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On tlie Date of Grime's Graves 
 ind Cissbury Flint-mines 
 
 Communicated to the Society of Antiqunrir<? hv 
 
 Reginald A. Smith, Esq., B.A., F.S.A. 
 
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 Oxford 
 Printed by Horace Hart for the Society of Antiquaries oi L.uucion 
 
 1912 
 
On the Date of Grime's Graves 
 and Cissbury Flint-mines 
 
 Communicated to the Society of Antiquaries by 
 
 Reginald A. Smith, Esq., B.A., F.S.A. 
 
 "^^^£^^ 
 
 Oxford 
 
 Printed by Horace Hart for the Society of Antiquaries of London 
 
 1912 
 
 
FROM 
 
 ARCHAEOLOGIA 
 VOL. LXIII 
 
 \ 
 
 i 
 
(S7S4 
 
 VII. — On the Date of Grime s Graves and Cissbury Flint-mines. 
 By Reginald A. Smith, Esq., B.A., F.S.A. 
 
 Read 9th May, 1912. 
 
 The formal recognition by the Monaco Congress (1906) of the Aurignac 
 stage of culture marks a distinct advance in the classification of palaeolithic 
 cave-relics. The point has been keenly debated, but most are now agreed that 
 Aurignac, as a typical station, comes between Le Moustier and Solutre, and 
 represents a civilization that extended over a large part of Europe. This stage 
 has in recent years been so thoroughly studied that its distinctive types can be 
 easily recognized, and many cave-deposits readily fall into this division ; but so 
 far very little of this sort has been noticed in England,' where the industry seems, 
 however, to have had a special and a splendid development. 
 
 The proposal to transfer the well-known culture of Cissbury from the neo- 
 lithic to the late palaeolithic period, that is to about the middle of the Upper 
 Pleistocene, must appear revolutionary ; and a single paper can only offer a few 
 suggestions towards the solution of several problems involved. But the cultural 
 evidence alone is practically decisive. On consideration of several analogies to 
 be found in the national collection, the President, as Keeper of the British and 
 Mediaeval Department of the British Museum, was satisfied that a prima facie 
 case had been made out ; and it is hoped that the old difficulties connected with 
 the period in question will be removed by further study in the light of newly 
 ascertained facts. 
 
 A brief outline of what is necessarily a long paper may next be given, as 
 the subject is discussed from more than one point of view. The present arrange- 
 ment is due to the necessity of first recalling the main points established by 
 excavations at Grime's Graves and Cissbury some forty years ago, and not readily 
 accessible except in large libraries. Following a description of either site is an 
 analysis of the finds so far as they bear on the date and culture ; and the relation 
 of what may be called the Cissbury celt and certain other types to the Drift or 
 river-gravel deposits is illustrated by examples both in England and abroad. 
 
 ' Dr. Allen Sturge's paper on Cave-periods in East Anglia is not yet published : a summary 
 appeared in the Antiquary, May, 1912, p. 193. 
 
 VOL. LXIII. P 
 
 118 
 
no DATE OF GRIME'S GRAVES 
 
 To facilitate the recognition of these types as a local facies of the Aurignac 
 culture, a summary of the main features of this stage in the palaeolithic cave- 
 period is given ; and the distribution of its characteristic forms is indicated both 
 in the British Isles and distant parts of the world. Next, the geology of several 
 sites is noticed in order to show their striking similarity and to associate their 
 horizon with the later Loess of the Continent. Once the connexion is admitted, 
 various arguments against a palaeolithic date may lose much of their cogency ; 
 and recent evidence with regard to the domestication of animals, polishing of 
 stone, and baking of pottery will be adduced to show that the difficulties are not 
 insurmountable. The subsequent evolution of the Cissbury types will be outlined 
 with all diffidence, as the neolithic period is still exceedingly obscure, and the 
 position of several of the best-known finds in the series has not been finally deter- 
 mined. F^inally, a word is said in favour of the English climate, as influenced 
 by an insular position in the track of the Gulf Stream ; and doubts expressed as 
 to the validity of ideas expressed by such terms as 'mesolithic' and 'hiatus', 
 which appear to have been invented to disguise various gaps in our knowledge 
 of the remote past. Though the scheme suggested may seem to shorten the 
 neolithic period,it will be contended that the Cissbury culture, gene rally attributed 
 to the later Stone Age, is of much greater antiquity ; and that progress, though 
 checked from time to time, has not been seriously interrupted since man first 
 took to chipping tools of flint. 
 
 In 1870 our Fellow Canon Greenwell excavated one of 254 saucer-shaped 
 depressions known collectively as Grime's Graves ' in the parish of Weeting, 
 Norfolk, 3 miles north-east of Brandon ; and found in the chalk rock a mine 
 which reached a depth of 39 ft. from the surface, and had evidently been opened 
 for the purpose of working a particularly good layer of flint occurring at that 
 depth. The pit was circular, with a diameter of 28 ft. at the mouth, tapering to 
 12 ft. at the bottom, which was flat and gave access to a number of galleries 
 radiating on the same level. A feature on which the Canon remarked with some 
 perplexity was a layer of dark yellow sand 13 ft. thick above the chalk rock, 
 interspersed with coarse nodules of flint similar to those on the surface of the 
 chalk. The significance of this will be discussed later (p. 144); and though it 
 is doubtful whether the ancient miners ever pierced this stratum, it is clear that 
 they were undaunted by the chalk, as a seam of inferior flint (the ' wall-stone ' of 
 the modern flint-workers) was passed at 19I ft. from the top of the chalk. No 
 diagram of the vertical section has been published, but the lowest 18 ft. consisted 
 of pure chalk taken from between the beds of flint, and next in order came the 
 thick bed of sand, surmounted by various layers perhaps derived from other pits. 
 
 ^ Journal of Ethnological Society of London, N.S. ii. (1870), p. 419. 
 
AND CISSBURY FLINT-MINES iii 
 
 Many of the specimens in the British Museum and certain private collections 
 from Grime's Graves were collected from the surface in the immediate neighbour- 
 hood of the reopened pit,' but some were found in the filling, and comprised 
 implements of flint, deer-antler, and bone, and a remarkable polished celt of 
 basalt (fig. i6) with almost circular section and pointed butt, found in one of the 
 mine-galleries. The authenticity of this find has recently been called in question ; 
 but the evidence of the excavator, confirmed by Dr. Allen Sturge, who made 
 careful inquiries in the neighbourhood, should dispel all doubts. Marks on the 
 galler}^'-wall were recognized by the Canon as made in mining with this tool, and 
 he may be said to have prophesied its discovery.^ The usual tools were, how- 
 ever, picks and wedges ingeniously made out of red-deer antlers,^ which were 
 trimmed by fire and hacking with flint; and it was noticed that the 79 picks 
 were all found below 17 ft. from the surface. The antlers were of large size, and 
 all but eleven had been shed. 
 
 Animal bones, all found between 4 ft. and 28 ft. from the surface and not in 
 the galleries, had been broken for the marrow, and nearly all were of young 
 calves, probably of the species Bos longifrons ; but the goat or sheep, the horse, 
 pig, and dog were also represented. This group has always been described as 
 domesticated, but it will be seen in the sequel that there are grounds for modify- 
 ing this description, in spite of the widespread superstition that animals were 
 not tamed till neolithic times. 
 
 It is specially noted that no pottery was found in the pit ; and a layer of 
 charcoal, no doubt the remains of a hearth 4 ft. wide and 5 ft. long, was en- 
 countered at a depth of 28 ft. Fourteen hammer-stones made of quartzite 
 pebbles derived from the Boulder-clay were no doubt used in flaking the flint, 
 of which material some interesting specimens were recovered. Neither in the 
 pit nor in its vicinity was any trace of polishing (grinding) observed on flint. 
 
 One of the implements found near Grime's Graves, and published by Canon 
 Greenwell in his paper on the flint-mine opened by himself, was significantly 
 discussed by Sir John Evans.* It resembled the latter's fig. 17 from the Downs 
 near Dunstable, and approached very closely to ovate implements from the 
 river-gravels ; but ' from the manner in which it is fashioned and from its being 
 found in company with worked flints unquestionably belonging to the surface- 
 period', he regarded it as neolithic. In a foot-note this judgement is practically 
 reversed, as ' the discoveries of Mr. Worthington Smith at Caddington suggest 
 the possibility of this (Dunstable) specimen being, after all, palaeolithic '. Other 
 
 ' Op. cit., pi. xxviii ; pi. xxx gives the specimens found in the excavation. 
 * Mail, 1908, no. 92 ; and see p. 147 below. 
 
 ^ The subject was fully discussed by Mr. Horace Sandars, F.S.A., in Archaeologta, Ixii. loi. 
 •• Journ. Ethnol. Soc, N.S. ii, pi. xxviii, fig. 7; Evans, Shne Implements, 2nd ed., p. 72. 
 
 p 2 
 
112 DATE OF GRIME'S GRAVES 
 
 examples were found at Cissbury, also in Hants and Yorks., and larger specimens 
 of the same type have been obtained from the ancient flint-factories of Belgium 
 (Evans collection). 
 
 The flint implements recovered from the pit at Grime's Graves and the 
 immediate neighbourhood fall into two classes as regards patination : while the 
 roughly-shaped lumps have a dull white surface with sharp edges and ridges, 
 the better implements are generally of bluish-grey colour, often with spots of 
 iron-staining on the ridges, the surface lustred to a large extent, and almost 
 chalcedonic. The surface of the latter group is not appreciably decayed, and 
 in spite of its exceptional hardness has no sharp edges or angles, but is often 
 striated in such a manner as to suggest ice action. The majority of specimens 
 collected from the site by Canon Greenwell were presented to the British 
 Museum, most of the illustrations being from that collection ; but a good 
 series acquired at the same date has passed into the hands of Dr. Allen Sturge, 
 and other collectors possess specimens from the surface, but not so intimately 
 associated with the pit. The following list gives the salient points of selected 
 specimens, and parallels from other sites where such are relevant to the present 
 inquiry : 
 
 Fig. I. Ovate hand-axe, fairly thin, both faces with primary flaking, and the edges curved 
 as indicated by the dotted line, as usual a reverse S-curve. Except for its lustrous 
 bluish surface, this might be taken for a St. Acheul type from the river-gravels, 
 somewhat late in the middle Pleistocene ; and there can be little doubt that it is 
 a degenerate hand-axe. 
 
 Fig. 2. A large white lump better shaped than many, and having (as often) a thick back 
 for the hand, and a zigzag cutting edge made by alternate flaking. The edge and 
 workmanship are reminiscent of the Chelles period, but the style of flaking was 
 no doubt dictated by the use to which the implement was to be put; and the present 
 specimen represents a number of chopping-tools, somewhat more roughly made 
 than at Cissbury (fig. 25). The same type, somewhat longer, is found at Le 
 Moustier. 
 
 Fig. 3. A boldly-flaked tool of segmental plan, with a broad flat base and all the work 
 on one face. The curved edge is nearly all sharp, and the tool seems to have 
 been intended for chopping. A patch of crust on the base should be noticed as 
 proof that the implement has not been accidentally broken across, but is, like 
 many others of the type, complete. 
 
 Fig. 4. A specimen apparently related to the last, but with certain features that are 
 exactly duplicated on another from the site. The plan is a segment of a circle, 
 the faces nearly flat, one flaked, the other a plain fracture with a large bulb of 
 percussion which interrupts the cutting-edge. 
 
 Fig. 5. A type common both on this site and at Cissbury, and often regarded as one end 
 of a celt that has been accidentally broken across. This is evidently erroneous, 
 as the base frequently bears the original crust of the nodule, or is furnished with a 
 
Fig. I. Implement of Drift type, with side view 
 and curve of edge ; Grime's Graves. ^. 
 
 Fig. 2. Flint cliopper, with side view, showing zigzag cutting-edge ; 
 Grime's Graves, i. 
 
 Fig. 3. Segmental tool flaked on one face, with 
 views of side and base ; Grime's Graves. ^. 
 
 Fig. 4. Segmental tool, blunt at top, with views of back and base ; 
 Grime's Graves. |. 
 
 Fig. 5. Flint tool flaked 
 on both faces, with section ; 
 Weeting. \. 
 
 Fig. 6. Celt of Cissbury 
 type, with section ; near 
 Grime's Graves. \. 
 
 Fig. 7. Steep-edged scraper, with side view; 
 Grime's Graves. \. 
 
114 DATE OF GRIMRS GRAVES 
 
 hinge-fracture to accommodate it to the hand. As usual it is flaked on both faces, 
 which have about the same convexity, and the sides are approximately parallel. 
 
 Fig. 6. An exceptional piece from this site both in form and colour. The surface is much 
 altered and is milk-white all over, the section almost of lozenge form, the edges 
 parallel, and both ends curved and sharpened. It is a celt in the ordinary sense, 
 and serves to connect Grime's Graves with Cissbury, where the type is very 
 common and of finer workmanship. It has a few spots of iron-staining on the 
 ridges, and was not found in the pit but in the vicinity on the surface. A com- 
 panion piece is in Dr. Sturge's collection from Grime's Graves. 
 
 Fig. 7. A scraper of exceptional form and dimensions for this site. The lower face is a 
 plain fracture with a large bulb of percussion opposite the scraping edge, and the 
 other face is boldly flaked, with crust at one side. The working-edge is very steep, 
 and the surface is white, with the core showing as blue in places. Round-scrapers 
 on both sites have more than once been described as rare, but this and the fol- 
 lowing are much larger than usual, and recall the imposing productions of the 
 early Le Moustier stage, as represented at Northfleet, Kent (Mr. G. J. B. Fox). 
 
 Fig. 8. A round-scraper not so boldly fashioned as the last, but otherwise similar. The 
 steep working-edge is shown on the right, and the side view also gives the large 
 bulb of percussion on the plain lower face. This and the foregoing are obviously 
 related to a white specimen illustrated by Mr. W. G. Smith ^ and found by him 
 16 ft. deep at Caddington, near Luton, evidently on the upper palaeolithic floor 
 below contorted Drift. 
 
 Fig. 9. Small white scraper with steep working-edge and flat faces, tapering below to 
 form a tang or handle. The Aurignac fluting is noticeable here, and another, prac- 
 tically identical, has been found at Seaford, Sussex. 
 
 Fig. ID. A typical ' nucleiform scraper ', known as the grattoir Tarte (being particularly 
 common at Tarte, a cave of the Aurignac period in Haute-Garonne). Its use as 
 a plane is however doubtful, in view of the uneven base of several ; and till its 
 true function is determined, it may be called a 'flint-cone'. Apart from other 
 evidence there might wefl be hesitation in accepting the identity of specimens on 
 sites so far removed ; but many coincidences will be noticed in the following pages, 
 and no apology is necessary for assigning English specimens to the Aurignac 
 stage, that being the horizon indicated by many cave-finds in the south of France. 
 Another specimen still more symmetrical is illustrated (fig. 33) from Mr. T H. 
 Powell's collection, from the Sussex downs at Seaford, and it is now found that 
 the type is common in the south of England. For instance, one in the Black- 
 more museum from Whitsbury, six miles south of Salisbury, 09 in. high, suggested 
 further search ; and Dr. Blackmore states in a letter that six or seven are stored 
 in the museum from the Donhead district, on the Wiltshire border, three miles 
 north-east of Shaftesbury. 
 
 Fig. II. A peculiar but typical specimen, which may be termed a humped scraper or plane. 
 Roughly of segmental form, it differs from another type with the same outline in 
 
 ^ Man, the Primeval Savage, p. 112, fig. 73. 
 
Fig. 8. Steep-edged scraper, with side view ; 
 
 Grimes Graves. ^. 
 
 Fig. II. 
 
 Carinated scraper, with side view ; 
 Grime's Graves. \. 
 
 Fig. 14. Bone 
 piercer; Grime's 
 Graves. ^. 
 
 Fig. 9. Tanged scraper, 
 side and top views; near 
 Grime's Graves. J. 
 
 Fig. 12. Part of leaf- 
 shaped blade, with section ; 
 Weeting. ^. 
 
 V 
 
 Fig. 15. Bone tool, 
 top and side views ; 
 Grime's Graves. ^. 
 
 Fig. 10. Flint cone, side 
 and top views; Grime's 
 Graves. |. 
 
 Fig. 13. Part of leaf- 
 shaped blade with section ; 
 near Grime's Graves. 4. 
 
 Fig. 16. Basalt celt, with 
 section ; Grime's Graves. J. 
 
ii6 DATE OF GRIME'S GRAVES 
 
 having the working-edge at one end, not on the periphery. The top view shows 
 a shght compression in the middle of the side, which is no doubt intentional and 
 makes the resemblance to certain planes of the Aurignac period all the more 
 striking. The parallel chosen for illustration (fig. 36) is in the British Museum 
 with another specimen much smaller, and both were found by Messrs. Lartet 
 and Christy at Les Eyzies, a cave-deposit generally assigned to the transition 
 from Solutre to La Madeleine. There was certainly much of that date dis- 
 covered; but many planes with steep fluting, not to mention a tanged point 
 referable to the Font Robert ' or latest phase of the Aurignac culture, prove that 
 an earlier deposit was also excavated. The evidence for this contention is ample, 
 and other forms that are reproduced at Cissbury or Grime's Graves may therefore 
 be assigned with little hesitation to the Aurignac stage. The Grime's Graves 
 example is bluish grey with hard lustred surface, exactly corresponding to that 
 of fig. 10. 
 
