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 ^B 5EM 5fiM 
 
 
UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 FOR 
 
 COMMERCIAL PURPOSES 
 
 BY 
 
 FRANK L. RECTOR, B.S., M.D. 
 
 BACTERIOLOGIST, GREAT BEAR SPRING COMPANY, NEW YORK; MEMBER 
 AMERICAN PUBLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION, AMERICAN MICROSCOPI- 
 CAL SOCIETY, AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY, AMERICAN 
 ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, 
 NEW ENGLAND WATER-WORKS ASSOCIATION 
 
 FIRST EDITION 
 FIRST THOUSAND 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc 
 
 London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited 
 1913 
 

 Copyright, 191 3, by 
 FRANK L. RECTOR 
 
 Publishers Printing Company 
 ao7-2i7 West Twenty -fifth Street, New York 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 While much has been written upon the subject of 
 waters, there has been no attempt to collect in one 
 volume the material presented herein. The available 
 published material has followed two rather sharply 
 defined lines, one devoted to the consideration of 
 waters from various sources for industrial purposes; 
 the other devoted to discussion of waters for municipal 
 and public uses. 
 
 The subject of underground waters for commercial 
 purposes has received meagre attention at the hands 
 of various writers, and it is the author's intention in 
 the following pages to discuss in more or less detail this 
 phase of the question. The rapidly growing popula- 
 tion of our country, especially in the vicinity of our 
 large cities, makes the question of a sufficient and safe 
 water supply one of prime importance. The urban 
 population will be compelled more and more in the 
 future to look to sources other than the public supply 
 for water for drinking and domestic use. 
 
 The bottled, or mineral, water trade of the United 
 
 States has already reached large proportions, and 
 
 is yet in its infancy. Only ten or fifteen years ago the 
 
 ill 
 
 flfiQ^OCk 
 
IV INTRODUCTION 
 
 man who had the temerity to suggest that bottled 
 waters would find an extended market among any 
 bat the wealthy was looked upon as a visionary; yet 
 it is only necessary to point to the fact that the 
 value of mineral waters sold in the United States 
 in 191 1 was $6,837,888, in order to see that there are 
 large possibiHties in this line of commercial activity. 
 There were seven hundred and thirty-two springs 
 reporting sales in 191 1 with a combined output of 
 63,923,119 gallons. This does not take into consider- 
 ation the quantities of water supplied to guests at the 
 various spring resorts, nor that used in the manu- 
 facture of so-called "soft drinks," such as pop, 
 ginger ale, etc. Likewise, there were many springs 
 which made no report, and their output could not be 
 included in the foregoing estimate. 
 
 Many sources of information have been drawn upon 
 in the preparation of this work, and while it is im- 
 practicable to acknowledge each citation, the ap- 
 pended bibliography covers practically all the author- 
 ities consulted, and to these the author wishes to 
 express his obligations and thanks. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introduction . iii 
 
 Source of Water i 
 
 Ground Water 5 
 
 Distribution and Properties of Water • , 11 
 
 Springs 16 
 
 Wells 24 
 
 Watershed 32 
 
 Mineral Water 40 
 
 Chemical Examination 49 
 
 Bacteriological Examination .... 63 
 
 Microscopical Examination 78 
 
 Appendix. Useful Rules and Tables . . 83 
 
 Bibliography 93 
 
 Index • • 95 
 
CHAPTER I 
 SOURCE OF WATER 
 
 The source of all underground water which rises 
 in the form of springs or is obtained by sinking wells 
 is the rain which falls upon the surface of the earth. 
 A few exceptions to this statement are the hot springs 
 found in various sections of the country, due to 
 volcanic action, and a few inclusions of ocean water 
 in sedimentary rocks. But these are small compared 
 to the large number and wide distribution of non- 
 thermal springs. 
 
 Springs whose source is the rainfall are found 
 throughout the world, and vary in size from the 
 tiniest rill to a stream large enough to carry steam- 
 boats. There are springs in Florida with a flow of 
 over 360,000 gallons per minute, steamboats ascend- 
 ing the stream caused by their overflow to the very 
 source. As certain geologic conditions are necessary 
 to the formation of springs, they are oftentimes 
 grouped in more or less restricted localities. 
 
 When rain descends upon the earth part of the 
 water finds its way immediately into streams and 
 lakes, constituting the run-off; part is absorbed by 
 
2 UiSTDlCRGJlOUND WATERS 
 
 growing plants, part enters into chemical reactions in 
 the soil, and a certain amount is immediately returned 
 to the air by evaporation. The remainder passes 
 downward to various depths, to appear later in the 
 form of springs, or in swamps and lakes. This por- 
 tion of the rainfall is known as ground water. The 
 run-off sooner or later reaches the larger bodies of 
 water, where it evaporates and is again deposited upon 
 the surface of the earth as rain or snow. 
 
 The portion of the rainfall constituting the ground 
 water pursues a different course. It passes down- 
 ward, due to the force of gravity, until, coming in 
 contact with some obstruction, its course is directed 
 more or less horizontally. Sooner or later it finds an 
 outlet at the surface. In its passage through the 
 ground this water may travel long distances, and may 
 come in contact with soluble materials which will be 
 carried along with it, completely altering its composi- 
 tion when it emerges; or it may reach the surface in 
 the immediate vicinity in which it was deposited, 
 having undergone Httle change in its passage. This 
 is specially true in limestone regions where filtering 
 agents are scarce and where the rain quickly finds its 
 way into seams, joints, and fissures, following along 
 these until it' reaches the surface. Thus it can be 
 seen readily why waters coming from different sec- 
 tions of the country have different composition; or, 
 
SOURCE OF WATER 3 
 
 waters from closely adjacent areas may have a 
 wholly different composition, as the composition of 
 underground strata have been found to be radically 
 different in contiguous localities. 
 
 Rain, or meteoric, water is the purest form of natu- 
 ral water obtainable. It is closely related to distilled 
 water; in fact, it is water that has been distilled by 
 nature and condensed in the form of clouds. During 
 a given rainfall the first water that descends washes 
 the dust particles from the air, and is thus more or less 
 contaminated. The remaining water is practically 
 free from contamination, except for the small amount 
 of gases it may absorb in its descent from the clouds. 
 These conditions are modified by the surroundings, 
 such as factories emitting smoke and gases and other 
 sources of contamination. 
 
 The air in the vicinity of chemical factories is 
 saturated to a greater or less degree with chlorine, 
 nitrous oxid, various acids, etc., depending upon the 
 particular form of manufacture carried on at that 
 place. Smelter fumes contain large quantities of 
 arsenic which may be carried miles by air currents, 
 dwarfing the growth of all vegetable Ufe in its path. 
 
 Vapors arising from decomposing vegetable matter 
 in swamps and bogs contain gases which will be taken 
 up by the rain in its descent and carried with it into 
 the earth. 
 
4 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 Snow acts in much the same way as does rain in its 
 properties of purifying the atmosphere and absorbing 
 gases. The bacterial content of snow is usually lower 
 than that of rain, as the air in winter contains fewer 
 bacteria than in summer. 
 
 It can thus be seen readily that the more thickly 
 populated a country is the less Hkely the inhabitants 
 are to obtain a satisfactory water supply in their 
 immediate vicinity. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 GROUND WATER 
 
 As previously noted, ground water is that portion 
 of the rainfall which soaks into the ground to appear 
 later as springs or wells. Rain water tends to pass 
 downward, due to the force of gravity, but its passage 
 is resisted by the earth particles between which it must 
 pass. In sands and gravels where these spaces are 
 numerous and relatively large, the water passes quite 
 readily; in sandstones where the spaces are small, 
 capillary attraction exerts a strong influence in re- 
 tarding the movement of the water. In limestone 
 and granite there is little or no movement in the rock 
 mass itself due to the extreme fineness of these spaces, 
 the resulting friction, and the effect of capillary at- 
 traction; but there is rapid and free movement of the 
 water in fissures, joints, seams, and faults in this type 
 of rock. 
 
 As soon as water comes in contact with the surface 
 of the earth it is changed. Where before it had been 
 practically pure, it is now contaminated by soil bac- 
 teria, and it also takes up various soluble elements 
 present in the soil. If the water emerges in the 
 
 5 
 
6 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 same vicinity in which it was deposited, it will have the 
 characteristics of the soil in that vicinity; but if it 
 travels some distance under the surface before it again 
 finds an outlet, it may take on varying characteristics, 
 depending upon the kind of geologic strata it has 
 traversed. 
 
 In sandy and gravelly subsoil there are no distinct 
 channels through which the water passes, but it finds 
 its way between the grains of sand as best it may. 
 The spaces between sand grains, whether the grains 
 are loose or combined in sandstone, are called pores, 
 and the relative size and abundance of these openings 
 constitute the porosity of a given medium. Porosity 
 is expressed as a percentage of the whole mass. Thus, 
 if loo cubic feet of rock will absorb 20 cubic feet of 
 water, the porosity of that rock is 20 per cent. 
 Rocks formed under water by sedimentation are the 
 most porous. 
 
 The porosity of a rock or other medium is its power 
 to absorb water. The ability to transmit, that is, to 
 allow of the passage of water through a rock, is known 
 as the permeability. This depends upon the amount 
 and character of the porosity, large pores allowing 
 water to pass through more rapidly than small pores, 
 due to the decreased resistance. The presence of 
 joints, fractures, seams, etc., in a rock also increases 
 its permeability. Rocks may have a high porosity, 
 
GROUND WATER 7 
 
 but slight permeability, due to the extreme fineness 
 of the pores. 
 
 PermeabiUty depends not alone upon the presence 
 of pores in the rock, but also upon the communication 
 of one pore with another. If the communicating 
 channels are few and small the permeability will be 
 very greatly reduced, and although the porosity of the 
 rock may be high, its power to transmit water will be 
 very slight. Under sucH conditions the presence of 
 fissures and joints in the rock will greatly increase its 
 transmitting power. The following table from 
 Gregory (ii) gives the limits of porosity of different 
 water-bearing materials : 
 
 Rock Per cent of Water absorbed 
 
 Pore Space per cu. ft. (qts.) 
 
 Sandstone 4.81 2-6 
 
 28.28 
 Limestone .14 /4~'^}i 
 
 13-36 1-5 
 
 Marble 184 
 
 3.578 
 
 Granite . 969 i / 100-^ 
 
 Slate .099 
 
 .304 
 
 Chalk 4-8 
 
 Sand 8-10 
 
 Clay 10-12 
 
8 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 The figures given show the ordinary limits of the 
 porosity of the rocks. 
 
 From the above table it is seen that clay has a high 
 porosity, but its permeability is slight owing to the 
 extremely small size of the pores, although their ag- 
 gregate capacity is rather large. 
 
 The movement of water through the earth is quite 
 slow, being measured in feet per year rather than 
 miles per hour or day, as is the case with surface 
 streams. Rate of movement is also dependent upon 
 the pressure behind, and the inclination or grade along 
 which it flows. Water tends to pass vertically down- 
 ward, but obstructions of rock masses, slate, clay, or 
 other materials, which are impenetrable may cause the 
 formation of considerable head. According to Slichter 
 (28), who bases his calculations upon experimental 
 work, with a temperature of 50° F., a porosity of 
 32 per cent, and a pressure gradient of ten feet to 
 the mile, water has been estimated to travel in a 
 year in fine sand 52.8 feet; in medium sand, 216 feet; 
 in coarse sand, 845 feet, and in fine gravel, 5,386 feet. 
 This is through a medium of uniform composition. 
 
 An increase in temperature causes an increase in the 
 rapidity of movement. At a temperature of 70° F. 
 the rate of movement is double that at 32° F., because 
 at the higher temperature the water is less 
 viscous. 
 
GROUND WATER 9 
 
 The temperature of ground water is the same as the 
 mean temperature of the region under which it lies. 
 The temperature of the outer crust of the earth to a 
 thickness of about 50 feet is influenced by the seasonal 
 variations in the cUmate. At a depth of 50 feet the 
 temperature is practically constant and is the same 
 as the mean temperature of that particular region. 
 Below a depth of 50 feet the temperature increases 
 one degree for each 60 feet in depth, on an average. 
 Therefore it can be seen that, generally speaking, 
 waters can be no colder than the mean temperature 
 of their particular region. This is contrary to the 
 general belief that water whose temperature is quite 
 low in hot summer weather, or whose temperature does 
 not vary throughout the year, must come from great 
 depths. The farther below the outer zone of 50 feet 
 from which waters rise, the higher will be their 
 temperature. 
 
 Waters lying less than 50 feet below the surface are 
 colder in winter and warmer in summer, as they are 
 acted upon by external climatic conditions. On the 
 other hand, waters coming from great depths have a 
 temperature above the average for the region in which 
 they occur, corresponding to the depth from which 
 they rise. Waters reaching the surface as hot springs 
 must come from deep sources, as many of them have a 
 temperature of at least 180° F. at their point of emer- 
 
lO UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 gence, and must of necessity have lost some heat in 
 rising to the surface. 
 
 Fuller (8) says: ''Springs with a temperature of 
 over 150° F. are rare, if they occur at all outside of 
 igneous regions. As this temperature represents only 
 a depth of 5,000 feet on the basis of an increment of 
 1° to each 50 feet of depth, it is readily seen that we 
 have ordinarily no truly deep-seated springs whatever. 
 Springs at the boiling point would represent a depth 
 of only about 8,000 feet." 
 
 All water finally reaches a certain level beneath the 
 surface of the earth, where it ceases to pass downward, 
 and is directed in a horizontal plane, forming a more 
 or less continuous bed of water. This is known as the 
 ground- water table, and will be discussed more fully 
 under the subject of springs. (Chapter IV.) This 
 ground-water table underlies practically all the earth's 
 surface, is tapped when wells are sunk, and also forms 
 springs, lakes, and marshes when the surface of the 
 earth is eroded, as in a valley or ravine, and the water- 
 bearing stratum is cut across. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 DISTRIBUTION AND PROPERTIES OF WATER 
 
 Water is the most widely distributed substance of 
 which we have knowledge. The hardest crystals and 
 the driest rocks contain appreciable quantities of 
 water. In fact, crystals could not form were it not 
 for the action of water. The human body is composed 
 largely of water, it being present in the various tissues 
 in amounts varying from two per cent to ninety-nine 
 per cent. A body weighing 165 pounds will be com- 
 posed of 115 pounds of water. Plant life, like animal 
 life, has a large amount of water in its composition. 
 
 Geographers tell us that three-fourths of the surface 
 of the earth is covered with water, and the interior of 
 the earth contains large quantities, as shown by the 
 many thermal springs and geysers that exist in widely 
 separated parts of the universe. 
 
 The amount of free water in the earth's crust 
 
 has been estimated by Delesse (Fuller, 8) to be 
 
 "equivalent to one nine-hundred- twenty-first part of 
 
 the earth's volume, or to a sheet of water over 7,500 
 
 feet thick surrounding the earth." Slichter (28) 
 
 calculates the amount as "being equivalent to a 
 
 II 
 
12 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 uniform sheet 3,000 to 3,500 feet in thickness," Van 
 Hise (32) furnishes an estimate that the water on con- 
 tinental areas would form a layer 226 feet deep, but 
 makes no calculation regarding oceanic areas. Cham- 
 berlin and Salisbury (Fuller, 8) estimate that the 
 amount of free water in the earth's crust would form 
 a layer 1,600 feet in depth; and Fuller (8) has de- 
 termined, after a careful and close study of all factors, 
 that this figure should be reduced to 96 feet. 
 
 It has been estimated that no free water exists 
 below a depth of about 20,000 feet beneath the land in 
 crystalline rocks. It will be possible for free water to 
 be found at a greater depth at points below the ocean. 
 In sedimentary rocks little free water exists below 
 2,600 feet in depth. 
 
 Water is an odorless, tasteless, colorless liquid. A 
 layer of water of some thickness may show a bluish 
 tinge. It is neutral in reaction. It is the most 
 universal solvent known, and for this reason is very 
 hard to obtain in the pure state. 
 
 Absolutely pure water is never found in nature, and 
 is difficult to obtain even in the laboratory. It is 
 necessary to distil water twice, and to conduct the 
 operation with special care, in order to get absolutely 
 pure water. 
 
 The term pure water may have various meanings, 
 depending upon the purpose for which it is to be used. 
 
DISTRIBUTION AND PROPERTIES OF WATER 1 3 
 
 Water may be chemically pure when it contains no 
 substances which would interfere with chemical 
 reactions. It is bacteriologically pure when it con- 
 tains no bacteria capable of setting up diseased 
 conditions when taken into the system, regardless of 
 its chemical composition. It is pure from a sanitary 
 point of view when it contains no evidences of pollu- 
 tion from the wastes of man or animals; and it may be 
 considered pure by the engineer when it contains no 
 Hme or salt to form boiler scale, or organic matter in 
 sufficient amount to cause foaming. So we see that 
 when a pure water is spoken of, its use, whether for 
 chemical, bacteriological, sanitary, or industrial pur- 
 poses, must be borne in mind. 
 
 Rain water, if obtained before reaching the surface of 
 the earth, is the purest form of natural water, as is also 
 snow. As soon as it has come in contact with the soil, 
 however, it becomes contaminated, owing to its solvent 
 action. Ice is also a very pure form of natural water, 
 as most of the substances in solution are forced out 
 into the surrounding water during the process of 
 freezing. Water that is contaminated bacteriologi- 
 cally is purified to a great extent by the process of 
 freezing, and ice that has been frozen for a few months 
 is perfectly safe to use, even though its source was 
 polluted. 
 
