.URAL. TEXT-BOOK SERIES FORAGE 111 A1SJ T S III 1 O 1 AND THEIR CULTURE PI PR R 1 1 IT ; JL^ -p%i Mia'HI ILHII'IW L, M. BAl LE Y B EDITOR Ube IRural ZText^Boofe Series EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE Hural EexfciSoofc Series MANN, BEGINNINGS IN AGRICULTURE. WARREN, ELE.MENTS OF AGRICULTURE. WARREN, FARM MANAGEMENT. LYON AND FIPPIN, SOIL MANAGEMENT. J. F. DUGGAR, SOUTHERN FIELD CROPS. B. M. DUGGAR, PLANT PHYSIOLOGY. HARPER, ANIMAL HUSBANDRY FOR SCHOOLS. MONTGOMERY, CORN CROPS. WHEELER, MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. LIVINGSTON, FIELD CROP PRODUCTION. WIDTSOE, IRRIGATION PRACTICE. PIPER, FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE. Others in preparation. FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE BY CHARLES V. PIPER, M.S. // AGROSTOLOGIST IN CHARGE OF FORAGE CROP INVESTIGATIONS BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE f|0tk THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1916 All rights reserved COPYRIGHT, 1914, BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published August, 1914. Reprinted March, 1915; February, August, 1916. J. S. Gushing Co. Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. PREFACE THE exceedingly diversified climatic conditions in North America have led to the cultivation of an unusually large number of plant species for forage production. Some of these are successful or important over but a comparatively small area, and not one is capable of profitable cultivation over the whole region. The climatic conditions of some parts of North America, especially the dry regions and the southernmost states, are not closely duplicated in any part of Europe. This fact has necessitated the introduction of numerous grasses and legumes from other regions to secure forage plants capable of profitable cultivation. The success of these endeavors has resulted in the utilization of many forage crops practically unknown in Europe, such as numer- ous varieties of sorghum, cowpeas, soybeans, Japan clover, Florida beggarweed, velvet bean, Bermuda-grass, Rhodes- grass, and many others. In some sections, there is still need of better adapted or more productive forage crops. Extensive experimental investigations have been conducted with only a few forage crops in America, so that there yet remains much to be learned concerning most of the others. The aim of the author has been to present as concisely as practicable the present state of our knowledge with ref- erence to each forage crop grown in America, and it is hoped that no important contributions to the subject have been omitted. The illustrations are mostly those which have been used in various publications of the United States Department of v 355430 vi PREFACE Agriculture, the seed illustrations being reproductions of the unequalled drawings of Professor F. H. Hillman. The bringing together of the scattered results of Ameri- can research with some references to those of Europe will, it is hoped, reveal to students the phases of the subject which need further investigation. In preparing this volume the author wishes to acknowl- edge the aid he has received from his colleagues, B.. A. Oakley, J. M. Westgate, H. N. Vinall, W. J. Morse, M. W. Evans, H. L. Westover, and Katherine S. Bort. CHARLES V. PIPER. WASHINGTON, D.C., January, 1914. CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . 1 Definitions. Knowledge of Forage Crops Compared with Other Crops. Forage Crops and Civilization. Forage Crops in Europe and America. Perennial Hay Plants in Europe and America. Botany of Forage Crops. Ag- gressiveness Necessary in Perennial Forage Crops. Char- acteristics of Grasses. Legumes. Root Nodules. The Nodule Organism. Forms of Root Nodules. Natural Inoculation. Artificial Inoculation. Dependence of Leg- umes on Root Nodules. CHAPTER II. PRESERVATION OF FORAGE. .... 21 Preservation of Forage. Time of Cutting. Haymaking in Dry Weather. Curing of Hay. Haymaking under Humid Conditions. Special Devices to Facilitate Hay Curing. Completion of Curing. Shrinkage of Stored Hay. Loss of Hay or Fodder in the Field. Relation of Green Weight to Dry Weight. Loss of Substance from Growing Plants. Hay Stacks. Spontaneous Combustion. Statistics of Hay Yields. Brown Hay. Silage. The Nature of Silage Fermentation. Advantages of Silage. Crops Adapted to Ensiling. Soiling or Soilage. Soiling Systems. CHAPTER III. CHOICE OF FORAGE CROPS . . . . 47 What Determines the Choice of a Forage Crop. Special Purposes for which Forage Crops are Grown. Adaptation to Conditions. Yield. Yields under Irrigation. -Cost of Seeding. Time of Harvesting. Ease of Harvesting and Curing. Demands or Prejudices of the User. Feeding Values. Feeding Experiments. Chemical Analyses. Chemical Composition as Affected by Soil Fertility and by Fertilizers. Chemical Composition as Affected by Stage of Maturity. Variation in Chemical Composition from Un- ascertained Causes. Digestible Nutrients. Net Energy Values, r Starch Values. Comparison of Feeding Values, vii CONTENTS PAGB CHAPTER IV. SEEDS AND SEEDING ...... 67 Quality. Genuineness. Purity. Viability. Actual Value of Seed. Superiority of Local Seed. Standards of Purity and Germination. Adulteration and Misbranding. Color and Plumpness of Seeds. Age of Seeds. Source of Seeds. Seed Inspection. Sampling. Guaranteed Seeds. Fungous Diseases. Hard Seeds. Most Dangerous Weed Seeds. Weight of Seeds. Number of Seeds in One Pound. Seed Production of Forage Crops, United States, 1909. Seeding in Practice. Rate of Seeding. Time of Seeding. Depth of Planting. Experimental Results. Nurse Crops. CHAPTER V. MEADOWS AND PASTURES . . . . .92 Meadow Mixtures. Composition of Meadow Mixtures. Treatment of Hay Meadows. Scarifying Old Meadows. Reseeding Old Meadows. Fertilizers for Hay Crops. Top-dressing for Aftermath or Rowen. Acreage of Im- proved Pasture in the United States. Area of Wild Pasture in the United States. Most Important Tame Pasture Plants. Palatability of Pasture Grasses. Pasture Yield as Determined by Number of Cuttings. Pasture Mixtures. Treatment of Permanent Pastures. Pasturing Meadows. Carrying Capacity. Temporary Pastures. Temporary Pasture Crop Systems for Hogs. Bloating or Hoven. CHAPTER VI. THE STATISTICS OF FORAGE CROPS . . . 118 Classification of Crops in Statistical Returns. Forage Crops in General, United States, 1909. Hay and Forage by Classes, United States, 1909. Forage Statistics for Canada. CHAPTER VII. TIMOTHY 122 Botany. Agricultural History. Agricultural Impor- tance. Climatic Adaptations. Soil Adaptation. Ad- vantages of Timothy. Rotations. Seed. Preparation of Seed Bed. Heavy Seeds or Light Seeds. Rate of Seeding. Depth of Seeding. Methods of Seeding. Seed Bed. Fertilizers for Timothy. Lime. Irrigation. Time to Cut for Hay. Yields. Pasture. Pollination. CONTENTS IX PAGE Seed Production. Life History. Life Period. Depth of Root System. Proportion of Roots to Tops. Regional Strains. Feeding Value. Injurious Insects. Diseases. Variability. Disease Resistance. Breeding. Methods of Breeding. Desirable Types of Improved Timothies. Comparison of Vegetative and Seed Progeny. Field Trials with Improved Strains. CHAPTER VIII. BLUE-GRASSES, MEADOW-GRASSES AND RED- TOP 154 Kentucky Blue-grass (Poa pratensis) : Botany ; Adapta- tions ; Importance ; Characteristics ; Culture ; Fertilizers ; Yields of Hay ; Seed Production ; Seed ; Hybrids. Canada Blue-grass (Poa compressa*) : Botany ; Seed ; Culture ; Adaptations ; Importance. Texas Blue-grass (Poa arach- nifera). Fowl Meadow-grass (Poa triflora). Rough- stalked Meadow-grass (Poa trimalis). Wood Meadow-grass (Poa nemoralis). Redtop : Names ; Botany ; Agricultural History ; Adaptations ; Characteristics ; Importance ; Vari- ability ; Regional Strains ; Culture ; Yield of Hay ; Seed Production ; Seed. CHAPTER IX. ORCHARD-GRASS, TALL OAT-GRASS AND BROME- GRASSES 176 Orchard-grass : Description ; Botany ; Agricultural His- tory ; Climatic Adaptations ; Soil Preferences ; Adaptation to Shade; Variability; Advantages and Disadvantages; Im- portance ; Seeding of Orchard-grass ; Life History ; Har- vesting for Hay ; Yields of Hay ; Harvesting Orchard-grass for Seed ; Weeds ; Seed ; Sources of Seed ; Utilization of Stubble and Aftermath ; Mixtures ; Pasturage Value ; Feed Value ; Value as a Soil Binder ; Improvement by Selec- tion;. Pests. Tall Oat-grass (Arrhenatherum elatius'} : Names ; Botany ; Agricultural History ; Adaptations ; Im- portance ; Characteristics ; Seeding ; Hay ; Seed Production ; Seed; Mixtures. Brome-grass : Names and Description; Botany ; Agricultural History ; Adaptations ; Depth of Roots ; Method of Seeding ; Rate of Seeding Brome-grass ; Time to Cut for Hay ; Hay ; Fertilizers ; Treatment of Meadows ; Seed Production ; Seed ; Pasture Value ; Mix- tures ; Variability. X CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTER X. OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE . 204 Meadow Fescue (Festuca elatior) : Botany and History; Characteristics ; Adaptations ; Importance ; Seeding ; Hay ; Seed Production Seed ; Pasture Value ; Pests ; Hybrids. Tall Fescue. Reed Fescue (Festuca arundinacea} . Peren- nial or English Rye-grass (Lolium perenne) : Name; Ag- ricultural History ; Botany ; Characteristics ; Adaptation ; Importance ; Agricultural Varieties ; Culture ; Hay Yields ; Seed Production; Seed. Italian Rye-grass: Character- istics ; Botany ; Agricultural History ; Adaptations ; Cul- ture ; Irrigation ; Hay Yields ; Seed Production ; Seed. Slender Wheat-grass (Ayropyron tenerum). Western Wheat-grass (Agropyron occidentals'). CHAPTER XI. PERENNIAL GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE . 223 Sheep's Fescue and Closely Related Species : Importance and Culture; Seed. Red Fescue (Festuca rubra). Meadow Foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis) : Characteristics ; Adaptations; Culture; Seed. Sweet Vernal Grass (An- thoxantlium odoratum} : Botany; Culture. Reed Canary- grass (Phalaris arundinacea} : Botany and Agricultural History; Characteristics; Culture. Velvet-grass (Holcus lanatus). Erect Brome (Bromus erectus). Yellow Oat- grass (Trisetumflavescens). Crested Dogstail (Cynosurus cristatus) . CHAPTER XII. SOUTHERN GRASSES 287 Bermuda-grass (Cynodon dactylon} : Botany; Character- istics ; Agricultural History ; Adaptations ; Variability ; Im- portance ; Culture ; Yields of Hay ; Rootstocks ; Pasture Value; Feeding Value; Seed Production. Johnson-grass (Andropogon halepensis} : Botany; Agricultural History; Adaptation and Utilization ; Poisonous Qualities ; Seed. Japanese Sugar-cane (Saccharum officinarum} : History and Characteristics ; Adaptations ; Planting ; Culture ; Utiliza- tion ; Yields ; Seed Cane. Carpet-grass (Axonopus com- pressus) . Paspalum ( Paspalum dilatatum) . Para-grass (Panicum barbinode). Guinea-grass (Panicum maxi- mum'). Rescue-grass {Bromus unioloides). Crab-grass (Diyitaria sanguinalis}. Natal-grass (Tricholcena rosea}. CONTENTS XI PAGE CHAPTER XIII. SORGHUMS 260 Sorghum (Andropogon sorghum) : Botany ; Agricultural History ; Adaptations ; Root System ; Agricultural Groups ; Importance ; Culture ; Time of Sowing ; Seeding in Rows ; Seeding Broadcast ; Number of Cuttings ; Yields of For- age ; Seed ; Agricultural Varieties ; Seed-production ; Utili- zation ; Soilage ; Fodder ; Hay ; Silage ; Sorghum and Legume Mixtures ; Pasture Value ; Poisoning ; Diseases ; Insect Pests ; Sorghum Improvement. Sudan-grass (An- dropogon sorghum var.) : Description; Adaptations; Cul- ture; Utilization; Hay; Hay Mixtures ; Chemical Analysis ; Seed-production. CHAPTER XIV. MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES . 285 The Principal Millets. Foxtail Millet (Setaria italica} : Botany ; Agricultural History ; Adaptations ; Importance ; Agricultural Varieties ; Seeding ; Hay ; Feeding Value ; Si- lage from Foxtail Millet ; Injurious Effects ; Seed-produc- tion ; Seed ; Diseases and Insects. Japanese Barnyard Millet (Echinochloa frumentacea) . Broom-corn Millet (Panicum miliaceum). Comparative Hay Yields in Pounds to the Acre of Different Millets at Several Experiment Sta- tions. Shama Millet (Echinochloa colona or Panicum colo- num). Ragi, Finger-millet or Coracan (Eleusine coracana}. Texas Millet (Panicum texanum). Cereals for Hay. Chess or Cheat (Bromus secalinus). Canary-grass (Pha- laris canariensis}. Penicillaria (Pennisetum glaucum). Teosinte (Euchlcena mexicana). CHAPTER XV. ALFALFA ........ 305 Agricultural History. Origin of the Common Names. Heat Relations. Cold Relations. Humidity Relations. Soil Relations. Distribution of the Alfalfa Crop. Botan- ical Varieties of Alfalfa. Cultivated Varieties of Alfalfa. Importance of the Varieties. Influence of Source of Seed. Comparison of Regional Strains. Important Character- istics of Alfalfa. Life Period. Roots. Relations to Soil Moisture. Seedlings. Rootstocks. Shoots. Relative Proportion of Leaves, Stems and Roots. Seed-bed. In- oculation. Rate of Seeding. Time of Seeding. Method of Seeding. Nurse-crops. Clipping. Winter-killing. Xll CONTENTS PAGE Time to Cut for Hay. Number of Cuttings. Quality of Different Cuttings. Irrigation. Time to Apply Irrigating Water. Winter Irrigation. Relation of Yield to Water Supply. Care of an Alfalfa Field. Alfalfa in Cultivated Rows. Alfalfa in Mixtures. Alfalfa in Rotations. Pas- turing Alfalfa. Use as a Soiling Crop. Alfalfa Silage. Alfalfa Meal. Seed-production. Pollination. Seeds. Viability of Seed. Alfalfa Improvement. Breeding Methods. Weeds. Dodder or Love-vine. Diseases. Insects. CHAPTER XVI. RED CLOVER 361 Botany of Red Clover. Agricultural History. Impor- tance and Distribution. Soil Relations. Climatic Rela- tions. Effect of Shade. Life Period. Agricultural Varieties. Comparison of Regional Strains. Time of Seeding. Rate of Seeding. Seedlings. Seeding with a Nurse-crop. Seeding without a Nurse-crop. Depth of Planting. Winter-killing. Treatment of Clover Fields. Fertilizers. Gypsum. Lime. Irrigation. Red Clover in Mixtures. Use in Rotations. Effect of Clover in Rota- . tions when Only the Stubble is Turned Under. Volunteer Crops. Stage to Cut. Composition at Different Stages. Number of Cuttings. Yields of Hay. Relation of Green Weight to Hay Weight. Feeding Value. Comparative Feeding Value of the First and Second Crops of Hay. Soiling. Pasturage. Silage. Number of Flowers and Seeds to the Head. Pollination and Fecundation. Seed- production. Harvesting the Seed Crop. Yields of Seed. Statistics of Seed Crop. Value of the Straw. Seed. Color of Seeds. Roots. Shoots. Proportion of Roots to Shoots. Relative Proportions of Stems, Leaves and Flower Heads. Diseases. Clover Sickness. Reduction of Acreage Probably Due Mainly to Clover Sickness. In- sects. Improvement of Red Clover by Breeding. Disease- resistant Strains. CHAPTER XVII. OTHER CLOVERS ALSIKE, HUNGARIAN, WHITE AND SWEET .... 405 Alsike Clover ( Trifolium hybridum) : Botany of Alsike ; Agricultural History ; Adaptations ; Characteristics of Al- CONTENTS Xlll sike Clover ; Regional Strains ; Importance ; Culture ; Hay ; Seed Production ; Seed; Value for Pasturage. Hungarian Clover ( Trifolium pannonicum) . White Clover ( Trifolium ripens} : Botany ; Description ; Agricultural History ; Adap- tations ; Importance of White Clover ; Seeding ; Yields ; Pollination ; Seed-production ; Seed, Ladino White Clover. Sweet Clover (Melilotus alba} : Botany and Description; Adaptations ; Agricultural History ; Seeding ; Securing a Stand ; Relative Proportions of Tops and Roots of Sweet Clover ; Utilization ; Advantages and Disadvantages ; Yield ; Seed-production ; Seed ; Related Species. CHAPTER XVIII. CRIMSON CLOVER AND OTHER ANNUALS . 426 Crimson Clover ( Trifolium incarnatum) : Botany ; Agri- cultural History ; Description ; Adaptations ; Importance ; Variability and Agricultural Varieties ; Seeding ; Time of Sowing ; Methods of Sowing ; Time to Cut for Hay ; Yields ; Other Uses of Crimson Clover ; Seed-production ; Seed. Shaftal or Persian Clover (Trifolium suaveolens'). Ber- seem (Trifolium alexandrinum} . Yellow Trefoil (Medi- cago lupulina). Bur Clovers (Medicago spp.). Dakota Vetch (Hosackia americana or Lotus americanus). CHAPTER XIX. PEAS AND PEA-LIKE PLANTS .... 441 Pea (Pisum sativum) : Botany and History ; Description ; Adaptations ; Importance ; Agricultural Varieties ; Seeding ; Development of the Plant ; Hay ; Peas and Oats ; Pasture Value ; Garden Pea Vines ; Irrigation ; Seed-production ; Seed. Pea Weevil (Laria pisorum or Bruchus pisorum}. Chick-pea (Cicer arietinum}. Grass-pea, Vetchling or Chickling Vetch (Lathy rus sativus). CHAPTER XX. VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS . . 456 Kinds of Vetches. Common Vetch (Vicia saliva) : De- scription ; Botany and Agricultural History ; Adaptations ; Importance ; Agricultural Varieties ; Culture ; Time of Sow- ing ; Rate of Seeding ; Harvesting for Hay ; Pasturing ; Feeding Value ; Rotations ^ Fertilizers ; Lime ; Silage ; Seed-production; Seed. Hairy Vetch (Vicia villosa) : Description ; Botany ; Climatic Adaptations ; Soil Prefer- ences ; Rate of Seeding ; Time of Seeding ; Depth of Seeding ; XIV CONTENTS PAGE Inoculation ; Uses of the Crop ; Pollination ; Harvesting for Hay; Feeding Value; Use in Rotations; Advantages and Disadvantages ; Growing Seed ; Sources of Seed ; Seeds. Narrow-leaved Vetch (Vicia angnstifolia). Purple Vetch (Vicia atropurpurea). Woolly-pod Vetch (Vicia dasy- carpa). Scarlet Vetch (Vicia ful gens). Ervil or Black Bitter Vetch (Vicia ervilia}. Narbonne Vetch (Vicia narbonnensis). Horse Bean ( Vicia faba). Bird or Tufted Vetch (Vicia cracca). Tangier Pea (Lathy rus ting itanus}. Flat-podded Vetchling (Lathyrus cicera~). Ochrus (La- thyrus ochrus). Comparison of Vetch Species. Fenu- greek (Trigonella fcenum-grcecum). Lupines (Lupinus spp.~). Serradella (Ornithopus sativus). Square-pod Pea (Lotus tetragonolobus~) . CHAPTER XXI. COWPEAS 491 Cowpea (Vigna sinensis} : Botanical Origin ; Agricultural History ; Adaptations ; Importance ; Uses of the Crop ; Varie- tal Distinctions ; Life Period ; Pods and Seeds ; Correlations ; Important Varieties ; Rate and Method of Seeding ; Time of Seeding; Inoculation; Number of Cuttings; Hay; Hay Yields; Feeding Value; Cowpeas in Broadcast Mixtures; Cowpea Mixtures not Broadcasted ; Growing Cowpeas for Seed ; Pollination ; Seed Yield ; Proportion of Seed and Hulls ; Seeds ; Viability ; Root System ; Disease Resistance ; Insect Enemies. CHAPTER XXII. SOYBEANS 513 Agricultural History. Botany. Description. Soil Adaptations. Climatic Adaptations. Importance. De- sirable Characters in Soybean Varieties. Commercial Va- rieties. Preparation of Soil and Cultivation. Rate of Seeding. Time of Seeding. Method of Seeding. Depth of Planting. Inoculation. Life Period. Time to Cut for Hay. Hay Yields. Fertilizers. Soybean Mixtures. Silage. Rotations. Feeding Value of Soybean Hay. Seed-production. Pollination. Seed Yield. Seeds. Pests. Breeding. Soybeans and Cowpeas Compared. CHAPTER XXIII. OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES . 539 Lespedeza or Japan Clover : Description ; Agricultural History ; Adaptations ; Culture ; Pasturage Value ; Hay ; CONTENTS XV PAGE Seed-production. Florida Velvet Bean (Stizolobium deer- ingianum) : Description and History ; Utilization ; Other Species of Stizolobium. Peanut (Arachis hypogcea). Florida Beggar weed (Desmodium tortuosum or Meibomia tortuosa). The Jack Bean (Canavalia ensiformis) . Murig Bean (Phaseolus aureus). Urd (Phaseolus mungo\ Moth Bean (Phaseolus aconitifolius} . Adzuki Bean (Pha- seolus angularis). Bonavist or Hyacinth Bean (Dolichos lablab). Guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) . CHAPTER XXIV. MISCELLANEOUS PERENNIAL LEGUMES . 559 Sainfoin ( Onobrychis mcicefolia) : Description ; Agricul- tural History; Culture; Seed; American Data. Sulla or Spanish Sainfoin (Hedysarum coronarium). Kudzu (Pue- raria thunbergiana) . Flat Pea (Lathyrus silvestris var. wagneri). Kidney Vetch (Anthyllis vulneraria). Goat's Rue (Galega officinalis) . Bird's-foot Trefoil (Lotus corni- culatus}. Astragalus falcatus. Furze ( Ulex europceus). CHAPTER XXV. MISCELLANEOUS HERBS USED AS FORAGE . 571 Mexican Clover (Eichardsonia scabra). Prickly Pear ( Opuntia spp.}. Sunflower (Helianthus annuus). Spurrey (Spergula sativa). Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) . Sachaline (Polygonum sachalinense) . Burnet ( Sanguisorba minor). Buckhorn (Plantago lanceolata). Prickly Com- frey (Symphytum asperrimum}. Australian Saltbush (Atriplex semibaccata) . CHAPTER XXVI. ROOT CROPS AND OTHER COMPARABLE FOR- AGES . . . . . . . 583 Root Crops: Importance of Root Crops; Kinds of Root Crops ; Comparison of Various Root Crops ; Roots Compared with Corn and Sorghum. Rape (Brassica napus}: Impor- tance ; Seeding ; Place in Rotations ; Sowing with Another Crop ; Utilization ; Carrying Capacity of Rape Pastures ; Yields; Insects. Kale (Brassica oleracea) : Diseases; Yields of Kale, Cabbage and Other Brassicaceous Plants. Jerusalem Artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus). Chufa (Cy- perus esculentus). Cassava (Manihot utilissima). LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE PAGE 1. Distribution of hay and forage in the United States . . 6 2. Distribution of cattle in the United States 1 dot equals 1000 head. Compare distribution with that of forage in Fig. 1 8 3. Ligule of a grass leaf ........ 14 4. Spikelet of orchard-grass 14 5. A single floret of orchard-grass 14 6. Noxious weed seeds found in farm seeds (No. 1) : a, Sand bur; b, wild oat; c, chess; d, darnel; e, quack-grass; f, dock ; g, black bindweed; h, Russian thistle ; i, corn cockle ; j, white campion ; k, bladder campion ; 1, night- flowering catchfly ; m, cow cockle ; n, pennycress : o, field peppergrass ; p, large-fruited false flax ; q, small- fruited false flax; r, ball mustard; s, black mustard; t, English charlock 77 7. Noxious weed seeds found in farm seeds (No. 2) : a, Indian mustard; b, hare's ear mustard; c, tumbling mustard; d, wild carrot; e, field bindweed; f, flax dodder; g, clover dodder ; h, small-seeded alfalfa dodder ; i, field dodder ; j, large-seeded alfalfa dodder ; k, corn grom- well ; 1, rat-tail plantain ; m, buckhorn ; n, ragweed ; 0, gum weed; p, wild sunflower; q, oxeye-daisy ; r, Can- ada thistle ; s, bull thistle ; t, wild chicory ... 79 8. Map showing percentage of cultivated land in forage crops 1909-1910 116 9. Timothy (Phleum pratense} : a, glumes ; b, floret with glumes removed . . . . . . . 123 10. Timothy. Florets showing the different parts . . . 123 11. Distribution of timothy 1909-1910. Figures equal acres . 124 12. Kentucky blue-grass (Poa pratensis} : a, spikelet ; b, lemma, showing attached tuft of hairs ..... 155 xvill LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 13. A spikelet and florets of Kentucky blue-grass : a, spikelet as it appears at maturity ; b, the same, having the florets spread apart, showing jointed rachilla ; c, back view of a floret, showing the lemma (1) ; d, front view of the floret, showing the edges of the lemma (1), the palet (2), and the rachilla segment (3) ; e, the grain, or kernel . 156 14. Mixture of seeds of Kentucky blue-grass (a) and Canada blue-grass (b). The Kentucky blue-grass seeds are broadest at the center, pointed, and have a distinct ridge on each side. Canada blue-grass seed are mostly broad- est near one end, blunt, and smooth on the sides . . 162 15. Seeds of redtop representing the "fancy" grade of the trade : a, different views of seeds having the white, papery, inner chaff ; b, two views of a grain, or kernel, with the inner chaff removed ; c, the same nearly natu- ral size ... . . . . . . . 174 16. Chaff of redtop seed : a, Whole spikelets, usually devoid of seed in "chaffy" grades; b, separated scales of the same ; a and b represent the outer chaff of the seed. (Enlarged.) . ' t , t . . . . . 175 17. Orchard-grass (Dactylis glomerata} : a, spikelet; b, floret; c, stamens and pistil ; d, ligule ; e, section of node . 177 18. Mixture of seeds of orchard-grass (a), meadow fescue grass (b) , and English rye-grass (c). The orchard-grass seeds are distinguished from the others by their slender, curved form. The meadow fescue and rye-grass seeds are dis- tinguished by the difference in the section of the seed- cluster axis (rachilla segment) which each bears. (En- larged.) 185 19. Tall oat-grass (Arrhenatherum elatius) : a, spikelet ; b, the two florets . . .-... . '. . 189 20. Brome-grass (Bromus inermis} : a, spikelet; b, floret, dor- sal view ; c, floret, vertical view 196 21. Meadow fescue (Festuca elatior'} : a, spikelet . . . 205 22. Italian rye-grass (Lolium multifloruni) : a, spikelet ; b, c, lemma ; d, e, seed 214 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XIX FIGURE PAGE 23. Slender wheat-grass (Agropyron tenerum) : a, glumes; b, spikelet with glumes removed ..... 220 24. Sheep's fescue (Festuca ovina) : a, glumes ; b, spikelet with glumes removed ........ 224 25. Crested dogstail (Cynosurus cristatus) : a, b, fertile spike- lets ; c, sterile spikelet . . . . . . . 235 26. Bermuda-grass (Cynodon dactylon} : a, spikelet; b, floret . 238 27. Paspalum dilatatum : a, showing arrangement of spikelets ; b, a single spikelet ; c and d, floret .... 252 28. Rescue-grass (Bromus unioloides) : a, glumes ; b, lemma ; c, palea .......... 257 29. Foxtail millet (Setaria italica} : a and b, dorsal and ventral views of a spikelet ; c, lemma ..... 287 30. Texas millet (Panicum texanum) : a and b, dorsal and ven- tral views of a spikelet ; c, lemma ..... 297 31. Canary grass (Phalaris canariensis) ..... 300 32. Map of the United States, showing production of alfalfa hay by tons in 1909. Each dot equals 2000 tons . . .311 83. Map of the United States and Canada, showing acreage of alfalfa. Figures equal acres ...... 312 34. An implement for harrowing fields of alfalfa . . . 341 35. A well-set cluster of alfalfa pods 347 36. Alfalfa seeds : a, individual seeds, showing variation in form ; b, edge view of a seed, showing scar ; c, natural size of seeds ......... 349 37. Dodder or love- vine growing on alfalfa .... 355 38. Adult form of the alfalfa weevil (Phytonomus posticus) : Adults clustering on and attacking a spray of alfalfa. (Slightly enlarged) 359 39. Red clover 362 40. Map showing acreage of red clover in the United States, 1909, and Canada, 1910 363 41. Stages in the development of red clover seed : a and c, flower in prime and ripe ; b and d, immature and mature seed vessel ; e, mature seed 388 XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE PAGE 42. A bunching attachment or swather on an ordinary mower . 390 43. Seeds of red clover : 1, side view and, 2, edge view of seeds ; 3, the triangular form indicated; 4, a seed cut length- wise ; 5, a seed cut crosswise, showing the embryo ; a, a seed scar ; b, a stemlet (radicle) of the embryo ; c, seed leaves (cotyledons) of the embryo ; 6, a pod of red clo- ver ; 7, natural size of seeds 392 44. Sketch showing the effect of the clover-seed chalcis fly: calyx (a), seed capsule (b), and seeds (c and d). At c the mature insect is shown in the act of emerging . . 402 45. Alsike clover seeds : a, seeds showing variation in form and surface appearance, enlarged ; b, natural size of seeds . 409 46. Sweet clover . .' . . . . . . . . 417 47. Seeds of sweet clover : a, seeds showing variation in form and size ; b, natural size of seeds ; c, a pod of sweet clover . . . ; ]' : . '' . . . ' . . 424 48. Crimson clover . '' .' " . . . ... .426 49. Seeds of crimson clover (enlarged and natural size) . . 434 50. Seeds of yellow trefoil : a, seeds showing variation in form and size ; b, natural size of seeds ; c, oval form of tre- foil seeds indicated ; d, a pod of trefoil .... 436 51. Field pea 442 52. Seeds of common vetch (Vicia sativa). (Natural size) . 467 53. Seed soar of common vetch. (Enlarged) .... 467 54. Types of mottling of seeds of common vetch : a and b, from light and dark seeds, respectively. (Enlarged) . . 467 55. Hairy vetch 468 56. Seeds of hairy vetch (Vicia villosa'). Natural size . . 476 57. Seed scar of hairy vetch: a and b, forms showing the white, central slit of some scars. (Enlarged) . . . 476 58. Tangier pea . . 483 59. Cowpea 492 60. Soybean . . . . . . . . . .512 61. Roots of soybean, showing nodules . . . . . 525 62. Root crops. 1909-1910. Figures equal acres ... . .585 LIST OF PLATES ATE FACING PAGE I. Panicles of Canada Blue-grass and Kentucky Blue-grass 164 II. A Field of Gooseneck Sorgo in Texas . . . . 266 III. Sudan-grass and Natural Hybrids . . . , . . 280 IV. A Field of Sudan-grass in Virginia . . . . .282 A Field of Sumac Sorgo in Texas A Field of Red Clover in Washington State VI. Hairy Vetch and Rye ....... 474 VII. Groit Cowpeas in a Broadcasted Field in Virginia . . 496 VIII. Seeds of Soybeans, Cowpeas, Velvet-beans, Pods of Florida Velvet-bean and Yokohama Bean . . . 510 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION DOMESTIC animals are an indispensable part of a good agriculture, even though they may have no place in the business of some of the high-class specialty farmers. To rear animals necessitates forage ; and the more important the animal production, the greater is the necessity that the forage be grown as a crop and be made a part of the farm scheme. The forage crops are now of many kinds, and they are taking their places in the regular farm-manage- ment plans of the forward farmer. These crops also have their own value as marketable products, constituting one of the important cash incomes of the farm. 1. Definitions. Forage includes any vegetable mat- ter, fresh or cured, eaten by herbivorous animals, such as grain, hay, pasturage, green feed, roots and silage. The term feed is synonymous with forage, although some- times restricted to grain. Fodder and stover are also identical in original meaning, but in the United States are used with special significations. Forage crops include only those plants grown primarily for feed and of which animals consume all or much of the vegetative parts ; that is, herbage, or roots. Most cereal crops are also grown for hay, pasturage or silage, and when thus grown may be considered forage crops. Sev- eral plants cultivated in other regions as cereals are in the United States grown mainly or wholly for forage. Among 2 . t . FORAGE, PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE these are the grain sorghums, penicillaria, foxtail millet and prosq or broom-corn millet. The distinction between cereals and forage crops in such cases is arbitrary. Such a plant is a cereal when grown primarily for the grain, and a forage when grown primarily for the herbage. Fodder (German f utter) really means the same as feed. In the United States the term is used mainly in reference to corn cut before the plant is fully mature, and from which the ears are not removed. The stems and leaves when dried and after the ears are removed is called stover. In the Southern States the term fodder is applied to the dried leaves and tops of the corn plant, removed while green, and before the ears are fully mature. The terms fodder and stover are also used in connec- tion with the sorghums and similar coarse grasses. Hay consists of the entire dried herbage of compara- tively fine-stemmed grasses or other forage plants. It is commonly dried or cured in the sun, but artificial drying apparatus has been used. The process of curing is not merely one of drying, as grass dried quickly with artificial heat is quite different from that cured with relative slowness. Under the latter conditions fermentative changes take place, due mainly to enzymes, which give freshly cured hay a characteristic aroma varying with the plant used. This odor is much less evident in plants quickly dried. Brown hay is prepared by stacking grass or clover when only half cured, on account of which it undergoes fer- mentation with heating. The product is brown and compact. Brown hay is commonly prepared in regions where on account of climatic conditions dry curing is difficult. It is somewhat intermediate between hay and silage in quality. INTRODUCTION 3 Soiling is a term used to denote feeding with green plants, when the plants are cut and carried to the animals. Next to pasturing, this is the most primitive way of feed- ing animals. It is practically the only way that cut herbage is used in half-civilized countries. Silage is prepared by compacting green herbage in an air-tight receptacle in which it undergoes fermentation. In America the principal crop used for silage is corn, and this, after cutting in small pieces so that it will pack closely, is placed in a specially constructed silo to insure fermentation under nearly anaerobic conditions. The material is ensilaged in the silo. Straw is a term applied to the dried remnants of a crop from which the seed has been thrashed. The term is used most commonly in reference to the small grains, wheat, oats, rye and barley, but is properly applied also to thrashed flax, cowpeas, millets, etc. Root crops is applied to forage crops whose principal value lies in the subterranean portion, whether true roots or tubers. They are extensively grown for forage only in countries where they^can be produced more cheaply than grain feeds. Their culture is therefore extensive in northern Europe, but has thus far received very little attention in America except in Canada, the Northeastern States and in the humid belt along the Pacific coast, all being regions not well adapted to the culture of corn. Root crops require a considerable amount of hand labor and, partly on this account and partly because of their greater cost, are not popular where plants like corn, sor- ghum or similar crops can be grown. Feeds are conveniently distinguished according to nutritive value into concentrates with high feeding value and roughage, or roughness, with relatively low feeding FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE value. Concentrates include grains, or products thereof, oil meal, and for hogs tankage and similar products. Rough- age includes hay, fodder, straw, silage, roots, pasturage. Roughages have been considered to be made up of two or three general classes. Very commonly two such classes are recognized, one composed of the grass hays, roots, silage and stover, which are low in protein; the other composed of the legumes and also grass in the form of pasturage and rowen, which differ in having a higher protein content. Another classification recognizes three groups ; namely, 1. legumes; 2. mixed legumes and grasses; 3. grasses (including corn). Perhaps a fourth group should be added ; namely, the straws, which, however, are very variable in value. A meadow on a farm is a field planted to grasses or legumes or both for hay. Commonly the term implies perennial meadows, but the phrase " annual meadows " is occasionally used. In northern regions the word meadow is also used for natural grass areas, especially if wet. The second growth of most grasses, especially those which bloom but once a season is called aftermath or rowen. Grass. Besides its use in a purely botanical sense, the word grass is often used in agriculture to mean any plant growing for hay or pasture. The crop in a rotation is thus called grass even if it be clover or alfalfa. A pasture is a field in which animals graze on herba- ceous plants. Any crop thus utilized is spoken of as a pasture crop. Permanent pastures are such as can be grazed upon for several years and contain perennial plants or a succession of annuals, or both. Browsing is sometimes used as synonymous with graz- ing, but usually the word browse is restricted to shrubs of which animals eat the leaves or twigs. IN TE OD UCTION 5 Wild pastures, whether wooded or prairie, are often called ranges or range lands, especially in the West. 2. Knowledge of forage crops compared with other crops. A critical survey of the present state of agro- nomic knowledge concerning forage crops as revealed both in literature and in practice makes clear the fact that there is not nearly as much accurate information about these crops as there is concerning others such as cereals, cotton, tobacco, etc. The reasons for this are not far to seek. First, forage crops are only rarely grown as money crops, and the farmer seldom knows with any degree of accuracy what yields he obtains. His forage crops are, therefore, not brought into yearly comparison with those of his neighbors, so that no definite criterion becomes established as to what are good and what poor yields. Consequently, there is lacking the spur for better effort brought about by the knowledge of the yields, and espe- cially the money returns secured by neighboring farmers. Second, there is a larger variety of plants grown for forage, no one of which is cultivated over so wide an area as any of the important cereal crops. There is, consequently, a smaller amount of information about each of the many forage crops than there is concerning any one of the few cereal crops. The purely agronomic knowledge available, that is, that relating to yield as affected by environmental, cultural or other factors, namely, climate, soil, fertilizers, culture, irrigation, variety, rate of seeding, rotation, is partly the result of definite experiments, but largely the experience of farmers. Experimental results, where available, are more enlightening than those based on farm returns, but a vastly greater amount of experimental data is necessary for a better understanding of the com- 6 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE INTRODUCTION plex factors which affect yield. To the critical student, the relative paucity of accurate knowledge concerning yield relations will be apparent as the data concerning each crop is studied. 3. Forage crops and civilization. The culture of crops grown purely as feed for herbivorous animals is mainly a product of European civilization. Even yet such crops are seldom grown except in regions settled or governed by Europeans. Less civilized peoples have depended for the sustenance of their flocks wholly or mainly on natural pasturage ; or, where the population is dense, as in India and China, have utilized as forage only the refuse or surplus of crops grown for human food, supplemented by any pasturage available. To a slight extent, it is true, alfalfa was cultivated in ancient Persia, and perhapis red clover also, but this exception only emphasizes the fact that the culture of most forage crops originated and developed in Europe. In America the relative importance of forage to other staple crops has been still more developed. This is easily seen in a comparison of the forage crops with the total value of all field crops in India, Europe and America : TABLE SHOWING THE ACREAGES OF ALL CROPS, OF FORAGE AND THE NUMBER OF CATTLE AND HORSES IN THE UNITED STATES, CANADA, EUROPE AND INDIA. COUNTRY ALL CROPS FORAGE CATTLE AND HORSES YEA* Acres Acres United States Canada . . Europe . . India . . . 301,325,598 33,047,783 792,644,963 225,892,425 72,280,776 9,156,573 92,789,168 4,881,742 85,952,446 9,353,000 181,989,750 103,677,987 1909 1911 1906-11 1910 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CCLTrRE I fi x IN TROD UCTION 9 The actual value of the forage grown is, of course, far greater than the hay and forage of the census returns. To these figures need to be added the value of pasturage and of the straw of various crops. It is probable that each one of the 103,000,000 of cattle in India consumes about as much feed as does each of the 86,000,000 in the United States, but in India practically all of the forage is either straw or wild grass. While the growing of crops purely to feed animals is partly based on sentimental grounds, its justification lies in the fact that it is sound economy. 4. Forage crops in Europe and in America. In com- paring the forage crops grown in America and in Europe, it must be borne in mind that there are great differences in the climate and some in the soil which in large measure account for the relative importance of particular forage plants in the two continents. So far as climate is con- cerned, only California corresponds closely with the countries of southern Europe ; only the northwest Pacific coast region is at all comparable with England and northern Germany; and the eastern portion of the Great Plains is not very different from eastern Russia. On the other hand, the northeastern portion of the United States and adjacent Canada differs from any portion of Europe in having hot humid summers, and the winters too are colder than those of western Europe; the Southern States, especially the cotton region, are still more different in climate from any portion of Europe. Almost without exception the plants of southern Europe succeed well in California, those of middle western Europe on the north Pacific coast, and those of eastern Russia on the Great Plains. In marked contract, but very few European forage plants are well adapted to the Southern States, the most 10 FORAGE PLANTS AND THETR CULTURE important being primarily winter crops; namely, vetch, bur clover, white clover and redtop. Likewise, in the Northern States and Canada, many important European forages have found but little place, but four of them have on account of their marked adap- tation for the region attained relatively a much higher importance than they have in Europe. These four are timothy, red clover, Kentucky blue-grass and redtop. The utilization of these over much of the eastern United States to the practical exclusion of many of the other perennial grasses and legumes much used in Europe is striking. Over the area in question at least 50 per cent of the hay crop is made up of timothy and red clover alone, and probably 70 per cent of the improved pastures of Kentucky blue-grass and redtop. Some European plants, like sainfoin, are not grown in America because there are no chalky soils; others, like the lupines and serradella, seem poorly adapted to with- stand summer heat ; and many of the perennial grasses do not hold their own in pastures and meadows in com- petition with the more aggressive, better adapted species. 5. Perennial hay plants in Europe and America com- pared. In Europe eleven perennial grasses namely, perennial rye-grass, Italian rye-grass, orchard-grass, meadow foxtail, meadow fescue, tall oat-grass, yellow oat-grass, velvet-grass, timothy, redtop and sweet vernal grass, and five perennial legumes namely, red, white and alsike clovers, alfalfa and sainfoin, may be con- sidered as of prime importance. In North America, if we except alfalfa, these European grasses are well adapted only to the area north of latitude 36, after excluding much of the semi-arid region. South of this latitude few of them are worth cultivating. INTRODUCTION 11 The general practice in Europe is to sow both meadows and pastures to complex mixtures of grasses. In marked contrast the American .practice is to sow pure cultures or very simple mixtures. Of the above list only seven can be said to be much cultivated in America; namely, timothy, redtop and orchard-grass, alfalfa, and red, white and alsike clovers. The remainder are relatively much neglected, though most of them have distinct value, at least in special areas. Neglect of their greater use is perhaps due to the ascen- dancy which timothy has in American favor and to an actual lack of knowledge concerning their merits. 6. Botany of forage crops. The greater numbers of forage crops are either grasses (Graminece) or legumes (Leguminosce) . There are definite reasons why this i^ the case. On prairie or meadow lands in all parts of the world, grasses make up a large percentage of the herbage. This is particularly true in areas where wild herbivorous animals existed in large numbers, as on our western prairies and in south Africa. The two facts are corre- lated. Without the grasses the abundant herds of animals could not have existed, and with the abundant herds few plants are so well adapted as the grasses to withstand heavy grazing and trampling. The reason for this lies in the fact that the growing part of a grass leaf is near its base and so is not injured when the upper part is bitten off, while with most other plants the growing point is terminal and therefore easily destroyed by grazing animals. Furthermore, many grasses are amply provided with vegetative means of spreading and reproducing, so that even if continuously cropped short, they nevertheless survive. The other plants most like the grasses namely, the rushes and sedges are, with a few exceptions, not 12 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE much relished by animals, as their leaves are either very tough or very harsh. Among the characteristics a grass must have to be valuable under, cultivation are satis- factory yielding capacity for the purpose employed, whether pasture, soiling, silage or hay ; good feeding quality, that is, palatable, not too woody, and without any in- jurious physiological effects ; good reproductive characters, such as abundant, easily gathered seed, or ready multi- plication by vegetative methods ; and aggressiveness, or ability to maintain itself under the conditions of culture, and yet not be too troublesome as a weed. Many grasses otherwise satisfactory are but little used because the seed cannot be grown cheaply; others are distinctly unpalatable ; and most coarse perennial grasses will not endure either mowing or close grazing. Legumes are next in value to grasses, both as wild natural pasture plants and under cultivation. They are peculiar in having a higher content of protein than most other plants. About 100 species have been utilized more or less for forage. To be satisfactory for cultivation as forage crops, the same general characteristics are re- quired as for the grasses, but many legumes are poisonous or have other deleterious qualities. The seed habits, also, are frequently very unsatisfactory. Apart from the grasses and legumes a medley of other plants are more or less important as forage crops. Most prominent is the mustard family (Cruciferce) , which in- cludes rutabagas, rape, kale and turnips. The other families of plants contribute very few and mostly unimportant crops. The mangel belongs to the Chenopodiaceoe ; the carrot and parsnip to the Umbelli- feras; spurrey to the Caryophyllaceoe; burnet to the Rosacea ; yarrow and artichokes to the Composite? ; INTRODUCTION 13 cassava to the Euphorbiacece ; Mexican clover to the Rubiacece; and chufas to the Cyperacece. 7. Aggressiveness necessary in perennial forage crops. Aggressiveness, or ability to hold the soil against weeds and other competitors, is an exceedingly important char- acter in all perennial meadow or pasture crops, and often important in annuals. Plants of Old World origin are in this respect far superior to those of- American origin, at least for cultivation in the New World. With but a single exception, every perennial hay plant cultivated in America is of Old World origin, and among perennial pasture plants there are but few exceptions. Many of the native American grasses are equal to Old World grasses in yield and nutritiousness, but with perhaps a few exceptions they lack in ability to retain possession of cultivated land against the competition of weeds. The reasons for this are not apparent, but the fact scarcely admits of doubt. Grasses are not alone peculiar in this respect, as most of our troublesome weeds are also of Old World origin. Some of these weedy grasses and other plants furnish good forage, and are therefore welcome. Among such are Japan clover, white clover, narrow- leaved vetch, bur clover, alfilaria, sweet clover, crab-grass, Bermuda- grass and blue-grass. A few temperate Ameri- can plants have shown similar aggressive propensities when transplanted to the Old World, such as water- weed, Elodea canadensis, and horse-weed, Erigeron canadensis. Many tropical American plants introduced into the Orient have prospered amazingly, where they behave as weeds, in a manner exactly analogous to European plants in- troduced into the United States. All this points to aggres- siveness as being in part at least a phenomenon of plants transferred to a new but similar environment. 14 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 8. Characteristics of grasses. Botanically the grasses form a sharply defined family characterized by having jointed, usually hollow, stems, with cross partitions at the nodes; two-ranked, parallel-veined leaves, the basal portion or sheath inclosing the stem, and bearing where it joins the blade a peculiar appendage, the ligule (Fig. 3) ; flowers very small, mostly perfect, but sometimes uni- sexual, consisting of 3 stamens, rarely 1, 2 or 6 ; one pistil with two papillate or plumose stigmas ; and 2, FIG. 3 - Ligule of a grass leaf. FIG. 4. Spikelet of orchard-grass. FIG. 5. A sin- gle floret of orchard- grass. rarely 3, small perianth segments, the lodicules at the base of the ovary; flowers always in spikelets, with 2- ranked bracts or scales, arranged on an axis, the rachilla. The two lower bracts are called glumes, and each suc- ceeding one is a lemma. Above and opposite the lemma is the 2-nerved palea, which incloses the floret. The florets are usually as numerous as the lemmas, but the upper ones are often sterile. The fruit is a caryopsis or grain, with small lateral embryo and relatively large starchy endosperm. For the most part grass flowers are wind pollinated, but some on which the stamens do not become exserted are self- pollinated, as in the case of wheat. INTR O D UCTION 1 5 Agricultural grasses are either annuals or perennials. The annuals are mostly grown as cereals in some part of the world at least, but several are grown in America primarily as forage, such as millets and sorghums. The perennials may be distinguished as bunch grasses, like orchard-grass and timothy, and creeping grasses, like Kentucky blue-grass and Bermuda. In the former the new shoots are intravaginal; that is, the new shoots do not break through the lowest sheath but grow erect within it; in the creeping grasses the shoots are extra- vaginal; that is, they pierce the lowest sheath and for a longer or shorter distance develop as rhizomes below ground, or stolons above ground. In a few grasses, like various-leaved fescue, both types of shoots are formed. The roots of all grasses are very slender and but little branched. Even in perennial grasses the roots usually live but one season and then new ones are formed. To possess high agricultural value, a grass must be palatable and healthful ; it must yield well ; and above all, it must have good seed habits, so that the seed can be harvested cheaply. Even in the best of the perennial grasses the seed is relatively inferior in viability, as com- pared with other crop plants. 9. Legumes. Legumes or pulses are distinguished botanically by having the leaves alternate, with stipules and mostly compound ; flowers usually papilionaceous that is, like a pea flower ; pistil simple, becoming in fruit a legume ; embryo usually completely filling the seed. Biologically, most leguminous plants are remarkable for their ability to use free atmospheric nitrogen, by the aid of certain bacteria that form nodules on the roots. Most of the cultivated legumes thrive best in soil con- taining a high content of lime, but others, like trefoil and 16 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE white clover, are indifferent to lime. A few, like lupines and serradella, are injuriously affected if lime be added to the soil. Perennial legumes have as a rule stout roots which serve partly as storage organs for reserve food. Partly on this account, they are cut for hay in early bloom, as after this stage reserve stuff is deposited in the roots. 10. Root nodules. On the roots of most legumes and a few other plants occur nodules or tubercles. Woronin in 1866 discovered that these contained bacteria-like organisms, but their importance was not realized until Hellriegel in 1887 demonstrated that leguminous plants can utilize atmospheric nitrogen by the aid of these nodule bacteria. When the root nodules are absent, legumes, like most other plants, must depend on com- bined nitrogen in the soil. It was known to the Romans in Pliny's time that certain legumes helped succeeding crops, and indeed legumes mixed or in rotation with other crops have been used in India and China probably since prehistoric times. The importance of leguminous crops is, however, more clearly recognized since their role as nitrogen conservors has been discovered. 11. The nodule organism. The organism causing the nodules in legumes is now called Pseudomonas radicicola. Apparently it is but one and the same species that causes the nodules on legumes and on such plants as Alnus, Shepherdia, Podocarpus, Ceanothus and others. The organism occurs in different physiological forms, for it is not possible, except in a few cases, to inoculate a legume of one genus directly with the nodule bacteria from another. The only definitely proved case of this is Melilotus and Medicago-, alfalfa being readily inoculated by sweet clover. It is probable, also, that the bacteria of garden peas in- INTRODUCTION 17 oculate vetch and vice versa, but this lacks proof, as does Nobbe's contention that Pisum will inoculate Phaseolus. 12. Forms of root nodules. The root nodules on different legumes vary greatly in size, shape and abun- dance. To a certain extent they are characteristic for each genus. The nodule is morphologically a modified rootlet. In many legumes it is always simple, but in others is more or less branched, sometimes into a coral- like mass. In the common cultivated clovers the nodules on the younger roots are small and globose, becoming club-shaped and often bilobed. On older roots they become more branched or lobed. Alfalfa produces nodules much like red clover, but usually longer and more branched. On Canada peas and the vetches the nodules are still more branched and fan-shaped in form. Clusters of these often form globose masses. In the cowpea, peanut and most beans, the nodules are irregularly globose and solid. These are frequently as large as a pea seed. On the soybean, the nodules are also globose but marked on the surface with raised ridges. The velvet bean produces perhaps the largest nodules of any legume. These are sometimes as large as a base- ball. Such are really clusters of branched nodules but packed together very densely. 13. Natural inoculation. Any legumes may easily be inoculated on new land by scattering soil from an old field where the same legume has previously produced nodules, as is nearly always the case when a legume crop is successful. This method was used in Europe before its significance was discovered. In thus inoculating new land, from 100 to 500 pounds of old soil should be used to the acre. It may be scattered in any convenient way, 18 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE but preferably with a drill or on a cloudy day. Sunlight is destructive to the bacteria, so the inoculating soil should be harrowed in unless sown with a drill. The use of the naturally inoculated soil is open to the objection that it may serve to spread weeds, insects and plant diseases, especially if brought from a distance. In some cases, the nodule bacteria are undoubtedly carried on. the surface of the seeds, especially where these are trampled out by animals. Thus plots of guar (Ct/a- mopsis tetragonoloba) , an East Indian legume, were well inoculated when grown for the first time at Chillicothe, Texas, although no closely related legume occurs in North America. In this case it seems practically certain that the bacteria were carried on the seeds. Inoculation of the soil for a new legume is sometimes secured by sowing a little of the seed in mixtures, as alfalfa with grass. Frequently some of the plants survive, and when this happens generally to scattered plants through- out a field, it is safe to conclude that the soil is sufficiently well inoculated. 14. Artificial inoculation. The first artificial cultures of Pseudomonas radicicola were made by Beyerinck in 1888. In 1896 Nobbe introduced commercial cultures under the name of nitragin. Commercial cultures have been prepared in various forms; namely, in liquids, upon agar jelly, in dry powders and on cotton. Moore in 1904 prepared cultures grown on media poor in nitrogen under the idea that this would select the strains most efficient in fixing free nitrogen, and that these cultures would, therefore, prove beneficial even on soils already inoculated for any particular legume by providing a superior strain. Attempts have also been made to prepare cultures adapted to each soil by growing the bacteria in media prepared INTRODUCTION 19 from a solution of the particular soil to be inoculated. Whatever method is employed, it is necessary to prepare the cultures from nodules of the same species of plant for which the culture is intended. Beginning with the introduction of nitragin, many hundreds of inoculation experiments have been performed. There can be no question of the importance of nodules to the plants, as the difference between inoculated and uninoculated plants is often markedly apparent. Any superiority of artificial cultures over natural inoculation has thus, far not been realized. Artificial inoculation for reasons not ascertained is less certain than natural soil inoculation. Artificial cultures have the advantage of cheapness and convenience, but thus far the uncertainty attending their use on uninoculated soil has more than counterbalanced these advantages. From theoretical considerations, there is abundant reason to believe that. methods will yet be perfected to secure reliable inoculation by artificial cultures of espe- cially efficient strains of the nodule bacteria. 15. Dependence of legumes on root nodules. Many legumes will grow normally in a fertile soil without root nodules. In this case, however, the plant is less rich in nitrogen. Thus, Hopkins analyzed cowpeas grown at the Illinois Experiment Station, comparing plants with and without nodules. The former were three times as large and contained 3.9 per cent nitrogen and the latter but 2.2 percent. At Amarillo, Texas, in 1908, plots of cowpeas of several varieties planted in fertile virgin soil were entirely devoid of nodules, although their growth was ap- parently perfectly normal. On the other hand, alfalfa seems to be dependent under some conditions on root nodules for existence. In Mary- 20 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE land and Virginia, numerous experimental fields of alfalfa planted in 1907 failed to survive where inoculation was not secured. This was the case even in well-fertilized soils. The plants grew to a height of about four inches and then gradually turned yellow and died. Under the conditions of these experiments alfalfa seems absolutely dependent on root nodules for successful growth. In contrast to this, alfalfa is said to have succeeded well in Kansas from its first introduction in that state, but no observations are recorded in regard to nodulation. According to Kirchner, no nodules had been observed on soybeans grown in Europe up to 1895, although this plant had been successfully cultivated since 1877. CHAPTER II PRESERVATION OF FORAGE THE principles and methods of preserving forage are quite different from those employed with other crops. This is necessitated largely by the bulky nature of forage, crops and the comparatively low value of the product. One method of preservation silage is perfected to a degree which makes it comparable with a factory process. The making of hay, however, is still dependent almost wholly on favorable weather conditions, and in the ab- sence of this condition the crop is often lost or greatly damaged. 16. Preservation of forage crops. Herbage may be preserved as forage in one of three ways, hay, brown hay and silage. The form in which it is preserved depends partly on the particular crop, partly on climatic conditions and partly on the special purpose for which it is required. Grasses and legumes with fine stems are mostly harvested as hay. Under adverse climatic conditions, however, such crops are often saved as brown hay, but never if bright hay can be cured. Coarse fodders, like corn and sorghum, are more and more being preserved as silage, as this avoids both the difficulties of curing and the loss from leaching if left unprotected, and besides, furnishes a succulent feed. The finer grasses and legumes may also be preserved as silage, but this is seldom done, except when weather conditions prevent drying, and a silo is available. 21 22 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 17. Time of cutting. There are five different criteria which may be considered in determining the stage at which to cut a crop of forage : 1. When the plants can be most satisfactorily cured either as hay or silage. 2. When there is the least injury to the succeeding cutting. 3. When the greatest total yield can be obtained. 4. When the degree of digestibility is greatest, especially of the proteids. 5. When the greatest total amount of digestible nu- trients is obtained. The first criterion is of importance only in regions where the climatic conditions can be predicted with some cer- tainty. For example, in most of the Southern States the weather In fall is quite likely to be more satisfactory for curing hay than is midsummer. On this account the cutting of some crops, like lespedeza and Bermuda grass, is commonly postponed till then, while others, as cowpeas, are planted so that they will mature at this time. The second consideration has some bearing on crops that yield two or more cuttings. As a rule, the later the first cutting is made, the smaller the second one will be. The third criterion would postpone the cutting of most grasses until the seed is mature, and most legumes until the leaves begin to fall off, as the total weight increases until maturity except as there is loss from defoliation or leaching. At this stage, however, most plants become more woody and less palatable. The fourth criterion is unimportant from the fact that in nearly all forage crops the digestibility is greatest when the plants are young, and cutting at this time is at the expense of a greatly reduced yield and greater difficulty in curing. PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 23 The fifth criterion would apparently, from a theoretical consideration, be the most satisfactory basis to use. In grasses the percentage of digestibility varies but slightly from full bloom till when the seeds are nearly ripe, but in clovers it begins to fall off even before blooming. From this, it would appear that grasses may be cut at any time from full bloom until nearly ripe, excepting where the stems become decidedly woody ; while perennial legumes should be cut not later than full bloom. 18. Haymaking in dry weather. Under favorable climatic conditions, haymaking is a simple process. The curing will then often take place in the windrows into which it is raked when well wilted, so that it can be stacked or housed the day following without further handling, though it is usually desirable to turn the wind- rows an hour or more before loading. This method is often pursued in dry climates. The only objection to this system is that more bleaching from the sun takes place than if the hay is put into cocks or shocks as soon as dry enough. With such rapid curing, however, the bleaching is not sufficient to justify the additional labor required in cocking. Some loss, however, will result, especially in legumes, from .the leaves becoming too dry and brittle so that they break off in subsequent handling. Even with perfect haying weather, the best hay is secured by raking into windrows as soon as well wilted, and afterwards piling into small cocks before any of the leaves become brittle. At this stage the leaves are drier than the stems, but in the cocks this is partly equalized by the leaves absorbing moisture from the stems. When thus cured, there is less bleaching from the sun, or sun and dew combined, few leaves are lost by becoming brittle and a higher degree of aroma is engendered. By 24 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE' thoroughly curing in the cocks, any danger of subsequent heating in the stack or mow is largely removed. Under the best conditions hay may be stacked or housed the same day that it is cut, but this is seldom done until the second or third day. 19. Curing of hay. In curing hay under ideal con- ditions, three different processes take place ; namely, (1) a reduction in water content from about 70 per cent (60 per cent to 85 per cent) in the green plant to about 15 per cent (7 per cent to 25 per cent) when dried ; (2) en- zymatic changes in the composition of the hay, usually with the development of a characteristic aroma ; (3) bleach- ing, due to destruction of the chlorophyll by the sunlight which is increased by the action of the dew. The conditions sought in prime hay are bright color, that is, as green as possible ; good aroma ; retention of leaves (in legumes) ; and freedom from " dust " or mold spores. 20. Haymaking under humid conditions. While hay- making in favorable weather is simple, it becomes greatly complicated by cloudiness, rain and heavy dews. Rain is injurious both because it delays drying and because it leaches out soluble nutrients. If long continued, espe- cially in warm weather, it induces the growth of various molds and other fungi, and the hay becomes " dusty. " Two processes to facilitate curing of hay under un- certain conditions are commonly employed. The first of these is designed to hasten drying by turning the grass over as soon as the top is dried, using pitchforks if done by hand, or a tedder if by horse power. Where the crop is very heavy, this is done while the hay is in the swath, but usually it is first raked into windrows. The second process is to pile into cocks after partially curing in wind- rows. The object here is mainly to reduce the surface PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 25 exposed to moisture that may fall on the half-cured hay either as dew or rain. Where the drying is long pro- tracted, much additional labor is entailed by spreading the cocks each favorable morning and recocking in the evening until cured. While the difficulty of thus curing grass hay is great, it is far less than in the case of legumes. Grasses have slender, usually hollow stems, and persistent leaves, while most legumes have solid stalks that are relatively thicker, and consequently dry much more slowly. Furthermore, the leaflets of legumes dry first and fall off easily when the hay is half cured, so that if much handled a large portion of the leaves may be lost. In addition, legume hays do not shed rain water as well as do grass hays, the latter indeed often being put on the top of shocks of legume hay to shed moisture. Cut hay should never be handled while wet. If the surface hay was best cured before the rain, as would be the case in the swath, it is in the most favorable position to dry promptly. If in the windrow, the stirring of the hay while the surface is wet brings this moisture in con- tact with the drier hay beneath, by which it is readily absorbed. Unfavorable weather greatly increases the cost of hay- making, both in requiring more labor and in causing greater loss of leaves from the more frequent handling necessitated. Continuous rains do but little more damage to freshly cut hay plants than to the uncut plants, at least during the first three or four days after cutting. Cured or partially cured hay, however, loses by leaching. Headden, at the Colorado Experiment Station, compared alfalfa hay exposed to warm humid weather for fifteen days, 26 FOE AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE during which time 1.76 inches of rain fell in three showers, with a sample cut at the same time and immediately dried in an oven. The former contained but 11.01 per cent of protein against 18.71 per cent for the latter. Corn stover exposed two months to weather at the Wis- consin Experiment Station lost from 12.76 per cent to 22.83 per cent of the total dry matter and 59.6 per cent to 71.55 per cent of the total protein. At the Colorado Experiment Station, corn stover spread on the ground in small shocks and in large shocks lost, respectively, 55, 43 and 31 per cent of the dry matter. In these cases, however, the loss is partly due to fermentation and to molds. Westgate sprinkled perfectly cured crimson clover hay with water to imitate rain for one hour each on three successive days. On analysis it was found in com- parison with a sample unsprinkled to have lost about three-fourths of its sugar, one-ninth of its protein and three-fourths of its ash constituents. Kellner in Germany analyzed two lots of alfalfa hay, one very carefully dried, the other exposed during drying to one heavy thunder storm and one light shower. The latter was poorer than the former in protein 2.1 per cent ; in fiber, 2.2 per cent ; in carbohydrate, .4 per cent and in fat, .5 per cent. 21. Special devices to facilitate hay curing. Where weather injury is frequently experienced in curing hay, certain devices are often used that are helpful. Most common perhaps is the perch, which in its simplest form is a stake about six feet long with cross arms two to three feet long. This is driven into the ground and the green or half-dried plants are hung upon it so as to make a tall, slender cock. Perches are much used in PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 27 curing peanut vines and are also very useful for cowpeas and similar viny plants. A less simple, but more effective device is the pyramid, which permits of making larger cocks with an open air space in the interior. Numerous forms of pyramids have been devised, even metal ones being used in Europe. They consist essentially of three or four legs jointed at the top and sometimes sharpened below so that they can be pushed firmly into the ground. Cross pieces joining the legs are also useful. The legs are commonly 6 to 8 feet long. A form devised at the Tennessee Experiment Station is so joined at the top that the three legs come together when the pyramid is not in use. Still more elaborate frames are sometimes used for cowpeas, combining the characteristics of a pyramid and of a permanent stack. It is a common practice in stack- ing cowpea hay not completely cured to make alternate layers of hay and of wooden rails. The rails prevent the hay from matting and facilitate curing by permitting the circulation of the air. Such a stack is greatly improved by supporting the rails at each end, so that the air may more easily circulate between the layers of hay. Hay caps are also very desirable to protect cocks from rain. The form most commonly used consists of a piece of canvas about one yard square with a weight at each corner. By the use of a hay cap the hay cock is protected from the rain that falls directly upon it. If hay be stacked on low, wet ground, the bottom por- tion becomes ruined by the absorption of moisture. This may be prevented by building the stack on a raised stage. Where hay is annually cut on wet meadows which become overflowed, permanent hay stages built on a level above high water mark are often employed. 28 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE In Europe, another method of curing hay which involves much hand labor is employed. This consists in tying the grass in sheaves after it has wilted one or two days. The sheaves are bound near the top so that when the cut ends are spread, they will stand alone. As these are often blown down by the wind, it involves an excessive amount of labor. Sometimes a number of sheaves are tied together so as to form a hollow cone, or many may thus be placed to form a rectangle with sloping sides and open ends. Such structures do not blow down so readily, but require much labor to set up. The sheaves are dried out principally by the circulation of the air. In semi-arid regions immature wheat, barley and other cereals are sometimes cut with a binder, and the bound sheaves cure readily without further handling. 22. Completion of curing. The stage at which curing is complete enough to make it safe to stack or house the hay is not easily determined. Where damage from weather is feared, it is important to get the crop in as soon as possible, especially in the case of legumes. A common rule is to consider legumes safe to put in large cocks or stacks when moisture can no longer be made to exude from the stems by twisting them tightly. When hay is stacked before thoroughly dry, it undergoes a process of heating or sweating. Legumes heat much more than grasses. Even when put in the mow at the stage indicated, alfalfa and crimson clover may become about as hot as the hand can bear. It is a common practice to sprinkle salt or lime over each layer of hay which is thought to be insufficiently cured. To what extent this may modify sweating and subsequent moldiness is not well ascertained. Hay is safe to place in the barn when the moisture PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 29 content is reduced to 20 per cent. It is rarely practicable, however, to make moisture determinations. Among empirical rules used to determine when curing is so far completed to make housing safe are (1) when the hay breaks if a wisp is tightly twisted in the hand ; (2) when it is dry enough to rattle if gently shaken ; and (3) when it no longer feels cool if pressed to the cheek. 23. Shrinkage of stored hay. Hay when stored con- tains a varying amount of water, depending on the thor- oughness of the curing. Even in very dry climates it is seldom less than 10 per cent and in moist climates or under unfavorable conditions is commonly as high as 25 per cent. In the West hay is often stacked when the moisture content exceeds 25 per cent, and instances are reported where it contained as high as 38 per cent and yet kept well. The average moisture content of cured hay ranges from 15 to 20 per cent. Shrinkage is mainly due to loss of water ; in rare cases where the hay is put in the mow when very dry, there may be gain in water content. Shrinkage due to loss of moisture varies according to the water content when stored and the humidity of the air. Besides the shrinkage due to evaporation of moisture, there is a varying amount of loss due to oxidation. Even in well cured hay the enzymatic changes which go on cause a small loss by oxidation. In poorly cured hay the loss may be much greater, not only from the high degree of heat engendered by the preliminary fermentation, but also by the growth of destructive molds and other organisms. The actual shrinkage which takes place in stored or stacked hay has been determined at several experiment stations. 30 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE At the Rhode Island Experiment Station, hay removed from the barn in February, 1902, contained 12.21 per cent of moisture. The shrinkage of hay from three plots differently fertilized was determined as follows on this basis of water content: PLOT 17 WITHOUT NITROGEN PLOT 19 NITRATE OF SODA, 138 LB. PLOT 21 NITRATE OF SODA, 414 LB. Percentage loss during barn curing in 1901 '. . . 14.9 15.7 19.6 Percentage loss during barn curing in 1902 * 13.3 15.8 16.0 From these results it would appear that hay from land fertilized with nitrogen shrinks more than that from unfertilized. The Maine Experiment Station reports that two lots of timothy cut respectively July 9 and July 24 and put in a barn when dry, showed a shrinkage on November 24 of 12.2 per cent for the early and 13.3 per cent for the later cutting. In another test the loss in storing field- cured hay for 10 months was 16.6 per cent in early-cut hay and 18.1 per cent in late-cut hay. The Pennsylvania Experiment Station reports that timothy hay cut in bloom showed an average shrinkage in weight in the barn after 5 or 6 months of 25.7 per cent, while hay cut two .weeks later shrunk in weight on the average 18.8 per cent. Three mowings of red clover cut respectively when in bloom, " some heads dead/' and " heads all dead/' showed a shrinkage after several months' storage in the barn of 42.4 per cent, 44.2 per cent and 25.7 per cent in the order named. PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 31 The Michigan Experiment Station reports that timothy hay stored in a barn lost in one case 7 per cent in 6 months ; in three other cases the losses were respectively 13.8, 15.0 and 21.7 per cent. Red clover hay lost 9 per cent by November in one case and 3.6 per cent in another; the loss from July to February was 11.2 per cent. At the Utah Experiment Station one ton of timothy placed in the center of a mow July 15 contained 1790.8 pounds dry matter, the moisture content being 10.46 per cent. The following May it contained 1557.4 pounds of dry matter and 14.61 per cent moisture. The loss in dry matter was 14.9 per cent. Twenty-nine pounds of timothy hay suspended in a gunny bag for the same length of time increased in mois- ture content from 12.3 to 14.52 per cent. There was no loss in dry matter. At the Kansas Experiment Station moisture determina- tions were made for several kinds of hay when stored in summer and again December 15. The results indicate that when curing is complete the moisture content of all hays is much the same under the same conditions : MOISTURE CONTENT OF HAYS AT KANSAS EXPERIMENT STATION KIND OP HAY PER CENT MOISTURE WHEN STORED IN SUMMER PER CENT MOISTURE DECEMBER 15 PER CENT Loss OR GAIN IN WEIGHT Orchard-grass, blue-grass and clover . . . . - . . % 1565 10 54 5 71 loss Blue-grass . . .... . 1959 1060 10 05 loss Orchard-grass and clover . . Clover " i 19.75 908 11.80 11 87 9.01 loss 3 17 gain Prairie hay . 14 00 10 61 3 39 loss Millet .... 21 86 889 14 25 loss 32 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 24. Loss of hay or fodder in the field. Hay in stacks or fodder in shocks loses much more substance than when stored in barns. This is especially true in humid regions. The additional loss is largely due to leaching by rains, but the bleaching effect of sunlight and the larger loss by molds and other fungi is also important. Short at the Wisconsin Experiment Station compared the loss in corn fodder both when stored and when ex- posed to the weather. His results are shown in the fol- lowing table : - FRESH WEATH- ERED Loss Loss Ib. Ib. Ib. per cent Sample I Weight 27.00 11.25 18.75 Dry matter 7.84 6.84 1.00 12.76 Protein .663 .22 .343 59.56 Date . . Sept. 21 Nov. 14 Sample II Weight 28.50 10.25 18.25 Dry matter 8.45 6.52 1.93 22.83 Protein .485 .138 .347 71.55 Date . . Sept. 21 Nov. 14 25. Relation of green weight to dry weight. There is no fixed ratio between the green weight and the dry weight of any plant. This varies, obviously, with the water content of the plant, which is never constant. It also varies with the conditions under which the plant was grown, a rapid succulent growth making a relatively smaller amount of dry matter than a slow retarded growth. For these reasons, as well as the variable amount of moisture in hay, there is a wide variation in the ratio of green weight and hay weight, not only for different hay plants but even in different cuttings from the same ploto PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 33 The actual water content of a plant is easily determined by laboratory methods, care being taken to weigh the green plant under conditions that do not permit of loss by evaporation before weighing. The hay yield can be approximated from the water-free weight by arbitrarily adding 20 per cent. Such estimates are more nearly accurate than those obtained in the field by obtaining first the green weight and later the hay weight, as the moisture content of both vary greatly under field condi- tions. The discrepancies that thus occur in field weights, green and dry, are sometimes very large. The relation between dry weights and green weights of 29 varieties of red clover grown at the Ontario Agri- cultural College, show an average ratio of 1 : 6. The widest ratio of any variety is 1 : 8.1 and the narrowest, 1 : 4.8. Jordan at the Maine Experiment Station found that timothy cut when the heads were beginning to appear lost, on an average, 75 per cent of water in curing into hay ; when beginning to bloom, the loss was 66 per cent ; when past bloom, 57 per cent. At the same station the green and air-dried yield of 29 strains of clover in duplicate plots was weighed. The shrinkage in drying ranged from 68 per cent in one plot of Bohemian red clover to 82 per cent in a strain from Denmark. The average shrinkage was 73 to 75 per cent. Very leafy plants shrink more than those less leafy. The following relations appear between green weight and dry weight, in pounds per acre, of various crops grown at the Pennsylvania Experiment Station. As will be noticed, the water contents of the crops re- ported upon differ greatly. The low water content of spring vetch in contrast with that of sand vetch is es- pecially surprising : 34 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE GREEN DRY RATIO Canada peas Spring vetch 20,142 8832 3,937 5 934 1:5 I; 1.5 Sand vetch. 6 756 2492 1-24 Red clover 17 760 4 808 1-37 20250 4 133 1-49 Alsike clover . 15960 3 956 1:5 Crimson clover .... 