 Fig. 12. Once the Aurignac date is accepted, this example will be readily seen to repre- 
 sent the beginnings of the early Solutre style, thin leaf-shaped blades flaked all 
 over both faces characterizing Solutre I. Further proof is afforded by Cissbury 
 (pi. xxiii), and it will be observed that on practically every specimen from our two 
 sites a certain part of the face is left without surface-flaking, which normally covers 
 both faces at Solutre. This and the next specimen are accidentally broken, and 
 many typical specimens from France show that this was a common misfortune 
 in Solutre times. The broken lines show the continuation of the two sharp edges, 
 but the exact outline and dimensions cannot be determined from the surviving 
 portion, which is more finely flaked on the other and flatter face. The colour is 
 pearl-grey with slight iron-staining; and the surface has minute striae as if sand 
 had been passed over it under pressure. These markings have been repeatedly 
 noticed by Dr. Sturge on a certain class of flints scattered over an area at 
 Icklingham.^ 
 
 Fig. 13. Part of a leaf shaped blade carefully flaked all over both faces, but thicker than 
 the typical Solutre blade, though fragments as thick and otherwise identical are 
 in the British Museum from Laugerie Haute, a typical Solutre site. It is of a 
 dark dove-colour and more lustred or chalcedonic than the last, and, moreover, 
 has striae of a different character. The hard surface has been roughly scored 
 by points of other hard stones acting under great pressure ; and in this connexion 
 it should be added that the iron-staining is slight. 
 
 Fig. 14. A bone piercer rubbed smooth except at the butt, and tapering to a point, found at a 
 depth of 17 ft. The simplicity of the tool prevents any exact correlation with cave 
 specimens, but may be due to the fact that, according to present evidence, bone 
 was hardly worked at the date of Le Moustier. In Aurignac times the industry 
 was largely developed and wonderful carvings in the round were produced ; nor 
 is it impossible that the polishing of bone suggested the same treatment of flint. 
 
 ^ Stone Age Guide (Brit. Mus.), 2nd ed., p. 50. 
 
 * Proc. Preh. Soc. E. Atiglia, i. 80, 91 ; Proceedings, xxiii. 240. 
 
AND CISSBURY FLINT-MINES 117 
 
 Fig. 15. Two views of a bone rod, slightly curved, and polished all over. It has been 
 considered a smoothing tool, but its form is elementary, and the determination 
 of its exact use is not essential. It was found at a depth of 35 ft. 
 
 Fig. 16. A polished celt of basalt or greenstone, which more than any other specimen has 
 influenced the verdict on Grime's Graves and Cissbury. Palaeolithic forms might 
 be recognized again and again, but a polished celt barred the way to a palaeolithic 
 date. It was found in one of the galleries on the floor of Canon Greenwell's pit 
 (p. 147), and cannot well have been a later introduction, though recently doubts 
 have been cast on the bona fides of the workmen. Canon Greenwell's testimony 
 is explicit, and Dr. Sturge's inquiries have only confirmed the authenticity of the 
 celt. Further excavation of the pits would no doubt set the matter at rest, but at 
 present it must be regarded as unique among the finds on both sites ; and the 
 most plausible argument against their palaeolithic date must be met. Recent 
 investigations in Norway (p. 148) have shown that axes of the same material but 
 of rougher form, some merely chipped and others partially ground into shape, 
 were produced at least as early as the kitchen-middens of Denmark. Whereas 
 stones of this character are best ground into shape, flint can be easily chipped, 
 but polished only with difficulty. 
 
 The butt is pointed and the section nearly a circle at the centre : the cutting 
 edge is, as usual after being used, unsymmetrical, a small fracture at the angle 
 having left traces in the wall-markings made with this implement in excavating 
 the chalk. Celts of this material are common on the eastern edge of the Fens 
 and abundant in Yorkshire. A fragment much weathered has been found on the 
 slopes of Cissbury, and a roughly shaped lump as well as a polished celt came 
 from Torbryan Cave, near Denbury, Devon.' 
 
 A few Weeting specimens, among those collected by Canon Greenwell from 
 the vicinity of Grime's Graves, may be mentioned here, though there is little 
 to prove that they are of the same date as the pits. The abundance of typical 
 specimens in the neighbourhood of the Cissbury pits, however, suggests that the 
 surface finds are largely contemporary, and there is some internal evidence to the 
 same effect. Perhaps the most attractive example is a small leaf-shaped blade 
 flaked all over one face exactly in the Solutr^ manner. This face is fresh-looking 
 and almost black, but there is a large patch of gloss (as on many Savernake 
 palaeoliths) in the centre, that indicates great antiquity. The other face is a 
 plain fracture with bulb at the end, and is bluish white, the patina being pro- 
 nounced and lustrous. The two faces were evidently produced at different 
 periods, separated by a considerable interval, but whether the later work dates 
 from Solutr^ or neolithic times is at present an open question. A curious 
 specimen in black flint, resembling a barbed lance-head, 3-1 in. long, might well 
 be suspected of being later than the pit, if there was not a larger example extant 
 
 ^ Stone Age Guide, 2nd ed., p. 73. 
 
 VOL. LXIII. Q 
 
ii8 DATE OF GRIME'S GRAVES 
 
 from Cissbury (now in Dr. Sturge's collection). What seems to be a third 
 example, 6i in. long, was found in D6pt. Eure with a flint tool that has the 
 appearance of a blunt-nosed plane, but with much of the crust remaining and a 
 constriction or waist near the centre (as fig. 39).^ The coincidence is striking, 
 but parallels from any site otherwise dated have yet to be found. 
 
 The significance of artistic carving at Grime's Graves could not be appre- 
 ciated till Piette proved a succession of phases in palaeolithic art It is now 
 generally accepted that carvdng in the round dates from the Aurignac stage, and 
 was followed first by carving in relief and subsequently by engraving.^ Neolithic 
 man has so far given no evidence of artistic capacity at all comparable to that 
 of the palaeolithic troglodytes ; and now that other arguments are available, 
 there can be little hesitation in assigning to the Aurignac stage a gians penis 
 carved in chalk, measuring i in. each way, and found in the pit at Grime's Graves 
 at a depth of 31 ft., not far from chalk fragments that have been taken to repre- 
 sent part of a human fore-arm and finger. It is possible that these belonged 
 to a life-size statue, and something of the same sort was found at Cissbury 
 (p. 124). Representations of the human form (especially women) on a much 
 smaller scale are remarkably common at this period, the material employed 
 being generally mammoth ivory.^ The exaggeration of the sexual character- 
 istics in these statuettes has been constantly remarked upon, and a close parallel 
 in reindeer-antler, suggesting the complete form of the Grime's Graves specimen, 
 has been published from Gorge d'Enfer, Dordogne, one of the best-known 
 stations of Aurignac date.* 
 
 Other objects in chalk are hollowed lumps that have been very reasonably 
 taken for lamps, for use in the galleries of the mine, as again at Cissbury (p. 121). 
 The cave-dwellers of the Dordogne adopted a similar method of lighting, and 
 prehistoric examples have been recently brought together by Dr. Baudon."* 
 
 In 1868 Col. A. H. Lane-Fox (afterwards Gen. Pitt-Rivers) read to this 
 Society an account of his excavations at Cissbury,^ which hardly reached the 
 high standard set by himself. In fact, the exploration was only superficial, and 
 failed to disclose the nature of the pits. There were surface indications of about 
 
 * Both are figured by M. Ldon Coutil in Bull. Soc. preh. de France, 22 Dec. 1910. 
 ^ Stone Age Guide (Brit. Mus.), 2nd ed., p. 61. 
 
 ^ Piette, L' art pendant I' age du renne; V Anthropologie, 1895, p. 129; R. R. Schmidt, Zeitschrift 
 fur Ethnologie, 191 1, p. 968. 
 
 * Girod and Massenat, Les stations de Vage du Renne, pi. i, fig. 3, where the locahty is given as 
 Laugerie Basse. An engraving of the corresponding organ has been found at the Bianchard rock- 
 shelter, Sergeac, Dordogne. 
 
 ^ Bull. Soc. deludes hist, et scient. de I'Oise, vii (191 1). 
 " Archaeologia, xlii. 59, pi. viii. 
 
AND CISSBURY FLINT-MINES 119 
 
 fifty of these on the western slope of the hill within the rampart of the earth- 
 work. The smallest were barely noticeable, and the largest were about 70 ft. in 
 diameter and 12 ft. deep; but the chalk filling was mistaken for the true floor 
 of the pits, and the conclusions drawn were considerably modified on a later 
 occasion. The plate, however, gives an excellent representation of a number 
 of flint implements which were found during the work and subsequently pre- 
 sented to the Christy Collection now at the British Museum (all except his 
 figs. 20 and 22). 
 
 Thirty of these depressions on the chalk down were opened in 1867-8, and 
 perhaps the most important item was part of a polished flint celt (the butt end, 
 fig. 15 on his plate), which was lying only i ft. from the surface. This is expressly 
 said to have been the only polished specimen found in a total of about 600 
 flints.* The discovery led to some interesting speculations as to the validity of 
 the distinction as a test of age ; and it is only fair to say that the General 
 recognized many resemblances to palaeolithic implements of Drift and Le 
 Moustier types. He further remarked that round-scrapers (sometimes called 
 ' thumb-scrapers ', fig. 2 on his plate) were extremely rare from Cissbury, and 
 that one face of a thin crescent-shaped blade (his fig. 20) was much glazed. 
 This feature has since been observed on many specimens, and is particularly 
 noticeable in palaeoliths from Knowle Farm Quarry, Savernake Forest.^ 
 
 It did not escape his notice that one of his groups (figs. 10, 11 on his plate) 
 'closely resembling, if not facsimiles of, some of the implements found in the 
 Drift, passed by imperceptible gradations into the celt type ', broad and sharp 
 at one end and pointed at the other (his figs. 17 and 18); and he conjectured 
 that the hump or ridge observed on certain examples of this form was intended 
 as a stop, to prevent the axe-head from splitting the handle (his fig. 17, and 
 fig. 26 below). Special attention was drawn to the absence of arrow-heads or 
 anything approaching that form of flint. 
 
 The fauna was returned as follows : Cervtis elaphtts (red-deer), Bos longi- 
 frons (Celtic short-horn), Cafira hirctts (goat), Eqiius (species of horse), and Siis 
 scrofa (boar) ; no trace of Cervns dama (fallow-deer). The shells were Littorina 
 littorea (periwinkle), Cyclostoma elegans {Pomatias reflexus\ Tapes decnssatus, and 
 Helix nemoralis. But the value of the list is rather discounted by the shallow- 
 ness of the pits as excavated. 
 
 Greater success attended the effort of Mr. Ernest Willett to unravel the 
 
 * Lord Northesk, who excavated here with Canon Greenwell, found another example (Evans, 
 Stone Implements, 2nd ed., p. 80); and Prof. Boyd Dawkins mentions a possible third [Joum. Antbrop. 
 Inst., xxiii. 249). 
 
 ^ Proceedings, xxiii. 457. 
 
 Q 2 
 
I20 DATE OF GRIME'S GRAVES 
 
 mystery of the pits in 1873-4.^ Fired by Canon Greenwell's example in Nor- 
 folk, he tested one of the pits opened five years before, and found that the 
 bottom was not solid rock but large blocks of chalk filled in with rubble, the 
 true bottom being in this case 14 ft. below the surface. 
 
 Prof. Boyd Dawkins was also present at the opening of an untouched pit * 
 on a subsequent occasion, the site being indicated by a depression of about 16 in. 
 from the hill-slope. The solid chalk edge of the pit was reached at 5 ft. from 
 the surface, and the following table shows the material passed through before 
 the bottom was reached at a depth of 20 ft. : 
 
 FEET 
 
 Surface soil 2 
 
 Chalk rubble, yellowish loam and charcoal, extending beyond mouth of shaft . 3 
 
 Red earth, moist, and full of flints both worked and unworked .... 5 
 
 Chalk blocks, interstices not filled 3 
 
 Red earth, thickest in centre 3 
 
 Chalk blocks, interstices filled with rubble and loam 4 
 
 Scattered through the bottom layer were implements of red-deer antler 
 (including a pick like those from Grime's Graves), scapulae of Bos loiigifrons, 
 and one of the common pig, a few flint implements and broken flints. On the 
 floor-level was a band of exceedingly fine flint, and a layer of inferior quality 
 was noticed above, at a depth of 10 ft. 
 
 Mr. Willett classified about ninety worked flints from his pit as follows : 
 45 rough cores, 12 hatchets, 7 scrapers, 5 hammers, 12 wedges, and 12 used 
 flakes. The hammers and wedges were found in close proximity, and appear 
 to have been used for detaching lumps of chalk. In the first few feet from the 
 surface the flints were patinated to a depth varying from the thickness of paper 
 to one-eighth of an inch. Those in the red earth were only just discoloured, 
 though coated with carbonate of lime ; while the few found at 18 ft. below were 
 nearly as fresh as the day they were made. Patination seems in this case to 
 vary with the proximity to the surface, the upper face of the flint being more 
 affected than the lower. 
 
 In January, 1874, Mr. Plumpton Tindale, F.S.A., opened another pit in the 
 vicinity, but his death prevented a report by himself on the interesting dis- 
 coveries that resulted. These were described to the Society from memory by 
 Mr. Willett, and included both human and animal remains. 
 
 For the first 15 ft. practically nothing was found in the chalk rubble, but 
 below that level were broken antlers and single tines of the red-deer. At about 
 
 ^ Archaeologia, xlv. 337 (read in 1875) ; details on pi. xxvi, and comparison of ground plan with 
 Grime's Graves on pi. xxvii. 
 
 - These pits are located on the plan given in Journ. Anthrop. Inst., vii, pi. x. 
 
AND CISSBURY FLINT-MINES 121 
 
 28 ft. two remarkably fine and perfect skulls of Bos iirus {primigenius) were 
 encountered, and in the rubble below, many bones of that animal, with others of 
 the stag, otter, wild boar, and roe-deer ; and it was observed that the antlers 
 were mostly of slain deer. Flint implements occurred all through the deposit 
 below the 15 ft. level, and one antler tool was pierced for the insertion of a stone. 
 Four large pear-shaped lumps of chalk, about 3I lb. each, were found pierced at 
 the smaller end, also a lamp of the same material (fig. 17). 
 
 Mr. Willett remarked that the bones found in Mr. Tindale's pit were nearly 
 all those of feral animals,' in contradistinction to those from Grime's Graves, 
 which had been described as domesticated. His argument from the absence of 
 pottery was nullified by subsequent discoveries, but he emphasized the likeness 
 of several flints to Drift implements, and concluded 
 that Cissbury mines were earlier in the neolithic 
 period than Grime's Graves. It should be added 
 that no galleries radiated from Mr. Tindale's pit, 
 which was 39 ft. deep, oval and funnel-shaped, 
 with a base diameter of 5 or 6 ft.^ 
 
 The animal remains from this pit were dis- 
 cussed in 1875 by Prof Rolleston, who dwelt 
 specially on the large proportions oi Bos prinii- Fig. 17. chaik lamp, cissbury flim- 
 genius and the significance of its appearance " '' 
 
 with Sus scrofa fertis in what purported to be neolithic surroundings. On 
 Prof Boyd Dawkins's authority he subsequently added the Bos longi/rons, goat, 
 and dog.^ 
 
 Partly in consequence of Mr. Willett's paper on the subject, the Anthropo- 
 logical Institute appointed a committee in 1875 to continue excavation on the 
 site, the work being mainly in the hands of Gen. Pitt-Rivers and Mr. Park 
 Harrison. The former, who was then president of the Institute, prepared a 
 report,^ in which he repeated his conviction that some of the implements were 
 distinctly allied to palaeolithic forms.' Some at least of the pits were proved 
 earlier than the Camp, and it was noticed that the chalk here reached the surface, 
 there being no eocene clay overlying it. That there was clay of some sort at 
 the surface is, however, stated in a subsequent passage, where a distinction was 
 drawn between the red seam of the filling and that of the silting. This was 
 
 ' Joum. Anthrop. Inst., v. 364, 390, gives however the following list from this pit : Bos primi- 
 genius (large), roe, stag, wild boar, badger, Bos longijrons, goat, and dog. Prof. Rolleston's observations 
 are in vol. vi. 21. 
 
 "^ Ihid., vi. 268. ^ Ibid., v. 390 ; vi. 24. 
 
