TRUBNER'S ILLECriON OF SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS THE SWEDISH LANGUAGE E.C.OTTE. THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA RIVERSIDE Ex Libris C. K. OGDEN TRUBNER'S COLLECTION OP SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS OF THE PRINCIPAL ASIATIC AND EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. EDITED BY REINHOLD ROST, LL.D., PH.D. X. SWEDISH. BY E. 0. OTTfi. TRUBNER'S COLLECTION OF SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS OF THE PRINCIPAL ASIATIC AND EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. EDITED BY REINHOLD HOST, LL.D., PH.D. - I. HINDUSTANI, PERSIAN, AND ARABIC. BY THE LATE E. H. PALMES, M.A. Price 5s. II. HUNGARIAN. BY I. SINGER. Price 4?. 6d. III. BASQUE. BY W. VAN EYS. Price 3*. 6d. IV. MALAGASY. BY G. W. PABKEB. Price 5*. V. MODERN GREEK. BY E. M. GELDABT, M.A. Price "2s. 6d. VI. ROUMANIAN. BY R. TORCEANTJ. Price 5s. VII. TIBETAN. BY H. A. JASCHKE. Price 5s. VIII. DANISH. BY E. C. OTTE. Price 2s. 6d. IX. OTTOMAN TURKISH. BY J. W. REDHOUSE. Price 10*. 6d. X. SWEDISH. BY E. C. OTTE. Price 2s. 6d. Grammars of the following are in preparation : Albanese, Anglo-Saxon, Assyrian, Bohemian, Bulgarian, Burmese, Chinese, Cymric and Gaelic, Dutch, Egyptian, Finnish, Hebrew, Kurdish, Malay, Pali, Polish, Russian, Sanskrit, Serbian, Siamese, Singhalese, &c., &c., &c. LONDON : TRUBNER & CO., LUDGATE HILL. SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR SWEDISH LANGUAGE BY E. C. OTTE. LONDON : TRUBNEE & CO., LUDGATE HILL. 1884. [All rights reserved.} LONDON : GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, LIMITED, ST. JOHN'S SQUARE, CLEBKENWELL ROAD. INTRODUCTION. - THE Swedish language belongs to a northern offshoot of the Old Germanic, which in course of time gave origin ,to vj \ two slightly differing forms of speech, known to Scandina- ^ vian grammarians as Forn-SvensJcan, the Old Swedish, and Forn-NorsJcan, the Old Norse. The former of these was spoken by the Svear and Gotar, or ancient Swedes and Goths; while the latter, as the name implies, was the language of the Norsemen, and probably identical with the Norrcena, or Donsk Tunga, of the Northmen who first made themselves known to the nations of Christian Europe. We have evidence that these two main branches of the Old Northern never deviated sufficiently from each other to interfere with their comprehension by all the Scandina- 1 vian peoples, although each possessed certain inherent and persistent characters peculiar to itself, of which traces may still be found in the modern forms of cultivated speech, which we distinguish as Swedish, and Dano-Norwegian. These distinctive survivals of the original twin forms of the b VI INTRODUCTION. Old Northern have been best preserved in the provincial dialects of the northern kingdoms, and considerable light has been thrown on the history of the development of the Swedish language by a study of the various forms of the so-called "bondesprdk" or peasant-speech, which still maintain their ground in different parts of Sweden. The Forn-Svens&an, or Old Swedish, can scarcely be said to have lost its status as the spoken tongue of the people till the beginning of the sixteenth century, when, with the emancipation of Sweden from the dominion of Denmark, and its political and social regeneration under Gustaf Vasa, a new era began in the language, as well as in the political and national life of the people. Gustaf, partly from policy perhaps as much as from conviction, early gave his support to the Reformers, whose zealous en- deavours to provide the laity with trustworthy vernacular translations of the Scriptures he warmly seconded, encou- raging the most learned of the Swedish adherents of the Lutheran doctrines to take part in this praiseworthy labour. Amongst these, the most eminent was Olaus Petri, who, although of peasant birth, was an elegant scholar, alike well versed in the literature of his native land, and in the learn- ing of the schools, which he had acquired while studying at the German universities under the immediate direction of Luther. His translation of the New Testament, which appeared in 1536, and is the earliest Swedish version of the INTRODUCTION. Vll Scriptures, may therefore be fairly accepted as a true representative of the highest literary standpoint of the lan- guage in the earlier half of the sixteenth century. Indeed it may be said that Olaus Petri's work marks the turning point between the older and more rugged form of the lan- guage, and that later development from which has resulted the spoken Swedish of our own times. The latter has naturally undergone various modifications, but it has retained far more of the characteristic vigour of the Old Northern than its sister-speech of Norway and Denmark, where even the best preserved provincial dialects betray the Germanizing influences to which both the spoken and the written language of the people have been subjected. From this vitiation of their northern mother-tongue the Swedes have been saved through their early severance from their political union with Denmark, and still more, perhaps, through their geographical position, which, while it has aided them in maintaining, almost unassailed, the indepen- dence which the first of the Vasas secured for them, has not been without powerful influence on the preservation of the genuine northern character of their language. In modern Swedish, great dialectic differences of inflec- tion and pronunciation are still to be met with even among the educated classes, although it cannot be denied that the present generation is showing a constantly increasing incli- nation to level provincialisms towards a more general Till INTRODUCTION. standard, and thus to create a fixed form of cultivated spoken speech. The more circumscribed dialects are rapidly disappearing, and the most important Swedish linguistic differences may therefore now be comprehensively included under the two heads of Upsvcensk, and Sydsvcensk, " Upper or Northern Swedish/' and " Southern Swedish." To the latter of these belongs the pronunciation of Sodermanland, which is generally considered the best, and is that of an influential section of the cultivated classes of Stockholm, on which account it may be accepted by the student of Swedish as the best standard he can follow in his attempt to master the difficulties which appertain to the correct pro- nunciation of Swedish. The Swedes rejected the use of the Gothic characters three hundred years ago, and since then they have employed the ordinary Latin letters, adding merely certain marks to indicate special vowel-sounds peculiar to the northern tongues. With the older alphabet, they did not, however, at once lay aside the cumbersome modes of spelling in use in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and it is only within recent years that any systematic and rational reform has been introduced into the spelling of Swedish words. Since the meeting at Stockholm, in 1869, of the Scandi- navian Linguistic Congress an important change has, how- ever, been in progress, and although the end is not yet attained, much has already been done in Sweden to carry out INTRODUCTION. IX the Resolutions of the Conference, whose leading aim was to purify the northern sister- tongues from foreign elements as far as existing conditions admitted of their elimination, and to revert as far as possible to the forms of the Old Northern, from which they have in common derived their descent. In conformity with this principle, the spelling of modern Swedish is being greatly simplified. The double and mute letters of older times are being discarded, and while deriva- tions and inflections are being made to agree orthographi- cally with their roots and stems, the use of the vowels is being brought into closer harmony with the sounds of which these characters are the written representatives. CONTENTS. PART I. TAGB The Alphabet (Alfabetet) 1 Articles (Artikeln) ....... 