12492 3402 1-37 Timothy 7,920 3,344 1 :2.4 26. Loss of substance from growing plants. Studies of the chemistry of plants at different stages have in many cases shown that the total amount of such substances as nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash and soda was smaller at maturity than some time previously. The same fact has also been shown in field investigations where the total weight of hay produced per unit of area was less at ma- turity than at an earlier stage. Three general explanations of the phenomenon have been advanced, namely : 1. The backward flow of the salts of the plant through the stem and roots into the soil. 2. The mechanical loss of material from the leaves by decay, drying, etc. 3. The leaching effects of rain and dew. The subject has recently been studied by LeClerc and Brezeale. From their investigations it is demon- strated that all growing plants exude salts upon the sur- face of the leaves which are washed off by rains. No evidence was found that salts migrate downward, as the lower part of the stem is always poorer in phosphorus, potash and nitrogen than the upper part and leaves. Wheat plants were grown in the greenhouse and watered PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 35 only at the roots so as not to wet the foliage. Some of these plants blighted so that the whole plant slowly died, or else the tips of the leaves were killed. Analyses of the dead leaf tips showed that they were always poorer in nitrogen and potash than the living basal portions. Other analyses of these dying plants showed that the lower nodes of the stem, whether dead or alive, were always poorer in nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash than the upper ones, which would not be the case if the movement were down- ward. From these observations, the conclusion is drawn that on ripening the salts held in the sap of the plants have a tendency to migrate from the dying to the living tissue ; and that the migration is upward and not downward. In another series of experiments, a whole barley plant at the heading stage was soaked in a dish of distilled water for several minutes and lost 1.6 per cent of its nitrogen content, 36 per cent of its phosphoric acid and 65 per cent of its potash. A pot of rice plants before the heads were mature was tilted over a dish and the tops sprayed with about 2^ quarts of water, imitating somewhat the action of rain. Analyses made both of the ash of the plant and of the teachings showed that the artificial rain had removed salts from the plant. Wheat plants in bloom and fully ripe were washed in distilled water five to ten minutes, and both the plants and the water analyzed. The percentage losses of mineral substances were as follows: NITRO- GEN PHOS- PHORIC ACID POTASH SODA LIME MAG- NESIA CHLORIN In bloom 1.4 4.4 12.7 10.3 7.6 Fully ripe 7.0 33.0 54.0 41.0 34.0 46.0 60.0 36 FORAGE PLANTS ANJ) THEIR CULTURE Similar losses were also found when wheat plants grown in the greenhouse to ripeness were exposed to four rainfalls in such a way that the rain after falling on the plant was caught in a tray. Oat plants were also subjected to a test of this sort with comparable results. From these experiments the conclusion is drawn that plants exude salts upon their surfaces and the rain then washes these salts back to the soil. 27. Hay stacks. In the absence of barn room, hay is frequently stacked in the field, especially in dry regions. The shape of stacks varies greatly. If circular at base, they may be conical or thimble-shaped in form, not in- frequently being built so that they are largest above the middle, as this will shed water from the base. In the west, they are most commonly rectangular in outline, higher than broad, and with the top ridge-like or less commonly rounded. Well-built stacks are compact and the hay so laid that it sheds water both on the top and sides. This is difficult to accomplish with legume hays, so that stacks of these are frequently covered with grass hay or straw. To build a good stack requires both knowledge and experience. 28. Spontaneous combustion. Under certain con- ditions hay, especially of legumes, if put in a mow or stack while still moist, engenders great heat, and in some cases destructive fires have resulted. Several instances have been recorded where the center of a mow or stack has been found entirely charred when opened. Apparently the only reason that prevented ignition was the absence of air. There have, however, been a number of well-authenticated cases where barns have been burned by spontaneous com- bustion from alfalfa and from crimson clover hay. PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 37 Conditions which cause spontaneous combustion are not sufficiently well known to warrant any definite state- ment as to just when hay is sufficiently cured to be safe. There is apparently always risk unless the hay is thor- oughly cured. The problem has been specifically studied by Hoffmann, in Germany, who experimented especially with red clover hay. He finds that the heat is generated through a process of fermentation, probably enzymatic, in which oxygen is taken from the air and the organic matter is transformed into carbon dioxide and water. From this additional moisture a secondary fermentation due to bacteria takes place. If the hay has external moisture when first stored, the fermentation is more rapid. The preliminary fermentation causes a temperature of 56 C. This temperature causes a second and more violent oxi- dation to take place and the temperature rises to about 90 C. In further fermentation processes the heat slowly rises to as high as 130 C., at which temperatures the hay is charred. From theoretical consideration Hoffmann figures that the temperature may rise to 190 C. In the presence of oxygen ignition will take place at 150 C. or higher. If, however, oxygen be excluded, ignition will not occur, but the hay will be converted into a mass of charcoal. 29. Statistics of hay yields. Yields of forage crops per acre are much less accurately known than those of grain crops. Reliable data of hay yields are available mainly in connection with definite experiments. Esti- mates of farmers upon which statistical and census data are based are probably too large. It is a difficult matter to estimate closely a yield of hay, and there is little chance to become proficient, as hay yields are so seldom weighed. On the other hand, the farmer sells his 38 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE wheat, barley, or other small grain crop, and puts his corn into bins or cribs, so that he has every year an approxi- mately accurate measure to compare with his estimates. Another factor that leads to exaggeration is the large unit of measurement employed ; namely, the ton of 2000 pounds. The smallest fraction ever used in estimates is ^ of a ton. The farmers' actual estimates are commonly based on the wagon load, usually considered as being one ton, but it is probable that the average wagon load is nearer three-fourths of a ton. Only where hay is baled can the yield figures be con- sidered reliable. Even in this case some allowance for moisture needs to be made. Well-cured timothy hay con- tains about 14 per cent of moisture, but as baled in the field, the water content is usually higher. Experiment station yields are usually higher than those obtained by farmers, as experimental plots are as a rule small, and secure better treatment than farmers' fields. 30. Brown hay. When climatic conditions interfere with the curing of bright hay, the crop may be preserved as brown hay. In this process the hay is cured largely by the aid of the heat engendered in fermentation. After cutting, the grass is made into cocks, trampling each layer to make it as dense as practicable. In these cocks, the heat engendered by fermentation may reach the boiling point of water. The second or third day after cocking, the piles are opened so as to permit the escape of the vapor, after which the product may be safely housed. A more common process is to dry the hay as much as possible in the air and then pile into compact stacks, where it is permitted to remain until fed . The final product varies in color from dark brown to nearly black. PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 39 31. Silage. Silage is made by the natural fermen- tation of green fodder in receptacles from which the access of air is excluded. In some form this process has been employed over a century. Originally pits in the earth either lined or unlined were used, and such are still employed, but in recent times specially constructed buildings called silos have become common. These may be built of wood, brick, tile, concrete, or steel. Most commonly they are cylindrical in form, and much taller than broad. (Silage is sometimes called ensilage ; but this word is properly a verb meaning to place material in the silo, or to make silage, as to ensilage corn. The verb is sometimes shortened, in the vernacular, to ensile.) The proper fermentation requires only the exclusion of air, but practically this is best secured by close packing. Usually this is promoted by cutting the fodder fine and often by trampling and the use of weights. The cut fodder also has the advantage of being more easily re- moved from the silo when used. The volume decreases as fermentation proceeds, so provision must be made for even settling. The fermentation results in the formation of various acids and the loss of some substance as gas. While fer- menting, a considerable degree of heat is engendered. The fermentation is complete in from two to eight weeks, but corn silage is as a rule ready for use in four weeks. In contact with air silage decays, due to the attacks of fungi and aerobic bacteria. To provide the necessary conditions silos are con- structed with air-tight walls smooth on the inside, and the fodder is cut small so as to pack closely and settle evenly. In filling a silo, the top should not be left ex- posed more than a day or two, as decay then ensues. 40 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE When filled, the top should be covered to exclude air. This was formerly done with a foot or so of earth, the weight of which assisted the settling. Usually, however, the top portion is allowed to decay, and it thus makes a nearly air-tight layer, but sometimes a layer of straw, chaff or green grass is used to exclude the air so as to preserve all the silage. This name " summer silage " has been given to silage prepared in late spring or early summer to feed after the corn silage of the previous season is exhausted. Among crops that have been thus used are rye, wheat, oats and red clover. The principal precaution to be taken is to have the silo small enough so that at least 4 inches is removed a day, as during hot weather silage spoils more quickly. It is claimed that the use of summer silage is far more economical than soiling and just as satisfactory, but few data have as yet been published. In using silage, the material is generally removed from the top. About 2 inches per day should be removed, as otherwise considerable loss occurs from mold. Silage is sometimes made simply by piling the green plants in large compact stacks. This method has been used with sorghum and is sometimes employed by can- neries to preserve green pea vines from which the peas have been separated. Such silage stacks are not economi- cal unless they are very large, as there is always consider- able loss on the surface. 32. The nature of silage fermentation. The investi- gations at the Wisconsin Experiment Station by Babcock, Russell and King lead -to the conclusion that the fermenta- tion of silage under proper conditions is not due to bacteria or other organisms, as has generally been held. Among the facts that are significant are the following : PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 41 1. Silage may reach its maximum temperature within twenty-four hours, a period much briefer than occurs with bacterial fermentation. 2. When silage is fully cured, the further evolution of gas is small and mainly stationary. If now the silage be exposed to air, a new fermentation by bacteria and molds will ensue and cause a rise in temperature far above the previous anaerobic fermentation. 3. Freshly cut corn in air-tight receptacles treated with chloroform, ether or benzol to suppress bacteria, never- theless ferments into silage, though with lower acid content. 4. Freshly cut corn in air-tight receptacles filled with an inert gas like hydrogen or nitrogen, ferments into silage more slowly and the final product is more acid. 5. Corn killed by frost will not produce silage, but untreated, decays into an ill-smelling mass, due to bacteria. Treated with ether to destroy the bacteria, the frozen corn retains all the characteristics of green corn. 6. The gas given off during silage fermentation is mainly carbon dioxide, but in the case of clover silage, also con- tains hydrogen. Nitrogen is apparently given off in small quantities in all silage fermentation. From the above facts, silage fermentation is ascribed to respiration of the green tissues probably of an en- zymatic nature and not at all due to bacteria or fungi. In silage exposed to the air fermentation by the latter will occur, but it is always undesirable and destructive. 33. Advantages of silage. - - The preservation of forage as silage possesses a number of advantages, especially with coarse plants like corn and sorghum. Among these advantages are : 1. Silage preservation saves all of the forage in edible form. The loss both in preserving and feeding is very small. 42 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIE CULTURE 2. Silage is more palatable than dry fodder, and animals will eat a larger quantity. 3. Silage preservation is not dependent on favorable weather conditions. 4. Silage requires less space for storage than an equiva- lent amount of hay or fodder. 5. When corn and especially grain sorghums are pre- served as silage, the seeds are softened so that they are thoroughly digested. While silage is undoubtedly the best way to preserve corn, sorghum and similar coarse plants, it has not proven very satisfactory with legumes or hay grasses, perhaps because proper methods of ensiling these plants have not been developed. Legumes mixed with corn or sorghum are very satisfactory, but when ensiled alone, the product seems frequently to be ill-smelling and un- palatable. A more satisfactory method of ensiling grasses and clovers is a desideratum for regions where hay curing is difficult. 34. Crops adapted to ensiling. Corn is the principal American crop preserved as silage, and constitutes probably more than 90 per cent of the total amount. The sorghums, both saccharine and non-saccharine, are also very satisfactory, and apparently not inferior to corn. Japanese sugar cane has given excellent results at the Florida Experiment Station. Meadow grasses and small grains are not much used for silage in America. They are, however, thus preserved in western Oregon and western Washington as well as in Europe. Georgeson reports the successful ensiling of beach lyme grass (Elymus mollis) at the Alaska Experi- ment Station. The silage kept well and made satis- factory feed for oxen. Millets have been preserved satis- factorily as silage at several experiment stations. PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 43 Legumes alone have not proven altogether satisfactory as silage. Red clover in some experiments has yielded a palatable product, in others rank flavored and not relished by cattle. At the Colorado Experiment Station alfalfa yielded a silage that was readily eaten by dairy cattle. Cowpeas made good silage at the Georgia and Delaware Experiment Stations ; while both hairy vetch and soybeans produced well-flavored and aromatic silage at the Vermont Experiment Station. Soybeans alone made good silage at the New Jersey Experiment Station. Lloyd reports that in Ohio sweet clover has been used with good results. One reason for failures with ensilaged legumes is probably their higher water content, as pointed out by several investigators. On this account such crops should be allowed to become as mature as practicable before ensiling. Mixtures of corn and legumes such as cowpeas or soy- beans make excellent silage. In Ontario sunflower heads are often mixed in corn silage. The Vermont Experi- ment Station tested the Robertson silage mixture ; namely, <:orn, horse beans and sunflower heads, but the cows did not eat it quite as readily as pure corn silage. Peas and oats and vetch and oats both proved very satisfactory at the Vermont Experiment Station. Sugar beet pulp, a refuse from beet sugar factories, also makes a palatable silage. 35. Soiling or soilage. Soiling is stall feeding with green fodder. This method of feeding is far more common in Europe than in America. It obviates the necessity of curing much of the forage, and the loss that accompanies the process. For dairy cows, at least, it gives better returns than the feeding of an equivalent amount of dry hay. On the other hand, it has certain disadvantages, 44 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE particularly the cutting and hauling of small areas of green feed every day, regardless of weather conditions, in this way not being economical in the use of labor and machinery. Soiling is well adapted mainly to the feeding of dairy cows, and is practically the only way to utilize certain crops, such as thousand-headed kale and spineless cactus. For short periods of time especially in the absence or scarcity of other feed soiling is often utilized by dairy- men. In the tropics, soiling is the common method of feeding roughage, not only to cattle, but to city horses. This is especially the case where labor is cheap, and humid con- ditions prevent the curing of hay. Grasses of various kinds are cut green, tied into bundles and thus marketed fresh each day. Among the grasses thus commonly used for horses are Guinea-grass, Para-grass, and Bermuda-grass. In the Philippine Islands, Bareet grass (Homalocenchrus hexandrus) is extensively cultivated about the towns for this purpose. Soiling such crops as millet, kale, sorghum, etc., is usually preferable to pasturing, at least for cattle. The latter method occasions much loss by trampling, and expense for temporary or permanent fences. On the other hand, soiling involves the expense of cutting and hauling green feed daily, and the planning of a succession of crops so that each will be ready when needed in ample quantity. On these accounts soiling is seldom used in America except to tide over a temporary shortage of feed. Instead of soiling, the practice is growing of feeding silage the whole year, thus securing a succulent feed and avoid- ing the difficulties involved in soiling. 36. Soiling systems. A succession of crops to provide green feed for a season or for a portion of a season is called PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 45 a soiling system. To plan such a succession of crops requires accurate knowledge of the time required for each crop to reach its growth, the length of time it may be fed and also the average yield to be expected, so that the proper area to be planted can be accurately determined. Annuals are more convenient to use in soiling systems than perennials because plantings of the same crop can be made at successive dates, and its feeding period thus extended over several weeks' time. Furthermore, the land becomes at once available for other plantings. While perennials are often utilized in soiling systems, such are seldom planted for this purpose alone, as it is rarely econ- omy to plant them in an area as small as would be required. Soiling systems for the whole growing season have been devised at several experiment stations, a few examples of which are here given : SOILING SYSTEM RECOMMENDED BY PHELPS FOR CONNECTICUT CROP TIME OP SEEDING} TIME OP FEEDING Rve Sept. 1 May 10 -20 Wheat Red clover Grass Oats and peas .... Oats and peas .... Oats and peas . . . . Clover rowen .... Hungarian millet . . . Cowpeas Sept. 5-10 July 20-30 April 10 April 20 April 30 June 10 June 510 May 20-June 5 June 5- 15 June 15- 25 June 25- July 10 July 10- 20 July 20-Aug. 1 Aug. 1- 10 Aug. 10- 20 Sept. 5- 20 Grass rowen .... Barley and peas Aug. 5-10 Sept. 20- 80 Oct. 1- 30 At the Pennsylvania Experiment Station the following data were secured on the date of planting and yields of various soiling crops : 46 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE YIELD p ER ACRE CROP DATE OF SOWING DATE OF HARVESTING Green sub- stance Air- dried sub- stance Flat peas June 17-June 28 10,004 1861 Peas and oats May 5 June 29-July 11 27,671 3929 Peas and oats May 16 July 12-July 22 18,137 2938 Peas and oats May 21 July 22-July 25 22,773 3120 Peas and barley May 21 July 26-Aug. 2 19,415 3436 Flat peas . . Aug. 3-Aug. 12 11,782 2344 Clover silage . Cowpeas and milo maize June 11-29 Aug. 29-Sept. 6 18,083 3707 Black cowpeas June 25 Sept. 7-Sept. 22 18,251 3705 Red Ripper cow- peas . . . June 25 Sept. 22-Sept. 25 11,117 2590 The flat peas are, however, not recommended on account of difficulty of establishing the crop, unpalatability and possible danger of tainting the milk. Rape, too, is not recommended because not very palatable and likely to taint the milk. On the basis of these and other data the station suggests the following soiling system : SOILING SYSTEM FOR TEN Cows Based on Data obtained at the Pennsylvania Experiment Station CROP AREA WHEN TO BE FED Rye . ' . * * . ... . . 2 acre May 15-June 1 Alfalfa 2 acres June 1 June 12 CloA r er and timothy f acre June 12- June 24 Peas and oats 1 acre June 24- July 15 Alfalfa (2d crop) 2 acres July 15- Aug. 11 Sorghum and cowpeas (after rye) Cowpeas (after peas and oats) \ acre 1 acre Aug. 11-Aug. 28 Aug. 28-Sept. 30 CHAPTER III CHOICE OF FORAGE CROPS THE number of species of plants which the domesticated animals or their wild ancestors devour for food is very large. While comparatively few of these meet the needs of profitable agriculture, yet over 100 species are more or less utilized, while many others have been tested in an ex- perimental way. There is thus presented to the agricul- turist the problem of determining which of many possible forage plants is the most satisfactory to grow under given conditions. 37. What determines the choice of a forage crop. The extent to which a forage crop is grown in any par- ticular region or for any particular purpose is correlated with a number of considerations. Among these the follow- ing are important : - 1. Purpose for which grown; namely, hay, fodder, silage or soiling. 2. Adaptation to the conditions of climate, soil and culture in rotations. 3. Yield. 4. Cost of seeding per acre. 5. Ease of harvesting and curing. 6. Time of harvesting. 7. Feeding value. 8. Demands or prejudices of the user. 47 48 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIB CULTURE If the forage is grown to sell, the last consideration is often the controlling factor. It is usually easy to deter- mine the characteristics of several forage crops as regards each point compared. It is sometimes, however, difficult to ascertain why, on the whole, one crop is preferred to another closely comparable. 38. Special purposes for which forage crops are grown. - Forage crops may thus be classified, as regards the purposes for which they are grown : 1. Long-lived meadows, for hay; such as timothy, alfalfa, brome-grass, redtop, etc. 2. Annual hay crops ; such as crimson clover, millet, cowpeas, rye, etc., often sown as " catch " crops. 3. Coarse grasses for silage or fodder; such as corn, sorghum, pearl millet and Japanese sugar-cane. 4. Permanent pastures, for which are used Kentucky blue-grass, white clover, Bermuda-grass and various more or less complex mixtures. 5. Temporary pastures, using such plants as rye, wheat, crimson clover, cowpeas, Italian rye-grass and others. 6. Soiling crops, often planted in succession so as to give green feeds during definite periods. It is obvious that most forage crops utilized for one of the above purposes are usually not well fitted for other purposes. 39. Adaptation to conditions. Different forage crops are adapted to widely different conditions of climate, and this factor usually closely limits the area in which each can be profitably grown. Sometimes market con- siderations lead to the growing of a crop under conditions which are not very favorable, as timothy in the South and alfalfa on unsuitable soil types in the East. While CHOICE OF FOE AGE CROPS 49 alfalfa and red clover both do well in some places, the latter is much better fitted for use in short rotations. 40. Yields per acre. The yielding capacities of various hay grasses and other closely comparable forage crops have been tested at various experiment stations. In comparatively few places, however, have such experi- ments been adequate to reach clear conclusions. Some of the experiment station results are shown in the accom- panying table. Usually yield per acre is the most im- portant single characteristic upon which the popularity of a good forage crop depends. In some areas, and under certain conditions, a particular forage crop will so far out- yield all others that there is practically no choice. Thus alfalfa is by far the heaviest yielding hay crop for the irrigated lands of the West, and sorghum usually gives far larger returns than any other comparable crop on much of the dry land area. European yields that are commonly quoted are often based on very small plots, necessitating multiplication by a large factor to secure the acre yield. Thus the English yields reported by Sinclair were usually based on weighing the grass and hay from an area two feet square; and those of Vianne in France on areas little if any larger. Some yields reported by American experiment sta- tions are also based on very small plots. While these as a rule give results that can hardly be secured on larger plantings, yet they do give comparable values. In the accompanying table, the hay grasses are arranged in the approximate order of their importance. It will be noticed that this order is in many cases not consistent with their yielding capacities. It is questionable, however, if the results at any one experiment station are sufficiently ex- haustive to admit of a definite conclusion : 50 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE NOIXVXg &3^ M u O M 15 U Hva A T -vxg IN (N *-H O 1C CC O OS CO CO GO OS i I rt< Tf O5 OS rfi CO Tj( CO o NOIXVXg llsl CO O lO CO -y t z 8"! >>>>!>>>>>>!>! >> rf IN <*< rjt N IN -* rf >, >> >, IN .OcOt^ o3 3 |H? >> ^ fe O *" , 44 E b |e IlIlIJI ^ ' I 5 II ,! > w fi > o CHOICE OF FORAGE CROPS 51 ALFA a'o 3 ill * O5 O rf CO ^f O OO rh O5 >O T^ oo 10 o co oo o^ t^* o^ o^ oo CO 1 1 rH YE-GRA88 111 A rH ^^ t^ CO rH : a B fe GO r- H I- J 5 - CO lO C5 Oi Ol 1C rH lO -HH (^J i I rH CO CO 1 t* 1 "" 1 rH s s "32 O I> rH I>. ,H CQ 'o.S? ^ ^ o oo S (-, CD Hr* TfH -^ CO ^ CO ft X s RD-GRAS8 Yield per Inch of Water 5 S I |g 1 l> CO 00 rH < 11 ^ ? ^ ^ i 11 i O^ LO rH h In d co S3 H KIND OF FERTILIZER u o w" OH g* H H sepa . The germination remains rated s f ales of the same; a and b -, f i r , represent the outer chaff of the seed. good for several years. It (Enlarged.) is sometimes adulterated with timothy seed. Among the common weed seeds pres- ent as impurities are oxeye daisy and buckhorn. The legal weight to the bushel is 14 pounds, but the actual weight ranges from 12 to 40 pounds. The number of seeds to one pound varies with the quality. Thus, it is given as 4,135,900 by the Illinois Experiment Station; 6,400,000 by the North Carolina Experiment Station; and 7,800,000 by Hunt, quoting from Lawson. Stebler gives the number as 603,000, evidently an error. CHAPTER IX ORCHARD-GRASS, TALL OAT-GRASS AND BROME-GRASSES TIMOTHY is to such preponderating extent the most im- portant hay grass in America that other valuable sorts have been relatively much neglected. The species dis- cussed here have somewhat different adaptations than timothy, and hence are potentially important in regions where timothy does not thrive well. Orchard-grass and tall oat-grass are well adapted to a broad belt south of the area in which' timothy succeeds best. Brome-grass is es- pecially valuable in temperate regions of small rainfall. ORCHARD-GRASS 174. Description. Orchard-grass, in England com- monly called cock's-foot or rough cock's-foot, is a long- lived, perennial grass forming dense circular tufts which may become a foot or more in diameter. It is a typical bunch grass, producing no stolons, and hence never forms a complete sod. The peculiar inflorescence is characteris- tic and cannot be mistaken for any other cultivated grass. 175. Botany. Orchard-grass (Dactylis glomerata) is native throughout Europe excepting the northernmost portions, much of the northern half of Asia, and in Africa in the mountains of Algeria and in Madeira and the Canaries. Botanists have distinguished a x considerable number of varieties. Among the more noteworthy are hispanica, which has the branches of the panicle not 176 ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 177 stalked but flower-bearing to the base; maritima, with the panicle dark violet ; pendula, with a looser, somewhat drooping panicle ; abbreviata, with a short compact panicle ; and ciliata, which differs from all the above in having hairy sheaths and lemmas. Very closely related species are Dactylis aschersoniana, which has creeping root- stocks and mostly 6-flowered spikelets, and Dactylis altaica. None of these have become agricultural grasses, but variety pendula was at one time supplied by Vil- morin in France. 176. Agricultural history. Orchard- grass was cultivated* in Virginia before 1760, in which year seed was sent to Eng- land. Its Culture in F IG. 17. Orchard-grass (Dactylis Continental Europe be- Olomerata). a, spikelet ; b, floret ; c, sta- n . mens and pistil ; d, ligule ; e, section of gan about the begin- no d e . ning of the nine- teenth century and became important by 1850. At the present time it is cultivated in nearly all temper- ate regions. 178 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 177. Climatic adaptations. While orchard-grass is strictly a temperate grass, it will withstand a greater quantity of heat than timothy, and is also more easily injured by winter cold.. In the United States, it is culti- vated more abundantly southward than northward. This distribution is due partly to competition with timothy and partly from the fact that fall-sown stands of orchard- grass are uncertain. This uncertainty has been ascribed to late frosts rather than winter cold, but the evidence is not satisfactory. Orchard-grass begins its growth in spring much earlier than most grasses, which is one reason why the late spring frosts are injurious. At Copper Center, Alaska, it was entirely winter-killed, while a considerable percentage of timothy survived. At Fort Vermilion, Alberta, orchard-grass planted in spring was completely killed the succeeding winter when the minimum reached was 23 below zero Fahrenheit. 178. Soil preferences. While orchard-grass will grow in all types of soils, it ordinarily does not succeed well in sands or muck. It is best adapted to clays or clay loams. It is not averse to wet soils, but prefers a moderate amount of moisture. Fair success can be had when the rainfall is rather scanty, as it is somewhat more resistant to drought than is timothy. 179. Adaptation to shade. Orchard-grass succeeds so well in shady places that this peculiarity has given rise to one of its common names. Its adaptation to shade has been ascribed as due partly to its great leanness and partly to its early growth before the trees become leafy. How- ever, it succeeds apparently as well in the shade of ever- greens as of deciduous trees. Stebler in Switzerland shaded artificially one portion of a field sown to a mixture of grasses and determined each ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 179 year the percentage of each grass. The percentage o f orchard-grass each year was as follows : 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 Not shaded .... 0.5 6.6 17.6 21.8 23.3 10.0 Shaded 1.7 21.1 34.4 46.3 40.9 37.8 The percentage increase of the orchard-grass due to the gradual disappearance of the other grasses was more marked in the shaded than in the unshaded area. 180. Variability. Orchard-grass is exceedingly vari- able, not less so than timothy. Numerous varieties can easily be selected anywhere from thin fields and from the roadsides. Cross-pollination is the rule so that such individual plants usually give rise to diverse progeny. There can be no question that pure strains much superior to the ordinary mixed progeny can easily be isolated. It is doubtful, however, if the importance of this grass in the United States is sufficient to justify selection and the care necessary to keep strains pure. 181. Advantages and disadvantages. To illustrate the strong and weak points of orchard-grass it may be compared with timothy. Orchard-grass is better adapted to conditions southward and less so to those northward; it is less well suited to being grown in pure cultures, owing to its bunchy habit ; it can be cut for hay much earlier ; it becomes woody after full bloom much more rapidly and markedly ; the cost of seed per acre is about five times as large ; the spring growth is more abundant and much earlier ; the aftermath is much greater, often producing a second crop of hay ; the plants are more persistent both in meadows and pastures. 180 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE In average yield of hay and in feeding value, there probably is but little difference, but the market pref- erence in America is strongly in favor of timothy. . 182. Importance. Orchard-grass is probably fourth or fifth in importance among cultivated perennial hay grasses in America. As a hay grass it should be second or third in importance, as southward it is much better adapted than timothy, and should be more generally employed, especially in mixtures. At present, orchard-grass is most important in Kentucky, southern Indiana, Iowa, North Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland and western Oregon. The relative importance of orchard-grass is much higher in Europe than in America. 183. Seeding of orchard-grass. Seed may be sown both in the fall and in very early spring. If sown in the fall, early seedings are preferable as this much lessens the danger of winter-killing. In the seed-growing sections, it is the common practice to sow the grass in February in fall-sown wheat, and it is often sown at the same time on ground which has been in corn during the previous season. It may also be sown with spring oats. Whether sown in fall or in spring, the first year's growth rarely yields a crop of hay, but can be utilized only as pasturage. On this account, as well as the danger of winter-killing, spring seedings are in general to be preferred. When planting for a seed crop, thin seeding is desirable, and for this purpose one bushel of seed, which weighs about 14 pounds, is commonly used. If planted for hay, double this quantity is very satisfactory as the plants are thicker and the hay less coarse. The seed does not feed well through a drill and so is sown by hand or with a wheelbarrow or other type of seeder. Very shallow cover- ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 181 ing of the seed apparently gives the best results, and some- times it is broadcasted with subsequent harrowing. For Ohio Williams recommends 20 pounds per acre for hay, and 12 to 20 pounds if for seed production. Werner recommends 35 pounds in Germany, and Stebler the same amount in Switzerland. 184. Life history. If sown in spring orchard-grass does not come to bloom the first season. Its development is very slow as compared to other grasses. In mixtures it may not bloom till the third season. Orchard-grass is very long-lived and persists indefi- nitely when once planted. Individual plants are known to live eight years and they will probably live much longer. Where orchard-grass seed-production is carried on, fields are usually allowed to lay five to seven years. 185. Harvesting for hay. Orchard-grass should be cut for hay as soon as it reaches full bloom. If permitted to stand longer, the stems become much more woody. Its period of maturity is usually three weeks to a month earlier than that of timothy. This earlier date of harvest- ing is advantageous in the case of land badly infested with oxeye daisy and fleabane, as these weeds have not ripened their seed at the time orchard-grass hay is cut, and con- sequent^ the use of orchard-grass tends to free the land of these weeds. After the first crop of hay has been harvested orchard- grass produces a rapid and abundant second growth, which consists largely of leaves, the culms being com- paratively few. This second growth is much greater than that of any other hay grass adapted to temperate condi- tions. The yield of hay from the second crop is usually smaller than the first. Even when the first crop is cut for seed, the second 182 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE growth often makes a fair crop of hay by the end oi August or early September. 186. Yields of hay. While orchard-grass is best suited for sowing in mixture, it will when seeded alone usually yield about as well as timothy. The yield of dry matter at the Illinois Experiment Station was found to be 2642 pounds an acre when in full bloom and 3232 when the seeds were in the milk. Yields in pounds per acre have been reported by Ameri- can experiment stations as follows : Ohio, 2197 ; Kansas, 2809; Illinois, 2800; Michigan, 2080; Idaho, 5280; Arlington Farm, Virginia, 2880; North Carolina, 1554; Arkansas, 3188. In Europe yields have been reported as follows : Sinclair in England, 11,685 pounds; Pinckert in Germany, 3520 pounds ; Vianne in France, 15,570 pounds. Orchard-grass was grown continuously on two plots at the Michigan Experiment Station from 1897 to 1905. The yield by acre in pounds on the two plots was as follows : YEAR 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 Yields . . . . j 3000 3000 258 183 1750 2250 2760 3620 2150 2900 1500 2150 2230 2970 2250 2330 1640 2620 After plowing up the sod in 1906, the plots were cropped to corn in 1906, oats in 1907 and wheat in 1908. Heavier yields were secured on these plots than on plots that had been in fallow continuously or on others which had been planted to regular rotations mostly including clover. The yield of the orchard-grass for the last seven years was quite uniform. For yields under irrigation see Par. 41. ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME^GRASSES 183 187. Harvesting orchard-grass for seed. In the United States most of the seed is grown in the counties of Jefferson, Oldham and Shelby in Kentucky, Clark County, Indiana, Clinton and Highland Counties, Ohio, and in northern Virginia. The average yield an acre, as reported by the better farmers, is ten to twelve bushels. Har- vesting usually begins about the middle of June, the crop being ready for cutting as soon as the seeds become straw- colored. This is easily detected by bending the heads in the palm of the hand, and if. some of the seeds shatter out, it is ready to cut. The grass is practically always harvested with an ordinary grain binder, care being taken to make small bundles so as to facilitate rapid curing. The bundles are commonly placed three in a shock, which is tied with two bands of straw so as to hold the bundles firmly and prevent the seed from shattering. Depending on the weather, the shocks are left in the field up to four weeks before they are cured thoroughly. Thrashing usually takes place directly from the field. As a rule the grass is cut high so as to avoid low-growing weeds, and also because the undergrowth is thus left for subsequent pasturing or to be cut as hay. The thrashing is done with an ordinary grain thrasher, but using special riddles and but little wind. 188. Weeds. The most troublesome weeds in orchard- grass fields in the states where the seed is mainly grown are whiteweed (Erigeron strigosus and E. annuus) ; sorrel (Rumex acetosella) ; oxeye daisy (Chrysanthemum Leucan- themum) ; milfoil (Achillcea Mittefolium) ; and buckhorn (Plantago lanceolata) . Some seed growers cut out these weeds with a hoe before the crop of orchard-grass is harvested, but this method is expensive. Spraying with weed-killing chem- 184 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE icals has been used to a small extent, but is not very satisfactory. A much better method is to use sheep to keep the weeds down. These animals may be turned in the field as soon as the grass begins to grow in spring, and allowed to remain until harvest time, but many growers remove them in early May. As the orchard-grass matures, the sheep eat but little of it, but graze principally on the weeds, especially white weed. They do very little damage to the grass when it is dry but should be removed during wet weather. Even when sheep stampede through a field nearly ripe but few culms are broken. This is due to the bunching habit of the orchard-grass which leaves room between the plants for the feet of the sheep, and the stout stems are seldom injured. Cattle are not nearly as satisfactory as sheep, for they trample down too much of the grass. 189. Seed. Orchard-grass seed is often adulterated with that of meadow fescue and perennial rye-grass, both of which resemble it rather closely, and both of which are much cheaper. Orchard-grass seed, however, may be readily distinguished from these two by the slightly smaller size and the awn-pointed apex of the lemma, which in both of the others is merely acute (Fig. 18). The best quality of seed reaches a purity of 95-98 per cent and a viability of 98-99 per cent. Germination is complete in 14 days. The seed deteriorates but little the first year, but thereafter more rapidly, so that when four years old it is worthless. A bushel weighs from 12 to 22 pounds, the usual legal weight being 14 pounds. One pound contains, according to different authorities, 579,500 seeds (Stebler), 426,000 seeds (Hunter), 400,000 to 480,000 seeds (Hunt). ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 185 190. Sources of seed. Commercial seed of orchard- grass is most largely grown in the United States .and in New Zealand, but some seed is produced in Europe (southern France, Germany, Hungary, Holland, etc.). New Zealand seed is sometimes imported into the United States in considerable quantity. No American experi- ments, however, have been reported as to the relative FIG. 18. Mixture of seeds of orchard-grass (a), meadow fescue grass (b) and English rye-grass (c). The orchard-grass seeds are distinguished from the others by their slender, curved form. The meadow fescue and rye-grass seeds are distinguished by the difference in the section of the seed-cluster axis (rachilla segment) which each bears. (Enlarged.) yield obtained from seed from different sources. In plots grown side by side in Virginia the New Zealand strain was distinctly shorter and apparently inferior by about 20 per cent. Under Swiss conditions, Stebler reports that French seed gives the most satisfactory results, but American is scarcely inferior, though a little later ; in two out of five trials the American outyielded the French strain. Seed 186 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE from Switzerland, Holland and Germany gave in each case practically as good results as that from France. The New Zealand strain proved inferior to the French in six trials. It proved to be slower in growth and somewhat less winter hardy. At three experiment stations in Denmark, tests were conducted for three years to determine the amount of hay produced from seed from different sources; namely, United States, Denmark, Germany, France, Sweden, Australia and New Zealand. The American strain was slightly superior to the European at two of the stations. The Australian and New Zealand strains showed a smaller yield by about 20 per cent. 191. Utilization of stubble and aftermath. Among orchard-grass seed growers, there is much difference of opinion as to the utilization of the stubble and aftermath, especially as to its effect upon the next year's seed crop. A common practice is to cut the stubble and aftermath in the latter part of August and to utilize it for hay, but some farmers allow it to lie on the field as a mulch. Some farmers cut the stubble as soon as possible after seed har- vest, while others believe it is best to leave both the stubble and aftermath uncut. Pasturing the stubble and aftermath is a very common practice and if done judiciously, especially with sheep, is believed not only not to lessen the next season's crop but even to cause an increase. 192. Mixtures. Orchard-grass, excepting for seed production, is seldom sown alone as the bunchy nature of the grass does not fully utilize the ground. One of the most satisfactory mixtures is orchard-grass, tall meadow oat-grass and alsike clover, in the following proportions : 10 pounds of orchard-grass, 20 pounds of tall meadow oat- ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 187 grass, 4 pounds of alsike clover. The tall meadow oat- grass matures with the orchard-grass, and at this time a satisfactory growth of the alsike clover has also been made. On much of the area south of the Potomac and Ohio rivers, this mixture yields much more satisfactory crops than timothy and red clover. Another mixture commonly used is orchard-grass and red clover, which is very satisfactory wherever red clover succeeds well. In this mixture, orchard-grass is sown at the usual rate and about 10 pounds of red clover used to the acre. This mixture is often used where the orchard- grass is grown mainly for seed, as the clover interferes but little with the harvesting of the seed crop, and adds greatly to the subsequent crop of hay or pasturage. 193. Pasturage value. Orchard-grass should be a constituent of pastures wherever this grass will grow. Especially is this true on account of its ability to grow in cool weather, as it will furnish the earliest and latest pasturage in the season. Furthermore, it succeeds best under heavy grazing, and produces a continuous succession of 3 r oung leaves. The most serious objection to it as a pasture grass is that, during unfavorable soil conditions, the plants are apt to be pulled out of the ground by pastur- ing animals. Where it forms only a portion of the pasture mixture, however, there is but little difficulty from this source. Cattle graze upon it quite as readily as upon timothy, but prefer Kentucky blue-grass to both. 194. Feed value. No American feeding experiments with orchard-grass hay have been reported. Judged wholly by its chemical analysis and digestibility, orchard- grass should be considerably more nutritious than timothy hay, and many farmers consider that this is the case 188 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE both for horses and cows. There is considerable market prejudice against it, however, on account of its relative coarseness. 195. Value as a soil binder. Orchard-grass is com- monly recognized as exceedingly valuable to plant in places where the soil is likely to wash. Thus, planted in rills with rye as a nurse crop, it has proven very effective in preventing further washing. Its effectiveness is ap- parently more due to the large tussocks that it makes than to any other one character. Orchard-grass has deeper roots than most grasses. Ten Eyck at the Kansas Experiment Station found that the root system of a large plant extended to a depth of 3| feet. The root mass was very dense in the top 6 inches, but below 10 inches rapidly became thinner. At the Arkansas Experiment Station the total weight of the roots was found to be equal to the tops. Fifty per cent of the roots were in the top 12 inches and 90 per cent in the top 30 inches. 196. Improvement by selection. Orchard-grass is decidedly variable, apparently more so than timothy. The contrasting characters are easily seen when vegeta- tively propagated rows are grown in a nursery. Marked differences are apparent in height, coarseness, leanness, color, earliness, number of culms, length of leaves, etc. In recent years the study of these variations with the object of developing improved strains has received at- tention both in America and in Europe. 197. Pests. Orchard-grass is but little troubled by insects or diseases. Occasionally rust is found in small quantity. A very common trouble, however, is the tip burn of the leaves, a characteristic trouble of the grass, which seems not to have been scientifically investigated. ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 189 TALL OAT-GRASS 198. Names. -Tall oat-grass (Arrhenatherum elatius) is known also as tall meadow oat-grass, tall oat-grass, false oat-grass, French rye-grass and, in the South, evergreen grass. The French name, fro- mental, has become much used in Germany and Switzerland, and is advocated by Stebler as a convenient and distinctive name for general adoption. Synonyms of the sci- entific name are Ar- rhenatherum avenaceum and Avena elatior. 199. Botany. Tall oat-grass is native to southern Europe and northern Africa, but ranges eastward into Persia. It is quite variable, eight varie- ties being considered distinguishable by Eu- ropean botanists. The most noteworthy variety is tuberosa which bears a number of bulbs at base like a string of small onions and is therefore called Onion Couch. This is sparingly intro- duced in the United States. In Europe it occurs mainly FIG. 19. Tall oat-grass (Arrhena- therum elatius). a, spikelet; b, the two florets. 190 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE on poor pasture lands and not in fields of tall oat-grass. Under some conditions it has been found in Great Britain troublesome as a weed. Some botanists have considered that the bulbs are abnormal and produced by a parasite, but the variety breeds true to seed. Stebler and Volkart report that in small plots it yielded less than half as much hay as tall oat-grass. Other varieties are subhirsuta with sparsely hairy sheaths ; biaristata with both florets of each spikelet bear- ing awns ; flavescens with the spikelets yellow instead of pale green; and hermaphrodita with the spikelets some- times 3-flowered, and all the florets perfect. 200. Agricultural history. Tall oat-grass was ad- vocated for culture by Kalm in Sweden in 1747. Accord- ing to Schreber, however, it was first cultivated by Abbe Miroudet in France, in 1760, but Stebler and Volkart state that it was probably cultivated in southern France before that time and it was commended by Stapf er for cultivation in Switzerland in 1762. It was cultivated in Massachu- setts as early as 1807 and in South Carolina in 1824. 201. Adaptations. Tall oat-grass is adapted to about the same climatic conditions as orchard-grass; that is, it will not endure as much cold as timothy, but will withstand greater summer heat. It is one of the most drought resistant of all cultivated grasses, being excelled in this respect only by brome-grass and western wheat-grass. Wet soils are distinctly in- jurious and tall oat-grass will not endure on such land. It does well under irrigation, provided the subsoil be well drained. It thrives best on loose, deep loams and calcareous soils, but succeeds also on sandy and gravelly soils. Per- haps no other perennial grass will yield as well on very ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 191 poor land. Nevertheless its yields are greatly increased by the use of fertilizers. It does not grow well in shade, but rapidly disappears. For this reason, it should never be sown with a nurse crop, as both the thickness and the vigor of the stand is much lessened thereby. For the same reason it is injured in mixtures by any grass which shades the ground too much. Tall oat-grass is primarily a hay grass. Frequent cuttings reduce the total yield greatly, and under pasturing the return is comparatively small. In the Southern States tall oat-grass remains green the whole year, whence it has been called evergreen grass. It languishes, however, in midsummer in the moist region near the Gulf of Mexico. 202. Importance. Tall oat-grass is not an important grass in America. In continental Europe it is considered one of the best grasses and is commonly grown, especially in France. In England it has never been much used. To some extent the grass is cultivated in Australia. In the United States it is mostly employed on poor or gravelly land and near the southern limit of timothy production. In experiments continued over several years at Arlington Farm, Virginia, a mixture of this grass with orchard-grass and alsike clover was found to be far- more productive on relatively poor land than any other perennial grass or grass mixture. This mixture has recently been received with much favor in South Carolina, and for much of the area south of the timothy region is probably the best combination of perennial grasses for hay meadows. For this reason the grass seems destined to increase in im- portance. 203. Characteristics. Tall oat-grass is a long-lived, deep-rooted perennial. It is strictly a bunch grass, all 192 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE the new shoots being produced intravaginally and grow- ing perfectly erect. The lowermost joint may, however, be elbowed, due to resistance encountered by the young shoot when developing through the old tuft. The stems grow to a height of about 4 feet, rarely 6 feet. The panicle is pyramidal, loose and pale green, more nearly resembling that of the oat than any other cultivated per- ennial grass. The spikelets bear two florets, the lower bearing a long, twisted and elbowed awn from its base. In mixtures where tall oat is not shaded by other grasses, it maintains itself well for five years or even more. The hay is somewhat bitter in taste and on this and other accounts it is better grown in mixtures. At Arlington Farm, Virginia, however, horses ate pure hay of tall oat- grass readily, and most American experiment stations have reported that animals eat it well. Its supposed un- palatability is probably exaggerated and, as in similar cases, it is presumably easy to accustom animals to its taste. 204. Seeding. Tall oat-grass, whether sown alone or in mixtures, is best sown in the spring in the North, but in the South early fall seeding is preferable. In Ten- nessee the best time is the latter half of September or else March and April. A well-prepared firm seed bed is most desirable. The seed is rather large and deep seeding is important, about 1 inch in moist soil and 1J inches when dry. European authorities recommend for one acre, if sown alone, 80 pounds of seed germinating 50 per cent ; that is, about 40 pounds of viable seed. 205. Hay. Tall oat-grass should be cut for hay promptly when it blooms, as thereafter the stems rapidly become more woody. It cures into hay more readily than most other grasses. ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 193 On rich soils it may be cut as many as three or four times in a season, but on poor soils but once or twice. The first cutting is nearly always the largest. The yield the second year is nearly always the heaviest. European authorities have recorded the following hay yields to the acre : Pinckert, 6340 pounds secured from two cuttings ; Sprengel, 8800 pounds. Karmrodt in Germany secured from the same plot in four successive years yields at the rate respectively of 6468, 15,268, 10,384 and 7524 pounds to the acre. Yields to the acre in pounds have been reported from American experiment stations as follows : North Carolina, 2994 ; Louisiana, 3400 ; Kentucky, 8160 ; North Dakota, 3220 ; South Dakota, 2083 ; Ohio, 2247, 6-year average ; Kansas, 2453, 4-year average; Illinois, 5480; Arlington Farm, Virginia, 3720 ; Michigan (Upper Peninsula), 5680; Utah, 2691 ; Idaho, 5760; Ontario (Guelph), 5520, 7-year average. In general about 3 pounds of the green grass make 1 pound of hay. 206. Seed-production. The seed of tall oat-grass is mostly grown in Europe (France, Tyrol, Switzerland, Bohemia) but some is produced in Virginia. Spillman states that at the Washington Experiment Station it shattered very readily within 24 hours after it began to ripen. On the contrary, Stebler says the growing of seed in Europe is very profitable because it yields well, is easily harvested and commands a good price. It is ready to cut for seed when the panicles turn yellowish and the grain can be broken by the finger nail. It is better, however, to cut too early than too late to avoid loss by shattering. If a binder is used in harvesting, early cutting is necessary. o 194 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE The yield of seed to the acre in Europe is given by Pinck- ert as 880 pounds; by Walker, as 88 to 132 pounds; by Michalowski as the average of 4 years, 328 pounds; by Jung, 880 pounds, when grown on a large scale ; and by Werner as 724 to 880 pounds. Tall oat-grass is frequently infested with a smut (Usti- lago perennans) which destroys the attacked seeds. 207. Seed. The seed of tall oat-grass weighs 10 to 16 pounds per bushel. It loses viability quite rapidly after the first year, and by the fourth year is practically worthless. In common with other grass seeds for which there is small demand in America, seed is quite likely to be old or else mixed with old seeds. The percentage of impurities in tall oat-grass seed is rather large, on the average 20 per cent, but the other seeds are commonly those of other grasses which occur in fields, such as orchard-grass and meadow fescue, but there is often considerable cockle (Agrostemma githago) present. One pound contains about 150,000 (138,000 to 159,000) seeds. 208. Mixtures. Tall oat-grass should rarely be sown alone unless for the purpose of seed production. Among the reasons for growing it in mixtures are its bunch habit, its relative lack of palatability, the cost of the seed and the fact that it is primarily a top grass. It must not, however, be sown in mixtures containing much Italian rye-grass or other grasses which grow more rapidly and thus injure the tall oat seedlings by shading ; nor should it be sown with grasses that mature distinctly earlier or later, as tall oat-grass should be cut when in bloom. It is early and blooms about 10 days sooner than red clover. European authorities recommend that only 10- 20 per cent of tall oat-grass should be used in mixtures, ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 195 but a larger percentage has not been found disadvantageous in America. The best grasses and clovers for mixing with tall oat- grass are orchard-grass, meadow fescue, alsike and red clover. In the region south of the best area for timothy and red clover the so-called Arlington mixture has been found especially good, the amount indicated to be sown on one acre : Orchard-grass ... 10 pounds Tall oat-grass 20 pounds Alsike clover 4 pounds BROME-GRASS 209. Names and description. Brome-grass (Bromus inermis) is also called smooth brome awnless brome, Hungarian brome, Russian brome and Austrian brome. It is a long-lived perennial grass, enduring according to Werner 12 to 13 years. Each plant produces many underground rootstocks and thus mats a foot or more in diameter are formed. Single plants under favorable conditions grow to a height of about 4 feet, and each one may possess 100 to 200 culms. The basal leaves are numerous, and the lower half of each culm may bear 5 or 6 leaves. After two or three years it forms a dense sod and there- after without special treatment the plants form but few culms. This characteristic makes it better suited for permanent pastures than for hay production. 210. Botany. Bromus inermis is native to much of Europe and extends through Siberia to China. Botani- cally it is not very variable, though five or six varieties have been deemed worthy of botanical designations. Among these varieties are pellitus with lower leaves and 196 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE sheaths hairy; divaricatus with triangular pyramidal panicles and small spikelets ; pauciflorus with small 3-4- flowered spikelets ; and aristatus with the lemma short- awned. Very closely related but perhaps distinct is Bromus Reimanni with short leaves and small panicles. 211. Agricultural history. - - Brome- grass was first culti- vated, according to Schreber, in 1769 as a pasture grass. It is not, however, an important grass in Europe, being grown mainly in Hungary and Russia. It was introduced into the United States prior to 1884 by the California Experi- ment Station. It FIG. 20. Brome-grass (Bromus incrmis) . has met with most a, spikelet; b, floret, dorsal view ; c, floret, f avor m the region west of the 95th meridian and north of latitude 36, especially as a grass for unirrigated lands. In North and South Dakota and in the Columbia Basin brome-grass attained con- siderable prominence, but in recent years its cultiva- tion has slowly diminished. More of it has been ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 197 grown in the Dakotas and in Manitoba than in any other region. 212. Adaptations. Brome-grass is especially adapted to regions of rather low rainfall and moderate summer temperatures. High summer temperatures and humidity are both adverse. In trial plots the grass has succeeded well enough in the region of timothy and red clover, but has not attained popularity. It prefers rich loams and clay loams, but has succeeded well in sandy soils. No other cultivated perennial grass has shown a higher degree of drought resistance. Brome endures winter cold remarkably well and no instances of winter injury have been reported even in North Dakota. At Kenai, Alaska, it succeeds fairly well except in very moist summers. 213. Depth of roots. Shepperd at the North Dakota Experiment Station found that one-year-old plants had roots 4 feet deep, and two-year-old plants 5J feet. At the same station brome roots were found to be 5 to 6 feet deep when timothy roots reached only 3J feet. Ten Eyck at the Kansas Experiment Station found roots to a depth of 4J feet, at which depth solid rock prevented further penetration, but the roots had spread over the rock in a large mass. 214. Method of seeding. In the regions where it is most grown, brome-grass is nearly always seeded in early spring on a well-prepared seed bed. Fall plowing in some places is preferable as it insures a better supply of moisture. The surface of the seed bed should be well firmed by harrow- ing, and rolling is also desirable. Where the rainfall is sufficient the grass is often sown with a nurse crop wheat, oats, barley or spelt. The grass seed does not feed well through a drill, so it is usually 198 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE broadcasted after the grain has been drilled, and then covered by harrowing crosswise to the drill rows. In regions where fall-sown timothy will succeed, brome- grass may be sown in fall either with or without wheat, or the brome-grass may be sown alone in late summer. At the Nebraska Experiment Station in 1902 brome- grass was sown March 24, April 8 and 21, May 7 and 19, August 7 and 19, September 15, October 1 and 21. All produced good stands except the last seeding which was winter-killed. 215. Rate of seeding brome-grass. The usual rate of seeding is 1 bushel (14 pounds) to the acre, but under favorable conditions 10 pounds is sufficient. Where only pasture is desired a double quantity of seed is often used, as a dense stand will permit of grazing sooner. At the Wisconsin Experiment Station 32 pounds to the acre gave much better results than 16 or 24 pounds, but in all cases the yield was small. The North Dakota and Nebraska Experiment Stations recommend 20 pounds to the acre. According to Werner, brome is sown in Europe at the rate of 55 kg. to the hectare ; that is, 48 pounds to the acre. 216. Time to cut for hay. Brome-grass is usually cut for hay just after full bloom at the stage called " the purple." There is a considerable period, however, in which it may be cut with apparently little effect on the hay. Under favorable conditions of moisture two cuttings can be obtained, the first in June or July, the second in September. The second crop produces but few culms, and the yield is much smaller. The hay cures less readily than timothy and is more easily injured by unfavorable weather. At the North Dakota Experiment Station brome- grass cut at three different dates, June 21, June 25 and ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 199 July 9, gave respectively 5637, 6456 and 7632 pounds to the acre green substance, or 2290, 2462 and 2802 pounds dry substance. At the first date the grass was in bloom ; at the second in the milk stage ; and at the third fully mature. 217. Hay. The yield of hay from brome-grass is usually small the first year, good the second year and best the third year. Thereafter it falls off rapidly unless given special treatment. The average yield of hay is about 1J tons to the acre, the maximum about 3J tons. Yields to the acre have been reported from many experiment sta- tions, as follows : Ohio, 2900 pounds in 1905, 5960 pounds in 1910 ; Wisconsin, 4200 pounds ; Michigan (Upper Peninsula), 4295 and 3285 pounds ; Nebraska, 4640 pounds in 1900, 2640 in 1903 ; Kansas, 6016 pounds, average for 4 years ; Colorado (San Luis Valley), 3713 pounds ; Idaho, 5600 pounds ; Wyoming, 4400 pounds ; South Dakota, third, fourth and fifth seasons, 3720, 3632 and 7680 pounds respectively ; North Dakota, Fargo, 2520 pounds, and Dickinson, 2520 pounds, average for 2 years ; Indian Head, Saskatchewan, average of 18 yields in 10 years, 2622 pounds ; Brandon, Manitoba, average of 6 yields in 4 years, 4100 pounds. For yield under irrigation see Par. 41. 218. Fertilizers. But few fertilizer experiments have been made on brome-grass. Barnyard manure is nearly always helpful, if available. Manured and unmanured plots yielded respectively 2012 and 1242 pounds per acre at Dickinson, N.D., and 5500 and 3920 pounds per acre at Fargo, N.D. At the Nebraska Experiment Station a small plot fer- tilized at the rate of about 6 tons of rotted horse manure and 320 pounds nitrate of soda in spring yielded the fol- 200 FOE AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE lowing year at the rate of 5666 pounds to the acre against 2166 for a check plot. At the Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada, 400 pounds superphosphate to the acre gave a greatly in- creased yield. 219. Treatment of meadows. In the Dakotas and adjacent Canada, brome-grass fields as a rule yield the first season nothing but a small amount of pasturage; the second year, a good crop of hay; the third year, a maximum crop ; the fourth year, a decidedly diminished yield; and thereafter, but little unless special treatment is given. In the Columbia Basin a good amount of pasture is secured the first year, the second year the grass yields but moderately if cut for hay, but bears a heavy crop of seed. The third year the hay crop is at a maximum. Brome-grass, after the third or fourth year, falls off in yield rapidly on account of what is called a " sod- bound " condition, apparently due in part to the spread- ing of the grass, and in part to the increasing compactness of the soil. Loosening the soil thoroughly will renew the vigor of the grass. On loose or sandy soil harrowing with disk or spike-tooth harrow is fairly effective. On heavier soils plowing is necessary, the time depending largely on the soil moisture conditions. But little of the grass is killed by plowing. Several methods have been used : 1. Plowing about 2 inches deep in spring, a method advocated by the Saskatchewan Experiment Farm. 2. Plowing after the hay crop is harvested, advocated by the Brandon, Manitoba, Experiment Farm. 3. Plowing in spring and seeding to oats or other grain, to which some brome seed may be added. In this way a crop of grain is secured and a full grass crop the next year. ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, ^ROME-GRASSES 201 4. Breaking the sod in fall, and sowing oats or other small grain in spring. The next season a full crop of grass is obtained. 220. Seed-production. The seed of brome-grass is mainly grown in North and South Dakota, and in Mani- toba and Saskatchewan. It is cut at the stage called " brown " when the seed is fully formed and nearly ripe. It is usually harvested with a binder, more rarely with a header and occasionally with a mowing machine. When a binder is used, the grass is cut as high as possible and the bundles then shocked for curing. The tall stubble is then cut for hay and yields about one ton per acre. Harvesting the seed with a header leaves a larger amount of the grass for hay. The seed is thrashed with an ordinary thrashing machine, using special riddles, and with the wind shut off to prevent the seed from blowing over. The seed usually contains fragments of straw which cannot all be separated even with a fanning mill. Seed yields average from about 250 to 350 pounds to the acre. At the Saskatchewan Experimental Farm as high as 600 pounds to the acre were secured. At the Iowa Ex- periment Station 300 pounds were obtained. At North Platte, Nebraska, three plots yielded respectively 157, 200 and 700 pounds to the acre, the first plot being on land previously in alfalfa. 221. Seed. Although brome-grass seed is easily distinguished, it is sometimes adulterated with meadow fescue, perennial rye-grass and cheat. European seed sometimes contains quack-grass as an impurity, and the seeds of this are very similar to western wheat-grass, which may occur in American seed. The best commercial brome-grass seed attains a purity 202 FOE AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE of 98-99 per cent, and a viability of 90-95 per cent. Germination tests should continue 14 days. The seed weighs 12 to 20 pounds to the bushel. One pound contains 137,000 seeds, according to Stebler. 222. Pasture value. Brome-grass is better adapted for pasture purposes than for hay. Under semi-arid con- ditions in the Northwest, brome-grass is without question the best pasture grass for cultivated lands yet discovered. Its ability to withstand drought is as great as that of alfalfa. Other characters that emphasize its pasture value, especially on sandy lands, are its sod producing habit, which enables it to withstand trampling and pre- vents uprooting. Comparative tests have shown that it is one of the most palatable of all grasses, cattle grazing upon it in preference even to blue-grass. It begins to grow very early in the spring and continues growth into late fall. After frost the leaves become purplish, but the grass does not seem to lose in palatability. At the North Dakota Experiment Station brome-grass cut five times during the season yielded 5538 pounds of green grass against 4682 pounds for timothy. 223. Mixtures. Several mixtures with brome-grass have been employed and are especially satisfactory in that they tend to delay the sod-bound condition. Timothy has been most used in mixtures, but alfalfa, red clover, orchard-grass, slender wheat-grass and meadow fescue have also been found desirable. At the Indian Head, Saskatchewan, Experimental Farm, a mixture of brome- grass and slender wheat-grass has proven particularly desirable. 224. Variability. Brome-grass, like most other grasses, shows a wide range of variability in desirable character- ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 203 istics. Numerous strains have been selected by Leckenby, by Evans and by Dillman of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, by Keyser of the Colorado Experiment Station and others. As yet no pure strains have become established. The progeny of some individuals is quite uniform; in others, very diverse. Keyser has selected 121 distinct strains, and has recently published illustrations and notes on the most striking. The individual plants vary in vigor, height, number of culms, amount of stooling, coarseness of stems, color of leaves and panicles, length and breadth of leaves and earliness. For pasture purposes the most desirable type is apparently one that stools vigorously and produces an abundance of leaves. For hay purposes, one that is relatively bunchy with tall, leafy culms is probably best. CHAPTER X OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPOR- TANCE THE grasses discussed in this chapter are all important in limited areas in America. Most of them thrive well over wide regions in which they are little or not at all used. With the increasing value and importance of grass lands in general agriculture, their greater utilization in the future scarcely admits of doubt. MEADOW FESCUE (Festuca elatior) 225. Botany and history. Meadow fescue occurs naturally over all of Europe and in much of temperate Asia. The species is not very variable, but eight or more varieties based on slight characters have been described and named by botanists. From a botanical point of view Festuca pratensis Hudson is considered identical with F. elatior Linnaeus, but seedsmen use these names as the equivalents, respectively, of two cultural varieties ; namely, meadow fescue or English blue-grass, and tall fescue. The former has also been known as Randall grass in the South, but this name has sometimes been applied to tall oat-grass, perhaps erroneously. Meadow fescue was first recommended for cultivation by Kalm in Sweden in 1747. 204 OTHEE GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE 205 226. Characteristics. Meadow fescue is a tufted, deep-rooted, long-lived perennial. It produces an abun- dance of dark green leaves on sterile shoots, and comparatively few culms or fertile shoots. The ster- ile shoots are about 4 times as numerous as the fertile ones. The culms are not very leafy, and grow commonly to a height of 18 to 24 inches or rarely 3 feet. Although the grass possesses no rootstocks it is not bunchy, but makes a fairly good sod. If cut either for hay or for seed, it pro- duces a good amount of after- math. If cut early, the second n j FIG. 21. Meadow fescue (Festuca elatior). crop will produce a spikelet . culms, but other- wise mostly leaves. It withstands pasturing very well. Old fields of meadow fescue are plowed without diffi- culty, and the grass is as readily destroyed as timothy. 227. Adaptations. Meadow fescue is adapted to 206 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE practically the same area as timothy. It prefers rich, moist or even wet soils, but does not succeed well in sandy land. In shady places it thrives quite as well as orchard- grass. It is better adapted for pastures than for meadows, but may be used for both purposes. The grass was early introduced in the United States and occurs spontaneously over the whole region to which it is adapted, but it seems never to be abundant under natural conditions. The grass is probably just as hardy as timothy and has suc- ceeded as far north as Kenai, Alaska. 228. Importance. Meadow fescue is a grass of small importance in American agriculture, except in eastern Kansas, where much seed is grown principally for export to Europe. This industry began in 1877 and has developed greatly since 1885. In 1903 the yield of seed was estimated at about 400,000 pounds. Both the yield and the prices fluctuate greatly, which has led to a larger utilization of the grass crop for hay and pasture. In Europe the grass is much employed both in meadow and in pasture mixtures. 229. Seeding. Meadow fescue should be sown on a well-prepared and thoroughly firmed seed bed. It may be seeded either in fall or in spring, but early fall is the usual time. Nurse crops are seldom used, as if fall sown a full crop ensues the first year. The usual rate of seeding is 10 to 15 pounds to the acre where a seed crop is desired. Heavier seedings are better for hay or for pasture, but probably reduce the seed crop. Red clover is some- times mixed to improve the subsequent crop of hay or pasture. In Europe the rate of seeding when sown alone is given at 40 pounds per acre by most authorities, but the grass is usually sown in mixtures. OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE 207 230. Hay. Meadow fescue should be cut for hay just as it comes into bloom, if the best quality is desired. The hay is somewhat stemmy and rather laxative. No American feeding experiments are reported, but the hay is as palatable as timothy, and stockmen consider it more fattening for cattle. It is probably too laxative to use exclusively as horse feed. In favorable moist seasons a crop of hay can be cut after one of seed is harvested, but this second crop is mainly leaves and but few culms. Meadows fertilized with barnyard manure remain productive a long time, in some instances as high as 17 years. It is considered better practice, however, to allow the fields to lie but 5 or 6 years. The average yield of hay in Kansas is given at 1 to 1.5 tons to the acre, but on fields fertilized with barnyard manure, these yields may be doubled. Acre yields have been reported from various experiment stations as follows : Ohio, 2100 pounds, average of 6 years ; Kansas, 2155 pounds, average of 4 years ; Illinois, 3775 pounds ; Michigan (Upper Peninsula) , 6070 pounds ; Utah, 2200 pounds ; Idaho, 5280 pounds ; Arlington Farm, Virginia, 3080 pounds; Nebraska, 2400 to 3450 pounds. At the Illinois Experiment Station the yield of dry substance was found to be 1424 pounds to the acre when in full bloom, and 1954 pounds when the blooming was completed. European authorities give the yield of hay as ranging from 3500 pounds to 10,000 pounds to the acre. 231. Seed-production. Meadow fescue should be cut for seed as soon as the fields assume a characteristic yellowish-brown color and the heads begin to droop from 208 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE the weight of grain. This is early in July in Kansas. The grass is commonly cut with a binder and cured in small shocks. Thrashing is done with an ordinary grain thrasher, but preferably using a special screen. Where a seed crop is the object, it is probably best not to pasture in spring. The opinions, as well as the practices, of seed growers, however, differ on this point. A moderate amount of fall pasturing is probably not injurious to the next seed crop. The average yield of seed is 8 to 12 bushels, and maxi- mum yields about 25 bushels to the acre. First-class seed weighs 25 pounds to the bushel. The commonest weeds that occur with meadow fescue in Kansas are flea bane (Erigeron ramosus), cheat (Bromus secalinus) and Japanese cheat (Bromus japoni- cus). The last two are particularly objectionable because of the difficulty of separating their seeds from the fescue seeds. Some seed is grown in Europe. Werner states that the yields in Germany range from 350 to 700 pounds to the acre. 232. Seed. Meadow fescue seed often contains a small percentage of cheat as an impurity, usually less than 5 per cent, but sometimes much more. Perennial rye-grass has in some cases been used as an adulterant, but this may be distinguished by the joints of the rachilla being flattened, slightly wedge shaped and not expanded at the apex. The best commercial seed attains a purity of 99 per cent and a viability of 95-98 per cent. It loses about 5 per cent viability the first year, but thereafter falls off more rapidly, three-year-old seed being nearly value- less. OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE 209 The weight of a bushel ranges from 15 to 30 pounds. One pound contains about 250,000 seeds. 233. Pasture value. Meadow fescue is better adapted for pasturing than for hay. It begins its growth early in the spring, and continues late in the fall. It is quite as palatable as Kentucky blue-grass, and stockmen in Kansas and Nebraska consider it especially valuable for fattening cattle. Meadow fescue is well adapted to growing in mixture with other grasses, especially in moist lands. It should probably be included in such mixtures throughout the timothy region. When grown alone, it endures in Kansas and Nebraska for 6 to 8 years, or, if manured and well cared for, 12 to 15 years. In mixtures it usually maintains itself for about five years, but is at its best the second and third years. 234. Pests. The only serious enemy that has attacked meadow fescue in America is a rust (Puccinia lolii). This fungus greatly injures the leaves of the aftermath, practically ruining the fall pastures. It also weakens the plants so that but few culms are produced the following season. Tall fescue, when growing adjacent to infected meadow fescue, remains almost wholly free from the fungus, but is not entirely immune. Strebel states that in Germany meadow fescue from American seed is far more subject to rust than that from German seed. 235. Hybrids. Festuca elatior is a remarkable grass because of its ability to make hybrids. Natural hybrids with Festuca arundinacea, F. gigantea, Lolium perenne and L. multiflorum have been described. None of these has been utilized agriculturally. 210 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE OTHER FESCUES 236. Tall fescue. Tall fescue differs from meadow fescue, mainly in being 6 to 12 inches taller, in its some- what looser panicles and in its resistance to rust. The seeds of the two are quite indistinguishable, but those of tall fescue command a much higher price. From limited experiments in Kansas and in Washington, tall fescue appears to yield only half as much seed as meadow fescue. The culms are comparatively few and the seeds ripen unevenly. Owing to its rust resistance, it may replace meadow fescue, especially as it yields larger crops of hay and the seed commands a higher price. At the Ohio Experiment Station tall fescue produced in four years on one-twentieth acre plots an average yield of 4870 pounds of hay per acre. 237. Reed fescue (Festuca arundinacea) . Reed fescue is native to Europe, North Africa and western Siberia. It is more variable than its close relative, F. elatior, about twelve varieties being botanically distinguished in Europe. By some botanists it is considered a variety of meadow fescue. It is, however, a larger and coarser plant in every way. It is perhaps most easily distinguished from tall fescue by the upper part of the culm, the lower sheaths and upper surface of the stiffer leaves being very scabrous. The seed is indistinguishable from tall fescue and it is sometimes sold for that by unscrupulous dealers. Reed fescue has from time to time been extravagantly praised, but has nowhere attained any definite agricultural status. It produces large yields of hay, which is said to be readily eaten by horses and cows. Sheep, however, refuse it, both as pasturage and as hay. So far as growth and seed OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE 211 production are concerned, it is far superior to both meadow fescue and tall fescue, but its lack of palat ability has kept it from being much used. PERENNIAL OR ENGLISH RYE-GRASS (Lolium 238. Name. The name " rye-grass " or " ray- grass," as applied to species of Lolium, did not originate from any fancied resemblance to rye. The name is probably derived from the French appellation for darnel (Lolium temulentum), "fausse ivraye " or "ivrai." From this the English designation was easily derived by abridg- ment into ray or rai = rye. In distinction to Italian rye-grass, it is known either as perennial or English rye- grass. 239. Agricultural history. Perennial rye-grass was the first of all perennial grasses to be grown in pure cul- tures for forage. According to Sutton it was first mentioned in agricultural literature in England in 1611. Werner states that it was first cultivated by Eustace, who lived in Oxford about 1681. Sinclair refers to a mention of its cultivation in Wor- lidge's " Husbandry," published in 1669, but it is not clear that Worlidge really referred to perennial rye-grass. 