 * Ibid., V. 357, plates xiv-xix. 
 
 * In this he was supported by Prof Prestwich, who on the whole evidence, however, decided in 
 favour of a neolithic date {op. cit., p. 386). 
 
122 DATE OF GRIME'S GRAVES 
 
 pointed out by Prof. Prestwich, the former consisting of nearly unaltered clay 
 ' as it is now seen upon the surface of the hill ', and the latter being a mixture 
 of clay and chalk in minute particles, as mixed by the action of rain-water. A 
 letter from the Professor is appended to the report, and deals with this point 
 as follows : 
 
 The debris with which the shafts were filled had evidently been freshly removed, 
 and at once used at the time of filling, as the blocks of chalk, had they been exposed 
 to the air for even one winter, would have crumbled and fallen to pieces, and the small 
 quantity of stiff red clay would have lost its pure colour and tenacious character. There 
 seems to have been a little, but not much, weathering of the sides of the shafts before 
 the filling up took place. 
 
 In view of the hard layers ' here and elsewhere it is interesting to note that 
 the rubble from Mr. Willett's shaft had weathered into a solid mass after being 
 exposed on the surface for one year. The reporter advised caution in accepting 
 as authentic the markings noticed at the entrance of two galleries, though he 
 himself had seen some uncovered ; and added significantly that several frag- 
 ments of chalk appeared to have been scratched by animals. 
 
 The whole network of galleries was driven along the same vein of flint, 
 which rises with the chalk towards the north at an angle of 5°. Large quantities 
 of broken flint nodules were found in the rubble, all too small or irregular for 
 the making of a good implement, and all without exception of the ' unaltered 
 blue ' colour of the flint ; but a few flakes were white like the surface finds. These 
 flakes were supposed to have been exposed on the ground a long time before 
 being thrown into the shafts along with newly excavated nodules, and the con- 
 clusion drawn was that these particular shafts were not the earliest on the site. 
 
 The shafts when dug were 17 ft. from the surface, and contained very few 
 animal remains ; pieces of antler could not be regarded as picks, and one piece 
 of pottery, found in the clay above a shaft, was considered of later date. But in 
 a large pit 66 ft. in diameter pottery was found at 13 ft. and 18 ft. from the surface 
 below a red seam, one of the original vessels having been 9 in. in diameter at 
 the mouth and 13 in. in diameter 2 in. below it. Both were coarser ware than 
 that found at a higher level or in the ditch. In the red seam were found most 
 of the animal remains, chipped implements and flakes, all sealed in by an original 
 filling of chalk blocks ; but rude implements occurred all through the filling. 
 At 30 ft. was found charcoal, from furze, willow, and beech ; and at the same 
 level a chalk lamp with antler tools, one w^dge being ground smooth all round. 
 Another object of chalk was a disc 2-22 in. across and about I in. thick, with a 
 central hole bored from both sides : this was found in the rampart, but another 
 
 ' Op. ciL, pp. 365, 386. 
 
AND CISSBURY FLINT-MINES 123 
 
 occurred at Grime's Graves, 18 ft. from the surface ; and there are others from 
 Cissbury, as well as one from Dorset, in the British Museum. 
 
 The General amplified his excavation with experiments, and tested the 
 efficacy of deer-antler tools and shoulder-blades of the ox as shovels, deciding 
 against the latter in favour of the hands. 
 
 Prof Rolleston's remarks on the animal remains discovered were as 
 copious and systematic as usual, and were published with five views of the female 
 skull.' From the ' large pit ' he identified Bos longifrons, Sits scrofa domesttcns, 
 Cervus elaphus, Cervus capreohis, and Capra hirats, a skull of the last coming 
 from the red seam, 9^ ft. from the surface. Bones of the roe, domestic ox, and 
 goat were also found below the red seam. The presence of the pig and absence 
 of the wild boar and Bos primigenins from the large pit induced him to 
 date that and the skeleton pit a little later than Mr, Tindale's pit. The horse- 
 bones were labelled ' superficial ', as were all the remains of that animal at 
 Cissbury. 
 
 The ' skeleton-shaft ' proved incidentally that the pits were earlier than the 
 ditch and rampart of the earthwork, and yielded, besides a woman's skeleton, 
 a large number of animal bones and shells. About six pigs were represented 
 in this shaft, the marrow-bones being mostly broken : the majority of the re- 
 mainder showed ancient fractures, and the lower jaws were invariably broken. 
 There were also traces of the goat, roe-deer, and Bos primigenius, but none of 
 the red-deer or domestic ox ; while the shells were Helix nenwralis, arbustoriiDi, 
 lapicida, and rotimdata, Zoitites cellarius, and Cydostoma elegans, all found in great 
 abundance, and below the red seam. The shells of the Cyclostomata generally 
 had their opercula still connected. 
 
 The skeleton of a woman about twenty-five years of age was found in a ver- 
 tical position head downwards, practically complete but mixed up with pig bones. 
 It was surmised that she had fallen into the shaft and had not been properly 
 buried. The stature was 4 ft. 9 in. ; the shoulders and hips narrow and the head 
 large and low-lying, the cubic capacity being 105 in. (17327 cubic centimetres), 
 and cephalic index about 75. The skull was 2| ft. from the floor of the shaft, 
 which was unusually small (4^ ft. in diameter) and about 20 ft. deep, from the 
 original surface.^ 
 
 Being unsupported in that respect by his colleague, Mr. Park Harrison 
 submitted a paper on the marks found upon chalk at Cissbury to the Anthropo- 
 logical Institute.^ He described these markings as being on the jambs of 
 entrances into galleries in three Cissbury shafts, and dwelt on their ancient 
 
 ^ Joum. Anthrop. Itist., vi. 22. " Plan and section in op. cit., pi. xv, p. 376. 
 
 ^ Journal, vi. 263 ; see further, p. 430. 
 
124 DATE OF GRIME'S GRAVES 
 
 appearance, in contrast to the date 1875 cut by a visitor since one of the pits 
 was cleared. Mr. Tindale's pit also yielded a number of rounded chalk blocks 
 pitted with small round holes and scored with lines. On one piece the lines 
 crossed one another or radiated from small pits ; and experiments with a dog 
 and badger failed to produce anything similar. 
 
 In October, 1876, our Director joined Mr. Park Harrison in opening another 
 pit (called the Cave-pit), adjoining Mr. Willett's excavation of 1874. At the top 
 was a filling of chalk rubble with large blocks ; next came a layer of red clay, 
 sloping downwards from the eastern lip of the pit and containing an abundance 
 of flakes and implements ; and below, the usual filling of angular chalk. Several 
 chalk-blocks with markings ^ were discovered, but none below a level of 15 or 
 16 ft. In the white seam were noticed two pieces of deer's antler and a con- 
 siderable quantity of charcoal between 12 and 16 ft. from the surface. Lord 
 (then Captain) Dillon was present when the first gallery was opened, and noticed 
 several lines scored over the entrance ; and over the entrance to another gallery 
 was also a set of marks. A piece of stag's horn, 10 in. long, bore marks of fire 
 and was supposed to have been used to stir the fire, but similar finds at Grime's 
 Graves suggest that fire was used on antler instead of a saw. A piece of hard 
 stone, 5f in. by 21 in., of a quartzite nature, was compared with a piece from 
 Mr. Willett's pit 
 
 Of the twenty-five implements found, one-third had one end sharply pointed 
 and the other unworked. No sling-stones or potsherds were noticed, and the 
 only shells were of Helix nemoralis, which occurred 4 or 5 ft. from the surface : 
 bones, worked or unworked, were extremely scarce. 
 
 The concluding stages of this excavation were described by Mr. Park 
 Harrison in a further paper, '^ which was furnished with a plan of the pits and 
 galleries explored in 1876 and 1877. This 'Cave-pit' had been gradually filled 
 in by natural agencies, the walls bearing marks of weathering.^ Blocks were 
 not (as in other pits) thrown in purposely, at least not till after the formation of 
 the red seam which crossed the pit from east to west. Inside one of the galleries 
 was found a block of chalk scored with deep parallel lines and ' bearing some 
 remote resemblance to a rude human figure '. A horn pick, the second of its 
 kind recovered during the exploration, was found in another gallery ; and a fine 
 hammer of deer's antler came from the filling of one of the shafts. Three blade- 
 bones of small ox or deer were collected in the main gallery and one of its 
 
 ^ These are illustrated on his plate (xxv) and p. 440, this last being accepted as genuine by 
 Pitt-Rivers. 
 
 ^ Journ. Anthrop. Inst., vii. 412. 
 
 ^ Gen. Pitt-Rivers took a contrary view and saw no traces of habitation in the pits or galleries 
 {op. cit., p. 428). 
 
AND CISSBURY FLINT-MINES 125 
 
 branches, whilst nothing but two small bones of sheep or goat was noticed in 
 any of the other galleries. 
 
 Another shaft was opened in September, 1877, which eventually yielded the 
 second human skeleton (April, 1878). In it was found 'the usual red seam, due 
 to the silting in of the clay which covers the chalk formation at Cissbury to a 
 depth of 7 or 8 inches '. At 8 ft. from the surface it divided into two branches, 
 one extending nearly across the pit and the other continuing at a sharp angle 
 towards the bottom. Rudely made implements with a blade-bone of deer or 
 small ox were noticed between 8-10 ft. ; and a pile of flint chippings and flakes 
 occurred in the red seam. Charcoal appeared in the centre at 15 ft. from the 
 surface ; and a fine wedge, a pick, and three tines of deer-horn came from the 
 lowest level, apparently in the galleries. At 7 ft. above the floor (20 ft. from 
 the surface) occurred red-deer antlers, and 3 ft. below them remains of the goat. 
 At 16 ft. was part of the lower jaw of Bos longifrons ; and perhaps at 1 1 ft. part 
 of the femur of a domestic pig. Flint implements occurred throughout the 
 filling. 
 
 Prof Rolleston also reported on the second skeleton, which was re- 
 covered almost perfect and proved to be that of a male between twenty-five 
 and thirty years of age who had been formally buried 16 ft. from the top of the 
 pit and 14 ft. from the bottom.' The section was approximately as follows : 
 
 Surface. 
 
 Chalk blocks, about 2 ft. 
 , n Red seam, horizontal. 
 ' Filling of chalk rubble. 
 Red seam, rising from centre and joining the upper red seam at circumference. 
 Chalk rubble, 2 ft. thick. 
 
 ' Skeleton, laid on red seam. 
 
 At 20 ft. several pieces of antler scorched and smoked, with burnt chalk, on 
 north side ; on south side, about 5 ft. above the floor, four masses of iron 
 pyrites, one flint implement (point missing) ; and hard by, 300-400 flakes. 
 Filling of chalk blocks, more or less cemented. 
 , Floor of the shaft. 
 
 The body had been laid on its right side facing the east, in a contracted 
 position with the knees about 6 in. from the chin, the lower legs bent back on 
 the upper, and the fore-arms at right angles to the axis of the body. In front 
 of the knees (or, as Mr. Harrison states, near and in front of the head) was a 
 large flint hand-axe of oval contour, marked C on the photograph of the burial. 
 Eight snail-shells {Helix nemoralis) and a burnt pebble had also been placed 
 
 ^ Journ. Anfhrop. Inst., viii. 377; vii. 431. 
 
 VOL. LXIII. R 
 
 \ 
 
 14 ft. 
 
126 DATE OF GRIME'S GRAVES 
 
 with the body, and chalk blocks and unworked flints had been arranged round 
 it to form a sort of tomb. About 2 ft. of rubble, containing six implements 4-5 in. 
 long near its left shoulder, had been heaped over the interment. From the top 
 of this rubble started the middle red seam found in this shaft. 
 
 'This seam was to the eye just like the red layer found capping the natural surface of 
 the Downs; and the two deposits might therefore, with considerable probability, be 
 considered to have been formed in the same way.' 
 
 Examination of the skeleton showed that the subject had suffered from 
 hemiplegia (infantile paralysis), and the climbing muscles were well developed, 
 perhaps by going up and down the shafts. The stature computed from the 
 femur was 4 ft. 9 in., but measured by the bones when properly arranged half 
 an inch short of 5 ft. The cephalic index was 71 (very dolichocephalic), and the 
 cranium and lower jaw especially contrasted with those of the female skeleton. 
 Full details are furnished by Prof Rolleston. 
 
 The mass of material from Cissbury in public and private collections ^ can 
 merely be dealt with in outline ; and, in a paper not entirely devoted to the 
 flints, only some of the leading types can be illustrated. These are naturally 
 such as show most secondary chipping and careful finish, but there is a large 
 and growing series of roughly dressed stones which readily fall into groups and 
 have an interest of their own : for instance, the thick flint of circular or oval 
 outline, with two flat faces (the upper generally retaining the crust), steeply 
 bevelled all round the edge. This type is well illustrated in the British Museum 
 by specimens from the Aurignac cave itself; Les Eyzies, Dordogne; Velleches 
 and Navcli^re (Coussay-les-Bois), Vienne ; and Dr. Sturge has one from the pit 
 workshop at Cissbury. When not otherwise stated, specimens in the following 
 list are in the British Museum. 
 
 Fig. 18. A long plane with rough fluting at the end and the sides trimmed for handling. 
 
 Longer than Aurignac planes from French caves, it still has much in common 
 
 with the earliest finds at Les Eyzies (British Museum). 
 Fig. 19. A prismatic tool, carved and pointed. The section is triangular, and the type 
 
 has been found repeatedly in England. Good evidence of date is aflForded by its 
 
 occurrence in the earliest stratum of Les Eyzies. 
 Fig. 20. Two end-scrapers or planes, being clear examples of Aurignac side-trimming. 
 
 This is a leading characteristic of the period, and can be easily recognized on 
 
 scrapers and other tools made from blades. The larger specimen has been worn 
 
 smooth by use at the broader end (Brighton Museum). 
 
 ^ Dr. Sturge has a large series as well as the remainder of Canon Greenwell's collection from 
 Grime's Graves; and Mr. Garraway Rice, F.S.A., Mr. Thos. H. Powell, and other gentlemen kindly 
 exhibited selections from their cabinets in illustration of the paper. 
 
Fig. 19. Prism tool, side 
 and top views ; Cissbury. J. 
 
 Fig. 20. Two blades witii 
 trimmed edges ; Cissbury. |. 
 
 Fig. j8. Flint plane, with side view; 
 Cissbury. 5. 
 
 Fig. 21. Tool like end of celt ; 
 Cissbury. J. 
 
 Fig. 22. Chisel, with section; 
 Cissbury. \. 
 
 Fig. 23. End-scraper ; 
 Cissbury. ^. 
 
 Fig. 24. Fluted plane, with side view ; Cissbury. J. 
 
 Fig. 25. Flint chopper, with side view ; Cissbury. I. 
 
 R 2 
 
128 
 
 DATE OF GRIME'S GRAVES 
 
 Fig. 21. A well-made tool resembling the end of a large celt, but probably complete in 
 itself and not accidentally broken across. The fracture may be due to an attempt 
 to obtain the rounded angle known as hinge-fracture, so that it might be used as 
 a chopper without injuring the hand. For a smaller specimen see fig. 5. Most 
 of this pattern are carefully flaked on both faces, and have a flattish base in the 
 form of a long-pointed oval. 
 
 Fig. 22. A carefully made tool, fractured (intentionally?) at the butt and flaked all over both 
 faces. The sides are parallel and sharp like the rounded end. It has been called 
 a chisel, but was evidently not meant for heavy work. An interesting parallel 
 was found in a stratified deposit at Ipswich by Miss Nina Layard (p. 133), the 
 work being coarser and probably earlier. 
 
 Fig. 27. Side-view of scraper ; Cissbury 
 (pi. xxii, fig. 6). f . 
 
 Fig. 26. Cissbury celt with lump on one face (front 
 and side). |. 
 
 Fig. 23. Perhaps the commonest form of scraper in the Cave period : a blade with two 
 ridges and rounded end, the butt being left untrimmed (Mr. T. H. Powell). 
 
 Fig. 24. A good example of steep fluting in the Aurignac manner : a plane with the under- 
 face flat, the thick end rounded, and one side trimmed from end to end. This 
 serves as a connecting link between the forms represented in figs. 35 and 18. 
 
 Fig. 25. A chopper with crust reserved on the thick end to prevent injury to the hand in 
 use. Such massive tools are known from Le Moustier, and also from the river- 
 gravels, especially in north-east London. Except for the crust, the surface is quite 
 white ; and, though the top is sharp, the principal cutting-edge is along the left- 
 hand side. 
 