8 Nouns (Tingord) .... 11 First Declension . . . . . . . 11 Second and Third Declensions .... 12 Fourth and Fifth Declensions ..... 13 Adjectives (Egenskapsord) . . . . . . 17 Adverbs (Omstdndighetsord) ...... 20 Pronouns (Ersdttningsord) 21 Personal Pronouns 21 Possessive Pronouns ...... 22 Demonstrative Pronouns 22 Verbs (Hdndelseorcf) ....... 24 Passive Verbs (Passivtvm) . . . . 30 Prepositions (Forord) ....... 33 Conjunctions (Bindeord) ...... 33 Interjections (Utropsord) ...... 34 Ill CONTEXTS. PART II. Oir THE USE AND CHARACTER OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS OP SPEECH. PACK The Indefinite Article ....... 35 The Definite Articles . . . . . . . 36 The Noun 39 Adjectives ......... 44 The Numerals 46 Pronouns 48 Verbs 52 Adverbs ..... .... 58 Prepositions . . . . . . . . 60 Conjunctions 61 Modes of Inflection in Old Swedish . 65 SWEDISH GRAMMAR PART I. THE ALPHABET. THE Swedish alphabet consists of the following twenty- eight letters (Bokstafver) : A, called ak, pronounced like a in father. B bey as in English. C sey in genuine Swedish words like k before a, o, u; and like s in words of foreign origin and when it stands before e, i, a and y. D dey as in English. E eh like ai in laid, and like e in bit F eff generally as in English, but A like v at the end of words. It represents ph and <. ft )> y a y i> tike hard English g before I, r, t, a, o, and u ; like English y before e,j, a, o, y ; before n it may take, with that letter, the sound of en, Fr. B 2 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. H, called haw, aspirated except before j and v. I ee, pronounced like ee in tree, or like i in tb/n J yee like y in 7/ellow. K kaw like English fe before I, r, and ?, and before the bard vowels a, a, o, u, as well as at tbe end of words. Before tbe soft vowels d, e, i, y t and o, it takes wbat the Swedes designate as tbe " fj'e " sound, which is nearly equivalent to the sound of English ch. L ell generally as in English ; but not heard before j, as Ijits (pron.jnus), 'light.' M emm as in English. N enn as in English ; before k, n takes the sound of ng. O oh when short like o in dog, or like o in bore, but also like oo in boon. P pey as in English. ^ Q coo. This letter is followed in Swedish by v instead of u, and is then pronounced like English kv. R err, pronounced like a strongly enunciated r, and always audible among the more cultivated classes. THE ALPHABET. 3 S, called ess, pronounced like hard English s before /, and before k and t, where these letters are not followed byj, in which case sk and xt acquire the sound of English h. This sound is, moreover, heard at all times in sj ; and in sk, where the latter is fol- lowed by the soft vowels a, e, i, o, y. T fey as in English. U oo like oo in spoon, or when short like n in fall. In addition to these, the Swedish u has, however, a sound not precisely analogous to any to be found in more southern European tongues, but which in many instances appears to have an intermediate sound between the English u in pall and the n in shatter. V vey as in English. A ,, elcs ,, ,, Y u like French u in pure. Z seyta as hard English s. A awe like aw in saw. A ,, ty like a in sale, and when short like e in wr or 9 de ' ffoda > ood ; as, den gode (or goda) manner, the good man. den vackra blomman, ' the lovely (the) flower/ det stora huset, ' the large (the) house/ de cedle krigarne, ' the noble (the) warriors/ deflitiga qvinnorna, ' the diligent (the) women/ de ljusa bon&, 'the light (the) dwellings/ Here it will be observed that the noun has the terminal article, although the adjective qualifying it is preceded by the definite article den. The double use of the article is, as already noticed, not to be found in Dano-Norwegian, in which the terminal article is not applicable to words defined by the independent article den, det, de. This form is also used when the noun is in the genitive, or is preceded by a pronoun; as, homing ens lyckliga. regeriny, ' the king's happy reign ;' min garni? van, ' my old friend/ ADJECTIVES. 19 Adjectives ending in t, preceded by a consonant, do not take another t in the neuter, as salt, m. f ., salt, n. ' salt/ Adjectives ending- in a vowel double the t in the neuter ; as,/h',/Htt, n., ' free/ tty, nyit, n., 'new/ Adjectives ending in al, el, en, er, drop the a or e where this vowel occurs in the declension of the word, as in gammal, 'old/ which changes to gamle (a), while trogen, 'faithful/ tapper, 'brave/ etc., change to trogne (a), tappve (a), etc. Some adjectives are indeclinable ; as, bra, ' good / ode, ' waste / gdngse, ' usual/ Adjectives may be used in the sense of nouns ; as, den, tappre, ' the brave (man) / den vackra, ' the charming (woman) / det ddla, 'the noble (act, thing)/ The degrees of comparison are expressed by adding to the positive form are or re, and ast or st ; as POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. stark, strong, starkare, stronger, starkast, strongest. hog, high, hogre, higher, Jtogst, highest. Mera or mer, ' more/ and mest, ' most,' may be used as in English to express comparison, and this more especially where the adjective has a participle form ; as. POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. godfijertad, good-hearted, mera godTijer tad, mest godhjer tad Many adjectives are wholly irregular ; as 20 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. POSITIVE. COMPABATIVE. SITPEELATIVE. god, good, lattre, last. liten, small, mindre, minst. mycken, much, mera, meat. elak or ond, bad, varre, vdrst. gammal, old, aldre, didst. Some are defective, having either no positive, or neither positive nor comparative, especially where the word is derived from a preposition or adverb ; as, framre (comp.), ' more forward/ framst, ' most forward ' (fram, prep., 'forth, onward'); yttre (comp.), 'outer/ ytterst (super.), ' outermost ' (ut, adv., ' out '). Some adjectives from their meaning do not admit of comparison ; as, dod, ( dead ;' stum t ' mute.' The adverb desto, ' the/ ' so much the/ is often used to give additional force to the comparative, as desto battre, 'the better/ The particle-adjectives aller, allra, ' all/ give a similarly heightened form to the superlative, as allerbast, allrabast, ' the very best/ ADVERBS. (Omttandigftetsord.) Many Swedish adverbs are identical with the neuter of the corresponding adjective, as tungt, ' heavily/ from tung, m., f., tungt, n., ' heavy/ In such cases they follow the same rules of comparison as the corresponding adjective; as, ) ' more heavily / tyngst, ' most heavily/ PRONOUNS. 21 Many adverbs of irregular modes of comparison are similarly identical with the corresponding adjectives ; as val, well, comp. b&ttre, better, superl. bast, best. ilia, badly, vdrre, worse, vdrst, worst. The following are some of the more generally used adverbs of time, place, manner, mode, affirmation, negation, etc. nu, now. hiir, here. gerna, willingly. da, then. dlt, thither. visst, certainly. snart, soon. hit, hither. j&ijo, yes. strax, immediately, in, inne, in. nej, ej, no, not. redan, already. ut, ute, out. icke, no, not. Idnge, long. framdeles, in fu- ingalunda, by no ofta, often. ture. means. huru, how. Avar/or, why. mdnne, may be, der, there. sd, so. perchance. PRONOUNS. (Ersdttningsord.