing of the schools, which he had acquired while studying 
 at the German universities under the immediate direction 
 of Luther. His translation of the New Testament, which 
 appeared in 1536, and is the earliest Swedish version of the 
 
INTRODUCTION. Vll 
 
 Scriptures, may therefore be fairly accepted as a true 
 representative of the highest literary standpoint of the lan- 
 guage in the earlier half of the sixteenth century. Indeed 
 it may be said that Olaus Petri's work marks the turning 
 point between the older and more rugged form of the lan- 
 guage, and that later development from which has resulted 
 the spoken Swedish of our own times. The latter has 
 naturally undergone various modifications, but it has 
 retained far more of the characteristic vigour of the Old 
 Northern than its sister-speech of Norway and Denmark, 
 where even the best preserved provincial dialects betray the 
 Germanizing influences to which both the spoken and the 
 written language of the people have been subjected. From 
 this vitiation of their northern mother-tongue the Swedes 
 have been saved through their early severance from their 
 political union with Denmark, and still more, perhaps, 
 through their geographical position, which, while it has 
 aided them in maintaining, almost unassailed, the indepen- 
 dence which the first of the Vasas secured for them, has not 
 been without powerful influence on the preservation of the 
 genuine northern character of their language. 
 
 In modern Swedish, great dialectic differences of inflec- 
 tion and pronunciation are still to be met with even among 
 the educated classes, although it cannot be denied that the 
 present generation is showing a constantly increasing incli- 
 nation to level provincialisms towards a more general 
 
Till INTRODUCTION. 
 
 standard, and thus to create a fixed form of cultivated 
 spoken speech. The more circumscribed dialects are rapidly 
 disappearing, and the most important Swedish linguistic 
 differences may therefore now be comprehensively included 
 under the two heads of Upsvcensk, and Sydsvcensk, " Upper 
 or Northern Swedish/' and " Southern Swedish." To the 
 latter of these belongs the pronunciation of Sodermanland, 
 which is generally considered the best, and is that of an 
 influential section of the cultivated classes of Stockholm, on 
 which account it may be accepted by the student of 
 Swedish as the best standard he can follow in his attempt to 
 master the difficulties which appertain to the correct pro- 
 nunciation of Swedish. 
 
 The Swedes rejected the use of the Gothic characters 
 three hundred years ago, and since then they have employed 
 the ordinary Latin letters, adding merely certain marks to 
 indicate special vowel-sounds peculiar to the northern 
 tongues. With the older alphabet, they did not, however, 
 at once lay aside the cumbersome modes of spelling in use 
 in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and it is only 
 within recent years that any systematic and rational reform 
 has been introduced into the spelling of Swedish words. 
 Since the meeting at Stockholm, in 1869, of the Scandi- 
 navian Linguistic Congress an important change has, how- 
 ever, been in progress, and although the end is not yet 
 attained, much has already been done in Sweden to carry out 
 
INTRODUCTION. IX 
 
 the Resolutions of the Conference, whose leading aim was 
 to purify the northern sister- tongues from foreign elements 
 as far as existing conditions admitted of their elimination, 
 and to revert as far as possible to the forms of the 
 Old Northern, from which they have in common derived 
 their descent. 
 
 In conformity with this principle, the spelling of modern 
 Swedish is being greatly simplified. The double and mute 
 letters of older times are being discarded, and while deriva- 
 tions and inflections are being made to agree orthographi- 
 cally with their roots and stems, the use of the vowels is 
 being brought into closer harmony with the sounds of 
 which these characters are the written representatives. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 TAGB 
 
 The Alphabet (Alfabetet) 1 
 
 Articles (Artikeln) ....... 8 
 
 Nouns (Tingord) .... 11 
 
 First Declension . . . . . . . 11 
 
 Second and Third Declensions .... 12 
 
 Fourth and Fifth Declensions ..... 13 
 
 Adjectives (Egenskapsord) . . . . . . 17 
 
 Adverbs (Omstdndighetsord) ...... 20 
 
 Pronouns (Ersdttningsord) 21 
 
 Personal Pronouns 21 
 
 Possessive Pronouns ...... 22 
 
 Demonstrative Pronouns 22 
 
 Verbs (Hdndelseorcf) ....... 24 
 
 Passive Verbs (Passivtvm) . . . . 30 
 
 Prepositions (Forord) ....... 33 
 
 Conjunctions (Bindeord) ...... 33 
 
 Interjections (Utropsord) ...... 34 
 
Ill CONTEXTS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 Oir THE USE AND CHARACTER OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS OP 
 
 SPEECH. 
 
 PACK 
 
 The Indefinite Article ....... 35 
 
 The Definite Articles . . . . . . . 36 
 
 The Noun 39 
 
 Adjectives ......... 44 
 
 The Numerals 46 
 
 Pronouns 48 
 
 Verbs 52 
 
 Adverbs ..... .... 58 
 
 Prepositions . . . . . . . . 60 
 
 Conjunctions 61 
 
 Modes of Inflection in Old Swedish . 65 
 
SWEDISH GRAMMAR 
 
 PART I. 
 
 THE ALPHABET. 
 
 THE Swedish alphabet consists of the following twenty- 
 eight letters (Bokstafver) : 
 
 A, called ak, pronounced like a in father. 
 
 B bey as in English. 
 
 C sey in genuine Swedish words like 
 
 k before a, o, u; and like s 
 in words of foreign origin 
 and when it stands before 
 e, i, a and y. 
 
 D dey as in English. 
 
 E eh like ai in laid, and like e in 
 
 bit 
 
 F eff generally as in English, but 
 
 A like v at the end of words. 
 
 It represents ph and <. 
 
 ft )> y a y i> tike hard English g before I, 
 
 r, t, a, o, and u ; like English y 
 before e,j, a, o, y ; before n it 
 may take, with that letter, the 
 sound of en, Fr. 
 
 B 
 
2 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 H, called haw, aspirated except before j and v. 
 
 I ee, pronounced like ee in tree, or like i in tb/n 
 
 J yee like y in 7/ellow. 
 
 K kaw like English fe before I, r, and 
 
 ?, and before the bard vowels 
 a, a, o, u, as well as at tbe 
 end of words. Before tbe 
 soft vowels d, e, i, y t and o, 
 it takes wbat the Swedes 
 designate as tbe " fj'e " sound, 
 which is nearly equivalent to 
 the sound of English ch. 
 
 L ell generally as in English ; but 
 
 not heard before j, as Ijits 
 (pron.jnus), 'light.' 
 
 M emm as in English. 
 
 N enn as in English ; before k, n takes 
 
 the sound of ng. 
 
 O oh when short like o in dog, or 
 
 like o in bore, but also like oo 
 in boon. 
 
 P pey as in English. ^ 
 
 Q coo. This letter is followed in Swedish by v 
 
 instead of u, and is then 
 pronounced like English kv. 
 
 R err, pronounced like a strongly enunciated r, 
 
 and always audible among 
 the more cultivated classes. 
 
THE ALPHABET. 3 
 
 S, called ess, pronounced like hard English s before /, 
 
 and before k and t, where 
 these letters are not followed 
 byj, in which case sk and xt 
 acquire the sound of English 
 h. This sound is, moreover, 
 heard at all times in sj ; and 
 in sk, where the latter is fol- 
 lowed by the soft vowels 
 a, e, i, o, y. 
 
 T fey as in English. 
 
 U oo like oo in spoon, or when short 
 
 like n in fall. In addition to 
 these, the Swedish u has, 
 however, a sound not precisely 
 analogous to any to be found 
 in more southern European 
 tongues, but which in many 
 instances appears to have an 
 intermediate sound between 
 the English u in pall and 
 the n in shatter. 
 
 V vey as in English. 
 
 A ,, elcs ,, ,, 
 
 Y u like French u in pure. 
 
 Z seyta as hard English s. 
 
 A awe like aw in saw. 
 
 A ,, ty like a in sale, and when short 
 
 like e in wr<?n. 
 
 O en like eu in leurre (Fr.) and in 
 
 pen (Fr.). 
 
4 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 The letter c is generally replaced by k where it has the 
 hard sound of that letter, as Karl for ' Carl/ In foreign 
 words which have been adopted with little or no modifica- 
 tion, the c is often replaced by s, as seder, or ceder, 
 ' cedar/ 
 
 The letter d is not sounded before t, asgodt {got}, 'good,' 
 nor between I and t, as mildt (millt) , ' mild/ It is dropped 
 before^' in certain words, as djur (jur), ' animal/ 
 
 The letter f is followed by v, and merged in that letter, 
 when standing between two vowels, s&.gifva (yeeva), 'to 
 give/ 
 
 The letter g has the sound of hard g or soft k at the end 
 of words, as skog, m. (skoaglc), 'wood/ but it takes the 
 sound of Swedish j when preceded by Z or r } as talg (talj), 
 ' tallow / fdrg (farj), 'colour/ 
 
 When g precedes a soft vowel at the beginning of a word, 
 or of a syllable, it takes the sound of Swedish^', or English 
 y\ as, gast (yest), 'stranger/ begara (bey era), 'to require;' 
 gerna or garna (yerna), ' willingly/ 
 
 When g is followed by n in a root-word, it takes the 
 so-called ' dng ' sound, as regna (rengna), 'to rain/ from 
 regn, ' rain/ 
 
 The letter Ji is often dropped after k, or absorbed in that 
 letter, as bokhdllare (bokkellare] , ' book-keeper/ 
 
 Although k has the sound of English ch before soft 
 vowels in ordinary Swedish words, as kyrka [churka], 
 'church/ it retains the hard sound in most foreign words, 
 as anarki (annarkee), 'anarchy/ It is occasionally dropped 
 before other consonants, as spektdkel (spetaakel), ' theatre/ 
 
THE ALPHABET. 5 
 
 L between two consonants is generally dropped, as verld 
 (verd), ' world/ It is not heard before j, as ljud (youd), 
 ' sound.' 
 
 Sj, which as already observed is equivalent to sk, as sjuk 
 (shuuk), ' sick/ is occasionally used to express the sound of 
 si in such foreign words as asjette (assiette, Fr.), ' plate;' 
 pasjon, e passion.' 
 
 Although as a rule sk takes the sound of sh before soft 
 vowels, as skepp (shepp], ' ship/ while it retains its hard 
 sound before the hard vowels, as skall, 'shall/ its use 
 is, however, occasionally irregular under both conditions, 
 as handske (hanske), 'glove/ and menniska (mennisJia), 
 ' human being/ 
 
 T is often dropped before s, as batsman (dosman), 
 1 boatman / skjuts (skiiss}, ' post-relay/ Tj has the sound 
 of the Italian c before soft vowels, as tjara (cera, Ital.), 'tar. 5 
 Ti in foreign words has the sound of tsh, as nation 
 (naatshone), 'nation.' The th of foreign words, pronounced 
 like simple f, is rendered by that letter, although in the 
 older forms of Swedish it constituted a distinct character of 
 the alphabet. 
 
 Foreign words, although often rendered literally, as 'logis/ 
 ' cake/ etc., are not unfrequently spelt phonetically, as marki, 
 ' marquis/ kurage, ' courage.' 
 
 A y d, o, u are reckoned as hard vowels, and e, i, a, o, y as 
 soft vowels. 
 
 Final e is generally sounded, as in German. 
 
 In many words e has precisely the same sound as a, which 
 has been made to supersede it in the modern system of 
 
6 SWEDISH GKAMMAB. 
 
 orthography wherever the root of the word pointed to an 
 Old Northern derivation that warranted the adoption of 
 this form of the vowel a. Thus while one writer gives 
 fjenare, another will give tj&nare, ' servant.' In older 
 Swedish MSS. of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries 
 the a (or ce] is found in all words in which the vowel has 
 the sound of a long <?, as 'aft&r, ' after,' which is now written 
 e/fer, and the object aimed at in this, as in other proposed 
 changes of spelling, is to revert as already observed as far 
 as circumstances admit, to the use of the letter which best 
 represents the vowel-sound of the Old Northern. Similarly, 
 it is proposed to exchange o for d, where the short sound of 
 the latter has led to a deviation from the older Northern 
 form, as in boll used for the more correct ball, ' ball/ 
 
 The vowel-sounds differ so widely with the varying 
 degrees of stress or accentuation on the word, that a pro- 
 longed acquaintance with the spoken speech is absolutely 
 necessary to enable a foreigner to know when the vowel 
 should be long or short. 
 
 It must, moreover, be borne in mind that intonation, 
 apart from the length or shortness of the vowel, constitutes 
 an important element in the pronunciation of Swedish. 
 According to Mr. Henry Sweet, who is one of the highest 
 authorities on the sounds and intonation of spoken Swedish, 
 there is in every word a simple and a compound tone. The 
 simple tone he characterizes as "a rising modulation, as in 
 asking a question in English/ 5 while in the compound tone 
 he recognizes "a falling tone (as in answering a question) 
 on the stress- syllable with an upward leap of the voice, 
 
THE ALPHABET. 7 
 
 together with a slight secondary stress on a succeeding 
 syllable. The latter occurs, therefore, only in polysyllables. 
 The simple tone is the regular one in monosyllables." .... 
 In accordance further with the same competent authority. 
 . . . . " Foreign words and many names of places have the 
 simple tone/' .... while " The definite suffix (article) does 
 not count as part of the word, so that dagen, ' the day,' 
 retains the simple tone of dag, ( day/ '' 
 
 In words ending in eri, as bageri, ' bakehouse/ and in 
 various words of foreign origin and termination, as natur, 
 'nature;' genera.}, 'general;' Juvel, 'jewel/ the tone is 
 on the last syllable. 
 
 In compounds the tone may be said to be grave on the 
 first, and acute on the second syllable ; as, solsken, ' sun- 
 shine ;' uppfostra, ' to bring up.' 
 
 Swedish, in conformity with its general affinity with the 
 other northern representatives of the Old Gothic, adapts 
 itself readily to the formation of compound words composed 
 of various different parts of speech. In the modern system 
 of spelling there is a tendency, however, to restrict this 
 practice within more rational limits, more especially in 
 regard to compound prepositions, adverbs and conjunctions, 
 the component parts of which are now more and more fre- 
 quently written separately ; as, till f reds, ' content / i Jijcil, 
 ' dead / instead of til If reds, ikjal. 
 
SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 THE ARTICLES. (Artikeln.) 
 
 Three genders are recognized in Swedish, viz. the mas- 
 culine, feminine, and neuter. 
 
 The Articles agree in gender and number with the noun 
 to which they refer. 
 