 Fig. 26. Here may be mentioned a curious feature that seems to have answered some 
 definite purpose and can hardly be accidental. About the middle of one face of 
 a few Cissbury celts is a large chipped lump. The obvious suggestion that the 
 
Archaeologia 
 
 Vol. LXIII Plate XXII 
 
 Hint implements, Cissbury, Sussex (British Museum) 
 
 Flint implements, North of Ireland (British Museum) 
 Published by the Society of Antiquaries of London, 19 12 
 
AND CISSBURY FLINT-MINES 129 
 
 implement was never finished is discounted by the repeated occurrence of this 
 protuberance, which is thought by some to imply a certain method of hafting, 
 and to correspond to the stop-ridge of a bronze palstave. An interesting parallel 
 is in the collection of Rev. H. G. O. Kendall, a palaeolithic date being indicated 
 by its provenance. It is a typical Cissbury celt with protuberance on one face, 
 except that it has been stained pale yellow by iron in the gravel of a pit that is 
 well known for its Drift types, surface scratching, and glossy specimens.' It should 
 be noted that the Brighton Museum also contains some Cissbury types from 
 Knowle Farm Quarry, Savcrnake, e. g. the long oval with square ends, the thick 
 sub-triangular hand-axe, and small thick ovate implement. 
 Fig. 27. Side-view of the end-scrapershownonplateXXII,fig.6,withsteepflutingattheend 
 and partly along the sides. The under-face has a large bulb and is curved, but quite 
 plain. This is one of the most characteristic forms in the series, and is not known 
 to occur at any other horizon. Like nearly all the Cissbury specimens it is white, 
 and the surface has been extensively scratched or rather torn. This condition need 
 occasion no surprise, as the flint is softened to a measurable depth ; but this soft 
 surface is in fact generally intact. 
 
 Plate XXII. 
 
 Fig. I. A large white flake, bluish in places where the black core shows through the white 
 film of patina. Though of unsymmetrical outline, this is a good example of surface 
 flaking, which reached its climax at the Solutre stage. 
 
 Fig. 2. A flake used as a side-scraper {racloir), trimming and use having rendered the 
 working-edge steep. The under-face is quite plain. 
 
 Fig. 3. A round-scraper made from a thin flake : the type is rarely found at Cissbury, 
 though larger specimens occur at Grime's Graves. It is also comparatively rare 
 in the Aurignac series, scrapers of this outline being generally thick. 
 
 Fig. 4. A well-flaked example of the so-called ' celt-end ', which may be the correct de- 
 scription in this case as the base seems to be due to an accidental fracture. The 
 sides are parallel, and the surface flaked on both faces, which are equally convex. 
 
 Fig. 5. A broad white flake, used as a scraper along one side and at the narrower end : 
 the style is rather that of Le Moustier, but a simple tool of this kind may be found 
 at most periods and is not specially characteristic of any. 
 
 Fig. 6. See above, fig. 27. 
 
 Plate XXIII. 
 
 Fig. I a, h. Two faces of oval tool with surface-fluting at the narrow (working) end, and 
 surface flaking over part of both faces, suggesting the beginnings of Solutre work. 
 From a pit opened by Mr. Willett. 
 
 Fig. "za^b. A symmetrical ' point ' of laurel-leaf form as at Solutre, but the surface flaking 
 only partial and not of the finest quality. Specimens of this form with the same 
 coarse work have been collected at Laugerie Haute, one of the best sites of the 
 Solutre stage. 
 
 ^ Proceedings, xxiii. 457. 
 
I30 DATE OF GRIME'S GRAVES 
 
 Fig. 3 a, b. An irregular flake partially flaked on both faces in a style suggesting rudi- 
 mentary Solutre work. This and fig. 2 are from pits reopened by Gen. Pitt-Rivers 
 (then Lane-Fox) in 1868. 
 
 Plate XXIV. 
 
 This plate gives all the complete celts in the British Museum from Cissbury, and com- 
 prises several varieties of a type generally considered neolithic. They are all flaked on 
 both faces and are more or less sharp all the way round, like many hand-axes of the 
 St. Acheul period, from which these seem to be descended. The type has been found in 
 stratified deposits in this country, but not accepted as palaeolithic merely on account of 
 its close resemblance in outline to the polished celts of neolithic age. An interesting find 
 near Paris is quoted below (p. 133) to illustrate the succession, if not the actual dates, of 
 these ' celt ' forms, and the coincidences already noticed apart from this form of implement 
 should justify the inclusion of the celt among the Aurignac types, at any rate in Britain and 
 North France. 
 
 Examples of the Cissbury type of celt have long been recognized from 
 other parts of England. Sir John Evans ' mentioned specimens from Reach 
 Fen (his fig. 23) and Burwell Fen, Cambs. ; Thetford, Norfolk ; Mildenhall, 
 Suffolk ; Witham, Essex ; and Farnham, Dorset. Eight u^ere found lying side 
 by side just belov^ the turf on Clayton Mill, Sussex, in 1803, including one 13 in. 
 long; and four were found lying in a row at Teddington, Middlesex. The 
 discoveries at Cissbury are discussed at some length (Evans, p. 78, figs. 26-29), 
 and one of the lesser-known forms described as wedge-like with the thin end 
 rounded, and well adapted for use as a chopper, though the rounded edge is 
 uninjured. To judge from shape alone this and others ' might be regarded as 
 being of palaeolithic age, but their surroundings prove them to be neolithic '. 
 This constant recognition of palaeolithic forms apart from the river-gravels 
 suggests a closer examination of the 'neolithic' surroundings. 
 
 An instructive find at Bromehill pit, in Weeting parish itself, is recorded 
 by Evans (fig. 438), and throws some light on the antiquity of the Cissbury type 
 of celt. In the gravel, of which the base was 6-8 ft. above the Little Ouse and 
 the entire height about 24 ft., have been found remains of the mammoth and horse, 
 and at least one narrow celt 5f in. long with one face much more convex than 
 the other, the broader end being gouge-like. Another, with the same pecu- 
 liarities but somewhat broader, is lustrous and nearly white (Evans, fig. 420), 
 and comes from Icklingham (Rampart Hill), as does a third (Evans, fig. 422) 
 which is also said to approach the neolithic form, such as his fig. 16, from 
 Newhaven, Sussex. A specimen of the same character (Evans, fig. 440) was 
 probably found at Gravel Hill, Brandon, opposite Weeting; and another, 'of 
 
 ^ Stone Implements, 2nd ed., pp. 75-6. 
 
Archaeologia 
 
 Vol. LXIII Plate XXIV 
 
 FLINT CELTS, CISSBURY, SUSSEX (BRITISH MUSEUM) 
 
 Nos. 1-8, II, 13-15, 17 and 18 were found in the pits ; nos. 9, 10, 12, 16 and 19 at various 
 depths in the ditch of the earthworli and in the immediate vicinitj'. 
 
 Nos. 8, 13, 16 and 19 were excavated by the Anthropological Institute committee in 1876, 
 the remainder by Gen. Pitt-Rivers (then Col. Lane- Fox) in 1867-8. 
 
 Published by the Society of Antiquaries of London, 1912 
 
AND CISSBURY FLINT-MINES 
 
 131 
 
 palaeolithic type, which not improbably may have been derived from some 
 gravelly bed,' was found on the surface near Henlow, Beds. (Evans, p. 536). 
 
 One of the leading Cissbury types is a segment of a circle, thickest at the 
 base, which is flat and enables the implement to stand up much like a ' tea-cosy ', 
 to which another series from Icklingham has been compared by Dr. Sturge. 
 The edge is generally sharp throughout its length, and a frequent feature is a 
 long hinge-fracture on one side of the base, which obviates at least one of the 
 sharp edges that might hurt the hand in use. This mode of fracture was 
 evidently appreciated and seems to have been intentionally produced; but 
 unless Aurignac man had the secret of producing it at will, it is likely that he 
 continued fracturing flints till he got a straight ' hinge ', and then chipped a 
 curved edge to suit it. Whatever the process, 
 the type can be traced through several stages 
 of development, from stratified deposits to the 
 age of polished flint. 
 
 The relation of this type to the river-gravels 
 has recently been illustrated in an interesting 
 way, in accordance with evidence from else- 
 where. In March last Mr. Dewey of H.M. Geo- 
 logical Survey took from the ' bull-head ' of 
 the Southfleet pit (or Baker's Hole, Northfleet, 
 Kent), where it lay imbedded 6 in. deep, a flint 
 segment 4? in. long with a cutting edge round the 
 curve and a flat base with hinge-fracture along 
 one side (fig. 28). One face has primary flaking 
 all over, the other has a large patch of crust covering the sunk portion that 
 might otherwise be taken for a subsequent break. The dotted line shows the 
 form of a normal base, but this seems to be an early example of the type, to 
 judge from the workmanship; and if the date arrived at on other grounds for 
 this site is correct,' this segment should date from the stage of Le Moustier, inas- 
 much as the deposit was due to extreme cold not long after a mass of Levallois 
 flakes had been worked a few yards off" in the same pit. This specimen is a most 
 opportune find, and has been presented by Mr. Dewey to the British Museum. 
 
 The next link in the chain is a large example (fig. 29) in the same collection 
 from the cave of Les Eyzies in the Dordogne, where many other parallels have 
 been found ; but all these point to an Aurignac date, and it seems clear that 
 Lartet and Christy found a level below that which is generally held to mark 
 
 ' Archaeologia, Ixii. 520. Dr. Sturge has a typical Northfleet implement from Weeting, Norfolk, 
 with the large bulb reduced by chipping. A typical flint ' pick ', 4I in. long, said to have been found 
 below coombe-rock in Seise}', has been published by Mr. Heron-Allen {Selsey Bill, p. 72, pi. xii). 
 
 Fig. 28. Segmental tool, with view of base, 
 from coombe-rock, Northfleet, Kent. \. 
 
13^ 
 
 DATE OF GRIAIE'S GRAVES 
 
 the transition from Solutre to La Madeleine. This segment has breccia still 
 attached to it, the flint being somewhat yellow ; and is a further indication that 
 Aurignac man was using exactly the same forms of tools in France and England. 
 One in Dr. Sturge's collection is 5 in. high, the base measuring 51 in. by i^ in. 
 It was found 3-4 ft. deep at Nowton, south of Bury St. Edmunds, and doubtless 
 belongs to the Aurignac stage. 
 
 Another, roughly flaked only on one face, has been already described from 
 Grime's Graves (fig. 3), and a smaller one has recently been found in gravel 
 
 Fig. 29. Segmental tool, end, side, and base views ; Les Eyzies Cave, 
 
 Dordogne. 3. 
 
 Fig. 30. Polished segmental 
 tool, with view of base ; South 
 Downs, probably East Dean. J. 
 
 on the 100 ft. terrace at Greenhithe. One from the surface of the chalk in Dorset 
 is in the British Museum, and the discovery of a certain number with crust 
 over a part or the whole of the base proves that they are not broken tools. The 
 so-called 'ends of celts' seem to be related to these segments, and are like- 
 wise complete tools (figs. 5, 21). An interesting question is raised by a polished 
 specimen in Mr. T. H. Powell's collection (fig. 30). The cutting edge is flaked 
 and reduced by grinding to a sharp even line, and the base has the hinge-fracture 
 along one side, the production of which spoilt the symmetry of one face. The 
 practice of polishing flint is generally considered purely neolithic, but it is open 
 to question whether the cutting-edge of tools was not produced in this way 
 long before, especially as polished bone-tools date from an early part of the 
 Cave period. The point will be touched upon again (p. 147); and if the present 
 specimen is neolithic, the persistence of the type from Aurignac and probably 
 Le Moustier times is only the more remarkable. 
 
 Some interesting discoveries throwing light on the Cissbury problem have 
 
AND CISSBURY FLINT-MINES 
 
 133 
 
 been made by Miss Nina Layard at Ipswich, but not fully published/ From 
 drawings and diagrams kindly lent for examination, it is clear that there is a 
 sequence of palaeolithic horizons on this site, and in the upper part of this 
 section, in stratified deposits quite distinct from the soil, were found various 
 forms highly suggestive of Cissbury, particularly a ' chisel ' with rounded end and 
 parallel sides much like fig. 22. The peculiar fluting appears on other specimens, 
 and one of the sketches represents the type wrongly 
 described as the broken end of a celt (as figs. 5, 21). 
 
 Certain finds in France must here be noticed that have 
 an important bearing on the stratigraphy of the Cissbury 
 type of celt. In 1866 Gabriel de Mortillet figured three 
 typical implements from various strata at Menchecourt, 
 near Abbeville, viz. a lanceolate hand-axe from the lower 
 beds ; a long oval implement evidently allied to the Ciss- 
 bury celt, from the terre rouge or loess ; and an ordinary 
 polished celt from the rainwash overlying the preceding 
 stratum.^ Boucher de Perthes had several others from the 
 same neighbourhood, and a still more striking example 
 has recently been found by M. A. Laville,^ who has kindly 
 permitted its reproduction here (fig. 31). Though not 
 found in situ, it evidently came from a coarse sand-bed in 
 the Dauphin pit at Ivry, and may be described as a flint 
 celt 7 in. long, with a dirty white patina stained yellow on 
 one face, and on the other greenish yellow, also bluish in 
 places, ' recalling that generally seen on specimens frankly 
 palaeolithic. The form of this axe, with a cutting-edge all 
 round, so closely resembles the neolithic celt that at first 
 sight and apart from its horizon one could believe it to be neolithic, but it is 
 quite palaeolithic.'* The stratum is 5-8 ft. thick, and below it is a seam of 
 pebbles, gravel, and sand, with remains of mammoth ; above it, compact clay 2 ft. 
 thick, and then grey loam with numerous flint flakes and fossils. Beneath the 
 humus is a layer of clayey loam of a deep greenish yellow. From a study of sev^eral 
 other pits in the neighbourhood of Paris M. Laville has been able to distinguish an 
 infra-neolithic horizon,^ and it is interesting to observe how the above celt was 
 
 ' Jouni. Anthrop. Inst., N.S., vi. 43. 
 
 - Mnleriaux pour fhistoire de r Homme, ii. (1866) 358 : the lower beds are ' sable gras, sable aigre 
 et cailloutis'. 
 
 ' Bull, et Mem. Sac. d' Anthrop. de Paris, 5th sen i. (1902) 209, fig. 3. 
 
 ■•In support of this may be mentioned a similar celt in Dr. Sturge's collection from the well-known 
 palaeolithic site at Bromehill, Weeting, Norfolk. 
 
 ^ Coitgri's inlernat. dAnth. et d'Arch. prehist, Paris (1910), p. 203. 
 
 VOL. LXUI. s 
 
 Fig. 31. Celt, Dauphin pit, 
 Ivry, near Paris. \. 
 
134 DATE OF GRIME'S GRAVES 
 
 received by experts at the last Paris Congress. Adrien de Mortillet considered 
 it neolithic, Cartailhac bowed to the stratigraphical evidence, and the Abbe 
 Breuil noted sites in N. Aisne where picks and tnmchets (kitchen-midden type) 
 had been found with no trace of polishing in pleistocene loams. Other strati- 
 graphical evidence with regard to the two last-named types will be referred 
 to below, but an earlier date is claimed for certain finds at Allonne, near 
 Bracheux, Oise.' On the north slope of the cliff on the right bank of the 
 Therain is a thick deposit of pleistocene drift 167 ft. above the sea ; and here at 
 20 ft. from the surface were found a pointed implement 8 in. long (regarded by 
 Dr. Baudon as St. Acheul I) and a long oval implement with cutting-edge all 
 round, \\ in. thick at the centre, and 'of rare form but remarkably regular'. 
 This appears from the illustration to be the prototype of the Cissbury celt, and 
 8 ft. above it, at a depth of 12 ft, was found a pointed type regarded as 
 St. Acheul II, but perhaps connected with the leading type of La Micoque. 
 In any case, the hand-axe was found above the long oval specimen in the same 
 pleistocene deposit. 
 
 Other parallels from France may be mentioned which are not dated by 
 stratification, but are even closer to the Cissbury deposits, and show that the 
 culture was not confined to this side of the Channel. MM. Martin and Hue 
 have described a ' factory' situated in a loop of the Marne, commune of Jablines, 
 Seine-et-Marne.^ The material mostly used was a brown local flint {silex mini- 
 lite), rarely black, but a few ' of La Madeleine type ' were found with a white 
 patina all over, and black flint with deep white patina is frequently found on the 
 surface in the same neighbourhood. The celt-type was a thin oval, ranging from 
 2 to 5I in. in length, with sinuous edges ; three specimens were slightly polished 
 near the cutting-edge. The authors and Dr. Baudouin agreed that these were 
 never intended to be polished all over, but were finished tools. Among the illus- 
 trations should be noticed a celt of Cissbury type, 3! in. long ; a pointed oval 
 tool, 4I in. long, with flat faces ; and a segmental specimen with base reworked, 
 34 in. long, but not so regularly formed as usual. The paper also contains 
 some interesting reflections on the neolithic period, which is said to be one of 
 the least known and most obscure. The problem is complicated by the abundance 
 of Campigny finds north of the Loire and their absence in the south, where cave- 
 deposits might have determined their true horizon. No connexion can be detected 
 with the Tardenois culture, and whereas Jablines yielded no kitchen-midden celts 
 or transverse arrow-heads, there was an implement of much the same character 
 as the Campigny pick. But there seems little or no reason for placing Jablines 
 a little after Campigny, as the authors are tempted to do. 
 