 A good descriptive term for a mineral water is 
 
14 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 ''potability.'^ A potable water is one free from 
 pollution, pleasing to the taste, and perfectly safe for 
 drinking and domestic use. It may and should con- 
 tain some chemical substances which give it a pleasing 
 taste, and may contain bacteria, provided no organ- 
 isms indicative of pollution are present. The combina- 
 tion of chemicals in a given water gives that water its 
 individual taste. Distilled water, lacking these chem- 
 ical salts, has a very flat and insipid taste, and in a soft 
 water the same insipidity will be noted in a lesser 
 degree, owing to the small amount of chemical salts in 
 solution. 
 
 On the other hand, a water may hold such a large 
 proportion of chemicals in solution as to be very dis- 
 agreeable in taste. Large quantities of sodium 
 chloride (common salt), magnesium sulphate (Epsom 
 salts), various forms of iron, sulphur, and other 
 chemical substances impart to water a characteristic 
 and oftentimes disagreeable taste. 
 
 The taste of water, aside from extreme conditions, 
 is largely a matter of personal preference. After 
 drinking for some time water with a certain chemical 
 content we become accustomed to it, and when a 
 change is made to a water of different chemical 
 content the altered taste is readily noticeable. 
 
 Certain properties of pure water are taken as stand- 
 ards in chemical and physical calculations. The 
 
DISTRIBUTION AND PROPERTIES OF WATER 1 5 
 
 standard of specific gravity is based upon water, its 
 specific gravity being i at 15° C. It is the standard 
 of weight in the metric system, a cubic centimetre of 
 water at 4° C. weighing one gram. Standards of heat 
 are based upon water; the amount of heat required to 
 raise one gram of water 1° C. is taken as the basis and 
 is known as the calorie. Specific heat of other sub- 
 stances is given in comparison with this standard. 
 
 Chemically water is composed of but two elements, 
 hydrogen and oxygen, in proportion of two parts of 
 the former to one of the latter. Its formula is, there- 
 fore, H2O. Water occurs in three physical states — 
 viz. : solid, liquid, and gas, and can be transformed 
 readily and easily from one to the other under the 
 proper environment of temperature and pressure. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 SPRINGS 
 
 A SPRING is a stream of water emerging from the 
 ground, its flow being due to definite, natural causes. 
 By this definition many so-called "springs" are ex- 
 cluded, which are in reality only wells which have 
 been sunk to the level of the water-bearing strata and 
 the water lifted to the surface by means of various 
 mechanical devices. 
 
 The flow of springs varies to a marked extent. 
 Some may be of small volume, scarcely more than a 
 rivulet, while others will be capable of carrying steam 
 vessels. Some of the largest flowing springs are found 
 in Florida, notable among these being the Silver 
 Springs, with an estimated flow of 368,913 gallons per 
 minute, and Blue Springs, with a flow of 349,166 gal- 
 lons per minute. (Sellards, 26.) 
 
 The formation of springs is due to certain geologic 
 conditions, chief of which are the composition and 
 arrangement of the different layers of material which 
 go to form the earth's crust. It would be impracti- 
 cable to describe all the conditions which enter into the 
 formation of the different types of springs found 
 
 16 
 
SPRINGS 17 
 
 throughout the world, as an intimate knowledge of the 
 geologic conditions in the vicinity of each would be 
 necessary. There are, however, certain general prin- 
 ciples which tend to the formation of springs, and 
 which are as follows: First, a porous upper layer 
 more or less saturated with water; second, an impervi- 
 ous layer immediately beneath the porous and lying in 
 an inclined plane; third, the extension of these two 
 layers to the surface of the earth. 
 
 Water falling upon the porous upper layer passes 
 downward by the force of gravity until it comes in 
 contact with the impervious layer. It will then be 
 forced along the upper side of this layer, due to the 
 pressure of the water behind, and finally emerge at the 
 surface where the forces of weathering have eroded 
 and exposed the non-porous layer. The body of water 
 lying above this impervious layer is known as the 
 ground-water table. Its position depends upon the 
 deposition of the geologic strata beneath the earth's 
 surface, also upon the amount of rainfall, being higher 
 in a wet season than in a dry season. 
 
 There may be an impervious layer of rock or shale 
 above the ground- water table at some particular point, 
 but such a condition is more or less local, as the water 
 has to find its way beneath the shale or clay at some 
 point in the vicinity. 
 
 Occasionally one water table is found above an- 
 
1 8 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 other. This is known as a ''perched" water table. 
 Such a table can occur only in hilly regions, and as 
 its source of supply is restricted, it is affected readily 
 by changes in the rainfall. Its formation may be 
 better understood by reference to Fig. i , A well sunk 
 
 __ Sea level ^. 
 
 Courtesy U. 5. Geol. Survey. 
 
 Fig. I. Perched Water Table. A, unsaturated strata; B. 
 perched water table; C, saturated strata; D relatively im- 
 pervious till. 
 
 only to the level of this perched table, or a spring sup- 
 plied by it, will have a variable flow as compared with 
 a well or spring supplied by the main ground-water 
 
SPRINGS 
 
 19 
 
 table situated beneath the intervening impervious 
 stratum. 
 
 Fuller (10) classifies springs according to their 
 origin as gravity and artesian; and according to the 
 kind of passages traversed by the water, as seepage, 
 tubular, and fissure springs. 
 
 A gravity spring is one whose source of supply is not 
 confined between nonporous layers, but flows through 
 the subsurface layers by gravity. It has no well- 
 defined channels, the material through which the 
 water flows being usually sand or gravel. 
 
 An artesian spring is one that emerges under hydro- 
 static pressure, due to the fact that its supply is con- 
 fined between impervious layers and is higher at its 
 source than at its point of emergence. If the waters 
 of such a spring are confined in a pipe at the surface 
 they will rise in that pipe some distance, depending 
 upon the hydrostatic head. 
 
 Seepage springs are those in which the water seeps 
 from the ground in a more or less restricted area. 
 Their flow is seldom large, and in dry seasons may 
 evaporate almost as fast as it reaches the surface. 
 There is usually abundant vegetation around such 
 springs, also scum and oily matter on their surface. 
 This oil sciun is frequently taken as an indication of 
 oil deposits beneath the surface, but is in reality due 
 to the decomposing vegetable matter or to iron. The 
 
20 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 temperature of this class of springs is usually affected 
 by climatic conditions, and they are not very cold. 
 These springs belong to the gravity class. 
 
 Tubular springs include a variety of forms and are 
 usually found in rocky, especially liinestone, regions. 
 The water feeding such springs flows through passages 
 in the rock made by the solution of soluble substances, 
 known as solution passages. They often follow 
 porous strata such as sand and gravel inclusions in 
 drift rock. They may find a channel left by some 
 decaying vegetable matter and utilize it as a means of 
 passage. In limestone regions such passages are often 
 very long. Underground streams, such as that in 
 Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, are known to extend for 
 miles, and in all probability are of much greater 
 length. As a general rule this type of spring be- 
 longs to the gravity class. 
 
 Fissure springs are those which rise from joints, 
 seams, cleavage planes, or fissures in the rock. They 
 are formed by the plane of the fissure cutting across 
 the plane of flow of the underground water. They 
 are usually of deeper origin than the seepage or tubular 
 springs. Many of such springs may be found emerg- 
 ing in the same plane of fracture along the side of a 
 hill, or along the edges of a ravine. 
 
 Springs which are found in mountainous and rocky 
 regions are usually of the fissure type just described 
 
SPRINGS 21 
 
 Here the water is not so well filtered as in sandy re- 
 gions and likewise may travel for long distances with 
 comparatively little filtration. About all the filtering 
 such waters receive is that obtained by passing 
 through the soil and subsoil; for as soon as the water 
 reaches the rock proper it finds its way into the many 
 crevices and joints of the rock mass and follows these 
 to some outlet. Such springs are likely to be of un- 
 even flow, as their source is more or less directly 
 dependent upon the rainfall, and thereby directly 
 influenced by it. They are also more likely to be 
 contaminated, as the water has not had the chance to 
 became purified by filtration, as is the case in sandy 
 regions, but passes into the joints and fissures of the 
 rock. Pollution is known to have been conveyed long 
 distances by just such formations as have been 
 described. Water from such springs is very Hkely to 
 become turbid after a rain, due to the fact that more 
 water passes through the soil at such times than can 
 be filtered properly, and carries down with it particles 
 of earth or rock matter in suspension. 
 
 Aside from joints and fissures which occur in lime- 
 stone regions, large cavities are often formed which 
 contain water, and which at times receive the dis- 
 charge of streams, forming what are known as lost 
 streams. This water with no filtration or purification 
 may appear at some point further down as a flowing 
 
22 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 spring, and will be grossly polluted by the material 
 gathered by the lost stream earlier in its course. 
 
 The jointed and fissured formation of the rock in 
 limestone regions may cause springs and wells to 
 become contaminated from apparently impossible 
 
 Courtesy U. S. Geol. Survey. 
 
 Fig. 2. Wells in jointed rocks. 
 
 sources. A well may be located on ground higher than 
 and some distance from a polluting source as cess- 
 pool or barnyard; but the joints and fissures in the 
 rock through which that well has been sunk, or which 
 overlies the spring, may be such that polluting material 
 can easily and quickly find its way from the surface 
 to the water supply. (Fig. 2.) 
 Wells and springs located in limestone regions 
 
SPRINGS 23 
 
 should be examined most carefully both as to water- 
 shed and subsurface formations before they are used 
 for drinking purposes. 
 
 An erroneous idea is prevalent in the minds of 
 many people that a lake or stream even in remote 
 proximity to a spring is the source of its supply, the 
 water finding its way through the earth to the outlet. 
 As a matter of fact most lakes and streams are fed by 
 
 Courtesy U. S. Geol. Survey. 
 
 Fig. 3. Movement of water away from and toward lakes. 
 N, normal position of water table; F, position during floods. 
 
 the ground water, and the movement of this water is 
 toward, rather than away from, such bodies of water. 
 In times of heavy rainfall or other condition which will 
 cause the normal level of the lake or river to rise, the 
 movement of the ground water may be reversed, that 
 is, it will be away from, rather than toward, the lake; 
 but as soon as conditions are normal the movement 
 of ground water will return to its normal course. 
 (Fig. 3-) 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 WELLS 
 
 In contradistinction to springs, the supply of water 
 drawn from wells does not reach the surface by its own 
 effort, except in some artesian wells, but must be 
 lifted by mechanical means. A well, therefore, is a 
 tube of varying diameter sunk through the crust of the 
 earth into the water-bearing strata and supplied with 
 some mechanical arrangement for lifting the water to 
 the surface. 
 
 The yield of a well depends on its depth, its topo- 
 graphic location, and the nature of the rock in which 
 it is made. The deeper the well beyond a certain 
 distance, the less likely is water to be found; especially 
 is this true in regions composed of crystalline rocks. 
 The pressure of the rock mass from above closes joints, 
 seams and fissures, allowing little or no water to pass. 
 
 There are several types of wells known, among them 
 
 being the dug, bored, drilled, punched, and driven. 
 
 All these types may be used, depending upon the 
 
 nature of the material through which the hole is sunk. 
 
 In rocky regions a dug well would be difficult to sink, 
 
 while in sandy sections it would be easily simk, but 
 
 24 
 
WELLS 25 
 
 would need protection by shoring while the digging 
 was in progress. Under these conditions a punched 
 or drilled well in which the opening would be of a 
 much smaller diameter, and in which the casing would 
 be carried down with the drill, would be preferable. 
 
 Artesian wells are those in which the ground water 
 rises toward or above the surface, due to hydrostatic 
 pressure. "Gas as an agent in causing the water to 
 rise is expressly excluded from the definition." 
 
 The word artesian is derived from Artois, an ancient 
 province in France which was supplied with flowing 
 wells. According to Matson (22) there are six con- 
 ditions which usually produce artesian wells : 
 
 1. A porous bed or an open plane or channel to 
 permit the entrance and passage of water. 
 
 2. An impervious cap to prevent the upward escape 
 of the water. 
 
 3. An inclination of the water-bearing bed or 
 passage. 
 
 4. -A suitable exposure of the water-bearing beds or 
 passages above the level of the surface at the well to 
 permit the entrance of the water. 
 
 5. An adequate rainfall to furnish the water. 
 
 6. An absence of openings which will permit the 
 ready escape of water at a level below the well. 
 
 The disposition of geologic strata tends to the 
 formation of artesian conditions, and may assume 
 
26 
 
 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 various lorms. The simplest form is that in which a 
 porous saturated layer, such as sand, gravel, or sand- 
 stone, is situated between two impervious layers, the 
 
 Courtesy U. S. Geol. Survey. 
 
 Fig. 4. Artesian slope. A, B, C, water-bearing strata 
 confined between impervious strata DD. 
 
 whole mass being disposed in an inclined plane. When 
 a well is sunk into this porous layer at a point below 
 its source of supply the water will rise in the well 
 toward or above the surface by means of the hydro- 
 static pressure under which it has been confined. 
 This is known as an artesian slope, and may be better 
 understood by reference to Fig. 4. 
 
 In an artesian basin we have a condition in which 
 two slopes meet as one continuous formation, the 
 
 Courtesy U, S. Geol, Survey. 
 
 Fig. 5. Artesian basin. A, height of the water table in 
 saturated gravel B. C is impervious strata confining the 
 waters of B. DD, flowing wells. 
 
 catchment area being higher on both sides and 
 gradually sloping into a valley. (Fig. 5.) A well 
 
WELLS 27 
 
 sunk in this valley to the water-bearing strata will 
 produce artesian water. It must be borne in mind 
 that water will never rise in a boring to a level with 
 its source of supply. This is due to the fact that 
 resistance is offered by the stratum through which 
 the water passes. In other words, the permeability 
 of the mass may be so sHght that the water passes 
 through with difficulty, due to the friction and a 
 consequent loss of head. 
 
 Solution passages in limestone will often produce 
 artesian conditions. (Fig. 6.) Such passages present 
 
 Courtesy U. S. Geol. Survey. " 
 
 Fig, 6. Solution passages. A, B, C, D, wells sunk to the 
 underground stream of water. 
 
 no obstruction to the flow of water through the rock, 
 and being situated on an incline with sufficient head, 
 artesian conditions are produced. 
 
 Artesian conditions are produced in many ways that 
 are as yet little if any understood. Many theories 
 can be advanced, but when put into practice they fall 
 short of accomplishing the desired ends. Hydrog- 
 raphers tell us that many of the forces making for 
 
Perforated Stoneware 
 Pipes 
 
 Fig. 7. Well properly protected by tile wall laid with cement joints. 
 
WELLS 29 
 
 artesian conditions have not as yet been explained, 
 although they are known to exist. 
 
 Wells are subject to contamination as much as are 
 springs, and it is as necessary to protect them properly 
 as any natural source of supply. Except in some ar- 
 tesian wells, some means of raising the water to the 
 surface must be resorted to, which greatly increases 
 the danger of pollution. The method of closing the 
 mouth of a well must be considered carefully, as at this 
 point a great amount of polluting material will find 
 entrance. 
 
 If the well is of the dug type and is walled with stone 
 or brick, the upper six feet of the wall should be laid 
 in cement and should extend at least a foot above the 
 surface. Around this wall and on the surface of the 
 ground should be placed a layer of concrete at least 
 six inches thick and four feet wide, rising nearly to 
 the top of the wall and sloping away in all directions. 
 Over this should be built a double floor or platform 
 of wood, the boards in the two floors being laid at right 
 angles to each other, and between a layer of concrete 
 two inches thick. This platform should extend as 
 far as the ring of concrete beneath, and on top of it 
 should be placed the pump. The opening in the floor 
 through which the pump passes should be made 
 water-tight, thus preventing surface washings gaining 
 entrance into the well. 
 
Curb 
 
 Fig. 8. Well properly protected by brick wall laid in cement. 
 
WELLS 31 
 
 In driven, punched, bored, or drilled wells the 
 casing is carried down with the process of sinking the 
 well, thus shutting out danger of contamination below 
 the surface. The surface should be protected in a 
 similar manner as described for dug wells, and the 
 mouth of the well made water-tight. Figs. 7 and 8, 
 taken from the Kansas State Board of Health Bulletin 
 (35), will make the explanation clearer. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 WATERSHED 
 
 By watershed is meant the area immediately sur- 
 rounding a water supply so situated that water falling 
 upon it will be directed toward this supply. Drain- 
 age area and catchment are other terms some- 
 times used in this same connection. The watershed 
 is of immense practical and sanitary value in relation 
 to a given water supply. It should not be too ex- 
 tensive, as it would then be difficult to control properly 
 and keep free from pollution. Neither should it be 
 too restricted, for in rocky regions pollution might be 
 absent from the surface, and still find its way by 
 subterranean means to the water supply. It should 
 be uninhabited, as any sort of habitation for either 
 man or animals contributes to pollution by means of 
 their bodily wastes. If inhabited, the buildings 
 should be as far removed from the spring or well as 
 possible and the wastes should be disposed of in such 
 a manner as to preclude the possibility of contami- 
 nation. 
 
 The watershed should be uncultivated, as culti- 
 vated soil is rich in organic matter which in the 
 
 32 
 
/ 
 
 WATERSHED 33 
 
 process of decay adds substances to the water which 
 are objectionable. A wooded area is also more valu- 
 able than an open one, as it conserves the water supply 
 by preventing evaporation. From what has been 
 said before, sand and gravel soil and subsoil are 
 preferable to a rocky or clayey one. 
 