240. Botany. Perennial rye-grass occurs naturally in all of temperate Asia and in North Africa. Botanists have distinguished and named about 10 varieties. Hybrids are known with Festuca elatior, Festuca gigantea and Lolium muUiflorum. 241. Characteristics. This rye-grass is a short-lived, rapid-growing perennial, living only two years on poor lands, but persisting much longer under favorable con- ditions, especially in lawns and pastures. If grown in hay mixtures, it is apt to disappear after the first year, as 212 FOE AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE it does not withstand shading by taller grasses. It closely resembles Italian rye-grass, but can nearly always be distinguished by the awnless lemmas. The young leaves are folded and not convolute, as in Italian rye- grass. 242. Adaptations. This grass is primarily adapted to moist regions with mild winter climate. It continues to grow at low temperatures and partly on this account does not well withstand severe winter cold. In winter hardiness it is about equal to orchard-grass. It thrives best on rich, moist, well-drained soils, and does not do well on sandy soils, nor will it endure standing water near the surface. 243. Importance. In America, perennial rye-grass is of small importance, being seldom employed except as an admixture in lawn grasses. It succeeds well enough wherever red clover thrives, but has not won for itself a place in American agriculture. In Europe it is the principal pasture grass, being much employed on rich bottom or moor lands, usually in mixture with white clover, but it is also used as an element in practically all pasture land mixtures. In Europe it holds much the position which Kentucky blue-grass does in America. As a hay grass it is much inferior in yield to Italian rye and other grasses. It is also much cultivated in New Zealand. 244. Agricultural varieties. Besides being the oldest cultivated meadow-grass, perennial rye-grass was also the first in which cultural varieties were developed. Apparently this grass is little subject to cross-pollina- tion and hence varieties are not difficult to maintain. Sinclair in 1825 mentions six different named varieties in England, and intimates that others were known to him. OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE 213 At the present time English seedsmen advertise several varieties of this grass, but in some instances these " varieties " are merely seeds of different weights or sizes separated by machinery. 245. Culture. Perennial rye-grass may be sown either in the fall or in the spring, the former being pref- erable, as but little return can be obtained the first season if spring sown. The young plants grow more rapidly than most perennial grasses, so that some winter and early spring pasturage is afforded, in regions of mild winters. If used for pasturage the European practice is to pasture heavily enough to keep the culms from developing, as animals will not eat these. If grown for hay, one good cutting and a second smaller one may be secured. In common with most grasses, it should be cut when in full bloom. In pure cultures perennial rye-grass lasts three or four years when cut as hay, and somewhat longer if kept closely pastured. In mixed hay meadows it soon dis- appears. When sown alone, 25 to 35 pounds to the acre is used. 246. Hay yields. The hay yield of perennial rye- grass is not as large as most hay grasses. In Europe Werner gives the average yield to the acre as 3800 pounds, but as high as 7400 pounds has been recorded. Karmrodt in four successive years on the same plot secured yields to the hectare of 6791, 10,432, 9407 and 6653 kilograms, the yield being decidedly best in the second and third years. American experiment station yields to the acre in pounds are reported as follows : North Carolina, 5229 ; Kentucky, 4640 ; Ohio, 1822, 6-year average ; Kansas, 1050, 2-year average ; Arlington Farm, Virginia, 2800 ; Utah, 1410 214 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE and 1560 ; Idaho, 4000 ; Ontario (Guelph), 2500, 7-year average. 247. Seed-production. The seed habits of the grass are excellent and under very favorable conditions two crops may be harvested in the same season. More usually the first is cut for hay and the second for seed. The grass should be cut before the seed is fully ripe ; otherwise, there is some loss by shatter- ing. Practically no seed is grown in America, the com- mercial supplies com- ing from Europe and New Zealand. 248. Seed. Seed of perennial rye-grass is grown mainly in Scotland and Ire- land. None is grown in America. On ac- count of shattering, the crop is cut before the seeds are fully ripe. Care is neces- sary in curing, as, if the hay becomes heated in drying, the germination of the seed is injured. The yield per acre varies from 250 to 500 pounds per acre and maximums of 1050 pounds are reported. FIG. 22. Italian rye-grass (Lolium mul- tiflorum) . a, spikelet ; b, c, lemma ; d, e, seed. OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE 215 The seed is recleaned and graded according to weight and size. The small seeds are sold as short-seeded rye- grass, and sometimes as Pacey's rye-grass. ITALIAN RYE-GRASS 249. Characteristics. Italian rye-grass (Lolium multi- florum) is readily distinguished from perennial rye-grass by the lemma being awned, except in one variety, but in all forms the young leaves are convolute, not folded as in perennial rye-grass. Agriculturally it is distinguished by its short life, seldom over two years, unless heavily manured, its very rapid growth and prompt recovery after cutting. 250. Botany. Italian rye-grass is native in the region about the Mediterranean; namely, southern Europe, northern Africa and Asia Minor. Varieties have been distinguished by the awns ; namely, longiaristatum, the ordinary long-awiied form; submuticum, with the oc- casional awns short ; and muticum, which is awnless. On the length of life are differentiated Gaudini, the annual forms, and perennans, which lives 3-4 years. Stebler and Volkart state that the former includes a summer annual form, to which belongs Argentine rye- grass ; a winter annual form, which includes RieffeFs rye-grass, cultivated in Brittany ; and Bailly's rye-grass, which differs only in being awnless. The forms which endure more than one year are Westernwolth rye-grass, which blooms the first season if spring sown, and ordinary Italian rye-grass, which does not bloom the first season. 251. Agricultural history. Italian rye-grass seems to have been first cultivated in northern Italy. It was known in Switzerland in 1820 and in France in 1818. It was introduced into England in 1831. In France and 216 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE England especially, it is largely cultivated and furnishes the largest proportion of the market hay. Elsewhere in Europe it has not become of much importance. 252. Adaptations. This rye-grass is primarily adapted to moist regions with mild winter temperatures. It succeeds well in most of western and southern Europe, Argentina and New Zealand. In North America the best results have been secured in the Atlantic States, practically in the same area as that adapted to crimson clover, and on the Pacific Coast. When seeded in fall it is not injured by a temperature of 10 Fahrenheit and probably will withstand more severe cold. It prefers loam or sandy loam soils, but does fairly well on clay loams. It does not endure standing water, but on well-drained land is well adapted to irrigation farming. 253. Culture. Italian rye-grass is mostly sown alone at the rate of 35-40 pounds to the acre. It may be sown either in fall or in spring, with or without a nurse crop. In the south Atlantic States and' on the Pacific Coast, fall seeding gives the most satisfactory results. The grass is not well adapted to sowing in permanent meadows, as it disappears after the second year, and sometimes after the first. Furthermore, the rye-grass by its rapid early growth injures the other grasses so that in some experi- ments it has actually reduced the yield. In Europe it is sometimes mixed with crimson clover, which requires much the same conditions, and the two are ready to cut for hay at the same time. A test of this mixture at the Delaware Experiment Station gave a good yield, and enough of the seed of the Italian rye-grass shattered to produce a volunteer crop. 254. Irrigation. Italian rye-grass succeeds well under OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE 217 irrigation, and this method of culture has long been pursued in northern Italy. At the Utah Experiment Station the following results were secured with irrigation : Irrigation water applied, inches 7.50 15.00 45.00 102.00 Total yield of Italian rye-grass, pounds 2357 2218 3201 2357 Yield to the inch of irrigation water .... 314 148 71 2 255. Hay yields. Italian rye-grass is remarkable for the number of cuttings that can be made in a season and the large total yield under the most favorable con- ditions. No other temperate grass grows so rapidly or recovers so promptly after cutting. Ordinarily but two cuttings can be obtained in a season, the second smaller than the first. With abundant moisture and fertilizer, however, the grass has yielded 5 cuttings at Christiana, Norway; 5 or 6 in Germany; and as many as 7 to 9 in England and Switzerland, in a single season. It is possible that these results might be duplicated west of the Cascade Mountains in Oregon, Washington and British Columbia ; but in the East, Italian rye-grass languishes under mid- summer heat. Warner thinks that the very rapid growth of Italian rye-grass when irrigated with liquid manure is partly due to the fact that it produces numerous fine roots from the lower nodes. The growth is so rapid that a growth of 30 inches has been recorded in three weeks. Some of the yields recorded for Italian rye-grass in Europe border on the marvelous. In England on land watered with liquid manure, annual yields of 60 to 120 tons of grass, or 12 to 20 tons of hay, to the acre are said 218 FOP AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE to have been secured. Werner records yields of 52,040 pounds of grass, or 10,560 pounds of hay to the acre near Milan, Italy, in 6 cuttings during a season. Karmrodt in four successive years secured on the same piece of ground hay yields respectively of 8077, 8100, 7058 and 7196 pounds to the acre. Yields reported by American experiment stations are very moderate, being in pounds to the acre : Kentucky, 4480; Missouri, 6800; Ohio, 5120, 6-year average; Kansas, 2341, 2-year average; Virginia (Arlington Farm), 3200 ; North Carolina, 5557 and 5500. At the Western Washington Experiment Station 3 cuttings were secured in one season. The Westernwolth variety gave a yield of 3432 pounds an acre in Prince Edward Island. 256. Seed-production. The seeding habits of Italian rye-grass are essentially the same as those of perennial rye- grass, and the seed is just as easily harvested. It shat- ters, however, somewhat more readily and so needs to be cut promptly when the seeds are in the late dough stage. Commercial seed is grown in Europe, Argentina and New Zealand. The average yield in Europe is given at about 500 pounds an acre, the maximum at double the quantity. Seed from various sources gave very much the same hay yields according to experiments in Switzerland. 257. Seed. The seed of Italian rye-grass is usually quite free from weed seeds, and of good viability. At the Zurich, Switzerland, Seed Control Station, the average purity of 7000 samples has been 95.4 per cent and the average germination 82 per cent. Very good seed will reach 98 per cent purity and 95 per cent germination. Two-year-old seed loses about 25 per cent in viability, and three-year-old seed is nearly worthless. Owing to the cheapness of the seed it is rarely adulterated. OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE 219 Ordinarily it is easily told from perennial rye-grass by the awns. If these are absent, the two may be distinguished by the palea, this being far more abundantly toothed on the margin and more deeply notched in Italian rye-grass. The seed weighs 12 to 24 pounds to the bushel, and the quality varies accordingly. One pound contains 270,000 to 285,000 seeds. SLENDER WHEAT-GRASS (Agropyron tenerum) 258. Slender wheat-grass, known in Canada as western rye-grass or Mclvor's rye-grass, is the only example of a native North American grass that has proven valuable under cultivation. It is widespread, but variable, occur- ring abundantly from British Columbia to Manitoba, southward to Arizona and Oklahoma and sparingly eastward to Pennsylvania and Newfoundland. It is strictly a bunch grass with numerous slender erect stems, 2 to 4 feet high and narrow, flat, rather stiff leaves. The spikelets are crowded, scattered in a spike 4 to 6 inches long. Its root system was found at the North Dakota Experiment Station to be quite as deep as that of brome-grass, but with fewer roots. Slender wheat-grass was first brought into cultivation about 1895. It is now grown to a considerable extent in Manitoba, Alberta, Saskatchewan and the Dakotas, and has given good results in Ontario and Washington. Slender wheat-grass is usually seeded in spring. A firm, well-prepared seed bed is desirable. The seed may be sown broadcast and then harrowed, but is better sown with a drill. Good stands have been secured with 10 to 15 pounds per acre in Saskatchewan, the heavier seeding being best. Elsewhere as high as 30 pounds an acre have been used without the stand being too thick. 220 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE The grass is somewhat subject to a rust (Puccinia rubigo-vera), but otherwise is free from diseases. At Indian Head (Saskatchewan) Experimental Farm, yields of hay in large plots have been re- ported since 1901. The yields have va- ried from 2000 to 9000 pounds an acre, the average of 14 fields during 9 years being 4800 pounds. The best yields were nearly always secured the second season after seeding, unless the field was reno- vated by manuring. At Brandon, Man- itoba, the average yields for 7 years have been 4694 pounds an acre. A plot of one-fourth acre at the South Dakota Experiment Station was not cut during the first two years. The hay yields during the three following years were respectively 980, 908 and 1920 pounds an acre. At Guelph, Ontario, it has yielded the most heavily FIG. 23. Slender wheat-grass (Agropy- ron teherum). a, glumes; b, spikelet with glumes removed. OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE 221 of 15 grasses during trials of 7 years, the average yield for the period being on small plots at the rate of 8720 pounds an acre. In other trials where the plots were cut 6 times each season during 4 years, slender wheat-grass was ex- ceeded only by tall oat-grass and orchard-grass. Acre yields have been reported from other experiment stations as follows : Minnesota, 4700 pounds ; Michigan (Upper Peninsula), 5440 pounds; North Dakota (Dick- inson), 2950 pounds, 2-year average; Wyoming, 2065 pounds ; South Dakota " nearly as large yields as brome- grass." Slender wheat-grass has also given good results in mixtures, especially with brome-grass ; with red clover ; with red clover and timothy ; and with alfalfa. At Brandon, Manitoba, in a feeding experiment com- paring slender wheat-grass with brome-grass, 4 steers fed brome-grass gained 675 pounds and 4 fed slender wheat-grass gained 660 pounds. At Indian Head, Sas- katchewan, in a similar trial 5 steers gained 910 pounds on brome and 5 others 830 pounds on slender wheat dur- ing the same period. WESTERN WHEAT-GRASS (Agropyron occidentals) 259. Western wheat-grass is also known as blue-stem, blue-joint and Colorado blue-stem in various parts of the West. It is native over practically the whole region west of the 98th meridian from Saskatchewan to Mexico. In a general way it resembles slender wheat-grass, but the whole herbage is glaucous and the grass spreads by numer- ous creeping root-stocks. Western wheat-grass is quite resistant both to drought and to alkali, but it is seldom abundant except where the ground is naturally or artificially irrigated. Under 222 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE such conditions excellent crops of hay are cut and where the grass is well known it has long borne a reputation for horse feed equal to that of timothy. In Texas the bottoms of shallow desiccated ponds are often covered with a pure growth of this grass. In parts of Montana it is only necessary to irrigate the land in order to secure a good stand of western wheat-grass. After several mowings the grass seems to become sod bound, so that rejuvenation by disking is necessary. Attempts to domesticate this grass have thus far not resulted satisfactorily, mainly because the seed is poor in quality even when gathered with the utmost care. While this grass possesses creeping rootstocks, it has never been reported troublesome as a weed. Its excellent qualities make it worthy of further efforts at domestication. CHAPTER XI PERENNIAL GRASSES OF MINOR IMPOR- TANCE IT has already been pointed out that a number of grasses agriculturally utilized in Europe are scarcely at all used in America. From the fact that commercial seed is abundant, and from their European reputations, their exact status as regards America is important to the student. Some of them are not at all well adapted to American conditions, while others are useful only in very restricted areas, or on peculiar soils. SHEEP'S FESCUE AND CLOSELY RELATED SPECIES 260. Sheep's fescue and its close relatives form in all probability the most puzzling group of forms of all the grasses. About 70 varieties have been described from Europe alone, and these are variously regarded as forms of one species or of several. All are densely tufted per- ennials with numerous fine, stiff leaves, and slender erect culms usually 12 to 18 inches high, but under very favor- able conditions taller. The following four varieties are used in agriculture : Sheep's fescue (Festuca ovina) with folded leaves not broader than thick, .3 to .6 millimeter wide. Hard fescue (Festuca ovina duriuscula or Festuca duriuscula) differing from the preceding mainly in 223 224 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE having the leaves broader than thick, .7 to 1 millimeter wide. Various-leaved fescue (Festuca ovina heterophylla or F. heterophylla) is some- times considered a va- riety of Festuca rubra. Some of the shoots are extravaginal. The radical leaf blades are long, soft and folded, while the culm leaves are flat and expanded, whence its name. Fine-leaved fescue (Festuca ovina tenuifo- lia or F. tenuifolia of the seedsmen ; Festuca ovina capillata) has very fine leaves and awnless lemmas. The forms of Festuca ovina native to North America are much fewer than in Europe. Typical Festuca ovina occurs rather sparingly as a native in the FIG. 24. Sheep's fescue (Festuca ovina) . * , t ,^^ . fc* vj t* j.j. c*; \J JL V \^ J. ii \J H. \J a, glumes; b, spikelet with glumes re- -r> i T\/T r moved. Rocky Mountains from Alberta to New Mex- ico, in the Black Hills and about the Great Lakes. Fes- tuca ovina ingrata, the "Blue bunchgrass " of the stock- men, is an important range plant from British Columbia and Alberta to Colorado and Utah, especially in the Co- PERENNIAL GE ASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE 225 lumbia Basin. Farther south it is replaced by the larger Arizona fescue (Festuca ovina arizonica) which extends into Mexico. The few other native American forms are of no economic importance. 261. Importance and culture. None of these fescues has as yet attained any considerable importance under cultivation in America. Fine-leaved fescue is used sparingly in lawn grass mixtures. Various-leaved fescue has apparently been tested only in grass gardens. Hard fescue also seems to have been grown only in trial grounds, as most of the commercial seed is the indistinguishable sheep's fescue. Sheep's fescue has become widely in- troduced, and on poor stony or sandy land is a valuable pasture plant for sheep and deserves more- attention for such purpose than it has yet received in America. Sheep's fescue should be sown only for pasturage and only on land that will not produce better grasses, such as stony or gravelly hills, and poor sandy soils. It is too small to make it worth while to sow for hay on good land, even in mixture with other grasses. It possesses abundant deep, strong roots, and is never injured by up- rooting, nor does it suffer under trampling and close grazing. Sheep eat it quite readily, but cattle avoid it if other grasses are present. The animals should have access to the pastures early in the spring, as the grass is more palatable if kept closely grazed. European au- thorities state that the grass yields most during the second and third years, and should be plowed under after four or five years, where possible. Sheep's fescue is a northern grass, and not well adapted to conditions south of about latitude 40 degrees, except in the mountains. Northward its limit is that of any possible agriculture. On very poor land it will thrive 226 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE where no other cultivated grass will grow, but on some- what better pasture land should be grown in mixtures with redtop, Kentucky blue-grass, Canada blue-grass and white clover. In pure cultures, European writers recom- mend sowing 28 pounds an acre. 262. Seed. Seed of all these fescues is grown in Europe. That of sheep's fescue is easily gathered and is low in price. A bushel weighs ordinarily 10 to 15 pounds, but the best quality reaches 30 pounds. One pound contains 680,000 seeds, according to Stebler. The purity should be 90 per cent and the viability at least 50 per cent. RED FESCUE 263. Red fescue (Festuca rubra) is best distinguished from Festuca ovina by having creeping extravaginal shoots or rootstocks. Festuca heterophylla with some extravaginal non-creeping shoots is intermediate between the species. Red fescue occurs naturally in Europe, Asia and North America. It is very variable and numerous varieties have been described. In North America it ranges from Green- land southward near the seacoast to Virginia, and from Alaska to California and New Mexico. One form occurs rarely in Tennessee and North Carolina. It has never been used under cultivation in North America, except as a lawn plant, for which it is well adapted in the Northern States and Canada, especially on sandy soil near the seacoast. In some of its forms it is probably the most beautiful of all lawn grasses. Red fescue is a long-lived perennial. In Europe it is somewhat used as a pasture plant, especially on moist, sandy soils. Under favorable conditions it makes a dense growth and may reach a height of two feet or more. In PERENNIAL GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE 227 such dense growths the lower leaves turn brown readily. Hay yields of 1| and 2 tons to the acre are recorded, but this is exceptional. It should not be planted where better hay grasses can be grown. At present the commercial seed supply of red fescue comes from Europe. It is often mixed with or adulterated with other fescues, where seeds can scarcely be distin- guished. In recent years a variety known as Chewing's fescue has been exported from New Zealand. It is identical with the European, at least for all practical purposes. The variety sold as Festuca dumetorum is apparently Festuca rubra grandiflora, which is somewhat larger than the typical form. MEADOW FOXTAIL (Alopecurus pratensis) 264. Meadow foxtail is native to the temperate portions of Europe and Asia. It is quite variable, 6 or 8 varieties having been botanically named, but none of these have come into agricultural use. The culture of meadow foxtail dates from about the middle of the eighteenth century, when it was recommended by Kalm in Sweden and especially by Schreber in Germany. 265. Characteristics. Meadow foxtail is a long-lived perennial grass producing loose tufts with numerous basal leaves. The rootstocks are comparatively few and but 2 to 4 inches long as a rule. The culms grow usually to a height of 3 feet, but rarely reach 6 feet. Under very favorable conditions three cuttings may be secured in one season, but usually only two cuttings. It begins its growth very early in spring, more so even than sweet vernal-grass. The grass should be cut for hay when in full bloom, but it is said to retain its feeding value for a considerable time thereafter. 228 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 266. Adaptations. Meadow foxtail is adapted primarily to moist cool regions. Its culture is prominent in northern Europe, but elsewhere it is but little grown. It has no particular soil preference so long as the water supply is abundant. This peculiarity makes it well suited to grow- ing under irrigation, but it will not withstand drought. Though primarily adapted to open meadows it endures shade fairly well. Better than any other grass, it with- stands cold weather in early spring after its growth has begun, and it is perhaps the most winter hardy of any cultivated perennial grass. 267. Culture. Meadow foxtail is but very little* grown in North America, most of the data concerning it being those obtained at experiment stations. In northern Europe it is a favorite hay grass, especially for wet meadows. European authorities recommend the sowing at the rate of 22 pounds an acre. It is seldom sown alone, however, but usually in mixtures with such grasses as meadow fescue, timothy and orchard-grass. In recent years its improvement by breeding has been undertaken at Svalof, Sweden. Sinclair in England reports a yield of 8844 pounds an acre; Vianne in France,. 8932 pounds. Few yields have been reported by American experiment stations. At the Michigan (Upper Peninsula) Station it gave a yield of 2906 pounds of hay to the acre ; at the Utah Experiment Station, 1500 pounds ; and the 7-year average at Guelph, Ontario, was 3100 pounds an acre. 268. Seed. Seed of meadow foxtail is grown in Finland, Sweden, Denmark and Holland, but most of the com- mercial supply is from the first-named country. A small amount is also exported from New Zealand. The average yield in Europe is said to be about 170 pounds to the acre. PERENNIAL GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE 229 The results of tests at the Zurich Seed Control Station indicate an average purity of 75 per cent and viability of 69 per cent. A bushel weighs 6 to 14 pounds. One pound contains 907,000 seeds (Stebler) ; 490,000 (Hun- ter) ; 1,216,000 (Hunt). SWEET VERNAL-GRASS (Anthoxanthum odoratum) 269. Botany. Sweet vernal-grass is native to tem- perate Europe and Asia and Northwest Africa. It is wholly an introduced plant in North America, except perhaps in South Greenland. Sweet vernal-grass receives its name from the fact that the whole plant contains cumarin, giving it a vanilla-like odor but also a bitter taste. This is present even in the very young seedlings, which may thus be recognized. On account of its agreeable odor, sweet vernal-grass has long been recommended as a desirable addition in mixed grass meadows. It is not clear, however, that the grass with its pleasant odor really makes the hay more palatable to animals. The grass is a long-lived perennial, growing in small, dense tufts, the culms reaching a height of 18 to 20 inches as a rule. It is one of the earliest grasses to appear in spring, but is not much liked by cattle as a pasture grass. It is quite resistant to both cold and drought. The best growth is made on fertile soil, but sweet vernal-grass will thrive on almost any type of soil if not too wet. Near Washing- ton, D.C., old neglected pastures on hard clay soils are sometimes covered with nearly pure growths of this grass. 270. Culture. Sweet vernal-grass has never been utilized in America except as it may be a spontaneous element in pastures and meadows. Its small growth, however, does not commend it. In Europe it is used in 230 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE small quantities in mixtures with other grasses because of the sweet odor it imparts to hay. It is never sown alone except in experimental work. Vianne in France records hay yields of 1760 to 2640 pounds an acre, but this must be far above what can ordinarily be expected. The seed is gathered mainly in Germany. At the Zurich Seed Control Station, the average purity of numerous samples was found to be about 92 per cent and the average viability 52 per cent. If sown pure, about 20 pounds of such seed are needed to the acre. REED CANARY-GRASS (Pholaris arundinacea) 271. Botany and agricultural history. Reed canary- grass is native to the temperate portions of Europe, Asia and .North America. It grows naturally in wet soils, especially river bottoms and lake shores, where it is subject to periods of inundation. No botanical varieties have been named except the variegated " ribbon grass " of the gardens (P. arundinacea picta). The grass is, how- ever, decidedly variable, about ten strains having been grown for several years at Arlington Farm, Virginia. The strains differ in size, coarseness, earliness, breadth of leaves and other characters, but all shatter their seeds readily. It was first cultivated in England before 1824 and in Germany about 1850. It has never been much used in America, but is cut for hay where it occurs naturally. 272. Characteristics. Reed canary-grass is a long- lived, rather coarse perennial grass. It produces numer- ous short extravaginal stolons, which at the tip develop into upright culms. Each plant finally forms a rather dense tussock, one to two feet in diameter. The culms are perfectly erect, usually about four to six feet high but often taller, and so stout that they never lodge. PERENNIAL GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE 231 Reed-canary is adapted mostly to cool climates, but the ribbon grass form, at least, succeeds well in the Southern States. It is never injured by severe winter weather. Though naturally a wet land grass, it succeeds well in ordinary cultivated land, especially in clays and clay loams. It also succeeds well in sand if there be an ade- quate moisture supply, but is said not to thrive in peaty soils. Owing to its moisture-loving proclivities, it is well adapted to irrigation. Growth begins early in spring and continues late into the fall. Seed is produced in abundance, but shatters easily. This, perhaps more than anything else, has militated against its general use. 273. Culture. Reed canary-grass is sparingly culti- vated in Europe. If cut before bloom, three cuttings may be secured, but only two if allowed to bloom. At Arlington Farm, Virginia, the second crop of plants in rows is about two-thirds as large as the first. The hay is palatable if cut young, and yields of 12,000 to 17,000 pounds an acre are recorded in Europe. These yields, however, are based on very small plots. Seed is gathered by cutting oft the panicles before they are ripe, and the yield is stated to be about 180 pounds an acre. It weighs 44 to 48 pounds to the bushel. It is best adapted to pure cultures, as its habits do not coincide with other grasses. Commercial seed germinates as a rule but 60 per cent, and 20 to 25 pounds to the acre should be sown. This grass would be worthy of serious attention if its seeding habits could be improved. It is possible that a strain may be found or developed which will not seriously shatter its seed. 232 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE VELVET-GRASS (Holcus lanatus) 274. Velvet-grass is also known in England as York- shire Fog, and meadow soft-grass. On the North Pacific Coast, where it is extraordinarily abundant, it has acquired the name " mesquite." It is native to temperate Europe, and Asia, and extends southward into Algeria and the Canary Islands. It is adapted primarily to moist, cool climates, and under such conditions is not particular as to soil. In hardiness it is much like orchard-grass, but is more injured by late spring frosts. It does not endure shade. Velvet-grass forms thick, rather high tussocks, which make mowing somewhat difficult. The culms are usually about 30 inches high. The whole plant is very hairy and probably on this account is not readily eaten by animals either as hay or pasturage. It possesses very little sub- stance, the hay being probably the most bulky of all grasses. Under favorable climatic conditions two cuttings of hay may be obtained. European authorities state that the hay yield is best in the third year. Sinclair in Eng- land records a yield of 6160 pounds an acre, and Vianne in France, 6950 pounds. In America the grass is utilized to a slight extent in western Virginia, and to a great extent on the North Pacific Coast. In all the region west of the Cascade Mountains in Oregon, Washington and British Columbia it is very aggressive, and in the very moist region near the ocean occupies the land practically to the exclusion of other grasses. Under such circumstances its use is a matter of necessity rather than choice, but the returns are not unsatisfactory. The grass is best cut when in full bloom, at which time the rays of the panicle are spreading, but after blooming they become erect. PERENNIAL GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE 233 Velvet-grass should perhaps never be intentionally sown, and at any rate merely as an admixture with other grasses. Commercial seed is produced mainly in Denmark, and this averages about 63 per cent in purity and 84 per cent in germination. New Zealand seed is somewhat betterf The yield in Germany is given by Werner as about 90 pounds to the acre, and as the price is very low, the financial return is small. European writers recommend 20 pounds of seed per acre, if sown pure. It is sometimes desirable to eradicate velvet-grass so as to plant the land to more valuable grasses. To do this the grass must be cut before the seed is ripe, generally June 10 to 20. About July 1 give the field a thorough but shallow disking. Repeat the shallow disking every week until August 1, and then treat with a spring-tooth harrow and disk again. The shallow cultivation during the driest weather will kill the roots and leave the ground with a very fine mulch on top and plenty of moisture in the subsoil. The land may then be reseeded to clover or planted to any other crop desired. ERECT BROME (Bromus erectus) 275. Erect brome, upright brome or meadow brome is a perennial species that has long been cultivated in southern France and in recent years in other countries. The grass is native to much of temperate Europe and Asia and Algeria. It is especially adapted to dry calcareous soils that are too shallow for sainfoin, and on such soils is said to give better results than any other grass, either for pasture or for hay. It bears the same relation to poor, dry, chalky soils that sheep's fescue does to poor sandy soils. On good land it has no place, as other grasses produce larger and better crops. 234 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE Both the hay and the pasturage are of mediocre quality, but the fields last many years on suitable calcareous soils. The yield is best the second year and the plants bloom but once each season. It is rarely sown alone, but usually mixed with sainfoin if the land is good enough. The seed weighs about 15 pounds to the bushel, and 50 pounds to the acre is sown. It is often adulterated with the screenings of tall oat-grass. Erect brome has been but little tried in America. At the Kansas Experiment Station yields of 1844 and 1720 pounds per acre were obtained in 1904 and 1905 respec- tively. At the Michigan Upper Peninsula Substation a small plot yielded at the rate of 3706 pounds an acre. YELLOW OAT-GRASS (Trisetum flavesccns) 276. Yellow oat-grass, also known as golden oat-grass, is native over much of temperate Europe and Asia and in North Africa, and several botanical varieties are described. It is of only secondary importance in European agriculture, but is practically unknown in America. It is a loosely tufted, long-lived perennial. It is used almost wholly as an admixture with other grasses. It was apparently first brought into cultivation in England before 1785. The seed, which is mainly grown in the south of France and in Tyrol, is scarce and expensive, and this has probably pre- vented the greater use of the grass. Yellow oat-grass is decidedly drought resistant and adapted only to well-drained soil. It is said to prefer cal- careous soils rich in humus. It is seldom grown in pure cultures except for purposes of seed-production. Vianne re- cords a yield of 5020 pounds hay an acre in France, and Sin- clair in England records that he obtained 2859 pounds hay cut in bloom, and 4900 pounds cut when the seed was ripe. PERENNIAL GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE 235 The aftermath is only moderate. When sown alone, about 30 pounds of ordinary quality of seed is needed to the acre. The seed weighs 5 to 14 pounds a bushel, depending on quality. The average purity is about 70 per cent and the viability 63 per cent, but the best heavy seed is guaranteed by some seedsmen to germinate 70, or even 80 per cent. One pound of seed con- tains 1,400,000 seeds according to Hunter, and 2,045,000 accord- ing to Stebler. Yellow oat-grass is sometimes used for lawns and, if kept closely cut, makes a good fine turf, but rather pale in color. CRESTED DOGSTAIL (Cynosurus cristatus) FIG. 25. Crested dogstail (Cynosurus cristatus). a, b, fertile spikelets ; c, sterile spikelet. 277. Crested dogs- tail is a highly appre- ciated grass in Europe as an admixture both for pastures and for meadows. It makes up a portion of the grass upon the best pastures of England, Holland and Switzerland. It is considered very nutritious, but the yield is only moderate. It is adapted primarily to cool, moist regions. 236 FOE AGE PLANTS AND TEEIE CULTURE Crested dogstail is another example of a European grass that fails to thrive under American conditions, probably on account of summer heat. It has often been planted, but has become only very sparingly introduced and has nowhere shown any ability to increase and spread. It may prove of some value on the North Pacific Coast- but elsewhere it has shown no promise. CHAPTER XII SOUTHERN GRASSES THE climate of the cotton region is not closely paralleled by that of any portion of Europe, and European grasses are therefore ill adapted to the conditions in the South. Most of the grasses useful in the Southern States have originated in countries having humid subtropical climates. Several of the most valuable have poor seeding habits, but are easily propagated vegetatively. BERMUDA-GRASS (Cynodon dactylon) 278. Botany. Bermuda-grass is native to India and perhaps other parts of the Old World in tropical and sub- tropical localities. In India it is a most valued pasture grass and called ' doob or hariali. In Virginia, where its growth is not sufficient to make it valuable, but only troublesome, it is generally known as wire-grass. It is also known locally as dogs'-tooth grass, Bahama-grass and Scotch-grass. Several varieties have been named by botanists, some as distinct species. The interrelation of the numerous forms is not, however, clear. 279. Characteristics. Bermuda-grass is a long-lived perennial with numerous branched leafy stems 4 to 6 inches high, or under very favorable conditions 12 to 18 237 288 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE inches high. Where the aerial stems are supported by shrubs, they may reach a height of 3 feet. The leaves are flat and spreading, and differentiated from all similar grasses by the ligule which consists of a circle of white hairs. The flowers are in slen- der, spreading spikes one-half to one inch long, arranged in um- bels of 4 to 6. In the ordinary form of Bermuda-grass, numerous stout root- stocks as large as a lead pencil are produced, and by the growth of these a single plant may cover an area of several square yards. In very hard soil the rootstocks become stout runners 1 to 3 feet long, with much longer nodes and shorter leaves than the aerial stems. St. Lucie-grass and other forms have no under- ground rootstocks, but are much less hardy. 280. Agricultural history. The date of the introduc- tion of Bermuda-grass into the United States is not defi- nitely ascertained. Spillman gives a circumstantial ac- count of its introduction in 1812 at Greensboro, Georgia. FIG. 26. Bermuda-grass (Cynodon dac- tylori). a, spikelet; b, floret. SOUTHERN GRASSES 239 However, a definite and unmistakable account of Ber- muda-grass in the United States is given by Mease, " Geological Account of the United States," p. 227, pub- lished in 1807. 281. Adaptations. Bermuda-grass occurs in the United States generally from Pennsylvania west to cen- tral Kansas and south to the Gulf of Mexico ; also in Arizona, New Mexico and California. It extends somewhat farther northward, being found in Massachusetts and Washington, but its continued exist- ence in the Northern States is precarious. Much of it survived the cold of January, 1912, in the District of Columbia, when the temperature fell to 18 F. The spread and growth of the grass about Washington, D.C., in the past ten years seem to be more vigorous than formerly, which may be due to gradual acclimatization. That Bermuda-grass does become more hardy seems to be demonstrated by investigations at the Oklahoma Experiment Station, where the local established strain was able to withstand 18 F. while plots grown from Australian seed usually become winter-killed. In general, however, Bermuda-grass is best adapted in the United States to the same general area as cotton, and in this region is relatively as important as is Kentucky blue-grass in the North. It has also become abundant in California and Arizona, but in these states it is looked upon as a pest because of the difficulty it causes in alfalfa as a weed, whence it is sometimes called " devil- grass." Bermuda will grow in all types of soil, but makes its best growth on rich, moist bottom lands, but the soil must be well drained. It has marked ability to withstand close grazing or close clipping, and on this account is much used 240 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE as a lawn grass. The slightest touch of frost, however, causes the leaves to turn brown. On account of its ability to grow on any type of soil, and its creeping character, Bermuda is an excellent soil binder on sandy soil, on eroding slopes of clay and in gullies. It is very abundant and useful for this purpose on the levees of the Mississippi River. Bermuda is not well adapted to shade and perhaps for this reason tends to disappear in fields where it is densely shaded by other crops. 282. Variability. Bermuda is a very variable grass, and many forms have been considered distinct species by botanists. Even the common form introduced into the United States is very diverse, and Moorhouse at the Okla- homa Experiment Station has secured numerous differing forms by selection. Some of the forms are very distinct and may become important. One of these recently in- troduced from Brazil produces superficial runners 15 feet or more long in a single season. In Florida occurs a form known as St. Lucie-grass, which differs from ordinary Bermuda in never having under- ground rootstocks. As Bermuda is easily propagated by cuttings, any selected form is easily maintained. 283. Importance. Bermuda-grass is the most impor- tant perennial grass in the Southern States, filling much the same position in respect to pasturage as Kentucky blue- grass in the North. Bermuda is also a hay grass and large quantities are thus harvested, especially in rich or alluvial soils. Its area of marked value is mainly south of latitude 36 that is, the north line of Tennessee west to cen- tral Oklahoma. In this area it is even more aggressive than Kentucky blue-grass in the North, and, like the latter SOUTHERN GRASSES 241 grass, is seldom sown. The fact that both of these grasses volunteer so readily is probably the reason why so few definite experiments have been conducted with either. 284. Culture. Bermuda-grass is planted either by sowing the seed or by planting " roots." The seed is very fine and rather expensive ; therefore the seed bed should be well prepared and firm. The seed is best sown in spring, using about 5 pounds to the acre. To scatter it evenly, it is advisable to mix with meal or soil so as to make a larger bulk. After sowing the ground should be rolled or lightly harrowed. The more common method is to cut or tear the sod into small pieces and then drop them in furrows on plowed ground or merely press them in with the foot. The pieces should be scattered about 2 or 3 feet apart each way. Planting in this way is best done when the weather is likely to be moist, at any time from spring till midsummer. Under such conditions the pieces of sod are very sure to grow. To save the loss of the land while the Bermuda is start- ing, it may be planted in the rows of any intertilled crop after the last cultivation. Bermuda-grass meadows or pastures tend to become sod bound and fall off in yield. When this is the case, the field should be disked or plowed and harrowed, after which the growth will be much more vigorous. Where conditions are not such that Bermuda will grow in spite of bad treatment, care is necessary to insure a good stand. At the Oklahoma Experiment Station pieces of sod were planted in well-prepared land in 4 ways : 1. By placing in furrows three feet apart and covering each root ; 2. By scattering pieces of sod evenly and then working them into the soil with a smoothing harrow; 3. Seeding 242 FOE AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE followed by light harrowing; 4. Treated the same as in 2, and then planted to kafir corn which was cultivated in the usual way. A good stand was secured by the first method, a partial stand by the second, but the other two were failures. 285. Yields of hay. But few reliable yields of Ber- muda-grass hay have been recorded, but statements have been published to the effect that 3 to 4 tons an acre are secured at times. Probably the average yield does not exceed 1 ton an acre. At the Oklahoma Experiment Station a field of 2| acres planted in June, 1905, yielded 2584 pounds hay an acre at the end of September, and in 1906 three cuttings gave a yield of 10,160 pounds an acre. Another plot yielded during three years to the acre respectively, 5850, 1635 and 1667 pounds of hay. Newman states that a field on bottom land in Georgia yielded in three cuttings 13,000 pounds of cured hay to the acre. 286. Rootstocks. According to Duggar, the stout rootstocks when plowed up are readily eaten by hogs. In the tropics where Bermuda-grass is sold green in bundles for horse feed, the rootstocks are often pulled up when the top growth is scanty. The same use of the rootstocks is made in Naples, Italy, where they are fed to cab horses. 287. Pasture value. Bermuda alone or in mixtures makes excellent pasturage, but it is best when closely grazed. The stems become rather tough and wiry with age, and where there are not enough animals to keep it closely grazed they feed only in spots. Bermuda is so aggressive that few other plants will grow with it during summer. Lespedeza will hold its own in spots and the combination of the two is excellent. SOUTHERN GRASSES 243 Bermuda does not grow in winter, but if bur clover be sown it will make good winter pasturage and reseed itself from year to year. Hairy vetch is also useful for the same reason, but does not reseed itself so well. Another excel- lent plan is to seed Bermuda pastures in the fall to Italian rye-grass, which grows rapidly and furnishes pasturage until the following summer. This grass is also often sown in Bermuda lawns to make a green lawn in the winter. White clover is also an excellent plant to grow with Ber- muda for pasturage. Good Bermuda pastures will carry one cow to the acre during the summer and the best Bermuda and lespedeza mixed pastures will support two cattle to the acre during the summer. 288. Feeding value. The only feeding experiments reported are by the Mississippi Experiment Station. In one experiment Bermuda was compared with timothy as a hay feed for work mules, and the conclusion reached that they were of equal value. In experiments with dairy cows during three years the results indicate that Bermuda hay has practically the same value as timothy hay for the production of milk and butter. 289. Seed-production. Commercial seed of Bermuda- grass has heretofore been obtained wholly from Australia, but recently it has been gathered in Arizona and southern California. The culms are often only four or five inches high, but the seed is held firmly long after it becomes ripe. No data concerning the yields of seed seem to have been recorded. In humid regions Bermuda sets seed sparingly or only in periods of unusually dry weather. Seed has been found in Louisiana, Florida and North Carolina, while at Wash- ington, D.C., it is quite freely formed. 244 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE The viability of Australian seed ranges from 56 to 84 per cent. According to Hunt, one pound contains 1,800,000 seeds. JOHNSON-GRASS (Andropogon halepensis) 290. Botany. Johnson-grass is native to South Asia and about the borders of the Mediterranean in Africa and southernmost Europe. The specific name comes from the city Aleppo, whence it first became known to European botanists. Two varieties occur in Europe; namely, the ordinary form with awned spikelets, and the awnless variety sub- muticus. Both of these also occur in the United States. In India there is another variety distinguished by having a loose drooping panicle. Andropogon halepensis is distinguished from all forms of Andropogon sorghum by possessing underground rootstocks and thus being truly perennial. 291. Agricultural history. Johnson-grass was intro- duced into South Carolina from Turkey about 1830. It derives its common name from Col. William Johnson, who grew it extensively near Selma, Alabama, beginning about 1840. In South Carolina it is still known as Means grass. Governor Means of that state had sent a planter to Turkey to instruct the Turks in cotton culture, and this planter on his return brought back many seeds, including Johnson-grass. Numerous other local names have been attached to Johnson-grass, among them Aleppo-grass, false guinea- grass, evergreen millet, racehorse-grass, etc. In its wide spread since 1840, Johnson-grass has usually been considered more as a weed than a cultivated plant, but as late as 1884 and 1885 it was distributed by the California Experiment Station as- a desirable new forage plant. SOUTHERN GRASSES 245 292. Adaptation and utilization. Johnson-grass is adapted to the whole region in which cotton culture is carried on, and also New Mexico, Arizona and California. It grows well during the summer north of latitude 37, but in cold winters is usually destroyed. In favorable years it lives over winter in Iowa and the District of Columbia. It grows in all types of soil, but prefers rich land and an abundant supply of moisture. This plant can scarcely be called a cultivated grass, as when once planted it is difficult to eradicate, and therefore it is rarely sown intentionally. Indeed in regions where it does not occur, great care is taken to keep it out. Where, however, it is established, it is abundantly utilized both for hay and for pasture. On good soil two crops and some- times three may be cut in one season. Johnson-grass quickly becomes " sod bound," and unless plowed up every year, or at least every two years, the yield becomes very small. Just why the grass becomes " sod bound " is not clear, but perhaps it is connected with the great devel- opment of rootstocks. Where Johnson-grass is very abundant, a common plan is to plow in fall and plant to oats or oats and vetch. After this crop is removed, two good crops of Johnson-grass hay are. usually obtained the same season. North of the south line of Virginia and Kentucky there is no good reason why Johnson-grass should not be utilized as an annual crop. Sown in the spring, it produces a large crop of hay and nearly always is killed in the winter. At Arlington Farm, Virginia, it has several times been planted in mixtures with cowpeas, for which purpose it is well adapted. It is rare that any of the grass survives the winter. Johnson-grass probably produces more of the hay grown 246 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE in the South than any other perennial grass, unless it be Bermuda-grass. In sections where Johnson-grass has become very abundant, more attention is now being given to its profitable utilization rather than to undertake the expense of eradicating it. On rich black soils three cuttings are sometimes secured in one season, the total yield reaching a maximum of about 6 tons. Probably about 1J tons is an average cut- ting, and 2 the usual number saved. At the Mississippi Experiment Station the yield to the acre on unfertilized plots was 3.75 and 4.83 tons, an average of 4.29 tons in two cuttings. The use of 187 pounds cottonseed meal an acre increased the yield of hay to 5.54 tons, and 460 pounds to 5.82 tons ; 94 pounds of nitrate soda an acre increased the yield to 5.54 tons, and 189 pounds to 5.92 tons. Mixed with cowpeas two cuttings were obtained, aggregating 3.85 tons to the acre. At the North Carolina Experiment Sta- tion a thin stand yielded 5139 pounds of hay to the acre. The rootstocks of Johnson-grass are also readily eaten by farm animals, especially hogs. In Texas fields are sometimes plowed up in winter to furnish feed in this manner. 293. Poisonous qualities. Under some conditions Johnson-grass may cause the death of cattle in the same manner as do the sorghums ; namely, by the formation of hydrocyanic acid. Cases of this kind were reported from Miles City, Montana, in 1885, and from California in 1905. It has also been reported by Duthie that Johnson-grass in India often causes the death of cattle, especially in dry seasons when the grass is stunted. No case of this kind has ever been reported from the Southern States where Johnson-grass is most abundant. 284. Seed. Seed of Johnson-grass is mainly grown in SOUTHERN GRASSES 247 Texas, but to some extent in Mississippi, Louisiana and Alabama. The demand for it is not large. The grass is commonly cut with a binder, cured in the shock and thrashed with a grain separator. The yields are said to be 8 or 10 bushels per acre, but a crop of hay can be harvested after the seed crop. The commercial seed is often low in viability, seldom testing as high as 70 per cent. JAPANESE SUGAR-CANE (Saccharum officinarum) 295. History and characteristics. The Japanese or Zwinga sugar-cane was introduced by the United States Department of Agriculture, in 1878, from Japan. At first it was used mainly for sirup, but in recent years it has been employed largely as forage. Japanese sugar-cane differs from the varieties grown for sugar in having more numerous, more slender stems ; firmly attached leaf sheaths which make it difficult to strip the canes ; narrower, smoother leaves than the varie- ties grown primarily for sugar ; and especially in its long period of productivity, new canes growing from the old roots for 12 years or more, apparently without any tend- ency for the yield to lessen on account of age of the plants. According to Scott, a new system of roots is developed each season. 296. Adaptations. Japanese sugar-cane in the United States is adapted only to the region south of latitude 33, except in California, where it has succeeded fairly well in the Sacramento Valley. A temperature of about 15 F. is about the minimum the roots will withstand. It is apparently more resistant to cold than any other variety. Sugar-cane will grow in any type of soil if fairly well drained, but large yields are secured only on fertile 248 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 297. Planting. Japanese sugar-cane, like other varie- ties, has never been known to bloom in the United States. It is propagated by laying the mature canes in shallow furrows 6 to 8 inches deep and then covering. To insure a full stand it is best to lay two canes side by side for the whole length of the furrow, breaking joints in laying, as the basal nodes are most sure to sprout. The canes may be cut into pieces of 3 or 4 joints, and this is necessary if the canes are crooked. In the tropics the tops of the canes are often used for immediate planting. The rows are usually planted about 8 feet apart, as the individual plants stool greatly with age, and narrower rows do not leave room to cultivate. The canes are sometimes planted in November, which is satisfactory in central and south Florida, but farther north spring planting is advisable, as otherwise there is danger of winter-killing. 298. Culture. Japanese cane is cultivated much like corn. Deep cultivation is desirable in early spring as soon as growth begins. Later cultivations should be shallower. The use of fertilizers increases the yield greatly, and the yield promptly falls off if fertilizers are not used, at least on ordinary Florida soils. The experiments thus far reported do not show clearly what fertilizers are best to use. 299. Utilization. Japanese cane may be utilized as dry fodder, silage or pasture. The crop should be allowed to become as mature as possible without danger of frost injury. If cut early, the plants are much weakened or even killed. The experience of the Florida Experiment Station is that the silage keeps well and is relished by all live-stock. SOUTHERN GRASSES 249 Under Florida conditions Japanese cane silage is about one- third cheaper than corn or sorghum silage on account of the larger yields. The dried fodder also makes excellent feed, but on account of the hard stems is best shredded. When stored in a barn it keeps well for six months or more, but there is considerable loss if left in the field in shocks. The cheapest way to utilize the crop is by pasturing to cattle and hogs, which may be done from November till March. The animals eat the leaves and tops first, but finally leave nothing but the hardest stubble. At the Louisiana Experiment Station the experience has been less favorable, the hard canes making the mouths of cattle sore, and even when preserved as silage being but little better. 300. Yields. There are no definite figures as to the yield of Japanese sugar-cane, but in the region to which it is adapted, it far outyields any similar plant. Good yields probably amount to about 30 tons green matter an acre, and maximum yields to double this or even more. 301. Seed cane. Canes for propagation should be fully mature if possible, but in any event should be har- vested before frost. To preserve them for spring planting, they must be protected from frost in a well-drained place. The usual method is to dig a trench where the ground is well drained and to cover the stripped and topped canes with enough soil or trash to protect them from freezing. It is considered safer to bank the canes in several small trenches rather than in one large one. Sometimes the canes are simply piled on the surface and then covered with soil, manure or straw. To plant an acre in rows 8 feet wide requires about 3000 whole canes. 250 'FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE OTHER SOUTHERN GRASSES 302. Carpet-grass (Axonopus compressus). Carpet- grass or Louisiana-grass, called by the Creoles in Louisiana *' petit gazon," is now widespread in the tropics and sub- tropics of Doth hemispheres, but it is probably native to America. It was first described from Jamaica in 1788, next from Porto Rico in 1804. It may be native to Florida. Carpet-grass is a perennial with creeping rootstocks and numerous short, rather broad, flat leaves. The slender culms rarely reach a height of two feet. This grass has been known in the Southern States for many years and is now widespread from about latitude 32 to the Gulf of Mexico and west to central Texas. It thrives best in sandy land, especially where moist, and in such situations makes a fine dense sward. On sandy lands in Florida and near the Gulf Coast car- pet-grass is very aggressive, and wherever the land is closely pastured, it is the principal grass. It stands trampling and heavy pasturing without injury and seems to thrive best under such conditions. Carpet-grass can scarcely be considered a cultivated grass, and commercial seed is seldom obtainable. This grass now occurs in nearly all the area to which it is adapted so that it is rarely necessary to plant it especially. Where this is desirable, however, carpet-grass may be planted by scattering small pieces of sod, as in the case of Bermuda-grass. Or better, the grass may be permitted to seed, mowed when mature and the straw with the attached seed scattered over the field where it is desired. Carpet-grass requires both abundant heat and moisture for its best development, and under such conditions may SOUTHERN GRASSES 251 be pastured from May until November. During the cool weather of winter it makes practically no growth. PASPALUM 303. Paspalum (Paspalum dilatatum) is a native of Argentina and perhaps also of the Gulf States. At any rate it occurs apparently native from North Carolina to Florida and west to Texas. The probabilities are, how- ever, that it was introduced into the Southern States where it has been known at least 50 years. It is readily dis- tinguished from related native species by having the glumes and sterile lemma ciliate with long hairs. This grass is known also under the names of large water- grass, golden crown-grass and hairy-flowered paspalum. It is a smooth perennial, with a deep, strong root system, and grows in clumps or bunches 2 to 4 feet high. The leaves are numerous near the ground, but few on the stems. The stems are weak and spreading, seldom erect unless supported by other grasses. Its habit makes it much better adapted to pastures than for meadows, but where abundant it is cut for hay. Paspalum can scarcely be called a cultivated grass in the United States, as it is seldom sown, but is welcomed in pastures where it appears spontaneously. Some farmers collect seed and scatter in pastures to induce its spread. The best seeds are produced late in the season. As a pasture grass it is desirable from the abundance of leaves it produces, and the fact that it remains green and grows in all but the very coldest part of the year. It is quite tussocky in habit, however, and so is best in mix- tures. In New South Wales, paspalum has proven valuable as a hay and pasture grass and has there been greatly praised 252 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE by agriculturists. It is said to remain green when all other grasses are dried up, and several successive cuttings, aggregating 13 tons (green feed) an acre, were obtained at the Wollongar Experiment Station the season following the seeding. In the Tweed district pas- palum pasture is said to support one dairy cow to the acre the year round. In the United States paspalum is adapted to practically the same area as the cotton plant, excepting that it does not spread west of the humid eastern portion of Texas. While it oc- curs on all types of soil it is most abun- dant on rich black soils and bottom lands. Paspalum has given fair results under irri- gation in the San Joaquin Valley, California, but does not yield heavily enough to warrant cultivation. It produces seed freely, but it ripens unevenly and shatters easily. In the Southern States the flowers are nearly always affected by a black fungus and apparently FIG. 27. Paspalum dilatotum. a, show- ing arrangement of spikelcts ; b, a single spikelet ; c and d, floret. SOUTHERN GRASSES 253 only a small percentage of the seed is good. Commercial seed comes wholly from Australia, but it rarely germinates over 50 per cent and is high priced. PARA-GRASS 304. Para-grass (Panicum barbinode). Para-grass is probably native to South America and first became known to botanists from Brazil. It is a coarse growing species, differing from most other grasses by producing stout runners as thick as a lead pencil which reach a length of 15 to 40 feet. These runners take root at the nodes and thus give rise to independent plants. Where there is shrubbery to support them they may reach a height of 15 feet. The leaves are rather short, rarely longer than one foot and about one-half inch wide. The sheaths are quite pubescent as are the nodes also. When growing thickly para-grass will under favorable conditions make a dense mass of herbage 3 or 4 feet high. Para-grass is a tropical species and adapted to wet or moist land. In Brazil, Ceylon and elsewhere it is much grown and fed green to animals. It is sometimes difficult to eradicate in the tropics and is especially troublesome in sugar-cane fields. In the United States it is adapted only to Florida and the Gulf Coast to southern Texas. In Arizona and California it has been tried under irrigation, but has not done very well, apparently requiring a humid climate. Para-grass has survived the winter at Charleston, S.C., and can probably be grown wherever the winter temperature does not fall below 18 F. It often grows along stream banks where it is covered with water for a month or more at a time, conditions which do not harm it in the least. On the margins of ponds it is frequently seen growing in shallow water. 254 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE On account of its coarseness and rapid growth, para- grass makes an enormous yield. In Florida it is often cut three and four times during a season, and yields as high as 4 tons may be harvested in a single cutting. There is no particular time to cut para-grass, but it is usually done when the grass is 2 to 3 feet high. The hay is coarse but readily eaten by both horses and cattle. To secure the best yields, it is desirable to plow the field each spring, which stimulates the growth of the grass. Some planters sow the plowed land to cowpeas and then get a mixed crop of cowpeas and grass at the first cutting. Para-grass is coming into larger use in southern Texas and some extensive fields are now grown under irrigation. Where the climate is warm and moist no other grass produces equally large yields on wet lands. This grass is easily propagated by cuttings of the long prostrate runners. These are cut into lengths of 2 or 3 joints, and then merely pushed into the ground at intervals of 5 to 10 feet or even more. This may be done on spe- cially prepared land or in between the rows of cultivated crops. During the first season para-grass usually pro- duces only prostrate runners unless the cuttings are planted thickly. After the ground has become well cov- ered with the runners, upright branches are produced, and when growing thickly all the shoots become ascending. The seed of para-grass is not very satisfactory, and, as it shatters very readily, is seldom gathered. It is pro- duced most abundantly during dry weather when the growth becomes reduced. 305. Guinea-grass (Panicum maximum}. Guinea- grass is native to Africa and has been considered native in Brazil, but first became known to botanists from the West SOUTHERN GRASSES 255 Indies. It was known in Jamaica before 1756 as guinea- grass ; in Guadeloupe before 1786 ; in Dominica before 1791, and in Cuba in 1804. According to Trimen it was introduced into Jamaica in 1774 from west tropical Africa by John Ellis as food for some birds he had imported. From Jamaica it was introduced into India in 1808. It is now quite generally grown in the tropics and cut green as feed for horses and cattle. In Cuba large areas are now covered with a spontaneous growth of the grass. It was introduced into the United States as early as 1813 when it was grown at Natchez, Mississippi. It is well adapted only to Florida and a narrow strip along the Gulf Coast to southern Texas. In Arizona and California it does fairly well under irrigation, but has not come into agricultural use in these states. Guinea-grass is a long-lived perennial, with short creep- ing rootstocks, single plants often making tufts 4 feet in diameter. The culms are about as large as a lead pencil and in the ordinary form strictly erect, reaching a height of 6 to 10 feet. The leaves are 1 to 3 feet long, flat and about one-fourth to one and one-half inches wide. The panicles are erect, pyramidal, loose and open, a foot or more long. The spikelets shed promptly as they mature. Guinea-grass from different sources shows considerable variation. One form from South Africa is smaller, 4 to 6 feet tall, and the culms are decumbent at the base, and rooting at the nodes. Another, too late even to bloom at the Florida Experiment Station, has leaves as broad as those of corn. In the tropics guinea-grass is used wholly for soiling, and on uplands no other grass will yield as well. In Florida and along the Gulf Coast, it may be cut from 4 to 6 256 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE times, if cut when it is two feet high or less. It should not be allowed to bloom, as the stems are rather hard and woody. Guinea-grass is not well adapted for hay on account of its bunch habit, but this is much less pronounced when it is grown thickly. The seeds shatter promptly as they mature, but can be secured by cutting off the panicles before they are fully mature and curing in the shade. This grass may be propagated by root divisions, or seedlings may be grown and then transplanted. The best results are secured when the grass is planted in rows 5 or 6 feet wide and 3 feet apart in the row, so that it can be cultivated. Thus planted it will yield an enormous amount of green matter, probably more than any other similar grass. Guinea-grass is killed when the tempera- ture reaches about 18 F. 306. Rescue-grass (Bromus unioloides), also known as Schrader's brome-grass, Arctic-grass, Australian brome and Australian oats, is native to Argentina, but was early introduced in the Southern States, where it now appears spontaneously in many places. The first definite record of its introduction is 1853, in which year it was advertised and highly praised by B. V. Iverson of Columbus, Georgia, who apparently first used the name rescue-grass. Rescue-grass is a short-lived perennial, but under cul- tivation behaves practically as an annual. It commonly grows to a height of 2J or 4 feet, the culms terminated by a large, open, somewhat drooping panicle. It is naturally adapted to humid regions of mild winters, springing up in the fall, growing through the yvinter and maturing in early summer. It does not make much growth on poor land, but on rich soils is probably the best grass for temporary winter pastures in the South. On such SOUTHERN GRASSES 257 soils it also grows large enough to cut for hay, and under favorable conditions two cuttings may be obtained. In the North rescue-grass survives the winter at Arling- ton Farm, Virginia, and in the grass gar- den survives 4 or 5 years, but it cannot compete with the bet- ter northern grasses in yield. In Australia rescue- grass has become quite important and practi- cally all of the com- mercial seed is grown there. The seeding habits are excellent and the seed moder- ate in price. R e s c u e-g r a s s is probably deserving of more attention in the South than it has re- ceived, especially for winter pasturage on good land. It should be sown in early fall, and may often be pastured by December but usually not till February. The seeding rate generally recommended is 30 to 40 pounds per acre. It is always a desirable constituent of mixed pastures with such winter-growing plants as bur clover, vetches, orchard-grass and Italian rye-grass. FIG. 28. Rescue-grass (Bromus uni- oloides). a, glumes; b, lemma; c, palea. 258 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 307. Crab-grass (Digitaria sanguinalis] is a native of the Old World, early introduced into the United States as a weed. The older agricultural writers mostly speak of it as " crop-grass/' of which the more modern term seems to be a corruption. It is an annual weedy grass that appears with the advent of hot weather and is promptly killed by the first frost in fall. It makes an abundant growth in cultivated ground from which winter crops have been harvested, or even after early summer crops, such as oats and potatoes. Perhaps more crab-grass is cut for hay in the South than any other one grass. The hay is consid- ered fair in quality if cut about the time the first heads mature. Crab-grass is always a spontaneous crop and is never sown, nor is the seed handled commercially. In lawns it becomes a destructive weed, as it makes dense mats which smother out other grasses. 308. Natal-grass (Tricholcena rosea) is an annual, native of Natal. South Africa, now grown commonly in India, Australia, the Hawaiian Islands and other warm regions. Sometimes it is called Australian redtop or Hawaiian redtop, but it has no relation to true redtop. It is a summer annual and in America is adapted only to Florida and the Gulf Coast region. The dark rose-colored, loose panicles are very attractive. It is similar to com- mon crab-grass in its habit of growth, but is larger, more leafy and bears moderate frosts with less injury. The best growth is made on rather sandy soils, and in Florida after the ground is once seeded it makes an abundant volunteer growth after Irish potatoes, melons, oats and other early crops have been gathered. It was introduced into Florida about twenty years ago and is now very abun- dant in scattered areas through that state. For fall SOUTHERN GRASSES 259 and winter grazing it is excellent and the hay is of good quality, especially when mixed with cowpeas. It begins its growth so early in the season that it is usually killed by any summer cultivation which may be given the field, so that it is rarely seen in cotton or corn fields. The glumes are very hairy and light, so the seed must be gath- ered by stripping. Seed may be sown broadcast at any time from November to April and needs no special atten- tion. Natal-grass is valuable wherever it will continue to volunteer from year to year, but its seed habits and small yield do not commend it for growing in rotations. Some commercial seed is grown in Australia. Seeds from different sources show that the plant is quite variable, and some forms are decidedly more valuable than others. A related species, T. teneriffce, is perennial and may prove valuable for permanent pastures in Florida. CHAPTER XIII SORGHUMS SORGHUM (Andropogon sorghum) THE numerous varieties of sorghum are cultivated in the Old World for three distinct purposes ; namely, grain, sirup and brooms, and but incidentally for forage. In the United States the utilization of the crop for forage far exceeds its other uses at present, though the culture of broom-corn is important, and the harvesting of the crop as grain is increasing. Sorghum is potentially of enormous importance in America because of its adaptation to regions too dry for Indian corn. 309. Botany. The botanical origin of the cultivated sorghums is a complex problem. Hackel on the basis of extensive studies reached the conclusion that all the cultivated forms as well as the different forms of Johnson- grass represent but one botanical species. However, the wild forms easily separate into two groups ; namely, the perennials with rootstocks like Johnson-grass and its 3 or 4 varieties ; and the annuals which lack rootstocks, like Sudan-grass, Tunis-grass and others. As the latter cross spontaneously and abundantly with the cultivated sorghums while the former can be crossed only with diffi- culty, it seems more logical to admit two species, Johnson- grass and its varieties (Andropogon halepensis) and the annual sorghums (Andropogon sorghum) including Sudan- grass. 260 SORGHUMS 261 The wild annuals so far as known are confined to Africa, but one occurs perhaps introduced in Tahiti and Samoa. From this fact the cultivated sorghums probably originated in Africa, a conclusion also supported by the fact that the diversity of the African varieties both wild and cultivated is far greater than that of all other regions. Tunis-grass may be considered very near the wild original form and Sudan-grass a variety somewhat improved by cultivation. There are several other wild forms in different parts of Africa concerning which but little is known. 310. Agricultural history. The culture of the sor- ghums is doubtless very ancient, far antedating history. The first definite records are illustrations on ancient Egyptian ruins dating from about 220'0 B.C. of what is, with scarcely a doubt, some variety of sorghum. Bret- scheider finds evidence in Chinese writings that sorghums were cultivated in China as early as the third century of the Christian Era. Old Sanskrit writings, dating back 1900 years, mention what is quite surely a grain sorghum grown in India at that time. In ancient Greek writings there are no clear references to sorghum, but the plant was known to Pliny, who states that it was introduced into Italy from India about 60 A.D. More potent than the brief records of ancient history is the mute testimony that the plant itself affords by its early wide distribution and the astonishing diversity of its cultivated forms. Its culture probably extended through- out Africa in prehistoric times and early spread to the southern half of Asia as far northeast as Manchuria. In the latter country an entirely distinct group of forms has been developed, the kowliangs ; and the East Indian forms also are very different from those of Africa. In America, the first sorghum to be introduced was 262 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE doubtless the Guinea corn, brought from Africa to the West Indies before 1707, at which date it was much cul- tivated in Jamaica. In the United States broom-corn sorghums were grown in colonial times, but the first definite record of a sweet sorghum was that introduced in 1853 from France, the variety then called Chinese sorghum and much like that now called Amber. In 1857 it was widely distributed by the United States Patent Office. Since 1857 numerous varieties have been introduced into the United States, mainly by the Department of Agriculture, from all parts of the world where the crop is grown, as with the agricultural development of the semi- arid region the sorghums have become increasingly impor- tant. 311. Adaptations. Sorghums are adapted to regions having a warm summer climate. The earliest known varieties will mature with three months of warm weather, but some of the tropical African varieties barely come into bloom in Florida in 7 months. In regions of long, cool summers like northern Europe, sorghums are of but little value. No degree of summer heat seems too intense for the sorghums, but they are injured both in spring and in fall by light frosts. Sorghum has no marked preference for soil except that it be well drained. On account of its deep roots a permea- ble subsoil is desirable. In general the climatic and soil adaptations of sorghums are nearly identical with those of corn. Sorghum, how- ever, suffers less than corn from intense heat, lack of humidity or insufficient soil moisture, often remaining fresh and green when corn is completely destroyed, or remaining semi-dormant during short periods of extreme SORGHUMS 263 drought and again growing with the advent of favorable weather. On these accounts it is especially well adapted to agriculture in* semi-arid regions. 312. Root system. In Ten Eyck's studies at the Kan- sas Experiment Station, the roots of kafir and of Folger sorgo were found to extend to a depth of 3J feet, but at that depth were less abundant than those of corn. Both varieties, especially the kafir corn, produced an enormous amount of roots in the upper 18 inches. The sorghums therefore have a root system especially well adapted to use shallow moisture promptly. In Russian investigations the roots of two varieties of sorghum penetrated respectively 106 and 110 centi- meters, while corn roots went to a depth of 113 centi- meters and spread laterally to a greater extent than the sorghum. The drought resistance of sorghums would therefore seem not to be especially associated with the development of the root system. 313. Agricultural groups. No other cultivated crop exhibits as great a diversity as does sorghum. Varieties have been developed for three distinct purposes ; namely, grain, sugar and broom-straw. All three of the groups also . produce forage as a by-product. A satisfactory classification of the very numerous forms of tropical Africa is not at present possible, but very many of them have been named by botanists. So far as the forms cultivated in America are concerned, the classification into groups as proposed by Ball is here adopted, adding another group, however, to include Sudan-grass and Tunis-grass. * Stems slender, rarely exceeding 6 mm. in diameter ; leaves relatively narrow, 12 to 30 mm. broad ; panicles loose ; spikelets 264 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE lanceolate, 2 to 3 mm. broad, readily shattering (Tunis-grass) or persisting (Sudan-grass). I Grass sorghums. ** Stems stout, usually 18 to 30 mm. in diameter ; leaves broader, 45 to 75 mm. broad ; panicles various. I. Pith juicy. A. Juice abundant and very sweet. 1. Internodes elongated; sheaths scarcely overlap- ping ; leaves 12-15 (except in Amber varieties) ; spikelets elliptic-oval to obovate, 2.5-3.5 mm. wide ; grains reddish brown. II Sorgo. B. Juice scanty, slightly sweet to subacid. 1. Internodes short ; sheaths strongly overlapping ; leaves 1215 ; peduncles erect ; panicles cylin- drical ; spikelets obovate, 3-4 mm. wide; lem- mas awnless. Ill Kafir. 2. Internodes medium ; sheaths scarcely overlapping ; leaves 8-11; peduncles mostly inclined, often recurved ; panicles ovate ; spikelets broadly ovate, 4.5-6 mm. wide ; lemmas awned. VIII Milo. II. Pith dry. A. Panicle lax, 2.5-7 dm. long ; peduncles erect ; spike- lets elliptic-oval or 'obovate, 2.5-3.5 mm. wide; lemmas awned. 1. Panicle 4-7 dm. long ; rhachis less than one-fifth as long as the panicle. . a. Panicle umbelliform, the branches greatly elongated, the tips drooping ; grains reddish, included. IV Broom-corn. 2. Panicle 2.5-4 dm. long; rhachis more than two- thirds as long as the panicle. a. Panicle conical, the branches strongly drooping ; glumes at maturity spreading and involute ; grains white or somewhat buff. V Shallu, SORGHUMS 265 6. Panicle oval or obovate, the branches spread- ing; glumes at maturity appressed, not invo- lute ; grains white, brown or reddish. VI Kowliang. B. Panicle compact, 1-2.5 dm. long; peduncles erect or recurved ; rhachis more than two-thirds as long as the panicle. 