 * Congrcs preh. de France, Autun (1907), p. 94, esp. fig. 10. 
 
 ^ Ibid., Beauvais (1909), p. 254, plates i-vi; partial polishing is mentioned, p. 264. 
 
AND CISSBURY FLINT-MINES 135 
 
 Another ' factory ' has been discovered at La Longdre, Eure-et-Loir/ and 
 among the finds illustrated may be noticed three that agree well with the Ciss- 
 bury culture, viz. a long celt very much patinated, 7 in. long ; a plane, 3J in. long ; 
 and what may be a lamp. The palaeolithic appearance of the finds was duly 
 noticed, but a neolithic date eventually decided upon; and it was noticed inci- 
 dentally that the iron-stains were found not only on surface flints that might 
 have been touched by the plough, but also on pieces deeply buried. The cause 
 assigned was the oxidation of pyrites, and the same was noticed by Capt. Wade 
 in excavating a flint-mine near Chichester.'^ 
 
 An examination of the types associated with Cissbury and Grime's Graves 
 has revealed various palaeolithic traits ; and evidence from France, stratigraphi- 
 cal and otherwise, lends colour to the theory that the horizon is palaeolithic. 
 Acceptance of the theory involves in the first place the recognition of palaeo- 
 lithic flint-mining, an achievement which, in itself and apart from prejudice, is 
 just as credible in the early as in the later Stone Age. Even if the mines are 
 attributed to Aurignac man, it might be contended that the surface finds of that 
 period cannot have escaped disturbance or even destruction in subsequent ages ; 
 yet many surface-finds in the vicinity of the pits both at Cissbury and Grime's 
 Graves are evidently contemporary with those obviously left behind by the 
 miners. Nor should this appear extraordinary, for many collectors have surface 
 specimens of the river-gravel types much older than the Cave period and pos- 
 sibly not /;/ situ, but still not damaged to any extent, the patina being generally 
 grey or white with more or less iron-staining. If St. Acheul types can still be 
 detected on the surface both here and abroad, there should be no a priori objec- 
 tion to Cave specimens from the surface ; and the true horizon of the latter would 
 have been recognized long ago but for two ill-founded generalizations, viz. that 
 surface finds were exclusively neolithic, and palaeolithic flints were normally 
 patinated and stained. The first objection has been overruled by evidence, 
 while the most casual examination of French cave-relics would dispel illusions 
 on the second point ; and it may be mentioned incidentally that the earliest cave- 
 relics in France or elsewhere are normally devoid of any patina whatever. The 
 mysterious process known as patination still awaits scientific explanation, but 
 judged from that standpoint alone the Cissbury series might well be attributed 
 to early palaeolithic times. The change in mineral condition at Grime's Graves 
 is not so pronounced, but the Sussex specimens, originally pure black, are reduced 
 to white biscuit, a thin core alone remaining to testify to the original colour and 
 condition. Had these worked flints been subjected to the action of iron in 
 
 * Covgris prch. de France, Vannes (1906), pp. 121, 137; figs, i, 5, 10. 
 ^ Proceedings, xxiii. 241, 385. 
 
 s 2 
 
136 DATE OF GRLMES GRAVES 
 
 solution they would have assumed the colours, and probably the lustre, of g^ravel 
 implements; and though patina by itself is a poor criterion of antiquity, it 
 becomes an important factor when uniformly distributed over a large and 
 homogeneous series. 
 
 A sceptical position based on such arguments as those just examined might 
 easily be proved untenable, and might also be relinquished without regret in 
 view of more formidable objections that will appear in the following pages. 
 But it will first be advisable to discover how far the Aurignac stage is repre- 
 sented in this country by remains that any one acquainted with the results of 
 continental research would accept without question. If such a culture can be 
 traced in parts of England where caves were available for occupation by man 
 and beast, it will next become imperative to produce signs of contemporary 
 civilization in the chalk area. 
 
 A brief description of the Aurignac culture at its best, based on recent 
 excavations in Wlirtemberg, but entirely agreeing with the French evidence, 
 may be quoted here from Dr. R. R. Schmidt's paper on Sirgenstein.' 
 
 The fauna of the middle Aurignac period undergoes no important change in com- 
 position, but is poorer than early Aurignac by a few species ; the list is as follows : 
 
 Elephas primigenius (mammoth, frequent) 
 Rhinoceros tichorhinus (woolly rhinoceros, frequent) 
 Cervus elaphus (red deer, large) 
 
 Rangifer tarandus (reindeer, frequent) 
 
 Equus caballus (horse, frequent) 
 
 Ursus spelaeus (cave-bear, frequent) 
 
 Canis lupus (wolf) 
 
 Canis sp. (species of dog) 
 
 Lepus variabilis (hare) 
 
 Aquila sp. (species of eagle) 
 
 The middle Aurignac culture of Sirgenstein (nearSchelklingen, Wortemberg) presents 
 a larger number of types and a greater advance on the decadent types of Le Mousticr than 
 early Aurignac. The Aurignac style of flaking aims at rounding off all angles and edges. 
 Hence arises a series of symmetrical forms, such as the pointed oval, single and double 
 end-scrapers, oval tools and others formed like the point of a leaf. Aurignac work is easily 
 recognized by its deep fluting, which at times covers the entire edge of prismatic blades 
 in a single row, but more often is in more than one row (the so-called step-flaking), covering 
 half the surface of the implement. The butt-end of blades is often rounded off by fan-shaped 
 flaking, or, in the case of thicker prismatic blades, blunted into the form of a wedge by the 
 removal of long narrow flakes. On scraping and cutting tools often occur hollows and 
 notches. To complete the resemblance to the middle Aurignac stage of Western Europe, 
 
 ^ Translated from Der Sirgenstein ttnd die dilnvialen Kulttirstdtten Wiirttembergs (Stuttgart, 
 1910), p. 17. 
 
AND CISSBURY FLINT-MINES 137 
 
 there is above all a series of pyramidal scrapers like those of Spy, Tarte, Brassempouy, 
 Cro-Magnon, La Ferrassie, Pont-Neuf, Bouitou, Les Cottes, Trilobite in the West, and 
 Krems, Willendorf, &c., in the East of Europe. Larger and smaller specimens (of the 
 Tarte plane) occurred at the upper limit of this stratum. Graving-points are still rare, oc- 
 curring on thick leaf-shaped flakes or on the edge of blades and blade-scrapers ; but the 
 bow-graver is not found in the middle Aurignac bed at Sirgenstein. The less typical 
 domestic utensils include blades with the plain face scaled {mit Aussplitterimgen) -, the so- 
 called stone-chisels, borers, &c., which also occur in the other Aurignac strata. Compared 
 with the developed stone industry, bone tools are far behindhand ; foremost among them 
 are smoothers made of the ribs of large animals (bear, horse, &c.), pointed ivory splinters, 
 lance-heads and awls of bone and horn, blocks of mammoth tusk with supposed hunting- 
 tallies, &c. From the same layer come points agreeing in outline with the Aurignac point, 
 but without the split base. All the bone tools are better smoothed than the lower Aurignac 
 specimens. 
 
 In the caves of Britain there are a few unmistakable traces of the Aurignac 
 culture, though the associated fauna cannot now be isolated with any degree of 
 certainty. It is curious and at the same time encouraging to notice the identity 
 of types on both sides of the Channel, and their exclusive connexion with certain 
 horizons, which are best determined in the large series of French caves ex- 
 cavated in recent years under the superintendence of leading experts. Sir John 
 Evans drew attention to one Aurignac feature in specimens from Kent's Cavern 
 (his fig. 392) and Brixham Cave, viz. the trimming of the side-edges of flakes ; 
 but the Hyaena Den at Wookey Hole, near Wells, Somerset, was explored 
 between 1859 and 1863 by Prof. Boyd Dawkins and others, and yielded, among 
 other remains in the Cave-earth, a flint flake (2f in. long without its point) 
 which had been trimmed by secondary chipping on the flat face, slightly so 
 along one side, and over half the other face, both edges showing considerable 
 signs of wear by use. Another form, of which two specimens were found of 
 Upper Greensand chert, 'was roughly pyramidal, with a smooth and flat base 
 and a cutting edge all round, much like an instrument found in the cave of 
 Aurignac by M. Lartet' ' The partial surface-flaking is clearly an anticipation 
 of the Solutr^ style ; and the greensand cones of Aurignac type prompt one to 
 suggest that ' two rudely fashioned bone arrow-heads of the shape of an equi- 
 lateral triangle with the angles bevelled off' were none other than the Aurignac 
 bone point with split base ; but they have both been lost. 
 
 The art of flaking a surface flat seems to have been practised with success 
 at a still earlier date, though not continuously through Aurignac times. Much 
 has been written In recent years on the discoveries at La MIcoque, a high bank 
 
 ^ Evans, o/. n/., 2nd ed., pp. 518-19; p. 498, fig. 391. The cones were found with remains of the 
 hyaena [Quart. Journ. Gcol. Soc, xix. 273), and are compared with hundreds found at Standlake and 
 Yarnton, Oxon. 
 
138 
 
 DATE OF GRIME'S GRAVES 
 
 1 W)2 
 
 of a tributary stream of the V^z^re opposite the well-known site of Laugerie 
 Haute, Tayac, Dordogne, but opinions are still divided as to its true horizon, 
 and few will contend that its problems have been completely solved. Most 
 authorities * regard its peculiar industry as a transition stage between St. Acheul 
 and Le Moustier ; others, including actual excavators of the site, insist on its 
 
 being a late phase of Le Moustier. The question is compli- 
 cated by the paucity of the fauna ; bones and teeth of the 
 horse were plentiful in this tufaceous deposit, but the 
 remainder consisted of some bones oi Bos primige^iiits and 
 Bison prisciis, and a bear's tooth, though the latest excavator 
 also mentions mammoth.^ Steppe conditions seem to have 
 prevailed when this open-air settlement existed, and the 
 flint products are peculiar. The surface is white or red- 
 dish yellow, and resembles biscuit or porcelain according 
 as the patina is more or less advanced.^ In the former 
 case it is generally friable and can be easily scratched with 
 a knife, but the work is clearly visible. The white surface 
 is sometimes stained in places by oxide of iron, but never 
 shows signs of rolling ; and the origin of the deposit is not 
 explained. 
 
 Its mention here is due to the similarity between one 
 of its chief types and a few specimens found in England 
 that apparently help to bridge the gap between the river- 
 gravel deposits and the Cissbury series. The hand-axes of La Micoque are 
 furnished with long slender points and straight converging edges, som.e 
 specimens having two convex chipped faces, others only one, the other being 
 quite flat* A close parallel to the latter type in form if not in colour has been 
 found at Svvanscombe, Kent ; but the most striking examples, with the under- 
 face chipped flat, agree in colour and are of exquisite workmanship. A 
 specimen, 8| in. by 3^ in., in Mr. W. G. Wilsher's collection was found 8 ft. deep 
 in gravel on the Chiltern Hills at Goring Heath, about 450 ft. o. d. Its surface 
 is lustred and bluish white or grey, whereas a beautiful specimen in A4r. Dale's 
 possession (fig. 32) is a lustrous white, the under surface chipped flat and the 
 outline highly suggestive of one of the best specimens"' from the cave of 
 
 Fig. 32. White flint imple- 
 ment, witii side view; Dun- 
 bridge, Hants. \. 
 
 see also L' Homme 
 
 * References are given by Dechelette, Manuel cTArcheologie, i. 86. 
 ^ O. Hauser, 5mcA/ iiber die Prahistoriker-Versammlung in Koln, 1907, p. 91 
 
 pre'historique, 1908, p. 41. 
 
 ^ The chemical question is discussed bj' Dr. Capitan, Revue d'Ac. d'Antli., 1896, p. 41 1 ; and Herr 
 Hauser has published a comparative analysis of the patina and core of the flint (Bericht, &c., 98). 
 
 * For another site see Congrh prch. de France, Perigueux, p. 176. 
 
 * A thin assegai-blade, 5-3 in. long, L' Anihropologie, 1898, pp- 532, 540, fig. i ; reproduced in 
 
AND CISSBURY FLINT-MINES 139 
 
 Brassempouy, Landes, of the Aurignac period. Reference to plate XXIV will 
 also show a connexion with the doubly convex celts of Cissbury ; and its dis- 
 covery in the Dunbridge pit (probably in the brickearth), which has yielded 
 a large number of the ordinary Drift types/ is an important argument for con- 
 tinuity. 
 
 More evidence as to the date of this surface-flaking is afforded by the dis- 
 covery in Kent's Cavern of finely pointed lanceolate blades, of which one is 
 figured by Evans (his fig. 390). This is of leaf form, 4 J in. long and nearly i-J in. 
 wide, of triangular section, the flat face being only partially worked. The flint 
 is white and porcellanous, and so decayed that it can be cut with a knife, though 
 the flaking is clear. It was found under stalagmite nearly i ft. thick, with teeth 
 of hyaena, bear, and fox. Other examples of this partial surface-flaking have 
 been found at Ffynnon Beuno Cave, St. Asaph ; and at Creswell Crags, Derby- 
 shire. 
 
 Apart from cave-deposits and the classic sites of Cissbury and Grime's 
 Graves, remains of Aurignac man seem to be abundant in South England and 
 may also be detected on the Yorkshire wolds. A large proportion of the North 
 and South Downs series appear to be of this date, and in North Wiltshire one 
 hill is covered with pure-white specimens that are mostly small, but comprise 
 most of the leading types, such as cones, steep end-scrapers, small choppers, and 
 carinated planes. In the neighbourhood of Blandford, Dorset, many specimens 
 have been collected that probably belong to a later stage of the Cave period, 
 but a few of the Aurignac types have also been noticed ; and even in Cornwall," 
 where flints straight from the chalk could not be obtained, there are typical 
 Aurignac specimens. 
 
 On the Chilterns this stage is also represented, though by somewhat rude 
 examples, on a site that may prove to be another Cissbury; and at High 
 Wycombe on the Great Western and Great Central railway-line a flint-mine 
 with picks and pick-marks was discovered a few years ago.^ 
 
 A section of Thames deposits at the new Admiralty Offices, Whitehall, 
 London, yielded to Mr. Lewis Abbott, besides an interesting fauna, a lanceolate 
 flint and a deeply patinated leaf-shaped implement, both suggestive of reputed 
 neolithic types, though the work was pronounced palaeolithic* 
 
 Piette's Lart pendant I'age du Renne, p. 46. Larger examples like Mr. Wilsher's have been found with 
 other suggestive forms in Tunis; see de Morgan, Capitan and Boudy, ' Les stations preh. du Sud 
 Tunisien' {Rev. d'^c. d'Anth. Paris, 1910, pp. 128, 129). 
 
 ' Proceedings, vol. xxiv. 
 
 ^ Stone Age Guide (Brit. Mus.), 2nd ed., p. 72. 
 
 ' Museums Journal, 1902, p. 156. 
 
 * Proc. Geol. Assoc., xii (1892), pp. 349, 354. 
 
I40 DATE OF GRIME'S GRAVES 
 
 An account by Dr. Plowright of a pit or flint-mine on Massingham Heath, 
 Norfolk, is not easily accessible ; ^ and the original blocks which might have 
 been introduced here have been lost. The site is 19 miles due north of Grime's 
 Graves, and was described in 1891. The pit was originally 5 to 6 ft. deep and was 
 filled with masses of flint and chalk rubble, large lumps of flint lying on the bottom, 
 and a layer of flakes about i ft. thick being just below the turf The flints were 
 creamy-white to pale blue, often mottled with yellow and brown, and sometimes 
 covered with minute black specks. Instead of being lustred, many were porous 
 and resembled unglazed porcelain, the edges being quite sharp ; and the author 
 insisted that the implements were never meant to be polished by grinding. The 
 following illustrations may be referred to as analogous to Cissbury finds : i and 
 2, celts 6 in. and 5^- in. long ; 3, somewhat of kitchen-midden character {tmnchet) ; 
 5, pick 7 in. long, one face being a plain fracture ; 6, a tool 7 in. long with similar 
 flat face and pear-shaped outline, with long parallel flaking at end ; 7, tool measur- 
 ing 6| in. with oval outline and steep edge-chipping ; 10, one of several with the 
 cutting-edge of U outline, generally regarded as the ends of celts, 7J in. long, 
 5I in. wide, and 3 in. thick at the butt, the weight being 4 to 5 lb. One pick curved 
 lengthwise, 8 or 10 in. long, weighed 3 or 4 lb., and there were several choppers, 
 consisting of lumps roughly trimmed and provided with a rude cutting-edge. 
 Hammer-stones made of quartzite pebbles were noticed as at Grime's Graves, 
 and deer-antler picks were buried in the rubble. As at Cissbury, circular scrapers 
 were extremely rare. 
 