 There are three Articles : the " Indefinite" (obestamd], 
 and two forms of the " Definite " (bestdmd], (1) the Affixed 
 or Terminal Article (slutartikel) , and (2) the Independent 
 (fristdende) Article. 
 
 The Indefinite Article, which precedes the noun, or the 
 adjective which qualifies the latter, is as follows : 
 
 MASC. AND FEM1N. GENDERS. NEUTER GENDER. 
 
 en, a, an. eft, a, an. 
 
 Examples : engosse, m., ' a boy/ enflitig gosse, ' a diligent 
 boy / en flicka, f., ' a girl/ en vacker flicka, ' a fine girl / 
 ett barn, n., ' a child/ ett godt barn, ' a good child/ 
 
 The Affix or Terminal Definite Article consists of the fol- 
 lowing particles, which are incorporated with the noun : 
 
 Singular. 
 
 MASC. AND FEMIN. OENDEB. NEUTEE GENDER. 
 
 en or n, the, et or t, the. 
 
 Plural, 
 ne, na, en or a, the. 
 
 Examples: dag, m., 'day/ dagen, 'the day/ blomma, 
 f., 'flower/ blomman, 'the flower;' namn, n., 'name/ 
 
ARTICLES. 9 
 
 namnek, ' the name / rike, n., f kingdom/ rikei, ' the king- 
 dom / dalar, m. pi., ' valleys/ dalarne, 'the valleys/ sagor, 
 f. pi., * tales/ sagorna, ' the tales / namn, n. pi., ' names/ 
 namnen, ' the names / riken, n. pi., ' kingdoms/ ri&ena., 
 'the kingdoms/ 
 
 The proper application of these affixes depends, (1) upon 
 the form of declension to which the noun belongs; (2) 
 on whether the word ends in a vowel or a consonant ; and 
 (3) on considerations of euphony. 
 
 This mode of incorporating the article with the noun 
 is a special characteristic of the Scandinavian tongues 
 which they derive from the Old Northern. It does not 
 exist in Old Gothic, but it is met with under a modified 
 form in Albanian, and in the kindred languages of Bulgaria, 
 and Roumania. 
 
 In the Old Northern we may trace the origin of this 
 method of noun-and-article agglutination to a grammatical 
 construction which admitted of putting a demonstrative 
 pronoun after the noun which it defined; as, madr hinn, 
 m., ' man that/ eik /tin, f., ' oak that;' dyrldtt, n., 'animal 
 that/ hestar hinir, m. pi., 'horses those/ tungur hinar, 
 f. pi., 'tongues those/ born h'm, n. pi., 'children those.' 
 
 In the course of time the noun and pronoun were con- 
 nected in writing, as madrhinn ; and finally, in following 
 the current mode of pronunciation, the h was dropped, 
 leaving only as suffixes inn, in, itt, pi., ir, ar, in. The 
 Scandinavian twin branches of language, known as Srenska, 
 Swedish, and Dansk-Norsk, Dano-Norwegian, which have 
 been derived from the Old Northern as their common 
 
10 SWEDISH GRAMMAR,. 
 
 mother tongue, have followed a similar process. Thus for 
 example, dag hinn, ' day that/ gradually assumed its present 
 agglutinated form of dagen, ' the day/ 
 
 The demonstrative pronoun served in Old Northern to 
 define the object, like a simple definite article, of which 
 there is no other representative in the older Icelandic 
 writings ; nor is there any trace of a distinct indefinite 
 article till a comparatively recent period, when its place was 
 supplied by the numeral einn, mas., ein, fern., e'M, n., 'one/ 
 From this has been derived the modern Swedish article 
 en, ett, ' a/ ' an/ which is merely the unaccentuated form 
 of the word which expresses the numeral ( one/ 
 
 The Swedish Independent Definite Article (Fristaende 
 
 ArtikeF), is : 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 MASC. AND FEM. NEUTER. ALL GENDEBS. 
 
 den, the det, the de, the. 
 
 This article is merely an unaccentuated form of the 
 demonstrative pronouns, den, det, de, derived from the 
 Old Northern hinn, hin, hitt, hinir, hinar, hin. It 
 directly precedes the noun which it defines, or the 
 adjective which qualifies the latter ; as, den gosse, ' the 
 boy/ den qvinna, 'the woman/ det barn, 'the child/ 
 de dalar, m., 'the valleys/ de sagor, f., ' the tales;' de 
 Ldlten, n., ' the belts/ Den flitige gossen, ' the diligent 
 boy / den ddla qvinnan, f., ' the noble woman / det goda 
 larnet, ' the good child / de djupa dalarne, m., ' the deep 
 valleys/ de gamla sagorna, ( the ancient tales/ de korta 
 liiliena, ' the short belts/ 
 
NOUNS. 1 1 
 
 Here it will be observed that the noun, when preceded 
 Vy an adjective, takes both the affixed article and the 
 independent definite article. This pleonasm is peculiar to 
 the Swedish branch of the Scandinavian languages, Dano- 
 Norwegian dispensing with the terminal affix when the 
 noun is preceded by an adjective with the requisite inde- 
 pendent or adjective form of the definite article. 
 
 In many instances, however, and under certain con- 
 ditions, the terminal article is dropped in Swedish when 
 the noun is qualified by an adjective. 
 
 NOUNS. (Tingord.) 
 
 Swedish Nouns are of three genders, Masculine, Femi- 
 nine and Neuter ; as, en fader, m., 'a father/ en moder, f., 
 ' a mother ;' ett barn, n., ' a child. 5 
 
 Nouns are grouped under Jive modes of declension 
 (bq/ningsfatf), viz. : 
 
 The First Declension. 
 (Plural termination or.} 
 
 Without the terminal article. With the terminal article. 
 Sing. Nom. blomma, f. flower, blomman, the flower. 
 
 Gen. blommas, ... blommaus,of 
 
 Dat. Ace. blomma, ... blomman, 
 
 Pin. N. D. A. HommoT, flowers, blommorua, the flowers. 
 Gen. blommors, ... blommornas, of 
 
 To this declension belong all feminine nouns ending 
 in a. 
 
12 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 The Second Declension. 
 (Plural termination ar.) 
 
 Without the terminal article. With the terminal article. 
 
 Sing. Nom., etc., dal, m., dale, dalen, the dale. 
 
 .. Gen., dais, dalens, of 
 
 Plu. Norn., etc., dalar, ... dales, dalarne (or na}. 
 
 ... Gen., dalars, dalarnes (or wow). 
 
 Stuff. Nom., etc., socken, f., parish, socktien, the parish. 
 
 ... Gen., socltens, soc&uens, of 
 
 Plu. Nom., etc., soc&nar, ... parishes, socfcnarna., the pa- 
 rishes. 
 ... Gen., socknars, f., ... soc&narxAS, of the 
 
 parishes. 
 
 To this declension belong both masculine and feminine 
 nouns. 
 
 The Third Declension, 
 (Plural termination er.} 
 
 Without the terminal article. With the terminal article. 
 Sing. Nom., etc., van, m. & f., friend, vdnnen, the 
 
 friend. 
 
 . . . Gen., veins, ... ... vdnnens, of 
 
 Plu. Nom., etc., vanner, ... friends, vannerne (or na). 
 ... Gen., fawners, ... ... tantiemes (or 
 
 not). 
 
 Sing. Nom., etc., tryckeri, n., printing tryckeriei, the 
 
 office, printing office. 
 
NOUNS. 13 
 
 Sing. Gen., tryckeris, n., printing fryckeriets, of the 
 
 office, printing office. 
 
 Plu. Nom., etc., tryckerier, tryckerierna, the 
 
 offices, printing offices. 
 ... Gen., tryckeriws, tryckerierna.s,? 
 
 To this declension belong masculine, feminine, and 
 neuter nouns. 
 
 The Fourth Declension. 
 
 (Plural termination n.} 
 Without the terminal article. With the terminal article. 
 
 Sing. Nom., etc., bdlte, n., belt, 6ciltet, the belt. 
 
 . . . Gen. , baltes, ballets, of 
 
 Plu. Nom, etc., bdlten, . . . belts, baltena, the belts. 
 
 . . . Gen., battens, baltenas, of 
 
 To this declension belong only neuter nouns ending in 
 a vowel 
 
 The Fifth Declension. 
 (The same termination in the plural as in the singular.) 
 
 Without the terminal article. With, the terminal article. 
 Sing. Nom., etc., krigare t m., warrior, krigaren, the 
 
 warrior. 
 ... Gen., krigares, ... ... krigarens,oft\\e 
 
 warrior. 
 
 Plu. Nom., etc., krigare y ... warriors, krigarue, the 
 
 warriors. 
 
14 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Plu, Gen., krigares, m., warriors, krigames, of the 
 
 warriors. 
 Sing. Norn., etc., namn, n., name, namnet, the name. 
 
 Gen., namns, namnets, of 
 
 Plu. Nom.,etc., namn, ... names, namnen, the names. 
 
 ... Gen., namns, namnens, of 
 
 To this declension belong masculine and neuter nouns. 
 In regard to differences of gender it may be observed 
 that the following belong generally to the masculine : 
 
 1. Nouns that indicate the male sex in persons or 
 animals ; as, homing, m., ' king;' tupp, m., l cock/ 
 
 2. The names of seas, lakes, and woods, and the seasons, 
 mouths, and days ; as, host, ' autumn ;' juli, ' July ;' tors- 
 dag, 'Thursday/ 
 
 3. Nouns generally that end in ad, an<Je, are, dom, ing, 
 ling, lek, ndr, skap ; as, mdn&d, m., ' month ;' fiandfande, 
 m., 'trader;' t/enare, m., 'man-servant/ ung&om, m., 
 ' youth ;' mening, m., ' meaning ;' y/awling, m., ' stranger / 
 /tarlek, m., 'love;' &onstna.r, m., 'artist;' t'^^wskap, m., 
 ' science.' 
 
 To the feminine gender belong generally : 
 
 1. Nouns that indicate the female sex in persons and 
 animals ; as, drottning^ f. 'queen;' hona, 'hen.' 
 
 2. The names of small rivers and brooks, and of indi- 
 genous Swedish trees ; as, Dalelven ; bjork, f., ' birch/ 
 
 3. Words ending in a, an, and, dng, d, t, else, and i, ik, 
 ion, and ur in words of foreign origin ; as, kyrkz, f., 
 
NOUNS. 15 
 
 'church;' ver&an, f., 'effect;' rand, f., 'edge;' st&ng, f., 
 ' pole ;' dyg<\, f., ' virtue ;' drdgi, f., ' dress ;' /o^else, f., 
 'birth/ geografi, f, ' geography f faltrik, f., 'manufac- 
 tory ',' religion, f., ' religion ;' natm, f., ' nature/ 
 To the neuter gender belong generally : 
 
 1. The names of countries and places, letters of the 
 alphabet, and words or sentences used as nouns; ae, 
 Sverge, n., 'Sweden;' Stockholm, n. ; ett a, 'an a;' ett 
 Lef val, ' a farewell/ 
 
 2. Nouns ending in a, where they have the plural in n ; 
 zsjijerta, n., 'heart;' oga, n., 'eye' (pi., Off on} ; or a, n., 
 ' ear' (pi., oron); in e, el, er, on, and in.um,eum, and ium in 
 words of foreign origin ; as, rike, n., ' kingdom ;' hagQ\, n., 
 ' hail ;' blomster, n., ' flower ;' ostron, n., ' oyster ;' fakfaan t 
 n., 'fact;' museum, n., ' museum ;' kolleginm, n., ' college.' 
 
 Compound words, irrespective of their precise meaning, 
 take the gender of the last member of the combined 
 group; as, qvinfolk, n., 'woman;' stafsr&d, n., 'councillor 
 of state.' 
 
 The gender of many words varies in different parts of 
 Sweden in accordance with local usage, depending among 
 other conditions upon whether the district belongs to the 
 ancient ' Svea " or " Gb'fa" dominions; thus i.a., finger, 
 'finger,' and bolster, 'bolster/ which are masculine in the 
 former, are neuter in the latter territory. 
 
 Numerous words have different meanings in accordance 
 with a difference in their gender; as, pit, m., 'an arrow,' 
 pil, f., 'a willow;' dam, m., 'wear,' dam, f., 'lady,' dam, 
 n., 'dust;' gran, f., 'pine-tree,' gran, n., 'grain.' 
 
16 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Many such words differ in the mode in which they form 
 their plural ; as, kor, m., ' a company of singers/ pi. 
 korer ; kor, n., ' church-quire/ pi. kor ; Idr, m., ' corn-bin/ 
 pi. Idrar ; Idr, n., ' thigh-bone/ pi. Idr. 
 
 Some words may be used under two distinct modes of 
 termination in the singular dependent upon uncertainty of 
 declension ; as, almanacka and almanack, pi., almanackor. 
 
 Others may differ both in the plural and singular ; as, 
 Fur orfura, f., ' fir-tree / the former making furer, and the 
 latter furor, in the plural. 
 
 Some nouns do not admit of being declined ; as, (?') gdr, 
 ' yesterday / (till) pass, ' at the right time ;' (pa) spe, 
 ' mockery/ Such words, however, as in the instances given, 
 usually require to be used adverbially with a preposition. 
 
 Many words have different meanings in accordance with 
 the declension to which they belong, and the consequent 
 difference in their plural; as, bok, f., 'book/ pi. backer ; 
 bok, f., ' beech/ pi. bokar. 
 
 Some nouns, as in English, can only be used in the sin- 
 gular ; as, bly, n., ' lead/ allmoge, m., 'peasantry/ stolthet, f., 
 ' pride/ and many other abstract nouns of a similar kind. 
 
 Some nouns can only be used in the plural ; as, bopdlar, 
 m. pi., 'domicile/ ranker, m. pi., ' cabal/ 
 
 Many nouns form their plural by changing their radical 
 vowel; us, hand, f., ' hand/ pi. hdnder ; son, m., 'son/ pi. 
 soner ; man, m., ' man/ pi. man or manner ; gas, f., 'goose/ 
 'pi. ffdss ; mus, f, ' mouse/ pi. moss. The two last take en 
 as their plural terminal article. 
 
ADJECTIVES. 17 
 
 ADJECTIVES. (Egenskapsord.) 
 