} The Personal Pronouns in Swedish are : Singular. Nona., jag, I ; du, thou ; han, he ; hon, she ; del, it. Gen., kans ; hennes ; dess. D., Ace., mig ; dig ; honom ; kenne ; del ; sig, self (reflect). Plural. Norn., vi, we ; i, ni, you ; de, they. Gen., deras. D., Ace., oss ; eder (er] ; SWEDISH GRAMMAR. The reflective pronoun sig is used in all genders for the third person, both singular and plural. For the special use of the personal pronouns, see Part II. The Possessive Pronouns are : Singular. Plural. MASC. AND TEM. NEUTER. ALL GENDEBS. min, mitt, my. mina, my. din, ditt, thy. dina, thy. sin, sitt, his, her. sina, their. vdr, vdrt, our. vdra, our. eder, er, edert (ert), edra, your. your. Sin, sitt, sina are used (as in Danish) in a subjective reflective sense, whilst hans, hennes, dess are only used objectively ; as, Fadern dlskar sitt barn, och soker befrdmja dess val, ' a father loves his (own) child, and strives to promote his (the child's) welfare. The Demonstrative Pronouns are : Singular. Plural. MASC. AND FEM. NEUTER. ALL GENDERS. Nona., etc., den, del, the, this, that. G., dess (dens], dess, N., de, G., deras, D., Ace., dem t the, these. PRONOUNS. 23 Singular. MASC. FEM. NEUTER. Norn., denne (a), denna, delta, this. Gen., dennes (as), dennas, deltas, Plural. MASC. FEM. NEUTEK. Nom., desse (a), dessa, dessa. Gen., desses (as), dessas, dessas. Sing., den samme (a), m., den samma, f., det samma, the same. Plur., de samme (a), de samma, de samma, The Reciprocal Pronouns hvarandra, hvarannan, 'one another,' ' each other/ take s in the genitive. The Interrogative and Relative Pronouns are ; Nona., ho, hvem, who ; hvad, what. Gen., Avars (hvems), hvars, D., Ace., Jivem, hvad, Hvadfb'r en, m., f., hvad far ett, n., hvad for, pi., are occasionally used instead of the relative hvilken, m., f., hvil- ket, n., Gen. hvilkens, hvilkets, N. A. D. pi. hmlka, for all genders, Gen. hvilkas, * which/ Som, ' whom,' ' which/ ' that/ is not declinable. The principal Indefinite Pronouns are : En, Gen. ens, pi. ena, l one/ ' some one/ generally used only in the objective case. Man, ( one/ 'they/ used only in the nominative sin- gular. 24 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. Ndgon, m., f., ndgot, n., pi. ndgra, ' some one/ ' any one;' ingen, m. f., intet, n., pi. inga, ' no one/ 'none/ bagge, Mda, ' both / mdngeri, m., f., mdnget, n., pi. manga, ' many/ ' many a one/ annan, m., f., annat, n., pi. andra, 'other/ owj*e, 'both/ 'each/ */#o;de, kopte. Plur. J Optative. Present. Imperfect. Imperative. Sing, and Plur %'e, !|1 The same as Imperf. Indie. Sing. 2 pers. boj, kop. Plur. 1 boJQTHy kopom. 2 The Third Conjugation takes dde in the imperfect indica- tive, dd in the past participle, and it in the supine. The infinitive does not take the terminal a, and the present participle takes ende. VERBS. 29 Infinitive. Example: (atf) tro,'io believe;' Part. Pres. froende ; Past Part, trodd. ; Sup. troii. Present. Sing-, tror. Plur. tro. Present. Sing. \ and \md tro, Plur. ) Indicative. Imperfect. Sing, trodde. Plur. trodde. Optative. Imperative. Sing. 2 pers. tro. Plur. 2 iron. Imperfect. The same as Imperf. Indie. The Fourth Conjugation. This conjugation includes all the so-called strong verbs, i.e. verbs whose imperfect indicative tense is formed through some internal change of the radical vowel. This conjugation is divided into two classes, viz.: 1. Verbs which undergo only one change of vowel, affecting the imperfect indicative ; as, gripa, imperfect grep, past part, gripen, supine gripit, ' to grasp.' 2. Verbs which undergo a change of vowel, both in the imperfect indicative and in the perfect participle and supine ; as, binda, imperfect band, part, past fanden, supine bandit. Examples : Infinitive. (att) gripa to grasp, Part. Pres. gripande, Part. Past, gripen^ Sup. gripit. binda,io bind, t>indande,T?a,rt.~Past,d\inden, Sup. bundit. 30 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. Indicative. Present. Imperfect. Sing, griper, binder. I Sing, grep, band. Plur. gripa, binds,. Plur. grepo, bwido. Optative. Present. Imperfect. Sing.) and >gripe, binde. Plur.J Sing. ) and \-grepe, bunde. Plur.J Imperative. Sing. 2 pers. grip, bind. Plur. ' 1 gripom, bindom. 2 gripen, binden. PASSIVE VERBS. (Passivum.} The modern Swedish form of the passive has originated from the Old Northern, in which it was a mere adaptation of the reflective pronoun sik, sig, and was conjugated with the help of the auxiliaries vera, verda (var^d), 'to be/ and the past participle of the active form of the verb. In modern Swedish the passive is formed by adding s (for sig) to the transitive active form of the verb ; as Infinitive. Present. (atf) kallas, to be called. bdjas, bent. tros, trusted. ,i bindas, bound. VERBS. 31 Past. aft hafva kall&is, to have been called. %'ts, bent. traits, trusted. bundits, bound. Supine, Past Participle. bojts. bojA. troiis. ^rodd. bundits. bundeo.. Indicative. Present. Dallas. (All persons but 2 plur.) 2 pers. plur. (y^a^ens). t>ojes. (^o>ens).. tros. (trons). bindes. (bindens). Imperfect. 2 pers. plur. boj'des. (%'dens). bands. 1 and 3 pers. plur. bundos. 2 bundens 32 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. Compound Tenses. Sing. har, hade kallats, or blifvit kallad. Plur. hafva, hade Sing 1 , har, hade bqjts ,, bojd. Plur. hafva, hade Sing, har, hade trotts trodd. Plur. hqfva, hade Sing, har, hade bund\i bunden. Plur. hafva, hade Deponents are conjugated after the passive form, while they have an active significance; as, minnas, ' to remember/ jag minnas, ' I remember.' Some deponents are merely the passive of some other reflective active verb ; as,forifras, 'to be in a passion/ from forifra sig, ' to put oneself in a passion/ Others have no relation to any corresponding active verb ; as, hoppas, ' to hope/ Most intransitive verbs are without the passive ; as, falla, 1 to fall/ hdnda, ' to happen/ etc., and such verbs may generally be used as impersonals ; as, det falter sly svdrt, ' it is difficult / det Jidnde mig, c it happened to me/ Intransitives may be used in some cases in the passive when they have an impersonal sense ; as, det dansas har i huset, ' there is dancing going on in the house/ For an explanation of the principal forms of deviations from the normal modes of conjugation, see Part II. PREPOSITIONS. CONJUNCTIONS. PREPOSITIONS. (Farord.) The chief prepositions are of, of, by. efter, after. bland, among 1 . frdn, from. fur, for, before. ut/or, down. utan, without. forbi, by, past. genom, through. hos, at the house of. i, inotn, in, within. jiimie, near by, beside. omkring, round. a, pa, on, upon. at, to, at, for. sedan, after. till, to, till, at. undan, away, from. mot, against. nara, near. ofoan, above. om, about. under, under. utom, without. ur, utur, out of. vid, by, near. CONJUNCTIONS. (Bindeord.} The chief conjunctions are : Simple. och, and. da, then. men, but. uian, unless. eller, or. nar, when. samt, with. dertiU, thereto. afeen, also. derfor, therefore. ty, for. ekuru, although. om, in case. att, that. Compound. ej heller, neither. bade och, also, as well as. sd som, as. i fall, in case. som om, as if. emedan, since. sdledes, so. 34 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. INTERJECTIONS. ( Utropsord.