 Attention has recently been called by Mr. W. G. Clarke ^ to similar remains 
 in the vicinity of Norwich, at Easton, Ringland, and Markshall ; and it is more 
 than probable that this list will be rapidly increased by local research. 
 
 The Yorkshire wolds are only less prolific than the Downs, and there are 
 not wanting indications of Aurignac culture in this northern area. It is clear 
 from the caves of Western Yorkshire that palaeolithic Cave-man defied the 
 elements in that region, and still further north the painted pebbles from Caithness 
 and perforated harpoon-heads from the Oban caves^ show that human occupation 
 was not rendered impossible by an arctic climate. These belong to the stage 
 immediately succeeding that of La Madeleine and therefore not strictly palaeo- 
 lithic ; but a still earlier occupation of certain Scottish areas is by no means out 
 of the question. 
 
 ' Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists' Soc, v (1894), p. 250. 
 
 ^ A summary of the paper read to the Prehistoric Society of East Anglia, Jan. 22, 1912, is given 
 in the Antiquary, March, 1912, p. 116. 
 
 ^ These well-known relics have not been frankly accepted by all authorities as contemporary 
 with precisely similar finds abroad (as at Mas d'Azil), but opinion is tending in their favour. See, for 
 example, L' Anthropologie, 1896, p. 319; Congri's internat., Paris (1900), pp. 207, 216. 
 
 ; 
 / 
 
AND CISSBURY FLINT-MINES 141 
 
 Nor should it be surprising- to find traces of the Cave-period in Ireland. 
 Mr. W. J. Knowles has for a long time insisted on the palaeolithic aspect of 
 many finds in the north,' and one of his papers describes a site that may be 
 taken as typical. At Cushendall, on the coast of Co. Antrim, have been found 
 many basalt implements that recall the culture of Cissbury or at least of Cam- 
 pigny, and their early date is attested by their geological position. According 
 to Mr. Knowles: 2 
 
 The axes are found below the peat associated with the clay on which it rests. There 
 are various sections in the neighbourhood of Ballyemon which show the connexion of the 
 peat with the boulder-clay. In every case the peat is resting directly on the clay. . . . 
 A considerable thickness of peat has formed in course of time, which is locally known as 
 hard peat, and on the top of the hard peat the Scotch fir grew abundantly. These trees 
 perished in time, and their roots are now covered with a further thick layer of peat. Occa- 
 sionally, as the farmer cuts the peat for fuel, polished stone axes are found among the 
 roots of the Scotch fir. The axes from TievebuUagh and Ballymena are found below the 
 peat and even mixed with the clay on which it rests. 
 
 It is possible to recognize the Cissbury celt in his nos. 6-8 ; the steep- 
 ended oval tool in no. 10 ; the pointed tool with triangular section in no. 36 ; the 
 chisel with circular section in no. 9 ; the ' hand-axe ' of the Drift in no. i ; the 
 side-scraper of Le Moustier in no. 34 ; the edge-trimming of Aurignac in no. 38 ; 
 and its peculiar fluting in nos. 2 and 40. The culture of Campigny is reflected 
 in nos. 22 {tranchet, or celt with cutting-edge formed by removing a transverse 
 flake) and 3 (a thick celt 7^ in. long that is verging on the ' pick ' form). These 
 forms also occur in flint, and some whitish specimens from North Ireland are 
 here illustrated : 
 
 Plate XXII. 
 
 Fig. 7. Implement of irregular oval form, flaked on both faces; point and blunt butt. 
 
 Fig. 8. A facetted lump, probably a core, but resembling the Aurignac cone. 
 
 Fig. 9. A typical pick, roughly flaked, approaching the cylindrical form, with chisel-edge 
 at one end. 
 
 Figs. 10, II. Somewhat narrow examples of the transverse axe, as found in Danish shell- 
 heaps, the edge obtained by transverse flaking. 
 
 Further investigation may reveal other characteristic forms, but meanwhile a 
 reference to the table on p. 149 will suggest that human work resting on a glacial 
 deposit well below a bed of Pinus sylvestris corresponds to the latest Yoldia or 
 earliest Ancylus phase in Southern Scandinavia, when the glacial sea was being 
 transformed into a fresh-water lake by elevation of the land. The polished celts 
 
 ' Journ. Royal Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th sen, vii. i. 
 * Journ. Anthrop. Inst., N.S., vi. 366 (eight plates). 
 VOL. Lxni. T 
 
142 DATE OF GRIME'S GRAVES 
 
 in the Pine layer seem to be earlier than the corresponding stage in Norway, the 
 Nostvet culture being assigned to the period of maximum depression of the 
 land (Littorina stage, see p. 149); but a correlation may yet be established. At 
 any rate, the stock objection to palaeolithic man in Ireland no longer holds, as 
 the mammoth has been found there,' and where the mammoth could live man 
 could live also. 
 
 Though it is easy to exaggerate the importance of coincidences of form, 
 it should be mentioned that the peculiar style of Aurignac is not confined to 
 Europe, but appears in two series from Africa exhibited in the British Museum. 
 Though little is known of the geological date or distribution of the specimens 
 from sand deposits in Somaliland,^ Mr. Seton-Karr also brought from the neigh- 
 bourhood of flint-mines in the eastern desert of Egypt planes and leaf-shaped 
 blades of coarse workmanship that bear a strong resemblance (apart from the 
 colour of the flint) to European specimens of Aurignac date. It would be a 
 great advantage to be able to isolate such forms from among the thousands 
 of surface finds in the desert, and interesting to notice whether the patination 
 and kind of flint remained uniform ; moreover, the practice of mining for flint 
 only strengthens the connexion with Cissburyand Grime's Graves. In addition, 
 referenceshould be made to the Aurignac forms found in Tunis and to the dis- 
 cussion of their date in papers on the series, which are admirably illustrated.^* 
 
 Little help can be expected from geology in dating surface finds which, 
 being imperishable, have been accumulating during untold ages, but many of 
 the finds recorded above as presumably of Aurignac date are superficially 
 buried in sandy deposits that may possibly be due to similar climatic conditions 
 at a given time. For instance, at Hundsteig, Krems, on the Danube, forty miles 
 above Vienna, no less than nine horizons could be traced in the loess, the latest 
 human work exhibiting a rudimentary Solutr6 style, and the bulk being clearly 
 referable to the Aurignac stage.* 
 
 Recent exploration in the Rhine valley has enabled Dr. Bayer, of Vienna, 
 to date the later loess by its archaeological content, and the following scheme 
 was submitted to the Prehistoric Congress at Tubingen last year : ^ 
 
 ^ British Assoc. Reports, Portsmouth, 1911, p.578; Ussher, Proc.R. Irish Acad., xxv. B. i (Doneraile). 
 The Aurignac culture seems also to be represented at Toome (Lough Neagh) and Lame (Proc. 
 R. Irish. Acad., xxv. C. 183, 189, where Messrs. Coffey and Praeger connect Cissbury and certain other 
 types with land-movements). 
 
 ^ Journ. Anthrop. Inst., xxv. 271 ; the plates convey no idea of the series referred to. Evans, 
 op. cit., p. 653. 
 
 ^ Rev. d'Ac. cTAnth. Paris, 1910, pp. 207, 208; 191 1, p. 226. For Italian analogies, see Morelli, 
 Iconografia delta Preistoria Ligustica, pi. Ixxii and pi. Ixxiii, figs. 1-6. 
 
 * Strobl and Ohermzier, Jahrbuchfiir Altertumskunde, iii (1909), p. 129. 
 
 ° Jahrbuchfiir Altertumskunde, iv. i6^ ; Zeitschriftftir Eihnologie, 1912, pp. i, 180. 
 
AND CISSBURY FLINT-MINES 
 
 143 
 
 Classification of Palaeolithic Period, with special reference to Germany 
 
 Geology. 
 
 Worm glaciation ^ 
 
 Post-glacial 
 
 Climate. 
 I Daun 
 
 Gschnitz 
 
 BQhl 
 , Achen oscillation 
 
 Maximum 
 
 Industry. 
 
 \j3i Tourasse stage (Mas d'Azil) 
 
 La Madeleine (upper rodent-bed 
 
 at Sirgenstein) 
 
 Late SolutrS stage 
 
 Riss-Wurm 
 interglacial 
 
 Riss 
 glaciation 
 
 Mindel-Riss 
 interglacial 
 
 Early Solutrd stage 
 
 End of deposit ) 
 { of later Loess J 
 
 ] Steppe conditions : deposit of later Loess. Aurignac stage 
 y Forest conditions \ 
 
 (Decalcification of older Loess) 
 
 Lower rodent-bed at Sirgenstein 
 
 End of deposit \ 
 of older Loess j 
 
 Deposit of older Loess 
 
 Le Moustier stage 
 
 St. Acheul stage 
 Chelles stage 
 
 According to this scheme there was a deposition of loess just before the 
 t\vo glaciations known as Riss and Wurm, and the Aurignac culture of the later 
 loess was passing into that of Solutr6 when a wind-borne deposit covered that 
 part of Europe like a mantle. It has been traced over some part of Belgium,' 
 and the island of Jersey is covered with a deposit of this name ; '^ but in England 
 the subject is highly controversial. Without entering into the nature and origin 
 of loess in this country, it will suffice to point out that at Cissbury no less an 
 authority than Sir Joseph Prestwich remarked on the difference between the 
 red earth in the filling of the shaft and that lining the ditch of the earthwork. 
 The former was nearly unaltered clay, like that overlying the chalk all over the 
 hill, and the latter consisted of clay and chalk mixed together as if by rain.^ 
 If the red seams were merely silting, it is difficult to explain the absence of 
 chalk grains in it ; and the suggestion may be hazarded that this red earth, which 
 may perhaps be correlated with the cave-earth* of our palaeolithic caverns, 
 represents the later loess of the Rhine area. In East Anglia it may have taken 
 another form, as this is the driest part of England. Inland blown-sand is common 
 
 ' Rutot, Les deux grandes provinces quaternaires de la France, 23 with map (Bull. Soc. pre'h. de 
 France, 1908). 
 
 * Archaeologia, Ixii. 471. 
 
 ^ Journ. Anthrop. Inst., v. 373-4. 
 
 * On this see Lapparent, Traite de Geologic, iii. 1702, 1707, who preferred Searles Wood's theory 
 of the loess as given in Geological Magazine, 1882, pp. 339, 411. 
 
 T 2 
 
144 DATE OF GRIME'S GRAVES 
 
 on the eastern edge of the Fens, and the Breckland is the nearest approach to 
 steppe conditions in the country. Possibly the sand at Grime's Graves has drifted 
 in recent times above the prehistoric flint-mines, wholly or in part, but it is hard to 
 believe that the first flint-miners went through 13 ft. of running sand before coming 
 to the chalk. Surely it is much more probable that the surface was clear of sand 
 when the shafts were sunk, otherwise primitive man must be credited with 
 divining powers equal to his reckless energy in mining under sand. 
 
 Nor does the loess in East Anglia lack ofiicial recognition. The memoir of 
 H.M. Geological Survey' states that 'between Icklingham and West Stow, at 
 a brickfield about a mile ESE. of Icklingham All Saints Church, beneath the 
 gravelly soil, dirty loess-like loam is worked to the depth of 15 ft. It dips west- 
 ward, and in places contains fresh-water shells, many fragmentary. . . . Bones 
 and deer-horn picks have been found, but were buried up by the workmen.' 
 Discoveries of undisturbed 'working-floors', to all appearance of Aurignac date, 
 under one foot or more of sand (at Ipswich by Mr. Reid Moir, and on more than 
 one site near Icklingham by Dr. Allen Sturge), go far to justify the conjecture that 
 this stage of the Cave period was followed also in England by a deposit of loess. 
 Nor are such occurrences confined to East Anglia. On the south side of Dartford 
 Heath, a well-known area in Kent on the south bank of the Thames, a fine grey 
 celt of the Cissbury type, 67 in. long, now in Mr. W. M. Newton's collection, was 
 found under 3 ft. of sand that may perhaps be accounted for in the same way. 
 
 In spite of disagreement as to its exact position in the series of glaciations, 
 authorities agree that in the Aurignac period steppe conditions prevailed,' and 
 the fauna was adapted to those conditions. It is not proposed to treat the palaeo- 
 lithic fauna in detail, but to give a few salient instances to show that the usual 
 tests are fallacious, and that so-called domestic animals co-existed with species 
 now extinct. It is notoriously difficult to distinguish between bones of the goat 
 and sheep, and anything but easy to decide whether a particular species was 
 wild or domesticated at a given time, as there must have been transitional forms, 
 showing the development of the domestic animals from feral ancestors. The 
 Celtic shorthorn or Bos longifrons is generally regarded as a domestic species, dis- 
 tinct from the wild Bos primigenius (aurochs, urus) and Bison priscus ; but the 
 distinction is anything but sharp, as the shorthorn goes back to palaeolithic times, 
 though neolithic man is usually credited with the first domestication of animals. 
 This, however, cannot be regarded as an axiom, for, apart from the supposed bridle 
 on representations of the horse from palaeolithic caves," and even marks of owner- 
 
 ^ Parts ofCambs. and Suffolk (sheet 51 NE.), p. 79. 
 
 * This problem is stated by Dr. Laloy in L'Anthropologie, xix (1908), p. 614. 
 
 ^ Especially St. Michel d'Arudy, Basses- Pyrenees {L'Anthropologie, xvii. 28, fig. 1). 
 
AND CISSBURY FLINT-MINES 145 
 
 ship on cattle,' the sheep, goat, pig, and dog have been found in Cave-deposits that 
 can be dated by the human relics with considerable accuracy. Even if the 
 discovery by Dean Buckland - of sheep below mammoth in Paviland Cave, 
 Glamorganshire, is explained by disturbance of the strata, there is no gainsaying 
 the occurrence of the dog at Chateaudouble, Var, in Le Moustier times,^ or at 
 Sirgenstein, with a species of sheep, in Aurignac times. In a layer 12-16 in. 
 thick over the Neanderthal skeleton at La Chapelle aux Saints (Correze) the 
 following species occurred : reindeer, one of the large bovidae (perhaps bison), 
 horse, marmot, fox, badger, a species of goat or sheep, pig, rhinoceros, ibex, 
 marmot, and wolf, this stratum being clearly of palaeolithic age.* Prof Boyd 
 Dawkins, who has rejected most of the evidence for such associations as un- 
 trustworthy, himself acknowledges finding a skull of the sheep {Ovis aries) with 
 an incisor oi Sus scrofa under 26 ft. of cave-earth at Avetine's Hole, Burrington 
 Coombe, Somerset.' Further, pig and sheep or goat were found in the Ightham 
 fissures of the Shode valley, Kent, with mammoth, rhinoceros, reindeer, and other 
 pleistocene species.® 
 
 Apart from specific instances there are a priori arguments of some weight. 
 It is fairly evident that our domestic species must have been developed from 
 the wild stock in one district or another before the neolithic period ; ^ and the 
 change cannot have been effected in a few generations. Unless the domestic 
 breeds came into being during the mythical hiatus, the only conclusion is that 
 they existed during what was the late palaeolithic period in Western Europe ; 
 and several authorities now hold that their origin is to be looked for not in Asia, 
 the fabled home of the Aryans, but in Europe itself Prof Boule, for instance, 
 stated in 1894 that naturalists now recognize the existence of transitional forms 
 linking the palaeolithic and neolithic faunas, the various types merging insensibly 
 into one another.* Zaborowski remarks that the horse was the daily food of 
 pleistocene man at Solutr^ ; the wild sheep existed in Europe (England included) 
 in pleistocene times, and the goat is as old as the sheep ; the urus, bison, and 
 Bos longifrons date from the same geological period, and the pig could hardly 
 have been driven over the steppes of Russia into Europe.^ M. Salomon Reinach 
 
 ' Mahoudeau, Rev. d'^c. d' Anth. Paris, igog, pp. 282, 286 (bridles). * Reliquiae diluvianae, p. 87. 
 ' L' Houniie prehisforique, 191 1, pp. 143, 167. 
 
 * L'Anthropologie, xix (1908), p. 515 ; cf. Duckworth, Prehistoric Man, table opp. p. 84. 
 
 * Internat. Preh. Congress (Norwich, 1868), p. 282. 
 
 * Lewis Abbott in F. J. Bennett's Ightham, 115, 118; Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1. 200; Iv. 419. 
 ^ Hoernes, Dcr diliiviale Mensch in Europa, p. 88. 
 
 * L'Anthropologie, 1894, p. 463 : ' le fameux hiatus n'existe que dans nos connaissances.' 
 
 ' L'origine des aniniaux domestiqttes en Europe et les migrations aryennes (Assoc. fran9aise pour 
 ravancement des sciences, Grenoble, 1904, pp. 1034-49). 
 