 Swedish adjectives agree in gender and number with the 
 noun which they qualify; as, en flitig man, och en flitig 
 qrinna, 'a diligent man and woman;' ett flitig t barn, ' a dili- 
 gent child;' ffode (#) so tier, 'good sons;' Jlitiga,Jlic&or, 'dili- 
 gent girls ;' tidln namn, n., ' noble names/ Here it will be 
 observed that in this indefinite so-called "weak" form of the 
 adjective, which is also used as a predicate, the masculine and 
 feminine in the singular are identical, while the neuter takes 
 a t. The masculine plural in e is in accordance with the older 
 forms of the language, but by modern and common usage 
 an a is generally substituted for the e, arid the plural of all 
 genders is thus reduced to one mode of termination in the 
 indefinite form of the adjective. Thus while the same form 
 of the adjective is used for the masculine and feminine, or 
 common gender in the singular, the neuter is marked by the 
 addition of t, and the plural by a, as: 
 
 Singular. 
 
 COMMON GENDER. NEUTER. 
 
 god, good. ^odt, good. 
 
 Plural, 
 god a, good, for all genders, 
 
 excepting in some cases as above referred to, where the 
 masculine takes filial e instead of a. 
 
 This termination of e is also met with for all genders in 
 
18 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 certain compound, and other, adjectives derived from a 
 participle and ending in ad as 
 
 Sing., godhjertad, c. g., godhjertadt, n., good-hearted. 
 Plural for all genders, godhjertade, 
 
 The "definite'* or so-called "strong" form of the adjective 
 is marked by the addition of a to the abstract form in the 
 feminine and neuter singular and plural, while in regard to 
 the masculine it must be borne in mind that the older 
 specific termination e, which originally marked that gender, 
 is still of frequent occurrence, as 
 
 MASCULINE. FEMININE AND NEUTER. 
 
 Numbers } goda > or 9 de ' ffoda > ood ; 
 
 as, den gode (or goda) manner, the good man. 
 den vackra blomman, ' the lovely (the) flower/ 
 det stora huset, ' the large (the) house/ 
 de cedle krigarne, ' the noble (the) warriors/ 
 deflitiga qvinnorna, ' the diligent (the) women/ 
 de ljusa bon&, 'the light (the) dwellings/ 
 
 Here it will be observed that the noun has the terminal 
 article, although the adjective qualifying it is preceded by 
 the definite article den. The double use of the article is, 
 as already noticed, not to be found in Dano-Norwegian, in 
 which the terminal article is not applicable to words defined 
 by the independent article den, det, de. 
 
 This form is also used when the noun is in the genitive, 
 or is preceded by a pronoun; as, homing ens lyckliga. regeriny, 
 ' the king's happy reign ;' min garni? van, ' my old friend/ 
 
ADJECTIVES. 19 
 
 Adjectives ending in t, preceded by a consonant, do not 
 take another t in the neuter, as salt, m. f ., salt, n. ' salt/ 
 
 Adjectives ending- in a vowel double the t in the neuter ; 
 as,/h',/Htt, n., ' free/ tty, nyit, n., 'new/ 
 
 Adjectives ending in al, el, en, er, drop the a or e where 
 this vowel occurs in the declension of the word, as in gammal, 
 'old/ which changes to gamle (a), while trogen, 'faithful/ 
 tapper, 'brave/ etc., change to trogne (a), tappve (a), etc. 
 
 Some adjectives are indeclinable ; as, bra, ' good / ode, 
 ' waste / gdngse, ' usual/ 
 
 Adjectives may be used in the sense of nouns ; as, den, 
 tappre, ' the brave (man) / den vackra, ' the charming 
 (woman) / det ddla, 'the noble (act, thing)/ 
 
 The degrees of comparison are expressed by adding to the 
 positive form are or re, and ast or st ; as 
 
 POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. 
 
 stark, strong, starkare, stronger, starkast, strongest. 
 hog, high, hogre, higher, Jtogst, highest. 
 
 Mera or mer, ' more/ and mest, ' most,' may be used as in 
 English to express comparison, and this more especially 
 where the adjective has a participle form ; as. 
 
 POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. 
 
 godfijertad, good-hearted, mera godTijer tad, mest godhjer tad 
 Many adjectives are wholly irregular ; as 
 
20 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 POSITIVE. 
 
 COMPABATIVE. 
 
 SITPEELATIVE. 
 
 god, good, 
 
 lattre, 
 
 last. 
 
 liten, small, 
 
 mindre, 
 
 minst. 
 
 mycken, much, 
 
 mera, 
 
 meat. 
 
 elak or ond, bad, 
 
 varre, 
 
 vdrst. 
 
 gammal, old, 
 
 aldre, 
 
 didst. 
 
 Some are defective, having either no positive, or neither 
 positive nor comparative, especially where the word is 
 derived from a preposition or adverb ; as, framre (comp.), 
 ' more forward/ framst, ' most forward ' (fram, prep., 
 'forth, onward'); yttre (comp.), 'outer/ ytterst (super.), 
 ' outermost ' (ut, adv., ' out '). 
 
 Some adjectives from their meaning do not admit of 
 comparison ; as, dod, ( dead ;' stum t ' mute.' 
 
 The adverb desto, ' the/ ' so much the/ is often used to 
 give additional force to the comparative, as desto battre, 
 'the better/ The particle-adjectives aller, allra, ' all/ give a 
 similarly heightened form to the superlative, as allerbast, 
 allrabast, ' the very best/ 
 
 ADVERBS. (Omttandigftetsord.) 
 
 Many Swedish adverbs are identical with the neuter of 
 the corresponding adjective, as tungt, ' heavily/ from tung, 
 m., f., tungt, n., ' heavy/ In such cases they follow the 
 same rules of comparison as the corresponding adjective; as, 
 ) ' more heavily / tyngst, ' most heavily/ 
 
PRONOUNS. 21 
 
 Many adverbs of irregular modes of comparison are 
 similarly identical with the corresponding adjectives ; as 
 val, well, comp. b&ttre, better, superl. bast, best. 
 ilia, badly, vdrre, worse, vdrst, worst. 
 
 The following are some of the more generally used adverbs 
 of time, place, manner, mode, affirmation, negation, etc. 
 
 nu, now. hiir, here. gerna, willingly. 
 
 da, then. dlt, thither. visst, certainly. 
 
 snart, soon. hit, hither. j&ijo, yes. 
 
 strax, immediately, in, inne, in. nej, ej, no, not. 
 
 redan, already. ut, ute, out. icke, no, not. 
 
 Idnge, long. framdeles, in fu- ingalunda, by no 
 ofta, often. ture. means. 
 
 huru, how. Avar/or, why. mdnne, may be, 
 
 der, there. sd, so. perchance. 
 
 PRONOUNS. (Ersdttningsord.} 
 The Personal Pronouns in Swedish are : 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Nona., jag, I ; du, thou ; han, he ; hon, she ; del, it. 
 Gen., kans ; hennes ; dess. 
 
 D., Ace., mig ; dig ; honom ; kenne ; del ; sig, self 
 
 (reflect). 
 Plural. 
 
 Norn., vi, we ; i, ni, you ; de, they. 
 
 Gen., deras. 
 
 D., Ace., oss ; eder (er] ; 
 
SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 The reflective pronoun sig is used in all genders for the 
 third person, both singular and plural. For the special use 
 of the personal pronouns, see Part II. 
 
 The Possessive Pronouns are : 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 MASC. AND TEM. 
 
 NEUTER. ALL 
 
 GENDEBS. 
 
 min, 
 
 mitt, my. 
 
 mina, 
 
 my. 
 
 din, 
 
 ditt, thy. 
 
 dina, 
 
 thy. 
 
 sin, 
 
 sitt, his, her. 
 
 sina, 
 
 their. 
 
 vdr, 
 
 vdrt, our. 
 
 vdra, 
 
 our. 
 
 eder, er, 
 
 edert (ert), 
 
 edra, 
 
 your. 
 
 
 your. 
 
 
 
 Sin, sitt, sina are used (as in Danish) in a subjective 
 reflective sense, whilst hans, hennes, dess are only used 
 objectively ; as, Fadern dlskar sitt barn, och soker befrdmja 
 dess val, ' a father loves his (own) child, and strives to 
 promote his (the child's) welfare. 
 
 The Demonstrative Pronouns are : 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 MASC. AND FEM. 
 
 NEUTER. 
 
 ALL GENDERS. 
 
 Nona., etc., den, del, the, this, 
 
 that. 
 G., dess (dens], dess, 
 
 N., de, 
 
 G., deras, 
 D., Ace., dem t 
 
 the, these. 
 
PRONOUNS. 23 
 
 Singular. 
 
 MASC. FEM. NEUTER. 
 
 Norn., denne (a), denna, delta, this. 
 
 Gen., dennes (as), dennas, deltas, 
 
 Plural. 
 
 MASC. FEM. NEUTEK. 
 
 Nom., desse (a), dessa, dessa. 
 
 Gen., desses (as), dessas, dessas. 
 
 Sing., den samme (a), m., den samma, f., det samma, the same. 
 Plur., de samme (a), de samma, de samma, 
 
 The Reciprocal Pronouns hvarandra, hvarannan, 'one 
 another,' ' each other/ take s in the genitive. 
 
 The Interrogative and Relative Pronouns are ; 
 Nona., ho, hvem, who ; hvad, what. 
 Gen., Avars (hvems), hvars, 
 D., Ace., Jivem, hvad, 
 
 Hvadfb'r en, m., f., hvad far ett, n., hvad for, pi., are 
 occasionally used instead of the relative hvilken, m., f., hvil- 
 ket, n., Gen. hvilkens, hvilkets, N. A. D. pi. hmlka, for all 
 genders, Gen. hvilkas, * which/ 
 
 Som, ' whom,' ' which/ ' that/ is not declinable. 
 
 The principal Indefinite Pronouns are : 
 
 En, Gen. ens, pi. ena, l one/ ' some one/ generally used 
 only in the objective case. 
 
 Man, ( one/ 'they/ used only in the nominative sin- 
 gular. 
 
24 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Ndgon, m., f., ndgot, n., pi. ndgra, ' some one/ ' any one;' 
 ingen, m. f., intet, n., pi. inga, ' no one/ 'none/ bagge, Mda, 
 ' both / mdngeri, m., f., mdnget, n., pi. manga, ' many/ 
 ' many a one/ annan, m., f., annat, n., pi. andra, 'other/ 
 owj*e, 'both/ 'each/ */<?{ m., f., .*//?, n., pi. sjelfva, 'other/ 
 dylik, 'such/ egen, m., f., c^i?^, n., pi. egna, 'own/ 
 
 VERBS. (Hdndelseord.) 
 
 In Swedish there are three forms of verbs the active, 
 passive, and deponent. 
 
 The auxiliary verbs are divided by Swedish grammarians 
 into three classes : (1) temporala, or those which help to 
 form compound tenses; as, hafva, 'to have/ and skola, 
 ' shall* or ' will / (2) modala, or those which serve to ex- 
 press different moods; as, md, mdste (defect.), 'may/ 
 'must/ kunna, 'can/ Idta, 'let/ vilja, 'will/ bora, 
 1 ought / (3) passiva, or those which serve to conjugate 
 the passive ; as, vara, ' be / varda, blifva, ' become.' 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 att hafva, to have. att vara, to be. 
 
 Partic. Present, hafvande, having. varande, being. 
 
 Partic. Past, haft, had. varit, been. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Jag, du, han, hon, den, det, Jag, du } han, hon } den, del 
 har (hafver), I have, etc. ar, I am, etc. 
 
VERBS. 
 
 25 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Vi hafva (ha), we have. 71 aro, we are. 
 
 I hafven (han), ye / dren, ye 
 
 De hafva (ha), they De aro, they 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. 
 All 3 persons, hade, I had, etc. var, I was, etc. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Vi hade, we had. 7i voro, we were. 
 
 / haden, ye I voren, ye 
 
 De hade, they De voro, they 
 
 Subjunctive or Optative. 
 Present. 
 Singular. 
 
 All 3 persons, hafve or z# hafva, have, or may have. 
 vare, I may be, etc. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Vi hafve or md hafva, we have, or may have, etc. 
 J hafven man ye 
 
 De hafve md they 
 
 Vi vare, we may be. 
 I varen, ye 
 De vare, they 
 
26 
 
 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 2nd person sing., haf; var ; have, be thou. 
 
 1st plur., hafvom ; varomj let us have, be. 
 
 2nd hafven; varen; have, be ye. 
 
 The other auxiliaries, which may also in certain cases be 
 used independently, are conjugated as follows : 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 skola, shall. 
 vilja, will. 
 md, may. 
 mdste, may. 
 tor, ffira, dare. 
 kunna, can. 
 bora, ought. 
 varda, become. 
 blifva,be, remain. 
 
 Here, as in all other verbs, the second person plural ends 
 in en ; as, I skolen I boren ; etc. 
 
 There are four modes of conjugation in Swedish, the 
 three first of which include so-called weak verbs, while the 
 fourth comprises all so-called strong verbs. 
 
 First Conjugation (Active}. 
 
 The Imperf. Indie, ends in ade, Past Part, in ad, Supine in at. 
 Example : Infinitive Pres., (att) kalln, ' to call;' Perfect, 
 
 Pres. Indie. Imperfect. P. Part 
 
 Sing. Plur. 
 
 Sing. Plur. 
 
 
 skall, skola. 
 
 skulle,sTi,ulle. 
 
 skolat. 
 
 vill, vilja. 
 
 ville, ville. 
 
 velat. 
 
 md, md (mag a) . 
 
 matte, matte. 
 
 mast. 
 
 mdste, mdste. 
 
 
 mast. 
 
 tor, tora. 
 
 torde, torde. 
 
 
 ban, kunna. 
 
 kunde,kunde. 
 
 kunna t. 
 
 6or, bora. 
 
 borde, borde. 
 
 bort. 
 
 varder, varda. 
 
 vardt, vordo. 
 
 vorden. 
 
 blifver, blifva. 
 
 blef, blefuo. 
 
 blifvit. 
 
VERBS. 27 
 
 hafva kallat, ' to have called ;' Pres. Part., kallande, ' call- 
 ing;' Sup., kall&t, 'called/ 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Present. Imperfect. Past Tenses. 
 
 Sing., all persons: Jcallax, ballade, har, or hade kallai, 
 
 have, or had called. 
 Plur., 1st and 3rd persons : kalla. 
 
 FUTURE TENSES. 
 
 Simple Future and Conditional. Compound Future, 
 
 skall, or skulle Italia, skall, or skulle hafva kallat, 
 
 shall, or should call. shall, or should have called. 
 
 Subjunctive or Optative. 
 
 Present. Imperfect. Perfect. 
 
 kalle. The same as Imperf. md hafva, or hade 
 Indicative. kallat, may have, 
 
 or had called. 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 Sing. 2 pers. kalla, (du). 
 Plur. 1 kallom (vi). 
 kallen (I). 
 