} ! ah ! ack ! ah ! ha ! na ! hurra ! ve ! Some are imitative sounds of noises ; as, Kling Hang ! Jclatseh ! kras ! pv/ff ! Some are merely elliptical rendering's of invocations, oaths, etc. ; as, Gunas ! (Gud ndde os, ' God have mercy on us ') ; Kors ! (' the Cross ') ; Vassera tre ! ( Far Her r as tra, ' our Lord's tree-cross ') ; bevars ! (bevare oss ! ( Preserve us !'), ' Oh dear !' THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 35 PART II. ON THE USE AND CHARACTER OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. The Indefinite Article en, m., f., ett, n., ' a/ ' an/ is merely the unaccented form of the indefinite pronoun en, ett, ' one/ which is the same as the numeral en, ett, ' one/ In Old Northern there is no trace of the use of a distinct indefinite article, the earliest representative of which was the indefinite pronoun einn, ' one/ einhverr, ' each one.' From these have been derived the modern Scan- dinavian en, ett. The plural ena, 'ones/ ' some/ is used to express surprise or contempt ; as, det dr ena obegripliga flicker, ' they are incomprehensible girls !' This article is in many respects governed by the same rules as in English. Thus it directly precedes the noun which it indicates; as, en gosse, 'a boy;' en blomma, 'a. flower ;' ett hus, ' a house ;' while where the noun is quali- fied by an adjective, it precedes the latter; as, en tidel fende, ' a noble foe ; ' en god bok, ' a good book / ett stort hof, ' a great sea.' It is not used, however, where a person's rank, profession, 36 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. or calling is indicated, unless the latter be qualified by an adjective; as, han dr general, 'he is a general/ min van dr EN TAPPER officer, ' my friend is a brave officer / prestens son dr lakare, ' the clergyman's son is a doctor ;' gossen shall bli smed, ' the boy is to be a smith/ THE DEFINITE ARTICLES. In the. Old Northern there was no distinct definite article till a comparatively late period,, when its place was supplied by the use of the demonstrative pronoun hinn, m., kin, L,hint (liitt], n., singular, this, that; hinir, ... hinar, ... hin, ... plural, these, those; which either followed the noun in an independent form, as Scemundr hinn frodi, 'the wise Saemund/ or was affixed to it with the h and final n dropped for euphony, as hestrm, 'the horse/ In conformity with this process of adaptation, the modern Scandinavian tongues have used the demonstrative pronoun den, det, de, ' this/ ' that/ etc., as a definite independent article, pronounced without the vowel-stress that marks the former. In the earlier forms of Swedish this unaccented pronoun generally followed the noun which it defined, and came in process of time to be incorporated with it in the form of the suffixes -en or -n, m., f. ; -et or -t, n. sing. ; -ne, -na, -en or -a, pi., which now constitute one of the most distinctive characteristics of the language. Swedish thus possesses two distinct forms of the definite article, the one independent, as den blomma, ' the flower/ THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. 37 and the other supplemental and affixed, as blomman, ' the flower.' The suffixes, which must accord in number and gender with the noun with which they are amalga- mated, thus simply but completely represent the English definite article ' the ;' as, skalden, ' the bard ;' blomman, f., ' the flower ;' namnet, u., ' the name ;' riket, ' the king- dom ;' skalderna., ' the bards ;' blommorna, ' the flowers ;' namnen, ' the names ;' rikena, ' the kingdoms ;' skald, blomma, etc., without such terminals, being indefinite, as ' bard,' ' flower,' etc. Nouns used in an abstract sense take the article in Swedish where it is omitted in English ; as, lifvet dr kort, ' (the) life is short ;' twiet pressas ur drufvor, ' (the) wine is extracted from grapes / hvad kostar smoret i dag ? 'what does (the) butter cost to-day ?' The affix is used with some names of countries and places ; as for example : It alien, ' (the) Italy ;' Alperna, 'the Alps ;' Scandinavian, ' Scandinavia ;' and with certain titles; as, Ri&srddet, '(councillor)' Lynlerg ; Presidenten Wrangcl. But it is not used with homing, ' king ;' furste, ' prince ;' grefve, ' count ;' Herr, ' Mr. j' Lojtnant, ' lieu- tenant;' nor with any feminine titles; as, drottning, 'queen;' FrM,'Mrs.;' Frozen, /wtJ^/nt/Miss;' 'Madam/etc. When Herr precedes another title, the latter takes the terminal article ; as, har Herr grefven varit i London ? ' have you been in London, count ? When a title or professional designation precedes the name of the person addressed, the former has the final article ; as, Docenten AlmqvisL 88 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. The article is omitted when the noun is preceded and governed by a genitive ; as, iqvnnaus pligt ar ait dlska sina barn, ' a woman's duty (the duty of a woman) is to love her children/ The affix-article is not used when the noun is preceded by a relative or interrogative pronoun ; as, hvillcen pojTce var det ? ' what boy was that ?' Swedish requires that the terminal article should be added to the noun, even when the latter is preceded by an adjective with the independent article, den, det, de, ' the ;' as, det behagede ej DEN lilla prinsess&n, ( this did not please the little princess.' This pleonastic method of construction is also met with when the noun is preceded by the demonstrative pronoun, den, det, de, 'that,' 'those;' as, den mann&n. skulle jag vllja lara Icanna, ' that man I should like to know.' In the older forms of the language the suffix-article was generally omitted in such modes of construction, as may be seen from certain familiar expressions still current ; as, i de dldsta tider, ' in the olden times.' The use of the definite article before a noun, where the latter is not qualified by an adjective, is regarded as a Germanism, and is of frequent occurrence in the Scriptures, which in many particulars reflect the German literary influences to which the earlier translators had been sub- jected; thus we find de Eomare, 'the Romans;' de Ko- losser, ' the Colossians,' instead of the more genuinely Northern construction ' Romarne,' ' Kolosserne' As a general rule it may be assumed that the terminal THE NOUN. 89 suffix-article should be used wherever the English ' the ' is required to define the noun ; as, Jordan tir rund, the earth is round; Sag du, herrame ? ' did you see the gentlemen ?' THE NOUN. The noun agrees in gender and number with its pre- dicate ; as, mdnen dr Mar, ' the moon is bright ;' hdstarne voro feta, men oxarne magra, ' the horses were fat, but the oxen were lean.' In simple sentences the subject noun precedes the verb ; as, jag ser flickan, ' I see the girl.' But it follows the verb : 1. In interrogatives ; as, hvarfor ligger inte barnet? ( why does not the child go to bed ?' 