146 DATE OF GRIME'S GRAVES 
 
 has also summed up in favour of a European origin both for our domesticated 
 animals and cultivated grains ; ' and in Sweden at any rate the pig was developed 
 locally from the native S//s scrofa, that animal being connected with Sits antiqutts 
 and Sus pahistris of Rutimeyer." If the beneficent Gulf Stream did indeed 
 ameliorate the climate and allow the grass to grow, it may well be that Southdown 
 mutton dates back to the palaeolithic period. Away from caves one would see 
 little of the beasts of prey who haunted them, such as the cave-bear, cave-lion, 
 and hyaena ; and the milder climate would account for the absence of the 
 mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, and reindeer, which characterize the Cave period 
 of Southern France. North of the Loire the conditions seem to have been 
 different, and even in the south there are sites without traces of the cold-loving 
 animals. Solutre seems to have had the same climate as the earlier La Micoque,' 
 where the mammoth is indeed mentioned,* but most of the bones were of the 
 horse, with a few of the ox and a bear's tooth ; and M. Arcelin found that the 
 lower and earlier bed at Solutr^ contained no bones of animals that have since 
 become extinct' Piette, too, in discussing Brassempouy, emphatically protested 
 against the idea that the Reindeer period was all dry and cold, and considered 
 it to have been first mild, then cold and snowy, and finally rainy, the Solutr6 
 stage being, if not warm, at least temperate in the south." The reindeer stage 
 of Piette's glyptic period was preceded by the horse stage, and the distribution 
 of the Aurignac culture shows that the horse predominated in those regions near 
 the sea where vegetation was encouraged by a milder climate. 
 
 It may be objected that the mammoth fauna has been found in English and 
 Welsh caves associated with human handiwork, and that species which are now 
 regarded as domesticated are rare in caves, if they are represented at all. The latter 
 point has already been touched on; and in regard to the former it should be remem- 
 bered that in the last few years great advances have been made in cave-explora- 
 tion, and both bones and flints recovered in the last generation might have been 
 still further subdivided according to their horizons, with different results. Much 
 has been made of the relatively few caverns explored in this country, but it can- 
 not be said that our Cave period has been fully elucidated in the light of recent 
 discoveries. Even if the mammoth fauna could be shown to have persisted from 
 Le Moustier to La Madeleine times, the Cissbury problem would still remain, 
 
 ^ L Anthropologic, iv. 551 ; xvi. 187. 
 
 ^ Les Grottes de Grimaldt, Wl — Geologie et Paleontologie (M. Boule, 1910), p. 199; L Anthropologie, 
 xix. 302 ; XX. 583 ; RoUeston, On the domestic pig of prehistoric times in Britain (Trans. Linnean Soc, 
 1876, 2nd sen, i. Zoology, p. 251). 
 
 ^ L' Anthropologic, xvi. 26. * L' Homme prehistorique, 1908, p. 41. 
 
 '" V Anthropologic, 1898, p. 553. 
 
 " Ibid., 1893, p. 467. 
 
 ' Dechelette, Manuel d' Archeologie, i. 128 ; L Anthropologic, 1896, p. 2 (note). 
 
AND CISSBURY FLINT-MINES i47 
 
 for though abundant abroad, Aurignac specimens have rarely been found in 
 British cave-deposits. The limestone caverns are generally far removed from 
 an abundant supply of flint direct from the chalk ; and the Cissbury facies seems 
 practically confined to the chalk area. 
 
 Our few cave-relics of the period (p. 137) contrast with the larger specimens 
 and bolder work froih the Downs also illustrated in Evans (tigs. 205, 209, 215, 
 216, from Berling Gap, near Eastbourne). These were naturally regarded as 
 neolithic, but fig. 215 especially has the Aurignac stamp, and falls into line with 
 the Cissbury series. Once the connexion is established, it should be easy to 
 identify other Aurignac types in our collections of cave-relics. 
 
 The next great obstacle to the recognition of Cissbury as a palaeolithic 
 site is the presence of polished specimens ; or rather (since the two or three 
 from Cissbury are generally considered later surface finds), the discovery of a 
 polished basalt celt deep in the pit-gallery at Grime's Graves. This has been 
 noticed above (p. in), but demands closer attention, as it has governed the 
 chronology of both sites for the past forty years. Rumours that the discovery 
 was regarded locally as a joke, implying mala fides on the part of the workmen, 
 have not been substantiated in spite of suspicious circumstances; and Dr. Sturge's 
 diligent inquiries in the neighbourhood only confirm Canon Greenwell's declara- 
 tion of its entire authenticity.^ The excavator in a recent letter states that he 
 saw, at some distance from the mouth of the principal gallery, marks on the side- 
 walls made by a tool quite different from the deer-horn picks, and came to the 
 conclusion that they were the result of using a stone axe. Further along the 
 gallery the marks were less sharply defined, as if the axe had been blunted ; and 
 still further in, the impression was imperfect at one corner, as if a piece had 
 been broken off the stone. Some days later he was called below to see in the 
 consolidated rubble a black object which was removed by picking in his presence. 
 It turned out to be a basalt axe which to-day is damaged at one side of the 
 cutting edge ; and as it fitted the tool-marks, the obvious inference was that this 
 tool had been used in cutting the gallery and was discarded when damaged, as 
 were the deer-horn picks. 
 
 It would naturally facilitate matters to discard the axe as doubtful ; but its 
 interest is considerably increased by recent discoveries in Norway, and its palaeo- 
 lithic date is likely to be established. A partly polished celt of greenstone, 2\ in. 
 long, is indeed said to have been found in gravel at a pit near Malton, Yorks., and 
 has given rise to some discussion, Sir John Evans rejecting it as palaeolithic on 
 the ground that the gravel was of glacial origin.'' At any rate it should be borne in 
 
 ^ Man, 1908, no. 92, where the Canon's account of the find is given in his own words. 
 ^ Evans, op. cit, p. 135, fig. 8;. 
 
148 DATE OF GRIME'S GRAVES 
 
 mind that polishing is not necessarily a late product of civilization. There was 
 nothing to prevent primitive man shaping stone by this means ; and in the Cave 
 period he certainly adopted the process for implements of bone and antler. Pos- 
 sibly examples have been found and rejected on a priori grounds or otherwise 
 explained ; but one case well illustrates the danger of foregone conclusions. At 
 the meeting of the Association Frangaise at Bloisin 1884'M.Adrien de Mortillet 
 exhibited a dozen flints of La Madeleine date, including end-scrapers and 
 graving-tools with traces of polishing. One critic insisted that the hiatus was 
 a brutal fact both as regards zoology and industry, and presumably rejected the 
 find ; another accepted the situation and remarked, ' Call it what you will, we 
 are in the presence of the beginnings of neolithic polish, on the way leading to 
 the abolition of the hiatus.' The facile explanation that the tools were polished 
 by continual use was reduced to absurdity by the fact that the polish was at the 
 butt-end, not on the working-edge. The incident suggests a cautious attitude 
 with regard to celts of Cissbury type with the cutting-edge polished. Such 
 specimens undoubtedly exist,' and the possibility of their palaeolithic date must 
 be considered, though the evidence at present is not convincing. 
 
 To postulate complete polishing of the surface in still earlier times would 
 be futile in regard to flint, but the case is altered when the material is stone of 
 another character. This point has been discussed by Dr. Fischer, who very 
 aptly remarks that some kinds of stone, such as flint and obsidian, flake well, and 
 others have to be shaped by grinding, such as granite, diorite, and serpentine^* 
 Such materials were adopted in districts where flint did not naturally occur; 
 and implements of fine-grained stones partly polished are at least as old as the 
 earliest kitchen-middens of Denmark, which are generally considered to mark 
 the dawn of neolithic culture. Important finds at Nostvet, at the inner end of 
 Christiania fjord, illustrate stages in the evolution of the greenstone celt, and 
 the same types have been found on the coast of Bohuslan and S.E. Norway, as 
 well as at Viste near Stavanger, on the west coast. 
 
 The earliest form is long and narrow, with triangular section, generally 
 chipped into shape and seldom ground on the faces of the cutting-edge, the 
 length being 3J-42 in. Later specimens are larger, 4f-6 in. long, and are of 
 trapezoidal section, regularly chipped and always ground at the cutting edge. 
 There is also a group with section intermediate between a triangle and trape- 
 zium, but the typical Nostvet implement may best be compared, in everything 
 but material, with the 'picks' of flint common on the lower Thames and the 
 downs of S.E. England. The probable history of this type in England is noticed 
 
 ^ Compte rendu, part i, p. 212. 
 == Evans, op. cit, p. 93, fig. 37. 
 ^ Korrespondenzblatt der deuischen anthrop. Gesellsch., 1882, p. 23 ; cf, L'Anthropologie, 1893. p. 550. 
 
AND CISSBURY FLINT-MINES 
 
 149 
 
 below (p. 153), and it is pointed out by Dr. A. W. BrOgger, who has made the 
 subject his own/ that the Nostvet site can be approximately dated by its height 
 above sea-level. Both it and the oldest kitchen-middens of Denmark date from 
 the period of maximum depression of the land below the sea, which is called 
 after the predominant fossil-shell — Littorina for Sweden and Germany, and 
 Tapes for Denmark, West Sweden, and Norway. The following table gives an 
 outline of the post-glacial earth-movements in the neighbourhood of Christiania, 
 which has been extensively studied in recent years, '^ especially by the geologist 
 Dr. W. C. BrOgger,^ whose son has taken up the archaeological side of the 
 inquiry with interesting results. 
 
 Southern Scandinavian Area 
 Land Movements. Culture. 
 
 { Iron Age 
 Land continued to rise j Bronze Age 
 tillearly mediaeval times j Passage-graves 
 
 i (Chambered barrows) 
 
 Fauna. 
 Limnaea 
 
 Flora. 
 Spruce 
 
 ^'IKl'nif.'r.!!'^^'''^'^' ! Kitchen-middens 
 then rises again 
 
 Littorina or Tapes, 
 and red-deer 
 
 Land rises, and Baltic be- 1 tm 1 1 r^ a ^v \ \ 1 j n 
 
 comes a fresh-water lake ) Maglemose (raft-dwellings) Ancylus and elk 
 
 Axes of reindeer antler 
 After Baltic glaciation the 
 land sinks 
 
 Yoldia 
 
 Oak 
 Hazel 
 
 Pine 
 
 Birch 
 
 Dryas 
 (mountain 
 avens) 
 
 That man existed in Denmark long before the maximum Tapes-depression 
 has been shown by Dr. A. W. BrOgger, who agrees with Dr. Sarauw* in placing the 
 Maglemose culture about the middle of the Ancylus period, when the Baltic was 
 a fresh-water lake, and the land, much higher than at present, was covered with 
 pine forest {Pinus sylvestris or Scots pine). To a still earlier date may be referred 
 certain axe-heads made of reindeer antler, so that an older stone age in Scan- 
 dinavia that has long been an hypothesis is now an established fact, though its 
 exact relation to the better-known industries of Western Europe has still to be 
 determined. 
 
 ^ Oxer av Nostvettypcn (Norges Geologiske UndersSgelse, no. 42, 1905); Norges Vestlands 
 Stenalder (Bergens Museums Aarbog, 1907, no. i, p. 1). 
 
 ^ Maps in Lapparent's Traitc de Geologie, iii, 1712; many memoirs in Die Verdnderungen des 
 Klinias sett dem Maximum der letzten Eiszeit (Stockholm Geological Congress, 1910). 
 
 ' Strandliniens Beliggenhed under Stenalderen (Norges Geologiske UndersOgelse, no. 41). 
 
 * Aarboger for nordisk Oldkyndighed og Historie (Copenhagen, 1903), 314. 
 
 VOL. LXIII. u 
 
I50 
 
 DATE OF GRIME'S GRAVES 
 
 An interesting discovery in this connexion has been recently made near 
 Christiansund, a large series of flints being collected for Trondhjem Museum, 
 on which K. Rygh has published a preliminary report/ He regards them as 
 older than anything hitherto found in that part of Norway, where flint is said 
 not to occur naturally. As there are pieces with all the appearance of raw 
 material, he argues that the tools were at any rate not imported ready made, 
 but doubts their Danish provenance, as ancient sites on the Norwegian coast 
 nearer Denmark have yielded no worked flints, and direct transit by sea at that 
 early date seems out of the question. The midden-type of axe called by the 
 French /nmc//^/ is well represented on these islands near Chris- 
 tiansund, and the conclusion is drawn that the culture is that of 
 the Danish shell-heaps; but some specimens are said to be 
 allied to Maglemose, and at least two of the illustrations sug- 
 gest the Aurignac period. One is an end-scraper with steep 
 fluting, and the other is a well-shaped flint-cone practically 
 identical with that from Seaford (fig. 33). It is conceivable that 
 this latter type was produced independently at different eras, 
 but in France at any rate it is regarded as the hall-mark of 
 Aurignac culture. 
 
 Fig. 33. Flint-cone, side Auothcr determining factor in the chronology of Cissbury 
 
 and top views ;'sea- h^s bccn thc discovcrv in the pits of earthenware sherds. The 
 opinion of Dr. Rutot, based on M. Ed. Dupont's excavations 
 and his own experience, has long been that pottery was known in Belgium 
 as early as the Aurignac stage ; and the evidence is vigorously presented in 
 two recent papers,^ with a number of illustrations. He points out that neo- 
 lithic pottery is very rare in Belgium (as indeed is the case in England), 
 except at the close of the period, but no less than twelve palaeolithic caves 
 have yielded specimens to M. Dupont, whose skill and accuracy cannot be 
 contested. The site called Le Caillou qui bique, near Roisin, Hainault, has 
 proved most productive, the sherds being mixed with flints comprising hand- 
 axes of debased St. Acheul type, Le Moustier points and side-scrapers, all 
 covered with ergeron (a variety of loess), and clearly of early Aurignac date. 
 About five hundred fragments were of reddish ware slightly fired, fragile and 
 soluble in water after being immersed a few days. Some were fitted to- 
 gether, but it was not possible to recover the shape of any vessel, and ornamen- 
 
 * Oldtiden, vol. i (Report for 1910), pp. 37, 69. The sites are 100 ft. above present sea-level, the 
 Littorina sea reaching 70 ft. at Christiansund at the time of maximum depression (p. 74). 
 ^ Bull. Soc. preh. de France, 26th Dec, 1907, and 26th Nov., 1908. 
 
AND CISSBURY FLINT-MINES 151 
 
 tation seems only to have begun with La Madeleine times (Goyet horizon). 
 Among- the pieces figured are the well-known vase with pierced lugs from Fur- 
 fooz (cast in British Museum), a cup with round handle, a fragment with thick 
 moulded lip, and three with parallel incised lines. Further, it was noticed that 
 limestone grit, made from the cavern walls, was mixed with the paste in palaeo- 
 lithic times, and was only covered with a white film of lime, owing to imperfect 
 firing, whereas silicious grit was largely employed for the same purpose by the 
 neolithic potters. 
 
 In France itself pottery has been discovered at Beauregard, near Nemours, 
 Seine et Marne,' in surroundings that prove it to belong to the stage of La 
 Madeleine ; and it may be conjectured with some confidence that other finds 
 have been made in excavating caves and other palaeolithic sites, but not credited 
 as contemporary, and explained away by subsequent disturbance or accidental 
 introduction by burrowing animals. 
 
 Most authorities would agree that the earliest pottery discovered in France 
 is that from the pit-dwellings of Le Campigny, 25 miles due east of Dieppe. 
 The site has given its name to a phase of culture about which the last word has 
 not been spoken. The tendency is to make it the earliest neolithic stage and 
 to correlate it with the Danish kitchen-middens, but nothing like proof of its 
 horizon has yet been brought forward. Dr. Hoernes says, ' the Campigny period 
 has many good points but one serious defect, that it absolutely refuses to fit into 
 Piette's system. It has not the least connexion with the Mas dAzil culture 
 (transition from palaeolithic to neolithic), and naturally none with the Roben- 
 hausen stage (Piette's />e/ecy(/ue, or polished celt stage). There remains nothing 
 but to assume that the transition took one form in the south and another in the 
 rest of France — a dangerous hypothesis, imperilling the view that, in spite of 
 local variations, the Robenhausen culture became in the end universal ? No 
 site has yet been discovered on which the Campigny industry is found stratified 
 between two datable horizons, and it seems probable that it never will be found 
 under such conditions. As it is normally absent in the south of France * and 
 extremely frequent north of the Loire, the suggestion may be hazarded that 
 it is contemporary with one or more stages of the Cave period. It is unneces- 
 sary to suppose that caves were indispensable for human occupation at that 
 time, or that areas with no natural caves were uninhabited. This point has 
 
 ^ Congrts pre'h. de France, Beauvais, p. 235 (H. Martin). 
 
 ^ Der diluviale Mensch in Europa, p. 89; cf. MM. Martin and Hue, Congres preh. de France, 
 Beauvais (1909), p. 259. 
 