 It must be observed here, that in accordance with what 
 has already been stated, the second person plural in this, as 
 in the other conjugations, differs from the other persons by 
 ending in en or n, according to the termination of the tense 
 or mood ; as, / kallen, ' ye call ' (pres. indie.) ; I kalladen, 
 1 ye were calling y (imperf. indie.). The first person plural 
 
28 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 of the imperative has also a special termination, viz. om, 
 as Tcallom, ( let us call ' but beyond these differences, 
 which, moreover, refer to the written language only, there 
 is no exception to the rule that the first person of either 
 number indicates the termination of the other persons of 
 the tense or mood, and on this account we shall only give 
 the first persons in the following conjugations. 
 
 The Second Conjugation takes de or te in the imperf. 
 indie., d or t in the perfect past participle, and t in the supine. 
 
 Examples of these two classes : 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 (att) bdja, to bend, Part. Pres. bojande, Past Part. dojd. 
 kopsi, to buy, fcopande, kopt. 
 
 Indicative. 
 Present. Imperfect. 
 
 Sing, l/ojer, koper. 
 Plur. #0/a, Jcopa. 
 
 Sing.) 
 
 and >#o;de, kopte. 
 Plur. J 
 
 Optative. 
 Present. Imperfect. Imperative. 
 
 Sing, 
 and 
 Plur 
 
 %'e, 
 
 !|1 
 
 The same as 
 Imperf. Indie. 
 
 Sing. 2 pers. boj, kop. 
 Plur. 1 boJQTHy kopom. 
 2 
 
 The Third Conjugation takes dde in the imperfect indica- 
 tive, dd in the past participle, and it in the supine. The 
 infinitive does not take the terminal a, and the present 
 participle takes ende. 
 
VERBS. 
 
 29 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 Example: (atf) tro,'io believe;' Part. Pres. froende ; 
 Past Part, trodd. ; Sup. troii. 
 
 Present. 
 Sing-, tror. 
 Plur. tro. 
 
 Present. 
 Sing. \ 
 
 and \md tro, 
 Plur. ) 
 
 Indicative. 
 Imperfect. 
 Sing, trodde. 
 Plur. trodde. 
 
 Optative. 
 
 Imperative. 
 Sing. 2 pers. tro. 
 Plur. 2 iron. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 The same as Imperf. 
 Indie. 
 
 The Fourth Conjugation. 
 
 This conjugation includes all the so-called strong verbs, 
 i.e. verbs whose imperfect indicative tense is formed 
 through some internal change of the radical vowel. 
 
 This conjugation is divided into two classes, viz.: 
 
 1. Verbs which undergo only one change of vowel, 
 affecting the imperfect indicative ; as, gripa, imperfect grep, 
 past part, gripen, supine gripit, ' to grasp.' 
 
 2. Verbs which undergo a change of vowel, both in the 
 imperfect indicative and in the perfect participle and supine ; 
 as, binda, imperfect band, part, past fanden, supine bandit. 
 
 Examples : 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 (att) gripa to grasp, Part. Pres. gripande, Part. Past, gripen^ 
 
 Sup. gripit. 
 
 binda,io bind, t>indande,T?a,rt.~Past,d\inden, 
 
 Sup. bundit. 
 
30 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Present. Imperfect. 
 
 Sing, griper, binder. I Sing, grep, band. 
 
 Plur. gripa, binds,. Plur. grepo, bwido. 
 
 Optative. 
 Present. Imperfect. 
 
 Sing.) 
 and >gripe, binde. 
 Plur.J 
 
 Sing. ) 
 
 and \-grepe, bunde. 
 Plur.J 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 Sing. 2 pers. grip, bind. 
 Plur. ' 1 gripom, bindom. 
 2 gripen, binden. 
 
 PASSIVE VERBS. (Passivum.} 
 
 The modern Swedish form of the passive has originated 
 from the Old Northern, in which it was a mere adaptation 
 of the reflective pronoun sik, sig, and was conjugated with 
 the help of the auxiliaries vera, verda (var^d), 'to be/ and 
 the past participle of the active form of the verb. 
 
 In modern Swedish the passive is formed by adding s 
 (for sig) to the transitive active form of the verb ; as 
 
 Infinitive. 
 Present. 
 
 (atf) kallas, to be called. 
 
 bdjas, bent. 
 
 tros, trusted. 
 
 ,i bindas, bound. 
 
VERBS. 31 
 
 Past. 
 
 aft hafva kall&is, to have been called. 
 
 %'ts, bent. 
 
 traits, trusted. 
 
 bundits, bound. 
 
 Supine, Past Participle. 
 
 
 
 
 
 bojts. bojA. 
 
 troiis. ^rodd. 
 
 bundits. bundeo.. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Dallas. (All persons but 2 plur.) 
 2 pers. plur. (y^a^ens). 
 
 t>ojes. 
 
 (^o>ens).. 
 
 tros. 
 
 (trons). 
 
 bindes. 
 (bindens). 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 2 pers. plur. 
 
 boj'des. 
 (%'dens). 
 
 bands. 
 
 1 and 3 pers. plur. bundos. 
 
 2 bundens 
 
32 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Compound Tenses. 
 
 Sing. har, hade kallats, or blifvit kallad. 
 
 Plur. hafva, hade 
 
 Sing 1 , har, hade bqjts ,, bojd. 
 
 Plur. hafva, hade 
 
 Sing, har, hade trotts trodd. 
 
 Plur. hqfva, hade 
 
 Sing, har, hade bund\i bunden. 
 
 Plur. hafva, hade 
 
 Deponents are conjugated after the passive form, while 
 they have an active significance; as, minnas, ' to remember/ 
 jag minnas, ' I remember.' 
 
 Some deponents are merely the passive of some other 
 reflective active verb ; as,forifras, 'to be in a passion/ from 
 forifra sig, ' to put oneself in a passion/ Others have no 
 relation to any corresponding active verb ; as, hoppas, ' to 
 hope/ 
 
 Most intransitive verbs are without the passive ; as, falla, 
 1 to fall/ hdnda, ' to happen/ etc., and such verbs may 
 generally be used as impersonals ; as, det falter sly svdrt, 
 ' it is difficult / det Jidnde mig, c it happened to me/ 
 
 Intransitives may be used in some cases in the passive 
 when they have an impersonal sense ; as, det dansas har i 
 huset, ' there is dancing going on in the house/ 
 
 For an explanation of the principal forms of deviations 
 from the normal modes of conjugation, see Part II. 
 
PREPOSITIONS. CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. (Farord.) 
 
 The chief prepositions are 
 
 of, of, by. 
 efter, after. 
 bland, among 1 . 
 frdn, from. 
 fur, for, before. 
 ut/or, down. 
 utan, without. 
 forbi, by, past. 
 genom, through. 
 hos, at the house of. 
 i, inotn, in, within. 
 jiimie, near by, beside. 
 omkring, round. 
 
 a, pa, on, upon. 
 at, to, at, for. 
 sedan, after. 
 till, to, till, at. 
 undan, away, from. 
 mot, against. 
 nara, near. 
 ofoan, above. 
 om, about. 
 under, under. 
 utom, without. 
 ur, utur, out of. 
 vid, by, near. 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS. (Bindeord.} 
 
 The chief conjunctions are : 
 
 Simple. 
 
 och, and. da, then. 
 
 men, but. uian, unless. 
 
 eller, or. nar, when. 
 
 samt, with. dertiU, thereto. 
 
 afeen, also. derfor, therefore. 
 
 ty, for. ekuru, although. 
 
 om, in case. att, that. 
 
 Compound. 
 ej heller, neither. 
 bade och, also, as well as. 
 sd som, as. 
 i fall, in case. 
 som om, as if. 
 emedan, since. 
 sdledes, so. 
 
34 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 INTERJECTIONS. ( Utropsord.} 
 
 ! ah ! ack ! ah ! ha ! na ! hurra ! ve ! 
 
 Some are imitative sounds of noises ; as, Kling Hang ! 
 Jclatseh ! kras ! pv/ff ! Some are merely elliptical rendering's 
 of invocations, oaths, etc. ; as, Gunas ! (Gud ndde os, ' God 
 have mercy on us ') ; Kors ! (' the Cross ') ; Vassera tre ! 
 ( Far Her r as tra, ' our Lord's tree-cross ') ; bevars ! (bevare 
 oss ! ( Preserve us !'), ' Oh dear !' 
 
THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 35 
 
 PART II. 
 
 ON THE USE AND CHARACTER OF THE 
 DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 
 
 The Indefinite Article en, m., f., ett, n., ' a/ ' an/ is merely 
 the unaccented form of the indefinite pronoun en, ett, ' one/ 
 which is the same as the numeral en, ett, ' one/ 
 
 In Old Northern there is no trace of the use of a 
 distinct indefinite article, the earliest representative of 
 which was the indefinite pronoun einn, ' one/ einhverr, ' each 
 one.' From these have been derived the modern Scan- 
 dinavian en, ett. 
 
 The plural ena, 'ones/ ' some/ is used to express surprise 
 or contempt ; as, det dr ena obegripliga flicker, ' they are 
 incomprehensible girls !' 
 
 This article is in many respects governed by the same 
 rules as in English. Thus it directly precedes the noun 
 which it indicates; as, en gosse, 'a boy;' en blomma, 'a. 
 flower ;' ett hus, ' a house ;' while where the noun is quali- 
 fied by an adjective, it precedes the latter; as, en tidel 
 fende, ' a noble foe ; ' en god bok, ' a good book / ett stort 
 hof, ' a great sea.' 
 
 It is not used, however, where a person's rank, profession, 
 
36 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 or calling is indicated, unless the latter be qualified by an 
 adjective; as, han dr general, 'he is a general/ min 
 van dr EN TAPPER officer, ' my friend is a brave officer / 
 prestens son dr lakare, ' the clergyman's son is a doctor ;' 
 gossen shall bli smed, ' the boy is to be a smith/ 
 
 THE DEFINITE ARTICLES. 
 
 In the. Old Northern there was no distinct definite 
 article till a comparatively late period,, when its place was 
 supplied by the use of the demonstrative pronoun 
 
 hinn, m., kin, L,hint (liitt], n., singular, this, that; 
 
 hinir, ... hinar, ... hin, ... plural, these, those; 
 
 which either followed the noun in an independent form, 
 as Scemundr hinn frodi, 'the wise Saemund/ or was 
 affixed to it with the h and final n dropped for euphony, 
 as hestrm, 'the horse/ In conformity with this process 
 of adaptation, the modern Scandinavian tongues have used 
 the demonstrative pronoun den, det, de, ' this/ ' that/ etc., 
 as a definite independent article, pronounced without the 
 vowel-stress that marks the former. In the earlier forms 
 of Swedish this unaccented pronoun generally followed 
 the noun which it defined, and came in process of time to 
 be incorporated with it in the form of the suffixes -en or 
 -n, m., f. ; -et or -t, n. sing. ; -ne, -na, -en or -a, pi., which 
 now constitute one of the most distinctive characteristics 
 of the language. 
 
 Swedish thus possesses two distinct forms of the definite 
 article, the one independent, as den blomma, ' the flower/ 
 
THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. 37 
 
 and the other supplemental and affixed, as blomman, 
 ' the flower.' The suffixes, which must accord in number 
 and gender with the noun with which they are amalga- 
 mated, thus simply but completely represent the English 
 definite article ' the ;' as, skalden, ' the bard ;' blomman, f., 
 ' the flower ;' namnet, u., ' the name ;' riket, ' the king- 
 dom ;' skalderna., ' the bards ;' blommorna, ' the flowers ;' 
 namnen, ' the names ;' rikena, ' the kingdoms ;' skald, 
 blomma, etc., without such terminals, being indefinite, as 
 ' bard,' ' flower,' etc. 
 
 Nouns used in an abstract sense take the article in 
 Swedish where it is omitted in English ; as, lifvet dr kort, 
 ' (the) life is short ;' twiet pressas ur drufvor, ' (the) wine 
 is extracted from grapes / hvad kostar smoret i dag ? 
 'what does (the) butter cost to-day ?' 
 
 The affix is used with some names of countries and 
 places ; as for example : It alien, ' (the) Italy ;' Alperna, 
 'the Alps ;' Scandinavian, ' Scandinavia ;' and with certain 
 titles; as, Ri&srddet, '(councillor)' Lynlerg ; Presidenten 
 Wrangcl. But it is not used with homing, ' king ;' furste, 
 ' prince ;' grefve, ' count ;' Herr, ' Mr. j' Lojtnant, ' lieu- 
 tenant;' nor with any feminine titles; as, drottning, 
 'queen;' FrM,'Mrs.;' Frozen, /wtJ^/nt/Miss;' 'Madam/etc. 
 
 When Herr precedes another title, the latter takes the 
 terminal article ; as, har Herr grefven varit i London ? 
 ' have you been in London, count ? 
 
 When a title or professional designation precedes the 
 name of the person addressed, the former has the final 
 article ; as, Docenten AlmqvisL 
 
88 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 The article is omitted when the noun is preceded and 
 governed by a genitive ; as, iqvnnaus pligt ar ait dlska 
 sina barn, ' a woman's duty (the duty of a woman) is to 
 love her children/ 
 
 The affix-article is not used when the noun is preceded 
 by a relative or interrogative pronoun ; as, hvillcen pojTce 
 var det ? ' what boy was that ?' 
 
 Swedish requires that the terminal article should be 
 added to the noun, even when the latter is preceded by 
 an adjective with the independent article, den, det, de, ' the ;' 
 as, det behagede ej DEN lilla prinsess&n, ( this did not 
 please the little princess.' 
 
 This pleonastic method of construction is also met with 
 when the noun is preceded by the demonstrative pronoun, 
 den, det, de, 'that,' 'those;' as, den mann&n. skulle jag 
 vllja lara Icanna, ' that man I should like to know.' 
 
 In the older forms of the language the suffix-article was 
 generally omitted in such modes of construction, as may 
 be seen from certain familiar expressions still current ; as, 
 i de dldsta tider, ' in the olden times.' 
 
 The use of the definite article before a noun, where the 
 latter is not qualified by an adjective, is regarded as a 
 Germanism, and is of frequent occurrence in the Scriptures, 
 which in many particulars reflect the German literary 
 influences to which the earlier translators had been sub- 
 jected; thus we find de Eomare, 'the Romans;' de Ko- 
 losser, ' the Colossians,' instead of the more genuinely 
 Northern construction ' Romarne,' ' Kolosserne' 
 
 As a general rule it may be assumed that the terminal 
 
THE NOUN. 89 
 
 suffix-article should be used wherever the English ' the ' is 
 required to define the noun ; as, Jordan tir rund, the earth 
 is round; Sag du, herrame ? ' did you see the gentlemen ?' 
 