2. In secondary sentences ; as, ndr flickan har ndgot godt, sd delar hon alltid med sig at andra, ' when the girl has anything good, she always shares it with others/ 3. When some assertion made by, or in reference to, the subject precedes the latter ; as, del dr en ofversdtt- ning, SER JAG, ' it is a translation, I see.' 4. When the subject follows the adverbial part of the sentence; as, samma dag UPPLASTE HAN ofversdttningen, ' on the same day he read out the translation ;' forut HADE HAN Jidllit arbetet hemligt for dem, ' before that, he had kept the work a secret from them.' Elliptically the subject may be put into the accusative with an infini:ive ; as, han ANSAGS VARA en rik man, ' he was re- garded as a rich man;' jag sag henne komma, 'I saw her come.' The genitive may be expressed by the use, not merely 40 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. of the inflectional s, as qvinnans barn, ' the woman's child,' but also by numerous prepositions, as bland, till, af, efter, etc. ; as, son till qvinnan, ' the woman's son ;' hon dr enka efter en prest, 'she is a clergyman's widow;' trc af oss, ' three of us ;' den yngsta bland flickorna, ' the youngest of the girls ;' kdrleken till Gud, ' the love of God.' Where several nouns stand in apposition, the last only takes the genitive form ; as, kejsar Karl den Stores efter- kommande, ' the descendants of Charles the Great.' After words expressing quantity the genitive is not used, although implied, such words being merely put in appo- sition with the nouns which they govern ; as, en hop soldater, ' a number (of) soldiers ;' ett par handskar, ' a pair (of) gloves;' ett glas vin, 'a glass (of) wine.' The genitive is used after hos, ' at,' and in familiar parlance when a person's family or house is understood ; as, hon ar hos prestens, ' she is at the clergyman's / vi ha sett doktorns, ' we saw the doctor's (family).' In some cases the genitive is used directly before the noun by which it is governed ; as, en ARANS man, ( a man of honour ;' en sexton \w&flicka, 'a girl of sixteen.' The dative may be expressed simply by position ; as, Herren gaf BONDEN brefvet, 'the gentleman gave (to) the peasant the letter ;' arbetet dr oss nyttigt, ' work is good for us.' It may be expressed by at, ' at ;' for, ' for ; as, Sweden skrattade at sitt eget infall, ( the smith laughed at his own fancy ;' for hvem dr arbetet nyttigt ? ' for (or to) whom is THE NOUN. 41 labour good?' g if applet at honom, (or gif honom applet,) ' give him the apple.' The objective may be used with an infinitive, as in Latin, in the place of a subjective with its predicate ; as, Jag anser MIG UPPFYLLA. min skyldighet, 'I consider that I am doing my duty.' In regard to the five declensions of nouns adopted in modern Swedish, it may be well to draw attention to the following points : 1 . The First Declension includes all feminine nouns ending in a. Of these, some were masculines in the older forms of the language, and had in some of their cases the ter- mination u (o,) which is still met with ; as, ndrvaro, ' presence ;' frdnvaro, ' absence/ Some of these words may be used both with the present feminine and the older masculine termination ; as, dd ra or dder, ' vein/ 2. The Second Declension, which includes both masculines and feminines, has upwards of 600 of the former gender which are monosyllabic, and end in a consonant. Some have no plural ; as, grdt, ' weeping ;' Ml, ' cabbage/ Most words in sel are without the plural ; as, ka'nsel, ' sense,' 'perception;' trdngsel, 'crowd/ Moder and dotter, be- longing to this declension, change the radical vowel in the plural, as, modrar, 'mothers;' dottrar, 'daughters/ Here it may be remarked that many words belonging to the other declensions similarly make their plural in an Umlaut, or change of the radical vowel; as, bonde, pi. bonder, ' peasants ;' fader, pi. fader, ' fathers ;' broder, pi. broder , 'brothers/ etc. 42 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. 3. The Third Declension, which includes nouns of all genders, contains a large proportion of foreign words. The termination -er in the plural, which is its distinctive character, is unknown in genuine Swedish words of the neuter gender, and is due to German or Danish influences. 4. The Fourth Declension, to which belong only neuter nouns ending in a vowel, includes the neuter nouns of the older form of the language ending in a and other vowels, which early in the eighteenth century began to acquire the plural termination -n, which is now the characteristic distinction of this declension. 5. The Fifth Declension, which includes masculine and neuter nouns, remains unchanged in the plural, although there is a tendency among modern writers to add -er or -r to express the plural ; as, svarander instead of svarande, 1 defendants/ Many nouns vary in declension either from uncertainty of gender or from difference of meaning ; as, bolag, n. sing., bolag, m. pi., ' partnership/ Many nouns are of irregular declension ; as, sko, m., skor, pi., ' shoe ;' fot, m., f otter, pi., ' foot ;' oga, n., b'gon, pi., ' eye ;' b'ra, n., oron, pi., ' ear/ In these instances the apparent divergencies from the established rules are dependent on the declension originally followed by the word in the Old Northern. Similar traces of the ancient construction are to be found in certain words and expressions which retain the termination of the original genitive, as, among many others, in giftoman, ' guardian' (giver in marriage) ; THK NOUN. 43 Jcyrkogard, 'churchyard/ i formdgo of, 'in virtue of.' Thus, too, in the expression i lagom tid, 'in good time,' we have a survival of an old dative form. The tendency of the spoken language is to disregard the older grammatical distinction of masculine, feminine and neuter, and to comprehend the two former under one common gender. Thus in speaking of inanimate objects, and even of animals, it is usual to refer to them as den, ' this, that,' instead of han, 'he,' and hon, 'she/ Numerous divergencies between the written and the spoken language are observable in the tendency to lessen the number of declensions, by using the termination -er to mark the plural of many words for which grammatical rules demand a different ending. This is more especially the case in regard to neuters belonging to the fifth declen- sion, but a similar practice prevails in reference to the plural of feminines belonging to the first declension, in which the terminal -or is frequently changed to -er in the spoken language. Abstract nouns, or foreign words ending in an or en, do not take the affix-article ; as, bb'rjan, ' beginning/ 'the beginning/ examen, 'examination/ 'the examination/ AY hen an adjective is preceded by the independent article den, det, de, it may be used in the sense of a noun ; as, den flitige belonas, 'the diligent (man, or individual, understood) is rewarded ;' den femtonde dr snart inne, ' the fifteenth (of the month) will soon be here/ 44 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. ADJECTIVES. The masculine singular and plural termination -e is generally changed to -a for the sake of euphony in speak- ing. It should, however, be retained when the adjective is used as a noun, or when it follows the latter as a dis- tinctive cognomen, or is used as a vocative ; as, den gode, ' the good (man) / de vise, ' the wise (men) / Gusto/ Adolf den store, ' Gustavus Adolphus the Great ;' I ddle man ! f ye noble men ! ' Where the adjective is used to express a noun, it takes s in the genitive; as, de gamles son, ' the old people's son/ Some adjectives are defective or irregular in their mode of declension; as, grd, 'grey/ which may remain un- changed, or take an a in the plural ; as, grd ogon or grdsi dijon, ' grey eyes/ Smd, although the plural of liten, litet, ' little/ maybe used in the singular masculine and feminine in a collective sense ; as, smd fish, ' small fish / smdskoq, m., ' underwood/ As a noun or an adverb, smdtt is of common occurrence ; as, Jag har smdtt om tid, ' I am pinched for time ;' det regnar smdtt, ' it is (a small rain) drizzling/ Survivals of older forms are to be found in such ex- pressions as, till fullo, ' in full / pd Jjusan dag, ' in broad daylight/ Adjectives ending in a, e, se ; as, bra (abbr. of braf), ' fine / lika, ' like ;' ode, ' desert ; 'gangse, ' current/ do not admit of being declined. A similar rule applies to present participles and adverbs ADJECTIVES. 