1. Spikelets elliptic-oval or obovate, 2.5-3.5 mm. wide ; lemmas awned. VI Kowliang. 2. Spikelets broadly obovate, 4.5-6 mm. wide. a. Glumes gray or greenish, not wrinkled ; densely pubescent ; lemmas awned or awnless ; grains strongly flattened. VII Durra. b. Glumes deep brown or black, transversely wrinkled ; thinly pubescent ; lemmas awned ; grains slightly flattened. VIII Milo. Of the above eight groups, Durra, Milo, Shallu, Kowli- ang and Kafir were primarily developed as grain crops, though the last also contains sugar ; Sorgo was developed for its sugar ; Broom-corn for its stiff fascicled straws ; and the grass sorghums are useful primarily for fodder. The waste herbage of each group is, however, used as fodder wherever cultivated. In America probably three-fourths of the total herbage produced by all the sorghums is con- sumed as coarse forage. Indeed, the only portions not thus harvested are the brooms of broom-corn ; the stalks from which sirup is extracted ; and the increasing propor- tion of milo, kafir and durra which is headed for grain, at the present time not over one-half the acreage. Sorghums are sometimes classified into saccharine and non-saccharine, depending on whether they contain sugar in the stalks. The discussion of forage sorghums is here limited to the varieties and methods used where the whole plant is usually harvested and thus utilized. 266 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 314. Importance. The relative importance of the sorghum as forage in America is difficult to estimate, mainly on account of the four purposes grain, forage, sirup and brooms for which the crop is grown. The importance of the crop for much of the semi-arid region, especially the unirrigated lands between longitude 98 W. and the Rocky Mountains, is so great that over much of the region it forms the basis of possible agriculture. In more humid areas it comes into competition with corn. Other competitive crops like teosinte and penicillaria have practically been driven from American agriculture by sorghum, but in Florida and the Gulf Coast region Japan- ese sugar-cane will give larger forage returns than sorghum, but the latter is grown on account of its usefulness in rotations. The statistics of sorghums, at least the sweet sorghums, are not very satisfactory. According to the Thirteenth United States Census the total acreage of sorghum was as follows : Sorghum for sirup 444,089 acres Broom-corn 326,102 acres Kafir and milo 1,635,153 acres 2,405,344 acres Some of the sorghum is also reported under the heading " Coarse forage," but it is impossible to estimate how much. According to the Kansas State Board of Agriculture, there was grown in that state in 1910 acreage as follows : sorgo, 512,621; milo, 100,700; kafir, 636,201. Of the sorgo the product of only 12,879 acres was pressed for sirup. 315. Culture. - Sorghum is grown for forage either in SORGHUMS 267 rows sufficiently wide to cultivate with horses, or less com- monly, broadcasted or drilled thickly for hay. Sometimes it is planted in a mixture with cowpeas, soybeans or other legumes. Good preparation of the seed bed is desirable, especially to secure a firm seed bed and freedom from weeds. Sor- ghum seedlings grow slowly at first, the more so if the weather be cool, and so are likely to be injured by weeds or even destroyed in broadcasted sowings. When planted in rows sorghum is cultivated often enough to keep down weeds. In the semi-arid region frequent cultivations are believed to conserve the soil moisture. Whether broadcasted or sown in rows, sorghum can be harrowed until about 6 inches high with practically no injury to the young plants. Rows 24 to 30 inches wide may be cultivated with a weeder till 2 feet high. 316. Time of sowing. Sorghum should not be sown until the soil is thoroughly warm in the spring, and usually a little later than corn. Early sowings often given imper- fect stands. Later seedings can be made at any time in the summer provided there is likely to be sufficient moisture and time enough to mature before frost. 317. Seeding in rows. Sorghums may be sown in cultivated rows in widths varying from 18 inches to 44 inches. Cultivation with horses is difficult, however, if the rows are narrower than 28 inches, and 42 or 44 inches is the usual distance used. The thickness of the seeding in the rows may also be varied. Thick seeding will pro- duce finer stems and a larger proportion of leaves, and this is therefore desirable where moisture is ample. In dry regions, however, where the moisture supply may be very scanty, thin seedings are most satisfactory in the long run, 268 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE even if the yield be somewhat reduced, and the plants coarser. If the rows be 3 feet wide and the plants 1 inch apart in the rows, an acre will contain 174,240 plants. Six pounds of seed of a sweet sorghum would, therefore, be sufficient if they all grow. Four to 6 pounds of seed to the acre is, however, commonly used in the drier regions, and in humid regions up to 8 to 10 pounds. . In the semi-arid regions sorghums are usually planted in furrows made with a lister, as this is believed to make the plant more firmly rooted, especially as the later cul- tivations throw the soil about the base of the stems. At Chillicothe, Texas, however, flat planting gave better yields in average seasons. 318. Seeding broadcast. Where sorghum is sown broadcast an average of about 40 pounds to the acre is best. Such seedings are usually confined to the sweet sorghums the seeds of which do not differ greatly in size in the different varieties. This amount of seed if drilled will sow 1 seed each inch in 7 inch drill rows. In drier regions somewhat less seed is more desirable, but in the humid regions 1 to 2 bushels is the usual rate of seeding. At the Iowa Experiment Station but slight differences in yield were obtained when sown at the rates of 40, 80 and 100 pounds an acre, excepting that in the thicker seedings the stalks were not as coarse. 319. Number of cuttings. As a rule sorghum is cut but once for fodder. This is all that is possible in the Northern States or in the semi-arid regions on unirrigated land. In the South, however, where the rainfall is ample or where irrigation is available, two or three cuttings may be secured in a season, new shoots developing from the stubble. To secure a better second crop the rows or SORGHUMS 269 broadcasted stubble are sometimes cultivated after the first cutting is removed. 320. Yields of forage. The yields of forage from the sorghums vary greatly and, as is the case with similar coarse plants, are not often weighed. Maximum yields probably reach 40 tons of green and about 10 of dry forage. Very large yields can be obtained by growing very coarse varieties, but smaller yields of less coarse fodder are more desirable. In general, 3 tons an acre may be considered a good yield and 6 tons a large yield. 321. Seed. The seeds of the sorghums differ greatly according to variety in size, shape, color and hardness. The weight to the bushel will vary from 54 pounds to 62 pounds per bushel, depending upon the freedom from hulls and the variety. The legal weight to the bushel is 30 pounds in Iowa and Nebraska ; 42 pounds in Missouri and Mississippi ; 50 pounds in Arkansas and Tennessee ; 56 pounds in Kansas ; 57 pounds in Minnesota. According to the last census (1909) there was produced 833,707 bushels of seed on 72,497 acres. Of this Kansas produced 565,522 bushels on 53,706 acres. Other im- portant seed-producing states are Nebraska, Texas and Oklahoma. The number of seeds in one pound of different varieties is as follows : Sumac, 35,000 ; Orange, 23,500 ; Amber, 23,000. 322. Agricultural varieties. The agricultural varieties of the sorghums important for forage include all the sorgos or sweet sorghums, the kafirs, milo and feterita, as well as Sudan-grass. The broom-corns, the kowliangs, shallu and many of the Indian and African-grown varieties have dry, pithy stems and are therefore much less valuable for forage. 270 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE The principal sorgos are Amber, Orange, Sumac, Goose- neck, Honey and Planter; there are four important varieties of kafir, two of milo and one durra (feterita) commonly grown for forage. Amber. Amber was the first sorgo introduced into America. It is said to have been developed in Indiana from the Chinese sorgo brought to France in 1851 from Tsungming Island, China. Amber sorgo has open, usually pyramidal panicles with the lower branches drooping; glumes black, slightly hairy, shiny, nearly inclosing the elliptical reddish-yellow grains. It will mature in Ontario and Minnesota. Red Amber. This variety was introduced in 1903 from Australia, where it is called Early Orange. It differs from amber in the glumes being dark red or reddish- brown. It is not early enough to use north of Kansas and Maryland. Orange. Orange sorgo was one of the forms introduced from Natal in 1857. It has moderately compact heads, 5 to 8 inches long, oblong, cylindric or spreading at the top ; glumes reddish to black, two-thirds as long as the reddish yellow grains, which become paler when fully ripe. Usually it is two weeks later than Amber and about one week earlier than Sumac. Planter. This variety is much grown in Australia under the name Planter's Friend and in America has been called Sourless from the idea that the juice in the stems would not ferment as quickly as that of other varieties. Its origin and early history are obscure, but forms much like it came from South Africa. It much resembles Orange, but is less sweet and juicy. The heads vary in compactness and may be spreading above ; glumes pale brown, very acute, half inclosing the straw-colored grains. SORGHUMS 271 Planter is not considered a desirable variety under American conditions. Sumac. Sumac sorgo, also known as Redtop or Red- head, was introduced from Natal in 1857. Sumac varies but little and may be easily distinguished by its erect, cylindrical, quite dense heads 6 to 9 inches long, some- times loose at the top ; glumes dark red or black, hairy, much shorter, than the seeds ; grains very small, obovate, brownish red. Sumac is too late to mature north of a line from northern Virginia to southern Kansas. Honey. Honey has also been called Japanese seeded cane. It was found growing in Texas in 1904, but its earlier history is uncertain. Stems tall, very juicy, sweeter than any other variety known ; leaves 14 to 16 ; panicles erect, pyramidal, very loose and open, 9 to 11 inches long, the slender branches more or less drooping; glumes reddish, nearly smooth and about equal in length to the dark red-brown grains ; late, maturing with Sumac. This variety is probably the best of all in its ability to remain erect until maturity. Gooseneck. This is also known as " Texas Seeded Rib- bon Cane." It has been known since 1876 and is perhaps one of the varieties from Natal. Stems very tall and stout, 12 to 14 feet high, very sweet and juicy; heads ovoid, rather dense, 5 to 9 inches long, 3 to 5 inches broad, all recurved or at least inclined at maturity; glumes hairy, black, the lower one awned ; grains obovate, reddish yel- low, inclosed by the glumes ; later than Sumac by about one week. Gooseneck is better for sirup than for forage. It does not lodge much in spite of its great height. Kafir or Kafir corn. Kafirs are all originally from southeast Africa, whence they were introduced in 1876, 272 FORAGE PLANTS ANJ) THEIR CULTURE but were not much grown until ten years afterwards. They differ from other grain sorghums in having the stems quite sweet, being intermediate in this respect between the sweet sorghums and the pithy-stemmed sorghums. They are characterized by stout, short-jointed stems, numerous (12-18) broad, rather stiff leaves, and especially by the dense, erect, cylindrical or oblong heads. The grains are oval, half covered by the short glumes. The most important variety is Blackhull kafir with heads 10 to 14 inches long, and nearly white grains with black glumes. Less important is Red kafir with longer, more slender heads, 12 to 18 inches long and dark red grains with yellowish to dark gray glumes. Pink kafir recently introduced from South Africa, with pink grains, is otherwise intermediate between the Blackhull and the Red varieties. White kafir with white glumes and grains is the earliest variety of kafir, but its heads often remain inclosed in the upper sheath. Feterita. Feterita or Sudan durra is an erect-headed durra introduced in 1906. It is much cultivated in Sudan in the region about Khartum. Feterita has rather slender stems, 5 to 7 feet high, slightly juicy and sweet and in- clined to' produce branches ; heads erect, cylindrical, dense but not so compact as milo ; grains bluish white, subglobose, much larger than those of milo or kafir ; glumes black, shiny, densely hirsute on margins only half inclos- ing the seeds ; early, maturing about one week before milo. Milo. Milo is also called milo maize and in northern Texas is often known simply as maize. It was first grown in South Carolina or Georgia between 1880 and 1885. With scarcely a doubt it came from Africa, but nothing exactly like it has since been obtained from that con- 80EGHUMS 273 tinent, but the yellow durra or durra safra of Egypt is more nearly like milo than any other known variety. Milo is characterized by having stout, rather pithy stems ; dense ovate heads, nearly always recurved ; glumes dark colored ; florets awned ; grains pale yellow. A white- seeded form has also been developed near Chillicothe, Texas. Milo seems to be entirely immune from kernel smut and head smut. 323. Seed-production. The seeding habits of the sorghums are excellent and the yield an acre large. The grain varieties, kafir, milo and feterita, commonly yield 25 bushels an acre and maximums of 75 bushels are reported for kafir, 46 bushels for milo and 80 bushels for feterita. The average yield an acre according to the United States Census was 19.4 bushels in 1899 and 19.8 bushels in 1909. The commercial seed of these grain sorghums is usually excellent both in purity and germina- tion. The seed yield of sorgos is much less definitely known. The census of 1909 shows a total production of 833,707 bushels on 72,497 acres or 11.6 bushels an acre. Over 70 per cent of this was produced in Kansas, the other important states being Nebraska, Texas and Oklahoma. Of the total amount probably over one-half was Arnber sorgo. Good yields range from 20 to 40 bushels an acre. The commercial seed of the sorgos often leaves much to be desired, as there is usually a mixture of varieties and seldom a pure strain. There is, however, no greater difficulty in growing pure seed than in the case of the grain sorghums. The seeds of most sorghums retain their viability well for several years, but no detailed studies have been re- corded. 274 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 324. Utilization. Sorghums for forage may be utilized as soilage, hay, fodder or silage, and with due precautions, may be pastured. The crop should be harvested before frost, if possible, but light frosts do but little damage. If the crop becomes injured by frost, the harvesting should be completed as rapidly as possible. 325. Soilage. Sorghum is an excellent crop to feed green, and is probably thus used to a greater extent than any other forage crop in America. For this purpose it may be cut at any time after it is 2 or 3 feet high. It is not desirable to cut, however, until it heads, as both the yield and the quality are better at that time. The second growth is more rapid if it be cut before heading than after- wards, but the total yield is probably reduced if cut either before heading or after the dough stage of the seeds is reached. In growing sorghum for soilage, sowings may be made at intervals of about 15 days, as this is about the length of time that a sowing will afford desirable green feed. Or early and late varieties may be used. The average yield of green forage an acre may conservatively be placed at 15 tons. 326. Fodder. Sorghum in cultivated rows is har- vested much the same as corn, being cut either with a row binder or with a corn knife. The crop is commonly cut for this purpose when the seed is in the early dough stage. The thick, juicy stems cure with difficulty. It is best, therefore, to begin the curing by having the stalks in small shocks, and to combine these into larger ones as the curing progresses. The large shocks are put under cover when dry enough, or they may be left in the field until used. If left in the field, they should be capped or at least tied closely at the top so as to shed rain water. SORGHUMS 275 When only small. areas are harvested, the curing may be done with the aid of a pyramid. Sweet sorghum fodder, if left in the field, is likely to become sour after about three months, due to the fer- mentation of the sugar by yeasts. This difficulty is greatest with the saccharine sorghums in humid climates, and probably in nearly direct proportion to their sugar content. 327. Hay. Where sorghum is sown broadcasted or in close drills, it is usually cut for hay when the seeds are in the early dough stage. In dry regions it may be cut with a binder and allowed to cure in the bundles. In more humid localities, methods must be used to insure as rapid curing as possible, as the rather thick, juicy stems dry out but slowly. 328. Silage. Sorghum has long been used as silage and the results are nearly as satisfactory as corn. Even in the semi-arid regions the use of the silo has become common in recent years, and an increasing proportion of the sorghum crop, both saccharine and grain varieties, is thus preserved. With the grain sorghums an incidental advantage is secured by the softening of the seeds during silage fermentation, so that practically none are voided by the animal undigested. For preserving as silage, sorghums should be allowed to become fully mature. In palatability and feeding value sorghum silage has proven to be nearly as good as corn silage. 329. Sorghum and legume mixtures. A mixture com- posed of sorghum and cowpeas for hay has long been used. The advantages of the mixture are that the sorghum supports the cowpeas and in curing keeps the leaves from becoming matted. The yield is probably somewhat 276 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE decreased, but the mixed hay is better than sorghum alone. Amber sorgo is generally used in such mixtures, but in Texas, Sumac is preferable because it is later. Any of the medium late cowpeas may be employed, such as Whippoorwill, Brabham and Unknown. Where moisture is ample, the seeding may consist of | to | bushel per acre of sorghum and 1 bushel of cowpeas. When planted in rows under dry-land conditions, the rate of planting needs to be regulated in accordance with the probable amount of moisture. Theoretically there should be one plant of cowpea to tw^o of sorghum. At Chillicothe, Texas, 6 pounds of Whippoorwill cowpeas to 1 pound of Amber sorghum proved very satisfactory. Other legumes that may be used in place of cowpeas are soybean, bonavist beans and kulthi beans. 330. Pasture value. Sorghum may be used as pas- turage, but on account of the danger of poisoning has never been much employed for this purpose alone. It is a common practice, however, to turn live stock into a field of sorghum from which the heads have been removed for seed, and when thus utilized there have been no reports of deaths resulting. The principal danger from sorghum seems to be when the young second growth from the stubble is pastured. 331. Poisoning. That green sorghums are poisonous under certain circumstances has long been known. The cause is now generally admitted to be due to prussic acid, which under some conditions is formed in the leaves both of young and old plants, but has not been found in the roots or seeds. The conditions under which prussic acid is formed is not clearly understood, but it seems more likely to occur when for any reason the growth of the plant has been checked. As the same phenomenon occurs in SORGHUMS 277 Lima beans, Hyacinth beans, Guinea-grass and other plants, it is quite certainly not due to a parasite. Poison- ing has been most frequently reported when cattle were pastured on second-growth sorghum, and on account of the danger this is rarely advisable. A few cases of poisoning by Johnson-grass are also recorded. 332. Diseases. Three diseases cause more or less damage to the sorghums ; namely, kernel smut (Sphace- lotheca sorghi) ; head smut (Sphacelotheca reiliana) ; and Red spot or Sorghum blight (Bacillus sorghi). Kernel smut affects only the individual grains, and all or nearly all the seeds in a head are destroyed, but the appearance of the head is but slightly changed. Kernel smut may be controlled by treating the seed with formalin or with hot water. Head smut destroys the entire head, which, as it emerges from the sheath, is practically a mass of smut spores covered with a whitish membrane. No satisfactory treatment for this smut has yet been found. Red spot or blight causes characteristic red spots to appear on the leaves and stems. When abundant the leaves die prematurely. All varieties of sorghum and Johnson-grass are subject to the disease, but by selection strains that show a high degree of resistance may be secured. 333. Insect pests. Only a few insects cause serious damage to sorghums. The most important are the sorghum midge, the chinch-bug, the corn-worm and the fall army- worm. Sorghum midge (Diplosis sorghicola). It has long been known that the sorghums seldom produced good seed crops in southern Texas. The cause of this is the sorghum midge, as first demonstrated by C. R. Ball in 1907. This little fly lays its eggs in the flower when in bloom and 278 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE the young larva feeds on the juices of the developing ovary, preventing the formation of the seed. If a head of sorghum be bagged before it blooms so as to exclude the insect all of the seeds may develop. The insect also lives in Setaria glauca, Tridens flava (Sieglingia seslerioides) and probably other grasses. Its occurrence is probably general in the Southern States over about the same area as cotton. Corn-worm ( Helioihis armiger) . The larva of the corn- worm is often found in the heads of sorghum, but mostly in those which are rather dense. Chinch-bug (Blissus leucopterus). Chinch-bugs, when abundant, do serious damage to young sorghum plants. Fall army-worm (Laphygma frugiperda). The fall army-worm, when abundant, may do serious damage to sorghums. The larvae usually feed in the young leaves while still coiled, perforating them so that they may break off after they have expanded. Sometimes the larvae tunnel into the young stem below the developing head, which may later break where weakened. Sorghum aphis (Sipha flava). This plant louse is sometimes abundant, but rarely does much damage. 334. Sorghum improvement. The improvement of sorghums by breeding presents no particular difficulties, but care is necessary to keep any strain pure. Sorghum, like corn, is wind pollinated, and different varieties grown close together cross freely. Uncontaminated seed can easily be obtained by bagging the heads before the stigmas are exposed. After the seeds have set, the bags should be opened to prevent molding. Natural crosses may be found in almost any field of sorghum. Heterozygote plants are often prominent from the fact that they grow much taller than the other plants. Artificial crosses are SORGHUMS 279 not particularly difficult to make, but the blossoms must be emasculated before the anthers open. Selections can easily be compared by the hea"d-to-row method; that is, planting each row from a single head, preferably in duplicate so as to permit of careful compari- sons. Among the sweet sorghums, selections should be for leanness, disease resistance, sweetness, juiciness and erectness, as well as yield. Yield, indeed, is a secondary matter, as otherwise the tallest and coarsest varieties would be preferred. Among grain-producing sorghums the yield of seed is the paramount consideration, but in dual-purpose sor- ghums, like milo, kafir and feterita, the other points should be considered. When a desirable strain is determined upon, the heads in the row test should be bagged, and from the seed thus secured, a field isolated from other varieties should be planted. As soon as a stock of seed is secured, the variety may be kept practically pure by saving the seed only from the central portions of a field and by promptly removing any rogues that may appear. SUDAN-GRASS (Audropogon sorghum var.) 335. Description. Sudan-grass is probably native to Egypt, where it is cultivated under the name " garawi," but it may have originated farther south in Africa. It was first introduced into the United States in 1909. There are strong reasons for believing this plant to be the wild original form of the cultivated sorghums, with which it spontaneously crosses wherever the two are planted near each other. It is a tall annual grass, growing under favorable 280 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE conditions to a height of 6 to 10 feet, but when broad- casted thickly it grows only 4 to 5 feet high. The stems are fine, the largest stalks seldom larger than a lead pencil. Where the plants are scattered they stool abundantly, as many as 20 to 100 stalks coming from a single root. In general appearance Sudan-grass is very much like Johnson-grass, but the two are entirely distinct, for Sudan-grass lacks rootstocks and, therefore, never be- comes troublesome as a weed. The stems are leafy, perfectly erect and seldom lodging. The sugar content is small, but enough to give a decided sweetish taste. The panicle is loose and open, pyramidal in form and. 6 to 18 inches long. 336. Adaptations. Sudan-grass is adapted to the same general conditions as the sorghums, but it ripens earlier than any sorghum, and will probably mature as far north as latitude 49. It has been grown with marked success in the semi-arid region from South Dakota to Texas, where it is quite as drought resistant as any other sorghum. It grows equally well through the humid regions and has given splendid results from Maryland to. Louisiana. Along the Gulf Coast and in Florida, however, it has not succeeded very well, probably on account of the great humidity. Under irrigation it seems destined to become important, judged from the results secured in Colorado, Arizona and California. 337. Culture. Sudan-grass may be sown broadcast, drilled or in cultivated rows. Where there is sufficient moisture, broadcasting or drilling is preferable ; otherwise the grass is likely to be coarse. In seeding this way three pecks of seed to the acre should be used. Under conditions of light rainfall Sudan-grass is prob- ably best sown in cultivated rows, though excellent SORGHUMS 281 results have been secured in dry regions from broad- casting. In rows 36 inches wide, 3 pounds of seed to the acre are sufficient, even with rather thick seeding, which is recommended when grown for hay. For seed-pro- duction much thinner seeding has given excellent results. It is sometimes practicable in humid regions to sow in 18-inch rows and cultivate. This is especially desirable where the land is very weedy. The grass grown under such conditions does not become too coarse, and further- more, the dense shade kills out the weeds. Five pounds of seed to the acre should be used when thus sown. For drilling or broadcasting 15 to 25 pounds of seed per acre, depending on rainfall, should be used. The seed should not be sown until the ground is warm, that is, about the time for planting corn. Some experiments indicate that Sudan-grass may be seeded considerably earlier, but further experiments are needed before this can be stated definitely. The young plants will withstand slight frosts without injury. 338. Utilization. Sudan-grass may be compared to the millets in that it makes a large crop of hay in a short season of warm weather. It is preferable to the millets, however, in that the hay is much superior and can be fed to all kinds of live stock without injury to them. While it is closely related to the cultivated sorghums, it has much finer stems, enabling it to be cured into hay readily and thus filling a somewhat different function on the farm. It is probable that the same precautions will need to be taken in pasturing Sudan-grass aftermath as with the sorghums. 339. Hay. Sudan-grass may be cut only once in a season at the northern limit of its growth, but southward may be cut two, three or even four times, depending on 282 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE the length of the season and moisture conditions, and the time of cutting. Sudan-grass is probably best cut when in full bloom, and early cutting is advisable where two or more cuttings are expected. There is little if any deteri- oration, however, if the grass be allowed to stand longer, as the later culms of the same stool continue to appear over a considerable period. The grass can be cut with a mower, but more conven- iently with a binder, especially in dry regions, as the hay cures very readily in bundles. At Chillicothe, Texas, 4 cuttings were obtained in 1912 from a broadcasted tenth-acre plot, the yield being at the rate of 8800 pounds of hay per acre. At Arlington Farm, Virginia, single cuttings yielded at the rate of 2.8 tons and 3.5 tons per acre. 340. Hay mixtures. Sudan-grass is well adapted for growing in mixtures with cowpeas and soybeans or both, as they mature well together and the stems of the Sudan- grass prevent the leaves of the legumes from matting together in curing. At Arlington Farm, Virginia, a plat of Sudan-grass and Black cowpeas yielded at the rate of 4.6 tons an acre, about one-fourth being cowpeas, while Johnson-grass and Black cowpeas yielded but 2.8 tons. A similar mixture of Sudan-grass and Arlington soy- beans, a twining variety, yielded at the rate of 4.4 tons per acre, about one-fourth of the material being the legume. In these trials, Sudan-grass was seeded at the rate of 20 pounds, and the cowpeas and soybeans 30 pounds an acre. 341. Chemical analysis. As far as chemical analyses can determine, Sudan-grass does not vary greatly in com- position from before heading until the seed is ripe. As SORGHUMS 283 the leaves dry more or less after full bloom, it is probably best cut at that time. In the following analyses, perhaps the most important point shown is the close comparison of the mature plant with that cut in bloom : CUT AUG. 7 CUT SUBSTANCE SEPT. 1, BEFORE HEADING OCT. 1, SEED WAS FULLY MATURE Before Heading Heads just Ap- pearing Just be- ginning to Bloom In Full Bloom Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Moisture . . 4.13 3.54 3.46 3.51 4.82 4.38 Ash .... 6.61 5.55 5.02 5.64 7.12 5.59 Ether extract 1.72 1.39 1.23 1.27 1.49 1.48 Protein 7.75 6.06 5.16 4.66 5.63 4.19 Crude fiber 30.68 31.94 33.23 35.62 34.30 34.44 Pentosans 21.82 24.01 24.70 24.51 23.38 26.70 Undetermined 27.29 27.51 27.20 24.79 23.26 26.70 342. Seed-production. Sudan-grass yields excellent crops of seed, especially if planted in cultivated rows. At Arlington Farm, Virginia, a yield of 12.8 bushels an acre was obtained when planted in 18-inch rows, while but 3.7 bushels were secured from broadcasted plats. At Chillicothe, Texas, under farm conditions a yield of 356 pounds an acre was secured from 36-inch rows, and on another farm 642 pounds from 42-inch rows. At the South Dakota Experiment Station small plots have yielded at the rate of 1000 to 1500 pounds an acre. The seed weighs 32 to 44 pounds a bushel. Seeol for commercial purposes should be grown on land not infested with Johnson-grass, as the seeds of the two are distinguishable only with difficulty. Where Johnson- grass is abundant, Sudan-grass for seed should be grown 284 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE only in cultivated rows, taking great care to hoe out any Johnson-grass that may appear in the field. Sudan-grass crosses very readily with all of the culti- vated varieties of sorghum, so that when it is grown near any such variety, more or less numerous hybrid plants will appear in the progeny. These hybrids do no harm in the fields intended for hay, but where a crop is to be harvested for seed the hybrid plants should be rogued out. This should be done preferably as soon as the hybrids appear in bloom, so as to prevent further crossing in the field, but in any event it should be done before the Sudan-grass seed is harvested. CHAPTER XIV MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES THE millets furnish another example of a crop utilized in the Old World for human food, but in America grown only for forage. They are important mainly as short-sea- son summer catch-crops, but their culture is diminishing steadily. As hay producers they are far less important than the small cereals, namely, oats, barley, wheat and rye. The term millet has been used agriculturally with a wide meaning, having been applied to about 10 species of grasses belonging to the genera Setaria or Chcetochloa, Panicum, Echinochloa, Pennisetum and sometimes others, including Paspalum. The sorghums, too, have fre- quently been called " giant millets." All the " millets " are rapid-growing summer annuals. 343. The principal millets are the following : Foxtail millet (Setaria italica), including the varieties known as Common, German, Italian, Hungarian, Siberian and many others. In Europe and America they are used wholly as forage, but in other countries have been grown for human food. * Broom-corn millet, Hog Millet or Proso (Panicum miliaceum), cultivated in Russia and other countries as human food and now grown to a considerable extent in America, mainly as a cereal crop, though sometimes cut 285 236 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE for hay. This is the " Common millet " of Europe, the M ilium of the Romans ' from which the name millet is derived. Japanese barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumentacea) . This is also known as Sanwa millet and Billion-dollar grass. In America it is grown purely as a forage crop, but in Japan and India the grain is used as a cheap human food. The very closely related Echinochloa crus-galli is the common Barnyard millet. Ragi or finger millet (Eleusine coracana) is much grown in India as a cereal, but has never attained favor in America. Pearl or cat-tail millet (Pennisetum glaucum) is as tall and coarse as the sorghums and is extensively grown in India and Africa as human food. In the United States it is sparingly grown as forage and often called Penicillaria. The fruit of the true millets, Panicum, Setaria and Echinochloa, differs from that of nearly all other grasses in having the grain inclosed in a firm box composed of the firmly interlocked lemma and palea. This peculiar fruit deserves a distinct name and for it the name caryodst from the Greek words meaning grain and box seems appropriate. 344. Foxtail millet (Setaria italica). There is general agreement among botanists that the cultivated foxtail millets have been derived from the green foxtail (Setaria viridis), now a cosmopolitan weedy grass, especially in the tropics and warmer portion of the temperate zone. Green foxtaiHs native in temperate Eurasia and botanists have distinguished about 8 varieties, largely based on the rel- ative length of the awns. 345. Agricultural history. Foxtail millet is a plant of very ancient cultivation. It is probably a native to MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 287 southern Asia and with little doubt its cultivation began in that region. According to Bretschneider it was men- tioned in connection with religious ceremonies in Chinese records about 2700 B.C. Its cultivation is also very ancient in India and it had early spread west to Switzerland as its seeds there occur in the remains of the lake dwellers of the stone age. 346. Adaptations. The foxtail millets are very rapid-grow- ing, erect annuals, which delight in great summer heat. In gen- eral they require the same climatic condi- tions as sorghum, but as they mature in a shorter time, are adapted to regions where sorghums will not develop suffi- ciently. They are quite as drought re- sistant as the sor- ghums and are im- portant in much the same areas, but as the sorghum will produce greater yields 9f better forage the foxtail millets are now used mainly as catch-crops when the time is too short for other crops to mature. FIG. 29. Foxtail millet (Setaria italica). a and b, dorsal and ventral views of a spikelet ; c, lemma. 288 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE Millet bears the reputation of being " hard on the land " that is, reducing the yield of subsequent crops but this is probably no more the case than with any similar crop that produces equal yields. 347. Importance. The foxtail millets are still im- portant as cereals for human food in China, India and other Asiatic countries. In mountainous regions of North Asia they are cultivated by many wild or half savage tribes. In Europe the variety known as Hungarian millet or Mohar is extensively cultivated for forage on sandy lands in Austria, Italy and the Balkan region. In America the foxtail millets are grown wholly for forage, their culture being most important in the semi- arid regions, but by no means insignificant in humid areas. The area planted in the United States in 1909 was 1,117,769 acres, yielding 1,546,533 tons, an average of 1.33 tons an acre. The acreage decreased about one- third between 1899 and 1909. The states where millet is most important are Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, Texas and North Dakota. Some, however, is grown in every state of the Union. 348. The agricultural varieties of foxtail millet are very numerous and many of them have been given two or more names, which unfortunately have become vari- ously used by different seedsmen. The problem of deter- mining the original or proper application of each name is very involved, and it is very doubtful if this can now be done satisfactorily. The most prominent commercial varieties now used in the United^ States and Canada are the following : Common. This is the best known and perhaps the MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 289 most widely grown variety. It is fine-stemmed and leafy, with a small cylindrical head, compact except near the base, and numerous yellow fruits. It has a short season of growth and produces a fair yield of good quality hay. The California and the Gold Mine are heavy-yielding strains of common millet. Other names that belong here, in the main at least, are Small millet, Dakota millet, Early Harvest millet, Missouri millet and American millet. This variety has long been cultivated in the United States, but its early history is obscure. German. This variety is coarser than the common, with broad leaves and a distinctly lobed, much larger and somewhat looser head. The individual fruits are yellow like the common, but smaller and less flattened. The season of growth is fully two weeks longer, and the hay yield is larger but not quite so good in quality. The Golden Wonder is a selected type of the German in which the head is distinctly lobed but more compact, longer and more slender. It makes good yields of both forage and seed. Other names that have been applied to German millet are Southern millet, Mammoth millet, Golden millet and Bengal-grass. German millet was introduced into the United States before 1870, at which time it was well known in Tennessee. It has always been the most im- portant millet in the South. Owing to its coarser habit it yields more per acre than other varieties. It is, however, not so resistant to severe drought. The original source of German millet is doubtful, probably India, but its introduction into Tennessee was from France. The Golden Wonder variety is said by Crozier to have originated in Michigan in 1884, and its introducers 290 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE claim it is a cross between German and Hungarian millets. Hungarian. This variety possesses a small, compact head with seeds much the same shape as those of common millet. The color of the fruits is mixed, some being yellow, others black or very dark purple, both colors being found in one head. The season of maturity is intermediate between the common and German, but the yield is practi- cally the same as the common, except under dry climatic conditions, when it is apt to be less. It is better suited to the humid than to semi-arid conditions, but is sometimes objectionable on account of its tendency to volunteer. Hungarian millet is commonly called Hungarian-grass. It is the German millet of Europe, but not that so-called in America. It was introduced into the United States as early as 1830 and probably much earlier, but did not become prominent until after the seed had been distrib- uted by the Patent Office in 1854. Siberian. This variety was introduced from Russia about 1896. It is very similar to common millet, except that it has orange-colored fruits. The season of growth is a few days longer than the common and the yield slightly larger, especially in the semi-arid districts. Another strain of it, called the Kursk, was introduced by the U. S. Department of Agriculture in 1899 from Kursk Province, Russia, and has since been improved by selection. This is the best millet for the semi-arid regions from Kansas and Colorado northwards. Still other varieties of foxtail millets occur in Japan, Korea and Manchuria, but none of these have attained a place in American agriculture. 349. Culture. Foxtail millets are mostly sown broad- cast or drilled on specially prepared ground, but in the MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 291 semi-arid regions row culture is sometimes used, especially with the larger varieties like German millet. A well- prepared, firm seed bed is best, but sometimes millets are sown, with very little soil preparation, as on disked corn stubble. The seed should not be sown until the ground is warm, not earlier as a rule than two or three weeks after the usual time for planting corn. From this time on, millet may be sown at any time in summer if there is sufficient mois- ture and time enough before frost to mature. The least touch of frost is fatal to millet. Under the most favorable circumstances a crop of millet may be cut in 40 to 50 days after seeding. Towards the end of the season from 60 to 90 days must be allowed. 350. Seeding. The rate of seeding recommended by different authorities ranges from 2 to 4 pecks to the acre. Crozier on the basis of trials at the Michigan Experiment Station concludes that 2 pecks is the best for Hungarian and common millets on ordinary soils. For seed-production, however, thin seedings are best and 1 peck to the acre is usually recommended. Under semi-arid conditions millets for seed-production are some- times grown in cultivated rows. At the Ontario Agricultural College three millets were sown at six different dates for five years. Japanese broom-corn millet yielded best when sown June 1 ; Japanese barnyard millet, when sown June 16 ; and Hun- garian millet when sown July 1. 351. Hay. Millet should be cut for hay just after blooming, but for cattle and sheep it may be left until the seed are in the late milk stage of development. The quality of hay produced is rather inferior, especially if allowed to become too ripe before it is cut. No danger 292 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE is experienced in feeding it to either cattle or sheep, but instances of unfavorable results when fed to horses are numerous. Hay intended for feeding horses should be cut before the seed has formed ; such hay is more palatable and is not as dangerous. 352. Feeding value. Armsby, on the basis of calori- metric experiments, finds that Hungarian millet hay is superior to red clover, alfalfa, cowpea or timothy hay for beef production by cattle. This finding gives a much higher value to Hungarian hay than has heretofore been supposed. At the Connecticut (Storrs) Experiment Station, how- ever, Hungarian millet proved inferior to red clover when fed to dairy cows : " In these experiments when clover was fed, the amounts of milk and butter were considerably increased and the percentages of fat were higher than during the test with Hungarian-grass just before and after those with clover. The average product from four cows during the first series of clover tests (August 10, 14 and 18) of 1891 was 281 pounds of milk and 15.6 pounds of butter, and the average percentage of fat was 5.3 per cent ; while for the test with Hungarian-grass (August 3 and 27) the average quantity of milk was 249 pounds, and of butter 12.9 pounds, and the average percentage of fat 5 per cent." 353. Silage from foxtail millet. Millet has sometimes been tried as silage, but is not well adapted for this purpose. At the Michigan Experiment Station millet preserved in the silo was dry and fluffy when removed and much like hay. It had a pleasant odor, however, and was readily eaten by cows. At the Vermont Experiment Station two cows fed with MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 293 Hungarian millet silage after hay showed a slight im- provement in milk production. One cow that had been fed on corn silage lost in quantity and quality of milk when changed to Hungarian millet silage, which she ate greedily. 354. Injurious effects. Foxtail millet has long been regarded as an unsatisfactory feed for horses unless fed sparingly. The experiment at the North Dakota Ex- periment Station in which horses were fed millet hay for a long period led to the conclusion " that millet when used alone as a coarse food is injurious to horses, first in producing an increased action in the kidneys ; second, in causing lameness and swelling of the joints ; third, in producing infusion of the blood into the joints ; fourth, in destroying the texture of the bones, rendering it softer and less tenacious, so that traction causes the ligaments and muscles to be torn loose." Millet is both laxative and diuretic in its action, but except in horses never seems to produce injurious effects. It is probable, however, that it is always better to feed in connection with other roughage instead of alone. 355. Seed-production. Millet produces abundant seed and is usually harvested with a binder, cured in shocks and thrashed with a grain separator. It is commonly cut when the seeds are nearly mature, as later cutting results in some loss from shattering. In a comparative test of 5 years at the Ontario Agri- cultural College, Siberian millet averaged 47.5 bushels an acre ; . Hungarian, 45.2 bushels ; German, 38.8 bushels ; Golden Wonder, 18.5 bushels. 356. Seed. The seeds of different varieties of millet vary considerably in size and in weight per bushel. In 294 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE most states the legal weight of common and German millets is 50 pounds, and of Hungarian-grass 48 pounds per bushel. The actual weight, however, varies from 40 to 55 pounds. One pound contains from 175,000 to 250,000 seeds. 357. Diseases and insects. The only important disease of foxtail millet is smut (Ustilago crameri) which replaces the grain with a mass of black spores. The disease is transmitted by smut spores on the seed, and can be pre- vented by treating the seed with hot water in the same manner as the bunt of wheat. The chinch-bug is very injurious to millets of which it seems especially fond. On this account millet is sometimes sown around or in strips through a field of wheat to attract the bugs. The insects and their eggs may then be destroyed by plowing under the millet. 358. Japanese barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumen- tacea). This millet is known as sanwa millet in India and in America has been called billion-dollar grass. It is cultivated in Japan, India and other oriental countries for human food. . It has probably originated from the common barnyard millet (E. crus-galli) , now a cosmopolitan weed in the tropics and in warm temper- ate regions. The cultivated plant differs mainly in its more nearly erect habit, more turgid seeds and in always being awnless. Japanese millet is a coarser plant than any foxtail millet, and on account of its thick stems does not cure readily into hay. It has been recommended for silage, but on the whole is probably best used for soiling. Reports differ as to its palatability, probably due to the fact that it is palatable when young and before heading, but much MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 295 less so as it approaches maturity. It is not known ever to cause any ill effects either on horses or on other animals. The yields are large when there is ample moisture. At the Massachusetts Experiment Station it has produced as high as 6 tons of hay per acre and seed yields of 67 bushels per acre. 359. Broom-corn millet (Panicum miliaceum) is of prehistoric cultivation in Europe as indicated by seeds found in Switzerland and Italy with human remains of the stone age. It was probably even more ancient in central Asia, in which region it appears to be native. The cultivated plant is sometimes divided into three botanical varieties : effusum with loose panicles ; con- tractum with the panicles denser above ; and compactum with dense panicles. The numerous agricultural varieties are distinguished primarily by the panicles, secondarily by the color of the glumes which may be red, black or white. Broom-corn millet is cultivated largely in Europe, especially in Russia and throughout temperate Asia. It is invariably grown as a cereal crop, but to some extent is used as forage. In America it has been grown most in the Dakotas and Manitoba, though it is well adapted to a large portion of the West, and fairly well to the East. From a forage standpoint, broom-corn millet is not as desirable as the foxtail millets, the yield being less as a rule and the stems more woody and less leafy. For seed- production they are, however, at least as good as the fox- tail millets. The culture of broom-corn millet is essentially the same as that of foxtail millet. 296 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 360. COMPARATIVE HAY YIELDS IN POUNDS TO THE ACRE OF DIFFERENT MILLETS AT SEVERAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS , ^a H I X o 1 - el X H 11 x2 gS VARIETY 02 o ED ^02 g^ 1 ii o 2 ^ O a IS w^-^ ' ^ sg ffil 25 | 2 5 1 0s ^ s ; ^ H H S 55 Hay Hay Hay Hay ffay Green German from Dakota . 4000 Common from Dakota 4840 German from Tennessee 3800 German from south 2136 German 5248 5600 7700 2611 Common ..... 2952 5600 3360 14520 Hungarian . . 2240 6600 4840 4820 3500 Hungarian .... 2328 Japanese foxtail . . . 3440 Japanese broom - corn (P. miliaceum} 4232 8600 5600 Hog (P. miliaceum} 2632 3320 3000 1150 21054 Golden Wonder . 7000 5000 17908 Siberian foxtail . . . 6400 3420 10406 Japanese barnyard . . 6200 5250 32912 361. Shama millet (Echinochloa colona) is a native of India where it is more or less cultivated for human food, but it is now generally spread through the tropics and in the warmer parts of the temperate zone. It is not uncommon in the southern portion of the United States, especially the southwest and in Mexico. It has a general resemblance to barnyard millets, but is much smaller in every way. The panicle is narrow and open and the spikelets unawned. The grass has been tested at MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 297 many experiment stations on small plots, but has not been found valuable enough in comparison with other millets. 362. Ragi, finger millet or coracan (Eleusine coracana) is much cultivated in India and to some extent in Africa as a cereal. It produces large crops of rather poor grain which is therefore very cheap. The cultivated plant is supposed to be a deriva- tive of the wild Eleusine indica, native to India. It is markedly charac- terized by having 5 to 7 elongate one-sided spikes arranged in an umbel. Ragi has much the same adaptations as foxtail millet, but is coarser and more leafy. The varieties are nu- merous. In small tests it has succeeded well throughout the South- ern States, but has never come into use as a forage crop in America. 363. Texas millet (Panicum texanum). This annual grass is native to Texas and adjacent Mexico. It occurs mainly on the bottom lands along streams, and from its occurrence along the Colorado River, Texas, is most commonly known as Fio. 30. Texas millet (Panicum texanum). a and b, dorsal and ventral views of a spikelet ; c, lemma. 298 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE Colorado-grass. It has shown a marked tendency to volunteer in cultivated fields after the manner of crab- grass, not only in Texas, but also in Alabama and other Southern States where it has been introduced. The hay of Texas millet bears an excellent reputation, and as it is practically always a volunteer crop, it is highly esteemed. The seed habits are good, and more or less seed is handled by Texas seedsmen. As a crop to be planted, however, it cannot compete with the foxtail millets, as it does not yield so heavily. In the southern half of the Gulf States it is probably worth while to estab- lish it generally so that it will make a portion, at least, of the volunteer grasses that hold their own in cultivated land. It rarely does well, however, except on loams and clays, so there is little use to plant it on sandy lands. CEREALS FOR HAY 364. All of the common small grains, namely, wheat, spelt, emmer, rye, oats and barley, may be and are utilized more or less for hay production, either alone or grown in mixtures with such legumes as crimson clover, vetches and field peas. The production of hay from such crops is most important in regions where the rainfall is comparatively light. Thus wheat is very commonly cut for hay in the Columbia Basin region of Washington, Oregon and Idaho ; barley in the same region, but more so in California. Rye and oats are more or less utilized for this purpose in all regions where these cereals are grown. According to the Thirteenth United States Census, the total area of small grains thus cut for hay aggregates 4,324,878 acres, with an average yield of 1.24 tons an acre. This total acreage is slightly greater than that of alfalfa and nearly four times as large as that of the millets. Such MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 299 cereal hays are mostly utilized for feeding to cows, but with care may be satisfactorily fed to horses. Rye is somewhat objectionable on account of awns on the heads, and the same thing applies to awned varieties of wheat and barley. The straw of all of these cereals is also utilized as feed, that of oats being considered far more valuable than any of the other small grains. The same use of small grains for hay is made in Australia and New Zealand. In Australia over half of the total hay crop is made from wheat and nearly half of it from oats. In New Zealand over half of the hay crop is produced by oats. Where cereals are thus cut for hay, it is the usual practice to cut them in the late milk or early dough stage. In the western United States, where wheat is largely har- vested by headers or by harvesters, it is a very common practice to open up the field ; that is, cut one or more swaths clear around the field and one or more across the field so as to make a passage for the grain harvesting machinery. The grain cut in opening up the field is commonly used for hay. OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 365. Chess or cheat (Bromus secalinus). Cheat is an annual grass native to the Old World and frequently occurring as a weed in wheat fields. The adaptations of the two plants are very similar and formerly the idea was held that cheat is a degenerate or changed form of wheat, whence its name. Cheat is sometimes grown as an annual crop for hay, planting it in the fall like winter wheat. Formerly it was quite largely grown in western Oregon. In recent years it has been cultivated in northern Georgia under the name of Arctic-grass. 300 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE Cheat is easily grown and produces good crops of hay. In Georgia, liverymen consider it equal to timothy, es- pecially if it be cut when the seeds are in the dough stage. For hay purposes it probably has no advantage over the ordinary small grains. 366. Canary-grass (Phalaris canariensis) is, with little doubt, native to the countries about the western end of the Mediterranean, though there is doubt about its nativity on the Canary Islands, whence its name is derived. It was introduced into the Netherlands from Spain about the middle of the sixteenth century, which seems to be the first definite mention of the grass. At the present time it is cultivated mainly in Turkey and adjacent countries for the seed, which is used to some extent as human food, but largely as feed for cage birds. Canary-grass is an annual species, growing to a height of 3 to 4| feet, several culms usually stooling from the same root. It is conspicuously characterized by its dense oblong head-like panicle, the white glumes having green nerves. Canary-grass has succeeded very well in Cali- fornia planted in fall, and in Saskatchewan sown in spring. It wall probably succeed FIG. 31. wherever barley can be grown, but the de- Canary grass mand for the seed is limited. As a hay crop it has no apparent advantage over wheat, oats or barley. Its mode of culture is iden- tical with that of the small grains. At Indian Head, Saskatchewan, yields of 29 bushels of seed and 3960 pounds of straw per acre have been secured, and in California 23,952 pounds of seed were grown on 40 acres in 1905. MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 301 367. Penicillaria (Pennisetum glaucum). Penicillaria, Pencilaria or Cat-tail millet is most commonly known as Pearl millet, and there are several synonyms of its scientific name. It is probably native to Africa, where it is largely cultivated by the natives, but it is most cultivated in India. It was early brought to the West Indies from Africa. It is a tall, erect annual, usually growing 5 to 8 feet high, but in Florida attaining a height of 16 feet on rich soil. The stems are not quite as stout as sorghum, but have shorter nodes, more woody cortex and rather dry pith without sugar content. The head is cylindrical, very dense, 4 to 14 inches long and bearing numerous round white ex- posed grains. There are several varieties, eight or more having been introduced by the United States Department of Agri- culture. The common variety seems to be that grown extensively in India, where it is known as bajri. In one variety from South Africa, the heads are much shorter and nearly as thick as long. Penicillaria is adapted to practically the same con- ditions as the sorghums. The common American variety will mature, seed as far north as Maryland and Nebraska, but doubtless earlier-maturing sorts could be developed. It was formerly grown to a greater degree than at pres- ent, both in the South and in the semi-arid regions, but it has given way in competition with the sorghums. As a forage it is not so desirable on account of the harder pithy stems. As a cereal it has never had any standing in America, as the yield in grain is meager and of poor quality, 'and furthermore is subjected to much loss by birds. As a soilage crop, penicillaria will in the South yield very heavily and perhaps is exceeded by no other grass. 302 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE For this purpose it is a very useful forage plant. It should be cut preferably when 3 or 4 feet high before the stems become hard and pithy. In the southernmost states it can be cut three or four times in a season and on very rich soil as many as six cuttings may be obtained. Penicillaria has been recommended for silage, but for this purpose is not as desirable as corn or sorghum. The culture of penicillaria is practically like that of corn or sorghum. It is most commonly planted in rows 3 feet wide and 3 to 6 inches apart in the rows, under which conditions it stools abundantly. For thus planting, about 4 pounds of seed per acre are needed. It may also be planted thickly, either drilled or broadcasted, under which conditions it does not stool so much nor grow so large. Thus sown it may be cut and cured as hay, but on account of its thick stems is not easily dried. For this purpose about 30 pounds of seed should be sown to the acre. Sowing should take place about the same time as corn, as the plant does not withstand frost either in spring or fall. On good soils penicillaria will yield as large or larger crops of forage than sorghums, but on poorer soils not so much. Yields to the acre of green fodder have been re- corded by experiment stations as follows : South Carolina, 6 cuttings, 94,424 pounds; Georgia, 52,416 pounds in 3 cuttings ; Alabama, 13,800 pounds ; Louisiana, 16,000 pounds ; Kentucky, 80,320 in 2 cuttings ; Delaware, 9964 pounds ; New Mexico, 56,600 pounds ; Arkansas, 9600 pounds ; California, 63,000 pounds ; New Jersey, 24,000 pounds. Dry fodder yields to the acre are reported as' follows : North Carolina, 6806 pounds ; Kentucky, 32,800 pounds ; Georgia, 19,474 pounds ; Alabama, 2900 pounds ; Arkansas, 9600 pounds; Washington, D.C., 15,440 pounds. MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 303 Notwithstanding large yields, penicillaria has not become popular, as have other coarse forage grasses, especially sorghum and Japanese sugar-cane. At the Kansas Experiment Station, penicillaria stover was compared with kafir corn stover in feeding cattle. In a 22-day test the cattle ate only half as much of the former as of the latter. Those eating the penicillaria stover lost an average of 30 pounds each, while those fed ( :i kafir corn gained an average of 6.9 pounds each. American seed is at present grown mainly in Georgia, where the yield is said to average 500 pounds to the acre. Where English sparrows are abundant, it is useless to try to get a seed crop. 368. Teosinte (Euchlcena m,exicana) is a coarse annual grass, growing 8 to 12 feet high, and commonly producing many stems from the same root. It is a native of tropical America, probably Mexico, and is closely related to corn, with which it forms hybrids. Teosinte requires a rich soil and a long season of moist hot weather for its best development. It never has ma- tured north of central Mississippi, but as a fodder crop is occasionally grown as far north as Maryland. The first frosts of autumn promptly turn the leaves brown. In recent years its culture in the United States has dwindled. On soils of moderate fertility it does not yield as well as the sorghums and on rich soils not so heavily as Japanese sugar-cane. The rather high cost of the seed has perhaps also been a factor in reducing the culture of teosinte. Teosinte may be used in the same way as sorghum; namely, as fodder, green feed or silage. If cut green for silage two cuttings each 4 or 5 feet high can be secured in 804 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE a season. The stems contain a small amount of sugar and the herbage is readily eaten by animals. On account of its abundant tillering, teosinte is best planted in hills 4 to 5 feet apart each way, which requires about 3 pounds of seed per acre; or it may be planted in rows 4 to 5 feet wide. Yields to the acre have been reported by various experi- ment stations as follows : Louisiana (Audubon Park), 50 tons green weight ; Georgia, 38,000 pounds green weight ; Mississippi, 44,000 pounds green weight ; North Carolina, 4021 pounds dry fodder against 4576 pounds for Orange sorghum; South Carolina (Charleston), 43,923 pounds green weight in 6 cuttings ; New Jersey, 9 tons, as com- pared to 12.4 tons for milo. CHAPTER XV ALFALFA ALFALFA is at the present time the third most important forage crop in America, being exceeded only by timothy and red clover. Under irrigation in semiarid regions no other perennial forage crop is known which will yield so boun- teously. The future agricultural development of western America will to a large degree be associated with the cul- ture of this plant. Further, it may be safely prophesied that alfalfa will become of increasing importance in the east, as the peculiar requirements for its successful culture become better known. 369. Agricultural history. Alfalfa was cultivated by the Greeks and Romans. According to Pliny, it was introduced into Greece from Media at the time of the Persian wars with King Darius ; that is, about 470 B.C. Pliny's statement agrees with the earlier account of Strabo. Perhaps both are based on the authority of Greek writers on agriculture whose works are referred to by Pliny, but which have been lost. Most writers have accepted the statement of Pliny and of Strabo, but Fee doubts its correctness. Media or Persia is in all probability the region of its original culture. Confirma- tion of this conclusion, is found in the fact that the wild alfalfa of that region most closely resembles the culti- vated. Alfalfa is therefore the oldest plant, so far as known, to x 305 306 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE be cultivated solely for forage. Furthermore, it is the only plant cultivated for such purpose by Asiatic peoples until modern times. Its culture in Italy in the days of the Roman Empire is referred to by Virgil, Columella and Varro, and it was doubtless introduced into Spain in imperial Roman days. In the sixteenth century . it was introduced into France and southern Germany and from thence to England at least as early as 1650. The early American colonists made many attempts to cultivate the plant, but only in a few localities was any decided success achieved. Its rapid development in the United States dates from 1854, when it was introduced into California from Chile. 370. Origin of the common names. The name alfalfa is of Arabian origin, adopted and modified by the Spanish. By different authorities the Arabian word is variously spelt, with, or without the prefix el or al, thus, fisfisat, isjast, elkasab, alfafa, alfasajat. The Arabian designations are probably modifications of the Persian name uspust, aspest or isfist. The word alfalfa is now used almost exclusively in the United States. In most countries, however, the name lucern is in common usage. According to some authorities the name is derived from the valley of Lucerna in northwestern Italy. De Candolle, however, considers it was probably derived from its local name in the south of France, laou- zerdo, apparently a corruption of the Catalonian name userdas. Historical evidence indicates that the plant was introduced into France from Spain and not from Italy. The word luzerne was apparently, first recorded in 1587 by Dalechamps who also gives the form luzert. The name medick is derived direct!}* from the Greek Medicai and Latin Medico., so called because introduced ALFALFA 307 into Greece from Media. Purple medick is ordinary alfalfa, while yellow medick is sickle alfalfa, but the names are rarely used. Black medick, however, is still often used for Medicago lupulina, but yellow trefoil is a more popular name. Erba medica is still an appellation of alfalfa in Italy and the Spanish sometimes use mielga or melga, perhaps corrupted forms of Medica. 371. Heat relations. In climates of low humidity, alfalfa seems able to withstand extreme summer tempera- tures under irrigation. No injury from heat has ever been recorded in such climates as those of Arizona and Punjab, India. It seems probable, therefore, that the crop is not adapt atively limited in its heat relations. High temperatures combined with even moderate humidity are so injurious that the crop is nowhere success- fully grown in humid subtropical or tropical regions. This is partly due to the fact that such conditions are favorable to many weedy plants which smother out the alfalfa, but even if grown in cultivated rows, alfalfa languishes under such climatic conditions. 372. Cold relations. The minimum temperature that alfalfa will withstand without injury is difficult to deter- mine accurately, as it is affected by other factors, among them variety, degree of dormancy, thickness of stand, soil moisture and snow cover. These factors are further discussed under winterkilling. In Europe, according to Stebler, a temperature of - 13 Fahrenheit is injurious only when the plants are unprotected by snow. Brand and Waldron report the effects of winter cold on 68 varieties and strains of alfalfa at Dickinson, North Dakota, in the winter of 1908-1909, when a minimum of 31 Fahrenheit was reached. The seeds were planted both in drilled rows and in hills in the spring of 1908, 308 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE and the resulting plants were not protected by snow during the coldest weather. The drilled rows suffered less than the hills. Tabulated according to the geographical origin of the strains, the results are shown in the following table : AVERAGE MORTALITY OF REGIONAL STRAINS OF ALFALFA PLANTED IN HlLLS AT DlCKINSON, NORTH DAKOTA, 1908-1909 5 strains from South America . . . 99.6 % 2 strains from Africa . . 100.0% 2 strains from Russia 83.9% 5 strains from Germany 83.1% 5 strains from France 89.6% 1 strain from Italy 98.7% 1 strain from Spain . 100.0% 4 strains from Arabia 100.0% 12 strains from Turkestan 72.3% 3 strains from Mongolia 33.5 % 2 strains from Canada 45.4% 2 strains from Mexico . . 85.0% 18 strains from United States 83.3 % 10 strains from Utah 90.4% 1 strain from Colorado 86.1% 1 strain from Kansas 84.8 % 3 strains from Nebraska 76.4 % 3 strains from Montana . 65.4% 1 strain Grimm alfalfa, from Fargo, North Dakota ; 2.8% 1 strain Grimm alfalfa, from Clearwater, Minnesota . 7.0% 1 strain Turkestan alfalfa, from Highmore, S. D. . 9.2% While the mortality may not have been due to cold alone, the data clearly indicate great differences in cold resistance, as a rule correlated with the severity of the winter climate of the region whence the seed was secured. Several of the same strains reported on had been sown broadcast in neighboring plots in the spring of 1907, and were exposed to the same conditions in the winter ALFALFA 309 of 1908-1909. The mortality in these plots was very much less, in most cases not enough to injure the stand seriously. It is not clear to what extent this lessened mortality was due to the alfalfa being broadcasted and the plants therefore close together, and how far the greater age of the plants, and perhaps other factors, had a bear- ing on the results. The fact that the surviving stand varied considerably in different parts of the broadcasted plots indicates that other factors than low temperature were concerned. The data clearly show, however, that a temperature of - 31 Fahrenheit in a region of comparatively low humidity is decidedly injurious to most varieties of al- falfa when growing in hills or rows and unprotected by snow. Even the most hardy cultivated sorts suffer a slight loss under such conditions. Undoubtedly the highest degree of cold resistance is found in Siberian strains of sickle alfalfa. According to Hansen this occurs even farther northward than Yakutsk, latitude 62, where a minimum temperature of 83 Fahrenheit is recorded. Extensive trials of alfalfa varieties were conducted at the Minnesota Experiment Station during six years, and data were kept on the loss due to winterkilling. The loss varied greatly in different winters and between different varieties in the same winter. In most cases Grimm alfalfa suffered the least loss. Turkestan proved very variable, a fact doubtless connected with the wide origin of the commercial seed. In one winter with a minimum tem- perature of 17 Fahrenheit three strains of Turkestan alfalfa suffered no loss, while 14 strains of Grimm alfalfa lost from 15 to 23 per cent, a much higher loss than oc- curred in other winters with more severe cold. 310 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 373. Humidity relations. Alfalfa is especially adapted to regions possessing a semi-arid climate, and in such areas succeeds well in nearly all types of soil, and through a wide range of normal annual temperatures. In moister climates, such as much of Europe and the eastern United States, success is rarely secured excepting where soil conditions are unusually favorable. In arid regions the plant will withstand great heat without injury, but a combination of heat and humidity is decidedly harmful. On this account, success with the crop in tropical or sub- tropical regions can be secured only where the climatic conditions are such as to render artificial irrigation necessary. Even in temperate climates, wet weather is more injurious than drought. According to Stebler, little success is secured in Europe where the annual rainfall exceeds 32 to 36 inches. In the United States, however, marked success is obtained on certain soils in Mississippi and Alabama, where the annual rainfall exceeds 50 inches, but in general an excess of annual rainfall over 40 inches is decidedly unfavorable to the plant. 374. Soil relations. Under semi-arid conditions of climate, alfalfa succeeds in most types of soil excepting those heavily charged with alkali. On account of its great root development, deep soils are especially suitable to alfalfa. Good drainage is also essential, as alfalfa roots will not grow in water-logged soils. Under humid climatic conditions, alfalfa is especially intolerant of adverse soil conditions. In such climates, its culture is rarely successful, except on deep, fairly fer- tile, well-drained soils rich in lime. A few types of soil rich in potash, but poor in lime, have also been found suit- able, but liming increases the crop even in such soils. ALFALFA 311 312 FOEAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 375. Distribution of the alfalfa crop. The regions in which alfalfa is prominent as a crop are those possessing the proper climatic conditions, or in lieu of this, unusually favorable soil conditions. Thus the crop is important in the western United States, the Mediterranean region, Australia, Argentina, Chile, Peru, South Africa and Central Asia because of favorable climate. Regions with FIG. 33. Map of the United States and Canada showing acreage of alfalfa. Figures = acres. less favorable climate, but with an unusually favorable limestone soil occur in Mississippi, Alabama, New York, Ohio and other states and in portions of Europe. The present northernmost limit of American culture is near the 51st parallel of latitude, in Assiniboia. In Colorado it is grown successfully at an altitude of 8637 feet, and one field 14 years old is recorded as being 7900 feet above sea level. The accompanying map shows the distribution of the crop by acres in the United States and Canada. ALFALFA 313 376. Botanical varieties of alfalfa. Wild alfalfas occur over much of central and western Asia, scattered through the southern half of Europe, and in the mountains of northern Africa. The wild plants are very variable, but some are so much like the cultivated that there is no reason to doubt the genetic origin of the latter. Besides the ordinary cultivated form of alfalfa about 15 distinct varieties have been named by botanists. Only one of these has been of any particular economic impor- tance, namely, variety falcata with yellow flowers and smooth sickle-shaped pods. The usefulness of this variety lies mainly in its hardiness and the valuable hybrids it makes with ordinary alfalfa. 377. Cultivated varieties of alfalfa. At the present time, there are no established varieties of alfalfa that are even approximately pure strains. Every field, from whatever source, exhibits a widely diverse assemblage of individuals. Nevertheless, several of the commercial varieties or regional strains show combinations of char- acters by which they may be distinguished. Others, like Turkestan, can be differentiated from common alfalfa only by obscure differences in behavior. The agronomically important varieties or strains of alfalfa include common or ordinary, Turkestan, Arabian, Peruvian, Siberian or sickle, and variegated (including sand lucern and Grimm). Common or ordinary aljalfa. Under this category is in- cluded the alfalfa ordinarily grown in Europe, the United States, Argentina and Australia. Most of the European seed imported into the United States is from Provence, France, but seed is also grown in Italy, Hungary and Germany. There is a growing tendency in the American seed trade to designate the state in which the seed is 314 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE grown. Dryland alfalfa is ordinary alfalfa grown one or more generations under semi-arid conditions without irrigation. The seed is generally considered superior for dryland farming. Turkestan alfalfa has been imported into the United States since 1898. The seed can usually be distinguished by the weed seeds present, especially Eruca saliva and Centaur ea picris. The plants are indistinguishable from ordinary alfalfa. The consensus of American opinion is that this variety is inferior in the humid eastern United States, but in the semi-arid regions has some superiority in drought and cold endurance. Under American condi- tions, Turkestan alfalfa produces but very small crops of seed. On this account, it is not increasing in importance notwithstanding the fact that most of imported alfalfa seed is from Turkestan. Arabian alfalfa comes from the lower valley of the Euphrates. It is characterized by its hairiness, large leaflets, very rapid growth and relatively short life. The seeds, too, are decidedly larger than any other strain. It begins to grow and continues growth at a lower tempera- ture than common alfalfa, which, together with its remark- ably rapid growth, enables it to produce more cuttings in a season than any other variety. In the Imperial Valley of California, it has produced twelve cuttings in a season and in the Sacramento Valley of the same state, eight cuttings. Unfortunately it is short-lived, the stand be- coming thin by the third year and but few plants surviv- ing the fourth year. Peruvian alfalfa. This variety (Medicago saliva var. polia Brand) comes from the highlands of Peru. It is distinguished by the marked pubescence of its whole herbage, which gives it a somewhat bluish appearance; ALFALFA 315 its relatively coarse, very erect stems ; its comparatively large leaflets. Physiologically it behaves much like Arabian alfalfa in that it begins to grow earlier in spring and continues growing later in fall than ordinary alfalfa. Partly on this account it is likely to be injured by severe cold. Its large size and rapid growth make it a valuable variety for California and Arizona. Variegated alfalfa. This term is applied to crosses between ordinary purple-flowered alfalfa and the yellow- flowered sickle alfalfa. In the .cross, a great variety of flower colors appear white, cream, yellow, bluish-green, smoky-green and purple. Variegated alfalfa is in some other respects intermediate between its parents. It is rather decumbent in habit, but has greater cold endurance than ordinary alfalfa. This is partly due to its tendency to produce rootstocks, a character inherited from its yellow-flowered parent. Under the name sand lucern, variegated alfalfa has long been grown in Europe, especially Germany, where it enjoys the reputation of being superior for sandy soils. In the United States, sand lucern has given excellent results, being superior in both drought resistance and winter hardiness. Grimm alfalfa is an acclimated strain of sand lucern brought to Minnesota from Wertheim, Germany, in 1857. In its half century of culture under severe climatic condi- tions, it has apparently gained additional winter hardi- ness through the elimination of the less hardy plants. At the present time, Grimm alfalfa seed is the most ex- pensive on the market, being greatly in demand for sowing in states where the winter is very severe. Yellow, sickle or Siberian alfalfa occurs wild throughout northern Europe and Siberia. The European form was 316 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE formerly cultivated to a slight extent in Sweden and else- where in Europe. The yield, however, is* small on account of its usually decumbent habit and the lack of aftermath, and the stems early become woody. The seed is expensive because it shatters readily. Several forms from Siberia have been introduced into the United States in recent years, especially with the end in view of securing hardier alfalfas for Dakota, Montana, and other states with cold winters. Some of these Sibe- rian strains are erect or nearly so, while others have a remarkable development of rootstocks. It is not unlikely that some of these may prove highly valuable, provided seed can be grown satisfactorily. In any case, they offer high promise for breeding work. 378. Importance of the varieties. Thus far, regional or other varieties have been of relatively small importance. At least 95 per cent of the alfalfa of the United States may be called ordinary alfalfa. Most of the seed is either American grown, or imported from Turkestan. The Turkestan alfalfa is slightly more resistant to both cold and drought. Variegated alfalfa, especially the Grimm strain, is . decidedly more cold resistant than ordinary alfalfa, and with cheaper seed will come into much larger use, especially in the northern tier of states. Peruvian alfalfa is more valuable than common alfalfa in the south- western states, owing to its large size and rapid growth, but as yet it is not largely cultivated. Arabian alfalfa lasts only about two years, and in spite of its very rapid growth, this has militated against its use. It is altogether likely that in the further development of alfalfa culture, improved varieties will occupy a more prominent place, especially such as are cold enduring or which produce large seed crops. ALFALFA 317 379. Influence of source of seed. The general con- clusion to be drawn from the available data concerning the influence of the source of the seed of alfalfa, is that the best results are as a rule to be secured from locally grown seed, provided there is no difference in variety in- volved. It may happen that a newly introduced variety or strain is superior not on account of source of the seed but because of inherently better qualities. In places where alfalfa is grown, but which must depend on distant sources for seed, the question of the relative value of different regional strains becomes important. Elsewhere this factor is of minor consequence. In Germany and France several investigators have compared the relative behavior of plots sown respectively with seed of American and of European alfalfa from dif- ferent sources. In all the trials reported the yield of hay from the American seed was least. At Hohenheim, Germany, Kirchner found American alfalfa more subject to mildew than European. Provence-grown alfalfa seed is held in high regard throughout Europe, but comparative trials have not shown that it bears consistently heavier yields than other European grown seeds. At three Danish experiment stations, the following results were secured with regional strains : ORIGIN 1910 1911 1912 Hungarian 100 100 100 German 102 92 89 French 102 96 97 Italian ... 