 Hand in hand with the foregoing requirements of 
 an ideal watershed must go a knowledge of the 
 geologic conditions underlying the area, as favorable 
 conditions may prevail upon the surface and un- 
 favorable conditions be found beneath. 
 
 Ability to interpret the conditions found by an 
 inspection of a watershed, the ''sanitary survey," is of 
 immense practical value and forms one of the mem- 
 bers of the trio of examinations which must be made 
 in order to determine the safety and purity of a water 
 supply; the other two being the chemical and bac- 
 teriological examinations, which will be discussed in 
 later chapters. 
 
 Some authorities consider the sanitary survey the 
 most important, and say that if they had to choose 
 only one method of examining a water supply, that 
 method would be the sanitary survey, as it would 
 afford the most practical and satisfactory results. 
 Fuller (10) says: ''Careful examination of the spring 
 itself and a common-sense inspection of its surround- 
 ings are usually of more value than an analysis." 
 3 
 
34 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 The study of conditions as outlined above relating 
 to habitations, cultivated areas, forest or plain, 
 composition of soil and subsoil, the location upon the 
 watershed of any possible sources of pollution, all 
 go to make up that which we know as the sanitary 
 survey. 
 
 Manufactories at times remotely situated from a 
 water supply may have a decided influence in either 
 or both of two ways: first, by discharging fumes and 
 gases into the atmosphere, which are absorbed by the 
 falling rain and are carried through the earth to the 
 point of exit of the spring; secondly, by discharging 
 waste matter upon the surface of the ground where 
 the falling rain will carry it downward through the soil 
 to the ground- water table; or by both methods com- 
 bined. 
 
 In rocky and limestone regions this pollution by 
 factory or other wastes may be of considerable im- 
 portance, as pollution has been traced for long dis- 
 tances in such regions. There are several historical 
 instances on record of the contamination of a water 
 supply. In a certain city in the South a few years ago 
 pollution was traced to the water supply from a source 
 more than three-fourths of a mile distant. In this case 
 surface pollution in the immediate vicinity of the 
 supply was guarded against as the water was taken 
 from deep wells situated on the side of the valley. Up 
 
WATERSHED 35 
 
 this valley less than a mile were a slaughter-house and 
 some negro cabins in one of which there had been a 
 case of typhoid fever prior to the outbreak in the city. 
 The country surrounding this city is quite hilly, the 
 prevailing formation being of limestone. The stream 
 which ran past the slaughter-house and the negro 
 cabins soon disappeared beneath the surface and was 
 lost sight of. Upon investigation it was suspected 
 that this stream might be the source from which the 
 city wells drew their supply, and to verify it, large 
 quantities of salt were dumped into the stream be- 
 fore it disappeared. Soon after, at stated intervals, 
 samples of water were collected from the wells by 
 vigorous pumping, and the marked rise of the chlorine 
 content demonstrated beyond a doubt the direct con- 
 nection between the wells and the underground stream. 
 
 The following incident described by Harrington (12) 
 is of special interest in this connection. 
 ^'Epidemic at Lausen, Switzerland. 
 
 ^*Up to 1872, this village of 780 inhabitants had not 
 been visited by typhoid fever, even in sporadic cases, 
 for sixty years. On August 7th, with no previous warn- 
 ing, ten persons were seized, and during the next ten 
 days nearly 60 more. The number of cases increased 
 from day to day, until 130 persons, or one-sixth of the 
 entire population, had been seized. So large a per- 
 centage of involvement pointed to some common 
 cause, and the immunity enjoyed by the inmates of a 
 
36 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 group of houses not connected with the public water 
 supply directed attention to the latter, which was 
 derived from a spring at the foot of a ridge about 300 
 feet high, between the village and the Fuhrler valley. 
 In this valley, at a point between one and two miles 
 distant from Lausen, was an isolated farm where 
 dwelt a man who, on June loth, shortly after his return 
 from a visit, was taken sick with typhoid fever. 
 Before the end of July, three more cases developed in 
 the same house. The discharges of all four were 
 thrown into a brook in which the family washing was 
 done, and which served to irrigate the meadows below. 
 Whenever it was dammed up for this purpose, the 
 volume of the water supply beyond the ridge was 
 noticeably increased. Between July 15th and the 
 end of the month, the meadows had been submerged 
 by this process, and within three weeks from the 
 beginning of the operation, the explosion occurred in 
 Lausen. 
 
 ''The sequence of events was, then, the appearance 
 of the initial case on June loth, and of three more in 
 the same house before the end of July, the daily pollu- 
 tion of the water of the brook, the damming of the 
 brook in the middle of July, and the appearance of 
 the first case in Lausen on August 7th. Everything 
 pointed to direct connection between the impounded 
 water and the spring a mile or more distant on the 
 other side of the ridge, and its existence was estab- 
 lished by dumping about a ton of salt into the brook 
 and noting the speedy appearance in the Lausen 
 spring. As a very large amount of flour, deposited 
 
/ 
 
 WATERSHED 37 
 
 at the same place, gave no evidence of its appearance, 
 even in traces, it was proved that the water passed 
 through a coarse filtering medium rather than through 
 an open underground passage." (Pages 379-380.) 
 
 In order to detect the course of underground bodies 
 of water, many methods have been devised and used 
 with more or less success. These consist in introduc- 
 ing into a stream, spring, or well some chemical 
 substance which can be detected later either by 
 chemical analysis or by its color. In this way pollu- 
 tion is often traced which would otherwise escape 
 detection. 
 
 The surface conditions do not always hold good for 
 deeper formations, and indications which point, on the 
 surface, to a safe water supply free from all possible 
 sources of pollution may be entirely at fault when 
 the subsurface structure and formation are ex- 
 amined. 
 
 Among the substances which have been used as 
 indicators are the following: sodium, calcium, or 
 ammonium chloride, potassium nitrate, salts of 
 lithium and iron, all of which may be recognized by 
 chemical or physical tests; potassium permanganate, 
 fuchsin, Kongo red, methylene blue, and fluorescein, 
 which dissolve in the water and are recognized by their 
 color; starch and flour, which are suspended in water 
 and recognized by microscopic examination; and cul- 
 
^S UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 tures of various organisms having peculiarities which 
 permit their ready identification. 
 
 Dole (6), from whom the above classification is 
 taken, tells us that the principal requisites in the choice 
 of an indicator are: ^'(i) It should descend to and 
 traverse the aquifer in a manner and rate similar to 
 the water itself. (2) It should be easily and quickly 
 detectable in the samples of water taken. (3) It 
 should not be decomposed nor its intensity greatly 
 affected by the materials with which it comes in 
 contact. 
 
 ''For different purposes and in different materials 
 the selection of an indicator is varied. For determin- 
 ing the percentage of water entering one level from 
 another, the chlorides are especially fitted, because the 
 amounts present can be accurately and rapidly 
 determined. When, however, the volumes of water 
 are extremely large and the subterranean journey 
 is long the amount of salt or other chloride necessary 
 to cause an estimable change in chlorine content is 
 so great thaj: the experiment is often impracticable. 
 For the study of underground flows in alluvial deposits 
 the use of ammonium chloride and sodium chloride 
 as electrolytes appears to be especially good. For 
 investigating the purification power of strata through 
 which water passes, cultures of beer-yeast have proven 
 very satisfactory. For tracing the flow, however, of 
 
WATERSHED 39 
 
 large or small underground streams through well- 
 defined channels of size in rocks, especially calcareous 
 formations, fluorescein has proved superior to any- 
 thing else which has been tried. Its diffusion is rapid, 
 it is applicable under many conditions, and it can be 
 easily detected in enormous dilutions by means of the 
 fluoroscope when it is not present in quantities large 
 enough to be visible to the naked eye. On account 
 of its many admirable qualifications, fluorescein has 
 been extensively used by the city of Paris in the study 
 of springs from which the major part of the drinking 
 water is taken." 
 
 Fluorescein travels at a somewhat slower rate than 
 does the water in which it is contained. This is due in 
 part to its greater density, which permits it to collect 
 in low places in its path. Thus, the dye may be 
 noted at intervals after a single application to a water 
 supply, due to the fact that it will tend to collect in 
 low spots and later be carried farther by an increase 
 in the rate of flow of the water. 
 
 Fluorescein can be readily detected by the unaided 
 eye in dilutions of .625 part per million parts of 
 water; and by means of the fluoroscope one part in ten 
 billion parts of water may be seen. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 MINERAL WATER 
 
 The term mineral water as used in this work com- 
 prises all natural waters sold in bottles, or used at 
 various resorts for drinking, bathing, or other medic- 
 inal purposes. It is hard to formulate a satisfactory 
 definition for mineral water, as it varies so much as 
 to composition and use that a definition as applied to 
 waters from one locality would be totally inadequate 
 when applied to those of another region. Definitions 
 of various authorities have been collected and are 
 here given. 
 
 Peale (23) defines mineral waters as "all waters put 
 on the market, whether they are utilized as drinking 
 or table waters, or for medicinal purposes, or used in 
 any other way." 
 
 Ossian Henry (i) says that "mineral waters are 
 those waters which, coming from the bosom of the 
 earth at variable depths, bring with them substances 
 which may have upon the animal economy a medici- 
 nal action, capable of giving rise to effects often 
 very salutary in the different diseases affecting 
 humanity." 
 
 M. Durian-Fardel (i) tells us that "mineral waters 
 40 
 
MINERAL WATER 41 
 
 are those natural waters which are used in therapeutics 
 because of their chemical composition or their temper- 
 atures." 
 
 According to Crook (4) "the term ^mineral water' is 
 applied to those waters which are used in the treatment 
 of disease, either by internal administration or by 
 external application, and which owe their virtue to 
 their solid or gaseous constituents or to their elevated 
 temperature." 
 
 Hessler (16) defines mineral waters as follows: "As 
 ordinarily understood, the term 'mineral water' is 
 applied to a water which is used in the treatment of 
 diseases, either internally or externally, and which 
 differs from ordinary waters in that it holds in solu- 
 tion certain solids or gases. Mineral water may come 
 from springs or wells, especially deep wells." 
 
 Walton (i) says "a mineral water in the medical 
 acceptation of the term is one, which by virtue of its 
 ingredients, whether mineral, organic, or gaseous, or 
 the principle of heat, is especially applicable to the 
 treatment of disease." 
 
 Bailey (i) quotes Herpin's definition as "all waters 
 which, by the nature of their principles or by 
 their therapeutic action, differ from drinkable 
 waters." 
 
 Bailey (i) himself says that "mineral waters are 
 those natural waters which contain an excess of some 
 ordinary ingredients, or a small quantity of some rare 
 ingredients, and which on this account are used as 
 remedial agents." 
 
 The First International Food Congress at its meet- 
 
42 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 ing in 1908 determined that ^'a natural water is, from 
 a commercial point of view, that which at its place of 
 origin, as it bursts forth from the ground, is directly 
 placed in the same receptacle in which it is delivered 
 to the consumer." At a second session of this Con- 
 gress in 1909, this definition was slightly changed and 
 made to read as ''a natural water is, from a com- 
 mercial point of view, a Water free from harmful 
 germs, which at its place of origin, as it bursts from 
 the ground, is directly placed in the same receptacle 
 in which it is delivered to the consumer." 
 
 The Board of Food and Drug Inspection (31) of 
 the U. S. Department of Agriculture has decided that 
 "a natural mineral water is a water that has had 
 nothing added to it or abstracted from it after issuing 
 from source." 
 
 The old idea that a water to be commercially ex- 
 ploited must possess some magic charm for the healing 
 of any and all the ills of life has been exploded in 
 recent years. The water enjoying the largest sale in 
 the United States to-day makes no other claims than 
 freedom from impurities and adaptabiHty for table 
 use. Some waters widely advertised as possessing 
 medicinal properties fall far short of measuring up 
 to their own standard when subjected to critical 
 and severe examination. 
 
 Waters containing only a trace of some medicinal 
 agent, as lithium, possess no healing value over any 
 other water for the simple reason that in order to 
 
MINERAL WATER 43 
 
 obtain a medicinal dose of the element it would be 
 necessary to drink enormous quantities of the water. 
 Hessler (i6) says *4t would be disagreeable to be com- 
 pelled to drink a gallon of water for the sake of the 
 few grains of Hthium in it. Many of the so-called 
 lithia waters are really very pure waters, with a trace 
 of hthium, just enough of it so the name can be ap- 
 pHed, although it may require the aid of a spectroscope 
 to show that it is present." 
 
 On second thought it is seen how useless are such 
 claims regarding this class of waters. In order to get 
 the desired medicinal results, it is better to add the 
 chemical in the form of a powder or tablet in definite 
 quantity to the water, and thereby get the therapeutic 
 effect directly. 
 
 Mineral waters are classified in various ways by 
 various authorities, according to whether the chemical 
 composition, medicinal property, or geological source 
 is used as a basis. 
 
 Geologically, waters are classed as vadose and mag- 
 matic, the former being of superficial and the latter 
 of deep-seated origin. Practically all mineral waters 
 used commercially are of vadose origin; while many 
 thermal springs are undoubtedly of magmatic origin. 
 Thermal waters are sometimes spoken of as "juve- 
 nile," in that they reach the surface for the first time. 
 Vadose waters are usually more variable in composi- 
 
44 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 tion and flow than are magmatic waters. Waters of 
 deep origin may contain in solution different chem- 
 ical salts from those of superficial origin. 
 
 Therapeutically, waters may be classed according 
 to the principal medicinal agent they contain, pro- 
 vided this agent is present in sufficient amounts to 
 produce therapeutic action by the use of small or 
 moderate quantities of the water. 
 
 By far the largest class of waters, therapeutically 
 speaking, are the laxative and cathartic waters. 
 These waters are so highly charged with the sulphates 
 of sodium and magnesium that they exert a decidedly 
 laxative or cathartic effect upon the system when 
 taken in moderate amounts. Hunyadi Janos and 
 several of the Saratoga waters are examples of this 
 class. They act freely upon the bowels and kidneys, 
 causing free and easy evacuations and stimulat- 
 ing these organs to activity when they become 
 sluggish. 
 
 Another classification that is frequently made is that 
 of hard and soft waters. Hard waters are those con- 
 taining a large proportion of Hme salts in relation to 
 the total mineral content, while soft waters have a 
 minimum of lime in comparison with the other 
 mineral ingredients. Hardness is again spoken of as 
 temporary and permanent, the former being elimi- 
 nated by boiling, while the latter is not. This point 
 
MINERAL WATER 45 
 
 will be discussed more fully when the analysis from a 
 chemical standpoint is considered. 
 
 Many waters possess the ability to absorb material 
 from the walls of vessels in which they are contained. 
 Such waters contain free carbon dioxid gas which 
 reacts with the lead or zinc of pipes, taking these 
 metals into solution, thereby becoming dangerous to 
 health when taken into the system. Many cases of 
 lead poisoning have been traced to such sources. Soft 
 waters known to contain free carbonic acid to any 
 extent should never be conducted through lead or zinc 
 pipes, nor should they stand in such vessels. The 
 carbonates of lead and zinc are formed by the action 
 of the carbonic acid on these metals, and as these salts 
 are readily soluble in water their presence is not sus- 
 pected until symptoms of poisoning are seen. 
 
 For commercial purposes the best classification 
 seems to be a chemical one, and that proposed by 
 Haywood (13) is the most satisfactory yet devised. 
 No one classification will meet the conditions found 
 in all waters. The diverse composition of mineral 
 waters precludes the possibility of any definite and 
 fixed classification. General rules may be laid down, 
 but there are so many exceptions that following them 
 closely is out of the question. The following is Hay- 
 wood's classification: 
 
46 
 
 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 Group Class 
 
 '^*\ 
 
 ^1 
 
 Subclass 
 f Carbonated or\ Sodic 
 
 II, 
 
 Allcalinp J bicarbonated. 
 Alkaline Berated. 
 
 [ Silicated. 
 
 Sulphated. 
 
 Muriated. 
 
 Nitrated. 
 
 Sulphated. 
 
 Muriated. 
 
 Nitrated. 
 
 Sulphated. 
 
 Muriated. 
 
 AlkaHne 
 saline. 
 
 III. Saline. 
 
 IV. Acid. 
 
 Lithic. 
 
 Potassic. 
 
 Calcic. 
 
 Magnesic. 
 
 Ferruginous. 
 
 Aluminic. 
 
 Arsenic. 
 
 Bromic. 
 
 Iodic. 
 
 Silicious. 
 
 Boric. 
 
 Nongaseous. 
 
 Carbondioxated. 
 
 Sulphuretted. 
 
 Azotized. 
 
 Carburetted. 
 
 Oxygenated. 
 
 All waters with a temperature above 70° F. are 
 classed as thermal waters, and those with a tempera- 
 ture below 70° F. as nonthermal. Waters with a 
 temperature between 70° and 98.6° F. are known as 
 tepid or warm, while those with a temperature above 
 98.6° F. are classed as hot waters. All waters, no 
 matter what their chemical composition, medicinal 
 value, or geologic source, may fall under one or the 
 other of these groups. 
 
 When an examination of their chemical composition 
 is made they are grouped under the four following 
 classes: alkaline, alkaline-saline, saline, and acid. 
 Each class is again divided and indicated by 
 terms which represent the predominant con- 
 stituents. 
 
 According to Haywood (13) ''alkaline waters are 
 (i) those which have an alkaline reaction and contain 
 carbonic or bicarbonic acid ions in predominating 
 
MINERAL WATER 47 
 
 quantities; (2) those which have an alkaline reaction 
 and contain boric or silicic acid ions in predominat- 
 ing quantities, where it can be proved that the alka- 
 linity is largely due to the presence of borates or 
 silicates. 
 