 THE NOUN. 
 
 The noun agrees in gender and number with its pre- 
 dicate ; as, mdnen dr Mar, ' the moon is bright ;' hdstarne 
 voro feta, men oxarne magra, ' the horses were fat, but the 
 oxen were lean.' 
 
 In simple sentences the subject noun precedes the verb ; 
 as, jag ser flickan, ' I see the girl.' But it follows the 
 verb : 
 
 1. In interrogatives ; as, hvarfor ligger inte barnet? 
 ( why does not the child go to bed ?' 
 
 2. In secondary sentences ; as, ndr flickan har ndgot 
 godt, sd delar hon alltid med sig at andra, ' when the girl 
 has anything good, she always shares it with others/ 
 
 3. When some assertion made by, or in reference to, 
 the subject precedes the latter ; as, del dr en ofversdtt- 
 ning, SER JAG, ' it is a translation, I see.' 
 
 4. When the subject follows the adverbial part of the 
 sentence; as, samma dag UPPLASTE HAN ofversdttningen, 
 ' on the same day he read out the translation ;' forut HADE 
 HAN Jidllit arbetet hemligt for dem, ' before that, he had 
 kept the work a secret from them.' 
 
 Elliptically the subject may be put into the accusative with 
 an infini:ive ; as, han ANSAGS VARA en rik man, ' he was re- 
 garded as a rich man;' jag sag henne komma, 'I saw her come.' 
 
 The genitive may be expressed by the use, not merely 
 
40 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 of the inflectional s, as qvinnans barn, ' the woman's 
 child,' but also by numerous prepositions, as bland, till, af, 
 efter, etc. ; as, son till qvinnan, ' the woman's son ;' hon dr 
 enka efter en prest, 'she is a clergyman's widow;' trc af 
 oss, ' three of us ;' den yngsta bland flickorna, ' the 
 youngest of the girls ;' kdrleken till Gud, ' the love of 
 God.' 
 
 Where several nouns stand in apposition, the last only 
 takes the genitive form ; as, kejsar Karl den Stores efter- 
 kommande, ' the descendants of Charles the Great.' 
 
 After words expressing quantity the genitive is not used, 
 although implied, such words being merely put in appo- 
 sition with the nouns which they govern ; as, en hop 
 soldater, ' a number (of) soldiers ;' ett par handskar, ' a 
 pair (of) gloves;' ett glas vin, 'a glass (of) wine.' 
 
 The genitive is used after hos, ' at,' and in familiar 
 parlance when a person's family or house is understood ; 
 as, hon ar hos prestens, ' she is at the clergyman's / vi ha 
 sett doktorns, ' we saw the doctor's (family).' In some 
 cases the genitive is used directly before the noun by 
 which it is governed ; as, en ARANS man, ( a man of honour ;' 
 en sexton \w&flicka, 'a girl of sixteen.' 
 
 The dative may be expressed simply by position ; as, 
 Herren gaf BONDEN brefvet, 'the gentleman gave (to) the 
 peasant the letter ;' arbetet dr oss nyttigt, ' work is good 
 for us.' 
 
 It may be expressed by at, ' at ;' for, ' for ; as, Sweden 
 skrattade at sitt eget infall, ( the smith laughed at his own 
 fancy ;' for hvem dr arbetet nyttigt ? ' for (or to) whom is 
 
THE NOUN. 41 
 
 labour good?' g if applet at honom, (or gif honom applet,) 
 ' give him the apple.' 
 
 The objective may be used with an infinitive, as in 
 Latin, in the place of a subjective with its predicate ; as, 
 Jag anser MIG UPPFYLLA. min skyldighet, 'I consider that 
 I am doing my duty.' 
 
 In regard to the five declensions of nouns adopted in 
 modern Swedish, it may be well to draw attention to the 
 following points : 
 
 1 . The First Declension includes all feminine nouns ending 
 in a. Of these, some were masculines in the older forms 
 of the language, and had in some of their cases the ter- 
 mination u (o,) which is still met with ; as, ndrvaro, 
 ' presence ;' frdnvaro, ' absence/ Some of these words 
 may be used both with the present feminine and the 
 older masculine termination ; as, dd ra or dder, ' vein/ 
 
 2. The Second Declension, which includes both masculines 
 and feminines, has upwards of 600 of the former gender 
 which are monosyllabic, and end in a consonant. Some 
 have no plural ; as, grdt, ' weeping ;' Ml, ' cabbage/ Most 
 words in sel are without the plural ; as, ka'nsel, ' sense,' 
 'perception;' trdngsel, 'crowd/ Moder and dotter, be- 
 longing to this declension, change the radical vowel in 
 the plural, as, modrar, 'mothers;' dottrar, 'daughters/ 
 Here it may be remarked that many words belonging to 
 the other declensions similarly make their plural in an 
 Umlaut, or change of the radical vowel; as, bonde, pi. 
 bonder, ' peasants ;' fader, pi. fader, ' fathers ;' broder, pi. 
 broder , 'brothers/ etc. 
 
42 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 3. The Third Declension, which includes nouns of all 
 genders, contains a large proportion of foreign words. The 
 termination -er in the plural, which is its distinctive 
 character, is unknown in genuine Swedish words of the 
 neuter gender, and is due to German or Danish influences. 
 
 4. The Fourth Declension, to which belong only neuter 
 nouns ending in a vowel, includes the neuter nouns of the 
 older form of the language ending in a and other vowels, 
 which early in the eighteenth century began to acquire the 
 plural termination -n, which is now the characteristic 
 distinction of this declension. 
 
 5. The Fifth Declension, which includes masculine and 
 neuter nouns, remains unchanged in the plural, although 
 there is a tendency among modern writers to add -er or -r 
 to express the plural ; as, svarander instead of svarande, 
 1 defendants/ 
 
 Many nouns vary in declension either from uncertainty 
 of gender or from difference of meaning ; as, bolag, n. 
 sing., bolag, m. pi., ' partnership/ 
 
 Many nouns are of irregular declension ; as, sko, m., 
 skor, pi., ' shoe ;' fot, m., f otter, pi., ' foot ;' oga, n., 
 b'gon, pi., ' eye ;' b'ra, n., oron, pi., ' ear/ 
 
 In these instances the apparent divergencies from the 
 established rules are dependent on the declension originally 
 followed by the word in the Old Northern. 
 
 Similar traces of the ancient construction are to be 
 found in certain words and expressions which retain 
 the termination of the original genitive, as, among many 
 others, in giftoman, ' guardian' (giver in marriage) ; 
 
THK NOUN. 43 
 
 Jcyrkogard, 'churchyard/ i formdgo of, 'in virtue of.' 
 Thus, too, in the expression i lagom tid, 'in good time,' 
 we have a survival of an old dative form. 
 
 The tendency of the spoken language is to disregard 
 the older grammatical distinction of masculine, feminine 
 and neuter, and to comprehend the two former under one 
 common gender. Thus in speaking of inanimate objects, 
 and even of animals, it is usual to refer to them as den, 
 ' this, that,' instead of han, 'he,' and hon, 'she/ 
 
 Numerous divergencies between the written and the 
 spoken language are observable in the tendency to lessen 
 the number of declensions, by using the termination -er 
 to mark the plural of many words for which grammatical 
 rules demand a different ending. This is more especially 
 the case in regard to neuters belonging to the fifth declen- 
 sion, but a similar practice prevails in reference to the 
 plural of feminines belonging to the first declension, in 
 which the terminal -or is frequently changed to -er in the 
 spoken language. 
 
 Abstract nouns, or foreign words ending in an or en, 
 do not take the affix-article ; as, bb'rjan, ' beginning/ 'the 
 beginning/ examen, 'examination/ 'the examination/ 
 
 AY hen an adjective is preceded by the independent 
 article den, det, de, it may be used in the sense of a noun ; 
 as, den flitige belonas, 'the diligent (man, or individual, 
 understood) is rewarded ;' den femtonde dr snart inne, ' the 
 fifteenth (of the month) will soon be here/ 
 
44 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 The masculine singular and plural termination -e is 
 generally changed to -a for the sake of euphony in speak- 
 ing. It should, however, be retained when the adjective 
 is used as a noun, or when it follows the latter as a dis- 
 tinctive cognomen, or is used as a vocative ; as, den gode, 
 ' the good (man) / de vise, ' the wise (men) / Gusto/ 
 Adolf den store, ' Gustavus Adolphus the Great ;' I ddle 
 man ! f ye noble men ! ' Where the adjective is used to 
 express a noun, it takes s in the genitive; as, de gamles 
 son, ' the old people's son/ 
 
 Some adjectives are defective or irregular in their mode 
 of declension; as, grd, 'grey/ which may remain un- 
 changed, or take an a in the plural ; as, grd ogon or grdsi 
 dijon, ' grey eyes/ Smd, although the plural of liten, litet, 
 ' little/ maybe used in the singular masculine and feminine 
 in a collective sense ; as, smd fish, ' small fish / smdskoq, m., 
 ' underwood/ As a noun or an adverb, smdtt is of 
 common occurrence ; as, Jag har smdtt om tid, ' I am 
 pinched for time ;' det regnar smdtt, ' it is (a small rain) 
 drizzling/ 
 
 Survivals of older forms are to be found in such ex- 
 pressions as, till fullo, ' in full / pd Jjusan dag, ' in broad 
 daylight/ 
 
 Adjectives ending in a, e, se ; as, bra (abbr. of braf), 
 ' fine / lika, ' like ;' ode, ' desert ; 'gangse, ' current/ do not 
 admit of being declined. 
 
 A similar rule applies to present participles and adverbs 
 
ADJECTIVES. 45 
 
 used in the sense of adjectives ; as, ett leende barn, ' a 
 laughing child ;' inhyses hjon, ' a dependant/ ' a person 
 living- free of cost in another person's house ;' inbordes krig, 
 ' intestine war/ 
 
 Certain superlatives are used only in prayer or invoca- 
 tion, and in epistolary and official communications ; as, 
 den aller Hogste, 'the Most High;' stormdktigst, 'most 
 mighty;' allernddigst, ' most gracious ;' tropligtigst, 'most 
 obedient ;' underddnigst, ' most humbly.' 
 
 The comparative degree may be expressed by the help of 
 the conjunction an, ' than ;' as, Adolf a'r dldrt an sin syster 
 Maria, ' Adolphus is older than his sister Mary/ 
 
 A comparison between two persons or things is not 
 expressed with the comparative but the superlative; as, 
 firilken of de tvanne qvinnarna ar yngztt 'which is the 
 younger of the two women ? ' 
 
 As in English, a certain definite preposition must follow 
 the adjective, to give it the special meaning required ; as, 
 ledsen vid, 'weary of;' glad ofver, *glad of;' kunnig i, 
 'conversant with.' 
 
 The preposition may be omitted with some adjectives ; as, 
 Albert ar mdktig det svenska sprdket, ' Albert is master (of) 
 the Swedish language;' min Moder blef henne qvitf, ' my 
 mother got rid (of) her.' 
 
46 
 
 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 THE NUMERALS. (Rakneord.) 
 The cardinal numbers (grundtal) are : 
 
 1. en, ett. 
 
 2. tvd (tu, tvdnne). 
 
 3. tre (trenne). 
 
 4. fyra. 
 
 5. fern. 
 
 6. sex. 
 
 7. sju. 
 
 8. dtta. 
 
 9. nio. 
 
 10. w. 
 
 1 1 . elfva. 
 
 12. fo[f. 
 
 14. fjorton. 
 
 15. femton. 
 
 The cardinal numbers are indeclinable except , <?^, 
 which may be used in the sense of an indefinite pronoun ; 
 as, efew ee, 'the one/ <fe e, 'the ones.' Hundra and 
 ifM*ew may be used as nouns. The old neuter tu may be 
 used in some cases; as, i tu, 'in two;' tu par, 'two pairs/ 
 The old masculine nominative tver (tve) occurs in compound 
 words ; as, Ivetydig, ' ambiguous.' 
 
 The o in nio and lio, and the u in tjugu, are usually 
 replaced in common parlance by e; as, nie, tie, tjuge, while 
 
 16. sexton. 
 
 17. sjutton. 
 
 18. aderton. 
 
 19. nitton. 
 
 20. tjugu. 
 30. trettio. 
 
 W. fyrtio (fy ratio]. 
 50. femfio. 
 60. sextio. 
 70. sjuttio. 
 80. *z/7?'0 (dttatio). 
 90. nittio. 
 100. hundra. 
 1000. 
 
THE NUMERALS. 
 
 47 
 
 ti similarly replaces the tio in the higher numerals ; as, 
 tretti,Jyrti,femti, etc. 
 
 Between 20 and 100 the lesser number precedes the 
 greater when och, 'and/ is used; as, en ock sextio, 61, but 
 when och, ' and/ is not used, the larger number precedes the 
 smaller; as, trettiofem, 35. 
 
 The ordinal numbers (ordingstal] are : 
 
 1st. fdrste (a). 
 
 2nd. andre (a). 
 
 3rd. tredje. 
 
 4th. fjerde. 
 
 5th. femte. 
 
 6th. sjette. 
 
 7th. sjunde. 
 
 8th. dttonde. 
 
 9th. nionde. 
 10th. tionde. 
 llth. elfte. 
 12th. tolfte. 
 13th. trettonde. 
 14th. fjortonde. 
 15th. femtonde. 
 
 16th. 
 17th. 
 18th. 
 19th. 
 20th. 
 30th. 
 40th. 
 50th. 
 60th. 
 70th. 
 bOth. 
 90th. 
 100th. 
 1000th. 
 
 sextonde. 
 sjuttonde. 
 adertonde. 
 nittonde. 
 tjugonde. 
 tret tionde. 
 fyrtionde. 
 femtionde. 
 sextionde. 
 sjuttionde. 
 dttionde. 
 nittionde. 
 kundrade. 
 tusende. 
 