104 96 90 Russian 94 83 69 American 45 49 67 318 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE The amount of accurate data concerning the relative value in America of alfalfa seed from various sources is not large, but is supplemented by the experience of prac- tical farmers. In the Eastern States French (Provence) seed has as a rule proven quite as satisfactory as western American seed, while Turkestan seed has given decidedly inferior results. In the West, excepting where the winters are very severe, Provence seed has also proven very satis- factory. California-grown seed is not held in high repute, even in that state, but there seems insufficient evidence to warrant this attitude. In general southern-grown seed is not favored in more northern regions, and the evidence is fairly conclusive that such strains are inferior in cold resistance. 380. Comparison of regional strains. In recent years many experiment stations have tested the relative yield- ing capacities of alfalfa seed from different sources. This has been done more with the idea of determining whether any of the regional strains possess really different qual- ities as many of them come from countries where no con- siderable quantity of commercial seed is produced. Practically all the imported commercial seed used in America is from Turkestan, so. that the only source of seed problem which is at present of much concern, is the relative yielding capacity of Turkestan as compared with that from various American states. The data thus far secured at most of the experiment stations do not admit of very clear deductions being drawn. Where the tests have been conducted longest the actual differences in yield are not very pronounced. The results shown in the following table were secured by planting the same bulked seed of the different strains re- ported upon : ALFALFA 319 TABLE SHOWS YIELDS OF HAY IN POUNDS AN ACRE OF SEV- ERAL REGIONAL STRAINS OF ALFALFA GROWN AT VARIOUS EXPERIMENT STATIONS o - r PU ' Q Q Q IS- o B 4 . 00 " SOURCE OF SEED fc .IN S-$ B |~>jj 1^ K P5iC geo * * > j . fc g* 2 > z H . W > i> H^ j^ P 750 4,030 5,000 4,350 4,080 23,210 Courland 4,750 3,280 3,780 4,470 2,880 19,160 Wisconsin 4,950 2,970 3,760 4,380 2,960 19,020 Oregon 4,930 4,560 4,460 4,300 2,680 20,930 Pennsylvania 4,460 1,800 4,480 2,960 New York ~ 2,400 3,640 431. Time of seeding. The time of seeding red clover is determined largely by its relation to other crops in the rotation, and by climatic conditions. In the southern- most clover sections, fall sowing is necessary, as few plants are able to survive the summer after the hay is cut. In the northernmost places where it succeeds, spring sowing is usually necessary in order to avoid serious winter-killing. In the region of its most extensive culture, seeding may be done at any time from very early spring to early fall, or even in midwinter on the snow or frozen ground. 2B 370 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE In the last-mentioned area, the seed is most commonly sown in spring on fall-sown grain, as the preparation of a special seedbed is thus rendered unnecessary. The actual time of thus seeding in grain is determined mainly by soil conditions. If the seed is broadcasted on the surface, the ideal soil condition is while the ground is still much cracked and honeycombed from alternate freezing and thawing in very early spring, as the seeds thus become covered. Later spring sowing on grain, even with harrowing, or with a seed drill, is as a rule less desirable ; the fall- grown grain is larger and the later started clover seed- lings are less well able to withstand either the shading of the grain, or the drought of summer. If sown alone, red clover may, in the region of its best development, be sown at any time from early spring until early autumn. Late fall plantings are undesirable, as the danger of winter injury is thereby increased. At the Indiana Experiment Station, red clover was .seeded in the middle of each month from April to Sep- tember on well-prepared seed beds. Excellent stands were secured from the April, May and June seedings ; good stands from those of August and September ; while that of July was decidedly poor. Crozier in Michigan obtained excellent stands by seed- ing in February, March, April and December. Sowings made in July, August, September and October succumbed to winter. 432. Rate of seeding. Red clover contains about 250,000 seeds to the pound, varying from 207,000 in Ger- man seed to 297,000 in American. One pound of seed to an acre evenly scattered would be about 6 seeds to a square foot. RED CLOVER 371 The usual rate of seeding red clover in America is 8 pounds to an acre. Different experiment stations rec- ommend the following rates for their respective states : Wisconsin and North Dakota, 15 pounds ; Oregon, 8 to 10 pounds ; Louisiana and Kansas, 10 to 15 pounds. In Europe the rate seems to be higher. Stebler and Volkart recommend 17 pounds an acre in Switzerland, and Glaerum in Norway found the optimum rate to be 25 pounds per acre. 433. Seedlings. The first true leaf of red clover is compound, but consists of only one leaflet. This, how- ever, is jointed on to the petiole in the same manner as the three leaflets of an ordinary leaf. The primary root is undivided and grows more rapidly than the stem. In contrast to the alfalfa primary root, that of red clover contracts as it grows older, resulting in the crown becom- ing deep-set. Nodules may appear on the roots by the time they are one week old. 434. Seeding with a nurse-crop. Red clover is most frequently sown with some other crop, not because this is the best for the clover, but because it economizes labor. The seed may be sown in or with the following crops : 1. In winter or spring on fall-sown wheat or rye. 2. In spring with wheat, barley or oats. 3. In corn at the last cultivation. 4. With rape or turnips in late summer. If sown in spring on fail-sown grain, the clover seed may be broadcasted, preferably in early spring when the ground is still loose from frost action ; or somewhat later in spring, the seed may be sown and the grain cross-harrowed. Shepperd in North Dakota secured the best results by seeding with a disk grain-drill across the rows of wheat. This method is increasing in favor in other states. 372 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE In Ohio and neighboring states, Drake advocates scat- tering straw over fields of fall sown wheat in which it is planned to seed clover the following spring. A thin mulch of straw increases greatly the likelihood of a good " catch " of clover. The effect seems due to the straw keeping the soil surface moist and preventing packing and erosion, and perhaps also by supplying humus. When the clover is seeded in spring with a small grain, barley is preferable to oats, as it does not make so dense a growth and thus injure the clover by shading. Where wheat can be planted in spring, it is preferable to either barley or oats. At the Minnesota Experiment Station, clover seeded with wheat yielded 4360 pounds an acre against 2360 pounds when seeded with oats. Seeding in corn is becoming a common practice in the New England States. At the Massachusetts Experiment Station this method was used seventeen years without failure. In recent years, it has been the most satisfactory practice in Vermont, and has given good results in Minne- sota. It has not been successful in Kansas. Good stands of clover have been obtained in Tennessee by sowing in tobacco at the last cultivation about the end of July. Red clover may be sown in cotton stubble, but this is rarely practicable. Sowing clover with two pounds of rape about the end of May gives good results in western Oregon. Sowing in July or August with turnips has proved satisfactory in the Eastern States. At the South Dakota Station, excellent results were secured by sowing medium clover in early spring on brome- grass sod after thorough disking. The clover seed was sown at the rate of 10 to 12 pounds an acre. In one field the mixture yielded 5484 pounds of hay an acre of the RED CLOVER 373 mixture against 3294 for the brome alone; in another 9358 pounds to 2360 pounds. Clover is sometimes sown in wheat or rye stubble. This is a frequent practice in Europe, especially if the spring- sown seed fails to catch. The same method gives excel- lent results in western Oregon if seeded in early September. 435. Seeding without a nurse-crop. A stand of red clover is most likely to be secured when sown alone. This method is, however, seldom used unless all others prove unsatisfactory, as it involves special preparation of the land. In the South, such seeding must be in the fall, preferably about September 1 ; otherwise crab-grass and other weeds will destroy the clover. In the North, the seed may be sown on a well-prepared, firm seed-bed any time from early spring until fall. Late fall sowing is inadvisable, as winter-killing is likely to be excessive. Weeds are the principal menace to the success of spring seeding, but they may be controlled to some extent by occasionally clipping with the mower. 436. Depth of planting. Clover seed should be planted shallow to get the best results, in no case more than an inch in clay soils and one and one-half inches in sandy soils. At the- Wisconsin Experiment Station less than one- half of the seeds germinated when covered with 1 inch of compacted garden soil, and less than one-fifth when covered with 2 inches. Shallow planting f to J of an inch in depth gave the best results and all very similar. The seeds planted f to f of an inch deep also germinated more promptly than those placed on the surface or those planted deeper. The longest rooted seedlings developed from the seeds planted J, J and f of an inch deep. At the Michigan Experiment Station red clover was 374 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE seeded at various depths. The best germination was at a depth of 1 inch and none grew when planted 2 inches deep or more. 437. Winter-killing. In soils composed of heavy clay or rich in humus, red clover is very apt to be uprooted and destroyed by the heaving of the soil in late winter or early spring. This is particularly likely to damage young clover seeded in the fall, but may injure that seeded the previous spring. A top dressing of coarse stable manure applied in fall will lessen greatly the liability to damage from this cause. If the roots be heaved out 1 inch or less, prompt rolling will be helpful. Very dry autumn weather sometimes weakens clover plants so that the winter mortality is increased. According to Werner, red clover suffers from cold in Germany only on wet clay, limestone and humus soils during January in the coldest winters. Lund found that at Copenhagen in a severe winter American red clover was much more injured than was European. 438. Treatment of clover fields. If clover be seeded in spring with a grain crop, there is usually no return the first season other than a little fall pasturage. Under very favorable conditions, however, a moderate crop of hay may be cut, or this may be allowed to mature for seed. If tne clover be seeded alone in spring on well-prepared land, a good cutting of hay is as a rule secured the same season, and in rare cases a second crop. During the second season, the general practice is to cut the first crop for hay and the second for seed, after which most of the plants die. 439. Fertilizers. Numerous fertilizer experiments on clover have been reported by American experiment RED CLOVER 375 stations. It is difficult, however, to generalize from them, but lime and barnyard manure both nearly always increase the yield, and phosphatic fertilizers are usually beneficial. The results with potash are negative in about half of the experiments reported. Brooks in Massachusetts found no appreciable difference in the effect of potash when applied as muriate and as sulfate. Chemical analysis, however, showed in all cases a higher per cent of " nitrogen-free extract " in the clover fertilized with the sulfate of potash. In New Jersey the use of superphosphates with other crops was quite beneficial in increasing the clover crop. Potash also was useful, but barnyard manure gave the best results of all. There was no residual effect from nitrate of soda, and land plaster was without effect. At the Cornell Experiment Station pot experiments showed that clover was unable to obtain the phosphorus in ground rock phosphate, but was greatly benefited by acid phosphate, basic slag or bone black. These results agree with those of Kossovich in Russia. At the West Virginia Experiment Station phosphatic fertilizers greatly benefited red clover, but potash did not increase the yield. In southern Illinois, Hopkins secured an average in- crease of 1.14 tons hay to an acre by the use of 2000 pounds ground limestone and 1200 to 1500 pounds ground rock phosphate. " Accumulating evidence indicates that the increasing frequency of clover failure in the Illinois corn belt is due in many cases to deficiency in phosphorus." Mooers at the Tennessee Experiment Station tested various fertilizers on a mixture of orchard-grass and red clover. " At the start all the plots had apparently about an equal stand of cover and of orchard-grass, but on the 376 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE plots which received acid phosphate or a mixture of acid phosphate and potash salts the growth of clover predomi- nated more and more as the season advanced. On the other hand, where the nitrate of soda was used alone or in a mixture with acid phosphate and potash the orchard- grass predominated; that is, the minerals enabled the clover to crowd the grass, while the nitrate of soda enabled the grass to crowd the clover." 440. Gypsum. Gypsum was formerly much used for its favorable effect on clover, but in the United States now seems to be employed only in western Oregon. At the Oregon Experiment Station, increases in yield of from 20 to 200 per cent were secured. The rate of application varies from 40 to 200 pounds to an acre. The cessation of the use of this substance in the East- ern States is perhaps largely the result of the increased use of lime. There is difference of opinion as to the action of gypsum, but it is generally agreed that it is in- effective on poor land. 441. Lime. Lime has in general given an increased yield when applied to the soil before sowing red clover. Usual applications are 1000 to 2000 pounds of burned lime or twice as much of ground limestone to an acre. Most investigators regard the litmus test as a fairly reliable indication that the soil needs lime, but in some cases this does not hold true. For example, at the Ohio Experiment Station clover grew normally on one soil and but poorly on two others, all of which reddened litmus paper. Lime alone did not benefit the first soil for clover but improved the crop on the last two, though it did not bring about a full yield. 442. Irrigation. Clover is not much grown on irrigated lands, principally because alfalfa will yield far larger RED CLOVER 377 crops. In high mountain valleys, however, clover suc- ceeds well under irrigation, notably in the Gallatin Valley, Montana, but similar success has been had in several Western States, either when sown alone or mixed with timothy. King in Wisconsin tested irrigation on red clover. Where the plots were irrigated twice after the first cutting, the second cutting was over two tons to an acre as against one ton where not irrigated. Irrigation after the second cutting also increased greatly the fall pasturage. With an optimum amount of water, either rain or irrigation, King concludes that the clover crop may be double what is ordinarily secured. 443. Red clover in mixtures. Much more red clover is sown in mixture with timothy than in any other way, approximately three-fourths of the total acreage being thus sown. The timothy is commonly sown with wheat in fall, and the clover added in the spring. In this mixture the crop is mainly clover the season after sowing, but thereafter is mainly timothy. An objection to this mixture is that medium clover matures sooner than the timothy, but this may be avoided by using the mammoth variety. Red clover and alsike are also fre- quently sown together, especially where there is difficulty in securing a stand of the former. Other grasses suitable to grow with red clover are orchard-grass and tall meadow oat-grass, but these mature somewhat sooner. In complex grass mixtures, which are more popular in Europe than in America, red clover should always be included. 444. Use in rotations. The characteristics of red clover make it particularly well adapted to use in rotation with other crops. Various such rotations are possible, 378 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE but only a few of the most important and their modifica- tions need to be discussed. 1. Corn, oats, wheat, clover, timothy. This five-year, five-crop rotation is the commonest one employed in the Central States. The timothy is seeded with the wheat in the fall, and the clover on the wheat in the spring. In the fourth year of the rotation the crop is largely clover, and in the fifth mainly timothy. Rye may be substituted for wheat in some places. 2. Corn, oats, wheat, clover. Where the hay is not needed for live stock, the timothy may be omitted and the clover, preferably mammoth, grown for seed only, the straw and the stubble being plowed under. This is an excellent plan to follow on farms where it is not desired to keep live stock. 3. Corn, wheat, clover. This rotation of three years and three crops is employed where wheat is sown in the spring. Rye, barley or oats may be used instead of the wheat, and any other cultivated crop in place of the corn. 4. Corn, clover or corn, corn, clover. This is the sim- plest of all clover rotations, but probably brings the clover too frequently to secure the best results. The clover may be sown in the corn at its last cultivation, or in the spring in the stubble, or after preparing the land. 445. Effect of clover in rotations when only the stubble is turned under. Red clover usually exercises a mark- edly beneficial influence on the crop that succeeds it, even where the clover has been cropped. This is ascribed mainly to the humus and nitrogen added to the soil by the roots and stubble. At the Massachusetts Experiment Station, potatoes after clover stubble, on land that had not been fertilized for 16 years, the yield of potatoes was 95 per cent as great RED CLOVER 379 as on similar plots that had received a fair amount of fertilizer containing nitrogen each year. At the Rhode Island Experiment Station potatoes yielded 294.5 bushels after clover and 259.7 bushels after corn. At the Pennsyl- vania Experiment Station the fertility of the soil was fully maintained for 25 years on certain plots where clover was grown every fourth year in the rotation and only the stubble plowed under. No. barnyard manure was used, but each alternate year 48 pounds of phosphoric acid and 100 pounds of potash per acre was added. The results at the Ohio Experiment Station show that in general a good crop of clover will leave enough nitrogen in the roots and stubble for the succeeding crop, but the nitrogen supply cannot be maintained by clover alone even if planted every third year. At the Illinois Experi- ment Station the yield of corn grown continuously for 7 years averaged 35.7 bushels to an acre. In a rotation of corn, oats, clover, the average yield of corn for the 5 years immediately after clover was 55.1 bushels, and after clover cropped two years 46.8 bushels to an acre. At the Minne- sota Experiment Station it was found that 6 pounds of red clover sown with wheat in continuous wheat culture in- creased the average yield of wheat for 10 years 3J bushels to an acre. The results at this station taken as a whole show that the nitrogen content of the soil is preserved if red clover is grown two years in a five-year rotation. At the Canebrake, Alabama, Experiment Station, oats yielded 52 bushels an acre after four-year-old clover stubble, while a yield of 54 bushels was obtained by using 200 pounds of nitrate of soda to an acre. 446. Volunteer crops. A good stand of red clover is sometimes secured by the scattering of barnyard manure which happens to contain sufficient viable seed. 380 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE Volunteer crops may also be secured from fields when some of the seed has been lost in harvesting, or by allow- ing the seed to become shattered. Successful fields were obtained in this manner at the Louisiana Experiment Station and in Alabama. To secure a stand in this manner is, however, very un- certain, and further, it is better to grow some other crop than to have clover follow clover. 447. Stage to cut. If red clover be used as green feed, it is probably best cut before bloom. This method of feeding is more common in Europe than in America. European authorities nearly all agree that the clover for this purpose should be cut before blooming, as the digesti- bility is then highest, as well as the percentage composition of protein. If cut for hay, different authorities recommend cutting in young bloom, in full bloom, and when the heads are half brown. The content of digestible nutrients is greatest in full bloom. Later cuttings, however, cure more easily than the early ones, and it is probable that better curing counterbalances largely the lower content of nutrients : TABLE SHOWING RELATION BETWEEN TIME OF CUTTING AND ACRE YIELD OF RED CLOVER IN POUNDS ON A WATER- FREE BASIS STAGE WHEN CUT ILLINOIS PENNSYL- VANIA CONNECTI- CUT Just before bloom. 1385 1401 Pull bloom 2526 3680 3420 Some heads dead Three-fourths heads dead . . . All heads dead Nearly out of bloom Nearly ripe 2427 3361 1750 1523 A FIELD OF SUMAC SORGO IN TEXAS. A FIELD OF RED CLOVER IN WASHINGTON STATE. PLATE V. BED CLOVER 381 448. Composition at different stages. Several inves- tigators have studied the composition of clover at dif- ferent stages of its development. The total dry matter and the ash increase until maturity, though in some cases there is a slight decline after flowering, due to leach- ing. The highest percentage of protein is contained before blossoming, but the greatest total amount when the plants are in full bloom. The fatty substances show but little change in their relative amounts. The percentage of fiber increases quite rapidly after blooming. The per- centage of carbohydrates shows little change, but is greatest during blooming. The greatest total amount of digestible substance is about the time of full bloom. The highest percentage of nutritive substance is before bloom, and also the highest percentage of digestibility. 449. Number of cuttings. Mammoth clover yields but a single cutting of mature hay, the second growth never becoming large enough to justify mowing. Orel red clover behaves in the same way. Medium red clover, over much of the area best adapted to it, yields a heavy crop of hay at the first cutting, and later a second smaller cutting. Usually the second cut- ting is allowed to mature for seed. Near the northern limit of clover culture but one crop of either hay or seed can be obtained. In Louisiana, near the southern extreme of its success- ful culture, red clover is best sown in October, when two cuttings of hay, one in May and one in July, are usually secured. European experiments have consistently shown a greater total yield of hay from two cuttings than .from a greater number. Voelcker in Germany secured a less yield from 382 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE three and four cuttings than from two, and still less when the clover was cut five and six times, but the smallest yield of all when cut but once. Weiske secured 3570 kilograms to an hectare when cut twice, and only 3392 kilograms when cut three times. In another experiment in Germany, clover was cut six times and yielded only 4678 pounds to an acre against 9297 pounds when cut but twice. It is probable, therefore, that the total yield of red clover is much less if pastured than if cut for hay. 450. Yields of hay. The average yield of red clover hay in the United States in 1909 was 1.29 tons to an acre when sown alone and 1.27 tons to an acre mixed with timothy. At the Michigan Experiment Station red clover grown continuously for 5 years from 1896 to 1900 averaged 3110 pounds hay to an acre. In rotations the yields were higher. During the years 1906-7-8 clover grown con- tinuously averaged 2430 pounds to an acre on one plot and 2240 pounds on another; in simple rotation with wheat 2520 pounds on one plot and 2457 pounds on another; in a three-year rotation with wheat and corn, 2143 pounds on one plot, 2683 pounds on another. At the Rhode Island Experiment Station with very heavy fertilizing red clover produced to an acre 6360 pounds hay in the first cutting and 2760 pounds in the second. At the North Dakota Experiment Station the average hay yield to an acre of the first cutting for 7 years was 3547 pounds. At the Ontario Agricultural College the average hay yield to an acre for 6 years of the first cutting was 5900 pounds of medium red and 6620 pounds of mammoth. 451. Relation of green weight to hay weight. Taking the average water content of green clover at 72 per cent RED CLOVER 383 and that of clover hay at 18 per cent, the ratio of green weight to hay weight would be approximately 3 to 1. The available American field data show, however, a wide range of variation in the ratio both as to different places and as to different strains in the same place : - TABLE SHOWING CORRESPONDING YIELDS OF RED CLOVER GREEN AND DRY GREEN WEIGHT HAY RATIO PLACE AND AUTHORITY Pounds Pounds 17461 4482 3.9 Penn. Exp. Sta. 17760 4808 3.7 Penn. Exp. Sta. 11020 3260 3.7 Wis. Exp. Sta. Bui. 121. First cutting 4620 1740 2.7 Wis. Exp. Sta. Bui. 121. Second cutting 20939 4335 4.8 Minn. Exp. Sta. (Bur. PL Ind. Bui. 95) average for 21 strains. 16474 2760 6. Guelph, Canada (Bur. PL Ind. Bui. 95) average for 29 strains. 23280 2880 8.1 Guelph (Courland, Russia, strain). 20800 4360 4.8 Guelph (Orel, Russia, strain). 452. Feeding value. But few feeding experiments have been recorded that show the feeding value of red clover compared with other hays. It is, however, gener- ally recognized to be of high value. At the Indiana Experiment Station clover and timothy were compared in fattening steers, using corn as a con- centrate. The animals fed on clover consumed 1.41 pounds more hay each day and 3.06 pounds more corn. The actual gain and the cost of a hundredweight of gain was distinctly in favor of the clover. " Throughout the 884 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE experiment the condition of the clover-fed steers was much better." 453. Comparative feeding value of the first and second crops of hay. As the second crop of clover is but rarely cut for hay, the subject of the relative value of the hay of the two cuttings has received but little attention. At the Tennessee Experiment Station the crop of red clover hay from the second cutting was found both less palatable and also less nutritious to steers. Comparative chemical analyses showed but very slight differences. 454. Soiling. Red clover is an excellent green feed for milch cows. German experiments show that it pro- duces more milk than an equivalent amount of hay. Bloating seems never to occur when clover is fed in this manner, but it must be neither wet with dew or rain when cut, nor should it be wilted. The acre yields of green matter from fields of red clover have been measured by several investigators. At the Pennsylvania Experiment Station, the first cutting yielded 17,461 pounds. At the Idaho Experiment Station yields of 12 tons from hill land and 18 tons from bottom were secured. Three cuttings at Agassiz, B. C., in one season, were, respectively, 14.5, 12.0 and 6.2 tons. At the Minne- sota Experiment Station the average yield from 21 regional strains at the first cutting was 20,948 pounds. Green feeding of clover is the usual mode of utilizing in many parts of Europe. It is usually cut shortly before the blossoms appear, as the nitrogen content is highest at this time, and there is but little fiber. 455. Pasturage. Red clover makes an excellent pas- ture for all kinds of live stock, but care must be exercised with ruminants to avoid bloating (Par. 101). As ordinarily grown in rotations, the crop furnishes some pasturage in EED CLOVER 386 the fall of the season it is planted, but it should not be grazed too closely, otherwise the danger of winter injury is increased. Where two crops of hay are harvested the second season, there may still be some pasturage produced, especially if soil moisture conditions are favorable. There is rarely much pasturage after a seed crop has been harvested. 456. Silage. Red clover may be preserved as si- lage, especially when unfavorable weather makes haying impracticable. The results so far obtained with pure red clover thus preserved have not been entirely satisfac- tory. At the Canada Central Experimental Farm, clover silage was found on the basis of chemical analysis to be of less feeding value than green clover, but the silage was eaten with eagerness both when the clover was put in whole and when cut into lengths of 1 inch. At the Wis- consin Experiment Station clover silage varied greatly in quality, some samples being very good, others ill smelling. At the Oregon Experiment Station, clover was. ensiled when the first heads were beginning to discolor. The clover was run through a cutter and made good silage. There was no apparent need of additional water. At the Ohio Experiment Station clover silage was kept three years and was then eaten readily. The clover should be ensiled as rapidly as possible after mowing, first run- ning it through a cutter to insure close packing. 457. Number of flowers and seeds to the head. The number of flowers in a head of red clover averages about 85. At Ames, Iowa, Pammel reports that the num- ber of flowers to a head varies apparently with soil condi- tions. On black loam the average for the first crop was 71.1 and for the second crop 98.1, or where underlaid with gravel, 101 ; on alluvial soil, third crop, 68.7. The maxi- 2c 386 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE mum number found in any head was 140 for the first crop, 150 for the second and 123 for the third. The ovary of red clover contains two ovules, but of these usually only one matures. Good heads contain from 16 to 40 seeds each, the average being about 25. In exceptional plants, both ovules may develop. Records have been published of heads containing 90 to 130 seeds each. Beal in Michigan counted the seeds in 50 heads from each of 6 plants, finding, respectively, 1260, 1275, 1640, 1485, 1820 and 2720 seeds. Hopkins at the West Virginia Experiment Station found that 122 red clover heads of the first crop contained 6042 seeds, an average of over 49 seeds per head. Pammel has made numerous counts of seeds to the head in Iowa. His results are tabulated as follows : RED CLOVER SEEDS TO THE HEAD FIRST AND SECOND CROPS IN IOWA PLACE SOIL CROP HEADS COUNTED SEEDS PER HEAD Ames . . . Idagrove . . Algona . . Harlan . . Clay loam Black loess Black loam Black soil First First Second Second TTirf 44 50 28 50 1949 64.7 1.82 80.4 3.9 OK QQ 7O1 97 ^ T^irsit 9OO 4.1 1 90O 4Q 7 The average number of seeds to a head is sometimes used to estimate the probable yield of seed to an acre. If the seeds average 25 to the head, and the stand is good, a yield of one to two bushels to an acre may be expected. RED CLOVER 387 458. Pollination and fecundation. The flowers of red clover are especially adapted to being cross-pollinated by insects, especially bumble bees. Miiller records 39 species of insects that visit red clover flowers in Germany. One species of bumble bee secures the honey by biting through the base of the corolla. For Iowa, Pammel records 14 species, 8 of them being bumble bees. In Illinois, Robertson observed 20 species, five of them being bumble bees. Plants screened from flying insects failed to set any seeds in the experiments conducted by Darwin in Eng- land, and this has been the common result secured by later experimenters. Some investigators have, however, found a few seeds produced by screened plants. Frandsen in Sweden has recently made extensive studies regarding the matter. In 1910 out of numerous bagged and undisturbed flowers he secured no seed; when arti- ficially self -pollinated, 0.1 per cent of the flowers set seed ; when artificially pollinated by another flower of the same plant, 0.8 per cent ; when artificially cross-pollinated, 46.1 per cent. In 1911 in similar experiments the per- centage of seeds to flowers by the three methods was, respectively, per cent, 0.1 per cent, '0.4 per cent and 42.3 per cent. Waldron at Dickinson, North Dakota, found that 53.6 per cent of the heads produced seeds in the open and but 9 per cent when screened. When butterflies were placed in netting tents over red clover, only 2.4 per cent of the heads set seed, but when bumble bees were thus placed, 45.7 per cent of the heads produced seeds. 459. Seed-production. Medium red clover seed is mainly produced in those regions where a crop of seed can be procured after one of hay has been harvested. In 388 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE the northernmost regions of clover culture, only one crop can be secured, which may be either hay or seed. Mam- moth clover does not produce much second growth, so that the hay crop must be sacrificed when a seed crop is desired. Where two cuttings can be obtained, it is very rare that the first is ever cut for seed. The first crop does not as a rule seed heavily. Two reasons have been assigned in explanation first, that pollinizing insects are not abundant enough ; and second, the plants tend to produce new shoots from the base unless weather conditions are very dry. There are no experi- mental data recorded, however, as to the relative seed-yielding capacities of the first crop and the second crop, but in Iowa more seeds to a head have been found in the second crop than in the first. Seed crops are not usually harvested until the second season, but sometimes a fair seed yield may be obtained from clover sown in spring, either on wheat or alone. This treatment 'is thought, however, to weaken the plants and materially lessen the growth the following season. The best seed crops are obtained when the growth -of the clover is not rank, and when dry, cloudless weather conditions prevail during the period of blooming and ripen- ing. For the first reason, light soils are supposed to pro- duce better seed crops than clays or clay loams, especially FIG. 41. Stages in the de- velopment of red clover seed. a and c, flower in prims and ripe ; b and d, immature and mature seed vessel ; e, mature seed. RED CLOVER 389 if the latter be moist so as to stimulate much vegetative growth. PammePs investigations in Iowa did not, how- ever, disclose any definite relations between the character of the soil and the number of seeds to a head. Sunshiny, warm days at blooming time insure a greater abundance of pollinizing insects, and these are absent in cold, wet weather. Where the first crop is cut for hay, the time of cutting may affect markedly the subsequent seed crop. Clover hay is usually cut when the first heads turn brown, but the belief is general that the seed crop is apt to be better if the hay crop is cut a little before full bloom, as this makes the second growth stronger. Where the season is not long enough to secure both a hay crop and a seed crop, as in the northern tier of states, it is a common practice to pasture the field or to clip it back in June, so as to bring the seed crop in September. It is claimed that by this means better yields of seed are obtained. Among the advantages supposed to be secured are : 1. A more even ripening of the crop ; 2. A more favorable season for blooming and seed setting ; 3. Lessen- ing of injury by the clover midge and the clover chalcis; 4. A smaller growth, which is not likely to lodge and is more easily handled. Experimental data on this subject are lacking. Prolonged rains at harvest time seem to be the cause of many of the seeds turning brown. Seeds that have turned brown with age do not germinate nearly as well as yellow or violet-tinged seeds. 460. Harvesting the seed crop. Red clover for seed should be cut when the heads have all turned brown, and the seeds are firm and shining. Cutting in the soft dough stage results in shriveled seed. If the seeds are allowed 390 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE to ripen, there is no loss by shattering, but the heads break off very easily. If the clover has become riper than stated, much loss of heads can be prevented by mowing in the early morning when wet with dew. Mowing may be accomplished in several different ways. A self -rake reaper is very satisfactory. An ordinary mower with a bunching attachment (Fig. 42) that throws the bunches of clover to one side so that they may not be trampled upon, is also excellent. Heading machines which cut tho straw high are sometimes used, and these are particularly de- sirable, as they econo- mize labor and cut much less straw to be thrashed. Red clover is most commonly harvested, FIG. 42. A bunching attachment on an however by mowing ordinary mower. . . and then raking into windrows, using practically the same method as in har- vesting hay. In favorable weather the clover is ready to store or hull in about four days if cut in the late dough stage. The bunches should then be piled in cocks, or better, placed under cover. During unfavorable weather there is some danger of the seed sprouting if the clover is kept contin- uously damp. In the principal seed-growing districts, special machines called clover hullers are used to thrash the seed and shell it from the pods. This can be done only when the straw is very dry. 461. Yields of seed. The yield of seed to an acre for the main part of the clover area probably averages about RED CLOVER 391 100 pounds, and rarely reaches 300 pounds. Yields have been reported by experiment stations, as follows : North Dakota, 46 to 146 pounds ; Oregon, 175 to 250 pounds. For the Willamette Valley, Oregon, Hunter reports the usual yield 4 to 6 bushels, and occasionally 7 to 9 bushels to an acre. The average yield of seed in Wisconsin in 1905 was 1.84 bushels to an acre, but this was somewhat lower than usual. In northern Wisconsin, a maximum yield of 4J bushels to an acre is reported. Werner gives the yields in Germany at 150 to 225 pounds to an acre. 462. Statistics of seed crop. The total yield of clover seed in the United States in 1899 was 1,349,209 bushels valued at $5,359,578. In 1909 the corresponding figures were 1,025,816 bushels valued at $6,925,122. The principal seed-producing states in the order of the total yield produced were, in the latter year, Wisconsin, Ohio, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Missouri, Minnesota, Iowa, Oregon. Clover seed has been an article of export from the United States since 1792. 463. Value of the straw. The straw of red clover from which the seed has been thrashed possesses but little feeding value, and is both coarse and unpalatable. Usually much of its little feeding value is diminished by being rained upon. Animals will, however, eat some of the straw, and this, combined with its value for bedding, makes it worth saving. Perhaps the best use to make of the straw is for bed- ding, but it is often scattered directly on the field. 464. Seed. Seed of red clover (Fig. 43) is readily dis- tinguished from similar leguminous seeds by its color ; 392 FOE AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE which is yellow or violet, or both combined. Old seeds become dull and brownish. The seed may be adulterated with yellow trefoil ; with old red clover seeds sometimes oiled and polished; and with small or shriveled seed obtained in screenings. Where cheaper foreign clover seed has been added to American seed it may be detected by the presence of cer- tain weed seeds. A 3 large proportion of small seeds indicates that these have been added. The most objection- able weed seeds that may occur in red clover are dodder, Canada thistle, curled dock, buckhorn and oxeye- daisy. The best commercial red clover seed may attain a purity of 99 per cent and a viability of 98 per cent. Good seeds germinate in from 2 to 6 days, excepting the " hard " seeds. The percentage of hard see.ds is often 20 per cent and may reach 50 per cent in very fresh seeds. The seed varies in weight from 60 to 63 pounds a bushel. One pound contains 279,000 seeds (Stebler), 232,000 seeds (Hunter), 200,000 to 240,000 seeds (Hunt). The optimum temperature for germination was found by the Ontario Agricultural College to be 90 Fahrenheit, At 95 the vitality was distinctly impaired. FIG. 43. Seeds of red clover. 1, side view and, 2, edge view of seeds ; 3, the triangular form indicatod ; 4, a seed cut lengthwise ; 5, a seed cut crosswise, show- ing the embryo ; a, a seed scar ; b, a stemlet (radicle) of the embryo ; c, seed leaves (cotyledons) of the embryo ; 6, a pod of red clover; 7, natural size of seeds. RED CLOVER 393 Hiltner and Kingel examined a sample of red clover seed that had been stored 8 years. It was separated into three lots : first, those which were apparently unchanged ; second, those which were pale in color ; and third, those which were brown and more or less shriveled. Of the first lot 10.5 per cent germinated and 81.9 per cent re- mained hard. In the other lots the germination ranged from 1.7 to 8.1 per cent. By scratching the seed coats of those that remained hard, it was found that nearly all were viable. 465. Color of seeds. The seeds of red clover are either pure yellow or more or less completely tinged with violet, but never wholly violet. There is a popular belief that violet-tinged seed is superior in viability and vigor. This subject has received attention from various investigators. Gernert in Illinois finds that white-flowered plants produce yellow seeds without trace of purple. Plants with dark red flowers yield invariably seeds much tinged with violet, while those with pink flowers in some cases produced yellow seeds. The violet color appears late, and may not show in prematurely gathered seeds. Five plants were selected, each with a different seed color; namely, pea ; purple tint on yellow ; reddish-purple on yellow; medium purple on yellow; dark purple on yellow. The progeny of each of these showed a wide range as regards seed color, indicating that the parent plants were heterozygote as regards seed color. The data suggest that the character is a Mendelian one, and that it is entirely feasible to isolate strains with violet- tinged seeds. Friiwirth in Austria concludes that there is a tendency for clover plants to produce seeds of one color. Thus 394 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE one plant produced 160 deep yellow and 445 yellow seeds ; another, 154 violet, 125 variegated, 58 deep yellow and 11 yellow seeds ; a third, 177 deep yellow and 366 yellow seeds ; a fourth, 131 variegated and 47 deep yellow seeds. Yel- low seeds are more likely to breed true than violet-tinged seeds. In weight, violet seeds are heaviest, followed by variegated and yellow. He obtained a higher yield of air-dry substance in the crop from yellow seeds than from either violet or variegated, a result in accord with that of the Kentucky Experiment Station. Card in Rhode Island analyzed plants grown from yel- low seeds and from purple seeds, but found no difference in their nitrogen content. 466. Roots. The roots of red clover penetrate to a maximum depth of about six feet, but ordinarily not more than four feet. Hays at the Minnesota Experiment Station found that the tap root was 7 inches long after 1 month, 2 feet after 2 months, and after five months 5J feet. The lateral roots were a little deeper than the main root. The greater part of the roots is in the top six inches of soil and according to all investigations about 95 per cent in the top 8 inches. Thus, John in Germany found the following vertical distribution : 7.8 to 9.0 cm. deep 3760 kg. to a hectare. 15.7 to 18.3 cm. deep 338 kg. to a hectare. 27.4 to 28.8 cm. deep 196 kg. to a hectare. 36.6 to 39.2 cm. deep 78 kg. to a hectare. At the Utah Experiment Station the weight of roots was estimated for each inch of depth in fields respectively 2 years old and 4 years old. The basis was the weight of roots obtained from an area 2 feet square : RED CLOVER 395 TABLE SHOWING WEIGHT (IN POUNDS) OF RED CLOVER ROOTS TO AN ACRE FOR EACH INCH OF DEPTH, UTAH EXPERIMENT STATION DEPTH 4 YEARS OLD 2 YEARS OLD Inches Water-free Water-free 1 1058.4 240.7 2 1248.5 449.3 3 1181. 433.9 4 1142 .4 170.9 5 508.8 149.3 6 124.8 137.5 7 88.8 8 66.3 9 62.2 10 50.4 11 50.2 12 48.5 Total . 5630.3 1581.6 At the Minnesota Experiment Station, Snyder found in a square yard of earth that clover roots when water-free weighed : 122 grams just before the heads appeared ; 320 grams in early bloom ; and 916 grams in full bloom. At the Delaware Experiment Station, Penny determined that the roots 8 inches deep weighed, air-dry, 1185 pounds, and the next 4 inches 27 pounds, the whole containing 33 pounds nitrogen. The tops weighed 2819 pounds. At the Connecticut Experiment Station Woods esti- mated the roots 8 inches deep to contain 850 pounds, and those in the subsoil 48 pounds of dry matter. At Middletown, Connecticut, a crop was determined to have 1355 pounds of dry matter in the roots. 467. Shoots. The main axis of the red clover is a rather deep-seated, short crown, from which arise a dense 396 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE mass of basal leaves. From the axils of each of these, a secondary leafy aerial branch may arise, and these con- stitute the larger visible portion of the plants. Each sec- ondary branch is terminated by a head of flowers, but commonly bears also tertiary branches each terminated by a head of flowers. One shoot may thus bear as high as 14 heads of flowers. The height of the secondary branches varies with the fertility of the soil, but they seldom exceed 30 inches under field conditions. The number is usually from 10 to 20, but as many as 76 have been found on a single plant. After cutting, the branches die back as far as the lowest internodes. In winter the hibernating shoots lie close to the ground. Werner found that a well-grown plant with 108 leaves had a surface area of 712 square centimeters. Von Gahren in a similar examination found 875 square centimeters. 468. Proportion of roots to shoots. Several investi- gators have determined the relative proportion of the different parts of the clover plant. At the Arkansas Experiment Station single plants showed an average dry weight of two ounces for the tops and 2J ounces for the roots. Smith in Michigan examined plants of red clover at the end of September. Those sown the previous spring had 4.625 pounds of tops and .75 pound of roots, while those sown the year before in June had .1.5 pounds of tops to 1.44 pounds of roots, in each case weighed when fresh. King in Wisconsin estimated the green weight of the tops to an acre at 12,486 pounds and of the roots at 3120 pounds. The data used for the estimates were obtained by driving down a cylinder 12 inches in diameter and 30 inches long. Snyder in Minnesota estimated that an acre field RED CLOVER 397 yielding 4000 pounds of hay contained 1760 pounds of dry roots. At the Delaware Experiment Station the tops and roots to an acre were determined respectively at 2819 and 1212 pounds dry weight. At the Central Experiment Farm, Canada, the roots were dug from areas 4 feet square and 9 inches deep on seven different plots. The estimated green weights to an acre are shown in the following table : ESTIMATED GREEN WEIGHT OF TOPS AND ROOTS TO AN ACRE, CANADA CENTRAL EXPERIMENT FARM PLOTS LEAVES AND STEMS ROOTS RATE OF SEEDING 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total . . Pounds 5441 6849 6934 8508 7997 7657 10209 Pounds 5105 5147 6047 5785 5615 4349 6296 4 pounds 4 pounds 4 pounds 4 pounds 4 pounds 4 pounds 14 pounds 53595 38344 469. Relative proportions of stems, leaves and flower heads. Dietrich in Germany studied the relative per- centage weights of leaves, stems and flower heads at dif- ferent ages. The following results were secured : MARCH 31 APRIL 26 MAY 19 JUNE 1 JUNE 16 FLOWER- LEAVES STEMS BUDS FIRST FULL ING FORMING FORMING FORMING FLOWERS BLOOM FINISHED Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Leaves . . . 40 41 24 24 19 18 Leaf stalks 60 29 14 12 11 10 Stems . . . 30 58 58 59 60 Flower heads 4 6 11 12 398 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE From these figures, clover hay should consist of about 60 per cent stems, 30 per cent leaves and 10 per cent flower heads. 470. Diseases. Red clover is subject to a long list of fungous diseases, few of which are, however, a serious menace to its culture. Only the more important and more common ones are here mentioned. The leaves may be affected by clover leaf-spot (Pseu- dopeziza trifolii) ; black spot (Polythrincium trifolii) ; powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni) ; downy mildew (Peronospora trifoliorum) ; and clover rust ( Uromyces striatus). It is rare that any of these diseases causes much damage. The roots are subject to a root rot (Rhizoctonia violacea). The stems are sometimes injured by stem rot (Sclero- tinia trifoliorum) which is easily recognizable by the large dark sclerotia formed. Clover anthracnose (Colleto- trichum trifolii) is probably the most destructive disease that has attacked red clover in America. It appears as purplish spots on the stem which increase in size until the stem is girdled and thus killed. It is known to occur in Maryland, Virginia, Ohio, Tennessee and Alabama, and is probably much more widely spread. No direct means of control is known, but results secured at the Tennessee Experiment Station show that highly resistant strains may be secured by selection. Two other anthracnoses, caused respectively by Colle- totrichum cereale and Gloeosporium trifolii, are also found occasionally, but no serious damage by either has been reported. 471. Clover sickness. This term is used to designate a condition or conditions which prevent the successful growing of red clover, at least continuously. This has RED CLOVER 399 long been recognized in Europe, where numerous explana- tions as to its cause have been advanced. The principal theories are : 1. The exhaustion of some necessary element from the soil, in particular lime, potash or phosphorus ; 2. The formation or excretion by the clover plant of some deleterious substance ; 3. Unfavorable physical condition of the soil, especially the subsoil ; 4. Presence of disease- forming fungi or bacteria; 5. Injurious insects and other animals ; 5. Depletion of humus content of the soil. None of these theories has been proven, but it is not unlikely that there may be some truth in each of them. Experience in Europe has shown that good clover may be grown on clover-sick soil if a sufficient interval of time elapse. In Germany this is usually four to six years, but on some soils a period of nine or even twelve years seems necessary. It is not certain that the increasing difficulty in secur- ing a stand of red clover in various parts of the United States is the same as the European clover sickness, but this seems highly probable. The evidence indicates that the trouble first became prominent in the Atlantic States and has been slowly extending westward. Even in regions where clover sickness is common, land that has long been uncultivated will often produce good crops of red clover for a few years. Alsike clover, however, grows readily on land " sick " to red clover, and in many places is now substituted for the red. Soil acidity has recently been considered to be a cause of failure with red clover, but lime has not proven to be a remedy for the trouble. It has not yet been demon- strated that the European practice of planting red clover at long intervals will be equally successful in this country. In England the question has been raised as to whether 400 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE land becomes sick to naturalized wild plants of red and white clover. Several experiments have shown that clover plants grown from cultivated seeds disappear largely in 1 year, while those from wild plants persist 3 to 5 years or more. One experiment with red clover resulted in the plants from cultivated seeds lasting but 2 years, while those grown from seed gathered in an old meadow lived 5 or 6 years. 472. Reduction of acreage probably due mainly to clover sickness. The statistics of the thirteenth census of the United States, 1909, shows that a great decrease in the acre- age of clovers has taken place since 1899, especially in the eastern part of the country. Every state east of the 95th degree of longitude, excepting Illinois, shows such a decrease. The average decrease in the acreage of " clover " for the whole United States was 40 per cent. In certain states the decrease was much greater, being 88 per cent in New Jersey, 78 per cent in Pennsylvania and 65 per cent in Indiana. In the states immediately west of the Mississippi River the decrease was not so great, but is 30 per cent in Missouri, 23 per cent in Minnesota and 16 per cent in Iowa. In the states farther west the figures are of less interest, owing to the large acreage of new land brought under cultivation and the general preference for alfalfa. While the significance of the figures is not wholly clear, the most probable explanation is that it is associated with the increasing difficulty in securing stands of red clover. The striking contrast in the figures for 1899 and 1909 may in part be due to unusual conditions in the latter year but it does not appear from records that there was undue loss from winter-killing or other climatic causes in that year. The extent of the reduction in acreage is shown in the following table : BED CLOVER 401 TABLE SHOWING THE ACREAGE OF CLOVERS IN THE EASTERN PART OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1899 AND 1909 CLOVER A.CREAGE DECREASE 1899 1909 PER CENT New England States . . New York New Jersey Pennsylvania, Ohio . Indiana Michigan Iowa 18,681 103,155 57.635 293,683 617,516 776,810 225,636 148,720 15,097 87,267 6,893 64,372 181,048 271,697 168,180 125,751 19 15 88 78 71 65 25 16 IVlinnesota . * 74669 67,358 23 Wisconsin West Virginia IVlaryland ... 203,253 25,170 67375 119,522 6,661 26 545 41 73 60 Virginia 104 124 54016 48 JViissouri 377 228 262 263 30 United States 4 103 968 2 443 263 40 In Illinois the acreage in 1899 was 362,044, while in 1909 it was 427,957, an increase of over 18 per cent. 473. Insects. There are five insects which cause rather serious damage to red clover, one of them attacking the root, one the foliage, one the hay, one the flower and one the seed. The clover root-borer (Hylastinus obscurus). The clover root-borer is easily recognized from the fact that its larva burrows in the root, thus greatly injuring and sometimes killing the plant. The damage is nearly al- ways done in plants the second season, after the roots have attained a considerable size. The only remedy suggested 2D 402 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE is to plow under the clover immediately after the first crop of hay is cut. With the death of the plant the larvae also die. If, however, the plowing is delayed until later, the larvae may have attained their growth and will then develop into adults. The clover-leaf weevil (Phytonomus punctatus). This little beetle and its larvae feed on the foliage of red clover in early spring. The damage is seldom serious, and in any event serves mainly to delay the maturing of the plant. The clover-flower midge (Dasyneura leguminicola) . This little two-winged fly lays its eggs in the blossoms and the maggot injures the blossoms so that seeds are not formed. One method of control suggested is to cut the hay early, as this will destroy many of the larvae before they have time to develop further. When clover is grown primarily for seed, sometimes the first crop is clipped so as to bring the blooming of the next crop later in the summer, in this way avoiding much injury by the midge. The clover-seed chalcis fly (Brucho- phagus funebris). This is a small, black, wasp-like insect whose larva , FlG - 4 ,t'~ ~ ke , tch f develops in the clover seed, all of showing the effect of . *\ the clover-seed chalcis which is eaten excepting the hard shell. The work of this insect is conspicuous by the finding of hollow ture insect is shown in seedg each con t a i n i n g a round hole the act of emerging. through which the adult has emerged (Fig. 44). The only remedy suggested is pasturing the crop in early spring, or clipping the first crop so as to fly. Calyx (a), seed cap- sule (b) and seeds (c and d). At c the ma- RED CLOVER 403 make the seed crop at a time when the fly is not abundant. The clover-hay worm (Hypsopygia costalis). This is the larva of a small, brown moth which feeds on the dry hay in storage. Most of the damage is usually done near the bottom of hay stacks or mows. To some extent, it may be prevented by salting the hay, especially near the bottom of the stack. Where hay is stacked in the field, the injury is much lessened by building the stacks on a foundation of logs, or other platform. 474. Improvement of red clover by breeding. In recent years there has been much interest in the subject of breeding improved red clover. Individual plants differ greatly and this permits of selection for numerous dis- tinctive characters. More or less work of this kind has been conducted at the experiment stations of Tennessee, Illinois, Iowa, Indiana and North Dakota and by the United States Department of Agriculture. In Europe similar breeding researches have been undertaken in Sweden, Denmark and Switzerland. Breeding red clover presents difficulties in that cross- pollination is required and that, therefore, at least two individuals are necessary to start a strain. Furthermore, isolation is then required to prevent miscellaneous cross- pollination. Mass selection is much simpler, especially where an unfavorable factor eliminates a large proportion of the population. In this way a strain resistant to anthracnose has been developed at the Tennessee Experiment Station. Card in Rhode Island found that the nitrogen content of different individual plants ranged from 2.86 per cent to 4.62 per cent. This suggests the possibility of select- ing strains with high protein content. 404 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 475. Disease-resistant strains. There have been but few attempts made to secure strains of red clover immune to disease. Bain, at the Tennessee Experiment Station, has, however, thus bred a strain resistant to anthracnose (Colletotrichum trifolii) by selecting plants not affected by the disease. Apparently the same result was reached by Clarendon Davis, in northern Alabama, by merely saving the seed each year from the surviving plants. CHAPTER XVII OTHER CLOVERS. ALSIKE, HUNGARIAN, WHITE AND SWEET THE genus Trifolium comprises a large list of species both annual and perennial, all of them confined to regions of temperate climate or at least temperate during the grow- ing period. Red clover is by far the most important eco- nomic species, but where there is difficulty in growing this crop other species, especially alsike and white clover, are very valuable substitutes. The clover-like plants of the genus Melilotus are also useful and worthy of more atten- tion than they have heretofore received. ALSIKE CLOVER (Trifolium hybridum) 476. Botany of alsike. - The alsike clover is so named from a place in Sweden where it is much grown. It is also called Swedish clover. The scientific name was so given because Linnaeus erroneously believed it to be a hybrid between red clover and white clover. Alsike is native to the temperate portions of Europe and Asia and also occurs in Algiers. It is rare, however, in southern Europe. The plant is very variable, but only a few forms have received botanical names. Ascher- son and Graebner consider that cultivated alsike is a sub- species (Trifolium fistulosum Gilibert), differing through long cultivation in having larger, less toothed leaves, larger heads and longer calyx teeth. Another subspecies 405 406 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE is Trifolium elegans Savi, with rose-colored flowers and other slight differences. In recent years the improvement of alsike by selection has been undertaken at Svalof and other places in Europe. 477. Agricultural history. Alsike has long been cultivated in Sweden, probably as early as 1750. Its spread into other countries was, however, quite recent. In England and Scotland the first clear record is 1832. Alsike seed was distributed in the United States by the Patent Office in 1854, but it was probably introduced earlier. The plant was called alsike in Scotland as early as 1832. 478. Adaptations. Alsike clover is adapted to a wider range of both climatic and soil conditions than red clover, and nearly as great as that of white clover. It thrives especially well in cool climates with abundant moisture. It rarely winter-kills and often survives winter conditions that destroy red clover. On the whole it is, perhaps, as resistant to drought as red clover, but drought reduces its yield greatly. It endures both cold and heat better than red clover. It is not particular as to soil, provided abundant mois- ture is available, thriving well on clay, clay loams, sandy loams and muck soils. Unlike most clovers, it will thrive even where the soil is waterlogged. On this account it is also well adapted to growing under irrigation. Alsike is peculiar in that it will thrive where red clover culture has dwindled on account of " clover sickness " ; a trouble that seems never to affect alsike, and which permits its frequent or almost continuous use on the same land. 479. Characteristics of alsike clover. It is a long- lived perennial, fields enduring 4 to 6 years in good soil. OTHER CLOVERS 407 The stems are erect or ascending when crowded, but in isolated plants are spreading. The herbage is smooth and decidedly more leafy than red clover. The hay consists of about 60 per cent leaves and 40 per cent stems. Werner records 168 leaves on 8 branches, with a total flat surface of 504 square centimeters. Under favorable conditions it reaches a height of 2J feet in the mass, but is usually less. On account of the dense growth the lower leaves are apt to decay, especially where growing in wet land. The root system is relatively shallow, and on this account the plant does not well withstand drought. Hays at the Minnesota Experiment Station found that the tap root after one month was 9J inches long and after two months more than 2 feet. It does not remain prominent as many of the secondary roots become as large. The mass of roots is greater at the same age than that of red clover. The growth begins later in spring than red clover, and the blooming time is also somewhat later. .Isolated plants often measure one foot in diameter, and in closely grazed pastures resemble white clover somewhat in habit. 480. Regional strains. There is but very little dif- ference in alsike, depending on the source from which seed is obtained, according to the results secured by Stebler and Volkart in Switzerland. Plots sown with American seed gave slightly better results the first year, but in the second year the results showed no definite superiority. In extensive trials at the Danish Experiment Station the relative yields of regional strains were as follows : Swedish, 100; Rhine, 98; English, 97; German, 91; Canadian, 83 ; American, 80. 481. Importance. Alsike clover has been growing in importance in America in recent years, mainly because it succeeds well on land that will no longer grow red clover 408 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE on account of " clover sickness." Apart from this it is valuable for growing on land too wet for red clover and in mixed hay meadows because of its longer life. No accurate statistical information is available, but alsike is probably most abundantly grown in the following states and provinces ; namely, Ontario, Wisconsin, Mich- igan, Minnesota, Ohio, New York, Maryland, Virginia. 482. Culture. The culture of alsike differs but little from that of red clover, and it may be used for the same purposes. Seed is sown alone or with a nurse-crop, either in fall or in spring. In Europe winter seeding is a com- mon method. The rate of seeding is 8 to 12 pounds an acre, if seeded alone. Fields last well for two or three years and often for four or five years. Usually the sec- ond season gives the best yields. Alsike is, however, best adapted to growing in mixtures, especially in low or wet soils. In mixtures the alsike is abundant for two years and then rapidly disappears. 483. Hay. Alsike may be cut for hay over a longer period than red clover, as the main stems continue to grow with the production of new flowers. It is usually recommended to cut when in full bloom. Under favor- able circumstances two cuttings are obtained, but the second is nearly always smaller than the first. If the cutting of the first crop is delayed, the second is reduced. German records of hay yields are as follows : Pinckert, 4000 to 5600 pounds to an acre ; Werner, 2600 to 4500 pounds ; Schober, for the first cutting, 3000 pounds. Yields on an acre are recorded by American experiment stations as follows : Pennsylvania, 3956 pounds ; Kansas, 3110 pounds; Illinois, 2400 pounds; Michigan Upper Peninsula, 6800 pounds ; Minnesota, 5860 pounds ; Utah, 2780 pounds. OTHER CLOVERS 409 484. Seed-production. Commercial seed of alsike clover is now produced mainly in Ontario, Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio and Minnesota. It is also produced in most of the countries of northern Europe, but mainly for home consumption. Alsike usually yields less seed to the acre than either red clover or white clover. The seed yields are best on land that is moderately dry. The plants are mowed when the heads are brown and the seed in the dough stage, as later cutting involves loss by shattering. If not cut till ripe, it should be mowed when moist with dew. Great care is necessary in curing. Usually the first crop is harvested as seed, as in most of the regions where seed is grown the second crop does not have time to ripen. European seed yields are given by various authorities as ranging from 100 to 600 pounds to an acre, with about 300 pounds as the average. In 9 cooperative trials in northern Wisconsin, the maximum yield was 6J bushels to an acre, and the average 3J bushels. 485. Seed. Alsike clo- ver seed (Fig. 45) may be distinguished from most other clovers by its small, FIG. 45. Alsike clover seeds. Somewhat heart-shaped a, seeds showing variation in form Seeds, and from white * nd surf f e appearance, enlarged; b, natural size of seeds. clover by its green color. Old seeds turn brown. Old seeds and screenings are sometimes used as adulterants. Trefoil may be, and timothy is commonly, present as an impurity. Good seed often attains a purity of 99 per cent and a 410 FOE AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE viability as high. It will germinate in 2 to 6 days, except- ing the hard seed, which is not as abundant as in red clover. Any of the ordinary noxious weed seeds may occur in alsike as impurities, but the most dangerous is dodder. The seed retains its viability well for two years, but then rapidly deteriorates. A bushel of seed weighs 60 to 66 pounds. One pound contains 700,000 to 718,000 seeds. 486. Value for pasturage. Alsike clover is often used, in pasture mixtures for low, wet lands and the aftermath of hay fields is also utilized by pasturing. It is eagerly eaten by all farm animals, but with cattle and sheep the same precautions must be exercised to avoid bloating as with red clover and alfalfa. In closely grazed pastures, the stems are commonly spreading or nearly prostrate. Werner states that if fed green to horses, it is very laxative and results in much of the accompanying grain feed being voided undigested. HUNGARIAN CLOVER (Trifolium pannonicum) 487. Hungarian clover is native from northern Italy to the Caucasus region of Asia Minor. It is a deep- rooted, long-lived perennial having much the same general habits as red clover, but the whole herbage is more hairy, and the white or yellowish flowers are in large ovate heads. .Hungarian clover has been tested at many of the Ameri- can experiment stations, and in most cases has grown quite as well as red clover. It is not much cultivated in Europe, largely on account of the high cost of the seed, and for the same reason it has been tried only in an experimental way in America. The seed can rarely be purchased for less than $1 to $1.25 a pound. OTHER CLOVERS 411 WHITE CLOVER ( Trifolium repens) 488. Botany. White clover is also known as Dutch clover and rarely as white trefoil. It is native throughout the temperate portion of Europe and Asia, while in Africa it occurs in the Azores. Numerous botanical varieties have been named, but none of these have been of any agricultural importance. A variety with purple foliage is sometimes cultivated as an ornamental. The only really distinct agricultural variety is Ladino clover. Individual plants of white clover vary greatly so that it would be possible to secure numerous varieties by selection. Work of this kind has been undertaken at several places. 489. Description. White clover is a long-lived but shallow-rooted perennial. It differs markedly from red and alsike clover in that the solid stems creep on the sur- face of the ground and root abundantly. On this account the growing point is seldom injured by mowing and graz- ing, and so the growth is not interrupted. When mowed, the hay consists entirely of leaves and flower stalks. The leaflets hold on much better in curing than do those of red clover. Single plants make a dense turf often a foot or more in diameter. Hays at the Minnesota Experiment Station found the tap root after one month to be 4| inches long and with numerous side roots, and when two months old to be 2 feet long. At this time roots began to be found on the creeping branches. The tap root is said to die in one or two years. Werner calculated the surface area of the leaves from 18 square centimeters, and found it to be 172 square centimeters. 412 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 490. Agricultural history. White clover seems to have been first cultivated in Holland, where it forms an important element in the pasture lands. The harvesting of the seed for sowing began about 1759 in Holstein and in 1764 in England, but was apparently still earlier in Holland. Jared Eliot mentions it in Massachusetts in 1747, and Kalm in his American travels a few years later found it common. Strickland, who traveled in the United States in 1794, writes as follows : "In every part of America, from New Hampshire to Carolina, from the sea to the mountains, the land, whether calcareous or argillaceous, whether wet or dry, whether worn out or retaining its original fertility, from the summit of the Alleghany ridge to the sandy plains of Virginia, is spontaneously covered with white clover, growing frequently with a luxuriance and perfection that art can rarely equal in Europe. "I am told it is never met with far back in the woods, but immediately on their being cleared away, eitner by fire or other- wise, it takes possession of the ground ; whioH should prove that it was natural to it ; that the seed lies there, but cannot vegetate till the ground is cleared ; but again I have been told, that by some tribes of Indians it is called 'white man's foot grass,' from an idea that wherever he has trodden, it grows; which should prove at least, that it had not been known in the country longer than the white man." 491. Adaptations. White clover is adapted to moist soils in nearly the whole temperate zone. In America its range is quite as wide as that of redtop, occurring north- ward to the limits of agriculture, and southward nearly to the Gulf of Mexico. It thrives best in regions of cool, moist climates. In the South, it persists through the hot weather of summer and becomes an important element of the pastures in winter. OTHER CLOVERS 413 It will grow in any sort of soil, provided moisture is abundant, but it thrives best in loams and clay loams rich in humus, and fairly well drained. Through all the moisture areas in America, it is so well adapted that it holds its own spontaneously, and in old pastures gradually becomes more abundant unless the soil is poor or droughty. From the fact that cattle avoid the flowers, spontaneous reseeding is continuous. White clover also grows well in shady places and often makes up a considerable portion of the ground cover in orchards. Phosphatic fertilizers have a marked effect on white clover and where these are applied, the growth of the clover is usually greatly stimulated. Potash fertilizers also have a similar but less marked effect. 492. Importance of white clover. With the exception of blue-grass, and possibly Bermuda and redtop, white clover is the most important perennial pasture plant in America. It is nearly always an element in blue-grass pastures, but in the best blue-grass areas it is not abun- dant/ Otherwise it is always an important element of mixed pastures, and in the cotton region is more impor- tant than blue-grass. White clover is said not to be nearly as liable as red clover to cause bloating, but as it is usually mixed with grasses, this is rarely apt to occur. Under some condi- tions it causes horses to " slobber." Apart from its use as pasture, white clover is very much used as an element in lawn mixtures. 493. Seeding. White clover is rarely sown except in mixtures with other grasses, and after it is once established usually maintains itself indefinitely. The usual rate of pure seeding recommended is 9 to 13 pounds to an acre. 414 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 494. Yields. White clover is so seldom grown pure as a hay crop that there are but scant data concerning its hay-yielding capacity. Friiwirth compared several strains both of ordinary and Ladino white clover in Austria in 1904 and 1905, with the following results, the weights being of the green clover : STRAIN YIELD TO A HECTARE 1904 YIELD TO A HECTARE 1905 TOTAL YIELD Colossal Ladino (Hohen- heim Seed) .... Colossal Ladino (Hohen- heim Seed) .... Colossal Ladino from Italy .... Kilograms 39,239 4 cuttings 43,476 4 cuttings 34,447 Kilograms 23,726 3 cuttings 27,442 3 cuttings 29214 Kgm. 62,965 70,918 63 958 Carter's Common White Clover 4 cuttings 23,098 3 cuttings 15,917 30,015 Carter's Giant White Clover 3 cuttings 23,469 1 cutting 15,158 38,627 3 cuttings 1 cutting Stebler and Volkart report an experiment in Switzer- land in which white clover from various sources was grown in small plots. The Ladino clover plots were much in- jured by winter-killing. The others yielded hay at the following rates to a hectare in kilograms : English I, 5500 ; America, 5000; Bohemian I, 4750; Russian I, 4500; Bohemian II, 4250; Polish, 4000; Galician, 4000; Russian II, 3700 ; New Zealand, 3500 ; English II, 2500. At the Danish Experiment Station various regional OTHER CLOVERS 415 strains were grown two years and gave comparative yields as follows: Danish, 100; Ladino, 94; Holland, 92; American, 89; Pomeranian, 86; English, 80; Silesian, 76; German, 73. In England a number of experiments have shown that if seed gathered from wild white clover plants be sown, the plants will persist much longer than if seed of the cul- tivated plants be sown. The cultivated white clover disappears in one or two years, while the wild white clover persists much longer at least three to five years. The explanation given is that the cultivated white clover is less resistant to the rigorous springs and perhaps also to " clover sickness." Werner gives the hay yields to an acre in Germany as ranging from 1760 to 2640 pounds. The only American hay yield reported seems to be the following: Pennsylvania Experiment Station, 4133 pounds to an acre. 495. Pollination. White clover has long been valued as a honey plant. If the visits of insects are prevented, only about one-tenth as much seed is produced, according to Darwin's experiments in England. Beal in Michigan secured only 5 seeds from covered heads, while 8 uncovered heads contained 236 seeds. In an experiment by Cook, 10 heads covered to exclude insects set no seeds, while 10 heads in the open produced 541 seeds. 496. Seed-production. Commercial seed of white clo- ver is grown mainly in Europe (Bohemia, Poland, Russia, Germany, Holland, England), but some is produced in New Zealand. In America seed is produced in Ontario, Michigan, Wisconsin and western Washington. Ladino white clover seed comes wholly from Italy. 416 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE The yield of seed to an acre in Europe seems to vary greatly. Werner gives it as 260 to 520 pounds ; Schwerz, as 350 pounds ; Sprengel, as 70 to 880 pounds ; Krafft, 130 to 440 pounds. Werner gives the average yield of straw as about 1000 pounds to an acre. When white clover is tall enough, it may be cut with a mower, preferably with a buncher attachment. If short, a light iron pan or a canvas is attached behind the mower and the cut clover removed by a helper with a pitch fork. 497. Seed. White clover seed is very similar to that of alsike, but is slightly smaller and pale yellow, pinkish or pale brown in color. It is seldom adulterated except with old seeds. The purity should reach 98 per cent and the viability 99 per cent. Good seeds germinate in 2 to 6 days. The seed retains its viability well for two years and then gradually deteriorates. It may contain any of the ordi- nary weed seeds as impurities. A bushel weighs 60 to 63 pounds. One pound contains 732,000 to 800,000 seeds. 498. Ladino white clover. This variety grows to about twice the size of ordinary white clover. In recent years various seedsmen have advertised it as Giant, Mammoth or Colossal White Clover. Botanically this variety has been called TrifoUum repens latum by Mc- Carthy. Ladino clover is abundantly cultivated on irrigated lands in Lombardy and derives its name from Lodi, where it was probably first developed. In the subalpine Italian valleys it is cut four to five times, and under these condi- tions outyields alfalfa. It is grown only on heavy lands OTHER CLOVERS 417 and is irrigated about every twelve days. According to Friiwirth the annual yield of hay in Italy is 7000 to 10,500 pounds to an acre. It is usually sown with wheat, and the fields are maintained from 2 to 7 years. This variety is considerably less cold-resistant than ordinary white clover, and was badly in- jured by winter cold in Swiss trials when ordinary white clover was uninjured. SWEET CLOVER (Melilotus alba) 499. Botany and description. Sweet clover (Fig. 46) is also known by many other names, among them Bokhara clover, melilot, white melilot, sweet melilot, Siberian melilot, bee clover, honey clover and galy- gumber. In the South it is now commonly called melilotus. It is native to temperate Europe and Asia as far east as Tibet, but is now spread over much of the United States and Canada, and also in the south temperate zone of both hemispheres. Several varieties have been de- scribed by botanists. Sweet clover is biennial in duration. The seedlings appear in early spring under natural conditions and grow 2 E FIG. 46. Sweet clover. 418 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE rather slowly the first season, but by fall have reached a height of 3 to 4 feet, and a few of the plants will bloom, at least in the South. By this time the root is large and fleshy and may extend to a depth of 6 feet. The second season's growth begins quite early, two weeks before that of alfalfa, which at first it closely resembles. The stems reach a height of 6 to 12 feet, and bear numerous white, sweet- scented flowers in narrow, erect racemes. The mature pods are reticulated and each bears a single seed. About the time the pods are well formed, the leaves begin to drop off. Every part of the plant contains a bitter-tasting sub- stance called cumarin, but which has a sweet, vanilla-like odor. The young shoots contain but little cumarin, and so are quite readily eaten by sheep and cattle, but the older stems and leaves are decidedly better. About the time sweet clover comes into bloom the stems rapidly become woody. After fruiting the plants die. Individual plants vary in their content of cumarin as well as in other characteristics, and some attempts have been made to improve the plant by selection, and particularly to secure a non-bitter variety. 500. Adaptations. So far as climate is concerned, sweet clover is adapted to southern Canada and practi- cally the whole of the United States, thriving equally well in semi-arid and in humid regions. Its soil relations are likewise very wide, as sweet clover will grow in practically all types from cemented clays and gravels to poor sand. It thrives best, however, on soils containing an abundance of lime. Sweet clover, on account of its deep root system, is able to withstand drought nearly as well as alfalfa. On the other hand, it can endure wet or poorly drained soils better than either red clover or alfalfa. OTHER CLOVERS 419 On account of its wide adaptations to both soils and climate, sweet clover is valuable to use in places where neither red clover nor alfalfa gives satisfactory results. 