 ''Saline waters are those which have an alkaline or 
 neutral reaction and contain sulphuric, muriatic, or 
 nitric acid ions in predominating quantities. 
 
 "Alkaline-saline waters are between alkaline and 
 saline. They embrace those which have an alkaline 
 reaction and contain (i) sulphuric, muriatic, or nitric 
 acid ions along with carbonic or bicarbonic acid ions, 
 both classes being present as predominating con- 
 stituents or those which have an alkaline reaction, and 
 (2) contain sulphuric, muriatic, or nitric acid ions 
 along with boric or silicic acid ions, both classes being 
 present as predominating constituents, where it can 
 be proved that the alkaUnity is largely due to the 
 presence of borates or silicates. 
 
 "Acid waters are those which have an acid reaction, 
 and contain either sulphuric or muriatic acid ions in 
 predominating quantities." 
 
 Nearly all waters contain some gas in solution, and 
 many of them large quantities. Carbon dioxid is the 
 gas most frequently found. Other gases, such as 
 hydrogen sulphid, nitrogen, methane, or oxygen are 
 frequently present. The following terms which ap- 
 
48 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 pear in Haywood's classification are used to designate 
 the waters containing these gases: 
 
 Nongaseous containing no gas. 
 
 Carbondioxated containing carbon dioxid gas. 
 
 Sulphuretted containinghydrogensulphidgas. 
 
 Azotized containing nitrogen gas. 
 
 Carburetted containing methane gas. 
 
 Oxygenated containing oxygen gas. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 CHEMICAL EXAMINATION 
 
 In a previous chapter the statement is made that 
 three different examinations are necessary to arrive 
 at a proper conclusion regarding the sanitary quality 
 of a given water supply: the sanitary survey, the 
 chemical analysis, and the bacteriological analysis. 
 The question of the sanitary survey has already been 
 discussed (see p. 33), and the chemical examination 
 will now be considered. Methods of analysis will 
 not be given in detail, but rather the interpretation 
 of these results will be discussed. For detailed infor- 
 mation the reader is referred to one of the many 
 standard works upon the subject. 
 
 A matter worthy of consideration in regard to the 
 chemical composition of a water is the variation which 
 it will undergo during a given period. Analyses of 
 samples of water from the same source at intervening 
 periods will show a variation — often marked — in one 
 or more constituents. This may be accounted for 
 easily if we stop to consider the many underground pas- 
 sages which a water traverses in reaching the surface. 
 One or more of these passages bearing water of a 
 4 49 
 
50 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 certain composition may become occluded, and others 
 may open up water-bearing strata of a different com- 
 position. In this way variations will sometimes be 
 found in a chemical analysis of water from the same 
 source. 
 
 The length of time elapsing between the collection 
 and examination of samples often causes changes in 
 the water; also the kind of vessel in which the sample 
 is contained will influence the result. Water for 
 chemical analysis should never be placed in any but 
 glass vessels, these being of hard flint glass which has 
 been thoroughly cleaned of free alkali or other soluble 
 substances. Jugs or other earthenware vessels should 
 never be used for the collection of samples for chemical 
 analysis. 
 
 For sanitary purposes the determination of all the 
 different salts in solution in the water is of no impor- 
 tance, as many of them bear no relation whatever to 
 the purity of a given water. For therapeutic pur- 
 poses, however, it is necessary to know the exact 
 chemical composition of a given water in order to 
 determine its action when taken into the human 
 body. Infinite harm may be done a patient by the 
 use of a water high in mineral content not adapted 
 to his particular condition. 
 
 In the sanitary chemical analysis of a water, nin^ 
 things must be looked for, as follows: 
 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION 5 1 
 
 1. Free ammonia. 
 
 2. Albuminoid ammonia. 
 
 3. Nitrites. 
 
 4. Nitrates. 
 
 5. Chlorine. 
 
 6. Phosphates. 
 
 7. Organic and volatile matter. 
 
 8. Hardness. 
 
 9. Total solids. 
 
 The physical examination, which comprises the 
 color, odor, sediment, and appearance of the sample, 
 is usually made at the time of making the chemical 
 analysis. 
 
 Color is determined by the use of a standard solu- 
 tion, known as the platinum-cobalt color standard. 
 To this solution is given the value of 500. A given 
 quantity of the water imder examination is compared 
 with varying dilutions of this standard and the 
 results obtained are expressed in numerals as 10, 20, 
 30, etc. 
 
 Odor is determined both hot and cold; hot when 
 the water is heated to 100° C, and is expressed in such 
 terms as marshy, fishy, sweetish, etc. Odor is mainly 
 due to the presence of algae which produce a volatile 
 oil in their growth which is given off to the water. 
 
 Sediment is the amount of insoluble matter present 
 in the water and which collects upon the bottom of 
 the vessel upon standing. It is also known as tur- 
 
52 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 bidity, and is determined by comparing a given 
 quantity of the water with a standard containing a 
 known amount of diatomaceous earth in distilled 
 water. Bottled samples should be thoroughly shaken 
 just before the comparison is made. 
 
 Appearance is determined by the eye, and is ex- 
 pressed in such terms as clear, cloudy, etc. 
 
 Turning now to the sanitary analysis we look for the 
 substances enumerated on page 51. The first of 
 these is free ammonia. 
 
 Free Ammonia. — This is determined by distilling a 
 definite quantity of water and collecting the distillate 
 in long tubes of clear glass, known as Nessler tubes, 
 and to each of these tubes 2 c.c. of a solution of 
 potassium iodide, mercuric chloride, and potassium 
 hydroxide are added. The amount of free ammonia 
 present is determined by the color produced, and is 
 calculated from control tubes containing a definite 
 known amount of ammonia and the solution spoken of 
 above, viz. : Nessler's solution. 
 
 Albuminoid Ammonia. — After the free ammonia 
 has all been removed from the water by distillation, a 
 solution composed of potassium hydroxide and 
 potassium permanganate is added and the distilling 
 process continued. Portions of this distillate are 
 collected and tested in a manner similar to that just 
 described for free ammonia. 
 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION 53 
 
 The presence in a water of any considerable amounts 
 of ammonia in either of the forms described suggests 
 pollution. Albuminoid ammonia is really not am- 
 monia at all, but is nitrogenous organic matter known 
 as protein. These proteins are derived from either 
 animal or vegetable tissue, and their presence in water 
 shows it to have been in contact with either one or the 
 other of these substances. As there is organic matter 
 present in all soils it can be seen -readily that all 
 underground waters will contain at least traces of this 
 nitrogenous matter. 
 
 A water, the source of which is protected absolutely 
 from animal pollution, but which may be surrounded 
 by a thick vegetable growth, such as forest, will show 
 the presence of albuminoid and free ammonia often 
 in considerable quantities, and yet be perfectly pure 
 and safe to use; another argument for a complete 
 knowledge of the source of a water before final judg- 
 ment is passed thereon. 
 
 When a water is polluted by animal wastes and the 
 ammonias are present in any considerable quantities, 
 bacteriological examination will usually reveal the 
 presence of organisms of a type found in contaminat- 
 ing material. While if a water whose ammonias are 
 due to vegetable matter is examined bacteriologically 
 the characteristic microorganisms will be absent. 
 
 There is what is known as a nitrogen cycle, of which 
 
54 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 albuminoid ammonia is the first step, and free am- 
 monia the next. After free ammonia comes nitrites 
 which are finally changed to nitrates, thus completing 
 the cycle. We will now pass to the discussion of 
 nitrites and nitrates and then complete the discussion 
 of all four forms of nitrogen. 
 
 Nitrites. — Nitrites are tested for by placing a 
 definite quantity of the water under examination in 
 Nessler tubes and after adding a drop or two of strong 
 hydrochloric acid to each tube a small quantity of a 
 solution of sulphanilic acid and naphthalamine hydro- 
 chloride are added. Control tubes containing a known 
 amount of nitrite are treated in the same way and the 
 red color produced by the reaction of the various 
 solutions in the known and unknown tubes is com- 
 pared. From the results obtained the amount of 
 nitrite present is determined. 
 
 Nitrates. — Nitrates are determined by evaporating 
 a given quantity of water to dryness and moistening 
 the residue with phenolsulphonic acid. After the 
 residue is moistened, distilled water and strong am- 
 monia are added. The whole is then transferred to 
 Nessler tubes and the color produced is compared 
 with tubes containing known amounts of a nitrate, 
 the amount of nitrates present in the sample being 
 calculated from these data. 
 
 Referring now to the nitrogen cycle we find that 
 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION 55 
 
 the form in which nitrogen is introduced into the 
 water is protein or albuminoid ammonia. This is 
 transformed into free ammonia by means of certain 
 species of bacteria which were present in the soil 
 through which the water passed. It might be well 
 to state here that free ammonia may find its way into 
 the soil and directly into water supplies by means of 
 fumes which are present in the air in the vicinity of 
 industrial plants such as chemical factories. Its 
 presence under such conditions would have no sani- 
 tary significance imless present in sufficient quantities 
 to have a direct action upon the living organism. 
 
 By the action of the bacteria which have just been 
 mentioned the free ammonia is changed into nitrites, 
 and these in turn are converted into nitrates. When 
 this form of nitrogen is reached no further change can 
 take place, and we have a stable compound which 
 cannot be further broken up or changed. The two 
 forms of ammonia and nitrites are transition forms in 
 this process and show more or less recent pollution. 
 When the ammonias are high and the nitrates low, 
 with a trace of nitrites, it indicates quite recent 
 additions of nitrogenous matter to the water. When 
 nitrites are more in evidence and the ammonias are 
 low, it suggests that pollution has been quite recent 
 but is lessened. When both ammonias and nitrites 
 are low and nitrates high, it shows that polluting 
 
56 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 material has gained access to the water some time 
 in the past, but that no pollution is taking place at the 
 present time. Such a water at the time the examina- 
 tion was made might be safe to use, but the fact that 
 it showed past pollution would suggest the necessity 
 of safeguarding it against subsequent pollution. 
 
 This process of change from ammonias to nitrites 
 and then to nitrates is known as oxidation. The 
 opposite process, known as reduction, may take place 
 under certain conditions, and the nitrates present in a 
 water may be changed back to nitrites and these in 
 turn converted into free ammonia, but never into 
 albuminoid ammonia. When some chemicals, such 
 as iron in one form, are present in the strata through 
 which the water passes, they will act upon any 
 nitrates which may be present and reduce them to 
 nitrites. Such conditions bear no sanitary significance 
 whatever. Usually when nitrites are present due to 
 the reduction of nitrates the ammonias will be very 
 low, or entirely absent. So we find that the question 
 of interpreting analytical results must be looked at 
 from all points of view before a final decision is 
 reached. 
 
 Chlorine. — The test for chlorine is quite simple and 
 is easily made. To a definite quantity of water in a 
 Nessler tube add a small amount of a solution of 
 potassium chromate which produces a yellow color. 
 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION 57 
 
 A standard solution of silver nitrate is now added 
 until the yellow color disappears and a reddish tinge 
 is given to the water. From the amount of silver 
 nitrate solution used the amount of chlorine present 
 is calculated. 
 
 In interpreting the results of a chlorine analysis it 
 is very important to have some knowledge regarding 
 the geological formations in the vicinity of the source, 
 with special relation to salt deposits. If near the 
 ocean, or near salt deposits such as are found in the 
 vicinity of Syracuse, N. Y., pure waters are likely to 
 contain relatively large quantities of chlorine. It is 
 good practice to obtain analyses of other waters in 
 that same vicinity in order to get the average chlorine 
 content of the region. On the other hand if there are 
 no known salt deposits in the vicinity, and if there is 
 a possibility of surface washings entering the well or 
 spring, contamination is probable when high chlorine 
 is found. Urine of man and other animals contains a 
 large amount of chlorine, and if sewage has access to 
 a water supply it can be determined readily by the. 
 amount of chlorine present upon examination. Taken 
 in connection with high ammonias and nitrites it is a 
 pretty certain index of pollution. 
 
 Phosphates. — To test for phosphates take a definite 
 amount of the water and add a little nitric acid. 
 Evaporate to dryness and heat for two hours in an 
 
58 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 oven. Moisten with cold water and transfer to a 
 Nessler tube. Add some ammonium molybdate 
 solution and nitric acid and after standing a few 
 minutes compare with a standard solution of phos- 
 phate treated with the ammonium molybdate and 
 nitric acid solutions. 
 
 Like chlorine, phosphates indicate pollution when 
 found in waters, as excretions of all animals contain 
 large amounts of phosphates. In certain localities 
 known to contain beds of phosphate, they may be 
 present and bear no sanitary significance, but it is 
 safe to say that a water containing appreciable 
 amounts of phosphates should be looked upon with 
 suspicion. 
 
 Organic Matter. — The presence of organic matter in 
 water may be tested for and reported in either of two 
 ways: (i) by a chemical test using potassium per- 
 manganate and oxalic acid, when the results are 
 reported as oxygen required, or (2) by heating the 
 weighed residue obtained by evaporating a definite 
 quantity of the water to dryness, raising the temper- 
 ture to a dull red heat, and after cooling again weigh- 
 ing, loss of weight being the amount of organic and 
 volatile matter present in the water. 
 
 The significance of the presence of organic matter 
 in any quantity in a potable water, is not so much the 
 actual amount present, for this is usually quite small 
 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION 59 
 
 in a pure water, but organic matter is necessary as 
 food for bacteria, and the more there is present in any 
 water the more food, and consequently the greater 
 the number of organisms that will be found upon 
 examination. A water may be rich in organic matter 
 and contain no bacteria, but if by any means bacteria 
 gain access to it they will multiply very rapidly owing 
 to the large amount of food material, provided 
 other conditions for their development are favor- 
 able. 
 
 Many surface waters contain large amounts of 
 organic matter, such as the Dismal Swamp in Virginia, 
 but the absence of any polluting sources makes them 
 safe to use. Such waters are usually dark in color, and 
 not at all inviting to the senses. 
 
 Hardness. — Hardness is the name given to a con- 
 dition produced by the amount of sulphates, chlorides, 
 and carbonates of calcium, or lime, and magnesium 
 which are present in a water. Hardness is spoken of 
 as temporary and permanent. The temporary hard- 
 ness is that which can be eliminated by boiling, and 
 is due to the presence of the carbonates and bi- 
 carbonates of the elements mentioned above. When 
 water containing carbonates and bicarbonates of these 
 elements is boiled the carbon dioxide gas which holds 
 these salts in solution is driven off and the insoluble 
 carbonates are deposited upon the sides and bottom 
 
6o UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 of the vessel. This is the source of the scale so often 
 seen in vessels used repeatedly for boiling water. 
 
 The sulphates and chlorides of calcium and mag- 
 nesium cannot be precipitated by boiling, and they 
 constitute the permanent hardness. These chemical 
 salts are spoken of as incrustants when used in con- 
 nection with boiler-feed waters, and when present in 
 even moderate amounts cause bad effects upon the 
 boilers. 
 
 An objection is frequently raised against the use of 
 hard waters for drinking purposes, and the argument 
 is advanced that too much lime will be taken into the 
 system by the continued use of such waters. Col- 
 lectively speaking the amount of lime present in a 
 gallon of very hard water will not amount to more than 
 a few grains, and as only a glassful or two of water 
 is consumed at one time, and n'ot more than half a 
 gallon is used in a day, the argument against such a 
 water falls flat. It would be necessary to drink 
 gallons of such water at a time in order to get enough 
 lime to have any effect upon the system. 
 
 The taste is imparted to most waters by the mineral 
 matter which is held in solution, hence the flat, insipid 
 taste of distilled water. After a person becomes ac- 
 customed to the taste of a particular water another 
 water does not appeal to him and does not satisfy 
 his thirst to so great an extent. After having been 
 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION 6 1 
 
 accustomed to a moderately hard water a soft 
 water is very flat and tastes more like distilled or 
 rain water. 
 
 Total Solids. — The determination of total solids is 
 made by evaporating a definite quantity of water to 
 dryness in a weighed platinum dish and again weigh- 
 ing. The increase in weight is the amount of chemical 
 salts that was in solution in the water and which was 
 precipitated by evaporation. 
 
 For sanitary purposes the mere determination of 
 total solids is sufficient, but fbr a complete chemical 
 analysis this residue must be examined further to 
 determine its composition. The medicinal properties 
 of waters depend upon the various chemicals in solu- 
 tion, and these must be known in order to make 
 intelligent use of their therapeutic agents. Some 
 waters being highly mineralized have a well-known 
 and decided therapeutic action when taken into the 
 system. In potable waters for domestic use the 
 amount of mineral matter present is so small that no 
 therapeutic action is exerted unless fortified by the 
 addition of chemicals. When waters are sophisticated 
 by such means they cease to be natural waters and 
 must be classed with the artificial. The presence of 
 mineral matters in small amount in solution renders 
 them capable of being absorbed by the system and 
 used in the building and repair of the body tissues. 
 
62 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 The same salts are taken in much larger quantities in 
 our solid food, and most of the mineral matter used in 
 the upkeep of our bodies is obtained in this manner. 
 So the principal function of a pure potable water is 
 to quench thirst and help in keeping the excretory- 
 organs, as the skin, kidneys, and bowels, in good work- 
 ing condition. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION 
 
 The bacteriological examination of a water is con- 
 ceded by many to be the most important of any of the 
 methods now in use. Especially is this so when 
 considering underground waters for commercial pur- 
 poses. It is taken for granted that no business 
 organization would embark in the water trade until 
 they had a source of supply above criticism. Then, 
 the surroundings being constant, the chemical analysis 
 from the same source would not vary beyond the 
 allowable limits and only the bacteriological exami- 
 nation would show daily changes. 
 