45 used in the sense of adjectives ; as, ett leende barn, ' a laughing child ;' inhyses hjon, ' a dependant/ ' a person living- free of cost in another person's house ;' inbordes krig, ' intestine war/ Certain superlatives are used only in prayer or invoca- tion, and in epistolary and official communications ; as, den aller Hogste, 'the Most High;' stormdktigst, 'most mighty;' allernddigst, ' most gracious ;' tropligtigst, 'most obedient ;' underddnigst, ' most humbly.' The comparative degree may be expressed by the help of the conjunction an, ' than ;' as, Adolf a'r dldrt an sin syster Maria, ' Adolphus is older than his sister Mary/ A comparison between two persons or things is not expressed with the comparative but the superlative; as, firilken of de tvanne qvinnarna ar yngztt 'which is the younger of the two women ? ' As in English, a certain definite preposition must follow the adjective, to give it the special meaning required ; as, ledsen vid, 'weary of;' glad ofver, *glad of;' kunnig i, 'conversant with.' The preposition may be omitted with some adjectives ; as, Albert ar mdktig det svenska sprdket, ' Albert is master (of) the Swedish language;' min Moder blef henne qvitf, ' my mother got rid (of) her.' 46 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. THE NUMERALS. (Rakneord.) The cardinal numbers (grundtal) are : 1. en, ett. 2. tvd (tu, tvdnne). 3. tre (trenne). 4. fyra. 5. fern. 6. sex. 7. sju. 8. dtta. 9. nio. 10. w. 1 1 . elfva. 12. fo[f. 14. fjorton. 15. femton. The cardinal numbers are indeclinable except , go, gick, gdtt. Ugga>> lie, lag. legat. qvada, >, sing, gvad, qvadit. se } see, sag, sett. sofva, sleep, *of* sofvit. tdlja, count, talde, talt. veta, know, visste, vetat. tit a, eat, at, atit. Compound verbs are either separable or inseparable; as, att tillhora, or att hora till, ' to belong to/ and att beklacje, ' to complain.' To the former class belong verbs composed of a preposition, adjective, or other independent part of speech; as, att genomborra, Ho bore through/ att f rigor a, 'to free/ while to the latter belong generally all verbs compounded of a particle and another verb ; as, att erkan- na, ' to acknowledge.' The first conjugation, which includes five-sixths of all the VERBS. 57 Swedish verbs, embraces nearly all weak verbs having a, o, u, or d as their radical vowel, followed by a consonant ; as, frdga, ' to ask/ To this conjugation belong also generally verbs compounded of particles, or having two or more syllables; as, afskeda, 'to dismiss/ arbeta, 'to labour/ To the second conjugation belong many verbs having a soft radical vowel, as e, i, y, d, or 6 ; as, leda, ' to lead ;' spilla, ' to spill ;' pryda, ' to adorn ;' svalla, ' to swell ;' foda, ' to give birth to/ The third conjugation, which now is without the final a in the infinitive, is of comparatively modern origin, that characteristic termination having been present in the Old Swedish; as, att 6oa, instead of &?, 'to dwell;' att troa, instead of tro, ' to believe/ The fourth, or strong mode of conjugation, which is the most ancient and most flexible of any, comprises five distinct classes of verbs; as, (1) verbs in which the imperf. indica- tive ends in short a ; (2) in long a ; (3) in o ; (4) in e ; (5) in o. As Imp. Indie. Past. Part. binda, to bind, band, bundit. gifva, to give, gaf, gifoit. tag a, to take, tog, iagit. skrifva, to write, skref, skrifvit. lilyfva, to cleave, klof, kliifvit. Some verbs may be declined according both to the first and the second form of conjugation; as, (att} dela, 'to share,' which may be written imperf. delude or delte, parti- ciple past del-dt or delt. 5H SWEDISH GRAMMAR. Other verbs vary between the other conjugations, as Imperfect. Supine. (aft) duffa, to be fit for, dugde or dog, dugat or dugf. ,, heta, to be called, hette or ket, hetat. lefva, to live, lefde or lefte, lefvat or left. There is a tendency in modern Swedish to transfer verbs of the fourth or strong form of conjugation to the first or second weak form. Similarly, modern usage tends to reject the harder radical vowels in favour of their softer derivatives, taking a for a, ci for u, etc.; while for the same considerations of euphony the j is frequently dropped, as in bod, originally bjod, imperf. indicative of bjuda, 'to bid;' song, originally sjong, imp. ind. of sjunga, f to sing.' Contractions are of frequent occurrence even among the best speakers and writers ; as, bli, ta, dra, gi, for blifva, taga, draga, gifva ; blir, tar, drar, for dlifver, tager, drager, gifver; and vi, de Hi, ta, dra, I blin, fan, dran, for vi, de blifva, taga, draga, I blifcen, tagen, dragen. The personal termination er is always dropped in gala, ' to crow ;' mala, ' to grind -' fara, befara, ( to go, travel \' skdra, ' to cut ;' stjala, ( to steal/ etc. ADVERBS. (Omstandighetsord.} The place of the adverb in Swedish is in many cases identical with that which it occupies in English ; as, den iinga flickan taler val, 'the young girl speaks well;' dagen derpd, gik han bort, ' the day after, he went away ;' gladjen drforbi, ' the pleasure is over ',' der du dr, der ml jag vara / ' where you are, there I will be ! ' ADVERBS. 59 The affirmative ja is used where no negative is involved, jo where the question is put in a negative form ; as, Far soldaten liar i gar ? ' Was the soldier here yesterday ? ' Ja, ' Yes/ Far icke soldaten der ? ' Was not the soldier there ? ' Jo, 'Yes/ The word/M gives a confirmative or more em- phatic significance to the sentence ; as, du varju der i gar ? 'you (surely) were there yesterday?' It is used in con- nection with comparative modes of expression, and may be rendered by ' the/ as, ju for ju hellere, ' the sooner the better/ The negative icke, ' not/ is a modification of the Old Northern gi which also appears in aldrig (aldrige), 'never/ This and ej, inte, 'not/ often follow the verb both in questions and affirmatives ; as, Sjunger ickefoglen ? ' Is not the bird singing?' Ldrkan sjunger icke, 'The lark is not singing/ Kdnner du inte igen doktorn har? 