 Excepting fdrste (a) and andre (a), the ordinal numbers 
 are indeclinable. In regard to order of precedence, they 
 follow the same rule as the cardinal numbers ; as, han ar 
 pdforsta och femtionde aret, ' he is in his fifty-first year;' 
 hon kom den tjugu-forsta, ' she came on the twenty-first/ 
 
48 SWKDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 A fractioDal amount is made to refer to the greater, and 
 not the ksser number ; as, klockan ar ire qvarterpdfyra, 'it 
 is a quarter (three-quarters on) to four;' klockan half fern, 
 ' half-past four / half annan, ' one and a half'.' Where oc/i, 
 ' and/ is used, the position of the fractional part is altered 
 in such sentences ; as, tre och en half mil, ' three miles and 
 a half/ fern och ett halft pund kott, ' five and a half pounds 
 of meat/ 
 
 The ordinal numbers may take s in the genitive ; as, 
 Karl den tolftes dod, ' Charles the Xllth's death/ 
 
 In common parlance the word stycken, 'pieces/ is often 
 added to the numeral in defining persons as well as things ; 
 as, de voro tio, tolf stycken, ' there were ten or twelve of 
 them/ 
 
 ' The former/ ' latter/ 'last/ are expressed by denforre, 
 senare, sisle ; while certain fractional and multiple terms, 
 such as, ' a third,' f a fourth/ are rendered by en tredjedel, 
 en fjerdedel ; 'twofold/ ' threefold/ etc., by tvdfaldig, 
 trefaldig, etc. 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 The use of the proper pronoun in addressing others 
 presents considerable difficulty in Swedish, which may be 
 said to be passing through a transition period in regard 
 to the ceremonial formula of speech. The obsequious 
 deference to rank and social standing enforced in past times, 
 seems, however, to be so far giving way in Sweden, as to 
 warrant the hope that one uniform mode of address may 
 soon be adopted among Swedes of all classes. 
 
PRONOUNS. 49 
 
 The second person du, while used in prayer, and between 
 the nearest relatives much the same in Swedish as in 
 German, is not unfrequently superseded between parents 
 and children and near relatives by the name or designation 
 of the individual addressed ; as, Vil Anna ha rosen ? ' Will 
 you have the rose, Anna ?' Har Pappa sin pibe ? ' Have you 
 got your pipe, papa ? ' 
 
 Ni is commonly used in narratives, novels, etc., to express 
 the term ' you ' in conversations between two persons, and 
 it is used in correspondence between acquaintances, but it 
 has not been very generally accepted as a mode of social 
 address. Er, eder, are still more commonly used than ni 
 in epistolary and social intercourse. More frequently than 
 either of these simple forms of the personal pronoun, the 
 title or name of the individual addressed is used with the 
 third person of the verb ; as, Grefven befinner sig icke vdl i 
 dag ? ' Are you not well to-day, Count ?' Fruen sag mig i 
 gar ? ' Did you not see me yesterday, madam (or Mrs. ) ? ' 
 Ja risst,jag sag herren, 'Yes, certainly I saw you, sir (or 
 Mr. ) ; Har doUoren varit i Stockholm ? ' Have you been 
 in Stockholm, Doctor?' 
 
 The pronouns han, ' he/ lion, ' she,' are still occasionally 
 used in addressing inferiors, but ni is more frequently used 
 by masters and employers to those in their service. 
 
 Ni has been derived from the terminal letter n of 
 the second person plural of verbs, and the pronoun i, ' you' 
 or ' ye / as iron i, ' believe ye/ corrupted into tro ni 
 
 Min herr is used as ' sir/ mine herrar, as ' gentlemen.' 
 Herrskapet,' ' master and mistress/ is often used to include 
 
 
 
50 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 persons of both sexes, in addressing equals no less than 
 superiors ; as, Hur manga personer ar herrskapet ? ' How 
 many of you are there ? ' 
 
 Fru, Frohen, Mrs., Madam, Miss, are respectively used 
 with the third person in addressing a married or unmarried 
 lady. Ladies take the rank of their husbands and share in 
 their social designations; as, Generalinna, 'Mrs. General;' 
 Prestinna, 'the clergyman's wife (Mrs. Pastor)/ 
 
 The reflective pronoun sig may be used to refer to the 
 third person in the plural, as well as the singular ; as, gos- 
 sarne ofva sig, ' the boys are practising (themselves) / hon, 
 ndrmade sig presten, 'she drew (herself) near the clergy- 
 man.' 
 
 The possessive pronoun sin, sitt, sine, ' his/ ' hers/ ' its/ 
 can only be used in the subjective reflective sense, while 
 hans, hennes, dess, have an objective significance; as, han 
 gar hem till de sina, ' he is going home to his own children 
 (or family) ;' jag visste ej hans son var db'd, ' I did not 
 know that his son was dead/ 
 
 The possessive is sometimes used in the place of the per- 
 sonal pronoun in interjections and familiar expressions of 
 endearment, lament, etc. ; as, DIN soda lilla angel, ' thou 
 sweet little angel V MIN stackare ! ( poor me ! ' 
 
 The demonstrative pronouns den, det, de, when combined 
 with har, 'here/ and der, 'there/ indicate respectively 
 ' this ' and ' that / as, det HAR trad ar hogre an det DER, 
 ' this tree is higher than that one/ Det is used imper- 
 sonally in the sense of ' there / as, det har varit en tiggare 
 liar, ( there has been a beggar here.' 
 
PRONOUNS. 51 
 
 Denne and den samme, ( that one/ ' the same,' have a 
 more demonstrative character than den. 
 
 Ho, ' who/ is chiefly used in biblical or poetical lan- 
 guage ; hvem in common parlance. 
 
 Hvilken, hvadfor, hvilken som, are all used as relatives ; 
 as, jag vet ej hi- liken som kommer, eller hvad som vore bast 
 att gora, 'I do not know who is coming, or what would be 
 best to do/ 
 
 The prefix e gives the same significance to relatives as is 
 derived in English from the addition of 'ever/ as, eho, 
 ' whoever ;' ehcad, ' whatever ;' ehurudan, ' who or what- 
 ever / hvilken an, hvem an, etc., have much the same 
 significance. 
 
 The relative som is indeclinable, and may be used for all 
 genders ; as, har dr mannen SOM onskar tola med Er, ' here 
 is the man, who wishes to speak to you / min broder har 
 salt det huset som han kopte i Juni, ' my brother has sold 
 the house which he bought last June/ 
 
 The Old Northern demonstrative form y (ty), ' that/ is 
 traceable in dylik, 'the like ' (such), and occurs in such ex- 
 pressions as, efter ty som sages, ' according to what is said / 
 i ty fall, ' in that case.' The Old Northern gen. pi. tyeirra 
 is traceable in such words as endera, ' one of them / bdq- 
 gedera, ' both of them / ndgondera, ' some of them/ etc. 
 
 The pronoun must agree in gender and number with the 
 noun which it represents ; as, Hvar dr flickan ? HON dr i 
 trddgdrden, ' Where is the girl ? She is in the orchard/ In 
 some cases, however, the pronoun follows the natural rather 
 than the grammatical gender; as, Har du, set sfa&radet? 
 
52 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Nej, HAN our sjuk, ( Have you seen the councillor ? No, he 
 is ill/ 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 In a simple affirmative sentence the verb follows its sub- 
 ject, with which it agrees in number and person ; as, min 
 moder gaf tjenaren href vet, l my mother gave the servant 
 the letter ;' hans fader och broder hafva (ha) a/rest, ' his 
 father and brother have gone away.' 
 
 In secondary and interrogative sentences, the verb pre- 
 cedes its subject ; as, De sista dren of G-ustafs regering 
 forjloto i ro, UNDERTAGER MAN ett krig med Ryssland, ' The 
 last years of the reign of Gustavus passed in peace, if we 
 except a war with Russia/ Kommer idee soldaten hdr f 
 ' Is the soldier not coming here ? ' 
 
 Where the sentence begins with an adverb, the verb 
 precedes its subject ; as, derpd begaf han sig till gmeralen, 
 ' thereupon he betook himself to the general/ 
 
 The indicative present is used to express a certain or 
 conditional future as well as a mere present ; as, min son 
 hammer i a/ton, ' my son will come this evening ;' kommer 
 han, sd gar jag icke, ' if he should come, I will not go/ 
 
 This tense is also used instead of the preterite or imper- 
 fect, to express a continued action at a past period ; as, jag 
 bor i Stockholm sedan min ungdom, ' I have lived in Stock- 
 holm from my youth upwards/ 
 
 On the other hand, the preterite is sometimes used in 
 cases where in English the indicative present is employed; 
 as, del var hisiig ! ' that's a good joke ! ' 
 
VERBS. 53 
 
 The compound tenses are sometimes used instead of the 
 future; as, jag kar strax slutat, ' I shall have done imme- 
 diately.' 
 
 This use of the compound instead of the simple tenses is 
 regarded as a Germanism which should be avoided ; thus 
 the sentence Konungen IIAR i gar HALLIT statsrdd, would be 
 more correctly rendered Kounngen HOLL statsrdd i gar, ' the 
 king held a council of state yesterday/ 
 
 The conjunctive is not much used in modern Swedish, 
 its place being often taken by the various defective auxi- 
 liaries, which constitute a striking- characteristic of the 
 language ; as, md, mdnne, mdste, ' may / md del gd dig 
 vdl ! ' good betide thee ! ' mdnne ndgon gifver tnig del ! 
 ' perhaps some one may give it to me ! ' 
 
 It is used in an optative sense in a few forms of expres- 
 sion ; as, Gud vdlsigne dig, ' may God bless thee ! ' ianye 
 lefve konungen, ' long live the king !' 
 
 The imperative is often expressed by the help of the auxi- 
 liary fa, ' to get/ ' must ;' as, du far ej gd, ' you must not 
 go ! ' ' do not go ! ' 
 
 The auxiliary att hafoa is often omitted before the past 
 participle in compound tenses; as, sedan solen (har) gdti 
 ned, intrader morkret, ' when the sun has gone down, dark- 
 ness comes on ;' skrdddaren skulle sytt gossen en rock, ' the 
 tailor should have made the boy a coat.' 
 
 The infinitive is often used in the place of a gerund ; a*, 
 han laser for att Idra, ' he reads for the sake of learning ;' 
 konsten att mala, ' the art of painting.' Att, ' to/ may be 
 omitted before the infinitive when it constitutes the thing- 
 
54 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 object of a personal object ; as, min broder Idrde miff simma, 
 ' my brother taught me to swim.' 
 
 The participle present is sometimes changed to the 
 passive form in such sentences as, han kom ridandes, ' he 
 came riding/ 
 
 It may also be used adverbially or as a preposition ; as, 
 luften dr tryckande het, 'the air is oppressively hot;' 
 ANGAENDE denna vigtiga sak, ' concerning this important 
 matter/ 
 
 This participle, which always ends in ande or ende, is 
 very commonly used in the sense of an adjective ; as, en 
 svlnlande hojd, f a dizzy height/ 
 
 The past participle, which ends in d, t, or en, may be 
 used similarly ; as, enfortjent man, ' a deserving man ;' den 
 dlskade qvinnan, ' the beloved woman ;' en erfaren Idkare, 
 1 an experienced doctor/ 
 
 The supine, which always ends in t, and has been derived 
 from the neuter of the perfect participle, is always used in 
 conjunction with the verb hafva, 'to have;' as, han har 
 tankt pa henne, * he has thought of her/ 
 
 An impersonal passive or deponent is used in the follow- 
 ing manner: det dansades hela natten, 'dancing was 
 going on all night / dnnu mer forvdnades han, ' he was 
 still more surprised/ 
 
 Transitive verbs generally admit of being used in the 
 passive as well as the active form, as, dlska, dlskas, ' to 
 love/ ' to be loved ;' but intransitive verbs can usually 
 only be employed in an impersonal form in the passive, 
 when they acquire a significance peculiar to the Scandi- 
 
VEEBS. 55 
 
 navian languages ; a?, det dansas har i a/ton, ' there will be 
 dancing here this evening.' They may, however, be used 
 with dr and var in an active sense ; as, konungen AR AFREST 
 till Norge, ( the king has gone to Norway/ 
 
 In Old Swedish the passive was expressed by the use of the 
 auxiliaries verda (varfta), ' to be/ as it may still be rendered 
 by vara, or more generally by blifca, ' to be / as, han har 
 llifvit sdrad, ' he has been wounded/ instead of han har 
 sdrats. 
 
 Some verbs can only be used reflectively; as, ait beflita 
 sig, ' to strive / many verbs admit of being used both re- 
 flectively and actively ; as, att inbilla sig, ( to imagine / 
 man bor icke inbilla en annan sddan ndgot, ' one ought not 
 to make any one believe such a thing.' 
 
 Compound verbs are generally declined like the correspond- 
 ing verbs from which they have been derived; as, hdller, ' 
 holl, and anhdller, anholl, etc., 'hold/ and 'detain.' But 
 where they have been derived from German, or other foreign 
 sources, they do not follow the inflection of the corre- 
 sponding Swedish verb; as, hushdlla, ' to keep house/ which 
 is not derived directly from hus, ' house,' and hdlla, ' to hold/ 
 but from the German ' haushalten,' and makes husholdte. 
 
 Verbs which can be used both transitively and intransi- 
 tively generally follow the second conjugation in the former 
 and the fourth conjugation in the latter case ; as, han Jijel^ie 
 andra och stjelpte sig sjelf, f he helped others and ruined 
 himself/ det halp icke, han stalp, 'there was no help for it, 
 he was ruined.' 
 
 Some verbs can be used both as intransitives and imper- 
 
56 
 
 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 sonal reflectives; as, del far han dngra, f he will repent 
 of that / det dngrar mig, ' I regret/ 
 
 The irregularities of Swedish verbs scarcely admit of 
 being reduced to any definite classification, but are depen- 
 dent on various conditions, such as a foreign origin ; mere 
 disregard of grammatical construction ; or retention of some 
 only of the characteristics of the Old Northern, as may 
 be seen from the following examples : 
 
 att bringa, to bring, braffte, bragt. 
 forgata, forget, forgat, forgatit. 
 
 } , do, 
 
 die, 
 
 dog, 
 
 dott. 
 
 ga> 
 
 go, 
 
 gick, 
 
 gdtt. 
 
 Ugga>> 
 
 lie, 
 
 lag. 
 
 legat. 
 
 qvada, 
 
 >, sing, 
 
 gvad, 
 
 qvadit. 
 
 se } 
 
 see, 
 
 sag, 
 
 sett. 
 
 sofva, 
 
 sleep, 
 
 *of* 
 
 sofvit. 
 
 tdlja, 
 
 count, 
 
 talde, 
 
 talt. 
 
 veta, 
 
 know, 
 
 visste, 
 
 vetat. 
 
 tit a, 
 
 eat, 
 
 at, 
 
 atit. 
 