 Each step in the manipulation of the water after 
 leaving the source until it is placed in the container 
 in which it reaches the consumer must be carefully 
 guarded to prevent the entrance of imdesirable 
 bacteria. 
 
 The bacteriological examination of a water is usually 
 undertaken for two reasons, (i) to ascertain the 
 average number of bacteria in a given quantity of 
 water, usually one cubic centimetre, or about one- 
 fourth teaspoonful; (2) to determine the presence or 
 
 63 
 
64 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 absence of contaminating bacteria. The complete 
 examination, that is, the isolation and identification 
 of each organism found, is seldom made unless the 
 examiner is interested in the purely scientific side 
 of the question. 
 
 It is also impossible to determine all the bacteria 
 present in a water. Some will not grow upon the 
 media used, others will not grow in the presence of 
 air, and still others require different conditions of 
 light and temperature from those used in routine 
 bacteriological work. Thus the number of bacteria 
 as reported in a sample of water is only a fraction of 
 the number really present. However, as all samples 
 are, or should be, reported upon similar methods of 
 examination, the results are comparable even though 
 the total number present in all samples is not de- 
 termined. 
 
 Briefly, the method of examination of a given sample 
 of water is as follows: The sample is collected in a 
 clean, sterile bottle with a tight-fitting glass stopper, 
 and of about four ounces capacity, and transferred 
 to the laboratory with as little delay as possible. If 
 the time elapsing between collection and examination 
 exceeds an hour the sample should be packed in ice. 
 Sterile glass plates known as Petri plates with loosely 
 fitting glass covers, also sterile, are labeled to corre- 
 spond to the number of the sample. After thor- 
 
BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION 65 
 
 oughly shaking the bottle to secure an intimate 
 mixture of the contents, one cubic centimetre is 
 withdrawn by means of a sterile pipette and placed 
 in a Petri dish. To another dish one-tenth of a 
 cubic centimetre is added, to another one-hundredth 
 of a cubic centimetre, etc., depending upon how high 
 a dilution is required. Sterile distilled water is used 
 for diluting purposes. Into these plates is then 
 poured some warm, sterile, melted gelatine which 
 is thoroughly mixed with the water and set aside 
 to cool. After the gelatine film upon the bottom of 
 the plate has become cold and solidified, the plates 
 are placed in a moist dark chamber, the temperature 
 of which is maintained at or near 20° C. They 
 remain here for 48 hours. At the end of this time 
 any bacteria which may have been present in the 
 water will have grown and multiplied until the 
 masses of bacteria can be seen with the aid of a 
 low-power lens, and often with the unaided eye. The 
 number of masses, or colonies of bacteria, as they are 
 called, are then counted, the number found on the 
 diluted plates being multiplied by ten or one hundred 
 or more as the case may be, and the average taken. 
 This average is given as the number of bacteria in a 
 cubic centimetre of the water. For instance, if the 
 sample of water showed on the plate containing one 
 cubic centimetre of the water 700 colonies, on the plate 
 5 
 
66 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 containing one-tenth cubic centimetre 80 colonies, and 
 on the plate containing one-hundredth cubic centi- 
 metre 9 colonies, the average of these three plates 
 after the proper multiplications had been made would 
 be 800. We would, therefore, say that this particular 
 sample of water contained 800 bacteria per cubic 
 centimetre. 
 
 At the time of preparing the Petri plates with 
 gelatine, varying quantities of the water, usually ten, 
 one, and one-tenth cubic centimetres, are added to 
 sterile solutions containing some form of sugar, 
 dextrose or lactose, in specially constructed tubes. 
 This is for the purpose of determining the presence or 
 absence of bacteria which produce gas in sugar 
 solutions. If this type of bacteria is present in the 
 water it will break down the sugar into carbon dioxide, 
 a gas, and alcohol. The gas will collect in the closed 
 arm of the tube, and its nature can be determined by 
 analysis. Various liquids containing the sugar in 
 solution may be used for this purpose, such as peptone 
 water, beef broth, ox bile, liver broth, etc., depending 
 upon the character of the water to be examined. 
 For commercial waters the ox bile and beef broth 
 to which some lactose has been added are about the 
 best. Both solutions are rendered sterile by heating. 
 After being inoculated with the water under exami- 
 nation these tubes are placed in an incubator at a 
 
BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION 67 
 
 temperature of 37° C. to 38° C. for 48 hours. If 
 no gas production has taken place at the end of 
 this time the test is considered negative. If, how- 
 ever, there is gas production the examination is 
 carried further in order to isolate and identify the 
 organism causing the gas formation. 
 
 To do this, some of the sediment in the tube showing 
 gas is inoculated into sterile tubes of agar-agar to which 
 lactose and a small amount of sterile Htmus solution 
 have been added. This litmus turns blue in an alkaUne 
 medium and red in an acid medium. The agar-agar 
 should be slightly alkaline when inoculated. After 
 incubating at 37° C. for 24 hours, numerous colonies 
 of bacteria will be found growing on the plate, and 
 among them will be found some which are sur- 
 rounded by a red area in the blue field; other colonies 
 will have no effect upon the medium. The red 
 colonies are usually the cause of the gas production 
 in the original tube. Some of these red colonies are 
 transferred to tubes of the sugar solution originally 
 used and again tested for gas production, and if gas 
 is produced it is proof that the organism causing the 
 original gas production has been isolated. 
 
 At the same time that gelatine plates are made and 
 tubes inoculated for gas production some of the water 
 is placed in plates and agar-agar added in place of 
 gelatine. As soon as cool these plates are placed in 
 
68 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 the incubator at 37° to 38° C. for 24 hours, and 
 at the end of this time they are examined for the 
 presence of colonies. Bacteria which develop at 
 this temperature, which is about the temperature of 
 the human body, are looked upon with suspicion. 
 Unpolluted water will show very few bacteria capable 
 of development at this temperature, the species which 
 grow at 20° C. being able to grow feebly or not at all 
 at the higher temperature. Bacteria which grow 
 best at the higher temperature rapidly die out when 
 added to pure water, unless its temperature is raised 
 and there is organic matter present to serve them as 
 food. So if a given water upon examination shows 
 many bacteria capable of developing at 37° C. it 
 should be regarded with suspicion, especially if 
 among these bacteria are found some that produce 
 gas. 
 
 It does not seem necessary in a work of this sort to 
 enter into a description of the preparation and use 
 of the various culture media employed in the ex- 
 amination of water, and the reader is referred to any 
 standard text-book upon the subject where this 
 information may be found in detail. A discussion 
 of the results obtained is proper and necessary to the 
 understanding of an analysis, especially from a sani- 
 tary point of view. 
 
 The bacteriological examination of water is a 
 
BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION 69 
 
 delicate operation in that so many factors must be 
 considered, many of which are negligible in a chemical 
 analysis but are of the utmost importance from the 
 bacteriological point of view. Bacteria multiply very 
 rapidly, only a half hour being necessary for the 
 division of a single organism into two. As a conse- 
 quence, the total number of bacteria present in a given 
 sample of water will have very little significance from 
 a sanitary standpoint unless the time elapsing be- 
 tween collection and examination is known. All 
 natural waters contain food for bacteria in the form 
 of larger or smaller amounts of organic matter and 
 if there is much delay in the examination of a water 
 after collection the bacteria will markedly increase. 
 A water showing only a few bacteria at the time of 
 collection will show thousands or perhaps millions if 
 examined at the end of two or three days. The fol- 
 lowing table taken from Mason (21) will serve to 
 illustrate this point: 
 
 Immediate 
 
 15.9° c. 
 
 48 bacteria 
 
 per cc. 
 
 After 2 hours 
 
 20.6° c. 
 
 125 
 
 u 
 
 a it 
 
 After I day 
 
 21.0° c. 
 
 38,000 
 
 n 
 
 ti 11 
 
 After 2 days 
 
 20.5° c. 
 
 125,000 
 
 ti 
 
 cc u 
 
 After 3 days 
 
 22.3° c. 
 
 590,000 
 
 cc 
 
 cc iC 
 
 The above statements should be modified by saying 
 that the temperature at which the sample was held, 
 
70 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 also the absence or presence of light, has a marked 
 influence. Water kept in the dark at a warm temper- 
 ature will show a marked increase in its bacterial 
 content as against one kept at a low temperature 
 and in the Hght. Light is rapidly fatal to bacteria, 
 and sunlight is one of our best disinfectants. Bacteria 
 multiply rapidly up to a temperature of 37° C, and 
 some even higher, but temperatures over 45° C. 
 inhibit their development and if long-continued are 
 fatal. Likewise the nearer the temperature ap- 
 proaches freezing, the less growth there is, but a low 
 temperature can be withstood for a longer period 
 than can a high one. Bacteria will live in ice for 
 several weeks, but at the end of six months ice is 
 sterile, even when cut from contaminated fields. 
 So we see that the factors of light and temperature 
 exert a marked effect upon the bacterial content of 
 waters. 
 
 Another condition easy of demonstration in the 
 laboratory is that waters kept in small quantities 
 show an increase of bacteria over those kept in larger 
 quantities. Water placed in a two-ounce bottle and 
 in a five-gallon bottle and kept under similar con- 
 ditions will show a greater increase of bacteria in 
 the smaller container. This furnishes one argument 
 against keeping water bottled for a great length of 
 time before being used. There is a limit to this 
 
BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION 7 1 
 
 multiplication, however, for as soon as the food 
 material is exhausted the bacteria will die, and after 
 this time the bottle of water will be sterile. 
 
 It is thus seen that the total number of bacteria 
 in themselves in a sample of water has no real 
 sanitary value. The real significance lies in the 
 kinds of bacteria present. 
 
 In order to determine the different varieties of 
 bacteria present in a water a more complicated 
 procedure is necessary. Many workers along this 
 line have evolved methods for the separation and 
 identification of various organisms. From a sanitary 
 point of view those bacteria which are capable of 
 producing diseased conditions when taken into the 
 system are of the most importance; and it is toward 
 the isolation of such germs as cause typhoid fever, 
 cholera, and dysentery, and other water-borne dis- 
 eases, that the greatest effort has been directed. 
 
 Up to within the last few years the germ causing 
 typhoid fever had been isolated from polluted water a 
 very few times, not more than six or eight. Since that 
 time methods and culture media have been perfected 
 whereby it has been more freely identified. The 
 organism which is most frequently found and which 
 is taken as an index of pollution is the so-called 
 colon bacillus, or rather colon group of bacteria. 
 Jackson (17) has shown that there are several mem- 
 
72 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 bers of this group which have a common origin in 
 that they are found in the intestinal contents of 
 warm-blooded animals. The germ causing typhoid 
 fever is also found in the intestinal discharges of 
 persons suffering from the disease. Having a com- 
 mon habitat, both germs are frequently present in 
 contaminating material when of human origin. 
 
 As previously stated, the colon group of bacteria 
 is easily identified in water examinations, and when 
 present suggests the possibiHty of the presence of 
 typhoid, cholera, or dysentery germs, as all three are 
 foimd in the intestinal discharges of persons suffering 
 with these diseases. Unfortunately, no method has 
 yet been devised whereby the colon bacillus of 
 human origin can be differentiated from that of 
 other animals. If such was the case it would be an 
 easy matter to know whether the pollution of a 
 given water supply was of a dangerous or harmless 
 nature. For while the presence of colon bacilH from 
 whatever source is objectionable from an aesthetic 
 point of view, their significance as indicating disease 
 would be greatly diminished if it could be shown that 
 their original source was from birds or other animals 
 not subject to diseases transmissible to man. 
 
 Colon bacilli are found almost everywhere: in the 
 soil, in the air, especially in the dust of roadways and 
 streets; they are especially abundant in sewage, in 
 
BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION 73 
 
 cultivated fields — in fact, wherever warm-blooded 
 animals are found there is the colon bacillus in 
 greater or less numbers. It is capable of multiplica- 
 tion outside of the intestine, therefore its presence 
 in a water in small numbers may have no great 
 sanitary significance; for it may have been isolated 
 from its normal environment for a long time before 
 reaching a water supply, in the meantime undergoing 
 marked changes as far as bacterial associates are 
 concerned. It may have lost all connection with 
 the material in which it left the body, and the rapid 
 multiplication which any germ undergoes under 
 similar conditions may have so altered its character 
 and associates as to make it a perfectly harmless type 
 when found in a water. As it is a much hardier germ 
 than the typhoid bacillus, it will easily outlive its 
 pathogenic associate and more readily adapt itself 
 to new surroundings. However, it is a safe rule to 
 look upon all waters with suspicion which show the 
 presence of the colon bacillus in amoimts of ten cubic 
 centimetres or less in the majority of examinations. 
 Some authorities maintain that it should never be 
 found in any amount of water that is pure, while 
 others are more liberal in their view and do not 
 condemn a water showing this germ occasionally 
 present in ten cubic-centimetre amounts or more. 
 More leniency is shown in dealing with public water 
 
74 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 supplies than with commercial mineral waters, and 
 rightly so; for in most instances a public supply must 
 be taken from a river or lake whose watershed is 
 subject to contamination which is beyond the control 
 of the community supplied, while commercial waters 
 are, or should be, so safeguarded as to preclude the 
 possibility of pollution reaching even the vicinity of 
 the source from which the supply is drawn. There- 
 fore, the colon bacillus should never be found in such 
 waters at their source. If found in the bottled 
 product it is evidence that contamination has crept 
 in at some point in the handling. Examination of a 
 sample from the source will show whether it is pol- 
 luted or not; and if found pure, the course of the 
 water must be traced through the various steps in 
 the handling. 
 
 As a good potable water offers rather an uncon- 
 genial environment for the colon bacillus, it will 
 not live very long amid such surroundings. The 
 writer has found in his own laboratory that in bot- 
 tled waters it is impossible to recover this organism 
 after 35 days, even when added as a vigorous cul- 
 ture and in comparatively large quantities to the 
 bottled product. Here again the elements of temper- 
 ature and light enter largely into the calculations. 
 The time here given was for water kept in five-pint 
 bottles in diffuse light and at room temperature 
 
BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION 75 
 
 18° to 22° C. Water kept cold and in the dark 
 will show colon bacilli for a greater length of time. 
 
 It is readily seen that water in its passage through 
 the soil collects large numbers of bacteria of all kinds, 
 and while it loses many of them in its further course, 
 some of them find their way to the surface with the 
 water as it emerges as a spring. These bacteria are 
 accustomed to living amid cool surroundings, and 
 therefore readily adapt themselves to an aquatic 
 life. Such organisms are what some writers term 
 "normal water bacteria," but as the kinds of bacteria 
 in different waters will vary as the composition of the 
 soil and subsoil varies, it is seen that each water 
 supply, to a large extent, must have its own peculiar 
 bacterial flora. When the surroundings are pro- 
 tected from pollution the dangers from pathogenic 
 germs are eliminated and the "normal bacteria'' for 
 that particular location will be of a harmless type. 
 
 The bacteria found in a water and which have been 
 derived from an uncontaminated soil will grow best 
 at the temperature of that water. Polluting bacteria, 
 especially those of a disease-producing type, and the 
 colon bacillus grow best at the body temperature, 
 38° C, and will grow feebly or not at all at the normal 
 temperature of the water in which they were found. 
 If, upon examination of a water, a number of colonies 
 of bacteria are found growing at a temperature of 
 
76 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 20° to 22° C. and few or none growing at a temper- 
 ature of 38° C, it is to be presumed that the source 
 is free from pollution. If more bacteria are found 
 growing at 38° than at 20° C. it is evidence that 
 contaminating organisms are finding their way into 
 the water supply, and that being the case, there is 
 danger of disease-producing bacteria being present. 
 Therefore, the relative number of bacteria growing 
 at body and room temperature is a fair index of the 
 sanitary condition of a water supply. 
 
 Other bacteria aside from the colon group are 
 capable of producing gas in the various sugar media, 
 and it is not enough to base an opinion upon the 
 quahty of a water alone from the point of gas pro- 
 duction. "When gas is formed in lactose bile solution 
 it has been determined that the colon bacillus is the 
 cause in over 95 per cent of the cases. When plain 
 lactose broth is used the number of times this organ- 
 ism is found as the cause of gas production varies 
 from 50 per cent to 80 per cent. Solutions con- 
 taining dextrose show gas production by many other 
 organisms than the colon bacillus and is not so 
 reHable an index of pollution as are lactose solutions. 
 Dextrose Hver broth will give all gas producers 
 present, both attenuated and vigorous, and the 
 examination must be carried to the point of verifica- 
 tion when this medium is used. 
 
BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION 77 
 
 For purposes of identification of the colon group of 
 bacteria it is necessary to plant it in various culture 
 media and study its reaction. To be classed as 
 belonging to the colon group of organisms, a germ 
 should give the following reactions: 
 
 A uniform turbidity in beef broth. 
 
 A moderate, white, moist growth on agar slants. 
 
 Should not liquefy gelatine. 
 
 Should coagulate and acidify milk. 
 
 Should produce gas in dextrose and lactose solu- 
 tions, also in lactose bile; gas production in saccharose 
 variable. 
 
 Should produce indol and nitrites. 
 