501. Agricultural history. Sweet clover was probably first cultivated in western Asia in the same general region where alfalfa and red clover were first used in agriculture, but neither in Asia nor Europe has the culture of the plant ever been of much importance. It was introduced into North America at least as early as 1739, when it was found by Clayton in Virginia. It was recorded from New England in 1785. For 20 years or more it has been utilized -on the black calcareous soils of Mississippi and Alabama, where it grows luxuriantly. In more recent times it has been grown in many other states. It is a very aggressive plant, spreading along roads and railways and in irrigated sections along the ditches. Its spread has also been greatly increased by the habit of bee keepers of scattering seed in waste places so as to provide pasturage for bees. On account of its tendency to spread, sweet clover has at times been feared as a weed, but it rarely causes any trouble in cultivated land. 502. Seeding. Seeding may be done either by broad- casting or with a drill. Much of the seed is " hard " and does not germinate the first season. According to its viability, from 20 to 30 pounds of hulled seed should be used to an acre if broadcasted, or somewhat more if the seed is unhulled. Werner says the usual rate in Germany is 26 pounds, if broadcasted, and half this amount when drilled. 503. Securing a stand. On account of the way sweet clover spreads as a weed in waste ground, it has commonly been supposed that it would be exceedingly easy to obtain 420 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE a stand on cultivated land. Numerous failures, however, show that this is not the case. Westgate's investigations have led to the conclusion that the main requirement is a thoroughly firmed seed bed. Another factor of impor- tance is inoculation, as sweet clover seems just as likely as alfalfa to fail where the proper nodule organisms are absent. Under natural conditions the pods of sweet clover fall on the ground in late summer and germinate in early spring, most of them remaining on the surface or being very shallowly embedded in the soil. On cultivated land good stands may be secured either by sowing in early fall or in spring. Fall seeding has the disadvantage that the root growth made the first season is not very large and consequently the plants the second season are not so vigorous. Further- more, the crop lasts but one growing season and not two, as is the case in spring planting. Fall planting in rye is the common method in Germany according to Werner, but in this case the crop is used mainly as green manure and plowed under after one season. This method has also been used occasionally with success in America, but sweet clover is nearly as apt to winter-kill if thus sown as is red clover. At Arlington Farm, Virginia, sweet clover was sown at various dates but the best results were secured when sown in May and in October. On the whole, spring seeding is to be preferred and this has generally proved satisfactory. Lloyd thinks the best method for Ohio and Kentucky is to sow from January to March either on wheat or on bare ground, the former being the common practice in Ken- tucky. In gullies the best method is to scatter sweet clover straw or ripe plants with the pods still attached. OTHER CLOVERS 421 504. Relative proportions of tops and roots of sweet clover. Hopkins at the Illinois Experiment Station determined the total yield of tops and roots to a depth of 20 inches, when the plants were nearly mature, to be respectively 10,367 and 2410 pounds dry matter to an acre. 1809 pounds of the roots were in the first seven inches of soil and 601 pounds between 7 and 20 inches in depth. The tops contained 197 pounds of nitrogen and the roots 31 pounds. 505. Utilization. Sweet clover may be utilized either as pasturage, hay or green manure, and has been used both for soiling and for silage. While the herbage is bitter, it is much less so in early spring and most animals can be taught at this time to eat the plant. It may be thus used for all classes of farm animals, but is probably best for hogs and cattle. An acre of sweet clover will furnish pasturage through the season for about 20 young hogs, which apparently thrive quite as well as those on alfalfa or red clover. At the Iowa Experiment Station pigs made an average daily gain of 1.02 pounds on sweet clover as against 1.13 pounds on red clover pasturage. In pasturing cattle care must be taken to avoid bloating. The use of sweet clover as a soiling crop is uncommon, but hogs eat it readily when thus fed. At the Ontario Experiment Station a yield of over 30 tons green matter to the acre was obtained. Sweet clover is mostly used as hay and should be cut just as the first blossoms appear, or a little before, as the stems thereafter rapidly become woody. In curing, much of the cumarin volatilizes so that the hay loses much of its bitter taste. If spring sown it is usually best to utilize sweet clover 422 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE by pasturing the first season, or a crop of hay may be cut. The second season it is best cut for hay or for seed, or both. Too close cutting with the mower is harmful, as new shoots appear only from the stems and not from the crown as in alfalfa. Sweet clover is slightly more succulent than alfalfa and therefore a little more difficult to cure without undue loss of leaves. To avoid this the hay should be handled as little as possible, curing as much as possible in the windrows and then in small shocks. Lloyd states that it has been utilized as silage by Ohio farmers, and thus fed to sheep and cattle with good results. 506. Advantages and disadvantages. The chief disad- vantages of sweet clover are : 1. The cumarin content of the herbage, which makes animals avoid it until they have acquired a taste for its bitterness. On the other hand, this is said by some to be an advantage, as animals when first put in a pasture will not eat enough to cause bloating. 2. The rapidity with which 'the stems become woody, and the difficulty of curing. On the other hand, sweet clover will thrive on soils where neither red clover nor alfalfa will succeed, and there can be little doubt that it will become much more utilized, especially for pasturage on poor sandy soils. 507. Yield. Comparatively few data on the yields of sweet clover have been reported. In the North two cuttings may be secured the second year, both of hay or one of seed, while in the South three hay cuttings or two of hay and one of seed may be harvested. Tracy says that the three cuttings in the South will each average 1 to 2 tons an acre. At the Alabama (Canebrake) Substa- tion the first season's spring-sown crop was at the rate of OTHER CLOVERS 423 5056 pounds of hay to an acre, and in the second season three cuttings gave 6320 pounds to an acre. On another plot the results were respectively 6672 and 7048 pounds to an acre. At the Massachusetts Experiment Station, a plot seeded May 8 yielded September 9 at the rate of 2700 pounds of hay an acre. The next season it was cut on June 24 and September 22, yielding respectively 2727 and 1000 pounds an acre. At the Utah Experiment Station a yield of 7700 pounds of hay an acre was obtained. At the Wyoming Experiment Station yields of 8960 pounds and 7500 pounds of hay to an acre were secured. At the Ontario Experimental Farm a yield of 61,300 pounds green matter an acre is recorded. 508. Seed-production. Seed of sweet clover is pro- duced both in Europe and in the United States. Euro- pean commercial seed is always hulled. American seed is always in the hull and is produced in the South and in Kansas. On account of the limited demand until now the methods of seed-production have not been especially developed. The best yields of seed come from thin stands that have not been cut for hay, but satisfactory yields may be obtained from fields that have previously produced one cutting, or in the South two cuttings of hay. To avoid shattering the hard stems should be cut when damp, and cured in small shocks ; or it may be cut with a binder. The time to cut is when about thr*ee- fourths of the pods have turned dark. In western Kan- sas it is sometimes harvested with a header and cured in medium-sized shocks. In the South the seed pods are usually removed by nailing, but in the West grain thrashers are now used. The yields in Kansas ar.e said to be from 2 to 8 bushels to an acre. 424 FOE AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE FIG. 47. Seeds of sweet clover, a, seeds showing variation in form and size ; b, natural size of seeds ; c, a pod of sweet clover. 509. Seed. The seeds of sweet clover (Fig. 47) are yellowish brown, much like those of alfalfa, but the sur- face is duller and slightly uneven. By crushing, the vanilla-like odor of cumarin is evident, at once distin- guishing it from all similar seeds except other species of Melilo- tus. Commercial seed usually has a high de- gree of purity and should approximate 100 per cent, The germination, however, is very variable on ac- count of " hard " seed. In 22 southern-grown samples, the average proportion of hard -seed was 60 per cent, and in an equal number of northern-grown samples, 43 per cent. Im- ported seed showed but 12 per cent hard seeds in 28 samples. The probable explanation of the better quality of the European seed is that most of it was one year old or more. The seed is reported to have remained alive in some cases for 77 years. According to Werner, one pound contains 235,000 seeds. 510. Related species. Various other species of M eli- lotus have been more or less utilized agriculturally, includ- ing M. officinalis, M. indica, M. altissima, M. gracilis, M. speciosa and M. ccerulea. The first two are abundantly and the third sparingly introduced into America. The last is really a species belonging to Trigonella. Melilotus officinalis, official melilot, is a biennial yellow- flowered species. It is about two weeks earlier than OTHEE CLOVERS 425 Bokhara clover, much less leafy and smaller in size, grow- ing but 3 to 7 feet tall. It has spread over much the same territory as Bokhara clover. In New Jersey, it is becom- ing the dominant species. Some commercial seed is grown in Kentucky. It is from this species that cumarin was secured for medicinal use in olden times. Melilotus indica (Melilotus parviflbra), the " sour clover " of California and Arizona, is an annual species with small yellow flowers. It is called King Island melilot from the fact that it was introduced on King Island near Tasmania about 1906 and rapidly spread over the sandy lands of this island, resulting in the establishment of a great dairy industry. In the United States, it is most common in the South, being abundant about Charleston, New Orleans and in southern California. In the citrus regions of California,, it has been used in recent years as an orchard green manure crop, and commercial seed is now produced in that state. CHAPTER XVIII CRIMSON CLOVER AND OTHER ANNUALS THE annual clovers and clover-like plants are much less important agriculturally than the perennials. They are variously used as hay, pasture and green manure crops. Their greatest use is as winter cover crops. CRIMSON CLOVER (Trifolium incarnatum) 511. Botany. Crimson clo- ver (Fig. 48) is also known from the color of its flowers as scarlet, carnation and incarnate clover; also from its reputed origin as German, Italian and French clover. The plant is native to south- ern Europe, occurring as far north as England. The wild plant (variety Molinerii) has yellow-white flowers, except one form in which they are rose- colored. The cultivated plant is taller, more vigorous and less hairy than the wild. 512. Agricultural history. - Crimson clover was probably first cultivated in southern France and adjacent Switzer- 426 FIG. 48. Crimson clover. CRIMSON CLOVER AND OTHER ANNUALS 427 land. It was cultivated in Germany as early as 1796. At the present time it is grown in France, Switzer- land, northern Italy, Austria, the wine districts of Ger- many and in southern England. The earliest established record of its culture in the United States is 1818, when it was introduced by Bedingfield Hands of Chestertown, Pennsylvania, and distributed among his friends. It was widely distributed by the United States Patent Office in 1855, but its culture did not assume much importance till about 1880. 513. Description. Crimson clover is an annual plant, reaching under favorable conditions a height of three feet. The root system penetrates at least as deep, as plants sown at the North Dakota Experiment Station in spring were found to have roots three feet deep by August 22. At the Delaware Experiment Station the tops and roots on an acre were determined to contain respectively 5372 and 413 pounds of dry matter. The stems are spreading or ascending where the plants are isolated, but more nearly erect where they are crowded. When sown in fall, the young plants are apt to be single stemmed. Well- grown plants from fall-sown seed may have as many as 20 stems and 50 or more flower spikes. The flower clus- ters are dense cylindric or slightly tapering spikes, If to 2 inches long, the flowers usually brilliant crimson, but rarely white, yellowish, rose or variegated. 514. Adaptations. Crimson clover is normally a winter annual and is, therefore, primarily adapted to regions where the average minimum temperature is not fatal. In Germany Werner thinks this temperature is about 4 below zero Fahrenheit. By selective elimina- tion, however, hardier strains can undoubtedly be secured, as J. H. Hale grew for a period of years in Connecticut 428 FORAGE PLANTS AND TP1EIR CULTURE a strain that he had thus selected. Ordinary crimson clover, however, usually winter-kills in the states north of New Jersey and west of the Alleghany Mountains. Crimson clover has been successfully grown in Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi and Tennessee, but the prevailing dry autumns. in these, states make it difficult to secure a catch. In the moister region near the Gulf of Mexico, it succeeds well, but is little used. In Oregon, Washington and British Columbia west of the Cascade Mountains, the conditions are also very favor- able to crimson clover, but it has never been much used. For fall sowing the important requisites are a mild winter climate and comparatively frequent rainfalls in late sum- mer and early fall so that the plants can get well started. As a spring-sown crop, crimson clover has succeeded in Michigan and North Dakota, but it is doubtful if it can compete with red and alsike clover used in this manner. Crimson clover shows no very marked soil preferences, succeeding both on sandy and clayey soils, whether cal- careous or not, so long as they are well drained. It does not succeed well on poor sandy soils and demands a good humus content for its best development. On muck soils it is said not to succeed well. Crimson clover is well adapted to withstand shade, and so is often sown in orchards and with other crops. Crimson clover apparently never has been troubled in America by " clover sickness," it having been sown on some farms continuously for at least ten years. Werner writes that in Germany it should not be again sown on the same ground until four to six years have elapsed. 515. Importance. Crimson clover is grown in the United States mainly in New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland and Virginia, but its culture is increasing in the Carolinas. CRIMSON CLOVER AND OTHER ANNUALS 429 In these states it is well adapted both to the sandy soils of the coastal area and the clayey soils of the Piedmont. Elsewhere in the United States it is but little grown. In the states above mentioned, the total area planted in 1909 was about 50,000 acres, basing this on the assump- tion that crimson clover was f of the " clover " acreage in Delaware ; f in New Jersey, J in Maryland, J in Vir- ginia and ^ in North Carolina. 516. Variability and agricultural varieties. Crimson clover is conspicuously variable in two respects ; namely, the color of the corolla and the life period. In a single field of crimson clover, plants may be found with white, rose, crimson and variegated crimson and white flowers. As crimson clover is mainly self-pollinated, such varieties are easily selected and established. At the present time European seedsmen offer five varieties ; namely, extra early, ordinary, late and extra late crimson-flowered and late white-flowered. 517. Seeding. The rate of seeding varies from 12 to 20 pounds to an acre, 15 pounds being the usual rate. One pound contains about 120,000 seeds, so that at the ordinary rate 45 seeds to the square foot are sown. In Europe the rate of seeding seems to be much higher, as Werner recommends 22 to 40 pounds if broadcasted, and 18 to 26 pounds if drilled. Crimson clover is sown either by broadcasting or by drilling. Shallow seeding seems to be most satisfactory, but no critical experiments have been recorded. One inch depth in sandy soil and one-half inch in clay soils is probably a good general rule. Home-grown seed in the hull is often sown by farmers, and the belief prevails that such seed is more likely to give a good stand than the hulled seed. 430 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 518. Time of sowing. In the latitude of Maryland, crimson clover may be sown any time from midsummer until October. Midsummer sowings are apt to be injured by heat, and late sowings to be winter-killed. So far as temperature is concerned, the best time is probably late summer, which will permit about ten weeks' growth before the first frost. Ample moisture at the time of seeding and while the plants are young is quite as important as the temperature relations, and lack of timely rains results in more failures to secure stands than any other one cause. A common saying among farmers is that " crimson clover should be sown between showers." In the Northern States and Canada, crimson clover may be sown in spring. Spring sowing is used to some extent in Europe and may be practicable for some pur- poses in America. A nurse-crop cannot be used with spring sowings, however, as the clover grows too rapidly. 519. Methods of sowing. Crimson clover is sown in many different ways, whether grown primarily for hay, pasture or green manure. The principal methods are sowing alone ; sowing in an intertilled crop ; and sowing mixed with a small grain wheat, rye, barley or winter oats for hay. More crimson clover is probably sown in cultivated rows of corn than in any other way. This is commonly done by broadcasting at the time of the last cultivation of corn in Maryland, but farther south later sowing is more desirable to avoid injury to the crimson clover by hot summer weather. The clover matures early enough the next season so that the hay crop can be removed in time .to plant corn again ; south of central Delaware the crimson clover may be harvested for seed and still leave time to grow a crop of corn. CRIMSON CLOVER AND OTHER ANNUALS 431 In North Carolina successful stands of crimson clover have been secured by sowing in cotton in August, but it is difficult to cover the seeds without injuring the opened cotton. Among other intertilled crops in which crimson clover may be sown are soybeans, tobacco, cantaloupes and all vegetables except root crops, as the digging of these necessarily destroys much of the clover. Crimson clover is most often sown alone, whether in- tended for use as green manure, hay or seed-production. In recent years it has been much grown in mixtures with wheat, oats, rye or barley. Sometimes only a small amount of the grain crop is added so as to prevent the clover from lodging, but more often a half seeding of the grain is used, and the resulting hay crop is much larger than that of clover alone. The common rate of seeding in such a mixture is 15 pounds of the clover seed and 30 pounds of the grain seed to the acre. Crimson clover may be sown with buckwheat, in midsummer or even later, provided there is time for the buckwheat to mature before frost. The buckwheat must be seeded lightly, otherwise the clover may be destroyed by the dense shade. In place of buckwheat, cowpeas may be used, and either cut for hay before frost or allowed to remain on the ground. 520. Time to cut for hay. Crimson clover should preferably be cut for hay just as soon as the lower flowers on the most advanced heads have faded. If cutting be delayed beyond this, the hairs on the calyx and elsewhere become hard and stiff, so that if the hay be fed to horses, the hairs are likely to form compact " hair-balls " in the intestines, which nearly always result in death. The danger is generally believed to be much lessened by feeding crimson clover mixed with other roughage, or by wetting 432 FOE AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE the clover hay about 12 hours before feeding so that the hairs become soft. Such hair-balls rarely, if ever, form in cattle and sheep, so that late cut hay may be safely utilized as feed for such animals. If cut before bloom, the yield is much less and the curing more difficult. 521. Yields. The yield of hay from crimson clover where the stand is good ranges from 1500 to 6000 pounds an acre, probably averaging about 2500 pounds. Yields reported by experiment stations are as follows in pounds to an acre : Pennsylvania, 2154 to 5121 ; New Jersey, 2460 to 4600; South Carolina, 3600; Florida, about 4000; Alabama, 4057; Arizona, 145 to 570; Oregon, 13,340; Vermont, spring-sown, 4550; Michigan, spring-sown, 4400. Mixtures usually yield more heavily. Thus, at the Alabama Experiment Station the following results were secured : Crimson clover seeded alone 2836 Ib. Crimson clover seeded in mixture : Barley and crimson clover ....... 3695 Ib. Wheat and crimson clover 3771 Ib. Oats and crimson clover 4228 Ib. 522. Other uses of crimson clover, Besides being used as a hay crop, crimson clover is extensively used for pasturage, to a slight extent for soiling and very much as a soil improver both in orchards and elsewhere. Crimson clover will furnish a small amount of pasturage in fall, especially for hogs and calves. In the spring it comes on earlier than other clovers, and under the most favorable conditions may be grazed for a period of eight weeks. The usual precautions must be taken to avoid bloating. Crimson clover may also be utilized as soiling, and will CRIMSON CLOVER AND OTHER ANNUALS 433 furnish succulent green feed for a period of 2 to 5 weeks, especially if both early and late varieties be used. As a green manure or cover crop, crimson clover is especially valuable because of the early date at which it can be plowed under, thus permitting corn and other crops to be planted in time. Only two other legumes can be used in the same way and for the same purpose as crimson clover, yellow trefoil and hairy vetch. Trefoil does not produce 'nearly so much herbage; while hairy vetch does not mature as early in spring, and the cost of seeding is considerably higher. 523. Seed-production. Crimson clover is harvested for seed as soon as perfectly ripe. As the seeds shatter easily, it is best to mow early in the morning or when slightly moist, using either a mowing machine or a self- rake reaper. In drying, care is necessary to avoid loss by shattering, and to this end it is usually cured in small bunches. If the clover becomes wet from rain, the seed will sprout promptly, and this may be a source of serious loss. The unhulled seed may be secured by thrashing or by flailing. To harvest seed for home use, there has long been used a device consisting essentially of a platform or box on the front of which is a comb, that may be raised or lowered, the whole mounted on wheels. This device is used when the seeds are ripe and dry. The most efficient of these combs is said to secure about 90 per cent of the seed. The yield is said to average about 6 bushels to an acre. In Europe the yields are given as 250 to 450 pounds to an acre. 524. Seed. Seed of crimson clover (Fig. 49) is larger and more rounded than most other clovers. Fresh seed 2F 434 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE is shiny and somewhat pinkish in color. Old seed be- comes dull and brownish. Rarely it may be adulterated with red clover screenings, and sometimes there is considerable trefoil present. Good, fresh commercial seed sh 011 ^ be 99 per cent pure and have a viability of 98-99 per cent. FIG. 49. Seeds of crim- It loses its viability rapidly, so son clover (enlarged and t h at see ^ two yearg ol( J ig wort h- natural size). less. There is never much hard seed, and all the good seed should germinate in 2 to 6 days. . Troublesome weed seeds that may be present as impuri- ties are Canada thistle, wild carrot, yellow dock, buck- horn and oxeye-daisy. The legal weight of a bushel is 60 pounds, but it may weigh up to 63 pounds. One pound contains 118,000 to 150,000 seeds. SHAFTAL OR SCHABDAR (Trifolium suaveolens) 525. Shaftal or Persian clover is an annual, native to central Asia. It is characterized by hollow stems, which lodge easily ; smooth herbage ; small heads of pink, very fragrant flowers; and pods inclosed in a much swollen calyx. This clover is cultivated under irrigation in Persia and northwest India for forage. In Europe it has been cul- tivated many years as an ornamental. Seeds of it some- times occur as an impurity in crimson clover seed from France, and thus occasional plants may be found in crim- son clover fields. Commercial seed in small quantities can be obtained in Persia. CRIMSON CLOVER AND OTHER ANNUALS 435 While shaft al withstands the winter in Maryland when fall sown, its lodging habit makes it less desirable than crimson clover. It has given excellent results under irrigation in Arizona as a winter crop. BERSEEM (Trifolium alexandrinum) 526. Berseem is an annual white-flowered clover, much cultivated in the valley of the Nile in lower Egypt, where about 1,500,000 acres are grown as a winter annual under irrigation. It is probably native to this region, but the species is not known in a wild state. There are three varieties grown : the Fachl, cut but once ; the Saidi, cut twice ; and the Muscowi, cut as many as four times. It was introduced into the United States in 1900 and widely tested. As it is destroyed when the temperature falls to about 18 F., it can be grown in most of the United States only as a summer annual. For that purpose it cannot compete with other clovers especially red and alsike as it does not yield as well and must be planted each season. In the extreme southern portions of the United States, from California to Texas, berseem succeeds well enough under irrigation, but cannot compete with alfalfa. As a winter crop to grow in short rotations, it may eventually be utilized in this region. The seed of berseem is cheap, but is likely to contain wild mustard seed as an impurity. YELLOW TREFOIL (Medicago lupulina) 527. Yellow trefoil is also known as black medick and nonesuch, and rarely as hop clover, the last term being more properly applied to yellow-flowered clovers. Yel- 436 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE low trefoil has become rather notorious from the fact that its seed (Fig. 50) has been much used to adulterate alfalfa seed, but nevertheless the plant has some merit as a forage crop. It is native to Europe and Asia, but has become thoroughly es- tablished from Ontario to the Gulf of Mexico, and is also common on the Pacific Coast. Its wide naturalization in- dicates its wide adapta- FIG. 50. Seeds of yellow trefoil, a, n< seeds showing variation in form and size ; Of its wide Value in b, natural size of seeds ; c, oval form of THvirODe trefoil seeds indicated ; d, a pod of trefoil. Stebler and Schroter write : " Al- though neither very productive nor persistent, still on many soils where red clover is not successful this plant becomes valuable because its fodder is so nutritive. It is especially valuable in pastures. Because of the diffuse stems and their spreading habit, yellow trefoil is usually sown in mixtures with clovers and grasses, and thus forms excellent pasturage. As the plant itself only lasts for one or two years, it ought to be used in lays of short dura- tion. In mixtures on warm and favorable soils, it reaches maturity and propagates by sowing its own seeds." The plant is normally an annual, but with perennating forms. Its small size is the principal objection to its culture, but where it once becomes established, it makes a valuable addition to pastures, even on very poor soils. Planted thickly in late summer or early fall, the plants will make a dense mass of herbage 10 to 16 inches deep by the following May or June. In this way it has much the same use as crimson clover, but it will withstand much CRIMSON CLOVER AND OTHER ANNUALS 437 greater cold, more even than red clover. Mixtures with crimson clover are very satisfactory, but probably do not increase the total yield. Under like conditions, yellow trefoil will probably not yield more than three-fourths as much as crimson clover, but with its wider range of adaptation and cheap seed should fill a niche in American agriculture. Difficulty in establishing trefoil may be ex- pected until the ground has become inoculated for it. Werner gives the average seed yield as 440 to 700 pounds an acre. The commercial supply has been scarce in recent years, perhaps because the practice of using it as an adulterant of alfalfa has greatly diminished. BUR CLOVERS (Medicago spp.) 528. Bur clovers. There are about 40 species of these plants native to the countries about the Mediterranean Sea. Most of these, probably all, are annuals, springing up in the fall, and maturing in early summer. They are all procumbent or prostrate plants when growing isolated, but if planted thickly, make a mass of herbage 8 to 18 inches deep. The species are distinguished largely by the burs or pods, which show a wide variation in size and form. In America two species have thus far become used in agriculture ; namely, the toothed bur clover (Medicago hispida) and the spotted bur clover (Medicago arabica), the former especially in California, the latter mainly in the Southern States. Among the other species that are likely to become of importance are button clover (Medicago orbicularis) and snail clover (Medicago scutellata), both with large smooth pods. Toothed bur clover. Toothed bur clover is also known 438 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE as California bur clover, as it is especially abundant in that state. It was early introduced into California, where it has become widespread and proven valuable for pastur- age both on cultivated and on range lands. The same species is also abundant in Argentina, Chile and Australia. The burs get caught in the fleece of sheep, and in recent years seed has been saved and cleaned in Europe from the rubbish taken out of wool. While toothed bur clover is most abundant in Califor- nia, it also occurs in Washington and Oregon, and to some extent in the Southern States. In the latter region it is not as well adapted as spotted bur clover, and instances are known where the toothed bur clover was winter-killed when the spotted was uninjured. Toothed bur clover can hardly be called a cultivated crop, but where it persists it furnishes a large amount of pasturage, both on cultivated and on uncultivated land. Even after the burs are ripe and dry they are eaten eagerly by sheep. A considerable amount of bur clover seed is harvested incidentally with wheat in California, and from this source all of the American-grown seed is obtained. There are several varieties of toothed bur clover , differ- ing in the character of the fruits, two of them having spine- less burs; namely, confinis with 3 coils, and reticulata with 5 coils to the pod. Spotted bur clover. Spotted bur clover differs from toothed bur clover in having a dark purple spot on each leaflet, and in the pods being beset with longer and softer bristles and the edges of the coils furrowed. A spineless variety, inermis, is also known. Spotted bur clover is less abundant in California and more plentiful in the Southern States than toothed bur clover. This may be partly incidental to earlier introduc- CRIMSON CLOVER AND OTHER ANNUALS 439 tion, but apparently spotted bur clover is better adapted to the conditions in the Southern States. It is quite certain that it is more resistant to winter cold, withstand- ing a temperature of about 15 F. without injury. Its area of usefulness extends from North Carolina to Arkansas and southward, both on sandy and clayey soils. Bur clover maybe sown anytime from August to Novem- ber. If the seed is hulled, it should be sown at the rate of 15 pounds an acre and harrowed in lightly. In the bur the seed weighs 10 pounds to the bushel, and two bushels should be sown to the acre, harrowing or brushing it in lightly. When sown in the bur, the resultant plants are nearly always abundantly noduled, but this is seldom the case when hulled seed is planted in new ground. Bur clover reseeds itself readily, even if the ground is plowed in late May or June for a summer crop, but it is never trouble- some as a weed. Its use for winter pasturage in the South is increasing. Commercial seed of spotted bur clover occurs as yet only in the bur and often contains much straw and other trash. The seeds are raked up from the ground after the plants have become thoroughly dry so that the pods readily detach. DAKOTA VETCH (Hosackia americana or Lotus americanus) 529. Dakota vetch is a close relative of bird's-foot trefoil and has been called prairie bird's-foot trefoil. It is native to the western United States from Minnesota and Arkansas west to the Pacific. It is especially abun- dant in the Pacific States. The plant is a slender-stemmed, loosely branched annual, growing 12 to 24 inches high ; leaves trifoliolate ; flowers small, yellow and red ; pods linear, pendent. 440 FOEAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE Dakota vetch has long been recognized by cattlemen as an excellent native forage plant and on this account was recommended for cultivation by the South Dakota Experi- ment Station in 1894. The plant and yield is so small, however, that the returns do not warrant its culture. A large percentage of the seed at least of the California form is hard and does not germinate. CHAPTER XIX PEAS AND PEA-LIKE PLANTS PEAS are grown more extensively for the seed than for the herbage. In mixed cultures, however, especially with oats, peas make an excellent quality of hay. The seeds are valuable both for human food and as feed for domestic animals. In contrast with the various kinds of beans, peas never cause digestive disturbances. PEA (Pisum sativum) 530. Botany and history of the pea. The pea is native to the Mediterranean region of southern Europe and north Africa, extending eastward to the Himalayas. Its culture is in all probability very ancient, seeds having been found in the remains of the lake dwellings in Switzer- land. De Candolle, who considers the field pea distinct from the garden pea, inclines to the belief that the culture of the former is not ancient. It is customary to distinguish agriculturally between the garden pea (Pisum hortense) and the field or Can- ada pea (Pisum -arvense), but whatever distinguishing characteristics are used, there are all possible intergrades in the long series of cultivated varieties. In general the term field pea is restricted to those having somewhat angled, brown to black or marbled or speckled seeds, and colored flowers; garden pea, to those having white flowers and 441 442 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE round yellow seeds. But several varieties are used both for vegetables and for forage. A third group of varieties, the sugar peas (variety saccharatum) , is distinguished by having broad, flat, tender pods, which are used as a vegetable after the manner of snap beans. Most of these have the pods green, but in one variety they are yellow. 531. Description. - The pea (Fig. 51) is an annual plant with hollow stems varying in length from 1J to 10 feet, according to variety and conditions. The entire herbage is pale and glaucous. The stems are weak, usu- ally decumbent at base and much in- clined to lodge. The leaves are pinnate with 1 to 3 pairs of leaflets and one or more pairs of tendrils besides the tip of the rachis, by which the plant clings to supports. The stout, axillary peduncles each bear 1 to 3 flowers. The pods are green or rarely yellow. The root system is rather shallow, not exceeding three feet, but nevertheless the pea is fairly resistant to drought. FIG. 51. Field pea. PEAS AND PEA-LIKE PLANTS 443 532. Adaptations. Field peas are adapted only to moderate temperatures ; and while they will withstand heavy frosts, they quickly succumb to high temperatures, especially if combined with humidity. As their period of growth is short, 60 to 100 days for hay, 80 to 120 days for seed, they may be grown as summer crops in the North, winter crops in regions where the temperature rarely falls below freezing and spring or fall crops in intermediate areas. The non-adaptation of field peas to heat is frequently seen as far north as Maryland, where the crop is often severely injured by hot weather in May. Their preference for a cool growing season has led to their being much more extensively grown in Canada than in the United States, Field peas are not particular in regard to humidity, thriving well both in humid and in semi-arid regions, but they succeed best in regions of moderate rainfall. They do best on loams or clay loams, but will succeed on most soil types, if well drained. Like the majority of leguminous plants, they prefer an abundance of lime in the soil. 533. Importance. Field peas are more important in Ontario, Michigan and Wisconsin than in any other states or provinces. To some extent they are grown in most of the northern tier of states in the Union and in all the southern provinces of Canada. In 1909, there were in Ontario, 258, 461 acres ; in Michigan, 94,932 acres ; and in Wisconsin, 78,017 acres. 534. Agricultural varieties. The varieties of field peas are very numerous, probably numbering over 100 and not including any of the more numerous sorts of garden peas. Varieties differ in such characters as degree of earliness. 444 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE height, color of flowers, size of pods and especially in the size, shape and color of the seeds. The seeds may be either globose or more or less shrunken and angular. The angular form is due to a higher sugar content and conse- quent greater shrinkage in drying. The color of the seeds when of a single tint may be yellow, pea-green, brown or black. Yellow or green seeds may be marbled with brown, or speckled with blue-black or brown or both marbled and speckled. The embryos are yellow in yellow seeds, and green in green seeds. The earliest varieties will mature seed in 73 days in Canada, while the very late ones require 109 days. Among the better known varieties are the following : Arthur. This variety has round yellow seeds of medium size. It is an early, productive variety which originated at Ottawa, Canada. It is now one of the most important varieties in Canada. Golden Vine. The Golden Vine, also called the French June, is perhaps the most widely grown variety of field pea in the United States. It is a medium-early pea, hav- ing a white blossom and small round cream-colored seeds, and makes good yields of both forage and seed. Marrowfat. This name has been loosely applied to a class of large cream-seeded varieties rather than to a definite variety. This variety has a white blossom and is medium to late, maturing about a week later fhan the Golden Vine, and makes large quantities of forage with fair yields of seed. Canadian Beauty. An early variety resembling Mar- rowfat, maturing at about the same time as the Golden Vine. It makes a large growth of vine and fair yields of seed. Blackeye Marrowfat. The seeds of the Blackeye Mar- rowfat are similar in appearance to the regular Marrowfat PEAS AND PEA-LIKE PLANTS 445 except for the black hilum. This variety matures a trifle earlier than the Marrowfat and about five days later than the Golden Vine. Prussian Blue. One of the " blue "-seeded forms of the field pea, the seeds being round, smooth and bluish green. This also has a white blossom and is rather late, maturing about eleven days after the Golden Vine. It makes good yields of both forage and seed. Wisconsin Blue. A " blue "-seeded form similar to the Prussian Blue, but about four days later in maturing. In yield of forage and seed it is about equal to the Prussian Blue, but it has, perhaps, a trifle heavier growth of vine. Early Britain. The season of maturity of the Early Britain is about the same as that of the Golden Vine. The blossoms, however, are colored and the seeds large and of a brown color. This variety, although not sc well known as the Golden Vine and the Marrowfat, is valuable from both seed and forage standpoints. As a result of extensive tests in Canada, the following varieties proved in the order given the most satisfactory for each province : For Ontario. Arthur, Chancellor, Golden Vine, White Marrowfat, Prussian Blue, Wisconsin Blue and English Grey. For Manitoba. Arthur, Chancellor, Golden Vine, English Grey and Prussian Blue. For Saskatchewan. Arthur, Chancellor, Golden Vine and Prussian Blue. For Alberta. English Grey, Arthur, Chancellor and Golden Vine. For British Columbia. Chancellor, Arthur, Golden Vine and Prussian Blue. For Nova Scotia. Arthur, White Marrowfat, Daniel O'Rourke, Golden Vine and Prussian Blue. For Prince Edward Island. Arthur, Prussian Blue, White Marrowfat and Golden Vine. 446 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE New varieties that have succeeded well in the western United States are Concordia from Sweden, with large, round, yellow seeds; Amraoti from India, with small, smooth, pale yellow seeds; Bangalia from India, with dull green, somewhat shrunken seeds ; and Kaiser from Germany, with grayish seeds speckled with blue. The last named is very reliable and will withstand heat and humidity combined better than any other variety known. 535. Seeding. Peas should be sown in temperate regions as early in the spring as danger from heavy frosts is over, and in tropical or subtropical regions as soon as the cool season begins, or at least in time to mature before very hot weather. In the Southern States it is sometimes possible to sow in fall and make a hay crop before winter. In the North fall preparation of the soil is desirable so that the peas may be sown in early spring. Where early and late seedings have been compared, the yield is usually highest from the early plantings and falls off quite rapidly in the later plantings. The rate of seeding an acre varies from 1^ bushels for varieties with small seeds to 3 bushels for those with very large seeds. The seed may be sown broadcast or drilled. The latter method is preferable on account of the more even germina- tion. When broadcasted by hand, they may be plowed under lightly, or, if sown on freshly plowed soil, covered with a disk or drag harrow. In Ontario experiments ex- tending over a period of more than 4 years, the yield of peas was slightly larger when the seed was drilled than when broadcasted, but in no case was the difference as great as 10 per cent. The seed should be covered to a depth of 1J to 3 inches, depending on the nature of the soil. At the Michigan PEAS AND PEA-LIKE PLANTS 447 Experiment Station peas germinated best when planted 4 inches deep. Even when planted 8 inches deep, some of the plants emerged. 536. Development of the plant. Stewart at the Utah Experiment Station has made a careful study of the com- position of the Golden Vine pea at various stages of growth, when grown under irrigation. Some of his results are shown in the following table : DATE AND STAGE OF CUTTING YIELD DRY MATTER TO THE ACRE PERCENT- AGE OF LEAVES DRY WEIGHT PROTEIN PERCENT- AGE OP STALKS PERCENT AGE OF FLOWERS AND PODS Pounds Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent June 19 9 inches high 936 79 22.3 21 June 26 1628 76.6 26.1 23.4 July 3- 2583 72.8 23.2 27.2 July 10 early bloom 4997 67 26.7 27.8 5.2 July 17- 4412 56.7 24.2 28.7 14.6 July 24 pods filled 3496 48.6 20 19.7 31.7 July 31 pods ripe 2658 40.9 22.2 17 42.1 537. Hay. Field peas are usually cut for hay when the first pods are full grown but not yet filled, but cutting may be delayed until the leaves begin to turn yellow. This, however, will result in the hay containing many seeds. At the Utah Experiment Station Golden Vine peas cut in bloom gave a larger yield to the acre than when cut late. The yield of hay from peas alone probably averages less than 1 ton an acre. Partly on this account, and partly because of easier harvesting, they are nearly al- ways sown mixed with oats when intended for hay. 448 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE At the Washington Experiment Station 7 varieties of field peas cut for hay gave an average yield of 5620 pounds an acre in 1909, while in 1910 the average of 11 varieties was 2730 pounds ; at the Michigan Upper Peninsula Station the average hay yield an acre of 7 va- rieties was 4100 pounds, the best being Golden Vine with 5060 pounds ; at the South Dakota Experiment Station two varieties yielded 1400 and 1520 pounds to the acre. 538. Pea's and oats. One of the oldest mixtures of a legume and non-legume for hay is peas and oats, both of which require much the same conditions, except that oats will withstand more cold. The advantage of the mixture is that the oats support the peas so that mowing is much easier. The rate of seeding is 1 to 2 bushels of peas and 1 to 2 bushels of oats to an acre. At the Ontario Agricultural College the best results were secured with 2 bushels of peas and 1 bushel of oats, and the next best with 2 bushels of each to the acre. The average yield of peas and oats during 7 years was 12.08 tons green substance and 3.26 tons dry hay to the acre. The crop is cut for hay when the oats are in the early dough stage, but both may be allowed to mature and the seeds separated after thrashing. Other cereals are not quite as satisfactory as oats to grow with peas. Six-year average yields at the Ontario Agricultural College in green weight to the acre were as follows : peas and oats, 7.93 tons ; peas and barley, 7.20 tons ; peas, barley and oats, 7.07 tons ; barley and oats, 6.78 tons ; peas and wheat, 6.03 tons. 539. Pasture value. Peas are sometimes utilized by pasturing to hogs or sheep. Shaw states that 1 acre of peas . at the Minnesota Experiment Station furnished in 1895 pasture sufficient to feed 1 sheep for 345 days. PEAS AND PEA-LIKE PLANTS 449 The pasturing of field peas to fatten lambs has become an important industry in the mountain valleys of Colorado. As a rule the peas are sown with a small quantity of wheat or oats to support the vines. The lambs or sheep are turned 'into the pea fields when the peas are mature and are fed upon them for 70 to 120 days. These pea-fattened lambs command a high price in the market. 540. Garden pea vines. At canning factories where the green peas are separated from the vines by special machinery, the refuse vines are utilized as feed, being fed green, cured into hay or preserved as silage. It is some- times made into silage by putting the green vines in large stacks, this being the common method at canneries. Pea- vine silage has proven to be a good feed for dairy cows as well as for beef cattle and sheep. In 1908, 96 canneries handled the pea vines grown in 66,959 acres, and about 60 per cent of the refuse vines were preserved as silage, the rest being fed green or cured into hay. 541. Irrigation. Peas may be grown under irrigation, but it is doubtful if so short-lived a forage crop will prove desirable for this purpose. At the Wyoming Experiment Station small plots were irrigated 1 to 7 times, using about 3 to 5 inches of water at an application. The yields of hay increased with the number of irrigations, the heaviest being 4.2 tons an acre from 7 applications, aggregating 23 inches of water. For seed-production 4 irrigations, aggregating 20 inches, gave a yield of 34.75 bushels to the acre, much more than was obtained by using either more or fewer irrigations. 542. Seed-production. Peas are usually harvested with an ordinary mower having an attachment in front of the knife so that the tangled vines are lifted up from the ground. Two men follow behind the mower and roll the 2o 450 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE pea vines back in a row or in bunches, so as to be out of the way of the mower when the next swath is cut. Some machines have a platform behind the mower, from which the vines are thrown at short intervals in bunches. From a small area the seed may be flailed, but -usually grain thrashers are used. Precautions must be taken to avoid cracking too much of the seed ; namely, by remov- ing most of the teeth from the concaves, and by reducing the speed. If the crop is well cured, the seed thrashes out very easily. Extensive work has been conducted at most of the Canadian Experimental Farms in testing field peas for grain production. The average yield of the 12 best varieties tested for 6 to 8 years at 5 Canadian stations was 2141 pounds, some- what over 35 bushels. At Ottawa the 12 best varieties averaged 2018 pounds to an acre ; at Brandon, Manitoba, 2602 pounds; at Nappan, N. S., 1917 pounds; at Indian Head, Saskatchewan, 2253 pounds. The maximum yield reported is 85 bushels to an acre, a yield reached by the Mackay variety at Brandon, Manitoba, in 1904. The average yield for Canada in 1909 was 19.34 bushels an acre and in 1910, 13.38 bushels. In the table opposite are given the results of long- continued tests at 7 experimental farms in Canada. At the Montana Experiment Station, the average yield of peas for 2 years of all varieties tested was 39.5 bushels, and at the Washington Experiment Station 7 varieties gave the following yields of seed to the acre: Potter, 23.7 bushels ; Canadian Beauty, 23 ; White Marrowfat, 20.3 ; Early Britain, 21 ; Scotch, 20 ; Golden Vine, 18.7 ; Prus- sian Blue, 16.7. 543. Seed. Peas germinate readily at low tempera- PEAS AND PEA-LIKE PLANTS 451 il J m ,2 BOO F I! CO rH CD (N "* CO t^ Vici( \ tains from 70,000 to villosa). (Natural size.) 80,000 seeds. Fresh seeds germinate well, usually over 90 per cent. Seeds a year old are charac- terized by a high percentage, 10 per cent to 40 per cent, of hard seeds which lie in the ground a long time without germinating. According to Hillman, the pro- portion of hard seeds diminishes in seeds older than one year. Other vetch seeds, especially small seeds of common vetch, are used to adulterate hairy vetch. These can usually be detected by their grayish or mottled color. Hillman points out that hairy vetch seeds can be distin- guished from any other vetch seed used as an adulterant by the shape of the hilum or seed scar. In hairy vetch FIG. 57. Seed scar of hairy vetch ; a and b, forms show- ing the white, central slit of some scars. (Enlarged.) VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 477 this is narrowly elliptical in outline, almost equally broad at each end, while in other vetches it is lanceolate or wedge- shaped. Brown finds that the germ of hairy vetch seed is paler than other vetches used as adulterants. If any of the seeds when crushed disclose colors varying from dark fawn to reddish-orange, they are not hairy vetch. OTHER VETCHES 582. Narrow-leaved vetch (Vicia angustifolia) is very nearly related to common vetch, but is distinguished by its narrower leaflets, smaller flowers, black pods and round, smaller seeds. It is much better adapted to the conditions of the eastern United States than common vetch, as it has become naturalized and thoroughly established from Georgia to Pennsylvania, and occurs even as far north as Nova Scotia. In Georgia it is highly appreciated in the vetch-growing sections and sometimes makes up a considerable portion of the hay. It maintains itself from year to year, as some seeds mature before common vetch is ready to cut for hay. On pastures it remains as a permanent element and is greatly valued. Seed is sometimes offered for sale, but is not available in quan- tity. 583. Purple vetch (Vicia atropurpurea) is a native of Europe cultivated to a slight extent in England, Germany, and France. It is an annual species with handsome red- purple flowers. Its adaptations are essentially those of common vetch. It has proved to be very well adapted to western Oregon, where it has produced as good hay crops and better seed crops than common vetch. In California it has proven very satisfactory as a green-manure crop in citrus orchards, as it makes a heavy growth in the cool weather of winter. 478 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE In the Southern States it has also succeeded well, and with seed as cheap as common vetch will probably come into large use. 584. Woolly-pod vetch ( Vicia dasycarpa) is native over much of Europe. It is very similar to hairy vetch in every respect, but the leaves are less pubescent, the fragrant flowers are purple, and the plant 2 to 3 weeks earlier. Agriculturally it can be used in exactly the same way as hairy vetch, but it makes better growth in cool weather, so that when mature the total yield is scarcely inferior. 585. Scarlet vetch ( Vicia fulgens) is an annual, native to the Mediterranean region. It is cultivated to a small extent in France. Scarlet vetch is the most erect growing of the annual slender-stemmed vetches. It is charac- terized by its narrow leaflets and beautiful scarlet flowers in one-sided clusters. It is even less hardy than common vetch, but usually withstands the winters of the Pacific coast and the cotton states. Only rarely does it produce seed in large quantities, and the pods shatter readily, so that the seed is comparatively expensive. The plant is quite drought resistant, and from spring sowings has suc- ceeded better in the semi-arid regions than any other vetch except the purple. It is very doubtful whether the seed of this vetch will ever be cheap enough to enable it to com- pete with other varieties. 586. Ervil or black bitter vetch (Vicia ervilia) was culti- vated for fodder by the ancient Greeks and Romans, and seeds have been found in the ruins of ancient Troy. It still is a crop of some importance in Asiatic Turkey. The plant is apparently native to the region about the eastern end of the Mediterranean. Unlike most other vetches, it is upright in habit, and without tendrils. The plants grow to a height of 2 to 2-| VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 479 feet. The seed habits are excellent, the plant producing numerous pods which shatter but little. Seed is grown so cheaply that it has been imported into England from Syria for stock feed. The seeds, however, are said, like those of species of Lathyrus and Coronilla, to affect the nervous system and finally cause paralysis. Ervil has succeeded admirably under California condi- tions when sown in the fall. The crop makes a good growth through the winter and for this reason is well adapted for use as a cover crop in orchards. To secure a good stand about 70 pounds of seed to an acre is needed. At the Puyallup, Washington Station, five plots of ervil were planted in spring on clay uplands and yielded re- spectively 7.5, 21.5, and 37.7 bushels seed to an acre; one plot on alluvial clay yielded 36.6 bushels ; and one on sandy loam 13.3 bushels to an acre. 587. Narbonne vetch ( Vicia narbonnensis) is native to the Mediterranean region of Europe, Asia and Africa. In general appearance it is intermediate between common vetch and the horse bean, having tendrils like the former but resembling the latter in its thick foliage, which turns black in drying. By some writers it has been considered the wild original of the horse bean, but this view is not now held. Its culture and requirements are essentially the same as those of common vetch, excepting that it requires more warmth for its best growth. It is cultivated for forage to a small extent in southern Europe, but under American conditions has found no place. 588. The horse bean (Vicia f aba) in some of its varieties at least, is also known as tick bean, field bean, pigeon bean, broad bean, and Windsor bean. The last two names 480 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE refer primarily to the large-seeded varieties used as human food, and the first four names to the smaller-seeded sorts used for animals. The culture of the horse bean ante- dates history, the seeds having been found in several places in remains of the stone age, as well as in ancient Egypt. What is apparently the wild original has been found in Algeria by Schweinfurth and by Trabut. The plant was abundantly cultivated in ancient Greece and other Mediterranean countries, and is important in Europe to-day, as well as in China, India, and Egypt. In warm countries it is grown as a winter crop, and in very cool regions as a summer crop. The plant is a stout, erect annual, growing to a height of 2J to 4| feet ; leaves pinnate with 2 or 3 pairs of leaflets, but no tendrils ; flowers in short, axillary clusters of 2 to 4 ; corolla white and black. The stem is usually simple, but sometimes branched at the base. The horse bean is adapted to a cool growing season, and will not endure heat. It is not particular in its soil re- quirements, except that it be well drained and rich in humus. The cultivated varieties are very numerous, probably over 100 occurring in different parts of the world. They are distinguished mainly by the size, shape, and color of the seed. Most of them are adapted to spring planting, but a few varieties may be planted in fall in England. In England and Germany they are mostly planted in early spring. The seed is sown broadcast, or preferably drill-ed, in rows 8 to 14 inches wide. The amount of seed to an acre depends on the size of the seed, which varies according to variety. With the common horse bean about 4 bushels to an acre is used, a bushel weighing about 56 pounds. For green feed the plants are cut when in bloom; for VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 481 seed, when the lower pods turn black. The shocks are allowed to cure about two weeks before thrashing. Horse beans have found but a small place in American agriculture. As a winter crop they succeed well in Cali- fornia, where they are grown to some extent as a vegetable, and have been used as a green-manure crop. On the north Pacific Coast, where climatic conditions are much like those of Europe, they also succeed well. The hardy winter varieties will usually survive the winter if planted in fall as far north as the District of Columbia. Farther south they have, in some seasons at least, given splendid results when thus planted, and would probably succeed generally. If planted in the spring, they suffer severely from hot summer weather, the herbage turning black. Even as far north as Ontario they suffer from heat, and after 15 years' experimental work at the Ontario Agricul- tural College, the conclusion is reached that the crop is not to be recommended, as the results are usually unsatis- factory. The best yield of seed, 29 bushels to an acre, was secured in an unusually cool season. In Germany, the yield of green feed to an acre ranges from 14,000 to 20,000 pounds, and of seed from 25 to 50 bushels. When grown for green feed, horse beans are often mixed with peas or common vetch. 589. Bird or tufted vetch (Vicia cracca) is a perennial species native to Eurasia, also occurring naturally in North America from Newfoundland to New Jersey, west to Minnesota and perhaps to Washington. Bird vetch closely resembles hairy vetch, but the herbage is less pubescent. In Europe bird vetch occurs as a weed in grain fields, and the commercial seed is that separated from the grain. It is commonly mixed with that of Vicia hirsuta and Vicia tetrasperma. 2i 482 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE The adaptations and culture of the plant are essentially the same as those of hairy vetch. At the Ontario Agri- cultural College it produced yields of green forage during 2 years of 2.2 and 3.9 tons to an acre, somewhat more than that produced by common vetch, but less than that of hairy vetch. The native form is sometimes abundant in moist mead- ows in New England, but as it turns black in curing, is not always welcomed. 590. The Tangier pea (Lathyrus tingitanus) is an annual legume, native to North Africa, and similar in a general way to the garden sweet pea, but much more vigorous in growth. The flowers are deep red and smaller than the sweet pea. As an ornamental the Tangier pea has long been known. As a forage crop it was first grown and recommended by Trabut in Algeria. It is adapted to about the same conditions as the sweet pea. In the North it must be planted in the spring ; in the South and on the Pacific Coast, in the fall. In com- parison with the vetches and other annual legumes used as winter green-manure crops in California, the Tangier pea has proved to be much more vigorous in growth and to choke out weeds perfectly. At the California Experi- ment Station a yield of 9 tons of hay to an acre in a single cutting has been recorded. Ordinarily, however, it will not yield nearly so large a crop as this. Both in the Southern States and in western Oregon the Tangier pea has given very promising results. The seed weighs 60 pounds to the bushel and is nearly as large as that of the field pea, though somewhat flattened. If broadcasted, about 45 pounds of seed to an acre is necessary ; if drilled, 30 pounds is sufficient ; very excellent stands have been secured by using only 12 pounds VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 483 to the acre. On account of the enormous mass of rather stout stems which the Tangier pea produces, it is not advisable to plant with oats or barley. If, however, this is done, the amount of the seed should be reduced one-half. In regard to the feed value of the Tangier pea there are but few data available. However, it is both palatable and nutritious, and no deleterious effects have been noted either in Algeria or in this country. Seed is produced well both in western Oregon and in Cali- fornia, but the pods shatter easily. The principal difficulty is the production of seed cheaply enough so that the crop can be used in competition with other vetches, and its final place in American agriculture will depend largely on this. At the Puyallup, Washington, Station, Tangier peas gave in a small plot a yield of 72.4 bushels of seed to an acre. FIG. 58. Tangier pea. 484 FOEAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE As a spring-sown crop Tangier peas produced 2816 pounds hay to an acre at Dickinson, North Dakota, when field peas produced but 1780 pounds. 591. Flat-podded vetchling (Lathyrus deem) is an annual, native to the Mediterranean region, at least in Europe. To a small extent it is cultivated as fodder in Spain, France, and Italy. Care must be taken in feeding, however, as the seeds, if eaten in quantity, have a dangerous effect. The stems are weak; the leaves pale green with one pair of leaflets, the upper with a simple tendril ; flowers red. The flat-podded vetchling has made fine growth during several years at Chico, California, when planted in fall. It seems to possess no character, however, in which it is superior to common vetch, and it is not likely to be much grown. Planted at Arlington Farm, Virginia, in spring the plants languish with the summer heat and die without blooming. 592. Ochrus (Lathyrus ochrus) is an annual, native to the Mediterranean region, where it is cultivated to a slight extent for fodder, especially on the island of Crete and in Catalonia, Spain. From all other cultivated species of Lathyrus it is easily distinguished by the foliage, which consists mainly of the broadened petioles, only the upper leaves having 1 or 2 pairs of leaflets and a branched tendril. The solitary flowers are bright yellow. Ochrus has grown very well in California when planted in fall. At Jackson, California, a small plot yielded at the rate of 30,855 pounds green weight to an acre. In plats at Chico, California, its behavior has not been consistent, some years being very good, other years very poor. At Puyallup, Washington, the average yield of VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 485 seed from 3 plats was 8.7 bushels to an acre. The plant possesses no visible advantage over common vetch, and there is no apparent reason why it should be recommended. 593. Comparison of vetch species. On the Pacific Coast all the vetch species are admirably adapted and in California a number of them have been tested as green- manure crops. In the data shown in the following table, it will be observed that the yield of hairy vetch is small if plowed under early, but if left to reach its maximum growth exceeds the other species. To a less degree common vetch shows the same lack of ability to grow in cool winter weather. There is little to choose between the vetches in habit and feeding quality where they all succeed well. On this account preference is given mainly to those which have good seeding habits, and consequently cheaper seed : - YIELDS TO AN ACRE OF DIFFERENT SPECIES OF VETCHES IN CALIFORNIA SPECIES CHICO CHICO SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA SUBSTATION BERKELEY Green Weight March 18, 1908 Green Weight March 16, 1909 Green Weight June 4, 1909 Green Weight Ervil .... Purple vetch Woolly-pod vetch . Hairy vetch Common vetch Scarlet vetch . Narbonne vetch Horse bean Tangier pea Pounds 27,646 19,826 18,876 11,616 7,623 Pounds 21,017 27,469 25,074 5,880 2,831 Pounds Pounds 17,240 44,255 35,921 32,670 25,410 18,150 25,400 51,152 10,890 13,794 21,130 12,840 68,970 34,485 486 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE OTHER LEGUMES 594. Fenugreek ( Trigonella fcenum-grcecum) is a native of the Mediterranean region of Europe, but extends to central Asia and north Africa. As a cultivated crop it is mainly grown in Turkey and India, and harvested prin- cipally for the seeds, but in India the very young plants are also used as a condiment. The seeds have a peculiar characteristic odor and possess definite medicinal qualities. Large quantities are imported into the United States to use in " condition powders " for horses. Fenugreek is an erect plant with usually several stems from the same root. The leaves are clover-like, but the pods are long and pointed. The plant is remarkably free from insect enemies and diseases. Fenugreek has thus far been found a useful plant in the United States only in California, where in Ventura and Orange counties it is now largely used as an orchard green- manure crop. The recognition of its value for this purpose dates back to 1903, when it was first distributed by the California Experiment Station. It is best adapted to the region near the seacoast, but has succeeded in all the citrus districts of the state. The yield of green matter to an acre compares favorably with other legumes used for the purpose and the seed cost for an acre is very low. At Santa Paula, California, the green weight of fenugreek to an acre was estimated to be 11,745 pounds and common vetch 19,140 pounds; in the San Joaquin valley a yield of 15,518 pounds green fenu- greek to an acre is recorded. Fenugreek prefers loam soils but is not very exacting. In California the seed is sown either broadcast or drilled, using 30 pounds to the acre, if for a green-manure crop. VETCHES ANT) VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 487 The usual time for seeding is September in southern Cali- fornia and October in northern California. For seed production only 15 or 20 pounds to an acre is sown. The crop is cut with a mower when the pods are mature, cured in windrows, and thrashed with a grain thrasher. Some care is necessary in curing to avoid loss by shattering. The average yield of seed to an acre in the best seed district is 1500 pounds. The seed weighs 60 pounds to the bushel. 595. Lupines (Lupinus spp.). Several annual species of lupine are much cultivated in southern and central Europe both as forage and green manure. The important species are white lupine (Lupinus albus), Egyptian lupine (L. termis), yellow lupine (L. luteus), and blue lupine (L. angustifolius). All of these species are adapted to a cool growing season, and succeed best on sandy loams. They will not endure much lime in the soil nor an undrained subsoil. Light frosts are not injurious to the young seedlings. Lupines are planted in early spring in northern coun- tries, and in fall in regions where only light frosts occur. They are utilized as pasturage, green feed, or hay for sheep and goats, but other animals will not eat them on account of their bitter taste. The bitter substances can be re- moved from the hay by soaking in cold water, and when thus treated the hay is eaten by cows and horses. The seeds may be treated by boiling one hour and then washing 24 hours in running water. This treatment removes the bitter substances, but results in a loss of about one-sixth of the dry matter. The disembittered seeds furnish a rich proteid feed. Lupines have often been tried in America but rarely make satisfactory growth. This may be partly due to 488 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE lack of inoculation, but primarily because they cannot well endure the hot summer weather in the eastern United States. Lupines have grown well in California when planted in the fall, and fair results have been obtained in Michigan, Massachusetts, Kentucky and Virginia when planted in the spring. At the California Foothill Station white lupines sown at the rate of 100, 150 and 200 pounds to an acre gave green yields of 1739, 2193 and 3819 pounds to an acre respectively. Ninety-five pounds of seed to an acre drilled gave a green yield of 3348 pounds to an acre, as compared to 3819 pounds obtained by broad- casting at the rate of 200 pounds to an acre. A sowing made October 22 yielded 4846 pounds of green herbage to an acre, much more than that from earlier and later seedings. These yields are small compared with those secured in Europe. The average yield in Germany is given as 3600 pounds hay to an acre. Maximum yields in favorable seasons may reach 9000 pounds to an acre. 596. Serradella (Ornithopus sativus) is an annual legume native to the Spanish Peninsula and Morocco. It is cul- tivated for forage and green manure in Portugal, Spain, France, and Germany, in the last country beginning with 1842. In America it has thus far found no place. It has been tested in a small way at most of the experiment stations, but only at one has it been deemed worthy of recommendation. At the Massachusetts Experiment Station it yielded 10 to 12 tons green weight to an acre, containing 19 to 20 per cent water. It was there consid- ered better than oats and vetch or cowpeas, and nearly as good as soybeans. At Guelph, Ontario, the yield of green forage was only 4.7 tons to an acre. VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 489 Serradella is a much-branched, slender-stemmed plant with pinnate leaves, a stout tap root, umbeled rose- colored flowers, and pods which break into joints, these constituting the commercial seed. Each joint is reticu- lated on the outside, but about one-fifth of these are empty. Well-grown plants of serradella reach a height of 2 feet. Serradella is adapted primarily to moist sandy soils and a cool growing season. Unlike its effect on many other legumes, lime is not helpful but often deleterious to its growth. The young plants will withstand several degrees of frost in the spring, but not so much when in bloom. In Europe serradella is sown in early spring, either alone on fall-sown rye or with spring-sown oats, using 40 to 60 pounds of seed to an acre. The seedlings grow very slowly at first, except the root. If sown alone, it may be cut for green feed by July. The first cutting of hay is made when the blooming has nearly ceased, and a second cutting can be made in the fall. The hay must be cured with great care, as the leaflets fall off easily. The average yield of hay in Germany is said by Werner to be 2500 to 5000 pounds to an acre. Seed is harvested from the second cutting, and the yields are said to range from 350 to 1200 pounds to an acre. Serradella may be found to be useful on moist sandy lands in the northernmost states and in Canada, and per- haps as a fall-sown crop in the extreme south. Many of the failures with this plant have doubtless been due to lack of inoculation. 597. Square-pod pea (Lotus tetragonolobus) is native to the countries bordering on the Mediterranean, where 490 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE it has long been cultivated for the pods and seeds, which are used as human food. It is also grown to a small extent in England. The plant is an annual with weak stems 12 to 18 inches long ; leaves trifoliolate ; flowers handsome, scarlet ; pods dark colored with wings as broad as the body ; seeds large, ovate, brownish. The square-pod pea requires much the same conditions as the field pea, but is not so productive either of herbage or of seed. At the California Experiment Station this pea produced on small plots yields of green herbage at the rates of 24 and 26 tons to an acre. CHAPTER XXI COWPEAS THE cowpea is really not a pea at all but a bean, being indeed the one most commonly cultivated for human food in the Old World before the discovery of America. Its ease of culture and productivity have combined to make it popular in all the southern states. 598. Botanical origin. The native home of the cow- pea ( Vigna sinensis] is doubtless Central Africa. Through- out much of that continent occurs a wild plant differing from the cultivated cowpea in having smaller seeds and dark pods which coil in ripening. Hybrids of this wild plant and the cowpea are readily obtained. Occasionally the wild plant is cultivated by African tribes, but ordi- narily the cultivated plants are modified, having straw- colored pods and somewhat larger seeds. In no other region have wild cowpeas been found. Cultivated varieties of cowpeas occur through Africa and over the southern half of Asia and the adjacent islands. The large number and great diversity of the varieties over this vast region indicate that its extended culture is very ancient. There is, however, no direct evidence on this point in the way of seeds from ancient temples or tombs. 599. Agricultural history. In the old world, particu- larly Africa and Asia, as well as the Mediterranean region of Europe, the cowpea is of ancient cultivation for human 491 492 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE food. It is without doubt the phaseolus of Pliny, Colu- mella and other Roman writers, but this name became applied also to the kidney-bean following its introduction into Europe from America. In Italy, however, the black- eye cowpea is still called by the same name as kidney-beans, namely, fagiolo. The cowpea early be- came introduced into the West Indies and was well known in Carolina as early as 1775. Its culture had extended to Virginia by 1795, and was probably general early in the nineteenth century. In the United States, the cowpea has always been grown mainly as a forage and restorative crop, but the seeds, particularly of the white or nearly white-seeded varieties, are commonly used as human food, especially in the South. As early as 1822, several varieties are mentioned by American writers, one of which, with buff-colored seeds, was called the " Cow " pea. From this variety the name has become extended to the whole crop. 600. Adaptations. The cowpea is adapted to almost FIG. 59. Cowpea. COWPEAS 493 the same climatic conditions as corn. It requires, how- ever, somewhat more heat, as corn will develop at least to the " roasting ear " stage in regions too cool for cow- peas. In drought resistance there is but slight difference, but that is in favor of the cowpea. The cowpea is not particular as to soil except that it be well drained. It succeeds apparently quite as well on sandy soils as on heavy clays. Both in spring and in fall the leaves are injured by the least touch of frost, and a heavy frost is always fatal. Cowpeas withstand moderate shade, sufficiently so at least to be valuable to grow in orchards. In heavy shade they are usually much subject to mildew. 601. Importance. The cowpea is the most important legume grown in the area where cotton is cultivated. The only statistics available are those which concern seed-production. There were harvested for seed in the Southern States 209,604 acres in 1909. This is probably only a small fraction of the entire acreage planted. 602. Uses of the crop. The ancient use of cowpeas was as human food, and this is still the case in all Old World countries where the crop is grown. In the United States, varieties with white or nearly white seeds are mainly grown for this purpose, though seeds of any variety may be eaten. In California, blackeye cowpeas are grown primarily for the seeds, being adapted to drier soils than Lima beans. Only in the United States are cowpeas grown mainly for forage and green manure. As forage, it is especially valuable because it will grow in all types of arable soil as a short summer crop, requiring but little attention, as it is able to smother most weeds, and producing most excellent forage either for hay or pasture. Incidentally, 494 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE it is a splendid restorative crop, which has led to its being largely used purely for green manure. 603. Varietal distinctions. The varieties of cowpea are very numerous. They are distinguished by various characters, those of agronomic importance being the habit, life-period, disease resistance and differences of pods and seeds. On the pod and seed characters, three subspecies have been recognized, namely, the catjang, with small erect pods and small subcylindric seeds ; the asparagus bean, with very long inflated pods which in ripening collapse about the kidney-shaped seeds ; and the cowpea, with pendent thick-walled pods which preserve their form, and containing variously shaped seeds. In habit the unsupported plant may be prostrate, lying flat on the ground ; procumbent, the mass two to four times as broad as high ; low, half-bushy, the mass of vines once or twice as broad as high ; tall, half -bushy, the mass taller than broad ; erect, not at all vining and taller than broad. From a forage standpoint, the half-bushy varieties are most valuable, and when planted in corn or other support- ing crop their vining habit asserts itself. 604. Life period. The life period of the different varieties that is, the time from germination till the plant is mature is a matter of importance, especially toward the northern limit of the crop. The cowpea is indeterminate in growth that is, under favorable condi- tions of moisture and temperature, it continues to grow indefinitely and the conditions which favor excessive vegetative growth inhibit the formation of pods and seeds. In other words, the fluctuating variation of the cowpea is very great, and many writers have mistaken this for hereditary variation. On this account, some arbitrary cow PEAS 495 stage of maturity needs to be selected in order to compare varieties. The dates that have been most used are when the first pod is ripe and when the majority of the pods are ripe, the latter date usually ten to fifteen days later than the former. The length of the life period varies slightly according to season, but markedly depending on date of planting. Thus, at the Tennessee Experiment Station, Mooers found that the Whippoorwill cowpea varied in life period as follows : Planted April 15, 183 days ; May 1, 168 days ; May 15, 153 days ; June 5, 132 days ; June 17, 113 days ; June 29, 101 days. In general, early varieties of cowpea will mature their first pods in 70 to 90 days ; medium varieties, in 90 to 100 days. Beyond this are all degrees of lateness, some tropi- cal sorts not even coming to bloom under conditions in Virginia, Mississippi or northern Florida. 605. Pods and seeds. The greatest variation in cow- peas occurs in the pods and seeds, characters of importance in distinguishing varieties. Considering only the true cowpeas that is, excluding the catjangs and asparagus beans they may be divided by their pod and seed char- acters into two groups ; namely, kidney and crowder. Kidney cowpeas have their pods somewhat compressed, and reniform or subreniform seeds. Crowder cowpeas have thick-walled, terete pods, and globose, or, if much crowded, somewhat disk-form, seeds. The crowder varie- ties are not as numerous as the kidney, but nearly every color of seeds that occur in the latter may be found in the former. Cowpea pods are usually straw-colored, but in a few varieties are purple, and in a single known variety purple streaked. The seeds closely resemble the common kidney-bean, 496 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE and there is quite as wide a range in the color of the testa. On uniformly colored seeds, the testa may be black, brown, purple, buff, maroon, pink, or white; or where more than one color is concerned, it may be speckled, usually blue speckles on a buff or brown background ; or marbled, commonly brown on buff or on maroon; or both marbled and speckled. When the seed is not uni- formly colored, the second color is concentrated about the eye or hilum in various forms, or else blotched in an irregu- lar saddle-shaped area. White cowpeas may be eyed or blotched with any of the other colors, or the white may be exposed only on a small spot at the chalazal end of the seed. In all cowpeas, the germ is yellowish. 606. Correlations. But few definite correlations of characters have been observed in cowpeas, and much breeding work is necessary before these can be considered proven. As in all annual legumes, earliness is nearly always associated with lessened growth. White-flowered cowpeas have their seeds white or mainly so, or coffee- colored. All other colors of seeds are associated with purple flowers. Purple coloration of the leaves or of the leaf -nodes is nearly always associated with purple flowers. 