'Do you not know the doctor again ? ' Nej,jag kan inte erinra miff, ' No, I cannot remember (him)/ Certain adverbs, may be used in Swedish in the same attributive sense as in English ; as, endast Gvd dr alive" tande, ' only God is omniscient/ Others may be used with a preposition in the sense of a noun ; as, jag har ej sett honom P! LANGE, ' I have not seen him for a long time/ du liar fait nog of tarar, 'you have shed enough tears/ Some adverbs are used as relative or demonstrative pro- nouns; as, det tidehvarf HVARI Lnther framstod var en af de stora verldsJristoriska epoker, 'the age in which Luther appeared marked one of the great historical epochs of the 60 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. world/ HVAREST vinet gar in, der gar vettet ut, ' where wine enters in, sense goes out.' PREPOSITIONS. (Forord). A preposition in Swedish generally precedes directly the noun which it governs ; as, nu blifver det en star glddje pd garden och i hela huset, ' now there will be great joy on the estate, and in the house/ Some prepositions may follow the noun or pronoun ; as, det kan ske honom fb'rutan, ' that may happen without him ;' oss emellan sagdt, alskar jag henne icke, ' between ourselves, I do not care for her ;' ait gd om, ' to pass by ;' systeren gjorde det mig emot, ' my sister did it against my wishes ;' ni med, ' you and all.' Many prepositions govern the genitive in accordance with the Old Northern construction ; as, till lands, ' by land ' till bords, ' to (table) dinner/ This older form is also traceable in such expressions as, tillhanda, ' to hand;' i somras, Mast summer;' i sommar, 'this summer;' om sommaren, ' in the summer ;' i ho'stas, ' last autumn ;' i host, ' this autumn.' The correct use of the prepositions presents considerable difficulty in Swedish. Thus, for instance, in rendering the English ' of,' a number of different prepositions are needed in accordance with the special nature of the relations or conditions referred to ; as, herren i huset, ' the master of the house;' sldppen PA rocken, ' the train of the dress ;' ska- let TILL, ' the reason of;' enJcaman EFTER min syster, ' widower CONJUNCTIONS.' 61 of my sister / tjenaren HOS generalen, f the servant of the general / full MED, ' full of;' AF gammal familj, 'of an old family / en man AF snille, ' a man of genius/ Till still governs a genitive as in Old Swedish ; as, tillfots, ' on foot / but the Swedish prepositions generally govern the dative or the accusative. CONJUNCTIONS. (Bindeord.) The conjunction samt, ' with/ e also,' is frequently used in the place of ' and / as, Generalen Jcom med grefven samt presten,'ihe general came with the count and the clergyman. Ej heller, ( nor/ is used after a negative ; as, min fader vet det icke, ej heller min broder, f neither my father nor my brother knows it/ Ej, or icke blott, ' not only,' is used in combination with men, ' but/ or utan afven, ' but also/ ' but even / as, ej blott min fader, men min broder vet det, ( my brother knows it as well as my father / icke blott fadren, utan afven brodren trodde det, ' not only the father, but the brother even believed it/ Alt, 'that/ often requires to be preceded by an, 'than,' or for, ' for / as, barnet ar yngre AN ATT det kunna resa alle- na, ' the child is too young to be able to travel alone / lion var alt for mycket nedslagen, for ATT hon skulle gd i sall- skap, 'she was much too depressed to go into society/ Svensharne uppreste sig mot Kristian II. of DanmarJc, DERFOR ATT han var en tyrann, ' the Swedes rose against Christian II. of Denmark because he was a tyrant.' 6-J SWEDISH GRAMMAR. Sd sant som, hvar om icke, ' if not/ may be need in an elliptical sense; as, jag dr oskyldig, sd sant mi g Gnd hjelpe, ' I am innocent, so help me God.' Omjag vinner spe- let blir jag glad, HVAR OM ICKE, trostarjag mig, ' I shall be glad if I win the game, but if I do not, I shall console myself/ Sd is often used at the beginning of a secondary sentence, to connect it with the primary sentence ; as, nar min van kommer sd dr jag vdl till/reds, ' when my friend comes, I am well pleased / om vddret blir vackert, sd kommer min syster i a/ton, ' if the weather should be good, my sister will come this evening/ . Sdsow, ' as,' is often used in the sense of ' namely / as, frdn Ostindien erhdllas allahande kryddor, SASOM peppar kanel, etc., ' from the East Indies we obtain various spices, namely, pepper, cinnamon, ' etc. Ndmligen, ' namely/ is, on the other hand, used in the sense of ' for/ ' because / as, hans beteende dr oforklarligt ; han har NAMLIGEN alltid an- setts vara en hederlig man, ' his conduct is inexplicable because he has always been regarded as an honest man/ o Ty, may be similarly used ; as, Askan dr nyttig, ty hon rensar luften, ' thunder is of use because it clears the air/ Antingen eller are used in the sense of ( whether* 'or/ as, han har dnu ej bestdmt sig ANTINGEN han skall bli Id- kare ELLER jurist, 'he has not yet decided if he will be a doctor or a lawyer.' The elliptical expression vare sig, ' be it/ may be similarly employed ; as, VARE SIG rik, VARE SIG fattig, sd bor man njuta skydd aflagen, ' whether it be rich, or poor, all ought to enjoy the protection of the law.' The conversion of adverbs and prepositions into conjunc- CONJUNCTIONS. 63 tions, and the post-position of prepositions, of both of which we subjoin a few additional examples, constitute peculiar features of Swedish, specially worthy of attention owing to the light which they throw on the origin of various idiomatic expressions in English. Icke mannen, UTAN qvinnan forde ordet. It was the woman and not the man who spoke. Han sprang, ELLER snarareflog. He sprang, or rather flew. Han ar for dem hvad han fordom varit. He is the same to them as he formerly was. Han arfegare, AN ATT han skulle vaga forsolcet. He is too cowardly to make the attempt. Biist jag sprang, horde jag ett rop bakom mig. As I ran (as I best could) I heard a cry behind me. DET FORSTA han kommer hem, skall han Jcora Er pa dorren. As soon as he comes home, he will drive you out of doors. AN regnar det, AN skiner solen. It either rains, or the sun shines. Gossen tar jag vdrd OM. I will take charge of the boy. Oss EMELLAN sagdt, gjorde han mig EMOT. Between ourselves, he acted against me. Linne blef en furste i den vetenskap han egnade sig AT. Linnaeus was a prince in the science to which he devoted himself. 64 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. Han varfrislt TITOM ATT Tian haltade nagot. He was fresh and cool, although he had not stopped on the way. HURU lard Jian AN dr,forstar han icke detta. However learned he may be, he does not understand that. Luften dr icke varm, OAKTADT solen shiner. The air is not warm, although (notwithstanding that) the sun shines. Hon sag miq AN. She looked at me. HVAD AN ma intrdffa. Whatever (then) may happen. Dagen FOR AN han for. The day before (than) he started. At tage sig bra UT. To look well. Han tar rocken PA. He puts on his coat. Hvem tar ni mig FOR ? Who do you take me for ? Har tar vdgen AF. Here the road turns off. Dei dr indenting at tale O.M. It is not worth speaking of. CONJUNCTIONS. 65 BARA jag viste sanheten / It' I only knew the truth ! Man gor jramsteg DERIGENOM ATT man ar flitig. One makes progress by being- diligent. OLDER SWEDISH MODES OF INFLECTION. We give the following examples of the manner in which nouns, adjectives, pronouns and nouns were inflected in the Forn-Svenskan (Ancient Swedish), in order to show the leading characteristic differences between that earlier form of the language and Modern Swedish. As has already been noticed in the Introduction, the so- called Forn-Svenskan, which was spoken by Goths as well as Swedes, and which was almost identical with the Donsk Tunga (Danish Tongue), and Forn-Norskan (Ancient Norse) of the early Northmen, continued with slight modi- fications to be the spoken speech of the Swedish people till about the time of the Reformation. At that period, under Gustaf Vasa, the language passed to that middle stage of its development which is characterized as that of Gammal- Svenskan, or Old Swedish, in contradistinction to its latest and still existing phase Ny-Svenskan, or Modern Swedish. In Forn-Svenskan we have, therefore, the earliest intermediate link between the Swedish of our own times and the Old Northern, which was the common tongue of all the Scandinavian peoples before their separation into distinct nations as Swedes, Norwegians, and Danes. This remnant of