 Compound verbs are either separable or inseparable; as, 
 att tillhora, or att hora till, ' to belong to/ and att beklacje, 
 ' to complain.' To the former class belong verbs composed 
 of a preposition, adjective, or other independent part of 
 speech; as, att genomborra, Ho bore through/ att f rigor a, 
 'to free/ while to the latter belong generally all verbs 
 compounded of a particle and another verb ; as, att erkan- 
 na, ' to acknowledge.' 
 
 The first conjugation, which includes five-sixths of all the 
 
VERBS. 57 
 
 Swedish verbs, embraces nearly all weak verbs having a, o, 
 u, or d as their radical vowel, followed by a consonant ; as, 
 frdga, ' to ask/ To this conjugation belong also generally 
 verbs compounded of particles, or having two or more 
 syllables; as, afskeda, 'to dismiss/ arbeta, 'to labour/ 
 
 To the second conjugation belong many verbs having a 
 soft radical vowel, as e, i, y, d, or 6 ; as, leda, ' to lead ;' 
 spilla, ' to spill ;' pryda, ' to adorn ;' svalla, ' to swell ;' 
 foda, ' to give birth to/ 
 
 The third conjugation, which now is without the final a 
 in the infinitive, is of comparatively modern origin, that 
 characteristic termination having been present in the Old 
 Swedish; as, att 6oa, instead of &?, 'to dwell;' att troa, 
 instead of tro, ' to believe/ 
 
 The fourth, or strong mode of conjugation, which is the 
 most ancient and most flexible of any, comprises five distinct 
 classes of verbs; as, (1) verbs in which the imperf. indica- 
 tive ends in short a ; (2) in long a ; (3) in o ; (4) in e ; 
 
 (5) in o. As 
 
 Imp. Indie. Past. Part. 
 
 binda, to bind, band, bundit. 
 
 gifva, to give, gaf, gifoit. 
 
 tag a, to take, tog, iagit. 
 
 skrifva, to write, skref, skrifvit. 
 
 lilyfva, to cleave, klof, kliifvit. 
 
 Some verbs may be declined according both to the first 
 and the second form of conjugation; as, (att} dela, 'to 
 share,' which may be written imperf. delude or delte, parti- 
 ciple past del-dt or delt. 
 
5H SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Other verbs vary between the other conjugations, as 
 
 Imperfect. Supine. 
 
 (aft) duffa, to be fit for, dugde or dog, dugat or dugf. 
 ,, heta, to be called, hette or ket, hetat. 
 lefva, to live, lefde or lefte, lefvat or left. 
 
 There is a tendency in modern Swedish to transfer verbs 
 of the fourth or strong form of conjugation to the first or 
 second weak form. Similarly, modern usage tends to reject 
 the harder radical vowels in favour of their softer derivatives, 
 taking a for a, ci for u, etc.; while for the same considerations 
 of euphony the j is frequently dropped, as in bod, originally 
 bjod, imperf. indicative of bjuda, 'to bid;' song, originally 
 sjong, imp. ind. of sjunga, f to sing.' 
 
 Contractions are of frequent occurrence even among the 
 best speakers and writers ; as, bli, ta, dra, gi, for blifva, taga, 
 draga, gifva ; blir, tar, drar, for dlifver, tager, drager, gifver; 
 and vi, de Hi, ta, dra, I blin, fan, dran, for vi, de blifva, 
 taga, draga, I blifcen, tagen, dragen. 
 
 The personal termination er is always dropped in gala, 
 ' to crow ;' mala, ' to grind -' fara, befara, ( to go, travel \' 
 skdra, ' to cut ;' stjala, ( to steal/ etc. 
 
 ADVERBS. (Omstandighetsord.} 
 
 The place of the adverb in Swedish is in many cases 
 identical with that which it occupies in English ; as, den 
 iinga flickan taler val, 'the young girl speaks well;' dagen 
 derpd, gik han bort, ' the day after, he went away ;' gladjen 
 drforbi, ' the pleasure is over ',' der du dr, der ml jag vara / 
 ' where you are, there I will be ! ' 
 
ADVERBS. 59 
 
 The affirmative ja is used where no negative is involved, 
 jo where the question is put in a negative form ; as, Far 
 soldaten liar i gar ? ' Was the soldier here yesterday ? ' Ja, 
 ' Yes/ Far icke soldaten der ? ' Was not the soldier there ? ' 
 Jo, 'Yes/ The word/M gives a confirmative or more em- 
 phatic significance to the sentence ; as, du varju der i gar ? 
 'you (surely) were there yesterday?' It is used in con- 
 nection with comparative modes of expression, and may 
 be rendered by ' the/ as, ju for ju hellere, ' the sooner 
 the better/ 
 
 The negative icke, ' not/ is a modification of the Old 
 Northern gi which also appears in aldrig (aldrige), 'never/ 
 This and ej, inte, 'not/ often follow the verb both in 
 questions and affirmatives ; as, Sjunger ickefoglen ? ' Is not 
 the bird singing?' Ldrkan sjunger icke, 'The lark is not 
 singing/ Kdnner du inte igen doktorn har? 'Do you not 
 know the doctor again ? ' Nej,jag kan inte erinra miff, ' No, 
 I cannot remember (him)/ 
 
 Certain adverbs, may be used in Swedish in the same 
 attributive sense as in English ; as, endast Gvd dr alive" 
 tande, ' only God is omniscient/ 
 
 Others may be used with a preposition in the sense of a 
 noun ; as, jag har ej sett honom P! LANGE, ' I have not seen 
 him for a long time/ du liar fait nog of tarar, 'you have 
 shed enough tears/ 
 
 Some adverbs are used as relative or demonstrative pro- 
 nouns; as, det tidehvarf HVARI Lnther framstod var en af de 
 stora verldsJristoriska epoker, 'the age in which Luther 
 appeared marked one of the great historical epochs of the 
 
60 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 world/ HVAREST vinet gar in, der gar vettet ut, ' where 
 wine enters in, sense goes out.' 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. (Forord). 
 
 A preposition in Swedish generally precedes directly the 
 noun which it governs ; as, nu blifver det en star glddje pd 
 garden och i hela huset, ' now there will be great joy on 
 the estate, and in the house/ 
 
 Some prepositions may follow the noun or pronoun ; as, 
 det kan ske honom fb'rutan, ' that may happen without him ;' 
 oss emellan sagdt, alskar jag henne icke, ' between ourselves, 
 I do not care for her ;' ait gd om, ' to pass by ;' systeren 
 gjorde det mig emot, ' my sister did it against my wishes ;' 
 ni med, ' you and all.' 
 
 Many prepositions govern the genitive in accordance with 
 the Old Northern construction ; as, till lands, ' by land ' 
 till bords, ' to (table) dinner/ This older form is also 
 traceable in such expressions as, tillhanda, ' to hand;' i 
 somras, Mast summer;' i sommar, 'this summer;' om 
 sommaren, ' in the summer ;' i ho'stas, ' last autumn ;' i 
 host, ' this autumn.' 
 
 The correct use of the prepositions presents considerable 
 difficulty in Swedish. Thus, for instance, in rendering the 
 English ' of,' a number of different prepositions are needed 
 in accordance with the special nature of the relations or 
 conditions referred to ; as, herren i huset, ' the master of 
 the house;' sldppen PA rocken, ' the train of the dress ;' ska- 
 let TILL, ' the reason of;' enJcaman EFTER min syster, ' widower 
 
CONJUNCTIONS.' 61 
 
 of my sister / tjenaren HOS generalen, f the servant of the 
 general / full MED, ' full of;' AF gammal familj, 'of an old 
 family / en man AF snille, ' a man of genius/ 
 
 Till still governs a genitive as in Old Swedish ; as, 
 tillfots, ' on foot / but the Swedish prepositions generally 
 govern the dative or the accusative. 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS. (Bindeord.) 
 
 The conjunction samt, ' with/ e also,' is frequently used 
 in the place of ' and / as, Generalen Jcom med grefven samt 
 presten,'ihe general came with the count and the clergyman. 
 
 Ej heller, ( nor/ is used after a negative ; as, min fader 
 vet det icke, ej heller min broder, f neither my father nor my 
 brother knows it/ 
 
 Ej, or icke blott, ' not only,' is used in combination with 
 men, ' but/ or utan afven, ' but also/ ' but even / as, ej 
 blott min fader, men min broder vet det, ( my brother 
 knows it as well as my father / icke blott fadren, utan afven 
 brodren trodde det, ' not only the father, but the brother 
 even believed it/ 
 
 Alt, 'that/ often requires to be preceded by an, 'than,' 
 or for, ' for / as, barnet ar yngre AN ATT det kunna resa alle- 
 na, ' the child is too young to be able to travel alone / lion 
 var alt for mycket nedslagen, for ATT hon skulle gd i sall- 
 skap, 'she was much too depressed to go into society/ 
 Svensharne uppreste sig mot Kristian II. of DanmarJc, 
 DERFOR ATT han var en tyrann, ' the Swedes rose against 
 Christian II. of Denmark because he was a tyrant.' 
 
6-J SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Sd sant som, hvar om icke, ' if not/ may be need in 
 an elliptical sense; as, jag dr oskyldig, sd sant mi g Gnd 
 hjelpe, ' I am innocent, so help me God.' Omjag vinner spe- 
 let blir jag glad, HVAR OM ICKE, trostarjag mig, ' I shall 
 be glad if I win the game, but if I do not, I shall console 
 myself/ Sd is often used at the beginning of a secondary 
 sentence, to connect it with the primary sentence ; as, nar 
 min van kommer sd dr jag vdl till/reds, ' when my friend 
 comes, I am well pleased / om vddret blir vackert, sd 
 kommer min syster i a/ton, ' if the weather should be good, 
 my sister will come this evening/ . 
 
 Sdsow, ' as,' is often used in the sense of ' namely / as, 
 frdn Ostindien erhdllas allahande kryddor, SASOM peppar 
 kanel, etc., ' from the East Indies we obtain various spices, 
 namely, pepper, cinnamon, ' etc. Ndmligen, ' namely/ is, 
 on the other hand, used in the sense of ' for/ ' because / as, 
 hans beteende dr oforklarligt ; han har NAMLIGEN alltid an- 
 setts vara en hederlig man, ' his conduct is inexplicable 
 because he has always been regarded as an honest man/ 
 
 o 
 
 Ty, may be similarly used ; as, Askan dr nyttig, ty hon 
 rensar luften, ' thunder is of use because it clears the air/ 
 
 Antingen eller are used in the sense of ( whether* 'or/ 
 as, han har dnu ej bestdmt sig ANTINGEN han skall bli Id- 
 kare ELLER jurist, 'he has not yet decided if he will be a 
 doctor or a lawyer.' The elliptical expression vare sig, ' be 
 it/ may be similarly employed ; as, VARE SIG rik, VARE 
 SIG fattig, sd bor man njuta skydd aflagen, ' whether it be 
 rich, or poor, all ought to enjoy the protection of the law.' 
 
 The conversion of adverbs and prepositions into conjunc- 
 
CONJUNCTIONS. 63 
 
 tions, and the post-position of prepositions, of both of 
 which we subjoin a few additional examples, constitute 
 peculiar features of Swedish, specially worthy of attention 
 owing to the light which they throw on the origin of 
 various idiomatic expressions in English. 
 
 Icke mannen, UTAN qvinnan forde ordet. 
 
 It was the woman and not the man who spoke. 
 
 Han sprang, ELLER snarareflog. 
 He sprang, or rather flew. 
 
 Han ar for dem hvad han fordom varit. 
 He is the same to them as he formerly was. 
 
 Han arfegare, AN ATT han skulle vaga forsolcet. 
 He is too cowardly to make the attempt. 
 
 Biist jag sprang, horde jag ett rop bakom mig. 
 
 As I ran (as I best could) I heard a cry behind me. 
 
 DET FORSTA han kommer hem, skall han Jcora Er pa 
 dorren. 
 
 As soon as he comes home, he will drive you out of doors. 
 
 AN regnar det, AN skiner solen. 
 It either rains, or the sun shines. 
 
 Gossen tar jag vdrd OM. 
 
 I will take charge of the boy. 
 
 Oss EMELLAN sagdt, gjorde han mig EMOT. 
 Between ourselves, he acted against me. 
 Linne blef en furste i den vetenskap han egnade sig AT. 
 Linnaeus was a prince in the science to which he devoted 
 himself. 
 
64 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Han varfrislt TITOM ATT Tian haltade nagot. 
 He was fresh and cool, although he had not stopped on 
 the way. 
 
 HURU lard Jian AN dr,forstar han icke detta. 
 However learned he may be, he does not understand 
 that. 
 
 Luften dr icke varm, OAKTADT solen shiner. 
 The air is not warm, although (notwithstanding that) 
 the sun shines. 
 
 Hon sag miq AN. 
 She looked at me. 
 
 HVAD AN ma intrdffa. 
 Whatever (then) may happen. 
 
 Dagen FOR AN han for. 
 
 The day before (than) he started. 
 
 At tage sig bra UT. 
 To look well. 
 
 Han tar rocken PA. 
 He puts on his coat. 
 
 Hvem tar ni mig FOR ? 
 Who do you take me for ? 
 
 Har tar vdgen AF. 
 Here the road turns off. 
 
 Dei dr indenting at tale O.M. 
 It is not worth speaking of. 
 
CONJUNCTIONS. 65 
 
 BARA jag viste sanheten / 
 
 It' I only knew the truth ! 
 
 Man gor jramsteg DERIGENOM ATT man ar flitig. 
 
 One makes progress by being- diligent. 
 
 OLDER SWEDISH MODES OF INFLECTION. 
 
 We give the following examples of the manner in which 
 nouns, adjectives, pronouns and nouns were inflected in the 
 Forn-Svenskan (Ancient Swedish), in order to show the 
 leading characteristic differences between that earlier form 
 of the language and Modern Swedish. 
 
 As has already been noticed in the Introduction, the so- 
 called Forn-Svenskan, which was spoken by Goths as 
 well as Swedes, and which was almost identical with the 
 Donsk Tunga (Danish Tongue), and Forn-Norskan (Ancient 
 Norse) of the early Northmen, continued with slight modi- 
 fications to be the spoken speech of the Swedish people till 
 about the time of the Reformation. At that period, under 
 Gustaf Vasa, the language passed to that middle stage of 
 its development which is characterized as that of Gammal- 
 Svenskan, or Old Swedish, in contradistinction to its 
 latest and still existing phase Ny-Svenskan, or Modern 
 Swedish. 
 