 Should decolorize when treated with Gram stain, 
 and upon measurement, should be from two to four 
 microns long, and .4 to .7 micron broad. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION 
 
 The microscopical examination of a water is in 
 itself a large subject and can only be touched upon 
 in a work of this character. Literally speaking, the 
 microscopical examination should include everything 
 not visible to the unaided eye; but as the science 
 of water analysis has advanced, the bacteriological 
 examination has come to occupy a place of first 
 importance in a field distinctively its own, and the 
 microscopical examination deals with minute plants 
 and animals found in some waters. The bacterio- 
 logical examination has to do with the safety of a 
 water from a disease-producing standpoint; the 
 microscopical examination deals more directly with 
 the aesthetic quaHties, such as taste, odor, turbidity, 
 etc. 
 
 Whipple (34) says: "By far the most important 
 service that the microscopical examination renders 
 is that of explaining the cause of taste and odor 
 of a water and of its color, turbidity, and sediment. 
 Several of the microscopical organisms give rise to 
 objectionable odors in water, and, when sufficiently 
 
 78 
 
MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION 79 
 
 abundant, have a marked influence upon its color. 
 They also make the water turbid and cause unsightly 
 scums and sediments to form. Upon all such matters 
 related to the aesthetic qualities of a water the micro- 
 scopical examination is almost the only means of 
 obtaining reliable information." 
 
 Plankton is the general name given to the micro- 
 scopical aggregation which is investigated in any 
 given sample of water. The term as used embraces 
 plants and animals that float about in the free state, 
 also larvae, egg masses, etc., of higher animals. It 
 includes diatoms, algae, fungi, protozoa, etc. 
 
 According to Whipple (34) "ground water col- 
 lected directly from the soil before it has had an 
 opportunity to stand in pipes or be exposed to the 
 light is almost invariably free from microscopic 
 organisms. ... It is only as a ground water becomes 
 a surface water that the microscopic organisms 
 develop." 
 
 Examinations made by the Massachusetts State 
 Board of Health, and quoted by Whipple (34) show 
 that these minute organisms are rarely found in 
 spring waters. Certain types are found in some 
 wells, especially in the tubes of driven wells, and in 
 water containing quantities of iron and organic 
 matter, but with a less amount of oxygen than 
 normal. 
 
8o UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 Surface water is usually rich in microscopic life 
 which at times becomes very troublesome in reservoirs, 
 causing disagreeable odors and tastes. The slimy 
 growth and scum so often seen on the surface of 
 comparatively still bodies of water are due to the 
 presence and growth of various microscopic forms. 
 They are found at times on the interior of service 
 pipes and may become so numerous as to interfere 
 seriously with the water supply by occluding the 
 passage-way in the pipes. 
 
 The persistence of microscopic organisms in a given 
 water supply is dependent upon three things: temper- 
 ature, Hght, and food material. As a general rule, a 
 warm temperature, 70° to 90° F., plenty of light, and 
 a water rich in nitrogenous organic matter are most 
 favorable conditions for the development of micro- 
 scopic organisms. The Hght factor here is just 
 opposite to that most favorable for bacterial develop- 
 ment, as we have seen that light is inhibitory in its 
 action on bacteria. The factors making for the 
 development of microscopic organisms is evidenced 
 by the abundant scum formation seen on the surface 
 of stagnant ponds and other bodies of water during 
 the warm summer weather. There are exceptions 
 to this, however, and some forms of microscopic 
 plant life grow only in cold waters in dark places, 
 such as service pipes, covered reservoirs, etc. Some 
 
MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION 8 1 
 
 forms require the presence of minerals, such as iron 
 or manganese, in order to thrive. 
 
 In order to purify a water of these objectionable 
 elements, it is necessary either to filter it or add 
 a disinfectant, as copper sulphate. From one to 
 two parts of copper sulphate in one million parts of 
 water is sufficient to destroy most forms of algae, and 
 such minute quantities have no effect when taken 
 into the system. A higher concentration (i : 400,000) 
 is rapidly fatal to bacteria in water, as a solution of 
 this strength will kill typhoid germs in 24 hours 
 Jordan (18). 
 
APPENDIX 
 USEFUL RULES AND TABLES 
 
 USEFUL RULES 
 
 To find the capacity in gallons of a cylinder of given 
 dimensions, square the diameter, multiply by the length, 
 and by 0.0034 when dimensions are in inches; and by 
 5.875 when the dimensions are in feet. 
 
 To find the weight of water in a given cylinder, multiply 
 the capacity in cubic feet by 62.25, or gallons by 8.33. 
 
 To find the number of barrels of 31.5 gallons, or num- 
 ber of gallons in tanks or cisterns, multiply the square 
 of the diameter by depth in feet; for barrels, multiply 
 by 373 and divide by 2,000; for gallons, multiply by 47 
 and divide by 8. 
 
 To find capacity in gallons of rectangular tanks, de- 
 termine the number of cubic feet and divide by 7.4805, , 
 
 Under a pressure of 15 pounds per square inch water 
 can be compressed 0.00004663 of its volume. 
 
 A column of water one foot high exerts a pressure of 
 .433 pounds per square inch, or 62.352 pounds per square 
 foot. 
 
 A flow of one cubic foot per second equals 448.31 gallons 
 per minute; 646,317 gallons per 24 hours; or 3741.3 pounds 
 of water per minute. 
 
 Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity 
 four times. 
 
 83 
 
84 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 To measure the flow of an open stream, measure the 
 depth of the water at from 6 to 12 points across the 
 stream at equal distances between. Add all the depths 
 in feet together and divide by the number of measure- 
 ments: this will be the average depth of the stream, 
 which, multiplied by its width, will give its area or cross- 
 section. Multiply this by the velocity of the stream 
 in feet per minute, and the result will be the discharge 
 in cubic feet per minute of the stream. 
 
 The velocity of the stream can be found by laying off 
 100 feet of the bank and throwing a float into the middle, 
 noting the time taken in passing over the 100 feet. Do 
 this a number of times and take the average; then, dividing 
 this distance by the time gives the velocity at the surface. 
 As the top of the stream flows faster than the bottom or 
 sides — the average velocity being about 83 per cent 
 of the surface velocity at the middle — it is convenient 
 to measure a distance of 120 feet for the float and reckon 
 it as 100 (Kent). 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 
 
 One gallon of water weighs 8.331 pounds. 
 
 One cubic foot of water weighs 62.32 pounds at 39° F. 
 
 267.38 gallons of water weigh a ton. 
 
 35.746 cubic feet of water weigh a ton. 
 
 One gallon of water measures 231 cubic inches. 
 
 One cubic foot of water is equal to 7.4805 gallons. 
 
 One cubic centimetre (c.c.) = .033 oz. 
 
 One ounce (oz.) = 29.574 c.c. 
 
 One c.c. = 16 drops (approximately). 
 
 One litre (L) = 1.056 qts. 
 
USEFUL RULES AND TABLES 85 
 
 One quart = .946 L. 
 One gallon = 3.785 L. 
 
 One grain per gallon =1.71 parts per hundred thou- 
 sand. 
 One grain per gallon =17.1 parts per million. 
 One part per hundred thousand = .585 grain per gallon. 
 One part per hundred thousand = .1 part per million. 
 One part per million = .0585 grain per gallon. 
 One part per million = 10 parts per hundred thousand. 
 
86 
 
 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 CYLINDRICAL VESSELS,' TANKS, CISTERNS, ETC. 
 
 Diameter in Feet and Inches, Area in Square Feet, and U. S. 
 Gallons Capacity for One Foot in Depth. 
 
 I cubic foot 
 
 I gallon = 231 cubic inches = = 0.13368 cubic feet. 
 
 7-4805 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Area 
 
 Gals. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Area 
 
 Gals. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 Sq. ft. 
 
 I foot depth 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 Sq.ft. 
 
 I foot depth 
 
 
 
 .785 
 
 5.87 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 II. 541 
 
 86.33 
 
 
 I 
 
 .922 
 
 6.89 
 
 3 
 
 II 
 
 12.048 
 
 90.13 
 
 
 2 
 
 1.069 
 
 8.00 
 
 4 
 
 
 12.566 
 
 94 
 
 
 3 
 
 1.227 
 
 9.18 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 13.095 
 
 97-96 
 
 
 4 
 
 1.396 
 
 10.44 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 13.635 
 
 102.00 
 
 
 5 
 
 I 576 
 
 11.79 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 14.186 
 
 106.12 
 
 
 6 
 
 1.767 
 
 13.22 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 14.748 
 
 110.32 
 
 
 7 
 
 1.969 
 
 14.73 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 15.321 
 
 114. 61 
 
 
 8 
 
 2.182 
 
 16.32 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 15.90 
 
 118.97 
 
 
 9 
 
 2.405 
 
 17.99 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 16.50 
 
 123.42 
 
 
 10 
 
 2.640 
 
 19.75 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 17.10 
 
 127.95 
 
 
 II 
 
 2.885 
 
 21.58 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 17.72 
 
 132.56 
 
 2 
 
 
 3-142 
 
 23.50 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 18.35 
 
 137.25 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 3-409 
 
 25.50 
 
 4 
 
 II 
 
 18.99 
 
 142.02 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3.687 
 
 27.58 
 
 5 
 
 
 19.63 
 
 146.88 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3.976 
 
 29.74 
 
 5 
 
 I 
 
 20.29 
 
 151.82 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 4.276 
 
 31.99 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 20.97 
 
 156.83 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 4-587 
 
 34.31 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 21.65 
 
 161.93 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 4.909 
 
 36.72 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 22.34 
 
 167.12 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 5.241 
 
 39.21 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 23.04 
 
 172.38 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 5-585 
 
 41.78 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 23.76 
 
 177.72 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 5.940 
 
 44-43 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 24.48 
 
 183-15 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 6.305 
 
 47-16 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 25.22 
 
 188.66 
 
 2 
 
 II 
 
 6.681 
 
 49-98 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 2597 
 
 19425 
 
 3 
 
 
 7.069 
 
 52.88 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 26.73 
 
 199.92 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 7.467 
 
 55-86 
 
 5 
 
 II 
 
 27.49 
 
 205.67 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 7.876 
 
 58.92 
 
 6 
 
 
 28.27 
 
 211. 51 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 8.296 
 
 62.06 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 30.68 
 
 229.50 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 8.727 
 
 65.28 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 3318 
 
 248.23 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 9.168 
 
 68.58 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 35-78 
 
 267 . 69 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 9.621 
 
 71.97 
 
 7 
 
 
 38.48 
 
 287.88 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 10.085 
 
 75.44 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 41.28 
 
 308.81 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 10.559 
 
 78.99 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 44.18 
 
 330.48 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 II 045 
 
 82.62 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 47- 17 
 
 352.88 
 
USEFUL RULES AND TABLES 
 
 87 
 
 CYLINDRICAL VESSELS, ETC. (Cont.) 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Area 
 
 Gals. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Area 
 
 Gals. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 Sq.ft. 
 
 I foot depth 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 Sq.ft. 
 
 I foot depth 
 
 8 
 
 
 50.27 
 
 376.01 
 
 18 
 
 
 254-47 
 
 1903.6 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 53 46 
 
 399.88 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 268 . 80 
 
 2010.8 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 56.75 
 
 424.48 
 
 19 
 
 
 283.53 
 
 2120.9 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 60.13 
 
 449 . 82 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 298.65 
 
 2234.0 
 
 9 
 
 
 63.62 
 
 475-89 
 
 20 
 
 
 314.16 
 
 2350.1 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 67.20 
 
 502.70 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 330.06 
 
 2469.1 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 70.88 
 
 530.24 
 
 21 
 
 
 346.36 
 
 2591.0 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 74.66 
 
 558.51 
 
 21 
 
 6 
 
 363 05 
 
 2715.8 
 
 10 
 
 
 78-54 
 
 587-52 
 
 22 
 
 
 380.13 
 
 2843.6 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 82.52 
 
 617.26 
 
 22 
 
 6 
 
 397.61 
 
 2974 -3 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 86.59 
 
 647 • 74 
 
 23 
 
 
 415.48 
 
 3108.0 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 90.76 
 
 678.95 
 
 23 
 
 6 
 
 433 • 74 
 
 3244.6 
 
 II 
 
 
 95 03 
 
 710.90 
 
 24 
 
 
 452.39 
 
 3384-1 
 
 II 
 
 3 
 
 99.40 
 
 743-58 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 471-44 
 
 3526.6 
 
 II 
 
 6 
 
 103.87 
 
 776.99 
 
 25 
 
 
 490.87 
 
 3672.0 
 
 II 
 
 9 
 
 108.43 
 
 811. 14 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 510.71 
 
 3820.3 
 
 12 
 
 
 113. 10 
 
 846.03 
 
 26 
 
 
 530.93 
 
 3971.6 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 117.86 
 
 881.65 
 
 26 
 
 6 
 
 551.55 
 
 4125-9 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 122.72 
 
 918.00 
 
 27 
 
 
 572.56 
 
 4283.0 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 127.68 
 
 955 09 
 
 27 
 
 6 
 
 593 • 96 
 
 4443-1 
 
 13 
 
 
 132.73 
 
 992.91 
 
 28 
 
 
 615-75 
 
 4606.2 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 143.14 
 
 1070.8 
 
 28 
 
 6 
 
 637-94 
 
 4772.1 
 
 14 
 
 
 153-94 
 
 1151-5 
 
 29 
 
 
 660.52 
 
 4941.0 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 165.13 
 
 1235.3 
 
 29 
 
 6 
 
 683.49 
 
 5112.9 
 
 15 
 
 
 176.71 
 
 1321.9 
 
 30 
 
 
 706 . 86 
 
 5287.7 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 188.69 
 
 1411.5 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 730.62 
 
 5465 -4 
 
 16 
 
 
 201.06 
 
 1504.1 
 
 31 
 
 
 754-77 
 
 5646.1 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 213.82 
 
 1599-5 
 
 31 
 
 6 
 
 779.31 
 
 5829.7 
 
 17 
 
 
 226.98 
 
 1697.9 
 
 32 
 
 
 804.25 
 
 6016.2 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 240.53 
 
 1799-3 
 
 32 
 
 6 
 
 829.58 
 
 6205.7 
 
 (Kent* Mechanical Engineers' Pocket Book.) 
 
88 
 
 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 CAPACITY OF PIPES OF VARIOUS SIZES IN CUBIC 
 FEET AND GALLONS. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 
 
 No. feet 
 
 Diam. 
 
 
 
 No. ft. 
 
 inches 
 
 Cu. ft. 
 
 Gals. 
 
 for I gal. 
 
 inches 
 
 Cu. ft. 
 
 Gals. 
 
 for I gaU 
 
 M 
 
 .0003 
 
 .0025 
 
 392 
 
 9 , 
 
 .4418 
 
 3.305 
 
 .30 
 
 <5 
 
 .0014 
 
 .0102 
 
 98 
 
 9K 
 
 .4922 
 
 3-682 
 
 .271 
 
 M 
 
 .0031 
 
 .0230 
 
 43.66 
 
 10 
 
 •5454 
 
 4.08 
 
 .24 
 
 I 
 
 .0055 
 
 .0408 
 
 24.4 
 
 loyi 
 
 .6013 
 
 4.498 
 
 .22 
 
 iM 
 
 .0085 
 
 .0638 
 
 15.67 
 
 II 
 
 .6600 
 
 4.937 
 
 .202 
 
 iy2 
 
 .0123 
 
 .0918 
 
 10.80 
 
 12 
 
 .7854 
 
 5.875 
 
 .17 
 
 "^H 
 
 .0167 
 
 .1249 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 .9218 
 
 6.895 
 
 .144 
 
 2 
 
 .0218 
 
 .1632 
 
 6.10 
 
 14 
 
 1.069 
 
 7.997 
 
 .125 
 
 2H 
 
 .0276 
 
 .2066 
 
 4.83 
 
 15 
 
 1.227 
 
 9.180 
 
 .108 
 
 2-/2 
 
 .0341 
 
 .2550 
 
 392 
 
 16 
 
 1.396 
 
 10.44 
 
 .095 
 
 2M 
 
 .0412 
 
 .3085 
 
 3.24 
 
 17 
 
 1.576 
 
 11.79 
 
 .084 
 
 3 , 
 
 .0491 
 
 .3672 
 
 2.72 
 
 18 
 
 1.768 
 
 13.22 
 
 .075 
 
 3K 
 
 .0668 
 
 .4998 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 2.182 
 
 16.32 
 
 .061 
 
 4 , 
 
 .0873 
 
 .6528 
 
 1.50 
 
 22 
 
 2.640 
 
 19.75 
 
 .05 
 
 4>^ 
 
 .1104 
 
 .8263 
 
 1. 21 
 
 24 
 
 3.142 
 
 23.50 
 
 .042 
 
 5 
 
 .1364 
 
 1.02 
 
 .98 
 
 26 
 
 3.687 
 
 27.58 
 
 .036 
 
 5>^ 
 
 .1650 
 
 1.234 
 
 .81 
 
 28 
 
 4.276 
 
 31.99 
 
 .031 
 
 6 
 
 .1963 
 
 1.469 
 
 .68 
 
 30 
 
 4.909 
 
 36.72 
 
 .027 
 
 6>^ 
 
 .2304 
 
 1.724 
 
 .58 
 
 36 
 
 7.069 
 
 52.88 
 
 .018 
 
 7 ^ 
 
 .2673 
 
 1.999 
 
 .50 
 
 42 
 
 9.621 
 
 71.97 
 
 .013 
 
 7K 
 
 .3068 
 
 2.295 
 
 .43 
 
 48 
 
 12.566 
 
 94.00 
 
 .0106 
 
 8 
 
 •3491 
 
 2. 611 
 
 .38 
 
 
 
 
 
 8K 
 
 .3941 
 
 2.948 
 
 .339 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
USEFUL RULES AND TABLES 
 
 89 
 
 COMPARATIVE TABLE OF TEMPERATURES, 
 FAHRENHEIT TO CENTIGRADE. 
 