 ^ Isolated surface specimens of Aurignac type may be seen in the British Museum from 
 Pontlevoy, Orleans ; and others from Poitou are unmistakable but include a typical celt of Cissbury 
 type 4 in. long, patinated creamy white. 
 
 u 2 
 
152 
 
 DATE OF GRIME'S GRAVES 
 
 been touched on above (p. 136), and a few words may be added on later develop- 
 ments of Cissbury types both here and abroad. Though a connexion with the 
 polished celt is fairly obvious, and archaeologists have long been waiting for 
 light on the genesis of the Cissbury celt, it is none the less important to follow 
 up the subsequent development and trace back to Cissbury various forms that 
 would otherwise be isolated and undatable. 
 
 The accompanying illustration (fig. 34) represents a well-made tool of bluish- 
 grey chalcedonic flint in Mr. A. E. Relph's collection. It was found on the surface 
 of a field at Swanscombe with other specimens apparently of the Cave period, 
 and has certain features in common with the tanged scraper from Grime's Graves 
 and the humped scrapers or carinated planes from that site and from Les Eyzies 
 
 Fig. 34. Tanged scraper, with side 
 view ; Swanscombe, Kent. J. 
 
 Fig. 35. Double scraper, with 
 side view; Les Eyzies. ^. 
 
 Fig. 36. Fluted plane, with side 
 view ; Les Eyzies. ^. 
 
 (figs. ^5, 36). Whatever its exact horizon, it has certainly the appearance of having 
 been subjected to scratching under great pressure. The specially hard surface 
 is not only scratched in lines, but has a row of curved fractures as if bruised by 
 the passage of a hard point, much like the 'chattering scratch' familiar to 
 geologists. Dr. Sturge has suggested that these and other types of marking 
 were due to ice-action,' and if the specimen illustrated is really of Aurignac date, 
 the striation can be readily accounted for, as the loess deposit that closed that 
 stage of the Cave period heralded a glaciation of some severity, whether it is to 
 be identified with the Wtirm or the oscillations that followed it.' 
 
 A more clumsy tool somewhat on the same lines (fig. 37) is from a factory 
 at Girolles, Ferrieres, Loiret, and is one of twenty-one specimens from the site 
 in the British Museum. These include a segmental tool with broad straight 
 
 • Proc. Preh. Soc. E. Anglia, i. 79; Proceedings, xxiii. 238. 
 
 ^ One scheme is reproduced on p. 143 ; but it should be mentioned that some authorities place 
 the Wiirm glaciation before Aurignac, e.g. Obermaier in V Anthropologie , xvi. 26. For the points in 
 dispute, see table in Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, 1912, p 22. 
 
AND CISSBURY FLINT-MINES 
 
 153 
 
 base, several roughly chipped celts, and a representative of the type resembling 
 the broken end of a celt, but in reality a tool complete in itself (as figs. 5, 21). The 
 rest might also belong to the Aurignac stage. A type related to the humped 
 plane has been found more than once in Dorset, with a pronounced 'waist' 
 (fig. 38). Like most from the same area it is deeply patinated and white all 
 over; and a flatter specimen (fig. 39) found near Cissbury (Brighton Museum) 
 is interesting as having been flaked at two periods sufficiently removed from 
 each other to allow of a marked difference in patination. Both ends have been 
 re-sharpened, and the later work is bluish, easily distinguishable from the main 
 
 Fig. 37. Implement, with side view 
 from factory, Girolles, Loiret. J. 
 
 Fig. 38. Waisted plane, side and top views ; 
 Dorset, i. 
 
 Fig. 39. Plane, reworked 
 
 at both ends ; near 
 
 Cissbury. J. 
 
 white surface. Whether these specimens are consecutive or approximately 
 contemporary is at present uncertain, but a type hitherto isolated can now be 
 placed in a logical, if not also in a chronological, sequence. 
 
 Another case of development from a Cissbury or Aurignac type may be 
 more fully treated on another occasion ; but any clue to the date and origin of 
 the flint ' pick ' so common in the Thames and on the North and South Downs 
 will be welcomed.^ An exceptional specimen, perhaps the longest known (14 in.), 
 is in Salisbury Museum, and has a whitish surface ; but many of the ordinary size 
 (7-8 in.) have little or no patination. Examples of this size do not seem to have 
 been found in or near the Cissbury pits nor at Grime's Graves, and they probably 
 represent a later development, well seen at Campigny, Spiennes, and other well- 
 known sites. The prototype, however, can apparently be recognized in the small 
 
 ' See also Congres interiiat., Paris (1900), p. 214. 
 
154 DATE OF GRIME'S GRAVES 
 
 cylindrical tools with one blunt end found at Cissbury and common on the Downs, 
 generally about 3 in. long. Intermediate length can doubtless be found in many 
 collections, and this may be a case in which patination will be a trustworthy 
 guide to relative date. 
 
 The stratigraphy which is supposed to guarantee the current view of the 
 flint series examined above is due in the first place to M. D'Ault du Mesnil,^ 
 whose researches have established the following sequence : 
 
 1. Finer work, chisels (celts), and small forms all derived from the transverse axe 
 [tranchet] ; polished. 
 
 2. Clay stratum; side-scrapers, end-scrapers, 'points,' coarse transverse axes, large 
 picks; unpolished. 
 
 3. Loess, palaeolithic. 
 
 4. St. Acheul horizon. 
 
 5. Chelles horizon. 
 
 Reference has already been made (p. 133) to the investigations of M. Laville, 
 who has found on several sites round Pans an horizon that he calls infra-neolithic, 
 a non-committal term which reflects the prevailing uncertainty as to the origin 
 of neolithic civilization. The sequence may be established, but the delimitation 
 of the two stone ages has yet to be accomplished. 
 
 The best description of Le Campigny bristles with illustrations of palaeo- 
 lithic forms which obviously discount the conclusion arrived at, on the following 
 grounds, that the culture is neolithic, i. Many hearths prove that the site was 
 selected for habitation. 2. Polished stone was found in the humus, over two 
 other layers (the filling and the hearth), in which no polished stones occurred. 
 3. Polishing of stone was unknown at the time the hearths were in use. 4. The 
 flint industry retained some forms characteristic of La Madeleine and even Le 
 Moustier, but also comprised new forms such as the pick and transverse axe. 
 5. Pottery, both rough and finer ware,preceded the polishing of flint. 6. Campigny 
 follows the mesolithic stage (apparently Mas d'Azil). 7. Grinding-stones prove 
 the use of grain and, by inference, agriculture. 8. Fauna and flora same as at the 
 present day.^ 
 
 A full description of such a well-known site would here be out of place, but 
 attention may be drawn to one or two points of interest in the present connexion. 
 Under a few inches of soil with its polished flints was a layer of yellow loam 
 4 ft. thick, sandy and mixed with natural nodules of flint 'de toute provenance '. 
 As the chalk (below the pleistocene gravel in which the pit was sunk) is devoid 
 of flints (Turonian), these cannot be the mouths of flint-mines,^ but there is a 
 
 ' Congres iiiternat., Paris (1900), p. 207. 
 ^ Rev. d'^c. d'Anth. Paris, 1898, p. 406. 
 ^ The flint was mined a mile away, on the opposite side of the Bresle valley. 
 
AND CISSBURY FLINT-MINES 155 
 
 superficial resemblance to Grime's Graves, which have an upper layer of sand 
 mixed with flint nodules (p. no). 
 
 A store of picks and deer-horn tools was discovered, and further, the flints 
 found in and above the hearth level differed from ordinary neolithic implements 
 in their freedom from patina and the freshness of their broken surfaces. The 
 stone was grey but oftener black, with iron and manganese deposits. Bones of 
 the ox, horse, and stag were recognized, but the fauna was badly preserved ; and 
 charcoal from the hearths was from the oak and ash. As special emphasis is 
 laid on the absence of any trace of polish below the soil, it is not surprising that 
 the flint-forms merge into the palaeolithic. There are indeed picks, chisels, and 
 transverse axes, but it seems unwise to call these neolithic without qualification, 
 in view of the typical cave-types in undisputed association with them, such as 
 the side-scraper {mcloir), graving-tool {burin), parrot-beak point {bee de perroquei), 
 blade with battered back {a dos abattu\ and core-scraper {grattoir Tarte), of 
 which no less than eight specimens were found, and compared with those from 
 Brassempouy. The occurrence of pottery apart from, and obviously earlier than, 
 polished celts was commented on, and no less than 300 sherds were found, some 
 with round handles (as in Belgium), but rarely ornamented with lattice and 
 chequer patterns. One illustrated specimen is not unlike some rough markings 
 on the chalk wall in one of the Cissbury pits.^ 
 
 It is not suggested that the Campigny culture is contemporary with that of 
 Cissbury and Grime's Graves, but rather that it belongs to a somewhat later stage 
 which is revealed in an abundance of finds in the Thames Valley and on the 
 chalk downs of Southern England, as well as in Scandinavia. In the Cissbury 
 series may be found the rudimentary pick, a rough cylinder of flint pointed at 
 the ends or furnished with a narrow chisel edge at one or both extremities. The 
 typical pick does not seem to occur in the English flint-mines, and is only rarely 
 patinated white, the majority being quite unchanged or turned to some shade 
 of grey. This may be regarded as the rule, and another is that the long 
 picks are less patinated than the short specimens, and for this if for no other 
 reason are presumably later. 
 
 The discovery at Catenoy, near Clermont, Oise, of a culture similar to 
 that of Campigny, gave rise to some interesting speculations on the part of 
 Dr. Capitan.2 Below the humus and superficial deposits, 12-16 in. from the 
 surface, occurred palaeolithic cave-types, including gravers (coarser than those 
 of La Madeleine), end-scrapers, also transverse axes {tranchets) and picks some- 
 what finer than at Campigny ; bones of the ox, pig, and sheep ; pottery fragments 
 
 ^ Campigny, fig. 47, and Joum. Anthrop. Inst., vi. 440. 
 * Congres internat., Paris (1900), p. 211. 
 
156 
 
 DATE OF GRIME'S GRAVES 
 
 both coarse and fine, but no trace of polished flint. This culture was regarded 
 as neolithic, an advance on Campigny and probably a development of it ; but 
 the possibility of a local facies is fully recognized, and a transition stage different 
 from Mas d'Azil regarded as possible. 
 
 Time alone will show whether this equation is justified, but the idea of local 
 facies is a fruitful one, and may explain much that is still obscure at Cissbury. 
 A contrast has already been noted in development north and south of the Loire ; 
 and as the final separation from the Continent is generally assigned to the stage 
 of La Madeleine, there can be little hesitation in grouping the finds of Southern 
 England, especially the chalk area, with those of Northern France and Belgium. 
 Whatever the exact sequence, there is something more than an accidental resem- 
 
 Fig. 40. Segmental tool, with side and 
 base views ; C. Arcona, ROgen. J. 
 
 blance, for instance, between the products of Cissbury, Campigny, and Spiennes ; 
 and continental authorities have already linked the Campigny culture with the 
 kitchen-middens of Denmark. Further, certain surface-finds named after Le 
 Flenu, near Mons, Belgium, seem to belong to the Aurignac culture, though 
 regarded as proving a recrudescence of eoHthic barbarism by Dr. Rutot, whose 
 good offices secured for the British Museum an interesting type series. The 
 material used is not of the highest quality, though doubtless the best procurable 
 in the circumstances; and it is interesting to see reproduced some of the forms 
 rendered familiar by Aurignac finds elsewhere, such as the cone and the humped 
 scraper or steep-ended plane, whereas the specimens from Elouges in the same 
 neighbourhood are perhaps more truly allied to Campigny. Nor should it be 
 overlooked that Dr. Rutot ' has placed the industry of Le Flenu before that of 
 Campigny or Spiennes, on the strength of discoveries at Avenues (Waremme, 
 Liege), where flint was mined in prehistoric times. This would exactly agree 
 
 ^ Bertcht iiber die Prahistoriker- Versammlung in Koln, 1907, p. 137 ; Le Flcnusien aux environs de 
 Liege et en Hesbaye, p. 3 (C.-R. du Congres de la Fed. arch, et hist, de Belgique, Liege, 1909). 
 
AND CISSBURY FLINT-MINES 157 
 
 with the views now put forward with regard to Cissbury and Grime's Graves, 
 and specimens recently acquired for the British Museum from Arcona in the 
 Baltic island of Rugen are of the same character, including a typical segmental 
 tool (fig. 40), These may or may not resemble the Rugen flints compared by 
 Dr.Rutot with the series from Le Fl^nu, but the concordance is at least instructive. 
 The facies therefore is not altogether local, but rather suggests a fundamental 
 difference between the culture of areas rich in flint and that of Southern France, 
 where the later Cave types were uniformly evolved. As the chalk covers a 
 large part of Northern France as well as South-east England, it is permissible to 
 trace this cultural divergence to climate, fauna, flora, and other local conditions, 
 not necessarily to a difference of race. 
 
 Apart from its insular position, England should experience at least the 
 severe winters of Quebec, the latitude of London being the same as the southern 
 shore of Hudson Bay. But the proximity of the Atlantic in itself would miti- 
 gate the climate of Western Europe, and the Gulf Stream would have brought 
 not only moisture but warmth to Southern England, at least since the Channel 
 was formed. The effect of this on the flora and fauna of this country must have 
 been considerable, and the series of discoveries made in recent years on the 
 west coast of Norway are easier to understand when it is remembered that the 
 Gulf Stream keeps open the harbours of Norway all the year round as far north 
 as Hammerfest. A specially mild climate would fully explain the absence in 
 the Aurignac period of cold-loving animals such as most of the mammoth fauna, 
 and the absence of caves would inconvenience the larger beasts of prey, such 
 as the cave-lion, cave-bear, and hyaena, while the chalk downs can never have 
 provided enough cover or sustenance for large animals that take naturally to 
 the forest. On the other hand, all the conditions were favourable to herbivores ; 
 and on the Downs, if anywhere, the red-deer, ox, goat, sheep, and pig would 
 have found both food and security, each ministering in its own way to the neces- 
 sities of man. 
 
 It will thus be seen that the standing objections to the Cissbury culture 
 being palaeolithic are not insuperable, and were indeed discounted by various 
 authorities years before some of the best evidence was available. The effect of 
 such a theory on the old question of an hiatus has lastly to be considered. 
 
 This famous hypothesis is presented in a concise form by Dr. Rice Holmes,^ 
 who does not spare its principal English supporter. As his pages are crowded 
 with references, it is only necessary here to allude to the published opinions of 
 
 * Ancient Britain, pp. 382-390 : to the references there given may be added Bull. Soc. d'Anthrop., 
 1895, p. 266 (Piette). 
 
 VOL. LXIII. V 
 
158 DATE OF GRIME'S GRAVES 
 
 Prof. Boule,! a leading authority on the natural history side of the question. 
 He holds that the work of Piette in the Pyrenees and Allen Brown "" in England 
 brought the hiatus-theory into discredit, and himself undertakes to prepare a 
 list of species showing an insensible transition from the palaeolithic to the 
 neolithic fauna. In connexion with the alleged zoological break Dr. Rice 
 Holmes remarks most pertinently that 
 
 'the contrast between the palaeolithic and wild neolithic faunas ... implies no break 
 at all, seeing that 31 of the 48 older species confessedly lived on :^ it implies no more 
 than is implied by the disappearance of the urus, the wolf, the wild-boar, and many other 
 animals which were living in this island at a time since which it has been continuously 
 inhabited by man. . . . Arab horses, Siamese cats, and many other animals have been 
 introduced into this country since the Christian era : yet the people who were here before 
 their introduction did not become extinct.' 
 
 The difficulty all along has been to prove a connexion between Cissbury 
 types and those of the river-gravels ; the derivation of the neolithic celt from 
 the former is obvious, and an unbroken development from the Drift is more than 
 probable. Mr. Allen Brown seems to have been justified in regarding certain 
 surface-finds at East Dean, Sussex, as earlier than neolithic, but the term 
 ' mesolithic ' which he applied to them can hardly be recommended. From what 
 has been said above it may be concluded that many surface finds present so 
 close a resemblance to typical French cave-relics as to justify their attribution 
 to late palaeolithic times, and the issue is only obscured by the retention of a 
 name which, if it does not create the gap that it professes to fill, at least exag- 
 gerates the length and importance of a transition stage. It may be that archae- 
 ologists will revert to the old view that the neolithic period was that during 
 which flint implements were normally polished. In that case Cissbury and 
 Grime's Graves would be excluded ; and if analogy or identity of type counts for 
 anything, the only alternative is to adopt the most widely accepted classification, 
 and regard as palaeolithic not only these two leading sites, but many others of 
 the same facies that have been, or will hereafter be, discovered. 
 
 ^ V Attthropologie, 1894, p. 463. 
 
 ^ Palaeolithic Man in N.IV. Middlesex; and Journ. Anthrop. Inst., xxii. 66. Mention should also 
 be made of Mr. W. J. Knowles's paper in Journ. Royal Soc. Antiq. Ireland, 5th ser., vii. i. 
 ^ Of the nineteen, twelve migrated and seven became extinct. 
 
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