 In Forn-Svenskan we have, therefore, the earliest 
 intermediate link between the Swedish of our own times 
 and the Old Northern, which was the common tongue of 
 all the Scandinavian peoples before their separation into 
 distinct nations as Swedes, Norwegians, and Danes. This 
 remnant of ancient Scandinavian consequently possesses an 
 
 p 
 
SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 interest second only to that of its sister-form of speech the 
 Icelandic, or Forn-Norskan of the ninth century, whose 
 earliest literary remains are admitted to be the most per- 
 fect representatives extant of the so-called Old Northern. 
 And if Forn-Svenskan has comparatively little impor- 
 tance from a merely literary point of view, a study of its 
 grammatical structure, and of numerous survivals in the 
 later forms of Swedish, will be found to throw considerable 
 light on the process of development through which many 
 English as well as Scandinavian words have passed, show- 
 ing that notwithstanding their actual differences they have 
 had one common origin. 
 
 NOUNS. 
 Strong mode of declension without the Article. 
 
 Masculine. 
 Sing.: N. brander, fire. 
 
 G. brands 
 
 D. brandi(e) 
 
 A. brand 
 Plur.: N. brandar 
 
 G. branda 
 
 D. brandum(om) 
 
 A. branda 
 
 Feminine. 
 
 sak, thing. 
 
 sakar 
 
 saku(sak) 
 
 sak 
 
 sakar(ir, er) 
 
 saka 
 
 sakum(om) 
 
 sakar 
 
 With the Article. 
 
 Sing.: N. brandrm(en) sakm(en) 
 G. brandsins sa/tinnar 
 
 Neuter. 
 
 land, country. 
 lands 
 landi(e) 
 land 
 land 
 landa 
 
 landum(om) 
 land. 
 
 landit(et) 
 landsins 
 
OLD SWEDISH. 
 
 67 
 
 Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. 
 
 D. brandinum sakmni landirm 
 
 A. brandin saJc'ma landit 
 Plur. : N. brandamr(ni, ne) sakcma.T(na) landm(eri) 
 
 G. brandanna. safcanna landaxma. 
 
 D. brandumm sakumin landumin 
 
 A. brandansi sakausa: landm. 
 
 STRONG MODE OF DECLENSION or ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Sing.: N. goiter, good. 
 
 G. 
 
 D. 
 
 A. goftan 
 Plur. : N. goftir 
 
 G. goftra 
 
 D. gooum 
 
 A. gofta goftar 
 
 Comparative, bcetri, bcetra ; Superlative, bcesti, bcesta. 
 
 go% 
 
 got 
 
 goftrar 
 
 go>s 
 
 goftri 
 
 go$u(. 
 
 go^Sa 
 
 got 
 
 go^Sra 
 
 goftra 
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 Sing.: N. ik(iak), I. -Sw, thou. han, he. hun (hon) ,sbe. 
 
 G. min 
 
 D. mer 
 
 A, mik 
 Plur.: N. vir, we. 
 
 G. var 
 D.&A. os 
 
 %in 
 Ser 
 
 ir, ye. 
 
 i^r 
 
 hans 
 hanum 
 han 
 
 hannar 
 hcenni 
 hana (hona}. 
 
68 
 
 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 DEMONSTRATIVE PBONOCNS. 
 
 Masc. Fern. Neut. 
 
 Sing.N.sar (sa) 
 
 5W 
 
 $at, 'that.' 
 
 G. Kes 
 
 "S(?*rrar 
 
 Ses 
 
 D. >eim 
 
 Sew-ri 
 
 y 
 
 A. -Saw ($<BW) 
 
 a 
 
 Sai 
 
 Plur.N. >eir 
 
 Sfl5r 
 
 Saw, ' those/ 
 
 G. iSeirra 
 
 Seirra 
 
 "SetVra 
 
 D \)&%wi 
 
 Seim 
 
 'Se^m 
 
 A. iSa 
 
 Sr 
 
 -Sau 
 
 Sing.N. ftem 
 
 Kessi 
 
 >etta, 'this/ 
 
 G. >essa 
 
 ftessar 
 
 Sessa 
 
 D. "Sesswm 
 
 ^Sessi 
 
 "Sesstt 
 
 A. "Semia 
 
 "Sessa 
 
 ^ea 
 
 Plur. N. ftessir 
 
 Sessar 
 
 iSessi, ' these.' 
 
 G. "Sessa 
 
 ftessa 
 
 "Sessa 
 
 D. "Sessztm 
 
 ftessum 
 
 65SWW 
 
 A. ewa 
 
 ftessar 
 
 0n. 
 
 The third demonstrative pronoun in Old Swedish hin, 
 hin, hint, from which the modern definite and terminal 
 affix-articles have been derived were declined like the posses- 
 sive pronouns mm, ' my ;' "Sin, ' thy,^ &c. 
 
 Masc. Fern. 
 
 Sing. N. hin hin 
 
 G. him hinnar 
 
 D. hinum hinni 
 
 A. hin hina 
 
 Plur. N. hinir hinar 
 
 G. hinna hinna 
 
 D. hinum hinum 
 
 A. Tuna Ainar 
 
 Neut. 
 i) /this/ 'that/ 
 
 (hit) 
 
 hin, ' these,' ' those/ 
 hinna 
 hinum 
 hin 
 
OLD SWEDISH. 09 
 
 It will be observed that the modern Swedish demonstra- 
 tive pronouns, den, denne, which appeared early in the 
 language in their present form, have been directly derived 
 from the older accusatives "Saw, %an, 'Senna. 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 Weak mode of Conjugation. Strong mode of Conjugation. 
 Infinitive, Italia, 'to call/ brinna, ' to burn/ 
 
 Pres. Part, kallandi brinnandi. 
 
 Perf. Part, kallafter brunnin. 
 
 The supine does not appear in the Old Swedish. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Sing. 1, 2, 3 Pers. kallar brinder 
 
 Plur. 1. kallum(om) brinnum(om) 
 
 2. kallin(en) brinnin(en) 
 
 3. kalla brinna. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Sing. 1, 2, 3 Pers. kallafti 1, 3, Pers. bran 
 
 2 Pers. brant 
 Plur. 1. kallaftum brunnum 
 
 u. ,, 
 
 3. 
 
 kallaftin 
 kallaftu 
 
 brunnin 
 brunnu (o 
 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 
 Sing. 2nd Pers. 
 Plur. 1. 
 2. 
 
 Italia 
 kallum 
 kallin 
 
 brin 
 brinnum 
 brinnin. 
 
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Published by Triibner <k Co. 7 
 
 BELLEW. THE RACES OF AFGHANISTAN. Being a Brief Account of the Principal 
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 BELLOWS. ENGLISH OUTLINE VOCABULARY for the use of Students of the Chinese, 
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 BELLOWS. OUTLINE DICTIONARY FOR THE USE OF MISSIONARIES, EXPLORERS, ASD 
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 BENTHAM. THEORY OF LEGISLATION. By Jeremy Bentham. Translated from the 
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 BETTS. See VALDES. 
 
 BEVERIDGE. THE DISTRICT OF BAKARGANJ. Its History and Statistics. By H. 
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 BICKNELL. See HAFIZ. 
 
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 BIRCH. FASTI MONASTICI AEVI SAXONICI ; or, An Alphabetical List of the Heads of 
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8 A Catalogue of Important Works t 
 
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 BLACKET. RESEARCHES INTO THE LOST HISTORIES OF AMERICA ; or, The Zodiac 
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 BLUMHARDT. See CHARITABALI. 
 
 BOEHMER. See VALDES, and SPANISH REFORMERS. 
 
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Published by Triibner & Co. 
 
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 BRUNTON. MAP OF JAPAN. See under JAPAN. 
 
 BUDGE. HISTORY OF ESARHADDON. See Triibner's Oriental Series. 
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 GARBE. See AUCTORES SANSKRIT!, Vol. III. 
 
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26 A Catalogue of Important Works, 
 
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 GELBART. FAITH AND FREEDOM. Fourteen Sermons. By E. M. Geldart, M.A. 
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 GOETHE'S FAUST. See SCOONES and WYSARD. 
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Published by Trubner & Co. 27 
 
 GOLDSTUCKER. See AUCTORES SANSKRIT:, Vol. I. 
 
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28 A Catalogue of Important Works, 
 
 GREG. MISTAKEN AIMS AND ATTAINABLE IDEALS OP THE ARTISAN CLASS. By "W. 
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 GREG. THE CREED OF CHRISTENDOM. See English and Foreign Philosophical 
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 in Politics more Just than that of the Higher Orders? Harriet Martineau. 
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Published by Triibner &. Co. 29 
 
 GRIFFITH. THE BIRTH OF THE WAR GOD. See Triibner's Oriental Series. 
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 CONTENTS Preface Ayodhya Haran Doomed The Birth of Rama The Heir-Apparent 
 Manthara's Guile Dasaraiha's Oath The Step-mother Mother and Son The Triumph of 
 Love Farewell ? The Hermit's Son The Trial of Truth The Forest The Rape of Site 
 Rama's Despair The Messenger Cloud Khumbakarna The Suppliant Dove True Glory- 
 Feed the Poor The Wise Scholar. 
 
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 GROTE. REVIEW of the Work of Mr. John Stuart Mill entitled "Examination of 
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 GROWSE. MATHURA : A District Memoir. By F. S. Growse, B.C.S., M.A., Oxou, 
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 GUBERNATIS. ZOOLOGICAL MYTHOLOGY ; or, The Legends of Animals. By Angela 
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 and 432, and vii. and 442, cloth. 1872. 1, 8s. 
 
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30 A Catalogue of Important Works, 
 
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 HAGGARD. See "The Vazir of Lankuran." 
 
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 HARTMANN. See English and Foreign Philosophical Library, vol. XXV/ 
 
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Published by Triibner & Co. 31 
 
 HAUG. GLOSSARY AND INDEX of the Pahlavi Texts of the Book of Arda Viraf, 
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 HAWKEN. UPA-SASTRA : Comments, Linguistic, Doctrinal, on Sacred and Mythic 
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 HEATH. EDGAR QOINET. See English and Foreign Philosophical Library, Vol. 
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 HECHLER. THE JERUSALEM BISHOPRIC DOCUMENTS. With Translations, chiefly 
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32 A Catalogue of Important Works, 
 
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TRUBNER'S 
 COLLECTION OF SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 PRINCIPAL ASIATIC AND EUROPEAN LANGUAGES, 
 
 EDITED BY REINHOLD ROST, LL.D., PH.D. 
 
 The object of this Series is to provide the learner with a concise but 
 practical Introduction to the various Languages, and at the same time to 
 furnish Students of Comparative Philology with a clear and comprehensive 
 view of their structure. The attempt to adapt the somewhat cumbrous 
 grammatical system of the Greek and Latin to every other tongue has intro- 
 duced a great deal of unnecessary difficulty into the study of Languages. 
 Instead of analysing existing locutions and endeavouring to discover the 
 principles which regulate them, writers of grammars have for the most part 
 constructed a framework of rules on the old lines, and tried to make the 
 language of which they were treating fit into it. Where this proves im- 
 possible, the difficulty is met by lists of exceptions and irregular forms, thus 
 burdening the pupil's mind with a mass of details of which he can make 
 no practical use. 
 
 In these Grammars the subject is viewed from a different standpoint ; 
 the structure of each language is carefully examined, and the principles 
 which underlie it are carefully explained ; while apparent discrepancies 
 and so-called irregularities are shown to be only natural euphonic and 
 other changes. All technical terms are excluded unless their meaning 
 and application is self-evident ; no arbitrary rules are admitted ; the old 
 classification into declensions, conjugations, &c., and even the usual para- 
 digms and tables, are omitted. Thus reduced to the simplest principles, 
 the Accidence and Syntax can be thoroughly comprehended by the student 
 on one perusal, and a few hours' diligent study will enable him to analyse 
 any sentence in the language. 
 
 Now READY. 
 Crown Svo, cloth, uniformly bound. 
 
 I. Hindustani, Persian, and Arabic. By the late E. H. Palmer, 
 
 M.A. Pp. 112. 5s. 
 
 II. Hungarian. By I. SINGER, of Buda-Pesth. Pp. vi. and 88. 
 4s. Cd. 
 
 For continuation see next page. 
 
80 Triibners Simplified Grammars continued. 
 
 III. Basque. By W. VAN EYS. Pp. xii. and 52. 3s. 6d. 
 IV. Malagasy. By G. W. PARKER. Pp. 66. 5s. 
 V. Modern Greek. By E. M. GELBART, M.A. Pp. 68. 2s. 6d. 
 VI. Roumanian. By M. TORCEANU. Pp. viii. and 72. 5s. 
 VII. Tibetan. By H. A. JASCHKE. Pp. viii. and 104. 5s. 
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 The following are in preparation : 
 
 SIMPLIFIED GEAMMAES OF 
 
 Albanian, by WASSA PASHA, Prince of the Lebanon. 
 
 Assyrian, by Prof. SAYCE. 
 
 Bengali, by J. F. BLUMHARDT, of the British Museum. 
 
 Burmese, by Dr. E. FORCHAMMER. 
 
 Cymric and Gaelic, by H. JEXNER, of the British Museum. 
 
 Egyptian, by Dr. BIRCH. 
 
 Finnic, by Prof. OTTO DOXNER, of Helsingfors. 
 
 Hebrew, by Dr. GINSBURG. 
 
 Icelandic, by Dr. WIMMER, Copenhagen. 
 
 Lettish, by Dr. M. I. A. VOLKEL. 
 
 Lithuanian, by Dr. M. I. A. VOLKEL. 
 
 Malay, by W. E. MAXWELL, of the Inner Temple, Barrister-at-Law. 
 
 Pali, by Dr. EDWARD MULLER. 
 
 Portuguese, by WALTER DE GRAY BIRCH. 
 
 Russian, Bohemian, Bulgarian and Serbian, by W. R. MORFILL, of 
 
 Oxford. 
 
 Sanskrit and Prakrit, by HJALMAR EDGREN, Lund, Sweden. 
 Sinhalese, by Dr. EDWARD MULLER. 
 
 Arrangements are being made iviih competent Scholars for the early 
 preparation of Grammars of German, Dutch, Italian, Chinese, 
 Japanese, and Siamese. 
 
 LONDON : TRUBNER & CO., LUDGATE HILL. 
 
 PRINTED BY BAI.LANTYNE, HANSON AND CO. 
 EDINBURGH AND LONDON. 
 
 1000 1/7/84 C. 
 
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