 F 
 
 c 
 
 F 
 
 c 
 
 F 
 
 c 
 
 F 
 
 c 
 
 F 
 
 c 
 
 F 
 
 141 
 
 c 
 
 60.6 
 
 F 
 
 177 
 
 C 
 
 -40 
 
 -40 
 
 -3 
 
 -19.4 
 
 33 
 
 +0.6 
 
 69 
 
 20.6 
 
 105 
 
 40.6 
 
 80.6 
 
 -39 
 
 -39.4 
 
 — 2 
 
 -18.9 
 
 34 
 
 I.I 
 
 70 
 
 21. 1 
 
 106 
 
 41. 1 
 
 142 
 
 61. 1 
 
 178 
 
 81. 1 
 
 -38 
 
 -38.^ 
 
 — I 
 
 -18.3 
 
 35 
 
 1-7 
 
 71 
 
 21.7 
 
 107 
 
 41.7 
 
 143 
 
 61.7 
 
 179 
 
 81.7 
 
 -37 
 
 -38.3 
 
 
 
 -17.8 
 
 36 
 
 2.2 
 
 72 
 
 22.2 
 
 108 
 
 42.2 
 
 144 
 
 62.2 
 
 180 
 
 82.2 
 
 -36 
 
 -37.8 
 
 + 1 
 
 -17.2 
 
 37 
 
 2.8 
 
 73 
 
 22.8 
 
 109 
 
 42.8 
 
 145 
 
 62.8 
 
 181 
 
 82.8 
 
 -35 
 
 -37-2 
 
 2 
 
 -16.7 
 
 38 
 
 3-3 
 
 74 
 
 23-3 
 
 1 10 
 
 43-3 
 
 146 
 
 63-3 
 
 182 
 
 83.3 
 
 -34 
 
 -36.7 
 
 3 
 
 — 16.1 
 
 39 
 
 3-9 
 
 75 
 
 23-9 
 
 III 
 
 43.9 
 
 '47 
 
 63.9 
 
 18383.9 
 
 -33 
 
 -36.1 
 
 4 
 
 -15-6 
 
 40 
 
 4.4 
 
 76 
 
 24.4 
 
 112 
 
 44.4 
 
 148 
 
 64.4 
 
 184 
 
 84.4 
 
 -32 
 
 -35-6 
 
 5 
 
 -15 
 
 41 
 
 5 
 
 n 
 
 25 
 
 113 
 
 45 
 
 149 
 
 65 
 
 185 
 
 85 
 
 -31 
 
 -35 
 
 6 
 
 -14.4 
 
 42 
 
 5-6 
 
 1^ 
 
 25.6 
 
 114 
 
 45.6 
 
 150 
 
 65.6 
 
 186 
 
 85.6 
 
 -30 
 
 -34-4 
 
 7 
 
 -13-9 
 
 43 
 
 6.1 
 
 79 
 
 26.1 
 
 115 
 
 46.1 
 
 151 
 
 66.1 
 
 187 
 
 86.1 
 
 -29 
 
 -33-9 
 
 8 
 
 -133 
 
 44 
 
 6.7 
 
 80 
 
 26.7 
 
 116 
 
 46.7 
 
 152 
 
 66.7 
 
 188 
 
 86.7 
 
 -28 
 
 -33-3 
 
 9 
 
 -12.8 
 
 45 
 
 7.2 
 
 81 
 
 27.2 
 
 117 
 
 47.2 
 
 153 
 
 67.2 
 
 189 
 
 87.2 
 
 -27 
 
 -32.8 
 
 10 
 
 — 12.2 
 
 46 
 
 7.8 
 
 82 
 
 27.8 
 
 118 
 
 47.8 
 
 154 
 
 67.8 
 
 190 
 
 87.8 
 
 -26 
 
 -32.2 
 
 II 
 
 -II. 7 
 
 47 
 
 8.3 
 
 83 
 
 28.3 
 
 II9I48.3 
 
 155 
 
 68.3 
 
 191 
 
 88.3 
 
 -25 
 
 -31.7 
 
 12 
 
 — II. I 
 
 48 
 
 8.9 
 
 84 
 
 28.9 
 
 12048.9 
 
 156 
 
 68.9 
 
 192 
 
 88.9 
 
 -24 
 
 -3I-I 
 
 13 
 
 — 10.6 
 
 49 
 
 9.4 
 
 85 
 
 29.4 
 
 I2149.4 
 
 157 
 
 69.4 
 
 193 
 
 89.4 
 
 -23 
 
 -30.6 
 
 14 
 
 -10 
 
 50 
 
 10 
 
 86 
 
 30 
 
 I22j50 
 
 158 
 
 70 
 
 194 
 
 90 
 
 — 22 
 
 -30 
 
 15 
 
 - 9.4 
 
 51 
 
 10.6 
 
 87 
 
 30.6 
 
 12350.6 
 
 159 
 
 70.6 
 
 195 
 
 90.6 
 
 — 21 
 
 -29.4 
 
 16 
 
 - 8.9 
 
 52 
 
 II. I 
 
 88 
 
 311 
 
 I245I.I 
 
 160 
 
 71. 1 
 
 196 
 
 91. 1 
 
 — 20 
 
 -28.9 
 
 17 
 
 - 8.3 
 
 53 
 
 11.7 
 
 89 
 
 31.7 
 
 i25;5i-7 
 
 161 
 
 ii.7 
 
 197 
 
 91.7 
 
 -19 
 
 -28.3 
 
 18 
 
 - 7.8 
 
 54 
 
 12.2 
 
 90 
 
 32.2 
 
 12652.2 
 
 162 
 
 72.2 
 
 198 
 
 92.2 
 
 -18 
 
 -27.8 
 
 19 
 
 - 7.2 
 
 55 
 
 12.8 
 
 91 
 
 32.8 
 
 12752.8 
 
 163 
 
 72.8 
 
 199 
 
 92.8 
 
 -17 
 
 -27.2 
 
 20 
 
 - 6.7 
 
 56 
 
 13-3 
 
 92 
 
 33.3 
 
 12853-3 
 
 164 
 
 73-3 
 
 200 
 
 93-3 
 
 -16 
 
 -26.7 
 
 21 
 
 - 6.1 
 
 57 
 
 139 
 
 93 
 
 33-9 
 
 i29;53-9 
 
 165 
 
 73-9 
 
 201 
 
 93.9 
 
 -15 
 
 -26.1 
 
 22 
 
 - 5-6 
 
 58 
 
 14.4 
 
 94 
 
 34-4 
 
 130 
 
 54-4 
 
 166 
 
 74.4 
 
 202 
 
 94.4 
 
 -14 
 
 -25.6 
 
 23 
 
 - 5 
 
 59 
 
 15 
 
 95 
 
 35 
 
 131 
 
 55 
 
 167 
 
 75 
 
 203 
 
 95 
 
 -13 
 
 -25 
 
 24 
 
 - 4.4 
 
 60 
 
 15.6 
 
 96 
 
 35-6 
 
 132 
 
 55.6 
 
 168 
 
 75.6 
 
 204 
 
 95-6 
 
 — 12 
 
 -24.4 
 
 25 
 
 ~ 3.9 
 
 61 
 
 16.1 
 
 97 
 
 36.1 
 
 133 
 
 56.1 
 
 169 
 
 76.1 
 
 205 
 
 96.1 
 
 — II 
 
 -239 
 
 26 
 
 - 3-3 
 
 62 
 
 16.7 
 
 98 
 
 36.7 
 
 134 
 
 56.7 
 
 170 
 
 76.7 
 
 206 
 
 96.7 
 
 — 10 
 
 -23-3 
 
 27 
 
 - 2.8 
 
 63 
 
 17.2 
 
 99 
 
 37.2 
 
 135 
 
 57-2 
 
 171 
 
 77.2 
 
 207 
 
 97.2 
 
 - 9 
 
 -22.8 
 
 28 
 
 — 2.2 
 
 64 
 
 17.8 
 
 100 
 
 37-8 
 
 136 
 
 57-8 
 
 172 
 
 77.8 
 
 20897.8 
 
 - 8 
 
 — 22.2 
 
 29 
 
 - 1.7 
 
 65 
 
 18.3 
 
 lOI 
 
 38.3 
 
 137 
 
 58.3 
 
 173 
 
 78.3 
 
 209,98.3 
 
 - 7 
 
 -21.7 
 
 30 
 
 — I.I 
 
 66 
 
 18.9 
 
 102 
 
 38.9 
 
 138 
 
 58.9 
 
 174 
 
 78.9 
 
 21098.9 
 
 - 6 
 
 — 21. 1 
 
 31 
 
 - 0.6 
 
 67 
 
 19.4 
 
 103 
 
 39.4 
 
 139 
 
 59-4 
 
 175 
 
 794 
 
 211 
 
 99.4 
 
 - 5 
 
 — 20.6 
 
 32 
 
 — 
 
 68 
 
 20 
 
 104 
 
 40 
 
 140 
 
 60 
 
 176 
 
 80 
 
 212 
 
 100 
 
 - 4 
 
 -20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Kent. Mechanical Engineers' Pocket Book.) 
 
go 
 
 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 COMPARATIVE TABLE OF TEMPERATURES, 
 CENTIGRADE TO FAHRENHEIT. 
 
 c 
 
 F 
 
 C 
 
 F 
 
 c 
 
 F 
 
 c 
 
 F 
 
 c 
 
 F 
 
 -40 
 
 -40 
 
 — II 
 
 12.2 
 
 17 
 
 62.6 
 
 45 
 
 113 
 
 73 
 
 163.4 
 
 -39 
 
 -38.2 
 
 — 10 
 
 14 
 
 18 
 
 64.4 
 
 46 
 
 114. 8 
 
 74 
 
 165.2 
 
 -38 
 
 -36.4 
 
 - 9 
 
 15.8 
 
 19 
 
 66.2 
 
 47 
 
 116. 6 
 
 75 
 
 167 
 
 -37 
 
 -34-6 
 
 - 8 
 
 17.6 
 
 20 
 
 68 
 
 48 
 
 118. 4 
 
 76 
 
 168.8 
 
 -36 
 
 -32.8 
 
 - 7 
 
 19.4 
 
 21 
 
 69.8 
 
 49 
 
 120.2 
 
 77 
 
 170.6 
 
 -35 
 
 -31 
 
 - 6 
 
 21.2 
 
 22 
 
 71.6 
 
 50 
 
 122 
 
 78 
 
 172.4 
 
 -34 
 
 -29.2 
 
 - 5 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 73-4 
 
 51 
 
 123.8 
 
 79 
 
 174.2 
 
 -33 
 
 -27.4 
 
 - 4 
 
 24.8 
 
 24 
 
 75-2 
 
 52 
 
 125.6 
 
 80 
 
 176 
 
 -32 
 
 -25.6 
 
 - 3 
 
 26.6 
 
 25 
 
 77 
 
 53 
 
 127.4 
 
 81 
 
 177.8 
 
 -31 
 
 -23-8 
 
 — 2 
 
 28.4 
 
 26 
 
 78.8 
 
 54 
 
 129.2 
 
 82 
 
 179.6 
 
 -30 
 
 —22 
 
 — I 
 
 30.2 
 
 2-] 
 
 80.6 
 
 55 
 
 131 
 
 83 
 
 181. 4 
 
 -29 
 
 —20.2 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 28 
 
 82.4 
 
 56 
 
 132.8 
 
 84 
 
 183.2 
 
 -28 
 
 -18.4 
 
 + I 
 
 33-8 
 
 29 
 
 84.2 
 
 57 
 
 134-6 
 
 85 
 
 185 
 
 -27 
 
 -16.6 
 
 2 
 
 35.6 
 
 30 
 
 86 
 
 58 
 
 136.4 
 
 86 
 
 186.8 
 
 -26 
 
 -14.8 
 
 3 
 
 37-4 
 
 31 
 
 87.8 
 
 59 
 
 138.2 
 
 87 
 
 188.6 
 
 -25 
 
 -13 
 
 4 
 
 39-2 
 
 32 
 
 89.6 
 
 50 
 
 140 
 
 88 
 
 190.4 
 
 -24 
 
 — II. 2 
 
 5 
 
 41 
 
 33 
 
 ^1.4 
 
 61 
 
 141. 8 
 
 89 
 
 192.2 
 
 -23 
 
 - 9-4 
 
 6 
 
 42.8 
 
 34 
 
 93-2 
 
 62 
 
 143-6 
 
 90 
 
 194 ^ 
 
 —22 
 
 - 7-6 
 
 7 
 
 44.6 
 
 35 
 
 95 
 
 63 
 
 145-4 
 
 91 
 
 195-8 
 
 —21 
 
 - 5.8 
 
 8 
 
 '46.4 
 
 36 
 
 96.8 
 
 64 
 
 147.2 
 
 92 
 
 197.6 
 
 —20 
 
 - 4 
 
 9 
 
 48.2 
 
 37 
 
 98.6 
 
 65 
 
 149 
 
 93 
 
 199.4 
 
 -19 
 
 — 2.2 
 
 10 
 
 50 
 
 38 
 
 100.4 
 
 66 
 
 150.8 
 
 94 
 
 201.2 
 
 -18 
 
 - 0.4 
 
 II 
 
 51.8 
 
 39 
 
 102.2 
 
 67 
 
 152.6 
 
 95 
 
 203 
 
 -17 
 
 + 1-4 
 
 12 
 
 53-6 
 
 40 
 
 104 
 
 68 
 
 154-4 
 
 96 
 
 204.8 
 
 -16 
 
 3-2 
 
 13 
 
 55-4 
 
 41 
 
 105.8 
 
 69 
 
 156.2 
 
 97 
 
 206.6 
 
 -15 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 57-2 
 
 42 
 
 107.6 
 
 70 
 
 158 
 
 98 
 
 208.4 
 
 -14 
 
 6.8 
 
 15 
 
 59 
 
 43 
 
 109.4 
 
 71 
 
 159-8 
 
 99 
 
 210.2 
 
 -13 
 
 8.6 
 
 16 
 
 60.8 
 
 44 
 
 III. 2 
 
 72 
 
 161. 6 
 
 100 
 
 212 
 
 — 12 
 
 10.4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 To change Centigrade to Fahrenheit, divide by 5, multiply 
 by 9, and add 32. 
 
 To change Fahrenheit to Centigrade, subtract 32, divide 
 by 9, multiply by 5. 
 
 (Kent. Mechanical Engineers' Pocket Book.) 
 
USEFUL RULES AND TABLES 
 
 91 
 
 TABLE SHOWING PRESSURE PER SQUARE INCH IN 
 
 POUNDS WITH VARYING HEAD OF WATER 
 
 IN FEET. 
 
 Head 
 
 Pres- 
 
 Head 
 
 Pres- 
 
 Head 
 
 Pres- 
 
 Head 
 
 Pres- 
 
 Ft. 
 
 sure 
 
 Ft. 
 
 sure 
 
 Ft. 
 
 sure 
 
 Ft. 
 
 sure 
 
 I 
 
 .433 
 
 34 
 
 14.722 
 
 67 
 
 29.011 
 
 100 
 
 43 300 
 
 2 
 
 .866 
 
 35 
 
 15.155 
 
 68 
 
 29.444 
 
 105 
 
 45 465 
 
 3 
 
 1.299 
 
 36 
 
 15-588 
 
 69 
 
 29.877 
 
 IIO 
 
 47-630 
 
 4 
 
 ■ 1.732 
 
 37 
 
 16.021 
 
 70 
 
 30.310 
 
 115 
 
 49-795 
 
 5 
 
 2.165 
 
 38 
 
 16.454 
 
 71 
 
 30.743 
 
 120 
 
 51-960 
 
 6 
 
 2.598 
 
 39 
 
 16.887 
 
 72 
 
 31.176 
 
 125 
 
 54-125 
 
 7 
 
 3.031 
 
 40 
 
 17.320 
 
 73 
 
 31.609 
 
 130 
 
 56.290 
 
 8 
 
 3 464 
 
 41 
 
 17.753 
 
 74 
 
 32.042 
 
 135 
 
 58.455 
 
 9 
 
 3.897 
 
 42 
 
 18.186 
 
 75 
 
 32.475 
 
 140 
 
 60 . 620 
 
 10 
 
 4 330 
 
 43 
 
 18.619 
 
 76 
 
 32.908 
 
 145 
 
 62.785 
 
 11 
 
 4-763 
 
 44 
 
 19.052 
 
 77 
 
 33-341 
 
 150 
 
 64.950 
 
 12 
 
 5-196 
 
 45 
 
 19.485 
 
 78 
 
 33-774 
 
 155 
 
 67.115 
 
 13 
 
 5.629 
 
 46 
 
 19.918 
 
 79 
 
 34-207 
 
 160 
 
 69 . 280 
 
 14 
 
 6.062 
 
 47 
 
 20.351 
 
 80 
 
 34.640 
 
 165 
 
 71-445 
 
 15 
 
 6.495 
 
 48 
 
 20.784 
 
 81 
 
 35.073 
 
 170 
 
 73-610 
 
 16 
 
 6.928 
 
 49 
 
 21.217 
 
 82 
 
 35.506 
 
 175 
 
 75-775 
 
 17 
 
 7.361 
 
 50 
 
 21.650 
 
 83 
 
 35.939 
 
 180 
 
 77-940 
 
 18 
 
 7-794 
 
 51 
 
 22.083 
 
 84 
 
 36.372 
 
 185 
 
 80.105 
 
 19 
 
 8.227 
 
 52 
 
 22.516 
 
 85 
 
 36.805 
 
 190 
 
 82.270 
 
 20 
 
 8.660 
 
 53 
 
 22.949 
 
 86 
 
 37.238 
 
 195 
 
 84-435 
 
 21 
 
 9.093 
 
 54 
 
 23.382 
 
 ^7 
 
 37.671 
 
 200 
 
 86.600 
 
 22 
 
 9.526 
 
 55 
 
 23.815 
 
 88 
 
 38.104 
 
 225 
 
 97-425 
 
 23 
 
 9-959 
 
 56 
 
 24.248 
 
 89 
 
 38.537 
 
 250 
 
 108.250 
 
 24 
 
 10.392 
 
 57 
 
 24.681 
 
 90 
 
 38.970 
 
 275 
 
 119.075 
 
 25 
 
 10.825 
 
 58 
 
 25.114 
 
 91 
 
 39.403 
 
 300 
 
 129.900 
 
 26 
 
 11.258 
 
 59 
 
 25.547 
 
 92 
 
 39.836 
 
 325 
 
 140.725 
 
 27 
 
 II. 691 
 
 60 
 
 25.890 
 
 93 
 
 40.269 
 
 350 
 
 151.550 
 
 28 
 
 12.124 
 
 61 
 
 26.413 
 
 94 
 
 40.702 
 
 375 
 
 162.375 
 
 29 
 
 12.557 
 
 62 
 
 26.846 
 
 95 
 
 41.135 
 
 400 
 
 173.200 
 
 30 
 
 12.990 
 
 63 
 
 27.279 
 
 96 
 
 41.568 
 
 425 
 
 184.025 
 
 31 
 
 13-423 
 
 64 
 
 27.712 
 
 97 
 
 42.001 
 
 450 
 
 194.850 
 
 32 
 
 13-856 
 
 65 
 
 28.145 
 
 98 
 
 42.434 
 
 475 
 
 205.675 
 
 33 
 
 14.289 
 
 66 
 
 28.578 
 
 99 
 
 42.867 
 
 500 
 
 216.500 
 
92 
 
 UNDERGROUND WATERS 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE EXPANSION OF WATER AT 
 DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES COMPARED WITH 
 VOLUME AT GREATEST DENSITY (4° C.). 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 Volume 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 Volume 
 