ancient Scandinavian consequently possesses an p SWEDISH GRAMMAR. interest second only to that of its sister-form of speech the Icelandic, or Forn-Norskan of the ninth century, whose earliest literary remains are admitted to be the most per- fect representatives extant of the so-called Old Northern. And if Forn-Svenskan has comparatively little impor- tance from a merely literary point of view, a study of its grammatical structure, and of numerous survivals in the later forms of Swedish, will be found to throw considerable light on the process of development through which many English as well as Scandinavian words have passed, show- ing that notwithstanding their actual differences they have had one common origin. NOUNS. Strong mode of declension without the Article. Masculine. Sing.: N. brander, fire. G. brands D. brandi(e) A. brand Plur.: N. brandar G. branda D. brandum(om) A. branda Feminine. sak, thing. sakar saku(sak) sak sakar(ir, er) saka sakum(om) sakar With the Article. Sing.: N. brandrm(en) sakm(en) G. brandsins sa/tinnar Neuter. land, country. lands landi(e) land land landa landum(om) land. landit(et) landsins OLD SWEDISH. 67 Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. D. brandinum sakmni landirm A. brandin saJc'ma landit Plur. : N. brandamr(ni, ne) sakcma.T(na) landm(eri) G. brandanna. safcanna landaxma. D. brandumm sakumin landumin A. brandansi sakausa: landm. STRONG MODE OF DECLENSION or ADJECTIVES. Sing.: N. goiter, good. G. D. A. goftan Plur. : N. goftir G. goftra D. gooum A. gofta goftar Comparative, bcetri, bcetra ; Superlative, bcesti, bcesta. go% got goftrar go>s goftri go$u(. go^Sa got go^Sra goftra PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Sing.: N. ik(iak), I. -Sw, thou. han, he. hun (hon) ,sbe. G. min D. mer A, mik Plur.: N. vir, we. G. var D.&A. os %in Ser ir, ye. i^r hans hanum han hannar hcenni hana (hona}. 68 SWEDISH GRAMMAR. DEMONSTRATIVE PBONOCNS. Masc. Fern. Neut. Sing.N.sar (sa) 5W $at, 'that.' G. Kes "S(?*rrar Ses D. >eim Sew-ri y A. -Saw ($eir Sfl5r Saw, ' those/ G. iSeirra Seirra "SetVra D \)&%wi Seim 'Se^m A. iSa Sr -Sau Sing.N. ftem Kessi >etta, 'this/ G. >essa ftessar Sessa D. "Sesswm ^Sessi "Sesstt A. "Semia "Sessa ^ea Plur. N. ftessir Sessar iSessi, ' these.' G. "Sessa ftessa "Sessa D. "Sessztm ftessum 65SWW A. ewa ftessar 0n. The third demonstrative pronoun in Old Swedish hin, hin, hint, from which the modern definite and terminal affix-articles have been derived were declined like the posses- sive pronouns mm, ' my ;' "Sin, ' thy,^ &c. Masc. Fern. Sing. N. hin hin G. him hinnar D. hinum hinni A. hin hina Plur. N. hinir hinar G. hinna hinna D. hinum hinum A. Tuna Ainar Neut. i) /this/ 'that/ (hit) hin, ' these,' ' those/ hinna hinum hin OLD SWEDISH. 09 It will be observed that the modern Swedish demonstra- tive pronouns, den, denne, which appeared early in the language in their present form, have been directly derived from the older accusatives "Saw, %an, 'Senna. VERBS. Weak mode of Conjugation. Strong mode of Conjugation. Infinitive, Italia, 'to call/ brinna, ' to burn/ Pres. Part, kallandi brinnandi. Perf. Part, kallafter brunnin. The supine does not appear in the Old Swedish. Indicative. Present. Sing. 1, 2, 3 Pers. kallar brinder Plur. 1. kallum(om) brinnum(om) 2. kallin(en) brinnin(en) 3. kalla brinna. Imperfect. Sing. 1, 2, 3 Pers. kallafti 1, 3, Pers. bran 2 Pers. brant Plur. 1. kallaftum brunnum u. ,, 3. kallaftin kallaftu brunnin brunnu (o Imperative. Sing. 2nd Pers. Plur. 1. 2. Italia kallum kallin brin brinnum brinnin. A CATALOGUE OF IMPORTANT WORKS, PUBLISHED BY 57 AND 59 LUDGATE HILL. ABEL. LINGUISTIC ESSAYS. By Carl Abel. CONTENTS: Language as the Expres- sion of National Modes of Thought The Conception of Love in some Ancient and Modern Languages The English Verbs of Command The Discrimination of Synonyms Philological Methods The Connection between Dictionary and Gram- mar The Possibility of a Common Literary Language for the Slav Nations Coptic Intensification The Origin of Language The Order and Position of Words in the Latin Sentence. Post Svo, pp. xii. and 282, cloth. 1882. 9s. ABEL. SLAVIC AND LATIN. Ilchester Lectures on Comparative Lexicography. 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Instead of analysing existing locutions and endeavouring to discover the principles which regulate them, writers of grammars have for the most part constructed a framework of rules on the old lines, and tried to make the language of which they were treating fit into it. Where this proves im- possible, the difficulty is met by lists of exceptions and irregular forms, thus burdening the pupil's mind with a mass of details of which he can make no practical use. In these Grammars the subject is viewed from a different standpoint ; the structure of each language is carefully examined, and the principles which underlie it are carefully explained ; while apparent discrepancies and so-called irregularities are shown to be only natural euphonic and other changes. All technical terms are excluded unless their meaning and application is self-evident ; no arbitrary rules are admitted ; the old classification into declensions, conjugations, &c., and even the usual para- digms and tables, are omitted. Thus reduced to the simplest principles, the Accidence and Syntax can be thoroughly comprehended by the student on one perusal, and a few hours' diligent study will enable him to analyse any sentence in the language. Now READY. Crown Svo, cloth, uniformly bound. I. Hindustani, Persian, and Arabic. By the late E. H. Palmer, M.A. Pp. 112. 5s. II. Hungarian. By I. SINGER, of Buda-Pesth. Pp. vi. and 88. 4s. Cd. For continuation see next page. 80 Triibners Simplified Grammars continued. III. Basque. By W. VAN EYS. Pp. xii. and 52. 3s. 6d. IV. Malagasy. By G. W. PARKER. Pp. 66. 5s. V. Modern Greek. By E. M. GELBART, M.A. Pp. 68. 2s. 6d. VI. Roumanian. By M. TORCEANU. Pp. viii. and 72. 5s. VII. Tibetan. By H. A. JASCHKE. Pp. viii. and 104. 5s. VIII. Danish. By E. C. OTTE, Pp. viii. and 66. 2s. 6d. IX. Turkish. By J. W. REDHOUSE, M.R.A.S. Pp. xii. and 204. 10s. 6d. X. Swedish. By Miss E. C. OTTE. Pp. xii. and 70. 2s. 6d. XI. Polish. By W. R. MORFILL, M.A. Pp. viii. and G4. 3s. Cd. The following are in preparation : SIMPLIFIED GEAMMAES OF Albanian, by WASSA PASHA, Prince of the Lebanon. Assyrian, by Prof. SAYCE. Bengali, by J. F. BLUMHARDT, of the British Museum. Burmese, by Dr. E. FORCHAMMER. Cymric and Gaelic, by H. JEXNER, of the British Museum. Egyptian, by Dr. BIRCH. Finnic, by Prof. OTTO DOXNER, of Helsingfors. Hebrew, by Dr. GINSBURG. Icelandic, by Dr. WIMMER, Copenhagen. Lettish, by Dr. M. I. A. VOLKEL. Lithuanian, by Dr. M. I. A. VOLKEL. Malay, by W. E. MAXWELL, of the Inner Temple, Barrister-at-Law. Pali, by Dr. EDWARD MULLER. Portuguese, by WALTER DE GRAY BIRCH. Russian, Bohemian, Bulgarian and Serbian, by W. R. MORFILL, of Oxford. Sanskrit and Prakrit, by HJALMAR EDGREN, Lund, Sweden. Sinhalese, by Dr. EDWARD MULLER. Arrangements are being made iviih competent Scholars for the early preparation of Grammars of German, Dutch, Italian, Chinese, Japanese, and Siamese. LONDON : TRUBNER & CO., LUDGATE HILL. PRINTED BY BAI.LANTYNE, HANSON AND CO. EDINBURGH AND LONDON. 1000 1/7/84 C. Da III 1 II II III III III II III A 000 lUIUIIIIllllllllllHlllill II III Illll 594 502 7 OCT 9 WW OCT ft 1963. NON * ;T$k- 10V 7 19 )3 JUG 6 191 8 flUG ( >I968 V A UG ^ isas AUG22 19687 MAY 3 1971 MAY 9 1971 3 Library Bureau Cat. No. 1137 Cr