607. Important varieties. Among the very numerous varieties of cowpeas, comparatively few are important either commercially or agronomically. Unfortunately, some of the commercial names are based wholly on the color of the seed, and thus comprise a number of distinct varieties under a single designation. Whippoorwill. Probably more than half of the acreage of cowpeas in the United States is devoted to this variety. It is easily distinguished by its subreniform seeds, which are buff marbled with brown. This variety PLATE VII. GROIT COWPEAS IN A BROADCASTED FIELD IN VIRGINIA. COWPEAS 497 is also called Shinney and Speckled. It has been known in the United States for at least seventy years. Iron. This variety became known first from Barnwell County, South Carolina, in 1888. It is especially valuable on account of its immunity to rootknot and wilt. The seeds are rhomboid, buff in color, decidedly angular, and harder than most cowpeas. It is perhaps on this account that Iron volunteers to a greater extent than any other important variety, the hard seeds resisting decay. The Iron is not a heavy seed producer. New Era. Among well-known varieties, this is the most bushy in habit and earliest to mature, the first pods ripening in about seventy-five days. The seeds are easily recognizable, being small, rhomboidal, buff, thickly and evenly sprinkled with minute blue specks. Groit. This is a cross between Whippoorwill and New Era, the seeds sharing the coloration of both parents, apparently superimposed on each other. It is larger and more prolific than New Era, and on the whole the best forage cowpea for states north of the cotton belt. Brabham. This is a cross between Iron and Whip- poorwill, having the immunity of the former, and being even more vigorous in growth than the latter. It is later than either parent, and in sandy soils very prolific. Clay. This name is given commercially to any buff- colored cowpea except Iron. There are several varieties with such seeds, differing much in earliness and habit, but most of them are quite viny. Those which mature their first pods in about 90 days make up most of the seed sold as Clay, while those which require 110 days or so probably constitute the variety which appears in agronomic literature as Wonderful or Unknown. None of the buff- seeded varieties except Iron possesses especial merit. 2K 498 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE Black. Seedsmen sell all black-seeded cowpeas under this name, but there are several varieties. The most common are Early Black or Congo, maturing its first pods in about 70 days, and ordinary Black, requiring about 80 days. Both are decidedly viny, and somewhat sprawling. Black is nevertheless popular in some sec- tions because the seeds do not decay readily after ripen- ing, even if they lie on moist earth. Red Ripper. Commercially all cowpeas with maroon seeds are called Red Ripper, but there are at least eight varieties with maroon seeds more or less widely grown. In a general way, the maroon-seeded varieties closely resemble those with buff seeds, and none possesses outstanding merit. Early Buff. This is a new variety, the progeny of a single seed obtained from Leghorn, Italy, in 1907. It is a very prolific, half -bushy variety, maturing about two weeks earlier than New Era. The first pods ripen in about 65 days. It is the earliest variety of over 300 tested at Arlington Farm, Virginia, and should prove valuable at the northern limit of cowpea culture. Blackeye. Varieties of cowpeas having the seed white with a black spot at the hilum are mostly known as Blackeye, but among American varieties several possess such colored seeds. None of them has a bushy habit such as is desirable for forage, but blackeyed varieties are grown almost wholly for human food. It is probable that the total acreage of blackeyed varieties is exceeded by no other sort except Whippoorwill. 608. Rate and method of seeding. Cowpeas, when planted alone, are sown broadcast, drilled, or in broad rows to be cultivated. When broadcasted, one or two bushels to an acre are planted ; if drilled, five pecks COWPEAS 499 to an acre is very satisfactory; while in three-foot rows, fifteen to twenty pounds is sufficient. Formerly cowpeas were often planted in grain stubble without further preparation of the ground. This practice is now much less common, special preparation of the soil being the rule. On account of higher seed prices, as well as better yields of both hay and seed, planting in cul- tivated rows is becoming more popular. When thus planted, two or three cultivations are necessary. At the Arkansas Experiment Station, six varieties of cowpeas were sown at rates varying from 6.25 pounds to 100 pounds to an acre. The highest average yield of hay was produced from 25 pounds of seed. The heaviest yields of hay varied to a considerable extent with the variety and amount of seed sown, ranging with the Whippoorwill from 12.5 pounds of seed to the Taylor from 100 pounds of seed. In another experiment with the same varieties, it was found that the best seed yields were secured by sowing not less than 12.5 nor more than 37.5 pounds to an acre. At the North Carolina Experiment Station in a three years' test of different quantities of seed in 3| foot rows with the New Era variety the best yields of hay were secured by planting one-half bushel of seed to an acre. 609. Time of seeding. Cowpeas should never be sown before the ground becomes well warmed. It is never advisable to sow them before corn planting time, and usually it is better to delay sowing at least two weeks later. After this time they can be sown whenever moisture conditions are favorable. The latest date for profitable sowing is about ninety days before the first killing frost. Early sowings are unprofitable because the seed is apt to decay in the soil, but even if a perfect stand is secured. 500 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE the growth is very slow until hot weather comes. Thus, Mooers at the Tennessee Experiment Station found that Whippoorwill cowpeas sown April 15, May 1, May 15, June 5, June 17, and June 29, all became fully mature at about the same date; namely, the middle of October. The earliest sowing required 183 days to mature, while the latest needed but 101 days. If grown primarily for hay, the time of planting should be regulated so that the crop is ready to cut at the time weather conditions are best. Through most of the cotton region rains are less frequent in September and October than earlier. 610. Inoculation. It is rarely necessary to apply bacteria for the production of the cowpea, as natural inoculation is quite generally distributed throughout the Southern States. At the Michigan Experiment Station, investigations were conducted to learn the influence of nodules on the composition of the cowpea. The following .table gives the composition of the dry matter in the leaves, stems, and roots of inoculated and not inoculated cowpeas : DRY MATTER PRO- NITRO- ASH PHOS- PHORIC POTASH GRAMS TEIN GEN ACID Inoculated : PerCent Per Cent PerCent Per Cent PerCent Leaves . . . 220.61 27.08 4.33 16.38 .71 1.63 Stems . . . 220.21 17.93 2.87 12.40 .65 3.32 Roots . . . 171.15 5.61 .89 5.38 .62 1.32 Not inoculated Leaves . 238.41 21.52 3.48 18.30 .87 1.20 Stems . . . 315.44 10.47 1.67 9.73 .83 2.04 Roots . . . 62.75 12.34 1.97 8.57 .61 2.53 COWPEAS 501 611. Number of cuttings. Under favorable conditions, cowpea plants will sprout again from the base indeed, this will take place indefinitely in a greenhouse plant, but the growth becomes greatly reduced. A second crop of hay, or at least considerable pasturage, is sometimes se- cured if good moisture conditions follow the first cutting, as happens not uncommonly near the Gulf coast. Ordi- narily, however, but a single cutting of the crop can be made. 612. Hay. Cowpeas should not be cut for hay until the first pods are ripe, and the cutting may be delayed until considerably later. After the pods begin to ripen, the leaflets are more likely to fall off, especially if the plants are attacked by leaf -spot or rust. Unless these diseases are serious, the cutting can be delayed until many of the pods are ripe. If these are promptly picked, a continuous succession of pods will be formed. Cowpeas planted thickly, or even in three-foot rows, support each other so that they can be cut with an ordinary mower, to which it is desirable to add a bunching attach- ment. A self -rake reaper is also excellent to harvest cowpeas. The vining varieties like Clay, Black, and Red Ripper are less easily handled than the more bunchy varieties like Whippoorwill and New Era. Cowpeas have rather succulent leaves and thick stems, so that they are not easily cured except in very favorable weather. Also the large leaflets are inclined to mat together. In hay making, it is common to use some type of shock supporter, as this greatly aids the final stages of curing. In curing, the especial points to guard against are permitting the leaves to become too dry in the swath before raking into windrows, as loss of leaves may result ; and making the cocks too large, as the moist stems are 502 FORAGE PL A NT 8 AND THEIR CULTURE apt to favor mildewing, especially of .the pods. Even with favorable weather, quick curing is impossible owing to succulency of the stems and green pods. Should the hay be wetted by rain at any stage of curing, it should not be handled again until the surface is well dried. Even when poorly cured or indeed, moldy and decayed cowpea hay is eaten by animals, a partial compensation for the difficulty of curing it satisfactorily. It will be noted that the percentage of protein, and fat, as well as of the ash and fiber increases from first bloom until the pods are fully formed, while the carbohydrates decrease markedly. Chemical composition, therefore, agrees with other considerations in indicating that the best time to cut cowpeas for hay is when the first pods become mature. The fiber of the cowpea vines when mature is fairly strong and from time to time its use as a textile has been suggested. In the following table is shown the composition of the cowpea at different stages of growth : TABLE SHOWING COMPOSITION OF COWPEA HAY AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF MATURITY. WATER-FREE STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT PROTEIN FAT FIBER NITROGEN- FREE EXTRACT ASH Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Full bloom .... 17.86 4.04 18.39 52.28 7.43 Pods forming .... Pods formed .... 19.93 21.38 3.06 5.01 18.52 29.05 50.58 32.59 7.91 11.97 613. Hay yields. The yield of cowpea hay ranges from one to three tons to the acre, varying according to variety, soil and weather conditions. COWPEAS 503 TABLE SHOWING ACRE YIELD IN POUNDS OF COWPEA HAY AT VARIOUS EXPERIMENT STATIONS 00 & M < 5 (M 13 i 2 B *< o 5 ^ GO P CH VARIETY H P i ^ fc 2 i 5 O ^ I J i 2; M 03 ^ 1C SJ Q O 1 ? I Whippoorwill .... Clay 2720 2852 3297 4872 3850 3960 16892 20664 4476 4219 5260 3880 2880 2556 3720 3660 16600 3424 3688 TT lr 3143 3990 21730 2916 14000 5200 New Era 2310 2756 3620 3893 4280 2628 3660 14600 2727 1 fi9OO Red Ripper .... 3720 4230 25256 2350 4270 3339 Black 2239 2702 3190 21812 4460 2090 4420 11000 3175 Taylor 3041 3270 4940 2420 2803 16400 4340 2090 3290 15000 2560 Extra Early Blackeye . 1116 1628 2650 2769 1369 3050 2602 Michigan Favorite . . 3450 4325 3350 13600 2400 Groit 3350 614. Feeding value. The high feeding value of cow- pea hay has long been recognized and it has been used extensively for all kinds of stock. It is particularly high in protein, and where properly cared for, furnishes one of the cheapest feeds for the modern farm. Experiments in the feeding of cowpea hay in compari- son with other feeds have been repeatedly made at various experiment stations throughout the country. The Ten- nessee Station found that 6 to 10 pounds of cowpea hay could be substituted for 3 to 5 pounds of cotton-seed meal in beef production. In the production of milk and butter this station reports that 1^ pounds of chopped pea hay is equivalent to one pound of wheat bran, and 3 pounds of 1 Green weight. 504 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE chopped pea hay to one pound of cotton-seed meal. In a comparison of cowpea hay with timothy hay for wintering yearlings, it was found that the steers made nearly 50 per cent better gains where the cowpea hay was used. In a three months' test at the North Carolina Experiment Station with two, Percheron mares used as a team, the rations differed only in the use of 10 pounds of cowpea hay in one and the same quantity of wheat bran in the other. The horse fed bran just held its own, while the animal fed cowpea hay gained a little. The high price of cowpea seed prevents its use as a feed, although its composition indicates that it is a richer feed than wheat bran. Excellent results were obtained by the Alabama Experiment Station by feeding cowpea seed to fattening hogs. More lean meat was found in the bodies of the pigs fed cowpeas than in those fed corn meal only. Cracked or split seeds, and also whole seeds have been fed to poultry with splendid results. Not only were the fowls kept in good condition, but a good production of eggs resulted, even in the winter months. The straw obtained when cowpea seed is secured by run- ning the vines through a thrashing machine is valuable as feed. Certain types of machines chop the straw so that it is in fine condition for feed. There is, however, lack of experimental data with regard to the feeding value of this straw. Reports from farmers and others who have fed the straw indicate that it is an excellent feed. 615. Cowpeas in broadcast mixtures. To furnish support to the vines as well as to facilitate curing, cowpeas are often planted in combination with some other crop. When broadcasted or drilled, millet, sorghum, Johnson- grass, or soybeans may thus be used. The ideal mixture would be a stiff-stemmed easily curing grass that matures COWPEAS 505 with the cowpea. Such a grass would prevent matting of the leaves, and otherwise promote aeration and drying of the shocks. None of the above-named plants quite fulfills these requirements. Millet of any variety matures earlier than the cowpea, and often is too small for support. Amber sorghum is excellent from the standpoint of size and time of maturity, but the juicy stems do not cure easily. Johnson-grass is excellent wherever it is not objec- tionable as a weed. The newly introduced Sudan-grass promises to be exactly what is needed. Soybeans help support the cowpeas, and with proper choice of variety, simultaneous maturity is easily secured, but the mixture does not cure much more easily than cowpeas alone. In seeding such mixtures, enough seed should be used to secure a half stand, or better, of each. One bushel of cowpeas and half a bushel of Amber sorghum an acre gives excellent results ; if millet is used, 15 to 20 pounds is suffi- cient. Johnson-grass seed is so poor in quality as a rule that at least a bushel should be used, with a bushel of cowpeas to an acre. Where a soybean-cowpea mixture is used, better results are usually secured if the former predominates, using one bushel of soybeans and one-half bushel of cowpeas to the acre. 616. Cowpea mixtures not broadcasted. Cowpeas are very widely used for planting in between the rows of corn. When thus used, the seed is sown at the rate of about three pecks an acre after the last cultivation of the corn. Usually the crop is allowed to mature, and some of the pods picked, and the remainder of the crop is pastured. In some regions, however, the cowpeas are cut for hay after the corn has been harvested. If this is done, it is desirable to cut the corn stems close to the ground, as otherwise the stubble will interfere with a mower. Where 506 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE the corn is not cut close to the ground, heavy wooden rakes are sometimes used to harvest cowpea vines. Another method of sowing cowpeas in corn is to plant the seed close to the corn plants after the last cultivation of that crop. The cowpea vines then climb up the corn stalks and add materially to the amount of herbage. When the mixture is thus grown, it is usually preserved as silage. The cowpeas add considerably to the value of the silage, but also increase somewhat the difficulty of harvesting, as the vines bind the corn stalks together. 617. Growing cowpeas for seed. The great bulk of the cowpea seed grown in the United States is hand-picked. When this is done, the vines should be picked over two times in order to secure the maximum yields. Hand-pick- ing, however, necessarily means a high price for the seed. The vines may be cut when half or more of the pods are ripe. The riper the pods, the more easy the curing, but the less valuable the residual straw for feed. The mowing is very satisfactorily done with a self -rake reaper. If this is not available, an ordinary mowing machine may be used, but it is very desirable to use with it a bunching attachment. Bean harvesters which cut the stems just beneath the surface of the ground are very satisfactory in sandy soils, but not in clay soils. In thrashing cowpeas with an ordinary grain separator many of the seeds are cracked even when the speed of the cylinders is much reduced. The vines too are inclined to wrap about the cylinders, necessitating frequent stoppings. The use of sharpened teeth on the cylinders or concaves or both prevents this clogging, and also greatly reduces the percentage of seeds cracked. 618. Pollination. The cowpea is completely self- fertile, flowers protected from insects setting pods normally. COWPEAS 507 Insect visitors are numerous, but they are attracted mainly to the extra-floral nectaries at the base of each flower. Natural cross-pollination is usually very rare, but in a few localities, as at the Michigan Experiment Station, occurs abundantly. This is probably due to bumblebees, but exact observations are lacking. . Through such chance crosses the majority of American varieties of cowpeas have probably arisen. 619. Seed yield. Varieties of cowpeas vary strikingly in their seed production, the bunch varieties usually yield- ing more seed than the trailing sorts. Moreover, the yield of seed with the same variety varies greatly from year to year, depending upon weather conditions and according to locality. In favorable seasons, good produc- ing varieties yield from fifteen to thirty bushels to the acre, while in unfavorable seasons the same varieties may yield only five to ten bushels to the acre. TABLE SHOWING ACRE YIELD OF COWPEA SEED AT VARIOUS EXPERIMENT STATIONS g I H , CO 3 < < VARIETY CQ fe ^ 3 M fc 1 i H ^ w 3 H J M z QD P5 05 S S j K W w H < q w S ^0 cO Bu. Bu. Bu. Bu. Bu. Bu. Bu. BM. Su. Whippoorwill . . . . 12.4 25.6 13.2 25.3 18.3 11.5 14.0 11.7 13.8 Clay 10.8 9.8 6.6 34.3 5.3 10.9 14.4 7.0 13.3 Unknown ... . . 14.7 2.5 30.5 8.8 New Era . . . 22.0 39.9 15.6 14.0 12.4 14.0 11.9 24.2 Iron ... . . 14.9 7.4 6.3 17.5 9.9 9.3 Red Ripper . . . 19.3 11.9 27.7 8.3 8.9 Black 21.1 15.7 7.4 19.9 11.1 18.6 13.0 Taylor . . . . 23.6 19.9 4.9 11.9 11.5 Large Blackeye . . 17.0 23.6 5.6 31.3 12.7 14.8 9.8 21.7 Extra Early Blackeye 16.4 29.1 5.4 14.2 10.6 9.2 9.9 Michigan Favorite . . . 8.2 19.3 11.2 11.4 7.9 Groit 8.2 14.8 508 FOE AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 620. Proportion of seed and hulls. The method of gathering seed by hand, where the peas are planted in corn, is a very common practice throughout the South. Fields grown to cowpeas alone for seed-production are often hand picked. Generally the pods are picked at a price for each hundred pounds. From the results obtained at the Alabama and Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Stations, it appears that the proportion of seed and hulls varies according to the variety and locality. TABLE SHOWING POUNDS OF COWPEA SEED IN 100 POUNDS OF PODS Variety Ala- bama Ar- kansas Variety Ala- bama Ar- kansas Large White Crowder Large Blackeye . . Taylor . . . Ex. Early Blackeye Black 83 77 77 76 76 75.0 71.2 64.7 75.0 63.2 Whippoorwill New Era . . Red Ripper . Wonderful . Iron 73 73 71 70 69 67.3 61.8 66.0 65.3 Lady 74 632 Clay 67 583 621. Seeds. Cowpea seed is usually considered to weigh 60 pounds to the bushel, but this varies consid- erably according to the variety. On the basis of 60 pounds, the number of seeds to the bushel has been calculated by Duggar, by Newman and by Morse. Duggar used the weight of 100 seeds as a basis, while Newman counted the number in one ounce, and Morse counted the number in three samples of one ounce each. The largest seeded varieties contain less than 100,000 seeds to the pound, while the smallest seeded catjangs contain five times as many. The common commercial varieties average about 150,000 seeds to the pound. The figures for standard and other varieties are shown in the following table : COWPEAS 509 COWPEA SEEDS, NUMBER TO THE OUNCE AND BUSHEL AND WEIGHT OF 100 SEEDS OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES SEEDS IN ONE OUNCE WEIGHT OP 100 SEEDS IN 60 POUNDS VARIETY SEEDS Newman Morse Duggar Duggar Newman Morse Grams Black Crowder . 102 97120 Taylor . . . 107 117 28.72 94634 102720 112320 Black .... 141 149 22.07 123153 135360 143040 Red Ripper . . 164 151 20.89 130110 157440 144960 Unknown 171 179 18.86 144117 164160 171840 Clay - 165 181 17.86 151629 158400 173760 Whippoorwill 162 195 17.98 150621 155520 187200 Groit .... 202 193920 Iron .... 194 240 186240 230400 New Era . . . 223 278 11.49 236545 214080 266880 Catjang, 21295 D 324 311040 Catjang, 25144 491 471360 Small-seeded varieties like New Era are cheaper on account of the greater number of seeds, and because the percentage of broken seeds is usually less. This fact is becoming recognized by seedsmen, and therefore a slightly higher price is asked for small-seeded varieties. One bushel of New Era contains nearly 50 per cent more seeds than the same measure of Whippoorwill. 622. Viability. Seed not properly cured or stored quickly loses its viability. For this reason a germination test is always advisable. Good seed, especially of small-seeded varieties, may re- tain its viability for several years. The following table gives the germination of seed kept for various periods of time in a storeroom : 510 FOEAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE VIABILITY OF COWPEA SEEDS OP STANDARD VARIETIES WHEI ^ O Mammoth . . ' . . 18.0 23.9 15.26 Hollybrook .... 23.0 22.9 16.2 29.2 12.8 11.4 Guelph 18.7 16.5 15.2 22.38 16.16 Ito San 13.3 20.2 8.0 21.9 24.7 18.43 Haberlandt .... 23.0 25.7 14.0 23.3 18.33 Med. Yellow .... 23.2 25.9 26.9 18.1 17.2 Wilson 18.2 10.2 32.2 20.1 Peking 23.4 32.7 15.00 Ebony 15.7 25.0 10.0 25.2 Chernie . . . . 23.5 651. Seeds. Soybean seeds weigh about 60 pounds to the bushel and this weight is recognized as standard in most states. The size of the seeds varies greatly, as shown in the following table : TABLE SHOWING NUMBER OF SOYBEAN SEEDS TO THE POUND AND TO THE BUSHEL IN TEN VARIETIES VARIETY NUMBER OP SEEDS VARIETY NUMBER OF SEEDS One pound One bushel One pound One bushel Mammoth 2144 128640 Ito San . . 3232 193920 Hollybrook Haberlandt 2144 2400 128640 144000 Ebony . . Med. Yellow 3240 3552 194400 213120 Wilson . . : 2400 144000 Wisconsin black . . 5104 306240 Guelph . . . 2624 157440 Peking 6388 383280 SOYBEANS 535 The seeds do not retain their viability well, and it is not advisable to sow seed two years old without previously testing. Unless care is exercised in properly curing and storing, soybean seeds are apt to heat and thus quickly have their viability destroyed. A small percentage of the seed will under favorable conditions retain it's viability four or five years, and this has been found to vary accord- ing to variety, as shown in the table : VIABILITY OF SOYBEAN SEEDS VARIETY SEED COLOR 1 YEAR OLD 2 YEAR OLD 4 YEAR OLD Per cent Per cent Per cent Shanghai .... Black 99.0 93.0 43.5 Chernie .... Black 94.0 76.5 46.5 Baird . . Brown 97.0 88.0 24.5 Fairchild .... Black 95.5 84.5 20.0 Jet Black 92.5 60.0 19.5 Ebony Black 94.0 71.5 4.0 Tasking .... Green 90.5 81.5 3.0 Guelph .... Green 97.5 86.5 1.5 Brownie .... Brown 90.5 67.0 1.5 Ito San .... Straw Yellow 100.0 83.0 2.5 Haberlandt . . . Straw Yellow 76.0 2.5 0.0 Mammoth . . . Straw Yellow 77.0 32.5 0.5 Weevils rarely injure soybean seeds, but under excep- tional circumstances have been known to destroy them. This relative immunity to weevil injury is important, especially in the South. 652. Pests. Soybeans are troubled by few serious enemies. On the whole, rabbits are most troublesome, as they are extravagantly fond of the herbage, and where they are abundant soybean culture is practically impos- 536 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE sible. At the Tennessee Experimental Substation at Jackson, rabbit injury was much reduced by using scarecrows, to each of which a lantern was hung at night. Rootknot caused by a nematode ( Heterodera radicicola) often injures soybeans considerably, but more damage is caused by cowpea wilt, due to a Fusarium. Caterpillars sometimes eat the leaves, but the loss from such insects is seldom serious. On the whole it may be said that no insect or fungus pest has yet assumed any great economic importance in connection with the culture of the soybean. 653. Breeding. The soybean lends itself readily to improvement, and considerable work in breeding is being carried on by the United States Department of Agricul- ture, the Tennessee Experiment Station and the Ohio Ex- periment Station. The Ohio Station is testing individual plants in duplicate plant-row work in much the same way that it is testing ears of corn and is finding decided differ- ences in yield of seed and forage, in tendency to shatter and in habits of growth. The Tennessee Station is con- ducting selection work with a number of varieties and has found considerable variation in maturity, habit of growth and plant characters within the same varieties, so that several strains of the same variety are under test. The United States Department of Agriculture has done a very considerable amount of work toward the improvement of the soybean by selection and hybridization. The results of the breeding work thus far indicate that it is easily possible to improve the varieties now on the market. 654. Soybeans and cowpeas compared. Inasmuch as soybeans are adapted to so nearly the same uses and SOYBEANS 537 same place in farm rotation as the cowpea, an agronomic comparison of the two crops has often been made. The soybean is determinate in growth ; that is, it reaches a definite size and matures. Nearly all varieties of cow- peas, on the other hand, are indeterminate, continuing growth until killed by frost. With the exception of a few varieties, the soybean does not vine, but grows erect or nearly erect. Cowpeas, on the other hand, are viny plants, and therefore more difficult to harvest. Soybeans mature all their pods at one time. Cowpeas continue to produce green pods as long as the plant lives. Soybeans will withstand rather heavy frosts, both in the spring, when young, and in the fall, when nearly mature, while the same frosts are fatal to cowpeas. They are more drought resistant than cowpeas, and in a dry season will give much greater yields ; they will also with- stand excessive moisture much better. For green manuring or soil improving, the cowpea is far more valuable than the soybean, as it will smother weeds much more successfully. The value of the hay of the two plants is nearly the same. There is frequently doubt as to which is the more desirable to grow. On relatively poor soil or when broad- casted, cowpeas are always preferable. When cultivated, the soybean will yield the greater return, and if cut late, the hay is more easily cured. For growing with corn or sorghum for hay or silage the cowpep Is generally preferable to the soybean. The feeding value of an acre of soybeans for beef cattle was found by the Tennessee Agricultural Experiment Station to be about 50 per cent greater than that of cow- peas grown on an adjoining acre. This was also approxi- mately the difference in yield of the two crops. 538 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE As a grain producer the soybean is in every way prefer- able to the cowpea, as it produces larger yields of richer grain and can be harvested much more easily. The soybean, therefore, is to be recommended above the cowpea where intensive rather than extensive farming is practicable and desirable. CHAPTER XXIII OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES THERE are numerous tropical and subtropical legumes well adapted to culture in the Southern States. None of these are of equal importance to the cowpea and the soy- bean, but several of them have high value for particular conditions. Among these are Japan clover, velvet-bean and beggar-weed. Others such as bonavist, guar, mung and related beans can hardly compete with the cowpea, although there is need of much further experimentation with these crops before their value can be clearly determined. LESPEDEZA OR JAPAN CLOVER (Lespedezci striato) 655. Description. Lespedeza or Japan clover is a native of eastern Asia, occurring in Japan, Korea, Man- churia, Mongolia and China. It is a summer annual with reddish, usually much-branched, wiry stems and numerous small, sessile, trifoliolate leaves. Over most of the area in which it occurs the plants are only 4 to 6 inches high, and isolated plants often make masses 6 to 12 inches across. Under very favorable conditions of soil and climate, the plants commonly grow 12 inches high, frequently reach- ing 18 inches and exceptionally 24 to 30 inches. In thin stands the plants are spreading, or even prostrate, but where dense are quite erect and not much branched. The plants begin to appear rather late in spring, bloom 539 540 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE in late summer and mature their seeds in September and October. The small flowers are purple. Dodson found that a plant in good condition had 45.4 per cent of its weight in stems and the remainder in leaves and buds. As the plants get old, the lower leaves are shed more or less and the percentage of stem weight becomes higher. The roots are not deep, but Dodson estimated that the dry weight of the stubble and roots to 12 inches in depth is about one-third that of the hay removed. McCarthy at the North Carolina Experiment Station described a broad- leaved variety which showed " immense superiority " over the common sort. 656. Agricultural history. Lespedeza was first found in the United States at Monticello, Georgia, by Thomas C. Porter in 1846, his specimens being still preserved. The plant seems to have already become common by the close of the Civil War, and perhaps was much spread by the movements of the cavalry during that conflict, as the seeds are not digested by horses. At the present time it occurs spontaneously in most of the area from central New Jersey west to central Kansas and south to the Gulf. Throughout all of this region it furnishes a portion of the summer pasturage, thriving even on the poorest soils. In the lower Mississippi valley, especially in Louisiana, Mississippi and Arkansas, it grows tall enough to cut for hay, and to a less extent this is the case in other southern states on rich lands. There are no definite records as to when Lespedeza was first cut for hay, but about 1880 its culture was taken up and later strongly advocated by J. B. McGehee in Louisiana. Its status as a cultivated crop may be said to date from this time. Apparently it has never been cultivated in its native country. OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES 541 657. Adaptations. Lespedeza has spread naturally since its introduction into the United States over practi- cally the whole area from southern New Jersey westward nearly to central Kansas and south to the Gulf of Mexico. It is only in the lower Mississippi valley that it grows large enough to cut for hay, elsewhere being valuable only for pasturage. It shows no marked preference for soils, occurring on every type, if well drained near the surface. Lespedeza delights in heat and does not begin to grow in spring until warm weather. It does not withstand frost, but it rarely begins growth until all danger of frost is over. Its northern limit seems determined wholly by the length of the hot season necessary for it to mature seed. 658. Culture. Lespedeza is best seeded in early spring, preferably February in Louisiana and Mississippi, but it may be sown up till April. From 15 to 25 pounds of seed is used to the acre. Where once land has grown Japan clover, it is rarely necessary to reseed it again if proper precautions be used. The seed, however, is quite cheap, and Lespedeza is being grown more and more in regular rotations. It is most commonly sown perhaps with oats as a nurse- crop, sowing the Lespedeza with the oats in fall or better in early spring on the fall-sown oats. After the oats are harvested, a good crop of Lespedeza can be harvested the same season. It may thus occupy the land for two or more years, reseeding itself each year, or better, be suc- ceeded by corn or cotton in a regular rotation. The reseeding of the land to Lespedeza may be regu- lated in harvesting the crop. If cut when in bloom, the aftermath will ripen seed before frost, or strips of the 542 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE Lespedeza may be left between each swath for re- seeding. If harvested for seed, enough will shatter to produce a good stand the next year. Lespedeza is nearly always a spontaneous constituent of Bermuda-grass pastures, but if not present, should be sown. Redtop is another grass that makes a good mixture with it, the first crop being mainly redtop and the second Lespedeza. 659. Pasturage value. Lespedeza is remarkable for its ability to grow in the very poorest of sandy or gravelly soils, but it makes far greater growth on rich calcareous loams or clay loams. If not too closely grazed, it maintains itself indefinitely where once established. It is a common element of the pastures throughout the area where it occurs except on wet lands. On poor thin soils it often occurs in dense pure growths. It endures shade fairly well, occurring abundantly in moderately open woodlands. In no sense can it be called a weed, as it is quickly de- stroyed by cultivation. The herbage is readily grazed by all farm animals, and will withstand very heavy pasturing. Like other clovers it sometimes causes mules and horses to " slobber," but it has never been known to cause bloat- ing. Late spring frosts sometimes destroy it. Under close mowing, as on golf courses, it disappears after a few years because no seed is formed. In the lower Mississippi valley, where it succeeds best, Lespedeza may be grazed until June and still make a hay crop, or cut in August and the aftermath used for pasture. 660. Hay. Only in the lower Mississippi valley, where Lespedeza grows tall, is it much cut for hay. It is com- monly harvested with an ordinary mowing machine, but is seldom cut for hay if less than 8 inches tall. The plants OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES 543 contain but little water, so the hay cures more readily than any other cultivated legume and nearly as easily as timothy. Owing to the dense stands of Lespedeza and the solid stems, it weighs very heavy. If the stand is dense, a height of 8 or 9 inches will yield about 1 ton of hay to the acre ; if 12 to 14 inches, approximately 2 tons ; and when 24 to 30 inches high, 4 tons to the acre. Probably the best time to cut Lespedeza for hay is when it is in full bloom, but as the weather conditions in the fall are usually better, it is mostly cut in October. Dodson at the Louisiana Experiment Station compared Lespedeza hay protected from rain with that which had been subjected to various weather conditions, in two cases being rained upon twice. So far as chemical analyses show, practically no loss resulted, but rains do injure the appearance of the hay as well as its palatability. 661. Seed-production. Seed of Lespedeza is mainly harvested in Louisiana. It is conveniently cut with a mowing machine having a bunching attachment. The cut- ting should take place when the seeds are ripe or nearly ripe, but the plants still green. Care is necessary in han- dling to avoid undue shattering, and the straw must be thoroughly dry before it is thrashed. The seed crop produced by the dwarf er plants on poorer lands is often as large as that produced on better soils. Such a seed crop is best harvested by means of an iron pan attached behind the cutter bar of the mower, the top of the pan being covered by wires or a perforated sheet of galvanized iron to keep out trash. Sometimes such a pan is used in cutting tall Lespedeza, and in this way the best and ripest seed which otherwise would be lost is secured. 544 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE The yield of seed to the acre ranges from 5 to 12 bushels, and one bushel of clean, unhulled seed weighs about 25 pounds. One pound contains about 370,000 seeds. FLOKIDA VELVET BEAN (Stizolobium deeringianum) 662. Description , and history. The Florida velvet bean is a vigorous-growing bean-like vine, introduced into Florida previous to 1875. It is an annual, with much-branched twining stems, which under favorable conditions may attain a length of from 30 to 50 feet, usually growing to about half this length. The leaves are trifoliolate with large, membranaceous leaflets shorter than the petiole. The leaflets are ovate, the lateral ones oblique, and each is attached to a short pubescent stalk. The flowers are dark purple in long pendent racemes. The matured pods are about two inches long, turgid, some- what constricted between the seeds, and covered with a soft, nearly black velvety pubescence. Each pod con- tains three to five, marbled brown and gray seeds. The velvet bean will rarely mature its pods as far north as Washington, D.C. As the pods constitute the most valuable part of the plant, it is of importance only where these will, become mature, which area includes Florida and the southern portions of Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi and Louisiana. 663. Utilization. On account of the long vines and the tangled mass of herbage which it produces, the velvet bean is not a satisfactory hay plant, as it can be cut and cured only with great difficulty. On this account, it is utilized mainly as a pasturage, the stock being turned into the field in the fall after the pods have matured, as cattle will eat not only the pods but also the dry leaves which have fallen to the ground. It is fed mainly OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES 545 to cattle, but hogs also thrive upon it. Owing to the very viny nature of the plants, it is necessary to grow it in conjunction with some supporting crop ; other- wise but a comparatively few pods are produced. Among the supporting crops that can be used are corn, pearl millet, and sorghums. Of these, corn is the best, especially the strong-growing varieties. Various methods of planting are used. When planted alone, the velvet bean should be planted after the ground has been thor- oughly worked, so as to obtain one plant about every five feet each way. This requires about 12 pounds of seed to the acre. When planted with corn or other supporting crops, various plans are used. The beans may be planted in the same row with the corn, but under such conditions practically no corn is secured. Another method is to put the corn in successive rows and plant the velvet beans in the middle. Still another method is to plant two or three rows of corn to each row of velvet bean. The maximum yields of beans is secured where the plants are supported on poles or trellises, but this is not practicable where it is designed to pasture the crop. 664. Other species of Stizolobium. Recent investiga- tions have disclosed the fact that in the countries sur- rounding the Indian Ocean, there are numerous species of stizolobium closely related to the velvet bean. Most of these have been recently introduced and are being tested in comparison with the Florida velvet bean. Among the most important are the Lyon bean (Stizolobium niveum), differing from the Florida velvet bean in having white flowers and white seeds, and nearly smooth pods which, however, shatter readily when they become mature ; the Chinese velvet bean, differing from the Lyon bean only in being much earlier, maturing its seeds as far north 2N 546 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE as Washington, D.C., and the Yokohama bean (Stizo- lobium hassjoo) from Japan, the earliest and least vigorous of all the species, readily maturing its seeds as far north as Maryland and Kansas. Unfortunately the pods shatter quite readily and also rot where they lie in contact with the ground. The most desirable type of the velvet bean would be one that is comparatively early, and relatively bushy in type, whose seeds would not shatter, and whose pods would not rot when lying in contact with the wet ground. At the Florida Experiment Station, hybrids have been made between the Florida velvet bean and the Lyon bean, which have given rise to numerous forms. From these, it seems very probable that much improved varieties will be. secured, even if the ideal is not reached. Many of these hybrids resemble in some of their characteristics other species, and it is possible that all the species of culti- vated stizolobiums are forms of a single species. OTHER CROPS 665. Peanut (Arachis hypogcea). The peanut is in all probability a native of South America. It is also known as ground nut, earth nut, goober, and pindar. The plant is cultivated primarily for its seeds for use as human food, but the herbage is nearly always saved for hay, and sometimes the whole crop is utilized by pasturing to hogs. The peanut is adapted only .to regions with long hot summers. In the United States it succeeds best south of 36. The plant does well both on sandy and clay soils, but as the young pods must burrow into the ground to develop, peanuts are rarely planted except on sandy or silty soils. The principal producing states were, in order OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES 547 of their acreage in 1909, North Carolina, Georgia, Virginia, Florida and Alabama. The varieties most cultivated are the following: Vir- ginia Bunch, Virginia Runner, Tennessee Red, Valencia, and Spanish. All of these have decumbent branches except Spanish. Peanuts are planted in late spring after the ground is thoroughly warmed. They are usually planted in rows 28 to 36 inches wide and 9 to 16 inches apart in the row, depending on the variety. The Spanish variety may be planted more closely than others, and on this account, as well as its erect habit, is practically the only one used where the entire crop is to be used for hay. Peanuts are usually harvested by piling the vines in tall, narrow cocks about a stake with cross pieces near the base. When thoroughly cured, the nuts are removed and the straw used as fodder. The yield of fodder ranges from about 1500 to 3000 pounds or very rarely 4000 pounds to the acre. If grown for forage, the same method is commonly used, but sometimes the tops are cut and cured for hay, and hogs then turned in the field to feed on the pods. As a hay plant the peanut cannot compete with the cowpea and the soybean, but as a crop to be pastured by hogs it has con- siderable importance. Peanuts are not infrequently used as pasture to fatten hogs. From hogs thus fattened the famous Smithfield hams are made. Bennett, at the Arkansas Experiment Station, pastured pigs on peanuts andonchufas in compari- son with penned animals fed corn. The pigs on peanuts showed a gain of 104J pounds a pig ; on chuf as 66 pounds ; and on corn 112^ pounds. Duggar, at the Alabama Experiment Station, found that one acre of peanuts would 548 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE give pasturage for 1 month to about 25 pigs weighing 100 pounds each. In comparison with chufas, rape, cowpeas and sorghum, it was estimated that to make one pound of gain the pigs required in addition to the pastur- age grain as follows: 1.77 pounds when on peanuts; 2.3 pounds when on chufas ; 3.07 pounds when on cow- peas ; 2.68 pounds when on rape ; and 3.7 pounds when on sorghum. 666. Florida beggarweed (Desmodium tortuosum or Meibomia tortuosa). Florida beggarweed is a native of the West Indies, but has been known in Florida at least since 1833. It is an erect annual with rather woody stalks from 3 to 10 feet high, bearing an abundant leafage above, and when in flower tipped with much-branched erect panicles, the ascending lateral branches being often 8 to 12 inches long. The seeds are borne in many-jointed prickly pods, which break apart at maturity and are carried about by sticking to the bodies of animals or the clothing of persons. The plant is hairy throughout, and has trifoliolate leaves, the obliquely rhomboid leaflets being from 2 to 4 inches long. Florida beggarweed is adapted only to the warmer parts of the Southern States, being grown especially on the sandy lands of the coastal plain from North Carolina to Texas. It is useful as a soil reno- vator and makes a fine quality of hay that is relished by all classes of farm stock. Beggarweed seems never to be attacked either by nematodes or root rot. For a crop of seed, beggarweed should be sown at the rate of 5 or 6 pounds of clean seed to the acre. If grown for hay, from 8 to 10 pounds should be used. It should not be sown until the ground is warm and moist, and clean seed is preferable to the pods because of the more uniform germination and better stand which may be obtained. OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES 549 If sown at the beginning of the summer rains, the seed need not be covered. It must not be covered too deeply, else the young plants will not be able to reach the surface. By sowing at the beginning of the summer two crops may be secured in Florida. If cut for hay when the first flowers appear, the stubble will send up a second crop, which may be saved for seed, and enough seed will scatter to insure a crop next season. On very rich ground 4 cuttings in one season with a total yield of 4630 pounds to the acre were obtained at Charleston, South Carolina. The seed may also be scattered in the corn rows at the time of the last cultiva- tion or at the beginning of the rains in June. Then, after the corn has been stripped or cut for fodder, the beggar- weed may be mown for hay or harvested for seed. The crop should be cut for hay when it is about 3 or 4 feet high, or at the beginning of the blooming period. If cut after full bloom, many of the lower leaves will have fallen and much of the best part of the crop will be lost. Hulled seed is now commercial, being produced wholly in Florida. 667. The jackbean (Canavalia ensiformis). The jack- bean is a bushy, semi-erect annual plant, growing to a height of 2 to 4 feet. Its stems are rather coarse and become woody toward the base. The rather thickish leaves have a decidedly bitter taste. The flowers are purple, borne near the base of the stem, so that most of the pods hang low. When mature, the pods are hard and firm, 9 to 14 inches long, each containing 10 to 14 seeds. These are pure white, with a brown hilum. The plant will withstand much drought, and is remarkably free from insects and fungous diseases, but is affected by root-knot. The jackbean is a native of the West Indies and the 550 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE adjacent mainland. In Jamaica, whence it first became well known, it is called the horse bean or the overlook bean. In this country it has been designated the Pearson bean, and recently the Wonder bean. Owing to confusion with the similar species cultivated in Japan, China and India, it has also been called the sword bean and the knife bean, but those names properly belong to the Asiatic species (Canavalia gladiata), used principally as a vegetable. In the last 25 years, the jackbean has several times attracted attention on account of its vigorous growth and large yield of pods and seeds. It was extensively tested at the Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station during the years 1890 to 1895. Under field conditions yields of 30 to 40 bushels of beans to the acre were obtained, even when grown on thin soil. Attempts were made to utilize these beans as feed for both beef and dairy cattle, but the beans were found to be both unpalatable and indigestible. Seeds of the bean were distributed by P. Pearson, of Starkville, Mississippi, from which fact it became known as the Pearson bean. At the Texas Agricultural Experi- ment Station it produced 35 bushels to the acre. At the North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station it pro- duced an estimated yield of 40 bushels to the acre. It was also tested at the Louisiana Experiment Station. None of these stations regarded the bean as promising, but, so far as recorded, no attempt was made to utilize either the herbage or the seeds as forage. More recently the plant has been tested in Hawaii, and favorable reports as to its forage value have been published. The value of the plant as forage is yet problematical. Its successful utilization as green feed in Hawaii encour- ages the belief that it may be found equally valuable in OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES 551 this country, especially in Texas and Oklahoma, where its great drought resistance gives it particular promise. There is also the probability that the jackbean may prove to be valuable for silage. Its coarse habit and heavy tonnage should adapt it well to this purpose. The large yield of seed to the acre justifies further experi- ments to determine whether any means can be devised to utilize the seeds profitably as feed, which the work of the Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station indicates is a difficult problem. 668. Mung bean (Phaseolus aureus). The mung bean is native to southern Asia. It is probably a plant of very ancient culture, as it is grown by the natives throughout the southern half of Asia and the principal Malayan Islands as well as on the eastern coast of Africa. In these countries the mung bean is grown mainly for the seed which is an important article of human food, but in India the straw is also prized as forage for live stock. The habit of the mung bean is very similar to that of the cowpea, but the plants are less viny and some are strictly bush. The adaptations of the plant are also practically identical with that of the cowpea. The plant was introduced into American agriculture as early as 1835 when it was known as the Chickasaw pea, and some- what later it was called the Oregon pea under the erroneous idea that it came from that region. Notwithstanding its wide testing thus early in the Southern States and much testing in recent years with numerous varieties, the mung bean has not been able to find a place in American agricul- ture in competition with the cowpea. The reasons for this are mainly that the pods continue to be formed and ripen until frost, and they shatter very readily. In coun- tries where labor is cheap and the pods are picked promptly 552 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE as they ripen, this is not a serious objection to their culture. The seeds also are very much attacked by the cowpea weevil, perhaps more so than any other legume seeds. The culture of the mung bean is essentially the same as that of the cowpea, ,but it is preferable to plant in culti- vated rows as the young plants do not compete with weeds as well as does the cowpea. If cut for hay, this should be done as soon as the first pods begin to turn black in ripening. The varieties are very numerous, differing in size, habit, earliness and the shape and color of the seeds. These are spherical in most varieties, green, brown or marbled. The variety recently known as the Newman bean is undoubtedly the same as the old Chickasaw pea, and this variety has become spontaneous in portions of South Carolina. The Newman bean is very late, strictly erect, reaching a height of 3| feet and barely maturing seeds at Arlington Farm, Virginia. 669. Urd (Pkaseolus mungo). The urd is very closely related to the mung bean, but it differs in its procumbent habit, in its shorter, more hairy pods, and in its oblong green or mottled seeds which have a concave hilum. The urd is probably native to India, in which country it is- extensively grown for human food. As a hay crop it is inferior to the mung bean on account of its procumbent habits which make it difficult to mow. The largest and latest varieties, however, make a dense mass of herbage, a single plant covering an area 3 feet square and reaching a height of 20 to 30 inches. One of these late varieties is used as a green-manure crop in the West Indies under the name of Woolly Pyrol. There is hardly any like- lihood of the urd becoming of agricultural value in OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES 553 the Southern States, as it can scarcely compete with the cowpea,. except perhaps in Florida as a green- manure crop. Unfortunately, however, all of the varieties seem much subject to the attack of nematodes. 670. Moth bean (Phaseolus aconitifolius) . The moth- bean is an annual legume, native of India, where it is grown principally for its seeds, which are used as human food. In habit it forms mats 2 to 3 feet in diameter and 12 to 18 inches high, with very numerous viny branches, the lower ones lying prostrate on the ground. The leaves have three leaflets, each divided into 3 to 5 narrow seg- ments. This bean has proved to be exceedingly well adapted to the conditions in northern Texas, where in many ways it is superior to the cowpea. The prostrate habit and immense amount of foliage enable it to cover the ground so completely that there is practically no evaporation of water from the soil. The very viny branches and the persistency with which the leaves are held make an unusually fine quality of hay, which stock of all kinds eat greedily. No difficulty has been found in mowing this plant if cultivated in rows, as is usually neces- sary in semi-arid regions, if the mower be started under the first plant. The yield to the acre during the three years in which it was under trial averaged about 2 tons, fully equal to that of the cowpea. Under favorable conditions the pods are produced in large numbers and show no tendency to shatter. The roots are remarkably well provided with tubercles, indicating that the plant is a very efficient nitrogen gatherer. So far as can be ascertained in limited experi- ence with it, it is somewhat more drought resistant than the cowpea, with which crop it will necessarily compete agriculturally. It seems reasonably certain that this 554 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE plant will become of considerable use in southwestern Kansas, western Oklahoma and northern Texas. Where the rainfall is greater, comparative experiments indicate that the cowpea is distinctively preferable. The methods employed in growing cowpeas are satis- factory for the moth bean. The crop should be planted in rows from 2J to 3 feet apart, with plants every 2 to 3 inches. This requires from 5 to 6 pounds of seed to the acre. Owing to the thick mat of vines produced, the crop can be easily harvested with a mower by setting the cutter bar low. At least two cultivations should be given and the surface soil left as smooth as possible, so as to facili- tate harvesting. The crop should not be harvested until it has made its maximum growth. The mass of green forage can best be cured in windrows and later hauled and stored without putting into cocks. 671. Adzuki bean (Phaseolus angularis] . The adzuki bean is probably native to eastern Asia, but the wild plant is not known. It is extensively cultivated in Man- churia, Korea and Japan, and is rarely found in the hill country of northern India. In Japan about 350,000 acres are grown annually. It is readily distinguished from the mung bean, to which it is closely related, by the pods and seeds. The seeds of this species are about the size of an average garden pea, but are oblong in shape, and red, cream, orange or mottled in color. The pods are mostly pale colored and smooth, resembling small cowpea pods, while those of the mung bean are dark colored, smaller, and hairy. This bean resembles an upright cowpea in its habits of growth, but the stems are not as large and hardly as woody. It is adapted to essentially the same conditions as the soybean. In Japan and Manchuria the adzuki bean is grown OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES 555 entirely for human food, and as a producer of seed it excels any other bean adapted to the region in which it will grow, excepting the soybean. On account of its heavy yield of seed it is likely to become of some impor- tance in the United States, either for human food or for growing to feed animals. The plants are smaller than cowpeas or soybeans, so the yield of herbage is but moderate. The adzuki bean does not compete satisfactorily with weeds and therefore must be planted in cultivated rows which may be from 18 inches to 3 feet apart, depending on the variety and the method of cultivation. The earli- est varieties mature in about 90 days, while the latest varieties require 140 days. 672. Bonavist or hyacinth bean (Dolichos lablab). This bean is probably a native of Africa, but has been cultivated since ancient, perhaps prehistoric, times in southern Asia, as well as in Africa. The ripe seeds, as well as the green pods, are used for human food. The bonavist is an annual except in the tropics, where it may persist two years or more. In a general way it resembles the cowpea, but the stems are harder, and the plant more viny, but when supported, often grows to a height of 20 to 25 feet. The flowers are sweet scented and borne in panicles, 4 to 18 inches long ; the much- compressed pods are shaped like a broad scimitar and the seeds have a conspicuous white caruncle extending one-third of their circumference. The varieties are numerous, at least 30, and differ in earliness ; color of foliage, green or purple ; color of flowers, white, pink or purple ; size, shape and color of the pods and seeds, the latter being white, reddish, black or speckled. The varieties with purple foliage are often 556 FOE AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE grown as ornamentals. One variety with white, waxy pods is excellent as a vegetable. The adaptations of the bonavist are practically identi- cal with those of the cowpea, and it may be culti- vated by identical methods. When grown in fields for hay, they have given very promising results in southern Kansas and northern Texas, being at least equal to cow- peas in yield and palatability. Some varieties are heavy seed producers, yielding about as much as cowpeas. The habit of all the varieties is very much more viny than cowpeas, in a general way being intermediate between cowpeas and velvet beans. When grown in Virginia with corn for silage or with sorghum for hay, they have outyielded cowpeas, the vines being much more rapid growers. There are two possible objections to them, however. The vines grow very much more rapidly than the cornstalks and tend to bind the rows of corn together, and there is also a much larger mass of herbage covering the ground than in the case of cowpeas, much of which cannot be saved in harvesting. In Cuba this bean has been considered superior to the cowpea. Like many other legumes, however, the bonavist is susceptible both to the root-knot caused by nematodes and to wilt, although it is possible that varieties resistant to these diseases may be found, as has been the case with the cowpea. At the present time, however, the bonavist offers no particular promise throughout the cotton region except in Texas. In drought resistance it is at least equal to the cowpea and apparently somewhat superior. In all respects it will have to meet the cowpea in competi- tion, and it still remains to be determined whether in any part of the country it will be sufficiently superior to the cowpea to warrant its general culture. The roots are OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES 557 remarkably well provided with tubercles ; indeed, in this respect far surpassing the cowpea. 673. Guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba). Guar is an annual, native of India, where it has long been cultivated t a limited extent. The plant is grown both for green forage and for the seed, which according to Duthie is used mainly to fatten cattle. The plants are stiff and erect, simple stemmed or with comparatively few branches, and 3 to 6 feet high. The leaves are trifoliolate and angularly toothed. The small flowers are numerous in short erect axillary racemes. The pods are flat, 1J to 2 inches long, and about 7-seeded. Guar is adapted to about the same general conditions as the cowpea, but it does not ripen its seed in northern Virginia. It is especially characterized by its remarkable drought resistance. At Chico, California, a fine crop was produced without a drop of rain falling upon it from the time it was planted until nearly ready to harvest. During the whole season these plots showed no suffering whatever from the drought, which seriously affected adjoining plots of Kafir corn and sorghum. Similarly marked drought resistance was shown at San Antonio, Texas. Guar is very prolific, a single plant grown at Chico producing 260 pods. The yield in India is stated to be about 13 bushels to the acre, but small plots in this country have shown a considerably greater yield. There are many varieties, some of them with single stems ; others branched from the base. The upright- growing varieties are preferable, at least from a seed-pro- ducing standpoint. Some of the varieties have much larger seeds than others, and on this account are more desirable. In regard to its palatability to live stock, the evidence 558 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE is thus far somewhat conflicting. At the Oklahoma Experiment Station the cattle ate the straw readily after the seeds had been thrashed out, notwithstanding that it was decidedly coarse and the leaves had fallen. Most experimenters report that their mules and cows eat it as well as cowpeas. G. A. Schattenberg, of Boerne, Texas, found that his sheep ate it readily, and he regards it as an exceedingly valuable plant for pasture. A few experimenters have had less satisfactory experiences, in some cases the animals absolutely refusing to eat it. The mixed results would lead to the belief that most animals will acquire a taste for it, as animals commonly refuse a new forage at first. Its use in India certainly confirms this idea. CHAPTER XXIV MISCELLANEOUS PERENNIAL LEGUMES THERE are parts of America to which none of the pe- rennial clovers or alfalfa are well adapted and for which a good perennial legume is greatly to be desired. This need is greatest in the South. In Europe sainfoin, kidney vetch, and other perennials have been profitably employed, but none of these seems to possess much value for America. Among recently exploited crops of this class, kudzu is probably the most promising. SAINFOIN (Onobrychis vicicefolia) 674. Description. Sainfoin is also known as esparcet or esparsette. A synonym of its botanical name is Ono- brychis sativa Lam. It occurs wild in most of the southern half of Europe and eastward to Lake Baikal. About twelve botanical varieties have been described from Europe, but none of these has come into agricultural use. Sainfoin is a very long-lived, deep-rooted perennial. It is stated by Lawson that plants may live 100 years. The root may reach a diameter of 2 inches and extend to a depth of 20 feet or more. From the branched crown arise numerous stout, erect stems which reach a height of 1 to 2 feet. The leaves are odd-pinnate with 13 to 15 leaflets. The rose-colored (rarely white) flowers are in an erect, close raceme 2 to 5 inches long. The one-seeded 559 560 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE pods are brown, indehiscent, lenticular and reticulated on the surface. 675. Agricultural history. The culture of sainfoin prob- ably dates back about 400 years. It was first cultivated in southern France, the first definite record according to Vianne being in 1582. Its culture was first described in 1629. It was grown in Germany in the seventeenth century, but not in Italy until the eighteenth century. Its spread over Europe had a very marked effect inas- much as it led to the profitable cultivation of much dry calcareous land, which before had been nearly valueless. Its culture has been largely restricted to chalky or other calcareous soils, particularly where subject to drought. In a general way, its distribution is nearly the same as that of the grape in Europe, but it does well in places too cool for grape culture. Sainfoin has never attained any agricultural impor- tance in America, though it has often been tested. It would seem, however, that on some calcareous soils its culture might become profitably established. 676. Culture. Sainfoin is usually grown in pure cul- tures, the seed being sown at the rate of 120 to 150 pounds to the acre if drilled, more if broadcasted. Commercial seed is in the hull, and this germinates better than the hulled seed. The seed should be sown with a drill a half -inch or more deep, or else well harrowed after broadcasting. It is usually sown in spring with a nurse crop. Fall sowings are apt to winter-kill. Usually but one cutting of hay is obtained each season, mowed during bloom, which lasts about one week. Under favorable conditions a second smaller cutting may be secured, but this as a rule is only half as large as the first, so that it is generally pastured. Sainfoin has never been MISCELLANEOUS PERENNIAL LEGUMES 561 known to cause bloating. The yield of hay varies from 1800 to 6000 pounds to the acre, on the average about 3000 pounds. The yield is as a rule best in the fourth year. On poor soils fields are reported to last 15 to 22 years. On good soils, however, the better practice is to allow the fields to stand 4 to 7 years, and then not plant sainfoin again for an equal length of time, as soils become " sick " to sainfoin in a manner analogous to " clover sick " soils. 677. Seed. Commercial seed of sainfoin is nearly always in the hull. Fresh seed should germinate 98 per cent and have a purity of 80 per cent. The seed loses its viability rapidly, so that after one year it is valueless. On this account the commercial seed is often very low in viability. After planting the seed is slow to germinate, requiring 2 to 3 weeks before it has all sprouted. The seed is all grown in Europe, the average yield being stated as about 500 pounds to the acre. 678. American data. Sainfoin has been tested in a small way at most of the American experiment stations, but nowhere on the continent has it become established as a crop. Long before the days of experiment stations, sainfoin had been frequently tested by farmers, and there are many references to it in early American agricultural literature. Fields have often been planted in the irrigated lands of the West, but neither under such conditions nor on the unirrigated lands has it yielded as heavily as alfalfa. Under irrigation the average yield for 2 years at the Utah Experiment Station was but 2000 pounds to the acre, much less than either red clover or alfalfa. Without irrigation but one early cutting was secured. At the Ontario Agricultural College an average yield of 12 tons green matter to the acre has been secured from '2o 562 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE spring sowings. In one case the plants survived in a plot for 8 to 10 years. At the Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada, sainfoin has given the most favorable results reported in America. A plot sown May 14 was cut August 12 and yielded 3700 pounds hay to the acre ; the next year it was cut twice, the yields being respectively 4200 and 5400 pounds of hay to the acre. During three years the annual yields in hay to the acre were respectively 7160, 9160 and 13,398 pounds. The yield in the third year was larger than that of any other of 18 hay crops, either single or in mixtures. OTHER PERENNIAL LEGUMES 679. Sulla or Spanish sainfoin ( Hedysarum coronarium) is a perennial legume native to the Mediterranean region of Europe and north Africa, where its culture is locally important in Spain, Sicily, Malta and southern France. Its culture was recorded in Italy in 1766, but it is probably still older. The plant has deep roots ; ascending stems 1 to 3 feet long ; pinnate leaves with 3 to 5 pairs of oval, obtuse, pale leaflets ; flowers numerous in erect racemes ; pods flattened, constricted between the circular joints. The ordinary variety has red flowers and under favorable conditions grows 4 to 5 feet high. Another variety with white flowers grows less tall. In Algeria there is said to be a red-flowered, biennial variety. Sulla is especially adapted to deep soils, especially if calcareous, but will grow on any deep, fertile, well-drained soils. It is commonly planted in the spring, and thus sown, will yield on dry soil one cutting the first season and thereafter two. Under irrigation three or more cuttings may be obtained. The seed germinates poorly, much of it being hard, but MISCELLANEOUS PERENNIAL LEGUMES 563 it is said that after immersing it 5 minutes in boiling water a germination of 95 per cent may be obtained. The seed costs about 25 cents per pound. Fields are usually left 3 years or more and may yield as high as 5 tons of hay per season. Fairly satisfactory results with sulla have been secured in southern Texas with irrigation, but under such conditions it cannot compete with alfalfa. At the Massachusetts Experiment Station it is said to have lived for several years. 680. Kudzu (Pueraria thunbergiana) is a woody, legu- minous vine native to Japan. The leaves resemble in a general way those of the common bean, but they are larger and angularly lobed, besides being tougher in texture ; the stems and leaf stalks are somewhat hairy. As far north as Maryland the vine will bloom, but only occasion- ally, and then late in the fall. The blossoms are dull pur- ple-red in pendent racemes, but a white-flowered variety is said to occur in Japan. The pods are thin, very hairy and do not mature in the latitude of Washington, D.C. Kuclzu is remarkable for its very rapid growth during the warm weather of midsummer. It succeeds well in the humid eastern part of the United States, and will grow in almost any type of soil. It succeeds best, how- ever, with an abundance of heat and moisture. Kudzu is a most excellent vine for arbors and porches, for which purpose it is grown in most of the southern cities, climbing to a height of 60 feet or more, It survives winter as far north as Nova Scotia. Kudzu was probably first introduced in the United States in 1876, when it was grown at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. It is only recently, however, that it has created interest as a forage crop, due largely 564 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE to the work of C. E. Pleas of Chipley, Florida. At- tracted by the remarkable luxuriance of the plant and the fact that horses and cows ate the leaves greedily, he cured some as hay and found it equally palatable to animals. He then planted a small field, probably the first of the kind ever planted in this country. Under field conditions kudzu sends out long prostrate branches which root at many of the joints and send up ascending twining branches to a height of 2 to 4 feet. Eventually these become sepa- rate plants as the prostrate stems usually die between the rooted joints. Such a field when full grown presents much the appearance of a thick field of cowpeas or soy- beans. It can be readily cut with a mower, and the hay cures more readily than most legumes, as the leaves are less juicy. There is practically no shedding of the leaves in curing. Some fields in northern Florida have yielded three cut- tings of hay a season when well established, and yields of as high as 10 tons to the acre have been claimed. In other fields the total yield has been smaller than that of velvet beans. It seems probable that under favorable conditions kudzu will prove a very profitable crop, notwithstanding the fact that its perennial nature does not permit of grow- ing a winter crop in rotation. The seed of kudzu does not germinate very well, so that the plant is usually propagated by layers. A new field of kudzu is best established by the transplanting of well- rooted plants in very early spring. These should be planted about 10 feet apart each way, and the first season will pretty well cover the ground with prostrate runners. The second season a fair crop should be obtained, but the field will not produce best results till the third year. The planting should be done early in the spring, but in the MISCELLANEOUS PERENNIAL LEGUMES 565 extreme south may be done at any time during the winter. To avoid the loss of land the first season, corn may be planted after setting out the kudzu, and the two do not interfere with each other. The culture of kudzu is still in an experimental stage, but for permanent hay fields, especially in the South, it is likely to become of considerable importance. Small experimental plots at the Kentucky and Alabama Experi- ment Stations, as well as at Arlington Farm, Virginia, have given promising results. At the Florida Experiment Station the plot yields have thus far not been as satisfac- tory as those of velvet beans. 681. Flat pea (Lathyrus silvestris var. wagneri) is a native of most of Europe and the Caucasus region of Asia. The cultivated variety was. first domesticated by Wagner in 1862 from the Carpathian Mountains, Austria. The wild plant was unpalatable and the seeds very hard, but Wagner was able to improve the plant by selection in both these respects. Since 1878 the plant has been much discussed, and at times very extravagant claims made for it. The plant is a long-lived perennial closely allied to the old perennial sweet pea of the gardens. The stems are wing-margined, weak and reclining without support, becoming 3 to 6 feet long; leaves with a single pair of lanceolate leaflets, and branched tendrils ; flowers pink, 3 to 10 in a loose raceme. It grows but slowly at first and usually does not bloom till the second year. In Germany the green plant is said to be eaten readily by horses and swine. The flat pea has been tested at many of the American experiment stations, but by none has the plant been com- mended nor has it won for itself a place in American agriculture. When once established it may persist for 566 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE years. At the Michigan Experiment Station one acre yielded in its second year two cuttings ; the first cutting, June 29, weighed 23,997 pounds green and 5431 pounds dry; the second cutting, September 16, weighed 17,188 pounds green and 3636 pounds dry a total yield of 20.5 tons of green matter and 4.5 tons dry hay. Cattle ate the green forage readily. At the Vermont Experiment Station the second year's crop was 6J tons green matter or If tons hay to the acre, and the third year's crop fully as large. At the Pennsylvania Experiment Station, flat peas gave in two years an average yield to the acre of 17,700 pounds green herbage of 3700 pounds of hay, but the crop is not recommended, because of the difficulty of securing a stand, and its unpalatability. The flat pea has nowhere in America attained any definite status as a field crop, but where a long-lived perennial legume is needed in the Northern States, prob- ably no other species is better adapted to the purpose. 682. Kidney vetch (Anthyllis vulneraria) is native to much of temperate Europe, Asia and North Africa. It was first brought into cultivation in Prussia about 1859. Two varieties are cultivated, one with pale yellow and the other with reddish flowers, but otherwise they scarcely differ. The plant is a perennial with roots 3 feet or more long. The basal leaves are simple, but the cauline are pinnate. The stems are stout and erect, not at all viny as in the true vetches, to which it is not closely related. Kidney vetch is most important on sandy and calcareous soils in North Germany, but is grown to some extent in other European countries. It is especially valuable where clover and other legumes do not thrive. In all respects MISCELLANEOUS PERENNIAL LEGUMES 567 it is cultivated much like red clover, being sown in Ger- many in fall with a grain crop. The plants grow so slowly that there is but little fall pasturage after the grain crop is removed. Thereafter it yields moderate hay crops for two years ; if pastured, it lasts 3 to 4 years. Usually but one hay crop a year can be obtained, and the after- math is very small. Kidney vetch is, however, rarely sown alone but in mixtures, and is better adapted for pas- tures than for meadows. Both as pasturage and as hay, kidney vetch is more readily eaten by sheep than by other animals. It seems never to cause bloating. The harvesting of the seed is rather difficult, as, if cut too green, it will not thrash out, and if too ripe, it shatters much. The plants usually die after seed harvest. The seed yield varies from 350 to 700 pounds an acre. A bushel weighs 60 to 64 pounds, and one pound contains 126,000 to 182,000 seeds, according to Stebler. Kidney vetch is usually sown in mixtures, but if sown alone 20 pounds of seed an acre is used. Werner says that the yield of hay on calcareous sand is 5000 to 9000 pounds an acre ; on good sandy soil, 3500 to 5000 pounds ; and on poor sandy soils, 1800 to 2500 pounds ; or on the average about 4000 pounds to the acre. Kidney vetch has not proved of any particular value under American conditions. The plant is not rarely found in ballast grounds, but nowhere has it become really natu- ralized. It has been tested in a small way at many Ameri- can Experiment Stations, but none have recommended it as being promising. At the Utah Experiment Station it gave a yield of only 1 150 pounds of hay to the acre. At the Ontario Agricultural College the average yield for 2 years was 2,6 tons green matter to the acre. 568 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 683. Goat's rue (Galega officinalis) is native from south- east Europe to Persia, and came into agricultural use in Germany in the latter part of the eighteenth century. It seems never to have been much grown, and is not now important except in special localities. Goat's rue has succeeded well in small trials at many places in the United States, but has never come into agricultural use. The plant is a deep-rooted perennial with abundant stout stems three to four feet high, each terminated by a raceme of pale violet flowers, but white-flowered and rose- flowered varieties occur. The leaves are numerous and pinnately compound. Two cuttings are obtained under favorable conditions in Europe, and this has also been the experience at Arling- ton Farm, Virginia. The plant is too coarse to make good hay, and so is used mainly for soiling. In good soil, the yield of green substance is said to equal that of alfalfa. It is usually sown in spring, and is best grown in cultivated rows, never in mixtures. The seeds are rather large, one pound containing 62,000, and 22 pounds an acre is the rate of seeding. The Utah Experiment Station records yields of 4490 pounds of hay to the acre. One instance in France is recorded where 54 sheep died and 84 were badly affected from eating goat's rue. In further tests it was found that 7 pounds of the plant would kill a sheep. 684. Bird's-foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) is native to much of temperate Europe and Asia. It is a low- growing perennial with a stout root and bearing numerous slender, ascending or spreading branches 6 to 18 inches long. The leaves bear five small leaflets. The bright yellow, showy flowers are in umbels of 2 to 6. In northern Europe bird's-foot trefoil is considered MISCELLANEOUS PERENNIAL LEGUMES 569 a valuable constituent in pasture lands, and is sometimes sown in hay mixtures, but it is too small to be of much value for such purpose. Bird's-foot trefoil has succeeded well enough in trials in nearly all the humid portions of the United States, except the extreme south, but its growth is too small to warrant its cultivation, and it has not shown any aggres- siveness in becoming established. It is nowhere really naturalized in North America. The seed weighs 60 pounds to the bushel and 11 pounds to the acre is seeded, if sown alone. It is expensive to har- vest, and this has perhaps prevented the greater use of the plant. Two varieties of Lotus corniculatus are also utilized agriculturally and sold by seedsmen ; namely, var. tenui- folius with narrow leaves, and var. villosus with pubescent foliage. Another species, Lotus uliginosus, is also offered by seedsmen, and not infrequently under the name vil- losus, according to Stebler. 685. Astragalus falcatus is native to the Caucasus region and utilized to a small extent in Europe for forage, espe- cially in Russia and France. It is a deep-rooted, long- lived perennial ; leaves pinnate with 15 to 20 pairs of leaflets ; flowers yellowish in a spike-like panicle. This species is very hardy and probably will withstand as severe conditions as alfalfa. In France it is said not to be able to compete with alfalfa on good soil, but to be val- uable on poor, dry lands. It begins its growth very early in spring, and in France may be cut three times. It is mostly fed green, and animals eat it readily. This astragalus has grown well at Arlington Farm, Vir- ginia ; Pullman, Washington ; and Akron, Colorado. Well- grown plants become a foot or more in diameter and 2 to 570 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 2J feet high. The commercial seed is not high priced, but much of it is " hard " and does not germinate. The crop is worthy of further investigation in connection with dry farming. 686. Furze ( Ulex europceus). Furze or gorse is a spiny leguminous shrub native to northern Europe. The leaves are very small, and with the twigs are evergreen. The handsome yellow blossoms are much ike those of the Scotch broom. Furze has never been cultivated for forage in America, but it has become established in places along the New England coast, and on the Pacific coast in Washington and British Columbia. Its adaptation to these regions may in time lead to its utilization for forage. In Europe it is planted more or less on sandy or rocky land, and the crops either cut and fed green in winter, or browsed with sheep and cattle. Where cultivated it is cut every year, as the year-old branches become quite woody. CHAPTER XXV MISCELLANEOUS HERBS USED AS FORAGE APART from the grasses and legumes few plants are. worth cultivating for forage and none of these is of high importance. Those discussed in this chapter are the best known. 