 4° 
 
 39.1° 
 
 I . 00000 
 
 55 
 
 131 
 
 I. 01423 
 
 5 
 
 41 
 
 I. 0000 I 
 
 60 
 
 140 
 
 I. 01678 
 
 10 
 
 50 
 
 1.00025 
 
 65 
 
 149 
 
 I 01951 
 
 15 
 
 ^2 
 
 I . 00083 
 
 70 
 
 158 
 
 I. 02241 
 
 20 
 
 68 
 
 I.OOI7I 
 
 75 
 
 167 
 
 1.02548 
 
 25 
 
 77 
 
 1.00286 
 
 80 
 
 176 
 
 1.02872 
 
 30 
 
 86 
 
 I . 00425 
 
 85 
 
 185 
 
 I 03213 
 
 35 
 
 95 
 
 I . 00586 
 
 90 
 
 194 
 
 1.03570 
 
 40 
 
 104 
 
 1.00767 
 
 95 
 
 203 
 
 I 03943 
 
 45 
 
 113 
 
 I . 00967 
 
 100 
 
 212 
 
 1.04332 
 
 50 
 
 122 
 
 I.OII86 
 
 
 
 
 TABLE SHOWING HEAD OF WATER IN FEET WITH 
 VARYING PRESSURE IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH 
 
 Pres- 
 
 Head 
 
 Pres- 
 
 Head 
 
 Pres- 
 
 Head 
 
 Pres- 
 
 Head 
 
 sure 
 
 Ft. 
 
 sure 
 
 Ft. 
 
 sure 
 
 Ft. 
 
 sure 
 
 Ft. 
 
 I 
 
 2.3 
 
 26 
 
 59.8 
 
 51 
 
 117-3 
 
 76 
 
 174.8 
 
 2 
 
 4.6 
 
 27 
 
 62.1 
 
 52 
 
 119. 6 
 
 77 
 
 177.1 
 
 3 
 
 6.9 
 
 28 
 
 64.4 
 
 53 
 
 121. 9 
 
 78 
 
 179.4 
 
 4 
 
 9.2 
 
 29 
 
 66.7 
 
 54 
 
 124.2 
 
 79 
 
 181. 7 
 
 5 
 
 II-5 
 
 30 
 
 69.0 
 
 55 
 
 126.5 
 
 80 
 
 184.0 
 
 6 
 
 13.8 
 
 31 
 
 713 
 
 56 
 
 128.8 
 
 81 
 
 186.3 
 
 7 
 
 16. 1 
 
 32 
 
 73-6 
 
 57 
 
 131 -I 
 
 82 
 
 188.6 
 
 8 
 
 18.4 
 
 33 
 
 75-9 
 
 58 
 
 133.4 
 
 83 
 
 190.9 
 
 9 
 
 20.7 
 
 34 
 
 78.2 
 
 59 
 
 135.7 
 
 84 
 
 193.2 
 
 10 
 
 23.0 
 
 35 
 
 80.5 
 
 60 
 
 138.0 
 
 85 
 
 195-5 
 
 II 
 
 253 
 
 36 
 
 82.8 
 
 61 
 
 140.3 
 
 86 
 
 197.8 
 
 12 
 
 27.6 
 
 37 
 
 8.5.1 
 
 62 
 
 142.6 
 
 87 
 
 200.1 
 
 13 
 
 29.9 
 
 38 
 
 87.4 
 
 63 
 
 144.9 
 
 88 
 
 202.4 
 
 14 
 
 32.2 
 
 39 
 
 89.7 
 
 64 
 
 147.2 
 
 89 
 
 204.7 
 
 15 
 
 34-5 
 
 40 
 
 92.0 
 
 b5 
 
 149-5 
 
 90 
 
 207.0 
 
 16 
 
 36.8 
 
 41 
 
 94-3 
 
 66 
 
 151.8 
 
 91 
 
 209.3 
 
 17 
 
 39-1 
 
 42 
 
 96.6 
 
 67 
 
 154. 1 
 
 92 
 
 211. 6 
 
 18 
 
 41.4 
 
 43 
 
 98.9 
 
 68 
 
 156-4 
 
 93 
 
 213.9 
 
 19 
 
 43-7 
 
 44 
 
 101.2 
 
 69 
 
 158.7 
 
 94 
 
 216.2 
 
 20 
 
 46.0 
 
 45 
 
 103-5 
 
 70 
 
 161. 
 
 95 
 
 218.5 
 
 21 
 
 48.3 
 
 46 
 
 105.8 
 
 71 
 
 163-3 
 
 96 
 
 220.8 
 
 22 
 
 50.6 
 
 47 
 
 108. 1 
 
 72 
 
 165.6 
 
 97 
 
 223.1 
 
 23 
 
 52.9 
 
 48 
 
 no. 4 
 
 73 
 
 167.9 
 
 98 
 
 225.4 
 
 24 
 
 55.2 
 
 49 
 
 112. 7 
 
 74 
 
 170.2 
 
 99 
 
 227.7 
 
 25 
 
 57-5 
 
 50 
 
 115. 
 
 75 
 
 172.5 
 
 100 
 
 230.0 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 1. Bailey, E. H. S. — Special Report on Mineral Waters. The 
 
 University Geological Survey of Kansas. 1902. 
 
 2. Blatchley.W.S. — The Mineral Waters of Indiana. Twenty- 
 
 sixth and Twenty-seventh Annual Report, Department 
 of Geology and Natural Resources of Indiana, 1901-1902. 
 
 3. Clarke, F. W. — Data of Geochemistry. Bull. 491, U. S. 
 
 Geological Survey. 191 1. 
 
 4. Crook, J. K. — Mineral Waters of the United States and 
 
 Their Therapeutic Uses. 1899. 
 
 5. De LaCoux, H. — Industrial Uses of Water. 1903. 
 
 6. Dole, R. B. — Use of Fluorescein in the Study of Under- 
 
 ground Waters. Water Supply Paper 160, U. S. Geo- 
 logical Survey. 1906. 
 
 7. Dole, R. B, — The Quality of Surface Waters in the United 
 
 States. Part I — Analyses of Waters East of the looth 
 Meridian. Water Supply Paper 236, U. S. Geological 
 Survey. 1909. 
 
 8. Fuller, M. L. — Amount of Free Water in Earth's Crust. 
 
 Water Supply Paper 160, U. S. Geological Survey. 1906. 
 
 9. Fuller, M. L. — Controlling Factors of Artesian Flow. 
 
 Bull. 319, U. S. Geological Survey. 1908. 
 ID. Fuller, M. L. — Underground Waters for Farm Use. 
 Water Supply Paper 255, U. S. Geological Survey. 19 10. 
 
 11. Gregory, H. E. — Underground Water Resources of Con- 
 
 necticut. Water Supply Paper 232, U. S. Geological 
 Survey. 1909. 
 
 12. Harrington, C. — Practical Hygiene. 1905. 
 
 13. Haywood, J. K., and Smith, B. H. — Mineral Waters of the 
 
 United States. Bull. 91, Bureau of Chemistry, De- 
 partment of Agriculture. 1907. 
 
 14. Haywood, J. K., and Weed, W. H. — The Hot Springs of 
 
 Arkansas. Senate Doc. 282, 57th Congress, 1st Session. 
 1902. 
 
 15. Hazen, a. — Clean Water and How to Get It. 1907. 
 
 16. Hessler, R. — The Medicinal Properties and Uses of In- 
 
 diana Mineral Waters. Twenty-sixth and Twenty- 
 seventh Annual Report, Department of Geology and 
 Natural Resources of Indiana. 1901-1902. 
 
 17. Jackson, D. D. — Journal of Infectious Diseases. Vol. 
 
 8, No. 2. 1911. 
 
 93 
 
94 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 i8. Jordan, E. O.— General Bacteriology. 1912. 
 
 19. Leighton, M, O. — Pollution of Illinois and Mississippi 
 
 Rivers by Chicago Sewage. Water Supply Paper 194, 
 U. S. Geological Survey. 1906. 
 
 20. Mason, W. P. — ^Water Supply. 1908. 
 
 21. Mason, W. P. — Examination of Water. 19 12. 
 
 22. Matson, G. C, — Pollution of Underground Waters in 
 
 Limestone. Water Supply Paper 258, U. S. Geological 
 Survey. 1910. 
 
 23. Peale, a. C. — Lists and Analyses of the Mineral Springs 
 
 of the United States. Bull. 32, U. S. Geological Survey. 
 1886. 
 
 24. Prescott and Winslow — Elements of Water Bacteriology. 
 
 1911. 
 
 25. Savage, W. G. — The Bacteriological Examination of Water 
 
 Supplies. 1906. 
 
 26. Sellards, E. H. — Underground Water Supply of Central 
 
 Florida. Bull. I, Florida Geological Survey. 1908. 
 
 27. Skinner, W. W. — American Mineral Waters. Bull. 139, 
 
 Bureau of Chemistry, Department of Agriculture. 191 1. 
 
 28. Slighter, C. S. — The Motions of Underground Waters. 
 
 Water Supply Paper 67, U. S. Geological Survey. 1902. 
 
 29. Standard Methods of Water Analysis. — Laboratory Section 
 
 American Public Health Association. 1912. 
 
 30. Turneare and Russell. — Public Water Supplies. 1909. 
 
 31. U. S. Depjartment of Agriculture. — Food Inspection De- 
 
 cision 94. 
 
 32. Van Hise, C. R. — A Treatise on Metamorphism. Mono- 
 
 graph U. S. Geological Survey, Vol. 47. 1904. 
 
 33. Veatch, a. C. — Underground Water Resources of Long 
 
 Island. Prof. Paper 44, U. S. Geological Survey. 1906. 
 
 34. Whipple, G. C. — ^The Microscopy of Drinking Water. 
 
 1908. 
 
 35. Young, C. C— Bull. Kansas State Board of Health, Vol. 
 
 7, No. I. 1911. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Air, pollution of, 3. ^ 
 Ammonia, albuminoid, 52. 
 Ammonia, free, 52. 
 Artesian springs, 19. 
 Artesian wells, 25. 
 
 Bacteria, 63, 68-71, 75. 
 
 In stored water, 70. 
 
 Multiplication of, 69. 
 Bacteriological examination, 63. 
 
 Method of, 64. 
 
 Reasons for, 63. 
 Bibliography, 93. 
 
 Capacity of pipes, 88. 
 Capacity of tanks and cisterns, 86. 
 Chemical and physical standards, 14. 
 Chemical classification of mineral waters, 45. 
 Chemical composition of. water, 15. 
 Chemical examination, 49. 
 
 Variations in, 49. 
 Chlorine, 56. 
 
 Classification of mineral waters, 43. 
 Classification of springs, 19. 
 Collection of samples, 50. 
 Colon group of bacteria, 71. 
 
 Length of life in water, 74. 
 
 Identification of, 77. 
 Color of water, 51. 
 Contamination of springs, 20. 
 Contamination of wells, 29. 
 Course of underground waters, 37. 
 
 Distribution of water, 11. 
 
 Earth, temperature of, 9. 
 
 Examples of pollution of watershed, 34, 35. 
 
 Expansion of water, table of, 92. 
 
 95 
 
96 INDEX 
 
 Fissure springs, 20. 
 Flow of springs, 16. 
 Fluorescein, 39. 
 Formation of springs, 17. 
 Free water in earth's crust, 11. 
 
 Geological classification of mineral waters, 43. 
 Gravity springs, 19. 
 Ground water, 2, 5. 
 
 Temperature of, 9, 
 
 Hardness, 59. 
 
 Haywood's classification, 46. 
 
 Head of water due to pressure, table of, 92. 
 
 Hot springs, 9. 
 
 Indicators, 37. 
 
 Limestone, 21. 
 Lithium, 42. 
 Lost streams, 21. 
 
 Magmatic waters, 43. 
 Microscopical examination, 78. 
 Mineral water, 40. 
 
 Classification of, 43. 
 
 Definition of, 40. 
 
 Lithium in, 33. 
 Movement of water through the earth, 8. 
 Multiplication of bacteria, 69. 
 
 Nitrates, 54. 
 Nitrites, 54. 
 Nitrogen cycle, 54. 
 
 Odor, 51. 
 Organic matter, 58. 
 
 Perched water table, 18. 
 
 Permeability, 6. 
 
 Phosphates, 57. 
 
 Plankton, 79. 
 
 Pollution of watershed, 34. 
 
 Porosity, 6. 
 
 PotabiHty, 14. 
 
 Pressure due to head, table of, 91. 
 
 Pressure gradient, 8. 
 
 Properties of water, 12. 
 
INDEX 97 
 
 Rain water, 3, 13. 
 Rules, 83. 
 Run-off, I. 
 
 Sanitary survey, 33. 
 Sediment, 51. 
 Seepage springs, 19. 
 Source of water, i. 
 Specific gravity, 15. 
 Specific heat, 15. 
 Springs, 16. 
 
 Classification of, 19. 
 
 Contamination of, 20. 
 
 Definition of, 16. 
 
 Flow of, 16. 
 
 Formation of, 16. 
 
 In limestone regions, 21. 
 
 Source of supply, 23. 
 
 Hot, 10. 
 Storage of water, 70. 
 Streams, lost, 21. 
 Stream measurement, 84. 
 
 Table of capacity of cylindrical vessels, 86. 
 
 Capacity of pipes, 88. 
 
 Expansion of water, 92. 
 
 Head of water, due to pressure per square inch, 92. 
 
 Pressure per square inch due to water head, 91. 
 
 Temperatures, Centigrade to Fahrenheit, 90. 
 
 Temperatures, Fahrenheit to Centigrade, 89. 
 
 Weights and measures, 84. 
 Taste of water, 14, 60. 
 Temperature of earth, 9. 
 Temperature of ground water, 9. 
 Temperature, tables of, 89-90. 
 Total solids, 61. 
 Tubular springs, 20. 
 Types of wells, 24. 
 Typhoid fever, 71. 
 
 Underground waters, 37. 
 
 Detecting course of, 37. 
 
 Vadose waters, 43. 
 
 Variations in chemical analysis, 49. 
 
 Water, bacteriological analysis of, 63. 
 Chemical analysis of, 49. 
 
gs 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Water, 
 
 Chemical and physical standards of, 14. 
 
 Chemical composition of, 15. 
 
 Colon bacillus in, 72. 
 
 Distribution of, 11. 
 
 Free in earth's crust, 11. 
 
 In limestone, 21. 
 
 Microscopical examination of, 78. 
 
 Mineral, 40. 
 
 Classification of, 43. 
 Definition of, 40. 
 
 Movement of, 8. 
 
 Properties of, 12. 
 
 Purification of, 81. 
 
 Source of, i. 
 
 Specific gravity of, 15. 
 
 Specific heat of, 15. 
 
 Taste of, 14, 60. 
 
 Temperature of, 9. 
 
 Typhoid fever bacillus in, 71. 
 
 Underground, detecting course of, 37. 
 Indicators for, ^7. 
 
 Weight of, 84. 
 Watershed, 32. 
 
 Pollution of, 34. 
 
 Sanitary survey of, 33. 
 Weights and measures, table of, 84. 
 Wells, 24. 
 
 Artesian, 25. 
 
 Contamination of, 29, 
 
 Definition of, 24. 
 
 Types of, 24. 
 

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