687. Mexican clover (Richardsonia scabra) is wrongly named, as it is not clover at all, but belongs to the family Rubiaceoe. In Florida and other Southern States it is commonly called purslane or " pusley." Mexican clover is native to Mexico, and now extends along the Gulf coast and throughout Florida. In the latter region there is some question as to whether it is truly native, as it is found almost entirely in cultivated land. Mexican clover is an annual plant much branched from the base, the weak decumbent stems reaching a length of 1 to 2 feet ; leaves opposite, simple, entire ; flowers small, pinkish, crowded into close heads. Mexican clover is a summer annual springing up in cultivated land in spring after the manner of crab-grass. It is especially abundant in sandy land, springing up after cultivation has ceased in hoed crops, or after early crops have been removed. Under favorable conditions it makes a dense mass of herbage 1 foot to nearly 2 feet deep. The plant is rather succulent and not easily cured into hay, but when well cured is readily eaten by farm animals, 571 572 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE The maximum yield of hay is probably about 2 tons to the acre. Mexican clover may also be used for pasturage, and is readily eaten by most farm animals. Seed is produced in abundance and can easily be saved, but there is no commercial demand, as the plant when once established volunteers year after year indefinitely. Strictly speaking, it is not a cultivated plant at all, but a useful weed comparable in this respect to crab-grass and. bur clover. In the United States it is adapted only to Florida and a relatively narrow region westward to Texas. It succeeds best on sandy soils. 688. Prickly pear (Opuntia spp.). These " pears " are all natives to America. Some of the larger species which grow to a height of from 3 to 6 feet or more and which have flat, oblong or circular joints, have long been utilized for forage. Some of these species, especially those which are nearly spineless, were long ago introduced into northern Africa, where they are grown quite extensively, not only for the fruit but as feed for camels and bullocks. In Texas they have been used as forage, especially during periods of drought, for 50 years or more. In recent years their cultivation for forage has received considerable atten- tion in the United States. In the United States the larger species of Opuntia are well adapted only to southern Texas and California and portions of Arizona and New Mexico. They will with- stand a temperature as low as 20 Fahrenheit for a short time, but where the temperature often falls lower their culture is not advisable. The spiny species especially endure periods of drought remarkably well, but to obtain a satisfactory growth under cultivation a good supply of moisture is necessary. The root is comparatively MISCELLANEOUS HERBS USED AS FORAGE 573 shallow, and without a good supply of soil moisture the growth is exceedingly slow. Prickly pears are like other plants, in that the best growth is secured on the best soils, although the plants will make some growth on any type of soil so long as it is well drained and there is sufficient moisture for growth. All of the species thrive best in regions' where there is a season of low moisture supply dur- ing which the plants become semi-dormant. Prickly pears may be propagated either by seed or by plant joints. Propagation by seed is, however, more costly and a longer time must elapse before the plants can be harvested. Griffiths finds that there is considerable difference between plants of the same species grown from seed and propagated from cuttings. The latter tend to be tree-like, while the former are headed on the ground and without distinct trunks. In propagating vegetatively, single joints 1 to 3 years old should be used, as younger joints are not as certain and do not start off as vigorously as the older ones. Old trunks which have lost their joint character are also satisfactory. It is preferable to cut the joints below the articulation. In planting, the best plan is to have the joint covered \ to f of its length. In plantings thus far made the plants have been put 3 feet apart in rows 6 feet wide, but with the larger sorts 8-foot rows are probably more advantageous. When thus planted they can be easily cultivated, and better results are secured by cultivating fields often enough to maintain a good tilth and destroy weeds. The prickly pears can be harvested and fed at any time of the year. Cattle, however, do not like the young joints and there is therefore considerable waste in har- vesting the plants while growth is active. In California it has been found inadvisable to harvest them in winter 574: FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE from December to March, as during the cool season the remaining portion of the stem is likely to rot instead of healing over. Under moderately favorable conditions yields of 20 to 25 tons of green matter to the acre may be obtained. Prickly pears are readily eaten by cattle, hogs, sheep and goats. The spineless ones may be fed directly, but the spiny sorts require preliminary treatment. The spines may be removed by singeing either with a brush fire or by means of a gasoline torch, or the plants may be chopped into pieces and piled into heaps when the spines become softened so that they do not trouble animals, or the whole plant may be steamed in vats. The feeding value is low, as from 80 to 90 per cent or more of the plant consists of water. Nevertheless, very satisfactory results have been obtained in using prickly pears as roughage feed for dairy and beef cattle as well as for hogs, sheep and goats. Under Texas conditions some of the spiny sorts have given more satisfactory results than the spineless ones. The latter are more subject to damage by rabbits. 689. Sunflower (Helianthus annuus). The sunflower is native to the western United States, where the wild form often occupies extensive areas. It is an annual with a stout, erect, usually simple stem which becomes woody ; alternate ovate petioled leaves ; and one or more large half -nodding heads with a black disk and numerous golden- yellow rays. Under cultivation numerous varieties have been developed, some with all the flowers ligulate. The agriculturally valuable sorts are those which produce a single large head, which may be 8 to 12 inches in diameter. Sunflowers are grown extensively in Russia for the seeds, which are used both for poultry feed and for oil pro- MISCELLANEOUS HERBS USED AS FORAGE 575 duction. In America their culture has not been large, partly from the fact that there are several insects that live naturally in the seeds. The plants are cultivated much after the manner of corn in rows 28 to 36 inches wide, with the plants a foot apart in the rows. Sometimes sunflowers are grown thickly and cut for fodder, but the woody nature of the plants makes them undesirable for this purpose. At the New Hampshire Experiment Station three varie- ties gave the following yields of heads to the acre : Rus- sian, 23,958 pounds ; White Russian, 19,360 pounds ; and Grey, 20,812 pounds. In Ontario they have been grown to some extent as a forage crop, the heads being put into silos with corn. There seems, however, to be no economy in this practice. At the Ontario Agricultural College three varieties have been grown continuously for a period of years, the result- ing yield data being as follows : AVERAGE AVERAGE YIELD TO THE ACRE VARIETIES DIAMETER OP 25 HEADS (10 yrs.) AVERAGE HEIGHT (13yrs.) 9 Heads (13 yrs.) Whole Crop (13 yrs.) Grain (12 yrs.) Inches Inches Tons Tons Bushels Mammoth Russian 7.29 100 5.97 18.05 74.7 White Beauty . . 7.38 87 5.60 16.18 74.4 Black Giant . . 7-.08 107 6.32 22.36 72.0 According to the last census, the total area of cultivated sunflowers in the United States was 4731 acres, which yielded 63,677 bushels of seed. Illinois, with 3979 acres, produced most of the crop; namely, 49,064 bushels. 576 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE 690. Spurrey (Spergula saliva}. Cultivated spurrey has been much confused with the very similar corn spurrey (Spergula arvensis). The latter is generally in- troduced in America as a rather harmless weed in culti- vated soil. Common spurrey was cultivated for forage in Europe in 1566 and probably much earlier. Spurrey is much employed as a catch crop and for green manure on sandy lands in north central Europe, especially France, Belgium, Holland, Germany, Denmark and Russia. It is adapted to a moist, cool growing season, and under such conditions will produce a crop of green fodder 12 to 14 inches high in 7 or 8 weeks. Three crops may thus be grown on the same piece of land in a season, the first being sown as soon as danger of frost is over; or one crop may be grown after a crop of winter grain is harvested and before another is planted. It is often sown with a grain crop in spring, and after it has grown in the stubble, used as pasture. If sown alone, it is cut when in bloom and fed green or cured into hay, the latter being rather difficult, as the plant is quite succulent. The value of spurrey for sandy lands in Europe is so great that some writers have called it the " clover of sandy soils." Spurrey has often been tested in America, beginning with 1853, but thus far it has been but little used. One crop can be grown in early spring and another in fall if the frosts are not too early. The plant languishes, how- ever, in our hot midsummers, to which it is not adapted. Young plants do not withstand frost, but when well grown ordinary frosts are not .injurious. The most extensive investigations were those conducted on the sandy Jack pine land of Michigan. The results reported were very promising, but the culture of the crop does not seem to have become established. At Grayling, MISCELLANEOUS HERBS USED AS FORAGE 577 Michigan, seed yields of 8 to 12 bushels an acre were secured. There is likelihood, however, that spurrey may in time be a useful plant in America on very sandy lands in the Northern States, when economic conditions will justify their development. On better lands it is not likely ever to be used. In Germany the hay yields are said to be about 6000 pounds and the seed yields 450 to 600 pounds an acre. The straw is nearly as good feed as the hay. Spurrey has sometimes been condemned as a weed, but such references belong to corn spurrey and not to the cultivated plant. The seed is small, one pound containing 1,350,000. The usual rate of seeding is 15 to 20 pounds to the acre. Another species, the Giant Spurrey (Spergula maxima), has also been cultivated since 1841. This is a larger plant with larger seeds, 740,000 weighing one pound. It reaches its growth in 10 to 12 weeks and ripens its seed in 16 weeks. Unlike common spurrey, this species is adapted to heavier soils rich in lime, and its culture is of much less importance. At the Michigan Upper Peninsula Station, it was sown July 28 and cut September 10, giving a yield of about 3.5 tons hay to the acre. 691. Yarrow (Achillea millefolium), in some of its numer- ous forms, is native throughout the north temperate zone. The plant has the strong odor of chamomile, but cattle and sheep eat it when young. It is a long-lived, deep- rooted perennial ; leaves pinnately divided into very fine, numerous segments ; heads numerous, small, white- rayed, in a dense flat umbel. Yarrow will grow in any type of soil if well drained and, because of its persistence, has been used in pasture mix- tures for poor, hilly lands in Europe. It will withstand 2p 578 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE heavy trampling and close grazing, and if kept closely clipped on lawns, makes a fine turf. The seed is very small, one pound containing 1,667,000 seeds. At the Ontario Agricultural College it gave a yield to the acre of 3.5 tons green matter or .9 tons of hay. 692. Sachaline (Polygonum sachalinense) is a native of the island of Saghalien. It was introduced into cultiva- tion in 1869 as an ornamental and has been used for this purpose ever since. In 1893 it was considered in France to possess some value as forage, and in the succeeding years was much advertised and extravagant claims made for it. The plant is a stout perennial herb, spreading by root- stocks, and growing to a height of 6 to 10 feet ; the leaves are heart-shaped, and the greenish flowers inconspicuous. Well-established plants produce an abundance of herbage, and this is eaten readily by all farm animals. The habit of the plant adapts it better to green feeding and possibly silage than for dry fodder. In Germany it is said to yield 8 to 16 tons green matter to the acre. The difficulty with sachaline as a forage crop is that it is troublesome to start, hard stemmed, and does not yield more than corn or sorghum. Its rootstock habit makes it rather difficult to destroy promptly, but it is never troublesome as a weed. Its only practicable use would seem to be to furnish an abundance of green feed from a small area without planting each year. Sachaline was tested at many of the American experi- ment stations, but has not commended itself as worthy of culture except as an ornamental. Plants may be started either by seeds or propagated by rootstocks. 693. Burnet (Sanguisorba minor) is a native of Europe. It was first cultivated in England about 1760 as a pasture MISCELLANEOUS HERBS USED AS FORAGE 579 plant, and since that time has been used in England and France. It is a deep-rooted perennial that withstands heavy pasturing, and in England continues to grow during most of the winter. For these reasons it is commonly used in pasture mixtures, especially on poor, dry hills where the soil is calcareous. On good land, plants will grow 2 feet high, and under such conditions yield as much as 6 tons of green matter to the acre. Burnet is, however, not well adapted to such use. In America burnet has not yet been found sufficiently valuable to justify cultivation. It has been tested at many experiment stations, but mostly in small plots and not as a pasture plant. From the fact that it has become spontaneous in New England, it may be worthy of more attention as a pasture plant for that region. At the Utah Experiment Station a small plot yielded hay at the rate of 1567 pounds to the acre. 694. Buckhorn (Plantago lanceolata) , or narrow-leaved plantain, is a native of Europe, but has become a common weed nearly everywhere in America, having been intro- duced as an impurity in grass and clover seeds. It is a long-lived perennial which maintains itself firmly on any soil so long as it is well drained. On this account buckhorn has been used more or less in Europe in pasture mixtures for poor hill lands, and to some extent has also been included in hay mixtures. In America it is commonly looked upon as a troublesome weed, especially in alfalfa and red clover. The herbage, however, is readily grazed upon by sheep and cattle and eaten when cured into hay. As a pasture plant it is apparently deserving of more con- sideration than it has received, especially for thin, stony 580 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE soils. It is probably never necessary to sow buckhorn, as more or less seed is usually mixed with grass and clover seeds, and where once established the plant spreads abun- dantly by its seed. While the plant is justly condemned as a troublesome weed in lawns and elsewhere, its value for pasturage should not be overlooked. 695. Prickly comfrey (Symphytum asperrimum) is a perennial herb native to the Caucasus region. The plant has a large taproot 8 or 9 feet deep ; stems 2 to 4 feet high ; leaves oblong, large, rough, sometimes a foot or more long ; flowers tubular, bright-blue, nodding in one-sided clusters. The plant is hardy, withstanding the winters in Ontario and succeeding well in most of the United States. It was introduced into England as early as 1801 as an ornamental, and beginning with 1830 has from time to time been praised as a forage plant, especially to furnish green feed for hogs, sheep and cows. The seed of prickly comfrey is not very satisfactory, so the plant is usually propagated by divisions of the crown or by sections of the taproot. On rich soil with intensive cultivation prickly comfrey may be cut green from 3 to 6 times in a season, and the yield is said to range from 10 to 50 tons of green matter to the acre. The plants are long-lived and are said to produce abundantly for 15 to 20 years. The plant has been tested by a number of experiment stations, but has never come into much use in America. Yields have been reported by various American experi- ment stations in green matter to the acre as follows : Ontario Agricultural College, 9| tons in 4 cuttings ; New York (Geneva), 14 to 16 tons; Vermont, 46 tons ; North Carolina, 6J to 17 \ tons ; Wisconsin, 33 J tons. Even with these large yields comfrey can hardly compete MISCELLANEOUS HERBS USED AS FORAGE 581 with other forage crops. At the Wisconsin Experiment Station the yield of dry matter to the acre for red clover was 23 per cent greater than that of comfrey. At the New York Experiment Station alfalfa yielded 16 tons of green matter as compared to 14 tons by prickly comfrey. At the Pennsylvania Experiment Station the yield of diges- tible matter by prickly comfrey was considerably less than that produced by either Kafir corn or cowpeas. The value of prickly comfrey would seem to be restricted entirely to that of a soilage crop where a large amount of green matter is to be grown on a limited acreage, but even in this respect it is surpassed by other crops. As a silage crop it has been used somewhat, but the product is said to be disagreeable in odor. Animals are somewhat averse to eating comfrey at first, either green or preserved, but soon acquire a taste for it. 696. Australian saltbush (Atriplex semibaccata) . This plant is native to alkali lands in Australia, where it has long been recognized as a valuable natural forage for sheep. It was introduced into the United States in the hope that it would be profitable as a crop to grow on lands too alka- line for ordinary crops. This hope, however, has not been realized, and about all that is cultivated are a few fields to supply the small demand for seed which still persists from the advertising the plant received. In southern California the Australian saltbush has become naturalized and moderately aggressive in a few places, but elsewhere it has not shown this trait. After Atriplex semibaccata was introduced, many other species from Australia and South Africa were tested. Many of them grow well and some are quite ornamental, but none of them has come into use as a crop. On the whole, the introduced species of Atriplex are 582 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE little, if any, superior to the numerous native species that grow on the alkaline lands of the West. None of the species yet introduced has shown any tendency to spread and become aggressive, except the European Atriplex hastata L. in the Columbia Basin. CHAPTER XXVI ROOT CROPS AND OTHER COMPARABLE FORAGES ROOT crops were all developed primarily for use as human food and are still mainly grown for this purpose. They are similarly useful, however, as rich feed for do- mestic animals, and where they can be grown more cheaply than grain are important for such use. 697. Root crops. This general phrase is used somewhat loosely in agronomic literature. In the broadest sense it includes all plants whose roots, tubers, bulbs or other underground vegetative parts are utilized. More gener- ally, tubers, such as potatoes, and bulbs, such as onions, are excluded. As usually employed the term includes primarily beets or mangels, rutabagas, turnips and carrots. Some other roots used as forage are cassava, artichokes, sweet potatoes and chufas, but these are adapted to warmer climates. In a looser usage rape, kale and cabbage have been included with " root crops." The German term hackfruchte or " hoe crops " is even less definite, including not only ordinary root crops, but pumpkins, cabbage and kale. All of the root crops used for forage are also used as vegetables for human food, but the varieties grown for forage are the larger, coarser ones which produce corre- spondingly heavier yields. 583 584 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE Root crops for forage comprise in America but a small portion of the root crops grown. Much the larger part of the " root " crop is grown for vegetables and the acreage of beets for sugar is far greater than that of roots for forage. The portion of the plant harvested in " root " crops is truly a thickened root in cassava, chuf as and sweet pota- toes. In beets, carrots, rutabagas and turnips, it is partly root and partly stem which merge insensibly together. A root crop may replace any other cultivated crop in a rotation. As a rule four or more years should elapse be- fore the same or a related root crop is grown on the same .piece of land, as otherwise the damage -by insects and disease is apt to be large. 698. Importance of root crops. Root crops for forage are extensively grown for stock feed in northern Europe, especially Great Britain, Ireland, Germany, Denmark and Scandinavia. In America they have thus far been grown mainly in Canada. In the United States they are nowhere important, but according to the thirteenth census are most largely grown in the states of California, Colo- rado, Utah, New Mexico, Wisconsin, Washington, Oregon, Michigan and New York in order. The large use of forage roots in the first iour states is probably associated with beet culture for sugar. On the accompanying map is shown the number of acres of roots for forage in each state, according to the Thirteenth United States Census, and in each province according to the Fifth Canadian Census. In a general way the lack of importance of root crops in the United States is correlated with the extensive cul- ture of corn, which supplies a cheap grain feed for live stock. In northern localities, on the Pacific Coast and at high altitudes where corn or other equally cheap grain ROOT CROPS AND OTHER COMPARABLE FORAGES 585 cannot be grown, root crops furnish the most satisfactory substitute. One pound of dry matter in root crops is considered about equal in feeding value to one pound of grain. Perhaps the principal reason why root crops are not grown where corn or grain sorghums can be produced is the large amount of hand labor required by the former. FIG. 62. Root crops 1909-1910. Figures = acres. If such be the explanation, root crops are likely to become more important as population becomes denser. At the Cornell Experiment Station the average cost for four years of producing one acre of mangels was $77.28 as con- trasted with $40.77 for corn. The cost per pound of dry matter was low enough to be a profitable substitute for part of the grain rations. 699. Kinds of root crops. The most important root crops grown for forage are mangels and sugar beets (Beta 586 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE vulgaris), rutabaga (Brassica campestris), turnip (Brassica rapa), carrot (Daucus carota) and parsnip (Pastinaca saliva). These are all cultivated as vegetables; their culture on a large scale is by essentially the same methods. All of these root crops are best adapted to regions with a cool growing season, and hence their culture is most impor- tant northward. Southward the mangel and the turnip are grown more successfully than the others. All of these root crops require a fertile, loamy soil to secure the largest yields. They are nearly always grown in rows wide enough to permit of easy cultivation. The culture of most of them, however, involves considerable hand labor, especially in thinning the rows. 700. Comparison of various root crops. Inasmuch as mangels, sugar beets, rutabagas, turnips, carrots and parsnips are all adapted to very closely the same conditions, the problem arises as to which is to be preferred. In Great Britain more than 3 times as many rutabagas are grown as mangels, while in Germany, the reverse is the case. In Canada the acreage of mangels in 1910 was 53,576 against 76,488 for rutabagas and turnips. In feeding value these. roots apparently stand in the following order, sugar beets highest, followed by parsnips, mangels, rutabagas, carrots, turnips, but the differences are small. The yields of mangels and rutabagas are decidedly greater than other roots, so the latter are grown more for special purposes or for variety. At the Ontario Agri- cultural College, the average yields to the acre for 26 years have been 27,600 pounds mangels, 25,740 pounds ruta- bagas and 20,760 pounds carrots. The yields at five different stations are compiled in the accompanying table: EOOT CROPS AND OTHER COMPARABLE FORAGES 587 l\ 1 *' ~ I m H i *3lf jj, a M | -*. W CO 2 S z g 00 00 CO 2 OS $ 9 l^ (N EN o oo q o d CM' ^H oi o os (N (N N 0 3)" 510 & 10 " 71 O < K 588 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE The relation of roots to corn and other crops, as secured in Maine, show that even in the Northern States corn may outyield any root crop : SUMMARY OF AVERAGE YIELDS OF FODDER AND ROOT CROPS FOR 1890 AND 1891, MAINE EXPERIMENT STATION CROP ACRE YIELD OF CROP AS HARVESTED ACRE YIELD OF DRY MATTER ACRE YIELD OF DIGESTIBLE DRY MATTER Southern corn Pounds 39645 Pounds * 5 580 Pounds 3 850 31,695 3,415 2978 Hungarian grass 18910 4 680 2 967 Sugar beets 17,645 2 590 2 447 English flat turnips .... Field corn (flint) Sweet corn . 28,500 21,690 18260 2,559 3,110 2 671 2,375 2,208 1 870 Mangel-wurzels 15,375 1 613 1 266 Peas (seed) Timothy hay (assumed crop) 1,665 4,000 1,415 3,500 1,231 2,065 701. Roots compared with corn and sorghum. At the Michigan Experiment Station the yield of various root crops, both green and dry, was compared with those of corn and sorghum. COMPARATIVE ACRE YIELDS OF ROOT CROPS, CORN AND SORGHUM AT THE MICHIGAN EXPERIMENT STATION CROP GREEN WEIGHT TO THE ACRE DRY WEIGHT TO THE ACRE Carrots Pounds 28,836 Pounds 3322 Long red mangels 25 616 3 381 Tankard mangels 21 744 2 111 Rutabagas 31 028 3 742 Sugar beets . .... 28320 5347 Corn 29,684 8656 Sorsrhum 38.676 7.700 ROOT CROPS AND OTHER COMPARABLE FORAGES 589 These results agree with those obtained by many other experimenters ; namely, that where corn or sorghum will grow well, they will produce larger yields of dry matter than root crops. RAPE (Brassica napus) 702. Rape is a native of temperate Europe. The wild plant is an annual, but the cultivated form may be either annual or biennial. The former is grown only for the seed, from which oil is extracted; and the latter mainly for forage. Like the other . Brassicas it is best adapted to a cool growing season, and for heavy yields rich, moist soil is required. There are several varieties of rape, but the Dwarf Essex is practically the only one grown for forage. An- other variety, the Dwarf Victoria, is nearly as good, but in long-continued trials at the Ontario Agricultural Col- lege proved somewhat inferior. 703. Importance. Rape is not an important forage crop in North America, but deserves far more attention than it has received. It is especially valuable for furnish- ing good feed in autumn and early winter when little other green feed is available. If thus utilized, it conserves the stock of hay and silage for winter use. 704. Seeding. Rape may be sown in the North from May 1 to about the end of July. In Canada June 15 is about the best date. In the South fall sowing is most satisfactory. The seed should be planted about one-half inch deep, as with deeper planting the stand is likely to be very imperfect. At the Ontario Agricultural College large seed gave decidedly better yields than either medium or small seeds. When rape is sown alone, the seed bed should be well 590 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE prepared. Three methods of seeding may be used; namely, in cultivated rows, in drill rows and broadcasted. If planted in rows to be cultivated, the rows should be as close as possible to permit of easy cultivation ; 24 to 28 inches is the usual width of the rows, but they may be as narrow as 18 inches, or as wide as 36 inches. In 24-inch rows, 2 pounds of seed an acre is sufficient, and more than 3 pounds should not be used. When planted in close rows with a grain drill, 4 pounds of seed an acre is used. If broadcasted, the same or a slightly larger amount is necessary. Too dense seeding causes crowding and consequently smaller growth. At the Ontario Experimental Farm seed was drilled at various rates to the acre from 1.2 to 186.6 pounds. The lightest seeding gave the best results, but up to 6 pounds there was no great difference. The highest yield in the series was 18.5 tons and the lowest 14.1 tons. At the Tennessee Experiment Station rape was seeded March 31, April 16, April 30, May 14, June 15 and July. The last two seedings were failures. The others yielded respec- tively 8.5, 7.0, 6.0 and 3.9 tons green crop to the acre. 705. Place in rotations. In the North rape is best adapted as a catch crop to come after oats or other spring- seeded grain. In the South it may take the place of crim- son clover or fall-sown grain. Where rape does well, it makes a dense growth which tends to smother out many weeds, and the subsequent close pasturing will destroy many of the remainder. 706. Sowing with another crop. Rape is sometimes sown in spring with or in a crop of grain, such as wheat, oats or rye. One method is to broadcast the rape when the grain is two or three inches high, covering the seed by harrowing afterwards. Under favorable conditions a ROOT CROPS AND OTHER COMPARABLE FORAGES 591 good stand of rape is obtained, which in a few weeks after harvesting the grain is ready for pasturing. At the Iowa Experiment Station rape was sown with oats in spring, but it grew large enough to interfere somewhat with the harvesting of the oat crop. Sowing rape in corn at the last cultivation is frequently practiced, and where there is sufficient moisture for both crops, good results are obtained. In Oregon rape is sometimes sown in spring with red clover, and the crops pastured in fall and early winter. 707. Utilization. Rape is commonly utilized by pas- turing to sheep or hogs. Cattle eat it readily, but destroy a considerable proportion by trampling. The loss from this cause is less where the rape is grown in rows, as the animals tend to follow the rows. Animals feeding on rape consume larger amounts of salt than usual, so that this should be freely supplied. It seems to prevent too great a purging effect which rape often produces. Most animals have to acquire a taste for rape before they will eat it readily. Care must be taken to avoid bloating. Rape may also be used as a soiling crop. If fed to milch cows, it should be just after milking, as otherwise it may taint the milk. At the Michigan Experiment Station rape was preserved in a silo and the product was readily eaten by cows. 708. Carrying capacity of rape pastures. Under fa- vorable conditions rape is ready to pasture in 8 to 10 weeks after seeding. On this account it is often sown as a catch crop. At the Ontario Agricultural College in 1890, 54 acres of rape were fed upon by 537 sheep and lambs and 18 head of steers for 59 days, and several acres were left unconsumed. In 1891, 666 lambs fed on 40 acres for over 2 months. 592 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE Craig states that an acre of good rape will carry 30 hogs for 2 months. 709. Yields. Yields of rape range from 5 to 30 tons an acre green weight. The average yield on the experi- mental plots at Guelph, Ontario, for 6 years was 20.1 tons and the maximum 27.7 tons. Yields to the acre reported from other experiment stations are : New Hamp- shire, 50 tons ; Wyoming, 14.6 tons ; North Dakota, 5.5, 6.5, 14 and 5.2 tons for four years in succession ; Florida, 16.59 tons; Michigan, 6.46 tons. The average yield of a good field of rape is probably about 10 tons an acre. 710. Insects. Rape, like all plants of the cabbage tribe, is much subject to the attacks of numerous insects, and this factor tends to restrict its culture as a field crop to regions where the growing season is cool. The most troublesome insects are the Cabbage Aphis (Aphis bras- sicce), a small plant louse which often swarms on the plants in enormous numbers ; the Cabbage-worm (Pieris rapce), a smooth, green caterpillar that feeds on the leaves ; the Harlequin Plant-bug (Murgantia histrionica) , a hand- some insect which sometimes attacks the leaves in enor- mous numbers and the Root-maggot (Anthomyia brassicce), a small white grub which feeds on the roots near the sur- face. KALE (Brassica oleracea) 711. The -varieties of kale used for forage are the coarse- growing sorts, especially the one known as Thousand- headed. This is much grown in England and France as a soiling crop, and has been found admirably adapted to the north Pacific Coast, in Ontario, and in New England. The plants grow to a height of 3 to 5 feet or more and pro- duce larger yields of succulent forage, which can be fed BOOT CROPS AND OTHER COMPARABLE FORAGES 593 from October to April in regions where the winters are mild. Kale is usually fed to dairy cows, but to avoid tainting the milk, it should be fed just after milking, 25 to 40 pounds a day, in two feeds. The kale may be fed fresh or allowed to wilt before feeding, but it should not be cut more than four or five days before it is fed, nor should it be thrown in heaps, as it heats readily. Kale should not be fed while it is frozen. On the approach of freezing weather a supply sufficient to last several days should be placed in the barn. Kale may be grown by planting the seeds in hills 2.5 to 3 feet apart and then thinning to one plant. It is better, however, to start the plants in a seed bed and then transplant. The seed should be sown as early in spring as conditions will permit, and the young plants trans- planted to well-prepared land when 3 or 4 inches high. The transplanting is commonly done by dropping the plants into furrows at the proper distance apart so that the next furrow will cover the roots, but not the tops. The land is then rolled and any " misses " are later planted by hand. Kale does not seed until the second year, and on the Pacific Coast the plants survive the winter. As the plants vary considerably, it is advisable to select the best plants. At the Puyallup, Washington, Substation, a yield of 1800 pounds of seed to an acre is reported. Thousand-headed kale produced an average yield for 6 years of 19.1 tons an acre at the Ontario Agricultural College. At the New Hampshire Experiment Station a yield of 47,432 pounds to the acre was secured. Another variety of kale called marrow cabbage, which has thick fleshy stems, has given very promising results in western Washington. This variety is differ- 594 FOEAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE ent from marrow-stem kale, also used as a forage plant. 712. Diseases. Kale, like other plants of the cabbage VARIETIES OF RAPE, CABBAGE, KALE, ETC., AS FARM CROPS VARIETIES HEIGHT GREEN FODDER TO THE ACRE 1910 Average, 6 vr., 1905- 1910 1910 Average, 1905- 1910 Button Earliest Drumhead cabbage Ins. 20 32 21 19 32 19 30 25 28 32 24 29 30 28 34 32 25 50 50 46 11 Ins. 18 35 21 18 28 18 30 29 24 30 29 30 31 28 33 32 25 60 58 55 17 Tons 25.2 21.3 21.2 21.8 25.7 20.5 20.4 19.6 19.2 23.8 20.1 22.3 19.0 20.0 19.5 16.9 16.0 12.8 12.4 12.4 9.6 Tons 27.3 25.4 25.2 24.1 22.7 22.1 21.8 21.5 21.5 21.4 21.2 20.8 20.5 20.4 20.2 19.6 16.3 14.8 14.5 13,5 5.9 Thousand-headed kale . . . Button Giant Drumhead cab- bage Sutton Earliest Sheepfold cab- bafire Large-seeded Umbrella rape . Sutton Best of All Savoy cab- bage Large-seeded Common rape Dwarf Victoria rape .... Marrow collards Buckbee Wonderful Dwarf Bonanza rape ..... Dwarf Essex rape .... Large-seeded White-flowering Purple-sprouting boroccoli Hardy Curled kale .... Jersey kale Cabbage- leafed rape . . . Brussels sprouts New Chinese mustard . . . Bloomsdale large-leafed mustard White mustard German rape . . ROOT CROPS AND OTHER COMPARABLE FORAGES 595 family, may be attacked by various diseases. One of the most common is club-root, or " finger and toe disease," caused by the myxomycete Plasmodiophora brassicce. This causes the roots to become greatly enlarged and mal- formed. There is no direct remedy, and the organism causing the disease will live in the ground several years. Rotation is the best means of control. 713. Yields of kale, cabbage and other brassicaceous plants. The relative yields of various brassicaceous plants other than root crops is well shown by the long- continued tests at the Ontario Agricultural College. In these trials the different varieties of cabbage taken to- gether outyield any of the related groups ; namely, rape, kale, collards and similar plants. JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE ( Helianthus tuberosus) 714. The Jerusalem artichoke or topinambur is a native of America from Ontario to Saskatchewan south to Georgia and Arkansas. It was cultivated by the Indians for the edible tubers, and was early introduced into Europe. The artichoke is a sunflower with medium-sized heads, subcordate petioled leaves, and clustered tuberous roots. There are several varieties, distinguished by the color of the tubers, white, yellow or red, and by the shape of the leaves, either narrow or broad. Artichokes seem to be less cultivated now than formerly, and are apparently relatively more important in Europe than in America. They are cultivated much after the manner of potatoes, the tubers being planted in hills 20 inches apart each way, or better, in rows 24 to 30 inches wide. The crop is permitted to grow until the plants are killed by frost. Artichokes are valuable as forage chiefly for hogs, and they are usually harvested by turning these 596 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE animals in the field. The tubers keep in the ground all winter and usually enough of them are left by the hogs to make a new crop. Indeed, it is this weedy propensity of the artichoke that has militated much against its culture. The yield of tubers to the acre ranges from 4 to 18 tons, but in western Washington records of 20 to 39 tons to the acre are reported. CHUFA (Cyperus esculentus) 715. The chufa is apparently native in the subtropical regions of both hemispheres, but its culture originated in Mediterranean countries. It is a sedge-like plant with creeping rootstocks which produce small sweet tubers rarely over 1 inch in diameter. The tubers are eaten as human food or pastured to hogs. The plant is propagated by the tubers, which are planted in spring in rows wide enough to be cultivated, placing the tubers about one foot apart in the rows. In the South they are sometimes planted in corn at the last cultivation. One peck of tubers is needed to plant an acre, and it is better to soak them a few days before planting. Chufas are grown mainly in the Southern States. Prac- tically all the " seed " is produced in Georgia, the product in 1909 of 481 acres being 12,531 bushels. The yields seem to vary greatly. At the Arkansas Experiment Sta- tion the product was estimated at 6992 pounds to the acre. At the Alabama Experiment Station the number of tubers in 8 hills were counted and found to average 568. The yield to the acre was determined as 172 bushels green or 115.24 bushels dry. At the Ontario Agricultural Col- lege the yield averaged 22.8 bushels an acre. One bushel weighs 44 pounds. ROOT CROPS AND OTHER COMPARABLE FORAGES 597 At the Arkansas Experiment Station one-fourth acre of chufas pastured by hogs was estimated to produce 138 pounds of pork. At the Alabama Experiment Station it was calculated that an acre of chufas pastured to hogs produced 307 pounds of pork. CASSAVA (Manihot utilissima) 716. Cassava is a tropical plant probably native to Brazil. It is now cultivated in all parts of the tropics, mainly as a source of human food, and also as a basis for the manufacture of tapioca. Its culture is probably more important in Java than in any other country. Cassava is a bushy, branched, woody-based herb com- monly growing 4 to 10 feet in height. The leaves are palmately divided into 3 to 11 divisions which are oblan- ceolate, or rarely lanceolate, and from 5 to 10 inches long and about 1 inch wide. The flowers are polygamo-dice- cious, that is, some are staminate, some pistillate and some perfect. Usually flowers on one plant are primarily pis- tillate and those on another primarily staminate. The fleshy, starchy roots grow in clusters of 4 to 8 to each plant, the largest being 3 to 4 feet in length and 2 to 3 inches in diameter, a single cluster weighing usually 5 to 10 pounds, but sometimes 20 to 30 pounds. Cassava is adapted in the United States only to Florida and the southern portions of Georgia, Alabama, Missis- sippi, Louisiana, the coastal region of Texas and California. The plant requires abundant moisture during the growing season and preferably a sandy loam soil. The plants will grow well in clay soils, but the cost of harvesting the roots then becomes excessive. The varieties of cassava are very numerous, but are usually put into two groups, namely, the sweet and the 598 FOE AGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE bitter, the latter containing more or less hydrocyanic acid in the roots and therefore poisonous. Under certain favorable conditions of soil and climate it seems that all cassavas tend to become sweet, and under unfavorable conditions there is a tendency for them to become bitter. Cassava has been cultivated to a slight extent in Florida for at least 50 years, primarily for the manufacture of starch. It has also been employed to some extent to fur- nish root forage for live stock. Cultivated in this way, however, it is probably not as advantageous on the whole as sweet potatoes. Cassava is commonly propagated by means of portions of the roots or portions of the stems which are stored in a dry place during winter and protected against damage by frost. The plants can also be propagated by means of seeds, but this results in great variation and besides the plants will not make as large growth in the same time. Seed canes are usually cut in pieces 4 to 8 inches in length and planted after all danger of frost is over. They are usually planted 4 feet apart each way. One great trouble with cassava is the difficulty, at least under Florida conditions, of securing a perfect stand, as many of the canes rot or otherwise become weak- ened and do not produce plants. On this account the yields are very variable, the maximum being perhaps 20 tons to the acre. The culture of cassava has never been very important in the United States and has greatly decreased in the last 20 years. INDEX Achillea millefolium, 577. Adulteration of seeds, 71. Adzuki, 554. Aftermath, 4, 102. Age of seeds, 72. Aggressiveness in plants, 13. Agropyron occidentale, 221. repens, 353. tenerum, 219. Agrostis alba, 170. capillaris, 170. dispar, 170. vulgaris, 170. Aleppo-grass, 244. Alfalfa, 305-359. agricultural history, 305. Arabian, 314. botanical varieties, 313. breeding methods, 352. care of field, 340. characteristics of, 319. clipping, 330. cold relations, 307. crown-gall, 356. cultivated varieties, 313. cuttings, 336. diseases, 356. distribution of, 312. dodder, 354. Grimm, 315. heat relations, 307. humidity relations, 310. importance of varieties, 316. improvement, 351. influence of source of seed, 317. insects, 358. irrigation, 337-338. life period, 320. love-vine, 354. meal, 346. methods of seeding, 329. mixtures, 342. number of cuttings, 336. nurse crops, 329. origin of name, 306. pasturing, 344. Peruvian, 314. pollination, 348. proportion of leaves, stems and roots, 325. quality of different cuttings, 336. rate of seeding, 327. regional strains, 318. root-rot, 356. roots, 320. rootstocks, 323. rotations, 343. row cultivation, 341. seed, 349. seed-bed, 326. seed production, 346. seeding, 327-329. seedlings, 323. shoots, 324. Siberian, 315. Sickle, 315. silage, 345. soil moisture relations, 322. soil relations, 310. soiling, 345. statistics, 118-119. time of cutting, 333. time of seeding, 328. time to apply irrigation, 337. Turkestan, 314. Variegated, 315. viability of seed, 350. weeds, 352. winter irrigation, 338. winter-killing, 331. Yellow-flowered, 315. yellows, 358. 599 600 INDEX Alfalfa, Continued. yields in relation to water supply, 339. Alopecurus pratensis, 227. Alsike, 405. Alsike clover, 405-410. adaptations, 406. agricultural history, 406. botany, 405. characteristics, 406. culture, 408. hay, 408. importance, 407. pasturage value, 410. regional strains, 407. seed, 409. seed-production, 409. Amerosporium economicum, 511. Analyses, chemical, 5659. Andropogon halepensis, 244. sorghum, 260-284. Anthomyia brassicae, 592. Anthoxanthum odoratum, 229. Anthyllis vulneraria, 566. Aphis brassicae, 592. Aphis, sorghum, 278. Arachis hypogaea, 546. Arctic grass, 256. Army worm, 278. Arrhenatherum avenaceum, 189. elatius, 189. Artichoke, Jerusalem, 595. Ash, 56.' Asparagus-bean, 494. Astragalus falcatus, 569. Atriplex hastata, 582. semibaccata, 581. Australian brome-grass, 256. Australian oats, 256. Australian redtop, 258. Australian saltbush, 581. Autographa gamma calif ornica, 360. Avena elatior, 189. Axonopus compressus, 250. Bacillus sorghi, 277. tumefaciens, 356. Bahama-grass, 237. Bajri, 301. Bareet-grass, 44. Bean, Adzuki, 554. Asparagus, 494. Chinese, 545. Horse, 479, 550. Hyacinth, 555. Jack, 549. Knife, 550. Lyon, 545. Moth, 553. Mung, 551. Overlook, 550. Pearson, 550. Soy, 513-536. Sword, 550. Velvet, 544. Yokohama, 546. Bee clover, 417. Beggarweed, 548. Bermuda-grass, 237-244, 353. adaptations, 239. agricultural history, 238. botany, 237. characteristics, 237. culture, 241. feeding value, 243. importance, 240. rootstocks, 242. seed-production, 243. variability, 240. yields of hay, 242. Berseem, 435. Bird's-foot trefoil, 568. Bird vetch, 481. Black medick, 435. Blight, sorghum, 277. Blissus leucopterus, 278. Bloating, 112. Blue bunch-grass, 225. Blue-grass, Canada, 163-166. adaptations, 165. botany, 163. culture, 164. importance, 166. seed, 164. Blue-grass, English, 204. Blue-grass, Kentucky, 154-163. adaptations, 156. botany, 154. INDEX 601 Blue-grass, Kentucky, Continued. characteristics, 157. culture, 158. fertilizers, 159. hybrids, 163. importance, 157. seed, 162. seed-production, 161. yields of hay, 160. Blue-grass, Texas, 166-167. Blue-joint, 221. Blue-stem, 221. Colorado, 221. Bokhara clover, 417. Bonavist, 555. Brassicaceous plants, 595. Brassica napus, 589. oleracea, 592. Breeding, alfalfa, 351-353. red clover, 403. sorghum, 278. soybeans, 536. timothy, 149, 150. Broad-bean, 479. Broccoli, 594. Brome, Australian, 256. Austrian, 195. Awnless, 195. Erect, 233. Hungarian, 195. Meadow, 233. Russian, 195. Schrader's, 256. Smooth, 195. Upright, 233. Brome-grass, 195-203. adaptations, 197. agricultural history, 196. botany, 195. common names, 195. description, 195. fertilizers for, 199. hay, 199. mixtures, 202. pasture value, 202. rate of seeding, 198. roots, 197. seed, 201. seeding methods, 197-198. seed-production, 201. time of cutting, 198. treatment of fields, 200. variability, 202. Bromus erectus, 233. inermis, 196. Reimanni, 196. secalinus, 299. unioloides, 256, 257. Broom-corn millet, 285, 295. Brown hay, 2, 38. Browsing, 4. Bruchus pisorum, 452. Brucophagus funebris, 402. Brussels' sprouts, 594. Buckhorn, 579. Bur clover, 437-439. Burnet, 578. Button clover, 437. Cabbage, 594-595. Cabbage aphis, 592. worm, 592. Calorie, 62. Calorimeter, 62. Canada blue-grass, 163-166. Canary-grass, 300. Canary-grass, reed, 230-231. agricultural history, 230. botany, 230. characteristics, 230. Canavalia ensiformis, 549. gladiata, 550. Capacity, carrying, 108. Carpet-grass, 250. Carrying capacity, 108. Cassava, 597. Cat-tail millet, 286, 301. Catjang, 494. Cat's-tail, meadow, 124. Cercospora cruenta, 511. Cereals for hay, 298. Cheat, 299. Chemical analyses, 56. Chemical composition, relation to fertility, 56. relation to stage of maturity, 58, 381. Chess, 299. 602 INDEX Chickasaw pea, 551. Chickling vetch, 454. Chick-pea, 453. Chinch-bug, 278, 294. Chinese velvet bean, 545. Chufa, 596. Cicer arietinum, 453. Clover, Alsike, 405-410. anthracnose, 398. Bee, 417. black spot, 398. Bokhara, 417. Bur, 437-439. chalcis, 402. Crimson, 426-434. Dutch, 411. flower-midge, 402. French, 426. German, 426. hay-worm, 403. Honey, 417. Hungarian, 410. Incarnate, 426. Italian, 426. Japan, 539. Ladino, 416. leaf-spot, 398. leaf -weevil, 402. Mexican, 571. Orel, 367. Persian, 434. Red, 361-404. root-borer, 401. Russian, 367. rust, 398. Scarlet, 426. sickness, 398-401. Sour, 425. Sweet, 417-425. White, 411-417. Club-root, 595. Coarse forage, statistics, 118, 119. Cock's-foot, 176. Coffee-bean, 453. Collards, 594, 595. Colletotrichum cereale, 398. trifolii, 358, 398, 404. Color of seeds, 72. Colorado-grass, 297. Common vetch, 457-467. adaptations, 458. agricultural history, 457. botany, 457. culture, 459. feeding value, 463. fertilizers, 464. harvesting for hay, 462. importance, 458. lime, 465. pasturing, 462. rate of seeding, 461. rotations, 463. seed, 466. seed-production, 465, 466. silage, 465. time of sowing, 460. varieties, 458. Concentrates, 4. Coracan, 296. Corn, comparison with root crops, 588. statistics, 118, 119. worm, 278. Cost of seeding, 52. Cowpea, 491-512. adaptations, 492. agricultural history, 491. Black, 498. Blackeye, 498. Botanical origin, 491. Brabham, 497. Clay, 497. Congo, 498. correlations, 496. cuttings, number of, 501. disease resistance, 511. Early Buff, 498. feeding value, 503. Groit, 497. hay, 501. hay yields, 502. importance, 493. inoculation, 500. insect enemies, 511. Iron, 497. life period, 494. mixtures, 504-505. New Era, 497. INDEX 603 Cowpea, Continued. pods, 495. pollination, 506. Red Ripper, 498. roots, 510. seeding, method, 498. seeding, rate, 498. seeding, time, 499. seed-production, 506. seeds, 495, 508. seeds, proportion to hulls, 508. Shinney, 497. Speckled, 497. Unknown, 497. uses, 493. varietal distinctions, 494. varieties, 496. viability of seed, 509. Whippoorwill, 496. Wonderful, 497. yield of seed, 507. Crab-grass, 258, 353. Crested dogstail, 235, 236. Crimson clover, 426-434. adaptations, 427. agricultural history, 426. botany, 426. cutting for hay, 431. description, 427. importance, 428. method of sowing, 430. other uses, 432. seed, 433. seeding, 429. seed-production, 433. time of sowing, 430. varieties, 429. yields, 432. Crop-grass, 258. Crops, classification in statistical returns, 113. nurse, 90. Crown-gall, 356. Crude fiber, 56. Crude protein, 56. Cumarin, 418. Curing hay, 24. completion of, 28. ease of, 53. special devices for, 26. Cuscuta arvensis, 354. epithymum, 354. indecora, 354. planiflora, 354. Cutting, time of, 22. alfalfa, 333. alsike clover, 408. brome-grass, 198. Canada blue-grass, 165. chess (or cheat), 299. common vetch, 462. cowpea, 501. crimson clover, 431. Florida beggarweed, 549. Guinea-grass, 256. hairy vetch, 472. lespedeza, 543. meadow fescue, 207. . meadow foxtail, 228. millet, 291. orchard-grass, 181. Para-grass, 254. peas, 447. red clover, 380. sorghum, 274, 275. soybeans, 527. sweet clover, 421. tall oat grass, 192. timothy, 136. Cyamopsis tetragonoloba, 557. Cynodon dactylon, 237-244. Cynosurus cristatus, 235. Cyperus esculentus, 596. Dactylis altaica, 177. aschersoniana, 177. glomerata, 176. Dakota vetch, 439. Dasyneura leguminicola, 402. Depth of seeding or planting, 88. Desmodium tortuosum, 548. Digestible nutrients, 59-62. Digitaria sanguinalis, 258. Diplosis sorghicola, 277. Disease resistance, cowpeas, 511. red clover, 404. timothy, 148. Diseases, alfalfa, 356. 604 INDEX Diseases, Continued. cowpea, 511. kale, 594. meadow fescue, 209. millet, 294. red clover, 398. slender wheat-grass, 220. sorghum, 277. soybean, 536. timothy, 146. Dogstail, crested, 235. Dogs'-tooth grass, 237. Dolichos lablab, 555. Doob, 237. Durra, 273. Sudan, 272. Earth nut, 546. Echinochloa colona, 296. crus-galli, 286. frumentacea, 286. Egyptian pea, 453. Eleusine coracana, 286, 296. indica, 297. Energy value, 62. English blue-grass, 204. English rye-grass, 211. Ensilage, 39. Erect brome, 233. Ervil, 478. Erysiphe polygoni, 398. trifolii, 358. Esparcet, 559. Esparsette, 559. Ether extract, 56. Euchla?na mexicana, 303. Eurymus eurytheme, 360. Evergreen grass, 189. Evergreen millet, 244. Experimental results in seeding, 89. Extravaginal shoots, 15. Fagiolo, 492. False guinea-grass, 244. False oat-grass, 189. Fat, 56. Feed, definition of, 1. Feeding experiments, 54, 547. Feeding values, 54. Feeding values, Bermuda-grass, 243. common vetch, 463. comparison of, 64. cowpea, 503. hairy vetch, 473. millet, 292. orchard-grass, 187. peanuts, 547. red clover, 383, 384. root crops, 585, 586. soybean, 531. timothy, 144. Fenugreek, 486. Fermentation of silage, 40. Fertilizers, effect on chemical com- position, 56. for brome-grass, 199. for hay crops, 97-102. for Kentucky blue-grass, 159. for red clover, 374-376. for soybeans, 528. for timothy, 133. for vetch, 464. Fescue, Arizona, 225. Chewing's, 227. Fine-leaved, 224. Hard, 224. Meadow (see Meadow fescue), 204-209. Red, 226. Reed, 210. Sheep's, 223-226. Tall, 210. Various-leaved, 224. Festuca arundinacea, 210. dumetorum, 227. duriuscula, 224. elatior, 204, 210, 211. gigantea, 211. heterophylla, 224. ovina, 223-226. pratensis, 204. rubra, 225. tenuifolia, 224. Feterita, 272. Fiber, 56. Field bean, 479. Field pea, 441-453. Finger and toe disease, 595. INDEX 605 Finger-millet, 286. Flat pea, 505. Florida beggarweed, 548. velvet bean, 544. Fodder, definition, 2. loss of, in field, 32. Forage crops, adaptation to con- ditions, 48. adapted for ensiling, 42. botany of, 11. choice of, 4766. civilization and, 7. comparative knowledge of, 5. definition, 1. in Europe and America, 9. preservation of, 2146. special purposes for which grown, 48. statistics of, 113-122. yielding capacity, 49. Fowl meadow-grass, 167. Foxtail, meadow, 227. Foxtail millet, adaptations, 287. agricultural history, 286. culture, 290. diseases, 294. feeding value, 292. German, 289. Golden Wonder, 289. hay, 291. Hungarian, 290. importance, 288. injuriousness, 293. insects, 294. Kursk, 290. Mammoth, 289. seed, 293. seeding, 291. seed-production, 293. Siberian, 290. silage, 292. varieties, 288. French rye-grass, 189. Fromental, 189. Fumigation of seeds, 512. Fungous diseases in seeds, 75. Furze, 570. Fusarium, 511, 536. roseum, 356. Galega officinalis, 568. Galygumber, 417. Garawi, 279. Garbanzo, 453. Genuineness of seed, 67. Geargeson, 42. German millet, see Foxtail millet. Germination of seed, 70. Gipsy pea, 453. Glceosporium trifolii, 398. Glumes, 14. Glycine soja, 515. ussuriensis, 515. Goat's rue, 568. Golden crown-grass, 251. Goober, 546. Gorse, 570. Grain cut green, statistics of, 118, 119. Gram, Madras, 453. Grass, definition of, 4. Grasses, characteristics, 14. wild, salt or prairie, statistics, 118, 119. other tame and cultivated, 119, 120. Grass-pea, 454. Ground nut, 546. Guar, 557. Guaranteed seeds, 75. Guinea-grass, 254. false, 244. Hackfriichte, 583. Hairy vetch, 467-477. advantages, 474. botany, 468. climatic adaptations, 469. depth of seeding, 471. disadvantages, 474. feeding value, 473. harvesting for hay, 472. inoculation, 471. pollination, 472. rate of seeding, 469. rotations, 473. seed-production, 474475. seeds, 476. soil preferences, 469. 606 INDEX Hairy vetch, Continued. sources of seed, 475. time of seeding, 470. uses, 471. Hard seeds, 76. Hariali, 237. Harlequin plant-bug, 592. Harvesting for hay, ease of, 53. time of, 53. Hawaiian redtop, 258. Hay, alfalfa, 333. alsike clover, 408. brome, 199. brown, 2, 38. cereals for, 298. common vetch, 462. cowpea, 501. crimson clover, 431-432. curing, 24. definition, 2. field pea, 447. Florida beggarweed, 49. hairy vetch, 472. lespedeza, 542. losses in field, 32. making, 23-27. meadow fescue, 207. millet, 291. orchard-grass, 181. perennial rye-grass, 213. red clover, 380-382. shrinkage, 29. sorghum, 275. soybeans, 527. stacks, 36. statistics, 37, 117-120. Sudan-grass, 281. sweet clover, 421. tall oat-grass, 192. timothy, 136. Haymaking in dry weather, 23. under humid conditions, 24. Hay plants, comparison of Europe and America, 10. Hedysarium coronarium, 562. Helianthus annuus, 574. tuberosus, 595. Herd-grass, 123. Heterodera radicicola, 511, 536. Hoe crops, 583. Hog millet, 285. Holcus lanatus, 232. Homalocenchrus hexandrus, 44. Honey clover, 417. Hordeum jubatum, 353. murinum, 354. Horse-bean, 479, 550. Hosackia americana, 439. Hoven, 112. Hungarian grass, 290. Hungarian millet, 290. Hyacinth bean, 555. Hybrids, Kentucky blue-grass, 163. meadow fescue, 209. perennial rye-grass, 209. Texas blue-grass, 167. Hylastinus obscurus, 401. Hypsopygia costalis, 403. Idaho pea, 453. Inoculation, natural, 17. artificial, 18. Insects, injurious to alfalfa, 358. cowpea, 511. millet, 294. mung bean, 552. pea, 452. rape, 592. red clover, 401. sorghum, 277. soybeans, 536. timothy, 146. Intravaginal shoots, 15. Irrigation with alfalfa, 51, 337, 340. with alsike clover, 406. with berseem, 435. with blue-grass, 161. with brome-grass, 51. with Guinea-grass, 255. with Italian rye-grass, 51, 211. with meadow foxtail, 228. with orchard-grass, 51. with peas, 449. with red clover, 376. with reed canary-grass, 231. with sainfoin, 561. INDEX 607 Irrigation, Continued. with Shaftal clover, 435. with sulla, 562, 563. with tall oat-grass, 190. with timothy, 51, 134. with Western wheat-grass, 221. Italian millet, see foxtail millet. Italian rye-grass, 215-219. adaptations, 216. agricultural history, 215. botany, 215. characteristics, 215. culture, 216. hay yields, 217. irrigation, 216. seed, 218. seed-production, 218. Jack bean, 549. Japan clover, 539, 543. adaptations, 541. agricultural history, 540. culture, 541. description, 539. hay, 542. pasturage value, 542. seed-production, 543. Japanese millet, 286, 294. Japanese sugar cane, 247-249. adaptations, 247. characteristics, 247. culture, 248. history, 247. planting, 248. seed-cane, 249. utilization, 248. yields, 249. Jerusalem artichoke, 595. Johnson-grass, 244, 247. adaptations, 245. agricultural history, 244. botany, 244. poisonous qualities, 246. utilization, 245. Kafir corn, 271. Kale, 592, 594. diseases, 594. Kentucky blue-grass, 154, 163. Kidney vetch, 566. Knife bean, 550. Kudzu, .563. Kursk millet, 290. Laria pisorum, 452. Lathyrus cicera, 484. ochrus, 484. sativus, 454. silvestris, 565. tingitanus, 482. Legumes, definition, 15. dependence on root nodules, 19. Lemma, 14. Lespedeza, 539. Lespedeza striata, 539. Ligule, 14. Lime, effects on Kentucky blue- grass, 159. effects on red clover, 376. effects on soybeans, 529. effects on timothy, 134. effects on vetch, 465. Local seed, superiority of, 69. Lodicule, 14. Lolium multiflorum, 211, 214, 215. perenne, 211. temulentum, 211. Loss of hay or fodder in the field, 32. Loss of substance in growing plants, 34. Lotus americanus, 439. corniculatus, 568. tetragonolobus, 489. uliginosus, 569. Lucern, see Alfalfa. sand, 315. Lupines, 487. Lupinus, 487. Lyon bean, 545. Macrosporium sarcinseforme, 358. Manihot utilissima, 597. Market demands, 53. Maturity of plants in relation to chemical composition, 58. Meadow, definition of, 4. Meadow brome, 233. 608 INDEX Meadow fescue, 204-209. adaptations, 205. agricultural history, 204. botany, 204. characteristics, 205. hay, 207. hybrids, 209. importance, 206. pasture value, 209. pests, 209. seed, 208. seeding, 206. seed-production, 207. Meadow foxtail, 227-229. adaptations, 228. characteristics, 227. culture, 228. seed, 228. Meadow-grass, Fowl, 167. Rough-stalked, 169. Wood, 170. Meadow mixtures, 92. Meadow oat-grass, 189. Meadow soft-grass, 232. Meadows, composition of mix- tures, 95. fertilizers for, 97-102. pasturing of, 108. reseeding old, 96. scarifying old, 96. topdressing, 102. treatment of, 96. Meadows and pastures, 92-112. Means-grass, 244. Medicago arabica, 437. falcata, 313. hispida, 437. lupulina, 435. orbicularis, 437. sativa, 305-360. scutellata, 437. Medick, see Alfalfa. Medick, Black, 435. Meibomia tortuosa, 548. Melanoplus bivittatus, 359. differentialis, 359. Melilot, Official, 424. Siberian, 417. Sweet, 417. White, 417, Yellow, 424. Melilotus alba, 417. altissima, 424. ccerulea, 424. gracilis, 424. indica, 425. officinalis, 424. parviflora, 425. speciosa, 424. Mesquite, 232. Mexican clover, 571. Midge, sorghum, 277. Mildew, Downy, 398. Powdery, 398. Millet, 285-298. Broom-corn, 285, 295, 298. Finger, 286, 297. Foxtail, 285, 286-294. Hog, 285. Japanese barnyard, 286, 294. Pearl, 286, 300-303. Shama, 296. statistics, 118, 119. Texas, 297. Milo, 272. Mixtures, compared with single grasses (yields), 94. meadow, 92, 95. pasture, 105. with alfalfa, 94, 95, 342. with alsike, 95. with brome-grass, 94, 202. with cowpeas, 504, 506. with fowl meadow-grass, 95, 168. with Italian rye-grass, 95. with Kentucky blue-grass, 158. with oats, 448. with orchard-grass, 94, 186. with peas, 448. with rape, 590. with red clover, 94, 377. with redtop, 94, 95. with slender wheat-grass, 221. with sorghum, 275. with soybeans, 529. with Sudan-grass, 282. with tall oat-grass, 94, 191, 194. with timothy, 94, 95. INDEX 609 Mixtures, Continued. with vetch, 473, 474. with yellow trefoil, 437. Moth bean, 551. Mung bean, 551. Murgantia histrionica, 592. Mustard, white, 594. Natal-grass, 258. Net energy values, 62. Nitrogen-free extract, 56. Nodule organism, 16. Nodules, root, see Root nodules. Nonesuch, 435. Number of seed in pound, 80-82. Nurse crops, 90. for alfalfa, 329. Nutrients, digestible, 59-62. Oat-grass, yellow, 234. false, 189. tall, 189-195. tall meadow, 189. Ochrus, 484. Onobrychis sativa, 559. vicisefolia, 559. Opuntia, 572. Orchard-grass, 176-188. adaptations to shade, 178. advantages and disadvantages, 179. agricultural history, 177. botany, 176. climatic adaptations, 178. description, 176. feed value, 187. harvesting for hay, 181. harvesting for seed, 183. importance, 180. improvement by selection, 188. life history, 181. mixtures, 186. pasturage value, 187. pests, 188. seed, 184. seeding, 180. soil preferences, 178. source of seed, 185. 2 R utilization of stubble and after- math, 186. value as a soil binder, 188. variability, 179. weeds, 183. yields of hay, 182. Oregon pea, 551. Ornithopus sativus, 488. Overlook bean, 550. Ozonium omnivorum, 356. Pacey's rye-grass, 215. Pachymerus chinensis, 511. quadrimaculatus, 511. Palatability of pasture grasses, 104. Palea, 14. Panicum barbinode, 253. maximum, 254. miliaceum, 285. texanum, 297. Para-grass, 253, 254. Paspalum, 251-253. Paspalum dilatatum, 251-253. Pasture, acreage of, improved in United States, 102. area of wild, in United States, 102. definition, 4. grasses, palatability of, 104. mixtures, 105. plants, most important, 103. yield, 104-105. Pasture value of alfalfa, 344. of alsike, 410. of Bermuda-grass, 240-242. of brome-grass, 202. of Canada blue-grass, 166. of common vetch, 462. of crimson clover, 432. of hairy vetch, 472. of Kentucky blue-grass, 157. of lespedeza, 542. of meadow fescue, 209. of orchard-grass, 187. of peanuts, 547. of peas, 448. of red clover, 384. of redtop, 172. of sorghum, 276. 610 INDEX Pasture value, Continued. of timothy, 139. of white clover, 413. Pastures, meadows and, 92-112. for hogs, 109-111. temporary, 109. Pasturing meadows, 108. Pea, 441-453. adaptations, 443. Arthur, 444. Blackeye Marrowfat, 444. botany, 441. Canadian Beauty, 444. Chickasaw, 551. description, 442. development, 447. Early Britain, 445. Flat, 565. Golden Vine, 444. hay, 447. history, 441. importance, 443. irrigation, 449. Marrowfat, 444. oats and, 448. Oregon, 551. pasture value, 448. Prussian Blue, 445. seed, 451. seeding, 446. seed-production, 449. square-pod, 489. varieties, 443-445. weevil, 452. Wisconsin Blue, 445. Peanut, 546-548. Pearl millet, 286, 300. Pearson bean, 550. Pencillaria, 300. Penicillaria, 300. Pennisetum glaucum, 286, 300. Pentosans, 56. Perch, 26. Perennial rye-grass, 211-215. adaptations, 212. agricultural history, 211. agricultural varieties, 212. botany, 211. characteristics, 211. culture, 213. hay yields, 213. importance, 212. name, 211. seed, 214. seed-production, 214. Peronospora trifoliorum, 398. Petit gazon, 250. Phalaris arundinacea, 230-232. canariensis, 300. Phaseolus aconitifolius, 553. angularis, 554. aureus, 551. mungo, 552. Phleum alpinum, 122. pratense, 122. Phytonomus murinus, 359. punctatus, 402. Pieris rapse, 592. Pigeon bean, 479. Pigeon-grass, 353. Pindar, 546. Pisum arvense, 441. hortense, 441. sativum, 441. Plantago lanceolata, 579. Plant-bug, harlequin, 592. Plasmodiophora brassicae, 595. Plumpness of seed, 12. Poa arachnifera, 166. compressa, 163. flava, 167. nemoralis, 170. pratensis, 154. serotina, 167. triflora, 167. trivialis, 169. Poisoning by Johnson grass, 246. by millet, 293. by sorghum, 276. Pollination, alfalfa, 348. cowpea, 506. hairy vetch, 472. red clover, 387. soybean, 533. white clover, 415. Polygqnum sachalinense, 578. Polyth'rincium trifolii, 398. Preservation of forage, 21-46. INDEX 611 Prickly pear, 572. Proso, 285. Protein, 56. Pseudomonas medicaginis, 357. radicicola, 16. Pseudopeziza medicaginis, 357. trifolii, 398. Pueraria thunbergiana, 563. Pulses, 15. Purity of seed, 68, 72. Purslane, 571. Pussley, 571. Quack grass, 353. Quality of seed, 67. Rabbits, injury by, 535. Racehorse-grass, 244. Rachilla, 14. Ragi, 286. Ranges, 5. Rape, Dwarf Essex, 589. Dwarf Victoria, 589. ' importance, 589. insects, 592. mixtures, 590. pasturage, 591. rotations, 590. seeding, 589. utilization, 591. yields, 592. Rate of seeding, 85 (also see Seeding). Red clover, 361-404. agricultural history, 361. botany, 361. breeding, 403. climatic relations, 364. clover-flower midge, 402. clover-hay worm, 403. clover-leaf weevil, 402. clover-seed chalcis fly, 402. color of seed, 393. composition at different stages, 381. cuttings, number of, 381. cuttings, value of different, 384. disease-resistant strains, 404. diseases, 398. distribution, 362. effects of gypsum, 376. effects of lime, 376. fecundation, 387. feeding value, 383-384. fertilizers, 374-376. field treatment, 374. flowers, 385. flowers, proportion of, 397. green weight relation to dry weight, 382. gypsum, effects of, 376. harvesting seed crop, 389. hay yields, 382. importance, 362. improvement, 403. insects, 401. irrigation, 376. leaves, proportion of, 397. life period, 365. lime, effects of, 376. Mammoth, 366. Medium, 366. mixtures, 377. number of seeds on head, 385. Orel, 367. pasturage, 384. pollination, 387. regional strains, 367. root-borer, 401. roots, 394-397. roots, proportion of, 396. rotations, 377-378. Russian, 367. seed color, 393. seed yields, 390. seed-crop, harvesting, 389. seed-crop, statistics, 391. seeding, depth, 373. seeding rate, 370. seeding time, 369. seeding with a nurse-crop, 371. seeding without a nurse-crop, 373. seedlings, 371. seed-production, 387. seeds, 391-394. shade, effect of, 365. shoots, 395-396. shoots, proportion of, 396. 612 INDEX Red Clover, Continued. sickness, 398-401. silage, 385. soil relations, 363. soiling, 384. stage to cut, 380. statistics of seed crop, 391. stems, proportion of, 396. straw, 391. varieties, 366-368. - volunteer crops, 379. winter-killing, 374. yields of hay, 382. yields of seed, 390. Redtop, adaptations, 171. agricultural history, 171. Australian, 258. botany, 170. characteristics, 172. culture, 173. Hawaiian, 258. importance, 172. names, 170-175. regional strains, 173. seed, 175. seed production, 174. variability, 173. yield of hay, 174. Reed canary-grass, 230. Reed fescue, 210. Rescue-grass, 256. Reseeding old meadows, 96. Respiration calorimeter, 62. Rhizoctonia violacea, 398. Ribbon-grass, 230. Richardsonia scabra, 571. Robertson mixture, 43. Root crops, 3, 583. comparison of different, 586. comparison with corn, 588. comparison with sorghum, 588. importance, 584. kinds, 585. Root forage, statistics, 120. Rootknot, 511, 536. Root-maggot, 592. Root nodules, description, 16. forms of, 17. importance of, 19. Root-rot, 356. Roots, alfalfa, 320, 325. brome, 197. cowpea, 510. Kentucky blue-grass, 158. orchard-grass, 188. red clover, 394-397. redtop, 172. sainfoin, 559. sorghum, 263. sweet clover, 421. timothy, 142, 143. Rootstocks, alfalfa, 323. Bermuda-grass, 242. Rotations, with alfalfa, 343. with common vetch, 463. with hairy vetch, 473. with rape, 590. with red clover, 377. with soybeans, 530. Roughage, 3. Rough cock's-foot, 176. Roughness, see Roughage. Rough-stalked meadow grass, 169, Rowen, 4, 102. Rye-grass, Argentine, 215. Bailly's, 215. English, 211. Italian, see Italian rye-grass. Pacey's, 215. perennial, 211, 215. Rieffel's, 215. short-seeded, 215. Westernwolth, 215, 218. Saccharum officinarum, 247. Sachaline, 578. Sainfoin, 559-562. agricultural history, 569. American data, 561. culture, 560. description, 559. seed, 561. Spanish, 562. Sampling of seed, 75. Sanguisorba minor, 578. Schabdar, 434. Schrader's brome-grass, 256. Sclerotinia trifoliorum, 398. INDEX 613 Scotch-grass, 237. Seed inspection, 74. Seeding, adzuki, 555. alfalfa, 326-329. alsike clover, 419. Bermuda- grass, 241. brome-grass, 197198. bur clover, 439. common vetch, 459-461. cost of, 52. cowpeas, 498-500. crimson clover, 429. depth of, 88. experimental results, 89. field peas, 446. Florida beggarweed, 548. hairy vetch, 469-471. in practice, 83. Italian rye-grass, 216. Kentucky blue-grass, 158. lespedeza, 541. meadow fescue, 206. millet, 291. moth bean, 554. mung bean, 552. old meadows, 96. orchard grass, 180. peanuts, 547. perennial rye-grass, 213. rape, 589. rate of, 85. red clover, 369-373. redtop, 173. sainfoin, 560. slender wheat-grass, 219. sorghum, 267-268. soybeans, 522-523. Sudan-grass, 280. sweet clover, 419. tall oat-grass, 192. time of, 86. timothy, 128-132. velvet bean, 545. white clover, 413. Seed-production, alfalfa, 346. alsike clover, 409. Bermuda-grass, 243. brome-grass, 210. common vetch, 465. cowpea, 506. crimson clover, 433. hairy vetch, 474. Italian rye-grass, 218. lespedeza, 543. Kentucky blue-grass, 161. meadow fescue, 207. millet, foxtail, 293. orchard-grass, 183. peas, 449-451. perennial rye-grass, 214. red clover, 387. redtop, 174. soybean, 531. Sudan-grass, 283. sweet clover, 423. tall oat-grass, 192. timothy, 140. Seeds, actual value of, 69. adulteration of, 71. age of, 72. alfalfa, 349-350. alsike clover, 409. brome-grass, 201. Canada blue-grass, 164. color of, 72. common vetch, 466. cowpea, 495, 508. crimson clover, 433. fungous diseases of, 75. genuineness of, 67. guaranteed, 75. hairy vetch, 476. hard, 76. Italian rye-grass, 218. Kentucky blue-grass, 162. meadow fescue, 208. meadow foxtail, 228. millet, foxtail, 293. misbranding of, 71. number to pound, 80, 82. orchard- grass, 184. perennial rye-grass, 214. plumpness of, 72. production of forage crop, 83. purity of, 68. quality of, 67. red clover, 391-393. red fescue, 226. 614 INDEX Seeds, Continued. redtop, 175. sampling of, 75. sheep's fescue, 226. sorghum, 269. source of, 73. soybean, 534. standards of germination, 70. standards of purity, 70. superiority of local, 69-. sweet clover, 424. tall oat-grass, 194. timothy, 127. viability of, 68. weed, 78. weight of, 78-80. white clover, 416. Seeds and seeding, 67-91. Serradella, 488. Setaria italica, 285, 286. Shaftal, 434. Shama millet, 296. Sheep's fescue, 223-226. culture, 225. importance, 225. seeding, 226. Shrinkage of hay, 29. Siberian melilot, 417. Siberian millet, 290. Silage, 39. advantages of, 41. alfalfa, 345. crops for, 42. definition, 3. fermentation, 40-41. millet, 292. rape, 591. red clover, 385. sorghum, 275. soybean, 530. summer, 40. sweet clover, 422. vetch, 465, 471. Silos, 39. Sipha flava, 278. Slender wheat-grass, 219. Snail clover, 437. Soilage, see Soiling. Soiling, 45. alfalfa, 345. crimson clover, 432. definition, 3. penicillaria, 301. rape, 591. red clover, 384. sorghum, 274. systems, 44. Soja bean, see Soybean. Soja max, 515. Sorghum, 260-284. adaptations, 262. agricultural groups, 263. agricultural history, 261. agricultural varieties, 269. Amber, 270. aphis, 278. blight, 277. botany, 260. broadcasting, 268. comparison with root crops, 588. culture, 266. diseases, 277. Durra, 273. Feterita, 272. fodder, 274. Gooseneck, 271. hay, 275. head smut, 277. Honey, 271. importance, 266. improvement, 278. insects, 277. Kafir or Kafir Corn, 271. kernel smut, 277. legume mixtures with, 275. midge, 277. Milo, 272. number of cuttings, 268. Orange, 270. pasture value, 276. Planter, 270. poisoning, 276. Red Amber, 270. root system, 263. seed, 269. seeding in rows, 267. soilage, 274. Sudan Durra, 272. INDEX 615 Sorghum, Continued. Sumac, 271. time of sowing, 267. utilization, 274. yield of forage, 269. Sour clover, 425. Source of seed, 73. Soybeans, 513-538. agricultural history, 513. botany, 514. breeding, 536. climatic adaptations, 517. compared with cowpeas, 536. cultivation, 521. cutting, time of, 527. depth of seeding, 523. description, 516. desirable characters, 518. feeding value, 531. fertilizers, 528. Guelph, 520. Haberlandt, 519. Hollybrook, 519. importance, 518. inoculation, 524. Ito San, 520. life period, 526. Mammoth, 519. . Medium Yellow, 520. methods of seeding, 523. mixtures, 529. Peking, 521. pests, 535. pollination, 533. rate of seeding, 522. rotations, 530. seeding, 522, 523. seed production, 531. seeds, 534. silage, 530. soil adaptations, 517. soil preparation, 521. time of seeding, 522. varieties, 519. Wilson, 521. yields, of hay, 528. yields, of seed, 533. Spergula arvensis, 576. maxima, 577. sativa, 576. Sphacelotheca reiliana, 277. sorghi, 277. Sphaerotheca sp., 511. Spontaneous combustion, 36. Spurrey, 576. Square-pod pea, 489. Standards of germination, 70. of purity, 70. Starch values, 64. Statistical classification of forage crops, 113-117. Statistics, 113-122. alfalfa, 118. coarse forage, 118. corn, 118. cowpeas, 493. forage crops, 8. forage crops in Canada, 120-121. forage crops in United States, 117-120. grains cut green, 118. hay yields, 37. millet, 118-119. other tame and cultivated grasses, 119, 120. pastures, 102. peas, 443. red clover, 391, 400. root forage, 120. seed production, 83. sorghum, 266. timothy, 124, 125. timothy and clover, 117. wild, salt or prairie grasses, 118. Stizolobium deeringianum, 544. hassjoo, 546. niveum, 545. Stover, definition, 2. Straw, definition, 3. Sudan-grass, 279-284. adaptations, 280. chemical analysis, 282. culture, 280. description, 279. hay, 281. mixtures, 282. seed production, 283. utilization, 281. 616 INDEX Sugar-cane, Japanese, 247-249. Zwinga, 247. Sulla, 562. Sunflower, 574. Sweet clover, 417-425. adaptations, 418. advantages and disadvantages, 422. agricultural history, 419. botany, 417. description, 417. proportion of roots to tops, 421. related species, 424-425. securing a stand, 419. seed, 424. seeding, 419. seed-production, 423. utilization, 421. yield, 422. Sweet melilot, 417. Sweet vernal-grass, 229. botany, 229. culture, 230. Sword bean, 550. Symphytum asperrimum, 580. Tall fescue, 210. Tall meadow oat-grass, 189. Tall-oat grass, 189-195. Tangier pea, 482-484. Tares, 457. temporary pasture crop systems, 109-111. temporary pastures, 109. Teosinte, 303. Texas blue-grass, 166-167. Texas millet, 297. therms, 62. Thousand-headed kale, 592. Tick bean, 479. time of seeding, 86. alfalfa, 328. common vetch, 460. cowpeas, 499. crimson clover, 430. hairy vetch, 460. red clover, 369. sorghum, 276. soybeans, 522,. Timothy, 122-153. advantage of, 126. agricultural history, 123. agricultural importance, 124. botany, 122. breeding of, 149-150. chemical analyses, 58-59. climatic adaptations, 125. comparison of vegetative and seed progeny, 152. depth of seeding, 130. desirable types of, 151. disease resistance, 148. diseases affecting, 146. feeding value, 144. fertilizers, 133. heavy vs. light seeds, 129. improved strains, 153. in rotation, 127. insects injurious to, 146. irrigation, 134. life history, 141. life period, 142. lime, effect of, 134. method of seeding, 130. mixtures, 94, 95. pasture value, 139. pollination, 140. proportion of roots to tops, 143. rate of seeding, 129. regional strains, 143. roots, depth of, 142. seed, 127. seed-bed, 128, 132. seed-production, 140. soil adaptations, 126. soil preparation, 128, 132. time to cut, 136. variability of, 147. weight of seeds, 129. yield of hay, 138. topinambur, 595. Trefoil, bird's-foot, 568. white, 411. yellow, 435. Tricholaena rosea, 258. Trifolium alexandrinum, 434 elegans, 406. fistulosum, 405, INDEX 617 Trifolium, Continued. hybridum, 405. incarnatum, 426. pannonicum, 410. repens, 411. suaveolens, 434. Trisetum flavescens, 234. Tufted vetch, 481. Tunis-grass, 260, 263. Ulex europseus, 570. Upright brome, 233. Urd, 552. Uromyces phaseoli, 511. striatus, 358, 398. Urophlyctis alfalfae, 356. Ustilago crameri, 294. Velvet bean, Florida, 544. description, 544. history, 544. utilization, 544. Velvet grass, 232. Vernal grass, sweet, 229. Vetch, bird, 481. Bitter, 478. Black bitter, 478. Chickling, 454. Common, 457. comparison of species, 485. Dakota, 439. English, 457. Gray, 459. Hairy, 467. Kidney, 566. Narbonne, 479. Narrow-leaved, 477. Oregon, 457. Pearl, 458. Purple, 477. Russian, 467. Sand, 467. Sardinian, 459. Scarlet, 478. Siberian, 467. Smooth, 457. Tufted, 481. Villose, 467. White-seeded, 458. Winter, 467. Woolly-pod, 478. Vetchling, 454. flat-podded, 484. Viability of seed, 68. Vicia angustifolia, 477. atropurpurea, 477. cracca, 481. dasycarpa, 478. ervilia, 478. faba, 479. fulgens, 478. hirsuta, 481. narbonnensis, 479. sativa, 457. tetrasperma, 481. villosa, 467. Vigna sinensis, 491. Wall-barley, 354. Water-grass, 251. Weed seeds, 78. Weeds, in alfalfa, 78, 352-354. in clover, 78. in crimson clover, 434. in Kentucky blue-grass, 163. in Lespedeza, 78. in orchard-grass, 183. most dangerous, 78. Weevil, cowpea, 511. Weight, relation of green to dry, 32 of seeds, 78. Western wheat-grass, 221. Wheat-grass, slender, 219. western, 221. White clover, 411-417. adaptations, 412. agricultural history, 412. botany, 411. description, 411. importance, 413. Ladino, 416. pollination, 415. seed, 416. seeding, 413. seed production, 415. yields, 414. White melilot, 417. 618 INDEX White trefoil, 411. Wilt, cowpea, 511. Windsor bean, 479. Wire-grass, 237. Wonder bean, 550. Wood meadow-grass, 170. Woolly pyrol, 552. Yarrow, 577. Yellow oat-grass, 234. Yellow trefoil, 435. Yielding capacity, 49. Yields of hay, alfalfa, 94, 118, 119, 319, 339. alsike clover, 119, 408. Bermuda-grass, 119, 242. Canada blue-grass, 165. common vetch, 462. cowpeas, 119, 502. crab-grass, 119. crimson clover, 432. fowl meadow-grass, 168. hairy vetch, 472. Italian rye-grass, 217. Japanese cane, 249. Johnson-grass, 119. Kentucky blue-grass, 119, 160. kidney vetch, 567. kudzu, 564. Ladino white clover, 417. Lespedeza, 543. millets, 118, 119, 295. moth bean, 553. orchard-grass, 119, 182. pastures, 104. peas, 119, 447. perennial rye-grass, 213. prairie-grass, 118. red clover, 94, 119, 382-383. redtop, 94, 174. sainfoin, 562. salt-grass, 118. sorghum, 269. soybeans, 528. spurrey, 577. sweet clover, 422. tall oat-grass, 94. timothy, 94, 119, 138. under irrigation, 52. white clover, 415. wild grass, 118, 119. Yields of seed, alfalfa, 347. alsike clover, 409. Bermuda-grass, 243. Canada blue-grass, 165. common vetch, 466. cowpeas, 507. crimson clover, 433. guar, 557. hairy vetch, 475, 476. jack beans, 550. kidney vetch, 567. Lespedeza, 544. millet, 293. peas, 450. red clover, 391. sorghum, 273. soybeans, 533. spurrey, 577. Sudan grass, 283. sweet clover, 423. yellow trefoil, 437. Yokohama bean, 546. Yorkshire fog, 232. Zwinga sugar cane, 247 Printed in the United States of America. E following pages contain advertisements of a few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects. The Corn Crops BY E. G. MONTGOMERY (Rural Text-book Series) Cloth, 347 pages, index, ill., i2mo, $1.60 A valuable handbook on maize, kafirs and sorghum crops, includ- ing the grain sorghums, the sweet sorghums for syrup or forage and the broom corns. 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The chapters devoted to the potash salts, phos- phates, lime, magnesia, soda, gypsum, iron and manganese are excep- tionally complete, and chlorin, sulfur, silica, carbon disulfid, toluene and other substances exerting catalytic and other effects are described. Much of the material in this book, which will be new to students and other readers, has suggested itself to the author in the course of twenty-two years of continuous research. Farm Management BY G. F. WARREN (Rural Text-book Series) Illustrated. i2mo, $1.75 This book teaches the necessity of efficient farm organization and management so as to secure the farmer the best crops at the lowest price. Professor Warren shows the way to such efficiency and thoroughly dis- cusses the more important phases of farm management from the selection and purchase of the farm to the marketing of its products. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York Principles of Soil Management BY DR. T. L. LYON and PROFESSOR E. O. PIPPIN (Rural Text-book Series) Cloth, III., i2mo, $1.75 The volume is a complete and comprehensive study of everything relat- ing to soils and soil management. The material is arranged under three general heads of (i) the soil as a medium for root development, (2) the soil as a reservoir for water and (3) plant nutrients of the sol;. " As a book indispensable to the teacher of agriculture, the intelligent farmer and student of farming, this is recommended." School Journal. "... explicit and clear, and will undoubtedly prove a valuable refer- ence book for all students of soils." Industrialist. " Complicated questions of farm management and conservation of lands are described with care, but, at the same time, with a lucidity which will gain for the book an entrance into homes of many practical farmers." Philadelphia North American. " An exhaustive and carefully prepared volume." Suburban Life. " It is one of the best books yet produced for college work on the study of soils." School Review. Plant Physiology with special reference to Plant Production BY DR. B. M. DUGGAR III., dec. cloth, i2mo, $1.60 In this book the author discusses the life relations of plants and crops from a fundamental point of view. The important physiological activities of the plan are demonstrated experimentally, and the practices of the crop-grower are reviewed from this standpoint. Some of the special topics that are considered are as follows : The relation of the plant and the crop to water; the relation to soil nutrients, stimulants and inhibiting agents; the relation to light and air; the relation to heat and cold; the Delation to the disease environment. 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